Electronics and communications engineering Books

Book SynopsisNetwork Science Network Science offers comprehensive insight on network analysis and network optimization algorithms, with simple step-by-step guides and examples throughout, and a thorough introduction and history of network science, explaining the key concepts and the type of data needed for network analysis, ensuring a smooth learning experience for readers. It also includes a detailed introduction to multiple network optimization algorithms, including linear assignment, network flow and routing problems. The text is comprised of five chapters, focusing on subgraphs, network analysis, network optimization, and includes a list of case studies, those of which include influence factors in telecommunications, fraud detection in taxpayers, identifying the viral effect in purchasing, finding optimal routes considering public transportation systems, among many others. This insightful book shows how to apply algorithms to solve complex problems in real-life scenarios andTable of ContentsPreface x Acknowledgments xiii About the Author xiv About the Book xv 1 Concepts in Network Science 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Connector 2 1.3 History 3 1.3.1 A History in Social Studies 4 1.4 Concepts 5 1.4.1 Characteristics of Networks 7 1.4.2 Properties of Networks 7 1.4.3 Small World 8 1.4.4 Random Graphs 11 1.5 Network Analytics 12 1.5.1 Data Structure for Network Analysis and Network Optimization 13 1.5.1.1 Multilink and Self-Link 14 1.5.1.2 Loading and Unloading the Graph 15 1.5.2 Options for Network Analysis and Network Optimization Procedures 15 1.5.3 Summary Statistics 16 1.5.3.1 Analyzing the Summary Statistics for the Les Misérables Network 17 1.6 Summary 21 2 Subnetwork Analysis 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.1.1 Isomorphism 25 2.2 Connected Components 26 2.2.1 Finding the Connected Components 27 2.3 Biconnected Components 35 2.3.1 Finding the Biconnected Components 36 2.4 Community 38 2.4.1 Finding Communities 45 2.5 Core 58 2.5.1 Finding k-Cores 59 2.6 Reach Network 62 2.6.1 Finding the Reach Network 65 2.7 Network Projection 70 2.7.1 Finding the Network Projection 72 2.8 Node Similarity 77 2.8.1 Computing Node Similarity 82 2.9 Pattern Matching 88 2.9.1 Searching for Subgraphs Matches 91 2.10 Summary 98 3 Network Centralities 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2 Network Metrics of Power and Influence 102 3.3 Degree Centrality 103 3.3.1 Computing Degree Centrality 103 3.3.2 Visualizing a Network 110 3.4 Influence Centrality 114 3.4.1 Computing the Influence Centrality 115 3.5 Clustering Coefficient 121 3.5.1 Computing the Clustering Coefficient Centrality 121 3.6 Closeness Centrality 124 3.6.1 Computing the Closeness Centrality 124 3.7 Betweenness Centrality 129 3.7.1 Computing the Between Centrality 130 3.8 Eigenvector Centrality 136 3.8.1 Computing the Eigenvector Centrality 137 3.9 PageRank Centrality 144 3.9.1 Computing the PageRank Centrality 144 3.10 Hub and Authority 151 3.10.1 Computing the Hub and Authority Centralities 152 3.11 Network Centralities Calculation by Group 157 3.11.1 By Group Network Centralities 158 3.12 Summary 164 4 Network Optimization 167 4.1 Introduction 167 4.1.1 History 167 4.1.2 Network Optimization in SAS Viya 170 4.2 Clique 170 4.2.1 Finding Cliques 172 4.3 Cycle 176 4.3.1 Finding Cycles 177 4.4 Linear Assignment 179 4.4.1 Finding the Minimum Weight Matching in a Worker-Task Problem 181 4.5 Minimum-Cost Network Flow 185 4.5.1 Finding the Minimum-Cost Network Flow in a Demand–Supply Problem 188 4.6 Maximum Network Flow Problem 194 4.6.1 Finding the Maximum Network Flow in a Distribution Problem 195 4.7 Minimum Cut 199 4.7.1 Finding the Minimum Cuts 201 4.8 Minimum Spanning Tree 205 4.8.1 Finding the Minimum Spanning Tree 206 4.9 Path 208 4.9.1 Finding Paths 211 4.10 Shortest Path 220 4.10.1 Finding Shortest Paths 223 4.11 Transitive Closure 235 4.11.1 Finding the Transitive Closure 236 4.12 Traveling Salesman Problem 239 4.12.1 Finding the Optimal Tour 243 4.13 Vehicle Routing Problem 249 4.13.1 Finding the Optimal Vehicle Routes for a Delivery Problem 253 4.14 Topological Sort 265 4.14.1 Finding the Topological Sort in a Directed Graph 266 4.15 Summary 268 5 Real-World Applications in Network Science 271 5.1 Introduction 271 5.2 An Optimal Tour Considering a Multimodal Transportation System – The Traveling Salesman Problem Example in Paris 272 5.3 An Optimal Beer Kegs Distribution – The Vehicle Routing Problem Example in Asheville 285 5.4 Network Analysis and Supervised Machine Learning Models to Predict COVID-19 Outbreaks 298 5.5 Urban Mobility in Metropolitan Cities 306 5.6 Fraud Detection in Auto Insurance Based on Network Analysis 312 5.7 Customer Influence to Reduce Churn and Increase Product Adoption 320 5.8 Community Detection to Identify Fraud Events in Telecommunications 324 5.9 Summary 328 Index 329

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Book SynopsisTutorial for analytical and scientific approaches related to LEO satellites ground station performance, including math, experiments, and simulations. Ground Station Design and Analysis for LEO satellites provides complete instructions and steps for ground station performance evaluation, including stations dedicated for scientific or communication purposes, and offers the reader an enhanced learning experience by proposing 40 ideas related to ground station performance assessment. Each idea goes over the math analysis, experiment or simulation, the methodology applied, the results, and a conclusion. This approach provides the reader with the opportunity to compare theoretical results with on-site results, guiding the reader towards intelligent and practical performance evaluation and enhancement. The text also considers the future emerging developments of LEO satellites and their challenges and applications, including multimedia and other scientific applications.Table of ContentsPreface x Acknowledgments xiv 1 LEO Satellite Ground Station Design Concepts 1 1.1 An Overview of LEO Satellites 1 1.2 Satellite System Architecture 4 1.3 The Satellite Ground Station 8 1.4 Ground Station Subsystems 11 1.4.1 Antennas 11 1.4.2 Low Noise Amplifier 11 1.4.3 Converters 12 1.4.4 Safety System 13 1.5 Downlink Budget 14 1.5.1 Error-Performance 15 1.5.2 Received Signal Power 15 1.5.3 Link Budget Analyses 18 1.6 Figure of Merit and System Noise Temperature 19 1.7 Satellite and Ground Station Geometry 25 1.8 LEO MOST Satellite and Ground Stations 29 References 31 2 Rain Attenuation 35 2.1 Rain Attenuation Concepts 35 2.2 Rain Attenuation for LEO Satellite Ground Station 38 2.3 Rain Attenuation Modeling for LEO Satellite Ground Station 41 References 44 3 Downlink Performance 47 3.1 Downlink Performance Definition 47 3.2 Composite Noise Temperature at LEO Satellite Ground Station 47 3.3 Antenna Noise Temperature at LEO Satellite Ground Station 49 3.4 Downlink Performance – Figure of Merit 51 3.5 Downlink Performance: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) 54 3.6 Downlink and Uplink Antenna Separation 58 3.7 Desensibilization by Uplink Signal at LEO Satellite Ground Station 59 3.8 Downlink and Uplink Frequency Isolation 61 3.9 Sun Noise Measurement at LEO Satellite Ground Station 63 References 69 4 Horizon Plane and Communication Duration 71 4.1 LEO Satellite Tracking Principles 71 4.2 Ideal Horizon Plane and Communication Duration with LEO Satellites 78 4.3 The Range and Horizon Plane Simulation for Ground Stations of LEO Satellites 81 4.4 Practical Horizon Plane for LEO Ground Stations 83 4.5 Real Communication Duration and Designed Horizon Plane Determination 87 4.6 Ideal and Designed Horizon Plane Relation in Space 88 4.7 Savings on Transmit Power through Designed Horizon Plane at LEO Satellite Ground Stations 93 4.8 Elevation Impact on Signal-to-Noise Density Ratio for LEO Satellite Ground Stations 96 References 100 5 LEO Coverage 103 5.1 LEO Coverage Concept 103 5.2 LEO Coverage Geometry 104 5.3 The Coverage of LEO Satellites at Low Elevation 105 5.4 Coverage Belt 107 5.5 LEO Global Coverage 109 5.6 Constellation’s Coverage – Starlink Case 113 5.7 Handover-Takeover Process: Geometrical Interpretation and Confirmation 115 References 118 6 LEOs Sun Synchronization 121 6.1 Orbital Sun Synchronization Concept 121 6.2 Orbital Nodal Regression 124 6.3 LEO Sun Synchronization and Inclination Window 127 6.4 Perigee Deviation under Inclination Window for Sun-Synchronized LEOs 129 References 132 7 Launching Process 133 7.1 Introduction to the Launching Process 133 7.2 Injection Velocity and Apogee Simulation from Low Earth Orbits 137 7.3 Hohmann Coplanar Transfer from Low Earth Orbits 141 7.4 The GEO Altitude Attainment and Inclination Alignment 145 7.4.1 Circularization and the Altitude Attainment 147 7.4.2 Inclination Alignment 150 References 151 8 LEO Satellites for Search and Rescue Services 153 8.1 Introduction to LEO Satellites for Search and Rescue Services 153 8.2 SARSAT System 154 8.2.1 SARSAT Space Segment 155 8.2.2 SARSAT Ground Segment 157 8.2.3 Beacons 160 8.3 Doppler Shift 162 8.4 Local User Terminal (LUT) Simulation for LEO Satellites 165 8.5 Missed Passes for SARSAT System 170 8.6 LEOSAR Versus MEOSAR 174 References 178 9 Interference Aspects 181 9.1 General Interference Aspects 181 9.2 Intermodulation Products 183 9.3 Intermodulation by Uplink Signal at LEO Satellite Ground Stations 185 9.4 Modeling of Interference Caused by Uplink Signal for LEO Satellite Ground Stations 189 9.5 Downlink Adjacent Interference for LEO Satellites 193 9.6 Adjacent Satellites Interference (Identification/Avoiding) 195 9.6.1 Adjacent Interference Identification and Duration Interval 198 9.7 Modulation Index Application for Downlink Interference Identification 200 9.7.1 Simulation Approach of Interference Events and Timelines 202 9.8 Uplink Interference Identification for LEO Search and Rescue Satellites 205 References 207 10 Two More Challenges 209 10.1 Introduction to the Two Challenges 209 10.2 Downlink Free Space Loss Compensation 209 10.3 Horizon Plane Width: New Parameter for LEO Satellite Ground Station Geometry 214 References 217 11 Closing Remarks 219 References 222 Index 224

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Book SynopsisEnergy Smart Appliances Enables designers and manufacturers to manage real-world energy performance and expectations by covering a range of potential scenarios and challenges Energy Smart Appliances provides utilities and appliance manufacturers, and designers with new approaches to better understand real-world performance, assess actual energy benefits, and tailor each technology to the needs of their customers. With contributions from a fully international group of experts, including heads of prestigious research organizations and leading universities, and innovation managers of the main appliance manufacturers, Energy Smart Appliances includes discussion on: Enabling technologies for energy smart appliances, covering IoT devices and technology and active energy efficiency measures in residential environments Smart home and appliances, answering questions like Where are we heading in terms of the overall smart homes' future?' and Table of ContentsAbout the Editors xv List of Contributors xvii Acknowledgments xxi Introduction xxiii Antonio Moreno-Munoz and Neomar Giacomini 1 Demand-Side Flexibility in Smart Grids 1 Antonio Moreno-Munoz and Joaquin Garrido-Zafra 1.1 The Energy Sector 1 1.2 The Power Grid 2 1.3 The Smart Grid 5 1.4 Power Grid Flexibility 6 1.4.1 The Need for Flexibility 7 1.4.2 Sources of Flexibility 8 1.4.2.1 Flexible Generation 8 1.4.2.2 Flexible Transmission and Grid Interconnection 8 1.4.2.3 Control Over VRES 9 1.4.2.4 Energy Storage Facilities 9 1.4.2.5 Demand-Side Management 9 1.4.2.6 Other Sources of Flexibility 11 1.5 Power Quality, Reliability, and Resilience 12 1.5.1 Power Quality Disturbances 13 1.5.1.1 Transients 14 1.5.1.2 Short-Duration RMS Variation 16 1.5.1.3 Long-Duration RMS Variation 17 1.5.1.4 Imbalance 17 1.5.1.5 Waveform Distortion 18 1.5.1.6 Voltage Fluctuation 19 1.5.1.7 Power Frequency Variations 19 1.6 Economic Implications and Issues of Poor Power Quality 20 1.7 Internet of Things 24 1.8 The Relevance of Submetering 25 1.9 Energy Smart Appliances 26 Symbols and Abbreviations 28 References 29 2 A Deep Dive into the Smart Energy Home 35 Neomar Giacomini 2.1 Smart Home Ecosystem 35 2.2 Enabling Technologies 44 2.3 Limitations 46 2.4 A Look into a Future Anchored in the Past 51 2.5 Conclusion 59 Symbols and Abbreviations 60 Glossary 60 References 61 3 Household Energy Demand Management 65 Esther Palomar, Ignacio Bravo, and Carlos Cruz 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Technical Opportunities and Challenges for DSM 67 3.2.1 Software Solutions 67 3.2.2 Hardware Platforms 69 3.2.3 Communication Infrastructures 70 3.2.4 Communication Protocols 74 3.2.5 Security Concerns 79 3.3 Pilots and Experimental Settings 82 3.4 Conclusions 82 Symbols and Abbreviations 83 Glossary 84 References 86 4 Demand-Side Management and Demand Response 93 Neyre Tekbıyık-Ersoy 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Demand Response vs. Demand-Side Management 94 4.3 The Need for Demand Response/Demand-Side Management 94 4.4 DSM Strategies 95 4.4.1 Energy Efficiency/Energy Conservation 95 4.4.2 Peak Demand Clipping 96 4.4.3 Demand Valley Filling 96 4.4.4 Load Shifting 97 4.4.5 Flexible Load Shaping 97 4.4.6 Strategic Load Growth 97 4.5 Demand Response Programs 98 4.5.1 Types of Loads: Elastic vs. Non-elastic 98 4.5.2 General Approaches to Demand Response 98 4.5.3 Smart Pricing Models for DR 99 4.6 Smallest Communication Subsystem Enabling DSM: HAN 100 4.6.1 General Structure 100 4.6.2 Enabling Communication Technologies 101 4.7 Smart Metering 102 4.7.1 Smart Meters vs. Conventional Meters 102 4.7.2 What Should Consumers Know About the Advanced Metering Infrastructure 104 4.8 Energy Usage Patterns of Households 104 4.9 Energy Consumption Scheduling 106 4.10 Demand Response Options for Appliances 107 4.11 Bidirectional Effects of Demand Response 108 4.11.1 Value of Demand Response for Balancing Renewable Energy Generation 108 4.11.2 Value of Demand Response for Reducing Household Energy Expenses 109 4.12 Consumer Objections and Wishes Related to Smart Appliances and Demand Response 110 4.13 Costs and Benefits of Demand-Side Management 111 Symbols and Abbreviations 113 Glossary 114 References 114 5 Standardizing Demand-Side Management: The OpenADR Standard and Complementary Protocols 117 Rolf Bienert 5.1 History and Creation of OpenADR 117 5.2 Re-development of OpenADR 2.0 120 5.3 How OpenADR Works 122 5.3.1 Event Service (EiEvent) 125 5.3.2 Opt Service (EiOpt) 127 5.3.3 Report Service (EiReport) 128 5.3.4 Registration Service (EiRegister) 128 5.4 Cybersecurity 130 5.5 Other Standards and Their Interaction with OpenADR and Energy Smart Appliances 131 5.6 Energy Market Aspects for Appliances 139 5.7 Typical DR and DSM Use Cases 140 Symbols and Abbreviations 143 Glossary 144 References 144 6 Energy Smart Appliances 147 Neomar Giacomini 6.1 Energy Smart Appliances 147 6.2 Which Appliances? 148 6.3 Smart Energy Controller 150 6.4 Large Home Appliances 151 6.4.1 Dishwashers 151 6.4.2 Dryers 153 6.4.3 Grills and Smokers 155 6.4.4 Hvac 156 6.4.5 Microwaves 158 6.4.6 Refrigerators and Freezers 160 6.4.7 Stoves, Ovens, and Cooktops 162 6.4.8 Washing Machines 163 6.4.9 Water Heaters 165 6.5 Small Appliances 166 6.5.1 Coffee Machines, Blenders, Faucets, Food Processors, Mixers, and Toasters 166 6.5.2 Robotic Lawn Mowers and Electric Tools 167 6.6 Monitoring 167 6.6.1 Energy Monitors, Haptics Sensors, Weather Sensors, and Others 167 6.7 Health, Comfort, and Care 168 6.7.1 Air Purifiers, Humidifiers, Health Monitors, Sleep Sensors, and Tracking Devices 168 6.7.2 Cat Litter Robots, Pet Feeders, and Other Pet-Related Connected Devices 169 6.7.3 Hair Dryers, Brushes, and Straighteners 169 6.7.4 Treadmills, Indoor Exercise Bike, and Other Fitness Equipment 170 6.7.5 Water Filtration Systems 170 6.8 House Automation 171 6.8.1 Blinds & Shades and Light Bulbs 171 6.8.2 Garage Door Opener 172 6.8.3 Sprinklers, Gardening Sensors, and Accent Lighting 172 6.8.4 Smart Power Strips and Smart Power Switches 173 6.8.5 Presence, Proximity, and Movement Sensors 173 6.8.6 Thermostats and Temperature Sensors 174 6.8.7 Vacuum Cleaners, Vacuum Robots, Mop Robots, and Power Tools 174 6.9 Non-appliances 174 6.9.1 Electric Cars and Motorcycles 174 6.9.2 Desktop Computers 175 6.9.3 Modems and Routers 175 6.9.4 Power Banks, Uninterrupted Power Supplies 176 6.9.5 Smartphones, Tablet Computers, Smartwatches, and Video Games 176 6.10 Entertainment 177 6.10.1 Aquariums 177 6.10.2 Audio Systems 177 6.10.3 Televisions and Streaming Receivers (Cast Feature) 178 6.10.4 Virtual Assistants (Multiple Forms) 178 6.10.5 Virtual Reality Goggles and Other Gadgets 178 6.11 Security 179 6.11.1 Alarms, Cameras, Door Locks, and Doorbell Cameras 179 6.12 Conclusion 180 Symbols and Abbreviations 180 Glossary 181 References 181 7 The ETSI SAREF Ontology for Smart Applications: A Long Path of Development and Evolution 183 Raúl García-Castro, Maxime Lefrançois, María Poveda-Villalón, and Laura Daniele 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 IoT Ontologies for Semantic Interoperability 184 7.3 The SAREF Initiative 186 7.4 Specification and Design of the SAREF Ontology 187 7.4.1 A Modular and Versioned Suite of Ontologies 187 7.4.2 Methodology 188 7.4.3 Version Control and Editing Workflow 190 7.4.4 Automatization of Requirements and Quality Checks 190 7.4.5 Continuous Integration and Deployment 191 7.5 Overview of the SAREF Ontology 191 7.5.1 Device 193 7.5.2 Feature of Interest and Property 194 7.5.3 Measurement 194 7.5.4 Service, Function, Command, and State 195 7.6 The SAREF Ontology in the Smart Home Environment 196 7.6.1 Energy 198 7.6.2 Water 200 7.6.3 Building 202 7.6.4 City 204 7.6.5 Systems 206 7.7 The SAREF Ontology in Use 207 7.8 Lessons Learnt 209 7.8.1 Specification of Ontology Requirements 209 7.8.2 Stakeholder’s Workshops 210 7.8.3 Tool Support 210 7.8.4 Ontology Modularization 211 7.8.5 Ontology Patterns 212 7.9 Conclusions and Future Work 212 Acknowledgments 213 References 213 8 Scheduling of Residential Shiftable Smart Appliances by Metaheuristic Approaches 217 Recep Çakmak 8.1 Introduction 217 8.2 Demand Response Programs in Demand-Side Management 222 8.3 Time-Shiftable and Smart Appliances in Residences 224 8.4 Smart Metaheuristic Algorithms 226 8.4.1 BAT Algorithm 226 8.4.2 Firefly Algorithm (FFA) 228 8.4.3 Cuckoo Search Algorithm 229 8.4.4 SOS Algorithm 231 8.5 Scheduling of Time-Shiftable Appliances by Smart Metaheuristic Algorithms 232 Symbols and Abbreviations 237 Glossary 238 References 238 9 Distributed Operation of an Electric Vehicle Fleet in a Residential Area 243 Alicia Triviño, Inmaculada Casaucao, and José A. Aguado 9.1 Introduction 243 9.2 EV Charging Stations 246 9.3 EV Services 248 9.3.1 Ancillary Services 248 9.3.2 Domestic Services 248 9.4 Dispatching Strategies for EVs 249 9.4.1 Classification of EV Dispatching Strategies 251 9.5 Proposed Distributed EV Dispatching Strategy 252 9.6 Conclusions 259 Acknowledgments 260 References 260 10 Electric Vehicles as Smart Appliances for Residential Energy Management 263 Indradip Mitra, Zakir Rather, Angshu Nath, and Sahana Lokesh 10.1 Introduction 263 10.2 EV Charging Standards and Charging Protocols 265 10.2.1 EV Charging Standards 265 10.2.1.1 Iec 61851 265 10.2.1.2 Sae J 1772 266 10.2.1.3 Gb/t 20234 267 10.2.2 Charging Protocols for EV Charging 267 10.2.2.1 Type 1 AC Charger 267 10.2.2.2 Type 2 AC Charger 268 10.2.2.3 CHArge de MOve (CHAdeMO) Protocol 268 10.2.2.4 Combined Charging System (CCS) 268 10.2.2.5 Tesla Charging Protocol 268 10.3 Communication Protocols Used in EV Ecosystem 268 10.3.1 Open Charge Point Protocol 268 10.3.2 Open Automated Demand Response (OpenADR) 269 10.3.3 Open Smart Charging Protocol (OSCP) 269 10.3.4 Ieee 2030.5 269 10.3.5 Iso/iec 15118 269 10.4 Residential EV Charging Infrastructure 270 10.4.1 Prerequisites to Installation of EV Charge Point 271 10.4.2 EV Charger Connection Requirements and Recommendations 271 10.4.2.1 United Kingdom 271 10.4.2.2 The Netherlands 272 10.4.2.3 Germany 275 10.5 Impacts of EV Charging 275 10.5.1 Impact on Electricity Distribution Network 275 10.5.1.1 Voltage Issues 276 10.5.1.2 Increase in Peak Load 278 10.5.1.3 Congestion 278 10.5.1.4 Losses 278 10.6 Smart Charging for Home Charging 282 10.6.1 Type of Smart Charging 283 10.6.2 Requirements for Smart Charging 286 10.6.3 Additional Smart Charging Enablers 287 10.7 Residential Smart Energy Management 289 10.7.1 Unidirectional Smart Charging 289 10.7.2 Vehicle-to-Home/Building 292 10.7.3 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) 296 10.8 Conclusion 297 List of Abbreviations 297 Glossary 298 References 299 11 Induction Heating Appliances: Toward More Sustainable and Smart Home Appliances 301 Óscar Lucía, Héctor Sarnago, Jesús Acero, and José M. Burdío 11.1 Introduction to Induction Heating 301 11.1.1 Induction Heating Fundamentals 301 11.1.2 Induction Heating History 304 11.2 Domestic Induction Heating Technology 306 11.2.1 Power Electronics 309 11.2.2 Electromagnetic Design 314 11.2.3 Digital Control 315 11.2.4 Efficiency 318 11.3 Advanced Features and Connectivity 319 11.3.1 High-Performance Power Electronics 319 11.3.2 Advanced Control 321 11.3.3 Flexible Cooking Surfaces 322 11.3.4 Connectivity 322 11.4 Conclusion and Future Challenges 325 Symbols and Abbreviations 325 References 326 Index 333

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Book SynopsisGraph Database and Graph Computing for Power System Analysis Understand a new way to model power systems with this comprehensive and practical guide Graph databases have become one of the essential tools for managing large data systems. Their structure improves over traditional table-based relational databases in that it reconciles more closely to the inherent physics of a power system, enabling it to model the components and the network of a power system in an organic way. The authors' pioneering research has demonstrated the effectiveness and the potential of graph data management and graph computing to transform power system analysis. Graph Database and Graph Computing for Power System Analysis presents a comprehensive and accessible introduction to this research and its emerging applications. Programs and applications conventionally modeled for traditional relational databases are reconceived here to incorporate graph computing. The result is a detailed guide which demonstrates theTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Part I Theory and Approaches 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Power System Analysis 6 1.1.1 Power Flow Calculation 6 1.1.2 State Estimation 6 1.1.3 Contingency Analysis 7 1.1.4 Security-Constrained Automatic Generation Control 7 1.1.5 Security-Constrained ED 8 1.1.6 Electromechanical Transient Simulation 9 1.1.7 Photovoltaic Power Generation Forecast 10 1.2 Mathematical Model 10 1.2.1 Direct Methods of Solving Large-Scale Linear Equations 10 1.2.2 Iterative Methods of Solving Large-Scale Linear Equations 11 1.2.3 High-Dimensional Differential Equations 11 1.2.4 Mixed Integer-Programming Problems 11 1.3 Graph Computing 12 1.3.1 Graph Modeling Basics 13 1.3.2 Graph Parallel Computing 14 References 14 2 Graph Database 17 2.1 Database Management Systems History 17 2.2 Graph Database Theory and Method 18 2.2.1 Graph Database Principle and Concept 18 2.2.1.1 Defining a Graph Schema 19 2.2.1.2 Creating a Loading Job 20 2.2.1.3 Graph Query Language 21 2.2.2 System Architecture 25 2.2.3 Graph Computing Platform 25 2.3 Graph Database Operations and Performance 26 2.3.1 Graph Database Management System 26 2.3.1.1 Parallel Processing by MapReduce 27 2.3.1.2 Graph Partition 29 2.3.2 Graph Database Performance 35 References 38 3 Graph Parallel Computing 41 3.1 Graph Parallel Computing Mechanism 41 3.2 Graph Nodal Parallel Computing 44 3.3 Graph Hierarchical Parallel Computing 46 3.3.1 Symbolic Factorization 47 3.3.2 Elimination Tree 51 3.3.3 Node Partition 56 3.3.4 Numerical Factorization 57 3.3.5 Forward and Backward Substitution 58 References 59 4 Large-Scale Algebraic Equations 61 4.1 Iterative Methods of Solving Nonlinear Equations 61 4.1.1 Gauss–Seidel Method 61 4.1.2 PageRank Algorithm 62 4.1.2.1 PageRank Algorithm Mechanism 63 4.1.2.2 Iterative Method 66 4.1.2.3 Algebraic Method 67 4.1.2.4 Convergence Analysis 69 4.1.3 Newton–Raphson Method 72 4.2 Direct Methods of Solving Linear Equations 75 4.2.1 Introduction 75 4.2.2 Basic Concepts 76 4.2.2.1 Data Structures of Sparse Matrix 76 4.2.2.2 Matrices and Graphs 78 4.2.3 Historical Development 80 4.2.4 Direct Methods 81 4.2.4.1 Solving Triangular Systems 81 4.2.4.2 Symbolic Factorization 82 4.2.4.3 Fill-Reducing Ordering 82 4.3 Indirect Methods of Solving Linear Equations 83 4.3.1 Stationary Methods 83 4.3.1.1 Jacobi Method 83 4.3.1.2 Gauss–Seidel Method 85 4.3.1.3 SOR Method 86 4.3.1.4 SSOR Method 86 4.3.2 Nonstationary Methods 88 4.3.2.1 CG Method 88 4.3.2.2 Gmres 89 4.3.2.3 BCG (bi-CG) 90 References 91 5 High-Dimensional Differential Equations 95 5.1 Integration Methods 95 5.1.1 An Overview of Integration Methods and their Accuracy 95 5.1.1.1 One-Step Methods 96 5.1.1.2 Linear Multistep Methods 99 5.1.2 Integration Methods for Power System Transient Simulations 100 5.1.3 Transient Analysis Accuracy 100 5.1.4 Transient Analysis Stability 101 5.1.4.1 Absolute Stability 101 5.1.4.2 Stiff Stability 102 5.2 Time Step Control 103 5.2.1 Adaptive Time Step 104 5.2.1.1 Change by Iteration Number 105 5.2.1.2 Change by Estimated Truncation Error 105 5.2.1.3 Change by State Variable Derivative 106 5.2.2 Multiple Time Step 106 5.2.3 Break Points 109 5.3 Initial Operation Condition 110 5.4 Graph-Based Transient Parallel Simulation 115 5.5 Numerical Case Study 117 5.6 Summary 123 References 124 6 Optimization Problems 125 6.1 Optimization Theory 125 6.2 Linear Programming 125 6.2.1 The Simplex Method 127 6.2.1.1 Basic Feasible Solution 127 6.2.1.2 The Simplex Iteration 128 6.2.2 Interior-Point Methods 132 6.3 Nonlinear Programming 138 6.3.1 Unconstrained Optimization Approaches 139 6.3.1.1 Line Search 140 6.3.1.2 Trust Region Optimization 141 6.3.1.3 Quasi-Newton Method 141 6.3.1.4 Double Dogleg Optimization 142 6.3.1.5 Conjugate Gradient Optimization 143 6.3.2 Constrained Optimization Approaches 145 6.3.2.1 Karush–Kuhn–Tucker Conditions 145 6.3.2.2 Linear Approximations of Nonlinear Programming with Linear Constraints 145 6.3.2.3 Linear Approximations of Nonlinear Programming with Nonlinear Constraints 147 6.4 Mixed Integer Optimization Approach 147 6.4.1 Branch-and-Bound Approach 148 6.4.2 Machine Learning for Branching 150 6.5 Optimization Problems Solution by Graph Parallel Computing 151 6.5.1 Simplex Method Based on Graph Parallel Computing 151 6.5.2 Interior-Point Method Based on Graph Parallel Computing 154 References 156 7 Graph-Based Machine Learning 159 7.1 State of Art on PV Generation Forecasting 159 7.2 Graph Machine Learning Model 160 7.3 Convolutional Graph Auto-Encoder 162 7.3.1 Auto-Encoder 162 7.3.2 Auto-Encoder on Graphs 163 7.3.3 Probability Distribution Function Approximation 164 7.3.4 Convolutional Graph Auto-Encoder 167 7.3.5 Graph Feature Extraction Artificial Neural Network (R(G)) 169 7.3.6 Encoder (Q) and Decoder (P) 170 7.3.7 Estimation of P(V∗/ π) 171 References 171 Part II Implementations and Applications 175 8 Power Systems Modeling 177 8.1 Power System Graph Modeling 177 8.2 Physical Graph Model and Computing Graph Model 178 8.3 Node-Breaker Model and Graph Representation 180 8.4 Bus-Branch Model and Graph Representation 189 8.5 Graph-Based Topology Analysis 190 8.5.1 Substation-Level Topology Analysis 190 8.5.2 System-Level Network Topology Analysis 196 References 198 9 State Estimation Graph Computing 199 9.1 Power System State Estimation 199 9.2 Graph Computing-Based State Estimation 201 9.2.1 State Estimation Graph Computing Algorithm 201 9.2.1.1 Build Node-Based State Estimation 201 9.2.1.2 Graph-Based State Estimation Parallel Algorithm 203 9.2.2 Numerical Example 209 9.2.3 Graph-Based State Estimation Implementation 215 9.2.3.1 Graph-Based State Estimation Graph Schema 215 9.2.3.2 Nodal Gain Matrix Formation 216 9.2.3.3 Build RHS 219 9.2.4 Graph-Based State Estimation Computation Efficiency 220 9.3 Bad Data Detection and Identification 223 9.3.1 Chi-Squares Test 224 9.3.2 Advanced Bad Data Detection 224 9.3.3 Bad Data Identification 228 9.3.3.1 Normalized Residual 228 9.3.3.2 Largest Normalized Residual for Bad Data Identification 229 9.4 Graph-Based Bad Data Detection Implementation 229 References 231 10 Power Flow Graph Computing 233 10.1 Power Flow Mathematical Model 233 10.2 Gauss–Seidel Method 234 10.3 Newton–Raphson Method 242 10.3.1 Build Jacobian Graph 245 10.3.2 Graph-Based Symbolic Factorization 247 10.3.3 Graph-Based Elimination Tree Creation and Node Partition 249 10.3.4 Graph Numerical Factorization 251 10.3.5 Build Right-Hand Side 253 10.3.6 Graph Forward and Backward Substitution 254 10.3.7 Graph-Based Newton–Raphson Power Flow Calculation 255 10.4 Fast Decoupled Power Flow Calculation 257 10.4.1 Build B_P and B_PP Graphs 259 10.5 Ill-Conditioned Power Flow Problem Solution 261 10.5.1 Introduction 261 10.5.2 Determine the Feasibility of the Power Flow 262 10.5.3 Problem Formulation for Determining the Feasibility of Power Flow 263 10.5.4 Power Flow Feasibility Verification 264 10.5.5 Find a Feasible Solution for the Power Flow Problem 266 References 271 11 Contingency Analysis Graph Computing 273 11.1 dc Power Flow 273 11.2 Bridge Search 276 11.3 Conjugate Gradient for Postcontingency Power Flow Calculation 282 11.4 Contingency Analysis Using Convolutional Neural Networks 294 11.4.1 Convolutional Neural Network 295 11.4.2 Convolutional Neural Network Components 297 11.4.2.1 Convolutional Neural Network Input 297 11.4.2.2 Convolutional Neural Network Output 297 11.4.2.3 Convolutional Neural Network Convolutional Layer 297 11.4.2.4 CNN Pooling Layer 298 11.4.2.5 CNN Fully Connected Layer 299 11.4.3 Evaluation Metrics 299 11.4.3.1 Accuracy 299 11.4.3.2 Precision 300 11.4.3.3 Recall 300 11.4.4 Implementation of Convolutional Neural Network 300 11.5 Contingency Analysis Graph Computing Implementation 302 References 306 12 Economic Dispatch and Unit Commitment 309 12.1 Classic Economic Dispatch 309 12.1.1 Thermal Unit Economic Dispatch 309 12.1.2 Hydrothermal Power Generation System Economic Dispatch 315 12.2 Security-Constrained Economic Dispatch 320 12.2.1 Generation Shift Factor Matrix 323 12.2.2 Graph-Based SCED Modeling 325 12.2.3 Graph-Based SCED 327 12.2.3.1 Buildup Simplex Graph 328 12.2.3.2 Graph-Based Simplex Method 331 12.2.3.3 Update Power Flow 331 12.2.3.4 Graph-Based SCED Implementation 333 12.3 Security-Constrained Unit Commitment 334 12.3.1 SCUC Model 334 12.3.2 Graph-Based SCUC 335 12.4 Numerical Case Study 336 12.4.1 Graph-Based SCED Modeling 336 12.4.2 Basic Feasible Solution 340 12.4.3 Economic Dispatch Optimal Solution 342 References 342 13 Automatic Generation Control 345 13.1 Classic Automatic Generation Control 345 13.1.1 Speed Governor Control 345 13.1.2 Speed Droop Function 347 13.1.3 Frequency Supplementary Control 353 13.1.4 Fundamentals of Automatic Generation Control 355 13.2 Network Security-Constrained Automatic Generation Control 358 13.3 Security-Constrained AGC Graph Computing 361 References 364 14 Small-Signal Stability 365 14.1 Small-Signal Stability of a Dynamic System 365 14.2 System Linearization 366 14.3 Small-Signal Stability Mode 367 14.4 Single-Machine Infinite Bus System 367 14.4.1 Classical Generator Model 367 14.4.2 Third-Order Generator Model 369 14.4.3 Numerical Case Study 373 14.4.3.1 Stable Case 373 14.4.3.2 Instable Case 376 14.5 Small-Signal Oscillation Stabilization 378 14.6 Eigenvalue Calculation 379 14.6.1 Graph-Based Small-Signal Stability Analysis 382 14.6.2 Buildup Small-Signal Stability Graph 383 14.6.3 Numerical Example 383 References 388 15 Transient Stability 391 15.1 Transient Stability Theory 391 15.1.1 Stability Region and Boundary 391 15.1.2 Energy Function Method 391 15.1.2.1 Controlling UEP Method 392 15.1.2.2 Stability-Region-Based Controlling UEP Method 393 15.2 Transient Simulation Model 393 15.2.1 Generator Rotor Model 393 15.2.2 Generator Electro-Magnetic Model 394 15.2.3 Excitation System Model 394 15.2.4 Governor Model 396 15.2.5 PSS Model 397 15.3 Transient Simulation Approach 397 15.3.1 Transient Simulation Algorithm 398 15.3.2 Steady-State Equilibrium Condition 398 15.3.3 Generator Injection Current 400 15.4 Transient Simulation by Graph Parallel Computing 401 15.4.1 Transient Simulation Graph 401 15.4.2 Loading Data into Graph 403 15.4.3 Graph-Based Transient Simulation Implementation 406 15.5 Numerical Example 406 15.5.1 Power Flow Data 406 15.5.2 Dynamic Data 406 15.5.3 Power Flow Results 409 15.5.4 Steady-State Equilibrium Point 410 15.5.5 Generator Injection Current Calculation 415 15.5.6 Calculate Bus Voltage 416 15.5.7 Simulation Results 416 References 421 16 Graph-Based Deep Reinforcement Learning on Overload Control 425 16.1 Introduction 425 16.2 DDPG Algorithm 426 16.2.1 Terminology 426 16.2.2 Q Function 427 16.2.3 Q Value Approximation 427 16.2.4 Policy Gradient 428 16.3 Branch Overload Control 429 16.3.1 States 429 16.3.2 Actions 430 16.3.3 Rewards 430 16.4 Graph-Based Deep Reinforcement Learning Implementation 430 References 433 17 Conclusions 435 Appendix 437 Index 481

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Book SynopsisIoT-enabled Unobtrusive Surveillance Systems for Smart Campus Safety Enables readers to understand a broad area of state-of-the-art research in physical IoT-enabled security IoT-enabled Unobtrusive Surveillance Systems for Smart Campus Safety describes new techniques in unobtrusive surveillance that enable people to act and communicate freely, while at the same time protecting them from malevolent behavior. It begins by characterizing the latest on surveillance systems deployed at smart campuses, miniatures of smart cities with more demanding frameworks that enable learning, social interaction, and creativity, and by performing a comparative assessment in the area of unobtrusive surveillance systems for smart campuses. A proposed taxonomy for IoT-enabled smart campus unfolds in five research dimensions: (1) physical infrastructure; (2) enabling technologies; (3) software analytics; (4) system security; and (5) research methodology. By applying this taxonoTable of ContentsAuthor Biography xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Smart Cities Dimensions and Risks 2 1.2 Smart Campuses Components 2 1.3 Smart Campuses Unobtrusive Surveillance Systems 3 1.4 Smart Campus Safety Systems Survey 3 1.5 Smart Campuses Comparative Assessment 4 1.6 Smart Campus Systems Classification 4 1.7 Smart Campus Safety: A System Architecture 4 1.8 Human Factor as an Unobtrusive Surveillance System’s Adoption Parameter for Smart Campus Safety 5 1.9 Smart Campus Surveillance Systems Future Trends and Directions 5 2 Smart City 7 2.1 Smart Cities Dimensions 7 2.1.1 Smart Economy 8 2.1.2 Smart Governance 9 2.1.3 Smart Living 10 2.1.4 Smart Mobility 10 2.1.5 Smart People 11 2.1.6 Smart Environment 12 2.2 Risks Related to Smart Cities 12 2.2.1 Technical Risks 12 2.2.2 Nontechnical Risks 13 2.3 Mitigating Smart Cities Risks 14 2.4 Systems Beyond Smart Cities 15 3 Smart Campus 17 3.1 Smart Campus Components 17 3.1.1 Smart Grid 18 3.1.2 Smart Community Services 20 3.1.3 Smart Management 21 3.1.4 Smart Propagation Services 23 3.1.5 Smart Prosperity 24 3.2 Unobtrusive Surveillance Campus System 24 4 Unobtrusive Surveillance Systems 27 4.1 Geospatial Internet of Things 27 4.2 Smart Campus Unobtrusive Surveillance 28 4.3 Proposed Taxonomy 28 4.4 Adopted Weighted Scoring Model 34 5 Smart Campus Safety Systems Survey 39 5.1 Systems Not Classified 39 5.2 Systems That Focus on Public Spaces and Smart Parking 46 5.3 Systems That Focus on Smart Buildings, Smart Labs, Public Spaces, and Smart Lighting 48 5.4 Systems That Focus on Public Spaces and Smart Traffic Lights 51 5.5 Systems That Focus on Smart Buildings and Smart Classes 54 5.6 Systems That Focus on Smart Buildings, Public Spaces, Smart Lighting, and Smart Traffic Lights 58 5.7 Systems That Focus on Smart Buildings and Smart Labs 63 5.8 Systems That Focus on Smart Buildings and Public Spaces 67 5.9 Systems That Focus on Smart Campus Ambient Intelligence and User Context 79 5.10 Systems That Focus on Smart Campus Low-Power Wide Area Networks Technology 87 6 Comparative Assessment 97 7 Classification and Proposed Solution 103 7.1 Weighting Process 103 7.2 Classification Process 106 8 Smart Campus Spatiotemporal Authentication Unobtrusive Surveillance System for Smart Campus Safety 111 8.1 Smart Campus Spatiotemporal Authentication Unobtrusive Surveillance System 112 8.2 Smart Campus Safety: A System Architecture 116 9 Human Factor as an Unobtrusive Surveillance System’s Adoption Parameter for Smart Campus Safety 127 9.1 Ethical Dilemma of Adopting an Unobtrusive Surveillance System 127 9.2 Degree of Free Will Engagement and Negotiation with an Unobtrusive System 128 10 Smart Campus Surveillance Systems Future Trends and Directions 131 References 133 Index 143

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Book SynopsisOPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES IN ENGINEERING The book describes the basic components of an optimization problem along with the formulation of design problems as mathematical programming problems using an objective function that expresses the main aim of the model, and how it is to be either minimized or maximized; subsequently, the concept of optimization and its relevance towards an optimal solution in engineering applications, is explained. This book aims to present some of the recent developments in the area of optimization theory, methods, and applications in engineering. It focuses on the metaphor of the inspired system and how to configure and apply the various algorithms. The book comprises 30 chapters and is organized into two parts: Part I Soft Computing and Evolutionary-Based Optimization; and Part II Decision Science and Simulation-Based Optimization, which contains application-based chapters. Readers and users will find in the book: An overview and brief background of optimizatTable of ContentsPreface xxi Acknowledgment xxix Part 1: Soft Computing and Evolutionary-Based Optimization 1 1 Improved Grey Wolf Optimizer with Levy Flight to Solve Dynamic Economic Dispatch Problem with Electric Vehicle Profiles 3 Anjali Jain, Ashish Mani and Anwar S. Siddiqui 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Problem Formulation 5 1.2.1 Power Output Limits 6 1.2.2 Power Balance Limits 6 1.2.3 Ramp Rate Limits 7 1.2.4 Electric Vehicles 7 1.3 Proposed Algorithm 8 1.3.1 Overview of Grey Wolf Optimizer 8 1.3.2 Improved Grey Wolf Optimizer with Levy Flight 9 1.3.3 Modeling of Prey Position with Levy Flight Distribution 10 1.4 Simulation and Results 13 1.4.1 Performance of Improved GWOLF on Benchmark Functions 14 1.4.2 Performance of Improved GWOLF for Solving DED for the Different Charging Probability Distribution 14 1.5 Conclusion 29 References 34 xxi vii 2 Comparison of YOLO and Faster R-CNN on Garbage Detection 37 Arulmozhi M., Nandini G. Iyer, Jeny Sophia S., Sivakumar P., Amutha C. and Sivamani D. 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Garbage Detection 39 2.2.1 Transfer Learning-Technique 39 2.2.2 Inception-Custom Model 39 2.2.2.1 Convolutional Neural Network 40 2.2.2.2 Max Pooling 41 2.2.2.3 Stride 41 2.2.2.4 Average Pooling 41 2.2.2.5 Inception Layer 42 2.2.2.6 3*3 and 1*1 Convolution 43 2.2.2.7 You Only Look Once (YOLO) Architecture 43 2.2.2.8 Faster R-CNN Algorithm 44 2.2.2.9 Mean Average Precision (mAP) 46 2.3 Experimental Results 46 2.3.1 Results Obtained Using YOLO Algorithm 46 2.3.2 Results Obtained Using Faster R-CNN 46 2.4 Future Scope 48 2.5 Conclusion 48 References 48 3 Smart Power Factor Correction and Energy Monitoring System 51 Amutha C., Sivagami V., Arulmozhi M., Sivamani D. and Shyam D. 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Block Diagram 53 3.2.1 Power Factor Concept 54 3.2.2 Power Factor Calculation 54 3.3 Simulation 54 3.4 Conclusion 56 References 57 4 ANN-Based Maximum Power Point Tracking Control Configured Boost Converter for Electric Vehicle Applications 59 Sivamani D., Sangari A., Shyam D., Anto Sheeba J., Jayashree K. and Nazar Ali A. 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Block Diagram 60 4.3 ANN-Based MPPT for Boost Converter 64 4.4 Closed Loop Control 66 4.5 Simulation Results 67 4.6 Conclusion 70 References 70 5 Single/Multijunction Solar Cell Model Incorporating Maximum Power Point Tracking Scheme Based on Fuzzy Logic Algorithm 73 Omveer Singh, Shalini Gupta and Shabana Urooj 5.1 Introduction 74 5.2 Modeling Structure 75 5.2.1 Single-Junction Solar Cell Model 75 5.2.2 Modeling of Multijunction Solar PV Cell 77 5.3 MPPT Design Techniques 80 5.3.1 Design of MPPT Scheme Based on P&O Technique 80 5.3.2 Design of MPPT Scheme Based on FLA 82 5.4 Results and Discussions 84 5.4.1 Single-Junction Solar Cell 84 5.4.2 Multijunction Solar PV Cell 86 5.4.3 Implementation of MPPT Scheme Based on P&O Technique 90 5.4.4 Implementation of MPPT Scheme Based on FLA 91 5.5 Conclusion 93 References 93 6 Particle Swarm Optimization: An Overview, Advancements and Hybridization 95 Shafquat Rana, Md Sarwar, Anwar Shahzad Siddiqui and Prashant 6.1 Introduction 96 6.2 The Particle Swarm Optimization: An Overview 97 6.3 PSO Algorithms and Pseudo-Code 98 6.3.1 PSO Algorithm 98 6.3.2 Pseudo-Code for PSO 101 6.3.3 PSO Limitations 101 6.4 Advancements in PSO and Its Perspectives 102 6.4.1 Inertia Weight 102 6.4.1.1 Random Selection (RS) 102 6.4.1.2 Linear Time Varying (LTV) 103 6.4.1.3 Nonlinear Time Varying (NLTV) 103 6.4.1.4 Fuzzy Adaptive (FA) 103 6.4.2 Constriction Factors 104 6.4.3 Topologies 104 6.4.4 Analysis of Convergence 104 6.5 Hybridization of PSO 105 6.5.1 PSO Hybridization with Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) 105 6.5.2 PSO Hybridization with Ant Colony Optimization (aco) 106 6.5.3 PSO Hybridization with Genetic Algorithms (GA) 106 6.6 Area of Applications of PSO 107 6.7 Conclusions 109 References 109 7 Application of Genetic Algorithm in Sensor Networks and Smart Grid 115 Geeta Yadav, Dheeraj Joshi, Leena G. and M. K. Soni 7.1 Introduction 115 7.2 Communication Sector 116 7.2.1 Sensor Networks 116 7.3 Electrical Sector 117 7.3.1 Smart Microgrid 117 7.4 A Brief Outline of GAs 118 7.5 Sensor Network’s Energy Optimization 120 7.6 Sensor Network’s Coverage and Uniformity Optimization Using GA 126 7.7 Use GA for Optimization of Reliability and Availability for Smart Microgrid 131 7.8 GA Versus Traditional Methods 135 7.9 Summaries and Conclusions 136 References 137 8 AI-Based Predictive Modeling of Delamination Factor for Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Drilling Process 139 Rohit Volety and Geetha Mani 8.1 Introduction 140 8.2 Methodology 142 8.3 AI-Based Predictive Modeling 143 8.3.1 Linear Regression 143 8.3.2 Random Forests 144 8.3.3 XGBoost 145 8.3.4 Svm 146 8.4 Performance Indices 146 8.4.1 Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) 146 8.4.2 Mean Squared Error (MSE) 147 8.4.3 R 2 (R-Squared) 147 8.5 Results and Discussion 147 8.5.1 Key Performance Metrics (KPIs) During the Model Training Phase 148 8.5.2 Key Performance Index Metrics (KPIs) During the Model Testing Phase 148 8.5.3 K Cross Fold Validation 149 8.6 Conclusions 151 References 152 9 Performance Comparison of Differential Evolutionary Algorithm-Based Contour Detection to Monocular Depth Estimation for Elevation Classification in 2D Drone-Based Imagery 155 Jacob Vishal, Somdeb Datta, Sudipta Mukhopadhyay, Pravar Kulbhushan, Rik Das, Saurabh Srivastava and Indrajit Kar 9.1 Introduction 156 9.2 Literature Survey 157 9.3 Research Methodology 159 9.3.1 Dataset and Metrics 161 9.4 Result and Discussion 162 9.5 Conclusion 165 References 165 10 Bioinspired MOPSO-Based Power Allocation for Energy Efficiency and Spectral Efficiency Trade-Off in Downlink NOMA 169 Jyotirmayee Subudhi and P. Indumathi 10.1 Introduction 170 10.2 System Model 172 10.3 User Clustering 175 10.4 Optimal Power Allocation for EE-SE Tradeoff 176 10.4.1 Multiobjective Optimization Problem 177 10.4.2 Multiobjective PSO 178 10.4.3 MOPSO Algorithm for EE-SE Trade-Off in Downlink NOMA 180 10.5 Numerical Results 180 10.6 Conclusion 183 References 184 11 Performances of Machine Learning Models and Featurization Techniques on Amazon Fine Food Reviews 187 Rishabh Singh, Akarshan Kumar and Mousim Ray 11.1 Introduction 188 11.1.1 Related Work 189 11.2 Materials and Methods 190 11.2.1 Data Cleaning and Pre-Processing 191 11.2.2 Feature Extraction 191 11.2.3 Classifiers 193 11.3 Results and Experiments 194 11.4 Conclusion 197 References 198 12 Optimization of Cutting Parameters for Turning by Using Genetic Algorithm 201 Mintu Pal and Sibsankar Dasmahapatra 12.1 Introduction 202 12.2 Genetic Algorithm GA: An Evolutionary Computational Technique 203 12.3 Design of Multiobjective Optimization Problem 204 12.3.1 Decision Variables 204 12.3.2 Objective Functions 204 12.3.2.1 Minimization of Main Cutting Force 205 12.3.2.2 Minimization of Feed Force 205 12.3.3 Bounds of Decision Variables 205 12.3.4 Response Variables 206 12.4 Results and Discussions 206 12.4.1 Single Objective Optimization 206 12.4.2 Results of Multiobjective Optimization 208 12.5 Conclusion 212 References 212 13 Genetic Algorithm-Based Optimization for Speech Processing Applications 215 Ramya.R, M. Preethi and R. Rajalakshmi 13.1 Introduction to GA 215 13.1.1 Enhanced GA 216 13.1.1.1 Hybrid GA 216 13.1.1.2 Interval GA 217 13.1.1.3 Adaptive GA 217 13.2 GA in Automatic Speech Recognition 218 13.2.1 GA for Optimizing Off-Line Parameters in Voice Activity Detection (VAD) 218 13.2.2 Classification of Features in ASR Using GA 219 13.2.3 GA-Based Distinctive Phonetic Features Recognition 219 13.2.4 GA in Phonetic Decoding 220 13.3 Genetic Algorithm in Speech Emotion Recognition 221 13.3.1 Speech Emotion Recognition 221 13.3.2 Genetic Algorithms in Speech Emotion Recognition 222 13.3.2.1 Feature Extraction Using GA for SER 222 13.3.2.2 Steps for Adaptive Genetic Algorithm for Feature Optimization 224 13.4 Genetic Programming in Hate Speech Using Deep Learning 225 13.4.1 Introduction to Hate Speech Detection 225 13.4.2 GA Integrated With Deep Learning Models for Hate Speech Detection 226 13.5 Conclusion 228 References 228 14 Performance of P, PI, PID, and NARMA Controllers in the Load Frequency Control of a Single-Area Thermal Power Plant 231 Ranjit Singh and L. Ramesh 14.1 Introduction 231 14.2 Single-Area Power System 232 14.3 Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC) 233 14.4 Controllers Used in the Simulink Model 233 14.4.1 PID Controller 233 14.4.2 PI Controller 234 14.4.3 P Controller 234 14.5 Circuit Description 235 14.6 ANN and NARMA L2 Controller 236 14.7 Simulation Results and Comparative Analysis 237 14.8 Conclusion 239 References 240 Part 2: Decision Science and Simulation-Based Optimization 243 15 Selection of Nonpowered Industrial Truck for Small Scale Manufacturing Industry Using Fuzzy VIKOR Method Under FMCDM Environment 245 Bipradas Bairagi 15.1 Introduction 246 15.2 Fuzzy Set Theory 248 15.2.1 Some Important Fuzzy Definitions 248 15.2.2 Fuzzy Operations 249 15.2.3 Linguistic Variable (LV) 250 15.3 Fvikor 251 15.4 Problem Definition 253 15.5 Results and Discussions 253 15.6 Conclusions 258 References 259 16 Slightly and Almost Neutrosophic gsα*—Continuous Function in Neutrosophic Topological Spaces 261 P. Anbarasi Rodrigo and S. Maheswari 16.1 Introduction 261 16.2 Preliminaries 262 16.3 Slightly Neutrosophic gsα* – Continuous Function 263 16.4 Almost Neutrosophic gsα* – Continuous Function 266 16.5 Conclusion 274 References 274 17 Identification and Prioritization of Risk Factors Affecting the Mental Health of Farmers 275 Hullash Chauhan, Suchismita Satapathy, A. K. Sahoo and Debesh Mishra 17.1 Introduction 275 17.2 Materials and Methods 277 17.2.1 ELECTRE Technique 278 17.3 Result and Discussion 281 17.4 Conclusion 293 References 294 18 Multiple Objective and Subjective Criteria Evaluation Technique (MOSCET): An Application to Material Handling System Selection 297 Bipradas Bairagi 18.1 Introduction 298 18.2 Multiple Objective and Subjective Criteria Evaluation Technique (MOSCET): The Proposed Algorithm 300 18.3 Illustrative Example 303 18.3.1 Problem Definition 303 18.3.2 Calculation and Discussions 305 18.4 Conclusions 309 References 310 19 Evaluation of Optimal Parameters to Enhance Worker’s Performance in an Automotive Industry 313 Rajat Yadav, Kuwar Mausam, Manish Saraswat and Vijay Kumar Sharma 19.1 Introduction 314 19.2 Methodology 315 19.3 Results and Discussion 316 19.4 Conclusions 320 References 321 20 Determining Key Influential Factors of Rural Tourism— An AHP Model 323 Puspalata Mahaptra, RamaKrishna Bandaru, Deepanjan Nanda and Sushanta Tripathy 20.1 Introduction 324 20.2 Rural Tourism 325 20.3 Literature Review 326 20.4 Objectives 328 20.5 Methodology 328 20.6 Analysis 332 20.7 Results and Discussion 332 20.8 Conclusions 340 20.9 Managerial Implications 340 References 341 21 Solution of a Pollution-Based Economic Order Quantity Model Under Triangular Dense Fuzzy Environment 345 Partha Pratim Bhattacharya, Kousik Bhattacharya, Sujit Kumar De, Prasun Kumar Nayak, Subhankar Joardar and Kushankur Das 21.1 Introduction 346 21.1.1 Overview 346 21.1.2 Motivation and Specific Study 346 21.2 Preliminaries 348 21.2.1 Pollution Function 348 21.2.2 Triangular Dense Fuzzy Set (TDFS) 349 21.3 Notations and Assumptions 350 21.3.1 Case Study 351 21.4 Formulation of the Mathematical Model 352 21.4.1 Crisp Mathematical Model 352 21.4.2 Formulation of Triangular Dense Fuzzy Mathematical Model 352 21.4.3 Defuzzification of Triangular Dense Fuzzy Model 353 21.5 Numerical Illustration 354 21.6 Sensitivity Analysis 355 21.7 Graphical Illustration 355 21.8 Merits and Demerits 358 21.9 Conclusion 358 Acknowledgement 359 Appendix 359 References 360 22 Common Yet Overlooked Aspects Accountable for Antiaging: An MCDM Approach 363 Rajnandini Saha, Satyabrata Aich, Hee-Cheol Kim and Sushanta Tripathy 22.1 Introduction 364 22.2 Literature Review 365 22.3 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) 367 22.4 Result and Discussion 372 22.5 Conclusion 373 References 373 23 E-Waste Management Challenges in India: An AHP Approach 377 Amit Sutar, Apurv Singh, Deepak Singhal, Sushanta Tripathy and Bharat Chandra Routara 23.1 Introduction 378 23.2 Literature Review 379 23.3 Methodology 379 23.4 Results and Discussion 379 23.5 Conclusion 390 References 391 24 Application of k-Means Method for Finding Varying Groups of Primary Energy Household Emissions in the Indian States 393 Tanmay Belsare, Abhay Deshpande, Neha Sharma and Prithwis De 24.1 Introduction 394 24.2 Literature Review 395 24.3 Materials and Methods 397 24.3.1 Data Preparation 397 24.3.2 Methods and Approach 397 24.3.2.1 Cluster Analysis 397 24.3.2.2 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering 397 24.3.2.3 K-Means Clustering 398 24.4 Exploratory Data Analysis 398 24.5 Results and Discussion 401 24.6 Conclusion 405 References 406 25 Airwaves Detection and Elimination Using Fast Fourier Transform to Enhance Detection of Hydrocarbon 409 Garba Aliyu, Mathias M. Fonkam, Augustine S. Nsang, Muhammad Abdulkarim, Sandip Rashit and Yakub K. Saheed 25.1 Introduction 410 25.1.1 Airwaves 411 25.1.2 Fast Fourier Transform 412 25.2 Related Works 413 25.3 Theoretical Framework 415 25.4 Methodology 416 25.5 Results and Discussions 417 25.6 Conclusion 420 References 420 26 Design and Implementation of Control for Nonlinear Active Suspension System 423 Ravindra S. Rana and Dipak M. Adhyaru 26.1 Introduction 423 26.2 Mathematical Model of Quarter Car Suspension System 426 26.2.1 Mathematical Model 426 26.2.2 Linearization Method for Nonlinear System Model 429 26.2.3 Discussion of Result 430 26.3 Conclusion 433 References 434 27 A Study of Various Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) Reduction Techniques for 5G Communication System (5G-CS) 437 Himanshu Kumar Sinha, Anand Kumar and Devasis Pradhan 27.1 Introduction 437 27.2 Literature Review 439 27.3 Overview of 5G Cellular System 440 27.4 Papr 441 27.4.1 Continuous Time PAPR 441 27.4.2 Continuous Time PAPR 442 27.5 Factors on which PAPR Reduction Depends 442 27.6 PAPR Reduction Technique 443 27.6.1 Scrambling of Signals 443 27.6.2 Signal Distortion Technique 446 27.6.3 High Power Amplifier (HPA) 447 27.7 Limitation of OFDM 447 27.8 Universal Filter Multicarrier (UMFC) Emerging Technique to Reduce PAPR in 5G 448 27.8.1 Transmitter of UMFC 448 27.8.2 Receiver of UMFC 450 27.9 Comparison Between Various Techniques 450 27.10 Conclusion 450 References 452 28 Investigation of Rebound Suppression Phenomenon in an Electromagnetic V-Bending Test 455 Aman Sharma, Pradeep Kumar Singh, Manish Saraswat and Irfan Khan 28.1 Introduction 455 28.2 Investigation 458 28.2.1 Specimen for Tests 458 28.2.2 Design of Die and Tool 458 28.2.3 Configuration and Procedure 459 28.3 Mathematical Evaluation 460 28.3.1 Simulation Methodology 460 28.4 Modeling for Material 461 28.4.1 Suppressing Rebound Phenomenon 461 28.5 Conclusion 466 References 466 29 Quadratic Spline Function Companding Technique to Minimize Peak-to-Average Power Ratio in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing System 469 Lazar Z. Velimirovic 29.1 Introduction 469 29.2 OFDM System 471 29.2.1 PAPR of OFDM Signal 472 29.3 Companding Technique 474 29.3.1 Quadratic Spline Function Companding 474 29.4 Numerical Results and Discussion 475 29.5 Conclusion 480 Acknowledgment 480 References 480 30 A Novel MCGDM Approach for Supplier Selection in a Supply Chain Management 483 Bipradas Bairagi 30.1 Introduction 484 30.2 Proposed Algorithm 486 30.3 Illustrative Example 491 30.3.1 Problem Definition 491 30.3.2 Calculation and Discussions 492 30.4 Conclusions 498 References 499 Index 501

