Updated and revised figures
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Table of Contents
Preface to Third Edition xiii
1 Resistivity 1
1.1 Introduction, 1
1.2 Two-Point Versus Four-Point Probe, 2
1.2.1 Correction Factors, 8
1.2.2 Resistivity of Arbitrarily Shaped Samples, 14
1.2.3 Measurement Circuits, 18
1.2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions, 18
1.3 Wafer Mapping, 21
1.3.1 Double Implant, 21
1.3.2 Modulated Photoreflectance, 23
1.3.3 Carrier Illumination (CI), 24
1.3.4 Optical Densitometry, 25
1.4 Resistivity Profiling, 25
1.4.1 Differential Hall Effect (DHE), 26
1.4.2 Spreading Resistance Profiling (SRP), 29
1.5 Contactless Methods, 34
1.5.1 Eddy Current, 34
1.6 Conductivity Type, 38
1.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 40
Appendix 1.1 Resistivity as a Function of Doping Density, 41
Appendix 1.2 Intrinsic Carrier Density, 43
References, 44
Problems, 50
Review Questions, 59
2 Carrier and Doping Density 61
2.1 Introduction, 61
2.2 Capacitance-Voltage (C-V), 61
2.2.1 Differential Capacitance, 61
2.2.2 Band Offsets, 68
2.2.3 Maximum-Minimum MOS-C Capacitance, 71
2.2.4 Integral Capacitance, 75
2.2.5 Mercury Probe Contacts, 76
2.2.6 Electrochemical C–V Profiler (ECV), 77
2.3 Current-Voltage (I-V), 79
2.3.1 MOSFET Substrate Voltage—Gate Voltage, 79
2.3.2 MOSFET Threshold Voltage, 81
2.3.3 Spreading Resistance, 82
2.4 Measurement Errors and Precautions, 82
2.4.1 Debye Length and Voltage Breakdown, 82
2.4.2 Series Resistance, 83
2.4.3 Minority Carriers and Interface Traps, 89
2.4.4 Diode Edge and Stray Capacitance, 90
2.4.5 Excess Leakage Current, 91
2.4.6 Deep Level Dopants/Traps, 91
2.4.7 Semi-Insulating Substrates, 93
2.4.8 Instrumental Limitations, 94
2.5 Hall Effect, 94
2.6 Optical Techniques, 97
2.6.1 Plasma Resonance, 97
2.6.2 Free Carrier Absorption, 98
2.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy, 99
2.6.4 Photoluminescence (PL), 101
2.7 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), 102
2.8 Rutherford Backscattering (RBS), 103
2.9 Lateral Profiling, 104
2.10 Strengths and Weaknesses, 105
Appendix 2.1 Parallel or Series Connection?, 107
Appendix 2.2 Circuit Conversion, 108
References, 109
Problems, 117
Review Questions, 124
3 Contact Resistance and Schottky Barriers 127
3.1 Introduction, 127
3.2 Metal-Semiconductor Contacts, 128
3.3 Contact Resistance, 131
3.4 Measurement Techniques, 135
3.4.1 Two-Contact Two-Terminal Method, 135
3.4.2 Multiple-Contact Two-Terminal Methods, 138
3.4.3 Four-Terminal Contact Resistance Method, 149
3.4.4 Six-Terminal Contact Resistance Method, 156
3.4.5 Non-Planar Contacts, 156
3.5 Schottky Barrier Height, 157
3.5.1 Current-Voltage, 158
3.5.2 Current—Temperature, 160
3.5.3 Capacitance-Voltage, 161
3.5.4 Photocurrent, 162
3.5.5 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM), 163
3.6 Comparison of Methods, 163
3.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 164
Appendix 3.1 Effect of Parasitic Resistance, 165
Appendix 3.2 Alloys for Contacts to Semiconductors, 167
References, 168
Problems, 174
Review Questions, 184
4 Series Resistance, Channel Length and Width, and Threshold Voltage 185
4.1 Introduction, 185
4.2 PN Junction Diodes, 185
4.2.1 Current-Voltage, 185
4.2.2 Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (OCVD), 188
4.2.3 Capacitance-Voltage (C–V ), 190
4.3 Schottky Barrier Diodes, 190
4.3.1 Series Resistance, 190
4.4 Solar Cells, 192
4.4.1 Series Resistance—Multiple Light Intensities, 195
4.4.2 Series Resistance—Constant Light Intensity, 196
4.4.3 Shunt Resistance, 197
4.5 Bipolar Junction Transistors, 198
4.5.1 Emitter Resistance, 200
4.5.2 Collector Resistance, 202
4.5.3 Base Resistance, 202
4.6 MOSFETS, 206
4.6.1 Series Resistance and Channel Length–Current-Voltage, 206
4.6.2 Channel Length—Capacitance-Voltage, 216
4.6.3 Channel Width, 218
4.7 MESFETS and MODFETS, 219
4.8 Threshold Voltage, 222
4.8.1 Linear Extrapolation, 223
4.8.2 Constant Drain Current, 225
4.8.3 Sub-threshold Drain Current, 226
4.8.4 Transconductance, 227
4.8.5 Transconductance Derivative, 228
4.8.6 Drain Current Ratio, 228
4.9 Pseudo MOSFET, 230
4.10 Strengths and Weaknesses, 231
