Electronic devices and materials Books

Book SynopsisAn interdisciplinary work offering an introduction to the basic principles and operational characteristics of semiconductor sensors. Describes sensor technology, stressing bulk and surface micromachining. Considers a sensor group related to a special physical, chemical or biological input signal. The final chapter deals with integrated sensors.Table of ContentsClassification and Terminology of Sensors (S. Sze). Semiconductor Sensor Technologies (C. Mastrangelo & W. Tang). Acoustic Sensors (M. Motamedi & R. White). Mechanical Sensors (B. Kloeck & N. de Rooij). Magnetic Sensors (H. Baltes & R. Castagnetti). Radiation Sensors (S. Audet & J. Steigerwald). Thermal Sensors (S. Van Herwaarden & G. Meijer). Chemical Sensors (S. Morrison). Biosensors (A. Dewa & W. Ko). Integrated Sensors (K. Najafi, et al.). Appendices. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis Third Edition updates a landmark text with the latest findings The Third Edition of the internationally lauded Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization brings the text fully up-to-date with the latest developments in the field and includes new pedagogical tools to assist readers. Not only does the Third Edition set forth all the latest measurement techniques, but it also examines new interpretations and new applications of existing techniques. Semiconductor Material and Device Characterization remains the sole text dedicated to characterization techniques for measuring semiconductor materials and devices. Coverage includes the full range of electrical and optical characterization methods, including the more specialized chemical and physical techniques. Readers familiar with the previous two editions will discover a thoroughly revised and updated Third Edition, including: Updated and revised figures Trade Review“The book is well-illustrated and provides an ample bibliography.” (Optics & Photonics News, 4 November 2015) "I strongly recommend this book for those who want to learn device characterization." (IEEE Circuits & Devices Magazine, November/December 2006)Table of ContentsPreface to Third Edition xiii 1 Resistivity 1 1.1 Introduction, 1 1.2 Two-Point Versus Four-Point Probe, 2 1.2.1 Correction Factors, 8 1.2.2 Resistivity of Arbitrarily Shaped Samples, 14 1.2.3 Measurement Circuits, 18 1.2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions, 18 1.3 Wafer Mapping, 21 1.3.1 Double Implant, 21 1.3.2 Modulated Photoreflectance, 23 1.3.3 Carrier Illumination (CI), 24 1.3.4 Optical Densitometry, 25 1.4 Resistivity Profiling, 25 1.4.1 Differential Hall Effect (DHE), 26 1.4.2 Spreading Resistance Profiling (SRP), 29 1.5 Contactless Methods, 34 1.5.1 Eddy Current, 34 1.6 Conductivity Type, 38 1.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 40 Appendix 1.1 Resistivity as a Function of Doping Density, 41 Appendix 1.2 Intrinsic Carrier Density, 43 References, 44 Problems, 50 Review Questions, 59 2 Carrier and Doping Density 61 2.1 Introduction, 61 2.2 Capacitance-Voltage (C-V), 61 2.2.1 Differential Capacitance, 61 2.2.2 Band Offsets, 68 2.2.3 Maximum-Minimum MOS-C Capacitance, 71 2.2.4 Integral Capacitance, 75 2.2.5 Mercury Probe Contacts, 76 2.2.6 Electrochemical C–V Profiler (ECV), 77 2.3 Current-Voltage (I-V), 79 2.3.1 MOSFET Substrate Voltage—Gate Voltage, 79 2.3.2 MOSFET Threshold Voltage, 81 2.3.3 Spreading Resistance, 82 2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions, 82 2.4.1 Debye Length and Voltage Breakdown, 82 2.4.2 Series Resistance, 83 2.4.3 Minority Carriers and Interface Traps, 89 2.4.4 Diode Edge and Stray Capacitance, 90 2.4.5 Excess Leakage Current, 91 2.4.6 Deep Level Dopants/Traps, 91 2.4.7 Semi-Insulating Substrates, 93 2.4.8 Instrumental Limitations, 94 2.5 Hall Effect, 94 2.6 Optical Techniques, 97 2.6.1 Plasma Resonance, 97 2.6.2 Free Carrier Absorption, 98 2.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy, 99 2.6.4 Photoluminescence (PL), 101 2.7 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), 102 2.8 Rutherford Backscattering (RBS), 103 2.9 Lateral Profiling, 104 2.10 Strengths and Weaknesses, 105 Appendix 2.1 Parallel or Series Connection?, 107 Appendix 2.2 Circuit Conversion, 108 References, 109 Problems, 117 Review Questions, 124 3 Contact Resistance and Schottky Barriers 127 3.1 Introduction, 127 3.2 Metal-Semiconductor Contacts, 128 3.3 Contact Resistance, 131 3.4 Measurement Techniques, 135 3.4.1 Two-Contact Two-Terminal Method, 135 3.4.2 Multiple-Contact Two-Terminal Methods, 138 3.4.3 Four-Terminal Contact Resistance Method, 149 3.4.4 Six-Terminal Contact Resistance Method, 156 3.4.5 Non-Planar Contacts, 156 3.5 Schottky Barrier Height, 157 3.5.1 Current-Voltage, 158 3.5.2 Current—Temperature, 160 3.5.3 Capacitance-Voltage, 161 3.5.4 Photocurrent, 162 3.5.5 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM), 163 3.6 Comparison of Methods, 163 3.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 164 Appendix 3.1 Effect of Parasitic Resistance, 165 Appendix 3.2 Alloys for Contacts to Semiconductors, 167 References, 168 Problems, 174 Review Questions, 184 4 Series Resistance, Channel Length and Width, and Threshold Voltage 185 4.1 Introduction, 185 4.2 PN Junction Diodes, 185 4.2.1 Current-Voltage, 185 4.2.2 Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (OCVD), 188 4.2.3 Capacitance-Voltage (C–V ), 190 4.3 Schottky Barrier Diodes, 190 4.3.1 Series Resistance, 190 4.4 Solar Cells, 192 4.4.1 Series Resistance—Multiple Light Intensities, 195 4.4.2 Series Resistance—Constant Light Intensity, 196 4.4.3 Shunt Resistance, 197 4.5 Bipolar Junction Transistors, 198 4.5.1 Emitter Resistance, 200 4.5.2 Collector Resistance, 202 4.5.3 Base Resistance, 202 4.6 MOSFETS, 206 4.6.1 Series Resistance and Channel Length–Current-Voltage, 206 4.6.2 Channel Length—Capacitance-Voltage, 216 4.6.3 Channel Width, 218 4.7 MESFETS and MODFETS, 219 4.8 Threshold Voltage, 222 4.8.1 Linear Extrapolation, 223 4.8.2 Constant Drain Current, 225 4.8.3 Sub-threshold Drain Current, 226 4.8.4 Transconductance, 227 4.8.5 Transconductance Derivative, 228 4.8.6 Drain Current Ratio, 228 4.9 Pseudo MOSFET, 230 4.10 Strengths and Weaknesses, 231 Appendix 4.1 Schottky Diode Current-Voltage Equation, 231 References, 232 Problems, 238 Review Questions, 250 5 Defects 251 5.1 Introduction, 251 5.2 Generation-Recombination Statistics, 253 5.2.1 A Pictorial View, 253 5.2.2 A Mathematical Description, 255 5.3 Capacitance Measurements, 258 5.3.1 Steady-State Measurements, 259 5.3.2 Transient Measurements, 259 5.4 Current Measurements, 267 5.5 Charge Measurements, 269 5.6 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS), 270 5.6.1 Conventional DLTS, 270 5.6.2 Interface Trapped Charge DLTS, 280 5.6.3 Optical and Scanning DLTS, 283 5.6.4 Precautions, 285 5.7 Thermally Stimulated Capacitance and Current, 288 5.8 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS), 289 5.9 Strengths and Weaknesses, 292 Appendix 5.1 Activation Energy and Capture Cross-Section, 293 Appendix 5.2 Time Constant Extraction, 294 Appendix 5.3 Si and GaAs Data, 296 References, 301 Problems, 308 Review Questions, 316 6 Oxide and Interface Trapped Charges, Oxide Thickness 319 6.1 Introduction, 319 6.2 Fixed, Oxide Trapped, and Mobile Oxide Charge, 321 6.2.1 Capacitance-Voltage Curves, 321 6.2.2 Flatband Voltage, 327 6.2.3 Capacitance Measurements, 331 6.2.4 Fixed Charge, 334 6.2.5 Gate-Semiconductor Work Function Difference, 335 6.2.6 Oxide Trapped Charge, 338 6.2.7 Mobile Charge, 338 6.3 Interface Trapped Charge, 342 6.3.1 Low Frequency (Quasi-static) Methods, 342 6.3.2 Conductance, 347 6.3.3 High Frequency Methods, 350 6.3.4 Charge Pumping, 352 6.3.5 MOSFET Sub-threshold Current, 359 6.3.6 DC-IV, 361 6.3.7 Other Methods, 363 CONTENTS ix 6.4 Oxide Thickness, 364 6.4.1 Capacitance-Voltage, 364 6.4.2 Current-Voltage, 369 6.4.3 Other Methods, 369 6.5 Strengths and Weaknesses, 369 Appendix 6.1 Capacitance Measurement Techniques, 371 Appendix 6.2 Effect of Chuck Capacitance and Leakage Current, 372 References, 374 Problems, 381 Review Questions, 387 7 Carrier Lifetimes 389 7.1 Introduction, 389 7.2 Recombination Lifetime/Surface Recombination Velocity, 390 7.3 Generation Lifetime/Surface Generation Velocity, 394 7.4 Recombination Lifetime—Optical Measurements, 395 7.4.1 Photoconductance Decay (PCD), 399 7.4.2 Quasi-Steady-State Photoconductance (QSSPC), 402 7.4.3 Short-Circuit Current/Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (SCCD/OCVD), 402 7.4.4 Photoluminescence Decay (PLD), 404 7.4.5 Surface Photovoltage (SPV), 404 7.4.6 Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (SSSCC), 411 7.4.7 Free Carrier Absorption, 413 7.4.8 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC), 416 7.5 Recombination Lifetime—Electrical Measurements, 417 7.5.1 Diode Current-Voltage, 417 7.5.2 Reverse Recovery (RR), 420 7.5.3 Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (OCVD), 422 7.5.4 Pulsed MOS Capacitor, 424 7.5.5 Other Techniques, 428 7.6 Generation Lifetime—Electrical Measurements, 429 7.6.1 Gate-Controlled Diode, 429 7.6.2 Pulsed MOS Capacitor, 432 7.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 440 Appendix 7.1 Optical Excitation, 441 Appendix 7.2 Electrical Excitation, 448 References, 448 Problems, 458 Review Questions, 464 8 Mobility 465 8.1 Introduction, 465 8.2 Conductivity Mobility, 465 8.3 Hall Effect and Mobility, 466 8.3.1 Basic Equations for Uniform Layers or Wafers, 466 8.3.2 Non-uniform Layers, 471 8.3.3 Multi Layers, 474 8.3.4 Sample Shapes and Measurement Circuits, 475 8.4 Magnetoresistance Mobility, 479 8.5 Time-of-Flight Drift Mobility, 482 8.6 MOSFET Mobility, 489 8.6.1 Effective Mobility, 489 8.6.2 Field-Effect Mobility, 500 8.6.3 Saturation Mobility, 502 8.7 Contactless Mobility, 502 8.8 Strengths and Weaknesses, 502 Appendix 8.1 Semiconductor Bulk Mobilities, 503 Appendix 8.2 Semiconductor Surface Mobilities, 506 Appendix 8.3 Effect of Channel Frequency Response, 506 Appendix 8.4 Effect of Interface Trapped Charge, 507 References, 508 Problems, 514 Review Questions, 521 9 Charge-based and Probe Characterization 523 9.1 Introduction, 523 9.2 Background, 524 9.3 Surface Charging, 525 9.4 The Kelvin Probe, 526 9.5 Applications, 533 9.5.1 Surface Photovoltage (SPV), 533 9.5.2 Carrier Lifetimes, 534 9.5.3 Surface Modification, 537 9.5.4 Near-Surface Doping Density, 538 9.5.5 Oxide Charge, 538 9.5.6 Oxide Thickness and Interface Trap Density, 540 9.5.7 Oxide Leakage Current, 541 9.6 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM), 542 9.6.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM), 543 9.6.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), 544 9.6.3 Scanning Capacitance Microscopy (SCM), 547 9.6.4 Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy (SKPM), 550 9.6.5 Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM), 553 9.6.6 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM), 554 9.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 556 References, 556 Problems, 560 Review Questions, 561 10 Optical Characterization 563 10.1 Introduction, 563 10.2 Optical Microscopy, 564 10.2.1 Resolution, Magnification, Contrast, 565 10.2.2 Dark-Field, Phase, and Interference Contrast Microscopy, 568 10.2.3 Confocal Optical Microscopy, 570 10.2.4 Interferometric Microscopy, 572 10.2.5 Defect Etches, 575 10.2.6 Near-Field Optical Microscopy (NFOM), 575 10.3 Ellipsometry, 579 10.3.1 Theory, 579 10.3.2 Null Ellipsometry, 581 10.3.3 Rotating Analyzer Ellipsometry, 582 10.3.4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 583 10.3.5 Applications, 584 10.4 Transmission, 585 10.4.1 Theory, 585 10.4.2 Instrumentation, 587 10.4.3 Applications, 590 10.5 Reflection, 592 10.5.1 Theory, 592 10.5.2 Applications, 594 10.5.3 Internal Reflection Infrared Spectroscopy, 598 10.6 Light Scattering, 599 10.7 Modulation Spectroscopy, 600 10.8 Line Width, 601 10.8.1 Optical-Physical Methods, 601 10.8.2 Electrical Methods, 603 10.9 Photoluminescence (PL), 604 10.10 Raman Spectroscopy, 608 10.11 Strengths and Weaknesses, 610 Appendix 10.1 Transmission Equations, 611 Appendix 10.2 Absorption Coefficients and Refractive Indices for Selected Semiconductors, 613 References, 615 Problems, 621 Review Questions, 626 11 Chemical and Physical Characterization 627 11.1 Introduction, 627 11.2 Electron Beam Techniques, 628 11.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 629 11.2.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), 634 11.2.3 Electron Microprobe (EMP), 639 11.2.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), 645 11.2.5 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC), 649 11.2.6 Cathodoluminescence (CL), 651 11.2.7 Low-Energy, High-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED), 652 11.3 Ion Beam Techniques, 653 11.3.1 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), 654 11.3.2 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS), 659 11.4 X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Techniques, 665 11.4.1 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), 666 11.4.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), 668 11.4.3 X-Ray Topography (XRT), 671 11.4.4 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), 674 11.5 Strengths and Weaknesses, 676 Appendix 11.1 Selected Features of Some Analytical Techniques, 678 References, 678 Problems, 686 Review Questions, 687 12 Reliability and Failure Analysis 689 12.1 Introduction, 689 12.2 Failure Times and Acceleration Factors, 690 12.2.1 Failure Times, 690 12.2.2 Acceleration Factors, 690 12.3 Distribution Functions, 692 12.4 Reliability Concerns, 695 12.4.1 Electromigration (EM), 695 12.4.2 Hot Carriers, 701 12.4.3 Gate Oxide Integrity (GOI), 704 12.4.4 Negative Bias Temperature Instability (NBTI), 711 12.4.5 Stress Induced Leakage Current (SILC), 712 12.4.6 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), 712 12.5 Failure Analysis Characterization Techniques, 713 12.5.1 Quiescent Drain Current (IDDQ), 713 12.5.2 Mechanical Probes, 715 12.5.3 Emission Microscopy (EMMI), 715 12.5.4 Fluorescent Microthermography (FMT), 718 12.5.5 Infrared Thermography (IRT), 718 12.5.6 Voltage Contrast, 718 12.5.7 Laser Voltage Probe (LVP), 719 12.5.8 Liquid Crystals (LC), 720 12.5.9 Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change (OBIRCH), 721 12.5.10 Focused Ion Beam (FIB), 723 12.5.11 Noise, 723 12.6 Strengths and Weaknesses, 726 Appendix 12.1 Gate Currents, 728 References, 730 Problems, 737 Review Questions, 740 Appendix 1 List of Symbols 741 Appendix 2 Abbreviations and Acronyms 749 Index 755

