Philosophy: logic Books

Book Synopsis''Don''t hope that events will turn out the way you want, welcome events in whichever way they happen''How can we cope when life''s events seem beyond our control? These words of consolation and inspiration from the three great Stoic philosophers - Epictetus, Seneca and Marcus Aurelius - offer ancient wisdom on how to face life''s adversities and live well in the world.One of twenty new books in the bestselling Penguin Great Ideas series. This new selection showcases a diverse list of thinkers who have helped shape our world today, from anarchists to stoics, feminists to prophets, satirists to Zen Buddhists.

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Book SynopsisFor thousands of years, mathematicians have used the timeless art of logic to see the world more clearly. In The Art of Logic, Royal Society Science Book Prize nominee Eugenia Cheng shows how anyone can think like a mathematician - and see, argue and think better. Learn how to simplify complex decisions without over-simplifying them. Discover the power of analogies and the dangers of false equivalences. Find out how people construct misleading arguments, and how we can argue back. Eugenia Cheng teaches us how to find clarity without losing nuance, taking a careful scalpel to the complexities of politics, privilege, sexism and dozens of other real-world situations. Her Art of Logic is a practical and inspiring guide to decoding the modern world.Trade ReviewMind-expanding ... a meaningful contribution to creating a better society as well as happier conversations and relationships * Guardian *A mathematician's thought-provoking attempt to lay out the tools of rational argument -- Michael Brooks * New Statesman Books of the Year *With humour, grace, and a natural gift for making explanations seem fun, Eugenia Cheng has done it again. This is a book to savour, to consult, and to buy for all your friends. You'll think more clearly after reading this book, something that is unfortunately in short supply these days. I am buying several copies to send to heads of state. -- Daniel Levitin, bestselling author of The Organised Mind & A Field Guide to Lies and StatisticsIn an era awash with conflict, exploitation, tribalism and fake news, the "illuminating precision" offered by logic is important. Cheng harnesses the power of abstraction to explore real-life phenomena such as sexism and white privilege. She walks us through the grand terrain of logic, from axioms to proofs. And she reveals how to build arguments as long chains of logical implications - a "virtuosic and masterful" skill that, combined with intelligent emotional engagement, can cut through pervasive irrationality * Nature *A perceptive analysis of logic and its limitations ... Cheng is successful not only in helping readers think more clearly, but in helping them understand why others sometimes appear to be illogical. This book has the potential to help understanding and avoid confrontational arguments that serve only to entrench opposing views * Times Higher Education *Radical and liberating * Emerald Street *We're thankful that someone like Eugenia Cheng is here; someone to eloquently and efficiently expound on concepts like logic and truth at a time when their very basis seems to come under attack ... We're forever on the lookout for someone to make mathematics both fun and accessible, and it looks like we've found that person in Eugenia Cheng * How it Works Magazine *A concert pianist, mathematician, polyglot and YouTube star, Cheng has carved out quite a niche for herself ... she brings an ebullient enthusiasm that's infectious * Guardian *Witty, charming, and crystal clear. Eugenia Cheng's enthusiasm and carefully chosen metaphors and analogies carry us effortlessly through the mathematical landscape -- Ian StewartClear, clever and friendly -- Alex Bellos

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Book SynopsisLogic is often perceived as having little to do with the rest of philosophy, and even less to do with real life. In this lively and accessible introduction, Graham Priest shows how wrong this conception is. He explores the philosophical roots of the subject, explaining how modern formal logic deals with issues ranging from the existence of God and the reality of time to paradoxes of probability and decision theory. Along the way, the basics of formal logic are explained in simple, non-technical terms, showing that logic is a powerful and exciting part of modern philosophy. In this new edition Graham Priest expands his discussion to cover the subjects of algorithms and axioms, and proofs in mathematics.ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.Table of ContentsPREFACE TO SECOND EDITION; PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION; GLOSSARY; PROBLEMS; PROBLEM SOLUTIONS; BIBLIOGRAPHY; GENERAL INDEX

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Book SynopsisTen essays on how reading and meaningfully engaging with literature can help us live better, more purposeful lives.How do we live fully?How do we live successfully?Adrift in an anchorless world, we often worry about where we are heading. What meaning can we hope to find in our modern, secular life? The answer, Ben Hutchinson explains, can be found by looking to writers and thinkers to help us live more purposefully, more mindfully more fully.Interweaving his own (mis-)adventures with those of authors such as T.S. Eliot, Virginia Woolf, Marcel Proust and Joan Didion, On Purpose proposes ten ways in which reading and writing encourage us to ask difficult questions, project our minds into the past and future, and see ourselves and others differently.Engaging, uplifting and aphoristic, this book is for anyone who has lost their sense of direction or wishes to radically transform the way they live.

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Book SynopsisA TIMES BOOK OF THE YEAR 2021 ''Punchy, funny and invigorating ... Pinker is the high priest of rationalism'' Sunday Times ''If you''ve ever considered taking drugs to make yourself smarter, read Rationality instead. It''s cheaper, more entertaining, and more effective'' Jonathan Haidt, author of The Righteous Mind In the twenty-first century, humanity is reaching new heights of scientific understanding - and at the same time appears to be losing its mind. How can a species that discovered vaccines for Covid-19 in less than a year produce so much fake news, quack cures and conspiracy theorizing? In Rationality, Pinker rejects the cynical cliché that humans are simply an irrational species - cavemen out of time fatally cursed with biases, fallacies and illusions. After all, we discovered the laws of nature, lengthened and enriched our lives and set the benchmarks for rationality itself. Instead, he explains, we think in ways that suit the low-tech contexts in which we spend most of our lives, but fail to take advantage of the powerful tools of reasoning we have built up over millennia: logic, critical thinking, probability, causal inference, and decision-making under uncertainty. These tools are not a standard part of our educational curricula, and have never been presented clearly and entertainingly in a single book - until now. Rationality matters. It leads to better choices in our lives and in the public sphere, and is the ultimate driver of social justice and moral progress. Brimming with insight and humour, Rationality will enlighten, inspire and empower. ''A terrific book, much-needed for our time'' Peter SingerTrade ReviewSteven Pinker is the high priest of rationalism ... [This book] is an impassioned and zippy introduction to the tools of rational thought ... Pinker wants probability theory and psychological biases to be taught in schools and universities. Punchy, funny and invigorating, this could be the textbook. -- James McConnachie * Sunday Times *Steven Pinker is among the best science writers in history, and with Rationality he applies his talents to one of the most important and misunderstood human abilities - tracking reality with a brain that was designed to do so under some circumstances but not others. If you've ever considered taking drugs to make yourself smarter, read Rationality instead. It's cheaper, more entertaining, and more effective. -- Jonathan Haidt, NYU-Stern School of Business and author of The Righteous MindThe Enlightenment torchbearer is eloquent in his defence of clear thinking ... [reason] is a tool that human beings have to learn to use with care, something this book will help any reader to do. -- Julian Baggini * Financial Times *Rationality ­- like all of Pinker's work - [is] a paen to human potential... what Pinker really trades in are profoundly refreshing, energising sets of explanations for why we do and think the way we do ... harnessing reason is not just useful in all kinds of ways both personal and universal, but a wondrous property of being human. -- Zoe Strimpel * Daily Telegraph *Almost every sentence in Rationality is crisp and intelligible, which is quite a feat, given that explaining logic to humans is like teaching them Sanskrit. Pinker suggests various ways to run our collective affairs more rationally. -- Simon Kuper * New Statesman *A reader-friendly primer in better thinking through the cultivation of that rarest of rarities: a sound argument. * Kirkus *Rationality is a terrific book, much-needed for our time. In addition to drawing together the tools for overcoming obstacles to rational thinking, Pinker breaks new ground with the evidence he provides linking rationality and moral progress. -- Peter Singer

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Book SynopsisIf a man supports Arsenal one day and Spurs the next then he is fickle but not necessarily illogical. From this starting point, and assuming no previous knowledge of logic, Wilfrid Hodges takes the reader through the whole gamut of logical expressions in a simple and lively way. Readers who are more mathematically adventurous will find optional sections introducing rather more challenging material. ''A lively and stimulating book'' PhilosophyTrade Review'A lively and stimulating book' PhilosophyTable of ContentsPart 1 Consistency: consistent sets of beliefs. Part 2 Expressing beliefs in sentences: beliefs and words; declarative sentences; ambiguity. Part 3 When is a sentence true?: truth and references; borderline cases and bizarre situations; misleading statements; possible situations and meanings. Part 4 Testing for consistency and validity: consistent sets of short sentences; the tableau technique; arguments. Part 5 How are complex sentences built up?: phrase-classes; phrase-markers; scope; context-free grammars. Part 6 Logical analysis: sentence-functors and truth-functors; some basic truth-functors; special problems with "->" and ""; analyis of complex sentences. Part 7 Sentence tableaux: sentence tableaux; interpretations. Part 8 Propositional calculus: a formal language; truth-tables; properties of semantic entailment; formal tableaux. Part 9 Designators and identity: designators and predicates; purely referential occurrences; two policies on reference; identity. Part 10 Relations: satisfaction; binary relations; "same", "at least" and "more"; equivalence relations. Part 11 Quantifiers: quantification; "all" and "some"; quantifier rules. Part 12 Predicate logic: logical scope; analyses using identity; predicate interpretations; predicate tableaux; formalization again. Part 13 Horizons of logic: likelihood; intension; semantics.

