Testing of materials Books

Book SynopsisWear is one of the main reasons mechanical components and materials become inoperable, rendering enormous costs to society over time. Estimating wear allows engineers to predict the useful life of modern mechanical elements, reduce the costs of inoperability, or obtain optimal designs (i.e. selecting proper materials, shapes, and surface finishing according to mechanical conditions and durability) to reduce the impact of wear.Wear in Advanced Engineering Applications and Materials presents recent computational and practical research studying damage and wear in advanced engineering applications and materials. As such, this book covers numerical formulations based on the finite element method (FEM) — and the boundary element method (BEM) — as well as theoretical and experimental research to predict the wear response or life-limiting failure of engineering applications.

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Book SynopsisThis volume considers the shock response spectrum, its various definitions, properties and the assumptions involved in its calculation. In developing the practical application of these concepts, the forms of shock most often used with test facilities are presented together with their characteristics and indications of how to establish test configurations comparable with those in the real, measured environment. This is followed by a demonstration of how to meet these specifications using standard laboratory equipment – shock machines, electrodynamic exciters driven by a time signal or a response spectrum – with a discussion on the limitations, advantages and disadvantages of each method.Table of ContentsForeword to Series xiii Introduction xvii List of Symbols xix Chapter 1. Shock Analysis 1 1.1. Definitions 1 1.1.1. Shock 1 1.1.2. Transient signal 2 1.1.3. Jerk 3 1.1.4. Simple (or perfect) shock 3 1.1.5. Half-sine shock 3 1.1.6. Versed sine (or haversine) shock 4 1.1.7. Terminal peak sawtooth (TPS) shock (or final peak sawtooth FPS)) 5 1.1.8. Initial peak sawtooth (IPS) shock 6 1.1.9. Square shock 7 1.1.10. Trapezoidal shock 8 1.1.11. Decaying sinusoidal pulse 8 1.1.12. Bump test 9 1.1.13. Pyroshock 9 1.2. Analysis in the time domain 12 1.3. Temporal moments 12 1.4. Fourier transform 15 1.4.1. Definition 15 1.4.2. Reduced Fourier transform 17 1.4.3. Fourier transforms of simple shocks 17 1.4.4. What represents the Fourier transform of a shock? 29 1.4.5. Importance of the Fourier transform 31 1.5. Energy spectrum 32 1.5.1. Energy according to frequency 32 1.5.2. Average energy spectrum 33 1.6. Practical calculations of the Fourier transform 33 1.6.1. General 33 1.6.2. Case: signal not yet digitized 33 1.6.3. Case: signal already digitized 36 1.6.4. Adding zeros to the shock signal before the calculation of its Fourier transform 37 1.6.5. Windowing 40 1.7. The interest of time-frequency analysis 41 1.7.1. Limit of the Fourier transform 41 1.7.2. Short term Fourier transform (STFT) 44 1.7.3. Wavelet transform 49 Chapter 2. Shock Response Spectrum 55 2.1. Main principles 55 2.2. Response of a linear one-degree-of-freedom system 59 2.2.1. Shock defined by a force 59 2.2.2. Shock defined by an acceleration 60 2.2.3. Generalization 60 2.2.4. Response of a one-degree-of-freedom system to simple shocks 65 2.3. Definitions 69 2.3.1. Response spectrum 69 2.3.2. Absolute acceleration SRS 69 2.3.3. Relative displacement shock spectrum 70 2.3.4. Primary (or initial) positive SRS 70 2.3.5. Primary (or initial) negative SRS 70 2.3.6. Secondary (or residual) SRS 71 2.3.7. Positive (or maximum positive) SRS 71 2.3.8. Negative (or maximum negative) SRS 71 2.3.9. Maximax SRS 72 2.4. Standardized response spectra 73 2.4.1. Definition 73 2.4.2. Half-sine pulse 75 2.4.3. Versed sine pulse 76 2.4.4. Terminal peak sawtooth pulse 78 2.4.5. Initial peak sawtooth pulse 79 2.4.6. Square pulse 81 2.4.7. Trapezoidal pulse 81 2.5. Choice of the type of SRS 82 2.6. Comparison of the SRS of the usual simple shapes 83 2.7. SRS of a shock defined by an absolute displacement of the support 84 2.8. Influence of the amplitude and the duration of the shock on its SRS 84 2.9. Difference between SRS and extreme response spectrum (ERS) 86 2.10. Algorithms for calculation of the SRS 86 2.11. Subroutine for the calculation of the SRS 86 2.12. Choice of the sampling frequency of the signal 90 2.13. Example of use of the SRS 94 2.14. Use of SRS for the study of systems with several degrees of freedom 96 2.15. Damage boundary curve 100 Chapter 3. Properties of Shock Response Spectra 103 3.1. Shock response spectra domains 103 3.2. Properties of SRS at low frequencies 104 3.2.1. General properties 104 3.2.2. Shocks with zero velocity change 104 3.2.3. Shocks with ΔV = 0 and ΔD ≠ 0 at the end of a pulse 115 3.2.4. Shocks with ΔV = 0 and ΔD = 0 at the end of a pulse 117 3.2.5. Notes on residual spectrum 120 3.3. Properties of SRS at high frequencies 121 3.4. Damping influence 124 3.5. Choice of damping 124 3.6. Choice of frequency range 127 3.7. Choice of the number of points and their distribution 128 3.8. Charts 131 3.9. Relation of SRS with Fourier spectrum 134 3.9.1. Primary SRS and Fourier transform 134 3.9.2. Residual SRS and Fourier transform 136 3.9.3. Comparison of the relative severity of several shocks using their Fourier spectra and their shock response spectra 139 3.10. Care to be taken in the calculation of the spectra 143 3.10.1. Main sources of errors 143 3.10.2. Influence of background noise of the measuring equipment 143 3.10.3. Influence of zero shift 145 3.11. Specific case of pyroshocks 152 3.11.1. Acquisition of the measurements 152 3.11.2. Examination of the signal before calculation of the SRS 154 3.11.3. Examination of the SRS 155 3.12. Pseudo-velocity shock spectrum 156 3.12.1. Hunt’s relationship 156 3.12.2. Interest of PVSS 160 3.13. Use of the SRS for pyroshocks 162 3.14. Other propositions of spectra165 3.14.1. Pseudo-velocity calculated from the energy transmitted 165 3.14.2. Pseudo-velocity from the “input” energy at the end of a shock 165 3.14.3. Pseudo-velocity from the unit “input” energy 167 3.14.4. SRS of the “total” energy 167 Chapter 4. Development of Shock Test Specifications 175 4.1. Introduction 175 4.2. Simplification of the measured signal 176 4.3. Use of shock response spectra 178 4.3.1. Synthesis of spectra 178 4.3.2. Nature of the specification 180 4.3.3. Choice of shape 181 4.3.4. Amplitude 182 4.3.5. Duration 182 4.3.6. Difficulties 186 4.4. Other methods 187 4.4.1. Use of a swept sine 188 4.4.2. Simulation of SRS using a fast swept sine 189 4.4.3. Simulation by modulated random noise 193 4.4.4. Simulation of a shock using random vibration 194 4.4.5. Least favorable response technique 195 4.4.6. Restitution of an SRS by a series of modulated sine pulses 196 4.5. Interest behind simulation of shocks on shaker using a shock spectrum 198 Chapter 5. Kinematics of Simple Shocks 203 5.1. Introduction 203 5.2. Half-sine pulse 203 5.2.1. General expressions of the shock motion 203 5.2.2. Impulse mode 206 5.2.3. Impact mode 207 5.3. Versed sine pulse 216 5.4. Square pulse 218 5.5. Terminal peak sawtooth pulse 221 5.6. Initial peak sawtooth pulse 223 Chapter 6. Standard Shock Machines 225 6.1. Main types 225 6.2. Impact shock machines 227 6.3. High impact shock machines 237 6.3.1. Lightweight high impact shock machine 237 6.3.2. Medium weight high impact shock machine 238 6.4. Pneumatic machines 239 6.5. Specific testing facilities 241 6.6. Programmers 242 6.6.1. Half-sine pulse 242 6.6.2. TPS shock pulse 250 6.6.3. Square pulse − trapezoidal pulse 258 6.6.4. Universal shock programmer 258 Chapter 7. Generation of Shocks Using Shakers 267 7.1. Principle behind the generation of a signal with a simple shape versus time 267 7.2. Main advantages of the generation of shock using shakers 268 7.3. Limitations of electrodynamic shakers 269 7.3.1. Mechanical limitations 269 7.3.2. Electronic limitations 271 7.4. Remarks on the use of electrohydraulic shakers 271 7.5. Pre- and post-shocks 271 7.5.1. Requirements 271 7.5.2. Pre-shock or post-shock 273 7.5.3. Kinematics of the movement for symmetric pre- and post-shock 276 7.5.4. Kinematics of the movement for a pre-shock or a post-shock alone 286 7.5.5. Abacuses 288 7.5.6. Influence of the shape of pre- and post-pulses 289 7.5.7. Optimized pre- and post-shocks 292 7.6. Incidence of pre- and post-shocks on the quality of simulation 297 7.6.1. General 297 7.6.2. Influence of the pre- and post-shocks on the time history response of a one-degree-of-freedom system 297 7.6.3. Incidence on the shock response spectrum 300 Chapter 8. Control of a Shaker Using a Shock Response Spectrum 303 8.1. Principle of control using a shock response spectrum 303 8.1.1. Problems 303 8.1.2. Parallel filter method 304 8.1.3. Current numerical methods 305 8.2. Decaying sinusoid 310 8.2.1. Definition 310 8.2.2. Response spectrum 311 8.2.3. Velocity and displacement 314 8.2.4. Constitution of the total signal 315 8.2.5. Methods of signal compensation 316 8.2.6. Iterations 323 8.3. D.L. Kern and C.D. Hayes’ function 324 8.3.1. Definition 324 8.3.2. Velocity and displacement 325 8.4. ZERD function 326 8.4.1. Definition 326 8.4.2. Velocity and displacement 328 8.4.3. Comparison of ZERD waveform with standard decaying sinusoid 330 8.4.4. Reduced response spectra 330 8.5. WAVSIN waveform 332 8.5.1. Definition 332 8.5.2. Velocity and displacement 333 8.5.3. Response of a one-degree-of-freedom system 335 8.5.4. Response spectrum 338 8.5.5. Time history synthesis from shock spectrum 339 8.6. SHOC waveform 340 8.6.1. Definition 340 8.6.2. Velocity and displacement 342 8.6.3. Response spectrum 343 8.6.4. Time history synthesis from shock spectrum 345 8.7. Comparison of WAVSIN, SHOC waveforms and decaying sinusoid 346 8.8. Waveforms based on the cosm(x) window 346 8.9. Use of a fast swept sine 348 8.10. Problems encountered during the synthesis of the waveforms 351 8.11. Criticism of control by SRS 353 8.12. Possible improvements 357 8.12.1. IES proposal 357 8.12.2. Specification of a complementary parameter 358 8.12.3. Remarks on the properties of the response spectrum 363 8.13. Estimate of the feasibility of a shock specified by its SRS363 8.13.1. C.D. Robbins and E.P. Vaughan’s method 363 8.13.2. Evaluation of the necessary force, power and stroke 365 Chapter 9. Simulation of Pyroshocks 371 9.1. Simulations using pyrotechnic facilities 371 9.2. Simulation using metal to metal impact 375 9.3. Simulation using electrodynamic shakers 377 9.4. Simulation using conventional shock machines 378 Appendix. Similitude in Mechanics 381 A1. Conservation of materials 381 A2. Conservation of acceleration and stress 383 Mechanical Shock Tests: A Brief Historical Background 385 Bibliography 387 Index 407 Summary of other Volumes in the series 413

