Chemistry Books

Book SynopsisValuable information on corrosion fundamentals and applications of aluminum and magnesium Aluminum and magnesium alloys are receiving increased attention due to their light weight, abundance, and resistance to corrosion. In particular, when used in automobile manufacturing, these alloys promise reduced car weights, lower fuel consumption, and resulting environmental benefits. Meeting the need for a single source on this subject, Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys gives scientists, engineers, and students a one-stop reference for understanding both the corrosion fundamentals and applications relevant to these important light metals. Written by a world leader in the field, the text considers corrosion phenomena for the two metals in a systematic and parallel fashion. The coverage includes: The essentials of corrosion for aqueous, high temperature corrosion, and active-passive behavior of aluminum and magnesium alloys Trade Review"This book can be recommended as a textbook for students major in corrosion or professors preparing their lectures . . . the book will be definitely interesting for corrosion scientists and engineers due to useful practical hints and can be recommended as a reference book for professionals using aluminium, magnesium, and their alloys". (Materials and Corrosion, 2011) "Meeting the need for a single source on this subject, this book gives a one-stop reference for understanding both the corrosion fundaments and applications relevant to these important light metals." (Metall, September 2010) Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgements. PART I: ELECTROCHEMICAL FUNDAMENTALS AND ACTIVE-PASSIVE CORROSION BEHAVIORS. Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Electrochemical Corrosion. A. Thermodynamic Considerations of Corrosion. 1. Electrolytic Conductance. 1.1. Faraday Laws. 2. Tendency to Corrosion. 3. The Electrochemical Interface. 3.1. Electric Double Layer. 3.2. Equivalent Circuit of the Electric Double Layer. 4. Nernst Equation. 5. Standard Potentials of Electrodes. 5.1. Standard States in Solution. 5.2. Hydrogen Electrode. 5.3. Positive and Negative Signs of Potentials. 5.4. Graphical Presentation. B. Activity and Conductance of the Electrolyte. 1. Activity of the Electrolyte. 1.1. Constant and Degree of Dissociation. 1.2. Activity and Concentration. 1.3. Theory of More Concentrated Solutions. 1.4. Electrolytic Conduction. 2. Mobility of Ions. 2.1. Law of Additivity of Kohlrausch. 2.2. Number of Ion Transport Number or Index. 3. Conductance. 4. Potential of Decomposition. C. The Different Types of Electrodes. 1. Gas Electrodes. 2. Metal - Metal Ion Electrodes. 2.1. Alloyed Electrodes. 3. Metal-Insoluble Salt or Oxide Electrodes. 3.1. Metal-Insoluble Salt Electrodes. 3.2. Metal-Insoluble - Oxide Electrodes. 4. Electrodes of Oxidation - Reduction. 5. Selective Ion Electrodes. 5.1. Glass Electrode. 5.2. Copper Ion-Selective Electrodes. D. Electrochemical and Corrosion Cells. 1. Chemical Cells. 1.1. Chemical Cell with Transport. 1.2. Chemical Cell without Transport. 1.2.1. The Weston Standard Cell. 2. Concentration Cells. 2.1. Concentration Cell with Difference of Activity at the Electrode. 3. Solvent Corrosion Cells. 3.1. Cathodic Oxydo-Reduction Reaction. 3.2. Displacement Cell. 3.3. Complexing Agent Cells. 3.4. Stray Current Corrosion Cell. 4. Temperature Differential Cells. 