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Book SynopsisFailure Mechanisms in Semiconductor Devices Second Edition E. Ajith Amerasekera Texas Instruments Inc., Dallas, USA Farid N. Najm University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Since the successful first edition of Failure Mechanisms in Semiconductor Devices, semiconductor technology has become increasingly important. The high complexity of today''s integrated circuits has engendered a demand for greater component reliability. Reflecting the need for guaranteed performance in consumer applications, this thoroughly updated edition includes more detailed material on reliability modelling and prediction. The book analyses the main failure mechanisms in terms of cause, effects and prevention and explains the mathematics behind reliability analysis. The authors detail methodologies for the identification of failures and describe the approaches for building reliability into semiconductor devices. Their thorough yet accessible text covers the physics of failure mechanisms from the semiconducTable of ContentsReliability Mathematics. Principal Failure Mechanisms. Failure Mechanisms in Technologies and Circuits. Reliability Testing. Reliability Prediction. Screening. Failure Analysis. Quality Assurance. Appendix. Indexes.

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Book SynopsisChemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE), is a powerful growth technique which has come to prominence over the last ten years. Together with the longer established molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and metal organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE), CBE provides a capability for the epitaxial growth of semiconductor and other advanced materials with control at the atomic limit. This, the first book dedicated to CBE, and closely related techniques comprises chapters by leading research workers in the field and provides a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art in this area of semiconductor technology. Topics covered include equipment design and safety considerations, design of chemical precursors, surface chemistry and growth mechanisms, materials and devices from arsenide, phosphide, antimonide, silicon and II-VI compounds, doping, selected area epitaxy and etching. The volume provides an introduction for those new to the field and a detailed summary for experienced researchers.Table of ContentsChemical Beam Epitaxy: An Introduction (G. Davies, et al.). Growth Apparatus Design and Safety Considerations (F. Alexandre & J. Benchimol). Precursors for Chemical Beam Epitaxy (D. Bohling). Reaction Mechanisms for III-V Semiconductor Growth by Chemical Beam Epitaxy: Physical Origins of the Growth Kinetics and Film Purities Observed (J. Foord). Growth of GaAs-Based Devices by Chemical Beam Epitaxy (C. Abernathy). CBE InP-Based Materials and Devices (W. Tsang & T. Chiu). MOMBE of Antiminides and Growth Model (H. Asahi). Chemical Beam Epitaxy of Widegap II-VI Compound Semiconductors (A. Yoshikawa). Gas Source Molecular Beam Epitaxy of Silicon and Related Materials (Y. Shiraki). Gas Source Molecular Beam Epitaxy (L. Goldstein). Dopants and Dopant Incorporation (T. Whitaker & T. Martin). Selected Area Epitaxy (H. Heinecke & G. Davies). Chemical Beam Etching (W. Tsang & T. Chiu). Laser-Assisted Epitaxy (H. Sugiura). Index.

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Book SynopsisThe market for single chip microprocessors is huge and their performance continues to increase, driven by the on-going demand for more powerful applications, particularly in the control and signal processing domains.Table of ContentsARCHITECTURES: OVERVIEW AND COMPLEXITY. Problem Statement. Trends in Computer Architecture. Bus Complexity. Complexity of Instruction Level Parallel Processors. TRANSPORT TRIGGERING CONCEPT. From VLIW to TTA. An Example Transport Triggered Processor. THE DESIGN SPACE OF TRANSPORT TRIGGERED ARCHITECTURES. Transport Design Space. Function Unit Design Space. Register Unit Design Space. Exception Support. ARCHITECTURE EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS. Evaluation of Architecture Parameters. Automatic Synthesis of Transport Triggered Processors. Summary and Perspective. Appendices. Glossary. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents a comprehensive overview of the most recent advances in the field, including the way such structures are grown, how experiments on the structures have clarified long-standing theoretical predictions, how the structures are characterized, and the performance of devices developed from the structures.Trade Review"It covers the way structures are grown, how they are characterized..." (La Doc Sti, Vol. 369, January 1999)Table of ContentsFabrication Techniques for Quantum Dots. Self-Organization Concepts on Crystal Surfaces. Growth and Structural Characterization of Self-Organized Quantum Dots. Modeling of Ideal and Real Quantum Dots. Electronic and Optical Properties. Electrical Properties. Photonic Devices. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisFault analysis of highly-integrated semiconductor circuits has become an indispensable discipline in the optimization of product quality. Integrated Circuit Failure Analysis describes state-of-the-art procedures for exposing suspected failure sites in semiconductor devices. The author adopts a hands-on problem-oriented approach, founded on many years of practical experience, complemented by the explanation of basic theoretical principles. Features include: Advanced methods in device preparation and technical procedures for package inspection and semiconductor reliability. Illustration of chip isolation and step-by-step delayering of chips by wet chemical and modern plasma dry etching techniques. Particular analysis of bipolar and MOS circuits, although techniques are equally relevant to other semiconductors. Advice on the choice of suitable laboratory equipment. Numerous photographs and drawings providing guidance for checking results. Focusing on modern techniques, this practical textTable of ContentsPurpose and Importance of Preparatory Semiconductor Analysis. Opening the Package: Chip Insulation. Wet Chemical Etching Procedures for Removing Layers of the ChipStructure. Crystallographic Etching in the Silicon. Dry Etching in the Plasma. Microsectioning Technology, Metallography. Outlook. Appendices. Index.

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Book SynopsisA growing need for the application of power semiconductor devices in robotics and automation systems has arisen over the 1990s. This text gives the power semiconductor device user an understanding of the structures, function, characteristics and features of power semiconductor devices.Table of ContentsProperties of Semiconductors. Elementary Semiconductor Structures. Devices, Fabrication and Their Modelling. Power Semiconductor Device Applications. Power Diodes. Bipolar Junction Transistors. Thyristors: Basic Operating Principles. Thyristor Types and Applications. Static Induction Power Devices. Power MOSFETs. Power Bipolar-MOS (BIPMOS) Devices. Power Modules and Integrated Structures. Conditions for Reliable Operation. Future Materials and Devices. Appendix.

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Book SynopsisThis volume offers a new approach to teaching the fundamentals of semiconductor components based on the use of the accompanying process and device simulation software. Users are encouraged to augment their understanding by undertaking simulations and creating their own devices.Table of ContentsSemiconductor Physics and Technology. Junction Diodes. Photonic Devices. Bipolar Junction Transistors. MOS Transistor. Index.

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Book SynopsisComplete dependence on semiconductor vendors'' application notes and data sheets is now a thing of the past thanks to this all-in-one comparison text on nonvolatile semiconductor memory (NVSM) technology. Working electronics engineers can now refer to this book to access the technical data and applications-focused perspective they need to make intelligent decisions regarding the selection, specification, procurement, and application of NVSM devices. The most comprehensive book in the field, NONVOLATILE SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY TECHNOLOGY gathers expertly-written information scattered throughout device literature in a single, well-balanced volume. This book features an in-depth overview accompanied by applications-oriented chapters on device reliability and endurance, radiation tolerance, as well as device physics and design. It is an essential reference for electronics engineers. Sponsored by: IEEE Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology SoTable of ContentsList of Contributors. List of Acronyms. Foreword. Basics of Nonvolatile Semiconductor Memory Devices (G. Groeseneken, et al.). Floating Gate Planar Devices (H. Lin & R. Ramaswami). Floating Gate Nonplanar Devices (H. Wegener & W. Owen). Floating Gate Flash Devices (M. Gill & S. Lai). SONOS Nonvolatile Semiconductor Memories (M. White & F. Libsch). Reliability and NVSM Reliability (Y. Hsia & V. Tyree). Radiation Tolerance (G. Messenger). Procurement Considerations (D. Sweetman). Bibliography (W. Brown). Index. Editors' Biographies.