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Book SynopsisThe vast majority of vibrations encountered in the real environment are random in nature. Such vibrations are intrinsically complicated and this volume describes the process that enables us to simplify the required analysis, along with the analysis of the signal in the frequency domain. The power spectrum density is also defined, together with the requisite precautions to be taken in its calculations as well as the processes (windowing, overlapping) necessary to obtain improved results. An additional complementary method – the analysis of statistical properties of the time signal – is also described. This enables the distribution law of the maxima of a random Gaussian signal to be determined and simplifies the calculation of fatigue damage by avoiding direct peak counting.Table of ContentsForeword to Series xiii Introduction xvii List of Symbols xix Chapter 1 Statistical Properties of a Random Process 1 1.1 Definitions 1 1.1.1 Random variable 1 1.1.2 Random process 2 1.2 Random vibration in real environments 2 1.3 Random vibration in laboratory tests 3 1.4 Methods of random vibration analysis 3 1.5 Distribution of instantaneous values 5 1.5.1 Probability density 5 1.5.2 Distribution function 6 1.6 Gaussian random process 7 1.7 Rayleigh distribution 12 1.8 Ensemble averages: through the process 12 1.8.1 n order average 12 1.8.2 Centered moments 14 1.8.3 Variance 14 1.8.4 Standard deviation 15 1.8.5 Autocorrelation function 16 1.8.6 Cross-correlation function 16 1.8.7 Autocovariance 17 1.8.8 Covariance 17 1.8.9 Stationarity 17 1.9 Temporal averages: along the process 23 1.9.1 Mean 23 1.9.2 Quadratic mean – rms value 25 1.9.3 Moments of order n 27 1.9.4 Variance – standard deviation 28 1.9.5 Skewness 29 1.9.6 Kurtosis 30 1.9.7 Crest Factor 33 1.9.8 Temporal autocorrelation function 33 1.9.9 Properties of the autocorrelation function 39 1.9.10 Correlation duration 41 1.9.11 Cross-correlation 47 1.9.12 Cross-correlation coefficient 50 1.9.13 Ergodicity 50 1.10 Significance of the statistical analysis (ensemble or temporal) 52 1.11 Stationary and pseudo-stationary signals 52 1.12 Summary chart of main definitions 53 1.13 Sliding mean 54 1.14 Test of stationarity 58 1.14.1 The reverse arrangements test (RAT) 58 1.14.2 The runs test 61 1.15 Identification of shocks and/or signal problems 65 1.16 Breakdown of vibratory signal into “events”: choice of signal samples 68 1.17 Interpretation and taking into account of environment variation 75 Chapter 2 Random Vibration Properties in the Frequency Domain 79 2.1 Fourier transform 79 2.2 Power spectral density 81 2.2.1 Need 81 2.2.2 Definition 82 2.3 Amplitude Spectral Density 89 2.4 Cross-power spectral density 89 2.5 Power spectral density of a random process 90 2.6 Cross-power spectral density of two processes 91 2.7 Relationship between the PSD and correlation function of a process 93 2.8 Quadspectrum – cospectrum 93 2.9 Definitions 94 2.9.1 Broadband process 94 2.9.2 White noise 95 2.9.3 Band-limited white noise 95 2.9.4 Narrow band process 96 2.9.5 Colors of noise 97 2.10 Autocorrelation function of white noise 98 2.11 Autocorrelation function of band-limited white noise 99 2.12 Peak factor 101 2.13 Effects of truncation of peaks of acceleration signal on the PSD 101 2.14 Standardized PSD/density of probability analogy 105 2.15 Spectral density as a function of time106 2.16 Sum of two random processes 106 2.17 Relationship between the PSD of the excitation and the response of a linear system 108 2.18 Relationship between the PSD of the excitation and the cross-power spectral density of the response of a linear system 111 2.19 Coherence function 112 2.20 Transfer function calculation from random vibration measurements 114 2.20.1 Theoretical relations 114 2.20.2 Presence of noise on the input 116 2.20.3 Presence of noise on the response 118 2.20.4 Presence of noise on the input and response 120 2.20.5 Choice of transfer function 121 Chapter 3 Rms Value of Random Vibration 127 3.1 Rms value of a signal as a function of its PSD 127 3.2 Relationships between the PSD of acceleration, velocity and displacement 131 3.3 Graphical representation of the PSD 133 3.4 Practical calculation of acceleration, velocity and displacement rms values 135 3.4.1 General expressions 135 3.4.2 Constant PSD in frequency interval 135 3.4.3 PSD comprising several horizontal straight line segments 137 3.4.4 PSD defined by a linear segment of arbitrary slope 137 3.4.5 PSD comprising several segments of arbitrary slopes 147 3.5 Rms value according to the frequency 147 3.6 Case of periodic signals 149 3.7 Case of a periodic signal superimposed onto random noise 151 Chapter 4 Practical Calculation of the Power Spectral Density 153 4.1 Sampling of signal 153 4.2 PSD calculation methods 158 4.2.1 Use of the autocorrelation function 158 4.2.2 Calculation of the PSD from the rms value of a filtered signal 158 4.2.3 Calculation of PSD starting from a Fourier transform 159 4.3 PSD calculation steps 160 4.3.1 Maximum frequency 160 4.3.2 Extraction of sample of duration T160 4.3.3 Averaging 167 4.3.4 Addition of zeros 170 4.4 FFT 175 4.5 Particular case of a periodic excitation 177 4.6 Statistical error 178 4.6.1 Origin 178 4.6.2 Definition 180 4.7 Statistical error calculation 180 4.7.1 Distribution of the measured PSD 180 4.7.2 Variance of the measured PSD 183 4.7.3 Statistical error 183 4.7.4 Relationship between number of degrees of freedom, duration and bandwidth of analysis 184 4.7.5 Confidence interval 190 4.7.6 Expression for statistical error in decibels 202 4.7.7 Statistical error calculation from digitized signal 204 4.8 Influence of duration and frequency step on the PSD 212 4.8.1 Influence of duration 212 4.8.2 Influence of the frequency step 213 4.8.3 Influence of duration and of constant statistical error frequency step 214 4.9 Overlapping 216 4.9.1 Utility 216 4.9.2 Influence on the number of degrees of freedom 217 4.9.3 Influence on statistical error 218 4.9.4 Choice of overlapping rate 221 4.10 Information to provide with a PSD 222 4.11 Difference between rms values calculated from a signal according to time and from its PSD 222 4.12 Calculation of a PSD from a Fourier transform 223 4.13 Amplitude based on frequency: relationship with the PSD 227 4.14 Calculation of the PSD for given statistical error 228 4.14.1 Case study: digitization of a signal is to be carried out 228 4.14.2 Case study: only one sample of an already digitized signal is available 230 4.15 Choice of filter bandwidth 231 4.15.1 Rules 231 4.15.2 Bias error 233 4.15.3 Maximum statistical error 238 4.15.4 Optimum bandwidth 240 4.16 Probability that the measured PSD lies between ± one standard deviation 243 4.17 Statistical error: other quantities 245 4.18 Peak hold spectrum 250 4.19 Generation of random signal of given PSD 252 4.19.1 Random phase sinusoid sum method 252 4.19.2 Inverse Fourier transform method 255 4.20 Using a window during the creation of a random signal from a PSD 256 Chapter 5 Statistical Properties of Random Vibration in the Time Domain 259 5.1 Distribution of instantaneous values 259 5.2 Properties of derivative process 260 5.3 Number of threshold crossings per unit time 264 5.4 Average frequency 269 5.5 Threshold level crossing curves 272 5.6 Moments 279 5.7 Average frequency of PSD defined by straight line segments 282 5.7.1 Linear-linear scales 282 5.7.2 Linear-logarithmic scales 284 5.7.3 Logarithmic-linear scales 285 5.7.4 Logarithmic-logarithmic scales 286 5.8 Fourth moment of PSD defined by straight line segments 288 5.8.1 Linear-linear scales 288 5.8.2 Linear-logarithmic scales 289 5.8.3 Logarithmic-linear scales 290 5.8.4 Logarithmic-logarithmic scales 291 5.9 Generalization: moment of order n 292 5.9.1 Linear-linear scales 292 5.9.2 Linear-logarithmic scales 292 5.9.3 Logarithmic-linear scales 292 5.9.4 Logarithmic-logarithmic scales 293 Chapter 6 Probability Distribution of Maxima of Random Vibration 295 6.1 Probability density of maxima 295 6.2 Moments of the maxima probability distribution 303 6.3 Expected number of maxima per unit time 304 6.4 Average time interval between two successive maxima 307 6.5 Average correlation between two successive maxima 308 6.6 Properties of the irregularity factor 309 6.6.1 Variation interval 309 6.6.2 Calculation of irregularity factor for band-limited white noise 313 6.6.3 Calculation of irregularity factor for noise of form G = Const.f b 316 6.6.4 Case study: variations of irregularity factor for two narrowband signals 320 6.7 Error related to the use of Rayleigh’s law instead of a complete probability density function 321 6.8 Peak distribution function 323 6.8.1 General case 323 6.8.2 Particular case of narrowband Gaussian process 325 6.9 Mean number of maxima greater than the given threshold (by unit time) 328 6.10 Mean number of maxima above given threshold between two times 331 6.11 Mean time interval between two successive maxima 331 6.12 Mean number of maxima above given level reached by signal excursion above this threshold 332 6.13 Time during which the signal is above a given value 335 6.14 Probability that a maximum is positive or negative 337 6.15 Probability density of the positive maxima 337 6.16 Probability that the positive maxima is lower than a given threshold 338 6.17 Average number of positive maxima per unit of time 338 6.18 Average amplitude jump between two successive extrema 339 6.19 Average number of inflection points per unit of time 341 Chapter 7 Statistics of Extreme Values 343 7.1 Probability density of maxima greater than a given value 343 7.2 Return period 344 7.3 Peak lp expected among Np peaks 344 7.4 Logarithmic rise 345 7.5 Average maximum of Np peaks 346 7.6 Variance of maximum 346 7.7 Mode (most probable maximum value) 346 7.8 Maximum value exceeded with risk α 346 7.9 Application to the case of a centered narrowband normal process 346 7.9.1 Distribution function of largest peaks over duration T 346 7.9.2 Probability that one peak at least exceeds a given threshold 349 7.9.3 Probability density of the largest maxima over duration T 350 7.9.4 Average of highest peaks 353 7.9.5 Mean value probability 355 7.9.6 Standard deviation of highest peaks 356 7.9.7 Variation coefficient 357 7.9.8 Most probable value 358 7.9.9 Median 358 7.9.10 Value of density at mode 360 7.9.11 Value of distribution function at mode 361 7.9.12 Expected maximum 361 7.9.13 Maximum exceeded with given risk α 361 7.10 Wideband centered normal process 363 7.10.1 Average of largest peaks 363 7.10.2 Variance of the largest peaks 366 7.10.3 Variation coefficient 367 7.11 Asymptotic laws 368 7.11.1 Gumbel asymptote 368 7.11.2 Case study: Rayleigh peak distribution 369 7.11.3 Expressions for large values of Np 370 7.12 Choice of type of analysis 371 7.13 Study of the envelope of a narrowband process 374 7.13.1 Probability density of the maxima of the envelope 374 7.13.2 Distribution of maxima of envelope 379 7.13.3 Average frequency of envelope of narrowband noise 381 Chapter 8 Response of a One-Degree-of-Freedom Linear System to Random Vibration 385 8.1 Average value of the response of a linear system 385 8.2 Response of perfect bandpass filter to random vibration 386 8.3 The PSD of the response of a one-dof linear system 388 8.4 Rms value of response to white noise 389 8.5 Rms value of response of a linear one-degree of freedom system subjected to bands of random noise 395 8.5.1 Case where the excitation is a PSD defined by a straight line segment in logarithmic scales 395 8.5.2 Case where the vibration has a PSD defined by a straight line segment of arbitrary slope in linear scales 401 8.5.3 Case where the vibration has a constant PSD between two frequencies 404 8.5.4 Excitation defined by an absolute displacement 409 8.5.5 Case where the excitation is defined by PSD comprising n straight line segments 411 8.6 Rms value of the absolute acceleration of the response 414 8.7 Transitory response of a dynamic system under stationary random excitation 415 8.8 Transitory response of a dynamic system under amplitude modulated white noise excitation 423 Chapter 9 Characteristics of the Response of a One-Degree-of-Freedom Linear System to Random Vibration 427 9.1 Moments of response of a one-degree-of-freedom linear system: irregularity factor of response 427 9.1.1 Moments 427 9.1.2 Irregularity factor of response to noise of a constant PSD 431 9.1.3 Characteristics of irregularity factor of response 433 9.1.4 Case of a band-limited noise 444 9.2 Autocorrelation function of response displacement 445 9.3 Average numbers of maxima and minima per second 446 9.4 Equivalence between the transfer functions of a bandpass filter and a one-degree-of-freedom linear system 449 9.4.1 Equivalence suggested by D.M Aspinwall 449 9.4.2 Equivalence suggested by K.W Smith 451 9.4.3 Rms value of signal filtered by the equivalent bandpass filter 453 Chapter 10 First Passage at a Given Level of Response of a One-Degree-of-Freedom Linear System to a Random Vibration 455 10.1 Assumptions 455 10.2 Definitions 459 10.3 Statistically independent threshold crossings 460 10.4 Statistically independent response maxima 468 10.5 Independent threshold crossings by the envelope of maxima 472 10.6 Independent envelope peaks 476 10.6.1 S.H Crandall method 476 10.6.2 D.M Aspinwall method 479 10.7 Markov process assumption 486 10.7.1 W.D Mark assumption 486 10.7.2 J.N Yang and M Shinozuka approximation 493 10.8 E.H Vanmarcke model 494 10.8.1 Assumption of a two state Markov process 494 10.8.2 Approximation based on the mean clump size 500 Appendix 511 Bibliography 571 Index 591 Summary of Other Volumes in the Series 597

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Book SynopsisFatigue damage in a system with one degree of freedom is one of the two criteria applied when comparing the severity of vibratory environments. The same criterion is also used for a specification representing the effects produced by the set of vibrations imposed in a real environment. In this volume, which is devoted to the calculation of fatigue damage, Christian Lalanne explores the hypotheses adopted to describe the behavior of material affected by fatigue and the laws of fatigue accumulation. The author also considers the methods for counting response peaks, which are used to establish the histogram when it is not possible to use the probability density of the peaks obtained with a Gaussian signal. The expressions for mean damage and its standard deviation are established and other hypotheses are tested.Table of ContentsForeword to Series xiii Introduction xvii List of Symbols xix Chapter 1. Concepts of Material Fatigue 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.1.1. Reminders on the strength of materials 1 1.1.2. Fatigue 9 1.2. Types of dynamic loads (or stresses) 10 1.2.1. Cyclic stress 10 1.2.2. Alternating stress 12 1.2.3. Repeated stress 13 1.2.4. Combined steady and cyclic stress 13 1.2.5. Skewed alternating stress 14 1.2.6. Random and transitory stresses 14 1.3. Damage arising from fatigue 15 1.4. Characterization of endurance of materials 18 1.4.1. S-N curve 18 1.4.2. Influence of the average stress on the S-N curve 21 1.4.3. Statistical aspect 22 1.4.4. Distribution laws of endurance 23 1.4.5. Distribution laws of fatigue strength 26 1.4.6. Relation between fatigue limit and static properties of materials 28 1.4.7. Analytical representations of S-N curve 31 1.5. Factors of influence 41 1.5.1. General 41 1.5.2. Scale 42 1.5.3. Overloads 43 1.5.4. Frequency of stresses 44 1.5.5. Types of stresses 45 1.5.6. Non-zero mean stress 45 1.6. Other representations of S-N curves 48 1.6.1. Haigh diagram 48 1.6.2. Statistical representation of Haigh diagram 58 1.7. Prediction of fatigue life of complex structures 58 1.8. Fatigue in composite materials 59 Chapter 2. Accumulation of Fatigue Damage 61 2.1. Evolution of fatigue damage 61 2.2. Classification of various laws of accumulation 62 2.3. Miner’s method 63 2.3.1. Miner’s rule 63 2.3.2. Scatter of damage to failure as evaluated by Miner 67 2.3.3. Validity of Miner’s law of accumulation of damage in case of random stress 71 2.4. Modified Miner’s theory 73 2.4.1. Principle 73 2.4.2. Accumulation of damage using modified Miner’s rule 74 2.5. Henry’s method 77 2.6. Modified Henry’s method 79 2.7. Corten and Dolan’s method 79 2.8. Other theories 82 Chapter 3. Counting Methods for Analyzing Random Time History 85 3.1. General 85 3.2. Peak count method89 3.2.1. Presentation of method 89 3.2.2. Derived methods 92 3.2.3. Range-restricted peak count method 93 3.2.4. Level-restricted peak count method 93 3.3. Peak between mean-crossing count method 95 3.3.1. Presentation of method 95 3.3.2. Elimination of small variations 97 3.4. Range count method 98 3.4.1. Presentation of method 98 3.4.2. Elimination of small variations 100 3.5. Range-mean count method 101 3.5.1. Presentation of method 101 3.5.2. Elimination of small variations 104 3.6. Range-pair count method 106 3.7. Hayes’ counting method110 3.8. Ordered overall range counting method 112 3.9. Level-crossing count method 114 3.10. Peak valley peak counting method 118 3.11. Fatigue-meter counting method 123 3.12. Rainflow counting method 125 3.12.1. Principle of method 126 3.12.2. Subroutine for rainflow counting 131 3.13. NRL (National Luchtvaart Laboratorium) counting method 134 3.14. Evaluation of time spent at a given level 137 3.15. Influence of levels of load below fatigue limit on fatigue life 138 3.16. Test acceleration 138 3.17. Presentation of fatigue curves determined by random vibration tests 141 Chapter 4. Fatigue Damage by One-degree-of-freedom Mechanical System 143 4.1. Introduction 143 4.2. Calculation of fatigue damage due to signal versus time 144 4.3. Calculation of fatigue damage due to acceleration spectral density 146 4.3.1. General case 146 4.3.2. Particular case of a wideband response, e.g. at the limit r ?­ 0 151 4.3.3. Particular case of narrowband response 152 4.3.4. Rms response to narrowband noise G0 of width ?´f when G0 ?´ f ?­ constant 164 4.3.5. Steinberg approach 165 4.4. Equivalent narrowband noise 166 4.4.1. Use of relation established for narrowband response 167 4.4.2. Alternative: use of mean number of maxima per second 169 4.5. Calculation of damage from the modified Rice distribution of peaks 171 4.5.1. Approximation to real maxima distribution using a modified Rayleigh distribution 171 4.5.2. Wirsching and Light’s approach 175 4.5.3. Chaudhury and Dover’s approach 176 4.5.4. Approximate expression of the probability density of peaks 180 4.6. Other approaches 182 4.7. Calculation of fatigue damage from rainflow domains 185 4.7.1. Wirsching’s approach 185 4.7.2. Tunna’s approach 189 4.7.3. Ortiz-Chen’s method 191 4.7.4. Hancock’s approach 191 4.7.5. Abdo and Rackwitz’s approach 192 4.7.6. Kam and Dover’s approach 192 4.7.7. Larsen and Lutes (“single moment”) method 193 4.7.8. Jiao-Moan’s method 194 4.7.9. Dirlik’s probability density 195 4.7.10. Madsen’s approach 207 4.7.11. Zhao and Baker model 207 4.7.12. Tovo and Benasciutti method 208 4.8. Comparison of S-N curves established under sinusoidal and random loads 211 4.9. Comparison of theory and experiment 216 4.10. Influence of shape of power spectral density and value of irregularity factor 221 4.11. Effects of peak truncation 221 4.12. Truncation of stress peaks 222 4.12.1. Particular case of a narrowband noise 223 4.12.2. Layout of the S-N curve for a truncated distribution 232 Chapter 5. Standard Deviation of Fatigue Damage 237 5.1. Calculation of standard deviation of damage: Bendat’s method 237 5.2. Calculation of standard deviation of damage: Mark’s method 242 5.3. Comparison of Mark and Bendat’s results 247 5.4. Standard deviation of the fatigue life 253 5.4.1. Narrowband vibration 253 5.4.2. Wideband vibration 256 5.5. Statistical S-N curves 257 5.5.1. Definition of statistical curves 257 5.5.2. Bendat’s formulation 258 5.5.3. Mark’s formulation. 261 Chapter 6. Fatigue Damage using Other Calculation Assumptions 267 6.1. S-N curve represented by two segments of a straight line on logarithmic scales (taking into account fatigue limit) 267 6.2. S-N curve defined by two segments of straight line on log-lin scales 270 6.3. Hypothesis of non-linear accumulation of damage 273 6.3.1. Corten-Dolan’s accumulation law 273 6.3.2. Morrow’s accumulation model 275 6.4. Random vibration with non-zero mean: use of modified Goodman diagram 277 6.5. Non-Gaussian distribution of instantaneous values of signal 280 6.5.1. Influence of distribution law of instantaneous values 280 6.5.2. Influence of peak distribution 281 6.5.3. Calculation of damage using Weibull distribution 281 6.5.4. Comparison of Rayleigh assumption/peak counting 284 6.6. Non-linear mechanical system 286 Chapter 7. Low-cycle Fatigue 289 7.1. Overview 289 7.2. Definitions 290 7.2.1. Baushinger effect 290 7.2.2. Cyclic strain hardening 291 7.2.3. Properties of cyclic stress–strain curves 291 7.2.4. Stress–strain curve 291 7.2.5. Hysteresis and fracture by fatigue 295 7.2.6. Significant factors influencing hysteresis and fracture by fatigue 295 7.2.7. Cyclic stress–strain curve (or cyclic consolidation curve) 296 7.3. Behavior of materials experiencing strains in the oligocyclic domain 297 7.3.1. Types of behaviors 297 7.3.2. Cyclic strain hardening 297 7.3.3. Cyclic strain softening 299 7.3.4. Cyclically stable metals 300 7.3.5. Mixed behavior 301 7.4. Influence of the level application sequence 301 7.5. Development of the cyclic stress–strain curve 303 7.6. Total strain 304 7.7. Fatigue strength curve 305 7.8. Relation between plastic strain and number of cycles to fracture 306 7.8.1. Orowan relation 306 7.8.2. Manson relation 307 7.8.3. Coffin relation 307 7.8.4. Shanley relation 317 7.8.5. Gerberich relation 318 7.8.6. Sachs, Gerberich, Weiss and Latorre relation 318 7.8.7. Martin relation 318 7.8.8. Tavernelli and Coffin relation 319 7.8.9. Manson relation 319 7.8.10. Ohji et al. relation 321 7.8.11. Bui-Quoc et al. relation 321 7.9. Influence of the frequency and temperature in the plastic field 321 7.9.1. Overview 321 7.9.2. Influence of frequency 322 7.9.3. Influence of temperature and frequency 322 7.9.4. Effect of frequency on plastic strain range 324 7.9.5. Equation of generalized fatigue 325 7.10. Laws of damage accumulation 326 7.10.1. Miner rule 326 7.10.2. Yao and Munse relation 327 7.10.3. Use of the Manson–Coffin relation 329 7.11. Influence of an average strain or stress 329 7.12. Low-cycle fatigue of composite material 332 Chapter 8. Fracture Mechanics 335 8.1. Overview 335 8.2. Fracture mechanism 338 8.2.1. Major phases 338 8.2.2. Initiation of cracks 339 8.2.3. Slow propagation of cracks 341 8.3. Critical size: strength to fracture 341 8.4. Modes of stress application 343 8.5. Stress intensity factor 344 8.5.1. Stress in crack root 344 8.5.2. Mode I 346 8.5.3. Mode II 349 8.5.4. Mode III 350 8.5.5. Field of equation use 350 8.5.6. Plastic zone 352 8.5.7. Other form of stress expressions 354 8.5.8. General form 356 8.5.9. Widening of crack opening 357 8.6. Fracture toughness: critical K value 358 8.7. Calculation of the stress intensity factor 362 8.8. Stress ratio 365 8.9. Expansion of cracks: Griffith criterion 367 8.10. Factors affecting the initiation of cracks 369 8.11. Factors affecting the propagation of cracks 369 8.11.1. Mechanical factors 370 8.11.2. Geometric factors 372 8.11.3. Metallurgical factors 373 8.11.4. Factors linked to the environment 373 8.12. Speed of propagation of cracks 374 8.13. Effect of a non-zero mean stress 379 8.14. Laws of crack propagation 379 8.14.1. Head law 380 8.14.2. Modified Head law 381 8.14.3. Frost and Dugsdale 381 8.14.4. McEvily and Illg 382 8.14.5. Paris and Erdogan 383 8.15. Stress intensity factor 396 8.16. Dispersion of results 397 8.17. Sample tests: extrapolation to a structure 398 8.18. Determination of the propagation threshold KS 398 8.19. Propagation of cracks in the domain of low-cycle fatigue 400 8.20. Integral J 401 8.21. Overload effect: fatigue crack retardation 403 8.22. Fatigue crack closure 405 8.23. Rules of similarity 407 8.24. Calculation of a useful lifetime 407 8.25. Propagation of cracks under random load 410 8.25.1. Rms approach 411 8.25.2. Narrowband random loads 416 8.25.3. Calculation from a load collective 422 Appendix 427 Bibliography 441 Index 487 Summary of Other Volumes in the Series 491