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Book SynopsisFrom academic writing to personal and public discourse, the need for good arguments and better ways of arguing is greater than ever before. This timely fifth edition of A Rulebook for Arguments sharpens an already-classic text, adding updated examples and a new chapter on public debates that provides rules for the etiquette and ethics of sound public dialogue as well as clear and sound thinking in general.Trade ReviewComments on the previous edition: "This is the ultimate 'how-to' book for anyone who wants to use reasons and evidence in support of conclusions, to be clear instead of confusing, persuasive instead of dogmatic, and better at evaluating the arguments of others." --Debra Nails, Michigan State University

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Book SynopsisIn this entertaining and challenging collection of logic puzzles, Raymond Smullyan-author of Forever Undecided-continues to delight and astonish us with his gift for making available, in the thoroughly pleasurable form of puzzles, some of the most important mathematical thinking of our time.Table of ContentsPART I - LOGIC PUZZLES; PART II - KNIGHTS, KNAVES, AND THE FOUNTAIN OF YOUTH; PART III - TO MOCK A MOCKINGBIRD; PART IV - SINGING BIRDS; PART V - THE MASTER FOREST; PART VI - THE GRAND QUESTION

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Book SynopsisIf you can''t prove something, it is literally senseless - so argues Ayer in this irreverent and electrifying book. Statements are either true by definition (as in maths), or can be verified by direct experience. Ayer rejected metaphysical claims about god, the absolute, and objective values as completely nonsensical. Ayer was only 24 when he finished LANGUAGE, TRUTH & LOGIC, yet it shook the foundations of Anglo-American philosophy and made its author notorious. It became a classic text, cleared away the cobwebs in philosophical thinking, and has been enormously influential.

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Book SynopsisIn the second edition of this witty and infectious book, Madsen Pirie builds upon his guide to using - and indeed abusing - logic in order to win arguments. By including new chapters on how to win arguments in writing, in the pub, with a friend, on Facebook and in 140 characters (on Twitter), Pirie provides the complete guide to triumphing in altercations ranging from the everyday to the downright serious. He identifies with devastating examples all the most common fallacies popularly used in argument. We all like to think of ourselves as clear-headed and logical - but all readers will find in this book fallacies of which they themselves are guilty. The author shows you how to simultaneously strengthen your own thinking and identify the weaknesses in other people arguments. And, more mischievously, Pirie also shows how to be deliberately illogical - and get away with it. This book will make you maddeningly smart: your family, friends and opponents will all wish that you had never readTrade ReviewA highly thought provoking, enjoyable and entertaining read -- Zoe Page * The BookBag *Table of ContentsIntroduction 1. What is an Argument 2. What does a Successful Argument Look Like? 3. What counts as Evidence? 4. Oral Arguments a) arguing with a friend b) arguing in a group c) arguing in a formal debate d) Presenting your case in a meeting 5. Written Arguments a) arguing in a letter, article of newspaper b) arguing on the internet c) how to argue on facebook d) winning an argument in 140 characters (arguing on twitter) 79 A-Z entries, including: Abusive analogy Blinding with science The complex question Damning the alternatives Exclusive premises The gambler's fallacy Hedging Irrelevent humour Loaded words The red herring Shifting ground Trivial objections Wishful thinking

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Book SynopsisThis powerful book introduces core critical thinking concepts and principles as an empowering problem-solving framework for every profession, course of study, and indeed every area of life. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools distills the groundbreaking work of Richard Paul and Linda Elder, targeting how to deconstruct thinking through the elements of reasoning and how to assess the quality of our thinking. The eighth edition of this guide further details the foundations of critical thinking and how they can be applied in instruction to improve teaching and learning at all levels; it also reveals how we can learn to identify and avoid egocentric and sociocentric thought, which lead to close-mindedness, self-deception, arrogance, hypocrisy, greed, selfishness, herd mentality, prejudice, and the like. With more than half a million copies sold, Richard Paul and Linda Elder’s bestselling book in the Thinker’s Guide Library is used in secondary and higher education courses and professional development seminars across the globe. In a world of conflicting information and clashing ideologies, this guide clears a path for advancing fairminded critical societies.Trade ReviewThe work of Linda Elder and Richard Paul is vital to the progress of our democratic society. Read this book, change your life, and in the process make the world a safe and saner place to live. -- Michael Shermer, publisher of Skeptic MagazineThe absolute and essential guide for learning a system and process for thinking critically in all areas of your life. -- Bryan Deptula, CEO, BKD LeadersPacked with more relevant information than any large textbook. Don't ever lose it, and refer to it often. -- Neal Fleisher, clinical professor, Boston UniversityA brief, but excellent introductory guide to the foundational concepts of critical thinking. -- Linda Tym, associate professor, Southern Adventist University

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Book SynopsisThis second edition has been extensively revised with updated examples and a brand new chapter on how to obtain reliable information from the internet.Table of Contents1. What is critical thinking and how to improve it; 2. Identifying reasons and conclusions: the language of reasoning; 3. Understanding reasoning: different patterns of reasoning; 4. Understanding reasoning: assumptions, context and a thinking map; 5. Clarifying and interpreting expressions and ideas; 6. The acceptability of reasons: including their credibility; 7. Judging the credibility of sources skilfully; 8. Evaluating inferences: deductive validity and other grounds; 9. evaluating inferences: assumptions and other relevant arguments; 10. Reasoning about causal explanations; 11. Decision-making: options, consequences, values and risks; 12. Critical thinking about the internet (how to get reliable information from the internet); Questions appendix; Answers to questions; Glossary; Bibliography; Index.

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Book SynopsisBuilding on his paradigm-shifting work on the incarnation in The Contradictory Christ (OUP, 2021), Jc Beall extends a robust contradictory theology with an account of the trinity. Throughout the history of the Christian church, heretics, apophatics, mystics, atheists, and many others have long proclaimed that the doctrine of the trinity - one of the central doctrines of the Christian faith - is contradictory. In this work, Beall agrees; however, as Beall convincingly argues, one needn''t abandon orthodoxy, play language games, inflate one''s metaphysics, nor abandon the standard faith in the face of such divine contradiction. Instead, one can accept central axioms of the trinity at face value and, with a suitable account of logical entailment, accept the ''contradictory truths'' thereby entailed. With the clarity and precision that only a logician could provide, Beall provided theology and the Christian church in general with a very simple and viable (and arguably correct) model of divTable of Contents1: Aim, scope, limits, and main thesis 2: Logical and extra-logical entailment 3: Trinitarian identity 4: Seven virtues 5: Seven objections 6: Measuring some non-contradictory accounts 7: Towards future contradictory theology Appendix A Athanasian Creed (tr. Philip-Neri Reese, O.P.) Appendix B §2 Appendix: formal sketch of FDE