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Author xv Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Review of Linear Algebra 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Vectors, Scalars, and Bases 2 Worked Exercise: Linear Combinations on the Left-hand Side of the Scalar Product 3 1.3 Vector Representation in Different Bases 7 1.4 Linear Operators 12 1.5 Representation of Linear Operators 14 1.6 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues 18 1.7 General Method of Solution of a Matrix Equation 21 1.8 The Closure Relation 23 1.9 Representation of Linear Operators in Terms of Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues 24 1.10 The Dirac Notation 25 Worked Exercise: The Bra of the Action of an Operator on a Ket 28 1.11 Exercises 30 Interlude: Signals and Systems: What is it About? 35 2 Representation of Signals 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 The Convolution 38 Worked Exercise: First Example of Convolution 42 Worked Exercise: Second Example of Convolution 44 2.3 The Impulse Function, or Dirac Delta 46 2.4 Convolutions with Impulse Functions 50 Worked Exercise: The Convolution with δ(t − a) 52 2.5 Impulse Functions as a Basis: The Time Domain Representation of Signals 53 2.6 The Scalar Product 60 2.7 Orthonormality of the Basis of Impulse Functions 62 Worked Exercise: Proof of Orthonormality of the Basis of Impulse Functions 64 2.8 Exponentials as a Basis: The Frequency Domain Representation of Signals 65 2.9 The Fourier Transform 72 Worked Exercise: The Fourier Transform of the Rectangular Function 74 2.10 The Algebraic Meaning of Fourier Transforms 75 Worked Exercise: Projection on the Basis of Exponentials 78 2.11 The Physical Meaning of Fourier Transforms 80 2.12 Properties of Fourier Transforms 85 2.12.1 Fourier Transform and the DC level 85 2.12.2 Property of Reality 86 2.12.3 Symmetry Between Time and Frequency 88 2.12.4 Time Shifting 88 2.12.5 Spectral Shifting 90 Worked Exercise: The Property of Spectral Shifting and AM Modulation 91 2.12.6 Differentiation 92 2.12.7 Integration 93 2.12.8 Convolution in the Time Domain 96 2.12.9 Product in the Time Domain 97 Worked Exercise: The Fourier Transform of a Physical Sinusoidal Wave 98 2.12.10 The Energy of a Signal and Parseval’s Theorem 101 2.13 The Fourier Series 102 Worked Exercise: The Fourier Series of a Square Wave 108 2.14 Exercises 109 3 Representation of Systems 113 3.1 Introduction and Properties 113 3.1.1 Linearity 114 3.1.2 Time Invariance 114 Worked Exercise: Example of a Time Invariant System 116 Worked Exercise: An Example of a Time Variant System 117 3.1.3 Causality 117 3.2 Operators Representing Linear and Time Invariant Systems 118 3.3 Linear Systems as Matrices 119 3.4 Operators in Dirac Notation 121 3.5 Statement of the Problem 123 3.6 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues of LTI Operators 123 3.7 General Method of Solution 124 3.7.1 Step 1: Defining the Problem 124 3.7.2 Step 2: Finding the Eigenvalues 125 3.7.3 Step 3: The Representation in the Basis of Eigenvectors 126 3.7.4 Step 4: Solving the Equation and Returning to the Original Basis 129 Worked Exercise: Input is an Eigenvector 130 Worked Exercise: Input is an Explicit Linear Combination of Eigenvectors 131 Worked Exercise: An Arbitrary Input 132 3.8 The Physical Meaning of Eigenvalues: The Impulse and Frequency Responses 133 Worked Exercise: Impulse and Frequency Responses of a Harmonic Oscillator 136 Worked Exercise: How can the Frequency Response be Measured? 139 Worked Exercise: The Transient of a Harmonic Oscillator 142 Worked Exercise: Charge and Discharge in an RC Circuit 145 3.9 Frequency Conservation in LTI Systems 147 3.10 Frequency Conservation in Other Fields 148 3.10.1 Snell’s Law 149 3.10.2 Wavefunctions and Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 150 3.11 Exercises 152 4 Electric Circuits as LTI Systems 157 4.1 Electric Circuits as LTI Systems 157 4.2 Phasors, Impedances, and the Frequency Response 158 Worked Exercise: An RLC Circuit as a Harmonic Oscillator 163 4.3 Exercises 164 5 Filters 165 5.1 Ideal Filters 165 5.2 Example of a Low-pass Filter 167 5.3 Example of a High-pass Filter 170 5.4 Example of a Band-pass Filter 171 5.5 Exercises 172 6 Introduction to the Laplace Transform 175 6.1 Motivation: Stability of LTI Systems 175 6.2 The Laplace Transform as a Generalization of the Fourier Transform 179 6.3 Properties of Laplace Transforms 181 6.4 Region of Convergence 182 6.5 Inverse Laplace Transform by Inspection 185 Worked Exercise: Example of Inverse Laplace Transform by Inspection 185 Worked Exercise: Impulse Response of a Harmonic Oscillator 187 6.6 Zeros and Poles 188 Worked Exercise: Finding the Zeros and Poles 189 Worked Exercise: Poles of a Harmonic Oscillator 190 6.7 The Unilateral Laplace Transform 191 6.7.1 The Differentiation Property of the Unilateral Fourier Transform 193 Worked Exercise: Differentiation Property of the Unilateral Fourier Transform Involving Higher Order Derivatives 195 Worked Exercise: Example of Differentiation Using the Unilateral Fourier Transform 196 Worked Exercise: Discharge of an RC Circuit 197 6.7.2 Generalization to the Unilateral Laplace Transform 198 6.8 Exercises 199 Interlude: Discrete Signals and Systems: Why do we Need Them? 203 7 The Sampling Theorem and the Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) 205 7.1 Discrete Signals 205 7.2 Fourier Transforms of Discrete Signals and the Sampling Theorem 207 7.3 The Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) 216 Worked Exercise: Example of a Matlab Routine to Calculate the Dtft 218 Worked Exercise: Fourier Transform from the DTFT 221 7.4 The Inverse DTFT 223 7.5 Properties of the DTFT 224 7.5.1 ‘Time’ shifting 225 7.5.2 Difference 226 7.5.3 Sum 228 7.5.4 Convolution in the ‘Time’ Domain 229 7.5.5 Product in the Time Domain 230 7.5.6 The Theorem that Should not be: Energy of Discrete Signals 231 7.6 Concluding Remarks 235 7.7 Exercises 235 8 The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 239 8.1 Discretizing the Frequency Domain 239 8.2 The DFT and the Fast Fourier Transform (fft) 246 Worked Exercise: Getting the Centralized DFT Using the Command fft 250 Worked Exercise: Getting the Fourier Transform with the fft 254 Worked Exercise: Obtaining the Inverse Fourier Transform Using the ifft 256 8.3 The Circular Time Shift 258 8.4 The Circular Convolution 259 8.5 Relationship Between Circular and Linear Convolutions 264 8.6 Parseval’s Theorem for the DFT 269 8.7 Exercises 270 9 Discrete Systems 275 9.1 Introduction and Properties 275 9.1.1 Linearity 276 9.1.2 ‘Time’ invariance 276 9.1.3 Causality 276 9.1.4 Stability 276 9.2 Linear and Time Invariant Discrete Systems 277 Worked Exercise: Further Advantages of Frequency Domain 279 9.3 Digital Filters 283 9.4 Exercises 285 10 Introduction to the z-transform 287 10.1 Motivation: Stability of LTI Systems 287 10.2 The z-transform as a Generalization of the DTFT 289 Worked Exercise: Example of z-transform 290 10.3 Relationship Between the z-transform and the Laplace Transform 292 10.4 Properties of the z-transform 293 10.4.1 ‘Time’ shifting 294 10.4.2 Difference 294 10.4.3 Sum 294 10.4.4 Convolution in the Time Domain 294 10.5 The Transfer Function of Discrete LTI Systems 295 10.6 The Unilateral z-transform 295 10.7 Exercises 297 References with Comments 299 Appendix A: Laplace Transform Property of Product in the Time Domain 301 Appendix B: List of Properties of Laplace Transforms 303 Index 305

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents Introduction xxiii Assessment Test xxxii Chapter 1 Architectural Concepts 1 Cloud Characteristics 3 Business Requirements 5 Understanding the Existing State 6 Cost/Benefit Analysis 7 Intended Impact 10 Cloud Computing Service Categories 11 Software as a Service 11 Infrastructure as a Service 12 Platform as a Service 12 Cloud Deployment Models 13 Private Cloud 13 Public Cloud 13 Hybrid Cloud 13 Multi- Cloud 13 Community Cloud 13 Multitenancy 14 Cloud Computing Roles and Responsibilities 15 Cloud Computing Reference Architecture 16 Virtualization 18 Hypervisors 18 Virtualization Security 19 Cloud Shared Considerations 20 Security and Privacy Considerations 20 Operational Considerations 21 Emerging Technologies 22 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence 22 Blockchain 23 Internet of Things 24 Containers 24 Quantum Computing 25 Edge and Fog Computing 26 Confidential Computing 26 DevOps and DevSecOps 27 Summary 28 Exam Essentials 28 Review Questions 30 Chapter 2 Data Classification 35 Data Inventory and Discovery 37 Data Ownership 37 Data Flows 42 Data Discovery Methods 43 Information Rights Management 46 Certificates and IRM 47 IRM in the Cloud 47 IRM Tool Traits 47 Data Control 49 Data Retention 50 Data Audit and Audit Mechanisms 53 Data Destruction/Disposal 55 Summary 57 Exam Essentials 57 Review Questions 59 Chapter 3 Cloud Data Security 63 Cloud Data Lifecycle 65 Create 66 Store 66 Use 67 Share 67 Archive 69 Destroy 70 Cloud Storage Architectures 71 Storage Types 71 Volume Storage: File- Based Storage and Block Storage 72 Object- Based Storage 72 Databases 73 Threats to Cloud Storage 73 Designing and Applying Security Strategies for Storage 74 Encryption 74 Certificate Management 77 Hashing 77 Masking, Obfuscation, Anonymization, and Tokenization 78 Data Loss Prevention 81 Log Capture and Analysis 82 Summary 85 Exam Essentials 85 Review Questions 86 Chapter 4 Security in the Cloud 91 Chapter 5 Shared Cloud Platform Risks and Responsibilities 92 Cloud Computing Risks by Deployment Model 94 Private Cloud 95 Community Cloud 95 Public Cloud 97 Hybrid Cloud 101 Cloud Computing Risks by Service Model 102 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) 102 Platform as a Service (PaaS) 102 Software as a Service (SaaS) 103 Virtualization 103 Threats 105 Risk Mitigation Strategies 107 Disaster Recovery (DR) and Business Continuity (BC) 110 Cloud- Specific BIA Concerns 110 Customer/Provider Shared BC/DR Responsibilities 111 Cloud Design Patterns 114 Summary 115 Exam Essentials 115 Review Questions 116 Cloud Platform, Infrastructure, and Operational Security 121 Foundations of Managed Services 123 Cloud Provider Responsibilities 124 Shared Responsibilities by Service Type 125 IaaS 125 PaaS 126 SaaS 126 Securing Communications and Infrastructure 126 Firewalls 127 Intrusion Detection/Intrusion Prevention Systems 128 Honeypots 128 Vulnerability Assessment Tools 128 Bastion Hosts 129 Identity Assurance in Cloud and Virtual Environments 130 Securing Hardware and Compute 130 Securing Software 132 Third- Party Software Management 133 Validating Open- Source Software 134 OS Hardening, Monitoring, and Remediation 134 Managing Virtual Systems 135 Assessing Vulnerabilities 137 Securing the Management Plane 138 Auditing Your Environment and Provider 141 Adapting Processes for the Cloud 142 Planning for Cloud Audits 143 Summary 144 Exam Essentials 145 Review Questions 147 Chapter 6 Cloud Application Security 151 Developing Software for the Cloud 154 Common Cloud Application Deployment Pitfalls 155 Cloud Application Architecture 157 Cryptography 157 Sandboxing 158 Application Virtualization and Orchestration 158 Application Programming Interfaces 159 Multitenancy 162 Supplemental Security Components 162 Cloud- Secure Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC) 164 Software Development Phases 165 Software Development Models 166 Cloud Application Assurance and Validation 172 Threat Modeling 172 Common Threats to Applications 174 Quality Assurance and Testing Techniques 175 Supply Chain Management and Licensing 177 Identity and Access Management 177 Cloud Identity and Access Control 178 Single Sign- On 179 Identity Providers 180 Federated Identity Management 180 Multifactor Authentication 181 Secrets Management 182 Common Threats to Identity and Access Management in the Cloud 183 Zero Trust 183 Summary 183 Exam Essentials 184 Review Questions 186 Chapter 7 Operations Elements 191 Designing a Secure Data Center 193 Build vs. Buy 193 Location 194 Facilities and Redundancy 196 Data Center Tiers 200 Logical Design 201 Virtualization Operations 202 Storage Operations 205 Managing Security Operations 207 Security Operations Center (SOC) 208 Continuous Monitoring 208 Incident Management 209 Summary 209 Exam Essentials 210 Review Questions 211 Chapter 8 Operations Management 215 Monitoring, Capacity, and Maintenance 217 Monitoring 217 Physical and Environmental Protection 218 Maintenance 219 Change and Configuration Management 224 Baselines 224 Roles and Process 226 Release and Deployment Management 228 Problem and Incident Management 229 IT Service Management and Continual Service Improvement 229 Business Continuity and Disaster Recovery 231 Prioritizing Safety 231 Continuity of Operations 232 BC/DR Planning 232 The BC/DR Toolkit 234 Relocation 235 Power 237 Testing 238 Summary 239 Exam Essentials 239 Review Questions 241 Chapter 9 Legal and Compliance Issues 245 Legal Requirements and Unique Risks in the Cloud Environment 247 Constitutional Law 247 Legislation 249 Administrative Law 249 Case Law 250 Common Law 250 Contract Law 250 Analyzing a Law 251 Determining Jurisdiction 251 Scope and Application 252 Legal Liability 253 Torts and Negligence 254 U.S. Privacy and Security Laws 255 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 255 The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act 258 Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act 259 Sarbanes–Oxley Act 261 State Data Breach Notification Laws 261 International Laws 263 European Union General Data Protection Regulation 263 Adequacy Decisions 267 U.S.- EU Safe Harbor and Privacy Shield 267 Laws, Regulations, and Standards 269 Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard 270 Critical Infrastructure Protection Program 270 Conflicting International Legislation 270 Information Security Management Systems 272 Iso/iec 27017:2015 272 Privacy in the Cloud 273 Generally Accepted Privacy Principles 273 Iso 27018 279 Direct and Indirect Identifiers 279 Privacy Impact Assessments 280 Cloud Forensics 281 Forensic Requirements 281 Cloud Forensic Challenges 281 Collection and Acquisition 282 Evidence Preservation and Management 283 e-discovery 283 Audit Processes, Methodologies, and Cloud Adaptations 284 Virtualization 284 Scope 284 Gap Analysis 285 Restrictions of Audit Scope Statements 285 Policies 286 Audit Reports 286 Summary 288 Exam Essentials 288 Review Questions 290 Chapter 10 Cloud Vendor Management 295 The Impact of Diverse Geographical Locations and Legal Jurisdictions 297 Security Policy Framework 298 Policies 298 Standards 300 Procedures 302 Guidelines 303 Exceptions and Compensating Controls 304 Developing Policies 305 Enterprise Risk Management 306 Risk Identification 308 Risk Calculation 308 Risk Assessment 309 Risk Treatment and Response 313 Risk Mitigation 313 Risk Avoidance 314 Risk Transference 314 Risk Acceptance 315 Risk Analysis 316 Risk Reporting 316 Enterprise Risk Management 318 Assessing Provider Risk Management Practices 318 Risk Management Frameworks 319 Cloud Contract Design 320 Business Requirements 321 Vendor Management 321 Data Protection 323 Negotiating Contracts 324 Common Contract Provisions 324 Contracting Documents 326 Government Cloud Standards 327 Common Criteria 327 FedRAMP 327 Fips 140- 2 327 Manage Communication with Relevant Parties 328 Summary 328 Exam Essentials 329 Review Questions 330 Appendix Answers to the Review Questions 335 Chapter 1: Architectural Concepts 336 Chapter 2: Data Classification 337 Chapter 3: Cloud Data Security 339 Chapter 4: Security in the Cloud 341 Chapter 5: Cloud Platform, Infrastructure, and Operational Security 343 Chapter 6: Cloud Application Security 345 Chapter 7: Operations Elements 347 Chapter 8: Operations Management 349 Chapter 9: Legal and Compliance Issues 350 Chapter 10: Cloud Vendor Management 352 Index 355

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Book SynopsisWIRELESS COMMUNICATION in CYBERSECURITY Presenting the concepts and advances of wireless communication in cybersecurity, this volume, written and edited by a global team of experts, also goes into the practical applications for the engineer, student, and other industry professionals. Rapid advancement in wireless communications and related technologies has led to the use of newer technologies like 6G, Internet of Things (IoT), Radar, and others. Not only are the technologies expanding, but the impact of wireless communication is also changing, becoming an inevitable part of daily life. With increased use comes great responsibilities and challenges for any newer technology. The growing risks in the direction of security, authentication, and encryption are some major areas of concern, together with user privacy and security. We have seen significant development in blockchain technology along with development in a wireless network that has proved extremely useful in solving various securiTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 BBUCAF: A Biometric-Based User Clustering Authentication Framework in Wireless Sensor Network 1Rinesh, S., Thamaraiselvi, K., Mahdi Ismael Omar and Abdulfetah Abdulahi Ahmed 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Sensor Network 2 1.2 Background Study 3 1.3 A Biometric-Based User Clustering Authentication Framework 5 1.4 Experimental Analysis 12 1.5 Conclusion 16 2 DeepNet: Dynamic Detection of Malwares Using Deep Learning Techniques 21Nivaashini, M., Soundariya, R. S., Vishnupriya, B. and Tharsanee, R. M. 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 Literature Survey 24 2.3 Malware Datasets 28 2.4 Deep Learning Architecture 29 2.5 Proposed System 32 2.6 Result and Analysis 40 2.7 Conclusion & Future Work 51 3 State of Art of Security and Risk in Wireless Environment Along with Healthcare Case Study 55Deepa Arora and Oshin Sharma 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Literature Survey 58 3.3 Applications of Wireless Networks 60 3.4 Types of Attacks 62 3.5 Active Attacks 63 3.6 Layered Attacks in WSN 66 3.7 Security Models 69 3.8 Case Study: Healthcare 71 3.9 Minimize the Risks in a Wireless Environment 74 3.10 Conclusion 76 4 Machine Learning-Based Malicious Threat Detection and Security Analysis on Software-Defined Networking for Industry 4.0 79J. Ramprasath, N. Praveen Sundra Kumar, N. Krishnaraj and M. Gomathi 4.1 Introduction 80 4.2 Related Works 86 4.3 Proposed Work for Threat Detection and Security Analysis 89 4.4 Implementation and Results 96 4.5 Conclusion 100 5 Privacy Enhancement for Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things Based on Cryptological Techniques 105Karthiga, M., Indirani, A., Sankarananth, S., S. S. Sountharrajan and E. Suganya 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 System Architecture 107 5.3 Literature Review 108 5.4 Proposed Methodology 112 5.5 Results and Discussion 118 5.6 Analysis of Various Security and Assaults 122 5.7 Conclusion 124 6 Security and Confidentiality Concerns in Blockchain Technology: A Review 129G. Prabu Kanna, Abinash M.J., Yogesh Kumar, Jagadeesh Kumar and E. Suganya 6.1 Introduction 130 6.2 Blockchain Technology 131 6.3 Blockchain Revolution Drivers 133 6.4 Blockchain Classification 135 6.5 Blockchain Components and Operation 138 6.6 Blockchain Technology Applications 142 6.7 Difficulties 145 6.8 Conclusion 145 7 Explainable Artificial Intelligence for Cybersecurity 149P. Sharon Femi, K. Ashwini, A. Kala and V. Rajalakshmi 7.1 Introduction 150 7.2 Cyberattacks 152 7.3 XAI and Its Categorization 157 7.4 XAI Framework 160 7.5 Applications of XAI in Cybersecurity 165 7.6 Challenges of XAI Applications in Cybersecurity 169 7.7 Future Research Directions 171 7.8 Conclusion 171 8 AI-Enabled Threat Detection and Security Analysis 175A. Saran Kumar, S. Priyanka, V. Praveen and G. Sivapriya 8.1 Introduction 176 8.2 Literature Survey 181 8.3 Proposed Work 184 8.4 System Evaluation 190 8.5 Conclusion 195 9 Security Risks and Its Preservation Mechanism Using Dynamic Trusted Scheme 199Geetanjali Rathee, Akshay Kumar, S. Karthikeyan and N. Yuvaraj 9.1 Introduction 200 9.2 Related Work 202 9.3 Proposed Framework 205 9.4 Performance Analysis 209 9.5 Results Discussion 210 9.6 Empirical Analysis 212 9.7 Conclusion 213 10 6G Systems in Secure Data Transmission 217A.V.R. Mayuri, Jyoti Chauhan, Abhinav Gadgil, Om Rajani and Soumya Rajadhyaksha 10.1 Introduction 218 10.2 Evolution of 6G 219 10.3 Functionality 222 10.4 6G Security Architectural Requirements 230 10.5 Future Enhancements 234 10.6 Summary 237 11 A Trust-Based Information Forwarding Mechanism for IoT Systems 239Geetanjali Rathee, Hemraj Saini, R. Maheswar and M. Akila 11.1 Introduction 240 11.2 Related Works 243 11.3 Estimated Trusted Model 247 11.4 Blockchain Network 248 11.5 Performance Analysis 250 11.6 Results Discussion 252 11.7 Empirical Analysis 253 11.8 Conclusion 255 References 255 About the Editors 259 Index 261

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Space 1.1 The exponential function 1.2 The two-dimensional plane 1.3 Calculus and operators 1.4 Function space for rotation in a plane 1.5 Three-dimensional space 1.6 Spinors 1.7 Pauli matrices 1.8 Rotation matrices 1.9 Projections 1.10 Function space in three dimensions 1.11 Fourier transform and translation 1.12 Dual bases 1.13 Dual basis obtained via matrix inversion 1.14 The unit sphere 1.15 Function space for rotation in three dimensions 1.16 Higher-order operators 1.17 Operator techniques for angular momentum 1.18 Chapter summary 2 Spacetime 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The four-vector 2.3 Four-momentum for particles 2.4 Function space for spacetime 2.5 Spacetime spinors 2.6 γ matrices 2.7 Motion in an electromagnetic field 2.8 Creation of electromagnetic fields: Maxwell’s equations 2.9 Nonrelativistic limit of Dirac equation 2.10 Interactions between particles and electromagnetic field 2.11 Spin-orbit coupling 2.12 Spin-orbit coupling 2.13 Schrödinger/Heisenberg equations and propagators 2.14 Electroweak interaction 3 Single-particle problems 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Quantum harmonic oscillator 3.3 Perturbed harmonic oscillator 3.4 Two-dimensional harmonic oscillator via differential equation 3.5 Two-dimensional harmonic oscillator via unit vectors 3.6 Radial equation for hydrogen atom 3.7 Transitions on atoms 3.8 Molecules and solids 3.9 Periodic potential in a solid 3.10 Scattering from local potential 3.11 Single state and a band 4 Many-particle systems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Wavefunctions for many-body systems 4.3 Quantum statistics 4.4 The Fermi sea in solids 4.5 Tensors 4.6 Electon interactions on an atom 4.7 Strong interaction: mesons 4.8 Strong interaction: baryon 4.9 Nuclear structure 5 Collective and emergent phenomena 5.1 Magnetism 5.2 Superconductivity 5.3 Mass generation 5.4 Symmetry breaking 5.5 Screening in solids 5.6 Plasmons in solids 5.7 Superfluidity

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Book SynopsisAuthoritative resource providing step-by-step guidance for producing reliable software to be tailored for specific projects Software Reliability Techniques for Real-World Applications is a practical, up to date, go-to source that can be referenced repeatedly to efficiently prevent software defects, find and correct defects if they occur, and create a higher level of confidence in software products. From content development to software support and maintenance, the author creates a depiction of each phase in a project such as design and coding, operation and maintenance, management, product production, and concept development and describes the activities and products needed for each. Software Reliability Techniques for Real-World Applications introduces clear ways to understand each process of software reliability and explains how it can be managed effectively and reliably. The book is supported by a plethora of detailed examples and systematic approTable of ContentsPreface xi Series Editor’s Foreword by Dr. Andre Kleyner xiii Acronyms xv Glossary xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Description of the Problem 1 1.2 Implications for Software Reliability 2 References 3 2 Understanding Defects 5 2.1 Where Defects Enter the Project System 5 2.2 Effects of Defects 6 2.3 Detection of Defects 7 2.4 Causes of Defects 9 References 12 3 Handling Defects 13 3.1 Strategy for Handling Defects 13 3.2 Objectives 14 3.3 Plan 15 3.4 Implementation, Monitoring, and Feedback 28 3.5 Analogies Between Hardware and Software Reliability Engineering 31 References 33 4 Project Phases 35 4.1 Introduction to Project Phases 35 4.2 Concept Development and Planning 43 4.2.1 Description of the CDP Phase 43 4.2.2 Defects Typical for the CDP Phase 46 4.2.3 Techniques and Processes for the CDP Phase 47 4.2.4 Metrics for the CDP Phase 51 4.3 Requirements and Interfaces 62 4.3.1 Description of the Requirements and Interfaces Phase 62 4.3.2 Defects Typical for the Requirements and Interfaces Phase 63 4.3.3 Techniques and Processes for the Requirements and Interfaces Phase 65 4.3.4 Metrics for the Requirements and Interfaces Phase 68 4.4 Design and Coding 73 4.4.1 Description of the DC Phase 73 4.4.2 Defects Typical for the DC Phase 76 4.4.3 Techniques and Processes for the DC Phase 78 4.4.4 Metrics for the DC Phase 82 4.5 Integration, Verification, and Validation 91 4.5.1 Description of the IV&V Phase 91 4.5.2 Defects Typical for the IV&V Phase 94 4.5.3 Techniques and Processes for the IV&V Phase 96 4.5.4 Metrics for the IV&V Phase 98 4.6 Product Production and Release 105 4.6.1 Description of the Product Production and Release Phase 106 4.6.2 Defects Typical for the Product Production and Release Phase 107 4.6.3 Techniques and Processes for the Product Production and Release Phase 108 4.6.4 Metrics for the Product Production and Release Phase 111 4.7 Operation and Maintenance 115 4.7.1 Description of the Operation and Maintenance Phase 116 4.7.2 Defects Typical for the OM Phase 119 4.7.3 Techniques and Processes for the OM Phase 119 4.7.4 Metrics for the OM Phase 121 4.8 Management 125 4.8.1 Description of Management 125 4.8.2 Defects Typical for Management 126 4.8.3 Techniques and Processes for Management 128 4.8.4 Metrics for Management 131 References 139 5 Roadmap and Practical Guidelines 141 5.1 Summary and Roadmap 141 5.1.1 Start of a Project 142 5.1.2 As a Member of an Organization 145 5.1.3 Troubled Projects 145 5.2 Guidelines 149 References 150 6 Techniques 151 6.1 Introduction to the Techniques 151 6.2 Techniques for Systems Engineering 151 6.3 Techniques for Software 161 6.4 Techniques for Reliability Engineering 179 6.5 Project-Wide Techniques and Techniques for Quality Assurance 254 References 316 Index 323

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Book SynopsisDiscover current design practices and performance metrics in this comprehensive guide to the latest methods of developing MIMO antenna systems Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems use multiple sets of antennas to increase the capacity of a radio link, or to send and receive multiple simultaneous data signals over the same radio channel. It's become an increasingly integral part of wireless and mobile data networks, from the earliest generations of wireless internet to cutting-edge 5G systems. The coming 6G networks will also rely on 6G antenna systems, making it all the more critical for the next generation of engineers and antenna designers to have a firm grasp of this foundational technology. MIMO Antenna Systems for 5G and Beyond offers a timely introduction to these systems and their design principles. Incorporating the latest designs and a comprehensive overview of current system configurations, it provides complete design procedures and performance metrics for MIMO systems. The result is a one-stop shop for all MIMO applications and wireless standards. MIMO Antenna Systems for 5G and Beyond readers will also find: The first book ever to cover MIMO design practices specific to 5G wireless communicationsand beyondDetailed discussion of MIMO configurations including passive, reconfigurable, beamforming, and moreDetailed illustrations and design files MIMO Antenna Systems for 5G and Beyond is ideal for practicing engineers, as well as researchers in wireless and radio engineering sectors.

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisDescribing the use of displays in microcontroller based projects, the author makes extensive use of real-world, tested projects. The complete details of each project are given, including the full circuit diagram and source code.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv 1 Introduction to Microcontrollers and Display Systems 1 1.1 Microcontrollers and Microprocessors 2 1.2 Evolution of the Microcontroller 3 1.3 Parts of a Microcontroller 4 1.3.1 Address 4 1.3.2 ALU 5 1.3.3 Analogue Comparator 5 1.3.4 Analogue-to-Digital Converter 5 1.3.5 Brown-out Detector 5 1.3.6 Bus 5 1.3.7 CAN 6 1.3.8 CISC 6 1.3.9 Clock 6 1.3.10 CPU 6 1.3.11 EEPROM 6 1.3.12 EPROM 6 1.3.13 Ethernet 7 1.3.14 Flash Memory 7 1.3.15 Harvard Architecture 7 1.3.16 Idle Mode 7 1.3.17 Interrupts 7 1.3.18 LCD Drivers 8 1.3.19 Pipelining 8 1.3.20 Power-on Reset 8 1.3.21 PROM 8 1.3.22 RAM 8 1.3.23 Real-time Clock 8 1.3.24 Register 9 1.3.25 Reset 9 1.3.26 RISC 9 1.3.27 ROM 9 1.3.28 Serial Input-Output 9 1.3.29 Sleep Mode 9 1.3.30 Supply Voltage 10 1.3.31 Timers 10 1.3.32 USB 10 1.3.33 Watchdog 10 1.4 Display Devices 10 1.4.1 LED 10 1.4.2 7-Segment LED 11 1.4.3 OLED 12 1.4.4 LCD 12 1.5 Summary 15 Exercises 15 2 PIC18F Microcontrollers 17 2.1 The PIC18F2410 Microcontroller 18 2.2 PIC18F2410 Architecture 19 2.2.1 The Program Memory 21 2.2.2 The Data Memory 21 2.2.3 Power Supply Requirements 22 2.2.4 Oscillator Configurations 24 2.2.5 The Reset 30 2.2.6 Parallel I/O Ports 31 2.2.7 Timer Modules 38 2.2.8 Analogue-to-Digital Converter Module 43 2.2.9 Special Features of the CPU 48 2.2.10 Interrupts 49 2.2.11 Pulse Width Modulator Module 53 2.3 Summary 56 Exercises 56 3 C Programming Language 59 3.1 C Languages for Microcontrollers 59 3.2 Your First mikroC Pro for PIC Program 61 3.2.1 Comments 61 3.2.2 Beginning and Ending a Program 62 3.2.3 White Spaces 63 3.2.4 Variable Names 63 3.2.5 Reserved Names 64 3.2.6 Variable Types 64 3.2.7 Constants 66 3.2.8 Escape Sequences 68 3.2.9 Volatile Variables 69 3.2.10 Accessing Bits of a Variable 69 3.2.11 sbit Type 70 3.2.12 bit Type 70 3.2.13 Arrays 70 3.2.14 Pointers 73 3.2.15 Structures 76 3.2.16 Unions 80 3.2.17 Operators in mikroC Pro for PIC 80 3.2.18 The Flow of Control 90 3.3 Functions in mikroC Pro for PIC 101 3.3.1 Function Prototypes 102 3.3.2 void Functions 103 3.3.3 Passing Parameters to Functions 104 3.3.4 Passing Arrays to Functions 106 3.3.5 Interrupt Processing 106 3.4 mikroC Pro for PIC Built-in Functions 108 3.5 mikroC Pro for PIC Libraries 109 3.5.1 ANSI C Library 109 3.5.2 Miscellaneous Library 111 3.6 Using the mikroC Pro for PIC Compiler 111 3.6.1 mikroC Pro for PIC IDE 112 3.6.2 Creating a New Source File 118 3.6.3 Compiling the Source File 122 3.7 Using the mikroC Pro for PIC Simulator 123 3.7.1 Setting a Break-Point 124 3.8 Other mikroC Pro for PIC Features 126 3.8.1 View Statistics 126 3.8.2 View Assembly 127 3.8.3 ASCII Chart 127 3.8.4 USART Terminal 127 3.8.5 Seven Segment Editor 127 3.8.6 Help 128 3.9 Summary 128 Exercises 129 4 PIC Microcontroller Development Tools – Including Display Development Tools 131 4.1 PIC Hardware Development Boards 132 4.1.1 Super Bundle Development Kit 132 4.1.2 PIC18 Explorer Board 132 4.1.3 PIC18F4XK20 Starter Kit 134 4.1.4 PICDEM 4 135 4.1.5 PIC16F887 Development Kit 135 4.1.6 FUTURLEC PIC18F4550 Development Board 137 4.1.7 EasyPIC6 Development Board 137 4.1.8 EasyPIC7 Development Board 139 4.2 PIC Microcontroller Display Development Tools 140 4.2.1 Display Hardware Tools 140 4.2.2 Display Software Tools 143 4.3 Using the In-Circuit Debugger with the EasyPIC7 Development Board 145 4.4 Summary 149 Exercises 149 5 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 151 5.1 ATypical LED 151 5.2 LED Colours 153 5.3 LED Sizes 154 5.4 Bi-Colour LEDs 154 5.5 Tri-Colour LEDs 155 5.6 Flashing LEDs 155 5.7 Other LED Shapes 155 5.8 7-Segment LEDs 156 5.8.1 Displaying Numbers 157 5.8.2 Multi-digit 7-Segment Displays 159 5.9 Alphanumeric LEDs 159 5.10 mikroC Pro for PIC 7-Segment LED Editor 163 5.11 Summary 163 Exercises 164 6 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) and mikroC Pro for PIC LCD Functions 165 6.1 HD44780 Controller 165 6.2 Displaying User Defined Data 168 6.3 DDRAM Addresses 169 6.4 Display Timing and Control 171 6.4.1 Clear Display 172 6.4.2 Return Cursor to Home 172 6.4.3 Cursor Move Direction 172 6.4.4 Display ON/OFF 172 6.4.5 Cursor and Display Shift 173 6.4.6 Function Set 173 6.4.7 Set CGRAM Address 173 6.4.8 Set DDRAM Address 173 6.4.9 Read Busy Flag 174 6.4.10 Write Data to CGRAM or DDRAM 174 6.4.11 Read Data from CGRAM or DDRAM 174 6.5 LCD Initialisation 174 6.5.1 8-bit Mode Initialisation 175 6.5.2 4-bit Mode Initialisation 175 6.6 Example LCD Display Setup Program 177 6.7 mikroC Pro for PIC LCD Functions 180 6.7.1 Lcd_Init 180 6.7.2 Lcd_Out 181 6.7.3 Lcd_Out_Cp 181 6.7.4 Lcd_Chr 181 6.7.5 Lcd_Chr_Cp 181 6.7.6 Lcd_Cmd 182 6.8 Summary 182 Exercises 183 7 Graphics LCD Displays (GLCD) 185 7.1 The 128 x 64 Pixel GLCD 185 7.2 Operation of the GLCD Display 187 7.3 mikroC Pro for PIC GLCD Library Functions 189 7.3.1 Glcd_Init 189 7.3.2 Glcd_Set_Side 190 7.3.3 Glcd_Set_X 190 7.3.4 Glcd_Set_Page 190 7.3.5 Glcd_Write_Data 190 7.3.6 Glcd_Fill 190 7.3.7 Glcd_Dot 191 7.3.8 Glcd_Line 191 7.3.9 Glcd_V_Line 191 7.3.10 Glcd_H_Line 191 7.3.11 Glcd_Rectangle 192 7.3.12 Glcd_Rectangle_Round_Edges 192 7.3.13 Glcd_Rectangle_Round_Edges_Fill 192 7.3.14 Glcd_Box 193 7.3.15 Glcd_Circle 193 7.3.16 Glcd_Circle_Fill 194 7.3.17 Glcd_Set_Font 194 7.3.18 Glcd_Set_Font_Adv 194 7.3.19 Glcd_Write_Char 195 7.3.20 Glcd_Write_Char_Adv 195 7.3.21 Glcd_Write_Text 195 7.3.22 Glcd_Write_Text_Adv 195 7.3.23 Glcd_Write_Const_Text_Adv 196 7.3.24 Glcd_Image 196 7.4 Example GLCD Display 196 7.5 mikroC Pro for PIC Bitmap Editor 198 7.6 Adding Touch-screen to GLCDs 199 7.6.1 Types of Touch-screen Displays 200 7.6.2 Resistive Touch Screens 200 7.7 Summary 203 Exercises 204 8 Microcontroller Program Development 205 8.1 Using the Program Description Language and Flowcharts 205 8.1.1 BEGIN – END 206 8.1.2 Sequencing 206 8.1.3 IF – THEN – ELSE – ENDIF 206 8.1.4 DO – ENDDO 207 8.1.5 REPEAT – UNTIL 209 8.1.6 Calling Subprograms 209 8.1.7 Subprogram Structure 209 8.2 Examples 211 8.3 Representing for Loops in Flowcharts 216 8.4 Summary 218 Exercises 218 9 LED Based Projects 219 9.1 PROJECT 9.1 – Flashing LED 219 9.2 PROJECT 9.2 – Binary Counting Up LEDs 226 9.3 PROJECT 9.3 – Rotating LEDs 229 9.4 PROJECT 9.4 – Wheel of Lucky Day 231 9.5 PROJECT 9.5 – Random Flashing LEDs 239 9.6 PROJECT 9.6 – LED Dice 240 9.7 PROJECT 9.7 – Connecting more than one LED to a Port Pin 246 9.8 PROJECT 9.8 – Changing the Brightness of LEDs 250 9.9 PROJECT 9.9 – LED Candle 264 9.10 Summary 267 Exercises 267 10 7-Segment LED Display Based Projects 269 10.1 PROJECT 10.1 – Single Digit Up Counting 7-Segment LED Display 269 10.2 PROJECT 10.2 – Display a Number on 2-Digit 7-Segment LED Display 271 10.3 PROJECT 10.3 – Display Lottery Numbers on 2-Digit 7-Segment LED Display 278 10.4 PROJECT 10.4 – Event Counter Using 4-Digit 7-Segment LED Display 285 10.5 PROJECT 10.5 – External Interrupt Based Event Counter Using 4-Digit 7-Segment LED Display with Serial Driver 292 10.6 Summary 302 Exercises 303 11 Text Based LCD Projects 305 11.1 PROJECT 11.1 – Displaying Text on LCD 305 11.2 PROJECT 11.2 – Moving Text on LCD 307 11.3 PROJECT 11.3 – Counting with the LCD 310 11.4 PROJECT 11.4 – Creating Custom Fonts on the LCD 315 11.5 PROJECT 11.5 – LCD Dice 317 11.6 PROJECT 11.6 – Digital Voltmeter 325 11.7 PROJECT 11.7 – Temperature and Pressure Display 327 11.8 PROJECT 11.8 – The High/Low Game 333 11.9 Summary 344 Exercises 345 12 Graphics LCD Projects 347 12.1 PROJECT 12.1 – Creating and Displaying a Bitmap Image 347 12.2 PROJECT 12.2 – Moving Ball Animation 355 12.3 PROJECT 12.3 – GLCD Dice 357 12.4 PROJECT 12.4 – GLCD X-Y Plotting 372 12.5 PROJECT 12.5 – Plotting Temperature Variation on the GLCD 374 12.6 PROJECT 12.6 – Temperature and Relative Humidity Measurement 385 12.7 Operation of the SHT11 386 12.8 Acknowledgement 389 12.9 Summary 400 Exercises 400 13 Touch Screen Graphics LCD Projects 401 13.1 PROJECT 13.1 – Touch Screen LED ON-OFF 401 13.2 PROJECT 13.2 – LED Flashing with Variable Rate 410 13.3 Summary 418 Exercises 418 14 Using the Visual GLCD Software in GLCD Projects 419 14.1 PROJECT 14.1 – Toggle LED 420 14.2 PROJECT 14.2 – Toggle more than One LED 425 14.3 PROJECT 14.3 – Mini Electronic Organ 426 14.4 PROJECT 14.4 – Using the SmartGLCD 430 14.5 PROJECT 14.5 – Decimal to Hexadecimal Converter using the SmartGLCD 444 14.6 Summary 452 Exercises 452 15 Using the Visual TFT Software in Graphics Projects 453 15.1 PROJECT 15.1 – Countdown Timer 454 15.2 PROJECT 15.2 – Electronic Book 462 15.3 PROJECT 15.3 – Picture Show 467 15.4 Summary 472 Exercises 472 Bibliography 473 Index 475