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Book SynopsisThis book deals with the mechanics and physics of fractures at various scales. Based on advanced continuum mechanics of heterogeneous media, it develops a rigorous mathematical framework for single macrocrack problems as well as for the effective properties of microcracked materials. In both cases, two geometrical models of cracks are examined and discussed: the idealized representation of the crack as two parallel faces (the Griffith crack model), and the representation of a crack as a flat elliptic or ellipsoidal cavity (the Eshelby inhomogeneity problem). The book is composed of two parts: The first part deals with solutions to 2D and 3D problems involving a single crack in linear elasticity. Elementary solutions of cracks problems in the different modes are fully worked. Various mathematical techniques are presented, including Neuber-Papkovitch displacement potentials, complex analysis with conformal mapping and Eshelby-based solutions. The second part is devoted to continuum micromechanics approaches of microcracked materials in relation to methods and results presented in the first part. Various estimates and bounds of the effective elastic properties are presented. They are considered for the formulation and application of continuum micromechanics-based damage models. Table of ContentsNotations xiii Preface xv Part 1. Elastic Solutions to Single Crack Problems 1 Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Plane Elasticity 3 1.1. Complex representation of Airy’s biharmonic stress function 3 1.2. Force acting on a curve or an element of arc 7 1.3. Derivation of stresses 9 1.4. Derivation of displacements 11 1.5. General form of the potentials φ and ψ 12 1.6. Examples 15 1.6.1. Circular cavity under pressure 15 1.6.2. Circular cavity in a plane subjected to uniaxial traction at infinity 16 1.7. Conformal mapping 18 1.7.1. Application of conformal mapping to plane elasticity problems 18 1.7.2. The domain Σ is the unit disc |ζ| ≤ 1 20 1.7.3. The domain Σ is the complement Σ− of the unit disc 23 1.8. The anisotropic case 26 1.8.1. General features 26 1.8.2. Stresses, displacements and boundary conditions 28 1.9. Appendix: mathematical tools 29 1.9.1. Theorem 1 30 1.9.2. Theorem 2 31 1.9.3. Theorem 3 31 Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Elasticity in View of Homogenization Theory 33 2.1. Green's function concept 33 2.2. Green’s function in two-dimensional conditions 34 2.2.1. The general anisotropic case 34 2.2.2. The isotropic case 35 2.3. Green’s function in three-dimensional conditions 38 2.3.1. The general anisotropic case 38 2.3.2. The isotropic case 39 2.4. Eshelby’s problems in linear microelasticity 41 2.4.1. The (elastic) inclusion problem 41 2.4.2. The Green operator of the infinite space 44 2.4.3. The Green operator of a finite domain 48 2.4.4. The inhomogeneity problem 50 2.4.5. The inhomogeneity problem with stress boundary conditions 51 2.4.6. The infinite heterogeneous elastic medium 52 2.5. Hill tensor for the elliptic inclusion 54 2.5.1. Properties of the logarithmic potential 54 2.5.2. Integration of the r,ir,l term 57 2.5.3. Components of the Hill tensor 59 2.6. Hill’s tensor for the spheroidal inclusion 60 2.6.1. Components of the Hill tensor 63 2.6.2. Series expansions of the components of the Hill tensor for flat spheroids 64 2.7. Appendix 65 2.8. Appendix: derivation of the χij 67 Chapter 3. Two-dimensional Griffith Crack 71 3.1. Stress singularity at crack tip 72 3.1.1. Stress singularity in plane elasticity: modes I and II 73 3.1.2. Stress singularity in antiplane problems in elasticity: mode III 78 3.2. Solution to mode I problem 80 3.2.1. Solution of PI 82 3.2.2. Solution of PI 90 3.2.3. Displacement jump across the crack surfaces 91 3.3. Solution to mode II problem 92 3.3.1. Solution of PII 93 3.3.2. Solution of PII 96 3.3.3. Displacement jump across the crack surfaces 97 3.4. Appendix: Abel’s integral equation 98 3.5. Appendix: Neuber–Papkovitch displacement potentials 101 Chapter 4. The Elliptic Crack Model in Plane Strains 103 4.1. The infinite plane with elliptic hole 103 4.1.3. Elliptic cavity in a plane subjected to a remote stress state at infinity 107 4.1.4. Stress intensity factors 108 4.1.5. Some remarks on unilateral contact 111 4.2. Infinite plane with elliptic hole: the anisotropic case 112 4.2.1. General properties 112 4.2.2. Complex potentials for an elliptic cavity in the presence of traction at infinity 115 4.2.3. Complex potentials for an elliptic cavity in the case of shear at infinity 116 4.2.5. Displacement discontinuities 121 4.2.6. Closed cracks 123 4.3. Eshelby approach 130 4.3.1. Mode I 130 4.3.2. Mode II 133 Chapter 5. Griffith Crack in 3D 137 5.1. Griffith circular (penny-shaped) crack in mode I 138 5.1.1. Solution of PI 139 5.1.2. Solution of PI 143 5.2. Griffith circular (penny-shaped) crack under shear loading 144 5.2.1. Solution of PII 146 5.2.2. Solution of PII 151 Chapter 6. Ellipsoidal Crack Model: the Eshelby Approach 155 6.1. Mode I 156 6.2. Mode II 159 Chapter 7. Energy Release Rate and Conditions for Crack Propagation 163 7.1. Driving force of crack propagation 163 7.2. Stress intensity factor and energy release rate 167 Part 2. Homogenization of Microcracked Materials 173 Chapter 8. Fundamentals of Continuum Micromechanics 175 8.1. Scale separation 175 8.2. Inhomogeneity model for cracks 177 8.2.1. Uniform strain boundary conditions 177 8.2.2. Uniform stress boundary conditions 181 8.2.3. Linear elasticity with uniform strain boundary conditions 182 8.2.4. Linear elasticity with uniform stress boundary conditions 185 8.3. General results on homogenization with Griffith cracks 187 8.3.1. Hill’s lemma with Griffith cracks 187 8.3.2. Uniform strain boundary conditions 188 8.3.3. Uniform stress boundary conditions 190 8.3.4. Derivation of effective properties in linear elasticity: principle of the approach 190 8.3.5. Appendix 194 Chapter 9. Homogenization of Materials Containing Griffith Cracks 197 9.1. Dilute estimates in isotropic conditions 197 9.1.1. Stress-based dilute estimate of stiffness 199 9.1.2. Stress-based dilute estimate of stiffness with closed cracks 202 9.1.3. Strain-based dilute estimate of stiffness with opened cracks 204 9.1.4. Strain-based dilute estimate of stiffness with closed cracks 205 9.2. A refined strain-based scheme 206 9.3. Homogenization in plane strain conditions for anisotropic materials 208 9.3.1. Opened cracks 208 9.3.2. Closed cracks 211 Chapter 10. Eshelby-based Estimates of Strain Concentration and Stiffness 213 10.1. Dilute estimate of the strain concentration tensor: general features 213 10.1.1. The general case 213 10.2. The particular case of opened cracks 215 10.2.1. Spheroidal crack 215 10.2.2. Elliptic crack 216 10.2.3. Crack opening change 218 10.3. Dilute estimates of the effective stiffness for opened cracks 220 10.3.1. Opened parallel cracks 222 10.3.2. Opened randomly oriented cracks 224 10.4. Dilute estimates of the effective stiffness for closed cracks 226 10.4.1. Closed parallel cracks 228 10.4.2. Closed randomly oriented cracks 228 10.5. Mori–Tanaka estimate of the effective stiffness 229 10.5.1. Opened cracks 231 10.5.2. Closed cracks 233 Chapter 11. Stress-based Estimates of Stress Concentration and Compliance 235 11.1. Dilute estimate of the stress concentration tensor 235 11.2. Dilute estimates of the effective compliance for opened cracks 236 11.2.1. Opened parallel cracks 237 11.2.2. Opened randomly oriented cracks 239 11.2.3. Discussion 239 11.3. Dilute estimate of the effective compliance for closed cracks 240 11.3.1. 3D case 241 11.3.2. 2D case 242 11.3.3. Stress concentration tensor 243 11.3.4. Comparison with other estimates 244 11.4. Mori–Tanaka estimates of effective compliance 244 11.4.1. Opened cracks 246 11.4.2. Closed cracks 246 11.5. Appendix: algebra for transverse isotropy and applications 246 Chapter 12. Bounds 251 12.1. The energy definition of the homogenized stiffness 252 12.2. Hashin–Shtrikman’s bound 255 12.2.1. Hashin–Shtrikman variational principle 255 12.2.2. Piecewise constant polarization field 259 12.2.3. Random microstructures 261 12.2.4. Application of the Ponte-Castaneda and Willis (PCW) bound to microcracked media 270 Chapter 13. Micromechanics-based Damage Constitutive Law and Application 273 13.1. Formulation of damage constitutive law 273 13.1.1. Description of damage level by a single scalar variable 274 13.1.2. Extension to multiple cracks 276 13.2. Some remarks concerning the loss of uniqueness of the mechanical response in relation to damage 277 13.3. Mechanical fields and damage in a hollow sphere subjected to traction 280 13.3.1. General features 280 13.3.2. Case of damage model based on the dilute estimate 284 13.3.3. Complete solution in the case of the damage model based on PCW estimate 285 13.4. Stability of the solution to damage evolution in a hollow sphere 296 13.4.1. The MT damage model 298 13.4.2. The general damage model [13.44] 300 Bibliography 305 Index 309

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Book SynopsisThis book describes the methods used to detect material defects at the nanoscale. The authors present different theories, polarization states and interactions of light with matter, in particular optical techniques using polarized light. Combining experimental techniques of polarized light analysis with techniques based on theoretical or statistical models to study faults or buried interfaces of mechatronic systems, the authors define the range of validity of measurements of carbon nanotube properties. The combination of theory and pratical methods presented throughout this book provide the reader with an insight into the current understanding of physicochemical processes affecting the properties of materials at the nanoscale.Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Uncertainties 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. The reliability based design approach 2 1.2.1. The MC method 2 1.2.2. The perturbation method 3 1.2.3. The polynomial chaos method 7 1.3. The design of experiments method 9 1.3.1. Principle 9 1.3.2. The Taguchi method 10 1.4. The set approach 14 1.4.1. The method of intervals 15 1.4.2. Fuzzy logic based method 18 1.5. Principal component analysis 20 1.5.1. Description of the process 21 1.5.2. Mathematical roots 22 1.5.3. Interpretation of results 22 1.6. Conclusions 23 Chapter 2. Reliability-based Design Optimization 25 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. Deterministic design optimization 26 2.3. Reliability analysis 27 2.3.1. Optimal conditions 30 2.4. Reliability-based design optimization 31 2.4.1. The objective function 31 2.4.2. Total cost consideration 32 2.4.3. The design variables 33 2.4.4. Response of a system by RBDO 33 2.4.5. Limit states 33 2.4.6. Solution techniques 33 2.5. Application: optimization of materials of an electronic circuit board 34 2.5.1. Optimization problem 36 2.5.2. Optimization and uncertainties 39 2.5.3. Results analysis 43 2.6. Conclusions 44 Chapter 3. The Wave–Particle Nature of Light 47 3.1. Introduction 48 3.2. The optical wave theory of light according to Huyghens and Fresnel 49 3.2.1. The three postulates of wave optics 49 3.2.2. Luminous power and energy 51 3.2.3. The monochromatic wave 51 3.3. The electromagnetic wave according to Maxwell’s theory 52 3.3.1. The Maxwell equations 52 3.3.2. The wave equation according to the Coulomb’s gauge 56 3.3.3. The wave equation according to the Lorenz’s gauge 57 3.4. The quantum theory of light 57 3.4.1. The annihilation and creation operators of the harmonic oscillator 57 3.4.2. The quantization of the electromagnetic field and the potential vector 61 3.4.3. Field modes in the second quantization 66 Chapter 4. The Polarization States of Light 71 4.1. Introduction 71 4.2. The polarization of light by the matrix method 73 4.2.1. The Jones representation of polarization 76 4.2.2. The Stokes and Muller representation of polarization 81 4.3. Other methods to represent polarization 86 4.3.1. The Poincaré description of polarization 86 4.3.2. The quantum description of polarization 88 4.4. Conclusions 93 Chapter 5. Interaction of Light and Matter 95 5.1. Introduction 95 5.2. Classical models 97 5.2.1. The Drude model 103 5.2.2. The Sellmeir and Lorentz models 105 5.3. Quantum models for light and matter 111 5.3.1. The quantum description of matter 111 5.3.2. Jaynes–Cummings model 118 5.4. Semiclassical models 123 5.4.1. Tauc–Lorentz model 127 5.4.2. Cody–Lorentz model 130 5.5. Conclusions 130 Chapter 6. Experimentation and Theoretical Models 133 6.1. Introduction 134 6.2. The laser source of polarized light 135 6.2.1. Principle of operation of a laser 136 6.2.2. The specificities of light from a laser 141 6.3. Laser-induced fluorescence 143 6.3.1. Principle of the method 143 6.3.2. Description of the experimental setup 145 6.4. The DR method 145 6.4.1. Principle of the method 146 6.4.2. Description of the experimental setup 148 6.5. Theoretical model for the analysis of the experimental results 149 6.5.1. Radiative relaxation 152 6.5.2. Non-radiative relaxation 153 6.5.3. The theoretical model of induced fluorescence 160 6.5.4. The theoretical model of the thermal energy transfer 163 6.6. Conclusions 170 Chapter 7. Defects in a Heterogeneous Medium 173 7.1. Introduction 173 7.2. Experimental setup 175 7.2.1. Pump laser 176 7.2.2. Probe laser 176 7.2.3. Detection system 177 7.2.4. Sample preparation setup 180 7.3. Application to a model system 182 7.3.1. Inert noble gas matrix 182 7.3.2. Molecular system trapped in an inert matrix 184 7.3.3. Experimental results for the induced fluorescence 188 7.3.4. Experimental results for the double resonance 198 7.4. Analysis by means of theoretical models 203 7.4.1. Determination of experimental time constants 203 7.4.2. Theoretical model for the induced fluorescence 209 7.4.3. Theoretical model for the DR 214 7.5. Conclusions 216 Chapter 8. Defects at the Interfaces 219 8.1. Measurement techniques by ellipsometry 219 8.1.1. The extinction measurement technique 222 8.1.2. The measurement by rotating optical component technique 223 8.1.3. The PM measurement technique 224 8.2. Analysis of results by inverse method 225 8.2.1. The simplex method 232 8.2.2. The LM method 234 8.2.3. The quasi-Newton BFGS method 237 8.3. Characterization of encapsulating material interfaces of mechatronic assemblies 237 8.3.1. Coating materials studied and experimental protocol 239 8.3.2. Study of bulk coatings 241 8.3.3. Study of defects at the interfaces 244 8.3.4. Results analysis 251 8.4. Conclusions 253 Chapter 9. Application to Nanomaterials 255 9.1. Introduction 255 9.2. Mechanical properties of SWCNT structures by MEF 256 9.2.1. Young's modulus of SWCNT structures 258 9.2.2. Shear modulus of SWCNT structures 259 9.2.3. Conclusion on the modeling results 260 9.3. Characterization of the elastic properties of SWCNT thin films 260 9.3.1. Preparation of SWCNT structures 261 9.3.2. Nanoindentation 262 9.3.3. Experimental results 263 9.4. Bilinear model of thin film SWCNT structure 265 9.4.1. SWCNT thin film structure 266 9.4.2. Numerical models of thin film SWCNT structures 268 9.4.3. Numerical results 269 9.5. Conclusions 274 Bibliography 275 Index 293

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Book SynopsisThe informal style of Laser Material Processing (4th Edition) will guide you smoothly from the basics of laser physics to the detailed treatment of all the major materials processing techniques for which lasers are now essential. • Helps you to understand how the laser works and to decide which laser is best for your purposes. • New chapters on laser physics, drilling, micro- and nanomanufacturing and biomedical laser processing reflect the changes in the field since the last edition, updating and completing the range of practical knowledge about the processes possible with lasers already familiar to established users of this well-known text. • Provides a firm grounding in the safety aspects of laser use. • Now with end-of-chapter exercises to help students assimilate information as they learn. • The authors’ lively presentation is supported by a number of original cartoons by Patrick Wright and Noel Ford which will bring a smile to your face and ease the learning process.Table of ContentsPrologue.- Background to Laser Design and General Applications.- Basic Laser Optics.- Laser Cutting, Drilling and Piercing.- Laser Welding.- Theory, Mathematical Modelling and Simulation.- Laser Surface Treatment.- Rapid Prototyping and Low-volume Manufacture.- Laser Ablative Processes – Macro- and Micromachining.- Laser Bending or Forming.- Laser Cleaning.- Biomedical Laser Processes and Equipment.- Laser Automation and In-process Sensing.- Laser Safety.- Epilogue.