5. Overlapping of Different Corrosion Cells. E. Chemical and Electrochemical Corrosion. 1. Definition and Description of Corrosion. 2. Electrochemical and Chemical Reactions. 2.1. Electrochemical Corrosion. 2.2. The Film-Free Chemical Interaction. References. Chapter 2: Aqueous and High temperature Corrosion. Overview. 1. Atmospheric Media. 1.1. Description. 1.2. Types of Corrosion. 1.3. Atmospheric Contaminants. 1.4. Corrosion Prevention and Protection. 2. Aqueous environments. 3. Organic Solvent Properties. 4. Underground Media. 5. Water Media Properties. 5.1. Water Composition. 5.2. The Oxidizing Power of Solution. 5.3. Scale Formation and Water Indices. 6. Corrosion at high temperatures. 6.1. Description. 6.2. The Pilling Bedworth relationship "PBR". 6.3. Kinetics of Formation. 6.4. Corrosion behaviors of some alloys at elevated temperatures. References. Chapter 3: Active and Passive Behaviors of Al and Mg and their alloys. 1. Potential -pH Diagrams of Al and Mg. 2. Active Behavior and Overpotentials. 2.1. Active Behavior and Polarisation. 2.2. Overpotentials. 3. The Passive Behavior. 3.1. The Phenomenon of Passivation. 3.2. The Passive Layers and their formation. 3.3. Breakdown of Passivity. 3.4. Electrochemical and Physical Techniques for passive film studies. 4. Active and passive Behaviors of Aluminum and its Alloys. 4.1. The E-pH diagram of Aluminum. 4.2. Active and Passive behaviors. 4.3. Pitting Corrosion of AA 5086 Aluminum Alloy. 5. Active and passive Behaviors of Magnesium and its Alloys. 5.1. E-pH Diagram of Mg. 5.2. The Passive Mg Layers (Films). 5.3. Passive properties and stability. 5.4. Temperature Influence in Aqueous Media. 5.5. Atmospheric and High Temperature oxidation. References. PART II: PERFORMANCE AND CORROSION FORMS OF ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS. Chapter 4: Properties, Use and Performance of Aluminum and Alloys. A. Properties of Aluminum. 1. Physical and General Properties of Aluminum. 2. Cast Aluminum Alloys. 2.1. Designation of Aluminum Cast Alloys and Ingots. 2.2. Alloying elements. 2.3. Cast Alloys Series. 3. Aluminum Wrought alloys. 3.1. Designation of aluminum wrought alloys. 3.2. Alloying elements. 3.3. Aluminum Wrought Alloys Series. 3.4. Description of the Wrought Alloys Series. 4. Aluminum Powders and Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMCs). 4.1. Aluminum Powders. 4.2. Rapid Solidification Process "RSP". 4.3. Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC) and PM- MMCs. 4.4. Al MMCs Particles and Formation. B. Use of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. 1. Use of Aluminum Cast Alloys. 1.1. Standard General Purpose Aluminum alloys. 1.2. Some Specific Uses. 2. Use of Aluminum Wrought Alloys. 2.1. Aerospatial applications. 2.2. Automotive sheet and structural alloys. 2.3. Shipping. 2.4. Building and Construction. 2.5. Packaging. 2.6. Electrical conductor alloys. C. Aluminum Performance. 1. Resistance of Al Alloys to Atmospheric corrosion. 2. Factors affecting atmospheric corrosion of Al alloys. 3. Waters Corrosion. 4. Seawater. 5. Soil Corrosion. 6. Some aggressive Media. 6.1. Acid and Alkaline Solutions. 7. Dry and Aqueous Organic Compounds. 8. Gases. 9. Mercury. 10. Corrosion Performance of Alloys. 10.1. Performance of the Cast Series. 10.2. Performance of the wrought series. 