Books by Ludwig Wittgenstein

Book SynopsisIn this definitive new en face German-English edition, Wittgenstein experts Peter Hacker and Joachim Schulte have incorporated significant editorial changes to earlier editions of Philosophical Investigations in order to reflect more closely Wittgenstein's original intentions.Table of ContentsEditorial Preface to the Fourth Edition and Modified Translation viii The Text of the Philosophische Untersuchungen xviii Philosophische Untersuchungen Philosophical Investigations 1 Philosophie der Psychologie – Ein Fragment Philosophy of Psychology – A Fragment 182 Endnotes 244 Register 267 Index 288

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Book SynopsisThis substantially revised edition of Wittgenstein's Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics contains one section, an essay of fifty pages, not previously published, as well as considerable additions to others sections.Table of ContentsPreface to The Revised Edition Part I Circa 1937-1938 Part II 1938 Part III 1939-40 Part IV 1942-1944 Part V 1942-1944 Part VI ca. 1943/1944 Part VII 1941 and 1944 Index

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Book SynopsisFrom his return to Cambridge in 1929 to his death in 1951, Wittgenstein influenced philosophy almost exclusively through teaching and discussion. These lecture notes indicate what he considered to be salient features of his thinking in this period of his life.

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Book SynopsisCompletely revised throughout, Culture and Value is a selection from Wittgensteina s notebooks ---- on the nature of art, religion, culture, and the nature of philosophical activity.Table of ContentsForeword to the Edition of 1977. Foreword to the 1994 Edition. Editorial Note. Note by Translator. Culture and Value. A Poem. Notes. Appendix:. List of Sources. List of Sources, Arranged Alphanumerically. Index of Beginnings of Remarks. Subject Index. Index of Names.

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Book SynopsisThese two volumes must be welcomed in particular for the illumination they shed ... on Wittgenstein''s already published discussions ... the characteristic deluge of examples, analogies, questions and challanges is as ever, maddening, provoking and thought-provoking, and with the earlier-published works they constitute not just the most detailed but also the best treatment of these profoundly important issues.Kathleen Wilkes, Times Higher Education SupplementTrade Review"These two volumes must be welcomed in particular for the illumination they shed ... on Wittgensteina s already published discussions ... the characteristic deluge of examples, analogies, questions and challanges is as ever, maddening, provoking and thought--provoking, and with the earlier--published works they constitute not just the most detailed but also the best treatment of these profoundly important issues." Kathleen Wilkes, Times Higher Education Supplement

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Book SynopsisNotes from Wittgenstein's small-group, philosophical lectures on aestheticsThis book is based on a series of lectures on aesthetics that Ludwig Wittgenstein, an influential Austrian-British philosopher, gave at the University of Cambridge in 1938. Several students took notes during the lectures, which were directed to a small group and later compiled into Ludwig Wittgenstein: Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief. The book also includes notes from Wittgenstein's discussions on Freud and from his lectures on religion. Philosophy students can gain unique insight into the 20th century philosopher's perspectives on these topics through an exploration of his lectures and conversations.Table of ContentsChapter 1 Lectures on Aesthetics Chapter 2 Conversations on Freud Chapter 3 Lectures on Religious Belief

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Book Synopsis''what can be said at all can be said clearly; and of what one cannot talk, about that one must be silent''Wittgenstein''s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, first published in German in 1921 and in English translation in 1922, is one of the most influential philosophical texts of the twentieth century. It played a fundamental role in the development of analytic philosophy, and its philosophical ideas and implications have been fiercely debated ever since. This new translation improves on the two main earlier translations, taking advantage of the scholarship over the last century that has deepened our understanding of both the Tractatus and Wittgenstein''s philosophy more generally, scholarship that has also involved discussion of the difficulties in translating the original German text and the issues of interpretation that arise.Michael Beaney''s translation is accompanied by two introductory essays, the first explaining the background to Wittgenstein''s work, its main ideas and their suTrade ReviewParadox is a powerful source of philosophical intrigue. And these two new editions attest to the status of the Tractatus as perhaps the philosophical classic of the twentieth century, inspiring not only philosophers of both "analytic" and "continental" stripes, but also writers, logicians and film-makers. * Jonathan Egid, The Times Literary Supplement *Table of ContentsPreface Introduction A Note on the Text Select Bibliography Chronology of Ludwig Wittgenstein Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Explanatory Notes Appendix: The Tree Structure of the Main Propositions of the Tractatus Glossary