Appendix 4.1 Schottky Diode Current-Voltage Equation, 231
References, 232
Problems, 238
Review Questions, 250
5 Defects 251
5.1 Introduction, 251
5.2 Generation-Recombination Statistics, 253
5.2.1 A Pictorial View, 253
5.2.2 A Mathematical Description, 255
5.3 Capacitance Measurements, 258
5.3.1 Steady-State Measurements, 259
5.3.2 Transient Measurements, 259
5.4 Current Measurements, 267
5.5 Charge Measurements, 269
5.6 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS), 270
5.6.1 Conventional DLTS, 270
5.6.2 Interface Trapped Charge DLTS, 280
5.6.3 Optical and Scanning DLTS, 283
5.6.4 Precautions, 285
5.7 Thermally Stimulated Capacitance and Current, 288
5.8 Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy (PAS), 289
5.9 Strengths and Weaknesses, 292
Appendix 5.1 Activation Energy and Capture Cross-Section, 293
Appendix 5.2 Time Constant Extraction, 294
Appendix 5.3 Si and GaAs Data, 296
References, 301
Problems, 308
Review Questions, 316
6 Oxide and Interface Trapped Charges, Oxide Thickness 319
6.1 Introduction, 319
6.2 Fixed, Oxide Trapped, and Mobile Oxide Charge, 321
6.2.1 Capacitance-Voltage Curves, 321
6.2.2 Flatband Voltage, 327
6.2.3 Capacitance Measurements, 331
6.2.4 Fixed Charge, 334
6.2.5 Gate-Semiconductor Work Function Difference, 335
6.2.6 Oxide Trapped Charge, 338
6.2.7 Mobile Charge, 338
6.3 Interface Trapped Charge, 342
6.3.1 Low Frequency (Quasi-static) Methods, 342
6.3.2 Conductance, 347
6.3.3 High Frequency Methods, 350
6.3.4 Charge Pumping, 352
6.3.5 MOSFET Sub-threshold Current, 359
6.3.6 DC-IV, 361
6.3.7 Other Methods, 363
CONTENTS ix
6.4 Oxide Thickness, 364
6.4.1 Capacitance-Voltage, 364
6.4.2 Current-Voltage, 369
6.4.3 Other Methods, 369
6.5 Strengths and Weaknesses, 369
Appendix 6.1 Capacitance Measurement Techniques, 371
Appendix 6.2 Effect of Chuck Capacitance and Leakage Current, 372
References, 374
Problems, 381
Review Questions, 387
7 Carrier Lifetimes 389
7.1 Introduction, 389
7.2 Recombination Lifetime/Surface Recombination Velocity, 390
7.3 Generation Lifetime/Surface Generation Velocity, 394
7.4 Recombination Lifetime—Optical Measurements, 395
7.4.1 Photoconductance Decay (PCD), 399
7.4.2 Quasi-Steady-State Photoconductance (QSSPC), 402
7.4.3 Short-Circuit Current/Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (SCCD/OCVD), 402
7.4.4 Photoluminescence Decay (PLD), 404
7.4.5 Surface Photovoltage (SPV), 404
7.4.6 Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (SSSCC), 411
7.4.7 Free Carrier Absorption, 413
7.4.8 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC), 416
7.5 Recombination Lifetime—Electrical Measurements, 417
7.5.1 Diode Current-Voltage, 417
7.5.2 Reverse Recovery (RR), 420
7.5.3 Open-Circuit Voltage Decay (OCVD), 422
7.5.4 Pulsed MOS Capacitor, 424
7.5.5 Other Techniques, 428
7.6 Generation Lifetime—Electrical Measurements, 429
7.6.1 Gate-Controlled Diode, 429
7.6.2 Pulsed MOS Capacitor, 432
7.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 440
Appendix 7.1 Optical Excitation, 441
Appendix 7.2 Electrical Excitation, 448
References, 448
Problems, 458
Review Questions, 464
8 Mobility 465
8.1 Introduction, 465
8.2 Conductivity Mobility, 465
8.3 Hall Effect and Mobility, 466
8.3.1 Basic Equations for Uniform Layers or Wafers, 466
8.3.2 Non-uniform Layers, 471
8.3.3 Multi Layers, 474
8.3.4 Sample Shapes and Measurement Circuits, 475
8.4 Magnetoresistance Mobility, 479
8.5 Time-of-Flight Drift Mobility, 482
8.6 MOSFET Mobility, 489
8.6.1 Effective Mobility, 489
8.6.2 Field-Effect Mobility, 500
8.6.3 Saturation Mobility, 502
8.7 Contactless Mobility, 502
8.8 Strengths and Weaknesses, 502
Appendix 8.1 Semiconductor Bulk Mobilities, 503
Appendix 8.2 Semiconductor Surface Mobilities, 506
Appendix 8.3 Effect of Channel Frequency Response, 506
Appendix 8.4 Effect of Interface Trapped Charge, 507
References, 508
Problems, 514
Review Questions, 521
9 Charge-based and Probe Characterization 523
9.1 Introduction, 523
9.2 Background, 524
9.3 Surface Charging, 525
9.4 The Kelvin Probe, 526
9.5 Applications, 533
9.5.1 Surface Photovoltage (SPV), 533
9.5.2 Carrier Lifetimes, 534
9.5.3 Surface Modification, 537
9.5.4 Near-Surface Doping Density, 538