11. Aluminum High Temperature Corrosion. References. Chapter 5: General, Galvanic and Localized Corrosion of Aluminum and alloys. A. General Corrosion. 1. General considerations. 2. Description. 3. Mechanisms. 4. Prevention. 4.1. Design considerations. 4.2 Surface Pretreatment. 4.3 Corrosion control. 4.4. Al Alloys and Resistance to General corrosion. B. Galvanic Corrosion. 1. General considerations. 2. Galvanic Series of Al Alloys. 3. Mechanisms. 3.1. Cu-Al galvanic Cell. 3.2. Mg-Al Galvanic Cell. 3.3. Galvanic Effect of a coating. 4. Deposition corrosion. 5. Stray Current Corrosion. 6. Prevention. 7. Basic Study of Al-Cu Galvanic Corrosion Cell. C. Localized Corrosion. 1. Pitting Corrosion. 1.1. Occurrence and Morphology. 1.2. Kinetics. 1.3. The Pitting Potential. 1.4. Mechanisms. 1.5. Possible Stages of Pitting. 1.6. Prevention of Pitting Corrosion. 1.7. Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum Cathodes. 2. Crevice Corrosion. 2.1. General Considerations and Description. 2.2. Poultice corrosion. 2.3. Mechanisms. 2.4. Water Stains of AA 3xxx. 3. Filiform Corrosion. 3.1. General Considerations. 3.2. Aluminum Alloys and Filiform Corrosion. 3.3. Kinetics, Mechanism and Prevention. 3.4. Filiform Occurrence. References. Chapter 6: Metallurgically and Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion of Aluminum and Alloys. A. Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion "METIC". 1. Fundamentals of "METIC". 2. Types of Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion. 2.1. Dealloying (Dealuminification). 2.2. Intergranular corrosion. 2.3. Exfoliation. 3. Joining and Welding. 3.1. Corrosion Resistance of Brazed, Soldered and Bonded Joints. 3.2. Welding Fundamentals. 3.3. Welding Influence on Behavior of Aluminum Alloys. 3.4. Frequent Corrosion Types of Welded Aluminum alloys. 3.5. Corrosion Resistance of Wrought and cast Al Alloys. 4. Metal Matrix Composites for nuclear dry waste storage "Al-MMC/B4C". B. Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, the basics. 1. The Microorganisms. 1.1. Bacteria (Prokaryotes). 1.2. Fungi and Yeast (Eucaryotes). 1.3. Algae (Eukaryotes). 1.4. Lichens. 2. Natural and Artificial Media. 2.1. Air Media. 2.2. Aqueous Media. 2.3. Soils. 3. Anaerobic and Aerobic Bacteria in Action. 3.1. Anaerobic Bacteria. 3.2. Aerobic bacteria. 3.3. Co-action of Anaerobic and Aerobic Bacteria. 4. MIC of Aluminum and Aluminum alloys. 4.1. Fungi and bacteria (Space). 4.2. Geotrichum (Tropical Atmosphere). 4.3. Cyanobacteria and Algae (Polluted Freshwater). 4.4. Rod-Shaped Bacteria and Algae (Polluted seawater). 4.5. SRB (Industrial and sea waters). 4.6. Hormoconis resinae (Kerosene). 5. Mechanisms of MIC and Inhibition. 5.1. Corrosion Mechanisms. 5.2. Influence of Biofilms on Passive Behavior of Aluminum. 5.3. Corrosion Inhibition by Microorganisms. 6. MIC Prevention and control. References. Chapter 7: Mechanically Assisted Corrosion of Aluminum and Alloys. A. Corrosion - Erosion. 1. Impingement with Liquid containing solid particles. 2. Corrosion by cavitation. 3. Water drop impingement Corrosion. 4. Fretting Corrosion. 5. Fretting Fatigue Corrosion. 6. Prevention of Erosion Corrosion. B. Corrosion fatigue. 1. General Considerations and Morphology. 2. Parameters. 2.1. Environmental Considerations. 2.2. Cyclic Stresses. 2.3. Material Factors. 3. Mechanisms of Corrosion Fatigue. 4. CF of Al Alloys. 4.1. Corrosion Fatigue of the Alloy AA-7017-T651. 