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Book SynopsisThe Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus first appeared in 1921 and was the only philosophical work that Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) published during his lifetime. Written in short, carefully numbered paragraphs of extreme compression and brilliance, it immediately convinced many of its readers and captured the imagination of all.Its chief influence, at first, was on the Logical Positivists of the 1920s and 1930s, but many other philosophers were stimulated by its philosophy of language, finding attractive, even if ultimately unsatisfactory, its view that propositions were pictures of reality. Perhaps most of all, its own author, after his return to philosophy in the late 1920s, was fascinated by its vision of an inexpressible, crystalline world of logical relationships.C.K. Ogden's translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus has a unique provenance. As revealed in Letters of C.K. Ogden (1973) and in correspondence in The Times Literary Supplement, Wittgenstein, Ramsey and Moore all worked with Ogden on the translation, which had Wittgenstein's complete approval.Table of ContentsPreface; Chapter 1 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus; Index;

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Book SynopsisPerhaps the most important work of philosophy written in the twentieth century, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was the only philosophical work that Ludwig Wittgenstein published during his lifetime. Written in short, carefully numbered paragraphs of extreme brilliance, it captured the imagination of a generation of philosophers. For Wittgenstein, logic was something we use to conquer a reality which is in itself both elusive and unobtainable. He famously summarized the book in the following words: 'What can be said at all can be said clearly; and what we cannot talk about we must pass over in silence.' David Pears and Brian McGuinness received the highest praise for their meticulous translation. The work is prefaced by Bertrand Russell's original introduction to the first English edition.Trade Review'Beautifully strange ... an icy, gnomic, compact work of mystical logic.' - Steven Poole, The GuardianTable of ContentsChapter 1 Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Preface; Chapter 2;

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Book SynopsisLudwig Wittgenstein is one of the greatest and most fascinating philosophers of all time. His Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, composed in a series of remarkable numbered propositions, was the only book he published in his lifetime. He tackles nothing less than the question of whether there is such a thing as a logically perfect language and, armed with it, what we can say about the nature of the world itself. Pushing the limits of language, logic and philosophy, the Tractatus is a brilliant, cryptic and hypnotic tour de force, exerting a major impact on twentieth-century philosophy and stirring the imagination today.With a new foreword by Ray Monk.Table of ContentsForeword to the Routledge Great Minds Edition 1. Translators' Preface 2. Introduction by Bertrand Russell 3. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Preface 4. Translation Index

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Book SynopsisWittgenstein wrote the Philosophical Grammar during the years 1931 to 1934 -- the period just before he began to dictate the Blue Book. Although it is close to the Investigations in some points, and to the Phiosophische Bemerkungen at others, the Philosophical Grammar is an independent work which covers new ground.Table of ContentsPart I:The Proposition and its Sense:. Appendix. Part II: On Logic and Mathematics:. 1. Logical Inference. 2. Generality. 3. The foundations of Mathematics. 4. On Cardinal Numbers. 5. Mathematical Proof. 6. Inductive Proofs and Periodicity. Note in Editing. Translator's note.

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Book SynopsisLudwig Wittgenstein's surviving notebooks serve to show what problems were occupying him in connection with many of the paragraphs of the Tractatus which are found in them as a first draft. They serve as a testimony to the thought processes of the Austrian philosopher.

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Book SynopsisZettel is a collection of fragments which Wittgenstein cut from various of his typescripts and preserved for future use. More than half of the fragments were written in the years 1946-1948, after the completion of Part I and before the composition of Part II of the Philosophical Investigations. This collection may therefore be regarded as a companion volume to the Investigations, adding to both the scope and the Unity of Wittgenstein''s chef d''oeuvre. The fragments were kept in a box and were not strictly ordered. Many have marks showing changes and improvements made after they were cut from the typescripts; some have remarks added in handwriting. Editing the collection for publication was thus a task of considerable difficulty. Since Zettel was first published, further research has been carried out on the fragments and minute comparisons have been made with their typescript and manuscript sources, revealing certain inaccuracies and misinterpretations in the fi

