Solid state chemistry Books

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Book SynopsisIn crystal chemistry and crystal physics, the relations between the symmetry groups (space groups) of crystalline solids are of special importance. Part 1 of this book presents the necessary mathematical foundations and tools: the fundamentals of crystallography with special emphasis on symmetry, the theory of the crystallographic groups, and the formalisms of the needed crystallographic computations. Part 2 gives an insight into applications to problems in crystal chemistry. With the aid of numerous examples, it is shown how crystallographic group theory can be used to make evident relationships between crystal structures, to set up a systematic order in the huge amount of known crystal structures, to predict crystal structures, to analyse phase transitions and topotactic reactions in the solid state, to understand the formation of domains and twins in crystals, and to avoid errors in crystal structure determinations.A broad range of end-of-chapter exercises offers the possibility to Trade ReviewHere we have ... a rigorous, carefully checked and polished text which ... we have a reference text which, with its numerous examples and exercises, also perfectly fits the purpose of self-study, provided the reader is sufficiently familiar with space-group theory ... This is a book that every crystallographer taking seriously his job should have on his shelf. * Acta Crystallographica B *Structural crystallographers in biology, chemistry and physics meet symmetry and sometimes relatively complicated cases. More can be made of symmetry relations too. This book takes the reader beyond structure. The book shows how to make use of the symmetry relations described in International Tables as well as understand, for example, crystal structure types, analyse phase transitions, domain formation and twinning in crystals as well as to avoid errors in crystal structure determinations such as choice of incorrect space group. Numerous chapter exercises are a distinctive feature and offer the possibility to apply the material that has been learnt; solutions to the exercises are at the end of the book. * John R. Helliwell, School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester *Table of ContentsPART I: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC FOUNDATIONS; PART II: SYMMETRY RELATIONS BETWEEN SPACE GROUPS AS A TOOL TO DISCLOSE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CRYSTAL STRUCTURES; PART I: CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC FOUNDATIONS; PART II: SYMMETRY RELATIONS BETWEEN SPACE GROUPS AS A TOOL TO DISCLOSE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

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Book SynopsisDiscover the exciting, promising field of molecular level artificial photosynthesis This special volume of Progress in Inorganic Chemistry presents the theory and practice of molecular artificial photosynthesis-a field holding tremendous promise now that molecular solar energy materials are fast becoming competitive with their solid-state counterparts. The only book on the market to address this important area of inorganic research, Molecular Level Artificial Photosynthetic Materials shows us, in effect, how to imitate the complex natural processes of photosynthesis-featuring state-of-the-art strategies and techniques for creating artificial photosynthetic devices at the molecular level. It takes a multidisciplinary approach, drawing on materials science techniques used in the design of solar energy devices, examining the molecular nature of the chemistry involved, and applying existing knowledge in inorganic photochemistry and photophysics to the growing pool of moleTable of ContentsA Supramolecular Approach to Light Harvesting and Sensitization of Wide-Bandgap Semiconductors: Antenna Effects and Charge Separation (C. Bignozzi, et al.). Langmuir-Blodgett Films of Transition Metal Complexes (M DeArmond & G. Fried). Layered Metal Phosphonates as Potential Materials for the Design and Construction of Molecular Photosynthetic Systems (L. Vermeulen). Light-Induced Processes in Molecular Gel Materials (F. Castellano & G. Meyer). Charge-Transfer Processes in Zeolites: Toward Better Artificial Photosynthetic Models (P. Dutta & M. Ledney). Native and Surface Modified Semiconductor Nanoclusters (P. Kamat). Molecular and Supramolecular Surface Modification of Nanocrystalline TiO_2 Films: Charge-Seperating and Charge-Injecting Devices (T. Gerfin, et al.). Indexes.

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Book SynopsisA detailed and timely overview of recent developments in activequasi-optical arrays In recent years, active quasi-optics has emerged as one of the mostdynamic fields of contemporary research--a highly unconventionalapproach to microwave and millimeter-wave power generation thatintegrates solid-state devices into a single quasi-opticalcomponent in which all devices operate in unison. This book definesand describes active quasi-optical arrays, reviews the currentstate of the art, and answers numerous basic and technicalquestions on the design, analysis, and application of thesedevices. The contributors to this volume are leading researchers in thefield who present results and views from government, industrial,and university laboratories and offer a balanced discussion on ahigh technical level. They also offer insight into theapplicability and commercial value of this technology for militarysystems, manufacturing processes, communications, and consumerproducts. Topics prTable of ContentsQuasi-Optical Power Combining (R. York). Spatial Power Combining (M. Gouker). Active Integrated Antennas (S. Chew & T. Itoh). Coupled-Oscillator Arrays and Scanning Techniques (J. Lynch, etal.). Quasi-Optical Antenna-Array Amplifiers (Z. Popovic, et al.). Multilayer and Distributed Arrays (A. Mortazawi, et al.). Planar Quasi-Optical Power Combining (M. Steer, et al.). Grid Oscillators (Z. Popovic, et al.). Grid Amplifiers (M. De Lisio & C. Liu). Beam-Control Arrays (K. Stephan). Frequency Conversion Grids (J. Chiao). Quasi-Optical Subsystems (Z. Popovic & G. Johnson). Commercial Applications of Quasi-Optics (R. Campton, et al.). Index.

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Book SynopsisThis is to be initial, 'overview' volume of a series on the "Chemistry of Advanced Materials". This series of volumes is intented to complement VCH's existing series on "Materials Science and Technology" and, in particular, to highlight the role of chemistry in the preparation and processing of advanced materials.Trade Review"On the whole the book will sensitize the minds of the readers and will snowball their interest to undertake future research program to help turn material fantasy into possibility to ultimate reality." (Indian Jnl of Chemical Technology, July 2001)Table of ContentsFrom the Contents: Materials Chemistry: Past, Present and Future/ Molecular Magnetics, Metals and Superconductors/ Advanced Polymeric Materials - High Performance Polymers/CVD /Nanophase Materials / Nanoporous Materials (zeolites, pillared clays etc.)/ Molecular Precursor Routes to Inorganic Solids/ Materials Currently in Biomedical Usage.

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Book SynopsisPraise for the First Edition: Very useful for researchers in solid-state chemistry and as a textbook of advanced inorganic chemistry for PhD students. -Advanced Materials. This book provides unified coverage of the structure, properties, and synthesis of transition metal oxides. Written by two world-class scientists, it offers both an excellent window on modern solid-state chemistry and a gateway to understanding the behavior of inorganic solids. Scientists and advanced students in inorganic and solid-state chemistry, materials science, ceramics, and condensed matter science will welcome this updated Second Edition, which features new or expanded material on: * Oxyanion derivatives of cuprates, mercury cuprates, ladder compounds, and new oxide systems * Giant magnetoresistance, superconductivity, and nonlinear materials * Recently developed synthetic strategies and examples, including soft chemistry routes Plus: * Hundreds of illustraTable of ContentsSTRUCTURE. Basic Background Material. Mother Structures of Some Binary Transition Metal Oxides. Perovskites and Relatives. Octahedral Tunnel Structures: Bronzes and Bronzoids. Octahedral Intersecting Tunnel Structures: Pyrochlores and Relatives. Octahedral Lamellar Oxides. Close-Packed Oxides: Spinels, Hexagonal Ferrites, and Relatives. Three-Dimensional Mixed Frameworks Involving Tetrahedra and Octahedra. Examples of Unusual Coordination: The Vanadium Oxides. Sheer Structures. The Highly Complex Structural Behavior of Transition Metal Oxides. PROPERTIES AND PHENOMENA. Electrons in Transition Metal Oxides. Properties of Oxide Materials. Electronic and Magnetic Properties of Oxides in Relation to Structure. Mixed Valence. Metal-Nonmetal Transitions. Low-Dimensional Oxides. Superconducting Oxides. Ferroics. Results from Empirical Theory. Understanding Electronic Structures from Electron Spectroscopy Combined with Empirical Theory. Giant Magnetoresistance and Related Aspects. Nanomaterials. Catalysts and Gas Sensors. PREPARATION OF MATERIALS. Typical Reactions. Ceramic Preparations. Use of Precursors. Topochemical and Intercalation Reactions. Ion Exchange Method. Alkali Flux and Electrochemical Methods. Sol-Gel Method. Reactions at High Pressures. Superconducting Cuprates. Arc and Skull Techniques. Soft Chemical Routes. Crystal Growth. Concluding Remarks. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis comprehensive volume provides an homogeneous coverage of the whole area of solid-phase synthesis/combinatorial technology and clarifies the strategies used to plan, design, prepare and test combinatorial libraries.Trade Review"For both experienced combinatorial chemists and newcomers ...Seneci...provides an overview of recent developments in the realm where chemistry intersects with automation, statistics, information science, and certain biological disciplines." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 25, No. 2, June 2001) "...[a] comprehensive review of the whole combinatorial area" (Chemistry in Britain, January 2001) "...a welcome addition to the rapidly developing field of combinatorial synthetic chemistry..." (Pharmaceutical Research, Vol. 18, No. 9, September 2001)Table of ContentsSolid-Phase Synthesis: Basic Principles. Solid-Phase Synthesis: Oligomeric Molecules. Solid-Phase Synthesis: Small Organic Molecules. Combinatorial Technologies: Basic Principles. Synthetic Organic Libraries: Library Design and Properties. Synthetic Organic Libraries: Solid-Phase Discrete Libraries. Synthetic Organic Libraries: Solid-Phase Pool Libraries. Synthetic Organic Libraries: Solution-Phase Libraries. Applications of Synthetic Libraries. Biosynthetic Combinatorial Libraries. Materials and Polymeric Combinatorial Libraries. Index.