9.5.5 Oxide Charge, 538
9.5.6 Oxide Thickness and Interface Trap Density, 540
9.5.7 Oxide Leakage Current, 541
9.6 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM), 542
9.6.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM), 543
9.6.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), 544
9.6.3 Scanning Capacitance Microscopy (SCM), 547
9.6.4 Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy (SKPM), 550
9.6.5 Scanning Spreading Resistance Microscopy (SSRM), 553
9.6.6 Ballistic Electron Emission Microscopy (BEEM), 554
9.7 Strengths and Weaknesses, 556
References, 556
Problems, 560
Review Questions, 561
10 Optical Characterization 563
10.1 Introduction, 563
10.2 Optical Microscopy, 564
10.2.1 Resolution, Magnification, Contrast, 565
10.2.2 Dark-Field, Phase, and Interference Contrast Microscopy, 568
10.2.3 Confocal Optical Microscopy, 570
10.2.4 Interferometric Microscopy, 572
10.2.5 Defect Etches, 575
10.2.6 Near-Field Optical Microscopy (NFOM), 575
10.3 Ellipsometry, 579
10.3.1 Theory, 579
10.3.2 Null Ellipsometry, 581
10.3.3 Rotating Analyzer Ellipsometry, 582
10.3.4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry (SE), 583
10.3.5 Applications, 584
10.4 Transmission, 585
10.4.1 Theory, 585
10.4.2 Instrumentation, 587
10.4.3 Applications, 590
10.5 Reflection, 592
10.5.1 Theory, 592
10.5.2 Applications, 594
10.5.3 Internal Reflection Infrared Spectroscopy, 598
10.6 Light Scattering, 599
10.7 Modulation Spectroscopy, 600
10.8 Line Width, 601
10.8.1 Optical-Physical Methods, 601
10.8.2 Electrical Methods, 603
10.9 Photoluminescence (PL), 604
10.10 Raman Spectroscopy, 608
10.11 Strengths and Weaknesses, 610
Appendix 10.1 Transmission Equations, 611
Appendix 10.2 Absorption Coefficients and Refractive Indices for Selected
Semiconductors, 613
References, 615
Problems, 621
Review Questions, 626
11 Chemical and Physical Characterization 627
11.1 Introduction, 627
11.2 Electron Beam Techniques, 628
11.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), 629
11.2.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), 634
11.2.3 Electron Microprobe (EMP), 639
11.2.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), 645
11.2.5 Electron Beam Induced Current (EBIC), 649
11.2.6 Cathodoluminescence (CL), 651
11.2.7 Low-Energy, High-Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED), 652
11.3 Ion Beam Techniques, 653
11.3.1 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), 654
11.3.2 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS), 659
11.4 X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Techniques, 665
11.4.1 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), 666
11.4.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), 668
11.4.3 X-Ray Topography (XRT), 671
11.4.4 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), 674
11.5 Strengths and Weaknesses, 676
Appendix 11.1 Selected Features of Some Analytical Techniques, 678
References, 678
Problems, 686
Review Questions, 687
12 Reliability and Failure Analysis 689
12.1 Introduction, 689
12.2 Failure Times and Acceleration Factors, 690
12.2.1 Failure Times, 690
12.2.2 Acceleration Factors, 690
12.3 Distribution Functions, 692
12.4 Reliability Concerns, 695
12.4.1 Electromigration (EM), 695
12.4.2 Hot Carriers, 701
12.4.3 Gate Oxide Integrity (GOI), 704
12.4.4 Negative Bias Temperature Instability (NBTI), 711
12.4.5 Stress Induced Leakage Current (SILC), 712
12.4.6 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD), 712
12.5 Failure Analysis Characterization Techniques, 713
12.5.1 Quiescent Drain Current (IDDQ), 713
12.5.2 Mechanical Probes, 715
12.5.3 Emission Microscopy (EMMI), 715
12.5.4 Fluorescent Microthermography (FMT), 718
12.5.5 Infrared Thermography (IRT), 718
12.5.6 Voltage Contrast, 718
12.5.7 Laser Voltage Probe (LVP), 719
12.5.8 Liquid Crystals (LC), 720
12.5.9 Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change (OBIRCH), 721
12.5.10 Focused Ion Beam (FIB), 723
12.5.11 Noise, 723
12.6 Strengths and Weaknesses, 726
Appendix 12.1 Gate Currents, 728
References, 730
Problems, 737
Review Questions, 740
Appendix 1 List of Symbols 741
Appendix 2 Abbreviations and Acronyms 749
Index 755