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Book SynopsisThis new and revised edition of Peter Kreeft’s Socratic Logic is updated, adding new exercises and more complete examples, all with Kreeft’s characteristic clarity and wit. Since its introduction in the spring of 2004, Socratic Logic has proven to be a different type of logic text:(1) This is the only complete system of classical Aristotelian logic in print. The “old logic” is still the natural logic of the four language arts (reading, writing, speaking, and listening). Symbolic, or “mathematical,” logic is not for the humanities. (How often have you heard someone argue in symbolic logic?)(2) This book is simple and user-friendly. It is highly interactive, with a plethora of exercises and a light, engaging style.(3) It is practical. It is designed for do-it-yourselfers as well as classrooms. It emphasizes topics in proportion to probable student use: e.g., interpreting ordinary language, not only analyzing but also constructing effective arguments, smoking out hidden assumptions, making “argument maps,” and using Socratic method in various circumstances.(4) It is philosophical. Its exercises expose students to many classical quotations, and additional chapters introduce philosophical issues in a Socratic manner and from a commonsense, realistic point of view. It prepares students for reading Great Books rather than Dick and Jane, and models Socrates as the beginner’s ideal teacher and philosopher.Table of ContentsPREFACE ix INTRODUCTION 1 1. What good is logic? 1 2. Seventeen ways this book is different 9 3. The two logics (P)* 15 4. All of logic in two pages: an overview (B)* 26 5. The three acts of the mind (B) 28 I. THE FIRST ACT OF THE MIND: UNDERSTANDING 35 1. Understanding: the thing that distinguishes man from both beast and computer (P) 35 2. Concepts, terms and words (P) 40 3. The “problem of universals” (P) 41 4. The extension and comprehension of terms 43 II. TERMS 47 1. Classifying terms 47 2. Categories (B) 54 3. Predicables (B) 56 4. Division and Outlining (B) 62 III. MATERIAL FALLACIES 68 1. Fallacies of language 71 2. Fallacies of diversion 80 3. Fallacies of oversimplification 86 4, Fallacies of argumentation 92 5. Inductive fallacies 100 6, Procedural fallacies 104 7. Metaphysical fallacies 109 8. Short Story: “Love Is a Fallacy” 114 IV. DEFINITION 123 1. The nature of definition (B) 123 2. The rules of definition (B) 124 3. The kinds of definition 124 4, The limits of definition 129 V. THE SECOND ACT OF THE MIND: JUDGMENT 138 1. Judgments, propositions, and sentences 138 2. What is truth? (P) 143 3. The four kinds of categorical propositions (B) 145 4. Logical form (B) 147 5. Euler’s circles (B) 152 6. Tricky propositions 153 7. The distribution of terms 163 VI. CHANGING PROPOSITIONS 166 1. Immediate inference 166 2. Conversion (B) 167 3. Obversion (B) 170 4. Contraposition 171 VII. CONTRADICTION 173 1. What is contradiction? (B) 173 2. The Square of Opposition (B) 174 3. Existential import (P) 179 4. Tricky propositions on the Square 181 5. Some practical uses of the Square of Opposition 183 VIII. THE THIRD ACT OF THE MIND: REASONING 186 1. What does “reason” mean? (P) 186 2. The ultimate foundations of the syllogism (P) 187 3. How to detect arguments 190 4. Arguments vs. explanations 193 5. Truth and validity 194 IX. DIFFERENT KINDS OF ARGUMENTS 200 1. Three meanings of “because” 200 2. The four causes (P) 202 3. A classification of arguments 205 4. Simple argument maps (B) 206 5. Deductive and Inductive reasoning (B) 210 6. Combining induction and deduction: Socratic method (P) 211 X. SYLLOGISMS 215 1. The structure and strategy of the syllogism (B) 215 2. The skeptic’s objection to the syllogism (P) 219 3. The empiricist’s objection to the syllogism (P) 222 4. Demonstrative syllogisms 230 5. How to construct convincing syllogisms (B) 232 XI. CHECKING SYLLOGISMS FOR VALIDITY 237 1. By Euler’s Circles (B) 237 2. By Aristotle’s six rules (B) 242 3. “Barbara Celarent”: mood and figure 257 4. Venn Diagrams 258 XII. MORE DIFFICULT SYLLOGISMS 264 1. Enthymemes: abbreviated syllogisms (B) 264 2. Sorites: chain syllogisms 275 3. Epicheiremas: multiple syllogisms (B) 279 4. Complex argument maps 282 XIII. COMPOUND SYLLOGISMS 289 1. Hypothetical syllogisms (B) 289 2. “Reductio ad absurdum” arguments 294 3. The practical syllogism: arguing about means and ends 296 4. Disjunctive syllogisms (B) 301 5. Conjunctive syllogisms (B) 303 6. Dilemmas (B) 306 XIV. INDUCTION 313 1. What is induction? 313 2. Generalization 315 3. Causal arguments: Mill’s methods 319 4. Scientific hypotheses 325 5. Statistical probability 328 6. Arguments by analogy 329 7. A fortiori and a minore arguments 335 XV. SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC 342 1. How to write a logical essay 342 2. How to write a Socratic dialogue 344 3. How to have a Socratic debate 348 4. How to use Socratic method on difficult people 350 5. How to read a book Socratically 355 XVI. SOME PHILOSOPHICAL APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC 358 1. Logic and theology (P) 358 2. Logic and metaphysics (P) 359 3. Logic and cosmology (P) 360 4. Logic and philosophical anthropology (P) 361 5. Logic and epistemology (P) 362 6. Logic and ethics (P) 362 APPENDIX: PROBLEMS WITH MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 364 1. Basic modern logic 364 2. The paradoxes of material implication 366 3. Responses to the paradoxes of material implication 367ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED EXERCISES 370INDEX OF PRINCIPAL NAMES 400

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Book SynopsisCritical thinking shows people how to analyze arguments, speeches, and newspaper articles to see which faults the authors are making in their reasoning. It looks at the structure of language to demonstrate rules by which you can identify good analytical thinking and helps people to formulate clear defensible arguments themselves. As people are always trying to put a certain point/opinion across in a variety of arenas in our lives, this is a very useful skill. With real life newspaper extracts, a glossary, exercises and answers, and a guide to essay writing, this is an invaluable tool for both students wanting to improve their grades and general readers wanting to boost their brainpower.

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Book Synopsis''what can be said at all can be said clearly; and of what one cannot talk, about that one must be silent''Wittgenstein''s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in German in 1921 and in English translation in 1922, is one of the most influential philosophical texts of the twentieth century. It played a fundamental role in the development of analytic philosophy, and its philosophical ideas and implications have been fiercely debated ever since. This new translation improves on the two main earlier translations, taking advantage of the scholarship over the last century that has deepened our understanding of both the Tractatus and Wittgenstein''s philosophy more generally, scholarship that has also involved discussion of the difficulties in translating the original German text and the issues of interpretation that arise.Michael Beaney''s translation is accompanied by two introductory essays, the first explaining the background to Wittgenstein''s work, its main ideas and their suTrade ReviewParadox is a powerful source of philosophical intrigue. And these two new editions attest to the status of the Tractatus as perhaps the philosophical classic of the twentieth century, inspiring not only philosophers of both "analytic" and "continental" stripes, but also writers, logicians and film-makers. * Jonathan Egid, The Times Literary Supplement *Table of ContentsPreface Introduction A Note on the Text Select Bibliography Chronology of Ludwig Wittgenstein Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Explanatory Notes Appendix: The Tree Structure of the Main Propositions of the Tractatus Glossary

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Book SynopsisElementary set theory accustoms the students to mathematical abstraction, includes the standard constructions of relations, functions, and orderings, and leads to a discussion of the various orders of infinity. The material on logic covers not only the standard statement logic and first-order predicate logic but includes an introduction to formal systems, axiomatization, and model theory. The section on algebra is presented with an emphasis on lattices as well as Boolean and Heyting algebras. Background for recent research in natural language semantics includes sections on lambda-abstraction and generalized quantifiers. Chapters on automata theory and formal languages contain a discussion of languages between context-free and context-sensitive and form the background for much current work in syntactic theory and computational linguistics. The many exercises not only reinforce basic skills but offer an entry to linguistic applications of mathematical concepts. For upper-level undergraduate students and graduate students in theoretical linguistics, computer-science students with interests in computational linguistics, logic programming and artificial intelligence, mathematicians and logicians with interests in linguistics and the semantics of natural language.Table of ContentsPreface. Part A. Set Theory. 1. Basic Concepts of Set Theory. 2. Relations and Functions. 3. Properties of Relations. 4. Infinities. Appendix A1. Part B. Logic and Formal Systems. 5. Basic Concepts of Logic. 6.Statement Logic. 7. Predicate Logic. 8. Formal Systems, Axiomatization, and Model Theory. Appendix B1. Appendix BII. Part C. Algebra. 9. Basic Concepts of Algebra. 10. Operational Structures. 11. Lattices. 12. Boolean and Heyting Algebras. Part D. English as a Formal Language. 13. Basic Concepts of Formal Languages. 14. Generalized Quantifiers. 15. Intensionality. Part E. Languages, Grammars, and Automata. 16. Basic Concepts of Languages, Grammars, and Automata. 17. Finite Automata, Regular Languages and Type 3 Grammars. 18. Pushdown Automata, Context-Free Grammars and Languages. 19. Turing Machines, Recursively Enumberable Languages, and Type 0 Grammars. 20. Linear Bounded Automata, Context-Sensitive Languages and Type 1 Grammars. 21. Languages Between Context-Free and Context-Sensitive. 22. Transformational Grammars. Appendix EI. Appendix EII. Review Problems. Index.

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Book SynopsisTHE classic work of intelligent self-empowerment from the world-renowned writer and philosopher Edward de BonoOur happiness and success depend on clear thinking. But too many of us are compromised by confusion, trying to do too much at once, and not knowing what to do next.In Teach Yourself to Think, Edward de Bono shows that good thinking depends on a simple five-stage process that anyone can learn. It will enable you to assess your goals, sort available information, identify the available choices, make a decision and, finally, turn thought into action.This book offers brilliant advice for anyone who needs to be able to respond to and deal with a vast range of situations at work and in life quickly, efficiently and intelligently.Trade ReviewAn inspiring man with brilliant ideas. De Bono never ceases to amaze with his clarity of thought. Richard Branson

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Book SynopsisUnderstand Logic is a comprehensive introduction to this fascinating though sometimes challenging subject. As well as looking at logic in theoretical terms the book considers its everyday uses and demonstrates how it has genuine practical applications. It will take you step by step through the most difficult concepts and is packed with exercises to help you consolidate your learning at every stage. Covering everything from syllogistic logic to logical paradoxes and even looking at logic in Alice in Wonderland, this is the only guide you will ever need.