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Book SynopsisNonlinear Solid Mechanics a Continuum Approach for Engineering Gerhard A. Holzapfel Graz University of Technology, Austria With a modern, comprehensive approach directed towards computational mechanics, this book covers a unique combination of subjects at present unavailable in any other text.Trade Review"…this book is really outstanding because it fills a gap in the scientific literature…" (Meccanica, No.37 2002)Table of ContentsIntroduction to Vectors and Tensors. Kinematics. The Concept of Stress. Balance Principles. Some Aspects of Objectivity. Hyperelastic Materials. Thermodynamics of Materials. Variational Principles. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisUsed in materials science, physical chemistry and physics, density functional methods provide a unifying description of electronic properties applicable to all materials while also giving specific information on the system under study. A large number of very different materials and systems (atoms, molecules, macromolecules, clusters, bulk solids, surfaces and interfaces) are presently being studied with methods based on density functional formalism. Density Functional Methods in Chemistry and Materials Science reports the results of this research. This book will be of particular interest to those research materials science from a theoretical standpoint. This work will demonstrate how the formalism has become a methodology leading to useful information on structural and electronic properties of a broad range of materials.Table of ContentsPartial table of contents: Acidity and Basicity: The Role of Electronegativity, Hardness and Softness (P. Geerlings, et al.). Some Recent Density-Functional Studies of Molecular Systems (M. Springborg). Clusters - A Density-Functional Story (R. Jones). Calculations of EPR Parameters and Radical-Matrix Interactions (L. Eriksson). Structural and Electronic Properties of Polymeric Systems (M. Springborg). Electronic Structure Calculations for Crystalline Materials (V. Eyert). Point Defects in Solids (M. Puska & M. Nieminen). Cluster Expansions: The Link Between Density-Functional Methods and Alloy Thermodynamics. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe new edition of this highly readable, popular textbook covers the fundamentals of crystallography, symmetry and diffraction and applies these concepts to a large range of materials. Now with new end-of-chapter exercises, more illustrations, more streamlined coverage of crystallography and additional coverage of magnetic point group symmetry.Table of Contents1. Materials and materials properties; 2. The periodic table and bonds; 3. What is a crystal structure?; 4. Crystallographic computations; 5. Lattice planes; 6. Reciprocal space; 7. Additional crystallographic computations; 8. Symmetry in crystallography; 9. Point groups; 10. Plane groups and space groups; 11. X-ray diffraction: geometry; 12. X-ray diffraction: intensities; 13. Other diffraction techniques; 14. About crystal structures and diffraction patterns; 15. Non-crystallographic point groups; 16. Periodic and aperiodic things; 17. Metallic structures I; 18. Metallic structures II; 19. Metallic structures III: quasicrystals; 20. Metallic structures IV: amorphous metals; 21. Ceramic structures I; 22. Ceramic structures II: high temperature superconductors; 23. Ceramic structures III: terrestrial and extraterrestrial minerals; 24. Molecular solids and biological materials.

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Book SynopsisIn this primer to the many-body theory of condensed-matter systems, the authors introduce the subject to the non-specialist in a broad, concise, and up-to-date manner. This book is suitable non-specialist students and researchers in physics, materials science, chemistry, or applied mathematics who want to use the tools of many-body theory.Trade Review'This textbook for physics graduate courses introduces some of the mathematical methods used in applying the many-body theory of condensed matter. Researchers in other disciplines who desire to apply these methods in materials science, chemistry, or applied mathematics will appreciate …' F. Potter, ChoiceTable of ContentsPreface; Abbreviations; 1. Introduction to second quantization; 2. Time evolution and equations of motion; 3. Formal properties of Green's functions; 4. Exact methods for Green's function; 5. Green's functions using decoupling methods; 6. Linear response theory and Green's functions; 7. Green's functions for localized excitations; 8. Diagrammatic perturbation methods; 9. Applications of diagrammatic methods; References; Index.