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Book SynopsisA significant body of work from a 20th Century philosopherRemarks on the Philosophy of Psychology is an English translation of Ludwig Wittgenstein''s writings on topics such as sensation and expectation. Wittgenstein was an Austrian-British philosopher who taught at the University of Cambridge. Considered one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century, he worked in the areas of logic and the philosophy of mathematics. This notable work features writings compiled by the philosopher between 1946 and 1949.Trade Review"Although the final remarks in this volume were written less than a fortnight before Wittgenstein's death, the work as a whole has all the forcefulness, originality and richness that characterise his greatest works. The remarks in this volume do not merely repeat points made elsewhere, nor do they merely supplement works already published. The volume incorporates genuinely new material that does a great deal to reveal both the subtlety of Wittgenstein's thoughts on subjectivity and the logic of psychological concepts, and the workings of his philosophical method." Mind

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Book SynopsisOffers unfinished sketches for "Philosophical Investigations". This title contains: The "Blue Book" - A set of notes dictated to Witgenstein's Cambridge students and The "Brown Book" - A draft for what eventually became the growth of the first part of "Philosophical Investigations". It is intended for students of Witgenstein's thought.

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Book SynopsisThis first volume of Wittgenstein''s Last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology was written between October 1948 and March 1949, when the philosopher had moved to Dublin and was having one of his most fruitful working periods. He then finished work which he had begun in 1946 and which in its entirety constitutes the source material for Part II of the Philosophical Investigations. When, later in 1949, Wittgenstein composed the manuscript for Part II he selected more than half the remarks for it from the Dublin manuscript. Although this material is a direct continuation of the writings which make up the two volumes of the Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology it deserves more than they to be regarded as a preliminary study for the second part of Wittgenstein''s chef-d''oeuvre.

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Book SynopsisIn the last years of his life, from 1949 to 1951, Wittgenstein''s writings focused upon knowledge and certainty (collected together in On Certainty), upon colour concepts (in Remarks on Colour) and upon the relation between the inner and outer, that is, between so-called mental states and bodily behavior. His writings on this third theme, now available in paperback, are gathered here for the first time. Wittgenstein''s last weeks were a period of high creativity during which his thoughts were on a level with the best he ever produced. His variation on the classic philosophical theme of the relation between mind and body is no exception.Table of ContentsEditors' Preface. MS 169. MS 170. MS 171. MS 173. MS 174. MS 176. Index.

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Book SynopsisCompletely revised throughout, Culture and Value is a selection from Wittgenstein''s notebooks -- on the nature of art, religion, culture, and the nature of philosophical activity.Table of ContentsForeword to the Edition of 1977. Foreword to the 1994 Edition. Editorial Note. Note by Translator. Culture and Value. A Poem. Notes. Appendix:. List of Sources. List of Sources, Arranged Alphanumerically. Index of Beginnings of Remarks. Subject Index. Index of Names.

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Book SynopsisAn essential resource for students of Wittgenstein, this collection contains faithful, in some cases expanded and corrected, versions of many important pieces never before available in a single volume, including Notes for the ''Philosophical Lecture'', published here for the first time. Fifteen selections, with bi-lingual versions of those originally written in German, span the development of Wittgenstein''s thought, his range of interests, and his methods of philosophical investigation. Short introductions, an index, and an updated version of Georg Henrik von Wright''s The Wittgenstein Papers situate the selections within the broader context of the Wittgenstein corpus and the history of its publication.Trade ReviewA magnificent collection . . . the editors are to be congratulated. --Steven Gerrard, Williams College. . .selections make available in easily accessible form some of the most interesting smaller writings of Wittgenstein's, including the longest explanation he ever gave of the nature of the philosophical enterprise. --Jaakko Hintikka, Boston University[The editors] have usefully and skillfully assembled various writings by Wittgenstein. . . . to permit a synoptic view of his several concerns. . . . The book is an excellent source and it provides a nourishing supplement to the Investigations. --Colin McGinn, The New Republic