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Book Synopsis*Table of ContentsAbout the Author xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Abbreviations xix Symbols xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 A Brief History 2 1.1.1 Early Days 2 1.1.2 The Middle of the Twentieth Century 7 1.1.3 Developments towards the End of the Twentieth Century and the Early Twenty-First Century 8 1.2 Electric Vehicles and the Environment 13 1.2.1 Energy Saving and Overall Reduction of Carbon Emissions 14 1.2.2 Reducing Local Pollution 15 1.2.3 Reducing Dependence on Oil 15 1.3 Usage Patterns for Electric Road Vehicles 15 Further Reading 17 2 Types of Electric Vehicles – EV Architecture 19 2.1 Battery Electric Vehicles 19 2.2 The IC Engine/Electric Hybrid Vehicle 19 2.3 Fuelled EVs 24 2.4 EVs using Supply Lines 25 2.5 EVs which use Flywheels or Supercapacitors 25 2.6 Solar-Powered Vehicles 26 2.7 Vehicles using Linear Motors 27 2.8 EVs for the Future 27 Further Reading 27 3 Batteries, Flywheels and Supercapacitors 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Battery Parameters 30 3.2.1 Cell and Battery Voltages 30 3.2.2 Charge (or Amphour) Capacity 31 3.2.3 Energy Stored 32 3.2.4 Specific Energy 33 3.2.5 Energy Density 33 3.2.6 Specific Power 34 3.2.7 Amphour (or Charge) Efficiency 34 3.2.8 Energy Efficiency 35 3.2.9 Self-discharge Rates 35 3.2.10 Battery Geometry 35 3.2.11 Battery Temperature, Heating and Cooling Needs 35 3.2.12 Battery Life and Number of Deep Cycles 35 3.3 Lead Acid Batteries 36 3.3.1 Lead Acid Battery Basics 36 3.3.2 Special Characteristics of Lead Acid Batteries 38 3.3.3 Battery Life and Maintenance 40 3.3.4 Battery Charging 40 3.3.5 Summary of Lead Acid Batteries 41 3.4 Nickel-Based Batteries 41 3.4.1 Introduction 41 3.4.2 Nickel Cadmium 41 3.4.3 Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries 44 3.5 Sodium-Based Batteries 46 3.5.1 Introduction 46 3.5.2 Sodium Sulfur Batteries 47 3.5.3 Sodium Metal Chloride (ZEBRA) Batteries 48 3.6 Lithium Batteries 50 3.6.1 Introduction 50 3.6.2 The Lithium Polymer Battery 50 3.6.3 The Lithium Ion Battery 51 3.7 Metal–Air Batteries 52 3.7.1 Introduction 52 3.7.2 The Aluminium–Air Battery 52 3.7.3 The Zinc–Air Battery 53 3.8 Supercapacitors and Flywheels 54 3.8.1 Supercapacitors 54 3.8.2 Flywheels 56 3.9 Battery Charging 59 3.9.1 Battery Chargers 59 3.9.2 Charge Equalisation 60 3.10 The Designer’s Choice of Battery 63 3.10.1 Introduction 63 3.10.2 Batteries which are Currently Available Commercially 63 3.11 Use of Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles 64 3.11.1 Introduction 64 3.11.2 IC/Battery Electric Hybrids 64 3.11.3 Battery/Battery Electric Hybrids 64 3.11.4 Combinations using Flywheels 65 3.11.5 Complex Hybrids 65 3.12 Battery Modelling 65 3.12.1 The Purpose of Battery Modelling 65 3.12.2 Battery Equivalent Circuit 66 3.12.3 Modelling Battery Capacity 68 3.12.4 Simulating a Battery at a Set Power 71 3.12.5 Calculating the Peukert Coefficient 75 3.12.6 Approximate Battery Sizing 76 3.13 In Conclusion 77 References 78 4 Electricity Supply 79 4.1 Normal Existing Domestic and Industrial Electricity Supply 79 4.2 Infrastructure Needed for Charging Electric Vehicles 80 4.3 Electricity Supply Rails 81 4.4 Inductive Power Transfer for Moving Vehicles 82 4.5 Battery Swapping 84 Further Reading 85 5 Fuel Cells 87 5.1 Fuel Cells – A Real Option? 87 5.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells – Basic Principles 89 5.2.1 Electrode Reactions 89 5.2.2 Different Electrolytes 90 5.2.3 Fuel Cell Electrodes 93 5.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics – An Introduction 95 5.3.1 Fuel Cell Efficiency and Efficiency Limits 95 5.3.2 Efficiency and the Fuel Cell Voltage 98 5.3.3 Practical Fuel Cell Voltages 100 5.3.4 The Effect of Pressure and Gas Concentration 101 5.4 Connecting Cells in Series – The Bipolar Plate 102 5.5 Water Management in the PEMFC 106 5.5.1 Introduction to the Water Problem 106 5.5.2 The Electrolyte of a PEMFC 107 5.5.3 Keeping the PEM Hydrated 109 5.6 Thermal Management of the PEMFC 110 5.7 A Complete Fuel Cell System 111 5.8 Practical Efficiency of Fuel Cells 114 References 114 6 Hydrogen as a Fuel – Its Production and Storage 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Hydrogen as a Fuel 117 6.3 Fuel Reforming 118 6.3.1 Fuel Cell Requirements 118 6.3.2 Steam Reforming 118 6.3.3 Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming 120 6.3.4 Further Fuel Processing – Carbon Monoxide Removal 121 6.3.5 Practical Fuel Processing for Mobile Applications 122 6.3.6 Energy Efficiency of Reforming 123 6.4 Energy Efficiency of Reforming 124 6.5 Hydrogen Storage I – Storage as Hydrogen 124 6.5.1 Introduction to the Problem 124 6.5.2 Safety 124 6.5.3 The Storage of Hydrogen as a Compressed Gas 125 6.5.4 Storage of Hydrogen as a Liquid 127 6.5.5 Reversible Metal Hydride Hydrogen Stores 129 6.5.6 Carbon Nanofibres 131 6.5.7 Storage Methods Compared 131 6.6 Hydrogen Storage II – Chemical Methods 132 6.6.1 Introduction 132 6.6.2 Methanol 133 6.6.3 Alkali Metal Hydrides 135 6.6.4 Sodium Borohydride 136 6.6.5 Ammonia 140 6.6.6 Storage Methods Compared 142 References 143 7 Electric Machines and their Controllers 145 7.1 The ‘Brushed’ DC Electric Motor 145 7.1.1 Operation of the Basic DC Motor 145 7.1.2 Torque Speed Characteristics 147 7.1.3 Controlling the Brushed DC Motor 151 7.1.4 Providing the Magnetic Field for DC Motors 152 7.1.5 DC Motor Efficiency 153 7.1.6 Motor Losses and Motor Size 156 7.1.7 Electric Motors as Brakes 156 7.2 DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion 159 7.2.1 Switching Devices 159 7.2.2 Step-Down or ‘Buck’ Regulators 161 7.2.3 Step-Up or ‘Boost’ Switching Regulator 162 7.2.4 Single-Phase Inverters 165 7.2.5 Three Phase 167 7.3 Brushless Electric Motors 169 7.3.1 Introduction 169 7.3.2 The Brushless DC Motor 169 7.3.3 Switched Reluctance Motors 173 7.3.4 The Induction Motor 177 7.4 Motor Cooling, Efficiency, Size and Mass 179 7.4.1 Improving Motor Efficiency 179 7.4.2 Motor Mass 181 7.5 Electric Machines for Hybrid Vehicles 182 7.6 Linear Motors 185 References 185 8 Electric Vehicle Modelling 187 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Tractive Effort 188 8.2.1 Introduction 188 8.2.2 Rolling Resistance Force 188 8.2.3 Aerodynamic Drag 189 8.2.4 Hill Climbing Force 189 8.2.5 Acceleration Force 189 8.2.6 Total Tractive Effort 191 8.3 Modelling Vehicle Acceleration 191 8.3.1 Acceleration Performance Parameters 191 8.3.2 Modelling the Acceleration of an Electric Scooter 193 8.3.3 Modelling the Acceleration of a Small Car 197 8.4 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range 198 8.4.1 Driving Cycles 198 8.4.2 Range Modelling of Battery Electric Vehicles 204 8.4.3 Constant Velocity Range Modelling 210 8.4.4 Other uses of Simulations 210 8.4.5 Range Modelling of Fuel Cell Vehicles 212 8.4.6 Range Modelling of Hybrid Electric Vehicles 215 8.5 Simulations – A Summary 215 References 216 9 Design Considerations 217 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Aerodynamic Considerations 217 9.2.1 Aerodynamics and Energy 217 9.2.2 Body/Chassis Aerodynamic Shape 220 9.3 Consideration of Rolling Resistance 222 9.4 Transmission Efficiency 223 9.5 Consideration of Vehicle Mass 227 9.6 Electric Vehicle Chassis and Body Design 229 9.6.1 Body/Chassis Requirements 229 9.6.2 Body/Chassis Layout 230 9.6.3 Body/Chassis Strength, Rigidity and Crash Resistance 231 9.6.4 Designing for Stability 234 9.6.5 Suspension for Electric Vehicles 234 9.6.6 Examples of Chassis used in Modern Battery and Hybrid Electric Vehicles 235 9.6.7 Chassis used in Modern Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles 235 9.7 General Issues in Design 237 9.7.1 Design Specifications 237 9.7.2 Software in the use of Electric Vehicle Design 237 10 Design of Ancillary Systems 239 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Heating and Cooling Systems 239 10.3 Design of the Controls 242 10.4 Power Steering 244 10.5 Choice of Tyres 245 10.6 Wing Mirrors, Aerials and Luggage Racks 245 10.7 Electric Vehicle Recharging and Refuelling Systems 245 11 Efficiencies and Carbon Release Comparison 247 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 Definition of Efficiency 248 11.3 Carbon Dioxide Emission and Chemical Energy in Fuel 248 12 Electric Vehicles and the Environment 253 12.1 Introduction 253 12.2 Vehicle Pollution – The Effects 253 12.3 Vehicle Pollution in Context 256 12.4 The Role of Regulations and Lawmakers 256 Further Reading 258 13 Power Generation for Transport – Particularly for Zero Emissions 259 13.1 Introduction 259 13.2 Power Generation using Fossil Fuels 260 13.3 Alternative and Sustainable Energy 260 13.3.1 Solar Energy 260 13.3.2 Wind Energy 262 13.3.3 Hydroelectricity 263 13.3.4 Tidal Energy 264 13.3.5 Marine Currents 266 13.3.6 Wave Energy 266 13.3.7 Biomass Energy 267 13.3.8 Obtaining Energy from Waste 267 13.3.9 Geothermal Energy 267 13.4 Nuclear Energy 267 13.4.1 Nuclear Fission 267 13.4.2 Nuclear Fusion 268 13.5 In Conclusion 269 Further Reading 269 14 Recent Electric Vehicles 271 14.1 Introduction 271 14.2 Low-Speed Rechargeable Battery Vehicles 271 14.2.1 Electric Bicycles 271 14.2.2 Electric Mobility Aids 272 14.2.3 Low-Speed Vehicles 274 14.3 Battery-Powered Cars and Vans 274 14.3.1 Peugeot 106 and the Partner 274 14.3.2 The GM EV1 275 14.3.3 The Nissan Leaf 279 14.3.4 The Mitsubishi MiEV 279 14.4 Hybrid Vehicles 279 14.4.1 The Honda Insight 280 14.4.2 The Toyota Prius 281 14.4.3 The Chevrolet Volt 283 14.5 Fuel-Cell-Powered Bus 284 14.6 Conventional High-Speed Trains 286 14.6.1 Introduction 286 14.6.2 The Technology of High-Speed Trains 288 14.7 Conclusion 289 References 290 15 The Future of Electric Vehicles 291 15.1 Introduction 291 15.2 The Tesla S 291 15.3 The Honda FCX Clarity 292 15.4 Maglev Trains 292 15.5 Electric Road–Rail Systems 294 15.6 Conclusion 295 Further Reading 296 Appendices: MATLAB® Examples 297 Appendix 1: Performance Simulation of the GM EV1 297 Appendix 2: Importing and Creating Driving Cycles 298 Appendix 3: Simulating One Cycle 300 Appendix 4: Range Simulation of the GM EV1 Electric Car 302 Appendix 5: Electric Scooter Range Modelling 304 Appendix 6: Fuel Cell Range Simulation 306 Appendix 7: Motor Efficiency Plots 308 Index 311

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Book SynopsisTHE TELECOMMUNICATIONS HANDBOOK ENGINEERING GUIDELINES FOR FIXED, MOBILE AND SATELLITE SYSTEMS Taking a practical approach, The Telecommunications Handbook examines the principles and details of all the major and modern telecommunications systems currently available to industry and to end-users. It gives essential information about usage, architectures, functioning, planning, construction, measurements and optimization. The structure of the book is modular, giving both overall descriptions of the architectures and functionality of typical use cases, as well as deeper and practical guidelines for telecom professionals. The focus of the book is on current and future networks, and the most up-to-date functionalities of each network are described in sufficient detail for deployment purposes. The contents include an introduction to each technology, its evolution path, feasibility and utilization, solution and network architecture, and technical functionTable of ContentsPreface xxv Acknowledgements xxvii Abbreviations xxix List of Contributors xlv 1 Introduction 1Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 1.1 General 1 1.2 Short History of Telecommunications 2 1.3 The Telecommunications Scene 5 1.4 The Focus of the Book 15 1.5 Instructions for Reading the Book Contents 16 References 20 2 Standardization and Regulation 23Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Standardization Bodies 23 2.3 Industry Forums 38 2.4 Other Entities 44 2.5 Frequency Regulation 45 2.6 National Regulators 46 2.7 Guideline for Finding and Interpreting Standards 47 References 47 3 Telecommunications Principles 49Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Terminology and Planning Principles 49 3.3 Evolution 58 3.4 Spectrum Allocations 64 3.5 Physical Aspects 64 References 71 4 Protocols 73Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 OSI 74 4.3 Fixed Networks 82 4.4 Mobile Networks 89 4.5 Data Networks 90 4.6 Error Recovery 93 4.7 LAP Protocol Family 96 4.8 Cross-Layer Protocol Principles 98 References 99 5 Connectivity and Payment 101Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 5.1 Connectivity 101 5.2 Definitions 101 5.3 IP Connectivity 102 5.4 Wired Connectivity 105 5.5 Radio Connectivity in the Near Field 114 5.6 NFC and Secure Payment 115 5.7 Secure Payment 120 5.8 Bluetooth 125 5.9 Hearing Aid Compatibility 129 5.10 Other Connectivity Technologies 131 References 132 6 Fixed Telecommunications Networks 135Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Network Topologies 135 6.3 Redundancy 138 6.4 Telephone Network 139 6.5 User Devices 140 6.6 Plain Old Public Telephone System (POTS) 145 6.7 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 149 6.8 Intelligent Network (IN) 153 6.9 SIP 155 6.10 Telephony Solutions for Companies 159 6.11 Transport 161 6.12 Cloud Computing 161 References 163 7 Data Networks 165Jyrki T. J. Penttinen, Tero Jalkanen and Ilkka Keisala 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 IPv4 165 7.3 IPv6 169 7.4 Routing 172 7.5 ATM 174 7.6 Frame Relay 176 7.7 LAN and MAN 177 7.8 Wi-Fi 189 7.9 Inter-Operator Networks 202 References 204 8 Telecommunications Network Services and Applications 207Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Voice 207 8.3 Messaging 208 8.4 Audio and Video 210 8.5 Health Care 212 8.6 Education 212 8.7 CSTA 213 8.8 Advanced Telecommunications Functionalities 214 8.9 Business Exchange 218 8.10 Public IP Network Develops to NGN 218 8.11 Voice Service Access Points 222 8.12 Mobile Services 224 References 236 9 Transmission Networks 237Jyrki T. J. Penttinen and Juha Kallio 9.1 Introduction 237 9.2 Physical Transmission Systems 237 9.3 Coding Techniques 238 9.4 PCM 241 9.5 Coding Techniques 243 9.6 PDH 245 9.7 SDH 245 9.8 WDM 246 9.9 Carrier Ethernet Transport 247 9.10 IP Multimedia Subsystem 250 9.11 Case Example: LTE Transport 257 9.12 Cloud Computing and Transport 257 References 259 10 Modulation and Demodulation 261Patrick Marsch and Jyrki Penttinen 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 General 261 10.3 Analog Modulation Methods 262 10.4 Digital Modulation and Demodulation 264 References 280 11 3GPP Mobile Communications: GSM 281Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 11.1 Introduction 281 11.2 Development of GSM 281 11.3 Specification of GSM 285 11.4 Architecture of GSM 286 11.5 Functionality of GSM 294 11.6 Numbering of GSM 303 11.7 GSM Data 308 11.8 Dual Half Rate 317 11.9 DFCA 341 11.10 EDGE 349 11.11 DLDC 354 11.12 EDGE2 366 References 367 12 3GPP Mobile Communications: WCDMA and HSPA 371Patrick Marsch, Michat Maternia, Michal Panek, Ali Yaver, Ryszard Dokuczat and Rybakowski Marcin 12.1 Network Architecture 371 12.2 Physical Layer Aspects 376 12.3 Radio Interface Procedures 387 12.4 WCDMA/HSPA Evolution since Release 5 402 12.5 Planning and Dimensioning of WCDMA/HSPA Networks 410 References 415 13 3GPP Mobile Communications: LTE/SAE and LTE-A 417Jacek Góra, Krystian Safjan, Jarostaw Lachowski, Agnieszka Szufarska, Stanistaw Strzyÿz,Szymon Stefánski, Damian Kolmas, Jyrki T. J. Penttinen, Francesco D. Calabrese,Guillaume Monghal, Mohammad Anas, Luis Maestro, Juha Kallio and Olli Ramula 13.1 Introduction 417 13.2 Architecture 418 13.3 Elements 419 13.4 Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network 422 13.5 Interfaces 428 13.6 Protocol Stacks 430 13.7 Layer 2 Structure 434 13.8 LTE Radio Network 435 13.9 LTE Spectrum 436 13.10 Physical Layer 438 13.11 SC-FDM and SC-FDMA 448 13.12 Frame Structure and Physical Channels 449 13.13 Physical Layer Procedures 453 13.14 User Mobility 455 13.15 Radio Resource Management Procedures 457 13.16 Link Adaptation 458 13.17 ICIC 459 13.18 Reporting 463 13.19 LTE Radio Resource Management 466 13.20 RRM Principles and Algorithms Common to UL and DL 467 13.21 Uplink RRM 477 13.22 Downlink RRM 482 13.23 Intra-LTE Handover 485 13.24 LTE Release 8/9 Features 487 13.25 LTE-Advanced Features (Rel. 10) 496 13.26 LTE Transport and Core Network 504 13.27 Transport Network 506 13.28 Core Network 509 13.29 Charging 510 References 513 14 Wireless LAN and Evolution 515Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 14.1 Introduction 515 14.2 WLAN Standards 515 14.3 IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) 515 14.4 IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) 524 14.5 Evolved IEEE 802.16 (4G) 529 14.6 Comparison of Wireless Technologies 534 References 536 15 Terrestrial Broadcast Networks 537Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 15.1 Introduction 537 15.2 Analog Systems 537 15.3 Digital Radio 539 15.4 Digital Television 540 References 552 16 Satellite Systems: Communications 555Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 16.1 Introduction 555 16.2 Principles of Satellite Systems 556 16.3 Voice and Data Services 569 16.4 Broadcast Satellite Systems 571 16.5 Standardization 574 16.6 Commercial Satellite Systems 577 16.7 Radio Link Budget 595 References 601 17 Satellite Systems: Location Services and Telemetry 603Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 17.1 General 603 17.2 GPS 604 17.3 GALILEO 608 17.4 Positioning Systems: Other Initiatives 614 17.5 Space Research 616 17.6 Weather and Meteorological Satellites 616 17.7 Military Systems 617 References 619 18 Other and Special Networks 621Pertti Virtanen and Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 18.1 IS-95 621 18.2 CDMA2000 624 18.3 TETRA 625 References 640 19 Security Aspects of Telecommunications: 3GPP Mobile Networks 641Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 19.1 Introduction 641 19.2 Basic Principles of Protection 641 19.3 GSM Security 642 19.4 UMTS Security 647 19.5 LTE Security 649 19.6 LTE/SAE Service Security: Case Example 659 19.7 Authentication and Authorization 663 19.8 Customer Data Safety 665 19.9 Lawful Interception 665 References 668 20 Planning of 2G Networks 669Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 20.1 General Planning Guidelines for Fixed Networks 669 20.2 Capacity Planning 672 20.3 Coverage Planning 675 20.4 Frequency Planning 679 20.5 Parameter Planning 681 20.6 Network Measurements 683 20.7 Effects of Data Services on GSM Planning 684 20.8 Other Planning Considerations 714 20.9 GSM/GPRS Measurement and Simulation Techniques 722 20.10 Simulations 729 References 741 21 Planning of Advanced 3G Networks 743Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 21.1 Introduction 743 21.2 Radio Network Planning Process 743 21.3 Nominal Network Planning 746 21.4 Capacity Planning 749 21.5 Coverage Planning 750 21.6 Self-Optimizing Network 757 21.7 Parameter Planning 759 References 776 22 Planning of Mobile TV Networks 777Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 22.1 Introduction 777 22.2 High-Level Network Dimensioning Process 777 22.3 Detailed Radio Network Design 795 22.4 Radiation Limitations 818 22.5 Cost Prediction and Optimization 819 References 830 23 Planning of Core Networks 835Jyrki T. J. Penttinen and Jukka Hongisto 23.1 Introduction 835 23.2 General Planning Guidelines for Fixed Networks 835 23.3 Planning of the Networks 836 23.4 Capacity Planning 838 23.5 Network Evolution from 2G/3G PS Core to EPC 840 23.6 Entering Commercial Phase: Support for Multimode LTE/3G/2G Terminals with Pre-Release 8 SGSN 841 23.7 SGSN/MME Evolution 845 23.8 Case Example: Commercial SGSN/MME Offering 846 23.9 Mobile Gateway Evolution 847 23.10 Case Example: Commercial GGSN/S-GW/P-GW Offering 847 23.11 EPC Network Deployment and Topology Considerations 848 23.12 LTE Access Dimensioning 850 Reference 851 24 EMF – Radiation Safety and Health Aspects 853Jouko Rautio and Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 24.1 Introduction 853 24.2 The EMF Question 856 24.3 The Scientific Principle and Process: The Precautionary Principle 856 24.4 The Expert Organizations and Regulation 858 24.5 Some Topics of the EMF Debate 860 24.6 SAR 864 24.7 The Safety Distance and Installation 866 24.8 Summing Up 869 24.9 High-Power Network Planning 870 References 880 25 Deployment and Transition of Telecommunication Systems 883Michat Maternia 25.1 Introduction 883 25.2 Why to Deploy Wireless Systems 883 25.3 Transition of Telecommunication Systems 885 25.4 Network Deployments 886 25.5 Spectrum Considerations for Network Transition 900 25.6 Terminals Support for the Network Transition 904 25.7 Evolution of Macro Sites and Deployment of Small Cells 906 25.8 Beyond 4G Systems: 5G 910 25.9 Challenges and Possibilities 911 References 913 26 Wireless Network Measurements 915Jyrki T. J. Penttinen 26.1 Introduction 915 26.2 Principles of Radio Interface Measurements 915 26.3 GSM/GPRS 915 26.4 LTE 921 26.5 LTE Field Measurements 928 References 934 Index 935

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Book SynopsisDescribes the technological solutions and standards which will enable the migration of voice and SMS services over to LTE/EPC networks Main drivers for the introduction of Long Term Evolution of UTRAN (LTE) is to provide far better end user experience for mobile broadband services.Trade Review“It provides a good introduction to the technology and is useful for operators who may be deploying VoLTE, product managers responsible for VoLTE products and those who work in implementation and standardization of related technologies.” (Radio Electronics, 1 August 2012)Table of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgements xi List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Background 1 2 VoLTE Deployment Strategies 5 2.1 Common Networks Everywhere 5 2.2 GSM/WCDMA View 6 2.3 CDMA View 6 3 VoLTE System Architecture 9 3.1 Overview 9 3.2 LTE Radio 10 3.2.1 LTE Radio Background 10 3.2.2 LTE Radio Architecture 11 3.3 Evolved Packet Core 14 3.3.1 What is the Evolved Packet Core? 14 3.3.2 EPC Entities and Functionalities 14 3.3.3 EPS Mobility Management 17 3.3.4 EPS Session Management and QoS 20 3.4 Control 22 3.4.1 What is an IP Multimedia Subsystem? 22 3.4.2 IMS Development History 23 3.4.3 IMS Fundamentals 26 3.4.4 IMS Entities 32 3.4.5 Home Subscriber Server 42 3.4.6 Policy and Charging Rule Function 43 3.5 Summary 44 4 VoLTE Functionality 47 4.1 Overview 47 4.2 Radio Functionalities 47 4.2.1 Bearers and Scheduling 47 4.2.2 Mobility 49 4.2.3 Circuit Switched Fallback Handover 51 4.2.4 Mobility from 2G/3G Back to LTE 54 4.2.5 Power Saving Features 55 4.2.6 Positioning Solutions 56 4.2.7 UE Radio Access Capabilities for VoLTE 57 4.3 EPC Functionalities 58 4.3.1 LTE subscriber identification 59 4.3.2 PDN Connectivity Establishment for the VoLTE User 60 4.3.3 EPS Dedicated Bearer Setup 65 4.4 IMS Identification 65 4.4.1 IP Multimedia Services Identity Module 66 4.4.2 Public User Identity 67 4.4.3 Private User Identity 67 4.4.4 Relationship between Private and Public User Identities 67 4.4.5 Identification of User’s Device 68 4.4.6 Identification of Network Entities 70 4.4.7 Identification of Services (Public Service Identities) 70 4.4.8 Identification Without ISIM 70 4.5 IMS Service Provisioning 71 4.5.1 Enforcement of Allowed Services 72 4.5.2 Service-Triggering Information 73 4.5.3 Selection of AS 75 4.5.4 AS Behaviour 75 4.5.5 Service Provisioning in Action 76 4.6 IMS Multimedia Telephony 79 4.6.1 Introduction 79 4.6.2 Multimedia Communication 80 4.6.3 Supplementary Services 81 5 VoLTE End to End and Signalling 99 5.1 Overview 99 5.2 VoLTE Subscription and Device Configuration 100 5.3 EPS Attach for CSFB/IMS VoIP and Default Bearer Activation 102 5.4 IMS Registration 107 5.4.1 Constructing the REGISTER Request 109 5.4.2 From the UE to the P-CSCF 110 5.4.3 From the P-CSCF to the I-CSCF 110 5.4.4 From the I-CSCF to the S-CSCF 111 5.4.5 S-CSCF Challenges the UE 111 5.4.6 UE’s Response to the Challenge 112 5.4.7 Registration at the S-CSCF 113 5.4.8 The 200 (OK) Response 113 5.4.9 Third-Party Registration to Application Servers 114 5.4.10 Subscription to Registration Event Package 115 5.4.11 Re-Registration and Re-Authentication 115 5.4.12 De-Registration 116 5.4.13 Related Standards 117 5.5 IMS VoIP Session 118 5.5.1 Constructing the INVITE Request 120 5.5.2 Routing 122 5.5.3 Media Negotiation 127 5.5.4 Media Resource Reservation and Policy Control 129 5.5.5 Charging 135 5.5.6 Session Release 141 5.5.7 Related Standards 143 5.6 Voice Continuity 144 5.6.1 PS-PS Intersystem Handover 144 5.6.2 Single Radio Voice Call Continuity 145 5.6.3 Summary 157 5.7 IMS Emergency Session 160 5.7.1 PDN Connection Setup for Emergency Session 160 5.7.2 Emergency Registration 161 5.7.3 Emergency Session 163 5.8 CS Fallback for Evolved Packet System Call Case(s) 164 5.8.1 Architecture of CS Fallback for EPS 166 5.8.2 Description of SGs Interface 168 5.8.3 Idle Mode Signalling Reduction and Use of CS Fallback for EPS 169 5.8.4 Idle Mode versus Active Mode UE with CS Fallback for EPS 172 5.8.5 CS Fallback Attachment 173 5.8.6 Mobile Originating Call Using CSFB 174 5.8.7 Mobile Terminating Call Using CSFB 180 5.8.8 Call Unrelated CSFB Procedures 187 5.8.9 Mobile Terminating Roaming Retry and Forwarding 189 5.8.10 Summary 193 5.9 VoLTE Messaging 194 5.9.1 Native IMS Messaging 194 5.9.2 SMS Interworking 196 5.9.3 Multimedia Messaging Service 214 5.9.4 Unstructured Supplementary Services Data Simulation in IMS 214 5.9.5 Summary 215 6 IMS Centralized Services 217 7 VoLTE Radio Performance 223 7.1 Coverage 223 7.2 Capacity 224 7.3 Latency 226 7.4 Summary 228 8 HSPA Voice over IP 229 References 233 Index 237

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Book SynopsisProviding a complete description of modern tactical military communications and networks technology, this book systematically compares tactical military communications techniques with their commercial equivalents, pointing out similarities and differences. In particular it examines each layer of the protocol stack and shows how specific tactical and security requirements result in changes from the commercial approach. The author systematically leads readers through this complex topic, firstly providing background on the architectural approach upon which the analysis will be based, and then going into detail on tactical wireless communications and networking technologies and techniques. Structured progressively: for readers needing an overall view; for those looking at the communications aspects (lower layers of the protocol stack); and for users interested in the networking aspects (higher layers of the protocol stack) Presents approachTrade Review“I would like to recommend the book for graduate students, engineers and researchers interested in a general understanding of military wireless network technologies, architectures, and challenges facing future generations of this type of networks.” (IEEE Communications Magazine, 1 July 2014) Table of ContentsAbout the Author xi Foreword xiii Preface xv List of Acronyms xvii Part I Theoretical Basis 1 Introduction 3 1.1 The OSI Model 4 1.2 From Network Layer to IP Layer 6 1.3 Pitfall of the OSI Model 7 1.4 Tactical Networks Layers 9 1.5 Historical Perspective 10 Bibliography 11 2 The Physical Layer 13 2.1 Modulation 13 2.1.1 Signal-in-Space (SiS) 16 2.2 Signal Detection 22 2.2.1 Signal Detection in Two-Dimensional Space 24 2.2.2 Multidimensional Constellations for AWGN 28 2.3 Non-Coherent Demodulation 29 2.4 Signal Fading 29 2.5 Power Spectrum 31 2.6 Spread Spectrum Modulation 34 2.6.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 35 2.6.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 38 2.7 Concluding Remarks 40 2.7.1 What Happens Before Modulation and After Demodulation? 40 2.7.2 Historical Perspective 40 Bibliography 41 3 The DLL and Information Theory in Tactical Networks 43 3.1 Information Theory and Channel Capacity 43 3.1.1 Uncertainty and Information 45 3.1.2 Entropy 46 3.1.3 Coding for a Discrete Memoryless Source 48 3.1.4 Mutual Information and Discrete Channels 50 3.1.5 The Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC) Model 53 3.1.6 Capacity of a Discrete Channel 54 3.2 Channel Coding, Error Detection, and Error Correction 57 3.2.1 Hamming Distance and Probability of Bit Error in Channel Coding 58 3.2.2 Overview of Linear Block Codes 60 3.2.3 Convolutional Codes 62 3.2.4 Concatenated Coding and Interleaving 64 3.2.5 Network Coding versus Transport Layer Packet Erasure Coding 65 3.3 Concluding Remarks 67 3.3.1 The Role of Information Theory and Coding in Tactical Wireless Communications and Networking 67 3.3.2 Historical Perspective 68 Appendix 3.A: Using RS Code in Tactical Networks Transport Layer 69 3.A.1 The Utilized RS Code 69 3.A.2 Packet Erasure Analysis 70 3.A.3 Imposed Tactical Requirements 77 Bibliography 80 4 MAC and Network Layers in Tactical Networks 83 4.1 MAC Layer and Multiple Access Techniques 83 4.2 Queuing Theory 87 4.2.1 Statistical Multiplexing of Packets 87 4.2.2 Queuing Models 92 4.3 Concluding Remarks 106 4.3.1 How Congestion Happens in Tactical Wireless Networks 106 4.3.2 Historical Perspective 107 4.3.3 Remarks Regarding the First Part of the Book 108 Bibliography 110 Part II The Evolution Of Tactical Radios 5 Non-IP Tactical Radios and the Move toward IP 113 5.1 Multistep Evolution to the Global Information Grid 113 5.2 Link-16 Waveform 114 5.2.1 Link-16 Messages 119 5.2.2 Link Layer Operations of Link-16 120 5.2.3 JTIDS/LINK-16 Modulation and Coding 120 5.2.4 Enhancements to Link-16 126 5.2.5 Concluding Remarks on Link-16 Waveform 129 5.3 EPLRS Waveform 130 5.4 SINCGARS Waveform 131 5.5 Tactical Internet (TI) 131 5.6 IP Gateways 136 5.6.1 Throughput Efficiency 136 5.6.2 End-to-End Packet Loss 137 5.7 Concluding Remarks 137 5.7.1 What Comes after the GIG? 137 5.7.2 Historical Perspective 137 Bibliography 138 6 IP-Based Tactical Waveforms and the GIG 141 6.1 Tactical GIG Notional Architecture 141 6.2 Tactical GIG Waveforms 144 6.2.1 Wide-Area Network Waveform (WNW) 144 6.2.2 Soldier Radio Waveform (SRW) 163 6.2.3 High-Band Networking Waveform (HNW) 164 6.2.4 Network Centric Waveform (NCW) 165 6.3 The Role of Commercial Satellite in the Tactical GIG 166 6.4 Satellite Delay Analysis 166 6.5 Networking at the Tactical GIG 169 6.6 Historical Perspective 170 Bibliography 173 7 Cognitive Radios 177 7.1 Cognitive Radios and Spectrum Regulations 177 7.2 Conceptualizing Cognitive Radios 180 7.2.1 Cognitive Radio Setting (CRS) Parameters 180 7.2.2 The Cognitive Engine 181 7.3 Cognitive Radios in Tactical Environments 183 7.4 Software Communications Architecture (SCA) 184 7.4.1 The SCA Core Framework 185 7.4.2 SCA Definitions 185 7.4.3 SCA Components 186 7.4.4 SCA and Security Architecture 188 7.5 Spectrum Sensing 190 7.5.1 Multidimensional Spectrum Awareness 190 7.5.2 Complexity of Spectrum Sensing 193 7.5.3 Implementation of Spectrum Sensing 195 7.5.4 Cooperative Spectrum Sensing 199 7.5.5 Spectrum Sensing in Current Wireless Standards 200 7.6 Security in Cognitive Radios 201 7.7 Concluding Remarks 201 7.7.1 Development of Cognitive Radios 201 7.7.2 Modeling and Simulation of Cognitive Radios 202 7.7.3 Historical Perspective 202 Bibliography 202 Part III The Open Architecture Model 8 Open Architecture in Tactical Networks 207 8.1 Commercial Cellular Wireless Open Architecture Model 208 8.2 Tactical Wireless Open Architecture Model 210 8.3 Open Architecture Tactical Protocol Stack Model 211 8.3.1 Tactical Wireless Open Architecture Model Entities 213 8.3.2 Open Architecture Tactical Wireless Model ICDs 216 8.4 The Tactical Edge 219 8.4.1 Tactical Edge Definition 219 8.4.2 Tactical Edge Analysis 220 8.5 Historical Perspective 222 Bibliography 224 9 Open Architecture Details 225 9.1 The Plain Text IP Layer and the Tactical Edge 225 9.2 Measurement Based Resource Management 227 9.2.1 Advantages and Challenges of MBRM 228 9.2.2 Congestion Severity Level 229 9.2.3 Markov Chain Representation of MBAC 231 9.2.4 Regulating the Flow of Traffic between Two Nodes 233 9.2.5 Regulating the Flow of Traffic for Multiple Nodes 233 9.2.6 Packet Loss from the Physical Layer 234 9.3 ICD I: Plain Text IP Layer to HAIPE 238 9.4 ICD V: Plain Text IP Layer Peer-to-Peer 239 9.4.1 TCP Proxy over HAIPE 239 9.4.2 VoIP Proxy over HAIPE 241 9.4.3 Video Proxy over HAIPE 247 9.4.4 RSVP Proxy over HAIPE 248 9.4.5 Multicast Proxy over HAIPE 252 9.5 ICD X Cross Layer Signaling across the HAIPE 255 9.6 Concluding Remarks 258 9.7 Historical Perspective 258 Bibliography 259 10 Bringing Commercial Cellular Capabilities to Tactical Networks 261 10.1 Tactical User Expectations 262 10.2 3G/4G/LTE Technologies within the War Theater 264 10.3 The Tactical Cellular Gateway 265 10.4 Deployment Use Cases 267 10.4.1 Use Case I: Smartphone Tethered to a Soldier Radio Waveform (SRW) Radio 268 10.4.2 Use Case II: 3G/4G/LTE Services on a Dismounted Unit 269 10.4.3 Use Case III: 3G/4G/LTE Access at an Enclave 271 10.5 Concluding Remarks 272 Bibliography 273 11 Network Management Challenges in Tactical Networks 275 11.1 Use of Policy Based Network Management and Gaming Theory in Tactical Networks 275 11.2 Challenges Facing Joint Forces Interoperability 277 11.3 Joint Network Management Architectural Approach 277 11.3.1 Assumptions and Concepts for Operations (ConOps) 279 11.3.2 The Role of Gateway Nodes 281 11.3.3 Abstracting Information 282 11.3.4 Creating Path Information 283 11.3.5 Sequence Diagram 285 11.4 Conflict Resolution for Shared Resources 286 11.4.1 Tactical Network Hierarchy 287 11.4.2 Dynamic Activation of NCW in WNW/NCW-Capable Nodes 287 11.4.3 Interfacing between the WIN-NM and the JWNM for NCW Resources 288 11.4.4 NCW Resource Attributes 289 11.5 Concluding Remarks 290 Bibliography 291 Index 293

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Book SynopsisFormerly known as Handbook of Power System Engineering, this second edition provides rigorous revisions to the original treatment of systems analysis together with a substantial new four-chapter section on power electronics applications. Encompassing a whole range of equipment, phenomena, and analytical approaches, this handbook offers a complete overview of power systems and their power electronics applications, and presents a thorough examination of the fundamental principles, combining theories and technologies that are usually treated in separate specialised fields, in a single unified hierarchy. Key features of this new edition: Updates throughout the entire book with new material covering applications to current topics such as brushless generators, speed adjustable pumped storage hydro generation, wind generation, small-hydro generation, solar generation, DC-transmission, SVC, SVG (STATCOM), FACTS, active-filters, UPS and advanced railway traffic appTable of ContentsPREFACE xxi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii ABOUT THE AUTHOR xxv INTRODUCTION xxvii 1 OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES AND THEIR CIRCUIT CONSTANTS 1 1.1 Overhead Transmission Lines with LR Constants 1 1.2 Stray Capacitance of Overhead Transmission Lines 10 1.3 Working Inductance and Working Capacitance 18 1.4 Supplement: Proof of Equivalent Radius req () for a Multi-bundled Conductor 25 2 SYMMETRICAL COORDINATE METHOD (SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS) 29 2.1 Fundamental Concept of Symmetrical Components 29 2.2 Definition of Symmetrical Components 31 2.3 Conversion of Three-phase Circuit into Symmetrical Coordinated Circuit 34 2.4 Transmission Lines by Symmetrical Components 36 2.5 Typical Transmission Line Constants 46 2.6 Generator by Symmetrical Components (Easy Description) 49 2.7 Description of Three-phase Load Circuit by Symmetrical Components 52 3 FAULT ANALYSIS BY SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 53 3.1 Fundamental Concept of Symmetrical Coordinate Method 53 3.2 Line-to-ground Fault (Phase a to Ground Fault: 1fG) 54 3.3 Fault Analysis at Various Fault Modes 59 3.4 Conductor Opening 59 4 FAULT ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT LINES (INCLUDING SIMULTANEOUS DOUBLE CIRCUIT FAULT) 69 4.1 Two-phase Circuit and its Symmetrical Coordinate Method 69 4.2 Double Circuit Line by Two-phase Symmetrical Transformation 73 4.3 Fault Analysis of Double Circuit Line (General Process) 77 4.4 Single Circuit Fault on the Double Circuit Line 80 4.5 Double Circuit Fault at Single Point f 81 4.6 Simultaneous Double Circuit Faults at Different Points f, F on the Same Line 85 5 PER UNIT METHOD AND INTRODUCTION OF TRANSFORMER CIRCUIT 91 5.1 Fundamental Concept of the PU Method 91 5.2 PU Method for Three-phase Circuits 97 5.3 Three-phase Three-winding Transformer, its Symmetrical Components Equations, and the Equivalent Circuit 99 5.4 Base Quantity Modification of Unitized Impedance 110 5.5 Autotransformer 111 5.6 Numerical Example to Find the Unitized Symmetrical Equivalent Circuit 112 5.7 Supplement: Transformation from Equation 5.18 to Equation 5.19 122 6 THE ab0 COORDINATE METHOD (CLARKE COMPONENTS) AND ITS APPLICATION 127 6.1 Definition of ab0 Coordinate Method (ab0 Components) 127 6.2 Interrelation Between ab0 Components and Symmetrical Components 130 6.3 Circuit Equation and Impedance by the ab0 Coordinate Method 134 6.4 Three-phase Circuit in ab0 Components 134 6.5 Fault Analysis by ab0 Components 139 7 SYMMETRICAL AND ab0 COMPONENTS AS ANALYTICAL TOOLS FOR TRANSIENT PHENOMENA 145 7.1 The Symbolic Method and its Application to Transient Phenomena 145 7.2 Transient Analysis by Symmetrical and ab0 Components 147 7.3 Comparison of Transient Analysis by Symmetrical and ab0 Components 150 8 NEUTRAL GROUNDING METHODS 153 8.1 Comparison of Neutral Grounding Methods 153 8.2 Overvoltages on the Unfaulted Phases Caused by a Line-to-ground fault 158 8.3 Arc-suppression Coil (Petersen Coil) Neutral Grounded Method 159 8.4 Possibility of Voltage Resonance 160 9 VISUAL VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS UNDER FAULT CONDITIONS 169 9.1 Three-phase Fault: 3fS, 3fG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System, High-resistive Neutral Grounding System) 169 9.2 Phase b–c Fault: 2fS (for Solidly Neutral Grounding System, High-resistive Neutral Grounding System) 170 9.3 Phase a to Ground Fault: 1fG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System) 173 9.4 Double Line-to-ground (Phases b and c) Fault: 2fG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System) 175 9.5 Phase a Line-to-ground Fault: 1fG (High-resistive Neutral Grounding System) 178 9.6 Double Line-to-ground (Phases b and c) Fault: 2fG (High-resistive Neutral Grounding System) 180 10 THEORY OF GENERATORS 183 10.1 Mathematical Description of a Synchronous Generator 183 10.2 Introduction of d–q–0 Method (d–q–0 Components) 191 10.3 Transformation of Generator Equations from a–b–c to d–q–0 Domain 195 10.4 Generator Operating Characteristics and its Vector Diagrams on d- and q-axes Plane 208 10.5 Transient Phenomena and the Generator’s Transient Reactances 211 10.6 Symmetrical Equivalent Circuits of Generators 213 10.7 Laplace-transformed Generator Equations and the Time Constants 220 10.8 Measuring of Generator Reactances 224 10.9 Relations Between the d–q–0 and a–b–0 Domains 228 10.10 Detailed Calculation of Generator Short-circuit Transient Current under Load Operation 228 10.11 Supplement 234 11 APPARENT POWER AND ITS EXPRESSION IN THE 0–1–2 AND d–q–0 DOMAINS 241 11.1 Apparent Power and its Symbolic Expression for Arbitrary Waveform Voltages and Currents 241 11.2 Apparent Power of a Three-phase Circuit in the 0–1–2 Domain 243 11.3 Apparent Power in the d–q–0 Domain 246 12 GENERATING POWER AND STEADY-STATE STABILITY 251 12.1 Generating Power and the P–d and Q–d Curves 251 12.2 Power Transfer Limit between a Generator and a Power System Network 254 12.3 Supplement: Derivation of Equation 12.17 from Equations 12.15st and 12.16 261 13 THE GENERATOR AS ROTATING MACHINERY 263 13.1 Mechanical (Kinetic) Power and Generating (Electrical) Power 263 13.2 Kinetic Equation of the Generator 265 13.3 Mechanism of Power Conversion from Rotor Mechanical Power to Stator Electrical Power 268 13.4 Speed Governors, the Rotating Speed Control Equipment for Generators 274 14 TRANSIENT/DYNAMIC STABILITY, P–Q–V CHARACTERISTICS AND VOLTAGE STABILITY OF A POWER SYSTEM 281 14.1 Steady-state Stability, Transient Stability, Dynamic Stability 281 14.2 Mechanical Acceleration Equation for the Two-generator System and Disturbance Response 282 14.3 Transient Stability and Dynamic Stability (Case Study) 284 14.4 Four-terminal Circuit and the Pd Curve under Fault Conditions and Operational Reactance 286 14.5 PQV Characteristics and Voltage Stability (Voltage Instability Phenomena) 290 14.6 Supplement 1: Derivation of DV/DP, DV/DQ Sensitivity Equation (Equation 14.20 from Equation 14.19) 298 14.7 Supplement 2: Derivation of Power Circle Diagram Equation (Equation 14.31 from Equation 14.18 s) 299 15 GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS WITH AVR AND STABLE OPERATION LIMIT 301 15.1 Theory of AVR, and Transfer Function of Generator System with AVR 301 15.2 Duties of AVR and Transfer Function of Generator + AVR 305 15.3 Response Characteristics of Total System and Generator Operational Limit 308 15.4 Transmission Line Charging by Generator with AVR 312 15.5 Supplement 1: Derivation of ed (s), eq(s) as Function of ef (s) (Equation 15.9 from Equations 15.7 and 15.8) 313 15.6 Supplement 2: Derivation of eG(s) as Function of ef (s) (Equation 15.10 from Equations 15.8 and 15.9) 314 16 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND THE CAPABILITY LIMITS OF GENERATORS 319 16.1 General Equations of Generators in Terms of p–q Coordinates 319 16.2 Rating Items and the Capability Curve of the Generator 322 16.3 Leading Power-factor (Under-excitation Domain) Operation, and UEL Function by AVR 328 16.4 V–Q (Voltage and Reactive Power) Control by AVR 334 16.5 Thermal Generators’ Weak Points (Negative-sequence Current, Higher Harmonic Current, Shaft-torsional Distortion) 337 16.6 General Description of Modern Thermal/Nuclear TG Unit 346 16.7 Supplement: Derivation of Equation 16.14 from Equation 16.9 351 17 R–X COORDINATES AND THE THEORY OF DIRECTIONAL DISTANCE RELAYS 353 17.1 Protective Relays, Their Mission and Classification 353 17.2 Principle of Directional Distance Relays and R–X Coordinates Plane 355 17.3 Impedance Locus in R–X Coordinates in Case of a Fault (under No-load Condition) 358 17.4 Impedance Locus under Normal States and Step-out Condition 365 17.5 Impedance Locus under Faults with Load Flow Conditions 370 17.6 Loss of Excitation Detection by DZ-Relays 371 17.7 Supplement 1: The Drawing Method for the Locus () of Equation 17.22 372 17.8 Supplement 2: The Drawing Method for () of Equation 17.24 374 18 TRAVELLING-WAVE (SURGE) PHENOMENA 379 18.1 Theory of Travelling-wave Phenomena along Transmission Lines (Distributed-constants Circuit) 379 18.2 Approximation of Distributed-constants Circuit and Accuracy of Concentrated-constants Circuit 390 18.3 Behaviour of Travelling Wave at a Transition Point 391 18.4 Surge Overvoltages and their Three Different and Confusing Notations 395 18.5 Behaviour of Travelling Waves at a Lightning-strike Point 396 18.6 Travelling-wave Phenomena of Three-phase Transmission Line 398 18.7 Line-to-ground and Line-to-line Travelling Waves 400 18.8 The Reflection Lattice and Transient Behaviour Modes 402 18.9 Supplement 1: General Solution Equation 18.10 for Differential Equation 18.9 405 18.10 Supplement 2: Derivation of Equation 18.19 from Equation 18.18 407 19 SWITCHING SURGE PHENOMENA BY CIRCUIT-BREAKERS AND LINE SWITCHES 411 19.1 Transient Calculation of a Single-Phase Circuit by Breaker Opening 411 19.2 Calculation of Transient Recovery Voltages Across a Breaker's Three Poles by 3fS Fault Tripping 420 19.3 Fundamental Concepts of High-voltage Circuit-breakers 430 19.4 Current Tripping by Circuit-breakers: Actual Phenomena 434 19.5 Overvoltages Caused by Breaker Closing (Close-switching Surge) 444 19.6 Resistive Tripping and Resistive Closing by Circuit-breakers 447 19.7 Switching Surge Caused by Line Switches (Disconnecting Switches) 453 19.8 Supplement 1: Calculation of the Coefficients k1k4 of Equation 19.6 455 19.9 Supplement 2: Calculation of the Coefficients k1k6 of Equation 19.17 455 20 OVERVOLTAGE PHENOMENA 459 20.1 Classification of Overvoltage Phenomena 459 20.2 Fundamental (Power) Frequency Overvoltages (Non-resonant Phenomena) 459 20.3 Lower Frequency Harmonic Resonant Overvoltages 463 20.4 Switching Surges 467 20.5 Overvoltage Phenomena by Lightning Strikes 469 21 INSULATION COORDINATION 475 21.1 Overvoltages as Insulation Stresses 475 21.2 Fundamental Concept of Insulation Coordination 481 21.3 Countermeasures on Transmission Lines to Reduce Overvoltages and Flashover 483 21.4 Overvoltage Protection at Substations 488 21.5 Insulation Coordination Details 500 21.6 Transfer Surge Voltages Through the Transformer, and Generator Protection 511 21.7 Internal High-frequency Voltage Oscillation of Transformers Caused by Incident Surge 520 21.8 Oil-filled Transformers Versus Gas-filled Transformers 526 21.9 Supplement: Proof that Equation 21.21 is the Solution of Equation 21.20 529 22 WAVEFORM DISTORTION AND LOWER ORDER HARMONIC RESONANCE 531 22.1 Causes and Influences of Waveform Distortion 531 22.2 Fault Current Waveform Distortion Caused on Cable Lines 534 23 POWER CABLES AND POWER CABLE CIRCUITS 541 23.1 Power Cables and Their General Features 541 23.2 Distinguishing Features of Power Cable 545 23.3 Circuit Constants of Power Cables 550 23.4 Metallic Sheath and Outer Covering 557 23.5 Cross-bonding Metallic-shielding Method 559 23.6 Surge Voltages: Phenomena Travelling Through a Power Cable 563 23.7 Surge Voltages Phenomena on Cable and Overhead Line Jointing Terminal 566 23.8 Surge Voltages at Cable End Terminal Connected to GIS 568 24 APPROACHES FOR SPECIAL CIRCUITS 573 24.1 On-load Tap-changing Transformer (LTC Transformer) 573 24.2 Phase-shifting Transformer 575 24.3 Woodbridge Transformer and Scott Transformer 579 24.4 Neutral Grounding Transformer 583 24.5 Mis-connection of Three-phase Orders 585 25 THEORY OF INDUCTION GENERATORS AND MOTORS 591 25.1 Introduction of Induction Motors and Their Driving Control 591 25.2 Theory of Three-phase Induction Machines (IM) with Wye-connected Rotor Windings 592 25.3 Squirrel-cage Type Induction Motors 612 25.4 Supplement 1: Calculation of Equations (25.17), (25.18), and (25.19) 627 26 POWER ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF SWITCHING 629 26.1 Power Electronics and the Fundamental Concept 629 26.2 Power Switching by Power Devices 630 26.3 Snubber Circuit 633 26.4 Voltage Conversion by Switching 635 26.5 Power Electronic Devices 635 26.6 Mathematical Backgrounds for Power Electronic Application Analysis 643 27 POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS 651 27.1 AC to DC Conversion: Rectifier by a Diode 651 27.2 AC to DC Controlled Conversion: Rectifier by Thyristors 661 27.3 DC to DC Converters (DC to DC Choppers) 671 27.4 DC to AC Inverters 680 27.5 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Control of Inverters 687 27.6 AC to AC Converter (Cycloconverter) 691 27.7 Supplement: Transformer Core Flux Saturation (Flux Bias Caused by DC Biased Current Component) 692 28 POWER ELECTRONICS APPLICATIONS IN UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS AND SOME INDUSTRIES 695 28.1 Introduction 695 28.2 Motor Drive Application 695 28.3 Generator Excitation System 704 28.4 (Double-fed) Adjustable Speed Pumped Storage Generator-motor Unit 706 28.5 Wind Generation 710 28.6 Small Hydro Generation 715 28.7 Solar Generation (Photovoltaic Generation) 716 28.8 Static Var Compensators (SVC: Thyristor Based External Commutated Scheme) 717 28.9 Active Filters 726 28.10 High-Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC Transmission) 734 28.11 FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) Technology 736 28.12 Railway Applications 741 28.13 UPSs (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) 745 APPENDIX A – MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE 747 APPENDIX B – MATRIX EQUATION FORMULAE 751 ANALYTICAL METHODS INDEX 757 COMPONENTS INDEX 759 SUBJECT INDEX 763

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Book SynopsisA practical guide to LTE design, test and measurement, this new edition has been updated to include the latest developments This book presents the latest details on LTE from a practical and technical perspective.Table of ContentsChapter 1 LTE Introduction 1Moray Rumney1.1 Introduction 11.2 LTE System Overview 11.3 The Evolution from UMTS to LTE 31.4 LTE/SAE Requirements 41.5 LTE/SAE Timeline 71.6 Introduction to the 3GPP LTE/SAE Specification Documents 81.7 References 10Chapter 2 Air Interface Concepts 112.1 Radio Frequency Aspects 11Moray Rumney2.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 53Moray Rumney2.3 Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access 62Moray Rumney2.4 Multi-Antenna Operation and MIMO 67Peter Cain2.5 References 89Chapter 3 Physical Layer 913.1 Introduction to the Physical Layer 913.2 Physical Channels and Modulation 91Mitsuru Yokoyama, Bai Ying3.3 Multiplexing and Channel Coding 111Ryo Yonezawa3.4 Introduction to Physical Layer Signaling 128Mark Stambaugh, Jean-Philippe Gregoire, Peter Goldsack3.5 Physical Layer Procedures 142Peter Goldsack, Dr. Michael Leung, Dr. K. F. Tsang, CityU3.6 Physical Layer Measurements and Radio Resource Management 148Moray Rumney3.7 Summary 1573.8 References 157Chapter 4 Upper Layer Signaling 1594.1 Access Stratum 159Peter Goldsack, Sarabjit Singh, Steve Charlton, Venkata Ratnakar and Darshpreet Sabharwal4.2 Non-Access Stratum 178Sarabjit Singh, Niranjan Das, andPeter Goldsack4.3 References 194Chapter 5 System Architecture Evolution 195Per Kangru, JDSU; Eng Wei Koo, JDSU; Mary Jane Pahls; Sandy Fraser5.1 Requirements for an Evolved Architecture 1955.2 Overview of the Evolved Packet System 1995.3 Quality of Service in EPS 2175.4 Security in the Network 2215.5 Services 2225.6 References 226Chapter 6 Design and Verification Challenges 2296.1 Introduction 229Moray Rumney6.2 Simulation and Early R&D Hardware Testing 232Jinbiao Xu and Greg Jue6.3 Testing RFICs With DigRF Interconnects 285Chris Van Woerkom and Roland Scherzinger6.4 Transmitter Design and Measurement Challenges 296Ben Zarlingo, Moto Itagaki, Craig Grimley and Moray Rumney6.5 Receiver Design and Measurement Challenges 340Randy Becker, Naoya Izuchi and Sandy Fraser6.6 Receiver Performance Testing 356Sandy Fraser, Naoya Izuchi and Randy Becker6.7 Testing Open- and Closed-Loop Behaviors of the Physical Layer 378Peter Cain6.8 Design and Verification Challenges of MIMO 392Peter Cain and Greg Jue6.9 Beamforming 430Craig Grimley6.10 SISO and MIMO Over-the-Air Testing 455Allison Douglas and Moray Rumney6.11 Signaling Protocol Development and Testing 472Ian Reading6.12 UE Functional Testing 480Mike Lawton6.13 Battery Drain Testing 493Moray Rumne and, Ed Brorein6.14 Drive Testing 499Bob Irvine, JDSU6.15 UE Manufacturing Test 509Jeff Dralla, Ken Horn and Moray Rumney6.16 References 526Chapter 7 Conformance and Acceptance Testing 5297.1 Introduction to Conformance Testing 529Moray Rumney7.2 RF Conformance Testing 531Hiroshi Yanagawa, Gim-Seng Lau, Andrea Leonardi and Moray Rumney7.3 UE Signaling Conformance Testing 549Pankaj Gupta, and Moray Rumney7.4 UE Certification Process (GCF and PTCRB) 555Masatoshi Obara, Mike Lawton and Moray Rumney7.5 Operator Acceptance Testing 560Bill McKinley7.6 References 564Chapter 8 Looking Towards 4G: LTE-Advanced 567Moray Rumney8.1 Summary of Release 8 5678.2 Release 9 5688.3 Release 10 and LTE-Advanced 5738.4 Release 11 5878.5 Release 12 5958.6 References 600List of Acronyms 601Index 613