4.2. CF of AA 7075 Alloy-T6. 4.3. Corrosion Fatigue of Al-Mg-Si as compared to Al-Mg alloys. 4.4. Modeling of the propagation of fatigue cracks in aluminum alloys. 5. Prevention of Corrosion Fatigue. References. Chapter 8: Environmentally Induced Cracking of Aluminum and Alloys. 1. Introduction and Definition of SCC. 2. Key Parametres. 2.1. The stress. 2.2. The environment. 3. Parameters of SCC of Aluminum Alloys. 3.1. Influence of the Stress. 3.2. Role of the environment. 4. SCC Mechanisms. 4.1. Overlapping of Cracking Phenomena. 4.2. Signification of the Magnitude of Strain Rates. 4.3. Cracking Initiation and Propagation. 5. SCC of aluminum Alloys. 5.1. SCC resistance of aluminum alloys. 5.2. Influence of Heat Treatments on Corrosion forms. 6. SCC of Welded Aluminum Alloys. 6.1. Galvanic Corrosion and SCC of Welded Assemblies. 6.2. SCC "Knife-Line Attack". 6.3. Localized Corrosion and SCC of LBW AA6013. 6.4. Mechanically Influenced Corrosion and SCC of Welds. 6.5. Corrosion Fatigue of FSW White Zone. 6.6. SCC of Friction stir welded 7075 and 6056 Alloys. 6.7. SCC of FSW of 7075-T651 and 7050-T451 Alloys. 7. Prevention of SCC. 7.1. Design and Stresses. 7.2. Environmental Considerations. 7.3. Metallurgical considerations. 7.4. Surface Modification. 7.5. Prevention of Hydrogen Damage. References. PART III: PERFORMANCE AND CORROSION FORMS OF MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS. Chapter 9: Properties, Use and Performance of Magnesium and Alloys. A. Properties of Magnesium alloys. 1. Physical and General Properties of Magnesium. 2. Properties of Cast Magnesium Alloys. 2.1. Designation of Magnesium Cast Alloys. 2.2. Alloying elements. 2.3. Magnesium Cast Alloys Series. 3. Properties of Wrought Magnesium Alloys. 4. Magnesium Powder. 5. Magnesium Composites. 6. Particles reinforcing magnesium alloy matrix. B. Use of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys. 1. Applications of Magnesium Cast Alloys. 1.1. Automotive and Aerospace Applications. 1.2. Application as refractory material. 1.3. Other Uses. 2. Applications of Magnesium Wrought Alloys. C. Magnesium Performance. 1. Resistance of Mg alloys to atmospheric corrosion. 2. Factors affecting atmospheric corrosion of Mg alloys. 3. Waters Corrosion. 4. Salt Solutions. 5. Acid and Alkaline Solutions. 6. Aqueous Organic Compounds. 7. Dry Organic Compounds. 8. Gases at ambient temperature up to ÷100oC. 9. Magnesium High Temperature Corrosion. References. Chapter 10: General, Galvanic and Localized Corrosion of Magnesium and Alloys. A. General Corrosion. 1. Corrosion Resistance of Passive Magnesium. 1.1. Ecorr and Corrosion Rates in Natural and Aqueous Media. 1.2. Corrosion Rate Methods of Mg-Al Alloys. 1.3. Critical Evaluation of the Passive Properties of Magnesium Alloys. 2. The Negative Difference Effect "NDE". 3. Kinetic studies of General and Pitting Corrosion of Mg alloys. 3.1. Electrochemical noise Studies. 4. Corrosion Prevention. B. Galvanic Corrosion. C. Localized Corrosion. 1. Pitting Corrosion. 1.1. The Pitting Potential Determination. 1.2. Polarization Curves and Pitting Potential of AXJ Alloy. 2. Crevice Corrosion. 3. Filiform Corrosion. 3.1. Initiation and Kinetics Parametres. 3.2. Mechanism of Propagation. References. Chapter 11: Metallurgically and Microbiologically influenced Corrosion of Magnesium and Alloys. A. Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion of Mg Alloys. 