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Book SynopsisThe second edition of a modern introduction to the chemistry and physics of solids. This textbook takes a unique integrated approach designed to appeal to both science and engineering students. Review of 1st edition an extremely wide-ranging, useful book that is accessible to anyone with a firm grasp of high school sciencethis is an outstanding and affordable resource for the lifelong learner or current student. Choice, 2005 The book provides an introduction to the chemistry and physics of solids that acts as a foundation to courses in materials science, engineering, chemistry, and physics. It is equally accessible to both engineers and scientists, through its more scientific approach, whilst still covering the material essential to engineers. This edition contains new sections on the use of computing methods to solve materials problems and has been thoroughly updated to include the many developments and advances made in thTrade Review“Summing Up: Recommended. Lower-division undergraduates and two-year technical program students.” (Choice, 1 February 2014)Table of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xix PART 1 STRUCTURES AND MICROSTRUCTURES 1 1 The electron structure of atoms 3 1.1 The hydrogen atom 3 1.1.1 The quantum mechanical description 3 1.1.2 The energy of the electron 4 1.1.3 Electron orbitals 5 1.1.4 Orbital shapes 5 1.2 Many-electron atoms 7 1.2.1 The orbital approximation 7 1.2.2 Electron spin and electron configuration 7 1.2.3 The periodic table 9 1.3 Atomic energy levels 11 1.3.1 Spectra and energy levels 11 1.3.2 Terms and term symbols 11 1.3.3 Levels 13 1.3.4 Electronic energy level calculations 14 Further reading 15 Problems and exercises 16 2 Chemical bonding 19 2.1 Ionic bonding 19 2.1.1 Ions 19 2.1.2 Ionic size and shape 20 2.1.3 Lattice energies 21 2.1.4 Atomistic simulation 23 2.2 Covalent bonding 24 2.2.1 Valence bond theory 24 2.2.2 Molecular orbital theory 30 2.3 Metallic bonding and energy bands 35 2.3.1 Molecular orbitals and energy bands 36 2.3.2 The free electron gas 37 2.3.3 Energy bands 40 2.3.4 Properties of metals 41 2.3.5 Bands in ionic and covalent solids 43 2.3.6 Computation of properties 44 Further reading 45 Problems and exercises 46 3 States of aggregation 49 3.1 Weak chemical bonds 49 3.2 Macrostructures, microstructures and nanostructures 52 3.2.1 Structures and scale 52 3.2.2 Crystalline solids 52 3.2.3 Quasicrystals 53 3.2.4 Non-crystalline solids 54 3.2.5 Partly crystalline solids 55 3.2.6 Nanoparticles and nanostructures 55 3.3 The development of microstructures 57 3.3.1 Solidification 58 3.3.2 Processing 58 3.4 Point defects 60 3.4.1 Point defects in crystals of elements 60 3.4.2 Solid solutions 61 3.4.3 Schottky defects 62 3.4.4 Frenkel defects 63 3.4.5 Non-stoichiometric compounds 64 3.4.6 Point defect notation 66 3.5 Linear, planar and volume defects 68 3.5.1 Edge dislocations 68 3.5.2 Screw dislocations 69 3.5.3 Partial and mixed dislocations 69 3.5.4 Planar defects 69 3.5.5 Volume defects: precipitates 70 Further reading 73 Problems and exercises 73 4 Phase diagrams 77 4.1 Phases and phase diagrams 77 4.1.1 One-component (unary) systems 77 4.1.2 The phase rule for one-component (unary) systems 79 4.2 Binary phase diagrams 80 4.2.1 Two-component (binary) systems 80 4.2.2 The phase rule for two-component (binary) systems 81 4.2.3 Simple binary diagrams: nickel–copper as an example 81 4.2.4 Binary systems containing a eutectic point: tin–lead as an example 83 4.2.5 Intermediate phases and melting 87 4.3 The iron–carbon system near to iron 88 4.3.1 The iron–carbon phase diagram 88 4.3.2 Steels and cast irons 89 4.3.3 Invariant points 89 4.4 Ternary systems 90 4.5 Calculation of phase diagrams: CALPHAD 93 Further reading 94 Problems and exercises 94 5 Crystallography and crystal structures 101 5.1 Crystallography 101 5.1.1 Crystal lattices 101 5.1.2 Crystal systems and crystal structures 102 5.1.3 Symmetry and crystal classes 104 5.1.4 Crystal planes and Miller indices 106 5.1.5 Hexagonal crystals and Miller-Bravais indices 109 5.1.6 Directions 110 5.1.7 Crystal geometry and the reciprocal lattice 112 5.2 The determination of crystal structures 114 5.2.1 Single crystal X-ray diffraction 114 5.2.2 Powder X-ray diffraction and crystal identification 115 5.2.3 Neutron diffraction 118 5.2.4 Electron diffraction 118 5.3 Crystal structures 118 5.3.1 Unit cells, atomic coordinates and nomenclature 118 5.3.2 The density of a crystal 119 5.3.3 The cubic close-packed (A1) structure 121 5.3.4 The body-centred cubic (A2) structure 121 5.3.5 The hexagonal (A3) structure 122 5.3.6 The diamond (A4) structure 122 5.3.7 The graphite (A9) structure 123 5.3.8 The halite (rock salt, sodium chloride, B1) structure 123 5.3.9 The spinel (H11) structure 125 5.4 Structural relationships 126 5.4.1 Sphere packing 126 5.4.2 Ionic structures in terms of anion packing 128 5.4.3 Polyhedral representations 129 Further reading 131 Problems and exercises 131 PART 2 CLASSES OF MATERIALS 137 6 Metals, ceramics, polymers and composites 139 6.1 Metals 139 6.1.1 The crystal structures of pure metals 140 6.1.2 Metallic radii 141 6.1.3 Alloy solid solutions 142 6.1.4 Metallic glasses 145 6.1.5 The principal properties of metals 146 6.2 Ceramics 147 6.2.1 Bonding and structure of silicate ceramics 147 6.2.2 Some non-silicate ceramics 149 6.2.3 The preparation and processing of ceramics 152 6.2.4 The principal properties of ceramics 154 6.3 Silicate glasses 154 6.3.1 Bonding and structure of silicate glasses 155 6.3.2 Glass deformation 157 6.3.3 Strengthened glass 159 6.3.4 Glass-ceramics 160 6.4 Polymers 161 6.4.1 Polymer formation 162 6.4.2 Microstructures of polymers 165 6.4.3 Production of polymers 170 6.4.4 Elastomers 173 6.4.5 The principal properties of polymers 175 6.5 Composite materials 177 6.5.1 Fibre-reinforced plastics 177 6.5.2 Metal-matrix composites 177 6.5.3 Ceramic-matrix composites 178 6.5.4 Cement and concrete 178 Further reading 181 Problems and exercises 182 PART 3 REACTIONS AND TRANSFORMATIONS 189 7 Diffusion and ionic conductivity 191 7.1 Self-diffusion, tracer diffusion and tracer impurity diffusion 191 7.2 Non-steady-state diffusion 194 7.3 Steady-state diffusion 195 7.4 Temperature variation of diffusion coefficient 195 7.5 The effect of impurities 196 7.6 Random walk diffusion 197 7.7 Diffusion in solids 198 7.8 Self-diffusion in one dimension 199 7.9 Self-diffusion in crystals 201 7.10 The Arrhenius equation and point defects 202 7.11 Correlation factors for self-diffusion 204 7.12 Ionic conductivity 205 7.12.1 Ionic conductivity in solids 205 7.12.2 The relationship between ionic conductivity and diffusion coefficient 208 Further reading 209 Problems and exercises 209 8 Phase transformations and reactions 213 8.1 Sintering 213 8.1.1 Sintering and reaction 213 8.1.2 The driving force for sintering 215 8.1.3 The kinetics of neck growth 216 8.2 First-order and second-order phase transitions 216 8.2.1 First-order phase transitions 217 8.2.2 Second-order transitions 217 8.3 Displacive and reconstructive transitions 218 8.3.1 Displacive transitions 218 8.3.2 Reconstructive transitions 219 8.4 Order–disorder transitions 221 8.4.1 Positional ordering 221 8.4.2 Orientational ordering 222 8.5 Martensitic transformations 223 8.5.1 The austenite–martensite transition 223 8.5.2 Martensitic transformations in zirconia 226 8.5.3 Martensitic transitions in Ni–Ti alloys 227 8.5.4 Shape-memory alloys 228 8.6 Phase diagrams and microstructures 230 8.6.1 Equilibrium solidification of simple binary alloys 230 8.6.2 Non-equilibrium solidification and coring 230 8.6.3 Solidification in systems containing a eutectic point 231 8.6.4 Equilibrium heat treatment of steel in the Fe–C phase diagram 233 8.7 High-temperature oxidation of metals 236 8.7.1 Direct corrosion 236 8.7.2 The rate of oxidation 236 8.7.3 Oxide film microstructure 237 8.7.4 Film growth via diffusion 238 8.7.5 Alloys 239 8.8 Solid-state reactions 240 8.8.1 Spinel formation 240 8.8.2 The kinetics of spinel formation 241 Further reading 242 Problems and exercises 242 9 Oxidation and reduction 247 9.1 Galvanic cells 247 9.1.1 Cell basics 247 9.1.2 Standard electrode potentials 249 9.1.3 Cell potential and Gibbs energy 250 9.1.4 Concentration dependence 251 9.2 Chemical analysis using galvanic cells 251 9.2.1 pH meters 251 9.2.2 Ion selective electrodes 253 9.2.3 Oxygen sensors 254 9.3 Batteries 255 9.3.1 ‘Dry’ and alkaline primary batteries 255 9.3.2 Lithium-ion primary batteries 256 9.3.3 The lead–acid secondary battery 257 9.3.4 Lithium-ion secondary batteries 257 9.3.5 Lithium–air batteries 259 9.3.6 Fuel cells 260 9.4 Corrosion 262 9.4.1 The reaction of metals with water and aqueous acids 262 9.4.2 Dissimilar metal corrosion 264 9.4.3 Single metal electrochemical corrosion 265 9.5 Electrolysis 266 9.5.1 Electrolytic cells 267 9.5.2 Electroplating 267 9.5.3 The amount of product produced during electrolysis 268 9.5.4 The electrolytic preparation of titanium by the FFC Cambridge Process 269 9.6 