Imaging systems and technology Books

Book SynopsisThe second edition ofRad Tech''s Guide to MRIprovides practicing and training technologists with a succinct overview of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Designed for quick reference and examination preparation, this pocket-size guide covers the fundamental principles of electromagnetism, MRI equipment, data acquisition and processing, image quality and artifacts, MR Angiography, Diffusion/Perfusion, and more. Written by an expert practitioner and educator, this handy reference guide: Provides essential MRI knowledge in a single portable, easy-to-read guide Covers instrumentation and MRI hardware components, including gradient and radio-frequency subsystems Provides techniques to handle flow imaging issues and improve the quality of MRIs Explains the essential physics underpinning MRI technology Rad Tech''s Guide to MRIis a must-have resource for student radiographers, especially those preparing for the AmeriTable of Contents1. Hardware Overview 1 Instrumentation: Magnets 1 Instrumentation: RF Subsystem 6 Instrumentation: Gradient Subsystem 8 2. Fundamental Principles 11 Electromagnetism: Faraday’s Law of Induction 11 Magnetism 12 Behavior of Hydrogen in a Magnetic Field 14 3. Production of Magnetic Resonance Signal 19 4. Relaxation and Tissue Characteristics 23 T2-Relaxation 23 T1-Relaxation 24 Proton Density 24 T2* (Pronounced “T2 star”) 25 5. Data Acquisition and Image Formation 27 Pulse Sequences 27 Image Contrast Control 30 Image Formation 42 Data Acquisition 43 Scan Time 50 Controlling Image Quality with FSE 57 6. Magnetic Resonance Image Quality 61 Spatial Resolution 61 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) 63 7. Artifacts 75 Chemical Shift (Water and Fat in Different Voxels) 75 Chemical Shift (Water and Fat in the Same Voxel) 77 Magnetic Susceptibility 79 Motion and Flow 81 Spatial Presaturation 82 Gradient Moment Nulling (Flow Compensation) 84 Compensation for Respiration 84 Cardiac Compensation 86 Aperiodic Motion 88 Aliasing 89 Gibbs and Truncation Artifact 91 Radio-Frequency Artifacts 92 Gradient Malfunctions 93 Image Shading 93 Inadequate System Tuning 94 Reconstruction Artifacts 94 8. Flow Imaging 97 Flow Patterns 97 Magnetic Resonance Angiography (Non Contrast) 98 Reduction of Flow Artifacts 102 Signal Loss in MRA 102 Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Time-of-Flight 103 Signal Loss with Two-Dimensional TOF 104 Three-Dimensional TOF 106 Signal Loss with Three-Dimensional TOF 108 PC Techniques 109 Contrast Enhanced MRA (CE-MRA) 113 9. Diffusion and Perfusion Imaging 117 Diffusion-Weighted Imaging (DWI) 117 10. Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents 125 Characteristics, Composition and Structure 125 Index 129

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Book SynopsisWe live in a society which is increasingly interconnected, in which communication between individuals is mostly mediated via some electronic platform, and transactions are often carried out remotely. In such a world, traditional notions of trust and confidence in the identity of those with whom we are interacting, taken for granted in the past, can be much less reliable. Biometrics - the scientific discipline of identifying individuals by means of the measurement of unique personal attributes - provides a reliable means of establishing or confirming an individual''s identity. These attributes include facial appearance, fingerprints, iris patterning, the voice, the way we write, or even the way we walk. The new technologies of biometrics have a wide range of practical applications, from securing mobile phones and laptops to establishing identity in bank transactions, travel documents, and national identity cards. This Very Short Introduction considers the capabilities of biometrics-based identity checking, from first principles to the practicalities of using different types of identification data. Michael Fairhurst looks at the basic techniques in use today, ongoing developments in system design, and emerging technologies, all aimed at improving precision in identification, and providing solutions to an increasingly wide range of practical problems. Considering how they may continue to develop in the future, Fairhurst explores the benefits and limitations of these pervasive and powerful technologies, and how they can effectively support our increasingly interconnected society.ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.Table of Contents1: Are you who you say you are?2: Biometrics: where should I start?3: Making biometrics work4: Enhancing biometric processing5: An introduction to predictive biometrics6: Where are we going?Further readingIndex

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Book SynopsisPanoramic imaging is a progressive application and research area. This technology has applications in digital photography, robotics, film productions for panoramic screens, architecture, environmental studies, remote sensing and GIS technology. Applications demand different levels of accuracy for 3D documentation or visualizations. This book describes two modern technologies for capturing high-accuracy panoramic images and range data, namely the use of sensor-line cameras and laser range-finders. It provides mathematically accurate descriptions of the geometry of these sensing technologies and the necessary information required to apply them to 3D scene visualization or 3D representation. The book is divided into three parts: Part One contains a full introduction to panoramic cameras and laser range-finders, including a discussion of calibration to aid preparation of equipment ready for use. Part Two explains the concept of stereo panoramic imaging,Table of ContentsPreface. Series Preface. Website and Exercises. List of Symbols. 1. Introduction. 1.1 Panoramas 1.2 Panoramic Paintings 1.3 Panoramic or Wide-Angle Photographs 1.4 Digital Panoramas 1.5 Striving for Accuracy 1.6 Exercises 1.7 Further Reading 2. Cameras and Sensors. 2.1 Camera Models 2.2 Optics 2.3 Sensor Models 2.4 Examples and Challenges 2.5 Exercises 2.6 Further Reading 3. Spatial Alignments. 3.1 Mathematical Fundamentals 3.2 Central Projection:World into Image Plane 3.3 Classification of Panoramas 3.4 Coordinate Systems for Panoramas 3.5 General Projection Formula for Cylindrical Panorama 3.6 Rotating Cameras 3.7 Mappings between Different Image Surfaces 3.8 Laser Range-Finder 3.9 Exercises 3.10 Further Reading 4. Epipolar Geometry. 4.1 General Epipolar Curve Equation 4.2 Constrained Poses of Cameras 4.3 Exercises 4.4 Further Reading 5. Sensor Calibration. 5.1 Basics 5.2 Preprocesses for a Rotating Sensor-Line Camera 5.3 A Least-Square Error Optimization Calibration Procedure 5.4 Geometric Dependencies of R and w 5.5 Error Components in LRF Data 5.6 Exercises 5.7 Further Reading 6. Spatial Sampling. 6.1 Stereo Panoramas 6.2 Sampling Structure 6.3 Spatial Resolution 6.4 Distances between Spatial Samples 6.5 Exercises 6.6 Further Reading 7. Image Quality Control. 7.1 Two Requirements 7.2 Terminology 7.3 Parameter Optimization 7.4 Error Analysis 7.5 Exercises 7.6 Further Reading 8. Sensor Analysis and Design. 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Scene Composition Analysis 8.3 Stereoacuity Analysis 8.4 Specification of Camera Parameters 8.5 Exercises 8.6 Further Reading 9. 3D Meshing and Visualization. 9.1 3D Graphics 9.2 Surface Modeling 9.3 More Techniques for Dealing with Digital Surfaces 9.4 Exercises 9.5 Further Reading 10. Data Fusion. 10.1 Determination of Camera Image Coordinates 10.2 Texture Mapping 10.3 High Resolution Orthophotos 10.4 Fusion of Panoramic Images and Airborne Data 10.5 Exercises 10.6 Further Reading References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book describes the latest development in optical fiber devices, and their applications to sensor technology. Optical fiber sensors, an important application of the optical fiber, have experienced fast development, and attracted wide attentions in basic science as well as in practical applications.Trade Review“The book provides a well-organized and in-depth treatment of optical fiber sensors for students and can also serve as a convenient reference for engineers and scientists working in the field.” (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 1 March 2014) Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Review and Perspective 1 1.2 Classifications of Optical Fiber Sensors 3 1.3 Overview of the Chapters 6 References 8 2 Fundamentals of Optical Fibers 10 2.1 Introduction to Optical Fibers 10 2.1.1 Basic Structure and Fabrication of Optical Fiber 10 2.1.2 Basic Characteristics 12 2.1.3 Classifications of Optical Fibers 17 2.2 Electromagnetic Theory of Step-Index Optical Fibers 18 2.2.1 Maxwell Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates 19 2.2.2 Boundary Conditions and Eigenvalue Equations 23 2.2.3 Weakly Guiding Approximation, Hybrid Modes, and Linear Polarized Modes 26 2.2.4 Field Distribution and Polarization Characteristics 29 2.2.5 Multimode Fiber and Cladding Modes 35 2.2.6 Propagation of Optical Pulses in Optical Fibers 39 2.3 Basic