1. Casting Alloys and Alloying Elements. 1.1. Casting Alloys. 1.2. Magnesium-Rare Earth, Thorium and Silver Alloys. 1.3. Alloying Elements and Tolerance Limit. 2. Corrosion influenced by metallurgical properties. 2.1. Galvanic Corrosion and Secondary Phases. 2.2. Intergranular Corrosion "IGC". 2.3. Exfoliation Corrosion. 2.4. High temperature Corrosion and Creep Deformation. 2.5. Microstructure and Corrosion Creep of Magnesium Die-cast alloys. 2.6. The OCP, icorr and Corrosion Creep (Schneider et al. 2007)36. 2.7. Corrosion Creep and Aging. 2.8 Corrosion Creep of High Strength AE42 and MEZ. 3. Influence of the Microstructure, Different Phases and Welding. 3.1. Influence of Heat Treatments. 3.2. Effect of Rapid Solidification. 3.3. Influence of the Microstructure of Some Mg Alloys. 3.4. Influence of Joining and Welding. 3.5. Cold-Chamber Processes. 3.6. Hot-Chamber Processes and Corrosion Resistance of Thin Plates. B. MIC of Magnesium and Magnesium alloys. 1. Rational Degradation. 1.1. Behavior of Sacrficial Magnesium. 1.2. Rational Biocorrosion of Mg and its alloys in Human Body. 2. Stress Corrosion Cracking and Implants. 3. Approaches to Control Biodegradation. 3.1. Alloying. 3.2. Surface treatment (Anodizing). 3.3. Magnesium Implants and Bone Surgery. References. Chapter 12: Mechanically Assisted Corrosion of Magnesium and Alloys. 1. Erosion-Corrosion and Fretting Fatigue Corrosion. 1.1. Erosion - Corrosion. 1.2. Fretting Fatigue Corrosion. 2. Corrosion Fatigue of Magnesium Alloys. 2.1. Corrosion fatigue of Cast Magnesium Alloys. 2.2. Corrosion fatigue of High-strength Mg Alloys. 2.3. Crack Propagation of Wrought Extruded Alloys. 2.4. Welding and Corrosion fatigue of AZ31. 2.5. Mechanisms of Corrosion Fatigue (initiation and Propagation). 2.6. Prevention of Corrosion Fatigue. References. Chapter 13: Environmentally Induced Corrosion of Magnesium and Alloys. 1. Use of Mg Alloys and Stress Corrosion Cracking "SCC" Failures. 2. Key Parameters. 2.1. Alloy Composition and Magnesium impurities. 2.2. Microstructure and Crack Morphology. 2.3. Effect of Stress. 2.4. Effect of the Environment. 3. Influence of Other Forms or Types of Corrosion on SCC. 3.1. Effect of General Corrosion. 3.2. Bimetallic or Galvanic Corrosion. 3.3. Pitting and Localized Corrosion. 3.4. Welded Material and SCC. 3.5. Environment Enhanced Creep and SCC of Mg Alloys. 4. Propagation Mechanisms of Corrosion. 4.1. The electrochemical dissolution models. 4.2. Hydrogen Embrittlement "HE". 5. SCC-HE of Some Magnesium Alloys. 6. SCC Prevention. References. PART IV: COATING AND TESTING. Chapter 14: Aluminum Coatings "Description and Testing". 1. Inhibitors. 2. Metallic coatings. 2.1. Conventional Plating and Electroless of Aluminum. 2.2. Surface Preparation for Thermal Spraying. 2.3. Sacrificial Protection by Al Alloys. 2.4. Aluminum Powder as a Coating. 2.5. Cathodic Protection of Al Alloys. 3. Conversion coating. 3.1. Phosphates and/or Chromates. 3.2. The Chromate-Phosphate Treatments. 3.3. Chromate Alternatives. 4. Anodization. 5. Organic finishing. 5.1. Coatings containing Metals more active than Al. 5.2. Electrodeposited coatings. 6. Corrosion Testing of Coated Metal. 6.1. Electrochemical Testing of Coatings. 6.2. Conventional Testing. 6.3. Corrosion Fatigue of Thermal Spraying of Al as a Coating. 