Pourbaix diagrams 270 9.6.1 Passivation, corrosion and leaching 270 9.6.2 The stability field of water 270 9.6.3 Pourbaix diagram for a metal showing two valence states, M2þ and M3þ 271 9.6.4 Pourbaix diagram displaying tendency for corrosion 273 Further reading 274 Problems and exercises 275 PART 4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 279 10 Mechanical properties of solids 281 10.1 Strength and hardness 281 10.1.1 Strength 281 10.1.2 Stress and strain 282 10.1.3 Stress–strain curves 283 10.1.4 Toughness and stiffness 286 10.1.5 Superelasticity 286 10.1.6 Hardness 287 10.2 Elastic moduli 289 10.2.1 Young’s modulus (the modulus of elasticity) (E or Y) 289 10.2.2 Poisson’s ratio (n) 291 10.2.3 The longitudinal or axial modulus (L or M) 292 10.2.4 The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or m) 292 10.2.5 The bulk modulus, K or B 293 10.2.6 The Lame modulus (l) 293 10.2.7 Relationships between the elastic moduli 293 10.2.8 Ultrasonic waves in elastic solids 293 10.3 Deformation and fracture 295 10.3.1 Brittle fracture 295 10.3.2 Plastic deformation of metals 298 10.3.3 Dislocation movement and plastic deformation 298 10.3.4 Brittle and ductile materials 301 10.3.5 Plastic deformation of polymers 302 10.3.6 Fracture following plastic deformation 302 10.3.7 Strengthening 304 10.3.8 Computation of deformation and fracture 306 10.4 Time-dependent properties 307 10.4.1 Fatigue 307 10.4.2 Creep 308 10.5 Nanoscale properties 312 10.5.1 Solid lubricants 312 10.5.2 Auxetic materials 313 10.5.3 Thin films and nanowires 315 10.6 Composite materials 317 10.6.1 Young’s modulus of large particle composites 317 10.6.2 Young’s modulus of fibre-reinforced composites 318 10.6.3 Young’s modulus of a two-phase system 319 Further reading 320 Problems and exercises 321 11 Insulating solids 327 11.1 Dielectrics 327 11.1.1 Relative permittivity and polarisation 327 11.1.2 Polarisability 329 11.1.3 Polarisability and relative permittivity 330 11.1.4 The frequency dependence of polarisability and relative permittivity 331 11.1.5 The relative permittivity of crystals 332 11.2 Piezoelectrics, pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics 333 11.2.1 The piezoelectric and pyroelectric effects 333 11.2.2 Crystal symmetry and the piezoelectric and pyroelectric effects 335 11.2.3 Piezoelectric mechanisms 336 11.2.4 Quartz oscillators 337 11.2.5 Piezoelectric polymers 338 11.3 Ferroelectrics 340 11.3.1 Ferroelectric crystals 340 11.3.2 Hysteresis and domain growth in ferroelectric crystals 341 11.3.3 Antiferroelectrics 344 11.3.4 The temperature dependence of ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity 344 11.3.5 Ferroelectricity due to hydrogen bonds 345 11.3.6 Ferroelectricity due to polar groups 347 11.3.7 Ferroelectricity due to medium-sized transition-metal cations 348 11.3.8 Poling and polycrystalline ferroelectric solids 349 11.3.9 Doping and modification of properties 349 11.3.10 Relaxor ferroelectrics 351 11.3.11 Ferroelectric nanoparticles, thin films and superlattices 352 11.3.12 Flexoelectricity in ferroelectrics 353 Further reading 354 Problems and exercises 355 12 Magnetic solids 361 12.1 Magnetic materials 361 12.1.1 Characterisation of magnetic materials 361 12.1.2 Magnetic dipoles and magnetic flux 362 12.1.3 Atomic magnetism 363 12.1.4 Overview of magnetic materials 365 12.2 Paramagnetic materials 368 12.2.1 The magnetic moment of paramagnetic atoms and ions 368 12.2.2 High and low spin: crystal field effects 369 12.2.3 Temperature dependence of paramagnetic susceptibility 371 12.2.4 Pauli paramagnetism 373 12.3 Ferromagnetic materials 374 12.3.1 Ferromagnetism 374 12.3.2 Exchange energy 376 12.3.3 Domains 378 12.3.4 Hysteresis 380 12.3.5 Hard and soft magnetic materials 380 12.4 Antiferromagnetic materials and superexchange 381 12.5 Ferrimagnetic materials 382 12.5.1 Cubic spinel ferrites 382 12.5.2 Garnet structure ferrites 383 12.5.3 Hexagonal ferrites 383 12.5.4 Double exchange 384 12.6 Nanostructures 385 12.6.1 Small particles and data recording 385 12.6.2 Superparamagnetism and thin films 386 12.6.3 Superlattices 386 12.6.4 Photoinduced magnetism 387 12.7 Magnetic defects 389 12.7.1 Magnetic defects in semiconductors 389 12.7.2 Charge and spin states in cobaltites and manganites 390 Further reading 393 Problems and exercises 393 13 Electronic conductivity in solids 399 13.1 Metals 399 13.1.1 Metals, semiconductors and insulators 399 13.1.2 Electron drift in an electric field 401 13.1.3 Electronic conductivity 402 13.1.4 Resistivity 404 13.2 Semiconductors 405 13.2.1 Intrinsic semiconductors 405 13.2.2 Band gap measurement 407 13.2.3 Extrinsic semiconductors 408 13.2.4 Carrier concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors 409 13.2.5 Characterisation 411 13.2.6 The p-n junction diode 413 13.3 Metal–insulator transitions 416 13.3.1 Metals and insulators 416 13.3.2 Electron–electron repulsion 417 13.3.3 Modification of insulators 418 13.3.4 Transparent conducting oxides 419 13.4 Conducting polymers 420 13.5 Nanostructures and quantum confinement of electrons 423 13.5.1 Quantum wells 424 13.5.2 Quantum wires and quantum dots 425 13.6 Superconductivity 426 13.6.1 Superconductors 426 13.6.2 The effect of magnetic fields 427 13.6.3 The effect of current 428 13.6.4 The nature of superconductivity 428 13.6.5 Josephson junctions 430 13.6.6 Cuprate high-temperature superconductors 430 Further reading 438 Problems and exercises 438 14 Optical aspects of solids 445 14.1 Light 445 14.1.1 Light waves 445 14.1.2 Photons 447 14.2 Sources of light 449 14.2.1 Incandescence 449 14.2.2 Luminescence and phosphors 450 14.2.3 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 453 14.2.4 Solid-state lasers 454 14.3 Colour and appearance 460 14.3.1 Luminous solids 460 14.3.2 Non-luminous solids 460 14.3.3 Attenuation 461 14.4 Refraction and dispersion 462 14.4.1 Refraction 462 14.4.2 Refractive index and structure 464 14.4.3 The refractive index of metals and semiconductors 465 14.4.4 Dispersion 465 14.5 Reflection 466 14.5.1 Reflection from a surface 466 14.5.2 Reflection from a single thin film 467 14.5.3 The reflectivity of a single thin film in air 469 14.5.4 The colour of a single thin film in air 469 14.5.5 The colour of a single thin film on a substrate 470 14.5.6 Low-reflectivity (antireflection) and high-reflectivity coatings 471 14.5.7 Multiple thin films and dielectric mirrors 471 14.6 Scattering 472 14.6.1 Rayleigh scattering 472 14.6.2 Mie scattering 475 14.7 Diffraction 475 14.7.1 Diffraction by an aperture 475 14.7.2 Diffraction gratings 476 14.7.3 Diffraction from crystal-like structures 477 14.7.4 Photonic crystals 478 14.8 Fibre optics 479 14.8.1 Optical communications 479 14.8.2 Attenuation in glass fibres 479 14.8.3 Dispersion and optical fibre design 480 14.8.4 Optical amplification 482 14.9 Energy conversion 483 14.9.1 Photoconductivity and photovoltaic solar cells 483 14.9.2 Dye sensitized solar cells 485 14.10 Nanostructures 486 14.10.1 The optical properties of quantum wells 486 14.10.2 The optical properties of nanoparticles 487 Further reading 489 Problems and exercises 489 15 Thermal properties 495 15.1 Heat capacity 495 15.1.1 The heat capacity of a solid 495 15.1.2 Classical theory of heat capacity 496 15.1.3 Quantum theory of heat capacity 496 15.1.4 Heat capacity at phase transitions 497 15.2 Thermal conductivity 498 15.2.1 Heat transfer 498 15.2.2 Thermal conductivity of solids 498 15.2.3 Thermal conductivity and microstructure 500 15.3 Expansion and contraction 501 15.3.1 Thermal expansion 501 15.3.2 Thermal expansion and interatomic potentials 502 15.3.3 Thermal contraction 503 15.3.4 Zero thermal contraction materials 505 15.4 Thermoelectric effects 506 15.4.1 Thermoelectric coefficients 506 15.4.2 Thermoelectric effects and charge carriers 508 15.4.3 The Seebeck coefficient of solids containing point defect populations 509 15.4.4 Thermocouples, power generation and refrigeration 509 15.5 The magnetocaloric effect 512 15.5.1 The magnetocaloric effect and adiabatic cooling 512 15.5.2 The giant magnetocaloric effect 513 Further reading 514 Problems and exercises 514 PART 5 NUCLEAR PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 517 16 Radioactivity and nuclear reactions 519 16.1 Radioactivity 519 16.1.1 Naturally occurring radioactive elements 519 16.1.2 Isotopes and nuclides 520 16.1.3 Nuclear equations 520 16.1.4 Radioactive series 521 16.1.5 Nuclear stability 523 16.2 Artificial radioactive atoms 524 16.2.1 Transuranic elements 524 16.2.2 Artificial radioactivity in light elements 527 16.3 Nuclear decay 527 16.3.1 The rate of nuclear decay 527 16.3.2 Radioactive dating 529 16.4 Nuclear energy 531 16.4.1 The binding energy of nuclides 531 16.4.2 Nuclear fission 532 16.4.3 Thermal reactors for power generation 533 16.4.4 Fuel for space exploration 535 16.4.5 Fast breeder reactors 535 16.4.6 Fusion 535 16.4.7 Solar cycles 536 16.5 Nuclear waste 536 16.5.1 Nuclear accidents 537 16.5.2 The storage of nuclear waste 537 Further reading 538 Problems and exercises 539 Subject Index 543