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Book SynopsisThis Element shows different accounts of ontological forms in literature. It shows a character-neutral relational account and shows metatheory is useful for understanding categorial fundamentality/non-fundamentality, different formal ontologies, and unifying metaphysical questions. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.Table of Contents1. Introduction: against fantology; 2. A very short history of formal ontology; 3. Contemporary formal ontology; 4. Our metatheory of formal ontology; 5. What can we do with our metatheory?; 6. Conclusion; References.

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents( NOTE: Each chapter concludes with a Summary.) I. CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS. 1. Introduction. Arguments. Reason, Rhetoric, and Argument Analysis. The Ways People Deal with Arguments. Impediments to Good Reasoning. 2. Truth and Rationality. Uses of Language. Truth and Correspondence to the Facts. Rational Belief. 3. Well-Formed Arguments. Argument Analysis. Well-Formed Arguments. Validity, Cogency, and the Truth Value of Premises. 4. Strong Arguments. Deductive Strength. Inductive Strength. II. THE METHOD OF ARGUMENT ANALYSIS. 5. Reconstructing Arguments. Argument Reconstruction and the Principle of Charity. Distinguishing Arguments from Non-Arguments. Identifying Premises and Conclusions. General and Specific Premises. Adding Implicit Premises. 6. Details of Argument Reconstruction. Improper Wording. Missing Premises. Including Unnecessary Premises. 7. Evaluating Arguments. Basic Rules of Argument Evaluation. Evaluating Specific Types of Premises. Argument, Analysis and Problems of Meaning. III. APPLICATIONS. 8. Arguments and Testimony. The Role of Testimony. Testimonial Arguments. Premises and Testimony. 9. Statistical Arguments and Predictions. Past to Future Arguments. Simple Statistical Statements. The Standard Pattern for Survey Arguments. Evaluating Survey Arguments. Correlations. 10. Causal Arguments. Causal Statements. The Meaning of General Causal Statements. Knowledge of General Causal Statements. Analyzing Causal Arguments. Common Errors in Causal Reasoning. 11. Moral Arguments. Moral Propositions. Morality, Rationality, and Truth. Analyzing Moral Arguments. Common Problems in Moral Reasoning. 12. Extended Examples. The Abortion Debate. Mathematical Reasoning Ability. Appendix A. The Steps of Argument Analysis. Appendix B. Principles, Definitions, and Patterns of Argument. Appendix C. Answers to Selected Exercises. Glossary.

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Book SynopsisChristopher Phillips has devoted his life to carrying the torch of Socrates and his quest to “Know Thyself.” Yet upon the death of his beloved father and mentor, the originator of the burgeoning global Socrates Café movement had little choice but to confront the inescapable truth: that there are some things we cannot know for sure. This moving, insightful and ultimately hopeful and helpful blend of memoir and philosophical exploration begins in Phillips’ native stomping grounds of the tiny volcanic island of Nisyros, Greece and unfurls through space and time as the author explores the connections between his immediate circumstances and the eternal wisdom of popular philosophers. –In this personal and probing book, the acclaimed ‘philosopher for the people’ shares lessons gleaned from his intimate and often unexpected encounters with uncommonly perceptive human beings both living and long deceased, in the form of weary travelers and some of history’s greatest thinkers, from Heraclitus to Dr. Cornel West. Along the way, he charts a pathway for sculpting what Shakespeare describes as a “soul of goodness,” which meshes with Plato’s paradigm-shattering conception of the “healthiness of soul.” For those struggling to overcome the hopelessness that can result from grievous loss, setback, or betrayal – what Phillips’ touchstone Percy Blythe Shelley calls life circumstances “darker than death or night” – the author spotlights, with philosophical prescriptions both timely and timeless, how to cultivate a ‘Socratic spirit’ that leads to renewed love, forbearance, and hope at the other end of the tunnel.

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Book SynopsisThe Categories is a foundational work in philosophy by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. This collection of stories authored by Aristotle seeks to gather many of his Nonfiction, history, Classics concepts into a single draft and provide them at an inexpensive price so that everyone can read them. Some stories are fascinating and fantastic, while others sneak up on you and draw you in. This 4th century BCE work is a foundational examination of ontologythe study of the nature of being and existence. Aristotle's Categories is a brief treatise divided into short chapters, and categories, each of which addresses a distinct aspect of how language and mind categorize and describe reality. The book opens with a consideration of substance, highlighting the central importance of particular beings or substances in our conceptual framework. Aristotle divides substances into two categories: substances in and of themselves (particulars) and characteristics or qualities (universals). The story has so many twists and turns that can engage a reader. Some stories are gruesome and bizarre, while others softly creep up on you and pull you in. This book additionally dives into other categories, like quantity, relation, place and time, and other one action, to explain how these ideas impact our view of the world. Aristotle also investigates the concepts of potentiality and actuality, which serve as the foundation for his metaphysical theories.

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Book SynopsisThe Logic Manual is a clear and concise introduction to logic for beginning philosophy students. It offers a complete introductory course, guiding the reader carefully through the topics in logic that are most important for the study of philosophy. It covers propositional and predicate logic with and without identity. It includes an account of the semantics of these languages including definitions of truth and satisfaction. Natural deduction is used as a proof system. Volker Halbach introduces the essential concepts through examples and informal explanations as well as through abstract definitions. The Logic Manual provides the best entry to the general abstract way of thinking about language, logic, and semantics which is characteristic of contemporary philosophy. Exercises, examples, and sample examination papers are provided on an accompanying website.Table of Contents1. Sets, Relations, and Arguments ; 2. Syntax and Semantics of Propositional Logic ; 3. Formalisation in Propositional Logic ; 4. The Syntax of Predicate Logic ; 5. The Semantics of Predicate Logic ; 6. Natural Deduction ; 7. Formalisation in Predicate Logic ; 8. Identity and Definite Descriptions ; Natural Deduction Rules

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Book SynopsisHermeneutics is the branch of knowledge that deals with interpretation, a behaviour that is intrinsic to our daily lives. As humans, we decipher the meaning of newspaper articles, books, legal matters, religious texts, political speeches, emails, and even dinner conversations every day . But how is knowledge mediated through these forms? What constitutes the process of interpretation? And how do we draw meaning from the world around us so that we might understand our position in it? In this Very Short Introduction Jens Zimmermann traces the history of hermeneutic theory, setting out its key elements, and demonstrating how they can be applied to a broad range of disciplines: theology; literature; law; and natural and social sciences. Demonstrating the longstanding and wide-ranging necessity of interpretation, Zimmermann reveals its significance in our current social and political landscape. ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.Trade ReviewThis very readable and much needed introduction breaks new ground in that it is the first to demonstrate, with insight, wit and a trove of illuminating examples, the importance of hermeneutics in all fields of knowledge. * Jean Grondin, Université de Montréal *Zimmerman offers one of the best short introductions to modern hermeneutics. The writing is at all times concise, clear and engaging. The author brilliantly evaluates the riches of this major intellectual tradition as well as revealing its ongoing creative influence on contemporary thought. * Richard Kearney, Charles Seelig Professor at Boston College and author of Anatheism and Carnal Hermeneutics. *An excellent introduction to that most characteristic of human activities, the attempt to understand. From the key figures in the development of the discipline to the application of their ideas in various fields, the reader is shown what it means to think hermeneutically and invited to do so as well. * Fr. John Behr, Dean, St Vladimir's Seminary *The Introduction clearly points to the major issues involved in hermeneutics. Jens Zimmermann writes excellently for a wide audience and the references to texting and to digital worlds gives it a contemporary feel. * Graham Ward, Regius Professor of Divinity, Christ Church Oxford, Director of Graduate Studies New York *Table of ContentsPreface ; 1. What is Hermeneutics? ; 2. Hermeneutics: A brief history ; 3. Philosophical hermeneutics ; 4. Hermeneutics and theology ; 5. Hermeneutics and law ; 6. Hermeneutics and science ; 7. Hermeneutics and the humanities ; References ; Further reading ; Index