6.4. Environmentally Assisted Cracking of Metallic Sprayed Coatings. References. Chapter 15: Magnesium Coatings "Description and Testing". 1. General Approach and Surface Preparation. 2. Metallic and Conversion Coatings. 2.1. Metallic Coatings. 2.2. Chemical Conversion surface treatments as chromating, phosphating etc. 3. Anodic Treatments. 3.1. Anodizing Description and Approaches. 3.2. Formation of anodized Coatings. 3.3. Properties and Chemical Composition. 3.4. Some Industrial and developing Anodizing Processes. 3.5. Forms of Corrosion of Surfaces (anodized or with conversion treatments. 4. Surface Modification. 4.1. Chemical and Physical Vapour Deposition (CVD/PVD). 4.2. The "H-Coat" and Magnesium Hydrides. 5. Electrochemical Characterisation of the Interface Metal/Film. 5.1. OCP and Polarization Studies of the Metal/Oxide Interface. 5.2. Impedance Measurements. 6. Organic Finishing and Corrosion Testing of Coated Material. 6.1. Organic coatings. 6.2. Conventional Corrosion Testing of Coated Metal. References. PART V: EVALUATION AND TESTING. Chapter 16: Conventional and Electrochemical Methods of Investigation. 1. Corrosion Testing Approaches and Methods of Investigations. 1.1. Testing Approach. 1.2. Categories of Corrosion Testing. 1.3. Testing Duration. 1.4. Testing Modes. 1.5. Removal of corrosion products. 2. Physical and Mechanical Testing of Corroded Materials. 2.1. Visual and Microscopic Techniques of Testing. 2.2. Non destructive Evaluation Techniques. 2.3. Mechanical testing. 2.4. Chemical Analysis. 2.5. Surface Chemical Analysis. 2.6. Published Data of Performance and Corrosion Resistance. 3. Electrochemical Polarization Studies. 3.1. Measurements of the Corrosion Potential. 3.2. Potentiodynamic Methods. 3.3. Cyclovoltammetry Techniques and Pitting. 3.4. Potentiostatic, Galvanostatic and Galvanodynamic Methods. 4. The "AC" electrochemical impedance spectroscopy ?EIS? technique. 4.1. Introduction. 4.2. EIS terms and Equivalent Circuits. 4.3. Impedance Plots. 5. Electrochemical Noise Measurements "ENM". 5.1. Historical and EN Definition. 5.2. EN generation and Data Acquisition Systems "DAS". 5.3. Analysis of ENM Data. 5.4. Potentiodynamic, Potentiostatic and Galvanostatic EN Studies. 6. The Scanning Reference Electrode Technique (SRET). 7. Microsystems and Wire Beam Electrode. 7.1. Microsystems and "AFM". 7.2. Wire Beam Electrode "WBE". References. Chapter 17: Evaluation of Corrosion Forms of Aluminum and its Alloys. 1. General Corrosion of Aluminum and Its alloys. 2. Galvanic Corrosion. 2.1. General Considerations. 2.2. Influence of the composition and Microstructure. 2.3. Electrochemical Testing. 3. Localized Corrosion of Al and Alloys. 3.1. Pitting Corrosion. 3.2. Crevice Corrosion. 3.3. Filiform Corrosion Testing of Al Alloys. 4. Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion (METIC). 4.1. Intergranular Corrosion Testing. 4.2. Exfoliation Testing. 4.3. Joining and Testing. 5. MIC and Biodegradation Evaluation. 6. Mechanically Influenced Corrosion (MECIC) of Aluminum and Alloys. 6.1. Erosion-Corrosion Testing. 6.2. Corrosion Fatigue Testing. 7. Environmentally Influenced Corrosion (EIC). 7.1. SCC Testing Procedures of Aluminum Alloys. 7.2. Test Specimens. 7.3. Stressors. 7.4. Fracture Morphology and SCC of Aluminum Alloys. References. Chapter 18: Evaluation of Corrosion Forms of Magnesium and its alloys. 1. Testing Solutions. 1.1. Hydroxide Solutions. 1.2. Chloride, Sulfate and Hydroxide Solutions. 