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Book SynopsisHailed by the reviews as an extremely wide-ranging, useful book, this book provides a modern introduction to the chemistry and physics of solids. It offers a unique integrated approach, equally accessible to scientists and engineers.Trade Review“Summing Up: Recommended. Lower-division undergraduates and two-year technical program students.” (Choice, 1 February 2014)Table of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xix PART 1 STRUCTURES AND MICROSTRUCTURES 1 1 The electron structure of atoms 3 1.1 The hydrogen atom 3 1.1.1 The quantum mechanical description 3 1.1.2 The energy of the electron 4 1.1.3 Electron orbitals 5 1.1.4 Orbital shapes 5 1.2 Many-electron atoms 7 1.2.1 The orbital approximation 7 1.2.2 Electron spin and electron configuration 7 1.2.3 The periodic table 9 1.3 Atomic energy levels 11 1.3.1 Spectra and energy levels 11 1.3.2 Terms and term symbols 11 1.3.3 Levels 13 1.3.4 Electronic energy level calculations 14 Further reading 15 Problems and exercises 16 2 Chemical bonding 19 2.1 Ionic bonding 19 2.1.1 Ions 19 2.1.2 Ionic size and shape 20 2.1.3 Lattice energies 21 2.1.4 Atomistic simulation 23 2.2 Covalent bonding 24 2.2.1 Valence bond theory 24 2.2.2 Molecular orbital theory 30 2.3 Metallic bonding and energy bands 35 2.3.1 Molecular orbitals and energy bands 36 2.3.2 The free electron gas 37 2.3.3 Energy bands 40 2.3.4 Properties of metals 41 2.3.5 Bands in ionic and covalent solids 43 2.3.6 Computation of properties 44 Further reading 45 Problems and exercises 46 3 States of aggregation 49 3.1 Weak chemical bonds 49 3.2 Macrostructures, microstructures and nanostructures 52 3.2.1 Structures and scale 52 3.2.2 Crystalline solids 52 3.2.3 Quasicrystals 53 3.2.4 Non-crystalline solids 54 3.2.5 Partly crystalline solids 55 3.2.6 Nanoparticles and nanostructures 55 3.3 The development of microstructures 57 3.3.1 Solidification 58 3.3.2 Processing 58 3.4 Point defects 60 3.4.1 Point defects in crystals of elements 60 3.4.2 Solid solutions 61 3.4.3 Schottky defects 62 3.4.4 Frenkel defects 63 3.4.5 Non-stoichiometric compounds 64 3.4.6 Point defect notation 66 3.5 Linear, planar and volume defects 68 3.5.1 Edge dislocations 68 3.5.2 Screw dislocations 69 3.5.3 Partial and mixed dislocations 69 3.5.4 Planar defects 69 3.5.5 Volume defects: precipitates 70 Further reading 73 Problems and exercises 73 4 Phase diagrams 77 4.1 Phases and phase diagrams 77 4.1.1 One-component (unary) systems 77 4.1.2 The phase rule for one-component (unary) systems 79 4.2 Binary phase diagrams 80 4.2.1 Two-component (binary) systems 80 4.2.2 The phase rule for two-component (binary) systems 81 4.2.3 Simple binary diagrams: nickel–copper as an example 81 4.2.4 Binary systems containing a eutectic point: tin–lead as an example 83 4.2.5 Intermediate phases and melting 87 4.3 The iron–carbon system near to iron 88 4.3.1 The iron–carbon phase diagram 88 4.3.2 Steels and cast irons 89 4.3.3 Invariant points 89 4.4 Ternary systems 90 4.5 Calculation of phase diagrams: CALPHAD 93 Further reading 94 Problems and exercises 94 5 Crystallography and crystal structures 101 5.1 Crystallography 101 5.1.1 Crystal lattices 101 5.1.2 Crystal systems and crystal structures 102 5.1.3 Symmetry and crystal classes 104 5.1.4 Crystal planes and Miller indices 106 5.1.5 Hexagonal crystals and Miller-Bravais indices 109 5.1.6 Directions 110 5.1.7 Crystal geometry and the reciprocal lattice 112 5.2 The determination of crystal structures 114 5.2.1 Single crystal X-ray diffraction 114 5.2.2 Powder X-ray diffraction and crystal identification 115 5.2.3 Neutron diffraction 118 5.2.4 Electron diffraction 118 5.3 Crystal structures 118 5.3.1 Unit cells, atomic coordinates and nomenclature 118 5.3.2 The density of a crystal 119 5.3.3 The cubic close-packed (A1) structure 121 5.3.4 The body-centred cubic (A2) structure 121 5.3.5 The hexagonal (A3) structure 122 5.3.6 The diamond (A4) structure 122 5.3.7 The graphite (A9) structure 123 5.3.8 The halite (rock salt, sodium chloride, B1) structure 123 5.3.9 The spinel (H11) structure 125 5.4 Structural relationships 126 5.4.1 Sphere packing 126 5.4.2 Ionic structures in terms of anion packing 128 5.4.3 Polyhedral representations 129 Further reading 131 Problems and exercises 131 PART 2 CLASSES OF MATERIALS 137 6 Metals, ceramics, polymers and composites 139 6.1 Metals 139 6.1.1 The crystal structures of pure metals 140 6.1.2 Metallic radii 141 6.1.3 Alloy solid solutions 142 6.1.4 Metallic glasses 145 6.1.5 The principal properties of metals 146 6.2 Ceramics 147 6.2.1 Bonding and structure of silicate ceramics 147 6.2.2 Some non-silicate ceramics 149 6.2.3 The preparation and processing of ceramics 152 6.2.4 The principal properties of ceramics 154 6.3 Silicate glasses 154 6.3.1 Bonding and structure of silicate glasses 155 6.3.2 Glass deformation 157 6.3.3 Strengthened glass 159 6.3.4 Glass-ceramics 160 6.4 Polymers 161 6.4.1 Polymer formation 162 6.4.2 Microstructures of polymers 165 6.4.3 Production of polymers 170 6.4.4 Elastomers 173 6.4.5 The principal properties of polymers 175 6.5 Composite materials 177 6.5.1 Fibre-reinforced plastics 177 6.5.2 Metal-matrix composites 177 6.5.3 Ceramic-matrix composites 178 6.5.4 Cement and concrete 178 Further reading 181 Problems and exercises 182 PART 3 REACTIONS AND TRANSFORMATIONS 189 7 Diffusion and ionic conductivity 191 7.1 Self-diffusion, tracer diffusion and tracer impurity diffusion 191 7.2 Non-steady-state diffusion 194 7.3 Steady-state diffusion 195 7.4 Temperature variation of diffusion coefficient 195 7.5 The effect of impurities 196 7.6 Random walk diffusion 197 7.7 Diffusion in solids 198 7.8 Self-diffusion in one dimension 199 7.9 Self-diffusion in crystals 201 7.10 The Arrhenius equation and point defects 202 7.11 Correlation factors for self-diffusion 204 7.12 Ionic conductivity 205 7.12.1 Ionic conductivity in solids 205 7.12.2 The relationship between ionic conductivity and diffusion coefficient 208 Further reading 209 Problems and exercises 209 8 Phase transformations and reactions 213 8.1 Sintering 213 8.1.1 Sintering and reaction 213 8.1.2 The driving force for sintering 215 8.1.3 The kinetics of neck growth 216 8.2 First-order and second-order phase transitions 216 8.2.1 First-order phase transitions 217 8.2.2 Second-order transitions 217 8.3 Displacive and reconstructive transitions 218 8.3.1 Displacive transitions 218 8.3.2 Reconstructive transitions 219 8.4 Order–disorder transitions 221 8.4.1 Positional ordering 221 8.4.2 Orientational ordering 222 8.5 Martensitic transformations 223 8.5.1 The austenite–martensite transition 223 8.5.2 Martensitic transformations in zirconia 226 8.5.3 Martensitic transitions in Ni–Ti alloys 227 8.5.4 Shape-memory alloys 228 8.6 Phase diagrams and microstructures 230 8.6.1 Equilibrium solidification of simple binary alloys 230 8.6.2 Non-equilibrium solidification and coring 230 8.6.3 Solidification in systems containing a eutectic point 231 8.6.4 Equilibrium heat treatment of steel in the Fe–C phase diagram 233 8.7 High-temperature oxidation of metals 236 8.7.1 Direct corrosion 236 8.7.2 The rate of oxidation 236 8.7.3 Oxide film microstructure 237 8.7.4 Film growth via diffusion 238 8.7.5 Alloys 239 8.8 Solid-state reactions 240 8.8.1 Spinel formation 240 8.8.2 The kinetics of spinel formation 241 Further reading 242 Problems and exercises 242 9 Oxidation and reduction 247 9.1 Galvanic cells 247 9.1.1 Cell basics 247 9.1.2 Standard electrode potentials 249 9.1.3 Cell potential and Gibbs energy 250 9.1.4 Concentration dependence 251 9.2 Chemical analysis using galvanic cells 251 9.2.1 pH meters 251 9.2.2 Ion selective electrodes 253 9.2.3 Oxygen sensors 254 9.3 Batteries 255 9.3.1 ‘Dry’ and alkaline primary batteries 255 9.3.2 Lithium-ion primary batteries 256 9.3.3 The lead–acid secondary battery 257 9.3.4 Lithium-ion secondary batteries 257 9.3.5 Lithium–air batteries 259 9.3.6 Fuel cells 260 9.4 Corrosion 262 9.4.1 The reaction of metals with water and aqueous acids 262 9.4.2 Dissimilar metal corrosion 264 9.4.3 Single metal electrochemical corrosion 265 9.5 Electrolysis 266 9.5.1 Electrolytic cells 267 9.5.2 Electroplating 267 9.5.3 The amount of product produced during electrolysis 268 9.5.4 The electrolytic preparation of titanium by the FFC Cambridge Process 269 9.6 Pourbaix diagrams 270 9.6.1 Passivation, corrosion and leaching 270 9.6.2 The stability field of water 270 9.6.3 Pourbaix diagram for a metal showing two valence states, M2þ and M3þ 271 9.6.4 Pourbaix diagram displaying tendency for corrosion 273 Further reading 274 Problems and exercises 275 PART 4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 279 10 Mechanical properties of solids 281 10.1 Strength and hardness 281 10.1.1 Strength 281 10.1.2 Stress and strain 282 10.1.3 Stress–strain curves 283 10.1.4 Toughness and stiffness 286 10.1.5 Superelasticity 286 10.1.6 Hardness 287 10.2 Elastic moduli 289 10.2.1 Young’s modulus (the modulus of elasticity) (E or Y) 289 10.2.2 Poisson’s ratio (n) 291 10.2.3 The longitudinal or axial modulus (L or M) 292 10.2.4 The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or m) 292 10.2.5 The bulk modulus, K or B 293 10.2.6 The Lame modulus (l) 293 10.2.7 Relationships between the elastic moduli 293 10.2.8 Ultrasonic waves in elastic solids 293 10.3 Deformation and fracture 295 10.3.1 Brittle fracture 295 10.3.2 Plastic deformation of metals 298 10.3.3 Dislocation movement and plastic deformation 298 10.3.4 Brittle and ductile materials 301 10.3.5 Plastic deformation of polymers 302 10.3.6 Fracture following plastic deformation 302 10.3.7 Strengthening 304 10.3.8 Computation of deformation and fracture 306 10.4 Time-dependent properties 307 10.4.1 Fatigue 307 10.4.2 Creep 308 10.5 Nanoscale properties 312 10.5.1 Solid lubricants 312 10.5.2 Auxetic materials 313 10.5.3 Thin films and nanowires 315 10.6 Composite materials 317 10.6.1 Young’s modulus of large particle composites 317 10.6.2 Young’s modulus of fibre-reinforced composites 318 10.6.3 Young’s modulus of a two-phase system 319 Further reading 320 Problems and exercises 321 11 Insulating solids 327 11.1 Dielectrics 327 11.1.1 Relative permittivity and polarisation 327 11.1.2 Polarisability 329 11.1.3 Polarisability and relative permittivity 330 11.1.4 The frequency dependence of polarisability and relative permittivity 331 11.1.5 The relative permittivity of crystals 332 11.2 Piezoelectrics, pyroelectrics and ferroelectrics 333 11.2.1 The piezoelectric and pyroelectric effects 333 11.2.2 Crystal symmetry and the piezoelectric and pyroelectric effects 335 11.2.3 Piezoelectric mechanisms 336 11.2.4 Quartz oscillators 337 11.2.5 Piezoelectric polymers 338 11.3 Ferroelectrics 340 11.3.1 Ferroelectric crystals 340 11.3.2 Hysteresis and domain growth in ferroelectric crystals 341 11.3.3 Antiferroelectrics 344 11.3.4 The temperature dependence of ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity 344 11.3.5 Ferroelectricity due to hydrogen bonds 345 11.3.6 Ferroelectricity due to polar groups 347 11.3.7 Ferroelectricity due to medium-sized transition-metal cations 348 11.3.8 Poling and polycrystalline ferroelectric solids 349 11.3.9 Doping and modification of properties 349 11.3.10 Relaxor ferroelectrics 351 11.3.11 Ferroelectric nanoparticles, thin films and superlattices 352 11.3.12 Flexoelectricity in ferroelectrics 353 Further reading 354 Problems and exercises 355 12 Magnetic solids 361 12.1 Magnetic materials 361 12.1.1 Characterisation of magnetic materials 361 12.1.2 Magnetic dipoles and magnetic flux 362 12.1.3 Atomic magnetism 363 12.1.4 Overview of magnetic materials 365 12.2 Paramagnetic materials 368 12.2.1 The magnetic moment of paramagnetic atoms and ions 368 12.2.2 High and low spin: crystal field effects 369 12.2.3 Temperature dependence of paramagnetic susceptibility 371 12.2.4 Pauli paramagnetism 373 12.3 Ferromagnetic materials 374 12.3.1 Ferromagnetism 374 12.3.2 Exchange energy 376 12.3.3 Domains 378 12.3.4 Hysteresis 380 12.3.5 Hard and soft magnetic materials 380 12.4 Antiferromagnetic materials and superexchange 381 12.5 Ferrimagnetic materials 382 12.5.1 Cubic spinel ferrites 382 12.5.2 Garnet structure ferrites 383 12.5.3 Hexagonal ferrites 383 12.5.4 Double exchange 384 12.6 Nanostructures 385 12.6.1 Small particles and data recording 385 12.6.2 Superparamagnetism and thin films 386 12.6.3 Superlattices 386 12.6.4 Photoinduced magnetism 387 12.7 Magnetic defects 389 12.7.1 Magnetic defects in semiconductors 389 12.7.2 Charge and spin states in cobaltites and manganites 390 Further reading 393 Problems and exercises 393 13 Electronic conductivity in solids 399 13.1 Metals 399 13.1.1 Metals, semiconductors and insulators 399 13.1.2 Electron drift in an electric field 401 13.1.3 Electronic conductivity 402 13.1.4 Resistivity 404 13.2 Semiconductors 405 13.2.1 Intrinsic semiconductors 405 13.2.2 Band gap measurement 407 13.2.3 Extrinsic semiconductors 408 13.2.4 Carrier concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors 409 13.2.5 Characterisation 411 13.2.6 The p-n junction diode 413 13.3 Metal–insulator transitions 416 13.3.1 Metals and insulators 416 13.3.2 Electron–electron repulsion 417 13.3.3 Modification of insulators 418 13.3.4 Transparent conducting oxides 419 13.4 Conducting polymers 420 13.5 Nanostructures and quantum confinement of electrons 423 13.5.1 Quantum wells 424 13.5.2 Quantum wires and quantum dots 425 13.6 Superconductivity 426 13.6.1 Superconductors 426 13.6.2 The effect of magnetic fields 427 13.6.3 The effect of current 428 13.6.4 The nature of superconductivity 428 13.6.5 Josephson junctions 430 13.6.6 Cuprate high-temperature superconductors 430 Further reading 438 Problems and exercises 438 14 Optical aspects of solids 445 14.1 Light 445 14.1.1 Light waves 445 14.1.2 Photons 447 14.2 Sources of light 449 14.2.1 Incandescence 449 14.2.2 Luminescence and phosphors 450 14.2.3 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 453 14.2.4 Solid-state lasers 454 14.3 Colour and appearance 460 14.3.1 Luminous solids 460 14.3.2 Non-luminous solids 460 14.3.3 Attenuation 461 14.4 Refraction and dispersion 462 14.4.1 Refraction 462 14.4.2 Refractive index and structure 464 14.4.3 The refractive index of metals and semiconductors 465 14.4.4 Dispersion 465 14.5 Reflection 466 14.5.1 Reflection from a surface 466 14.5.2 Reflection from a single thin film 467 14.5.3 The reflectivity of a single thin film in air 469 14.5.4 The colour of a single thin film in air 469 14.5.5 The colour of a single thin film on a substrate 470 14.5.6 Low-reflectivity (antireflection) and high-reflectivity coatings 471 14.5.7 Multiple thin films and dielectric mirrors 471 14.6 Scattering 472 14.6.1 Rayleigh scattering 472 14.6.2 Mie scattering 475 14.7 Diffraction 475 14.7.1 Diffraction by an aperture 475 14.7.2 Diffraction gratings 476 14.7.3 Diffraction from crystal-like structures 477 14.7.4 Photonic crystals 478 14.8 Fibre optics 479 14.8.1 Optical communications 479 14.8.2 Attenuation in glass fibres 479 14.8.3 Dispersion and optical fibre design 480 14.8.4 Optical amplification 482 14.9 Energy conversion 483 14.9.1 Photoconductivity and photovoltaic solar cells 483 14.9.2 Dye sensitized solar cells 485 14.10 Nanostructures 486 14.10.1 The optical properties of quantum wells 486 14.10.2 The optical properties of nanoparticles 487 Further reading 489 Problems and exercises 489 15 Thermal properties 495 15.1 Heat capacity 495 15.1.1 The heat capacity of a solid 495 15.1.2 Classical theory of heat capacity 496 15.1.3 Quantum theory of heat capacity 496 15.1.4 Heat capacity at phase transitions 497 15.2 Thermal conductivity 498 15.2.1 Heat transfer 498 15.2.2 Thermal conductivity of solids 498 15.2.3 Thermal conductivity and microstructure 500 15.3 Expansion and contraction 501 15.3.1 Thermal expansion 501 15.3.2 Thermal expansion and interatomic potentials 502 15.3.3 Thermal contraction 503 15.3.4 Zero thermal contraction materials 505 15.4 Thermoelectric effects 506 15.4.1 Thermoelectric coefficients 506 15.4.2 Thermoelectric effects and charge carriers 508 15.4.3 The Seebeck coefficient of solids containing point defect populations 509 15.4.4 Thermocouples, power generation and refrigeration 509 15.5 The magnetocaloric effect 512 15.5.1 The magnetocaloric effect and adiabatic cooling 512 15.5.2 The giant magnetocaloric effect 513 Further reading 514 Problems and exercises 514 PART 5 NUCLEAR PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 517 16 Radioactivity and nuclear reactions 519 16.1 Radioactivity 519 16.1.1 Naturally occurring radioactive elements 519 16.1.2 Isotopes and nuclides 520 16.1.3 Nuclear equations 520 16.1.4 Radioactive series 521 16.1.5 Nuclear stability 523 16.2 Artificial radioactive atoms 524 16.2.1 Transuranic elements 524 16.2.2 Artificial radioactivity in light elements 527 16.3 Nuclear decay 527 16.3.1 The rate of nuclear decay 527 16.3.2 Radioactive dating 529 16.4 Nuclear energy 531 16.4.1 The binding energy of nuclides 531 16.4.2 Nuclear fission 532 16.4.3 Thermal reactors for power generation 533 16.4.4 Fuel for space exploration 535 16.4.5 Fast breeder reactors 535 16.4.6 Fusion 535 16.4.7 Solar cycles 536 16.5 Nuclear waste 536 16.5.1 Nuclear accidents 537 16.5.2 The storage of nuclear waste 537 Further reading 538 Problems and exercises 539 Subject Index 543