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Book SynopsisRisk assessment and risk analysis are now firmly fixed in the engineer’s lexicon. Every engineering project, contract, piece of equipment and design requires this discipline by law. Reliability is the other key element in the mix for smooth running engineering projects and operations. In the modern industrial era, economic factors have resulted in the construction and operation of larger and more complex process plant. Accidents at these types of plants have led to notorious incidents such as Flixborough, Bhopal, Chernobyl, and Piper Alpha. Engineers are working to maximize the benefits of modern processing technology while reducing the safety risks to acceptable levels. However, each processing plant has unique problems and each must be individually assessed to identify, evaluate, and control associated hazards. The first edition of Reliability and Risk Assessment was ahead of its time. The world has caught up with Andrews and Moss and this fully revised second edition takes the analysis further and brings a more practical slant with greater and extensive use of case studies. Reliability and Risk Assessment is for professional engineers but will also prove invaluable for postgraduate students involved in reliability and risk assessment research. KEY FEATURES: Rigourous mathmatical descriptions of the most important techniques, particularly fault tree analysis and Markov methods. Practical examples of the application of these techniques to real-life problems. Self-contained chapters detail methods of reliability and risk assessment. Worked examples clarify the text and highlight salient points. Three new detailed case studies include: FMECA for a gas turbine system; in-service inspection of structural components, and a business interruption risk analysis. Table of ContentsAn introduction to reliability and risk assessment; reliability mathematics; qualitative methods; failure mode and effects criticality analysis; quantification of component failure probabilities; reliability networks; qualitative fault tree analysis; common cause failures; maintainability; Markov analysis; simulation; reliability data collection and analysis; risk assessment; in-service inspection of structural components. (Part contents).

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Book SynopsisUltrasonic signals are increasingly being used for predicting material behavior, both in an engineering context (detecting anomalies in a variety of structures) and a biological context (examining human bones, body parts and unborn fetuses). Featuring contributions from authors who are specialists in their subject area, this book presents new developments in ultrasonic research in both these areas, including ultrasonic NDE and other areas which go beyond traditional imaging techniques of internal defects. As such, both those in the biological and physical science communities will find this an informative and stimulating read.Trade ReviewTribikram Kundu is a Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, University of Arizona, USA.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Chapter 1. An Introduction to Failure Mechanisms and Ultrasonic Inspection 1Kumar V. JATA, Tribikram KUNDU and Triplicane A. PARTHASARATHY 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Issues in connecting failure mechanism, NDE and SHM 2 1.3. Physics of failure of metals 4 1.3.1. High level classification 4 1.3.1.1. Deformation 5 1.3.1.2. Fracture 5 1.3.1.3. Dynamic fatigue 6 1.3.1.4. Material loss 7 1.3.2. Second level classification 7 1.3.2.1. Deformation due to yield 7 1.3.2.2. Creep deformation and rupture 9 1.3.2.3. Static fracture 12 1.3.2.4. Fatigue 13 1.3.2.5. Corrosion 18 1.3.2.6. Oxidation 20 1.4. Physics of failure of ceramic matrix composites 21 1.4.1. Fracture 23 1.4.1.1. Mechanical loads and fatigue 23 1.4.1.2. Thermal gradients 24 1.4.1.3. Microstructural degradation 25 1.4.2. Material loss 25 1.5. Physics of failure and NDE 26 1.6. Elastic waves for NDE and SHM 26 1.6.1. Ultrasonic waves used for SHM 26 1.6.1.1. Bulk waves: longitudinal and shear waves 27 1.6.1.2. Guided waves: Rayleigh and Lamb waves, bar, plate and cylindrical guided waves 28 1.6.2. Active and passive ultrasonic inspection techniques 30 1.6.3. Transmitter-receiver arrangements for ultrasonic inspection 30 1.6.4. Different types of ultrasonic scanning 31 1.6.5. Guided wave inspection technique 32 1.6.5.1. One transmitter and one receiver arrangement 32 1.6.5.2. One transmitter and multiple receivers arrangement 35 1.6.5.3. Multiple transmitters and multiple receivers arrangement 36 1.6.6. Advanced techniques in ultrasonic NDE/SHM 36 1.6.6.1. Lazer ultrasonics 36 1.6.6.2. Measuring material non-linearity 37 1.7. Conclusion 38 1.8. Bibliography 38 Chapter 2. Health Monitoring of Composite Structures Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves 43Sauvik BANERJEE, Fabrizio RICCI, Frank SHIH and Ajit MAL 2.1. Introduction 43 2.2. Guided (Lamb) wave propagation in plates 46 2.2.1. Lamb waves in thin plates 51 2.2.2. Lamb waves in thick plates 55 2.3. Passive ultrasonic monitoring and characterization of low velocity impact damage in composite plates 60 2.3.1. Experimental set-up 60 2.3.2. Impact-acoustic emission test on a cross-ply composite plate 64 2.3.3. Impact test on a stringer stiffened composite panel 71 2.4. Autonomous active damage monitoring in composite plates 75 2.4.1. The damage index 76 2.4.2. Applications of the damage index approach 77 2.5. Conclusion 85 2.6. Bibliography 86 Chapter 3. Ultrasonic Measurement of Micro-acoustic Properties of the Biological Soft Materials 89Yoshifumi SAIJO 3.1. Introduction 89 3.2. Materials and methods 91 3.2.1. Acoustic microscopy between 100 and 200 MHz 91 3.2.2. Sound speed acoustic microscopy 95 3.2.3. Acoustic microscopy at 1.1 GHz 98 3.3. Results 99 3.3.1. Gastric cancer 99 3.3.2. Renal cell carcinoma 103 3.3.3. Myocardial infarction 104 3.3.4. Heart transplantation 106 3.3.5. Atherosclerosis 107 3.4. Conclusion 112 3.5. Bibliography 112 Chapter 4. Corrosion and Erosion Monitoring of Pipes by an Ultrasonic Guided Wave Method 115Geir INSTANES, Mads TOPPE, Balachander LAKSHMINARAYAN, and Peter B. NAGY 4.1. Introduction 115 4.2. Ultrasonic guided wave monitoring of average wall thickness in pipes 118 4.2.1. Guided wave inspection with dispersive Lamb-type guided modes 119 4.2.2. Averaging in CGV inspection 123 4.2.3. The influence of gating, true phase angle 129 4.2.4. Temperature influence on CGV guided wave inspection 132 4.2.5. Inversion of the average wall thickness in CGV guided wave inspection 134 4.2.6. Additional miscellaneous effects in CGV guided wave inspection 136 4.2.6.1. Fluid loading effects on CGV inspection 136 4.2.6.2. Surface roughness effects on CGV inspection 139 4.2.6.3. Pipe curvature effects on CGV inspection 141 4.3. Experimental validation 145 4.3.1. Laboratory tests 145 4.3.2. Field tests 151 4.4. Conclusion 153 4.5. Bibliography 155 Chapter 5. Modeling of the Ultrasonic Field of Two Transducers Immersed in a Homogenous Fluid Using the Distributed Point Source Method 159Rais AHMAD, Tribikram KUNDU and Dominique PLACKO 5.1. Introduction 159 5.2. Theory 160 5.2.1. Planar transducer modeling by the distribution of point source method 160 5.2.2. Computation of ultrasonic field in a homogenous fluid using DPSM 161 5.2.3. Matrix formulation 163 5.2.4. Modeling of ultrasonic field in a homogenous fluid in the presence of a solid scatterer 165 5.2.5. Interaction between two transducers in a homogenous fluid 169 5.3. Numerical results and discussion 171 5.3.1. Interaction between two parallel transducers 172 5.3.2. Interaction between an inclined and a flat transducer 184 5.3.3. Interaction between two inclined transducers 185 5.4. Conclusion 186 5.5. Acknowledgments 186 5.6. Bibliography 187 Chapter 6. Ultrasonic Scattering in Textured Polycrystalline Materials 189Liyong YANG, Goutam GHOSHAL and Joseph A. TURNER 6.1. Introduction 189 6.2. Preliminary elastodynamics 191 6.2.1. Ensemble average response 191 6.2.2. Spatial correlation function 195 6.3. Cubic crystallites with orthorhombic texture 197 6.3.1. Orientation distribution function 197 6.3.2. Effective elastic stiffness for rolling texture 199 6.3.3. Christoffel equation 201 6.3.4. Wave velocity and polarization 202 6.3.5. Phase velocity during annealing 207 6.3.6. Attenuation 210 6.4. Attenuation in hexagonal polycrystals with texture 215 6.4.1. Effective elastic stiffness for fiber texture 216 6.4.2. Attenuation 220 6.4.3. Numerical simulation 223 6.5. Diffuse backscatter in hexagonal polycrystals 229 6.6. Conclusion 232 6.7. Acknowledgments 233 6.8. Bibliography 233 Chapter 7. Embedded Ultrasonic NDE with Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors 237Victor GIURGIUTIU 7.1. Introduction to piezoelectric wafer active sensors 237 7.2. Guided-wave ultrasonic NDE and damage identification 240 7.3. PWAS ultrasonic transducers 242 7.4. Shear layer interaction between PWAS and structure 244 7.5. Tuned excitation of Lamb modes with PWAS transducers 246 7.6. PWAS phased arrays 249 7.7. Electromechanical impedance method for damage identification 255 7.8. Damage identification in aging aircraft panels 258 7.8.1. Classification of crack damage in the PWAS near-field 259 7.8.2. Classification of crack damage in the PWAS medium-field 260 7.8.2.1. Impact detection with piezoelectric wafer active sensors 263 7.8.2.2. Acoustic emission detection with piezoelectric wafer active sensors 266 7.9. PWAS Rayleigh waves NDE in rail tracks 268 7.10. Conclusion 268 7.11. Acknowledgments 269 7.12. Bibliography 269 Chapter 8. Mechanics Aspects of Non-linear Acoustic Signal Modulation due to Crack Damage 273Hwai-Chung WU and Kraig WARNEMUENDE 8.1. Introduction 273 8.1.1. Passive modulation spectrum 274 8.1.2. Active wave modulation 275 8.2. Damage in concrete 275 8.3. Stress wave modulation 280 8.3.1. Material non-linearity in concrete 281 8.3.2. Generation of non-linearity at crack interfaces 282 8.3.3. Unbonded planar crack interface in semi-infinite elastic media 289 8.3.4. Unbonded planar crack interface with multiple wave interaction 295 8.3.5. Plane crack with traction 301 8.3.6. Rough crack interface 307 8.4. Summary and conclusion 314 8.5. Bibliography 315 Chapter 9. Non-contact Mechanical Characterization and Testing of Drug Tablets 319Cetin CETINKAYA, Ilgaz AKSELI, Girindra N. MANI, Christopher F. LIBORDI and Ivin VARGHESE 9.1. Introduction 319 9.2. Drug tablet testing for mechanical properties and defects 321 9.2.1. Drug tablet as a composite structure: structure of a typical drug tablet 321 9.2.2. Basic manufacturing techniques: cores and coating layers 322 9.2.3. Tablet coating 323 9.2.4. Types and classifications of defects in tablets 325 9.2.5. Standard tablet testing methods 327 9.2.6. Review of other works 330 9.3. Non-contact excitation and detection of vibrational modes of drug tablets 332 9.3.1. Air-coupled excitation via transducers 334 9.3.2. LIP excitation via a pulsed lazer 336 9.3.3. Vibration plate excitation using direct pulsed lazer irradiation 338 9.3.4. Contact ultrasonic measurements 340 9.4. Mechanical quality monitoring and characterization 341 9.4.1. Basics of tablet integrity monitoring 341 9.4.2. Mechanical characterization of drug tablet materials 356 9.4.3. Numerical schemes for mechanical property determination 361 9.5. Conclusions, comments and discussions 365 9.6. Acknowledgments 367 9.7. Bibliography 367 Chapter 10. Split Hopkinson Bars for Dynamic Structural Testing 371Chul Jin SYN and Weinong W. CHEN 10.1. Introduction 371 10.2. Split Hopkinson bars 372 10.3. Using bar waves to determine fracture toughness 374 10.4. Determination of dynamic biaxial flexural strength 380 10.5. Dynamic response of micromachined structures 381 10.6. Conclusion 383 10.7. Bibliography 384 List of Authors 387 Index 391

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Book SynopsisThe second edition of this popular textbook thoroughly covers the practical basics and applications of conducting polymers. It also addresses materials that have gained prominence since the first edition of this book was published, namely carbon nanotubes and graphene.The features of this new edition include: New and updated chapters on novel concepts in conducting polymers Details on interdisciplinary applications of conducting polymers An in depth description of classes of conducting polymers Trade Review“The second edition of this popular textbook provides a comprehensive overview on the practical basics and applications of conducting polymers. It fulfills its intension of assisting various researchers from diverse fields to become familiar with fundamentals and applications of conducting polymers.” (Ralph Bäßler, Materials and Corrosion, 2018)Table of ContentsPart I: Carbon Nanotubes (CNTS), Fundamentals.- Introducing Carbon Nanotubes (CNTS).- Conduction Models and Electronic Structure of CNTS.- Synthesis, Purification and Chemical Modification of CNTS.- Physical, Mechanical and Thermal Properties of CNTS.- Toxicology of CNTS.- Part II: Carbon Nanotubes (CNTS), Applications.- Brief, General Overview of Applications.- CNT Applications in Specialized Materials.- CNT Applications in Batteries and Energy Devices.- CNT Applications in Sensors and Actuators.- CNT Applications in Drug and Biomolecule Delivery.- CNT Applications in Microelectronics, “Nanoelectronics” and “Nano-bioelectronics”.- CNT Applications in Displays and Transparent, Conductive Films/Substrates.- CNT Applications in Electrical Conductors, “Quantum Nanowires”, Potential Superconductors.- CNT Applications in the Environment and in Materials Used in Separation Science.- Miscellaneous CNT Applications.- Part III: Graphene, Fundamentals.- Introducing Graphene.- Electronic Structure and Conduction Models of Graphene.- Synthesis and Chemical Modification of Graphene.- Part IV: Graphene, Applications.- Brief, General Overview of Applications.- Graphene Applications in Sensors.- Graphene Applications in Batteries and Energy Devices.- Graphene Applications in Electronics, Electrical Conductors, and Related Uses.- Graphene Applications in Displays and Transparent, Conductive Films/Substrates.- Medical and Pharmaceutical Applications of Graphene.- Graphene Applications in Specialized Materials.- Miscellaneous Applications of Graphene.- Part V: Conducting Polymers, Fundamentals.- Introducting Conducting Polymers (CPS).- Conduction Models and Electronic Structure of CPS.- Basic Electrochromics of CPS.- Basic Electrochemistry of CPS.- Syntheses and Processing of CPS.- Structural Aspects and Morphology of CPS.- Characterization Methods.- Classes of CPS: Part 1.- Classes of CPS: Part 2.- Part VI: Conducting Polymers, Applications.- Sensors.- Batteries and Energy Devices.- Electrochromics.- Displays, Including Light Emitting Diodes (LEDS) and Conductive Films.- Microwave- and Conductivity-based Technologies.- Electro-optic and Optical Devices.- Electrochemomechanical, Chemomechanical and Related Devices.- Miscellaneous Applications.