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Book SynopsisA thinking person’s guide to a better life. Ward Farnsworth explains what the Socratic method is, how it works, and why it matters more than ever in our time. Easy to grasp yet challenging to master, the method will change the way you think about life’s big questions. “A wonderful book.”—Rebecca Goldstein, author of Plato at the Googleplex. About 2,500 years ago, Plato wrote a set of dialogues that depict Socrates in conversation. The way Socrates asks questions, and the reasons why, amount to a whole way of thinking. This is the Socratic method—one of humanity’s great achievements. More than a technique, the method is an ethic of patience, inquiry, humility, and doubt. It is an aid to better thinking, and a remedy for bad habits of mind, whether in law, politics, the classroom, or tackling life’s big questions at the kitchen table. Drawing on hundreds of quotations, this book explains what the Socratic method is and how to use it. Chapters include Socratic Ethics, Ignorance, Testing Principles, and Socrates and the Stoics. Socratic philosophy is still startling after all these years because it is an approach to asking hard questions and chasing after them. It is a route to wisdom and a way of thinking about wisdom. With Farnsworth as your guide, the ideas of Socrates are easier to understand than ever and accessible to anyone.As Farnsworth achieved with The Practicing Stoic and the Farnsworth’s Classical English series, ideas of old are made new and vital again. This book is for those coming to philosophy the way Socrates did—as the everyday activity of making sense out of life and how to live it—and for anyone who wants to know what he said about doing that better.Trade ReviewPraise for The Socratic Method “Amid 21st-century rancor, a voice from ancient Athens offers an alternative: truth and a little humility....None should be discouraged from seeking out this remarkable book. By presenting the Socratic method as invitingly as it does, it eases the daunting task of taming the fanatical, irrational, censorious beasts in the American political zoo.”—Wall Street Journal “Learned, erudite, and elegant.”—The Millions “The Socratic method decelerates reasoning, making space for deliberation when disagreements arise. So, the Socratic method is, Farnsworth says, an antidote to some social pandemics of our day.” —George F. Will “A wonderful book. It is elegant, erudite, but wears its pedagogical virtues so lightly as to never come off as pedantic.”—Rebecca Goldstein, author of Plato at the Googleplex“A group of bad American movies has unfortunately associated the Socratic method of inquiry and teaching with a bullying style of teaching. But the Socratic method was something very different to Socrates, and is something that remains at the heart of serious intellectual honesty. Ward Farnsworth’s important book is not only impressively erudite in its mining of classical sources, but is also the best account we have of what the Socratic method really is and why we dismiss or caricature it at our peril.”—Frederick Schauer, David and Mary Harrison Distinguished Professor of Law, University of Virginia “Many of us refer casually to the Socratic method and some of us think we practice it. But is only when reading Ward Farnsworth’s learned and inspiring book that one can begin to appreciate the profundity of Plato’s teaching and understand how its lessons are just what is needed in a world where invective and hasty judgments seem to have replaced deliberative reasoning and rational argument.”—Stanley Fish, author of Winning Arguments“A great success. There is nothing like it. An excellent resource both for students and for general readers.”—A. A. Long, author of Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life“A beautifully written, immensely thoughtful, and multi-faceted book. Ward Farnsworth offers a fresh understanding of the Socratic method as it’s represented in Plato’s early dialogs, then shows how it can be internalized as a way of bettering intelligence.”—Henry Abelove, Professor Emeritus of English, Wesleyan University “Ward Farnsworth’s The Socratic Method deserves attention from scholars and lawyers and teachers of law—but, really, from anyone who wants to practice clear thinking. The book rests on a firm foundation of scholarship and then goes on to do something at which few such scholarly works succeed: it is useful for ordinary readers. It is indeed a practitioner’s handbook. Read it to enlarge your knowledge of ancient thought, but also read it for the mental exercises all thinkers need in order to stay agile.”—Paul Woodruff, author of The Garden of Leaders: Revolutionizing Higher Education“Ward Farnsworth’s brilliant new book, The Socratic Method, offers powerful insights into the most important and effective means for discovering the truth, or at least coming closer to it, in education, politics, business, and everyday relations. Building on the wisdom of Socrates, Farnsworth makes clear not only why Socratic discourse is essential, but also how to undertake such discourse in a positive and affirming manner. This is especially important today at a time of deep political polarization in which Americans increasingly speak only to people like themselves and hold those who disagree with them in disdain. This state of affairs, no doubt contributed to by the advent of social media, poses a serious threat to a well-functioning democracy. If we as a nation are to make it through these times and preserve the most fundamental premises of our democracy, we must all learn how to engage in Socratic discourse and embrace the principles of an open mind, rigorous questioning and honest debate. This book offers essential lessons to anyone seeking to preserve American democracy.”—Geoffrey R. Stone, Edward H. Levi Distinguished Professor of Law, The University of Chicago More by Ward Farnsworth:The Practicing Stoic: A Philosophical User’s Manual:“As befits a good Stoic, Farnsworth’s expository prose exhibits both clarity and an unflappable calm… Throughout The Practicing Stoic, Farnsworth beautifully integrates his own observations with scores of quotations from Epictetus, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Montaigne and others. As a result, this isn’t just a book to read—it’s a book to return to, a book that will provide perspective and consolation at times of heartbreak or calamity.”—Michael Dirda, The Washington Post“It is reported that upon Seneca’s tomb are written the words, Who’s Minding the Stoa? He would be pleased to know the answer is Ward Farnsworth.”—David Mamet“This is a book any thoughtful person will be glad to have along as a companion for an extended weekend or, indeed, for that protracted journey we call life.”—The New Criterion“This sturdy and engaging introductory text consists mostly of excerpts from the ancient Greek and Roman Stoic philosophers, especially Seneca, Epictetus through his student Arrian, and Marcus Aurelius as well as that trio’s philosophical confreres, from the earlier Hellenic Stoics and Cicero to such contemporaries as Plutarch to moderns, including Montaigne, Adam Smith, and Schopenhauer… A philosophy to live by, Stoicism may remind many of Buddhism and Quakerism, for it asks of practitioners something very similar to what those disciplines call mindfulness.”—Booklist Farnsworth’s Classical English Style:“Mr. Farnsworth has written an original and absorbing guide to English style. Get it if you can.”—Wall Street Journal“For writers aspiring to master the craft, Farnsworth shows how it’s done. For lovers of language, he provides waves of sheer pleasure.”—Steven Pinker“An eloquent study of the very mechanisms of eloquence.”—Henry Hitchings“A great and edifying pleasure.”—Mark Helprin“A storehouse of effective writing, showing the techniques you may freely adapt to make music of your own.”—The Baltimore SunFarnsworth’s Classical English Rhetoric:“I must refrain from shouting what a brilliant work this is (præteritio). Farnsworth has written the book as he ought to have written it – and as only he could have written it (symploce). Buy it and read it – buy it and read it (epimone).”—Bryan A. Garner“The most immediate pleasure of this book is that it heightens one’s appreciation of the craft of great writers and speakers. Mr. Farnsworth includes numerous examples from Shakespeare and Dickens, Thoreau and Emerson, Winston Churchill and Abraham Lincoln. He also seems keen to rehabilitate writers and speakers whose rhetorical artistry is undervalued; besides his liking for Chesterton, he shows deep admiration for the Irish statesman Henry Grattan (1746-1820), whose studied repetition of a word (‘No lawyer can say so; because no lawyer could say so without forfeiting his character as a lawyer’) is an instance, we are told, of conduplicatio. But more than anything Mr. Farnsworth wants to restore the reputation of rhetorical artistry per se, and the result is a handsome work of reference.”—Henry Hitchings, Wall Street JournalFarnsworth’s Classical English Metaphor:“Ward Farnsworth is a witty commentator…It’s a book to dip in and savor.”—The Boston Globe“Most people will find it a grab-bag of memorable quotations, an ideal browsing book for the nightstand.”—Michael Dirda, The Washington Post“I want this book to be beside my bed for years to come, a treasure-house of the liquid magic of words.”—Simon Winchester“A feat of elegant demystification…Farnsworth is able to focus on the finite material of metaphorical referents…a brilliant strategy, both in its utility for writers and the inherent insight Farnsworth’s divisions suggest about metaphors.”—Jonathan Russell Clark, The Millions

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Book SynopsisFeatures important philosophical papers of the brilliant American thinker Charles Sanders Peirce. This volume presents twenty-five key texts, chronologically arranged, beginning with Peirce's "On a New List of Categories" of 1867, and ending with the systematic presentation of his evolutionary metaphysics in the "Monist Metaphysical Series".