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Book SynopsisSolid State Chemistry and Its Applications, 2nd Edition - Student Edition is a long-awaited revision of the bestselling introductory text, Basic Solid State Chemistry, 2nd edition, the classic text for undergraduate teaching in solid state chemistry worldwide.Table of ContentsPreface xv Chemistry – Solid State Chemistry –Materials Chemistry –Materials Science and Engineering xvii Companion Website xxi CrystalViewer xxii Biography xxiii 1 Crystal Structures and Crystal Chemistry 1 1.1 Unit Cells and Crystal Systems 1 1.2 Symmetry 3 1.3 Symmetry and Choice of Unit Cell 10 1.4 Lattice, Bravais Lattice 11 1.5 Lattice Planes and Miller Indices 14 1.6 Indices of Directions 16 1.7 d-Spacing Formulae 17 1.8 Crystal Densities and Unit Cell Contents 17 1.9 Description of Crystal Structures 18 1.10 Close Packed Structures – Cubic and Hexagonal Close Packing 19 1.11 Relationship Between Cubic Close Packed and Face Centred Cubic 21 1.12 Hexagonal Unit Cell and Close Packing 21 1.13 Density of Close Packed Structures 22 1.14 Unit Cell Projections and Atomic Coordinates 24 1.15 Materials That Can Be Described as Close Packed 25 1.16 Structures Built of Space-Filling Polyhedra 33 1.17 Some Important Structure Types 35 2 Crystal Defects, Non-Stoichiometry and Solid Solutions 83 2.1 Perfect and Imperfect Crystals 83 2.2 Types of Defect: Point Defects 84 2.3 Solid Solutions 95 2.4 Extended Defects 108 2.5 Dislocations and Mechanical Properties of Solids 111 3 Bonding in Solids 125 3.1 Overview: Ionic, Covalent, Metallic, van der Waals and Hydrogen Bonding in Solids 125 3.2 Ionic Bonding 126 3.3 Covalent Bonding 161 3.4 Metallic Bonding and Band Theory 173 3.5 Bands or Bonds: a Final Comment 185 4 Synthesis, Processing and Fabrication Methods 187 4.1 General Observations 187 4.2 Solid State Reaction or Shake ’n Bake Methods 187 4.3 Low Temperature or Chimie Douce Methods 196 4.4 Gas-Phase Methods 213 4.5 High-Pressure Methods 225 4.6 Crystal Growth 226 5 Crystallography and Diffraction Techniques 229 5.1 General Comments: Molecular and Non-Molecular Solids 229 5.2 Characterisation of Solids 231 5.3 X-Ray Diffraction 232 5.4 Electron Diffraction 265 5.5 Neutron Diffraction 266 6 Other Techniques: Microscopy, Spectroscopy, Thermal Analysis 271 6.1 Diffraction and Microscopic Techniques: What Do They Have in Common? 271 6.2 Optical and Electron Microscopy Techniques 272 6.3 Spectroscopic Techniques 291 6.4 Thermal Analysis (TA) 314 6.5 Strategy to Identify, Analyse and Characterise ‘Unknown’ Solids 323 7 Phase Diagrams and Their Interpretation 325 7.1 The Phase Rule, the Condensed Phase Rule and Some Definitions 325 7.2 One-Component Systems 330 7.3 Two-Component Condensed Systems 333 7.4 Some Tips and Guidelines for Constructing Binary Phase Diagrams 355 8 Electrical Properties 359 8.1 Survey of Electrical Properties and Electrical Materials 359 8.2 Metallic Conductivity 361 8.3 Superconductivity 366 8.4 Semiconductivity 382 8.5 Ionic Conductivity 392 8.6 Dielectric Materials 430 8.7 Ferroelectrics 436 8.8 Pyroelectrics 441 8.9 Piezoelectrics 441 8.10 Applications of Ferro-, Pyro- and Piezoelectrics 441 9 Magnetic Properties 445 9.1 Physical Properties 445 9.2 Magnetic Materials, Their Structures and Properties 455 9.3 Applications: Structure–Property Relations 464 9.4 Recent Developments 467 10 Optical Properties: Luminescence and Lasers 473 10.1 Visible Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 473 10.2 Sources of Light, Thermal Sources, Black Body Radiation and Electronic Transitions 473 10.3 Scattering Processes: Reflection, Diffraction and Interference 476 10.4 Luminescence and Phosphors 476 10.5 Configurational Coordinate Model 478 10.6 Some Phosphor Materials 480 10.7 Anti-Stokes Phosphors 481 10.8 Stimulated Emission, Amplification of Light and Lasers 482 10.9 Photodetectors 488 10.10 Fibre-Optics 490 10.11 Solar Cells 492 Further Reading 493 Appendix A: Interplanar Spacings and Unit Cell Volumes 505 Appendix B: Model Building 507 Appendix C: Geometrical Considerations in Crystal Chemistry 511 Appendix D: How to Recognise Close Packed (Eutactic) Structures 515 Appendix E: Positive and Negative Atomic Coordinates 517 Appendix F: The Elements and Some of Their Properties 519 Questions 525 Index