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Book SynopsisTrade ReviewA magnificent collection . . . the editors are to be congratulated. --Steven Gerrard, Williams College. . .selections make available in easily accessible form some of the most interesting smaller writings of Wittgenstein's, including the longest explanation he ever gave of the nature of the philosophical enterprise. --Jaakko Hintikka, Boston University[The editors] have usefully and skillfully assembled various writings by Wittgenstein. . . . to permit a synoptic view of his several concerns. . . . The book is an excellent source and it provides a nourishing supplement to the Investigations. --Colin McGinn, The New Republic

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Book SynopsisIn 1931 Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote his famous Remarks on Frazer's "Golden Bough," published posthumously in 1967. At that time, anthropology and philosophy were in close contact - thinkers drew heavily on anthropology's theoretical terms, in order to help them explore the limits of human belief and imagination. This is a translation of his work.

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Book SynopsisLong awaited by the scholarly community, Wittgenstein s so-called Big Typescript (von Wright Catalog no. TS 213) is presented here for the first time in an en-face German English scholars edition, complete with clear indications to help the reader identify the various levels of Wittgenstein s editing.Table of ContentsVerstehen 1 1 Das Verstehen, die Meinung, fällt aus unsrer Betrachtung heraus 2 2 „Meinen“ amorph gebraucht. „Meinen“ mehrdeutig 5 3 Das Verstehen als Korrelat einer Erklärung 8 4 Das Verstehen des Befehls, die Bedingung dafür, daß wir ihn befolgen können. Das Verstehen des Satzes, die Bedingung dafür, daß wir uns nach ihm richten 12 5 Deuten. Deuten wir jedes Zeichen? 16 6 Man sagt: ein Wort verstehen heißt, wissen, wie es gebraucht wird. Was heißt es, das zu wissen? Dieses Wissen haben wir sozusagen im Vorrat 18 6a Einen Satz im Ernst oder Spaß meinen, etc. 21 Bedeutung 22 7 Der Begriff der Bedeutung stammt aus einer primitiven philosophischen Auffassung der Sprache her 23 8 Bedeutung, der Ort des Wortes im grammatischen Raum 26 9 Die Bedeutung eines Wortes ist das, was die Erklärung der Bedeutung erklärt 29 10 „Die Bedeutung eines Zeichens ist durch seine Wirkung (die Assoziationen, die es auslöst, etc.) gegeben.“ 33 11 Bedeutung als Gefühl, hinter dem Wort stehend; durch eine Geste ausgedrückt 37 12 Man tritt mit der hinweisenden Erklärung der Zeichen nicht aus der Sprachlehre heraus 38 13 „Primäre und sekundäre Zeichen“. Wort und Muster. Hinweisende Definition 40 14 Das, was die Philosophie am Zeichen interessiert, die Bedeutung, die für sie maßgebend ist, ist das, was in der Grammatik des Zeichens niedergelegt ist 48 Satz. Sinn des Satzes 49 15 „Satz“ und „Sprache“ verschwimmende Begriffe 50 16 Die Logik redet von Sätzen und Wörtern im gewöhnlichen Sinn, nicht von Sätzen und Wörtern in irgend einem abstrakten Sinn 57 17 Satz und Satzklang 59

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Book SynopsisWritten in code under constant threat of battle, Wittgenstein’s searing and illuminating diaries finally emerge in this first-ever English translationTrade Review"Translated into English for the first time, these diaries provide a glimpse into the innermost thoughts of a great philosopher." -- Anil Gomes - The Guardian"Perloff has done a great service in bringing this volume to fruition. Her inclusion of remarks from the recto pages is judicious and will engage the non-specialist reader… Her translation here has real presence: emotional ubiety." -- Ian Ground - The Times Literary Supplement"These notebooks do reveal that in a sense Wittgenstein’s philosophy was a response to his circumstances: but only by providing him with the vital means to escape from them into his own mind – an extraordinary achievement." -- Thomas Nagel - New Statesman"Merely by reminding us that, for all his saintliness, Wittgenstein was human, all too human, these beautiful Notebooks bring him that bit closer to us." -- Christopher Bray - The Tablet

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Book SynopsisAppearing a century after its first English-language publication, this newly translated edition of Wittgenstein's masterpiece reveals a work of exceptional philosophical and literary genius