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Book SynopsisTrade Review“The erudition and scope of Redding’s new book are staggering. This is a very fine book on the history of ancient logic and mathematics and its modern German reception, and it is also a major contribution to Hegel studies and philosophy. We finally have a clear and compelling answer to the question, What did Hegel actually think logic was? Redding has shown us the deep philosophical importance of that answer.” -- Robert B. Pippin, University of Chicago“Conceptual Harmonies powerfully challenges a long-standing barrier to a full appreciation of Hegel’s logic: the assumption that, given his trenchant critique of all ‘formalisms,’ Hegel’s logic is in no way mathematical. With his characteristic erudition and insight, Redding guides readers through a history of logic and mathematics from Plato to the twentieth century, toward an entirely new understanding of Hegelian logic. Redding’s latest is a must-read for anyone interested in Hegel and the history of logic, proving once again that Redding is one of the most original, rigorous, and historically sensitive interpreters of Hegel writing in any language.” -- Karen Ng, Vanderbilt University“In Conceptual Harmonies, Redding makes a breathtakingly original case for a new understanding of Hegel’s Logic. Expanding the examination of Hegel’s sources well beyond the standard Aristotelian and Kantian texts, Redding rewrites the history of logic to show that Hegel anticipated many developments in the mid-nineteenth century and beyond. This is a major achievement that opens up a new line of research into Hegel’s though -- Dean Moyar, Johns Hopkins UniversityTable of ContentsHegel’s Texts: Translations and Abbreviations Preface Introduction Beginning: Hegel’s Classicism 1 Logic, Mathematics, and Philosophy in Fourth-Century Athens 2 Hegel and the Platonic Origins of Aristotle’s Syllogistic 3 The General Significance of Neoplatonic Harmonic Theory for Hegel’s Account of Magnitude Middle: Classical Meets Modern 4 Geometry and Philosophy in Hegel, Schelling, Carnot, and Grassmann 5 The Role of Analysis Situs in Leibniz’s Modernization of Logic 6 Hegel’s Supersession of Leibniz and Newton: The Limitations of Calculus and Logical Calculus End: The Modern as Redetermined Classical 7 Exploiting Resources within Aristotle for the Rehabilitation of the Syllogism 8 The Return of Leibnizian Logic in the Nineteenth Century: From Boole to Heyting 9 Hegel among the New Leibnizians: Judgments 10 Hegel beyond the New Leibnizians: Syllogisms Conclusion: The God at the Terminus of Hegel’s Logic Acknowledgments Notes Bibliography Index

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Book SynopsisLogic is an ideal textbook for any logic student: great for revising before exams, for staying on top of course-work, and even for those who want to teach themselves logic.Trade Review'Logic has all the qualities necessary for it to emerge quickly as one of the very front runners among introductory logic textbooks.' - John Divers, University of SheffieldTable of ContentsChapter One: How to Think Logically Chapter Two: How to Prove that You Can Argue Logically Chapter Three: How to Prove that You Can Argue Logically Chapter Four: Formal Logic and Formal Semantics Chapter Five: An Introduction to First Order Predicate Logic Chapter Six: How to Argue Logically in QL Chapter Seven: Formal Logic and Formal Semantics

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Book SynopsisIn An Inquiry Into Meaning and Truth, Bertrand Russell returns to philosophy after a long period of writing about education, religion and marriage. Investigating how we can be justified in what we know and how we can reconcile knowledge of the physical world with immediate sensory knowledge, Russell sets out to reconcile the various aspects of his thought since his early logicist periodâhe view that mathematical truths are ultimately logical truths.Russell's goal is to stress-test empiricism in light of contemporary developments in logic and language or, as Russell himself succinctly puts it, to combine a general outlook akin to Hume's with the methods that have grown out of modern logic. His quest combines three strands: metaphysical, epistemological and linguistic. Both a fascinating insight into Russellâs evolving views and the continuity of his thinking over the years, it also foreshadows many future debates which came to occupy centre stage within English-speaking

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Book Synopsis'Reason to Be Happy is a wise and witty book that shows how thinking clearly can help us find happiness in our daily lives, get more of what we want, and even make the world a better place' Hannah FryWhy do our friends have more friends than we do? How do you book the best available seats on a plane? And if jogging for ten minutes adds eight minutes to our life expectancy, should we still go jogging?The ability to reason is one of our most undervalued skills. In everyday life, the key is to put yourself in the shoes of a clever competitor and think about how they might respond. Whether you are dealing with events on the scale of the Cuban missile crisis or letting go of anger, leading economist Professor Kaushik Basu shows how game theory - the logic of social situations - can help us achieve better outcomes and lasting happiness.Full of fascinating thought experiments and puzzles, Reason to Be Happy is a paean to the power of rationality. If you want to have a good life and even make the world a better place, you can start by thinking clearly.Trade ReviewReason to Be Happy is a wise and witty book that shows how thinking clearly can help us find happiness in our daily lives, get more of what we want, and even make the world a better place. -- Professor Hannah Fry, author of Hello WorldCompelling... Eminently readable... The economist makes brilliant points and readers will learn a lot. -- Chris Stokel-Walker * New Scientist *

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Book SynopsisDavid Morrow and Anthony Weston build on Weston's acclaimed A Rulebook for Arguments to offer a complete textbook for a course in critical thinking or informal logic. Features of the book include: Homework exercises adapted from a wide range of actual arguments from newspapers, philosophical texts, literature, movies, YouTube videos, and other sources. Practical advice to help students succeed when applying the Rulebook's rules. Suggestions for further practice that outline activities students can do by themselves or with classmates to improve their critical thinking skills. Detailed instructions for in-class activities and take-home assignments designed to engage students in critical thinking. An appendix on mapping arguments, a topic not included in the Rulebook, that introduces students to this vital skill in evaluating or constructing complex and multi-step arguments. Model responses to odd-numbered exercises, including commentaries on the strengths and weaknesses of selected model responses as well as further discussion of some of the substantive intellectual, philosophical, and ethical issues raised by the exercises. The third edition of Workbook contains the entire text of the recent fifth edition of the Rulebook, supplementing this core text with extensive further explanations and exercises.Updated and improved homework exercises ensure that the examples continue to resonate with today’s students. Roughly one-third of the exercises have been replaced with updated or improved examples.A new chapter on engaging constructively in public debates—including five new sets of exercises—trains students to engage respectfully and constructively on controversial topics, an increasingly important skill in our hyper-partisan age. Three new critical thinking activities offer further opportunities to practice constructive dialogue.Trade ReviewOn the first edition: "Quite simply, one of the best critical-thinking texts I have read. Unlike many critical-thinking books, there is a particular and efficacious focus on helping the reader write an argumentative essay. . . . The expository clarity is as good as it gets." —Chris Jackson, Teaching Philosophy

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Book SynopsisThis book identifies eight key mechanisms that can transform a set of ideas into a psychological flytrap. The author suggests that, like the black holes of outer space, from which nothing, not even light, can escape, our contemporary cultural landscape contains numerous intellectual black-holes-belief systems constructed in such a way that unwary passers-by can similarly find themselves drawn in. While such self-sealing bubbles of belief will most easily trap the gullible or poorly educated, even the most intelligent and educated of us are potentially vulnerable. Some of the world's greatest thinkers have fallen in, never to escape. This witty, insightful critique will help immunize readers against the wiles of cultists, religious and political zealots, conspiracy theorists, promoters of flaky alternative medicines, and others by clearly setting out the tricks of the trade by which such insidious belief systems are created and maintained.Trade Review""Offers flashes of wit and insight.” —Times Higher Education “I would like to see this book read by college freshmen, and certainly anybody running for public office. The witty, insightful, and often amusing arguments might help to immunize readers against religious and political zealots, conspiracy theorists, and new agers by understanding their stocks in trade….” —San Francisco Book Review “

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive introduction to formal logic, Logic and Philosophy: A Modern Introduction is a rigorous yet accessible text, appropriate for students encountering the subject for the first time. Abundant, carefully crafted exercise sets accompanied by a clear, engaging exposition build to an exploration of sentential logic, first-order predicate logic, the theory of descriptions, identity, relations, set theory, modal logic, and Aristotelian logic. And as its title suggests, Logic and Philosophy is devoted not only to logic but also to the philosophical debates that led to the development of the field. Much new material has been added for the 13th edition. An introduction to set theory and its relationship to logic and mathematics, including philosophical issues, is now part of Chapter 13. Chapter 15 is an introduction to modal logic and Kripke semantics, concluding with a discussion of philosophical problems with any logical accommodation of modalities. Instructors who do not wish to present proof methods will find chapters on truth trees for both sentential and first-order logic, and a presentation of trees for modal logic. Special features of this text include presentations of the history of logic, alternatives to traditional methods of conditional and indirect proof, and a discussion of semantic problems with universal and existential instantiations. Throughout, the authors are sensitive to philosophical issues that arise from the relationship between ordinary language, symbolic logic, and justifications for the syntax and semantics of the various symbolic languages. Discussions range from the justification of the truth table for the sentential rendering of if . . . then statements to semantic and syntactic paradoxes, including some troubling paradoxes that arise in ordinary language (e.g., the so-called hangman or surprise quiz paradox). Logic and Philosophy includes ample material for a one-semester or two-semester course and provides a thorough preparation for more advanced logic courses.