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses the basic principles and traditional applications of fracture mechanics, as well as the cutting-edge research in the field over the last three decades in current topics like composites, thin films, nanoindentation, and cementitious materials.Experimental methods play a major role in the study of fracture mechanics problems and are used for the determination of the major fracture mechanics quantities such as stress intensity factors, crack tip opening displacements, strain energy release rates, crack paths, crack velocities in static and dynamic problems. These methods include electrical resistance strain gauges, photoelasticity, interferometry techniques, geometric and interferometry moiré, and the optical method of caustics.Furthermore, numerical methods are often used for the determination of fracture mechanics parameters. They include finite and boundary element methods, Green’s function and weight functions, boundary collocation, alternating methods, and integral transforms continuous dislocations.This third edition of the book covers the basic principles and traditional applications, as well as the latest developments of fracture mechanics. Featuring two new chapters and 30 more example problems, it presents a comprehensive overview of fracture mechanics, and includes numerous examples and unsolved problems. This book is suitable for teaching fracture mechanics courses at the undergraduate and graduate levels. A “solutions manual” is available for course instructors upon request.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction.- Chapter 2. Linear Elastic Stress Field in Cracked Bodies.- Chapter 3. Elastic-Plastic Stress Field in Cracked Bodies.- Chapter 4. Crack Growth Based on Energy Balance.- Chapter 5. Critical Stress Intensity Factor Fracture Criterion.- Chapter 6. J-Integral and Crack Opening Displacement Fracture Criteria.- Chapter 7. Strain Energy Density Failure Criterion: Mixed-Mode Crack Growth.- Chapter 8. Dynamic Fracture.- Chapter 9. Fatigue and Environment-Assisted Fracture.- Chapter 10. Micromechanics of Fracture.- Chapter 11. Composite Materials.- Chapter 12. Thin Films.- Chapter 13. Nanoindentation.- Chapter 14. Cementitious Materials.- Chapter 15. Experimental Methods.- Chapter 16. Numerical Methods.

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Book SynopsisWritten by three leading experts in the field, this textbook describes and explains all aspects of the scanning probe microscopy. Emphasis is placed on the experimental design and procedures required to optimize the performance of the various methods. Scanning Probe Microscopy covers not only the physical principles behind scanning probe microscopy but also questions of instrumental designs, basic features of the different imaging modes, and recurring artifacts. The intention is to provide a general textbook for all types of classes that address scanning probe microscopy. Third year undergraduates and beyond should be able to use it for self-study or as textbook to accompany a course on probe microscopy. Furthermore, it will be valuable as reference book in any scanning probe microscopy laboratory. Novel applications and the latest important results are also presented, and the book closes with a look at the future prospects of scanning probe microscopy, also discussing related techniques in nanoscience. Ideally suited as an introduction for graduate students, the book will also serve as a valuable reference for practising researchers developing and using scanning probe techniques.Table of ContentsIntroduction to Scanning Probe Microscopy.- Overview.- Basic Concepts.- Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy.- Tunneling: A Quantum-Mechanical Effect.- Instrumental Aspects.- Resolution Limits.- Observation of Confined Electrons.- Spin-Polarized Tunneling.- Observation of the Kondo Effect and Quantum Mirage.- Force Microscopy.- Concept and Instrumental Aspects.- Relevant Forces.- Operation Modes in Force Microscopy.- Contact Force Microscopy.- Dynamic Force Microscopy.- Tapping Mode Force Microscopy.- Further Modes of Force Microscopy.- Force Resolution and Thermal Noise.- High-speed AFM.- Multifrequency AFM.- MFM and Related Techniques.- MFM Operation Modes.- Contrast Formation.- Magnetic Resonance Force Microscopy.- Other Members of the SPM Family.- Artifacts in SPM.- Future Aspects of SPM.

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Book SynopsisThis volume highlights the latest advances, innovations, and applications in bituminous materials and structures and asphalt pavement technology, as presented by leading international researchers and engineers at the RILEM International Symposium on Bituminous Materials (ISBM), held in Lyon, France on December 14-16, 2020. The symposium represents a joint effort of three RILEM Technical Committees from Cluster F: 264-RAP “Asphalt Pavement Recycling”, 272-PIM “Phase and Interphase Behaviour of Bituminous Materials”, and 278-CHA “Crack-Healing of Asphalt Pavement Materials”. It covers a diverse range of topics concerning bituminous materials (bitumen, mastics, mixtures) and road, railway and airport pavement structures, including: recycling, phase and interphase behaviour, cracking and healing, modification and innovative materials, durability and environmental aspects, testing and modelling, multi-scale properties, surface characteristics, structure performance, modelling and design, non-destructive testing, back-analysis, and Life Cycle Assessment. The contributions, which were selected by means of a rigorous international peer-review process, present a wealth of exciting ideas that will open novel research directions and foster new multidisciplinary collaborations.

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Book SynopsisThis updated, second edition retains its classroom-tested treatment of physical chemistry of metallurgical topics, such as roasting of sulfide minerals, matte smelting, converting, structure, properties and theories of slag, reduction of oxides and reduction smelting, interfacial phenomena, steelmaking, secondary steelmaking, role of halides in extraction of metals, refining, hydrometallurgy and electrometallurgy, and adds new data in worked-out examples as well as up-to-date references to the literature. The book further explains the physical chemistry of various metallurgical topics, steps involved in extraction of metals, such as roasting, matte smelting/converting, reduction smelting, steelmaking reactions, deoxidation, stainless steelmaking, vacuum degassing, refining, leaching, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, solvent extraction, cementation, gaseous reduction and electrowinning. Each topic is illustrated with appropriate examples of applications of the technique in extraction of some common, reactive, rare, or refractory metal together with worked out problems explaining the principle of the operation. The problems require imagination and critical analyses and also encourage readers for creative application of thermodynamic data in metal extraction. Updates and condenses text throughout the book by sequential arrangement of paragraphs in different chapters; Maximizes readers’ understanding of the physicochemical principles involved in extraction/production of common and rare/reactive metals by pyro- as well as hydrometallurgical routes; Reinforces concepts presented with worked examples in each chapter explaining the process steps; Explains the physical chemistry of various metallurgical steps, such as roasting, matte smelting/converting, and reduction smelting, steelmaking, aqueous processing etc. in extraction of metals; Collects and uniformly presents scattered information on physicochemical principles of metal production from various books and journals. Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction.- Chapter 2. Roasting of Sulfide Minerals.- Chapter 3. Sulfide Smelting.- Chapter 4. Metallurgical Slag.- Chapter 5. Reduction of Oxides and Reduction Smelting.- Chapter 6. Interfacial Phenomena.- Chapter 7. Steelmaking.- Chapter 8.Secondary Steelmaking.- Chapter 9. Role of Halides in Extraction of Metals.- Chapter 10. Refining.- Chapter 11. Hydrometallurgy.- Chapter 12. Electrometallurgy.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents recent developments in the coating processes, sub processes and emphasizes on processes with the potential to improve performance quality and reproducibility. The book demonstrates how application methods, environmental factors, and chemical interactions affect each surface coating's performance. In addition, it provides analysis of latest polymers, carbon resins, high-temperature materials used for coatings and describes the development, chemical and physical properties, synthesis, polymerization, commercial uses and characteristics for each raw material and coating. Characterization techniques to solve the coating problems are also presented, as well as optimization studies to identify the critical coating parameters to ensure a robust process.Table of ContentsRecent Developments in the Coating Processes and Sub Processes.- Process Development improving the performance quality, reproducibility.- Effect on Performance of Surface Coating due to Application Methods.- Effect on Performance of Surface Coating due to Environmental Factors.- Effect on Performance of Surface Coating due to Chemical Interactions.- Materials Like Latest Polymers, Carbon Resins, High-Temperature Materials etc. Used in Coating and Their Characterizations.- Application of Optimization Techniques towards Optimal Coating Parameters.

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Book SynopsisThis book guides beginners in the areas of thin film preparation, characterization, and device making, while providing insight into these areas for experts. As chemically deposited metal oxides are currently gaining attention in development of devices such as solar cells, supercapacitors, batteries, sensors, etc., the book illustrates how the chemical deposition route is emerging as a relatively inexpensive, simple, and convenient solution for large area deposition. The advancement in the nanostructured materials for the development of devices is fully discussed.Table of ContentsProgress in Solution Processed Mixed Oxides.- Properties and Applications of the Electrochemically Synthesized Metal Oxide Thin Films.- Structural and Electronic Properties of Various Useful Metal Oxides.- Properties of Metal Oxides: Insights from First Principles Calculations.- Recent Progress in Metal Oxide for Photovoltaic Application.- Structural and Electronic Properties of Metal Oxides and their Applications in Solar Cells.- Optically active Metal Oxides for Photovoltaic Applications.- Metal oxides for Perovskite solar cells.- Doped metal oxide thin films for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell and other non-dye loaded.- Doped Metal Oxide Thin Films for Enhanced Solar Energy Applications.- Mixed Transition Metal Oxides for Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Production.- Plasmonic Metal Nanoparticles Decorated ZnO Nanostructures for Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Applications.- Oxygen-deficient metal oxide nanostructures for photocatalytic activities.- Oxygen-Deficient Iron Oxide Nanostructures for Photocatalytic Activities.- Properties of Titanium Dioxide-Based Nanostructures on Transparent Glass Substrates for Water Splitting and Photocatalytic Application.- Mixed Transition Metal Oxides for Energy Applications.- Nanosheets Derived Porous Materials and Coatings for Energy Storage Applications.- Role of Carbon Derivatives in Enhancing Metal Oxides Performances as Electrodes for Energy Storage Devices.- Hydrothermal synthesis of metal oxide composite cathode materials for high energy.- Metal Oxide Composite Cathode Material for High Energy Density Batteries.- Chemically Processed Transition Metal Oxides for Post-Lithium-Ion Battery Applications.- Nanostructured Metal Oxide-Based Electrode Materials for Ultracapacitors.- Nanoporous Metal Oxides for Supercapacitor Applications.- Nanoporous transition metal oxide-based electrodes for supercapacitor application.- Liquid phase deposition of nanostructured materials for Supercapacitor Applications.- Chemically processed metal oxides for sensing application: Heterojunction room.- Chemically Synthesized Novel Materials for Gas Sensing Applications Based on Metal Oxides Nanostructure.- Low-Temperature Processed Metal Oxides and Ion-exchanging Surfaces as pH Sensor.- Performance Evaluation of P-type Semiconducting Metal Oxides Based Gas Sensors.- Development Of InSb Nanostructures On GaSb Substrate By Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition: Design Considerations And Characterization.

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Book SynopsisThis book highlights the mechanical properties of nanomaterials produced by several techniques for various applications. The dislocations observed in specimens obtained in nanomaterials are discussed on the chapter about deformation process. Partial dislocations and grain boundary sliding deformation phenomena in nanomaterial specimens are also deeply discussed. Tests for tension, compression, and hardness are described. The behavior of nanomaterials is compared to macrosize specimens, and the results obtained for different fabrication methods are also compared. The special characteristics of nanomaterials are summarized at the end of the book.Table of ContentsPreface Contents About the Author 1 What are nanomaterials 2 Structure of nanomaterials 3 Basic concepts for producing nanomaterials 4 Imperfections in nanomaterial 5 Static deformation 5.1 tension 5.2 Compression 5.3 torsion 5.4 Flexure (bending) 5.5 Indentation – Hardness 6 Dynamic deformation 7 Time dependent deformation – Creep 8 cyclic deformation – Fatigue 9 Fracture in nanomaterials 10 Epilogue

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Book SynopsisIn this book, a precise treatment of the experimental characterization of advanced composite materials using Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is presented. The text explains test methods, testing setup with 2D- and stereo-DIC, specimen preparation and patterning, testing analysis and data reduction schemes to determine and to compare mechanical properties, such as modulus, strength and fracture toughness of advanced composite materials. Sensitivity and uncertainty studies on the DIC calculated data and mechanical properties for a detailed engineering-based understanding are covered instead of idealized theories and sugarcoated results. The book provides students, instructors, researchers and engineers in industrial or government institutions, and practitioners working in the field of experimental/applied structural mechanics of materials a myriad of color figures from DIC measurements for better explanation, datasets of material properties serving as input parameters for analytical modelling, raw data and computer codes for data reduction, illustrative graphs for teaching purposes, practice exercises with solutions provided online and extensive references to the literature at the end of each stand-alone chapter.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction and Theoretical Background.- Chapter 2. Tensile Testing.- Chapter 3. V-Notched Specimen Testing.- Chapter 4. Flexural Testing.- Chapter 5. Delamination Resistance Testing.- Chapter 6. Summary and Discussion.

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Book SynopsisChallenges in Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials, Mechanics of Biological Systems and Materials, and Micro-and Nanomechanics, Volume 2 of the Proceedings of the 2021 SEM Annual Conference & Exposition on Experimental and Applied Mechanics, the second volume of four from the Conference, brings together contributions to this important area of research and engineering. The collection presents early findings and case studies on fundamental and applied aspects of Experimental Mechanics, including papers in the following general technical research areas: Characterization Across Length Scales Extreme Conditions & Environmental Effects Damage, Fatigue and Fracture Structure, Function and Performance Rate Effects in Elastomers Viscoelasticity & Viscoplasticity Research in Progress Extreme Nanomechanics In-Situ Nanomechanics Expanding Boundaries in Metrology Micro and Nanoscale Deformation MEMS for Actuation, Sensing and Characterization 1D & 2D Materials Cardiac Mechanics Cell Mechanics Biofilms and Microbe Mechanics Traumatic Brain Injury Orthopedic Biomechanics Ligaments and Soft MaterialsTable of ContentsChapter 1. Advance of Collaborative Twinning Fields in Magnesium AZ31 via the Strain and Residual Intensity Channels in Microscopic Image Correlation.- Chapter 2. Time Dependent Materials Response of Transverse Impact on Model Beams.- Chapter 3. Wearable Device for Tremor Suppression.- Chapter 4. Fractional Viscoelastic Modeling Enabling Accurate Atomic Force Microscope Contact Resonance Spectroscopy Characterization.- Chapter 5. A Method for Measuring Displacement and Strain Around a Crack of Rubber Sheets Using Digital Image Correlation.- Chapter 6. Understanding the Nano-scale Deformation Mechanisms of Polyurea from in-situ AFM Tensile Experiments.- Chapter 7. Porosity Determination and Classification of Laser Powder Bed Fusion AlSi10Mg Dogbones Using Machine Learning.- Chapter 8. Constitutive Modelling of the Dynamic Behavior of Cork Material.- Chapter 9. The Penetration Dynamics of a Violent Cavitation Bubble through a Hydrogel-water Interface.- Chapter 10. Effects of Hydration on the Mechanical Response of a PVA Hydrogel.- Chapter 11. Gaussian Process to Identify Hydrogel Constitutive Model.- Chapter 12. Effect of Host Surface Factors on Biocompatible Adhesion Index.- Chapter 13. Mass Mitigation in Structural Designs Via Dynamic Properties.- Chapter 14. High Temperature Burst Creep Properties of Nuclear-grade FeCrAl Fuel Cladding.

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Book SynopsisThis book focuses on recent advances in dental gold alloys and gold nanoparticles (GNPs) for biomedical applications. Dental gold alloys combine several highly desirable mechanical properties, such as high strength, ductility, and elasticity, with an extremely robust chemical stability in the mouth. Moreover, astonishing progress has been made in the use of GNPs as novel gold biomaterials that provide a multifunctional platform for cellular imaging, biosensing, and targeted drug delivery in tumour immunotherapy and photothermal therapy. Beginning with a comprehensive overview of the development and use of dental gold alloys, the book addresses the materials properties that are crucial for dental applications, focusing on aspects such as microstructure, chemical and mechanical stability, ageing, biocompatibility, and colour retention. The book then shifts focus to the use of GNPs in dental applications, delving into different techniques of GNP synthesis for specifically tailoring the size, shape, and stability of GNPs in biological media. In addition to these factors, it addresses how their exposure route, surface chemistry, as well as how the steric effects of their coating impact biodistribution and determine the level of GNP toxicity in the human body. Featuring topical literature reviews alongside up-to-date published experimental results, this book offers an attractive resource for practicing scientists and engineers working in the field of gold-based biomaterials.Table of Contents

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Book SynopsisThis book presents the latest advances and emerging trends in research and industrial applications in non-destructive testing, manufacturing and process safety and diagnostics and materials science. With technological advances, the modern world is on the verge of a new industrial revolution, being in the stage of digital transformation, when innovations from different industries interpenetrate and complement each other. The School of Non-Destructive Testing, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia, promotes scientific research and industrial application of non-destructive testing and materials science technologies and related tests, as well as methods, to ensure safe manufacturing processes.Today, research and technology advancement is driven by innovations, and there is a need for publications to stimulate the formation and continuous training of specialists in non-destructive testing, materials science and safety. This book can be used as a complementary technical document to upgrade the skills of specialists in non-destructive testing, materials science and safety, and as a primary resource for training managers and decision-makers in various industries.Innovations in the fields of non-destructive testing, production and process safety, diagnostics and materials science and books that highlight the best and instructive are central to our technological world.I am pleased to see this comprehensive book taking shape and advancing this field to the next generation of scientists seeking for new research opportunities.Table of ContentsInnovation in Non-Destructive Testing.- Innovations in the field of production and process safety.- Innovations in Technical Diagnostics and Materials Science.