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Book Synopsis* Presents long-awaited scholar's edition of important material from 1933, Wittgenstein's first efforts to set out his new thoughts after the publication of the Tractatus Logico Philosophicus.Trade Review"Experts used to regard an edition of this much revised typescript as well-nigh impossible. Now they have been proved wrong: Aue and Luckhardt have miraculously succeeded in producing a scrupulously accurate and at the same time highly readable edition and translation of this previously missing link between Wittgenstein's Tractatus and his later writings." Joachim Schulte, Universitat Bielefeld "Here is Wittgenstein's most important unpublished typescript, expertly edited and superbly translated. Required reading for anyone interested in what Wittgenstein wrote after the Tractatus and before the Philosophical Investigations." David Stern, University of IowaTable of ContentsEditor's Note. Translator's Note. Part I: Understanding. 1. Understanding, meaning, drop out of our considerations. 2. "Meaning" used amorphously. "Meaning" used equivocally. 3. Understanding as a correlate of an explanation. 4. Understanding a command the condition for our being able to obey it. Understanding a proposition the condition for our acting in accordance. with it. 5. Interpreting. Do we interpret every sign?. 6. One says: understanding a word means knowing how it is used. What does it mean to know that? We have this knowledge in reserve, as it were. 6a. Meaning a proposition seriously or in jest, etc. Part II: Meaning. 7. The concept of meaning originates in a primitive philosophical conception of language. 8. Meaning, the position of the word in grammatical space. 9. The meaning of a word is what the explanation of its meaning explains. 10. "The meaning of a sign is given by its effect (the associations that it triggers, etc.).". 11. Meaning as feeling, standing behind the word; expressed with a gesture. 12. In giving an ostensive explanation of signs one doesn't leave grammar. 13. "Primary and secondary signs". Word and sample. Ostensive definition. 14. What interests philosophy about the sign, the meaning that is decisive for it, is what is laid down in the grammar of the sign. Part III: Proposition. Sense of a proposition. 15. "Sentence" and "language" blurred concepts. 16. Logic talks about sentences and words in the ordinary sense, not in some abstract sense. 17. Sentence and sentence-sound. 18. What is to count as a proposition is determined in grammar. 19. Grammatical rules determine the sense of a proposition; and whether a. combination of words makes sense. 20. The sense of a proposition not a soul. 21. Similarity of proposition and picture. 22. Propositions compared to genre-paintings. (Related to this: understanding a picture.). 23. Reality seems inherently able either to agree with a proposition or not. to agree with it. A proposition seems to challenge reality to compare. itself to it. 24. A symbol (a thought) as such seems to be unfulfilled. 25. A sentence is a sign within a system of signs. It is a combination of signs from among several possible ones and in contrast to other possible ones. One position of the pointer, as it were, in contrast to other possible ones. 26. Being able to imagine "what it would be like" as a criterion for a proposition having a sense. 27. "Logical possibility and impossibility". - The picture of "being able to" applied ultraphysically. (Similar to: "the excluded middle".). 28. Elementary proposition. 29. "How is the possibility of p contained in the fact that ~p is the case?" "How does, for example, a pain-free state contain the possibility of pain?". 30. How can the word 'not' negate?" The word "not" seems to us like an impetus to a complicated activity of negating. 31. Is time essential to propositions? Comparison between time and truth-functions. 32. The nature of hypothesis. 33. Probability. 34. The concept "roughly". Problem of the "heap of sand". Part IV: Immediate understanding and the application of a word in time. 35. To understand a word = to be able to use it. To understand a language: to have command of a calculus. 36. How does understanding a sentence accompany uttering or hearing it?. 37. Is the meaning of a word shown in time? Like the actual degree of freedom in a mechanism? Is the meaning of a word only revealed in the course of time as its use develops?. 38. Does a knowledge of grammatical rules accompany the expression of a. sentence when we understand it - its words?. 39. The rules of grammar - and the meaning of a word. Is meaning, when we understand it, grasped "all at once"? And unfolded, as it were, in the rules of grammar?. Part V: The nature of language. 40. Learning, explanation, of language. Can we use explanation to construct. language, so to speak, to get it to work?. 41. What effect does a single explanation of language have, what effect. understanding?. 