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Book SynopsisThis book on solid state chemistry presents studies of chemical, structural, thermodynamic, electronic, magnetic, and optical properties and processes in solids. Research areas include: bonding in solids, crystal chemistry, crystal growth mechanisms, diffusion epitaxy, high-pressure processes, magnetic properties of materials, optical characterisation of materials, order-disorder, phase equilibria and transformation mechanisms, reactions at surfaces, statistical mechanics of defect interactions, structural studies and transport phenomena.

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Book SynopsisThe book on solid state chemistry presents studies of chemical, structural, thermodynamic, electronic, magnetic, and optical properties and processes in solids. Research areas include: bonding in solids, crystal chemistry, crystal growth mechanisms, diffusion epitaxy, high-pressure processes, magnetic properties of materials, optical characterisation of materials, order-disorder, phase equilibria and transformation mechanisms, reactions at surfaces, statistical mechanics of defect interactions, structural studies and transport phenomena.

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Book SynopsisThe book on solid state chemistry presents studies of chemical, structural, thermodynamic, electronic, magnetic, and optical properties and processes in solids. Research areas include: bonding in solids, crystal chemistry, crystal growth mechanisms, diffusion epitaxy, high-pressure processes, magnetic properties of materials, optical characterisation of materials, order-disorder, phase equilibria and transformation mechanisms, reactions at surfaces, statistical mechanics of defect interactions, structural studies and transport phenomena.

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Book SynopsisThe field of crystal engineering concerns the design and synthesis of molecular crystals with desired properties. This requires an in-depth understanding of the intermolecular interactions within crystal structures. This new book brings together the latest information and theories about intermolecular bonding, providing an introductory text for graduates. The book is divided into three parts. The first part covers the nature, physical meaning and methods for identification and analysis of intermolecular bonds. The second part explains the different types of bond known to occur in molecular crystals, with each chapter written by a specialist in that specific bond type. The final part discusses the cooperativity effects of different bond types present in one solid. This comprehensive textbook will provide a valuable resource for all students and researchers in the field of crystallography, materials science and supramolecular chemistry.Table of ContentsSection 1: Theoretical Foundations of Intermolecular Interactions; Bonds and Intermolecular Interactions – The Return of Cohesion to Chemistry; Using Computational Quantum Chemistry as a Tool to Understand the Structure of Molecular Crystals and the Nature of their Intermolecular Interactions; Bonding in Organic Molecules and Condensed Phases. The Role of Repulsions; On Topological Atoms and Bonds; Quantitative Determination of the Nature of Intermolecular Bonds by EDA Analysis; Beyond QTAIM: NCI Indexes as a Tool to Reveal Intermolecular Bonds in Molecular Aggregates; Section 2: Spectroscopic and Database Information; Molecular Beam and Spectroscopic Techniques: Towards Fundamental Understanding of Intermolecular Interactions/Bonds; Solid-state NMR Techniques for the Study of Intermolecular Interactions; The Use of Databases in the Study of Intermolecular Interactions; Section 3: Isolated Intermolecular Interactions; Intermolecular Interactions in Crystals; The Nature of the Hydrogen Bond, from a Theoretical Perspective; The CH...p Hydrogen Bond; Hydrogen Bonds and Halogen Bonds – A Comparative Study; The Cation–p Interaction; Intramolecular Beryllium Bonds. Further Insights into Resonance Assistance Phenomena; On the Nature of Hydrogen–Hydrogen Bonding; Long, Multicenter Bonds in Radical Anion p-dimers; Section 4: Intermolecular Interactions in Crystals; Revealing the Intermolecular Bonds in Molecular Crystals Through Charge Density Methods; Noncovalent Interactions in Crystal Structures: Quantifying Cooperativity in Hydrogen and Halogen Bonds; Crystal Engineering: State of the Art and Open Challenges

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Book SynopsisThere is great interest in converting electricity overcapacity e.g. from renewables; from fuels such as hydrogen and synthetic gasoline; or for the conversion of nitrogen to ammonia. Solid oxide electrolysis offers a high efficiency route to these conversions utilising technology similar to solid oxide fuel cells. However, there are significant differences between electrolysis and fuel cell operation, and the fundamental aspects of electrolysis have received little attention. This Faraday Discussion brings together the research of leading scientists to address the fundamental aspects of solid oxide electrolysis. Research in this field could yield a new clean chemical industry, potentially allowing greater harvesting of renewables by storing excess energy in a more useful and higher energy density form than electricity.Table of ContentsFundamental Electrochemistry; Materials Development; Understanding Durability; System Studies.

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Book SynopsisThe quest for efficient and durable battery technologies is one of the key challenges for enabling the transition to renewable energy economies. Magnesium batteries, and in particular rechargeable non-aqueous systems, are an area of extensive opportunity and intense research. Rechargeable magnesium batteries hold numerous advantages over current lithium-ion batteries, namely the relative abundance of magnesium to lithium and the potential for magnesium batteries to greatly outperform their Li-ion counterparts. Magnesium Batteries comprehensively outlines the scientific and technical challenges in the field, covering anodes, cathodes, electrolytes and particularly promising systems such as the Mg–S cell. Edited by a leading figure in the field of electrochemical energy storage, with contributions from global experts, this book is a vital resource for students and researchers at all levels. Whether entering into the subject for the first time or extending their knowledge of battery materials across chemistry, physics, energy, engineering and materials science this book provides an ideal reference for anyone interested in the state-of-the-art and future of magnesium batteries.Table of ContentsMotivation for a Magnesium Battery; Non-aqueous Electrolytes for Mg Batteries; Solid-state Magnesium-ion Conductors; Theoretical Modelling of Multivalent Ions in Inorganic Hosts; Anode Materials for Rechargeable Mg Batteries; Mg Stripping and Plating at Magnesium Metal and Intermetallic Anodes; Insertion Electrodes for Magnesium Batteries: Intercalation and Conversion; High Energy Density Insertion Cathode Materials; Organic Compounds as Electrodes for Rechargeable Mg Batteries; Magnesium–Sulfur Batteries; Mg–Li Dual-cation Batteries; Aqueous Mg Batteries; Life Cycle Analysis of a Magnesium–Sulfur Battery

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Book SynopsisCrystallisation, the spontaneous arrangement of molecular building blocks into ordered solid particles, is a fascinating phenomenon. Understanding the dynamic, molecular-scale processes that underlie crystal nucleation and growth holds the key to designing the production of specific crystalline materials The ability to induce crystallisation how, when and where we want it is key to material synthesis. Such capabilities will transform industrial and environmental sectors, including healthcare, formulated products, oil and gas, water, mining and advanced materials. This Discussion focuses on the following four themes: Understanding crystal nucleation mechanisms: where do we stand? Growing crystals by design Controlling polymorphism Learning Lessons from Nature – the future of biomimeticsTable of ContentsUnderstanding crystal nucleation mechanisms: where do we stand?;Growing crystals by design;Controlling polymorphism;Learning Lessons from Nature – the future of biomimetics

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Book SynopsisThis volume brings together the wide range of scientists working on metaloxygen batteries to exchange ideas on the challenges and prospects in this field.