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Book SynopsisSemiconductor devices are ubiquitous in todaya s world and found increasingly in cars, kitchens, and electronic door looks, attesting to their presence in our daily lives. This comprehensive book brings you the fundamentals of semiconductor device theory from basic quantum physics to computer aided design.Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. A Brief Review of the Basic Equations. The Symmetry of the Crystal Lattice. The Theory of Energy Bands in Crystals. Imperfections of Ideal Crystal Structure. Equilibrium Statistics for Electrons and Holes. Self-Consistent Potentials and Dielectric Properties. Scattering Theory. The Boltzmann Transport Equation. Generation-Recombination. The Heterojunction Barrier. The Device Equations of Shockley and Stratton. Numerical Device Simulations. Diodes. Laser Diodes. Transistors. Future Semiconductor Devices. Appendix A: Tunneling and the Golden Rule. Appendix B: The One Band Approximation. Appendix C: Temperature Dependence of the Band Structure. Appendix D: Hall Effect and Magnetoresistance. Appendix E: The Power Balance Equation. Appendix F: The Self-Consistent Potential at a Heterojunction. Appendix G: Schottky Barrier Transport. Index. About the Author.

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Book SynopsisThe development of solid state devices began a little more than a century ago, with the discovery of the electrical conductivity of ionic solids. Today, solid state technologies form the background of the society in which we live.Table of ContentsPreface ix 1. Thermodynamics of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Semiconductor Systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Basic Principles 2 1.3 Phases and Their Properties 7 1.3.1 Structural Order of a Phase 7 1.4 Equations of State of Thermodynamic Systems 11 1.4.1 Thermodynamic Transformations and Functions of State 11 1.4.2 Work Associated with a Transformation, Entropy and Free Energy 12 1.4.3 Chemical Potentials 14 1.4.4 Free Energy and Entropy of Spontaneous Processes 15 1.4.5 Effect of Pressure on Phase Transformations, Polymorphs/Polytypes Formation and Their Thermodynamic Stability 16 1.4.6 Electrochemical Equilibria and Electrochemical Potentials of Charged Species 21 1.5 Equilibrium Conditions of Multicomponent Systems Which Do Not React Chemically 23 1.6 Thermodynamic Modelling of Binary Phase Diagrams 28 1.6.1 Introductory Remarks 28 1.6.2 Thermodynamic Modelling of Complete and Incomplete Miscibility 29 1.6.3 Thermodynamic Modelling of Intermediate Compound Formation 40 1.6.4 Retrograde Solubility, Retrograde Melting and Spinodal Decomposition 40 1.7 Solution Thermodynamics and Structural and Physical Properties of Selected Semiconductor Systems 43 1.7.1 Introductory Remarks 43 1.7.2 Au-Ag and Au-Cu Alloys 45 1.7.3 Silicon and Germanium 49 1.7.4 Silicon-Germanium Alloys 53 1.7.5 Silicon- and Germanium-Binary Alloys with Group III and Group IV Elements 55 1.7.6 Silicon-Tin and Germanium-Tin Alloys 61 1.7.7 Carbon and Its Polymorphs 62 1.7.8 Silicon Carbide 67 1.7.9 Selenium-Tellurium Alloys 69 1.7.10 Binary and Pseudo-binary Selenides and Tellurides 71 1.7.11 Arsenides, Phosphides and Nitrides 81 1.8 Size-Dependent Properties, Quantum Size Effects and Thermodynamics of Nanomaterials 93 Appendix 98 Use of Electrochemical Measurements for the Determination of the Thermodynamic Functions of Semiconductors 98 References 103 2. Point Defects in Semiconductors 117 2.1 Introduction 117 2.2 Point Defects in Ionic Solids: Modelling the Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Solids by Point Defects-Mediated Charge Transfer 119 2.3 Point Defects and Impurities in Elemental Semiconductors 127 2.3.1 Introduction 127 2.3.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials in Semiconductors with the Diamond Structure: an Attempt at a Critical Discussion of Their Thermodynamic and Transport Properties 129 2.3.3 Effect of Defect–Defect Interactions on Diffusivity: Trap-and-Pairing Limited Diffusion Processes 145 2.3.4 Light Impurities in Group IV Semiconductors: Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Their Reactivity 153 2.4 Defects and Non-Stoichiometry in Compound Semiconductors 167 2.4.1 Structural and Thermodynamic Properties 167 2.4.2 Defect Identification in Compound Semiconductors 171 2.4.3 Non-Stoichiometry in Compound Semiconductors 171 References 181 3. Extended Defects in Semiconductors and Their Interactions with Point Defects and Impurities 195 3.1 Introduction 195 3.2 Dislocations in Semiconductors with the Diamond Structure 196 3.2.1 Geometrical Properties 196 3.2.2 Energy of Regular Straight Dislocations 201 3.2.3 Dislocation Motion 203 3.2.4 Dislocation Reconstruction 205 3.2.5 Electronic Structure of Dislocations in Si and Ge, Theoretical Studies and Experimental Evidences 208 3.3 Dislocations in Compound Semiconductors 215 3.3.1 Electronic Structure of Dislocations in Compound Semiconductors 216 3.4 Interaction of Defects and Impurities with Extended Defects 219 3.4.1 Introduction 219 3.4.2 Thermodynamics of Defect Interactions with Extended Defects 220 3.4.3 Thermodynamics of Interaction of Neutral Defects and Impurities with EDs 221 3.4.4 Kinetics of Interaction of Point Defects, Impurities and Extended Defects: General Concepts 228 3.4.5 Kinetics of Interaction Reactions: Reaction Limited Processes 230 3.4.6 Kinetics of Interaction Reactions: Diffusion-Limited Reactions 230 3.5 Interaction of Atomic Defects with Extended Defects: Theoretical and Experimental Evidence 232 3.5.1 Interaction of Point Defects with Extended Defects 232 3.5.2 Hydrogen-Dislocation Interaction in Silicon 233 3.5.3 Interaction of Oxygen with Dislocations 235 3.6 Segregation of Impurities at Surfaces and Interfaces 236 3.6.1 Introduction 236 3.6.2 Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline Semiconductors 236 3.6.3 Structure of Grain Boundaries and Their Physical Properties 239 3.6.4 Segregation of Impurities at Grain Boundaries and Their Influence on Physical Properties 241 3.7 3D Defects: Precipitates, Bubbles and Voids 243 3.7.1 Thermodynamic and Structural Considerations 243 3.7.2 Oxygen and Carbon Segregation in Silicon 246 3.7.3 Silicides Precipitation 249 3.7.4 Bubbles and Voids 249 References 251 4. Growth of Semiconductor Materials 265 4.1 Introduction 265 4.2 Growth of Bulk Solids by Liquid Crystallization 266 4.2.1 Growth of Single Crystal and Multicrystalline Ingots by Liquid Phase Crystallization 268 4.2.2 Growth of Single Crystals or Multicrystalline Materials by Liquid Crystallization Processes: Impact of Environmental Interactions on the Chemical Quality 274 4.2.3 Growth of Bulk Solids by Liquid Crystallization Processes: Solubility of Impurities in Semiconductors and Their Segregation 287 4.2.4 Growth of Bulk Solids by Liquid Crystallization Processes: Pick-Up of Impurities 290 4.2.5 Constitutional Supercooling 295 4.2.6 Growth Dependence of the Impurity Pick-Up and Concentration Profiling 298 4.2.7 Purification of Silicon by Smelting with Al 299 4.3 Growth of Ge-Si Alloys, SiC, GaN, GaAs, InP and CdZnTe from the Liquid Phase 300 4.3.1 Growth of Si-Ge Alloys 301 4.3.2 Growth of SiC from the Liquid Phase 303 4.3.3 Growth of GaN from the Liquid Phase 304 4.3.4 Growth of GaAs, InP, ZnSe and CdZnTe 309 4.4 Single Crystal Growth from the Vapour Phase 318 4.4.1 Generalities 318 4.4.2 Growth of Silicon, ZnSe and Silicon Carbide from the Vapour Phase 319 4.4.3 Epitaxial Growth of Single Crystalline Layers of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors 323 4.5 Growth of Poly/Micro/Nano-Crystalline Thin Film Materials 332 4.5.1 Introduction 332 4.5.2 Growth of Nanocrystalline/Microcrystalline Silicon 334 4.5.3 Growth of Silicon Nanowires 337 4.5.4 Growth of Films of CdTe and of Copper Indium (Gallium) Selenide (CIGS) 342 References 345 5. Physical Chemistry of Semiconductor Materials Processing 363 5.1 Introduction 363 5.2 Thermal Annealing Processes 364 5.2.1 Thermal Decomposition of Non-stoichiometric Amorphous Phases for Nanofabrication Processes 367 5.2.2 Other Problems of a Thermodynamic or Kinetic Nature 369 5.3 Hydrogen Passivation Processes 372 5.4 Gettering and Defect Engineering 376 5.4.1 Introduction 376 5.4.2 Thermodynamics of Gettering 377 5.4.3 Physics and Chemistry of Internal Gettering 378 5.4.4 Physics and Chemistry of External Gettering 382 5.5 Wafer Bonding 390 References 391 Index 399