Theory of the Gradient-Index Optical Fiber 42 2.3.1 Ray Equation in Inhomogeneous Media 42 2.3.2 Ray Optics of GRIN Fiber 46 2.3.3 Wave Optics of GRIN Fiber 51 2.3.4 Basic Characteristics of Gradient Index Lens 56 2.4 Special Optical Fibers 57 2.4.1 Rare-Earth-Doped Fibers and Double-Cladding Fibers 57 2.4.2 Polarization Maintaining Fibers 60 2.4.3 Photonic Crystal Fiber and Microstructure Fiber 64 Problems 69 References 71 3 Fiber Sensitivities and Fiber Devices 76 3.1 Fiber Sensitivities to Physical Conditions 76 3.1.1 Sensitivity to Axial Strain 77 3.1.2 Sensitivity to Lateral Pressure 78 3.1.3 Bending-Induced Birefringence 83 3.1.4 Torsion-Induced Polarization Mode Cross-Coupling 87 3.1.5 Bending Loss 91 3.1.6 Vibration and Mechanical Waves in Fiber 95 3.1.7 Sensitivity to Temperature 96 3.2 Fiber Couplers 97 3.2.1 Structures and Fabrications of 2×2 Couplers 98 3.2.2 Basic Characteristics and Theoretical Analyses of the Coupler 99 3.2.3 N×N and 1×N Fiber Star Couplers 110 3.2.4 Coupling in Axial Direction and Tapered Fiber 114 3.3 Fiber Loop Devices Incorporated with Couplers 118 3.3.1 Fiber Sagnac Loops 118 3.3.2 Fiber Rings 126 3.3.3 Fiber Mach–Zehnder Interferometers and Michelson Interferometers 131 3.3.4 Fiber Loops Incorporated with 3×3 Couplers 135 3.4 Polarization Characteristics of Fibers 142 3.4.1 Polarization State Evolution in Fibers 142 3.4.2 Basic Characteristics of Polarization Mode Dispersion 154 3.4.3 Spun Fiber and Circular Birefringence Fiber 157 3.4.4 Faraday Rotation and Optical Activity 159 3.5 Fiber Polarization Devices 162 3.5.1 Fiber Polarizers 162 3.5.2 Fiber Polarization Controller 165 3.5.3 Fiber Depolarizer and Polarization Scrambler 166 3.5.4 Fiber Optical Isolator and Circulator 170 Problems 172 References 174 4 Fiber Gratings and Related Devices 183 4.1 Introduction to Fiber Gratings 183 4.1.1 Basic Structure and Principle 183 4.1.2 Photosensitivity of Optical Fiber 186 4.1.3 Fabrication and Classifications of Fiber Gratings 190 4.2 Theory of Fiber Grating 194 4.2.1 Theory of Uniform FBG 194 4.2.2 Theory of Long-Period Fiber Grating 202 4.2.3 Basic Theory of Nonuniform Fiber Gratings 208 4.2.4 Inverse Engineering Design 214 4.2.5 Apodization of Fiber Grating 219 4.3 Special Fiber Grating Devices 222 4.3.1 Multisection FBGs 222 4.3.2 Chirped Fiber Bragg Grating 233 4.3.3 Tilted Fiber Bragg Gratings 236 4.3.4 Polarization Maintaining Fiber Gratings 243 4.3.5 In-Fiber Interferometers and Acoustic Optic Tunable Filter 246 4.4 Fiber Grating Sensitivities and Fiber Grating Sensors 249 4.4.1 Sensitivities of Fiber Gratings 250 4.4.2 Tunability of Fiber Gratings 252 4.4.3 Packaging of Fiber Grating Devices 255 4.4.4 Fiber Grating Sensor Systems and Their Applications 259 Problems 263 References 266 5 Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors 278 5.1 Optical Scattering in Fiber 278 5.1.1 Elastic Optical Scattering 279 5.1.2 Inelastic Optical Scattering 281 5.1.3 Stimulated Raman Scattering and Stimulated Brillouin Scattering 285 5.2 Distributed Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 286 5.2.1 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer 286 5.2.2 Polarization OTDR 292 5.2.3 Coherent OTDR and Phase Sensitive OTDR 294 5.2.4 Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry 298 5.3 Distributed Sensors Based on Raman Scattering 300 5.3.1 Raman Scattering in Fiber 301 5.3.2 Distributed Anti-Stokes Raman Thermometry 304 5.3.3 Frequency Domain DART 307 5.4 Distributed Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 308 5.4.1 Brillouin Scattering in Fiber 308 5.4.2 Brillouin Optical Time Domain Reflectrometer 312 5.4.3 Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analyzer 316 5.5 Distributed Sensors Based on Fiber Interferometers 322 5.5.1 Configuration and Characteristics of Interferometric Fiber Sensors 323 5.5.2 Low Coherence Technology in a Distributed Sensor System 327 5.5.3 Sensors Based on Speckle Effect and Mode Coupling in Multimode Fiber 331 Problems 335 References 337 6 Fiber Sensors With Special Applications 351 6.1 Fiber Optic Gyroscope 351 6.1.1 Interferometric FOG 352 6.1.2 Brillouin Laser Gyro and Resonance Fiber Optic Gyroscope 362 6.2 Fiber Optic Hydrophone 364 6.2.1 Basic Structures 365 6.2.2 Sensor Arrays and Multiplexing 370 6.2.3 Low Noise Laser Source 372 6.3 Fiber Faraday Sensor 373 6.3.1 Faraday Effect in Fiber 374 6.3.2 Electric Current Sensor Based on Faraday Rotation 376 6.4 Fiber Sensors Based on Surface Plasmon Effect 379 6.4.1 Surface Plasmon Effect 379 6.4.2 Sensors Based on SPW 383 Problems 386 References 387 7 Extrinsic Fiber Fabry–Perot Interferometer Sensor 395 7.1 Basic Principles and Structures of Extrinsic Fiber F-P Sensors 395 7.1.1 Structures of EFFP Devices 396 7.1.2 Basic Characteristics of a Fabry–Perot Interferometer 398 7.2 Theory of a Gaussian Beam Fabry–Perot Interferometer 401 7.2.1 Basic Model and Theoretical Analysis 401 7.2.2 Approximation as a Fizeau Interferometer 404 7.3 Basic Characteristics and Performances of EFFPI Sensors 406 7.3.1 Sensitivity of an EFFPI Sensor 406 7.3.2 Linear Range and Dynamic Range of Measurement 408 7.3.3 Interrogation and Stability 410 7.3.4 Frequency Response 413 7.4 Applications of the EFFPI Sensor and Related Techniques 417 7.4.1 Localization of the Sound Source 417 7.4.2 Applications in an Atomic Force Microscope 418 7.4.3 More Application Examples 419 Problems 421 References 422 Appendices 427 Appendix 1 Mathematical Formulas 427 A1.1 Bessel Equations and Bessel Functions 427 A1.2 Runge–Kutta Method 432 A1.3 The First-Order Linear Differential Equation 433 A1.4 Riccati Equation 433 A1.5 Airy Equation and Airy Functions 434 Appendix 2 Fundamentals of Elasticity 435 A2.1 Strain, Stress, and Hooke’s Law 435 A2.2 Conversions Between Coordinates 438 A2.3 Plane Deformation 440 A2.4 Equilibrium of Plates and Rods 443 A2.5 Photoelastic Effect 446 Appendix 3 Fundamentals of Polarization Optics 446 A3.1 Polarized Light and Jones Vector 446 A3.2 Stokes Vector and Poincar´e Sphere 447 A3.3 Optics of Anisotropic Media 449 A3.4 Jones Matrix and Mueller Matrix 450 A3.5 Measurement of Jones Vector and Stokes Vector 453 Appendix 4 Specifications of Related Materials and Devices 454 A4.1 Fiber Connectors 456 Index 459

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Book SynopsisThe third book in the trilogy that explores the popular missional movement From Reggie McNeal, the bestselling author of The Present Future and Missional Renaissance, comes the third book in the series that helps to define and illuminate the popular missional movement. This newest book in the trilogy examines a natural outgrowth of the move toward a missional orientation: the deconstruction of congregations into very small Christian communities. For all those thousands of churches and leaders who have followed Reggie McNeal''s bold lead, this book details the rise of a new life form in churches. Discusses how to move a church from an internal to an external ministry focus Reggie McNeal is a recognized leader in the missional movement Outlines an alternative to the program church model that is focused on the projects and passions of the congregants This book draws on McNeal''s twenty years of leadership roles in localTable of ContentsAbout the Jossey-Bass Leadership Network Series xi Foreword by Hugh Halter xiii Acknowledgments xvii Introduction xix 1 ‘‘Let There Be . . . Missional Communities’’ 1 2 The Missional Church Conversation 15 3 Missional Communities—European Style 39 4 Soma Communities: Missional Communities as Organizing Architecture 65 5 Campus Renewal UT: Missional Communities as Campus Evangelism Strategy 85 6 Future Travelers: Missional Communities as Megachurch Strategy 103 7 Mission Houston: Missional Communities for Spiritual Formation and Community Transformation 125 8 Looking Ahead 145 About the Author 155 Index 157