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Book SynopsisThe book presents topical theoretical and experimental studies for developing advanced methods of detecting materials fracture and assessing their structural state using acoustic emission. It introduces new mathematical models characterizing the displacement fields arising from crack-like defects and establishes a new criterion for classifying different types of materials fracture based on specific parameters obtained from wavelet transforms of acoustic emission signals. The book applies this approach to experimental studies in three types of materials—fiber-reinforced composites, dental materials, and hydrogen-embrittled steels.Table of Contents1 Macrofracture of Structural Materials and Methods of Determining its Type................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Types of Structural Materials Fracture................................................................ 1 1.2 Application of the Acoustic Emission Method to Detect the Fracture of Structural Materials...................................................................... 8 1.3 Detection of Defects by Signals of Magnetoelastic Acoustic Emission ................................................................ 19 1.4 Methods of Spectral Analysis of AE Signals................................................... 21 1.5 Application of Wavelet Transform for Analysis of AE signals........................................................................................... 31 References............................................................................................................................... 43 2 Mathematical Models for Displacement Fields Caused by the Crack in an Elastic Half-Space............................................................................ 61 2.1 Basic Relations of Three-Dimensional Dynamic Problems of the Theory of Elasticity for Bodies with Cracks........................................... 62 2.2 Modeling of Wave Displacements Field on the Half-Space Surface due to Displacement of the Internal Crack Faces............................... 68 References............................................................................................................................ 102 3 Energy Criterion for Identification of the Types of Material Macrofracture............................................................................................. 105 3.1 Methods for Identifying the Types of Macrofracture................................... 105 3.2 Construction of the Energy Criterion.............................................................. 108 3.3 Continuous Wavelet Transform of the AE Signals Emitted under Fracture of Aluminum and its Alloy...................................................... 123 3.4 Specific Features of the Acoustic Emission Signals During Fracture of Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints under Quasi-Static Loading............................................................................................ 130 3.5 AE-identification of the Types of Fracture during Low-Temperature Creep Crack Growth........................................................... 135 3.6 Application of the Wavelet Transform to Study the Features of Non-Metallic Materials Fracture................................................... 140 References............................................................................................................................ 144 vii 4 Evaluation of the Types and Mechanisms of Fracture of Composite Materials According to Energy Criteria...................................... 151 4.1 Specific Features of Macrofracture of the Glass Fiber Reinforced Composites............................................................................ 152 4.2 AE-diagnostics of Fracture of the Aramid Fiber Reinforced Composites............................................................................ 159 References............................................................................................................................ 179 5 Ranking of Dental Materials and Orthopedic Constructions by their Tendency to Fracture.................................................................................. 185 5.1 State-of-the Art of Researches on Mechanical Properties of Dental Materials............................................................................................. 186 5.2 Determination of the Characteristics of Materials for Temporary Fixed Constructions of Dentures...................................................................... 187 5.3 Evaluation of the Types of Dental Polymer Fracture by the Energy Criterion........................................................................................... 199 5.4 Peculiarities of Some Tooth-Endocrown Systems Fracture under Quasi-Static Loading............................................... 205 References............................................................................................................................ 220 6 Rating of Hydrogen Damaging of Steels by Wavelet Transform of Magnetoelastic Acoustic Emission Signals................................. 227 6.1 Some Aspects of Operation the Technical Systems in Hydrogenous Medium................................................................................... 228 6.2 Method for Estimating the Hydrogen Damage of Structural Materials by Wavelet Transform of MAE Signals........................................ 232 6.3 Approbation of the Research Technigue on Specimens of Long-Term Operated Pipe Steels..................................................................... 244 References............................................................................................................................ 255

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Book SynopsisThis book is devoted to the construction of space group representations, their tabulation, and illustration of their use. Representation theory of space groups has a wide range of applications in modern physics and chemistry, including studies of electron and phonon spectra, structural and magnetic phase transitions, spectroscopy, neutron scattering, and superconductivity. The book presents a clear and practical method of deducing the matrices of all irreducible representations, including double-valued, and tabulates the matrices of irreducible projective representations for all 32 crystallographic point groups. One obtains the irreducible representations of all 230 space groups by multiplying the matrices presented in these compact and convenient to use tables by easily computed factors. A number of applications to the electronic band structure calculations are illustrated through real-life examples of different crystal structures. The book's content is accessible to both graduate and advanced undergraduate students with elementary knowledge of group theory and is useful to a wide range of experimentalists and theorists in materials and solid-state physics.Table of ContentsScope and Overview.- Mathematical Preliminaries.- Induced Representations.- Projective Representations.- Representations of the Space Groups.- Tables.- Group Theory and Quantum Mechanics.

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Book SynopsisThis monograph presents the theoretical background of the industrial process for the production of Al-Si alloys in standard aluminum electrolyzers. It reviews the physical chemistry and electrochemistry of cryolite melts containing silica and focuses on analyzing the exchange reactions in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 melts. It presents the kinetics and mechanism of Si(IV) electroreduction in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 melts on Al cathodes while the current yields as well as industrial tests performed are discussed. The modern research trends in the field are also overviewed. Providing readers with information not easily obtained in any other single source, this book is of great interest to researchers, graduates, and professionals working in the fields of electrochemistry and technology of cryolite-based melts.Table of ContentsChapter 1: Exchange reactions in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 meltsChapter 2: Kinetics and mechanism of Si(IV) electroreduction in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 melts on Al cathodeChapter 3: Current YieldChapter 4: Industrial TestsChapter 5: Modern Research Trends

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Book Synopsis1. Chemical and Physical advancement in the development of new materials and methods for the conservation/restoration of CH.- 2. Future trends in conservation and restoration technology: biotechnology, nanotechnology, tailored materials, physical technologies.- 3. Ice-dry sandblasting method (CO2).- 4. Stone physical and petrochemical characterization.- 5. Methods and instruments for the conservation diagnosis and treatments.

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Book SynopsisThe electrophoresis techniques are used in medicine, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and biology to separate soluble and insoluble proteins, nucleic acids, chromosomes, viruses, as well as lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles, red cells, tissue cells, and parasites. This book provides a view over the old electrophoresis techniques, as well as the recent developments in electrophoresis. Electrophoresis Fundamentals is based on the recent book Electrophoresis: Theory and Practice published in 2020 by De Gruyter. The previous book combines theory and technical applications with troubleshooting and problem solving. While Electrophoresis is intended for specialists, Electrophoresis Fundamentals is a book for laboratory technicians, students, biochemists, general practitioners, and more.

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Book SynopsisThis book emphasises both experimental and theoretical aspects of surface, interface and thin-film physics. As in previous editions the preparation of surfaces and thin films, their atomic and morphological structure, their vibronic and electronic properties as well as fundamentals of adsorption are treated. Because of their importance in modern information technology and nanostructure research, particular emphasis is paid to electronic surface and interface states, semiconductor space charge layers and heterostructures. A special chapter of the book is devoted to collective phenomena at interfaces and in thin films such as superconductivity and magnetism. The latter topic includes the meanwhile important issues giant magnetoresistance and spin-transfer torque mechanism, both effects being of high interest in information technology. In this new edition, for the first time, the effect of spin-orbit coupling on surface states is treated. In this context the class of the recently detected topological insulators, materials of significant importance for spin electronics, are discussed. Particular emphasis, hereby, is laid on the new type of topologically protected surface states with well-defined spin orientation. Furthermore, some important well established experimental techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and reflection anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS), which were missing so far in earlier editions, were added in this new 6th edition of the book.Table of ContentsSurface and Interface Physics: Its Definition and Importance.- Preparation of Well-Defined Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.- Morphology and Structure of Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.- Scattering from Surfaces and Thin Films.- Surface Phonons.- Electronic Surface States.- Space-Charge Layers at Semiconductor Inferfaces.- Metal–Semiconductor Junctions and Semiconductor Heterostructures.- Collective Phenomena at Interfaces:Superconductivity and Ferromagnetism.- Adsorption on Solid Surfaces.

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Book SynopsisThis textbook provides an introduction to changes that occur in solids such as ceramics, mainly at high temperatures, which are diffusion controlled, as well as presenting research data. Such changes are related to the kinetics of various reactions such as precipitation, oxidation and phase transformations, but are also related to some mechanical changes, such as creep.The book is composed of two parts, beginning with a look at the basics of diffusion according to Fick's Laws. Solutions of Fick’s second law for constant D, diffusion in grain boundaries and dislocations are presented along with a look at the atomistic approach for the random motion of atoms. In the second part, the author discusses diffusion in several technologically important ceramics. The ceramics selected are monolithic single phase ones, including: A12O3, SiC, MgO, ZrO2 and Si3N4. Of these, three refer to oxide ceramics (alumina, magnesia and zirconia). Carbide based ceramics are represented by the technologically very important Si-carbide and nitride based ceramics are represented by Si-nitride which has been important in high temperature ceramics and gas turbine applications.The author presents a clear, concise and relatively comprehensive treatment of diffusion in ceramics for use by those at an advanced undergraduate level and beyond. It supports understanding of the basic behavior of materials and how to relate observed physical properties to microscopic understanding. The book also provides researchers with a handy collation of data relating to diffusion in ceramics and supports a fundamental understanding of atomic movements.Table of ContentsPart A Fundamentals of Diffusion 1 Macroscopic Diffusion2 Microscopic (or Atomic) Diffusion3 Defects in Materials4 Mechanism of Diffusion5 Self Diffusion, Solute Diffusion, Diffusion in Ionic Crystals and Correlation Effects 6 Interdiffusion7 Diffusion in Grain Boundaries8 Diffusion in Dislocations9 Experimental Methods and Procedures10 Empirical RulesPart B Diffusion in Ceramics (Experimental)11 Diffusion in Alumina Single Crystals12 Diffusion in Silicon Carbide (Carborundum)13 Diffusion in MgO (Magnesia or Periclase)14 Diffusion in ZrO2 (Zirconia) Single Crystals15 Diffusion in Si3N4 Single CrystalsIndex

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Book SynopsisThis book emphasises both experimental and theoretical aspects of surface, interface and thin-film physics. As in previous editions the preparation of surfaces and thin films, their atomic and morphological structure, their vibronic and electronic properties as well as fundamentals of adsorption are treated. Because of their importance in modern information technology and nanostructure research, particular emphasis is paid to electronic surface and interface states, semiconductor space charge layers and heterostructures. A special chapter of the book is devoted to collective phenomena at interfaces and in thin films such as superconductivity and magnetism. The latter topic includes the meanwhile important issues giant magnetoresistance and spin-transfer torque mechanism, both effects being of high interest in information technology. In this new edition, for the first time, the effect of spin-orbit coupling on surface states is treated. In this context the class of the recently detected topological insulators, materials of significant importance for spin electronics, are discussed. Particular emphasis, hereby, is laid on the new type of topologically protected surface states with well-defined spin orientation. Furthermore, some important well established experimental techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and reflection anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS), which were missing so far in earlier editions, were added in this new 6th edition of the book.Table of ContentsSurface and Interface Physics: Its Definition and Importance.- Preparation of Well-Defined Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.- Morphology and Structure of Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.- Scattering from Surfaces and Thin Films.- Surface Phonons.- Electronic Surface States.- Space-Charge Layers at Semiconductor Inferfaces.- Metal–Semiconductor Junctions and Semiconductor Heterostructures.- Collective Phenomena at Interfaces:Superconductivity and Ferromagnetism.- Adsorption on Solid Surfaces.

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Book SynopsisThe Light Metals symposia at the TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition present the most recent developments, discoveries, and practices in primary aluminum science and technology. The annual Light Metals volume has become the definitive reference in the field of aluminum production and related light metal technologies. The 2017 collection includes papers from the following symposia:Alumina and BauxiteAluminum Alloys, Processing, and CharacterizationAluminum Reduction TechnologyCast Shop TechnologyCast Shop Technology: Recycling and Sustainability Joint SessionElectrode TechnologyThe Science of Melt Refining: An LMD Symposium in Honor of Christian Simensen and Thorvald Abel EnghTrade Review Table of Contents

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Book SynopsisThis collection highlights materials research and innovations for a wide breadth of energy systems and technologies. The volume includes papers organized into the following sections:Energy and Environmental Issues in Materials Manufacturing and ProcessingMaterials in Clean PowerMaterials for Coal-Based PowerMaterials for Energy Conversion with Emphasis on SOFCMaterials for Gas TurbinesMaterials for Nuclear EnergyMaterials for Oil and GasTable of ContentsPart 1: Energy and Environmental Issues in Materials Manufacturing and Processing: Opportunities in the Steel Industry.- Waste Energy Recovery Technology of Iron and Steel Industry in China.- Green Manufacturing Process of Shougang Jingtang Steel Plant.- The Introduction and Process Optimization Research of Oxygen Blast Furnace Ironmaking Technology.- Prediction and optimal scheduling of byproduct gases in steel mill: Trends and challenges.- Processing Non-Oriented Electrical Steels Using Inclined/Skew Rolling Schemes.- A Possible Way for Efficient Utilization of Coal Energy: The Combined Process of Ironmaking with Gasoline Synthesis and Electricity Generation.- The influence of water vapour on the fuming rate in a ferromanganese system.- Part 2: Energy and Environmental Issues in Materials Manufacturing and Processing: Opportunities in Aluminum Production, Waste Heat and Water Recovery.- Approach for pyrolysis gas release modelling and its potential for enhanced energy efficiency of aluminium remelting furnaces.- Numerical approach for the implementation of the interaction of pyrolysis gases and combustion products in an aluminium melting furnace.- Fluoropolymer Coated Condensing Heat Exchangers for Low-grade Waste Heat Recovery.- Nitrate and other anion removal from waste water using the Hydroflex technology.- Mechanical Analysis of Raceway Formation in Bulk Bed of Blast Furnace.- Part 3: Materials for Coal-Based Power: Materials For Coal-Based Power: Session I.- Ni-Fe based alloy GH984G used for 700 coal-fired power plant.- Part 4: Materials for Coal-Based Power: Materials For Coal-Based Power: Session II.- Creep strength and oxidation resistance of industrially made G115 Steel pipe.- Accelerated creep test for new steels and welds.- Part 5: Materials for Coal-Based Power: Materials For Coal-Based Power: Session IV.- The Reliability Analysis of 12Cr1MoVG and T23 Used for USC Boilers Water Wall.- Part 6: Materials for Coal-Based Power: Poster Session.- Effect of high-frequency induction hardening on stress corrosion of a 12% Cr martensitic stainless steel.- Fireside corrosion behaviors of Inconel 740 H superalloy in various SO2 contents.- High Cycle Fatigue Behavior of HAYNES282 Superalloy.- Recent Development in the Characteristics of Alloy 625 for A-USC Steam Turbine Castings.- Part 7: Materials for Gas Turbines: Coatings.- EVOLUTION OF THE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF Sm2Zr2O7 UNDER CMAS ATTACK.- Part 8: Materials for Gas Turbines: Hot Corrosion and New Materials.- Development of a new high strength and hot corrosion resistant directionally solidified superalloy DZ409.- Part 9: Materials for Gas Turbines: Microstructure and Processing.- Modeling the Diffusion of Minor Elements in Different MCrAlY – Superalloy Substrates at High Temperature.- ON HEALING MECHANISM OF CAST POROSITIES IN CAST NI-BASED SUPERALLOY BY HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSING.- The Influence of Dendritic Segregation Degree to the Recrystallization Nucleation in U4720LI.- Part 10: Materials for Gas Turbines: Poster Session.- Stress Rupture Properties of Alloy 783.- Study on the Undercoolability and Single Crystal Castability of Nickel-Based Superalloys.- Part 11: Materials for Nuclear Energy: Materials for Nuclear Applications I.- Enhancing the High-Cycle Fatigue Property of 316 Austenitic Stainless Steels through Introduction of Mechanical Twins by Cold-Drawing.- Part 12: Materials for Nuclear Energy: Materials for Nuclear Applications II.- Microstructure Evolution of a Reactor Pressure Vessel Steel during High-temperature Tempering.- Part 13: Materials for Nuclear Energy: Environmental Effects.- Effect of Steam Pressure on the Oxidation Behaviour of Alloy 625.- Friction Stir Processing of Degraded Austenitic Stainless Steel Nuclear Fuel Dry Cask Storage System Canisters.- Part 14: Materials for Nuclear Energy: Accident Tolerant Fuels & Irradiation Effects.- The Mechanical Response of Advanced Claddings during Proposed Reactivity Initiated Accident Conditions.- First principles investigations of alternative nuclear fuels.- Comparative study of thermal conductivity of SiC and BeO from ab initio calculations.- Part 15: Materials for Oil and Gas and AMREE Oil & Gas III.- Anisotropic behaviors for X100 high grade pipeline steel under stress constraints.- Co-relation of microstructural features with tensile and toughness characteristics of X70 grade steel.- Development and applications of new generation Ni-containing cryogenic steels in China.- Microstructure analysis and weldability investigation of stainless steel clad plate.- Microstructure and Properties of High Performance Pipeline Steels.- Sensitivity variation of nanomaterials at different operating temperature conditions.