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Book SynopsisExplore the intersection of computer science, physics, and electrical and computer engineering with this discussion of the engineering of quantum computers In Principles of Superconducting Quantum Computers, a pair of distinguished researchers delivers a comprehensive and insightful discussion of the building of quantum computing hardware and systems. Bridging the gaps between computer science, physics, and electrical and computer engineering, the book focuses on the engineering topics of devices, circuits, control, and error correction. Using data from actual quantum computers, the authors illustrate critical concepts from quantum computing. Questions and problems at the end of each chapter assist students with learning and retention, while the text offers descriptions of fundamentals concepts ranging from the physics of gates to quantum error correction techniques. The authors provide efficient implementations of classical computations, and the book comes complete with a solutions maTable of Contents1 Qubits, Gates, and Circuits 1 1.1 Bits and Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.1 Circuits in Space vs. Circuits in Time . . . . . . . 1 1.1.2 Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.1.3 No Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.1.4 Reversibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.1.5 Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2 Single-Qubit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.3 Measurement and the Born Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.4 Unitary Operations and Single-Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . 7 1.5 Two-Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.5.1 Two-Qubit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.5.2 Two-Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.5.3 Controlled-NOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.6 Bell State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.7 No Cloning, Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.8 Example: Deutsch’s Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.9 Key Characteristics of Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . 20 1.10 Quantum Computing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2 Physics of Single Qubit Gates 29 2.1 Requirements for a Quantum Computer . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.2 Single Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.2.1 Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.2.2 Two State Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2.3 Creating Rotations: Rabi Oscillations . . . . . . . 44 2.3 Quantum State Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.4 Expectation Values and the Pauli Operators . . . . . . . . 51 2.5 Density Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 iii iv CONTENTS 3 Physics of Two Qubit Gates 59 3.1 √ iSWAP Gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.2 Coupled Tunable Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.3 Fixed-frequency Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.4 Other Controlled Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.5 Two-qubit States and the Density Matrix . . . . . . . . . 68 3.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4 Superconducting Quantum Computer Systems 73 4.1 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.1.1 General Transmission Line Equations . . . . . . . 73 4.1.2 Lossless Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.1.3 Transmission Lines with Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.2 Terminated Lossless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.2.1 Reflection Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.2.2 Power (Flow of Energy) and Return Loss . . . . . 84 4.2.3 Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.2.4 Impedance as a Function of Position . . . . . . . . 86 4.2.5 Quarter Wave Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 4.2.6 Coaxial, Microstrip, and Co-planar Lines . . . . . 89 4.3 S Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4.3.1 Lossless Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.3.2 Reciprocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.4 Transmission (ABCD) Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.5 Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.6 Circulators and Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 4.7 Power Dividers/Combiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.8 Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 4.9 Low-pass Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.10 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.10.1 Thermal Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.10.2 Equivalent Noise Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.10.3 Noise Factor and Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . 117 4.10.4 Attenuators and Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 4.10.5 Noise in Cascaded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 4.11 Low Noise Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 4.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 5 Resonators: Classical Treatment 125 5.1 Parallel Lumped Element Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.2 Capacitive Coupling to a Parallel Lumped-Element Res[1]onator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 5.3 Transmission Line Resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.4 Capacitive Coupling to a Transmission Line Resonator . . 133 5.5 Capacitively-Coupled Lossless Resonators . . . . . . . . . 136 CONTENTS v 5.6 Classical Model of Qubit Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 6 Resonators: Quantum Treatment 149 6.1 Lagrangian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.1.1 Hamilton’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.1.2 Calculus of Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 6.1.3 Lagrangian Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . 151 6.2 Hamiltonian Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.3 Harmonic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.3.1 Classical Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.3.2 Quantum Mechanical Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . 156 6.3.3 Raising and Lowering Operators . . . . . . . . . . 158 6.3.4 Can a Harmonic Oscillator be used as a Qubit? . . 160 6.4 Circuit Quantum Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.4.1 Classical LC Resonant Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.4.2 Quantization of the LC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 163 6.4.3 Circuit Electrodynamic Approach for General Cir[1]cuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 6.4.4 Circuit Model for Transmission Line Resonator . . 165 6.4.5 Quantizing a Transmission Line Resonator . . . . 168 6.4.6 Quantized Coupled LC Resonant Circuits . . . . . 169 6.4.7 Schrödinger, Heisenberg, and Interaction Pictures 172 6.4.8 Resonant Circuits and Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.4.9 The Dispersive Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 6.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7 Theory of Superconductivity 183 7.1 Bosons and Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 7.2 Bloch Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.3 Free Electron Model for Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 7.3.1 Discrete States in Finite Samples . . . . . . . . . . 189 7.3.2 Phonons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 7.3.3 Debye Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 7.3.4 Electron-Phonon Scattering and Electrical Con[1]ductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 7.3.5 Perfect Conductor vs. Superconductor . . . . . . . 196 7.4 Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer Theory of Superconduc[1]tivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 7.4.1 Cooper Pair Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 7.4.2 Dielectric Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 7.4.3 Jellium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 7.4.4 Scattering Amplitude and Attractive Electron-Electron Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 7.4.5 Interpretation of Attractive Interaction . . . . . . 209 vi CONTENTS 7.4.6 Superconductor Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 7.4.7 Superconducting Ground State . . . . . . . . . . . 211 7.5 Electrodynamics of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 7.5.1 Cooper Pairs and the Macroscopic Wave Function 215 7.5.2 Potential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 7.5.3 London Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 7.5.4 London Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 7.5.5 Penetration Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 7.5.6 Flux Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 7.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 7.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 8 Josephson Junctions 225 8.1 Tunneling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 8.1.1 Reflection from a Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 8.1.2 Finite Thickness Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 8.2 Josephson Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 8.2.1 Current and Voltage Relations . . . . . . . . . . . 231 8.2.2 Josephson Junction Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . 235 8.2.3 Quantized Josephson Junction Analysis . . . . . . 237 8.3 Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs) 239 8.4 Josephson Junction Parametric Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . 241 8.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 9 Errors and Error Mitigation 245 9.1 NISQ Processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 9.2 Decoherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 9.3 State Preparation and Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . 248 9.4 Characterizing Gate Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 9.5 State Leakage and Suppression using Pulse Shaping . . . 254 9.6 Zero-Noise Extrapolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 9.7 Optimized Control using Deep Learning . . . . . . . . . . 260 9.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 10 Quantum Error Correction 265 10.1 Review of Classical Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 10.1.1 Error Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 10.1.2 Error Correction: Repetition Code . . . . . . . . . 267 10.1.3 Hamming Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 10.2 Quantum Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 10.3 Detecting and Correcting Quantum Errors . . . . . . . . . 272 10.3.1 Bit Flip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 10.3.2 Phase Flip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 10.3.3 Correcting Bit and Phase Flips: Shor’s 9-qubit Code275 10.3.4 Arbitrary Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 CONTENTS vii 10.4 Stabilizer Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.4.1 Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.4.2 Stabilizers for Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . 280 10.5 Operating on Logical Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 10.6 Error Thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 10.6.1 Concatenation of Error Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 10.6.2 Threshold Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 10.7 Surface Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 10.7.1 Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 10.7.2 Error Detection and Correction . . . . . . . . . . . 291 10.7.3 Logical X and Z Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 10.7.4 Multiple Qubits: Lattice Surgery . . . . . . . . . . 297 10.7.5 CNOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 10.7.6 Single-Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 10.8 Summary and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 10.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 11 Quantum Logic: Efficient Implementation of Classical Computations 309 11.1 Reversible Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 11.1.1 Reversible Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 11.1.2 Reversible Logic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 11.2 Quantum Logic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 11.2.1 Entanglement and Uncomputing . . . . . . . . . . 317 11.2.2 Multi-qubit gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 11.2.3 Qubit topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 11.3 Efficient Arithmetic Circuits: Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 11.3.1 Quantum Ripple Carry Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 11.3.2 In-place Ripple Carry Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 11.3.3 Carry-Lookahead Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 11.3.4 Adder Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 11.4 Phase Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 11.4.1 Controlled-Z and Controlled-Phase Gates . . . . . 336 11.4.2 Selective Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 11.4.3 Phase Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 11.5 Summary and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 11.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 12 Some Quantum Algorithms 347 12.1 Computational Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 12.1.1 Quantum Program Run-Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 12.1.2 Classical Complexity Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 12.1.3 Quantum Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 12.2 Grover’s Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 12.2.1 Grover Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 viii CONTENTS 12.2.2 Quantum Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 12.2.3 Generalizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 12.3 Quantum Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 12.3.1 Frequencies and Quantum-encoded Signals . . . . 358 12.3.2 Inverse QFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 12.3.3 Quantum Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 12.3.4 Computational Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 12.4 Quantum Phase Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 12.4.1 Quantum Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 12.4.2 Computational Complexity and Other Issues . . . 367 12.5 Shor’s Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 12.5.1 Hybrid Classical-Quantum Algorithm . . . . . . . 368 12.5.2 Finding the Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 12.5.3 Computational Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 12.6 Variational Quantum Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 12.6.1 Variational Quantum Eigensolver . . . . . . . . . . 377 12.6.2 Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm . 382 12.6.3 Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 12.7 Summary and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 12.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Basics of Three-Phase AC Converters 1 1.2 Basics of Three-Phase AC Converter Design 20 1.3 Goal and Organization of This Book 26 Part I Components 31 2 Power Semiconductor Devices 33 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Static Characteristics 35 2.3 Switching Characteristics 50 2.4 Thermal Characteristics 57 2.5 Other Attributes 60 2.6 Scalability (Parallel/Series) 68 2.7 Relevance to Converter Design 70 2.8 Summary 72 3 Capacitors 75 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 Capacitor Types and Technologies 75 3.3 Capacitor Selection in a Converter Design 82 3.4 Capacitor Characteristics and Models 84 3.5 Capacitor Bank (Parallel/Series) 98 3.6 Relevance to Converter Design 100 3.7 Summary 102 4 Magnetics 105 4.1 Introduction 105 4.2 Magnetic Core Materials and Construction 105 4.3 Inductor Design in a Converter 108 4.4 Inductor Characteristics and Models 110 4.5 Relevance to Converter Design 127 4.5.1 Capacitor Winding Capacitance 127 4.6 Summary 128 Part II Subsystems Design 131 5 Passive Rectifiers 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Passive Rectifier Design Problem Formulation 135 5.3 Passive Rectifier Models 140 5.4 Passive Rectifier Design Optimization 157 5.5 Interface to Other Subsystem Designs 161 5.6 Summary 164 6 Load-side Inverters 167 6.1 Introduction 167 6.2 Load-side Inverter Design Problem Formulation 167 6.3 Load-side Inverter Models 173 6.4 Load-side Inverter Design Optimization 230 6.5 Load-side Inverter Interfaces to Other Subsystem Designs 236 6.6 Summary 241 7 Active Rectifiers and Source-side Inverters 245 7.1 Introduction 245 7.2 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Design Problem Formulation 245 7.3 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Models 251 7.4 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Design Optimization 280 7.5 Impact of Topology 280 7.6 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Interfaces to Other Subsystem Designs 300 7.7 Summary 300 8 EMI Filters 305 8.1 Introduction 305 8.2 EMI Filter Design Basics 306 8.3 EMI Filter Design Problem Formulation 324 8.4 EMI Filter Models 326 8.5 EMI Filter Design Optimization and Some Practical Considerations 343 8.6 EMI Noise and Filter Reduction Techniques 353 8.7 Interface to Other Subsystem Designs 365 8.8 Summary 366 9 Thermal Management System 369 9.1 Introduction 369 9.2 Cooling Technology Overview 369 9.3 Thermal Management System Design Problem Formulation 384 9.4 Thermal Management System Models 388 9.5 Thermal Management System Design Optimization 393 9.6 Thermal Management System Interface to Other Subsystems 397 9.7 Other Cooling Considerations 400 9.8 Summary 407 10 Control and Auxiliaries 411 10.1 Introduction 411 10.2 Control Architecture 411 10.3 Control Hardware Selection and Design 414 10.4 Isolation 415 10.5 Gate Driver 418 10.6 Sensors and Measurements 430 10.7 Protection 445 10.8 Printed Circuit Boards 452 10.9 Deadtime Setting and Compensation 455 10.10 Interface to Other Subsystems 466 10.11 Summary 467 11 Mechanical System 471 11.1 Introduction 471 11.2 Mechanical System Design Problem Formulation 475 11.3 Busbar Design 482 11.4 Mechanical System Interface to Other Subsystems 502 11.5 Summary 504 12 Application Considerations 507 12.1 Introduction 507 12.2 Motor Drive Applications 507 12.3 Grid Applications 547 12.4 Summary 577 Part III Design Optimization 581 13 Design Optimization 583 13.1 Introduction 583 13.2 Design Optimization Concept and Procedure 583 13.3 Optimization Algorithms 587 13.4 Partitioned Optimizers vs. Single Optimizer for Converter Design 590 13.5 Design Tool Development 596 13.6 Virtual Prototyping 638 13.7 Summary 642 References 643 Index 647