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Book SynopsisIn order to truly understand data signals transmitted by satellite, one must understand scintillation theory in addition to well established theories of EM wave propagation and scattering. Scintillation is a nuisance in satellite EM communications, but it has stimulated numerous theoretical developments with science applications.Table of Contents1. Introduction. 1.1 Electromagnetic Propagation Theory. 1.2 Anticipating Scintillation Theory. 2. The Forward Propagation Equation. 2.1 Weakly Inhomogeneous Media. 2.2 Numerical Simulations. 3. The Statistical Theory of Scintillation. 3.1 Background. 3.2 Calculation of Field Moments. 3.3 Second-Order Moments. 3.4 Fourth-Order Moments. 3.5 Intensity Statistics. 3.6 Numerical Simulations. 3.7 Statistical Theory Limitations. 4. Beacon Satellite Scintillation. 4.1 Geometric Considerations. 4.2 Phase Structure Revisited. 4.3 Complex Field Coherence Revisited. 4.4 Satellite Orbit & Earth Magnetic Field Calculation. 4.5 Examples. 4.6 Theory and Simulations. 5. System Applications of Scintillation. 5.1 An Introduction to Waveforms. 5.2 Scintillation Channel Model. 5.3 System Performance Analysis. 5.4 Scintillation Data Processing. 5.5 Scintillation Data Interpretation. 5.6 Beacon Satellite Research. 6. Scattering and Boundaries. 6.1 Embedded Compact Scattering Objects. 6.2 Boundary Surfaces. Appendix A. A.1 Far-Field Approximation. A.2 Backscatter. A.3 Anisotropy Transformations. A.4 Wavefront Curvature Correction. A.5 Two-Dimensional Boundary Integrals. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisFourier Methods in Imaging first introduces the basic mathematical concepts of linear algebra for vectors and functions, a knowledge of which is necessary for understanding the subsequent discussions.Trade Review"Overall, this is an excellent text, appropriate for the graduate student approaching this material for the first time, and for the seasoned professional looking for an up-to-date reference." (Journal of Electronic Imaging, 1 April 2011) "This comprehensive textbook represents a practical review of Fourier techniques in imaging methods. It will be very useful for graduate students (in engineering, science, computer science, and applied mathematics) as well as engineers interested in linear imaging systems." (Zentralblatt Math, 2010)Table of ContentsSeries Editor’s Preface. Preface. 1 Introduction. 1.1 Signals, Operators, and Imaging Systems. 1.2 The Three Imaging Tasks. 1.3 Examples of Optical Imaging. 1.4 ImagingTasks inMedical Imaging. 2 Operators and Functions. 2.1 Classes of Imaging Operators. 2.2 Continuous and Discrete Functions. Problems. 3 Vectors with Real-Valued Components. 3.1 Scalar Products. 3.2 Matrices. 3.3 Vector Spaces. Problems. 4 Complex Numbers and Functions. 4.1 Arithmetic of Complex Numbers. 4.2 Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers. 4.3 Complex Functions. 4.4 Generalized Spatial Frequency – Negative Frequencies. 4.5 Argand Diagrams of Complex-Valued Functions. Problems. 5 Complex-Valued Matrices and Systems. 5.1 Vectors with Complex-Valued Components. 5.2 Matrix Analogues of Shift-Invariant Systems. 5.3 Matrix Formulation of ImagingTasks. 5.4 Continuous Analogues of Vector Operations. Problems. 6 1-D Special Functions. 6.1 Definitions of 1-D Special Functions. 6.2 1-D Dirac Delta Function. 6.3 1-D Complex-Valued Special Functions. 6.4 1-D Stochastic Functions–Noise. 6.5 Appendix A: Area of SINC[x] and SINC2[x]. 6.6 Appendix B: Series Solutions for Bessel Functions J0[x] and J1[x]. Problems. 7 2-D Special Functions. 7.1 2-D Separable Functions. 7.2 Definitions of 2-D Special Functions. 7.3 2-D Dirac Delta Function and its Relatives. 7.4 2-D Functions with Circular Symmetry. 7.5 Complex-Valued 2-D Functions. 7.6 Special Functions of Three (orMore) Variables. Problems. 8 Linear Operators. 8.1 Linear Operators. 8.2 Shift-Invariant.Operators. 8.3 Linear Shift-Invariant (LSI) Operators. 8.4 Calculating Convolutions. 8.5 Properties of Convolutions. 8.6 Autocorrelation. 8.7 Crosscorrelation. 8.8 2-DLSIOperations. 8.9 Crosscorrelations of 2-D Functions. 8.10 Autocorrelations of 2-D.Functions. Problems. 9 Fourier Transforms of 1-D Functions. 9.1 Transforms of Continuous-Domain Functions. 9.2 Linear Combinations of Reference Functions. 9.3 Complex-Valued Reference Functions. 9.4 Transforms of Complex-Valued Functions. 9.5 Fourier Analysis of Dirac Delta Functions. 9.6 Inverse Fourier Transform. 9.7 Fourier Transforms of 1-D Special Functions. 9.8 Theorems of the Fourier Transform. 9.9 Appendix: Spectrum of Gaussian via Path Integral. Problems. 10 Multidimensional Fourier Transforms. 10.1 2-D Fourier Transforms. 10.2 Spectra of Separable 2-D Functions. 10.3 Theorems of 2-D Fourier Transforms. Problems. 11 Spectra of Circular Functions. 11.1 The Hankel Transform. 11.2 Inverse Hankel Transform. 11.3 Theorems of Hankel Transforms. 11.4 Hankel Transforms of Special Functions. 11.5 Appendix: Derivations of Equations (11.12) and (11.14). Problems. 12 The Radon Transform. 12.1 Line-Integral Projections onto Radial Axes. 12.2 Radon Transforms of Special Functions. 12.3 Theorems of the Radon Transform. 12.4 Inverse Radon Transform. 12.5 Central-Slice Transform. 12.6 Three Transforms of Four Functions. 12.7 Fourier and Radon Transforms of Images. Problems. 13 Approximations to Fourier Transforms. 13.1 Moment Theorem. 13.2 1-D Spectra via Method of Stationary Phase. 13.3 Central-Limit Theorem. 13.4 Width Metrics and Uncertainty Relations. Problems. 14 Discrete Systems, Sampling, and Quantization. 14.1 Ideal Sampling. 14.2 Ideal Sampling of Special Functions. 14.3 Interpolation of Sampled Functions. 14.4 Whittaker–Shannon Sampling Theorem. 14.5 Aliasingand Interpolation. 14.6 “Prefiltering” to Prevent Aliasing. 14.7 Realistic Sampling. 14.8 Realistic Interpolation. 14.9 Quantization. 14.10 Discrete Convolution. Problems. 15 Discrete Fourier Transforms. 15.1 Inverse of the Infinite-Support DFT. 15.2 DFT over Finite Interval. 15.3 Fourier Series Derived from Fourier Transform. 15.4 Efficient Evaluation of the Finite DFT. 15.5 Practical Considerations for DFT and FFT. 15.6 FFTs of 2-D Arrays. 15.7 Discrete Cosine Transform. Problems. 16 Magnitude Filtering. 16.1 Classes of Filters. 16.2 Eigenfunctions of Convolution. 16.3 Power Transmission of Filters. 16.4 Lowpass Filters. 16.5 Highpass Filters. 16.6 Bandpass Filters. 16.7 Fourier Transform as a Bandpass Filter. 16.8 Bandboost and Bandstop Filters. 16.9 Wavelet Transform. Problems. 17 Allpass (Phase) Filters. 17.1 Power-Series Expansion for Allpass Filters. 17.2 Constant-Phase Allpass Filter. 17.3 Linear-Phase Allpass Filter. 17.4 Quadratic-Phase Filter. 17.5 Allpass Filters with Higher-Order Phase. 17.6 Allpass Random-Phase Filter. 17.7 Relative Importance of Magnitude and Phase. 17.8 Imaging of Phase Objects. 17.9 Chirp Fourier Transform. Problems. 18 Magnitude–Phase Filters. 18.1 Transfer Functions of Three Operations. 18.2 Fourier Transform of Ramp Function. 18.3 Causal Filters. 18.4 Damped Harmonic Oscillator. 18.5 Mixed Filters with Linear or Random Phase. 18.6 Mixed Filter with Quadratic Phase. Problems. 19 Applications of Linear Filters. 19.1 Linear Filters for the Imaging Tasks. 19.2 Deconvolution– “Inverse Filtering”. 19.3 Optimum Estimators for Signals in Noise. 19.4 Detection of Known Signals – Matched Filter. 19.5 Analogies of Inverse and Matched Filters. 19.6 Approximations to Reciprocal Filters. 19.7 Inverse Filtering of Shift-Variant Blur. Problems. 20 Filtering in Discrete Systems. 20.1 Translation, Leakage, and Interpolation. 20.2 Averaging Operators– Lowpass Filters. 20.3 Differencing Operators – Highpass Filters. 20.4 Discrete Sharpening Operators. 20.5 2-DGradient. 20.6 Pattern Matching. 20.7 Approximate Discrete Reciprocal Filters. Problems. 21 Optical Imaging in Monochromatic Light. 21.1 Imaging Systems Based on Ray Optics Model. 21.2 Mathematical Model of Light Propagation. 21.3 Fraunhofer Diffraction. 21.4 Imaging System based on Fraunhofer Diffraction. 21.5 Transmissive Optical Elements. 21.6 Monochromatic Optical Systems. 21.7 Shift-Variant Imaging Systems. Problems. 22 Incoherent Optical Imaging Systems. 22.1 Coherence. 22.2 Polychromatic Source – Temporal Coherence. 22.3 Imaging in Incoherent Light. 22.4 System Function in Incoherent Light. Problems. 23 Holography. 23.1 Fraunhofer Holography. 23.2 Holography in Fresnel Diffraction Region. 23.3 Computer-Generated Holography. 23.4 Matched Filtering with Cell-Type CGH. 23.5 Synthetic-Aperture Radar (SAR). Problems. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis compendium is designed to provide a comprehensive overview of currently available biological and preclinical imaging methods, including their benefits and limitations. Volume 1 covers ex-vivo imaging techniques.

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Book SynopsisThe book explains to the reader the necessary considerations and modelling ideas required for the successful design of optical imaging systems incorporating diffractive surfaces.

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Book SynopsisThis compendium is designed to provide a comprehensive overview of currently available biological and preclinical imaging methods, including their benefits and limitations. Volume 2 covers in-vivo imaging techniques, correlative multimodal imaging and emerging imaging technologies.

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Book SynopsisImage registration is required whenever images need to be compared, merged or integrated after they have been taken at different times, from different viewpoints, and/or by different sensors. Registration, also known as alignment, fusion, or warping, is the process of transforming data into a common reference frame. This book provides an overview of state-of-the-art registration techniques from theory to practice, plus numerous exercises designed to enhance readers' understanding of the principles and mechanisms of the described techniques. It also provides, via a supplementary Web page, free access to FAIR.m, a package that is based on the MATLAB software environment, which enables readers to experiment with the proposed algorithms and explore the presented examples in much more depth. Written from an interdisciplinary point of view, this book will appeal to mathematicians, medical imaging professionals and computer scientists and engineers.