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Book Synopsis* Unique in presenting a completely new theoretic solution to control electric power in a simple way * Discusses the application of predicitive control in motor drives, with several examples and case studies * Matlab is included on a complimentary website so the reader can run their own simulations .Table of ContentsForeword xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Part One INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Applications of Power Converters and Drives 3 1.2 Types of Power Converters 5 1.2.1 Generic Drive System 5 1.2.2 Classification of Power Converters 5 1.3 Control of Power Converters and Drives 7 1.3.1 Power Converter Control in the Past 7 1.3.2 Power Converter Control Today 10 1.3.3 Control Requirements and Challenges 11 1.3.4 Digital Control Platforms 12 1.4 Why Predictive Control is Particularly Suited for Power Electronics 13 1.5 Contents of this Book 15 References 16 2 Classical Control Methods for Power Converters and Drives 17 2.1 Classical Current Control Methods 17 2.1.1 Hysteresis Current Control 18 2.1.2 Linear Control with Pulse Width Modulation or Space Vector Modulation 20 2.2 Classical Electrical Drive Control Methods 24 2.2.1 Field Oriented Control 24 2.2.2 Direct Torque Control 26 2.3 Summary 30 References 30 3 Model Predictive Control 31 3.1 Predictive Control Methods for Power Converters and Drives 31 3.2 Basic Principles of Model Predictive Control 32 3.3 Model Predictive Control for Power Electronics and Drives 34 3.3.1 Controller Design 35 3.3.2 Implementation 37 3.3.3 General Control Scheme 38 3.4 Summary 38 References 38 Part Two MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL APPLIED TO POWER CONVERTERS 4 Predictive Control of a Three-Phase Inverter 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Predictive Current Control 43 4.3 Cost Function 44 4.4 Converter Model 44 4.5 Load Model 48 4.6 Discrete-Time Model for Prediction 49 4.7 Working Principle 50 4.8 Implementation of the Predictive Control Strategy 50 4.9 Comparison to a Classical Control Scheme 59 4.10 Summary 63 References 63 5 Predictive Control of a Three-Phase Neutral-Point Clamped Inverter 65 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 System Model 66 5.3 Linear Current Control Method with Pulse Width Modulation 70 5.4 Predictive Current Control Method 70 5.5 Implementation 72 5.5.1 Reduction of the Switching Frequency 74 5.5.2 Capacitor Voltage Balance 77 5.6 Summary 78 References 79 6 Control of an Active Front-End Rectifier 81 6.1 Introduction 81 6.2 Rectifier Model 84 6.2.1 Space Vector Model 84 6.2.2 Discrete-Time Model 85 6.3 Predictive Current Control in an Active Front-End 86 6.3.1 Cost Function 86 6.4 Predictive Power Control 89 6.4.1 Cost Function and Control Scheme 89 6.5 Predictive Control of an AC–DC–AC Converter 92 6.5.1 Control of the Inverter Side 92 6.5.2 Control of the Rectifier Side 94 6.5.3 Control Scheme 94 6.6 Summary 96 References 97 7 Control of a Matrix Converter 99 7.1 Introduction 99 7.2 System Model 99 7.2.1 Matrix Converter Model 99 7.2.2 Working Principle of the Matrix Converter 101 7.2.3 Commutation of the Switches 102 7.3 Classical Control: The Venturini Method 103 7.4 Predictive Current Control of the Matrix Converter 104 7.4.1 Model of the Matrix Converter for Predictive Control 104 7.4.2 Output Current Control 107 7.4.3 Output Current Control with Minimization of the Input Reactive Power 108 7.4.4 Input Reactive Power Control 113 7.5 Summary 113 References 114 Part Three MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL APPLIED TO MOTOR DRIVES 8 Predictive Control of Induction Machines 117 8.1 Introduction 117 8.2 Dynamic Model of an Induction Machine 118 8.3 Field Oriented Control of an Induction Machine Fed by a Matrix Converter Using Predictive Current Control 121 8.3.1 Control Scheme 121 8.4 Predictive Torque Control of an Induction Machine Fed by a Voltage Source Inverter 123 8.5 Predictive Torque Control of an Induction Machine Fed by a Matrix Converter 128 8.5.1 Torque and Flux Control 128 8.5.2 Torque and Flux Control with Minimization of the Input Reactive Power 129 8.6 Summary 130 References 131 9 Predictive Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors 133 9.1 Introduction 133 9.2 Machine Equations 133 9.3 Field Oriented Control Using Predictive Current Control 135 9.3.1 Discrete-Time Model 136 9.3.2 Control Scheme 136 9.4 Predictive Speed Control 139 9.4.1 Discrete-Time Model 139 9.4.2 Control Scheme 140 9.4.3 Rotor Speed Estimation 141 9.5 Summary 142 References 143 Part Four DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES OF MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL 10 Cost Function Selection 147 10.1 Introduction 147 10.2 Reference Following 147 10.2.1 Some Examples 148 10.3 Actuation Constraints 148 10.3.1 Minimization of the Switching Frequency 150 10.3.2 Minimization of the Switching Losses 152 10.4 Hard Constraints 155 10.5 Spectral Content 157 10.6 Summary 161 References 161 11 Weighting Factor Design 163 11.1 Introduction 163 11.2 Cost Function Classification 164 11.2.1 Cost Functions without Weighting Factors 164 11.2.2 Cost Functions with Secondary Terms 164 11.2.3 Cost Functions with Equally Important Terms 165 11.3 Weighting Factors Adjustment 166 11.3.1 For Cost Functions with Secondary Terms 166 11.3.2 For Cost Functions with Equally Important Terms 167 11.4 Examples 168 11.4.1 Switching Frequency Reduction 168 11.4.2 Common-Mode Voltage Reduction 168 11.4.3 Input Reactive Power Reduction 170 11.4.4 Torque and Flux Control 170 11.4.5 Capacitor Voltage Balancing 174 11.5 Summary 175 References 176 12 Delay Compensation 177 12.1 Introduction 177 12.2 Effect of Delay due to Calculation Time 177 12.3 Delay Compensation Method 180 12.4 Prediction of Future References 181 12.4.1 Calculation of Future References Using Extrapolation 185 12.4.2 Calculation of Future References Using Vector Angle Compensation 185 12.5 Summary 188 References 188 13 Effect of Model Parameter Errors 191 13.1 Introduction 191 13.2 Three-Phase Inverter 191 13.3 Proportional–Integral Controllers with Pulse Width Modulation 192 13.3.1 Control Scheme 192 13.3.2 Effect of Model Parameter Errors 193 13.4 Deadbeat Control with Pulse Width Modulation 194 13.4.1 Control Scheme 194 13.4.2 Effect of Model Parameter Errors 195 13.5 Model Predictive Control 195 13.5.1 Effect of Load Parameter Variation 196 13.6 Comparative Results 197 13.7 Summary 201 References 201 Appendix A Predictive Control Simulation – Three-Phase Inverter 203 A.1 Predictive Current Control of a Three-Phase Inverter 203 A.1.1 Definition of Simulation Parameters 207 A.1.2 MATLAB® Code for Predictive Current Control 208 Appendix B Predictive Control Simulation – Torque Control of an Induction Machine Fed by a Two-Level Voltage Source Inverter 211 B.1 Definition of Predictive Torque Control Simulation Parameters 213 B.2 MATLAB® Code for the Predictive Torque Control Simulation 215 Appendix C Predictive Control Simulation – Matrix Converter 219 C.1 Predictive Current Control of a Direct Matrix Converter 219 C.1.1 Definition of Simulation Parameters 221 C.1.2 MATLAB® Code for Predictive Current Control with Instantaneous Reactive Power Minimization 222 Index 227

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Book SynopsisThis authoritative, best-selling guide has been extensively updated with the new technical requirements of the IET Wiring Regulations 17th Edition. With clear description, it provides a practical interpretation of the amended regulations effective January 2012 and offers real solutions to the problems that can occur in practice.Table of ContentsForeword by Giuliano Digilio xi Preface xiii Acknowledgements xv Chapter A – BS 7671:2008 Amd No. 1:2011 Requirements for Electrical Installations – Introduction and Overview 1 A 1 Introduction to BS 7671:2008 1 A 2 Plan and layout of BS 7671:2008 2 A 3 Overview of major changes 5 A 4 Amendment No. 1:2011 9 Chapter B – Legal Relationship and General Requirements of BS 7671:2008 Amd No. 1:2011 11 B 1 Legal requirements and relationship 11 B 1.1 Key legal UK legislation 11 B 1.2 The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 (EWR 1989) 12 B 1.3 The Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations 2002 (as amended) 13 B 1.4 The Electricity Act 1984 (as amended) 14 B 1.5 The Building Act 1984, The Building Regulations and Part P 14 B 1.6 The Electromagnetic Compatibility Regulations 2006 15 B 1.7 Tort and negligence 15 B 2 The role of Standards 17 B 3 Part 3 of BS 7671:2008 – assessment of general characteristics 18 Chapter C – Circuitry and Related Parts of BS 7671:2008 Amd No. 1:2011 21 C 1 Introduction 21 C 2 Design procedure overview 21 C 3 Load assessment 23 C 3.1 Principles and definitions 23 C 3.2 Maximum demand assessment 24 C 3.3 Diversity 25 C 4 Circuitry design 26 C 4.1 Introduction 26 C 4.2 Protection against overcurrent in general 28 C 4.3 Overload protection 28 C 4.4 Fault protection 40 C 4.5 Voltage drop 44 C 4.6 Disconnection and electric shock protection 49 C 5 Sub-mains 56 C 5.1 Diversity 56 C 5.2 Distribution circuit (sub-main) selection 57 C 5.3 Armouring as a CPC 57 C 5.4 Automatic disconnection for sub-mains 58 C 6 Discrimination co-ordination 58 C 6.1 Principles and system co-ordination 58 C 6.2 Fuse-to-fuse discrimination 59 C 6.3 Circuit breaker to circuit breaker discrimination 60 C 6.4 Circuit breaker to fuse discrimination 62 C 7 Parallel cables 62 C 7.1 General and BS 7671 requirements 62 C 7.2 Unequal current sharing 63 C 8 Harmonics 63 C 8.1 Requirements 63 C 8.2 Harmonic assessment 63 C 9 Standard final circuit designs 64 C 9.1 Introduction and scope 64 C 9.2 Standard domestic circuits 72 C 9.3 All purpose standard final circuits 73 C 10 RcDs and circuitry 73 C 10.1 Introduction – increased use of RcDs 73 C 10.2 consumer unit arrangements for RcDs 74 C 11 Ring and radial final circuits 75 C 11.1 Introduction 75 C 11.2 Ring final circuits 75 C 11.3 Radial final circuits 77 Chapter D – Selection and Erection – Equipment 79 D 1 Introduction and fundamentals 79 D 2 Compliance with Standards 80 D 3 Identification of conductors – introduction 81 D 3.1 Principle of required identification (Regulation 514.3.1) 81 D 3.2 Identification by colour 83 D 3.3 Identification by marking 85 D 3.4 Alterations and additions – identification 85 D 3.5 Interface marking 85 D 3.6 DC identification 86 D 4 Protection against voltage and electromagnetic disturbance 86 D 4.1 General 86 D 4.2 Electromagnetic compatibility and prevention of mutual detrimental influences 88 D 5 Wiring systems 95 D 5.1 The choice of wiring systems 95 D 5.2 Circulating currents and eddy currents in single-core installations 98 D 5.3 Electrical connections and joints 100 D 5.4 Wiring systems – minimizing spread of fire 104 D 5.5 Proximity to other services 106 D 6 Circuit breakers 106 D 6.1 General 106 D 6.2 Operation and characteristics 107 D 6.3 Ambient temperature de-rating 110 D 7 Residual current devices 111 D 7.1 BS 7671 applications 111 D 7.2 Operation and BS 7671 requirements 112 D 7.3 Unwanted RCD tripping and discrimination 113 D 7.4 d.c. issues for RCDs 115 D 7.5 TT installations and RCDs 115 D 8 Other equipment 116 D 8.1 Isolation and switching 116 D 8.2 Consumer units for domestic installations 116 D 8.3 Overvoltage, undervoltage and electromagnetic disturbances 116 D 8.4 Surge protective devices 118 D 8.5 Insulation monitoring devices (IMDs) 118 D 8.6 Residual current monitors (RCMs) 119 D 9 Generating sets 121 D 10 Rotating machines 121 D 11 Plugs and socket-outlets 122 D 12 Electrode water heaters and electrode boilers 123 D 13 Heating conductors 124 D 14 Lighting and luminaires 124 D 15 Safety services 127 D 15.1 Introduction 127 D 15.2 Classification of break times 127 D 15.3 Safety sources 127 D 15.4 Circuits for safety services 127 D 16 Ingress protection (IP), external influences 129 D 16.1 General 129 D 16.2 Equipment applications and examples 131 ftoc.indd 7 11/15/2021 21:34:01 Chapter E – Earthing and Bonding 133 E 1 Introduction 133 E 2 Earthing arrangements 133 E 3 General requirements of earthing and bonding 138 E 4 Protective conductors 139 E 4.1 General 139 E 4.2 Physical types of protective conductor 140 E 4.3 Sizing protective conductors 141 E 4.4 Protective conductors up to 16 mm 2 142 E 4.5 The earthing conductor 146 E 5 Armoured cables as protective conductors 147 E 5.1 General 147 E 5.2 ERA Report on current sharing between armouring and CPC 148 E 5.3 ECA advice and recommendations 148 E 6 Protective bonding 149 E 6.1 Purpose of protective equipotential bonding 149 E 6.2 BS 7671 requirements 149 E 6.3 Bonding solutions for the modern installation 149 E 6.4 Sizing main bonding conductors 154 E 6.5 Domestic protective bonding layouts 155 E 6.6 Supplementary equipotential bonding 157 E 7 High earth leakage installations 158 Chapter F – Inspection Testing and Certification (Part 6) 161 F 1 Introduction 161 F 1.1 Inspection and testing – an integrated procedure 161 F 2 Visual inspection 162 F 3 Testing 164 F 3.1 Introduction – pass and fail nature 164 F 3.2 Required tests 164 F 3.3 Continuity testing 165 F 3.4 Ring continuity 168 F 3.5 Insulation resistance testing 171 F 3.6 Polarity testing 174 F 3.7 Earth fault loop impedance (ELI) testing 175 F 3.8 Prospective fault current testing 179 F 3.9 Testing RCDs and other functional tests 181 F 3.10 Verification of voltage drop 182 F 4 Certification paperwork 183 F 4.1 Introduction, various certificates and schedules 183 F 4.2 Overview of certificates and schedules 184 F 4.3 Completing the paperwork 184 Chapter G – Special Locations 201 G 1 Introduction purpose and principles 201 G 1.1 Introduction 201 G 1.2 Purpose and principles 201 G 1.3 Particular requirements and numbering 202 G 2 Locations containing a bath or shower (701) 203 G 2.1 Introduction and risks 203 G 2.2 Zone concept 203 G 2.3 Electric shock requirements 204 G 2.4 Equipment selection and erection 207 G 3 Swimming pools and other basins (702) 208 G 3.1 Introduction and risks 208 G 3.2 Zone concept 209 G 3.3 Requirements and guidance 211 G 4 Agricultural and horticultural premises (705) 214 G 4.1 Introduction, purpose and principles 214 G 4.2 Requirements and guidance 214 G 5 Caravan parks and camping parks (708) 218 G 5.1 Introduction purpose and principles 218 G 5.2 Requirements and guidance 218 G 6 Medical locations (710) 222 G 6.1 Introduction and risks 222 G 6.2 Medical groups and class of safety service supply 222 G 6.3 Requirements 223 G 7 Exhibitions, shows and stands (711) 227 G 7.1 Introduction and risks 227 G 7.2 Requirements and guidance 228 G 8 Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems (712) 229 G 8.1 Introduction principles and terminology 229 G 8.2 Requirements 231 G 8.3 Notes and guidance 232 G 9 Mobile or transportable units (717) 235 G 9.1 Scope and application 235 G 9.2 Requirements 235 G 9.3 Notes and guidance 236 G 10 Floor and ceiling heating systems (753) 237 G 10.1 Introduction 237 G 10.2 Requirements 238 G 10.3 Notes and guidance 238 References 240 Appendices 243 Appendix 1 – Standards and bibliography 244 Appendix 2 – Popular cables: current rating tables from BS 7671:2008 Appendix 4 249 Appendix 3 – Limiting earth fault loop impedance tables from BS 7671:2008 252 Appendix 4 – Cable data resistance, impedance and ‘R1 + R2’ values 254 Appendix 5 – Fuse I2t characteristics 258 Index 259

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Preface xix Acknowledgments xxiii Glossary of Terms xxv 1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Discovery of X-Rays, Radiation, and Subatomic Particles 2 1.3 The Nuclear Age 8 1.4 The Space Age 9 1.5 Semiconductors – Revolution, Evolution, and Scaling 15 1.6 Beginning of Ionizing Radiation Effects in Semiconductors 20 1.7 Beginning of Single-Event Effects in Semiconductors 22 1.8 Summary and Closing Comments 26 References 27 2 Radiation Environments 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 X-Rays, Gamma Rays, and the Atom 31 2.2.1 X-Rays 31 2.2.2 X-Ray Absorption 34 2.2.3 Auger Electrons 36 2.2.4 Nuclear Structure and Binding Energy 36 2.2.4.1 Models of the Nucleus 38 2.2.5 Alpha and Beta Decay 50 2.2.5.1 Alpha Decay 51 2.2.5.2 Beta Decay 52 2.2.6 Gamma-Ray Emission or Gamma Decay 53 2.2.7 Other Types of Nuclear Radiation 54 2.3 Natural Radioactivity 55 2.3.1 Exponential Decay 55 2.3.2 Decay Series 56 2.4 The Space Environment 58 2.4.1 Solar Radiation 59 2.4.2 Trapped Radiation 62 2.4.3 Cosmic Rays 66 2.4.4 Atmospheric Neutrons 69 2.5 The Nuclear Reactor Environment 71 2.6 The Weapons Environment 75 2.7 The Environment in High-Energy Physics Facilities 78 2.8 Summary and Closing Comments 80 References 81 3 Radiation Effects in Semiconductor Materials 85 3.1 Introduction 85 3.2 Basic Effects 86 3.2.1 Heavy Charged Particles 86 3.2.1.1 Stopping Power 86 3.2.1.2 Electronic Stopping 87 3.2.1.3 Nuclear Stopping 92 3.2.2 Electrons 93 3.2.2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 93 3.2.2.2 Stopping Power 96 3.2.3 Neutrons 101 3.2.3.1 Neutron Cross Section 102 3.2.3.2 Interactions with Matter 103 3.2.4 Photons (X-Rays, Gamma Rays) 106 3.2.4.1 Photoelectric Effect 107 3.2.4.2 Compton Scattering 108 3.2.4.3 Pair Production 109 3.2.4.4 Photonuclear Reactions 110 3.3 Charge Trapping in Silicon Dioxide 111 3.3.1 Charge Generation/Recombination 111 3.3.1.1 Geminate and Columnar Models 112 3.3.1.2 Geminate Recombination 113 3.3.1.3 Columnar Recombination 115 3.3.1.4 Numerical Methods 117 3.3.2 Hole Trapping and Transport 118 3.3.2.1 E′ Centers 120 3.3.2.2 Continuous-Time Random-Walk (CTRW) 122 3.3.3 The Silicon/Silicon Dioxide Interface 124 3.3.3.1 Interface Traps 125 3.3.3.2 Border Traps 127 3.3.3.3 Hydrogen 128 3.3.3.4 ELDRS 130 3.4 Bulk Damage 131 3.5 Summary and Closing Comments 133 References 135 4 Radiation-Induced Single Events 143 4.1 Introduction – Single-Events Effects (SEE) 143 4.1.1 Single-Event Upsets (SEU) 143 4.1.2 Multiple-Bit Upset (MBU) 143 4.1.3 Single-Event Transients (SET) 144 4.1.4 Single-Event Functional Interrupts (SEFIs) 144 4.1.5 Single-Event Disturb (SED) 145 4.1.6 Single-Event Snapback (SESB) 146 4.1.7 Single-Event Latchup (SEL) 146 4.1.8 Single-Event Burnout (SEB) 146 4.1.9 Single-Event Gate Rupture (SEGR) 147 4.1.10 Single-Event Hard Errors (SHE) 147 4.2 Single-Event Upset (SEU) 148 4.2.1 SEU – Memory 148 4.2.2 SEU in CMOS Memory 148 4.2.3 SEU in Bipolar Memory 148 4.2.4 SEU in CMOS SRAM 149 4.2.5 SEU in Future Technology – FINFETs 149 4.3 SEU – Particle Sources 149 4.3.1 SEU Source – Alpha Particles 150 4.3.2 SEU Source – Pions and Muons 152 4.3.3 SEU – Neutrons 153 4.3.4 SEU Source – Protons 153 4.3.5 SEU – Heavy Ions 154 4.4 Single-Event Gate Rupture (SEGR) 154 4.4.1 Definition SEGR 155 4.4.2 SEGR Source – Ion Track 155 4.4.3 SEGR Source – Failure Mechanism 156 4.4.4 SEGR – Modeling and Simulation 156 4.4.5 Power Transistors and SEGR 156 4.4.5.1 Lateral Power Transistors SEGR 156 4.4.5.2 Vertical MOS (VMOS) SEGR 157 4.4.5.3 Advanced Technologies – Planar MOSFET SEGR 157 4.5 Single-Event Transients (SETs) 158 4.5.1 SET Definition 158 4.5.2 SET Source 158 4.5.3 SET Source Failure Mechanisms 159 4.5.4 SET in Integrated Circuits 159 4.5.4.1 Digital Circuitry 159 4.5.4.2 Continuous Time Analog Circuitry 159 4.5.5 Prediction and Hardening 159 4.6 Single-Event Latchup (SEL) 159 4.6.1 SEL Definition 160 4.6.2 SEL Source 160 4.6.3 SEL Time Response 161 4.6.4 SEL Maximum Charge Collection Evaluation in a Parallelepiped Region 162 4.6.5 A SEL Design Practice 164 4.6.6 SEL Semiconductor Device Simulation 165 4.7 Summary and Closing Comments 165 References 166 5 Radiation Testing 173 5.1 Introduction 173 5.1.1 Radiation Units and Measurements 173 5.2 Radiation Testing and Sources 175 5.2.1 Total Ionizing Dose (TID) Testing 176 5.2.2 Total Ionizing Dose (TID) Sources 179 5.2.3 Single-Event Effects (SEE) Testing 182 5.2.4 Single-Event Effects (SEE) Sources and Facilities 187 5.2.5 Neutron Testing 192 5.2.6 Neutron Sources 193 5.2.7 Proton Testing 195 5.2.8 Proton Sources 196 5.2.9 Transient Gamma Testing 197 5.2.10 Transient Gamma Sources 198 5.3 Summary and Closing Comments 201 References 204 6 Device Modeling and Simulation Techniques 209 6.1 Introduction 209 6.2 Device Modeling 210 6.2.1 Circuit Simulators 211 6.2.2 Intrinsic Models 212 6.2.3 Composite Models and Inline Subcircuits 212 6.2.4 Analysis and Statistics Programs 214 6.3 Radiation Effects on Semiconductor Devices 215 6.3.1 MOS Capacitors and Transistors 215 6.3.1.1 MOS Capacitors 216 6.3.1.2 MOS Transistors 219 6.3.2 Diodes and Bipolar Transistors 224 6.3.2.1 Diodes 224 6.3.2.2 Bipolar Transistors 225 6.3.3 Power Devices 230 6.3.3.1 DMOS Composite Models 231 6.3.3.2 Operating Voltage 232 6.3.4 Other Devices 232 6.3.4.1 Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) 232 6.3.4.2 Resistors 234 6.3.4.3 Capacitors 235 6.3.5 Some Modeling Challenges 235 6.4 Circuit Simulation 236 6.4.1 Corner Simulation 236 6.4.2 SEE Simulation 239 6.5 Summary and Closing Comments 242 References 244 7 Radiation Semiconductor Process and Layout Solutions 249 7.1 Introduction 249 7.2 Substrate Hardened Technologies 249 7.2.1 Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) Technologies 250 7.2.1.1 Separation by Implanted Oxygen (SIMOX) 250 7.2.1.2 Silicon-Bonded (SIBOND) Technology 250 7.2.2 Silicon on Sapphire (SOS) 251 7.2.3 Silicon on Diamond (SOD) 252 7.2.4 Silicon on Nothing (SON) 252 7.3 Oxide Hardening Technologies 253 7.3.1 Oxide Growth and Fluorination of Oxide 253 7.3.2 MOSFET Gate Oxide Hardening 253 7.3.3 Recessed Oxide (ROX) Hardening 254 7.3.4 LOCOS Isolation Hardening 254 7.3.5 Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) Hardening 254 7.4 CMOS Latchup Process Solutions 255 7.5 CMOS Substrates – High-Resistance Substrates 255 7.5.1 50Ω-cm Substrate Resistance 259 7.6 Wells 260 7.6.1 Single Well – Diffused N-Well 261 7.6.2 Single Well – Retrograde N-Well 261 7.6.3 Dual-Well Technology 262 7.6.3.1 P-well and P++ Substrate 262 7.6.3.2 P-Well and P+ Connecting Implant 263 7.7 Triple-Well Technology 264 7.7.1 Triple Well – Full Separation of Wells 264 7.7.2 Triple Well – Merged Triple Well 265 7.7.3 Triple Well – Merged Triple Well with Blanket Implant 266 7.8 Sub-Collectors 266 7.8.1 Epitaxial Grown Sub-Collector 266 7.8.2 Implanted Sub-Collector 267 7.8.3 Sub-Collector – NPN and PNP Bipolar Current Gain 267 7.8.4 Sub-Collector – Beta Product 𝛽PNP𝛽NPN 267 7.9 Heavily Doped Buried Layers (HDBL) 268 7.9.1 Buried Implanted Layer for Lateral Isolation (BILLI) Process 268 7.9.2 Continuous HDBL Implant 268 7.9.3 Buried Guard Ring (BGR) 270 7.10 Isolation Concepts 270 7.10.1 LOCOS Isolation 270 7.10.2 Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) 270 7.10.3 Dual Depth Isolation 271 7.10.4 Trench Isolation (TI) 272 7.10.4.1 Trench Isolation (TI) and Sub-Collector 274 7.11 Deep Trench 277 7.11.1 Deep Trench (DT) within PNPN Structure 279 7.11.2 Deep Trench Structure and Sub-Collector 281 7.11.3 Deep Trench Structure and Merged Triple Well 283 7.12 Layout Solutions 284 7.12.1 Polysilicon Bound Structures 284 7.12.2 Parasitic Isolation Device (PID) 284 7.13 Summary and Closing Comments 286 References 287 8 Single-Event Upset Circuit Solutions 293 8.1 Introduction 293 8.2 CMOS DRAM SEU Circuit Solutions 293 8.2.1 CMOS DRAM Redundancy 294 8.2.2 CMOS DRAM with SRAM Error Correction 294 8.3 CMOS SRAM SEU Circuit Solution 296 8.3.1 CMOS SRAM Four-Device Cell 296 8.3.2 CMOS SRAM Six-Device Cell 297 8.3.3 CMOS SRAM 12-Device Cell 298 8.4 Bipolar SRAM 299 8.4.1 Bipolar SRAM Cell with Resistor Loads 300 8.4.2 Bipolar SRAM Cell with Resistor Loads and Schottky Clamps 300 8.4.3 Bipolar SRAM Cell with PNP Transistors 301 8.5 Bipolar SRAM Circuit Solutions 301 8.6 SEU in CMOS Logic Circuitry 302 8.7 Summary and Closing Comments 302 References 303 9 Latchup Circuit Solutions 305 9.1 Introduction 305 9.2 Power Supply Concepts 305 9.2.1 Power Supply Current Limit – Series Resistor 305 9.2.2 Power Supply Current Limit – Current Source 306 9.2.3 Power Supply Solutions – Voltage Regulator 307 9.2.4 Latchup Circuit Solutions – Power Supply Decoupling 308 9.3 Overshoot and Undershoot Clamp Networks 311 9.3.1 Passive Clamp Networks 312 9.3.2 Active Clamp Networks 313 9.3.3 Dynamic Threshold Triple Well Passive and Active Clamp Networks 316 9.4 Passive and Active Guard Rings 318 9.4.1 Passive Guard Ring Circuits and Structures 318 9.4.2 Active Guard Ring Circuits and Structures 319 9.5 Triple-Well Noise and Latchup Suppression Structures 326 9.6 System-Level Latchup Issues 326 9.7 Summary and Closing Comments 327 References 329 10 Emerging Effects and Future Technology 333 10.1 Introduction 333 10.2 Radiation Effects in Advanced Technologies 333 10.2.1 Moore’s Law, Scaling, and Radiation Effects 334 10.2.2 Technology Lifetime and Reliability 334 10.2.2.1 New Missions 335 10.2.2.2 Throwaway Mentality 335 10.2.2.3 New Space Entrants 335 10.2.3 Terrestrial Issues 335 10.2.4 Space Mission Issues 335 10.2.5 Server Farms 335 10.2.6 Automotive 336 10.2.7 Internet of Things (IoT) 336 10.2.8 More than Moore 336 10.3 Radiation Effects in Semiconductor Nanostructures 336 10.3.1 Planar MOSFETs in Sub-25 nm 337 10.3.2 Bulk FinFET 338 10.3.3 SOI FinFET 339 10.3.4 3-D Circuits 340 10.4 Radiation Effects and Advanced Packaging 340 10.4.1 Radiation Effects and 2.5-D Circuits and Technology 341 10.4.2 Radiation Effects and 3-D Circuits and Technology 341 10.4.3 More than Moore and 3-D Integration 342 10.5 Ruggedized Capability 342 10.5.1 Ruggedized Capability for Radiation 343 10.5.2 Ruggedized Capability for High Temperature 343 10.6 Radiation Models 343 10.7 A Nuclear World 344 10.8 Summary and Closing Comments 344 References 345 Index 347

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Book SynopsisBuilding upon the success of previous editions, this volume continues to serve the needs of professionals who need to understand visual perception as well as produce, reproduce, and measure color appearance in such applications as imaging, entertainment, materials, design, architecture, and lighting.Table of ContentsSeries Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xviii Introduction xix 1 Human Color Vision 1 1.1 Optics of the Eye 2 1.2 The Retina 7 1.3 Visual Signal Processing 14 1.4 Mechanisms of Color Vision 19 1.5 Spatial and Temporal Properties of Color Vision 27 1.6 Color Vision Deficiencies 32 1.7 Key Features for Color Appearance Modeling 36 2 Psychophysics 38 2.1 Psychophysics Defined 39 2.2 Historical Context 40 2.3 Hierarchy of Scales 43 2.4 Threshold Techniques 45 2.5 Matching Techniques 49 2.6 One-Dimensional Scaling 50 2.7 Multidimensional Scaling 52 2.8 Design of Psychophysical Experiments 54 2.9 Importance in Color Appearance Modeling 55 3 Colorimetry 56 3.1 Basic and Advanced Colorimetry 57 3.2 Why is Color? 57 3.3 Light Sources and Illuminants 59 3.4 Colored Materials 63 3.5 The Human Visual Response 68 3.6 Tristimulus Values and Color Matching Functions 70 3.7 Chromaticity Diagrams 77 3.8 Cie Color Spaces 79 3.9 Color Difference Specification 81 3.10 The Next Step 83 4 Color Appearance Terminology 85 4.1 Importance of Definitions 85 4.2 Color 86 4.3 Hue 88 4.4 Brightness and Lightness 88 4.5 Colorfulness and Chroma 90 4.6 Saturation 91 4.7 Unrelated and Related Colors 91 4.8 Definitions in Equations 92 4.9 Brightness–Colorfulness Vs Lightness–Chroma 94 5 Color Order Systems 97 5.1 Overview and Requirements 98 5.2 The Munsell Book of Color 99 5.3 The Swedish Ncs 104 5.4 The Colorcurve System 106 5.5 Other Color Order Systems 107 5.6 Uses of Color Order Systems 109 5.7 Color Naming Systems 112 6 Color Appearance Phenomena 115 6.1 What are Color Appearance Phenomena? 115 6.2 Simultaneous Contrast, Crispening, and Spreading 116 6.3 Bezold–Brücke Hue Shift (Hue Changes with Luminance) 120 6.4 Abney Effect (Hue Changes with Colorimetric Purity) 121 6.5 Helmholtz–Kohlrausch Effect (Brightness Depends On Luminance and Chromaticity) 123 6.6 Hunt Effect (Colorfulness Increases with Luminance) 125 6.7 Stevens Effect (Contrast Increases with Luminance) 127 6.8 Helson–Judd Effect (Hue of Non-Selective Samples) 129 6.9 Bartleson–Breneman Equations (Image Contrast Changes with Surround) 131 6.10 Discounting-the-Illuminant 132 6.11 Other Context, Structural, and Psychological Effects 133 6.12 Color Constancy? 140 7 Viewing Conditions 142 7.1 Configuration of the Viewing Field 142 7.2 Colorimetric Specification of the Viewing Field 146 7.3 Modes of Viewing 149 7.4 Unrelated and Related Colors Revisited 154 8 Chromatic Adaptation 156 8.1 Light, Dark, and Chromatic Adaptation 157 8.2 Physiology 159 8.3 Sensory and Cognitive Mechanisms 170 8.4 Corresponding Colors Data 174 8.5 Models 177 8.6 Color Inconstancy Index 178 8.7 Computational Color Constancy 179 9 Chromatic Adaptation Models 181 9.1 Von Kries Model 182 9.2 Retinex Theory 186 9.3 Nayatani et al. Model 187 9.4 Guth’s Model 190 9.5 Fairchild’s 1990 Model 192 9.6 Herding Cats 196 9.7 Cat02 197 10 Color Appearance Models 199 10.1 Definition of Color Appearance Models 199 10.2 Construction of Color Appearance Models 200 10.3 Cielab 201 10.4 Why Not Use Just Cielab? 210 10.5 What About Cieluv? 210 11 The Nayatani et al. Model 213 11.1 Objectives and Approach 213 11.2 Input Data 214 11.3 Adaptation Model 215 11.4 Opponent Color Dimensions 217 11.5 Brightness 218 11.6 Lightness 219 11.7 Hue 219 11.8 Saturation 220 11.9 Chroma 221 11.10 Colorfulness 221 11.11 Inverse Model 222 11.12 Phenomena Predicted 222 11.13 Why Not Use Just the Nayatani et al. Model? 223 12 The Hunt Model 225 12.1 Objectives and Approach 225 12.2 Input Data 226 12.3 Adaptation Model 228 12.4 Opponent Color Dimensions 233 12.5 Hue 234 12.6 Saturation 235 12.7 Brightness 236 12.8 Lightness 238 12.9 Chroma 238 12.10 Colorfulness 238 12.11 Inverse Model 239 12.12 Phenomena Predicted 241 12.13 Why Not Use Just the Hunt Model? 242 13 The Rlab Model 243 13.1 Objectives and Approach 243 13.2 Input Data 245 13.3 Adaptation Model 246 13.4 Opponent Color Dimensions 248 13.5 Lightness 250 13.6 Hue 250 13.7 Chroma 252 13.8 Saturation 252 13.9 Inverse Model 252 13.10 Phenomena Predicted 254 13.11 Why Not Use Just the Rlab Model? 254 14 Other Models 256 14.1 Overview 256 14.2 Atd Model 257 14.3 Llab Model 264 14.4 Ipt Color Space 271 15 The Cie Color Appearance Model (1997), Ciecam97s 273 15.1 Historical Development, Objectives, and Approach 273 15.2 Input Data 276 15.3 Adaptation Model 277 15.4 Appearance Correlates 279 15.5 Inverse Model 280 15.6 Phenomena Predicted 281 15.7 The Zlab Color Appearance Model 282 15.8 Why Not Use Just Ciecam97s? 285 16 Ciecam02 287 16.1 Objectives and Approach 287 16.2 Input Data 288 16.3 Adaptation Model 290 16.4 Opponent Color Dimensions 294 16.5 Hue 294 16.6 Lightness 295 16.7 Brightness 295 16.8 Chroma 295 16.9 Colorfulness 296 contents xi 16.10 Saturation 296 16.11 Cartesian Coordinates 296 16.12 Inverse Model 297 16.13 Implementation Guidelines 297 16.14 Phenomena Predicted 298 16.15 Computational Issues 298 16.16 Cam02-Ucs 300 16.17 Why Not Use Just Ciecam02? 301 16.18 Outlook 301 17 Testing Color Appearance Models 303 17.1 Overview 303 17.2 Qualitative Tests 304 17.3 Corresponding-Colors Data 308 17.4 Magnitude Estimation Experiments 310 17.5 Direct Model Tests 312 17.6 Colorfulness in Projected Images 316 17.7 Munsell in Color Appearance Spaces 317 17.8 Cie Activities 318 17.9 A Pictorial Review of Color Appearance Models 323 18 Traditional Colorimetric Applications 328 18.1 Color Rendering 328 18.2 Color Differences 333 18.3 Indices of Metamerism 335 18.4 A General System of Colorimetry? 337 18.5 What About Observer Metamerism? 338 19 Device-Independent Color Imaging 341 19.1 The Problem 342 19.2 Levels of Color Reproduction 343 19.3 A Revised Set of Objectives 345 19.4 General Solution 348 19.5 Device Calibration and Characterization 349 19.6 The Need for Color Appearance Models 354 19.7 Definition of Viewing Conditions 355 19.8 Viewing-Conditions-Independent Color Space 357 19.9 Gamut Mapping 357 19.10 Color Preferences 361 19.11 Inverse Process 362 19.12 Example System 363 19.13 Icc Implementation 364 20 I mage Appearance Modeling and the Future 369 20.1 From Color Appearance to Image Appearance 370 20.2 S-Cielab 375 20.3 The icam Framework 376 20.4 A Modular Image Difference Model 382 20.5 Image Appearance and Rendering Applications 385 20.6 Image Difference and Quality Applications 391 20.7 icam06 392 20.8 Orthogonal Color Space 393 20.9 Future Directions 396 21 High-Dynamic-Range Color Space 399 21.1 Luminance Dynamic Range 400 21.2 The Hdr Photographic Survey 401 21.3 Lightness–Brightness Beyond Diffuse White 403 21.4 hdr-Cielab 404 21.5 hdr-Ipt 406 21.6 Evans, G0, and Brilliance 407 21.7 The Nayatani Theoretical Color Space 409 21.8 A New Kind of Appearance Space 409 21.9 Future Directions 416 References 418 Index 440

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Book SynopsisThis timely work provides a standards-based view of the development, evolution, and techniques for the deployment of reconfigurable radio systems.Table of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgements xiii List of Abbreviations xv 1 The Multiradio Access Network 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Radiomobile Networks 3 1.2.1 GSM/GPRS/EDGE Network Architecture 4 1.2.2 GSM/GPRS/EDGE Access Network 6 1.2.3 UMTS/HSPA/HSPA+ Network Architecture 17 1.2.4 UMTS/HSPA/HSPA+ Access Network 21 1.2.5 LTE Network Architecture 30 1.2.6 LTE Access Network 33 1.2.7 LTE Advanced 48 1.3 Wireless Networks 50 1.3.1 Wireless LAN 50 1.3.2 Wireless MAN 58 1.3.3 Wireless PAN 61 References 66 2 Cognitive Radio: Concept and Capabilities 69 2.1 Cognitive Systems 69 2.2 Spectrum Sensing Cognitive Radio 70 2.2.1 Spectrum Sensing Cognitive Features 72 2.3 Introduction to the Full Cognitive Radio 101 References 102 3 Self-Organizing Network Features in the 3GPP Standard 105 3.1 Self-Organizing Networks 105 3.1.1 Alarming 107 3.1.2 Operational Support System Automation 108 3.1.3 Energy Saving 109 3.2 LTE Overview 111 3.3 LTE Home eNB 116 3.4 LTE and Self-Organizing Networks 119 3.4.1 Self-Establishment of a New eNB 121 3.4.2 Automatic Neighbour Relation Management 123 3.4.3 eNB Self-Optimization 127 3.4.4 Energy Saving Management 136 3.4.5 Self-Healing 138 References 142 4 IEEE 802.22: The First Standard Based on Cognitive Radio 145 4.1 White Spaces 145 4.1.1 FCC Regulation 146 4.1.2 ECC Regulation 148 4.2 IEEE 802.22 151 4.2.1 IEEE 802.22 Architecture 154 4.3 IEEE 802.22.1 179 References 181 5 ETSI Standards on Reconfigurable Radio Systems 183 5.1 Introduction 183 5.2 ETSI Reconfigurable Radio Systems 184 5.2.1 Reconfigurable Radio Base Station Architecture 186 5.2.2 Reconfigurable Radio Device Architecture 190 5.2.3 Cognitive Pilot Channel (CPC) 200 5.2.4 ETSI RRS Functional Architecture 211 5.3 Summary 220 References 220 6 IEEE 1900.4 223 6.1 Introduction 223 6.2 IEEE Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks Standards Committee (DySPAN-SC) 224 6.3 IEEE 1900.4 Functional Architecture 225 6.3.1 Operator Spectrum Manager Entity 228 6.3.2 Network Reconfiguration Manager Entity 229 6.3.3 RAN Reconfiguration Controller and RAN Measurement Collector Entities 231 6.3.4 Terminal Equipment Entities 232 6.3.5 IEEE 1900.4 and ETSI RRS Functional Architecture Comparison 232 6.3.6 Use Cases for the IEEE 1900.4 Functional Architecture 235 6.4 IEEE 1900.4a Functional Architecture 241 6.4.1 White Space Manager Entity 243 6.4.2 Cognitive Base Station 244 6.4.3 Terminal Equipment Entities 245 6.4.4 Use Cases for the IEEE 1900.4a Functional Architecture 246 6.5 Summary 249 References 249 7 Regulatory Challenges of Reconfigurable Radio Systems 251 7.1 Introduction 251 7.2 Spectrum Management 251 7.2.1 Dynamic Spectrum Access 254 7.2.2 Market-Based Approach in Spectrum Management 259 7.3 Impacts of Reconfigurable Radio Systems to Spectrum Governance 262 7.4 Summary 266 References 266 Index 269

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Book SynopsisUltimately, this is a remarkable book, a practical testimonial, and a comprehensive bibliography rolled into one. It is a single, bright sword cut across the various murky green IT topics. And if my mistakes and lessons learned through the green IT journey are any indication, this book will be used every day by folks interested in greening IT. Simon Y. Liu, Ph.D. & Ed.D., Editor-in-Chief,IT ProfessionalMagazine, IEEE Computer Society, Director, U.S. National Agricultural Library This book presents a holistic perspective on Green IT by discussing its various facets and showing how to strategically embrace it Harnessing Green IT: Principles and Practicesexamines various ways of making computing and information systems greener environmentally sustainable -, as well as several means of using Information Technology (IT) as a tool and an enabler to improve the environmental sustainability. The book focuses on both greening of IT and greeninTrade Review"This book will be an excellent resource for IT Professionals, academics, students, researchers, project leaders/managers, IT business executives, CIOs, CTOs and anyone interested in Green IT and harnessing it to enhance our environment.” (Computer Science of India (CSI) enewsletter), 1 February 2013) Table of ContentsAbout the Editors xix About the Authors xxi Foreword xxix Preface xxxi Acknowledgements xxxv 1 Green IT: An Overview 1 San Murugesan and G.R. Gangadharan Key Points 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development 2 1.2.1 The Inconvenient Truth 3 1.2.2 Sustainable Development 4 1.2.3 Why Should You Go Green? 4 1.3 Environmental Impacts of IT 4 1.4 Green IT 5 1.4.1 OCED Green IT Framework 6 1.4.2 Green IT 1.0 and 2.0 7 1.5 Holistic Approach to Greening IT 7 1.5.1 Greening Computer’s Entire Life Cycle 8 1.5.2 The Three Rs of Green IT 9 1.6 Greening IT 10 1.6.1 Green PCs, Notebooks and Servers 10 1.6.2 Green Data Centres 10 1.6.3 Green Cloud Computing 12 1.6.4 Green Data Storage 12 1.6.5 Green Software 13 1.6.6 Green Networking and Communications 13 1.7 Applying IT for Enhancing Environmental Sustainability 14 1.8 Green IT Standards and Eco-Labelling of IT 15 1.9 Enterprise Green IT Strategy 15 1.9.1 Green Washing 17 1.10 Green IT: Burden or Opportunity? 17 1.11 Conclusion 18 Review Questions 19 Discussion Questions 19 References 19 Further Reading and Useful Web Sites 20 2 Green Devices and Hardware 23 Ashok Pon Kumar and Sateesh S. Kannegala Key Points 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Life Cycle of a Device or Hardware 24 2.2.1 Design 25 2.2.2 Manufacturing 26 2.2.3 Packaging and Transportation 28 2.2.4 Use 29 2.3 Reuse, Recycle and Dispose 34 2.4 Conclusions 36 Review Questions 37 Discussion Questions 37 References 37 3 Green Software 39 Bob Steigerwald and Abhishek Agrawal Key Points 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.1.1 Processor Power States 40 3.2 Energy-Saving Software Techniques 41 3.2.1 Computational Efficiency 42 3.2.2 Data Efficiency 45 3.2.3 Context Awareness 49 3.2.4 Idle Efficiency 52 3.3 Evaluating and Measuring Software Impact to Platform Power 55 3.3.1 Fluke NetDAQ® (Networked Data Acquisition Unit) 55 3.3.2 Software Tools 57 3.4 Summary 59 Acknowledgements 60 Review Questions 61 Discussion Questions 61 References 61 Further Reading 62 4 Sustainable Software Development 63 Felipe Albertao Key Points 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Current Practices 64 4.3 Sustainable Software 65 4.4 Software Sustainability Attributes 66 4.5 Software Sustainability Metrics 68 4.5.1 Modifiability and Reusability 68 4.5.2 Portability 70 4.5.3 Supportability 71 4.5.4 Performance 71 4.5.5 Dependability 71 4.5.6 Usability 71 4.5.7 Accessibility 72 4.5.8 Predictability 72 4.5.9 Efficiency 73 4.5.10 Project’s Carbon Footprint 73 4.6 Sustainable Software Methodology 73 4.6.1 Collecting Metrics 73 4.6.2 Code Metrics Tools 74 4.6.3 Simplified Usability Study 75 4.6.4 Platform Analysis 76 4.6.5 Existing Project Statistics 77 4.7 Defining Actions 77 4.8 Case Study 78 4.8.1 Modifiability and Reusability 78 4.8.2 Portability 78 4.8.3 Supportability 79 4.8.4 Performance 79 4.8.5 Dependability 79 4.8.6 Usability 79 4.8.7 Accessibility 79 4.8.8 Predictability 81 4.8.9 Efficiency 81 4.8.10 Project’s Footprint 81 4.8.11 Results and Actions 81 4.9 Conclusions 82 Review Questions 82 Discussion Questions 82 References 83 5 Green Data Centres 85 Charles G. Sheridan, Keith A. Ellis, Enrique G. Castro-Leon and Christopher P. Fowler Key Points 85 5.1 Data Centres and Associated Energy Challenges 85 5.2 Data Centre IT Infrastructure 87 5.2.1 Servers 87 5.2.2 Networking 89 5.2.3 Storage 89 5.2.4 IT Platform Innovation 90 5.3 Data Centre Facility Infrastructure: Implications for Energy Efficiency 92 5.3.1 Power System 92 5.3.2 Cooling 95 5.3.3 Facilities Infrastructure Management 97 5.4 IT Infrastructure Management 98 5.4.1 Server Power 98 5.4.2 Consolidation 101 5.4.3 Virtualization 104 5.5 Green Data Centre Metrics 106 5.5.1 PUE and DCiE 106 5.5.2 Power versus Energy Consumption 107 5.6 Data Centre Management Strategies: A Case Study 108 5.6.1 Challenges 108 5.6.2 Tested Solution 108 5.6.3 Impact 108 5.6.4 A Thorough Evaluation 109 5.7 Conclusions 110 Review Questions 111 Discussion Questions 111 References 111 Further Reading and Useful Web Sites 112 6 Green Data Storage 113 Pin Zhou and Nagapramod Mandagere Key Points 113 6.1 Introduction 113 6.2 Storage Media Power Characteristics 115 6.2.1 Hard Disks 115 6.2.2 Magnetic Tapes 117 6.2.3 Solid-State Drives (SSDs) 117 6.3 Energy Management Techniques for Hard Disks 118 6.3.1 State Transitioning 118 6.3.2 Caching 118 6.3.3 Dynamic RPM 119 6.4 System-Level Energy Management 119 6.4.1 RAID with Power Awareness 120 6.4.2 Power-Aware Data Layout 120 6.4.3 Hierarchical Storage Management 121 6.4.4 Storage Virtualization 122 6.4.5 Cloud Storage 123 6.5 Summary and Research Areas 124 Review Questions 124 Discussion Questions 124 References 124 7 Green Networks and Communications 127 Cathryn Peoples, Gerard Parr, Sally McClean and Philip Morrow Key Points 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.1.1 Green Network Communications and Management: Background 128 7.1.2 The Challenge of Next-Generation Networks 129 7.1.3 Benefits of Energy-Efficient Networks 130 7.1.4 Objectives of Green Networking 131 7.1.5 Core Components in Green-Networking Technology 132 7.2 Objectives of Green Network Protocols 132 7.2.1 Energy-Optimizing Protocol Design 133 7.2.2 Bit Costs Associated with Network Communication Protocols 135 7.2.3 Objectives of Green Network Protocols 138 7.3 Green Network Protocols and Standards 140 7.3.1 Strategies to Reduce Carbon Emissions 140 7.3.2 Contributions from the EMAN Working Group 140 7.3.3 Contributions from Standardization Bodies 142 7.3.4 Context Detail to Drive Energy Efficiency 142 7.4 Conclusions 145 Acknowledgements 145 Review Questions 145 Discussion Questions 146 References 146 Further Reading and Useful Web Sites 148 8 Enterprise Green IT Strategy 149 Bhuvan Unhelkar Key Points 149 8.1 Introduction 149 8.2 Approaching Green IT Strategies 151 8.3 Business Drivers of Green IT Strategy 153 8.3.1 Cost Reduction 153 8.3.2 Demands from Legal and Regulatory Requirements 154 8.3.3 Sociocultural and Political Pressure 155 8.3.4 Enlightened Self-Interest 155 8.3.5 Collaborative Business Ecosystem 155 8.3.6 New Market Opportunities 156 8.4 Business Dimensions for Green IT Transformation 156 8.4.1 Economy 157 8.4.2 Technology 157 8.4.3 Process 158 8.4.4 People 158 8.5 Organizational Considerations in a Green IT Strategy 160 8.6 Steps in Developing a Green IT Strategy 161 8.7 Metrics and Measurements in Green Strategies 163 8.8 Conclusions 164 Review Questions 164 Discussion Questions 164 References 164 9 Sustainable Information Systems and Green Metrics 167 Edward Curry and Brian Donnellan Key Points 167 9.1 Introduction 167 9.2 Multilevel Sustainable Information 168 9.3 Sustainability Hierarchy Models 170 9.3.1 Sustainability Frameworks 170 9.3.2 Sustainability Principles 172 9.3.3 Tools for Sustainability 172 9.4 Product Level Information 173 9.4.1 Life-Cycle Assessment 173 9.4.2 The Four Stages of LCA 173 9.4.3 CRT Monitors versus LCD Monitors: Life Cycle Assessment 174 9.5 Individual Level Information 174 9.6 Functional Level Information 176 9.6.1 Data Centre Energy Efficiency 176 9.6.2 Data Centre Power Metrics 176 9.6.3 Emerging Data Centre Metrics 177 9.7 Organizational Level Information 178 9.7.1 Reporting Greenhouse Gas Emissions 178 9.8 Regional/City Level Information 181 9.8.1 Developing a City Sustainability Plan: A Case Study 181 9.9 Measuring the Maturity of Sustainable ICT 182 9.9.1 A Capability Maturity Framework for SICT 182 9.9.2 Defining the Scope and Goal 185 9.9.3 Capability Maturity Levels 185 9.9.4 SICT Capability Building Blocks 186 9.9.5 Assessing and Managing SICT Progress 188 9.10 Conclusions 189 Appendix: Sustainability Tools and Standards 190 Acknowledgements 195 Review Questions 195 Discussion Questions 196 References 196 Further Reading and Useful Web Sites 197 Tools and Carbon Calculators 198 10 Enterprise Green IT Readiness 199 Alemayehu Molla and Vanessa Cooper Key Points 199 10.1 Introduction 199 10.2 Background: Readiness and Capability 201 10.3 Development of the G-Readiness Framework 202 10.3.1 Green IT Attitude 203 10.3.2 Green IT Policy 204 10.3.3 Green IT Governance 204 10.3.4 Green IT Practice 205 10.3.5 Green IT Technology 205 10.4 Measuring an Organization’s G-Readiness 206 10.4.1 G-Readiness Consultancy Services 206 10.4.2 Calculating the G-Readiness Index via a Survey Instrument 207 10.5 Conclusions 207 Review Questions 208 Discussion Questions 209 References 209 11 Sustainable IT Services: Creating a Framework for Service Innovation 211 Robert R. Harmon and Haluk Demirkan Key Points 211 11.1 Introduction 211 11.2 Factors Driving the Development of Sustainable IT 213 11.2.1 The Sustainability Dimensions of IT 213 11.2.2 Corporate Sustainability, Social Responsibility and IT 216 11.3 Sustainable IT Services (SITS) 219 11.3.1 Developing a Service-Dominant Logic 219 11.3.2 Business Value, Customer Value and Societal Value 220 11.3.3 SITS as Service Science 222 11.4 SITS Strategic Framework 224 11.4.1 The SITS Value Curve 224 11.4.2 Integrating Sustainable IT and Business Strategy 227 11.5 Sustainable IT Roadmap 229 11.5.1 Time Horizon 229 11.5.2 Market Segments 229 11.5.3 Products, Services and Technologies 229 11.5.4 Compliance, Regulations, Standards and Reporting 231 11.5.5 SITS Standards and Reporting 232 11.5.6 Organizational Changes 232 11.5.7 Value Goals 232 11.6 SITS Leadership and Best Practices 233 11.6.1 IBM 233 11.6.2 Cisco Systems, Inc. 233 11.6.3 Siemens AG 235 11.6.4 HP 235 11.6.5 Intel Corporation 235 11.6.6 Microsoft Corporation 235 11.6.7 Oracle 236 11.6.8 Google 236 11.6.9 Apple 236 11.6.10 Samsung 236 11.6.11 Pachube 236 11.6.12 SeeClickFix 237 11.7 Conclusions 237 11.8 Summary 237 Review Questions 238 Discussion Questions 238 References 238 Useful Web Sites 242 12 Green Enterprises and the Role of IT 243 Joseph Sarkis Key Points 243 12.1 Introduction 243 12.2 Organizational and Enterprise Greening 244 12.2.1 The Green Enterprise: A Value Chain Perspective 245 12.3 Information Systems in Greening Enterprises 248 12.3.1 Environmental Management Information Systems 250 12.3.2 Software and Databases 250 12.3.3 ERP EMISs 250 12.3.4 ERP Challenges and Deficiencies with Respect to EMIS 254 12.3.5 Integrating Environmental and LCA Information with ERP 254 12.3.6 Electronic Environmental and Sustainability Reporting 255 12.4 Greening the Enterprise: IT Usage and Hardware 255 12.4.1 Environmental Information Technology Standards 256 12.4.2 Green Management of Data Centres 256 12.5 Inter-organizational Enterprise Activities and Green Issues 256 12.5.1 Electronic Commerce and Greening the Extended Enterprise 257 12.5.2 Demanufacturing and Reverse Logistics 258 12.5.3 Eco-Industrial Parks and Information Systems 259 12.6 Enablers and Making the Case for IT and the Green Enterprise 261 12.7 Conclusions 262 Review Questions 262 Discussion Questions 262 References 263 13 Environmentally Aware Business Process Improvement in the Enterprise Context 265 Konstantin Hoesch-Klohe and Aditya Ghose Key Points 265 13.1 Introduction 265 13.2 Identifying the Environmental Impact of an Activity or Process 266 13.2.1 Educated Guess by an Expert 266 13.2.2 Derivation from a Resource Model 267 13.2.3 Carbon-Dioxide Accumulation 267 13.2.4 Activity-Based Costing 267 13.3 A Decision Support Tool for Environmentally Aware Business Process Improvement 268 13.3.1 Some Preliminaries 268 13.3.2 The Business Process Improvement System 269 13.4 Process Improvement in the Enterprise Context 270 13.4.1 The Enterprise Ecosystem 271 13.4.2 Enterprise Ecosystem Equilibrium 272 13.5 Impact and Change Propagation Analysis 272 13.5.1 Identifying the Consequences of a Business Process Change 272 13.5.2 Re-Establishing a State of Equilibrium 273 13.6 Trade-Off Analysis 275 13.6.1 Cost to Bring about the Change 275 13.6.2 Environmental Operating Costs 276 13.7 An Example 276 13.7.1 As-Is Scenario 276 13.7.2 Improvement Scenarios 277 13.7.3 Assessing Scenarios 278 13.8 Conclusions 280 Review Questions 280 Discussion Questions 280 References 280 14 Managing Green IT 283 Linda R. Wilbanks Key Points 283 14.1 Introduction 283 14.2 Strategizing Green Initiatives 284 14.2.1 Strategic Thinking 284 14.2.2 Strategic Planning 285 14.2.3 Strategic Implementation 286 14.2.4 Enterprise Architecture Planning 286 14.3 Implementation of Green IT 288 14.3.1 Return on Investment 289 14.3.2 Metrics 290 14.3.3 The Goal–Question–Metric (GQM) Paradigm 291 14.4 Information Assurance 292 14.4.1 Risk Management 292 14.5 Communication and Social Media 294 14.6 Case Study 295 14.7 Summary 296 Review Questions 296 Discussion Questions 296 References 296 15 Regulating Green IT: Laws, Standards and Protocols 297 Tom Butler Key Points 297 15.1 Introduction 297 15.2 The Regulatory Environment and IT Manufacturers 299 15.2.1 RoHS 300 15.2.2 REACh 301 15.2.3 WEEE 302 15.2.4 Legislating for GHG Emissions and Energy Use of IT Equipment 303 15.3 Nonregulatory Government Initiatives 303 15.4 Industry Associations and Standards Bodies 305 15.5 Green Building Standards 306 15.6 Green Data Centres 306 15.7 Social Movements and Greenpeace 308 15.8 Conclusions 311 Review Questions 312 Discussion Questions 313 References 313 Further Reading 314 16 Green Cloud Computing and Environmental Sustainability 315 Saurabh Kumar Garg and Rajkumar Buyya Key Points 315 16.1 Introduction 315 16.2 What is Cloud Computing? 318 16.2.1 Cloud Computing Characteristics 318 16.2.2 Components of Cloud Computing 319 16.2.3 Cloud Computing Deployment Models 321 16.3 Cloud Computing and Energy Usage Model: A Typical Example 322 16.3.1 User and Cloud Software Applications 323 16.3.2 Cloud Software Stack for the SaaS, PaaS and IaaS Levels 323 16.3.3 Network Devices 324 16.3.4 Data Centres 325 16.4 Features of Clouds Enabling Green Computing 325 16.5 Towards Energy Efficiency of Cloud Computing 327 16.5.1 Applications 327 16.5.2 Cloud Software Stack: Virtualization and Provisioning 327 16.5.3 Data Centre Level: Cooling, Hardware, Network and Storage 329 16.5.4 Monitoring and Metering 330 16.5.5 Network Infrastructure 331 16.6 Green Cloud Architecture 332 16.7 Case Study: IaaS Provider 334 16.8 Conclusions and Future Directions 336 Acknowledgements 337 Review Questions 337 Discussion Questions 337 References 337 17 Harnessing Semantic Web Technologies for the Environmental Sustainability of Production Systems 341 Chris Davis, Igor Nikolic and Gerard Dijkema Key Points 341 17.1 Introduction 341 17.2 Information Management for Environmental Sustainability 344 17.2.1 Invisible Coordination 344 17.2.2 Sustainability and Networks 344 17.2.3 Need for Information Management Techniques 345 17.3 Ecosystem of Software Tools 346 17.3.1 MediaWiki 346 17.3.2 Semantic MediaWiki 348 17.3.3 SparqlExtension 350 17.3.4 Semantic Web 351 17.4 Examples of Managing Data 353 17.4.1 Pages for Commodities 353 17.4.2 Pages for Processes 354 17.4.3 Pages for Overviews and Information Management 356 17.4.4 Reuse of Data across Multiple Levels and Points of View 358 17.5 Challenges and Guiding Principles 358 17.5.1 Challenges 358 17.5.2 Guiding Principles 359 17.6 Conclusions 360 Review Questions 361 Discussion Questions 361 References 361 Further Reading and Useful Web Sites 363 18 Green IT: An Outlook 365 San Murugesan and G.R. Gangadharan Key Points 365 18.1 Introduction 365 18.2 Awareness to Implementation 366 18.2.1 Green IT Trends 366 18.2.2 Green Engineering 367 18.3 Greening by IT 368 18.3.1 Using RFID for Environmental Sustainability 368 18.3.2 Smart Grids 369 18.3.3 Smart Buildings and Homes 371 18.3.4 Green Supply Chain and Logistics 371 18.3.5 Enterprise-Wide Environmental Sustainability 372 18.4 Green IT: A Megatrend? 373 18.4.1 Outsourcing and Environmental Attributes 374 18.4.2 Green Audit 375 18.5 A Seven-Step Approach to Creating Green IT Strategy 375 18.5.1 Balancing the Costs and Benefits of Going Green 376 18.6 Research and Development Directions 376 18.7 Prospects 377 Review Questions 378 Discussion Questions 378 References 378 Glossary 381 Index 389