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Book SynopsisAn authoritative single-volume reference on the design and analysis of ESD protection for ICs Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a major reliability challenge to semiconductors, integrated circuits (ICs), and microelectronic systems. On-chip ESD protection is a vital to any electronic products, such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, and other electronic devices.Practical ESD Protection Designprovides comprehensive and systematic guidance on all major aspects of designs of on-chip ESD protection for integrated circuits (ICs). Written for students and practicing engineers alike, this one-stop resource covers essential theories, hands-on design skills, computer-aided design (CAD) methods, characterization and analysis techniques, and more on ESD protection designs. Detailed chapters examine an array of topics ranging from fundamental to advanced, including ESD phenomena, ESD failure analysis, ESD testing models, ESD protection devices and circuits, ESD design layout and technology effectTable of ContentsAuthor Biography xi Preface xiii 1 Why ESD? 1 1.1 A Historical Perspective 1 1.2 ESD and the Dangers 3 1.3 ESD Protection: The Principles 9 1.4 ESD Protection: More or Less? 13 1.5 ESD Protection: Evolution to Revolution 15 References 15 2 ESD Failure Analysis 19 2.1 ESD Failure Analysis 19 2.1.1 ESD Failure Criteria 19 2.1.2 Hard and Soft ESD Failures 20 2.2 ESD FA Techniques 20 2.3 ESD Failure Signatures 22 2.4 ESD Soft Failures 38 2.5 ESD Failure Correlation 41 2.6 ESD Failure Models 44 References 47 3 ESD Test Models and Standards 51 3.1 ESD Origins 51 3.2 HBM Model 52 3.3 mm Model 58 3.4 CDM Model 61 3.5 IEC Model 67 3.6 TLP Model 69 3.7 Summary 74 References 75 4 ESD Protection Devices 77 4.1 On-Chip ESD Protection Mechanisms 77 4.1.1 Switch for ESD Discharge 77 4.1.2 ESD Protection: Active versus Passive 81 4.2 Diode for ESD Protection 84 4.2.1 Diode Device Physics 84 4.2.2 Diode in ESD Protection 85 4.2.3 Diode ESD Parasitic Modeling 87 4.3 BJT for ESD Protection 87 4.3.1 BJT Device Physics 88 4.3.2 BJT in ESD Protection 90 4.3.3 BJT ESD Parasitic Modeling 92 4.4 MOSFET for ESD Protection 93 4.4.1 MOSFET Device Physics 94 4.4.2 ggMOS in ESD Protection 95 4.4.3 MOSFET ESD Parasitic Modeling 98 4.5 SCR for ESD Protection 99 4.5.1 SCR Device Physics 100 4.5.2 SCR in ESD Protection 102 4.5.3 SCR ESD Parasitic Modeling 106 4.6 Summary 107 References 109 5 ESD Protection Circuits 111 5.1 I/O ESD Protection 111 5.1.1 Two-Stage ESD Protection 112 5.1.2 Multiple-Fingers ESD Protection 113 5.1.3 MOSFET ESD Protection Circuits 114 5.1.4 BJT ESD Protection Circuits 117 5.1.5 SCR ESD Protection Circuits 120 5.2 ESD Self-Protection 121 5.2.1 Output ESD Protection 121 5.2.2 ESD Self-Protection 124 5.3 Low-Triggering ESD Protection Circuits 124 5.4 ESD Power Clamps 129 5.4.1 Diode-String Power Clamps 131 5.4.2 MOSFET Power Clamps 134 5.4.3 SCR Power Clamps 135 5.4.4 Any Switch Power Clamps 135 5.5 Summary 136 References 137 6 Full-Chip ESD Protection 139 6.1 Full-Chip ESD Protection Principles 139 6.2 ESD Protection Design Window 140 6.3 Advanced ESD Protection: More at Less 142 6.3.1 Dual-Polarity ESD Protection 143 6.3.2 Multiple-Polarity ESD Protection 147 6.4 Full-Chip ESD Protection Schemes 150 6.4.1 Full-Chip ESD Consideration 150 6.4.2 Pad-Clamp Scheme 151 6.4.3 Global ESD Bus Scheme 153 6.5 No Universal ESD Protection Solution 154 References 155 7 Mixed-Signal and HV ESD Protection 157 7.1 ESD Protection for Mixed-Signal ICs 157 7.2 ESD Protection for Multiple-Voltages ICs 162 7.3 ESD Protection for High-Voltage ICs 167 7.3.1 ESD Design Window Compliance 167 7.3.2 Latch-up Immunity 173 7.4 Summary 174 References 175 8 TCAD-Based Mixed-Mode ESD Protection Designs 177 8.1 ESD Design Optimization and Prediction 177 8.2 TCAD-Based Mixed-Mode ESD Simulation-Design Methodology 182 8.3 Mixed-Mode ESD Simulation-Design Examples 188 8.3.1 Example 1: Understand TCAD ESD Simulation 188 8.3.2 Example-2: ggNMOS versus gcNMOS ESD Protection 192 8.3.3 Example-3: ESD Power Clamp in 0.35 μmCMOS 196 8.3.4 Example-4: Optimize HV ESD Protection Design 199 8.3.5 Example-5: ESD Layout Analysis by 3D TCAD 203 8.3.6 Example-6: Multiple-Stimuli TCAD ESD Simulation 210 8.4 Summary 218 References 219 9 RF ESD Protection 221 9.1 What Is Special for RF ESD Protection? 221 9.2 RF ESD Protection Characterization 226 9.3 Low-Parasitic ESD Protection Solutions 232 9.4 RF ESD Protection Design Example 233 9.5 Summary 236 References 237 10 ESD-RFIC Co-Design 239 10.1 ESD-IC Interactions 239 10.1.1 IC Affects ESD Protection 239 10.1.2 ESD Affects IC Performance 241 10.2 ESD-RFIC Co-Design 248 10.2.1 ESD-RFIC Co-Design Principle 249 10.2.2 ESD–RFIC Co-Design Examples 251 10.3 Summary 259 References 259 11 ESD Layout Designs 261 11.1 Layout is Critical to ESD Protection 261 11.2 Basic ESD Protection Layout 262 11.3 Advanced ESD Protection Layout 274 11.3.1 Advanced ESD Layout Considerations 274 11.3.2 ESD Design Layout is an Art 278 11.4 3D TCAD for ESD Layout Designs 284 11.5 Summary 294 References 295 12 ESD versus IC Technologies 297 12.1 IC Technologies and ESD Protection 297 12.1.1 ESD Metal Interconnects 297 12.1.2 Technology-ESD Co-Development 299 12.1.3 Graphene Heat Spreading 305 12.2 Technology Affects ESD Design Window 305 12.3 Lowering ESD Protection for Advanced ICs? 306 12.4 Summary 308 References 308 13 ESD Circuit Simulation by SPICE 311 13.1 ESD Device Behavior Modeling 311 13.2 Full-Chip ESD Circuit Simulation by SPICE 314 13.2.1 Principle for ESD Circuit Simulation by SPICE 314 13.2.2 Circuit-Level ESD Design Verification by SPICE 319 13.3 Summary 326 References 326 14 Emerging ESD Protection 327 14.1 Emerging ESD Protection Challenges 327 14.2 Dispensable ESD Protection 328 14.3 Field-Programmable ESD Protection 332 14.3.1 Nano-Crystal Quantum-Dots ESD Protection 332 14.3.2 SONOS ESD Protection 334 14.4 Interposer/TSV-Based ESD Protection 337 14.5 Summary 341 References 342 15 ESD CAD for Full-Chip Design Verification 345 15.1 Full-Chip ESD Design Verification 345 15.2 CAD Algorithms for ESD Design Verification 347 15.3 Full-Chip ESD Design Verification Examples 353 15.4 Summary 363 References 364 16 New CDM ESD Protection 367 16.1 Misconception in CDM ESD Protection 367 16.2 Analyzing Pad-Based CDM ESD Protection 370 16.3 Internally Distributed CDM ESD Protection 385 16.4 Summary 391 References 392 17 Future ESD Protection Outlook 395 17.1 The Fundamental ESD Protection Problem 395 17.2 Above-IC Nano-Crossbar Array ESD Switch 396 17.3 Graphene ESD Protection Switch 401 17.4 Graphene ESD Protection Interconnects 405 17.5 Future ESD Protection Outlook 407 17.6 Summary 410 References 411 Index 413

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAuthor Biography xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction to the Basic Concepts 1 1.1 What Is a Microchip? 1 1.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistivity 1 1.3 Conductor, Insulator, and Semiconductor 5 References 5 2 Brief Introduction of Theories 7 2.1 The Birth of Quantum Mechanics 7 2.2 Energy Band (Band) 11 References 15 3 Early Radio Communication 17 3.1 Telegraph Technology 17 3.2 Electron Tube 19 References 22 4 Basic Knowledge of Electric Circuits (Circuits) 23 4.1 Electric Circuits and the Components 23 4.2 Electric Field 26 4.3 Magnetic Field 28 4.4 Alternating Current 30 5 Further Discussion of Semiconductors and Diodes 33 5.1 Semiconductor Energy Band 33 5.2 Semiconductor Doping 36 5.3 Semiconductor Diode 42 References 46 6 Transistor and Integrated Circuit 47 6.1 Bipolar Transistor 47 6.2 Junction Field Effect Transistor 49 6.3 Metal–Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 52 6.4 Metal–Insulator–Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 55 References 60 7 The Development History of Semiconductor Industry 61 7.1 The Instruction of Semiconductor Products and Structures 61 7.2 A Brief History of the Semiconductor Industry 63 7.3 Changes in the Size of Transistors and SiliconWafers 65 7.4 Clean Room 67 7.5 Planar Process 71 References 75 8 Semiconductor Photonic Devices 77 8.1 Light-Emitting Devices and Light-Emitting Principles 77 8.2 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 82 8.3 Semiconductor Diode Laser 88 8.3.1 Resonant Cavity 89 8.3.2 Reflection and Refraction of Light 91 8.3.3 Heterojunction Materials 93 8.3.4 Population Inversion and Threshold Current Density 94 References 96 9 Semiconductor Light Detection and Photocell 97 9.1 Digital Camera and CCD 97 9.2 Photoconductor 100 9.3 Transistor Laser 101 9.4 Solar Cell 105 References 106 10 Manufacture of Silicon Wafer 109 10.1 From Quartzite Ore to Polysilicon 110 10.2 Chemical Reaction 113 10.3 Pull Single Crystal 115 10.4 Polishing and Slicing 116 References 123 11 Basic Knowledges of Process 125 11.1 The Structure of Integrated Circuit (IC) 125 11.2 Resolution of Optical System 128 11.3 Why Plasma Used in the Process 131 References 133 12 Photolithography (Lithography) 135 12.1 The Steps of Lithography Process 135 12.1.1 Cleaning 135 12.1.2 Dehydration Bake 136 12.1.3 Photoresist Coating 138 12.1.4 Soft Bake 141 12.1.5 Alignment and Exposure 141 12.1.6 Developing 145 12.1.7 Inspection 146 12.1.8 Hard Bake 147 12.1.9 Descum 148 12.2 Alignment Mark (Mark) Design on the Photomask 152 12.3 Contemporary Photolithography Equipment Technologies 156 References 159 13 Dielectric Films Growth 161 13.1 The Growth of Silicon Dioxide Film 162 13.1.1 Thermal Oxidation Process of SiO2 162 13.1.2 LTO Process 164 13.1.3 PECVD Process of Silicon Dioxide 166 13.1.4 TEOS + O3 Deposition Using APCVD System 167 13.2 The Growth of Silicon Nitride Film 168 13.2.1 LPCVD 168 13.2.2 PECVD Process of Silicon Nitride 171 13.3 Atomic Layer Deposition Technique 174 References 177 14 Introduction of Etching and RIE System 179 14.1 Wet Etching 179 14.2 RIE System for Dry Etching 182 14.2.1 RIE Process Flow and Equipment Structure 182 14.2.2 Process Chamber 184 14.2.3 Vacuum Pumps 186 14.2.4 RF Power Supply (Source) and Matching Network (Matchwork) 187 14.2.5 Gas Cylinder and Mass Flow Controller (MFC) 189 14.2.6 Heater and Coolant 194 References 196 15 Dry Etching 197 15.1 The Etch Profile of RIE 197 15.1.1 Case 1 198 15.1.2 Case 2 201 15.2 Etching Rate of RIE 203 15.3 Dry Etching of III–V Semiconductors and Metals 206 15.4 Etch Profile Control 207 15.4.1 Influence of the PR Opening Shape on the Etch Profile 208 15.4.2 The Effect of Carbon on Etching Rate and Profile 209 15.5 Other Issues 211 15.5.1 The Differences Between RIE and PECVD 211 15.5.2 The Difference Between Si and SiO2 Dry Etching 214 15.6 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Technique and Bosch Process 215 15.6.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Technique 216 15.6.2 Bosch Process 219 References 223 16 Metal Processes 225 16.1 Thermal Evaporation Technique 225 16.2 Electron Beam Evaporation Technique 227 16.3 Magnetron Sputtering Deposition Technique 231 16.4 The Main Differences Between Electron Beam (Thermal) Evaporation and Sputtering Deposition 234 16.5 Metal Lift-off Process 235 16.6 Metal Selection and Annealing Technology 241 16.6.1 The Selection of Metals 241 16.6.2 Metal Annealing 242 References 243 17 Doping Processes 245 17.1 Basic Introduction of Doping 245 17.2 Basic Principles of Diffusion 246 17.3 Thermal Diffusion 247 17.4 Diffusion and Redistribution of Impurities in SiO2 248 17.5 Minimum Thickness of SiO2 Masking Film 250 17.6 The Distribution of Impurities Under the SiO2 Masking Film 251 17.7 Diffusion Impurity Sources 252 17.8 Parameters of the Diffusion Layer 255 17.9 Four-Point Probe Sheet Resistance Measurement 256 17.10 Ion Implantation Process 257 17.11 Theoretical Analysis of Ion Implantation 259 17.12 Impurity Distribution after Implantation 260 17.13 Type and Dose of Implanted Impurities 262 17.14 The Minimum Thickness of Masking Film 263 17.15 Annealing Process 264 17.16 Buried Implantation 266 17.16.1 Implantation through Masking Film 266 17.16.2 SOI Manufacture 267 References 270 18 Process Control Monitor, Packaging, and the Others 271 18.1 Dielectric Film Quality Inspection 271 18.2 Ohmic Contact Test 273 18.3 Metal-to-Metal Contact 274 18.4 Conductive Channel Control 277 18.5 Chip Testing 278 18.6 Dicing 279 18.7 Packaging 280 18.8 Equipment Operation Range 281 18.9 Low-k and High-k Dielectrics 282 18.9.1 Copper Interconnection and Low-k Dielectrics 283 18.9.2 Quantum Tunneling Effect and High-k Dielectrics 286 18.10 End 291 References 293 Index 295