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Book SynopsisLearn how to apply rough-fuzzy computing techniques to solve problems in bioinformatics and medical image processing Emphasizing applications in bioinformatics and medical image processing, this text offers a clear framework that enables readers to take advantage of the latest rough-fuzzy computing techniques to build working pattern recognition models. The authors explain step by step how to integrate rough sets with fuzzy sets in order to best manage the uncertainties in mining large data sets. Chapters are logically organized according to the major phases of pattern recognition systems development, making it easier to master such tasks as classification, clustering, and feature selection. Rough-Fuzzy Pattern Recognition examines the important underlying theory as well as algorithms and applications, helping readers see the connections between theory and practice. The first chapter provides an introduction to pattern recognition and data mining, including the Table of ContentsForeword xiii Preface xv About the Authors xix 1 Introduction to Pattern Recognition and Data Mining 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Pattern Recognition 3 1.2.1 Data Acquisition 4 1.2.2 Feature Selection 4 1.2.3 Classification and Clustering 5 1.3 Data Mining 6 1.3.1 Tasks, Tools, and Applications 7 1.3.2 Pattern Recognition Perspective 8 1.4 Relevance of Soft Computing 9 1.5 Scope and Organization of the Book 10 References 14 2 Rough-Fuzzy Hybridization and Granular Computing 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Fuzzy Sets 22 2.3 Rough Sets 23 2.4 Emergence of Rough-Fuzzy Computing 26 2.4.1 Granular Computing 26 2.4.2 Computational Theory of Perception and f -Granulation 26 2.4.3 Rough-Fuzzy Computing 28 2.5 Generalized Rough Sets 29 2.6 Entropy Measures 30 2.7 Conclusion and Discussion 36 References 37 3 Rough-Fuzzy Clustering: Generalized c-Means Algorithm 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Existing c-Means Algorithms 49 3.2.1 Hard c-Means 49 3.2.2 Fuzzy c-Means 50 3.2.3 Possibilistic c-Means 51 3.2.4 Rough c-Means 52 3.3 Rough-Fuzzy-Possibilistic c-Means 53 3.3.1 Objective Function 54 3.3.2 Cluster Prototypes 55 3.3.3 Fundamental Properties 56 3.3.4 Convergence Condition 57 3.3.5 Details of the Algorithm 59 3.3.6 Selection of Parameters 60 3.4 Generalization of Existing c-Means Algorithms 61 3.4.1 RFCM: Rough-Fuzzy c-Means 61 3.4.2 RPCM: Rough-Possibilistic c-Means 62 3.4.3 RCM: Rough c-Means 63 3.4.4 FPCM: Fuzzy-Possibilistic c-Means 64 3.4.5 FCM: Fuzzy c-Means 64 3.4.6 PCM: Possibilistic c-Means 64 3.4.7 HCM: Hard c-Means 65 3.5 Quantitative Indices for Rough-Fuzzy Clustering 65 3.5.1 Average Accuracy, α Index 65 3.5.2 Average Roughness, ϱ Index 67 3.5.3 Accuracy of Approximation, α⋆ Index 67 3.5.4 Quality of Approximation, γ Index 68 3.6 Performance Analysis 68 3.6.1 Quantitative Indices 68 3.6.2 Synthetic Data Set: X32 69 3.6.3 Benchmark Data Sets 70 3.7 Conclusion and Discussion 80 References 81 4 Rough-Fuzzy Granulation and Pattern Classification 85 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Pattern Classification Model 87 4.2.1 Class-Dependent Fuzzy Granulation 88 4.2.2 Rough-Set-Based Feature Selection 90 4.3 Quantitative Measures 95 4.3.1 Dispersion Measure 95 4.3.2 Classification Accuracy, Precision, and Recall 96 4.3.3 κ Coefficient 96 4.3.4 β Index 97 4.4 Description of Data Sets 97 4.4.1 Completely Labeled Data Sets 98 4.4.2 Partially Labeled Data Sets 99 4.5 Experimental Results 100 4.5.1 Statistical Significance Test 102 4.5.2 Class Prediction Methods 103 4.5.3 Performance on Completely Labeled Data 103 4.5.4 Performance on Partially Labeled Data 110 4.6 Conclusion and Discussion 112 References 114 5 Fuzzy-Rough Feature Selection using f -Information Measures 117 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Fuzzy-Rough Sets 120 5.3 Information Measure on Fuzzy Approximation Spaces 121 5.3.1 Fuzzy Equivalence Partition Matrix and Entropy 121 5.3.2 Mutual Information 123 5.4 f -Information and Fuzzy Approximation Spaces 125 5.4.1 V -Information 125 5.4.2 Iα-Information 126 5.4.3 Mα-Information 127 5.4.4 χα-Information 127 5.4.5 Hellinger Integral 128 5.4.6 Renyi Distance 128 5.5 f -Information for Feature Selection 129 5.5.1 Feature Selection Using f -Information 129 5.5.2 Computational Complexity 130 5.5.3 Fuzzy Equivalence Classes 131 5.6 Quantitative Measures 133 5.6.1 Fuzzy-Rough-Set-Based Quantitative Indices 133 5.6.2 Existing Feature Evaluation Indices 133 5.7 Experimental Results 135 5.7.1 Description of Data Sets 136 5.7.2 Illustrative Example 137 5.7.3 Effectiveness of the FEPM-Based Method 138 5.7.4 Optimum Value of Weight Parameter β 141 5.7.5 Optimum Value of Multiplicative Parameter η 141 5.7.6 Performance of Different f -Information Measures 145 5.7.7 Comparative Performance of Different Algorithms 152 5.8 Conclusion and Discussion 156 References 156 6 Rough Fuzzy c-Medoids and Amino Acid Sequence Analysis 161 6.1 Introduction 161 6.2 Bio-Basis Function and String Selection Methods 164 6.2.1 Bio-Basis Function 164 6.2.2 Selection of Bio-Basis Strings Using Mutual Information 166 6.2.3 Selection of Bio-Basis Strings Using Fisher Ratio 167 6.3 Fuzzy-Possibilistic c-Medoids Algorithm 168 6.3.1 Hard c-Medoids 168 6.3.2 Fuzzy c-Medoids 169 6.3.3 Possibilistic c-Medoids 170 6.3.4 Fuzzy-Possibilistic c-Medoids 171 6.4 Rough-Fuzzy c-Medoids Algorithm 172 6.4.1 Rough c-Medoids 172 6.4.2 Rough-Fuzzy c-Medoids 174 6.5 Relational Clustering for Bio-Basis String Selection 176 6.6 Quantitative Measures 178 6.6.1 Using Homology Alignment Score 178 6.6.2 Using Mutual Information 179 6.7 Experimental Results 181 6.7.1 Description of Data Sets 181 6.7.2 Illustrative Example 183 6.7.3 Performance Analysis 184 6.8 Conclusion and Discussion 196 References 196 7 Clustering Functionally Similar Genes from Microarray Data 201 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Clustering Gene Expression Data 203 7.2.1 k-Means Algorithm 203 7.2.2 Self-Organizing Map 203 7.2.3 Hierarchical Clustering 204 7.2.4 Graph-Theoretical Approach 204 7.2.5 Model-Based Clustering 205 7.2.6 Density-Based Hierarchical Approach 206 7.2.7 Fuzzy Clustering 206 7.2.8 Rough-Fuzzy Clustering 206 7.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis 207 7.3.1 Silhouette Index 207 7.3.2 Eisen and Cluster Profile Plots 207 7.3.3 Z Score 208 7.3.4 Gene-Ontology-Based Analysis 208 7.4 Description of Data Sets 209 7.4.1 Fifteen Yeast Data 209 7.4.2 Yeast Sporulation 211 7.4.3 Auble Data 211 7.4.4 Cho et al. Data 211 7.4.5 Reduced Cell Cycle Data 211 7.5 Experimental Results 212 7.5.1 Performance Analysis of Rough-Fuzzy c-Means 212 7.5.2 Comparative Analysis of Different c-Means 212 7.5.3 Biological Significance Analysis 215 7.5.4 Comparative Analysis of Different Algorithms 215 7.5.5 Performance Analysis of Rough-Fuzzy-Possibilistic c-Means 217 7.6 Conclusion and Discussion 217 References 220 8 Selection of Discriminative Genes from Microarray Data 225 8.1 Introduction 225 8.2 Evaluation Criteria for Gene Selection 227 8.2.1 Statistical Tests 228 8.2.2 Euclidean Distance 228 8.2.3 Pearson’s Correlation 229 8.2.4 Mutual Information 229 8.2.5 f -Information Measures 230 8.3 Approximation of Density Function 230 8.3.1 Discretization 231 8.3.2 Parzen Window Density Estimator 231 8.3.3 Fuzzy Equivalence Partition Matrix 233 8.4 Gene Selection using Information Measures 234 8.5 Experimental Results 235 8.5.1 Support Vector Machine 235 8.5.2 Gene Expression Data Sets 236 8.5.3 Performance Analysis of the FEPM 236 8.5.4 Comparative Performance Analysis 250 8.6 Conclusion and Discussion 250 References 252 9 Segmentation of Brain Magnetic Resonance Images 257 9.1 Introduction 257 9.2 Pixel Classification of Brain MR Images 259 9.2.1 Performance on Real Brain MR Images 260 9.2.2 Performance on Simulated Brain MR Images 263 9.3 Segmentation of Brain MR Images 264 9.3.1 Feature Extraction 265 9.3.2 Selection of Initial Prototypes 274 9.4 Experimental Results 277 9.4.1 Illustrative Example 277 9.4.2 Importance of Homogeneity and Edge Value 278 9.4.3 Importance of Discriminant Analysis-Based Initialization 279 9.4.4 Comparative Performance Analysis 280 9.5 Conclusion and Discussion 283 References 283 Index 287