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Book SynopsisThis advanced comprehensive textbook introduces the practical application of phase diagrams to the thermodynamics of materials consisting of several phases. It describes the fundamental physics and thermodynamics as well as experimental methods, treating all material classes: metals, glasses, ceramics, polymers, organic materials, aqueous solutions. With many application examples and realistic cases from chemistry and materials science, it is intended for students and researchers in chemistry, metallurgy, mineralogy, and materials science as well as in engineering and physics. The authors treat the nucleation of phase transitions, the production and stability of technologically important metastable phases, and metallic glasses. Also concisely presented are the thermodynamics and composition of polymer systems. This innovative text puts this powerful analytical approach into a readily understandable and practical context, perhaps for the first time.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews : "This graduate textbook introduces the practical application of phase diagrams for students and researchers in materials science, chemistry, and mineralogy, as well as engineering and physics. Heterogeneous equilibria are illustrated by practical examples in different application fields, while theory is kept to a minimum. An emphasis is placed on providing tools for predicting energetic, structural, and physical quantities." (Materials Today) "Predel and colleagues offer a good resource for students and professionals who wish to learn more about the practical aspects of phase equilibria … . Unlike most other books on the subject, this practical introduction provides detailed, yet remarkably clear, description of physical phenomena … . The descriptions are enhanced with more than 250 phase diagrams, micrographs, and other illustrations involving both real and idealized systems. … Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through professionals in materials-related fields." (D.D. Edwards, CHOICE, Vol. 42 (10), June, 2005) Table of Contents1 Fundamental Facts and Concepts.- 2 Phase Equilibria in One-Component Systems.- 3 Phase Equilibria in Two-Component Systems Under Exclusion of the Gas Phase.- 4 Phase Equilibria in Three-Component Systems and Four-Component Systems with Exclusion of the Gas Phase.- 5 Phase Equilibria Including a Vapor Phase.- 6 Thermodynamics.- 7 Nucleation During Phase Transitions.- 8 Metastable Phases.- 9 Effect of Diffusion on Phase Transformations.- 10 Organic and Polymeric Materials.

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Oberflächentechnologien — ein Überblick.- 1.1 Einleitung.- 1.2 Überblick über Beschichtungsmethoden und ihre Anwendungen.- 1.2.1 PVD-Prozesse.- 1.2.2 CVD-Prozesse.- 1.2.3 Plasmapolymerisation.- 1.2.4 Elektrochemische Abscheidung.- 1.2.5 Chemische Abscheidung.- 1.2.6 Thermische Spritzverfahren.- 1.2.7 Auftragschweißen.- 1.2.8 Plattier-Verfahren.- 1.2.9 Abscheidung aus der metallischen Schmelze.- 1.2.10 Abscheidung von Schichten aus organischen Polymeren.- 1.2.11 Schichtdickenbereiche und Aufwachsraten.- 1.3 Überblick über die Methoden zur Modifizierung der Randschicht.- 1.4 Zur Unterscheidung: dünne Schicht - dicke Schicht.- 1.5 Zum Aufbau des Buches.- 2 Haftfestigkeit und MikroStruktur der Schichten, Vorbehandlung der Substrate.- 2.1 Einleitung.- 2.2 Übergangs(Interface)-Zone zwischen Substrat und Schicht.- 2.2.1 Keimbildung und Schichtaufbau.- 2.2.2 Mechanischer Übergang.- 2.2.3 Monoschicht/Monoschicht-Übergang.- 2.2.4 Verbindungsübergang.- 2.2.5 Diffusionsübergang.- 2.2.6 Pseudodiffusionsübergang.- 2.3 MikroStruktur von PVD-Kondensaten.- 2.3.1 Strukturzonen-Modelle.- 2.3.2 Einfluß des Inertgasdruckes auf die Struktur.- 2.3.3 Einfluß des Ionenbombardements auf die Struktur.- 2.4 Inkorporation von Fremdatomen.- 2.5 Innere Spannungen in der Schicht.- 2.6 Haftfestigkeit der Schicht.- 2.7 Zeitliche Änderungen der Haftfestigkeit.- 2.8 Folgerungen in bezug auf die Vorbereitung der Substrate.- 2.8.1 Glas-und Oxidkeramik-Oberflächen als Substrate.- 2.8.1.1 Vorreinigung.- 2.8.1.2 Glimmentladungsreinigung.- 2.8.1.3 Sputterreinigung.- 2.8.1.4 Möglichkeiten zur Verbesserung der Haftfestigkeit.- 2.8.2 Metalloberflächen als Substrate.- 2.8.3 Organische Polymere als Substrate.- 3 Meß- und Prüftechnik von Oberflächen und dünnen Schichten.- 3.1. Messung der Schichtdicke und der Depositionsrate.- 3.1.1 Gravimetrische Methoden.- 3.1.1.1 Schwingquarz-Methode.- 3.1.1.2 Mikrowägung.- 3.1.1.3 Dosierte Massezufuhr.- 3.1.1.4 Quantitative Beschichtung.- 3.1.2 Optische Methoden.- 3.1.2.1 Photometer-Methode.- 3.1.2.2 Weitere optische Methoden.- 3.1.3 Direkte Meßmethoden.- 3.1.3.1 Stylus-Methode.- 3.1.3.2 Messung mit dem Licht-und dem Elektronenmikroskop.- 3.1.4 Auf der Messung elektrischer oder magnetischer Größen beruhende Methoden.- 3.1.4.1 Widerstandsmeßmethode.- 3.1.4.2 Kapazitätsmeßmethode.- 3.1.4.3 Wirbelstrommeßmethode.- 3.1.4.4 Coulometrische Meßmethode.- 3.1.4.5 Magnetische Meßmethode.- 3.1.4.6 Methode der Durchschlagspannung.- 3.1.4.7 Ultraschall-Impulsecho-Methode.- 3.1.5 Auf Teilchen-Wechselwirkungen beruhende Methoden.- 3.1.5.1 Verdampfungsrate-Monitor und optische Emissionsspektrometrie.- 3.1.5.2 Weitere auf Wechselwirkungen beruhende Methoden.- 3.2 Analyse der chemischen Zusammensetzung.- 3.2.1 Elektronenstrahl-Mikroanalyse (EPM).- 3.2.2 Auger-Elektronenspektroskopie (AES).- 3.2.3 Photoelektronenspektroskopie (ESCA).- 3.2.4 Sekundärionen-Massenspektrometrie (SIMS).- 3.2.5 Sekundär-Neutralteilchen-Massenspektrometrie (SNMS).- 3.2.6 Ionen-Streuspektroskopie (ISS).- 3.2.7 Rutherford-Rückstreuungsspektroskopie (RBS) und andere Hochenergiemethoden.- 3.2.8 Zur Anwendung der Oberflächenanalytik.- 3.3 Untersuchung der mikrogeometrischen und der kristallinen Struktur.- 3.4 Untersuchung physikalischer Eigenschaften der Schichten.- 3.5 Untersuchung mechanisch-technologischer Eigenschaften.- 3.5.1 Mikrohärte.- 3.5.2 Haftfestigkeit.- 3.5.3 Reibung und Verschleiß.- 3.5.4 Eigenspannungen.- 3.6 Funktionsorientierte Prüfverfahren.- 4 Plasmen in der Oberflächentechnologie.- 4.1 Einleitung.- 4.2 Erzeugung von Niederdruckplasmen.- 4.3 Plasmakenngrößen.- 4.3.1 Trägerdichte und Ionisierungsgrad.- 4.3.2 Elektronen-und Ionentemperatur.- 4.3.3 Mittlere freie Weglänge und Wirkungsquerschnitte.- 4.3.4 Stoßfrequenzen.- 4.3.5 Beweglichkeiten und Diffusionskoefílzienten.- 4.3.6 Elektrische Leitfähigkeit.- 4.3.7 Teilchenbewegung im Magnetfeld.- 4.4 Kollektive Phänomene.- 4.4.1 Kenngrößen.- 4.4.2 Raumladungsschichten und Ströme auf Elektroden im Plasma.- 4.4.3 Bestimmung der Plasmaparameter.- 4.5 Hochfrequenzentladungen und das Prinzip des HF-Sputterns.- 4.6 Reaktionen im Plasma.- 4.6.1 Volumenreaktionen.- 4.6.2 Oberflächenreaktionen.- 4.6.2.1 Reaktionen durch Ionenbombardement.- 4.6.2.2 Reaktionen durch Elektronenbombardement.- 5 Bedampfungstechniken.- 5.1 Einleitung.- 5.2 Grundlagen des Bedampfungsprozesses.- 5.2.1 Forderungen an den Restgasdruck.- 5.2.2 Zum Vakuumsystem.- 5.2.3 Verdampfungsrate und Dampfdruck.- 5.2.4 Räumliche Verteilung der Dampfstromdichte und Verteilung der Schichtdicke auf verschiedenen Substraten.- 5.2.5 Substratträger und Schichtdickengleichmäßigkeit.- 5.2.6 Aufdampfmaterialien.- 5.2.6.1 Chemische Elemente.- 5.2.6.2 Chemische Verbindungen.- 5.2.6.3 Legierungen, Mischungen.- 5.2.7 Spezielle Verfahren zur Erzielung von Schichten definierter Zusammensetzung.- 5.2.7.1 Mehrquellenverdampfung.- 5.2.7.2 Eintiegelverdampfung mit kontinuierlicher Materialnachlieferung.- 5.2.7.3 Flash-Verdampfung.- 5.2.7.4 Reaktive Bedampfung.- 5.2.7.5 Aktivierte reaktive Bedampfung.- 5.3 Verdampfungsquellen.- 5.3.1 Widerstandsheizung.- 5.3.1.1 Direkte Widerstandsheizung.- 5.3.1.2 Indirekte Widerstandsheizung.- 5.3.2 Induktive Heizung.- 5.3.3 Elektronenstrahlverdampfer.- 5.3.3.1 Verdampfer mit Transversal-Elektronenkanone.- 5.3.3.2 Verdampfer mit Axial-Elektronenkanone.- 5.3.4 Weitere Verdampfungsmethoden.- 5.3.5 Kontinuierliche Verdampfung.- 5.4 Automatische Pumpstand- und Verdampfungssteuerungen.- 5.5 Ausführungsformen von Beschickungsanlagen.- 5.6 Anwendungen.- 6 Sputtertechniken.- 6.1 Einleitung.- 6.2 Gesetzmäßigkeiten des Sputterprozesses.- 6.2.1 Sputtern von elementaren, polykristallinen Materialien.- 6.2.1.1 Sputterausbeute.- 6.2.1.2 Energie-und Winkelverteilung der abgestäubten Atome.- 6.2.1.3 Mechanismus des Sputterprozesses.- 6.2.2 Sputtern von Legierungen.- 6.2.3 Sputtern von Verbindungen.- 6.2.4 Reaktives Sputtern.- 6.3 Praktische Ausführung verschiedener Sputtertechniken.- 6.3.1 Planare Dioden mit Gleich-und HF-Spannung.- 6.3.2 Triodensystem mit fremderregtem Plasma.- 6.3.3 Magnetron-Sputtersysteme.- 6.3.3.1 Zylindrische Magnetrons mit elektrostatischem Plasmaeinschluß.- 6.3.3.2 Zylindrische Magnetrons mit magnetischem Plasmaeinschluß.- 6.3.3.3 Planare Magnetrons und Sputter-Gun-Magnetrons.- 6.3.3.4 Hochfrequenzbetriebene Magnetrons.- 6.3.4 Ionenstrahl-Sputtern.- 6.3.5 Sputtertargets.- 6.3.5.1 Herstellung der Targetmaterialien.- 6.3.5.2 Kühlung der Targets..- 6.3.5.3 Mit planaren Magnetrons erzielbare Depositionsraten.- 6.3.6 Sputteranlagen.- 6.3.7 Anwendungen der Sputtertechniken.- 6.3.7.1 Anwendungen in der Elektronikindustrie.- 6.3.7.2 Optische Anwendungen.- 6.3.7.3 Reibungsarme Schichten.- 6.3.7.4 Verschleißfeste harte Schichten.- 6.3.7.5 Dekorative Schichten.- 7 Ionenplattieren.- 7.1 Einleitung.- 7.2 Mechanismus des Ionenplattierens.- 7.2.1 Beispiel eines Ionenplattierprozesses.- 7.2.2 Wirkungen des Teilchenbombardements auf die Substratoberfläche.- 7.2.3 Bildung der Interfaceschicht unter dem Einfluß des Teilchenbombardements.- 7.2.4 Einflüsse des Teilchenbombardements auf die Struktur und andere Eigenschaften der Schichten.- 7.2.5 Reaktives Ionenplattieren (RIP).- 7.3 Ausfuhrungsformen von Ionenplattier-Anlagen.- 7.3.1 Ionenplattieren mit DC-Glimmentladung.- 7.3.2 Ionenplattieren im Hochvakuum mit separater Ionenquelle.- 7.3.3 Ionenplattieren mit HF-Entladung.- 7.3.4 Ionenplattieren mit Plasmastrom.- 7.3.5 Ionenplattieren mit Triodenanordnung.- 7.3.6 Ionenplattieren mit elektronenstrahl-induziertem Plasma.- 7.3.7 Ionenplattieren mit Magnetron-Sputtertarget.- 7.3.8 Ionenplattieren mit Hohlkathoden-Bogenentladung.- 7.3.9 Ionenplattieren mit Niedervolt-Bogenentladung.- 7.3.10 Ionenplattieren mit thermischem Bogen (Are-Verdampfung).- 7.3.11 Ionenplattieren mit Ionen-Cluster-Strahl.- 7.4 Anwendungen des Ionenplattierens.- 7.4.1 Verschleißschutzschichten auf Werkzeugen und Bauteilen.- 7.4.2 Minderung der Reibung von Metalloberflächen.- 7.4.3 Fügetechnik (Bonding).- 7.4.4 Korrosionsschutz.- 7.4.5 Anwendungen in der Elektronik.- 7.4.6 Optische Schichten.- 7.4.7 Dekorative, goldfarbene TiN-Schichten.- 8 Chemische Abscheidung aus der Gasphase: CVD-Verfahren.- 8.1 Das CVD-Verfahren.- 8.2 Theoretische Grundlagen.- 8.3 CVD-Reaktoren.- 8.4 Eigenschaften der CVD-Schichten.- 8.4.1 Interface-Zone und Struktur der Schichten.- 8.4.2 Duktilität, Sprödigkeit.- 8.4.3 Haftfestigkeit.- 8.4.4 Schichtdicke, Abscheidungsrate und Gleichmäßigkeit.- 8.4.5 Reibungs- und Verschleißverhalten.- 8.5 Anwendungen von CVD-Schichten.- 8.5.1 Verschleiß-Schutzschichten.- 8.5.1.1 Beschichtete Werkzeuge aus Hartmetall.- 8.5.1.2 Beschichtete Werkzeuge aus Stahl.- 8.5.1.3 Instrumentenlager und Wälzlager.- 8.5.1.4 Weitere Beispiele für Verschleißschutzschichten.- 8.5.2 Korrosions-Schutzschichten.- 8.5.3 Spezielle Werkstoffe und Bauelemente.- 8.5.3.1 Materialien für die Halbleitertechnologie.- 8.5.3.2 Pyrolithischer Graphit.- 8.5.3.3 Pyrolithischer Kohlenstoff.- 8.5.3.4 Kompositwerkstoffe.- 8.5.3.5 Mikrokugeln und durch CVD erzeugte Bauteile.- 8.5.3.6 Oberflächen mit dendritischer Struktur für die Energietechnik.- 8.5.4 Lichtwellenleiter.- 8.5.4.1 CVD-Abscheidung auf rotierendem Substratstab, OVPO-Prozeß.- 8.5.4.2 CVD-Abscheidung auf der Stirnfläche eines Quarzstabes, AD-Prozeß.- 8.5.4.3 CVD-Abscheidung auf der Innenfläche eines rotierenden Quarzrohres, MCVD-Prozeß.- 8.5.4.4 Varianten des MCVD-Prozesses.- 8.5.4.5 Faserziehtechnologie.- 8.5.4.6 Weitere Herstellungsverfahren von Lichtwellenleitern.- 9 Plasma-aktivierte chemische Dampfabscheidung (PACVD).- 9.1 Einleitung.- 9.2 Physikalische und chemische Grundlagen des PACVD-Prozesses.- 9.2.1 Das Plasma beim PACVD-Prozeß.- 9.2.2 Plasmachemische Reaktionen.- 9.2.3 Schichtwachstum.- 9.3 Praktische Ausführung von PACVD-Reaktoren.- 9.4 Ergebnisse und Anwendungen.- 9.4.1 Harter amorpher Kohlenstoff (a-C:H).- 9.4.2 Metall-Kohlenstoff-Schichten.- 9.4.3 Amorphes Silizium (a-Si).- 9.4.3.1 Passivierung der Strukturdefekte von a-Si.- 9.4.3.2 Präparation von a-Si:H.- 9.4.3.3 Dotierung von a-Si:H.- 9.4.3.4 Mikrokristallines Silizium µx-Si:H.- 9.4.3.5 Weitere Präpationsmethoden für Si-Schichten.- 9.4.3.6 Anwendungen der a-Si:H-Technologie.- 9.4.4 Siliziumnitrid.- 9.4.5 Siliziumoxid und Siliziumoxinitrid.- 9.4.6 Siliziumcarbid.- 9.4.7 Weitere durch PACVD darstellbare Materialien.- 9.4.8 Plasmadotieren.- 10 Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.1 Merkmale der Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.2 Reaktoren.- 10.3 Monomere ..- 10.4 Depositionsraten plasmapolymerisierter Schichten als Funktion der Prozeßparameter.- 10.5 Anlagen für die Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.6 Anwendungen der Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.6.1 Membrantechnik.- 10.6.1.1 Inverse Osmose.- 10.6.1.2 Gastrennung.- 10.6.1.3 Diffusionsbarrieren gegen Gasabgabe und Permeation.- 10.6.2 Optische Schichten.- 10.6.2.1 Schutzschichten auf Metallspiegeln für die Solartechnik.- 10.6.2.2 Antireflexschichten auf Plexiglas (PMMA).- 10.6.2.3 Antireflexschichten auf Fenstern von IR-Lasern.- 10.6.2.4 Lichtleiter für die integrierte Optik.- 10.6.3 Elektronik.- 10.6.3.1 Plasmapolymerisierte MMA-Filme für die Elektronenstrahllithographie.- 10.6.3.2 Schutzfilme für elektronische Bauelemente.- 10.6.3.3 Dünnschicht-Bauelemente.- 10.6.4 Kunststofftechnik.- 10.6.5 Biomedizinische Technik.- 10.6.6 Pharmazeutische Technik.- 11 Elektrochemische und chemische Verfahren zur Herstellung von Schichten.- 11.1 Überblick.- 11.2 Galvanische Abscheidung von Schichten.- 11.2.1 Abscheidung aus wässerigen Elektrolyten.- 11.2.1.1 Grundlagen.- 11.2.1.2 Die experimentellen Parameter.- 11.2.1.3 Struktur und Eigenschaften der Metallschichten.- 11.2.1.4 Zur Ausführung des galvanischen Prozesses.- 11.2.1.5 Anwendungen von galvanischen Metall- und Legierungsschichten.- 11.2.1.6 Diffusionsschichten.- 11.2.1.7 Galvanisch abgeschiedene Dispersionsschichten.- 11.2.1.8 Beschichtung durch eine Verdrängungsreaktion an der Kathode.- 11.2.2 Galvanische Abscheidung aus nichtwässerigen Elektrolyten.- 11.2.2.1 Galvanisches Aluminieren.- 11.2.2.2 Halbleitende Metallchalcogenide.- 11.2.3 Elektrolytische Abscheidung aus der Salzschmelze.- 11.2.3.1. Zur Ausführung des Prozesses.- 11.2.3.2 Eigenschaften der Schichten.- 11.2.3.3 Anwendungen der Abscheidung aus der Salzschmelze.- 11.2.4 Galvanoformung.- 11.3 Anodische Oxidation.- 11.3.1 Die auf Aluminium entstehende Sperrschicht.- 11.3.2 Die auf Aluminium entstehende Duplexschicht.- 11.3.3 Duplexschichten und ihre Eigenschaften.- 11.3.4 Aluminium-Hartoxid-Schichten.- 11.3.5 Anodische Oxidation weiterer Metalle.- 11.4 Elektrochemische Spezialverfahren.- 11.4.1 Elektrophorese.- 11.4.2 Elektrotauchlackierung.- 11.4.3 Elektropolieren.- 11.5 Chemische Herstellung von Schichten aus der Lösung.- 11.5.1 Chemisch-reduktive Abscheidung.- 11.5.1.1 Beschichten durch autokatalytische Reduktion (electroless plating).- 11.5.1.2 Anwendungen des außenstromlosen, autokatalytischen Beschichtens.- 11.5.1.3 Weitere chemisch-reduktive Beschichtungsverfahren.- 11.5.2 Beschichten durch Pyrolyse-Sprühverfahren.- 11.5.3 Chemische Umwandlung von Metalloberflächen durch Chromatieren und Phosphatieren.- 12 Thermische Spritzverfahren.- 12.1 Einleitung.- 12.2 Verfahren der thermischen Spritztechnik.- 12.2.1 Flammspritzverfahren.- 12.2.2 Detonationsspritzverfahren.- 12.2.3 Lichtbogenspritzverfahren.- 12.2.4 Plasmaspritzverfahren.- 12.2.5 Vakuum-Plasmaspritzverfahren (VPS).- 12.2.6 Weitere thermische Spritzverfahren.- 12.2.7 Substrate und ihre Vorbereitung.- 12.2.8 Werkstoffe für Spritzverfahren.- 12.3 Eigenschaften der thermisch gespritzten Schichten.- 12.3.1 Struktur der Schichten.- 12.3.2 Dichte und Porosität.- 12.3.3 Oberflächenbeschaffenheit.- 12.3.4 Haftfestigkeit und innere Spannungen.- 12.3.5 Härte und Duktilität.- 12.4 Anwendungen der thermischen Spritzverfahren.- 12.4.1 Schutzschichten gegen Verschleiß.- 12.4.2 Schutzschichten gegen Korrosion.- 12.4.3 Wärmebarrieren.- 12.4.4 Schutzschichten gegen Hochtemperaturkorrosion.- 12.4.5 Herstellung ganzer Bauteile durch Plasmaspritzen.- 12.4.6 Einlauf-und Anlaufschichten.- 12.4.7 Reparatur von Schichten und Bauteilen.- 12.4.8 Oberflächen mit besonderen Eigenschaften, hergestellt durch Plasma- und Vakuum-Plasmaspritzen.- 13 Auftragschweißen und Plattieren.- 13.1 Überblick.- 13.2 Verfahren des Auftragschweißens.- 13.2.1 Flammen-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2 Lichtbogen-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.1 Wolfram-Inertgas (WIG)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.2 Metall-Inertgas(MIG)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.3 Metall-Aktivgas (MAG)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.4 Unter-Pulver (UP)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.3 Elektro-Schlacke(ES)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.4 Plasma-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.4.1 Plasma-Pulver- und Plasma-MIG-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.4.2 Plasma-Heißdraht-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.5 Zur Auswahl des Schichtmaterials.- 13.2.6 Anwendungen des Auftragschweißens.- 13.2.6.1 Beschichten von Maschinenteilen.- 13.2.6.2 Schweißplattieren in der Halbzeugfertigung.- 13.3 Plattier-Verfahren.- 13.3.1 Gießplattieren.- 13.3.2 Walzplattieren.- 13.3.3 Sprengplattieren.- 13.3.4 Punktplattieren.- 13.3.5 Reibplattieren.- 13.3.6 Aluminothermisches Plattieren.- 14 Durch Schmelztauchen und Rascherstarrung erzeugte Metallschichten.- 14.1 Schmelztauchverfahren.- 14.1.1 Diskontinuierliches Schmelz tauchverfahren.- 14.1.2 Kontinuierliches Schmelztauchverfahren.- 14.1.3 Eigenschaften und Anwendungen von Schmelztauchüberzügen auf Stahlband und Feinblech.- 14.1.3.1 Zinküberzüge.- 14.1.3.2 Aluminiumüberzüge.- 14.1.3.3 Zinnüberzüge.- 14.1.3.4 Bleiüberzüge.- 14.1.3.5 Weitere Metallüberzüge.- 14.2 Rascherstarrung aus der Schmelze (liquid quenching).- 14.2.1 Herstellung metallischer Gläser.- 14.2.2 Eigenschaften und Anwendungen metallischer Gläser.- 14.2.3 Weitere Verfahren zur Erzeugung amorpher Metalle.- 15 Schichten aus organischen Polymeren und dispersen Systemen.- 15.1 Beschichtungsmaterialien.- 15.2 Mechanismen der Schichtbildung.- 15.3 Lösungsmittelarme Lacke.- 15.4 Anwendungen von Polymerschichten.- 15.4.1 Dekorative Schichten.- 15.4.2 Schutz vor Korrosion und Verwitterung.- 15.4.3 Reibungsarme Polymerschichten.- 15.4.4 Antistatische Polymerschichten.- 15.4.5 Elektrische Anwendungen.- 15.5 Vorbehandlung der Substrate.- 15.6 Beschichtungsverfahren.- 15.6.1 Mechanische Verfahren.- 15.6.1.1 Lackieren und Drucken.- 15.6.1.2 Siebdruck elektrischer Schaltungen.- 15.6.1.3 Tauch-, Spin- und Gießbeschichten.- 15.6.1.4 Laminieren von Polymerschichten.- 15.6.2 Thermische Verfahren.- 15.6.2.1 Extrusion aus der Schmelze.- 15.6.2.2 Fließbettbeschichten.- 15.6.3 Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.3.1 Mechanische Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.3.2 Elektrostatische Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.3.3 Thermische Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.4 Weitere Verfahren zur Herstellung polymerer Schichten.- 15.7 Anwendungen des Tauchverfahrens und des elektrostatischen Spritzens auch auf andere nichtmetallische Werkstoffe.- Tabellenanhang.- Physikalische Eigenschaften von Schichtmaterialien für verschiedene Beschichtungsprozesse und Hinweise auf Anwendungen.- A 1 Chemische Elemente als Schichtmaterialien für PVD- und CVD-Prozesse.- A 2 Anwendungen chemischer Elemente als Schichtmaterialien in der Elektronik, Optik und Oberflächenvergütung.- A 3 Fluoride als Schichtmaterialien für PVD-Prozesse und Anwendungen.- A 4 Oxide und Oxid-Verbindungen als Schichtmaterialien für PVD-, CVD-und Tauchprozesse und Anwendungen.- A 5 Nichtoxidische Chalcogenide und einige Halbleiter als Schichtmaterialien und deren technische Anwendungen.- A 6 Legierungen und Cermets als Schichtmaterialien für PVD-Prozesse.- A 7 Boride als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- A 8 Carbide als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- A 9 Nitride als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- A 10 Suicide als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- Literatur.