42. Can one use the word "red" to search for something red? Does one need an image, a memory-image, for this? Various searching-games. 43. "The connection between language and reality" is made through explanations of words, which explanations belong in turn to grammar. So that language remains self-contained, autonomous. 44. Language in our sense not defined as an instrument for a particular. purpose. Grammar is not a mechanism justified by its purpose. 45. Language functions as language only by virtue of the rules we follow in using it, just as a game is a game only by virtue of its rules. 46. The functioning of a proposition explained with a language-game. 47. Assertion, question, assumption, etc. Part VI: Thought. Thinking. 48. How does one think the proposition "p", how does one expect (believe, wish) that p will be the case? Mechanism of thinking. 49. "What is a thought, what must it be like for it to fulfill its function?" Here. one wants to explain its essence by its purpose, its function. 50. Is a mental image a portrait par excellence, and thus fundamentally different from, say, a painted picture, and not replaceable by one or by any such thing? Is it a mental image that really represents a particular reality -. simultaneously picture and what is meant?. 51. Is thinking a specifically organic process? A process specific to human. psychology? If so, can one replace it with an inorganic process that fulfills. the same purpose, that is, by a prosthesis, as it were?. 52. Location of thinking. 53. Thought and expression of thought. 54. What is thought? What is its essence? "Thought, this peculiar being.". 55. The purpose of thinking. The reason for thinking. Part VII: Grammar. 56. Grammar is not accountable to any reality. The rules of grammar determine meaning (constitute it), and therefore they are not answerable to any meaning and in this respect are arbitrary. 57. Rule and empirical proposition. Does a rule say that words are actually used in such and such a way?. 58. The strict grammatical rules of a game and the fluctuating use of language. Logic as normative. To what extent do we talk about ideal cases, an ideal. language? ("The logic of a vacuum."). 59. Kinds of words are distinguished only by their grammar. 60. Tell me what you do with a proposition, how you verify it, etc., and I shall understand it. Part VIII: Intention and depiction. 61. If in copying I am guided by a model and thus know that I am now. moving my pencil in such a way because the model goes that way, is. a causality involved here of which I am immediately aware?. 62. If we "depict in accordance with a particular rule", is this rule contained in the process of copying (depicting), and can it therefore be read out of it. unambiguously? Does the process of depicting embody this rule, as it were?. 63. How does one use a general rule of representation to justify the result of representation?. 64. The process of copying on purpose, of copying with the intention to copy, is not essentially a psychological, inner process. A process of manipulating signs on a piece of paper can accomplish the same thing. 65. How are our thoughts connected with the objects we think about? How do these objects enter our thoughts? (Are they represented in our thoughts by something else - perhaps something similar?) The nature of a portrait; intention. Part IX: Logical inference. 66. Do we know that p follows from q because we understand the propositions?. Is entailment implied by a sense?. 67. "If p follows from q, then p must have been mentally included in q.". 68. The case of infinitely many propositions following from a single one. 69. Can an experience teach us that one proposition follows from another?. Part X: Generality. 70. In a certain sense the proposition "The circle is in the square" is independent of the indication of a particular position (in a certain sense it has nothing to do with it). 71. The proposition "The circle is in the square" not a disjunction of cases. 72. The inadequacy of Frege's and Russell's notation for generality. 73. Criticism of my earlier understanding of generality. 74. Explanation of generality by examples. 75. The law of the formation of a series. "Etc.". Part XI: Expectation. Wish. Etc. 76. Expectation: the expression of expectation. Articulate and inarticulate expectation. 77. What fulfillment brought: that was what was expected in expectation. 78. "How can one wish for, expect, look for, something that isn't there?". Misunderstanding of the "something". 79. Expectation and fulfillment make contact in linguistic expression. 80. "The proposition determines which reality makes it true." It seems to provide a shadow of this reality. A command seems to anticipate its execution in a shadowy way. 81. Intention. What kind of a process is it? From an examination of this process one is supposed to be able to see what is being intended. 