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Book SynopsisNMR in Pharmaceutical Sciencesis intended to be a comprehensive source of information for the many individuals that utilize MR in studies of relevance to the pharmaceutical sector. The book is intended to educate and inform those who develop and apply MR approaches within the wider pharmaceutical environment, emphasizing the toolbox that is available to spectroscopists and radiologists. This book is structured on the key processes in drug discovery, development and manufacture, but underpinned by an understanding of fundamental NMR principles and the unique contribution that NMR (including MRI) can provide. After an introductory chapter, which constitutes an overview, the content is organised into five sections. The first section is on the basics of NMR theory and relevant experimental methods. The rest follow a sequence based on the chronology of drug discovery and development, firstly ''Idea to Lead'' then ''Lead to Drug Candidate'', followed by ''Clinical DevelopmenTable of ContentsContributors xi Series Preface xvii Preface xix Part A: Introduction 1 1 Drug Discovery and Development: The Role of NMRJeremy R. Everett 3 Part B: NMR Theory & Experimental Methods 21 2 Modern NMR Pulse Sequences in Pharmaceutical R&DJohn A. Parkinson 23 3 Experimental NMR Methods for Pharmaceutical Research and DevelopmentAnthony C. Dona 41 4 19F NMR Spectroscopy: Applications in Pharmaceutical StudiesJohn C. Lindon and Ian D. Wilson 53 5 Quantitative NMR Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical R&DUlrike Holzgrabe 63 6 High-throughput NMR in Pharmaceutical R&DJohn C. Hollerton 79 7 Multivariate Data Analysis Methods for NMR-based Metabolic Phenotyping in Pharmaceutical and Clinical ResearchKirill A. Veselkov, James S. McKenzie, and Jeremy K. Nicholson 89 Part C: Idea to Lead 103 8 The Role of NMR in Target Identification and Validation for Pharmaceutical R&DKrishna Saxena and Harald Schwalbe 105 9 High-resolution MAS NMR of Tissues and CellsLeo L. Cheng 117 10 NMR Studies of Inborn Errors of MetabolismSarantos Kostidis and Emmanuel Mikros 131 11 NMR-based Structure Confirmation of Hits and Leads in Pharmaceutical R&DPhilip J. Sidebottom 147 12 Fragment-based Drug Design Using NMR MethodsLeonor Puchades-Carrasco and Antonio Pineda-Lucena 155 13 Hit Discovery from Natural Products in Pharmaceutical R&DOlivia Corcoran 173 Part D: Lead to Drug Candidate 183 14 NMR-based Structure Determination of Drug Leads and CandidatesTorren M. Peakman 185 15 Mixture Analysis in Pharmaceutical R&D Using Hyphenated NMR TechniquesIan D. Wilson and John C. Lindon 197 16 Conformation and Stereochemical Analysis of Drug MoleculesGary J. Sharman 207 17 NMR Methods for the Assignment of Absolute Stereochemistry of Bioactive CompoundsJose M. Seco and Ricardo Riguera 221 18 Applications of Preclinical MRI/MRS in the Evaluation of Drug Efficacy and SafetyThomas M. Bocan, Lauren Keith, and David M. Thomasson 255 19 Practical Applications of NMR Spectroscopy in Preclinical Drug Metabolism StudiesRaman Sharma and Gregory S. Walker 267 20 Preclinical Drug Efficacy and Safety Using NMR SpectroscopyMuireann Coen and Ian D. Wilson 281 21 Characterization of Pharmaceutical Compounds by Solid-state NMRFrederick G. Vogt 297 22 Structure-based Drug Design Using NMRMark Jeeves, Lee Quill, and Michael Overduin 317 23 Pharmaceutical Technology Studied by MRIDavid G. Reid and Stephen J. Byard 331 Part E: Clinical Development 345 24 NMR-based Metabolic Phenotyping for Disease Diagnosis and StratificationBeatriz Jiménez 347 25 NMR-based Pharmacometabonomics: A New Approach to Personalized MedicineJeremy R. Everett 359 26 Clinical MRI Studies of Drug Efficacy and SafetyDavid G. Reid, Paul D. Hockings, and Nadeem Saeed 373 27 The Role of NMR in the Protection of Intellectual Property in Pharmaceutical R&DFrederick G. Vogt 385 Part F: Drug Manufacture 395 28 Analysis of Counterfeit Medicines and Adulterated Dietary Supplements by NMRMyriam Malet-Martino and Robert Martino 397 29 Pharmaceutical Industry: Regulatory Control and Impact on NMR SpectroscopyAndrea Ruggiero and Sarah K. Branch 413 30 NMR Spectroscopy in the European and US PharmacopeiasHelen Corns and Sarah K. Branch 425 31 NMR in Pharmaceutical ManufacturingEdwin Kellenbach and Paulo Dani 441 Index 453

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Book SynopsisThis fifth edition of the most accessible introduction to MRI principles and applications from renowned teachers in the field provides an understandable yet comprehensive update. Accessible introductory guide from renowned teachers in the field Provides a concise yet thorough introduction for MRI focusing on fundamental physics, pulse sequences, and clinical applications without presenting advanced math Takes a practical approach, including up-to-date protocols, and supports technical concepts with thorough explanations and illustrations Highlights sections that are directly relevant to radiology board exams Presents new information on the latest scan techniques and applications including 3 Tesla whole body scanners, safety issues, and the nephrotoxic effects of gadolinium-based contrast media Table of ContentsPreface, ix ABR study guide topics, xi 1 Production of net magnetization 1 1.1 Magnetic fields 1 1.2 Nuclear spin 2 1.3 Nuclear magnetic moments 4 1.4 Larmor precession 4 1.5 Net magnetization 6 1.6 Susceptibility and magnetic materials 8 2 Concepts of magnetic resonance 10 2.1 Radiofrequency excitation 10 2.2 Radiofrequency signal detection 12 2.3 Chemical shift 14 3 Relaxation 17 3.1 T1 relaxation and saturation 17 3.2 T2 relaxation, T2* relaxation, and spin echoes 21 4 Principles of magnetic resonance imaging – 1 26 4.1 Gradient fields 26 4.2 Slice selection 28 4.3 Readout or frequency encoding 30 4.4 Phase encoding 33 4.5 Sequence looping 35 5 Principles of magnetic resonance imaging – 2 39 5.1 Frequency selective excitation 39 5.2 Composite pulses 44 5.3 Raw data and image data matrices 46 5.4 Signal-to-noise ratio and tradeoffs 47 5.5 Raw data and k-space 48 5.6 Reduced k-space techniques 51 5.7 Reordered k-space filling techniques 54 5.8 Other k-space filling techniques 56 5.9 Phased-array coils 58 5.10 Parallel acquisition methods 60 6 Pulse sequences 65 6.1 Spin echo sequences 67 6.2 Gradient echo sequences 70 6.3 Echo planar imaging sequences 75 6.4 Magnetization-prepared sequences 77 7 Measurement parameters and image contrast 86 7.1 Intrinsic parameters 87 7.2 Extrinsic parameters 89 7.3 Parameter tradeoffs 91 8 Signal suppression techniques 94 8.1 Spatial presaturation 94 8.2 Magnetization transfer suppression 96 8.3 Frequency-selective saturation 99 8.4 Nonsaturation methods 101 9 Artifacts 103 9.1 Motion artifacts 103 9.2 Sequence/Protocol-related artifacts 105 9.3 External artifacts 119 10 Motion artifact reduction techniques 126 10.1 Acquisition parameter modification 126 10.2 Triggering/Gating 127 10.3 Flow compensation 132 10.4 Radial-based motion compensation 134 11 Magnetic resonance angiography 135 11.1 Time-of-flight MRA 137 11.2 Phase contrast MRA 141 11.3 Maximum intensity projection 144 12 Advanced imaging applications 147 12.1 Diffusion 147 12.2 Perfusion 153 12.3 Functional brain imaging 156 12.4 Ultra-high field imaging 158 12.5 Noble gas imaging 159 13 Magnetic resonance spectroscopy 162 13.1 Additional concepts 162 13.2 Localization techniques 167 13.3 Spectral analysis and postprocessing 169 13.4 Ultra-high field spectroscopy 173 14 Instrumentation 177 14.1 Computer systems 177 14.2 Magnet system 180 14.3 Gradient system 182 14.4 Radiofrequency system 184 14.5 Data acquisition system 186 14.6 Summary of system components 187 15 Contrast agents 189 15.1 Intravenous agents 190 15.2 Oral agents 195 16 Safety 196 16.1 Base magnetic field 197 16.2 Cryogens 197 16.3 Gradients 198 16.4 RF power deposition 198 16.5 Contrast media 199 17 Clinical applications 200 17.1 General principles of clinical MR imaging 200 17.2 Examination design considerations 202 17.3 Protocol considerations for anatomical regions 203 17.4 Recommendations for specific sequences and clinical situations 218 References and suggested readings 222 Index 225