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Book SynopsisWith the growing use of automatic speech recognition (ASR) in everyday life, the ability to solve problems in recorded speech is critical for engineers and researchers developing ASR technologies. The only resource of its kind, this book presents a comprehensive survey of state-of-the-art techniques used to improve the robustness of ASR systems.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xv Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 1 Tuomas Virtanen, Rita Singh, Bhiksha Raj 1.1 Scope of the Book 1 1.2 Outline 2 1.3 Notation 4 Part One FOUNDATIONS 2 The Basics of Automatic Speech Recognition 9 Rita Singh, Bhiksha Raj, Tuomas Virtanen 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Speech Recognition Viewed as Bayes Classification 10 2.3 Hidden Markov Models 11 2.3.1 Computing Probabilities with HMMs 12 2.3.2 Determining the State Sequence 17 2.3.3 Learning HMM Parameters 19 2.3.4 Additional Issues Relating to Speech Recognition Systems 20 2.4 HMM-Based Speech Recognition 24 2.4.1 Representing the Signal 24 2.4.2 The HMM for a Word Sequence 25 2.4.3 Searching through all Word Sequences 26 References 29 3 The Problem of Robustness in Automatic Speech Recognition 31 Bhiksha Raj, Tuomas Virtanen, Rita Singh 3.1 Errors in Bayes Classification 31 3.1.1 Type 1 Condition: Mismatch Error 33 3.1.2 Type 2 Condition: Increased Bayes Error 34 3.2 Bayes Classification and ASR 35 3.2.1 All We Have is a Model: A Type 1 Condition 35 3.2.2 Intrinsic Interferences—Signal Components that are Unrelated to the Message: A Type 2 Condition 36 3.2.3 External Interferences—The Data are Noisy: Type 1 and Type 2 Conditions 36 3.3 External Influences on Speech Recordings 36 3.3.1 Signal Capture 37 3.3.2 Additive Corruptions 41 3.3.3 Reverberation 42 3.3.4 A Simplified Model of Signal Capture 43 3.4 The Effect of External Influences on Recognition 44 3.5 Improving Recognition under Adverse Conditions 46 3.5.1 Handling the Model Mismatch Error 46 3.5.2 Dealing with Intrinsic Variations in the Data 47 3.5.3 Dealing with Extrinsic Variations 47 References 50 Part Two SIGNAL ENHANCEMENT 4 Voice Activity Detection, Noise Estimation, and Adaptive Filters for Acoustic Signal Enhancement 53 Rainer Martin, Dorothea Kolossa 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Signal Analysis and Synthesis 55 4.2.1 DFT-Based Analysis Synthesis with Perfect Reconstruction 55 4.2.2 Probability Distributions for Speech and Noise DFT Coefficients 57 4.3 Voice Activity Detection 58 4.3.1 VAD Design Principles 58 4.3.2 Evaluation of VAD Performance 62 4.3.3 Evaluation in the Context of ASR 62 4.4 Noise Power Spectrum Estimation 65 4.4.1 Smoothing Techniques 65 4.4.2 Histogram and GMM Noise Estimation Methods 67 4.4.3 Minimum Statistics Noise Power Estimation 67 4.4.4 MMSE Noise Power Estimation 68 4.4.5 Estimation of the A Priori Signal-to-Noise Ratio 69 4.5 Adaptive Filters for Signal Enhancement 71 4.5.1 Spectral Subtraction 71 4.5.2 Nonlinear Spectral Subtraction 73 4.5.3 Wiener Filtering 74 4.5.4 The ETSI Advanced Front End 75 4.5.5 Nonlinear MMSE Estimators 75 4.6 ASR Performance 80 4.7 Conclusions 81 References 82 5 Extraction of Speech from Mixture Signals 87 Paris Smaragdis 5.1 The Problem with Mixtures 87 5.2 Multichannel Mixtures 88 5.2.1 Basic Problem Formulation 88 5.2.2 Convolutive Mixtures 92 5.3 Single-Channel Mixtures 98 5.3.1 Problem Formulation 98 5.3.2 Learning Sound Models 100 5.3.3 Separation by Spectrogram Factorization 101 5.3.4 Dealing with Unknown Sounds 105 5.4 Variations and Extensions 107 5.5 Conclusions 107 References 107 6 Microphone Arrays 109 John McDonough, Kenichi Kumatani 6.1 Speaker Tracking 110 6.2 Conventional Microphone Arrays 113 6.3 Conventional Adaptive Beamforming Algorithms 120 6.3.1 Minimum Variance Distortionless Response Beamformer 120 6.3.2 Noise Field Models 122 6.3.3 Subband Analysis and Synthesis 123 6.3.4 Beamforming Performance Criteria 126 6.3.5 Generalized Sidelobe Canceller Implementation 129 6.3.6 Recursive Implementation of the GSC 130 6.3.7 Other Conventional GSC Beamformers 131 6.3.8 Beamforming based on Higher Order Statistics 132 6.3.9 Online Implementation 136 6.3.10 Speech-Recognition Experiments 140 6.4 Spherical Microphone Arrays 142 6.5 Spherical Adaptive Algorithms 148 6.6 Comparative Studies 149 6.7 Comparison of Linear and Spherical Arrays for DSR 152 6.8 Conclusions and Further Reading 154 References 155 Part Three FEATURE ENHANCEMENT 7 From Signals to Speech Features by Digital Signal Processing 161 Matthias W¨olfel 7.1 Introduction 161 7.1.1 About this Chapter 162 7.2 The Speech Signal 162 7.3 Spectral Processing 163 7.3.1 Windowing 163 7.3.2 Power Spectrum 165 7.3.3 Spectral Envelopes 166 7.3.4 LP Envelope 166 7.3.5 MVDR Envelope 169 7.3.6 Warping the Frequency Axis 171 7.3.7 Warped LP Envelope 175 7.3.8 Warped MVDR Envelope 176 7.3.9 Comparison of Spectral Estimates 177 7.3.10 The Spectrogram 179 7.4 Cepstral Processing 179 7.4.1 Definition and Calculation of Cepstral Coefficients 180 7.4.2 Characteristics of Cepstral Sequences 181 7.5 Influence of Distortions on Different Speech Features 182 7.5.1 Objective Functions 182 7.5.2 Robustness against Noise 185 7.5.3 Robustness against Echo and Reverberation 187 7.5.4 Robustness against Changes in Fundamental Frequency 189 7.6 Summary and Further Reading 191 References 191 8 Features Based on Auditory Physiology and Perception 193 Richard M. Stern, Nelson Morgan 8.1 Introduction 193 8.2 Some Attributes of Auditory Physiology and Perception 194 8.2.1 Peripheral Processing 194 8.2.2 Processing at more Central Levels 200 8.2.3 Psychoacoustical Correlates of Physiological Observations 202 8.2.4 The Impact of Auditory Processing on Conventional Feature Extraction 206 8.2.5 Summary 208 8.3 “Classic” Auditory Representations 208 8.4 Current Trends in Auditory Feature Analysis 213 8.5 Summary 221 Acknowledgments 222 References 222 9 Feature Compensation 229 Jasha Droppo 9.1 Life in an Ideal World 229 9.1.1 Noise Robustness Tasks 229 9.1.2 Probabilistic Feature Enhancement 230 9.1.3 Gaussian Mixture Models 231 9.2 MMSE-SPLICE 232 9.2.1 Parameter Estimation 233 9.2.2 Results 236 9.3 Discriminative SPLICE 237 9.3.1 The MMI Objective Function 238 9.3.2 Training the Front-End Parameters 239 9.3.3 The Rprop Algorithm 240 9.3.4 Results 241 9.4 Model-Based Feature Enhancement 242 9.4.1 The Additive Noise-Mixing Equation 243 9.4.2 The Joint Probability Model 244 9.4.3 Vector Taylor Series Approximation 246 9.4.4 Estimating Clean Speech 247 9.4.5 Results 247 9.5 Switching Linear Dynamic System 248 9.6 Conclusion 249 References 249 10 Reverberant Speech Recognition 251 Reinhold Haeb-Umbach, Alexander Krueger 10.1 Introduction 251 10.2 The Effect of Reverberation 252 10.2.1 What is Reverberation? 252 10.2.2 The Relationship between Clean and Reverberant Speech Features 254 10.2.3 The Effect of Reverberation on ASR Performance 258 10.3 Approaches to Reverberant Speech Recognition 258 10.3.1 Signal-Based Techniques 259 10.3.2 Front-End Techniques 260 10.3.3 Back-End Techniques 262 10.3.4 Concluding Remarks 265 10.4 Feature Domain Model of the Acoustic Impulse Response 265 10.5 Bayesian Feature Enhancement 267 10.5.1 Basic Approach 268 10.5.2 Measurement Update 269 10.5.3 Time Update 270 10.5.4 Inference 271 10.6 Experimental Results 272 10.6.1 Databases 272 10.6.2 Overview of the Tested Methods 273 10.6.3 Recognition Results on Reverberant Speech 274 10.6.4 Recognition Results on Noisy Reverberant Speech 276 10.7 Conclusions 277 Acknowledgment 278 References 278 Part Four MODEL ENHANCEMENT 11 Adaptation and Discriminative Training of Acoustic Models 285 Yannick Est`eve, Paul Del´eglise 11.1 Introduction 285 11.1.1 Acoustic Models 286 11.1.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 287 11.2 Acoustic Model Adaptation and Noise Robustness 288 11.2.1 Static (or Offline) Adaptation 289 11.2.2 Dynamic (or Online) Adaptation 289 11.3 Maximum A Posteriori Reestimation 290 11.4 Maximum Likelihood Linear Regression 293 11.4.1 Class Regression Tree 294 11.4.2 Constrained Maximum Likelihood Linear Regression 297 11.4.3 CMLLR Implementation 297 11.4.4 Speaker Adaptive Training 298 11.5 Discriminative Training 299 11.5.1 MMI Discriminative Training Criterion 301 11.5.2 MPE Discriminative Training Criterion 302 11.5.3 I-smoothing 303 11.5.4 MPE Implementation 304 11.6 Conclusion 307 References 308 12 Factorial Models for Noise Robust Speech Recognition 311 John R. Hershey, Steven J. Rennie, Jonathan Le Roux 12.1 Introduction 311 12.2 The Model-Based Approach 313 12.3 Signal Feature Domains 314 12.4 Interaction Models 317 12.4.1 Exact Interaction Model 318 12.4.2 Max Model 320 12.4.3 Log-Sum Model 321 12.4.4 Mel Interaction Model 321 12.5 Inference Methods 322 12.5.1 Max Model Inference 322 12.5.2 Parallel Model Combination 324 12.5.3 Vector Taylor Series Approaches 326 12.5.4 SNR-Dependent Approaches 331 12.6 Efficient Likelihood Evaluation in Factorial Models 332 12.6.1 Efficient Inference using the Max Model 332 12.6.2 Efficient Vector-Taylor Series Approaches 334 12.6.3 Band Quantization 335 12.7 Current Directions 337 12.7.1 Dynamic Noise Models for Robust ASR 338 12.7.2 Multi-Talker Speech Recognition using Graphical Models 339 12.7.3 Noise Robust ASR using Non-Negative Basis Representations 340 References 341 13 Acoustic Model Training for Robust Speech Recognition 347 Michael L. Seltzer 13.1 Introduction 347 13.2 Traditional Training Methods for Robust Speech Recognition 348 13.3 A Brief Overview of Speaker Adaptive Training 349 13.4 Feature-Space Noise Adaptive Training 351 13.4.1 Experiments using fNAT 352 13.5 Model-Space Noise Adaptive Training 353 13.6 Noise Adaptive Training using VTS Adaptation 355 13.6.1 Vector Taylor Series HMM Adaptation 355 13.6.2 Updating the Acoustic Model Parameters 357 13.6.3 Updating the Environmental Parameters 360 13.6.4 Implementation Details 360 13.6.5 Experiments using NAT 361 13.7 Discussion 364 13.7.1 Comparison of Training Algorithms 364 13.7.2 Comparison to Speaker Adaptive Training 364 13.7.3 Related Adaptive Training Methods 365 13.8 Conclusion 366 References 366 Part Five COMPENSATION FOR INFORMATION LOSS 14 Missing-Data Techniques: Recognition with Incomplete Spectrograms 371 Jon Barker 14.1 Introduction 371 14.2 Classification with Incomplete Data 373 14.2.1 A Simple Missing Data Scenario 374 14.2.2 Missing Data Theory 376 14.2.3 Validity of the MAR Assumption 378 14.2.4 Marginalising Acoustic Models 379 14.3 Energetic Masking 381 14.3.1 The Max Approximation 381 14.3.2 Bounded Marginalisation 382 14.3.3 Missing Data ASR in the Cepstral Domain 384 14.3.4 Missing Data ASR with Dynamic Features 386 14.4 Meta-Missing Data: Dealing with Mask Uncertainty 388 14.4.1 Missing Data with Soft Masks 388 14.4.2 Sub-band Combination Approaches 391 14.4.3 Speech Fragment Decoding 393 14.5 Some Perspectives on Performance 395 References 396 15 Missing-Data Techniques: Feature Reconstruction 399 Jort Florent Gemmeke, Ulpu Remes 15.1 Introduction 399 15.2 Missing-Data Techniques 401 15.3 Correlation-Based Imputation 402 15.3.1 Fundamentals 402 15.3.2 Implementation 404 15.4 Cluster-Based Imputation 406 15.4.1 Fundamentals 406 15.4.2 Implementation 408 15.4.3 Advances 409 15.5 Class-Conditioned Imputation 411 15.5.1 Fundamentals 411 15.5.2 Implementation 412 15.5.3 Advances 413 15.6 Sparse Imputation 414 15.6.1 Fundamentals 414 15.6.2 Implementation 416 15.6.3 Advances 418 15.7 Other Feature-Reconstruction Methods 420 15.7.1 Parametric Approaches 420 15.7.2 Nonparametric Approaches 421 15.8 Experimental Results 421 15.8.1 Feature-Reconstruction Methods 422 15.8.2 Comparison with Other Methods 424 15.8.3 Advances 426 15.8.4 Combination with Other Methods 427 15.9 Discussion and Conclusion 428 Acknowledgments 429 References 430 16 Computational Auditory Scene Analysis and Automatic Speech Recognition 433 Arun Narayanan, DeLiang Wang 16.1 Introduction 433 16.2 Auditory Scene Analysis 434 16.3 Computational Auditory Scene Analysis 435 16.3.1 Ideal Binary Mask 435 16.3.2 Typical CASA Architecture 438 16.4 CASA Strategies 440 16.4.1 IBM Estimation Based on Local SNR Estimates 440 16.4.2 IBM Estimation using ASA Cues 442 16.4.3 IBM Estimation as Binary Classification 448 16.4.4 Binaural Mask Estimation Strategies 451 16.5 Integrating CASA with ASR 452 16.5.1 Uncertainty Transform Model 454 16.6 Concluding Remarks 458 Acknowledgment 458 References 458 17 Uncertainty Decoding 463 Hank Liao 17.1 Introduction 463 17.2 Observation Uncertainty 465 17.3 Uncertainty Decoding 466 17.4 Feature-Based Uncertainty Decoding 468 17.4.1 SPLICE with Uncertainty 470 17.4.2 Front-End Joint Uncertainty Decoding 471 17.4.3 Issues with Feature-Based Uncertainty Decoding 472 17.5 Model-Based Joint Uncertainty Decoding 473 17.5.1 Parameter Estimation 475 17.5.2 Comparisons with Other Methods 476 17.6 Noisy CMLLR 477 17.7 Uncertainty and Adaptive Training 480 17.7.1 Gradient-Based Methods 481 17.7.2 Factor Analysis Approaches 482 17.8 In Combination with Other Techniques 483 17.9 Conclusions 484 References 485 Index 487

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Book SynopsisThis book provides the technical essentials, state-of-the-art knowledge, business ecosystem and standards of Near Field Communication (NFC)by NFC Lab Istanbul research centre which conducts intense research on NFC technology. In this book, the authors present the contemporary research on all aspects of NFC, addressing related security aspects as well as information on various business models. In addition, the book provides comprehensive information a designer needs to design an NFC project, an analyzer needs to analyze requirements of a new NFC based system, and a programmer needs to implement an application. Furthermore, the authors introduce the technical and administrative issues related to NFC technology, standards, and global stakeholders. It also offers comprehensive information as well as use case studies for each NFC operating mode to give the usage idea behind each operating mode thoroughly. Examples of NFC application development are provided using Java technologyTrade Review“While NFC is a very specific and limited protocol, the fact that this book covers all aspects of NFC and how it relates to many other communication methods makes the book very useful to a wide audience and an interesting read.” (IEEE Microwave Magazine, 1 September 2013) Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xxiii List of Acronyms xxv 1 Executive Summary 1 1.1 Towards NFC Era 2 1.1.1 Ubiquitous Computing 2 1.1.2 Mobile Phones 3 1.1.3 Technological Motivation of NFC 4 1.1.4 Wireless Communication, RFID, and NFC 4 1.2 Evolution of NFC 4 1.2.1 Earlier Form of RFID: Barcode Technology 4 1.2.2 RFID Technology 5 1.2.3 Earlier Form of Smart Cards: Magnetic Stripe Cards 6 1.2.4 Smart Card Technology 6 1.2.5 NFC as a New Technology 7 1.3 NFC Essentials 7 1.3.1 Smart NFC Devices 8 1.3.2 Standardization of NFC Enabled Mobile Phones 8 1.3.3 General Architecture of NFC Enabled Mobile Phones 10 1.3.4 Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol (NFCIP) 11 1.4 NFC Operating Modes and Essentials 11 1.4.1 NFC Operating Modes 11 1.4.2 Reader/Writer Mode Essentials 12 1.4.3 Peer-to-Peer Mode Essentials 13 1.4.4 Card Emulation Mode Essentials 13 1.4.5 Case Studies 13 1.5 SE and Its Management 14 1.5.1 Over-the-Air Technology 15 1.5.2 GlobalPlatform Card Specification 15 1.5.3 Trusted Service Manager 16 1.5.4 UICC Management Models 16 1.5.5 Multiple SE Environments 16 1.6 NFC Application Development 17 1.6.1 JSR 257 18 1.6.2 JSR 177 18 1.7 NFC Security and Privacy 19 1.7.1 Why is Security Important? 19 1.7.2 Primary Goals of Security Measures 20 1.7.3 Vulnerability, Threat, Attack, and Risk 21 1.7.4 Security Tools and Mechanisms 21 1.7.5 NFC Security 22 1.7.6 Privacy, Legal, and Ethical Aspects 24 1.8 NFC Business Ecosystem 25 1.8.1 Stakeholders in NFC Ecosystem 27 1.8.2 Understanding NFC Business Models 28 1.8.3 Business Model Approaches 30 1.9 Usability in NFC 30 1.10 Benefits of NFC Applications 31 1.10.1 Future Scenarios on NFC 32 1.11 NFC Throughout the World 33 1.11.1 NFC Cities 33 1.11.2 NFC Trials and Projects 34 1.12 Status of Academic Research on NFC Literature 36 1.13 Chapter Summary 39 References 39 2 Towards NFC Era 41 2.1 Ubiquitous Computing and NFC 41 2.1.1 Ubiquitous Computing 41 2.1.2 New Communication Interface Alternative for Mobile Phones: NFC Technology 42 2.2 Mobile Phones 43 2.2.1 Features of a Mobile Phone 44 2.2.2 Mobile Phone Network 45 2.2.3 Mobile Phone Architecture 46 2.3 Wireless Communication as a Communication Media for NFC Technology 47 2.3.1 Wireless, Mobile, and Nomadic Communication 48 2.3.2 Wireless and Mobile Communication Technologies 48 2.4 RFID Technology 50 2.4.1 Earlier Form of RFID: Barcode Technology 51 2.4.2 Barcodes vs. RFID Tags 53 2.4.3 Essentials of RFID Technology 53 2.4.4 RFID Tags as Transponders 54 2.4.5 RFID Readers 55 2.4.6 Frequency Ranges 55 2.4.7 Operating Principles of RFID Technology 55 2.4.8 Near Field vs. Far Field Transmission 57 2.4.9 Common RFID Applications Throughout the World 58 2.5 Smart Card Technology 58 2.5.1 Earlier Form of Smart Card: Magnetic Stripe Cards 59 2.5.2 Evolution of Smart Cards 60 2.5.3 Types of Smart Cards: Capability Based Classification 60 2.5.4 Smart Card Operating System (SCOS) 61 2.5.5 Types of Smart Cards: Mechanism Based Classification 63 2.5.6 Smart Card Applications 67 2.6 Comparison between RFID Tags and Contactless Smart Cards 67 2.7 More on NFC 68 2.7.1 Inherent Security and Pairing Capability of NFC 70 2.8 Chapter Summary 70 Chapter Questions 71 References 71 3 NFC Essentials 73 3.1 Introduction to NFC 73 3.2 Standardization and Development Efforts of NFC Enabled Mobile Phones 76 3.2.1 NFC Forum 76 3.2.2 GlobalPlatform 79 3.2.3 GSM Association (GSMA) 80 3.2.4 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 80 3.2.5 ECMA International 81 3.2.6 ETSI and ETSI Smart Card Platform (ETSI SCP) 81 3.2.7 Java Community Process (JCP) 81 3.2.8 Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) 81 3.2.9 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) 82 3.2.10 EMVCo 82 3.3 General Architecture of NFC Enabled Mobile Phones 82 3.3.1 Secure Element 83 3.3.2 NFC Interface 86 3.3.3 Interface between SE and NFC Controller 86 3.3.4 Host Controller and HCI 89 3.4 Physical Layer of NFC 92 3.4.1 ISO/IEC 14443 – Proximity Contactless Smart Card Standard 92 3.4.2 Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol (NFCIP) 94 3.4.3 Data Transmission on RF Layer 96 3.5 Reader/Writer Operating Mode Essentials 99 3.5.1 Protocol Stack Architecture of Reader/Writer Mode 100 3.5.2 NFC Forum Mandated Tag Types 101 3.5.3 NDEF 102 3.6 Peer-to-Peer Operating Mode Essentials 108 3.6.1 Protocol Stack Architecture of Peer-to-Peer Mode 108 3.6.2 LLCP 109 3.7 Card Emulation Operating Mode Essentials 111 3.7.1 Protocol Stack Architecture of Card Emulation Mode 111 3.8 Chapter Summary 112 Chapter Questions 113 References 113 4 NFC Operating Modes 115 4.1 Mobile Interaction Techniques 115 4.1.1 NFC Technology Interaction Technique 117 4.2 Classification of NFC Devices 118 4.2.1 Active vs. Passive Devices 118 4.2.2 Initiator vs. Target Devices 119 4.3 Reader/Writer Mode 119 4.3.1 Smart Poster 120 4.3.2 Generic Usage Model 121 4.3.3 Leading Applications 123 4.3.4 Use Cases on Reader/Writer Mode 125 4.3.5 Underlying Application Benefits 127 4.4 Peer-to-Peer Mode 128 4.4.1 Generic Usage Model 129 4.4.2 Leading Applications 129 4.4.3 Use Cases on Peer-to-Peer Mode 130 4.4.4 Underlying Application Benefits 131 4.5 Card Emulation Mode 131 4.5.1 Generic Usage Model 132 4.5.2 Leading Applications 133 4.5.3 Use Cases on Card Emulation Mode 134 4.5.4 Underlying Application Benefits 135 4.6 Overview on Benefits of Operating Modes 135 4.7 Case Studies 136 4.7.1 Reader/Writer Mode Case Study: NFC Shopping 137 4.7.2 Peer-to-Peer Mode Case Study: NFC Gossiping 141 4.7.3 Card Emulation Mode Case Study: NFC Ticketing 142 4.8 Chapter Summary 148 Chapter Questions 148 References 148 5 Developing NFC Applications 151 5.1 Initial Steps in NFC Application Development 151 5.2 Why Java? 152 5.2.1 Why did we Choose Java? 152 5.2.2 Why is Java the Favorite? 153 5.3 Setting up the Environment for Java ME and NFC Programming 155 5.4 Introduction to Mobile Programing 158 5.4.1 Java ME Building Blocks 160 5.4.2 MIDlets 161 5.4.3 Package javax.microedition.lcdui 164 5.4.4 Creating a New MIDlet Project 165 5.4.5 Inside a MIDlet Suite (MIDlet Packaging) 168 5.4.6 A More Detailed User Interface MIDlet 171 5.4.7 Push Registry 177 5.5 NFC Application Development 179 5.6 Reader/Writer Mode Programing 179 5.6.1 Package javax.microedition.contactless 181 5.6.2 Package javax.microedition.contactless.ndef 183 5.6.3 Package javax.microedition.contactless.rf 185 5.6.4 Package javax.microedition.contactless.sc 185 5.6.5 A Reader/Writer Mode Application 185 5.6.6 NFC Push Registry 199 5.7 Peer-to-Peer Mode Programing 200 5.7.1 Package com.nokia.nfc.p2p 200 5.7.2 Package com.nokia.nfc.llcp 201 5.7.3 A Peer-to-Peer Mode Application 204 5.8 Card Emulation Mode Programing 211 5.8.1 Accessing Secure Element Using JSR 257 212 5.8.2 Accessing Secure Element Using JSR 177 212 5.9 Reader/Writer Mode Case Study: NFC Shopping 215 5.10 Peer-to-Peer Mode Case Study: NFC Gossiping 223 5.11 Chapter Summary 236 Chapter Questions 238 References 239 6 NFC Security and Privacy 241 6.1 Security in General 241 6.1.1 Why is Security Important? 242 6.1.2 Primary Goals of Security Measures 243 6.1.3 Vulnerability, Threat, Attack, and Risk 248 6.1.4 Principles of Security 253 6.2 Security Tools and Mechanisms 257 6.2.1 Cryptography 257 6.2.2 Symmetric Cryptography 258 6.2.3 Asymmetric Cryptography 259 6.2.4 Hashing 261 6.2.5 Message Authentication Code (MAC) and HMAC 261 6.2.6 Digital Signature and Mobile Signature 261 6.2.7 Comparing Security Mechanisms 262 6.2.8 Digital Certificates and Certificate Authority 263 6.2.9 Do Not Keep Cryptographic Algorithms Secret 263 6.2.10 Key Types: Symmetric Key, Private Key, Public Key, Master Key, and Session Key 264 6.2.11 Key Management and its Importance 264 6.2.12 WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) and WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) 264 6.2.13 Other Security Components 264 6.3 NFC Security Framework 265 6.3.1 Security Issues on NFC Tag 266 6.3.2 Security Issues on NFC Reader 268 6.3.3 Security Issues on Smart Card 269 6.3.4 Security Issues on Communication 270 6.3.5 Middleware and Backend System Security 272 6.3.6 Standardized NFC Security Protocols 272 6.4 Privacy, Legal, and Ethical Aspects 277 6.4.1 It is a Different World 278 6.4.2 Some Examples on Privacy Issues 279 6.4.3 Summary on Privacy and Countermeasures 280 6.4.4 Some Proposals for Providing Privacy on Tags 280 6.4.5 What to do for Protecting Privacy 281 6.5 Chapter Summary 281 Chapter Questions 282 References 282 7 NFC Business Ecosystem 283 7.1 Business Ecosystem 283 7.1.1 Generic Features of a Business Ecosystem 285 7.1.2 Business Ecosystem of NFC 286 7.2 Stakeholders in NFC Ecosystem 286 7.2.1 Standardization Bodies and Other Contributors 287 7.2.2 NFC Chip Set Manufacturers and Suppliers 288 7.2.3 Secure Element Manufacturers and Suppliers 288 7.2.4 Mobile Handset Manufacturers and Suppliers 290 7.2.5 Reader Manufacturers and Suppliers 290 7.2.6 Mobile Network Operators 290 7.2.7 Trusted Service Managers 290 7.2.8 Service Providers 292 7.2.9 Merchants/Retailers 293 7.2.10 Customers 293 7.3 Business Models 293 7.3.1 Key Indicators in NFC Business Models 295 7.3.2 Business Model Alternatives 297 7.3.3 General Revenue/Expenditure Flow Model 300 7.4 Case Study: NFC Ticketing 301 7.5 Additional Reading: Pay-Buy-Mobile Project by GSMA 304 7.6 Chapter Summary 308 Chapter Questions 309 References 309 8 Secure Element Management 311 8.1 Introduction to OTA Technology 311 8.1.1 OTA Technology and Mobile Device Management 312 8.1.2 OTA Technology and UICC Based SEs 313 8.2 GlobalPlatform Specifications 314 8.2.1 GlobalPlatform Card Specification 314 8.2.2 GlobalPlatform Messaging Specification 316 8.3 Life Cycle Management of SEs 316 8.3.1 TSM in NFC Environment 317 8.3.2 Actors and Their Functional Roles in GlobalPlatform 318 8.3.3 UICC Based SE: Security Domains and Hierarchy 320 8.3.4 UICC Management Models 320 8.4 Multiple SE Environments 325 8.4.1 Architecture without Aggregation 325 8.4.2 Architecture with Aggregation 326 8.5 Alternative TSM Based OTA Management Model 326 8.6 Chapter Summary 328 Chapter Questions 329 References 329 9 NFC Cities and Trials 331 9.1 NFC Cities 331 9.1.1 City of Oulu 331 9.1.2 City of Nice 337 9.1.3 Smart Urban Spaces 339 9.2 NFC Trials and Projects 341 9.2.1 Contactless Payment Trials 341 9.2.2 Transport and Other Ticketing Trials 345 9.2.3 Other Trials 347 9.3 Chapter Summary 349 References 349 Index 351

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Book SynopsisThis is a self-contained book on the foundations and applications of optical and microwave technologies to telecommunication networks application, with an emphasis on access, local, road, indoor and in-car data transmission.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 2 Optical and Microwave Fundamentals 11 2.1 Free Space Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves 11 2.2 Interference 16 2.3 Coherence 17 2.4 Polarization 21 2.5 Refraction and Reflection 27 2.6 Diffraction 31 3 Optical Fibers 35 3.1 Attenuation in Glass Fibers 47 3.1.1 Attenuation Mechanisms in Glass Fibers 48 3.1.2 Attenuation Measurement Techniques 51 3.2 Dispersions in Fibers 55 3.2.1 Dispersion Mechanisms in Fibers 56 3.2.2 Polarization Mode Dispersion in Single-Mode Fibers 63 3.2.3 Joint Action of Dispersion Mechanisms 65 3.2.4 Dispersion Measurement Techniques 68 3.2.5 Partial Dispersion Suppression by Soliton Transmission in Single-Mode Fibers 70 4 Fiber Manufacturing, Cabling and Coupling 75 4.1 Fiber Manufacturing 75 4.1.1 Preparation of a Preform 75 4.1.2 Fiber Drawing 82 4.1.3 Mechanical Properties of Optical Fibers 83 4.1.4 Alternative Fiber Manufacturing Processes 85 4.2 Fiber Cabling 86 4.2.1 Fibers for Telecom and Data Networks 86 4.2.2 Cables: Applications, Operating Conditions and Requirements 94 4.2.3 Fiber Protection and Identification in Cables 100 4.2.4 Indoor Cables 108 4.2.5 Duct Cables 111 4.2.6 Aerial Cables 116 4.2.7 Optical Ground Wires 117 4.2.8 Fiber Cabling Summary 119 4.3 Coupling Elements for Fiber-Optic Systems 119 4.3.1 Light Source-to-Fiber Coupling 120 4.3.2 Fiber-to-Fiber Coupling 126 4.3.3 Fiber-Optic Splices 130 4.3.4 Fiber-Optic Connectors 131 4.3.5 Fiber-Optic Couplers 133 4.3.6 Fiber-Optic Switches 137 4.3.7 Fiber-to-Detector Coupling 137 5 Integrated-Optic Components 139 5.1 Integrated-Optic Waveguides 140 5.2 Integrated-Optic Modulators 141 5.3 Integrated-Optic Polarizers 145 5.4 Integrated-Optic Filters 146 5.5 Losses in Integrated-Optic Devices 148 6 Optical Light Sources and Drains 149 6.1 Semiconductor Light Sources 154 6.1.1 Light Emitting Diodes 156 6.1.2 Semiconductor Lasers 160 6.1.3 Organic Lasers 185 6.2 Semiconductor Light Drains 185 6.2.1 Types of Photodiodes 188 7 Optical Transmitter and Receiver Circuit Design 197 7.1 Optical Transmitter Circuit Design 197 7.2 Optical Receiver Circuit Design 199 7.2.1 Receiver Circuit Concepts 201 7.2.2 Noise in Optical Receivers 206 8 Fiber-Optic Amplifiers 209 8.1 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers 209 8.2 Fiber Raman Amplifiers 211 9 Fiber- and Wireless-Optic Data Transmission 215 9.1 Direct Transmission Systems as Point-to-Point Connections 217 9.1.1 Unidirectional, Bidirectional and Multichannel Systems 225 9.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) Systems 227 9.2.1 Approaches to Increase Channel Capacity 227 9.2.2 Fundamentals of OFDM 229 9.2.3 Implementation Options for Coherent Optical OFDM 230 9.2.4 Nyquist Pulse Shaping as an Alternative to OFDM Systems 232 9.3 Optical Satellite Communications 233 9.3.1 Applications of Optical Satellite Communications 234 9.3.2 Channel Characteristics and Technical Issues 236 9.4 Coherent Transmission Systems 241 9.4.1 Main Principle of Coherent Transmission 241 9.4.2 System Components 245 9.4.3 Modulation Methods for Coherent Transmission Systems 247 9.4.4 Detection and Demodulation Methods for Coherent Transmission Systems 248 9.5 Top Results on Fiber-Optic Transmission Capacity for High-Speed Long Distance 251 9.6 Optical Fibers in Automation Technology 255 9.6.1 Optical Fiber Cables 255 9.6.2 Connectors 257 9.6.3 Network and Network Components 257 10 Last Mile Systems, In-House-Networks, LAN- and MAN-Applications 263 10.1 Last Mile Systems 269 10.1.1 Special Case of Access Network 270 10.1.2 Fiber Access Networks 271 10.1.3 FTTB Networks 275 10.1.4 Point-to-Point FTTH Networks 277 10.1.5 Passive Optical Networks (PON) 280 10.1.6 WDM-PON Networks 285 10.1.7 Upgrade and Migration Issues in FTTH Networks 286 10.1.8 Passive Fiber Plant 288 10.1.9 Development and standardization of FTTH technologies 297 10.1.10 Active Equipment 300 10.1.11 Conclusions 305 10.2 Polymer Optical Fibers, POF 306 10.2.1 Basics of POF 306 10.2.2 Techniques for Data Transmission over POF 312 10.2.3 In-House Communications 319 10.2.4 Communications in Transportation Systems: From Automotive to Spatial 321 10.2.5 Standardization Activities 325 10.3 Radio over Fiber (RoF) Systems 328 10.3.1 Key Enabling Technologies 331 10.3.2 RoF Land Network Design 337 10.3.3 Case Study of the Proposed Design Framework 344 10.3.4 Conclusions 349 10.4 Free Space Optical Communications 349 10.4.1 FSO under Turbulence Conditions 352 10.4.2 System Set-up 356 10.4.3 System Performance under Weak Turbulence 358 10.4.4 FSO Link Evaluation 361 10.4.5 Relation to Outdoor FSO Link 363 10.4.6 FSO under Fog Conditions 364 10.4.7 Characterization of Fog and Smoke Attenuation in a Laboratory Chamber 366 10.4.8 Fog and Smoke Channel – Experiment Set-up 367 10.4.9 Results and Discussion 369 10.4.10 Conclusions 376 10.5 WLAN Systems and Fiber Networks 377 10.5.1 A Historical Perspective on IEEE 802.11 WLANs 380 10.5.2 Relevant Operating Principles of WLAN Systems 386 10.5.3 Hybrid Fiber-Wireless Network Architectures: Wi-Fi-based FiWi Architectures 392 10.6 Energy Efficiency Aspects in Optical Access and Core Networks 399 10.6.1 Energy Efficiency in Current and Next Generation Optical Access Networks 399 10.6.2 Energy Efficient Time Division Multiplexed Passive Optical Networks 400 10.6.3 Energy Efficient Time and Wavelength Division Multiplexed Passive Optical Networks 406 10.6.4 Spectral and Energy Efficiency Considerations in Single Rate WDM Networks with Signal Quality Guarantee 413 10.6.5 Spectral versus Energy Efficiency in Mixed-Line Rate WDM Systems with Signal Quality Guarantee 420 10.6.6 Results and Discussion 423 11 Optical Data-Bus and Microwave Systems for Automotive Application in Vehicles, Airplanes and Ships 427 11.1 Communication in Transportation Systems 427 11.1.1 Communication Needs in Transportation Systems 428 11.1.2 Communication with Transportation Systems 433 11.1.3 Hybrid Networks for use in Transportation Systems 435 11.2 Radar for Transportation Systems 438 11.2.1 ARVS Main Features 441 11.2.2 Features of ARVS Equipment Construction 446 11.2.3 Main Tasks and Processing Methods of Radar Data in the ARVS 455 11.2.4 Main Problems and Tasks of ARVS Development 460 11.2.5 Conclusions 461 References 463 Index 497

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Book SynopsisThis book contains the most up-to-date research on Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) and discusses its technological convergence with the long-standing application of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) using Voltage Source Converters (VSC).Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Book xvii Acknowledgements xxi About the Companion Website xxiii 1 Flexible Electrical Energy Systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Classification of Flexible Transmission System Equipment 5 1.2.1 SVC 6 1.2.2 STATCOM 7 1.2.3 SSSC 9 1.2.4 Compound VSC Equipment for AC Applications 10 1.2.5 CSC-HVDC Links 12 1.2.6 VSC-HVDC 13 1.3 Flexible Systems Vs Conventional Systems 15 1.3.1 Transmission 16 1.3.1.1 HVAC Vs HVDC Power Transmission for Increased Power Throughputs 16 1.3.1.2 VAR Compensation 19 1.3.1.3 Frequency Compensation 24 1.3.2 Generation 27 1.3.2.1 Wind Power Generation 28 1.3.2.2 Solar Power Generation 30 1.3.3 Distribution 33 1.3.3.1 Load Compensation 35 1.3.3.2 Dynamic Voltage Support 35 1.3.3.3 Flexible Reconfigurations 36 1.3.3.4 AC-DC Distribution Systems 37 1.3.3.5 DC Power Grids with Multiple Voltage Levels 40 1.3.3.6 Smart Grids 40 1.4 Phasor Measurement Units 43 1.5 Future Developments and Challenges 46 1.5.1 Generation 46 1.5.2 Transmission 47 1.5.3 Distribution 48 References 49 2 Power Electronics for VSC-Based Bridges 53 2.1 Introduction 53 2.2 Power Semiconductor Switches 53 2.2.1 The Diode 55 2.2.2 The Thyristor 56 2.2.3 The Bipolar Junction Transistor 57 2.2.4 The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor 59 2.2.5 The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor 59 2.2.6 The Gate Turn-Off Thyristor 59 2.2.7 The MOS-Controlled Thyristor 60 2.2.8 Considerations for the Switch Selection Process 61 2.3 Voltage Source Converters 61 2.3.1 Basic Concepts of PulseWidth Modulated-Output Schemes and Half-Bridge VSC 62 2.3.2 Single-Phase Full-Bridge VSC 66 2.3.2.1 PWM with Bipolar Switching 67 2.3.2.2 PWM with Unipolar Switching 69 2.3.2.3 Square-Wave Mode 69 2.3.2.4 Phase-Shift Control Operation 69 2.3.3 Three-Phase VSC 72 2.3.4 Three-Phase Multilevel VSC 74 2.3.4.1 The Multilevel NPC VSC 76 2.3.4.2 The Multilevel FC VSC 80 2.3.4.3 The Cascaded H-Bridge VSC 81 2.3.4.4 PWM Techniques for Multilevel VSCs 85 2.3.4.5 An Alternative Multilevel Converter Topology 85 2.4 HVDC Systems Based on VSC 88 2.5 Conclusions 94 References 95 3 Power Flows 99 3.1 Introduction 99 3.2 Power Network Modelling 100 3.2.1 Transmission Lines Modelling 100 3.2.2 Conventional Transformers Modelling 100 3.2.3 LTC Transformers Modelling 101 3.2.4 Phase-Shifting Transformers Modelling 101 3.2.5 Compound Transformers Modelling 102 3.2.6 Series and Shunt Compensation Modelling 102 3.2.7 Load Modelling 102 3.2.8 Network Nodal Admittance 102 3.3 Peculiarities of the Power Flow Formulation 103 3.4 The Nodal Power Flow Equations 105 3.5 The Newton-Raphson Method in Rectangular Coordinates 106 3.5.1 The Linearized Equations 107 3.5.2 Convergence Characteristics of the Newton-Raphson Method 108 3.5.3 Initialization of Newton-Raphson Power Flow Solutions 109 3.5.4 Incorporation of PMU Information in Newton-Raphson Power Flow Solutions 111 3.6 The Voltage Source Converter Model 112 3.6.1 VSC Nodal Admittance Matrix Representation 113 3.6.2 Full VSC Station Model 115 3.6.3 VSC Nodal Power Equations 117 3.6.4 VSC Linearized System of Equations 117 3.6.5 Non-Regulated Power Flow Solutions 119 3.6.6 Practical Implementations 120 3.6.6.1 Control Strategy 120 3.6.6.2 Initial Parameters and Limits 120 3.6.7 VSC Numerical Examples 121 3.7 The STATCOM Model 125 3.7.1 STATCOM Numerical Examples 127 3.8 VSC-HVDC Systems Modelling 129 3.8.1 VSC-HVDC Nodal Power Equations 131 3.8.2 VSC-HVDC Linearized Equations 133 3.8.3 Back-to-Back VSC-HVDC Systems Modelling 135 3.8.4 VSC-HVDC Numerical Examples 135 3.9 Three-Terminal VSC-HVDC System Model 139 3.9.1 VSC Types 142 3.9.2 Power Mismatches 142 3.9.3 Linearized System of Equations 143 3.10 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC System Model 146 3.10.1 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC System with Common DC Bus Model 147 3.10.2 Unified Solutions of AC-DC Networks 148 3.10.3 Unified vs Quasi-Unified Power Flow Solutions 148 3.10.4 Test Case 9 150 3.11 Conclusions 153 References 153 3.A Appendix 154 3.B Appendix 156 4 Optimal Power Flows 159 4.1 Introduction 159 4.2 Power Flows in Polar Coordinates 160 4.3 Optimal Power Flow Formulation 161 4.4 The Lagrangian Methods 162 4.4.1 Necessary Optimality Conditions (Karush-Kuhn-Tucker Conditions) 163 4.5 AC OPF Formulation 164 4.5.1 Objective Function 165 4.5.2 Linearized System of Equations 165 4.5.3 Augmented Lagrangian Function 167 4.5.4 Selecting the OPF Solution Algorithm 168 4.5.5 Control Enforcement in the OPF Algorithm 168 4.5.6 Handling Limits of State Variables 169 4.5.7 Handling Limits of Functions 169 4.5.8 A Simple Network Model 170 4.5.8.1 Step One – Identifying State and Control Variables 170 4.5.8.2 Step Two – Identifying Constraints 170 4.5.8.3 StepThree – Forming the Lagrangian Function 171 4.5.8.4 Step Four – Linearized System of Equations 172 4.5.8.5 Step Five – Implementation of the Augmented Lagrangian 172 4.5.9 Recent Extensions in the OPF Problem 173 4.5.10 Test Case: IEEE 30-Bus System 173 4.5.10.1 Test System 173 4.5.10.2 Problem Formulation 173 4.5.10.3 OPF Test Cases 174 4.5.10.4 Benchmark Test Case (With No Voltage Control) 175 4.5.10.5 Test Case with Voltage Control Using Variable Transformers Taps (Case I) 176 4.5.10.6 Test Case with Nodal Voltage Regulation (Case II) 176 4.5.10.7 Test Case with Nodal Voltage Regulation (Case III) 177 4.5.10.8 A Summary of Results 177 4.6 Generalization of the OPF Formulation for AC-DC Networks 179 4.7 Inclusion of the VSC Model in OPF 181 4.7.1 VSC Power Balance Equations 181 4.7.2 VSC Control Considerations 183 4.7.3 VSC Linearized System of Equations 184 4.8 The Point-to-Point and Back-to-Back VSC-HVDC Links Models in OPF 184 4.8.1 VSC-HVDC Link Power Balance Formulation 185 4.8.2 VSC-HVDC Link Control 187 4.8.3 VSC-HVDC Full Set of Equality Constraints 188 4.8.4 Linearized System of Equations 189 4.9 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Systems in OPF 191 4.9.1 The Expanded, General Formulation 192 4.9.2 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Test Case 193 4.9.2.1 DC Network 193 4.9.2.2 AC Network 194 4.9.2.3 Objective Function 194 4.9.2.4 Summary of OPF Results 195 DC Network 196 4.9.2.5 Converter Outputs – No Converter Losses 196 4.9.2.6 Converter Outputs –With Converter Losses 197 AC Network 199 4.9.2.7 Power Flows in AC Transmission Lines –With No Converter Losses 199 4.9.2.8 Power Flows in AC Transmission Lines –With Converter Losses 200 4.10 Conclusion 200 References 201 5 State Estimation 203 5.1 Introduction 203 5.2 State Estimation of Electrical Networks 204 5.3 Network Model and Measurement System 206 5.3.1 Topological Processing 206 5.3.2 Network Model 206 5.3.3 The Measurements System Model 208 5.4 Calculation of the Estimated State 210 5.4.1 Solution by the Normal Equations 210 5.4.2 Equality-Constrained WLS 212 5.4.3 Observability Analysis and Reference Phase 213 5.4.4 Weighted Least Squares State Estimator (WLS-SE) Using Matlab Code 215 5.5 Bad Data Identification 217 5.5.1 Bad Data 217 5.5.2 The Largest Normalized Residual Test 218 5.5.3 Bad Data Identification Using WLS-SE 219 5.6 FACTS Device State Estimation Modelling in Electrical Power Grids 220 5.6.1 Incorporation of New Models in State Estimation 220 5.6.2 Voltage Source Converters 221 5.6.3 STATCOM 224 5.6.4 STATCOM Model in WLS-SE 225 5.6.5 Unified Power Flow Controller 227 5.6.6 The UPFC Model in WLS-SE 228 5.6.7 High Voltage Direct Current Based on Voltage Source Converters 230 5.6.8 VSC-HVDC Model in WLS-SE 231 5.6.9 Multi-terminal HVDC 233 5.6.10 MT-VSC-HVDC Model in WLS-SE 235 5.7 Incorporation of Measurements Furnished by PMUs 236 5.7.1 Incorporation of Synchrophasors in State Estimation 236 5.7.2 Synchrophasors Formulations 237 5.7.3 Phase Reference 239 5.7.4 PMU Outputs in WLS-SE 239 5.A Appendix 240 5.A.1 Input Data and Output Results in WLS-SE 240 5.A.1.1 Input Data 240 5.A.1.2 Network Data 240 5.A.1.3 Measurements Data 242 5.A.1.4 State Estimator Configuration 243 5.A.2 Output Results 243 References 244 6 Dynamic Simulations of Power Systems 247 6.1 Introduction 247 6.2 Modelling of Conventional Power System Components 248 6.2.1 Modelling of Synchronous Generators 248 6.2.2 Synchronous Generator Controllers 250 6.2.2.1 Speed Governors 250 6.2.2.2 Steam Turbine and Hydro Turbine 251 6.2.2.3 Automatic Voltage Regulator 252 6.2.2.4 Transmission Line Model 253 6.2.2.5 Load Model 253 6.3 Time Domain Solution Philosophy 254 6.3.1 Numerical Solution Technique 254 6.3.2 Benchmark Numerical Example 257 6.4 Modelling of the STATCOM for Dynamic Simulations 261 6.4.1 Discretization and Linearization of the STATCOM Differential Equations 264 6.4.2 Numerical Example with STATCOMs 266 6.5 Modelling of VSC-HVDC Links for Dynamic Simulations 272 6.5.1 Discretization and Linearization of the Differential Equations of the VSC-HVDC 276 6.5.2 Validation of the VSC-HVDC Link Model 280 6.5.3 Numerical Example with an Embedded VSC-HVDC Link 283 6.5.4 Dynamic Model of the VSC-HVDC Link with Frequency Regulation Capabilities 289 6.5.4.1 Linearization of the Equations of the VSC-HVDC Model with Frequency Regulation Capabilities 291 6.5.4.2 Validation of the VSC-HVDC LinkModel Providing Frequency Support 292 6.5.4.3 Numerical Example with a VSC-HVDC Link Model Providing Frequency Support 294 6.6 Modelling of Multi-terminal VSC-HVDC Systems for Dynamic Simulations 298 6.6.1 Three-terminal VSC-HVDC Dynamic Model 299 6.6.2 Validation of the Three-Terminal VSC-HVDC Dynamic Model 307 6.6.3 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Dynamic Model 310 6.6.4 Numerical Example with a Six-Terminal VSC-HVDC Link Forming a DC Ring 314 6.6.4.1 Disconnection of a DC Transmission Line 314 6.6.4.2 Three-Phase Fault Applied to AC3 314 6.7 Conclusion 317 References 318 7 Electromagnetic Transient Studies and Simulation of FACTS-HVDC-VSC Equipment 321 7.1 Introduction 321 7.2 The STATCOM Case 322 7.3 STATCOM Based on Multilevel VSC 336 7.4 Example of HVDC based on Multilevel FC Converter 347 7.5 Example of a Multi-Terminal HVDC System Using Multilevel FC Converters 358 7.6 Conclusions 375 References 375 Index 377