82. No feeling of satisfaction (no third thing) can be the criterion that expectation has been fulfilled. 83. Thought - expectation, wish, etc. - and the present situation. 84. Belief. Grounds for belief. 85. Reason, motive, cause. Part XII: Philosophy. 86. Difficulty of philosophy not the intellectual difficulty of the sciences, but the difficulty of a change of attitude. Resistance of the will must be overcome. 87. Philosophy points out the misleading analogies in the use of our language. 88. Whence the feeling that our grammatical investigations are fundamental?. 89. The method of philosophy: the clearly surveyable representation of grammatical facts. The goal: the transparency of arguments. Justice. 90. Philosophy. The clarification of the use of language. Traps of language. 91. We don't encounter philosophical problems at all in practical life (as we do, for example, those of natural science). We encounter them only when we are guided not by practical purpose in forming our sentences, but by certain analogies within language. 92. Method in philosophy. The possibility of quiet progress. 93. The mythology in the forms of our language. ((Paul Ernst.)). Part XIII: Phenomenology. 94. Phenomenology is grammar. 95. Can one penetrate more deeply into the properties of visual space? Say through experiments?. 96. Visual space in contrast to Euclidean space. 97. The seeing subject and visual space. 98. Visual space compared to a picture (two-dimensional picture). 99. Minima visibilia. 100. Colors and the mixing of colors. Part XIV: Idealism, etc. 101. The representation of what is immediately perceived. 102. "The experience at the present moment, actual reality.". 103. Idealism. 104. "Having pain.". 105. Memory-time. 106. "Here" and "now". 107. Color, experience, etc., as formal concepts. Part XV: Foundations of mathematics. 108. Mathematics compared to a game. 109. There is no metamathematics. 110. Proof of relevance. 111. Consistency proof. 112. Laying the foundations for arithmetic as preparation for its applications. (Russell, Ramsey.). 113. Ramsey's theory of identity. 114. The concept of the application of arithmetic (mathematics). Part XVI: On cardinal numbers. 115. Kinds of cardinal numbers. 116. 2 + 2 = 4. 117. Statements of number within mathematics. 118. Sameness of number. Sameness of length. Part XVII: Mathematical proof. 119. If I am looking for something in other cases I can describe finding it, even if it hasn't happened; it is different if I am looking for the solution to. a mathematical problem. Mathematical expeditions and polar expeditions. 120. Proof, and the truth and falsity of mathematical propositions. 121. If you want to know what was proved, look at the proof. 122. Mathematical problems. Kinds of problems. Searching. "Tasks" in mathematics. 123. Euler's proof. 124. The trisection of an angle, etc. 125. Trying to find and trying. Part XVIII: Inductive proofs. Periodicity. 126. To what extent does a proof by induction prove a proposition?. 127. Recursive proof and the concept of proposition. Did the proof prove a proposition true and its contradictory false?. 128. Induction. To what extent does induction prove a universal proposition true and an existential proposition false?. 129. Is a further inference to generality drawn from writing down the recursive proof? Doesn't the recursion schema already say all that needed to be said?. 130. To what extent does a recursive proof deserve the name "proof"? To what extent is a step in accordance with the paradigm A justified by the proof of B?. 131. The recursive proof doesn't reduce the number of fundamental laws. 132. Periodicity. 1 ⁄ 3 = 0.3. 133. The recursive proof as a series of proofs. 134. Seeing and understanding a sign in a particular way. Discovering an aspect of a mathematical expression. "Seeing an expression in a particular. way." Marks of emphasis. 135. Proof by induction, arithmetic and algebra. Part XIX: The infinite in mathematics. The extensional viewpoint. 136. Generality in arithmetic. 137. On set theory. 138. The extensional conception of the real numbers. 139. Kinds of irrational numbers. 140. Irregular infinite decimals. Appendix I. Index

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Book SynopsisIn this definitive new en face German-English edition, Wittgenstein experts Peter Hacker and Joachim Schulte have incorporated significant editorial changes to earlier editions of Philosophical Investigations in order to reflect more closely Wittgenstein's original intentions.Table of ContentsEditorial Preface to the Fourth Edition and Modified Translation viii The Text of the Philosophische Untersuchungen xviii Philosophische Untersuchungen Philosophical Investigations 1 Philosophie der Psychologie – Ein Fragment Philosophy of Psychology – A Fragment 182 Endnotes 244 Register 267 Index 288

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