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Book SynopsisMRI PHYSICS MRI PHYSICSTECH TO TECH EXPLANATIONSTechnologists must have a solid understanding of the physics behind Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), including safety, the hows and whys of the quantum physics of the MR phenomenon, and how to competently operate MRI scanners. Generating the highest quality images of the human body involves thorough knowledge of scanner hardware, pulse sequences, image contrast, geometric parameters, and tissue suppression techniques.MRI Physics: Tech to Tech Explanations is designed to help student MRI technologists and radiotherapists preparing for Advanced MRI certification examinations to better understand difficult concepts and topics in a quick and easy manner.Written by a highly experienced technologist, this useful guide provides clear and reader-friendly coverage of what every MR Technologist needs to know. Topics include safety considerations associated with the magnetic field and RF, pulse sequences, Table of ContentsAbout the Author xv Preface xvii Acknowledgements xix Introduction 1 1 Hardware: Magnet Types and Coils 15 Magnets 15 Coils 17 2 The Basics 23 Why the Hydrogen Molecule? 24 The Net Magnetization Vector 26 MRI is a Sequence of Events 27 Free Induction Decay (FID) 32 Relaxation 33 Proton Density 38 Image Contrast 38 The IQ Triangle: Contrast, SNR, Resolution 39 B0 and B1 43 Free and Bound Protons 44 3 Image Weighting 47 Where Does Image Weighting Come From? 48 Time of Repetition (TR) 50 Time of Echo (TE) 52 TE and TR 54 Why Different TR Ranges for Different Field Strengths? 54 How Does TR Control T1? 55 What Does TR Affect? 56 Interpreting the T1 Relaxation Curve 57 Time of Repetition: Effects of the TR 57 TE: The T1 and T2 of it 58 Interpreting the T2 Relaxation Curve 60 Effects of TE on Image Contrast 62 What Do the Lines on the Curves Really Mean Anyway? 62 One Last Weighting Triangle 65 T1 and T2 Contrast Review 66 4 Introduction to the Basic Pulse Sequences 69 What is a Pulse Sequence? 69 Spin Echo (SE) 70 Gradient Echo/Gradient Recalled Echo (GRE) 73 Line Diagram Anatomy 74 The Ernst Angle 77 5 Multi Echo Spin Echo Sequence 81 Introduction to k-Space 82 k-Space: Phase Encoding 85 With FSE, Watch the Speed Limit! 86 k-Space, ETL, and Image Contrast 87 Filling k-Space 89 Pros and Cons of FSE 89 Another Way to View T2* and 180°s 91 Where Do Relaxation and Decay Curves Come From? 92 A T2* Curve Compared to the T2 Curve 93 Metal Artifact Reduction (MARS) 94 Driven Equilibrium: A “Forced T1” 95 3D FSE: CUBE/SPACE/VISTA 97 Single Shot FSE/HASTE 98 6 Tissue Suppression 105 Tissue Saturation versus Suppression 107 Inversion Recovery – Part One: STIR 108 Inversion Recovery: STIR with Vectors 109 Inversion Recovery Part Two: T2 FLAIR 113 IR Sequences: T1 and T2 FLAIR 116 IR Weightings: STIR, T1 and T2 FLAIR 117 Inversion Recovery – Part Two 119 The Rupture View 120 Tissue Saturation: Chemical Shift 121 Chemical Saturation at Low Fields 123 Tissue Saturation: SPAIR and SPIR 124 The Dixon Technique 126 Water Excitation 126 Saturation Pulses or Bands 129 Subtractions 131 Magnetization Transfer 135 IR Prepped Sequences 137 How is an RF Pulse Selective or Non-Selective? 140 Water Excitation Sequences 142 7 The Gradient Echo Sequence 145 GRE Sequence Structure 147 Phase Dispersion and Gradient Reversal 148 Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) 149 GRE Sequence Image Weighting 149 Two Different Kinds of T2 Relaxation 152 The GRE Weighting Triangle 153 GRE and SE Differences 156 Different Gradient Echo Types 157 In and Out of Phase TEs 161 In Phase/Out of Phase at 1.5 T 163 8 Gradient Echo Magnetic Resonance Angiography 167 Time of Flight MRA 168 TOF Angiography: Two Golden Rules 171 Types of MRA Sequences 171 TOF Concept in MRA versus MRV 172 2D versus 3D 172 2D TOF MRAs 175 3D TOF MRAs 176 In-Plane Saturation 178 In-Plane Saturation Avoidance 179 Magnetization Transfer (MT) 181 Options for Better MRAs 183 Phase Contrast MRA 185 9 k-Space 191 What Is Fourier Transform? 192 k-Space Filling 192 10 Echo Planar Sequences 203 Diffusion Weighted Imaging 205 Diffusion Tensor Imaging or White Matter Tractography 215 Susceptibility Weighted Imaging 216 Brain Perfusion 218 Arterial Spin Labeling 222 Spectroscopy 225 11 Geometric Parameters: Trade-offs and Effects on Image Quality 231 Field of View (FOV) Is Your Film Size 232 Nex, ACQ, NSA, and SNR 235 Scan Matrix 237 Frequency Matrix 237 Echo Train Length 238 Echo Spacing 239 Echo Train Balancing 240 Slice Thickness and Slice Gap 242 Fractional Echo 243 Bandwidth 244 Rectangular (Rec.) FOV 249 No Phase Wrap/Phase Oversampling/Fold-Over Suppression 251 Concatenations or Acquisitions 254 Sequential Order Acquisition 255 12 Image Artifacts 257 Motion 258 Flow Artifact/Phase Mis-registration 262 RF Artifacts 265 Wrap/Aliasing/Fold-over Artifact 265 Gibbs Artifact (Ringing/Truncation) 268 Chemical Shift Artifact 271 Cross-talk 276 Cross-excitation 278 Gradient Warp or Distortion 281 Metal Artifacts 281 Corduroy Artifact 283 Annifact 284 Moiré Fringe Artifact or Zebra Artifact 285 Magnetic Susceptibility Artifact 286 Dielectric Effect or Standing Wave 288 Magic Angle Artifact 290 13 Gradients 295 Physical Gradients 296 Logical Gradients 302 14 MRI Math 313 The Larmor Equation: W0 = γB0 314 Acquisitions or Nex or NSA 314 Scan Time Equations 315 Pixel Size and Voxel Volume 317 How to Convert Hz per Pixel to MHz 318 In and Out of Phase TEs 319 Dixon Method or Technique 320 SNR and the 3D Sequence 321 15 Parallel Imaging 325 Parallel Imaging: What Is It? 325 When and Where to Use the Speed 326 Parallel Imaging: How Does It Work? 327 Parallel Imaging: Pros and Cons 330 16 IV Gadolinium 335 Why We Use Gad 336 How Does Gad Shorten the T1 of Tissues? 337 The Blood–Brain Barrier 341 Post Contrast T2 FLAIR Imaging 342 Imaging Gadolinium 345 Eovist® 347 Glossary 351 Suggested Reading 388 Index 389

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Book SynopsisAMORPHOUS OXIDE SEMICONDUCTORS A singular resource on amorphous oxide semiconductors edited by a world-recognized pioneer in the field In Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors: IGZO and Related Materials for Display and Memory, the Editors deliver a comprehensive account of the current status ofand latest developments intransparent oxide semiconductor technology. With contributions from leading international researchers and exponents in the field, this edited volume covers physical fundamentals, thin-film transistor applications, processing, circuits and device simulation, display and memory applications, and new materials relevant to amorphous oxide semiconductors. The book makes extensive use of structural diagrams of materials, energy level and energy band diagrams, device structure illustrations, and graphs of device transfer characteristics, photographs and micrographs to help illustrate the concepts discussed within. It also includes: A thorough introduction to amorphous oxide semicondTable of ContentsPreface xv Series Editor’s Foreword xvii About the Editors xviii List of Contributors xix Part I Introduction 1 1.1 Transparent Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors for Display Applications 3Hideo Hosono 1.1.1 Introduction to Amorphous Semiconductors as Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) Channels 3 1.1.2 Historical Overview 4 1.1.3 Oxide and Silicon 6 1.1.4 Transparent Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors 6 1.1.4.1 Electronic Structures 6 1.1.4.2 Materials 8 1.1.4.3 Characteristic Carrier Transport Properties 9 1.1.4.4 Electronic States 10 1.1.5 P-Type Oxide Semiconductors for Display Applications 13 1.1.5.1 Oxides of Transition Metal Cations with an Electronic Configuration of (n−1)d 10 ns 0 (n = 4or5) 13 1.1.5.2 Oxides of Metal Cations with an Electronic Configuration of ns 2 13 1.1.5.3 Oxides of Metal Cations with an Electronic Configuration of nd 6 14 1.1.6 Novel Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors 15 1.1.7 Summary and Outlook 17 References 18 1.2 Transparent Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors 21Hideya Kumomi 1.2.1 Introduction 21 1.2.2 Technical Issues and Requirements of TFTs for AM-FPDs 21 1.2.2.1 Field-Effect Mobility 21 1.2.2.2 Off-State Leakage Current and On/Off Current Ratio 23 1.2.2.3 Stability and Reliability 23 1.2.2.4 Uniformity 23 1.2.2.5 Large-Area Devices by Large-Area Mother-Glass Substrates 24 1.2.2.6 Low-Temperature Fabrication and Flexibility 24 1.2.3 History, Features, Uniqueness, Development, and Applications of AOS-TFTs 24 1.2.3.1 History 24 1.2.3.2 Features and Uniqueness 25 1.2.3.3 Applications 27 1.2.3.4 Development and Products of AM-FPDs 28 1.2.4 Summary 29 References 30 Part II Fundamentals 31 2 Electronic Structure and Structural Randomness 33Julia E. Medvedeva, Bishal Bhattarai, and D. Bruce Buchholz 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Brief Description of Methods and Approaches 35 2.2.1 Computational Approach 35 2.2.2 Experimental Approach 36 2.3 The Structure and Properties of Crystalline and Amorphous In 2 O 3 36 2.4 The Structure and Properties of Crystalline and Amorphous SnO 2 43 2.5 The Structure and Properties of Crystalline and Amorphous ZnO 46 2.6 The Structure and Properties of Crystalline and Amorphous Ga 2 O 3 52 2.7 Role of Morphology in Structure–Property Relationships 57 2.8 The Role of Composition in Structure–Property Relationships: IGO and IGZO 64 2.9 Conclusions 69 References 70 3 Electronic Structure of Transparent Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors 73John Robertson and Zhaofu Zhang 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Mobility 73 3.3 Density of States 74 3.4 Band Structures of n-Type Semiconductors 78 3.5 Instabilities 81 3.6 Doping Limits and Finding Effective Oxide Semiconductors 86 3.7 OLED Electrodes 88 3.8 Summary 89 