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Book SynopsisVery Short Introductions: Brilliant, Sharp, InspiringThis book provides an introduction to the most important philosopher of the Islamic world, Ibn Sina, often known in English by his Latinized name Avicenna. After introducing the man and his works, with an overview of the historical context in which he lived, the book devotes chapters to the different areas of Ibn Sina''s thought. Among the topics covered are his innovations in logic, his theory of the human soul and its powers, the relation between his medical writings and his philosophy, and his metaphysics of existence. Particular attention is given to two famous arguments: his flying man thought experiment and the so-called demonstration of the truthful, a proof for the existence of God as the Necessary Existent. A distinctive feature of the book is its attention to the relationship between Ibn Sina and Islamic rational theology (kalam): in which we see how Ibn Sina responded to this tradition in many areas of his thought. A final chapter looks at Ibn Sina''s legacy in both the Islamic world and in Latin Christendom. Here Adamson focuses on the critical responses to Ibn Sina in subsequent generations by such figures as al-Ghazali, al-Suhrawardi, and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.Trade ReviewA distinctive feature of the book is its attention to the relationship between Ibn Sīnā and Islamic rational theology (kalām): in which we see how Ibn Sīnā responded to this tradition in many areas of his thought. * Morteza Hajizadeh, Ph.D. graduate in English from the University of Auckland in New Zealand. *Table of Contents1: Life works 2: Logic epistemology 3: Human person 4: Physics 5: God and world 6: Legacy Further reading Index

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A Survey of Metaphysics provides a systematic overview of modern metaphysics, covering all of the most important topics likely to be encountered on a metaphysics course. The conception of metaphysics underlying the book is the fairly traditional and widely-shared one that metaphysics deals with the deepest questions that can be raised concerning the fundamental structure of reality as a whole. The book is divided into six main parts, each relatively self-contained, focusing in turn on the following major themes: identity and change, necessity and essence, causation, agency and events, space and time, and universals and particulars. In an introductory chapter, the conception of metaphysics underlying the book is explained and defended against the many and varied opponents of metaphysics those students are likely to encounter. While the book makes reference when necessary to the history of metaphysics, its emphasis is on contemporary views and issues. The author''s approach is not narrow

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Book SynopsisCategory theory is a branch of abstract algebra with incredibly diverse applications. This text and reference book is aimed not only at mathematicians, but also researchers and students of computer science, logic, linguistics, cognitive science, philosophy, and any of the other fields in which the ideas are being applied. Containing clear definitions of the essential concepts, illuminated with numerous accessible examples, and providing full proofs of all important propositions and theorems, this book aims to make the basic ideas, theorems, and methods of category theory understandable to this broad readership. Although assuming few mathematical pre-requisites, the standard of mathematical rigour is not compromised. The material covered includes the standard core of categories; functors; natural transformations; equivalence; limits and colimits; functor categories; representables; Yoneda''s lemma; adjoints; monads. An extra topic of cartesian closed categories and the lambda-calculus is also provided - a must for computer scientists, logicians and linguists!This Second Edition contains numerous revisions to the original text, including expanding the exposition, revising and elaborating the proofs, providing additional diagrams, correcting typographical errors and, finally, adding an entirely new section on monoidal categories. Nearly a hundred new exercises have also been added, many with solutions, to make the book more useful as a course text and for self-study.Trade ReviewThe book is well organised and very well written. The presentation of the material is from the concrete to the abstract, proofs are worked out in detail and the examples and the exercises spread throughout the text mark a pleasant rhythm for its reading. In all, Awodey's Category Theory is a very nice and recommendable introduction to the subject. * Pere Pascual, EMS Newsletter *Table of ContentsPreface ; 1. Categories ; 2. Abstract Structures ; 3. Duality ; 4. Groups and Categories ; 5. Limits and Colimits ; 6. Exponentials ; 7. Naturality ; 8. Categories of Diagrams ; 9. Adjoints ; 10. Monads and Algrebras ; References ; Solutions to Selected Exercises ; Index

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Book SynopsisIntuitionistic logic is presented here as part of familiar classical logic which allows mechanical extraction of programs from proofs.Trade Review`This is the most welcome addition to the literature on intuitionistic logic, providing a substantial reference of value comparable to that of better established references for classical mathematical logic. The development of Mints' book is natural, elegant and accessible, with a minimum of fuss but no lack of attention to important detail. Overall, the book is an excellent addition to the literature.' Mathematical Reviews, 2002bTable of ContentsIntroduction. I: Intuitionistic Propositional Logic. 1. Preliminaries. 2. Natural Deduction for Propositional Logic. 3. Negative Translation: Glivenko's Theorem. 4. Program Interpretation of Intuitionistic Logic. 5. Computations with Deductions. 6. Coherence Theorem. 7. Kripke Models. 8. Gentzen-type Propositional System LJpm. 9. Topological Completeness. 10. Proof-Search. 11. System LJpm. 12. Interpolation Theorem. II: Intuitionistic Predicate Logic. 13. Natural Deduction System NJ. 14. Kripke Models for Predicate Logic. 15. Systems LJm, LJ. 16. Proof-Search in Predicate Logic. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisWe all engage in the process of reasoning, but we don''t always pay attention to whether we are doing it well. This book offers the opportunity to practise reasoning in a clear-headed and critical way, with the aims of developing an awareness of the importance of reasoning well and of improving the reader''s skill in analyzing and evaluating arguments.In this third edition, Anne Thomson has updated and revised the book to include fresh and topical examples which will guide students through the processes of critical reasoning in a clear and engaging way. In addition, two new chapters on evaluating the credibility of evidence and decision making and dilemmas will fully equip students to reason well. By the end of the book students should be able to: identify flaws in arguments analyze the reasoning in newspaper articles, books and speeches assess the credibilty of evidence and authorities make sound decisions and solve dilemmas approach any topicTrade ReviewThis excellent text is a great introduction to the subject. It will be useful for students at A level and University undergraduates. The concepts and issues are clearly presented and the exercises will help students develop their critical skills. I am strongly recommending it to my students. Patrick Macartney, School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Leeds, UK This is an excellent book, which offers everyone the opportunity to improve their Critical Thinking abilities. Maureen Rhoden, School of Architecture & Construction University of Greenwich, UK Table of ContentsIntroduction 1. Analysing Reasoning 2. Evaluating Reasoning 3. Recognising Implications 4. Evaluating Evidence and Authorities 5. Two Skills in the Use of Language 6. Exercising the Skills of Reasoning 7. Constructing Reasoning. Answers to Exercises. Bibliography and Further Reading. Index