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Book SynopsisUltrafast science has long been limited to the investigation of molecular processes. Over the past 10 years investigation of ultrafast processes has expanded to material science, including aspects relevant to the solid-state such as excitation of electrons in band structures and collective phonon excitation. Specific probes for electronic and structural reorganization, such as X-ray diffraction and ARPES, have been advanced. Furthermore, experimental techniques including XFEL science, THz science and various pump–probe methods, as well as the theoretical understanding of ultrafast, out-of-equilibrium and multiscale processes driven by light or THz excitation, have seen rapid development. This volume brings together a complementarity of internationally-leading experimental material scientists and theoreticians in this field to explore and exchange their ideas about the key aspects of ultrafast science, designing new ways to control materials and understanding transformation processes. The topics covered include: Material science: ultrafast transformation, electron-phonon coupling, multi-scale aspects Theory of out of equilibrium light-induced phenomena Optical excitation processes THz and laser field excitation processes Table of ContentsMaterial science: ultrafast transformation, electron-phonon coupling, multi-scale aspects;Theory of out of equilibrium light-induced phenomena;Optical excitation processes;THz and laser field excitation processes

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Book SynopsisThis book presents all the theoretical and practical basements of heterogeneous kinetics and reactivity of solids. It applies the new concepts of reactivity and spatial function, introduced by the author, for both nucleation and growth processes, with a unified presentation of the reactivity of bulk and powder solids, including gas-solid reactions, thermal decompositions, solid-solid reactions, reactions of solid solutions, and coalescence of solid grains. It also contains many exercises and problems with solutions included, allowing readers to understand and use all the concepts and methods discussed therein.Trade Review"Soustelle (emeritus, heterogenous kinetics, Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines, France) offers an extensive overview of the theoretical and experimental basis of heterogenous kinetics and its application to the study of solids reactivity. The field integrates physical, theoretical, and computational elements of chemistry and materials science. The book's contents are based on courses given for undergraduates and master's students in chemical engineering." (Book News, September 2010) Table of ContentsPreface xxi List of Symbols xxv Chapter 1. Definitions and Experimental Approach 1 1.1. Thermal transformations of solids 1 1.2. Classification of transformations 2 1.3. Speed and rate of reaction 6 1.4. Reaction zones of a transformation 10 1.5. Chemical characterizations 12 1.6. Structural characterizations of the solids 13 1.7. Textural characterizations of the solids 14 1.8. Characterization of the evolution of the systems 17 1.9. Influence of various variables on speed 26 Chapter 2. The Real Solid: Structure Elements and Quasi-Chemical Reactions 29 2.1. Structure elements of a solid 30 2.2. Structure elements of a stoichiometric binary solid 35 2.3. Structure elements of a non-stoichiometric binary solid 36 2.4. Extension to non-binary compounds 44 2.5. Quasi-chemical reactions 46 2.6. Introduction of foreign elements into a solid 53 Chapter 3. Thermodynamics of Heterogenous Systems 59 3.1. Introduction: aims of thermodynamics 59 3.2. General survey of thermodynamics of equilibrium 60 3.3. Phenomena leading to solid-gas equilibriums 69 3.4. Thermodynamic approach of solid-gas systems 71 3.5. Thermodynamics of systems containing solid phases only 76 3.6. Specific study of quasi-chemical equilibriums 77 3.7. Thermodynamics of systems: water vapor-hydrated salts 85 3.8. Sequence of transformations, juxtaposition of stability area 93 3.9. Equilibrium of the formation of a solid from a solution 96 3.10. Variations in the equilibrium conditions with sizes of solid phases 100 Chapter 4. Elementary Steps in Heterogenous Reactions 105 4.1. Nature of elementary steps 107 4.2. Elementary reactions at solid-solid interfaces 114 4.3. Elementary reactions at gas-solid interfaces 122 4.4. The apparent energies of activation of interface reactions 130 4.5. The areal speed of an interface reaction 130 Chapter 5. Chemical Diffusion 131 5.1. Introduction: nature of diffusing particles in a solid 131 5.2. Flux of diffusion and velocity of diffusing particles 135 5.3. The laws of Fick136 5.4. Steady state obstructed diffusion 150 5.5. Diffusion under electric field 153 5.6. Diffusion in two mediums separated by a mobile interface 161 Chapter 6. Chemical Adsorption169 6.1. Definitions: physical adsorption and chemical adsorption 169 6.2. Adsorption thermodynamics and chemisorption equilibrium 170 6.3. Kinetics of chemisorption 178 6.4. Chemisorption and structure elements 181 Chapter 7. Mechanisms and Kinetics of a Process 195 7.1. Speeds and reactivities of reactions taking place in only a single zone 195 7.2. Transformations with several zones 201 7.3. Linear reaction mechanisms 210 7.4. Linear mechanisms in pseudo-steady state modes 213 7.5. Pure modes or modes with a rate-determining step 220 7.6. Mixed modes 234 7.7. Generalization, rate of a linear mechanism in pseudo-steady state mode 241 7.8. Mixed non-pseudo-steady state modes 242 7.9. Equivalent reaction of a linear subset in local pseudo-steady state mode 245 7.10. Reactions with separable rates 248 7.11. Influence of intensive variables on the kinetic laws 250 7.12. Distance from equilibrium for a reaction 252 7.13. Processes concerned in a heterogenous reaction 255 Chapter 8. Nucleation of a New Solid Phase 257 8.1. Clusters 258 8.2. Examples of nucleation diagram 258 8.3. Interfacial energy 260 8.4. Formation molar Gibbs energy of clusters 272 8.5. Kinetics of nucleation 285 Chapter 9. Growth of a Solid Phase 309 9.1. Description of the zones of growth 309 9.2. Direction of the development of phase B during the growth 311 9.3. Modes and models for growth 312 9.4. Relationship between the motion velocities of the interfaces and the chemical growth rate 315 9.5. Methodology to model growth 318 9.6. Expressions of the space functions for the growth of a grain 320 Chapter 10. Transformation by Surface Nucleation and Growth 337 10.1. Nucleation, growth, and experimental rate 338 10.2. One-process model with instantaneous nucleation and slow growth 339 10.3. Two-process models: nucleation and growth 347 10.4. Two-process model with surface nucleation-radial anisotropic growth 351 10.5. Two-process model with surface nucleation and isotropic growth 361 10.6. Non-isobaric and/or non-isothermal kinetics 370 10.7. Powders with granular distributions 375 10.8. Return to the first and second kind of changes of laws 376 10.9. Conclusion 377 Chapter 11. Modeling and Experiments 379 11.1. The adequacy between the experimental conditions and modeling 379 11.2. Expressions of experimental speeds 381 11.3. Derivation of the kinetic curves 388 11.4. The experimental verification of the assumptions 388 11.5. Determination of the morphological model for growth 395 11.6. Calculations of the reactivity of growth and the specific frequency of nucleation 398 11.7. Variations of the kinetic properties with the intensive variables 399 11.8. Methodology of a study 402 Chapter 12. Granular Coalescence 407 12.1. Qualitative description of the model 408 12.2. Morphological modeling 409 12.3. Structure of the coalescence mechanism 413 12.4. Determination of the space functions 416 12.5. Rate constants and radius of curvature 420 12.6. Reactivity of coalescence of a solid with a single component 423 12.7. Extensions to the coalescence of solids with several components 436 12.8. Relations between experiments and modeling 443 12.9. Oswald ripening and reduction in porosity 448 Chapter 13. Decomposition Reactions of Solids 449 13.1. Classifications of decomposition reactions 450 13.2. Extent measurement with the change of the mass 451 13.3. Observed experimental results 456 13.4. Kinetics of growth in decomposition reactions of solids 462 13.5. Nucleation in decomposition reactions of solids 478 13.6. Total kinetic curves 484 13.7. Influence of the granular distribution 484 13.8. Normal and abnormal growth 486 Chapter 14. Reactions Between Solids 489 14.1. Classification of the reactions between solids 490 14.2. The modeling assumptions 492 14.3. The experimental measure of the extent of the reactions 493 14.4. Reactivities of reactions between solids 494 14.5. Rates of the reactions between powders 508 14.6. Conclusion 541 Chapter 15. Gas-Solid Reactions 543 15.1. Classification of gas-solid reactions 544 15.2. Pure metal gas reactions 546 15.3. Growth process in the reduction of metallic oxides by hydrogen 585 15.4. Growth process of oxidation of metals by water vapor 596 Chapter 16. Transformations of Solid Solutions 603 16.1. General information on transformations of solid solutions 603 16.2. Oxidation of metal alloys 606 16.3. Variations of the composition of a solid solution with gas formation 640 16.4. Superposition of a variation of stoichiometry and decomposition 648 Chapter 17. Modeling of Mechanisms 651 17.1. Non-stoichiometry of iron oxide 651 17.2. Stability of calcium carbonate 658 17.3. Thermodynamics of a solid-solid reactions 665 17.4. Hydrates of alumina 669 17.5. Point defects in a metal sulfide 679 17.6. Point defects of an alkaline bromide 689 17.7. Diffusion of a metal into another metal 694 17.8. Generation of atmospheres with very low pressures 701 Chapter 18. Mechanisms and Kinetic Laws 709 18.1 Coalescence of anatase grains 709 18.2. Reaction of a cubic sample 713 18.3. Anisotropic growth 723 18.4. Gas-solid reaction with one-process model 732 18.5. The direction of the development of a layer 738 18.6. Mampel modeling by way of the point of inflection 747 18.7. Nucleation in a reaction of dehydration 753 18.8. Influence of particle size in nucleation-growth approach 759 18.9. Decomposition with slow nucleation and slow anisotropic growth determined by diffusion 767 19. Mechanisms and Reactivity 779 19.1. Competition oxidation – volatilization by TGA 779 19.2. Controlled rate thermal analysis (CRTA) 783 19.3. Sulfurization of a metal 789 19.4. Oxidation of a metal and some of its alloys 794 19.5. Reduction of octo-oxide of triuranium by dihydrogen 804 19.6. Dehydration of kaolinite 813 19.7. Decomposition of a carbonate of a metal 823 19.8. Reaction between two solids 837 Appendix 1 845 Appendix 2 847 Appendix 3 849 Appendix 4 853 Appendix 5 861 Appendix 6 867 Appendix 7 873 Appendix 8 875 Appendix 9 881 Appendix 10 899 Appendix 11 911 Bibliography 913 Index 919

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