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Book SynopsisThis reference book provides a fully integrated novel approach to the development of high-power, single-transverse mode, edge-emitting diode lasers by addressing the complementary topics of device engineering, reliability engineering and device diagnostics in the same book, and thus closes the gap in the current book literature.Trade Review“With invaluable practical advice, this new reference book is suited to practising researchers in diode laser technologies, and to postgraduate engineering students.” (The German Branch of the European Optical Society, 1 October 2013) "This book would be a valuable reference and essential source for researchers and engineers who work on the development of diode laser products. It will also be useful for academics and teachers for educational purposes." (Optics & Photonics News, 25 October 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xix About the author xxiii Part 1 Diode Laser Engineering 1 Overview 1 1 Basic diode laser engineering principles 3 Introduction 4 1.1 Brief recapitulation 4 1.1.1 Key features of a diode laser 4 1.1.1.1 Carrier population inversion 4 1.1.1.2 Net gain mechanism 6 1.1.1.3 Optical resonator 9 1.1.1.4 Transverse vertical confinement 11 1.1.1.5 Transverse lateral confinement 12 1.1.2 Homojunction diode laser 13 1.1.3 Double-heterostructure diode laser 15 1.1.4 Quantum well diode laser 17 1.1.4.1 Advantages of quantum well heterostructures for diode lasers 22 Wavelength adjustment and tunability 22 Strained quantum well lasers 23 Optical power supply 25 Temperature characteristics 26 1.1.5 Common compounds for semiconductor lasers 26 1.2 Optical output power – diverse aspects 31 1.2.1 Approaches to high-power diode lasers 31 1.2.1.1 Edge-emitters 31 1.2.1.2 Surface-emitters 33 1.2.2 High optical power considerations 35 1.2.2.1 Laser brightness 36 1.2.2.2 Laser beam quality factor M2 36 1.2.3 Power limitations 37 1.2.3.1 Kinks 37 1.2.3.2 Rollover 38 1.2.3.3 Catastrophic optical damage 38 1.2.3.4 Aging 39 1.2.4 High power versus reliability tradeoffs 39 1.2.5 Typical and record-high cw optical output powers 40 1.2.5.1 Narrow-stripe, single spatial mode lasers 40 1.2.5.2 Standard 100 μm wide aperture single emitters 42 1.2.5.3 Tapered amplifier lasers 43 1.2.5.4 Standard 1 cm diode laser bar arrays 44 1.3 Selected relevant basic diode laser characteristics 45 1.3.1 Threshold gain 45 1.3.2 Material gain spectra 46 1.3.2.1 Bulk double-heterostructure laser 46 1.3.2.2 Quantum well laser 47 1.3.3 Optical confinement 49 1.3.4 Threshold current 52 1.3.4.1 Double-heterostructure laser 52 1.3.4.2 Quantum well laser 54 1.3.4.3 Cavity length dependence 54 1.3.4.4 Active layer thickness dependence 56 1.3.5 Transverse vertical and transverse lateral modes 58 1.3.5.1 Vertical confinement structures – summary 58 Double-heterostructure 58 Single quantum well 58 Strained quantum well 59 Separate confinement heterostructure SCH and graded-index SCH (GRIN-SCH) 59 Multiple quantum well (MQW) 59 1.3.5.2 Lateral confinement structures 60 Gain-guiding concept and key features 60 Weakly index-guiding concept and key features 62 Strongly index-guiding concept and key features 63 1.3.5.3 Near-field and far-field pattern 64 1.3.6 Fabry–P´erot longitudinal modes 67 1.3.7 Operating characteristics 69 1.3.7.1 Optical output power and efficiency 72 1.3.7.2 Internal efficiency and optical loss measurements 74 1.3.7.3 Temperature dependence of laser characteristics 74 1.3.8 Mirror reflectivity modifications 77 1.4 Laser fabrication technology 81 1.4.1 Laser wafer growth 82 1.4.1.1 Substrate specifications and preparation 82 1.4.1.2 Substrate loading 82 1.4.1.3 Growth 83 1.4.2 Laser wafer processing 84 1.4.2.1 Ridge waveguide etching and embedding 84 1.4.2.2 The p-type electrode 84 1.4.2.3 Ridge waveguide protection 85 1.4.2.4 Wafer thinning and the n-type electrode 85 1.4.2.5 Wafer cleaving; facet passivation and coating; laser optical inspection; and electrical testing 86 1.4.3 Laser packaging 86 1.4.3.1 Package formats 87 1.4.3.2 Device bonding 87 1.4.3.3 Optical power coupling 89 1.4.3.4 Device operating temperature control 95 1.4.3.5 Hermetic sealing 95 References 96 2 Design considerations for high-power single spatial mode operation 101 Introduction 102 2.1 Basic high-power design approaches 103 2.1.1 Key aspects 103 2.1.2 Output power scaling 104 2.1.3 Transverse vertical waveguides 105 2.1.3.1 Substrate 105 2.1.3.2 Layer sequence 107 2.1.3.3 Materials; layer doping; graded-index layer doping 108 Materials 108 Layer doping 113 Layer doping – n-type doping 113 Layer doping – p-type doping 113 Graded-index layer doping 114 2.1.3.4 Active layer 114 Integrity – spacer layers 114 Integrity – prelayers 115 Integrity – deep levels 115 Quantum wells versus quantum dots 116 Number of quantum wells 119 2.1.3.5 Fast-axis beam divergence engineering 121 Thin waveguides 122 Broad waveguides and decoupled confinement heterostructures 122 Low refractive index mode puller layers 124 Optical traps and asymmetric waveguide structures 126 Spread index or passive waveguides 127 Leaky waveguides 128 Spot-size converters 128 Photonic bandgap crystal 130 2.1.3.6 Stability of the fundamental transverse vertical mode 133 2.1.4 Narrow-stripe weakly index-guided transverse lateral waveguides 134 2.1.4.1 Ridge waveguide 134 2.1.4.2 Quantum well intermixing 135 2.1.4.3 Weakly index-guided buried stripe 137 2.1.4.4 Slab-coupled waveguide 138 2.1.4.5 Anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguide 140 2.1.4.6 Stability of the fundamental transverse lateral mode 141 2.1.5 Thermal management 144 2.1.6 Catastrophic optical damage elimination 146 2.2 Single spatial mode and kink control 146 2.2.1 Key aspects 146 2.2.1.1 Single spatial mode conditions 147 2.2.1.2 Fundamental mode waveguide optimizations 150 Waveguide geometry; internal physical mechanisms 150 Figures of merit 152 Transverse vertical mode expansion; mirror reflectivity; laser length 153 2.2.1.3 Higher order lateral mode suppression by selective losses 154 Absorptive metal layers 154 Highly resistive regions 156 2.2.1.4 Higher order lateral mode filtering schemes 157 Curved waveguides 157 Tilted mirrors 158 2.2.1.5 Beam steering and cavity length dependence of kinks 158 Beam-steering kinks 158 Kink versus cavity length dependence 159 2.2.1.6 Suppression of the filamentation effect 160 2.3 High-power, single spatial mode, narrow ridge waveguide lasers 162 2.3.1 Introduction 162 2.3.2 Selected calculated parameter dependencies 163 2.3.2.1 Fundamental spatial mode stability regime 163 2.3.2.2 Slow-axis mode losses 163 2.3.2.3 Slow-axis near-field spot size 164 2.3.2.4 Slow-axis far-field angle 166 2.3.2.5 Transverse lateral index step 167 2.3.2.6 Fast-axis near-field spot size 167 2.3.2.7 Fast-axis far-field angle 168 2.3.2.8 Internal optical loss 170 2.3.3 Selected experimental parameter dependencies 171 2.3.3.1 Threshold current density versus cladding layer composition 171 2.3.3.2 Slope efficiency versus cladding layer composition 172 2.3.3.3 Slope efficiency versus threshold current density 172 2.3.3.4 Threshold current versus slow-axis far-field angle 172 2.3.3.5 Slope efficiency versus slow-axis far-field angle 174 2.3.3.6 Kink-free power versus residual thickness 174 2.4 Selected large-area laser concepts and techniques 176 2.4.1 Introduction 176 2.4.2 Broad-area (BA) lasers 178 2.4.2.1 Introduction 178 2.4.2.2 BA lasers with tailored gain profiles 179 2.4.2.3 BA lasers with Gaussian reflectivity facets 180 2.4.2.4 BA lasers with lateral grating-confined angled waveguides 182 2.4.3 Unstable resonator (UR) lasers 183 2.4.3.1 Introduction 183 2.4.3.2 Curved-mirror UR lasers 184 2.4.3.3 UR lasers with continuous lateral index variation 187 2.4.3.4 Quasi-continuous unstable regrown-lens-train resonator lasers 188 2.4.4 Tapered amplifier lasers 189 2.4.4.1 Introduction 189 2.4.4.2 Tapered lasers 189 2.4.4.3 Monolithic master oscillator power amplifiers 192 2.4.5 Linear laser array structures 194 2.4.5.1 Introduction 194 2.4.5.2 Phase-locked coherent linear laser arrays 194 2.4.5.3 High-power incoherent standard 1 cm laser bars 197 References 201 Part 2 Diode Laser Reliability 211 Overview 211 3 Basic diode laser degradation modes 213 Introduction 213 3.1 Degradation and stability criteria of critical diode laser characteristics 214 3.1.1 Optical power; threshold; efficiency; and transverse modes 214 3.1.1.1 Active region degradation 214 3.1.1.2 Mirror facet degradation 215 3.1.1.3 Lateral confinement degradation 215 3.1.1.4 Ohmic contact degradation 216 3.1.2 Lasing wavelength and longitudinal modes 220 3.2 Classification of degradation modes 222 3.2.1 Classification of degradation phenomena by location 222 3.2.1.1 External degradation 222 Mirror degradation 222 Contact degradation 223 Solder degradation 224 3.2.1.2 Internal degradation 224 Active region degradation and junction degradation 224 3.2.2 Basic degradation mechanisms 225 3.2.2.1 Rapid degradation 226 Features and causes of rapid degradation 226 Elimination of rapid degradation 229 3.2.2.2 Gradual degradation 229 Features and causes of gradual degradation 229 Elimination of gradual degradation 230 3.2.2.3 Sudden degradation 231 Features and causes of sudden degradation 231 Elimination of sudden degradation 233 3.3 Key laser robustness factors 234 References 241 4 Optical strength engineering 245 Introduction 245 4.1 Mirror facet properties – physical origins of failure 246 4.2 Mirror facet passivation and protection 249 4.2.1 Scope and effects 249 4.2.2 Facet passivation techniques 250 4.2.2.1 E2 process 250 4.2.2.2 Sulfide passivation 251 4.2.2.3 Reactive material process 252 4.2.2.4 N2IBE process 252 4.2.2.5 I-3 process 254 4.2.2.6 Pulsed UV laser-assisted techniques 255 4.2.2.7 Hydrogenation and silicon hydride barrier layer process 256 4.2.3 Facet protection techniques 258 4.3 Nonabsorbing mirror technologies 259 4.3.1 Concept 259 4.3.2 Window grown on facet 260 4.3.2.1 ZnSe window layer 260 4.3.2.2 AlGaInP window layer 260 4.3.2.3 AlGaAs window layer 261 4.3.2.4 EMOF process 261 4.3.2.5 Disordering ordered InGaP 262 4.3.3 Quantum well intermixing processes 262 4.3.3.1 Concept 262 4.3.3.2 Impurity-induced disordering 263 Ion implantation and annealing 263 Selective diffusion techniques 265 Ion beam intermixing 266 4.3.3.3 Impurity-free vacancy disordering 267 4.3.3.4 Laser-induced disordering 268 4.3.4 Bent waveguide 269 4.4 Further optical strength enhancement approaches 270 4.4.1 Current blocking mirrors and material optimization 270 4.4.1.1 Current blocking mirrors 270 4.4.1.2 Material optimization 272 4.4.2 Heat spreader layer; device mounting; and number of quantum wells 273 4.4.2.1 Heat spreader and device mounting 273 4.4.2.2 Number of quantum wells 273 4.4.3 Mode spot widening techniques 274 References 276 5 Basic reliability engineering concepts 281 Introduction 282 5.1 Descriptive reliability statistics 283 5.1.1 Probability density function 283 5.1.2 Cumulative distribution function 283 5.1.3 Reliability function 284 5.1.4 Instantaneous failure rate or hazard rate 285 5.1.5 Cumulative hazard function 285 5.1.6 Average failure rate 286 5.1.7 Failure rate units 286 5.1.8 Bathtub failure rate curve 287 5.2 Failure distribution functions – statistical models for nonrepairable populations 288 5.2.1 Introduction 288 5.2.2 Lognormal distribution 289 5.2.2.1 Introduction 289 5.2.2.2 Properties 289 5.2.2.3 Areas of application 291 5.2.3 Weibull distribution 291 5.2.3.1 Introduction 291 5.2.3.2 Properties 292 5.2.3.3 Areas of application 294 5.2.4 Exponential distribution 294 5.2.4.1 Introduction 294 5.2.4.2 Properties 295 5.2.4.3 Areas of application 297 5.3 Reliability data plotting 298 5.3.1 Life-test data plotting 298 5.3.1.1 Lognormal distribution 298 5.3.1.2 Weibull distribution 300 5.3.1.3 Exponential distribution 303 5.4 Further reliability concepts 306 5.4.1 Data types 306 5.4.1.1 Time-censored or time-terminated tests 306 5.4.1.2 Failure-censored or failure-terminated tests 307 5.4.1.3 Readout time data tests 307 5.4.2 Confidence limits 307 5.4.3 Mean time to failure calculations 309 5.4.4 Reliability estimations 310 5.5 Accelerated reliability testing – physics–statistics models 310 5.5.1 Acceleration relationships 310 5.5.1.1 Exponential; Weibull; and lognormal distribution acceleration 311 5.5.2 Remarks on acceleration models 312 5.5.2.1 Arrhenius model 313 5.5.2.2 Inverse power law 315 5.5.2.3 Eyring model 316 5.5.2.4 Other acceleration models 318 5.5.2.5 Selection of accelerated test conditions 319 5.6 System reliability calculations 320 5.6.1 Introduction 320 5.6.2 Independent elements connected in series 321 5.6.3 Parallel system of independent components 322 References 323 6 Diode laser reliability engineering program 325 Introduction 325 6.1 Reliability test plan 326 6.1.1 Main purpose; motivation; and goals 326 6.1.2 Up-front requirements and activities 327 6.1.2.1 Functional and reliability specifications 327 6.1.2.2 Definition of product failures 328 6.1.2.3 Failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis 328 6.1.3 Relevant parameters for long-term stability and reliability 330 6.1.4 Test preparations and operation 330 6.1.4.1 Samples; fixtures; and test equipment 330 6.1.4.2 Sample sizes and test durations 331 6.1.5 Overview of reliability program building blocks 332 6.1.5.1 Reliability tests and conditions 334 6.1.5.2 Data collection and master database 334 6.1.5.3 Data analysis and reporting 335 6.1.6 Development tests 336 6.1.6.1 Design verification tests 336 Reliability demonstration tests 336 Step stress testing 337 6.1.6.2 Accelerated life tests 339 Laser chip 339 Laser module 341 6.1.6.3 Environmental stress testing – laser chip 342 Temperature endurance 342 Mechanical integrity 343 Special tests 344 6.1.6.4 Environmental stress testing – subcomponents and module 344 Temperature endurance 345 Mechanical integrity 346 Special tests 346 6.1.7 Manufacturing tests 348 6.1.7.1 Functionality tests and burn-in 348 6.1.7.2 Final reliability verification tests 349 6.2 Reliability growth program 349 6.3 Reliability benefits and costs 350 6.3.1 Types of benefit 350 6.3.1.1 Optimum reliability-level determination 350 6.3.1.2 Optimum product burn-in time 350 6.3.1.3 Effective supplier evaluation 350 6.3.1.4 Well-founded quality control 350 6.3.1.5 Optimum warranty costs and period 351 6.3.1.6 Improved life-cycle cost-effectiveness 351 6.3.1.7 Promotion of positive image and reputation 351 6.3.1.8 Increase in customer satisfaction 351 6.3.1.9 Promotion of sales and future business 351 6.3.2 Reliability–cost tradeoffs 351 References 353 Part 3 Diode Laser Diagnostics 355 Overview 355 7 Novel diagnostic laser data for active layer material integrity; impurity trapping effects; and mirror temperatures 361 Introduction 362 7.1 Optical integrity of laser wafer substrates 362 7.1.1 Motivation 362 7.1.2 Experimental details 363 7.1.3 Discussion of wafer photoluminescence (PL) maps 364 7.2 Integrity of laser active layers 366 7.2.1 Motivation 366 7.2.2 Experimental details 367 7.2.2.1 Radiative transitions 367 7.2.2.2 The samples 369 7.2.2.3 Low-temperature PL spectroscopy setup 369 7.2.3 Discussion of quantum well PL spectra 371 7.2.3.1 Exciton and impurity-related recombinations 371 7.2.3.2 Dependence on thickness of well and barrier layer 373 7.2.3.3 Prelayers for improving active layer integrity 375 7.3 Deep-level defects at interfaces of active regions 376 7.3.1 Motivation 376 7.3.2 Experimental details 377 7.3.3 Discussion of deep-level transient spectroscopy results 382 7.4 Micro-Raman spectroscopy for diode laser diagnostics 386 7.4.1 Motivation 386 7.4.2 Basics of Raman inelastic light scattering 388 7.4.3 Experimental details 391 7.4.4 Raman on standard diode laser facets 394 7.4.5 Raman for facet temperature measurements 395 7.4.5.1 Typical examples of Stokes- and anti-Stokes Raman spectra 396 7.4.5.2 First laser mirror temperatures by Raman 398 7.4.6 Various dependencies of diode laser mirror temperatures 401 7.4.6.1 Laser material 402 7.4.6.2 Mirror surface treatment 403 7.4.6.3 Cladding layers; mounting of laser die; heat spreader; and number of active quantum wells 404 References 406 8 Novel diagnostic laser data for mirror facet disorder effects; mechanical stress effects; and facet coating instability 409 Introduction 410 8.1 Diode laser mirror facet studies by Raman 410 8.1.1 Motivation 410 8.1.2 Raman microprobe spectra 410 8.1.3 Possible origins of the 193 cm−1 mode in (Al)GaAs 412 8.1.4 Facet disorder – facet temperature – catastrophic optical mirror damage robustness correlations 413 8.2 Local mechanical stress in ridge waveguide diode lasers 416 8.2.1 Motivation 416 8.2.2 Measurements – Raman shifts and stress profiles 417 8.2.3 Detection of “weak spots” 419 8.2.3.1 Electron irradiation and electron beam induced current (EBIC) images of diode lasers 419 8.2.3.2 EBIC – basic concept 421 8.2.4 Stress model experiments 422 8.2.4.1 Laser bar bending technique and results 422 8.3 Diode laser mirror facet coating structural instability 424 8.3.1 Motivation 424 8.3.2 Experimental details 424 8.3.3 Silicon recrystallization by internal power exposure 425 8.3.3.1 Dependence on silicon deposition technique 425 8.3.3.2 Temperature rises in ion beam- and plasma enhanced chemical vapor-deposited amorphous silicon coatings 427 8.3.4 Silicon recrystallization by external power exposure –control experiments 428 8.3.4.1 Effect on optical mode and P/I characteristics 429 References 430 9 Novel diagnostic data for diverse laser temperature effects; dynamic laser degradation effects; and mirror temperature maps 433 Introduction 434 9.1 Thermoreflectance microscopy for diode laser diagnostics 435 9.1.1 Motivation 435 9.1.2 Concept and signal interpretation 437 9.1.3 Reflectance–temperature change relationship 439 9.1.4 Experimental details 439 9.1.5 Potential perturbation effects on reflectance 441 9.2 Thermoreflectance versus optical spectroscopies 442 9.2.1 General 442 9.2.2 Comparison 442 9.3 Lowest detectable temperature rise 444 9.4 Diode laser mirror temperatures by micro-thermoreflectance 445 9.4.1 Motivation 445 9.4.2 Dependence on number of active quantum wells 445 9.4.3 Dependence on heat spreader 446 9.4.4 Dependence on mirror treatment and coating 447 9.4.5 Bent-waveguide nonabsorbing mirror 448 9.5 Diode laser mirror studies by micro-thermoreflectance 451 9.5.1 Motivation 451 9.5.2 Real-time temperature-monitored laser degradation 451 9.5.2.1 Critical temperature to catastrophic optical mirror damage 451 9.5.2.2 Development of facet temperature with operation time 453 9.5.2.3 Temperature associated with dark-spot defects in mirror facets 454 9.5.3 Local optical probe 455 9.5.3.1 Threshold and heating distribution within near-field spot 455 9.6 Diode laser cavity temperatures by micro-electroluminescence 456 9.6.1 Motivation 456 9.6.2 Experimental details – sample and setup 456 9.6.3 Temperature profiles along laser cavity 457 9.7 Diode laser facet temperature – two-dimensional mapping 460 9.7.1 Motivation 460 9.7.2 Experimental concept 460 9.7.3 First temperature maps ever 460 9.7.4 Independent temperature line scans perpendicular to the active layer 461 9.7.5 Temperature modeling 462 9.7.5.1 Modeling procedure 463 9.7.5.2 Modeling results and discussion 465 References 466 Index 469