References 89 4 Defects and Relevant Properties 93Toshio Kamiya, Kenji Nomura, Keisuke Ide, and Hideo Hosono 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Typical Deposition Condition 93 4.3 Overview of Electronic Defects in AOSs 94 4.4 Origins of Electron Donors 96 4.5 Oxygen- and Hydrogen-Related Defects and Near-VBM States 98 4.6 Summary 102 References 102 5 Amorphous Semiconductor Mobility Physics and TFT Modeling 105John F. Wager 5.1 Amorphous Semiconductor Mobility: An Introduction 105 5.2 Diffusive Mobility 106 5.3 Density of States 110 5.4 TFT Mobility Considerations 111 5.5 TFT Mobility Extraction, Fitting, and Model Validation 112 5.6 Physics-Based TFT Mobility Modeling 118 5.7 Conclusions 121 References 122 6 Percolation Description of Charge Transport in Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors: Band Conduction Dominated by Disorder 125A. V. Nenashev, F. Gebhard, K. Meerholz, and S. D. Baranovskii 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Band Transport via Extended States in the Random-Barrier Model (RBM) 126 6.2.1 Deficiencies of the Rate-Averaging Approach: Electrotechnical Analogy 127 6.2.2 Percolation Approach to Charge Transport in the RBM 129 6.3 Random Band-Edge Model (RBEM) for Charge Transport in AOSs 131 6.4 Percolation Theory for Charge Transport in the RBEM 133 6.4.1 From Regional to Global Conductivities in Continuum Percolation Theory 133 6.4.2 Averaging Procedure by Adler et al. 135 6.5 Comparison between Percolation Theory and EMA 136 6.6 Comparison with Experimental Data 137 6.7 Discussion and Conclusions 140 6.7.1 Textbook Description of Charge Transport in Traditional Crystalline Semiconductors (TCSs) 140 6.7.2 Results of This Chapter for Charge Transport in Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors (AOSs) 141 Acknowledgments 141 References 141 7 State and Role of Hydrogen in Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors 145Hideo Hosono and Toshio Kamiya 7.1 Introduction 145 7.2 Concentration and Chemical States 145 7.3 Carrier Generation and Hydrogen 150 7.3.1 Carrier Generation by H Injection at Low Temperatures 150 7.3.2 Carrier Generation and Annihilation by Thermal Treatment 151 7.4 Energy Levels and Electrical Properties 153 7.5 Incorporation and Conversion of H Impurities 154 7.6 Concluding Remarks 155 Acknowledgments 156 References 156 Part III Processing 159 8 Low-Temperature Thin-Film Combustion Synthesis of Metal-Oxide Semiconductors: Science and Technology 161Binghao Wang, Wei Huang, Antonio Facchetti, and Tobin J. Marks 8.1 Introduction 161 8.2 Low-Temperature Solution-Processing Methodologies 162 8.2.1 Alkoxide Precursors 162 8.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Annealing 165 8.2.3 High-Pressure Annealing 165 8.2.4 Photonic Annealing 165 8.2.4.1 Laser Annealing 166 8.2.4.2 Deep-Ultraviolet Illumination 168 8.2.4.3 Flash Lamp Annealing 170 8.2.5 Redox Reactions 170 8.3 Combustion Synthesis for MO TFTs 171 8.3.1 n-Type MO TFTs 172 8.3.2 p-Type MO TFTs 178 8.4 Summary and Perspectives 180 Acknowledgments 180 References 181 9 Solution-Processed Metal-Oxide Thin-Film Transistors for Flexible Electronics 185Hyun Jae Kim 9.1 Introduction 185 9.2 Fundamentals of Solution-Processed Metal-Oxide Thin-Film Transistors 187 9.2.1 Deposition Methods for Solution-Processed Oxide Semiconductors 187 9.2.1.1 Coating-Based Deposition Methods 190 9.2.1.2 Printing-Based Deposition Methods 191 9.2.2 The Formation Mechanism of Solution-Processed Oxide Semiconductor Films 194 9.3 Low-Temperature Technologies for Active-Layer Engineering of Solution-Processed Oxide TFTs 196 9.3.1 Overview 196 9.3.2 Solution Modulation 197 9.3.2.1 Alkoxide Precursors 198 9.3.2.2 pH Adjustment 199 9.3.2.3 Combustion Reactions 199 9.3.2.4 Aqueous Solvent 199 9.3.3 Process Modulation 201 9.3.3.1 Photoactivation Process 201 9.3.3.2 High-Pressure Annealing (HPA) Process 202 9.3.3.3 Microwave-Assisted Annealing Process 204 9.3.3.4 Plasma-Assisted Annealing Process 204 9.3.4 Structure Modulation 205 9.3.4.1 Homojunction Dual-Active or Multiactive Layer 206 9.3.4.2 Heterojunction Dual- or Multiactive Layer 206 9.4 Applications of Flexible Electronics with Low-Temperature Solution-Processed Oxide TFTs 208 9.4.1 Flexible Displays 208 9.4.2 Flexible Sensors 208 9.4.3 Flexible Integrated Circuits 209 References 209 10 Recent Progress on Amorphous Oxide Semiconductor Thin-Film Transistors Using the Atomic Layer Deposition Technique 213Hyun-Jun Jeong and Jin-Seong Park 10.1 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) for Amorphous Oxide Semiconductor (AOS) Applications 213 10.1.1 The ALD Technique 213 10.1.2 Research Motivation for ALD AOS Applications 215 10.2 AOS-TFTs Based on ALD 217 10.2.1 Binary Oxide Semiconductor TFTs Based on ALD 217 10.2.1.1 ZnO-TFTs 217 10.2.1.2 InOx-TFTs 218 10.2.1.3 SnOx-TFTs 218 10.2.2 Ternary and Quaternary Oxide Semiconductor TFTs Based on ALD 220 10.2.2.1 Indium–Zinc Oxide (IZO) and Indium–Gallium Oxide (IGO) 220 10.2.2.2 Zinc–Tin Oxide (ZTO) 223 10.2.2.3 Indium–Gallium–Zinc Oxide (IGZO) 223 10.2.2.4 Indium–Tin–Zinc Oxide (ITZO) 226 10.3 Challenging Issues of AOS Applications Using ALD 226 10.3.1 p-Type Oxide Semiconductors 226 10.3.1.1 Tin Monoxide (SnO) 228 10.3.1.2 Copper Oxide (cu x O) 229 10.3.2 Enhancing Device Performance: Mobility and Stability 230 10.3.2.1 Composition Gradient Oxide Semiconductors 230 10.3.2.2 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas (2DEG) Oxide Semiconductors 231 10.3.2.3 Spatial and Atmospheric ALD for Oxide Semiconductors 234 References 234 Part IV Thin-Film Transistors 239 11 Control of Carrier Concentrations in AOSs and Application to Bulk-Accumulation TFTs 241Suhui Lee and Jin Jang 11.1 Introduction 241 11.2 Control of Carrier Concentration in a-IGZO 242 11.3 Effect of Carrier Concentration on the Performance of a-IGZO TFTs with a Dual-Gate Structure 247 11.3.1 Inverted Staggered TFTs 247 11.3.2 Coplanar TFTs 251 11.4 High-Drain-Current, Dual-Gate Oxide TFTs 252 11.5 Stability of Oxide TFTs: PBTS, NBIS, HCTS, Hysteresis, and Mechanical Strain 259 11.6 TFT Circuits: Ring Oscillators and Amplifier Circuits 266 11.7 Conclusion 270 References 270 12 Elevated-Metal Metal-Oxide Thin-Film Transistors: A Back-Gate Transistor Architecture with Annealing-Induced Source/Drain Regions 273Man Wong, Zhihe Xia, and Jiapeng li 12.1 Introduction 273 12.1.1 Semiconducting Materials for a TFT 274 12.1.1.1 Amorphous Silicon 274 12.1.1.2 Low-Temperature Polycrystalline Silicon 274 12.1.1.3 MO Semiconductors 275 12.1.2 TFT Architectures 276 12.2 Annealing-Induced Generation of Donor Defects 279 12.2.1 Effects of Annealing on the Resistivity of IGZO 279 12.2.2 Microanalyses of the Thermally Annealed Samples 283 12.2.3 Lateral Migration of the Annealing-Induced Donor Defects 284 12.3 Elevated-Metal Metal-Oxide (EMMO) TFT Technology 286 12.3.1 Technology and Characteristics of IGZO EMMO TFTs 287 12.3.2 Applicability of EMMO Technology to Other MO Materials 291 12.3.3 Fluorinated EMMO TFTs 292 12.3.4 Resilience of Fluorinated MO against Hydrogen Doping 296 12.3.5 Technology and Display Resolution Trend 298 12.4 Enhanced EMMO TFT Technologies 301 12.4.1 3-EMMO TFT Technology 302 12.4.2 Self-Aligned EMMO TFTs 307 12.5 Conclusion 309 Acknowledgments 310 References 310 13 Hot Carrier Effects in Oxide-TFTs 315Mami N. Fujii, Takanori Takahashi, Juan Paolo Soria Bermundo, and Yukiharu Uraoka 13.1 Introduction 315 13.2 Analysis of Hot Carrier Effect in IGZO-TFTs 315 13.2.1 Photoemission from IGZO-TFTs 315 13.2.2 Kink Current in Photon Emission Condition 318 13.2.3 Hot Carrier–Induced Degradation of a-IGZO-TFTs 318 13.3 Analysis of the Hot Carrier Effect in High-Mobility Oxide-TFTs 322 13.3.1 Bias Stability under DC Stresses in a High-Mobility IWZO-TFT 322 13.3.2 Analysis of Dynamic Stress in Oxide-TFTs 323 13.3.3 Photon Emission from the IWZO-TFT under Pulse Stress 323 13.4 Conclusion 328 References 328 14 Carbon-Related Impurities and NBS Instability in AOS-TFTs 333Junghwan Kim and Hideo Hosono 14.1 Introduction 333 14.2 Experimental 334 14.3 Results and Discussion 334 14.4 Summary 337 References 339 Part V TFTs and Circuits 341 15 Oxide TFTs for Advanced Signal-Processing Architectures 343Arokia Nathan, Denis Striakhilev, and Shuenn-Jiun Tang 15.1 Introduction 343 15.1.1 Device–Circuit Interactions 343 15.2 Above-Threshold TFT Operation and Defect Compensation: AMOLED Displays 345 15.2.1 AMOLED Display Challenges 345 15.2.2 Above-Threshold Operation 347 15.2.3 Temperature Dependence 347 15.2.4 Effects of Process-Induced Spatial Nonuniformity 349 15.2.5 Overview of External Compensation for AMOLED Displays 351 15.3 Ultralow-Power TFT Operation in a Deep Subthreshold (Near Off-State) Regime 354 15.3.1 Schottky Barrier TFTs 355 15.3.2 Device Characteristics and Small Signal