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Book SynopsisThis resource provides the basic facts needed to measure color. The coverage focuses on guiding principles, rather than particular instruments likely to become quickly outdated. Because color primarily occurs through individual perception, the authors present the material in the context of the properties of color vision of the human observer.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors xv Series Preface xvii Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi 1 Colour Vision 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The spectrum 1 1.3 Construction of the eye 3 1.4 The retinal receptors 4 1.5 Spectral sensitivities of the retinal receptors 5 1.6 Visual signal transmission 8 1.7 Basic perceptual attributes of colour 9 1.8 Colour constancy 10 1.9 Relative perceptual attributes of colours 11 1.10 Defective colour vision 13 1.11 Colour pseudo-stereopsis 15 2 Spectral Weighting Functions 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Scotopic spectral luminous efficiency 19 2.3 Photopic spectral luminous efficiency 21 2.4 Colour-matching functions 26 2.5 Transformation from R, G, B to X, Y, Z 32 2.6 CIE colour-matching functions 33 2.7 Metamerism 38 2.8 Spectral luminous efficiency functions for photopic vision 39 3 Relations between Colour Stimuli 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 The Y tristimulus value 41 3.3 Chromaticity 42 3.4 Dominant wavelength and excitation purity 44 3.5 Colour mixtures on chromaticity diagrams 46 3.6 Uniform chromaticity diagrams 48 3.7 CIE 1976 hue-angle and saturation 51 3.8 CIE 1976 lightness, L 52 3.9 Uniform colour spaces 53 3.10 CIE 1976 colour difference formulae 57 3.11 CMC, CIE94, and CIEDE2000 color difference formulae 61 3.12 An alternative form of the CIEDE2000 colour-difference equation 64 3.13 Summary of measures and their perceptual correlates 64 3.14 Allowing for chromatic adaptation 65 3.15 The evaluation of whiteness 66 3.16 Colorimetric purity 67 3.17 Identifying stimuli of equal brightness 67 3.18 CIEDE2000 worked example 69 4 Light Sources 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Methods of producing light 74 4.3 Gas discharges 74 4.4 Sodium lamps 75 4.5 Mercury lamps 76 4.6 Fluorescent lamps 78 4.7 Xenon lamps 81 4.8 Incandescent light sources 82 4.9 Tungsten lamps 86 4.10 Tungsten halogen lamps 87 4.11 Light emitting diodes 88 4.12 Daylight 89 4.13 Standard illuminants and sources 91 4.14 CIE standard illuminant A 91 4.15 CIE illuminants B and C 92 4.16 CIE sources 93 4.17 CIE illuminants D 94 4.18 CIE indoor daylight 94 4.19 Comparison of commonly used sources 96 5 Obtaining Spectral Data and Tristimulus Values 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Radiometry and photometry 99 5.3 Spectroradiometry 100 5.4 Tele-spectroradiometry 100 5.5 Spectroradiometry of self-luminous colours 101 5.6 Spectrophotometry of non-self-luminous colours 101 5.7 Reference whites and working standards 102 5.8 Geometries of illumination and viewing 103 5.9 CIE Geometries of illumination and measurement 104 5.10 Spectroradiometers and spectrophotometers 108 5.11 Choice of illuminant 110 5.12 Calculation of tristimulus values from spectral data 111 5.13 Colorimeters using filtered photo-detectors 114 6 Metamerism and Colour Constancy 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 The cause of metamerism 117 6.3 The definition of metamerism 118 6.4 Examples of metamerism in practice 119 6.5 Degree of metamerism 121 6.6 Index of metamerism for change of illuminant 122 6.7 Index of metamerism for change of observer 122 6.8 Index of metamerism for change of field size 124 6.9 Colour matches and geometry of illumination and measurement 124 6.10 Correcting for inequalities of tristimulus values 125 6.11 Terms used in connection with metamerism 126 6.12 Colour inconstancy 127 6.13 Chromatic adaptation transforms 129 6.14 The Von Kries transform 130 6.15 The CAT02 transform 131 6.16 A colour inconstancy index 134 6.17 Worked examples 135 7 Colour Rendering by Light Sources 143 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 The meaning of colour rendering 144 7.3 CIE colour rendering indices 145 7.4 Spectral band methods 147 7.5 Other methods for assessing the colour rendering of light sources 150 7.6 Comparison of commonly used sources 151 8 Colour Order Systems 155 8.1 Introduction 155 8.2 Variables 155 8.3 Optimal colours 157 8.4 TheMunsell System 159 8.5 TheMunsell Book of Color 164 8.6 Unique hues and colour opponency 168 8.7 The Natural Colour System (NCS) 170 8.8 Natural Colour System Atlas 172 8.9 The DIN System 179 8.10 The Coloroid System 182 8.11 The Optical Society of America (OSA) System 183 8.12 The Hunter Lab System 187 8.13 The Tintometer 190 8.14 The Pantone System 191 8.15 The RAL System 191 8.16 Advantages of colour order systems 192 8.17 Disadvantages of colour order systems 192 9 Precision and Accuracy in Colorimetry 197 9.1 Introduction 197 9.2 Sample preparation 198 9.3 Thermochromism 199 9.4 Geometry of illumination and measurement 199 9.5 Reference white calibration 200 9.6 Polarisation 200 9.7 Wavelength calibration 202 9.8 Stray light 202 9.9 Zero level and linearity 202 9.10 Use of secondary standards 203 9.11 Bandwidth 203 9.12 Correcting for errors in the spectral data 204 9.13 Calculations 207 9.14 Precautions to be taken in practice 214 10 Fluorescent Colours 219 10.1 Introduction 219 10.2 Terminology 219 10.3 Use of double monochromators 220 10.4 Illumination with white light 221 10.5 Correcting for differences between an actual and the desired source 222 10.6 Two-monochromator method 224 10.7 Two-mode method 225 10.8 Filter-reduction method 226 10.9 Luminescence-weakening method 226 10.10 Practical considerations 227 11 RGB Colorimetry 231 11.1 Introduction 231 11.2 Choice and specification of matching stimuli 231 11.3 Choice of units 233 11.4 Chromaticity diagrams using r and g 233 11.5 Colour-matching functions in RGB systems 234 11.6 Derivation of XYZ from RGB tristimulus values 35 11.7 Using television and computer displays 239 12 Colorimetry with Digital Cameras 241 12.1 Introduction 241 12.2 Camera characterisation 242 12.3 Metamerism 244 12.4 Characterisation methods 244 12.5 Practical considerations in digital camera characterisation 249 12.6 Practical example 251 12.7 Discussion 254 13 Colorant Mixtures 257 13.1 Introduction 257 13.2 Non-diffusing colorants in a transmitting layer 257 13.3 Non-diffusing colorants in a layer in optical contact with a diffusing surface 259 13.4 Layers containing colorants which diffuse and absorb light 262 13.5 The use of multi-spectral analysis to reduce metamerism in art restoration 264 14 Factors Affecting the Appearance of Coloured Objects 267 14.1 Introduction 267 14.2 Measuring optical properties 267 14.3 Colour 268 14.4 Gloss 271 14.5 Translucency 279 14.6 Surface texture 281 14.7 Conclusions 289 15 The CIE Colour Appearance Model CIECAM02 293 15.1 Introduction 293 15.2 Visual areas in the observing field 294 15.3 Chromatic adaptation in CIECAM02 294 15.4 Spectral sensitivities of the cones in CIECAM02 295 15.5 Cone dynamic response functions in CIECAM02 297 15.6 Luminance adaptation in CIECAM02 297 15.7 Criteria for achromacy and for constant hue in CIECAM02 299 15.8 Effects of luminance adaptation in CIECAM02 300 15.9 Criteria for unique hues in CIECAM02 303 15.10 Redness-greenness, a, and yellowness-blueness, b, in CIECAM02 303 15.11 Hue angle, h, in CIECAM02 305 15.12 Eccentricity factor, e, in CIECAM02 305 15.13 Hue quadrature, H, and hue composition, Hc, in CIECAM02 306 15.14 The achromatic response, A, in CIECAM02 308 15.15 Correlate of lightness, J, in CIECAM02 308 15.16 Correlate of brightness, Q, in CIECAM02 309 15.17 Correlate of chroma, C, in CIECAM02 310 15.18 Correlate of colourfulness, M, in CIECAM02 311 15.19 Correlate of saturation, s, in CIECAM02 311 15.20 Comparison of CIECAM02 with the natural colour system 311 15.21 Testing model CIECAM02 312 15.22 Filtration of projected slides and CIECAM02 314 15.23 Comparison of CIECAM02 with CIECAM97s 315 15.24 Uniform colour space based on CIECAM02 315 15.25 Some problems with CIECAM02 316 15.26 Steps for using the CIECAM02 model 316 15.27 Steps for using the CIECAM02 model in reverse mode 319 15.28 Worked example for the model CIECAM02 321 16 Models of Colour Appearance for Stimuli of Different Sizes 325 16.1 Introduction 325 16.2 Stimuli of different sizes 325 16.3 Room colours 325 16.4 A model for predicting room colours 326 16.5 Steps in using the model for predicting room colours 327 17 Model of Colour Appearance for Unrelated Colours in Photopic and Mesopic Illuminances 329 17.1 Introduction 329 17.2 A model for predicting unrelated colours 330 17.3 Input data required for the model 331 17.4 Steps in using the model for unrelated colours 332 17.5 Worked example in the model for predicting unrelated colours 333 Appendices 335 Appendix 1 Radiometric and Photometric Terms and Units 337 A1.1 Introduction 337 A1.2 Physical detectors 337 A1.3 Photometric units and terms 338 A1.4 Radiant and quantum units and terms 340 A1.5 Radiation sources 340 A1.6 Terms for measures of reflection and transmission 341 A1.7 Other spectral luminous efficiency functions 343 A1.8 Mesopic photometry 343 Reference 344 Appendix 2 Spectral Luminous Efficiency Functions 345 Appendix 3 CIE Colour-Matching Functions 347 Appendix 4 CIE Spectral Chromaticity Co-Ordinates 351 Appendix 5 Relative Spectral Power Distributions of Illuminants 355 A5.1 Introduction 355 A5.2 CIE illuminants 355 A5.3 Representative fluorescent lamps 359 A5.4 Planckian radiators 368 A5.5 Gas discharge lamps 371 A5.6 Method of calculating D illuminant distributions 374 Appendix 6 Colorimetric Formulae 379 A6.1 Chromaticity relationships 379 A6.2 CIELUV, CIELAB, and U*V*W* relationships 379 Appendix 7 Calculation of the CIE Colour Rendering Indices 383 A7.1 Spectral radiance factors of test colours 383 A7.2 Worked example of the CIE colour rendering indices 388 Appendix 8 Illuminant-Observer Weights for Calculating Tristimulus Values 393 Appendix 9 Glossary of Terms 431 Reference 453 Index 455

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Book SynopsisThis book bridges the divide between the fields of power systems engineering and computer communication through the new field of power system information theory.Table of ContentsAbout the Author xiii Preface xv Acknowledgements xxiii Acronyms xxv Part One ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS: THE MAIN COMPONENT 1 Introduction to Power Systems Before Smart Grid 3 1.1 Overview 3 1.2 Yesterday’s Grid 8 1.3 Fundamentals of Electric Power 20 1.4 Case Studies: Postmortem Analysis of Blackouts 34 1.5 Drivers Toward the Smart Grid 42 1.6 Goals of the Smart Grid 43 1.7 A Few Words on Standards 46 1.8 From Energy and Information to Smart Grid and Communications 47 1.9 Summary 48 1.10 Exercises 50 2 Generation 55 2.1 Introduction to Generation 55 2.2 Centralized Generation 57 2.3 Management and Control: Introducing Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems 73 2.4 Energy Storage 81 2.5 Summary 85 2.6 Exercises 86 3 Transmission 89 3.1 Introduction 89 3.2 Basic Power Grid Components 93 3.3 Classical Power Grid Analytical Techniques 98 3.4 Transmission Challenges 110 3.5 Wireless Power Transmission 118 3.6 Summary 118 3.7 Exercises 119 4 Distribution 121 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Protection Techniques 138 4.3 Conservation Voltage Reduction 145 4.4 Distribution Line Carrier 146 4.5 Summary 147 4.6 Exercises 147 5 Consumption 151 5.1 Introduction 151 5.2 Loads 152 5.3 Variability in Consumption 168 5.4 The Consumer Perspective 169 5.5 Visibility 171 5.6 Flexibility for the Consumer 176 5.7 Summary 179 5.8 Exercises 180 Part Two COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING: THE ENABLER 6 What is Smart Grid Communication? 185 6.1 Introduction 185 6.2 Energy and Information 192 6.3 System View 198 6.4 Power System Information Theory 199 6.5 Communication Architecture 216 6.6 Wireless Communication Introduction 224 6.7 Summary 232 6.8 Exercises 233 7 Demand-Response and the Advanced Metering Infrastructure 235 7.1 Introduction 235 7.2 Demand-Response 236 7.3 Advanced Metering Infrastructure 239 7.4 IEEE 802.15.4, 6LoWPAN, ROLL, and RPL 244 7.5 IEEE 802.11 255 7.6 Summary 256 7.7 Exercises 257 8 Distributed Generation and Transmission 259 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 Distributed Generation 260 8.3 The Smart Power Transmission System 276 8.4 Wireless Power Transmission 278 8.5 Wide-Area Monitoring 281 8.6 Networked Control 294 8.7 Summary 298 8.8 Exercises 298 9 Distribution Automation 301 9.1 Introduction 301 9.2 Protection Coordination Utilizing Distribution Automation 306 9.3 Self-healing, Communication, and Distribution Automation 309 9.4 Summary 329 9.5 Exercises 329 10 Standards Overview 333 10.1 Introduction 333 10.2 National Institute of Standards and Technology 334 10.3 International Electrotechnical Commission 335 10.4 International Council on Large Electric Systems 339 10.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 339 10.6 American National Standards Institute 343 10.7 International Telecommunication Union 347 10.8 Electric Power Research Institute 348 10.9 Other Standardization-Related Activities 349 10.10 Summary 353 10.11 Exercises 354 Part Three EMBEDDED AND DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENCE FOR A SMARTER GRID: THE ULTIMATE GOAL 11 Machine Intelligence in the Grid 359 11.1 Introduction 359 11.2 Machine Intelligence and Communication 360 11.3 Computing Models for Smart Grid 364 11.4 Machine Intelligence in the Grid 373 11.5 Machine-to-Machine Communication in Smart Grid 383 11.6 Summary 385 11.7 Exercises 386 12 State Estimation and Stability 389 12.1 Introduction 389 12.2 Networked Control 396 12.3 State Estimation 397 12.4 Distributed State Estimation 399 12.5 Stability 402 12.6 Stability and High-Penetration Distributed Generation 410 12.7 Summary 411 12.8 Exercises 412 13 Synchrophasor Applications 415 13.1 Introduction 415 13.2 Synchrophasors 416 13.3 Phasor Measurement Unit 426 13.4 Networking Synchrophasor Information 427 13.5 Synchrophasor Applications 430 13.6 Summary 431 13.7 Exercises 432 14 Power System Electronics 435 14.1 Introduction 435 14.2 Power System Electronics 437 14.3 Power Electronic Transformer 443 14.4 Protection Devices and Current Limiters 452 14.5 Superconducting Technologies 453 14.6 Summary 460 14.7 Exercises 461 15 Future of the Smart Grid 465 15.1 Introduction 465 15.2 Geomagnetic Storms as Generators 468 15.3 Future Microgrids 472 15.4 Nanoscale Communication Networks 476 15.5 Emerging Technologies 480 15.6 Near-Space Power Generation 482 15.7 Summary 484 15.8 Exercises 487 Appendix: Smart Grid Simulation Tools 489 References 493 Index 507

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Book SynopsisBridging the industry divide between the technical expertise of engineers and the aims of market and business planners, Making Telecoms Work provides a basis for more effective interdisciplinary analysis of technology, engineering, market and business investment risk and opportunity. Since fixed and mobile broadband has become a dominant deliverable, multiple areas of transition and transformation have occurred; the book places these changes in the context of the political, social and economic dynamics of the global telecommunications industry. Drawing on 25 years of participative experience in the mobile phone and telecommunications industry, the author closely analyses the materials, components and devices that have had a transformative impact. By presenting detailed case studies of materials innovation, such as those shown at success story Apple, the book shows how the collaboration of technological imagination with business knowledge will shape the industry's future.Trade Review“In this excellent book, Geoff Varrall uses his 25 years of experience within the mobile phone and telecommunications industries to analyse the components, devices, and materials that will have a significant impact on the marketplace.” (Radio-Electronics.com, 16 April 2012) Table of ContentsForeword xvii List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xix Acknowledgements xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Differentiating Technology and Engineering Innovation 1 1.2 Differentiating Invention and Innovation 2 1.3 The Role of Standards, Regulation and Competition Policy 2 1.4 Mobile Broadband Auction Values – Spectral Costs and Liabilities and Impact on Operator Balance Sheets 3 1.5 TV and Broadcasting and Mobile Broadband Regulation 4 1.6 Technology Convergence as a Precursor of Market Convergence? 5 1.7 Mobile Broadband Traffic Growth Forecasts and the Related Impact on Industry Profitability 5 1.8 Radio versus Copper, Cable and Fibre – Comparative Economics 6 1.9 Standardised Description Frameworks – OSI Seven-Layer Model as a Market and Business Descriptor 7 1.10 Technology and Engineering Economics – Regional Shifts and Related Influence on the Design and Supply Chain, RF Component Suppliers and the Operator Community 8 1.11 Apple as an Example of Technology-Led Market Innovation 12 Part I USER HARDWARE 2 Physical Layer Connectivity 15 2.1 Differentiating Guided and Unguided Media 15 2.2 The Transfer of Bandwidth from Broadcasting to Mobile Broadband 15 2.3 The Cost of Propagation Loss and Impact of OFDM 17 2.4 Competition or Collaboration? 18 2.5 The Smith Chart as a Descriptor of Technology Economics, Vector Analysis and Moore’s Law 19 2.6 Innovation Domains, Enabling Technologies and their Impact on the Cost of Delivery 20 2.7 Cable Performance Benchmarks 33 2.8 Hybrid Fibre Coaxial Systems 34 2.9 The DVB-S Satellite Alternative 35 2.10 Terrestrial TV 35 2.11 Copper Access – ADSL and VDSL Evolution 36 2.12 The Copper Conundrum – the Disconnect between Competition Policy and Technical Reality 42 2.13 OFDM in Wireless – A Similar Story? 42 2.14 Chapter Summary 54 3 Interrelationship of the Physical Layer with Other Layers of the OSI Model 55 3.1 MAC Layer and Physical Layer Relationships 55 3.2 OFDM and the Transformative Power of Transforms 56 3.3 The Role of Binary Arithmetic in Achieving Sensitivity, Selectivity and Stability 61 3.4 Summary 69 3.5 Contention Algorithms 69 3.6 The WiFi PHY and MAC Relationship 73 3.7 LTE Scheduling Gain 83 3.8 Chapter Summary 88 4 Telecommunications Economies of Scale 91 4.1 Market Size and Projections 91 4.2 Market Dynamics 97 4.3 Impact of Band Allocation on Scale Economics 103 4.4 The Impact of Increased RF Integration on Volume Thresholds 113 4.5 The RF Functions in a Phone 118 4.6 Summary 123 5 Wireless User Hardware 125 5.1 Military and Commercial Enabling Technologies 125 5.2 Smart Phones 129 5.3 Smart Phones and the User Experience 141 5.4 Summary So Far 142 5.5 RF Component Innovation 146 5.6 Antenna Innovations 153 5.7 Other Costs 162 5.8 Summary 165 6 Cable, Copper, Wireless and Fibre and theWorld of the Big TV 167 6.1 Big TV 167 6.2 3DTV 169 6.3 Portable Entertainment Systems 170 6.4 Summary of this Chapter and the First Five Chapters – Materials Innovation, Manufacturing Innovation, Market Innovation 171 Part II USER SOFTWARE 7 Device-Centric Software 175 7.1 Battery Drain – The Memristor as One Solution 175 7.2 Plane Switching, Displays and Visual Acuity 176 7.3 Relationship of Display Technologies to Processor Architectures, Software Performance and Power Efficiency 177 7.4 Audio Bandwidth Cost and Value 181 7.5 Video Bandwidth Cost and Value 182 7.6 Code Bandwidth and Application Bandwidth Value, Patent Value and Connectivity Value 184 8 User-Centric Software 185 8.1 Imaging and Social Networking 185 8.2 The Image Processing Chain 186 8.3 Image Processing Software – Processor and Memory Requirements 191 8.4 Digital Camera Software 194 8.5 Camera-Phone Network Hardware 196 8.6 Camera-Phone Network Software 196 8.7 Summary 197 9 Content- and Entertainment-Centric Software 199 9.1 iClouds and MyClouds 199 9.2 Lessons from the Past 200 9.3 Memory Options 203 9.4 Gaming in the Cloud and Gaming and TV Integration 205 9.5 Solid-State Storage 206 10 Information-Centric Software 211 10.1 Standard Phones, Smart Phones and Super Phones 211 10.2 Radio Waves, Light Waves and the Mechanics of Information Transfer 212 10.3 The Optical Pipe and Pixels 214 10.4 Metadata Defined 217 10.5 Mobile Metadata and Super-Phone Capabilities 219 10.6 The Role of Audio, Visual and Social Signatures in Developing ‘Inference Value’ 221 10.7 Revenues from Image and Audio and Memory and Knowledge Sharing – The Role of Mobile Metadata and Similarity Processing Algorithms 221 10.8 Sharing Algorithms 222 10.9 Disambiguating Social Mobile Metadata 223 10.10 The Requirement for Standardised Metadata Descriptors 223 10.11 Mobile Metadata and the Five Domains of User Value 224 10.12 Mathematical (Algorithmic Value) as an Integral Part of the Mobile Metadata Proposition 225 11 Transaction-Centric Software 229 11.1 Financial Transactions 229 11.2 The Role of SMS in Transactions, Political Influence and Public Safety 230 11.3 The Mobile Phone as a Dominant Communications Medium? 232 11.4 Commercial Issues – The End of the Cheque Book? 232 Part III NETWORK HARDWARE 12 Wireless Radio Access Network Hardware 237 12.1 Historical Context 237 12.2 From Difference Engine to Connection Engine 238 12.3 IP Network Efficiency Constraints 240 12.4 Telecoms – The Tobacco Industry of the Twentyfirst Century? 242 12.5 Amortisation Time Scales 242 12.6 Roads and Railways and the Power and Water Economy – The Justification of Long-Term Returns 243 12.6.1 Historical Precedents – Return on Infrastructure Investment Time Scales 243 12.7 Telecommunications and Economic Theory 244 12.8 The New Wireless Economy in a New Political Age? 250 12.9 Connected Economies – A Definition 251 12.10 Inferences and Implications 254 12.11 The Newly Connected Economy 255 13 Wireless Core Network Hardware 257 13.1 The Need to Reduce End-to-End Delivery Cost 257 13.2 Microwave-Link Economics 258 13.3 The Backhaul Mix 259 13.4 The HRAN and LRAN 260 13.5 Summary – Backhaul Options Economic Comparisons 263 13.6 Other Topics 264 14 Cable Network and Fibre Network Technologies and Topologies 267 14.1 Telegraph Poles as a Proxy for Regulatory and Competition Policy 267 14.2 Under the Streets of London 267 14.3 Above the Streets of London – The Telegraph 269 14.4 Corporate Success and Failure – Case Studies – The Impact of Regulation and Competition Policy 269 14.5 The Correlation of Success and Failure with R and D Spending 271 14.6 Broadband Delivery Economics and Delivery Innovation 273 15 Terrestrial Broadcast/Cellular Network Integration 275 15.1 Broadcasting in Historical Context 275 15.2 Digital Radio Mondiale 277 15.3 COFDM in DRM 277 15.4 Social and Political Impact of the Transistor Radio 278 15.5 Political and Economic Value of Broadcasting 280 15.6 DAB, DMB and DVB H 281 15.7 HSPA as a Broadcast Receiver 283 15.8 Impact of Global Spectral Policy and Related Implications for Receiver Design and Signal Flux Levels 284 15.9 White-Space Devices 287 15.10 Transmission Efficiency 289 15.11 Scale Economy Efficiency 289 15.12 Signalling Efficiency 289 15.13 Power Efficiency Loss as a Result of a Need for Wide Dynamic Range 290 15.14 Uneconomic Network Density as a Function of Transceiver TX and RX Inefficiency 290 15.15 Cognitive Radios Already Exist – Why Not Extend Them into White-Space Spectrum? 290 15.16 An Implied Need to Rethink the White-Space Space 291 15.17 White-Space White House 291 15.18 LTE TV 292 15.19 Summary 295 15.20 TV or not TV – That is the Question – What is the Answer? 295 15.21 And Finally the Issue of Potential Spectral Litigation 297 15.22 Technology Economics 300 15.23 Engineering Economics 300 15.24 Market Economics 300 15.25 Business Economics 301 15.26 Political Economics 301 15.27 Remedies 301 16 Satellite Networks 303 16.1 Potential Convergence 303 16.2 Traditional Specialist User Expectations 303 16.3 Impact of Cellular on Specialist User Expectations 304 16.4 DMR 446 305 16.5 TETRA and TETRA TEDS 305 16.6 TETRAPOL 306 16.7 WiDEN 306 16.8 APCO 25 306 16.9 Why the Performance Gap Between Cellular and Two-Way Radio will Continue to Increase Over Time 307 16.10 What This Means for Two-Way Radio Network Operators 307 16.11 Lack of Frequency Harmonisation as a Compounding Factor 307 16.12 The LTE 700 MHz Public-Safety-Band Plan 309 16.13 The US 800-MHz Public-Safety-Band Plan 310 16.14 Policy Issues and Technology Economics 313 16.15 Satellites for Emergency-Service Provision 315 16.16 Satellites and Cellular Networks 316 16.17 The Impact of Changing Technology and a Changed and Changing Economic and Regulatory Climate – Common Interest Opportunities 317 16.18 And Finally – Satellite and Terrestrial Hybrid Networks 318 16.19 Satellite Spectrum and Orbit Options 321 16.20 Terrestrial Broadcast and Satellite Coexistence in L Band 324 16.21 Terrestrial DAB Satellite DAB and DVB H 324 16.22 World Space Satellite Broadcast L Band GSO Plus Proposed ATC 324 16.23 Inmarsat – L Band GSO Two-Way Mobile Communications 324 16.24 Thuraya 2 L Band GSO Plus Triband GSM and GPS 325 16.25 ACeS L Band GSO Plus Triband GSM and GPS 325 16.26 Mobile Satellite Ventures L Band GSO Plus ATC 325 16.27 Global Positioning MEOS at L Band GPS, Galileo and Glonass 325 16.28 Terrestrial Broadcast and Satellite Coexistence in S Band 326 16.29 XM and Sirius in the US – S Band GEO Plus S Band ATC 326 16.30 Mobaho in Japan and S DMB in South Korea – S Band GSO Plus ATC 326 16.31 Terrestar S Band in the US – GSO with ATC 327 16.32 ICO S Band GSO with ATC 327 16.33 ICO S Band MEO at S Band with ATC 327 16.34 Eutelsat and SES ASTRA GSO – ‘Free’ S Band Payloads 328 16.35 Intelsat C Band Ku Band and Ka Band GSO 328 16.36 Implications for Terrestrial Broadcasters 328 16.37 Implications for Terrestrial Cellular Service Providers 329 16.38 The Impact of Satellite Terrestrial ATC Hybrids on Cellular Spectral and Corporate Value 329 16.39 L Band, S Band, C Band, K Band and V Band Hybrids 329 16.40 Summary 330 Part IV NETWORK SOFTWARE 17 Network Software – The User Experience 335 17.1 Definition of a Real-Time Network 335 17.2 Switching or Routing 336 17.3 IP Switching as an Option 336 17.4 Significance of the IPv6 Transition 336 17.5 Router Hardware/Software Partitioning 336 17.6 The Impact of Increasing Policy Complexity 337 17.7 So What Do Whorls Have to Do with Telecom Networks? 338 17.8 Packet Arrival Rates 342 17.9 Multilayer Classification 342 18 Network Software – Energy Management and Control 347 18.1 Will the Pot Call the Kettle Back? 347 18.2 Corporate M2M 348 18.3 Specialist M2M 348 18.4 Consumer M2M 349 18.5 Device Discovery and Device Coupling in Consumer M2M Applications and the Role of Near-Field Communication 349 18.6 Bandwidth Considerations 350 18.7 Femtocells as an M2M Hub? 351 18.8 Summary 352 19 Network Software – Microdevices and Microdevice Networks – The Software of the Very Small 353 19.1 Microdevices – How Small is Small? 354 19.2 Contactless Smart Cards at 13.56 MHz – A Technology, Engineering and Business Model? 357 19.3 Contactless Smart Cards and Memory Spots – Unidirectional and Bidirectional Value 358 19.4 Contactless Smart Cards, RF ID and Memory Spots 358 19.5 Contactless Smart Cards, RF ID, Memory Spot and Mote (Smart Dust) Applications 359 19.6 The Cellular Phone as a Bridge Between Multiple Devices and Other Network-Based Information 359 19.7 Multiple RF Options 360 19.8 Multiple Protocol Stacks 360 19.9 Adoption Time Scales – Bar Codes as an Example 360 19.10 Summary 361 20 Server Software 363 20.1 The Wisdom of the Cloud? 364 20.2 A Profitable Cloud? 364 20.3 A Rural Cloud? 365 20.4 A Locally Economically Relevant Cloud? 365 20.5 A Locally Socially Relevant Cloud? 365 20.6 A Locally Politically Relevant Cloud – The China Cloud? 366 20.7 The Cultural Cloud? 367 21 Future Trends, Forecasting, the Age of Adaptation and More Transformative Transforms 369 21.1 Future Forecasts 369 21.2 The Contribution of Charles Darwin to the Theory of Network Evolution 370 21.3 Famous Mostly Bearded Botanists and Their Role in Network Design – The Dynamics of Adaptation 371 21.4 Adaptation, Scaling and Context 371 21.5 Examples of Adaptation in Existing Semiconductor Solutions 372 21.6 Examples of Adaptation in Present Mobile Broadband Systems 372 21.7 Examples of Adaptation in Future Semiconductor Solutions 373 21.8 Examples of Adaptation in Future Cellular Networks 373 21.9 Specialisation 375 21.10 The Role of Standards Making 376 21.11 The Need for a Common Language 376 21.12 A Definition of Descriptive Domains 377 21.13 Testing the Model on Specific Applications 379 21.14 Domain Value 380 21.15 Quantifying Domain-Specific Economic and Emotional Value 381 21.16 Differentiating Communications and Connectivity Value 382 21.17 Defining Next-Generation Networks 383 21.18 Defining an Ultralow-Cost Network 384 21.19 Standards Policy, Spectral Policy and RF Economies of Scale 385 21.20 The Impact of IPR on RF Component and Subsystem Costs 386 21.21 The Cost of ‘Design Dissipation’ 386 21.22 The Hidden Costs of Content – Storage Cost 387 21.23 The Hidden Costs of User-Generated Content – Sorting Cost 387 21.24 The Hidden Cost of Content – Trigger Moments 387 21.25 The Hidden Cost of Content – Delivery Cost 388 21.26 The Particular Costs of Delivering Broadcast Content Over Cellular Networks 388 21.27 Summary – Cost and Value Transforms 388 Index 391

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Book SynopsisThe Multilevel Fast Multipole Algorithm (MLFMA) for Solving Large-Scale Computational Electromagnetic Problems provides a detailed and instructional overview of implementing MLFMA. The book: Presents a comprehensive treatment of the MLFMA algorithm, including basic linear algebra concepts, recent developments on the parallel computation, and a number of application examples Covers solutions of electromagnetic problems involving dielectric objects and perfectly-conducting objects Discusses applications including scattering from airborne targets, scattering from red blood cells, radiation from antennas and arrays, metamaterials etc. Is written by authors who have more than 25 years experience on the development and implementation of MLFMA The book will be useful for post-graduate students, researchers, and academics, studying in the areas of computational electromagnetics, numerical analTable of ContentsPreface xi List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Basics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Simulation Environments Based on MLFMA 2 1.3 From Maxwell’s Equations to Integro-Differential Operators 3 1.4 Surface Integral Equations 7 1.5 Boundary Conditions 9 1.6 Surface Formulations 10 1.7 Method of Moments and Discretization 12 1.7.1 Linear Functions 15 1.8 Integrals on Triangular Domains 21 1.8.1 Analytical Integrals 22 1.8.2 Gaussian Quadratures 26 1.8.3 Adaptive Integration 26 1.9 Electromagnetic Excitation 29 1.9.1 Plane-Wave Excitation 29 1.9.2 Hertzian Dipole 31 1.9.3 Complex-Source-Point Excitation 31 1.9.4 Delta-Gap Excitation 32 1.9.5 Current-Source Excitation 34 1.10 Multilevel Fast Multipole Algorithm 35 1.11 Low-Frequency Breakdown of MLFMA 39 1.12 Iterative Algorithms 41 1.12.1 Symmetric Lanczos Process 42 1.12.2 Nonsymmetric Lanczos Process 44 1.12.3 Arnoldi Process 45 1.12.4 Golub-Kahan Process 45 1.13 Preconditioning 46 1.14 Parallelization of MLFMA 50 2 Solutions of Electromagnetics Problems with Surface Integral Equations 53 2.1 Homogeneous Dielectric Objects 53 2.1.1 Surface Integral Equations 54 2.1.2 Surface Formulations 55 2.1.3 Discretizations of Surface Formulations 58 2.1.4 Direct Calculations of Interactions 60 2.1.5 General Properties of Surface Formulations 67 2.1.6 Decoupling for Perfectly Conducting Surfaces 73 2.1.7 Accuracy with Respect to Contrast 74 2.2 Low-Contrast Breakdown and Its Solution 77 2.2.1 A Combined Tangential Formulation 77 2.2.2 Nonradiating Currents 80 2.2.3 Conventional Formulations in the Limit Case 81 2.2.4 Low-Contrast Breakdown 82 2.2.5 Stabilization by Extraction 82 2.2.6 Double-Stabilized Combined Tangential Formulation 87 2.2.7 Numerical Results for Low Contrasts 88 2.2.8 Breakdown for Extremely Low Contrasts 91 2.2.9 Field-Based-Stabilized Formulations 93 2.2.10 Numerical Results for Extremely Low Contrasts 95 2.3 Perfectly Conducting Objects 105 2.3.1 Comments on the Integral Equations 106 2.3.2 Internal-Resonance Problem 108 2.3.3 Formulations of Open Surfaces 108 2.3.4 Low-Frequency Breakdown 111 2.3.5 Accuracy with the RWG Functions 115 2.3.6 Compatibility of the Integral Equations 122 2.3.7 Convergence to Minimum Achievable Error 124 2.3.8 Alternative Implementations of MFIE 130 2.3.9 Curl-Conforming Basis Functions for MFIE 131 2.3.10 LN-LT Type Basis Functions for MFIE and CFIE 137 2.3.11 Excessive Discretization Error of the Identity Operator 160 2.4 Composite Objects with Multiple Dielectric and Metallic Regions 165 2.4.1 Special Case: Homogeneous Dielectric Object 168 2.4.2 Special Case: Coated Dielectric Object 169 2.4.3 Special Case: Coated Metallic Object 172 2.5 Concluding Remarks 175 3 Iterative Solutions of Electromagnetics Problems with MLFMA 177 3.1 Factorization and Diagonalization of the Green’s Function 177 3.1.1 Addition Theorem 177 3.1.2 Factorization of the Translation Functions 180 3.1.3 Expansions 183 3.1.4 Diagonalization 184 3.2 Multilevel Fast Multipole Algorithm 186 3.2.1 Recursive Clustering 186 3.2.2 Far-Field Interactions 187 3.2.3 Radiation and Receiving Patterns 188 3.2.4 Near-Field Interactions 190 3.2.5 Sampling 190 3.2.6 Computational Requirements 192 3.2.7 Anterpolation 194 3.3 Lagrange Interpolation and Anterpolation 196 3.3.1 Two-Step Method 198 3.3.2 Virtual Extension 199 3.3.3 Sampling at the Poles 201 3.3.4 Interpolation of Translation Operators 205 3.4 MLFMA for Hermitian Matrix-Vector Multiplications 211 3.5 Strategies for Building Less-Accurate MLFMA 213 3.6 Iterative Solutions of Surface Formulations 215 3.6.1 Hybrid Formulations of PEC Objects 216 3.6.2 Iterative Solutions of Normal Equations 226 3.6.3 Iterative Solutions of Dielectric Objects 238 3.6.4 Iterative Solutions of Composite Objects with Multiple Dielectric and Metallic Regions 247 3.7 MLFMA for Low-Frequency Problems 252 3.7.1 Factorization of the Matrix Elements 256 3.7.2 Low-Frequency MLFMA 259 3.7.3 Broadband MLFMA 261 3.7.4 Numerical Results 261 3.8 Concluding Remarks 268 4 Parallelization of MLFMA for the Solution of Large-Scale Electromagnetics Problems 269 4.1 On the Parallelization of MLFMA 269 4.2 Parallel Computing Platforms for Numerical Examples 270 4.3 Electromagnetics Problems for Numerical Examples 271 4.4 Simple Parallelizations of MLFMA 271 4.4.1 Near-Field Interactions 271 4.4.2 Far-Field Interactions 273 4.5 The Hybrid Parallelization Strategy 274 4.5.1 Aggregation Stage 275 4.5.2 Translation Stage 277 4.5.3 Disaggregation Stage 278 4.5.4 Communications in Hybrid Parallelizations 278 4.5.5 Numerical Results with the Hybrid Parallelization Strategy 279 4.6 The Hierarchical Parallelization Strategy 283 4.6.1 Hierarchical Partitioning of Tree Structures 283 4.6.2 Aggregation Stage 285 4.6.3 Translation Stage 286 4.6.4 Disaggregation Stage 286 4.6.5 Communications in Hierarchical Parallelizations 287 4.6.6 Irregular Partitioning of Tree Structures 288 4.6.7 Comparisons with Previous Parallelization Strategies 289 4.6.8 Numerical Results with the Hierarchical Parallelization Strategy 291 4.7 Efficiency Considerations for Parallel Implementations of MLFMA 295 4.7.1 Efficient Programming 295 4.7.2 System Software 297 4.7.3 Load Balancing 297 4.7.4 Memory Recycling and Optimizations 302 4.7.5 Parallel Environment 306 4.7.6 Parallel Computers 315 4.8 Accuracy Considerations for Parallel Implementations of MLFMA 317 4.8.1 Mesh Quality 324 4.9 Solutions of Large-Scale Electromagnetics Problems Involving PEC Objects 324 4.9.1 PEC Sphere 326 4.9.2 Other Canonical Problems 338 4.9.3 NASA Almond 342 4.9.4 Flamme 354 4.10 Solutions of Large-Scale Electromagnetics Problems Involving Dielectric Objects 358 4.11 Concluding Remarks 368 5 Applications 369 5.1 Case Study: External Resonances of the Flamme 369 5.2 Case Study: Realistic Metamaterials Involving Split-Ring Resonators and Thin Wires 373 5.3 Case Study: Photonic Crystals 377 5.4 Case Study: Scattering from Red Blood Cells 380 5.5 Case Study: Log-Periodic Antennas and Arrays 389 5.5.1 Nonplanar Trapezoidal-Tooth Log-Periodic Antennas 389 5.5.2 Circular Arrays of Log-Periodic Antennas 395 5.5.3 Circular-Sectoral Arrays of Log-Periodic Antennas 403 5.6 Concluding Remarks 410 Appendix 411 A.1 Limit Part of the Operator 411 A.2 Post Processing 412 A.2.1 Near-Zone Electromagnetic Fields 413 A.2.2 Far-Zone Fields 414 A.3 More Details of the Hierarchical Partitioning Strategy 423 A.3.1 Aggregation/Disaggregation Stages 423 A.3.2 Translation Stage 424 A.4 Mie-Series Solutions 425 A.4.1 Definitions 426 A.4.2 Debye Potentials 426 A.4.3 Electric and Magnetic Fields 427 A.4.4 Incident Fields 427 A.4.5 Perfectly Conducting Sphere 428 A.4.6 Dielectric Sphere 428 A.4.7 Coated Perfectly Conducting Sphere 429 A.4.8 Coated Dielectric Sphere 430 A.4.9 Far-Field Expressions 432 A.5 Electric-Field Volume Integral Equation 433 A.6 Calculation of Some Special Functions 437 A.6.1 Spherical Bessel Functions 437 A.6.2 Legendre Functions 437 A.6.3 Gradient of Multipole-to-Monopole Shift Functions 439 A.6.4 Gaunt Coefficients 439 References 441

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Book SynopsisUnderstand the mechanics of wireless communication Wireless Communications: Principles, Theory and Methodology offers a detailed introduction to the technology. Comprehensive and well-rounded coverage includes signaling, transmission, and detection, including the mathematical and physics principles that underlie the technology''s mechanics. Problems with modern wireless communication are discussed in the context of applied skills, and the various approaches to solving these issues offer students the opportunity to test their understanding in a practical manner. With in-depth explanations and a practical approach to complex material, this book provides students with a clear understanding of wireless communication technology.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Resources for wireless communications 3 1.2 Shannon’s theory 3 1.3 Three challenges 4 1.4 Digital modulation versus coding 5 1.5 Philosophy to combat interference 6 1.6 Evolution of processing strategy 7 1.7 Philosophy to exploit two-dimensional random fields 7 1.8 Cellular: Concept, Evolution, and 5G 8 1.9 The structure of this book 10 1.10 Repeatedly used abbreviations and math symbols 10 Problems 12 References 12 2 Mathematical Background 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Congruence mapping and signal spaces 14 2.3 Estimation methods 19 2.3.1 Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) 20 2.3.2 Maximum a posteriori estimation 21 2.4 Commonly used distributions in wireless 21 2.4.1 Chi-square distributions 21 2.4.2 Gamma distribution 25 2.4.3 Nakagami distribution 26 2.4.4 Wishart distribution 26 2.5 The calculus of variations 28 2.6 Two inequalities for optimization 29 2.6.1 Inequality for Rayleigh quotient 29 2.6.2 Hadamard inequality 29 2.7 Q-function 30 2.8 The CHF method and its skilful applications 32 2.8.1 Gil-Pelaez’s lemma 32 2.8.2 Random variables in denominators 32 2.8.3 Parseval’s theorem 33 2.9 Matrix operations and differentiation 33 2.9.1 Decomposition of a special determinant 33 2.9.2 Higher order derivations 33 2.9.3 Kronecker product 34 2.10 Additional reading 34 Problems 34 References 35 3 Channel Characterization 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Large-scale propagation loss 38 3.2.1 Free-space propagation 39 3.2.2 Average large-scale path loss in mobile 40 3.2.3 Okumura’s model 40 3.2.4 Hata’s model 42 3.2.5 JTC air model 42 3.3 Lognormal shadowing 43 3.4 Multipath characterization for local behavior 44 3.4.1 An equivalent bandwidth 44 3.4.2 Temporal evolution of path coefficients 49 3.4.3 Statistical description of local fluctuation 50 3.4.4 Complex Gaussian distribution 50 3.4.5 Nakagami fading 51 3.4.6 Clarke–Jakes model 52 3.5 Composite model to incorporate multipath and shadowing 53 3.6 Example to illustrate the use of various models 54 3.6.1 Static design 54 3.6.2 Dynamic design 55 3.6.3 Large-scale design 56 3.7 Generation of correlated fading channels 56 3.7.1 Rayleigh fading with given covariance structure 56 3.7.2 Correlated Nakagami fading 57 3.7.3 Complex correlated Nakagami channels 62 3.7.4 Correlated lognormal shadowing 62 3.7.5 Fitting a lognormal sum 64 3.8 Summary 65 3.9 Additional reading 66 Problems 66 References 68 4 Digital Modulation 70 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Signals and signal space 71 4.3 Optimal MAP and ML receivers 72 4.4 Detection of two arbitrary waveforms 74 4.5 MPSK 77 4.5.1 BPSK 77 4.5.2 QPSK 79 4.5.3 MPSK 81 4.6 M-ary QAM 85 4.7 Noncoherent scheme–differential MPSK 88 4.7.1 Differential BPSK 88 4.7.2 Differential MPSK 89 4.7.3 Connection to MPSK 89 4.8 MFSK 90 4.8.1 BFSK with coherent detection 90 4.9 Noncoherent MFSK 92 4.10 Bit error probability versus symbol error probability 93 4.10.1 Orthogonal MFSK 93 4.10.2 Square M-QAM 93 4.10.3 Gray-mapped MPSK 94 4.11 Spectral efficiency 96 4.12 Summary of symbol error probability for various schemes 97 4.13 Additional reading 98 Problems 98 References 102 5 Minimum Shift Keying 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 MSK 104 5.3 de Buda’s approach 105 5.3.1 The basic idea and key equations 105 5.4 Properties of MSK signals 106 5.5 Understanding MSK 108 5.5.1 MSK as FSK 108 5.5.2 MSK as offset PSK 109 5.6 Signal space 109 5.7 MSK power spectrum 110 5.8 Alternative scheme–differential encoder 113 5.9 Transceivers for MSK signals 115 5.10 Gaussian-shaped MSK 116 5.11 Massey’s approach to MSK 117 5.11.1 Modulation 117 5.11.2 Receiver structures and error performance 117 5.12 Summary 119 Problems 119 References 120 6 Channel Coding 121 6.1 Introduction and philosophical discussion 121 6.2 Preliminary of Galois fields 123 6.2.1 Fields 123 6.2.2 Galois fields 124 6.2.3 The primitive element of GF(q) 124 6.2.4 Construction of GF(q) 124 6.3 Linear block codes 126 6.3.1 Syndrome test 129 6.3.2 Error-correcting capability 132 6.4 Cyclic codes 134 6.4.1 The order of elements: a concept in GF(q) 134 6.4.2 Cyclic codes 136 6.4.3 Generator, parity check, and syndrome polynomial 137 6.4.4 Systematic form 138 6.4.5 Syndrome and decoding 140 6.5 Golay code 141 6.6 BCH codes 141 6.6.1 Generating BCH codes 142 6.6.2 Decoding BCH codes 143 6.7 Convolutional codes 146 6.7.1 Examples 146 6.7.2 Code generation 147 6.7.3 Markovian property 148 6.7.4 Decoding with hard-decision Viterbi algorithm 150 6.7.5 Transfer function 152 6.7.6 Choice of convolutional codes 155 6.7.7 Philosophy behind decoding strategies 156 6.7.8 Error performance of convolutional decoding 160 6.8 Trellis-coded modulation 162 6.9 Summary 166 Problems 166 References 170 7 Diversity Techniques 171 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Idea behind diversity 173 7.3 Structures of various diversity combiners 174 7.3.1 MRC 174 7.3.2 EGC 175 7.3.3 SC 176 7.4 PDFs of output SNR 176 7.4.1 MRC 176 7.4.2 EGC 178 7.4.3 SC 178 7.5 Average SNR comparison for various schemes 179 7.5.1 MRC 179 7.5.2 EGC 180 7.5.3 SC 181 7.6 Methods for error performance analysis 182 7.6.1 The chain rule 182 7.6.2 The CHF method 183 7.7 Error probability of MRC 183 7.7.1 Error performance in nondiversity Rayleigh fading 183 7.7.2 MRC in i.i.d. Rayleigh fading 185 7.7.3 MRC in correlated Rayleigh fading 187 7.7.4 Pe for generic channels 188 7.8 Error probability of EGC 189 7.8.1 Closed-form solution to order-3 EGC 189 7.8.2 General EGC error performance 191 7.8.3 Diversity order of EGC 192 7.9 Average error performance of SC in Rayleigh fading 193 7.9.1 Pure SC 193 7.9.2 Generalized SC 195 7.10 Performance of diversity MDPSK systems 196 7.10.1 Nondiversity MDPSK in Rayleigh fading 196 7.10.2 Remarks on use of the chain rule 199 7.10.3 Linear prediction to fit the chain rule 199 7.10.4 Alternative approach for diversity MDPSK 200 7.11 Noncoherent MFSK with diversity reception 201 7.12 Summary 203 Problems 204 References 206 8 Processing Strategies for Wireless Systems 209 8.1 Communication problem 209 8.2 Traditional strategy 210 8.3 Paradigm of orthogonality 211 8.4 Turbo processing principle 211 Problems 213 References 213 9 Channel Equalization 214 9.1 Introduction 214 9.2 Pulse shaping for ISI-free transmission 215 9.3 ISI and equalization strategies 216 9.4 Zero-forcing equalizer 217 9.4.1 Orthogonal projection 217 9.4.2 ZFE 219 9.4.3 Equivalent discrete ZFE receiver 221 9.5 MMSE linear equalizer 225 9.6 Decision-feedback equalizer (DFE) 227 9.7 SNR comparison and error performance 229 9.8 An example 230 9.9 Spectral factorization 233 9.10 Summary 234 Problems 234 References 236 10 Channel Decomposition Techniques 238 10.1 Introduction 238 10.2 Channel matrix of ISI channels 239 10.3 Idea of channel decomposition 239 10.4 QR-decomposition-based Tomlinson–Harashima equalizer 240 10.5 The GMD equalizer 242 10.6 OFDM for time-invariant channel 243 10.6.1 Channel SVD 243 10.6.2 OFDM: a multicarrier modulation technique 244 10.6.3 PAPR and statistical behavior of OFDM 246 10.6.4 Combating PAPR 247 10.7 Cyclic prefix and circulant channel matrix 248 10.8 OFDM receiver 251 10.9 Channel estimation 251 10.10 Coded OFDM 252 10.11 Additional reading 252 Problems 252 References 254 11 Turbo Codes and Turbo Principle 257 11.1 Introduction and philosophical discussion 257 11.1.1 Generation of random-like long codes 258 11.1.2 The turbo principle 259 11.2 Two-device mechanism for iteration 259 11.3 Turbo codes 261 11.3.1 A turbo encoder 261 11.3.2 RSC versus NRC 261 11.3.3 Turbo codes with two constituent RSC encoders 264 11.4 BCJR algorithm 266 11.5 Turbo decoding 270 11.6 Illustration of turbo-code performance 270 11.7 Extrinsic information transfer (EXIT) charts 272 11.8 Convergence and fixed points 276 11.9 Statistics of LLRs 277 11.9.1 Mean and variance of LLRs 277 11.9.2 Mean and variance of hard decision 277 11.10 Turbo equalization 278 11.11 Turbo CDMA 281 11.12 Turbo IDMA 283 11.13 Summary 283 Problems 284 References 287 12 Multiple-Access Channels 289 12.1 Introduction 289 12.2 Typical MA schemes 291 12.3 User space of multiple-access 292 12.3.1 User spaces for TDMA 293 12.3.2 User space for CDMA 294 12.3.3 User space for MC-CDMA 294 12.3.4 MC-DS-CDMA 295 12.3.5 User space for OFDMA 296 12.3.6 Unified framework for orthogonal multiaccess schemes 297 12.4 Capacity of multiple-access channels 298 12.4.1 Flat fading 299 12.4.2 Frequency-selective fading 300 12.5 Achievable MI by various MA schemes 301 12.5.1 AWGN channel 301 12.5.2 Flat-fading MA channels 304 12.6 CDMA-IS-95 306 12.6.1 Forward link 306 12.6.2 Reverse link 308 12.7 Processing gain of spreading spectrum 310 12.8 IS-95 downlink receiver and performance 310 12.9 IS-95 uplink receiver and performance 317 12.10 3GPP-LTE uplink 318 12.11 m-Sequences 321 12.11.1 PN sequences of a shorter period 322 12.11.2 Conditions for m-sequence generators 322 12.11.3 Properties of m-sequence 323 12.11.4 Ways to generate PN sequences 324 12.12 Walsh sequences 327 12.13 CAZAC sequences for LTE-A 327 12.14 Nonorthogonal MA schemes 329 12.15 Summary 330 Problems 330 References 334 13 Wireless MIMO Systems 337 13.1 Introduction 337 13.2 Signal model and mutual information 338 13.3 Capacity with CSIT 339 13.4 Ergodic capacity without CSIT 340 13.4.1 i.i.d. MIMO Rayleigh channels 341 13.4.2 Ergodic capacity for correlated MIMO channels 341 13.5 Capacity: asymptotic results 344 13.5.1 Asymptotic capacity with large MIMO 344 13.5.2 Large SNR approximation 345 13.6 Optimal transceivers with CSIT 346 13.6.1 Optimal eigenbeam transceiver 347 13.6.2 Distributions of the largest eigenvalue 348 13.6.3 Average symbol-error probability 350 13.6.4 Average mutual information of MIMO-MRC 350 13.6.5 Average symbol-error probability 351 13.7 Receivers without CSIT 352 13.8 Optimal receiver 352 13.9 Zero-forcing MIMO receiver 353 13.10 MMSE receiver 355 13.11 VBLAST 357 13.11.1 Alternative VBLAST based on QR decomposition 358 13.12 Space–time block codes 359 13.13 Alamouti codes 359 13.13.1 One receive antenna 359 13.13.2 Two receive antennas 360 13.14 General space–time codes 362 13.14.1 Exact pairwise error probability 363 13.15 Information lossless space–time codes 365 13.16 Multiplexing gain versus diversity gain 365 13.16.1 Two frameworks 366 13.16.2 Derivation of the DMT 367 13.16.3 Available DFs for diversity 368 13.17 Summary 370 Problems 370 References 374 14 Cooperative Communications 377 14.1 A historical review 377 14.2 Relaying 378 14.3 Cooperative communications 379 14.3.1 Cooperation protocols 380 14.3.2 Diversity analysis 382 14.3.3 Resource allocation 384 14.4 Multiple-relay cooperation 385 14.4.1 Multi-relay over frequency-selective channels 386 14.4.2 Optimal matrix structure 389 14.4.3 Power allocation 390 14.5 Two-way relaying 395 14.5.1 Average power constraints 397 14.5.2 Instantaneous power constraint 399 14.6 Multi-cell MIMO 400 14.7 Summary 401 Problems 401 References 402 15 Cognitive Radio 405 15.1 Introduction 405 15.2 Spectrum sensing for spectrum holes 406 15.3 Matched filter versus energy detector 407 15.3.1 Matched-filter detection 407 15.3.2 Energy detection 408 15.4 Detection of random primary signals 410 15.4.1 Energy-based detection 411 15.4.2 Maximum likelihood ratio test 412 15.4.3 Eigenvalue ratio test 413 15.5 Detection without exact knowledge of σ2n 414 15.5.1 LRT with σ2n 414 15.5.2 LRT without noise-level reference 415 15.6 Cooperative spectrum sensing 416 15.7 Standardization of CR networks 418 15.8 Experimentation and commercialization of CR systems 418 Problems 419 References 420 Index 423