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Book SynopsisAn investigation of how-to guides for sensor technologies Sensors are increasingly common within citizen-sensing and DIY projects, but these devices often require the use of a how-to guide. From online instructional videos for troubleshooting sensor installations to handbooks for using and abusing the Internet of Things, the how-to genres and formats of digital instruction continue to expand and develop. As the how-to proliferates, and instructions unfold through multiple aspects of technoscientific practices, Jennifer Gabrys asks why the how-to has become one of the prevailing genres of the digital. How to Do Things with Sensors explores the ways in which things are made do-able with and through sensors and further considers how worlds are made sense-able and actionable through the instructional mode of citizen-sensing projects.Forerunners: Ideas FirstShort books of thought-in-process scholarship, where intense analysis, questioning, and speculation take the leadTrade Review"How to Do Thing with Sensors is a relatively condensed argument, considering its complexity. It is one that has the potential to open up its readers to a more nuanced and complex understanding of making and maker culture."—Hyperrhiz"Gabrys encourages those with curiosity to develop and refine questions through the iterative process of making sensors and taking readings. Like a character or reader exploring a new world for the first time, she fosters new modes of engagement with the built world."—Public Books

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Book SynopsisAdvances in synthesis and characterization of dielectric, piezoelectric and ferroelectric thin films are included in this volume. Dielectric, piezoelectric and ferroelectric thin films have a tremendous impact on a variety of commercial and military systems including tunable microwave devices, memories, MEMS devices, actuators and sensors. Recent work on piezoelectric characterization, AFE to FE dielectric phase transformation dielectrics, solution and vapor deposited thin films, and materials integration are among the topics included. Novel approaches to nanostructuring, characterization of material properties and physical responses at the nanoscale also is included.Table of ContentsPreface vii Chemical Solution Deposition of CaCu3Ti4012 Thin Films 1M. Losego and J. P. Maria The Temporal Effects in DC-Biased PbNb(Zr,Sn,Ti)03 Antiferroelectric Thin Films 9J. Zhai, H. Chen, and E. Colla High Energy Density PLZT Thin Film Capacitors 17B.A. Tuttle, D.P. Williams, T. Headley, M. Rodriguez, J.S. Wheeler, and G Brennecka Reliability Studies on Sputter Deposited Barium Strontium Titanate Thin Film Capacitors 27N. Kamehara, J.D. Baniecki, T. Shioga, and K. Kurihara Raman Study of Effects of Excess Bi Content in Metalorganic Derived Bi4Ti3012 Films 33C.Y. Yau, R. Palan, K. Tran, and R.C. Buchanan High Dielectric Tunability Ferroelectric (Pb,Sr)Ti03 Thin Films for Room Temperature Tunable Microwave Devices 43S.W. Liu, Y. Lin, J. Weaver, W. Donner, X. Chen, C.L. Chen, H.D. Lee, W.K. Chu, J.C. Jiang, E.I. Meletis, and A. Bhalla Fabrication of Self-Assembled Nanostrutures of Microwave Dielectrics 51S. Bhattacharyya, M. Jain, N. Karan, and R.S. Katiyar Epitaxial Phase Selection in the Rare Earth Manganite System 59K.R. Balasubramanian, A.A. Bagal, O. Castillo, A.J. Francis, and RA. Salvador Multi-Ferroic BiFe03 Films Prepared by Liquid Phase Epitaxy and Sol-Gel Methods 69X. Qi, RS. Roberts, N.D. Mathur, J.S. Lee, S. Foltyn, Q.X. Jia, and J.L. MacManus-Driscoll Effect of Argon Addition Durina ECR Mode Nucleation of Diamond Films Grown by MPCVD 75V.S. Jayaseelan, V. Shanov, and R.N. Singh Author Index 85 Keyword Index 86