Parameters 358 15.3.3 Common Source Amplifier 360 15.4 Oxide TFT-Based Image Sensors 362 15.4.1 Heterojunction Oxide Photo-TFTs 362 15.4.2 Persistent Photocurrent 364 15.4.3 All-Oxide Photosensor Array 365 References 366 16 Device Modeling and Simulation of TAOS-TFTs 369Katsumi Abe 16.1 Introduction 369 16.2 Device Models for TAOS-TFTs 369 16.2.1 Mobility Model 369 16.2.2 Density of Subgap States (DOS) Model 371 16.2.3 Self-Heating Model 372 16.3 Applications 373 16.3.1 Temperature Dependence 373 16.3.2 Channel-Length Dependence 373 16.3.3 Channel-Width Dependence 375 16.3.4 Dual-Gate Structure 378 16.4 Reliability 379 16.5 Summary 381 Acknowledgments 381 References 382 17 Oxide Circuits for Flexible Electronics 383Kris Myny, Nikolaos Papadopoulos, Florian De Roose, and Paul Heremans 17.1 Introduction 383 17.2 Technology-Aware Design Considerations 383 17.2.1 Etch-Stop Layer, Backchannel Etch, and Self-Aligned Transistors 384 17.2.1.1 Etch-Stop Layer 384 17.2.1.2 Backchannel Etch 385 17.2.1.3 Self-Aligned Transistors 385 17.2.1.4 Comparison 386 17.2.2 Dual-Gate Transistors 386 17.2.2.1 Stack Architecture 386 17.2.2.2 Effect of the Backgate 388 17.2.3 Moore’s Law for TFT Technologies 389 17.2.3.1 Cmos 389 17.2.3.2 Thin-Film Electronics Historically 389 17.2.3.3 New Drivers for Thin-Film Scaling: Circuits 390 17.2.3.4 L-Scaling 391 17.2.3.5 W and L Scaling 391 17.2.3.6 Overall Lateral Scaling 391 17.2.3.7 Oxide Thickness and Supply Voltage Scaling 391 17.2.4 Conclusion 392 17.3 Digital Electronics 392 17.3.1 Communication Chips 392 17.3.2 Complex Metal-Oxide-Based Digital Chips 395 17.4 Analog Electronics 396 17.4.1 Thin-Film ADC Topologies 396 17.4.2 Imager Readout Peripherals 397 17.4.3 Healthcare Patches 399 17.5 Summary 400 Acknowledgments 400 References 400 Part VI Display and Memory Applications 405 18 Oxide TFT Technology for Printed Electronics 407Toshiaki Arai 18.1 OLEDs 407 18.1.1 OLED Displays 407 18.1.2 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 408 18.1.3 Printed OLEDs 409 18.2 TFTs for OLED Driving 413 18.2.1 TFT Candidates 413 18.2.2 Pixel Circuits 413 18.2.3 Oxide TFTs 414 18.2.3.1 Bottom-Gate TFTs 415 18.2.3.2 Top-Gate TFTs 418 18.3 Oxide TFT–Driven Printed OLED Displays 424 18.4 Summary 427 References 428 19 Mechanically Flexible Nonvolatile Memory Thin-Film Transistors Using Oxide Semiconductor Active Channels on Ultrathin Polyimide Films 431Sung-Min Yoon, Hyeong-Rae Kim, Hye-Won Jang, Ji-Hee Yang, Hyo-Eun Kim, and Sol-Mi Kwak 19.1 Introduction 431 19.2 Fabrication of Memory TFTs 432 19.2.1 Substrate Preparation 432 19.2.2 Device Fabrication Procedures 434 19.2.3 Characterization Methodologies 435 19.3 Device Operations of Flexible Memory TFTs 437 19.3.1 Optimization of Flexible IGZO-TFTs on PI Films 437 19.3.2 Nonvolatile Memory Operations of Flexible Memory TFTs 438 19.3.3 Operation Mechanisms and Device Physics 442 19.4 Choice of Alternative Materials 444 19.4.1 Introduction to Conducting Polymer Electrodes 444 19.4.2 Introduction of Polymeric Gate Insulators 446 19.5 Device Scaling to Vertical-Channel Structures 447 19.5.1 Vertical-Channel IGZO-TFTs on PI Films 447 19.5.2 Vertical-Channel Memory TFTs Using IGZO Channel and ZnO Trap Layers 449 19.6 Summary 453 19.6.1 Remaining Technical Issues 453 19.6.2 Conclusions and Outlooks 453 References 454 20 Amorphous Oxide Semiconductor TFTs for BEOL Transistor Applications 457Nobuyoshi Saito and Keiji Ikeda 20.1 Introduction 457 20.2 Improvement of Immunity to H 2 Annealing 458 20.3 Increase of Mobility and Reduction of S/D Parasitic Resistance 463 20.4 Demonstration of Extremely Low Off-State Leakage Current Characteristics 467 References 471 21 Ferroelectric-HfO 2 Transistor Memory with IGZO Channels 473Masaharu Kobayashi 21.1 Introduction 473 21.2 Device Operation and Design 475 21.3 Device Fabrication 478 21.4 Experimental Results and Discussions 479 21.4.1 FE-HfO 2 Capacitors with an IGZO Layer 479 21.4.2 IGZO Channel FeFETs 481 21.5 Summary 484 Acknowledgments 484 References 485 22 Neuromorphic Chips Using AOS Thin-Film Devices 487Mutsumi Kimura 22.1 Introduction 487 22.2 Neuromorphic Systems with Crosspoint-Type α-GTO Thin-Film Devices 488 22.2.1 Neuromorphic Systems 488 22.2.1.1 α-GTO Thin-Film Devices 488 22.2.1.2 System Architecture 489 22.2.2 Experimental Results 492 22.3 Neuromorphic System Using an LSI Chip and α-IGZO Thin-Film Devices [24] 493 22.3.1 Neuromorphic System 494 22.3.1.1 Neuron Elements 494 22.3.1.2 Synapse Elements 494 22.3.1.3 System Architecture 495 22.3.2 Working Principle 495 22.3.2.1 Cellular Neural Network 495 22.3.2.2 Tug-of-War Method 497 22.3.2.3 Modified Hebbian Learning 497 22.3.2.4 Majority-Rule Handling 498 22.3.3 Experimental Results 498 22.3.3.1 Raw Data 498 22.3.3.2 Associative Memory 499 22.4 Conclusion 499 Acknowledgments 500 References 500 23 Oxide TFTs and Their Application to X-Ray Imaging 503Robert A. Street 23.1 Introduction 503 23.2 Digital X-Ray Detection and Imaging Modalities 504 23.2.1 Indirect Detection Imaging 504 23.2.2 Direct Detection Imaging 505 23.2.3 X-Ray Imaging Modalities 505 23.3 Oxide-TFT X-Ray Detectors 506 23.3.1 TFT Backplane Requirements for Digital X-Rays 506 23.3.2 An IGZO Detector Fabrication and Characterization 506 23.3.3 Other Reported Oxide X-Ray Detectors 509 23.4 How Oxide TFTs Can Improve Digital X-Ray Detectors 509 23.4.1 Noise and Image Quality in X-Ray Detectors 510 23.4.2 Minimizing Additive Electronic Noise with Oxides 510 23.4.3 Pixel Amplifier Backplanes 511 23.4.4 IGZO-TFT Noise 511 23.5 Radiation Hardness of Oxide TFTs 513 23.6 Oxide Direct Detector Materials 515 23.7 Summary 515 References 515 Part VII New Materials 519 24 Toward the Development of High-Performance p-Channel Oxide-TFTs and All-Oxide Complementary Circuits 521Kenji Nomura 24.1 Introduction 521 24.2 Why Is High-Performance p-Channel Oxide Difficult? 521 24.3 The Current Development of p-Channel Oxide-TFTs 524 24.4 Comparisons of p-Type Cu 2 O and SnO Channels 526 24.5 Comparisons of the TFT Characteristics of Cu 2 O and SnO-TFTs 529 24.6 Subgap Defect Termination for p-Channel Oxides 532 24.7 All-Oxide Complementary Circuits 534 24.8 Conclusions 535 References 536 25 Solution-Synthesized Metal Oxides and Halides for Transparent p-Channel TFTs 539Ao Liu, Huihui Zhu, and Yong-Young Noh 25.1 Introduction 539 25.2 Solution-Processed p-Channel Metal-Oxide TFTs 540 25.3 Transparent Copper(I) Iodide (CuI)–Based TFTs 546 25.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 548 Acknowledgments 549 References 549 26 Tungsten-Doped Active Layers for High-Mobility AOS-TFTs 553Zhang Qun 26.1 Introduction 553 26.2 Advances in Tungsten-Doped High-Mobility AOS-TFTs 555 26.2.1 a-IWO-TFTs 555 26.2.2 a-IZWO-TFTs 562 26.2.3 Dual Tungsten-Doped Active-Layer TFTs 565 26.2.4 Treatment on the Backchannel Surface 566 26.3 Perspectives for High-Mobility AOS Active Layers 570 References 572 27 Rare Earth– and Transition Metal–Doped Amorphous Oxide Semiconductor Phosphors for Novel Light-Emitting Diode Displays 577Keisuke Ide, Junghwan Kim, Hideo Hosono, and Toshio Kamiya 27.1 Introduction 577 27.2 Eu-Doped Amorphous Oxide Semiconductor Phosphor 577 27.3 Multiple-Color Emissions from Various Rare Earth–Doped AOS Phosphors 579 27.4 Transition Metal–Doped AOS Phosphors 582 References 584 28 Application of AOSs to Charge Transport Layers in Electroluminescent Devices 585Junghwan Kim and Hideo Hosono 28.1 Electronic Structure and Electrical Properties of Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors (AOSs) 585 28.2 Criteria for Charge Transport Layers in Electroluminescent (EL) Devices 585 28.3 Amorphous Zn-Si-O Electron Transport Layers for Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes (PeLEDs) 587 28.4 Amorphous In-Mo-O Hole Injection Layers for OLEDs 589 28.5 Perspective 594 References 595 29 Displays and Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers 597Kenichi Iga 29.1 Introduction to Displays 597 29.2 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) 597 29.2.1 History of LCDs 597 29.2.2 Principle of LCD: The TN Mode 598 29.2.3 Other LC Modes 600 29.2.4 Light Sources 600 29.2.5 Diffusion Plate and Light Guiding Layer 601 29.2.6 Microlens Arrays 601 29.2.7 Short-Focal-Length Projection 602 29.3 Organic EL Display 602 29.3.1 Method (a): Color-Coding Method 603 29.3.2 Method (b): Filter Method 603 29.3.3 Method (c): Blue Conversion Method 603 29.4 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers 604 29.4.1 Motivation of Invention 604 29.4.2 What Is the Difference? 605 29.4.3 Device Realization 605 29.4.4 Applications 607 29.5 Laser Displays including VCSELs 607 29.5.1 Laser Displays 607 29.5.2 Color Gamut 608 29.5.3 Laser Backlight Method 609 Acknowledgments 610 References 611 Index 613

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