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Book SynopsisThe Critical Thinking Toolkit is a comprehensive compendium that equips readers with the essential knowledge and methods for clear, analytical, logical thinking and critique in a range of scholarly contexts and everyday situations.Table of ContentsAcknowledgments xv Introduction The Very Idea of Critical Thinking 1 Critical thinking in the formal and empirical sciences 2 Critical thinking, critical theory, and critical politics 4 Critical thinking, finitude, and self-understanding 5 Using this book 5 Basic Tools for Critical Thinking about Arguments 1.1 Claims 7 Beliefs and opinions 8 Simple and complex claims 9 Truth functionality 10 1.2 Arguments 11 Logic vs. eristics 12 Arguments vs. explanations 12 1.3 Premises 13 Enthymemes 14 Identifying premises 14 1.4 Conclusions 16 Argument structure 16 Simple and complex arguments 16 Identifying conclusions 17 More Tools for Critical Thinking about Arguments 2.1 Deductive and Inductive Arguments 19 Deduction 20 Induction 21 2.2 Conditional Claims 22 Necessary and sufficient conditions 23 Biconditional claims 25 2.3 Classifying and Comparing Claims 26 Comparing claims 26 Classifying single claims 28 2.4 Claims and Definitions 29 Lexical, stipulative, ostensive, and negative definition 30 Extension and intension 30 Generic similarities and specific differences 31 Definiens and definiendum 31 2.5 The Critical Thinker’s “Two Step”: Validity and Soundness/Cogency and Strength 32 Structure before truth 33 2.6 Showing Invalidity by Counterexample 35 Tools for Deductive Reasoning with Categories 3.1 Thinking Categorically 39 Types and tokens 39 3.2 Categorical Logic 40 Quality, quantity, and standard form 40 Venn diagrams and the meaning of categorical claims 42 Distribution and its implications 44 Existential import 45 3.3 Translating English Claims to Standard Form 46 Implicit quantifiers 46 Individuals 47 Getting the verb right 47 Adverbials 48 Trust your instincts 50 A caveat 50 3.4 Formal Deduction with Categories: Immediate Inferences 50 Equivalences 51 Conversion 52 Contraposition 53 Obversion 56 The Aristotelian and Boolean Squares of Opposition 58 3.5 Formal Deduction with Categories: Syllogisms 63 Categorical syllogisms 64 Major and minor terms 64 Mood and figure 65 The Venn diagram test for validity 66 Five easy rules for evaluating categorical syllogisms 69 Gensler star test 70 Tools for Deductive Reasoning with Claims 4.1 Propositional vs. Categorical Logics 72 Translating claims into propositional logic 73 Truth tables for claims 76 Testing for validity and invalidity with truth tables 78 Indirect truth tables 79 Strange validity 82 4.2 Common Deductively Valid Forms 83 Modus ponens 83 Modus tollens 84 Hypothetical syllogism 86 Disjunctive syllogism 86 Constructive and destructive dilemmas 87 4.3 Equivalences 90 Double negation 90 Tautology 91 Commutativity 91 Associativity 92 Transposition 92 Material implication 93 Material equivalence 93 Exportation 94 Distribution 95 DeMorgan’s Law 95 4.4 Formal Deduction with Forms and Equivalences 96 Three simple rules 97 4.5 Common Formal Fallacies 101 Affirming the consequent 101 Denying the antecedent 103 Affirming a disjunct 104 Tools for Detecting Informal Fallacies 5.1 Critical Thinking, Critical Deceiving, and the “Two Step” 107 5.2 Subjectivist Fallacy 109 5.3 Genetic Fallacies 112 5.4 Ad Hominem Fallacies: Direct, Circumstantial, and Tu Quoque 113 Direct 114 Circumstantial 115 Tu quoque 118 5.5 Appeal to Emotions or Appeal to the Heart (argumentum ad passiones) 120 Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericordiam) 120 Appeal to fear (argumentum ad metum) 122 Appeal to guilt 122 5.6 Appeal to Force (argumentum ad baculum) 124 5.7 Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam) 125 Negative evidence and no evidence 126 5.8 Appeal to Novelty (argumentum ad novitatem) 127 5.9 Appeal to the People (argumentum ad populum) 128 Bandwagon 128 Appeal to snobbery 129 Appeal to vanity 129 5.10 Appeal to Unqualified Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam) 132 5.11 Fallacy of Accident 135 5.12 False Dilemma 137 5.13 Semantic and Syntactic Fallacies 138 Ambiguity, two types: lexical and syntactic 138 Vagueness vs. ambiguity 139 Vagueness, two types: degree and context 139 Equivocation and fallacious amphiboly 140 5.14 Begging the Question (petitio principii) 143 5.15 Question-Begging Sentences 144 5.16 Missing the Point (ignoratio elenchi) 145 5.17 Fallacy of Composition 146 5.18 Fallacy of Division 148 5.19 Is-Ought Fallacy 149 5.20 Appeal to Tradition 152 5.21 Quoting Out of Context 153 5.22 Red Herring 158 5.23 Straw Man and Fidelity 159 5.24 Hasty Fallacization 161 5.25 A Brief Argument Clinic 162 Context 162 Charity 162 Productivity 163 Tools for Critical Thinking about Induction 6.1 Inductive vs. Deductive Arguments Again 166 6.2 Analogies and Arguments from Analogy 167 Criticizing analogies 168 6.3 Fallacies about Causation 170 Post hoc ergo propter hoc 170 Correlation is not always causation 171 Cum hoc ergo propter hoc 172 Neglecting a common cause 172 Oversimplified and contributing causes 174 Proximate, remote, and intervening causes 175 6.4 Inductive Statistical Reasoning 177 Sampling: random and biased 177 Stratification 178 The gambler’s fallacy 179 Averages: mean, median, and mode 179 Distributions 180 6.5 Base Rate Fallacy 182 6.6 Slippery Slope and Reductio ad Absurdum 184 6.7 Hasty Generalization 188 6.8 Mill’s Five Methods 189 1. Method of Concomitant Variation 189 2. Method of Agreement 190 3. Method of Difference 191 4. Joint Method of Agreement and Difference 191 5. Method of Residues 192 Tools for Critical Thinking about Experience and Error 7.1 Error Theory 195 7.2 Cognitive Errors 197 Perceptual error 197 Memory 199 Stress and trauma 201 Projection 202 Transference 203 Confirmation bias 203 Denial 204 A little bit of knowledge … 204 The fallacy of false consensus 205 Naïve realism 205 7.3 Environment and Error 206 Obstruction and distraction 206 Duration 207 Motion 207 Distance 207 Context and comparison 208 Availability error 208 7.4 Background and Ignorance 209 7.5 Misleading Language 210 Suspect the negative 210 Implications and connotations 210 Damning by silence or understatement 211 7.6 Standpoint and Disagreement 211 The mosaic of truth 213 Incommensurability and deep disagreement 213 Tools for Critical Thinking about Justification 8.1 Knowledge: The Basics 215 Ordinary belief and hinge propositions 216 Plato’s definition of knowledge 216 Chisholm and belief 217 8.2 Feelings as Evidence 219 Some important features of all types of feelings 220 The importance of distinguishing sense experience from emotion 222 8.3 Skepticism and Sensory Experience 223 The weaknesses of sense experience as evidence 224 The strengths of sense experience as evidence 227 8.4 Emotions and Evidence 229 The weaknesses of emotional experience as evidence 229 The strengths of emotional experience as evidence 232 Tips for eliminating the negative effects of emotions 235 8.5 Justifying Values 237 The role of moral values in arguments 238 Four common views of value judgment 239 Tools for reasoning about moral values 241 8.6 Justification: The Basics 242 Justification and the problem of access 243 No reasons not to believe 244 Beyond a reasonable doubt 244 Obligation and permission to believe 245 8.7 Truth and Responsible Belief 246 Why is responsibility relevant to belief? 247 Responsibility without truth 247 8.8 How Does Justification Work? 248 Claims as evidence 248 Experience as evidence 249 8.9 A Problem for Responsible Belief 251 Gettier cases 252 Processes and probabilities as justification 253 Varieties of externalism 254 8.10 Evidence: Weak and Strong 256 Direct and indirect evidence 256 Testimony as evidence 258 Strong enough evidence? 259 Suppressed evidence fallacy 260 Four tips for recognizing “good” evidence 261 8.11 Justification: Conclusions 266 Tools for Critical Thinking about Science 9.1 Science and the Value of Scientific Reasoning 271 Useful, durable, and pleasant goods 271 An agreement engine 272 A path to knowledge 272 9.2 The Purview of Science 273 The limits of empiricism 274 What is and what ought to be 274 Different kinds of science 275 Critiques of science 279 9.3 Varieties of Possibility and Impossibility 280 Logical possibility 281 Physical possibility 281 Other types of possibility 282 9.4 Scientific Method 283 Causal explanation 283 Observation 284 Verification and falsification 285 Paradigms: normal and revolutionary science 288 9.5 Unfalsifiability and Falsification Resistance 289 Ad hoc hypotheses and the fallacy of unfalsifiability 290 Falsification and holism: hypothesis vs. theory 291 The “no true Scotsman” fallacy 291 9.6 Experiments and Other Tests 293 Controls and variables 293 Epidemiological studies 294 Personal experience and case studies 295 Blinding and double blinding 296 In vitro studies 297 Non-human animal studies 297 9.7 Six Criteria for Abduction 298 1. Predictive power 299 2. Scope 299 3. Coherence with established fact 300 4. Repeatability 300 5. Simplicity 300 6. Fruitfulness 301 9.8 Bad Science 302 Junk science 302 Pseudo-science 302 Fringe science 303 Ideological science 303 Tools from Rhetoric, Critical Theory, and Politics 10.1 Meta-Narratives 305 Stories that govern stories plus a whole lot more 305 Governing, varying, and disintegrating narratives 306 10.2 Governing Tropes 308 Simile, analogy, metaphor, and allegory 308 Metonymy and synecdoche 309 10.3 The Medium Is the Message 311 10.4 Voice 313 10.5 Semiotics: Critically Reading Signs 316 Peirce and Saussure 316 Of virgins, ghosts, and cuckolds 316 The semiological problem 317 10.6 Deconstruction 319 Critique of presence 320 Undermining binaries 320 The politics of deconstruction 321 10.7 Foucault’s Critique of Power 322 Archeological method 323 Genealogical method 323 Microphysics of power and biopower 324 Normalization 324 10.8 The Frankfurt School: Culture Critique 326 Lipstick is ideology 326 Makers who are made 327 The Dialectic of Enlightenment 327 10.9 Class Critiques 328 Classical Marxism: superstructure and substructure 328 It’s the class hierarchy, stupid 329 Exploitation, alienation, and class struggle 329 False consciousness 330 Criticizing class critique 330 10.10 Feminist and Gender Critiques 332 Politics and gender 333 Feminist critique 335 Text and gender 336 10.11 Critiques of Race and Racism 338 Scientific critique of race 338 Liberal critique of race 338 Marxist critique of race 339 Critical race theory 340 10.12 Traditionalist and Historicist Critiques 341 A history of thinking about history 342 Views from nowhere 342 The harm in forgetting 343 The importance of careful listening 343 10.13 Ecological Critiques 345 Consumption and pollution 345 Ecological justice 346 Non-human life 347 Appendix: Recommended Web Sites 349 Index 351

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