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Book SynopsisMathematical Foundations of Fuzzy Sets Introduce yourself to the foundations of fuzzy logic with this easy-to-use guide Many fields studied are defined by imprecise information or high degrees of uncertainty. When this uncertainty derives from randomness, traditional probabilistic statistical methods are adequate to address it; more everyday forms of vagueness and imprecision, however, require the toolkit associated with ''fuzzy sets'' and ''fuzzy logic''. Engineering and mathematical fields related to artificial intelligence, operations research and decision theory are now strongly driven by fuzzy set theory. Mathematical Foundations of Fuzzy Sets introduces readers to the theoretical background and practical techniques required to apply fuzzy logic to engineering and mathematical problems. It introduces the mathematical foundations of fuzzy sets as well as the current cutting edge of fuzzy-set operations and arithmetic, offering a roundedTable of ContentsPreface ix 1 Mathematical Analysis 1 1.1 Infimum and Supremum 1 1.2 Limit Inferior and Limit Superior 3 1.3 Semi-Continuity 11 1.4 Miscellaneous 19 2 Fuzzy Sets 23 2.1 Membership Functions 23 2.2 𝛼-level Sets 24 2.3 Types of Fuzzy Sets 34 3 Set Operations of Fuzzy Sets 43 3.1 Complement of Fuzzy Sets 43 3.2 Intersection of Fuzzy Sets 44 3.3 Union of Fuzzy Sets 51 3.4 Inductive and Direct Definitions 56 3.5 𝛼-Level Sets of Intersection and Union 61 3.6 Mixed Set Operations 65 4 Generalized Extension Principle 69 4.1 Extension Principle Based on the Euclidean Space 69 4.2 Extension Principle Based on the Product Spaces 75 4.3 Extension Principle Based on the Triangular Norms 84 4.4 Generalized Extension Principle 92 5 Generating Fuzzy Sets 109 5.1 Families of Sets 110 5.2 Nested Families 112 5.3 Generating Fuzzy Sets from Nested Families 119 5.4 Generating Fuzzy Sets Based on the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 123 5.4.1 The Ordinary Situation 123 5.4.2 Based on One Function 129 Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Single Column Tight Wu981527 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/14/2022 2:05pm Page vi [1] [1] [1] [1] vi Contents 5.4.3 Based on Two Functions 140 5.5 Generating Fuzzy Intervals 150 5.6 Uniqueness of Construction 160 6 Fuzzification of Crisp Functions 173 6.1 Fuzzification Using the Extension Principle 173 6.2 Fuzzification Using the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 176 6.2.1 Nested Family Using 𝛼-Level Sets 177 6.2.2 Nested Family Using Endpoints 181 6.2.3 Non-Nested Family Using Endpoints 184 6.3 The Relationships between EP and DT 187 6.3.1 The Equivalences 187 6.3.2 The Fuzziness 191 6.4 Differentiation of Fuzzy Functions 196 6.4.1 Defined on Open Intervals 196 6.4.2 Fuzzification of Differentiable Functions Using the Extension Principle 197 6.4.3 Fuzzification of Differentiable Functions Using the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 198 6.5 Integrals of Fuzzy Functions 201 6.5.1 Lebesgue Integrals on a Measurable Set 201 6.5.2 Fuzzy Riemann Integrals Using the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 203 6.5.3 Fuzzy Riemann Integrals Using the Extension Principle 207 7 Arithmetics of Fuzzy Sets 211 7.1 Arithmetics of Fuzzy Sets in ℝ 211 7.1.1 Arithmetics of Fuzzy Intervals 214 7.1.2 Arithmetics Using EP and DT 220 7.1.2.1 Addition of Fuzzy Intervals 220 7.1.2.2 Difference of Fuzzy Intervals 222 7.1.2.3 Multiplication of Fuzzy Intervals 224 7.2 Arithmetics of Fuzzy Vectors 227 7.2.1 Arithmetics Using the Extension Principle 230 7.2.2 Arithmetics Using the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 230 7.3 Difference of Vectors of Fuzzy Intervals 235 7.3.1 𝛼-Level Sets of 𝐀̃⊖EP 𝐁̃ 235 7.3.2 𝛼-Level Sets of 𝐀̃ ⊖⋄ DT 𝐁̃ 237 7.3.3 𝛼-Level Sets of 𝐀̃ ⊖⋆ DT 𝐁̃ 239 7.3.4 𝛼-Level Sets of 𝐀̃ ⊖† DT 𝐁̃ 241 7.3.5 The Equivalences and Fuzziness 243 7.4 Addition of Vectors of Fuzzy Intervals 244 7.4.1 𝛼-Level Sets of 𝐀̃⊕EP 𝐁̃ 244 7.4.2 𝛼-Level Sets of 𝐀̃⊕DT 𝐁̃ 246 Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Single Column Tight Wu981527 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/14/2022 2:05pm Page vii [1] [1] [1] [1] Contents vii 7.5 Arithmetic Operations Using Compatibility and Associativity 249 7.5.1 Compatibility 250 7.5.2 Associativity 255 7.5.3 Computational Procedure 264 7.6 Binary Operations 268 7.6.1 First Type of Binary Operation 269 7.6.2 Second Type of Binary Operation 273 7.6.3 Third Type of Binary Operation 274 7.6.4 Existence and Equivalence 277 7.6.5 Equivalent Arithmetic Operations on Fuzzy Sets in ℝ 282 7.6.6 Equivalent Additions of Fuzzy Sets in ℝm 289 7.7 Hausdorff Differences 294 7.7.1 Fair Hausdorff Difference 294 7.7.2 Composite Hausdorff Difference 299 7.7.3 Complete Composite Hausdorff Difference 304 7.8 Applications and Conclusions 312 7.8.1 Gradual Numbers 312 7.8.2 Fuzzy Linear Systems 313 7.8.3 Summary and Conclusion 315 8 Inner Product of Fuzzy Vectors 317 8.1 The First Type of Inner Product 317 8.1.1 Using the Extension Principle 318 8.1.2 Using the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 322 8.1.2.1 The Inner Product 𝐀̃ ⊛⋄ DT 𝐁̃ 323 8.1.2.2 The Inner Product 𝐀̃ ⊛⋆ DT 𝐁̃ 325 8.1.2.3 The Inner Product 𝐀̃ ⊛† DT 𝐁̃ 327 8.1.3 The Equivalences and Fuzziness 329 8.2 The Second Type of Inner Product 330 8.2.1 Using the Extension Principle 333 8.2.2 Using the Expression in the Decomposition Theorem 335 8.2.3 Comparison of Fuzziness 338 9 Gradual Elements and Gradual Sets 343 9.1 Gradual Elements and Gradual Sets 343 9.2 Fuzzification Using Gradual Numbers 347 9.3 Elements and Subsets of Fuzzy Intervals 348 9.4 Set Operations Using Gradual Elements 351 9.4.1 Complement Set 351 9.4.2 Intersection and Union 353 9.4.3 Associativity 359 9.4.4 Equivalence with the Conventional Situation 363 9.5 Arithmetics Using Gradual Numbers 364 Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Single Column Tight Wu981527 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/14/2022 2:05pm Page viii [1] [1] [1] [1] viii Contents 10 Duality in Fuzzy Sets 373 10.1 Lower and Upper Level Sets 373 10.2 Dual Fuzzy Sets 376 10.3 Dual Extension Principle 378 10.4 Dual Arithmetics of Fuzzy Sets 380 10.5 Representation Theorem for Dual-Fuzzified Function 385 Bibliography 389 Mathematical Notations 397 Index 401

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisDeterministic and Stochastic Modeling in Computational Electromagnetics Help protect your network with this important reference work on cyber security Deterministic computational models are those for which all inputs are precisely known, whereas stochastic modeling reflects uncertainty or randomness in one or more of the data inputs. Many problems in computational engineering therefore require both deterministic and stochastic modeling to be used in parallel, allowing for different degrees of confidence and incorporating datasets of different kinds. In particular, non-intrusive stochastic methods can be easily combined with widely used deterministic approaches, enabling this more robust form of data analysis to be applied to a range of computational challenges. Deterministic and Stochastic Modeling in Computational Electromagnetics provides a rare treatment of parallel deterministicstochastic computational modeling and its beneficial applications. Unlike Table of ContentsAbout the Authors xv Preface xvii Part I Some Fundamental Principles in Field Theory 1 1 Least Action Principle in Electromagnetics 3 1.1 Hamilton Principle 4 1.2 Newton's Equation of Motion from Lagrangian 7 1.3 Noether's Theorem and Conservation Laws 8 1.4 Equation of Continuity from Lagrangian 12 1.5 Lorentz Force from Gauge Invariance 16 2 Fundamental Equations of Engineering Electromagnetics 21 2.1 Derivation of Two-Canonical Maxwell's Equation 21 2.2 Derivation of Two-Dynamical Maxwell's Equation 22 2.3 Integral Form of Maxwell's Equations, Continuity Equations, and Lorentz Force 25 2.4 Phasor Form of Maxwell's Equations 27 2.5 Continuity (Interface) Conditions 29 2.6 Poynting Theorem 30 2.7 Electromagnetic Wave Equations 32 2.8 Plane Wave Propagation 35 2.9 Hertz Dipole as a Simple Radiation Source 37 2.10 Wire Antennas of Finite Length 41 3 Variational Methods in Electromagnetics 47 3.1 Analytical Methods 47 3.2 Variational Basis for Numerical Methods 51 4 Outline of Numerical Methods 57 4.1 Variational Basis for Numerical Methods 60 4.2 The Finite Element Method 61 4.3 The Boundary Element Method 77 Part II Deterministic Modeling 87 5 Wire Configurations – Frequency Domain Analysis 89 5.1 Single Wire in the Presence of a Lossy Half-Space 89 5.2 Horizontal Dipole Above a Multi-layered Lossy Half-Space 100 5.3 Wire Array Above a Multilayer 125 5.4 Wires of Arbitrary Shape Radiating Over a Layered Medium 150 5.5 Complex Power of Arbitrarily Shaped Thin Wire Radiating Above a Lossy Half-Space 186 6 Wire Configurations – Time Domain Analysis 207 6.1 Single Wire Above a Lossy Ground 208 6.2 Numerical Solution of Hallen Equation via the Galerkin–Bubnov Indirect Boundary Element Method (GB-IBEM) 222 6.3 Application to Ground-Penetrating Radar 228 6.4 Simplified Calculation of Specific Absorption in Human Tissue 246 6.5 Time Domain Energy Measures 255 6.6 Time Domain Analysis of Multiple Straight Wires above a Half-Space by Means of Various Time Domain Measures 260 7 Bioelectromagnetics – Exposure of Humans in GHz Frequency Range 285 7.1 Assessment of Sab in a Planar Single Layer Tissue 286 7.2 Assessment of Transmitted Power Density in a Single Layer Tissue 295 7.3 Assessment of Sab in a Multilayer Tissue Model 318 7.4 Assessment of Transmitted Power Density in the Planar Multilayer Tissue Model 325 8 Multiphysics Phenomena 339 8.1 Electromagnetic-Thermal Modeling of Human Exposure to HF Radiation 340 8.2 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) Models for Plasma Confinement 348 8.3 Modeling of the Schrodinger Equation 370 Part III Stochastic Modeling 385 9 Methods for Stochastic Analysis 387 9.1 Uncertainty Quantification Framework 388 9.2 Stochastic Collocation Method 393 9.3 Sensitivity Analysis 402 10 Stochastic–Deterministic Electromagnetic Dosimetry 407 10.1 Internal Stochastic Dosimetry for a Simple Body Model Exposed to Low-Frequency Field 408 10.2 Internal Stochastic Dosimetry for a Simple Body Model Exposed to Electromagnetic Pulse 413 10.3 Internal Stochastic Dosimetry for a Realistic Three-Compartment Human Head Exposed to High-Frequency Plane Wave 417 10.4 Incident Field Stochastic Dosimetry for Base Station Antenna Radiation 423 11 Stochastic–Deterministic Thermal Dosimetry 433 11.1 Stochastic Sensitivity Analysis of Bioheat Transfer Equation 434 11.2 Stochastic Thermal Dosimetry for Homogeneous Human Brain 437 11.3 Stochastic Thermal Dosimetry for Three-Compartment Human Head 447 11.4 Stochastic Thermal Dosimetry below 6 GHz for 5G Mobile Communication Systems 450 12 Stochastic–Deterministic Modeling in Biomedical Applications of Electromagnetic Fields 459 12.1 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 460 12.2 Transcranial Electric Stimulation 466 12.3 Neuron's Action Potential Dynamics 481 12.4 Radiation Efficiency of Implantable Antennas 488 13 Stochastic–Deterministic Modeling of Wire Configurations in Frequency and Time Domain 503 13.1 Ground-Penetrating Radar 503 13.2 Grounding Systems 515 13.3 Air Traffic Control Systems 523 14 A Note on Stochastic Modeling of Plasma Physics Phenomena 535 14.1 Tokamak Current Diffusion Equation 535 References 543 Index 545

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Book SynopsisIdentification of a physical system deals with the problem of identifying its mathematical model using the measured input and output data. As the physical system is generally complex, nonlinear, and its input output data is corrupted noise, there are fundamental theoretical and practical issues that need to be considered.Table of ContentsPreface xv Nomenclature xxi 1 Modeling of Signals and Systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Classification of Signals 2 1.2.1 Deterministic and Random Signals 3 1.2.2 Bounded and Unbounded Signal 3 1.2.3 Energy and Power Signals 3 1.2.4 Causal, Non-causal, and Anti-causal Signals 4 1.2.5 Causal, Non-causal, and Anti-causal Systems 4 1.3 Model of Systems and Signals 5 1.3.1 Time-Domain Model 5 1.3.2 Frequency-Domain Model 8 1.4 Equivalence of Input–Output and State-Space Models 8 1.4.1 State-Space and Transfer Function Model 8 1.4.2 Time-Domain Expression for the Output Response 8 1.4.3 State-Space and the Difference Equation Model 9 1.4.4 Observer Canonical Form 9 1.4.5 Characterization of the Model 10 1.4.6 Stability of (Discrete-Time) Systems 10 1.4.7 Minimum Phase System 11 1.4.8 Pole-Zero Locations and the Output Response 11 1.5 Deterministic Signals 11 1.5.1 Transfer Function Model 12 1.5.2 Difference Equation Model 12 1.5.3 State-Space Model 14 1.5.4 Expression for an Impulse Response 14 1.5.5 Periodic Signal 14 1.5.6 Periodic Impulse Train 15 1.5.7 A Finite Duration Signal 16 1.5.8 Model of a Class of All Signals 17 1.5.9 Examples of Deterministic Signals 18 1.6 Introduction to Random Signals 23 1.6.1 Stationary Random Signal 23 1.6.2 Joint PDF and Statistics of Random Signals 24 1.6.3 Ergodic Process 27 1.7 Model of Random Signals 28 1.7.1 White Noise Process 29 1.7.2 Colored Noise 30 1.7.3 Model of a Random Waveform 30 1.7.4 Classification of the Random Waveform 31 1.7.5 Frequency Response and Pole-Zero Locations 31 1.7.6 Illustrative Examples of Filters 36 1.7.7 Illustrative Examples of Random Signals 36 1.7.8 Pseudo Random Binary Sequence (PRBS) 38 1.8 Model of a System with Disturbance and Measurement Noise 41 1.8.1 Input–Output Model of the System 41 1.8.2 State-Space Model of the System 44 1.8.3 Illustrative Examples in Integrated System Model 47 1.9 Summary 50 References 54 Further Readings 54 2 Characterization of Signals: Correlation and Spectral Density 57 2.1 Introduction 57 2.2 Definitions of Auto- and Cross-Correlation (and Covariance) 58 2.2.1 Properties of Correlation 61 2.2.2 Normalized Correlation and Correlation Coefficient 66 2.3 Spectral Density: Correlation in the Frequency Domain 67 2.3.1 Z-transform of the Correlation Function 69 2.3.2 Expressions for Energy and Power Spectral Densities 71 2.4 Coherence Spectrum 74 2.5 Illustrative Examples in Correlation and Spectral Density 76 2.5.1 Deterministic Signals: Correlation and Spectral Density 76 2.5.2 Random Signals: Correlation and Spectral Density 87 2.6 Input–Output Correlation and Spectral Density 91 2.6.1 Generation of Random Signal from White Noise 92 2.6.2 Identification of Non-Parametric Model of a System 93 2.6.3 Identification of a Parametric Model of a Random Signal 94 2.7 Illustrative Examples: Modeling and Identification 98 2.8 Summary 109 2.9 Appendix 112 References 116 3 Estimation Theory 117 3.1 Overview 117 3.2 Map Relating Measurement and the Parameter 119 3.2.1 Mathematical Model 119 3.2.2 Probabilistic Model 120 3.2.3 Likelihood Function 122 3.3 Properties of Estimators 123 3.3.1 Indirect Approach to Estimation 123 3.3.2 Unbiasedness of the Estimator 124 3.3.3 Variance of the Estimator: Scalar Case 125 3.3.4 Median of the Data Samples 125 3.3.5 Small and Large Sample Properties 126 3.3.6 Large Sample Properties 126 3.4 Cramér–Rao Inequality 127 3.4.1 Scalar Case: and ̂ Scalars while y is a Nx1 Vector 128 3.4.2 Vector Case: is a Mx1 Vector 129 3.4.3 Illustrative Examples: Cramér–Rao Inequality 130 3.4.4 Fisher Information 138 3.5 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 139 3.5.1 Formulation of Maximum Likelihood Estimation 139 3.5.2 Illustrative Examples: Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Mean or Median 141 3.5.3 Illustrative Examples: Maximum Likelihood Estimation of Mean and Variance 148 3.5.4 Properties of Maximum Likelihood Estimator 154 3.6 Summary 154 3.7 Appendix: Cauchy–Schwarz Inequality 157 3.8 Appendix: Cram´er–Rao Lower Bound 157 3.8.1 Scalar Case 158 3.8.2 Vector Case 160 3.9 Appendix: Fisher Information: Cauchy PDF 161 3.10 Appendix: Fisher Information for i.i.d. PDF 161 3.11 Appendix: Projection Operator 162 3.12 Appendix: Fisher Information: Part Gauss-Part Laplace 164 Problem 165 References 165 Further Readings 165 4 Estimation of Random Parameter 167 4.1 Overview 167 4.2 Minimum Mean-Squares Estimator (MMSE): Scalar Case 167 4.2.1 Conditional Mean: Optimal Estimator 168 4.3 MMSE Estimator: Vector Case 169 4.3.1 Covariance of the Estimation Error 171 4.3.2 Conditional Expectation and Its Properties 172 4.4 Expression for Conditional Mean 172 4.4.1 MMSE Estimator: Gaussian Random Variables 173 4.4.2 MMSE Estimator: Unknown is Gaussian and Measurement Non-Gaussian 174 4.4.3 The MMSE Estimator for Gaussian PDF 176 4.4.4 Illustrative Examples 178 4.5 Summary 183 4.6 Appendix: Non-Gaussian Measurement PDF 184 4.6.1 Expression for Conditional Expectation 184 4.6.2 Conditional Expectation for Gaussian x and Non-Gaussian y 185 References 188 Further Readings 188 5 Linear Least-Squares Estimation 189 5.1 Overview 189 5.2 Linear Least-Squares Approach 189 5.2.1 Linear Algebraic Model 190 5.2.2 Least-Squares Method 190 5.2.3 Objective Function 191 5.2.4 Optimal Least-Squares Estimate: Normal Equation 193 5.2.5 Geometric Interpretation of Least-Squares Estimate: Orthogonality Principle 194 5.3 Performance of the Least-Squares Estimator 195 5.3.1 Unbiasedness of the Least-Squares Estimate 195 5.3.2 Covariance of the Estimation Error 197 5.3.3 Properties of the Residual 198 5.3.4 Model and Systemic Errors: Bias and the Variance Errors 201 5.4 Illustrative Examples 205 5.4.1 Non-Zero-Mean Measurement Noise 209 5.5 Cram´er–Rao Lower Bound 209 5.6 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 210 5.6.1 Illustrative Examples 210 5.7 Least-Squares Solution of Under-Determined System 212 5.8 Singular Value Decomposition 213 5.8.1 Illustrative Example: Singular and Eigenvalues of Square Matrices 215 5.8.2 Computation of Least-Squares Estimate Using the SVD 216 5.9 Summary 218 5.10 Appendix: Properties of the Pseudo-Inverse and the Projection Operator 221 5.10.1 Over-Determined System 221 5.10.2 Under-Determined System 222 5.11 Appendix: Positive Definite Matrices 222 5.12 Appendix: Singular Value Decomposition of a Matrix 223 5.12.1 SVD and Eigendecompositions 225 5.12.2 Matrix Norms 226 5.12.3 Least Squares Estimate for Any Arbitrary Data Matrix H 226 5.12.4 Pseudo-Inverse of Any Arbitrary Matrix 228 5.12.5 Bounds on the Residual and the Covariance of the Estimation Error 228 5.13 Appendix: Least-Squares Solution for Under-Determined System 228 5.14 Appendix: Computation of Least-Squares Estimate Using the SVD 229 References 229 Further Readings 230 6 Kalman Filter 231 6.1 Overview 231 6.2 Mathematical Model of the System 233 6.2.1 Model of the Plant 233 6.2.2 Model of the Disturbance and Measurement Noise 233 6.2.3 Integrated Model of the System 234 6.2.4 Expression for the Output of the Integrated System 235 6.2.5 Linear Regression Model 235 6.2.6 Observability 236 6.3 Internal Model Principle 236 6.3.1 Controller Design Using the Internal Model Principle 237 6.3.2 Internal Model (IM) of a Signal 237 6.3.3 Controller Design 238 6.3.4 Illustrative Example: Controller Design 241 6.4 Duality Between Controller and an Estimator Design 244 6.4.1 Estimation Problem 244 6.4.2 Estimator Design 244 6.5 Observer: Estimator for the States of a System 246 6.5.1 Problem Formulation 246 6.5.2 The Internal Model of the Output 246 6.5.3 Illustrative Example: Observer with Internal Model Structure 247 6.6 Kalman Filter: Estimator of the States of a Stochastic System 250 6.6.1 Objectives of the Kalman Filter 251 6.6.2 Necessary Structure of the Kalman Filter 252 6.6.3 Internal Model of a Random Process 252 6.6.4 Illustrative Example: Role of an Internal Model 254 6.6.5 Model of the Kalman Filter 255 6.6.6 Optimal Kalman Filter 256 6.6.7 Optimal Scalar Kalman Filter 256 6.6.8 Optimal Kalman Gain 260 6.6.9 Comparison of the Kalman Filters: Integrated and Plant Models 260 6.6.10 Steady-State Kalman Filter 261 6.6.11 Internal Model and Statistical Approaches 261 6.6.12 Optimal Information Fusion 262 6.6.13 Role of the Ratio of Variances 262 6.6.14 Fusion of Information from the Model and the Measurement 263 6.6.15 Illustrative Example: Fusion of Information 264 6.6.16 Orthogonal Properties of the Kalman Filter 266 6.6.17 Ensemble and Time Averages 266 6.6.18 Illustrative Example: Orthogonality Properties of the Kalman Filter 267 6.7 The Residual of the Kalman Filter with Model Mismatch and Non-Optimal Gain 267 6.7.1 State Estimation Error with Model Mismatch 268 6.7.2 Illustrative Example: Residual with Model Mismatch and Non-Optimal Gain 271 6.8 Summary 274 6.9 Appendix: Estimation Error Covariance and the Kalman Gain 277 6.10 Appendix: The Role of the Ratio of Plant and the Measurement Noise Variances 279 6.11 Appendix: Orthogonal Properties of the Kalman Filter 279 6.11.1 Span of a Matrix 284 6.11.2 Transfer Function Formulae 284 6.12 Appendix: Kalman Filter Residual with Model Mismatch 285 References 287 7 System Identification 289 7.1 Overview 289 7.2 System Model 291 7.2.1 State-Space Model 291 7.2.2 Assumptions 292 7.2.3 Frequency-Domain Model 292 7.2.4 Input Signal for System Identification 293 7.3 Kalman Filter-Based Identification Model Structure 297 7.3.1 Expression for the Kalman Filter Residual 298 7.3.2 Direct Form or Colored Noise Form 300 7.3.3 Illustrative Examples: Process, Predictor, and Innovation Forms 302 7.3.4 Models for System Identification 304 7.3.5 Identification Methods 305 7.4 Least-Squares Method 307 7.4.1 Linear Matrix Model: Batch Processing 308 7.4.2 The Least-Squares Estimate 308 7.4.3 Quality of the Least-Squares Estimate 312 7.4.4 Illustrative Example of the Least-Squares Identification 313 7.4.5 Computation of the Estimates Using Singular Value Decomposition 315 7.4.6 Recursive Least-Squares Identification 316 7.5 High-Order Least-Squares Method 318 7.5.1 Justification for a High-Order Model 318 7.5.2 Derivation of a Reduced-Order Model 323 7.5.3 Formulation of Model Reduction 324 7.5.4 Model Order Selection 324 7.5.5 Illustrative Example of High-Order Least-Squares Method 325 7.5.6 Performance of the High-Order Least-Squares Scheme 326 7.6 The Prediction Error Method 327 7.6.1 Residual Model 327 7.6.2 Objective Function 327 7.6.3 Iterative Prediction Algorithm 328 7.6.4 Family of Prediction Error Algorithms 330 7.7 Comparison of High-Order Least-Squares and the Prediction Error Methods 330 7.7.1 Illustrative Example: LS, High Order LS, and PEM 331 7.8 Subspace Identification Method 334 7.8.1 Identification Model: Predictor Form of the Kalman Filter 334 7.9 Summary 340 7.10 Appendix: Performance of the Least-Squares Approach 347 7.10.1 Correlated Error 347 7.10.2 Uncorrelated Error 347 7.10.3 Correlation of the Error and the Data Matrix 348 7.10.4 Residual Analysis 350 7.11 Appendix: Frequency-Weighted Model Order Reduction 352 7.11.1 Implementation of the Frequency-Weighted Estimator 354 7.11.2 Selection of the Frequencies 354 References 354 8 Closed Loop Identification 357 8.1 Overview 357 8.1.1 Kalman Filter-Based Identification Model 358 8.1.2 Closed-Loop Identification Approaches 358 8.2 Closed-Loop System 359 8.2.1 Two-Stage and Direct Approaches 359 8.3 Model of the Single Input Multi-Output System 360 8.3.1 State- Space Model of the Subsystem 360 8.3.2 State-Space Model of the Overall System 361 8.3.3 Transfer Function Model 361 8.3.4 Illustrative Example: Closed-Loop Sensor Network 362 8.4 Kalman Filter-Based Identification Model 364 8.4.1 State-Space Model of the Kalman Filter 364 8.4.2 Residual Model 365 8.4.3 The Identification Model 366 8.5 Closed-Loop Identification Schemes 366 8.5.1 The High-Order Least-Squares Method 366 8.6 Second Stage of the Two-Stage Identification 372 8.7 Evaluation on a Simulated Closed-Loop Sensor Net 372 8.7.1 The Performance of the Stage I Identification Scheme 372 8.7.2 The Performance of the Stage II Identification Scheme 373 8.8 Summary 374 References 377 9 Fault Diagnosis 379 9.1 Overview 379 9.1.1 Identification for Fault Diagnosis 380 9.1.2 Residual Generation 380 9.1.3 Fault Detection 380 9.1.4 Fault Isolation 381 9.2 Mathematical Model of the System 381 9.2.1 Linear Regression Model: Nominal System 382 9.3 Model of the Kalman Filter 382 9.4 Modeling of Faults 383 9.4.1 Linear Regression Model 383 9.5 Diagnostic Parameters and the Feature Vector 384 9.6 Illustrative Example 386 9.6.1 Mathematical Model 386 9.6.2 Feature Vector and the Influence Vectors 387 9.7 Residual of the Kalman Filter 388 9.7.1 Diagnostic Model 389 9.7.2 Key Properties of the Residual 389 9.7.3 The Role of the Kalman Filter in Fault Diagnosis 389 9.8 Fault Diagnosis 390 9.9 Fault Detection: Bayes Decision Strategy 390 9.9.1 Pattern Classification Problem: Fault Detection 391 9.9.2 Generalized Likelihood Ratio Test 392 9.9.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimate 392 9.9.4 Decision Strategy 394 9.9.5 Other Test Statistics 395 9.10 Evaluation of Detection Strategy on Simulated System 396 9.11 Formulation of Fault Isolation Problem 396 9.11.1 Pattern Classification Problem: Fault Isolation 397 9.11.2 Formulation of the Fault Isolation Scheme 398 9.11.3 Fault Isolation Tasks 399 9.12 Estimation of the Influence Vectors and Additive Fault 399 9.12.1 Parameter-Perturbed Experiment 400 9.12.2 Least-Squares Estimates 401 9.13 Fault Isolation Scheme 401 9.13.1 Sequential Fault Isolation Scheme 402 9.13.2 Isolation of the Fault 403 9.14 Isolation of a Single Fault 403 9.14.1 Fault Discriminant Function 403 9.14.2 Performance of Fault Isolation Scheme 404 9.14.3 Performance Issues and Guidelines 405 9.15 Emulators for Offline Identification 406 9.15.1 Examples of Emulators 407 9.15.2 Emulators for Multiple Input-Multiple-Output System 407 9.15.3 Role of an Emulator 408 9.15.4 Criteria for Selection 409 9.16 Illustrative Example 409 9.16.1 Mathematical Model 409 9.16.2 Selection of Emulators 410 9.16.3 Transfer Function Model 410 9.16.4 Role of the Static Emulators 411 9.16.5 Role of the Dynamic Emulator 412 9.17 Overview of Fault Diagnosis Scheme 414 9.18 Evaluation on a Simulated Example 414 9.18.1 The Kalman Filter 414 9.18.2 The Kalman Filter Residual and Its Auto-correlation 414 9.18.3 Estimation of the Influence Vectors 416 9.18.4 Fault Size Estimation 416 9.18.5 Fault Isolation 417 9.19 Summary 418 9.20 Appendix: Bayesian Multiple Composite Hypotheses Testing Problem 422 9.21 Appendix: Discriminant Function for Fault Isolation 423 9.22 Appendix: Log-Likelihood Ratio for a Sinusoid and a Constant 424 9.22.1 Determination of af, bf , and cf 424 9.22.2 Determination of the Optimal Cost 425 References 426 10 Modeling and Identification of Physical Systems 427 10.1 Overview 427 10.2 Magnetic Levitation System 427 10.2.1 Mathematic Model of a Magnetic Levitation System 427 10.2.2 Linearized Model 429 10.2.3 Discrete-Time Equivalent of Continuous-Time Models 430 10.2.4 Identification Approach 432 10.2.5 Identification of the Magnetic Levitation System 433 10.3 Two-Tank Process Control System 436 10.3.1 Model of the Two-Tank System 436 10.3.2 Identification of the Closed-Loop Two-Tank System 438 10.4 Position Control System 442 10.4.1 Experimental Setup 442 10.4.2 Mathematical Model of the Position Control System 442 10.5 Summary 444 References 446 11 Fault Diagnosis of Physical Systems 447 11.1 Overview 447 11.2 Two-Tank Physical Process Control System 448 11.2.1 Objective 448 11.2.2 Identification of the Physical System 448 11.2.3 Fault Detection 449 11.2.4 Fault Isolation 451 11.3 Position Control System 452 11.3.1 The Objective 452 11.3.2 Identification of the Physical System 452 11.3.3 Detection of Fault 455 11.3.4 Fault Isolation 455 11.3.5 Fault Isolability 455 11.4 Summary 457 References 457 12 Fault Diagnosis of a Sensor Network 459 12.1 Overview 459 12.2 Problem Formulation 461 12.3 Fault Diagnosis Using a Bank of Kalman Filters 461 12.4 Kalman Filter for Pairs of Measurements 462 12.5 Kalman Filter for the Reference Input-Measurement Pair 463 12.6 Kalman Filter Residual: A Model Mismatch Indicator 463 12.6.1 Residual for a Pair of Measurements 463 12.7 Bayes Decision Strategy 464 12.8 Truth Table of Binary Decisions 465 12.9 Illustrative Example 467 12.10 Evaluation on a Physical Process Control System 469 12.11 Fault Detection and Isolation 470 12.11.1 Comparison with Other Approaches 473 12.12 Summary 474 12.13 Appendix 475 12.13.1 Map Relating yi(z) to yj(z) 475 12.13.2 Map Relating r(z) to yj(z) 476 References 477 13 Soft Sensor 479 13.1 Review 479 13.1.1 Benefits of a Soft Sensor 479 13.1.2 Kalman Filter 479 13.1.3 Reliable Identification of the System 480 13.1.4 Robust Controller Design 480 13.1.5 Fault Tolerant System 481 13.2 Mathematical Formulation 481 13.2.1 Transfer Function Model 482 13.2.2 Uncertainty Model 482 13.3 Identification of the System 483 13.3.1 Perturbed Parameter Experiment 484 13.3.2 Least-Squares Estimation 484 13.3.3 Selection of the Model Order 485 13.3.4 Identified Nominal Model 485 13.3.5 Illustrative Example 486 13.4 Model of the Kalman Filter 488 13.4.1 Role of the Kalman Filter 488 13.4.2 Model of the Kalman Filter 489 13.4.3 Augmented Model of the Plant and the Kalman Filter 489 13.5 Robust Controller Design 489 13.5.1 Objective 489 13.5.2 Augmented Model 490 13.5.3 Closed-Loop Performance and Stability 490 13.5.4 Uncertainty Model 491 13.5.5 Mixed-sensitivity Optimization Problem 492 13.5.6 State-Space Model of the Robust Control System 493 13.6 High Performance and Fault Tolerant Control System 494 13.6.1 Residual and Model-mismatch 494 13.6.2 Bayes Decision Strategy 495 13.6.3 High Performance Control System 495 13.6.4 Fault-Tolerant Control System 496 13.7 Evaluation on a Simulated System: Soft Sensor 496 13.7.1 Offline Identification 497 13.7.2 Identified Model of the Plant 497 13.7.3 Mixed-sensitivity Optimization Problem 498 13.7.4 Performance and Robustness 499 13.7.5 Status Monitoring 499 13.8 Evaluation on a Physical Velocity Control System 500 13.9 Conclusions 502 13.10 Summary 503 References 507 Index 509

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Book SynopsisMobility Models for Next Generation Wireless Networks: Ad Hoc, Vehicular and Mesh Networks provides the reader with an overview of mobility modelling, encompassing both theoretical and practical aspects related to the challenging mobility modelling task.Table of ContentsList of Figures xv List of Tables xxiii About the Author xxv Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxxiii List of Abbreviations xxxv Part I INTRODUCTION 1 Next Generation Wireless Networks 3 1.1 WLAN and Mesh Networks 5 1.2 Ad Hoc Networks 8 1.3 Vehicular Networks 10 1.4 Wireless Sensor Networks 13 1.5 Opportunistic Networks 14 2 Modeling Next Generation Wireless Networks 19 2.1 Radio Channel Models 20 2.2 The Communication Graph 26 2.3 The Energy Model 31 3 Mobility Models for Next Generation Wireless Networks 33 3.1 Motivation 33 3.2 Cellular vs. Next Generation Wireless Network Mobility Models 35 3.3 A Taxonomy of Existing Mobility Models 38 3.4 Mobility Models and Real-World Traces: The CRAWDAD Resource 43 3.5 Basic Definitions 45 Part II “GENERAL-PURPOSE” MOBILITY MODELS 4 Random Walk Models 51 4.1 Discrete Random Walks 52 4.2 Continuous Random Walks 55 4.3 Other Random Walk Models 57 4.4 Theoretical Properties of Random Walk Models 58 5 The Random Waypoint Model 61 5.1 The RWP Model 62 5.2 The Node Spatial Distribution of the RWP Model 64 5.3 The Average Nodal Speed of the RWP Model 69 5.4 Variants of the RWP Model 73 6 Group Mobility and Other Synthetic Mobility Models 75 6.1 The RPGM Model 76 6.2 Other Synthetic Mobility Models 83 7 Random Trip Models 89 7.1 The Class of Random Trip Models 89 7.2 Stationarity of Random Trip Models 93 7.3 Examples of Random Trip Models 94 Part III MOBILITY MODELS FOR WLAN AND MESH NETWORKS 8 WLAN and Mesh Networks 101 8.1 WLAN and Mesh Networks: State of the Art 101 8.2 WLAN and Mesh Networks: User Scenarios 107 8.3 WLAN and Mesh Networks: Perspectives 109 8.4 Further Reading 111 9 Real-World WLAN Mobility 113 9.1 Real-World WLAN Traces 113 9.2 Features of WLAN Mobility 116 10 WLAN Mobility Models 121 10.1 The LH Mobility Model 122 10.2 The KKK Mobility Model 129 10.3 Final Considerations and Further Reading 137 Part IV MOBILITY MODELS FOR VEHICULAR NETWORKS 11 Vehicular Networks 141 11.1 Vehicular Networks: State of the Art 141 11.2 Vehicular Networks: User Scenarios 146 11.3 Vehicular Networks: Perspectives 150 11.4 Further Reading 151 12 Vehicular Networks: Macroscopic and Microscopic Mobility Models 153 12.1 Vehicular Mobility Models: The Macroscopic View 154 12.2 Vehicular Mobility Models: The Microscopic View 156 12.3 Further Reading 157 13 Microscopic Vehicular Mobility Models 159 13.1 Simple Microscopic Mobility Models 159 13.2 The SUMO Mobility Model 164 13.3 Integrating Vehicular Mobility and Wireless Network Simulation 168 Part V MOBILITY MODELS FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS 14 Wireless Sensor Networks 175 14.1 Wireless Sensor Networks: State of the Art 175 14.2 Wireless Sensor Networks: User Scenarios 180 14.3 WSNs: Perspectives 183 14.4 Further Reading 184 15 Wireless Sensor Networks: Passive Mobility Models 185 15.1 Passive Mobility in WSNs 186 15.2 Mobility Models for Wildlife Tracking Applications 187 15.3 Modeling Movement Caused by External Forces 191 16 Wireless Sensor Networks: Active Mobility Models 197 16.1 Active Mobility of Sensor Nodes 198 16.2 Active Mobility of Sink Nodes 208 Part VI MOBILITY MODELS FOR OPPORTUNISTIC NETWORKS 17 Opportunistic Networks 217 17.1 Opportunistic Networks: State of the Art 217 17.2 Opportunistic Networks: User Scenarios 219 17.3 Opportunistic Networks: Perspectives 222 17.4 Further Reading 223 18 Routing in Opportunistic Networks 225 18.1 Mobility-Assisted Routing in Opportunistic Networks 225 18.2 Opportunistic Network Mobility Metrics 231 19 Mobile Social Network Analysis 237 19.1 The Social Network Graph 238 19.2 Centrality and Clustering Metrics 239 19.3 Characterizations of Human Mobility 244 19.4 Further Reading 250 20 Social-Based Mobility Models 251 20.1 The Weighted Random Waypoint Mobility Model 252 20.2 The Time-Variant Community Mobility Model 254 20.3 The Community-Based Mobility Model 256 20.4 The SWIM Mobility Model 259 20.5 The Self-Similar Least Action Walk Model 264 20.6 The Home-MEG Model 267 20.7 Further Reading 270 Part VII CASE STUDIES 21 Random Waypoint Model and Wireless Network Simulation 275 21.1 RWP Model and Simulation Accuracy 276 21.2 Removing the Border Effect 278 21.3 Removing Speed Decay 285 21.4 The RWP Model and “Perfect Simulation” 287 22 Mobility Modeling and Opportunistic Network Performance Analysis 293 22.1 Unicast in Opportunistic Networks 293 22.2 Broadcast in Opportunistic Networks 299 Appendix A Elements of Probability Theory 309 A.1 Basic Notions of Probability Theory 309 A.2 Probability Distributions 313 A.3 Markov Chains 317 Appendix B Elements of Graph Theory, Asymptotic Notation, and Miscellaneous Notions 323 B.1 Asymptotic Notation 323 B.2 Elements of Graph Theory 326 B.3 Miscellaneous Notions 330 References 333 Index 335

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Book SynopsisWith the explosive growth in PV (photovoltaic) installations globally, the sector continues to benefit from important improvements in manufacturing technology and the increasing efficiency of solar cells, this timely handbook brings together all the latest design, layout and construction methods for entire PV plants in a single volume.Trade ReviewReview copy sent 29/02/12: Book News Review copies sent on 2.2.12 to: ENGINEERING STRUCTURES RENEWABLE ENERGY PHOTOVOLTAICS BULLETIN SOLAR ENERGY JOURNAL OF POWER SOURCES ENERGY RESEARCH REAL POWER SOLAR WIND TECHNOLOGY MODERN POWER SYSTEMS ENERGY AND POWER RISK MANAGEMENT NEW POWERTable of ContentsForeword xiii Preface xv About the Author xvii Acknowledgements xix Note on the Examples and Costs xxi List of Symbols xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Photovoltaics – What’s It All About? 1 1.2 Overview of This Book 1 1.3 A Brief Glossary of Key PV Terms 10 1.4 Recommended Guide Values for Estimating PV System Potential 14 1.5 Examples 24 1.6 Bibliography 25 2 Key Properties of Solar Radiation 27 2.1 Sun and Earth 27 2.2 Extraterrestrial Radiation 31 2.3 Radiation on the Horizontal Plane of the Earth’s Surface 32 2.4 Simple Method for Calculating Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces 39 2.5 Radiation Calculation on Inclined Planes with Three-Component Model 49 2.6 Approximate Annual Energy Yield for Grid-Connected PV Systems 68 2.7 Composition of Solar Radiation 71 2.8 Solar Radiation Measurement 71 2.9 Bibliography 76 3 Solar Cells: Their Design Engineering and Operating Principles 79 3.1 The Internal Photoelectric Effect in Semiconductors 79 3.2 A Brief Account of Semiconductor Theory 81 3.3 The Solar Cell: A Specialized Semiconductor Diode With a Large Barrier Layer that is Exposed to Light 86 3.4 Solar Cell Efficiency 94 3.5 The Most Important Types of Solar Cells and the Attendant Manufacturing Methods 108 3.6 Bifacial Solar Cells 122 3.7 Examples 122 3.8 Bibliography 124 4 Solar Modules and Solar Generators 127 4.1 Solar Modules 127 4.2 Potential Solar Cell Wiring Problems 138 4.3 Interconnection of Solar Modules and Solar Generators 149 4.4 Solar Generator Power Loss Resulting from Partial Shading and Mismatch Loss 160 4.5 Solar Generator Structure 166 4.6 Examples 217 4.7 Bibliography 221 5 PV Energy Systems 223 5.1 Stand-alone PV Systems 223 5.2 Grid-Connected Systems 262 5.3 Bibliography 389 6 Protecting PV Installations Against Lightning 395 6.1 Probability of Direct Lightning Strikes 395 6.2 Lightning Strikes: Guide Value; Main Effects 398 6.3 Basic Principles of Lightning Protection 400 6.4 Shunting Lightning Current to a Series of Down-conductors 402 6.5 Potential Increases; Equipotential Bonding 404 6.6 Lightning-Current-Induced Voltages and Current 408 6.7 PV Installation Lightning Protection Experiments 432 6.8 Optimal Sizing of PV Installation Lightning Protection Devices 459 6.9 Recommendations for PV Installation Lightning Protection 470 6.1 Recap and Conclusions 484 6.11 Bibliography 485 7 Standardized Representation of Energy and Power of PV Systems 487 7.1 Introduction 487 7.2 Standardized Yield, Losses and Performance Ratio 487 7.3 Normalized Diagrams for Yields and Losses 491 7.4 Normalized PV Installation Power Output 495 7.5 Anomaly Detection Using Various Types of Diagrams 502 7.6 Recap and Conclusions 506 7.7 Bibliography 506 8 PV Installation Sizing 507 8.1 Principal of and Baseline Values for Yield Calculations 507 8.2 Energy Yield Determination for Grid-Connected Systems 523 8.3 Sizing PV Installations that Integrate a Battery Pack 533 8.4 Insolation Calculation Freeware 549 8.5 Simulation Software 550 8.6 Bibliography 9 The Economics of Solar Power 551 9.1 How Much Does Solar Energy Cost? 553 9.2 Grey Energy; Energy Payback Time; Yield Factor 562 9.3 Bibliography 566 10 Performance Characteristics of Selected PV Installations 569 10.1 Energy Yield Data and Other Aspects of Selected PV Installations 569 10.2 Long Term Comparison of Four Swiss PV Installations 614 10.3 Long Term Energy Yield of the Burgdorf Installation 617 10.4 Mean PV Installation Energy Yield in Germany 619 10.5 Bibliography 620 11 In Conclusion… 623 Annex A: Calculation Tables and Insolation Data 633 A1 Insolation Calculation Tables 633 A2 Aggregate Monthly Horizontal Global Irradiance 634 A3 Global Insolation for Various Reference Locations 634 A4 RB Factors for Insolation Calculations Using the Three-Component Model 648 A5 Shading Diagrams for Various Latitudes 673 A6 Energy Yield Calculation Tables 676 A7 kT and kG Figures for Energy Yield Calculations 681 A8 Insolation and Energy Yield Calculation Maps 683 A8.1 Specimen polar shading diagram Appendix B: Links; Books; Acronyms; etc. 691 B1 Links to PV Web Sites 691 B2 Books on Photovoltaic and Related Areas 693 B3 Acronyms 695 B4 Prefixes for Decimal Fractions and Metric Multiples 696 B5 Conversion Factors 696 B6 Key Physical Constants 696 Index 697