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Book SynopsisThis book contains a comprehensive review of CMP (Chemical-Mechanical Planarization) technology, one of the most exciting areas in the field of semiconductor technology. It contains detailed discussions of all aspects of the technology, for both dielectrics and metals. The state of polishing models and their relation to experimental results are covered. Polishing tools and consumables are also covered. The leading edge issues of damascene and new dielectrics as well as slurryless technology are discussed.Table of Contents1 Introduction.- 2 CMP Technology.- 3 Metal Polishing Processes.- 4 Metal CMP Science.- 5 Equipment Used in CMP Processes.- 6 CMP Polishing Pads.- 7 Fundamentals of CMP Slurry.- 8 CMP Cleaning.- 9 Patterned Wafer Effects.- 10 Integration Issues of CMP.- Appendix: Pourbaix Diagrams.- References.

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Book SynopsisThe measurement and characterisation of surface topography is crucial to modern manufacturing industry. The control of areal surface structure allows a manufacturer to radically alter the functionality of a part. Examples include structuring to effect fluidics, optics, tribology, aerodynamics and biology. To control such manu­facturing methods requires measurement strategies. There is now a large range of new optical techniques on the market, or being developed in academia, that can measure areal surface topography. Each method has its strong points and limitations. The book starts with introductory chapters on optical instruments, their common language, generic features and limitations, and their calibration. Each type of modern optical instrument is described (in a common format) by an expert in the field. The book is intended for both industrial and academic scientists and engineers, and will be useful for undergraduate and postgraduate studies.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews:“This book shows how optical microscopy can be used in the characterization and metrology of various surfaces. … Several important methods are presented in a clear and simple way … . The case studies scattered throughout the text greatly improve the readability and contribute to the practical emphasis of this book. … the index is comprehensive. I recommend this book to anyone trying to find the most appropriate method for surface topography measurement, as well as researchers who are new to using microscopy for measurements.”­­­ (Dejan Pantelić, Optics & Photonics News, December, 2011)Table of ContentsIntroduction to surface texture measurement.- Some common terms and definitions.- Limitations of optical 3D sensors.- Calibration of optical surface topography measuring instruments.- Chromatic confocal microscopy.- Point autofocus instruments.- Focus variation instruments.- Phase shifting interferometry.- Coherence scanning interferometry.- Digital holographic microscopy.- Imaging confocal microscopy.- Light scattering methods

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Book SynopsisX-ray diffraction crystallography for powder samples is a well-established and widely used method. It is applied to materials characterization to reveal the atomic scale structure of various substances in a variety of states. The book deals with fundamental properties of X-rays, geometry analysis of crystals, X-ray scattering and diffraction in polycrystalline samples and its application to the determination of the crystal structure. The reciprocal lattice and integrated diffraction intensity from crystals and symmetry analysis of crystals are explained. To learn the method of X-ray diffraction crystallography well and to be able to cope with the given subject, a certain number of exercises is presented in the book to calculate specific values for typical examples. This is particularly important for beginners in X-ray diffraction crystallography. One aim of this book is to offer guidance to solving the problems of 90 typical substances. For further convenience, 100 supplementary exercises are also provided with solutions. Some essential points with basic equations are summarized in each chapter, together with some relevant physical constants and the atomic scattering factors of the elements.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews:“The authors have developed their course lecture notes into a useful book that is suitable for graduate students of materials science and engineering who use X-ray diffraction techniques. … This book is a very concise presentation of the theory of scattering and diffraction and the determination of crystal structures. … The biggest strength of this book are the solutions that illustrate the quantitative aspects of the subject. The illustrations complement the text and there are many tables of real diffraction data and calculations of structures.” (Barry R. Masters, Optics & Photonics News, April, 2012)Table of ContentsFundamental Properties of X-rays.- Geometry of Crystals.- Scattering and Diffraction by Atoms and Crystals.- Diffraction from a Polycrystalline Sample and its Application to Determination of Crystal Structures.- Reciprocal Lattice and Integrated Intensity from Crystals.- Symmetry Analysis for Crystals and the Use of International Tables.- Solved Problems.

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Book SynopsisThis book is a comprehensive source of the fundamentals, process parameters, instrumental components and applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The effect of multiple pulses on material ablation, plasma dynamics and plasma emission is presented. A heuristic plasma modeling allows to simulate complex experimental plasma spectra. These methods and findings form the basis for a variety of applications to perform quantitative multi-element analysis with LIBS. These application potentials of LIBS have really boosted in the last years ranging from bulk analysis of metallic alloys and non-conducting materials, via spatially resolved analysis and depth profiling covering measuring objects in all physical states: gaseous, liquid and solid. Dedicated chapters present LIBS investigations for these tasks with special emphasis on the methodical and instrumental concepts as well as the optimization strategies for a quantitative analysis. Requirements, concepts, design and characteristic features of LIBS instruments are described covering laboratory systems, inspections systems for in-line process control, mobile systems and remote systems. State-of-the-art industrial applications of LIBS systems are presented demonstrating the benefits of inline process control for improved process guiding and quality assurance purposes.Table of ContentsIntroduction.- Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy.- Process parameters.- Instrumental components.- Evaporation and plasma generation.- Multiple-pulses for LIBS.- Material ablation.- Plasma dynamics and plasma parameters.- Plasma emission.- Modeling of plasma emission.- Quantitative analysis.- Combination of LIBS and LIF.- Bulk analysis of metallic alloys.- Bulk analysis of non-conducting materials.- Spatially resolved analysis.- Depth profiling.- LIBS instruments.- Industrial applications.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents the practical aspects of mass measurements. Concepts of gravitational, inertial and conventional mass and details of the variation of acceleration of gravity are described. The Metric Convention and International Prototype Kilogram and BIPM standards are described. The effect of change of gravity on the indication of electronic balances is derived with respect of latitude, altitude and earth topography. The classification of weights by OIML is discussed. Maximum permissible errors in different categories of weights prescribed by national and international organizations are presented. Starting with the necessity of redefining the unit kilogram in terms of physical constants, various methods of defining the kilogram in terms of physical constants are described. The kilogram can be defined by Avogadro’s constant, ion collection of some heavy elements, levitation, voltage and Watt Balance. The detection of very small mass of the order of zeptogram through Nanotechnolgy is also discussed. Latest recommendations of CIPM are given.Table of ContentsSome Important Definitions.- Introduction.- Other Probability Functions.- Evaluation of Measurement Data.- Propagation of Errors/Uncertainty.- Uncertainty and Calibration of Instruments.- Calculation of Uncertainty.- Uncertainty in Calibration of a Surface Plat.- Uncertainty in Calibration.- Uncertainty in Volumetric Measurement.- Uncertainty in Calibration of Electrical Instruments.

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