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Book SynopsisElectrochemical capacitors are electrochemical energy storage devices able to quickly deliver or store large quantities of energy. They have stimulated numerous innovations throughout the last 20 years and are now implemented in many fields. Supercapacitors Based on Carbon or Pseudocapacitive Materials provides the scientific basis for a better understanding of the characteristics and performance of electrochemical capacitors based on electrochemical double layer electrodes or pseudocapacitive materials, as well as providing information on the design and conception of new devices such as lithium-ion capacitors. This book details the various applications of supercapacitors, ranging from power electronics and stationary use, to transportation (hybrid vehicles, trams, planes, etc.). They are increasingly used in the automotive sector, especially as part of stop/start systems that have allowed for energy recovery through braking and reduced fuel consumption. Table of Contents1. Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC). 2. Electrolytes. 3. Pseudocapacitive Materials. 4. Hybrid and/or Asymmetric Systems.

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Book SynopsisModel-based development methods, and supporting technologies, can provide the techniques and tools needed to address the dilemma between reducing system development costs and time, and developing increasingly complex systems. The Model Driven Architecture (MDA) initiative of the Object Management Group (OMG) is concerned with the development of standards and technologies that enable and support model-based system development. The aim of this book is to provide the information needed to understand and apply MDE (including MDA) approaches to the development of embedded systems. Chapters, written by experts from academia and industry, cover topics relating to MDE practices and methods, as well as emerging MDE technologies. Much of the writing is based on the presentations given at the Summer School 'MDE for Embedded Systems' held at Brest, France, in September 2004.Table of Contents1. Model engineering: from principles to platforms - Jean Bezivin; 2. Model-driven development of distributed real-time and embedded systems - Douglas C. Schmidt; 3. About model-transformations: QVT vs. OCL vs.... - Pierre-Alain Muller; 4. Separating dependability and technology-specific concerns using aspect-oriented modelling techniques - Robert France; 5. Model-driven systems engineering: SysML & the MDSysE approach at THALES - Veronique Normand and Daniel Exertier; 6. Maturity of model driven engineering for embedded control systems from a mechatronic perspective - Martin Torngren; 7. Real time components and contracts - Jean-Marc Jezequel; 8. The THINK component-based operating system - Jean-Philippe Fassino; 9. Model-driven schedulability analysis - Jean-Philippe Babau and Sebastien Gerard; 10. Performance analysis based on the UML SPT profile - Dorina C. Petriu; 11. Embedded code generation - Ivan Porres; 12 - Model-driven architecture for intensive embedded systems - Lossan Bonde, Pierre Boulet, Arnaud Cuccuru, Jean-Luc Dekeyser, Cedric Dumoulin, Philippe Marquet and Michael Samyn; 13. Spidergon: a NoC modeling paradigm - Marcello Coppola.

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Table of ContentsContributor contact details Chapter 1: Introduction to adhesives joining technology for electronics Abstract: 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Classification of adhesives used in electronic packaging 1.3 A brief overview of electronic assemblies 1.4 Typical uses of advanced adhesives in electronics Chapter 2: Thermally conductive adhesives in electronics Abstract: 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Model of heat conductance 2.3 Heat transport in thermally conductive adhesives 2.4 Thermally conductive fillers 2.5 Role of polymer base materials 2.6 Thermal conductivity of adhesives and methods for its measurement 2.7 Conclusions Chapter 3: Anisotropic conductive adhesives in electronics Abstract: 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Nature of adhesive bond 3.3 Materials and processing 3.4 Critical loading 3.5 Evaluation methods 3.6 Case studies 3.7 Conclusions 3.8 Acknowledgments 3.10 Appendix: List of abbreviations Chapter 4: Isotropic conductive adhesives in electronics Abstract: 4.1 Introduction 4.2 General isotropic conductive adhesive (ICA) properties 4.3 Reliability 4.4 Modeling 4.5 Nanotechnologies in isotropic conductive adhesives 4.6 Conclusions Chapter 5: Underfill adhesive materials for flip chip applications Abstract: 5.1 Introduction: flip chip and direct chip attachment technology 5.2 Advantages of direct chip attachment technology 5.3 Reliability challenge of flip chip technology 5.4 Advances in the flip chip underfill process and encapsulant materials 5.5 New material challenges to lead-free solder 5.6 The ′no-flow′ pre-applied underfill process 5.7 The wafer level pre-applied underfill process 5.8 The wafer level dual encapsulation process 5.9 Conclusions Chapter 6: Structural integrity of metal–polymer adhesive interfaces in microelectronics Abstract: 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Theoretical considerations of work of fracture and bonding strength of adhesive joints 6.3 Chemical and physical intermolecular interactions at interfaces 6.4 Other influential factors determining bond strength of real adhesive joints 6.5 Effect of environmental factors 6.6 Interconnections using electrically conductive adhesives 6.7 Conclusions Chapter 7: Modelling techniques used to assess conductive adhesive properties Abstract: 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Numerical modelling technologies 7.3 Modelling applied to packaging processes 7.4 Modelling the thermal, electrical and mechanical performance of adhesives 7.5 Future trends 7.6 Conclusions Chapter 8: Adhesive technology for photonics Abstract: 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The major characteristics of adhesives for photonic applications 8.3 Types of adhesive used in photonics 8.4 Major applications of adhesives in photonics 8.5 Adhesives for photonic packaging 8.6 Adhesives used in photonic devices 8.7 Typical challenges for reliable fabrication of photonic devices 8.8 Conclusions Index

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Book SynopsisOffers coverage of some of the major topics related to the performance and failure of materials used in electronic devices and electronics packaging. This book explains the common mechanisms that lead to electronics materials failures, including dielectric breakdown, hot-electron effects and radiation damage.Table of Contents1. An Overview of Electronic Devices and Their Reliability 2. Electronic Devices: Materials Properties Determine How They Operate and Are Fabricated 3. Defects, Contamination and Yield 4. The Mathematics of Failure and Reliability 5. Mass Transport-Induced Failure 6. Electronic Charge-Induced Damage 7. Environmental Damage to Electronic Products 8. Packaging Materials, Processes, and Stresses 9. Degradation of Contacts and Packages 10. Degradation and Failure of Electro-Optical and Magnetic Materials and Devices 11. Characterization and Failure Analysis of Material, Devices and Packages 12. Future Directions and Reliability Issues

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Book SynopsisThis 1993 book shows how formal logic can be used to specify the behaviour of hardware designs and reason about their correctness. The book is based in part on the author's own research as well as on graduate teaching. Thus it can be used to accompany courses on hardware verification and as a resource for research workers.Table of Contents1. Introduction; 2. Higher order logic and the HOL system; 3. Hardware verification using higher order logic; 4. Abstraction; 5. Data abstraction; 6. Temporal abstraction; 7. Abstraction between models; 8. Conclusions and future work; Appendices; References.

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Book SynopsisIntroduces the principles underlying low-dimensional semiconductors by describing two systems in detail: the two-dimensional electron gas and the quantum well. It will be valuable to advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate physics or electrical engineering students studying low-dimensional systems or heterostructure device physics.Table of ContentsPreface; Introduction; 1. Foundations; 2. Electrons and phonons in crystals; 3. Heterostructures; 4. Quantum wells and low-dimensional systems; 5. Tunnelling transport; 6. Electric and magnetic fields; 7. Approximate methods; 8. Scattering rates: the Golden Rule; 9. The two-dimensional electron gas; 10. Optical properties of quantum wells; Appendix 1. Table of physical constants; Appendix 2. Properties of important semiconductors; Appendix 3. Properties of GaAs-AlAs alloys at room temperature; Appendix 4. Hermite's equation: harmonic oscillator; Appendix 5. Airy functions: triangular well; Appendix 6. Kramers-Kronig relations and response functions; Bibliography.

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Book SynopsisThe composition of modern semiconductor heterostructures can be controlled precisely on the atomic scale to create low-dimensional systems. These systems have revolutionised semiconductor physics, and their impact on technology, particularly for semiconductor lasers and ultrafast transistors, is widespread and burgeoning. This book provides an introduction to the general principles that underlie low-dimensional semiconductors. As far as possible, simple physical explanations are used, with reference to examples from actual devices. The author shows how, beginning with fundamental results from quantum mechanics and solid-state physics, a formalism can be developed that describes the properties of low-dimensional semiconductor systems. Among numerous examples, two key systems are studied in detail: the two-dimensional electron gas, employed in field-effect transistors, and the quantum well, whose optical properties find application in lasers and other opto-electronic devices. The book inTable of ContentsPreface; Introduction; 1. Foundations; 2. Electrons and phonons in crystals; 3. Heterostructures; 4. Quantum wells and low-dimensional systems; 5. Tunnelling transport; 6. Electric and magnetic fields; 7. Approximate methods; 8. Scattering rates: the Golden Rule; 9. The two-dimensional electron gas; 10. Optical properties of quantum wells; Appendix 1. Table of physical constants; Appendix 2. Properties of important semiconductors; Appendix 3. Properties of GaAs-AlAs alloys at room temperature; Appendix 4. Hermite's equation: harmonic oscillator; Appendix 5. Airy functions: triangular well; Appendix 6. Kramers-Kronig relations and response functions; Bibliography.

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Book SynopsisModern electronic devices and novel materials often derive their extraordinary properties from the intriguing, complex behavior of large numbers of electrons forming what is known as an electron liquid. This book provides an in-depth introduction to the physics of the interacting electron liquid in a broad variety of systems, including metals, semiconductors, artificial nano-structures, atoms and molecules. One, two and three dimensional systems are treated separately and in parallel. Different phases of the electron liquid, from the Landau Fermi liquid to the Wigner crystal, from the Luttinger liquid to the quantum Hall liquid are extensively discussed. Both static and time-dependent density functional theory are presented in detail. Although the emphasis is on the development of the basic physical ideas and on a critical discussion of the most useful approximations, the formal derivation of the results is highly detailed and based on the simplest, most direct methods.Trade Review'All in all, this is an excellent book with the bonus of a useful selection of exercises to test the reader's understanding. … for those with stamina, and a zest for getting to the bottom of how nature really operates, study of this book will certainly repay the effort.' Chemistry World'This book contains a wealth of information that will repay diligent study, much of it not to be found together in any other graduate textbook.' The Times Higher Education Supplement'The book, unquestionably attractive to the more experienced reader… is an invaluable source of material for many-body theory as a part of condensed matter physics graduate courses. The book contains sophisticated and important concepts, such as spin-dependant effective electronic interactions, a subject virtually impossible to find in other textbooks. Every graduate student and researcher studying condensed matter theory should obtain a copy of this exceptional text.' Physics TodayTable of Contents1. Introduction to the electron liquid; 2. The Hartree-Fock approximation; 3. Linear response theory; 4. Linear response of independent electrons; 5. Linear response of an interacting electron liquid; 6. The perturbative calculation of linear response functions; 7. Density functional theory; 8. The normal Fermi liquid; 9. The one-dimensional electron gas and the Luttinger liquid; 10. The two-dimensional electron gas at high magnetic field.

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