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Book SynopsisThis book addresses a broad range of topics on antennas for space applications. First, it introduces the fundamental methodologies of space antenna design, modelling and analysis as well as the state-of-the-art and anticipated future technological developments. Each of the topics discussed are specialized and contextualized to the space sector.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xix Acronyms xxi Contributors xxv 1 Antenna Basics 1Luigi Boccia and Olav Breinbjerg 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Antenna Performance Parameters 2 1.2.1 Reflection Coefficient and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio 2 1.2.2 Antenna Impedance 3 1.2.3 Radiation Pattern and Coverage 4 1.2.4 Polarization 6 1.2.5 Directivity 7 1.2.6 Gain and Realized Gain 8 1.2.7 Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power 8 1.2.8 Effective Area 9 1.2.9 Phase Center 9 1.2.10 Bandwidth 9 1.2.11 Antenna Noise Temperature 9 1.3 Basic Antenna Elements 10 1.3.1 Wire Antennas 10 1.3.2 Horn Antennas 10 1.3.3 Reflectors 15 1.3.4 Helical Antennas 17 1.3.5 Printed Antennas 19 1.4 Arrays 26 1.4.1 Array Configurations 28 1.5 Basic Effects of Antennas in the Space Environment 30 1.5.1 Multipaction 30 1.5.2 Passive Inter-modulation 31 1.5.3 Outgassing 31 References 32 2 Space Antenna Modeling 36Jian Feng Zhang, Xue Wei Ping, Wen Ming Yu, Xiao Yang Zhou, and Tie Jun Cui 2.1 Introduction 36 2.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations 37 2.1.2 CEM 37 2.2 Methods of Antenna Modeling 39 2.2.1 Basic Theory 39 2.2.2 Method of Moments 40 2.2.3 FEM 45 2.2.4 FDTD Method 49 2.3 Fast Algorithms for Large Space Antenna Modeling 54 2.3.1 Introduction 54 2.3.2 MLFMA 54 2.3.3 Hierarchical Basis for the FEM 62 2.4 Case Studies: Effects of the Satellite Body on the Radiation Patterns of Antennas 68 2.5 Summary 73 Acknowledgments 73 References 73 3 System Architectures of Satellite Communication, Radar, Navigation and Remote Sensing 76Michael A. Thorburn 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Elements of Satellite System Architecture 76 3.3 Satellite Missions 77 3.4 Communications Satellites 77 3.4.1 Fixed Satellite Services 77 3.4.2 Broadcast Satellite Services (Direct Broadcast Services) 78 3.4.3 Digital Audio Radio Services 78 3.4.4 Direct to Home Broadband Services 78 3.4.5 Mobile Communications Services 78 3.5 Radar Satellites 79 3.6 Navigational Satellites 79 3.7 Remote Sensing Satellites 80 3.8 Architecture of Satellite Command and Control 80 3.9 The Communications Payload Transponder 80 3.9.1 Bent-Pipe Transponders 81 3.9.2 Digital Transponders 81 3.9.3 Regenerative Repeater 81 3.10 Satellite Functional Requirements 81 3.10.1 Key Performance Concepts: Coverage, Frequency Allocations 82 3.10.2 Architecture of the Communications Payload 82 3.10.3 Satellite Communications System Performance Requirements 83 3.11 The Satellite Link Equation 83 3.12 The Microwave Transmitter Block 84 3.12.1 Intercept Point 85 3.12.2 Output Backoff 86 3.12.3 The Transmit Antenna and EIRP 87 3.13 Rx Front-End Block 88 3.13.1 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature 88 3.14 Received Power in the Communications System’s RF Link 90 3.14.1 The Angular Dependencies of the Uplink and Downlink 91 3.15 Additional Losses in the Satellite and Antenna 91 3.15.1 Additional Losses due to Propagation Effects and the Atmosphere 91 3.15.2 Ionospheric Effects – Scintillation and Polarization Rotation 93 3.16 Thermal Noise and the Antenna Noise Temperature 93 3.16.1 The Interface between the Antenna and the Communications System 93 3.16.2 The Uplink Signal to Noise 94 3.17 The SNR Equation and Minimum Detectable Signal 94 3.18 Power Flux Density, Saturation Flux Density and Dynamic Range 95 3.18.1 Important Relationship between PFD and Gain State of the Satellite Transponder 95 3.19 Full-Duplex Operation and Passive Intermodulation 96 3.20 Gain and Gain Variation 96 3.21 Pointing Error 97 3.22 Remaining Elements of Satellite System Architecture 98 3.23 Orbits and Orbital Considerations 98 3.24 Spacecraft Introduction 100 3.25 Spacecraft Budgets (Mass, Power, Thermal) 101 3.25.1 Satellite Mass 101 3.25.2 Satellite Power 101 3.25.3 Satellite Thermal Dissipation 101 3.26 Orbital Mission Life and Launch Vehicle Considerations 102 3.27 Environment Management (Thermal, Radiation) 102 3.28 Spacecraft Structure (Acoustic/Dynamic) 103 3.29 Satellite Positioning (Station Keeping) 103 3.30 Satellite Positioning (Attitude Control) 104 3.31 Power Subsystem 104 3.32 Tracking, Telemetry, Command and Monitoring 105 References 105 4 Space Environment and Materials 106J. Santiago-Prowald and L. Salghetti Drioli 4.1 Introduction 106 4.2 The Space Environment of Antennas 106 4.2.1 The Radiation Environment 107 4.2.2 The Plasma Environment 109 4.2.3 The Neutral Environment 110 4.2.4 Space Environment for Typical Spacecraft Orbits 111 4.2.5 Thermal Environment 111 4.2.6 Launch Environment 113 4.3 Selection of Materials in Relation to Their Electromagnetic Properties 117 4.3.1 RF Transparent Materials and Their Use 117 4.3.2 RF Conducting Materials and Their Use 117 4.3.3 Material Selection Golden Rules for PIM Control 118 4.4 Space Materials and Manufacturing Processes 118 4.4.1 Metals and Their Alloys 118 4.4.2 Polymer Matrix Composites 121 4.4.3 Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix Composites 125 4.5 Characterization of Mechanical and Thermal Behaviour 127 4.5.1 Thermal Vacuum Environment and Outgassing Screening 127 4.5.2 Fundamental Characterization Tests of Polymers and Composites 128 4.5.3 Characterization of Mechanical Properties 130 4.5.4 Thermal and Thermoelastic Characterization 131 Acknowledgements 131 References 131 5 Mechanical and Thermal Design of Space Antennas 133J. Santiago-Prowald and Heiko Ritter 5.1 Introduction: The Mechanical–Thermal–Electrical Triangle 133 5.1.1 Antenna Product 134 5.1.2 Configuration, Materials and Processes 135 5.1.3 Review of Requirements and Their Verification 136 5.2 Design of Antenna Structures 136 5.2.1 Typical Design Solutions for Reflectors 136 5.2.2 Structural Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture 143 5.2.3 Thermal Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture 143 5.2.4 Electrical Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture in Relation to Thermo-mechanical Design 144 5.3 Structural Modelling and Analysis 144 5.3.1 First-Order Plate Theory 145 5.3.2 Higher Order Plate Theories 148 5.3.3 Classical Laminated Plate Theory 148 5.3.4 Homogeneous Isotropic Plate Versus Symmetric Sandwich Plate 149 5.3.5 Skins Made of Composite Material 150 5.3.6 Honeycomb Core Characteristics 152 5.3.7 Failure Modes of Sandwich Plates 152 5.3.8 Mass Optimization of Sandwich Plate Architecture for Antennas 154 5.3.9 Finite Element Analysis 156 5.3.10 Acoustic Loads on Antennas 159 5.4 Thermal and Thermoelastic Analysis 166 5.4.1 The Thermal Environment of Space Antennas 166 5.4.2 Transverse Thermal Conductance Model of the Sandwich Plate 167 5.4.3 Thermal Balance of the Flat Sandwich Plate 168 5.4.4 Thermal Distortions of a Flat Plate in Space 169 5.4.5 Thermoelastic Stability of an Offset Parabolic Reflector 171 5.4.6 Thermal Analysis Tools 172 5.4.7 Thermal Analysis Cases 173 5.4.8 Thermal Model Uncertainty and Margins 173 5.5 Thermal Control Strategies 173 5.5.1 Requirements and Principal Design Choices 173 5.5.2 Thermal Control Components 174 5.5.3 Thermal Design Examples 176 Acknowledgements 177 References 178 6 Testing of Antennas for Space 179Jerzy Lemanczyk, Hans Juergen Steiner, and Quiterio Garcia 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Testing as a Development and Verification Tool 180 6.2.1 Engineering for Test 180 6.2.2 Model Philosophy and Definitions 182 6.2.3 Electrical Model Correlation 190 6.2.4 Thermal Testing and Model Correlation 195 6.3 Antenna Testing Facilities 203 6.3.1 Far-Field Antenna Test Ranges 203 6.3.2 Compact Antenna Test Ranges 203 6.3.3 Near-Field Measurements and Facilities 212 6.3.4 Environmental Test Facilities and Mechanical Testing 220 6.3.5 PIM Testing 224 6.4 Case Study: SMOS 226 6.4.1 The SMOS MIRAS Instrument 227 6.4.2 SMOS Model Philosophy 231 6.4.3 Antenna Pattern Test Campaign 238 References 248 7 Historical Overview of the Development of Space Antennas 250Antoine G. Roederer 7.1 Introduction 250 7.2 The Early Days 252 7.2.1 Wire and Slot Antennas on Simple Satellite Bodies 252 7.2.2 Antenna Computer Modelling Takes Off 254 7.2.3 Existing/Classical Antenna Designs Adapted for Space 259 7.3 Larger Reflectors with Complex Feeding Systems 262 7.3.1 Introduction 262 7.3.2 Multi-frequency Antennas 263 7.3.3 Large Unfurlable Antennas 271 7.3.4 Solid Surface Deployable Reflector Antennas 279 7.3.5 Polarization-Sensitive and Shaped Reflectors 282 7.3.6 Multi-feed Antennas 285 7.4 Array Antennas 297 7.4.1 Conformal Arrays on Spin-Stabilized Satellites 297 7.4.2 Arrays for Remote Sensing 298 7.4.3 Arrays for Telecommunications 302 7.5 Conclusions 306 Acknowledgements 307 References 307 8 Deployable Mesh Reflector Antennas for Space Applications: RF Characterizations 314Paolo Focardi, Paula R. Brown, and Yahya Rahmat-Samii 8.1 Introduction 314 8.2 History of Deployable Mesh Reflectors 315 8.3 Design Considerations Specific to Mesh Reflectors 320 8.4 The SMAP Mission – A Representative Case Study 320 8.4.1 Mission Overview 320 8.4.2 Key Antenna Design Drivers and Constraints 322 8.4.3 RF Performance Determination of Reflector Surface Materials 327 8.4.4 RF Modeling of the Antenna Radiation Pattern 329 8.4.5 Feed Assembly Design 338 8.4.6 Performance Verification 340 8.5 Conclusion 341 Acknowledgments 341 References 341 9 Microstrip Array Technologies for Space Applications 344Antonio Montesano, Luis F. de la Fuente, Fernando Monjas, Vicente GarcÍa, Luis E. Cuesta, Jennifer Campuzano, Ana Trastoy, Miguel Bustamante, Francisco Casares, Eduardo Alonso, David Álvarez, Silvia Arenas, José Luis Serrano, and Margarita Naranjo 9.1 Introduction 344 9.2 Basics of Array Antennas 345 9.2.1 Functional (Driving) Requirements and Array Design Solutions 345 9.2.2 Materials for Passive Arrays Versus Environmental and Design Requirements 347 9.2.3 Array Optimization Methods and Criteria 349 9.3 Passive Arrays 350 9.3.1 Radiating Panels for SAR Antennas 350 9.3.2 Navigation Antennas 354 9.3.3 Passive Antennas for Deep Space 361 9.4 Active Arrays 363 9.4.1 Key Active Elements in Active Antennas: Amplifiers 363 9.4.2 Active Hybrids 366 9.4.3 The Thermal Dissipation Design Solution 367 9.4.4 Active Array Control 369 9.4.5 Active Arrays for Communications and Data Transmission 370 9.5 Summary 383 Acknowledgements 383 References 384 10 Printed Reflectarray Antennas for Space Applications 385Jose A. Encinar 10.1 Introduction 385 10.2 Principle of Operation and Reflectarray Element Performance 388 10.3 Analysis and Design Techniques 391 10.3.1 Analysis and Design of Reflectarray Elements 391 10.3.2 Design and Analysis of Reflectarray Antennas 393 10.3.3 Broadband Techniques 396 10.4 Reflectarray Antennas for Telecommunication and Broadcasting Satellites 400 10.4.1 Contoured-Beam Reflectarrays 400 10.4.2 Dual-Coverage Transmit Antenna 402 10.4.3 Transmit–Receive Antenna for Coverage of South America 405 10.5 Recent and Future Developments for Space Applications 414 10.5.1 Large-Aperture Reflectarrays 414 10.5.2 Inflatable Reflectarrays 415 10.5.3 High-Gain Antennas for Deep Space Communications 416 10.5.4 Multibeam Reflectarrays 418 10.5.5 Dual-Reflector Configurations 420 10.5.6 Reconfigurable and Steerable Beam Reflectarrays 424 10.5.7 Conclusions and Future Developments 428 Acknowledgments 428 References 429 11 Emerging Antenna Technologies for Space Applications 435Safieddin Safavi-Naeini and Mohammad Fakharzadeh 11.1 Introduction 435 11.2 On-Chip/In-Package Antennas for Emerging Millimeter-Wave Systems 436 11.2.1 Recent Advances in On-Chip Antenna Technology 436 11.2.2 Silicon IC Substrate Limitations for On-Chip Antennas 437 11.2.3 On-Chip Antenna on Integrated Passive Silicon Technology 439 11.3 Integrated Planar Waveguide Technologies 441 11.4 Microwave/mmW MEMS-Based Circuit Technologies for Antenna Applications 445 11.4.1 RF/Microwave MEMS-Based Phase Shifter 447 11.4.2 Reflective-Type Phase Shifters for mmW Beam-Forming Applications 447 11.5 Emerging THz Antenna Systems and Integrated Structures 448 11.5.1 THz Photonics Techniques: THz Generation Using Photo-mixing Antennas 451 11.5.2 THz Generation Using a Photo-mixing Antenna Array 453 11.6 Case Study: Low-Cost/Complexity Antenna Technologies for Land-Mobile Satellite Communications 454 11.6.1 System-Level Requirements 454 11.6.2 Reconfigurable Very Low-Profile Antenna Array Technologies 454 11.6.3 Beam Steering Techniques 455 11.6.4 Robust Zero-Knowledge Beam Control Algorithm 457 11.6.5 A Ku-band Low-Profile, Low-Cost Array System for Vehicular Communication 458 11.7 Conclusions 462 References 462 12 Antennas for Satellite Communications 466Eric Amyotte and LuÍs Martins Camelo 12.1 Introduction and Design Requirements 466 12.1.1 Link Budget Considerations 467 12.1.2 Types of Satellite Communications Antennas 469 12.1.3 Materials 469 12.1.4 The Space Environment and Its Design Implications 470 12.1.5 Designing for Commercial Applications 470 12.2 UHF Satellite Communications Antennas 471 12.2.1 Typical Requirements and Solutions 471 12.2.2 Single-Element Design 472 12.2.3 Array Design 473 12.2.4 Multipactor Threshold 473 12.3 L/S-band Mobile Satellite Communications Antennas 474 12.3.1 Introduction 474 12.3.2 The Need for Large Unfurlable Reflectors 474 12.3.3 Beam Forming 475 12.3.4 Hybrid Matrix Power Amplification 476 12.3.5 Feed Array Element Design 478 12.3.6 Diplexers 478 12.3.7 Range Measurements 479 12.4 C-, Ku- and Ka-band FSS/BSS Antennas 479 12.4.1 Typical Requirements and Solutions 479 12.4.2 The Shaped-Reflector Technology 480 12.4.3 Power Handling 481 12.4.4 Antenna Structures and Reflectors 481 12.4.5 Reflector Antenna Geometries 482 12.4.6 Feed Chains 491 12.5 Multibeam Broadband Satellite Communications Antennas 496 12.5.1 Typical Requirements and Solutions 496 12.5.2 SFB Array-Fed Reflector Antennas 497 12.5.3 FAFR Antennas 500 12.5.4 DRA Antennas 503 12.5.5 RF Sensing and Tracking 503 12.6 Antennas for Non-geostationary Constellations 504 12.6.1 Typical Requirements and Solutions 504 12.6.2 Global Beam Ground Links 505 12.6.3 High-Gain Ground Links 505 12.6.4 Intersatellite Links or Cross-links 506 12.6.5 Feeder Links 507 Acknowledgments 508 References 508 13 SAR Antennas 511Pasquale Capece and Andrea Torre 13.1 Introduction to Spaceborne SAR Systems 511 13.1.1 General Presentation of SAR Systems 511 13.1.2 Azimuth Resolution in Conventional Radar and in SAR 512 13.1.3 Antenna Requirements Versus Performance Parameters 514 13.2 Challenges of Antenna Design for SAR 518 13.2.1 Reflector Antennas 518 13.2.2 Active Antennas and Subsystems 519 13.3 A Review of the Development of Antennas for Spaceborne SAR 534 13.3.1 TecSAR 534 13.3.2 SAR- Lupe 535 13.3.3 ASAR (EnviSat) 535 13.3.4 Radarsat 1 535 13.3.5 Radarsat 2 535 13.3.6 Palsar (ALOS) 535 13.3.7 TerraSAR-X 536 13.3.8 COSMO (SkyMed) 536 13.4 Case Studies of Antennas for Spaceborne SAR 539 13.4.1 Instrument Design 539 13.4.2 SAR Antenna 540 13.5 Ongoing Developments in SAR Antennas 544 13.5.1 Sentinel 1 544 13.5.2 Saocom Mission 544 13.5.3 ALOS 2 545 13.5.4 COSMO Second Generation 545 13.6 Acknowledgments 546 References 546 14 Antennas for Global Navigation Satellite System Receivers 548Chi-Chih Chen, Steven (Shichang) Gao, and Moazam Maqsood 14.1 Introduction 548 14.2 RF Requirements of GNSS Receiving Antenna 551 14.2.1 General RF Requirements 551 14.2.2 Advanced Requirements for Enhanced Position Accuracy and Multipath Signal Suppression 556 14.3 Design Challenges and Solutions for GNSS Antennas 561 14.3.1 Wide Frequency Coverage 562 14.3.2 Antenna Delay Variation with Frequency and Angle 562 14.3.3 Antenna Size Reduction 567 14.3.4 Antenna Platform Scattering Effect 568 14.4 Common and Novel GNSS Antennas 572 14.4.1 Single-Element Antenna 572 14.4.2 Multi-element Antenna Array 580 14.5 Spaceborne GNSS Antennas 582 14.5.1 Requirements for Antennas On Board Spaceborne GNSS Receivers 582 14.5.2 A Review of Antennas Developed for Spaceborne GNSS Receivers 584 14.6 Case Study: Dual-Band Microstrip Patch Antenna for Spacecraft Precise Orbit Determination Applications 586 14.6.1 Antenna Development 586 14.6.2 Results and Discussions 588 14.7 Summary 591 References 592 15 Antennas for Small Satellites 596Steven (Shichang) Gao, Keith Clark, Jan Zackrisson, Kevin Maynard, Luigi Boccia, and Jiadong Xu 15.1 Introduction to Small Satellites 596 15.1.1 Small Satellites and Their Classification 596 15.1.2 Microsatellites and Constellations of Small Satellites 597 15.1.3 Cube Satellites 598 15.1.4 Formation Flying of Multiple Small Satellites 599 15.2 The Challenges of Designing Antennas for Small Satellites 600 15.2.1 Choice of Operating Frequencies 600 15.2.2 Small Ground Planes Compared with the Operational Wavelength 601 15.2.3 Coupling between Antennas and Structural Elements 601 15.2.4 Antenna Pattern 602 15.2.5 Orbital Height 602 15.2.6 Development Cost 602 15.2.7 Production Costs 602 15.2.8 Testing Costs 602 15.2.9 Deployment Systems 603 15.2.10 Volume 603 15.2.11 Mass 603 15.2.12 Shock and Vibration Loads 603 15.2.13 Material Degradation 603 15.2.14 Atomic Oxygen 603 15.2.15 Material Outgassing 604 15.2.16 Creep 604 15.2.17 Material Charging 604 15.2.18 The Interaction between Satellite Antennas and Structure 604 15.3 Review of Antenna Development for Small Satellites 606 15.3.1 Antennas for Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C) 606 15.3.2 Antennas for High-Rate Data Downlink 609 15.3.3 Antennas for Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Receivers and Reflectometry 615 15.3.4 Antennas for Intersatellite Links 618 15.3.5 Other Antennas 619 15.4 Case Studies 621 15.4.1 Case Study 1: Antenna Pointing Mechanism and Horn Antenna 621 15.4.2 Case Study 2: X-band Downlink Helix Antenna 623 15.5 Conclusions 627 References 628 16 Space Antennas for Radio Astronomy 629Paul F. Goldsmith 16.1 Introduction 629 16.2 Overview of Radio Astronomy and the Role of Space Antennas 629 16.3 Space Antennas for Cosmic Microwave Background Studies 631 16.3.1 The Microwave Background 631 16.3.2 Soviet Space Observations of the CMB 632 16.3.3 The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) Satellite 633 16.3.4 The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) 635 16.3.5 The Planck Mission 637 16.4 Space Radio Observatories for Submillimeter/Far-Infrared Astronomy 641 16.4.1 Overview of Submillimeter/Far-Infrared Astronomy 641 16.4.2 The Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 643 16.4.3 The Odin Orbital Observatory 646 16.4.4 The Herschel Space Observatory 648 16.4.5 The Future: Millimetron, CALISTO, and Beyond 650 16.5 Low-Frequency Radio Astronomy 652 16.5.1 Overview of Low-Frequency Radio Astronomy 652 16.5.2 Early Low-Frequency Radio Space Missions 653 16.5.3 The Future 655 16.6 Space VLBI 655 16.6.1 Overview of Space VLBI 655 16.6.2 HALCA 656 16.6.3 RadioAstron 658 16.7 Summary 658 Acknowledgments 660 References 660 17 Antennas for Deep Space Applications 664Paula R. Brown, Richard E. Hodges, and Jacqueline C. Chen 17.1 Introduction 664 17.2 Telecommunications Antennas 665 17.3 Case Study I – Mars Science Laboratory 666 17.3.1 MSL Mission Description 666 17.3.2 MSL X-band Antennas 668 17.3.3 MSL UHF Antennas 676 17.3.4 MSL Terminal Descent Sensor (Landing Radar) 680 17.4 Case Study II – Juno 681 17.4.1 Juno Mission Description 681 17.4.2 Telecom Antennas 682 17.4.3 Juno Microwave Radiometer Antennas 684 Acknowledgments 692 References 693 18 Space Antenna Challenges for Future Missions, Key Techniques and Technologies 695Cyril Mangenot and William A. Imbriale 18.1 Overview of Chapter Contents 695 18.2 General Introduction 696 18.3 General Evolution of Space Antenna Needs and Requirements 697 18.4 Develop Large-Aperture Antennas 699 18.4.1 Problem Area and Challenges 699 18.4.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 700 18.4.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 702 18.5 Increase Telecommunication Satellite Throughput 707 18.5.1 Problem Area and Challenges 707 18.5.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 707 18.5.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 708 18.6 Enable Sharing the Same Aperture for Multiband and Multipurpose Antennas 709 18.6.1 Problem Area and Challenges 709 18.6.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 710 18.6.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 710 18.7 Increase the Competitiveness of Well-Established Antenna Products 710 18.7.1 Problem Area and Challenges 710 18.7.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 711 18.7.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 712 18.8 Enable Single-Beam In-Flight Coverage/Polarization Reconfiguration 713 18.8.1 Problem Area and Challenges 713 18.8.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 714 18.8.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 714 18.9 Enable Active Antennas at Affordable Cost 715 18.9.1 Problem Area and Challenges 715 18.9.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 717 18.9.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 718 18.10 Develop Innovative Antennas for Future Earth Observation and Science Instruments 724 18.10.1 Problem Area and Challenges 724 18.10.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 725 18.10.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 729 18.11 Evolve Towards Mass Production of Satellite and User Terminal Antennas 732 18.11.1 Problem Area and Challenges 732 18.11.2 Present and Expected Future Space Missions 732 18.11.3 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 732 18.12 Technology Push for Enabling New Missions 734 18.12.1 Problem Area and Challenges 734 18.12.2 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 734 18.13 Develop New Approaches for Satellite/Antenna Modelling and Testing 735 18.13.1 Problem Area and Challenges 735 18.13.2 Promising Antenna Concepts and Technologies 736 18.14 Conclusions 737 Acronyms 738 Acknowledgements 740 References 740 Index 741

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Book SynopsisThis unique treatment systematically interprets a spectrum of importance measures to provide a comprehensive overview of their applications in the areas of reliability, network, risk, mathematical programming, and optimization. Investigating the precise relationships among various importance measures, it describes how they are modelled and combined with other design tools to allow users to solve readily many real-world, large-scale decision-making problems. Presenting the state-of-the-art in network analysis, multistate systems, and application in modern systems, this book offers a clear and complete introduction to the topic. Through describing the reliability importance and the fundamentals, it covers advanced topics such as signature of coherent systems, multi-linear functions, and new interpretation of the mathematical programming problems. Key highlights: Generalizes the concepts behind importance measures (such as sensitivity and perturbation analysiTrade Review“It will definitely be very useful for those interested in studying various structures.” (Computing Reviews, 5 November 2012) Table of ContentsPreface xv References xvii Acknowledgements xix Part One INTRODUCTION and BACKGROUND 1 Introduction 2 1 Introduction to Importance Measures 5 References 11 2 Fundamentals of Systems Reliability 13 2.1 Block Diagrams 13 2.2 Structure Functions 14 2.3 Coherent Systems 17 2.4 Modules within a Coherent System 18 2.5 Cuts and Paths of a Coherent System 19 2.6 Critical Cuts and Critical Paths of a Coherent System 21 2.7 Measures of Performance 23 2.7.1 Reliability for a mission time 24 2.7.2 Reliability function (of time t) 25 2.7.3 Availability function 27 2.8 Stochastic Orderings 28 2.9 Signature of Coherent Systems 28 2.10 Multilinear Functions and Taylor (Maclaurin) Expansion 31 2.11 Redundancy 32 2.12 Reliability Optimization and Complexity 33 2.13 Consecutive-k-out-of-n Systems 34 2.14 Assumptions 35 References 36 Part Two PRINCIPLES of IMPORTANCE MEASURES 39 Introduction 40 3 The Essence of Importance Measures 43 3.1 ImportanceMeasures in Reliability 43 3.2 Classifications 44 3.3 c-type and p-type ImportanceMeasures 45 3.4 ImportanceMeasures of a Minimal Cut and a Minimal Path 45 3.5 Terminology 45 References 46 4 Reliability Importance Measures 47 4.1 The B-reliability Importance 47 4.1.1 The B-reliability importance for system functioning and for system failure 52 4.1.2 The criticality reliability importance 52 4.1.3 The Bayesian reliability importance 53 4.2 The FV Reliability Importance 53 4.2.1 The c-type FV (c-FV) reliability importance 54 4.2.2 The p-type FV (p-FV) reliability importance 54 4.2.3 Decomposition of state vectors 54 4.2.4 Properties 56 References 57 5 Lifetime Importance Measures 59 5.1 The B-time-dependent-lifetime Importance 59 5.1.1 The criticality time-dependent lifetime importance 61 5.2 The FV Time-dependent Lifetime Importance 61 5.2.1 The c-FV time-dependent lifetime importance 61 5.2.2 The p-FV time-dependent lifetime importance 63 5.2.3 Decomposition of state vectors 64 5.3 The BP Time-independent Lifetime Importance 64 5.4 The BP Time-dependent Lifetime Importance 69 5.5 Numerical Comparisons of Time-dependent Lifetime ImportanceMeasures 69 5.6 Summary 71 References 72 6 Structure Importance Measures 73 6.1 The B-i.i.d. Importance and B-structure Importance 73 6.2 The FV Structure Importance 76 6.3 The BP Structure Importance 76 6.4 Structure ImportanceMeasures Based on the B-i.i.d. importance 79 6.5 The Permutation Importance and Permutation Equivalence 80 6.5.1 Relations to minimal cuts and minimal paths 81 6.5.2 Relations to systems reliability 83 6.6 The Domination Importance 85 6.7 The Cut Importance and Path Importance 86 6.7.1 Relations to the B-i.i.d. importance 87 6.7.2 Computation 89 6.8 The Absoluteness Importance 91 6.9 The Cut-path Importance,Min-cut Importance, and Min-path Importance 92 6.10 The First-term Importance and Rare-event Importance 93 6.11 c-type and p-type of Structure ImportanceMeasures 93 6.12 Structure ImportanceMeasures for Dual Systems 94 6.13 Dominant Relations among ImportanceMeasures 96 6.13.1 The absoluteness importance with the domination importance 96 6.13.2 The domination importance with the permutation importance 96 6.13.3 The domination importance with the min-cut importance and min-path importance 96 6.13.4 The permutation importance with the FV importance 96 6.13.5 The permutation importance with the cut-path importance, min-cut importance, and min-path importance 100 6.13.6 The cut-path importance with the cut importance and path importance 101 6.13.7 The cut-path importance with the B-i.i.d. importance 101 6.13.8 The B-i.i.d. importance with the BP importance 102 6.14 Summary 102 References 105 7 ImportanceMeasures of Pairs and Groups of Components 107 7.1 The Joint Reliability Importance and Joint Failure Importance 107 7.1.1 The joint reliability importance of dependent components 110 7.1.2 The joint reliability importance of two gate events 110 7.1.3 The joint reliability importance for k-out-of-n systems 111 7.1.4 The joint reliability importance of order k 111 7.2 The Differential ImportanceMeasure 112 7.2.1 The first-order differential importance measure 112 7.2.2 The second-order differential importance measure 113 7.2.3 The differential importance measure of order k 114 7.3 The Total Order Importance 114 7.4 The Reliability AchievementWorth and Reliability ReductionWorth 115 References 116 8 ImportanceMeasures for Consecutive-k-out-of-n Systems 119 8.1 Formulas for the B-importance 119 8.1.1 The B-reliability importance and B-i.i.d. importance 119 8.1.2 The B-structure importance 122 8.2 Patterns of the B-importance for Lin/Con/k/n Systems 123 8.2.1 The B-reliability importance 123 8.2.2 The uniform B-i.i.d. importance 124 8.2.3 The half-line B-i.i.d. importance 126 8.2.4 The nature of the B-i.i.d. importance patterns 126 8.2.5 Patterns with respect to p 128 8.2.6 Patterns with respect to n 129 8.2.7 Disproved patterns and conjectures 131 8.3 Structure ImportanceMeasures 135 8.3.1 The permutation importance 135 8.3.2 The cut-path importance 135 8.3.3 The BP structure importance 135 8.3.4 The first-term importance and rare-event importance 136 References 137 Part Three IMPORTANCE MEASURES for RELIABILITY DESIGN 139 Introduction 140 References 141 9 Redundancy Allocation 143 9.1 Redundancy ImportanceMeasures 144 9.2 A Common Spare 145 9.2.1 The redundancy importance measures 145 9.2.2 The permutation importance 147 9.2.3 The cut importance and path importance 147 9.3 Spare Identical to the Respective Component 148 9.3.1 The redundancy importance measures 148 9.3.2 The permutation importance 149 9.4 Several Spares in a k-out-of-n System 150 9.5 Several Spares in an Arbitrary Coherent System 150 9.6 Cold Standby Redundancy 152 References 152 10 Upgrading System Performance 155 10.1 Improving Systems Reliability 156 10.1.1 Same amount of improvement in component reliability 156 10.1.2 A fractional change in component reliability 157 10.1.3 Cold standby redundancy 158 10.1.4 Parallel redundancy 158 10.1.5 Example and discussion 158 10.2 Improving Expected System Lifetime 159 10.2.1 A shift in component lifetime distributions 160 10.2.2 Exactly one minimal repair 160 10.2.3 Reduction in the proportional hazards 167 10.2.4 Cold standby redundancy 168 10.2.5 A perfect component 170 10.2.6 An imperfect repair 170 10.2.7 A scale change in component lifetime distributions 171 10.2.8 Parallel redundancy 171 10.2.9 Comparisons and numerical evaluation 172 10.3 Improving Expected System Yield 174 10.3.1 A shift in component lifetime distributions 175 10.3.2 Exactly one minimal repair / cold standby redundancy / a perfect component / parallel redundancy 180 10.4 Discussion 182 References 182 11 Component Assignment in Coherent Systems 185 11.1 Description of Component Assignment Problems 186 11.2 Enumeration and Randomization Methods 187 11.3 Optimal Design based on the Permutation Importance and Pairwise Exchange 188 11.4 Invariant Optimal and InvariantWorst Arrangements 189 11.5 Invariant Arrangements for Parallel-series and Series-parallel Systems 191 11.6 Consistent B-i.i.d. Importance Ordering and Invariant Arrangements 192 11.7 Optimal Design based on the B-reliability Importance 194 11.8 Optimal Assembly Problems 196 References 197 12 Component Assignment in Consecutive-k-out-of-n and Its Variant Systems 199 12.1 Invariant Arrangements for Con/k/n Systems 199 12.1.1 Invariant optimal arrangements for Lin/Con/k/n systems 200 12.1.2 Invariant optimal arrangements for Cir/Con/k/n systems 200 12.1.3 Consistent B-i.i.d. importance ordering and invariant arrangements 202 12.2 Necessary Conditions for Component Assignment in Con/k/n Systems 204 12.3 Sequential Component Assignment Problems in Con/2/n:F Systems 206 12.4 Consecutive-2 Failure Systems on Graphs 207 12.4.1 Consecutive-2 failure systems on trees 208 12.5 Series Con/k/n Systems 208 12.5.1 Series Con/2/n:F systems 209 12.5.2 Series Lin/Con/k/n:G systems 209 12.6 Consecutive-k-out-of-r-from-n Systems 211 12.7 Two-dimensional and Redundant Con/k/n Systems 213 12.7.1 Con/(r, k)/(r, n) systems 214 12.8 Miscellaneous 216 References 217 13 B-importance based Heuristics for Component Assignment 219 13.1 The Kontoleon Heuristic 219 13.2 The LK Type Heuristics 221 13.2.1 The LKA heuristic 221 13.2.2 Another three LK type heuristics 221 13.2.3 Relation to invariant optimal arrangements 221 13.2.4 Numerical comparisons of the LK type heuristics 224 13.3 The ZK Type Heuristics 225 13.3.1 Four ZK type heuristics 225 13.3.2 Relation to invariant optimal arrangements 227 13.3.3 Comparisons of initial arrangements 227 13.3.4 Numerical comparisons of the ZK type heuristics 229 13.4 The B-importance based Two-stage Approach 229 13.4.1 Numerical comparisons with the GAMS/CoinBomin solver and enumeration method 230 13.4.2 Numerical comparisons with the randomization method 230 13.5 The B-importance based Genetic Local Search 231 13.5.1 The description of algorithm 232 13.5.2 Numerical comparisons with the B-importance based two-stage approach and a genetic algorithm 235 13.6 Summary and Discussion 236 References 238 Part Four RELATIONS and GENERALIZATIONS 241 Introduction 242 14 Comparisons of Importance Measures 245 14.1 Relations to the B-importance 245 14.2 Rankings of Reliability ImportanceMeasures 247 14.2.1 Using the permutation importance 247 14.2.2 Using the permutation importance and joint reliability importance 249 14.2.3 Using the domination importance 250 14.2.4 Summary 250 14.3 ImportanceMeasures for Some Special Systems 250 14.4 Computation of ImportanceMeasures 251 References 253 15 Generalizations of Importance Measures 255 15.1 Noncoherent Systems 255 15.1.1 Binary monotone systems 256 15.2 Multistate Coherent Systems 257 15.2.1 The μ, _ B-importance 258 15.2.2 The μ, _ cut importance 259 15.3 Multistate Monotone Systems 261 15.3.1 The permutation importance 261 15.3.2 The utility B-reliability importance 262 15.3.3 The utility-decomposition reliability importance 262 15.3.4 The utility B-structure importance, joint structure importance, and joint reliability importance 263 15.3.5 The B-importance, FV importance, reliability achievement worth, and reliability reduction worth with respect to system mean unavailability and mean performance 265 15.4 Binary Type Multistate Monotone Systems 266 15.4.1 The B-t.d.l. importance, BP t.i.l. importance, and L1 t.i.l. importance 267 15.5 Summary of ImportanceMeasures for Multistate Systems 268 15.6 Continuum Systems 270 15.7 Repairable Systems 272 15.7.1 The B-availability importance 272 15.7.2 The c-FV unavailability importance 273 15.7.3 The BP availability importance 273 15.7.4 The L1 t.i.l. importance 274 15.7.5 Simulation-based importance measures 275 15.8 Applications in the Power Industry 276 References 277 Part Five BROAD IMPLICATIONS to RISK and MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING 281 Introduction 282 References 283 16 Networks 285 16.1 Network Flow Systems 285 16.1.1 The edge importance measures in a network flow system 286 16.1.2 The edge importance measures for a binary monotone system 288 16.1.3 The B-reliability importance, FV reliability importance, reliability reduction worth, and reliability achievement worth 289 16.1.4 The flow-based importance and impact-based importance 290 16.2 K-terminal Networks 291 16.2.1 Importance measures of an edge 293 16.2.2 A K-terminal optimization problem 295 References 295 17 Mathematical Programming 297 17.1 Linear Programming 297 17.1.1 Basic concepts 298 17.1.2 The simplex algorithm 300 17.1.3 Sensitivity analysis 301 17.2 Integer Programming 303 17.2.1 Basic concepts and branch-and-bound algorithm 303 17.2.2 Branch-and-bound using linear programming relaxations 306 17.2.3 Mixed integer nonlinear programming 309 References 309 18 Sensitivity Analysis 311 18.1 Local Sensitivity and Perturbation Analysis 311 18.1.1 The B-reliability importance 311 18.1.2 The multidirectional sensitivity measure 312 18.1.3 The multidirectional differential importance measure and total order importance 317 18.1.4 Perturbation analysis 318 18.2 Global Sensitivity Analysis 319 18.2.1 ANOVA-decomposition based global sensitivity measures 320 18.2.2 Elementary effect methods and derivative-based global sensitivity measures 323 18.2.3 Relationships between the ANOVA-decomposition-based and the derivativebased sensitivity measures 326 18.2.4 The case of random input variables 327 18.2.5 Moment-independent sensitivity measures 328 18.3 Systems reliability subject to uncertain component reliability 330 18.3.1 Software Reliability 332 18.4 Broad applications 335 References 336 19 Risk and Safety in Nuclear Power Plants 339 19.1 Introduction to Probabilistic Risk Analysis and Probabilistic Safety Assessment 339 19.2 Probabilistic (Local) ImportanceMeasures 340 19.3 Uncertainty and Global Sensitivity Measures 342 19.4 A Case Study 343 19.5 Review of Applications 345 19.6 System Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance 347 References 348 Afterword 350 References 354 APPENDIX 355 A Proofs 357 A.1 Proof of Theorem 8.2.7 357 A.2 Proof of Theorem 10.2.10 358 A.3 Proof of Theorem 10.2.17 359

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive introduction to M2M Standards and systems architecture, from concept to implementation Focusing on the latest technological developments, M2M Communications: A Systems Approach is an advanced introduction to this important and rapidly evolving topic. It provides a systems perspective on machine-to-machine services and the major telecommunications relevant technologies. It provides a focus on the latest standards currently in progress by ETSI and 3GPP, the leading standards entities in telecommunication networks and solutions. The structure of the book is inspired by ongoing standards developments and uses a systems-based approach for describing the problems which may be encountered when considering M2M, as well as offering proposed solutions from the latest developments in industry and standardization. The authors provide comprehensive technical information on M2M architecture, protocols and applications, especially examining M2M service aTable of ContentsForeword List of Contributors List of Acronyms 1 Introduction to M2M 1.1 What is M2M? 1.2 The Business of M2M 1.3 Accelerating M2M Maturity 1.3.1 High-Level M2M Frameworks 1.3.2 Policy and Government Incentives 1.4 M2M Standards 1.4.1 Which Standards for M2M? 1.5 Roadmap of the Book References Part I M2M CURRENT LANDSCAPE 2 The Business of M2M 2.1 The M2M Market 2.1.1 Healthcare 2.1.2 Transportation 2.1.3 Energy 2.2 The M2M Market Adoption: Drivers and Barriers 2.3 The M2M Value Chain 2.4 Market Size Projections 2.5 Business Models 2.5.1 Network Operator- or CSP-Led Model 2.5.2 MVNO-Led Model 2.5.3 Corporate Customer-Led Model 2.6 M2M Business Metrics 2.7 Market Evolution Reference 3 Lessons Learned from Early M2M Deployments 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Early M2M Operational Deployments 3.2.1 Introduction 3.2.2 Early M2M Operational Deployment Examples 3.2.3 Common Questions in Early M2M Deployments 3.2.4 Possible Optimization of M2M Deployments 3.3 Chapter Conclusion Reference Part II M2M ARCHITECTURE AND PROTOCOLS 4 M2M Requirements and High-Level Architectural Principles 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Use-Case-Driven Approach to M2M Requirements 4.2.1 What is a Use Case? 4.2.2 ETSI M2M Work on Use Cases 4.2.3 Methodology for Developing Use Cases 4.3 Smart Metering Approach in ETSI M2M 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Typical Smart Metering Deployment Scenario 4.4 eHealth Approach in ETSI M2M 4.4.1 Introduction 4.5 ETSI M2M Service Requirements: High-Level Summary and Applicability to Different Market Segments 4.6 Traffic Models-/Characteristics-Approach to M2M Requirements and Considerations for Network Architecture Design 4.6.1 Why Focus on Wireless Networks? 4.7 Description of M2M Market Segments/Applications 4.7.1 Automotive 4.7.2 Smart Telemetry 4.7.3 Surveillance and Security 4.7.4 Point of Sale (PoS) 4.7.5 Vending Machines 4.7.6 eHealth 4.7.7 Live Video 4.7.8 Building Automation 4.7.9 M2M Industrial Automation 4.8 M2M Traffic Characterization 4.8.1 Detailed Traffic Characterization for Smart Metering 4.8.2 Global Traffic Characterization 4.9 High-Level Architecture Principles for M2M Communications 4.10 Chapter Conclusions References 5 ETSI M2M Services Architecture 5.1 Introduction 5.2 High-Level System Architecture 5.3 ETSI TC M2M Service Capabilities Framework 5.4 ETSI TC M2M Release 1 Scenarios 5.5 ETSI M2M Service Capabilities 5.5.1 Reachability, Addressing, and Repository Capability (xRAR) 5.5.2 Remote Entity Management Capability (x REM) 5.5.3 Security Capability (xSEC) 5.6 Introducing REST Architectural Style for M2M 5.6.1 Introduction to REST 5.6.2 Why REST for M2M? 5.6.3 REST Basics 5.6.4 Applying REST to M2M 5.6.5 Additional Functionalities 5.7 ETSI TC M2M Resource-Based M2M Communication and Procedures 5.7.1 Introduction 5.7.2 Definitions Used in this Section 5.7.3 Resource Structure 5.7.4 Interface Procedures 5.8 Chapter Conclusion References 6 M2M Optimizations in Public Mobile Networks 6.1 Chapter Overview 6.2 M2M over a Telecommunications Network 6.2.1 Introduction 6.2.2 M2M Communication Scenarios 6.2.3 Mobile or Fixed Networks 6.2.4 Data Connections for M2M Applications 6.3 Network Optimizations for M2M 6.3.1 Introduction 6.3.2 3GPP Standardization of Network Improvements for Machine Type Communications 6.3.3 Cost Reduction 6.3.4 M2M Value-Added Services 6.3.5 Numbering, Identifiers, and Addressing 6.3.6 Triggering Optimizations 6.3.7 Overload and Congestion Control References 7 The Role of IP in M2M 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 IPv6 in Brief 7.1.2 Neighbor Discovery Protocol 7.2 IPv6 for M2M 7.3 6LoWPAN 7.3.1 Framework 7.3.2 Header Compression 7.3.3 Neighbor Discovery 7.4 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) 7.4.1 RPL Topology 7.5 CoRE 7.5.1 Message Formats 7.5.2 Transport Protocol 7.5.3 REST Architecture References 8 M2M Security 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Security Characteristics of Cellular M2M 8.2 Trust Relationships in the M2M Ecosystem 8.3 Security Requirements 8.3.1 Customer/M2M Device User 8.3.2 Access Network Provider 8.3.3 M2M Service Provider 8.3.4 Application Provider 8.3.5 Bootstrapping Requirements 8.4 Which Types of Solutions are Suitable? 8.4.1 Approaches Against Hijacking 8.4.2 Public Key Solutions 8.4.3 Smart Card-Based Solutions 8.4.4 Methods Based on Pre-Provisioned Symmetric Keys 8.4.5 Protocol for Automated Bootstrapping Based on Identity-Based Encryption 8.4.6 Security for Groups of M2M Devices 8.5 Standardization Efforts on Securing M2M and MTC Communications 8.5.1 ETSI M2M Security 8.5.2 3GPP Security Related to Network Improvements for Machine Type Communications References 9 M2M Terminals and Modules 9.1 M2M Module Categorization 9.1.1 Access Technology 9.1.2 Physical Form Factors 9.2 Hardware Interfaces 9.2.1 Power Interface 9.2.2 USB (Universal Serial Bus) Interface 9.2.3 UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/ Transmitter) Interface 9.2.4 Antenna Interface 9.2.5 UICC (Universal Integrated Circuit Card) Interface 9.2.6 GPIO (General-Purpose Input/Output Port) Interface 9.2.7 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Interface 9.2.8 I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit Bus) Interface 9.2.9 ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) Interface 9.2.10 PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) Interface 9.2.11 PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Interface 9.2.12 Analog Audio Interface 9.3 Temperature and Durability 9.4 Services 9.4.1 Application Execution Environment 9.4.2 Connectivity Services 9.4.3 Management Services 9.4.4 Application Services 9.5 Software Interface 9.5.1 AT Commands 9.5.2 SDK Interface 9.6 Cellular Certification 9.6.1 Telecom Industry Certification 9.6.2 MNO Certification 10 Smart Cards in M2M Communication 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Security and Privacy Issues in M2M Communication 10.3 The Grounds for Hardware-Based Security Solutions 10.4 Independent Secure Elements and Trusted Environments 10.4.1 Trusted Environments in M2M Devices 10.4.2 Trusting Unknown Devices: The Need for Security Certification 10.4.3 Advantages of the Smart Card Model 10.5 Specific Smart Card Properties for M2M Environments 10.5.1 Removable Smart Cards versus Embedded Secure Elements 10.5.2 UICC Resistance to Environmental Constraints 10.5.3 Adapting the Card Application Toolkit to Unattended Devices 10.5.4 Reaching UICC Peripheral Devices with Toolkit Commands 10.5.5 Confidential Remote Management of Third-Party Applications 10.6 Smart Card Future Evolutions in M2M Environments 10.6.1 UICC-Based M2M Service Identity Module Application 10.6.2 Internet Protocol Integration of the UICC 10.7 Remote Administration of M2M Secure Elements 10.7.1 Overview 10.7.2 Late Personalization of Subscription 10.7.3 Remote Management of Subscriptions on the Field References Part III BOOK CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE VISION 11 Conclusions Index

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Book SynopsisLogically ordered to follow the order of the blocks encountered along a receiver or a transmitter path in a communication platform, this book provides an introduction to system performance metrics, followed by topics on RF/Analog modeling, and simulation examples to support the modeling theory.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii About the Author xv 1 Introduction to Communication System-on-Chip, RF Analog Front-End, OFDM Modulation, and Performance Metrics 1 1.1 Communication System-on-Chip 1 1.1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.2 CMOS Technology 3 1.1.3 Coexistence Issues 4 1.2 RF AFE Overview 6 1.2.1 Introduction 6 1.2.2 Superheterodyne Transceiver 8 1.2.3 Homodyne Transceiver 10 1.2.4 Low-IF Transceiver 11 1.2.5 Analog Baseband Filter Order versus ADC Dynamic Range 12 1.2.6 Digital Compensation of RF Analog Front-End Imperfections 13 1.3 OFDM Modulation 14 1.3.1 OFDM as a Multicarrier Modulation 14 1.3.2 Fourier Transform and Orthogonal Subcarriers 15 1.3.3 Channel Estimation and Equalization in Frequency Domain 18 1.3.4 Pilot-Tones 20 1.3.5 Guard Interval 21 1.3.6 Windowed OFDM 21 1.3.7 Adaptive Transmission 22 1.3.8 OFDMA for Multiple Access 23 1.3.9 Scalable OFDMA 23 1.3.10 OFDM DBB Architecture 24 1.3.11 OFDM-Based Standards 27 1.4 SNR, EVM, and 1.4.1 Bit Error Rate 27 1.4.2 SNR versus EVM 28 1.4.3 SNR versus E 1.4.4 Complex Baseband Representation 32 References 34 Eb/N0 Definitions and Relationship 27b/N0 31 2 RF Analog Impairments Description and Modeling 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Thermal Noise 38 2.2.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise 38 2.2.2 Noise Figure and Sensitivity 40 2.2.3 Cascaded Noise Voltage in IC Design 41 2.2.4 AWGN in Simulations 42 2.2.5 Flicker Noise and AWGN Modeling 43 2.3 Oscillator Phase Noise 44 2.3.1 Description and Impact on the System 44 2.3.2 Phase Noise Modeling in the Frequency Domain 45 2.3.3 Simulation in Temporal Domain 49 2.3.4 SNR Limitation due to the Phase Noise 50 2.3.5 Impact of Phase Noise in OFDM 52 2.4 Sampling Jitter 57 2.4.1 Jitter Definitions 57 2.4.2 Sampling Jitter and Phase Noise Relationship 58 2.4.3 SNR Limitation due to Sampling Jitter 61 2.4.4 Impact of Sampling Jitter in OFDM 63 2.4.5 Sampling Jitter Modeling 63 2.5 Carrier Frequency Offset 64 2.5.1 Description 64 2.5.2 Impact of CFO in OFDM 65 2.6 Sampling Frequency Offset 67 2.6.1 Description 67 2.6.2 Impact of SFO in OFDM 68 2.7 I and Q Mismatch 71 2.7.1 Description 71 2.7.2 IQ Mismatch Modeling 76 2.7.3 SNR Limitation due to IQ Mismatch 76 2.7.4 Impact of IQ Mismatch in OFDM 78 2.8 DAC/ADC Quantization Noise and Clipping 79 2.8.1 SNR Limitation due to the Quantization Noise and Clipping Level 79 2.8.2 Impact of Converter Clipping Level in OFDM 82 2.8.3 DAC and ADC Dynamic Range in OFDM 84 2.8.4 DAC and ADC Modeling 86 2.9 IP2 and IP3: Second- and Third-Order Nonlinearities 87 2.9.1 Harmonics (Single-Tone Test) 87 2.9.2 Intermodulation Distortion (Two-Tone Test) 89 2.9.3 Receiver Performance Degradation due to the Non-linearities 92 2.9.4 Impact of Third-Order Nonlinearity in OFDM 95 2.9.5 Simulation in Complex Baseband 98 2.10 Power Amplifier Distortion 99 2.10.1 PA Modeling 99 2.10.2 Impact of PA Distortions in OFDM 102 References 104 3 Simulation of the RF Analog Impairments Impact on Real OFDM-Based Transceiver Performance 107 3.1 Introduction 107 3.2 WLAN and Mobile WiMAX PHY Overview 108 3.2.1 WLAN: Standard IEEE 802.11a/g 108 3.2.2 Mobile WiMAX: Standard IEEE 802.16e 109 3.3 Simulation Bench Overview 110 3.3.1 WiFi and WiMAX OFDM Transceiver Modeling 110 3.3.2 EVM Estimation as Performance Metric 112 3.3.3 EVM versus SNR Simulations in AWGN Channel 113 3.4 WiFi OFDM and Mobile WiMAX Signals PAPR 116 3.5 Transmitter Impairments Simulation 117 3.5.1 Introduction 117 3.5.2 DAC Clipping and Resolution 118 3.5.3 I and Q Mismatch 121 3.5.4 RF Oscillator Phase Noise 125 3.5.5 Power Amplifier Distortion 130 3.5.6 Transmitter Complete Simulation 133 3.6 Receiver Impairments Simulation 134 3.6.1 Introduction 134 3.6.2 Carrier Frequency Offset 135 3.6.3 Sampling Frequency Offset 140 3.6.4 Linearity: IIP2 and IIP3 146 3.6.5 I and Q Mismatch 154 3.6.6 RF Oscillator Phase Noise and Reciprocal Mixing 154 3.6.7 Sampling Jitter 156 3.6.8 ADC Clipping and Resolution 158 3.6.9 Receiver Complete Simulation 160 3.7 Adaptive Modulation Illustration 162 3.8 Summary 164 References 164 4 Digital Compensation of RF Analog Impairments 167 4.1 Introduction 167 4.2 CFO Estimation and Correction 168 4.2.1 CFO Estimation Principle 168 4.2.2 CFO Estimation in the Time Domain 170 4.2.3 CFO Estimation in the Frequency Domain 172 4.2.4 CFO Correction 175 4.3 SFO Estimation and Correction 176 4.3.1 SFO Estimation Principle 176 4.3.2 SFO Estimation 178 4.3.3 SFO Correction 181 4.3.4 Joint SFO and CFO Estimation 181 4.4 IQ Mismatch Estimation and Correction 183 4.4.1 Principle 183 4.4.2 Effect of the Channel 186 4.4.3 Simulation Results 187 4.5 Power Amplifier Linearization 190 4.5.1 Digital Predistortion Principle 190 4.5.2 Memory Polynomial Predistortion 191 4.5.3 Polynomial Coefficients Computation 192 4.5.4 Simulation Results 193 4.6 Summary 196 References 197 Index 199

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