1.3. ASTM D1384-87 corrosive water. 1.4. Buffered solutions. 2. General Corrosion Form. 2.1. Immersion Testing and Corrosion Rate. 2.2. The Salt Spray Corrosion Test. 2.3. Some Electrochemical Methods of Investigation. 3. Galvanic or Bimetallic Corrosion of Mg and alloys. 4. Localized Corrosion of Mg and its alloys. 4.1. Open Circuit Potential and Pitting Corrosion Studies. 4.2. Noise Electrochemistry Measurements. 4.3. Magnesium SRET Studies. 5. Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion of Mg and Alloys. 6. MIC and Biodegradation of Mg and Alloys. 7. Corrosion Fatigue. 8. SCC Testing and Evaluation of Magnesium Alloys. 8.1. Static Loading of Smooth Specimens and general considerations. 8.2. Stresses. 8.3. Solutions and Operational Conditions. 8.4. Constant Extension Rate and Linearly Increasing Stress Tests. 8.5. SCC CERT Vs LIST Techniques. References. Chapter 19: Annexes. Annexes Biography, International Units and abbreviations. Annex 1: Corrosion and Prevention Books, Data and ASTM Standards. A. Some Recommended Books in Corrosion. B. Bibliography of Corrosion Data for Performance of Materials. C. ASTM Standards. Annex 2: Annex of some international units, equations etc. The Periodic Table (Wieser 2006). Annex 3 abbreviations and Symbols.

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Book SynopsisEmphasizing effective, state-of-the art methodology and written by recognized experts in the field, the Handbook of Food Analytical Chemistry is an indispensable reference for food scientists and technologists to enable successful analysis.Table of ContentsVOLUME 2. Preface. Foreword to Current Protocols in Food Analytical Chemistry. Contributors. F: PIGMENTS AND COLORANTS. F1. Anthocyanins. F2. Carotenoids. F3. Miscellaneous Colorants. F4. Chlorophylls. F5. Strategies for Measurement of Colors and Pigments. G: FLAVORS. G1. Smell Chemicals. G2. Acid Tastants. H: TEXTURE/RHEOLOGY. H1. Viscosity of Liquids, Solutions, and Fine Suspensions. H2. Compressive Measurement of Solids and Semi-Solids. H3. Viscoelasticity of Suspensions and Gels. I: Bioactive Food Components. I1. Polyphenolics. APPENDICES AND INDEXES. A1. Abbreviations and Useful Data. A2. Laboratory Stock Solutions, Equipment, and Guidelines. A3. Commonly Used techniques Suppliers Appendix. Index.

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Book SynopsisGroundwater Age is the first book of its kind that incorporates and synthesizes the state-of-the-art knowledge about the business of groundwater dating - including historical development, principles, applications, various methods, and likely future progress in the concept.Trade Review"This book does a good job of introducing the reader to the often-overlooked complexity interpreting the deceptively simple results of age dating." (Journal of Environmental Quality, March/April 2008) "…this book is the first to incorporate and synthesize the entire state of the art of the business of groundwater dating." (CHOICE, January 2007) "Presenting modern knowledge and cutting-edge research simply and clearly, 'Groundwater Age' will satisfy and stimulate both seasonal professionals and student novices alike." (Journal of the American Water Resources Association, August 2006)Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. Chapter 1. Introduction. 1.1 Age and lifetime. 1.2 Age determination in geology (Geochronology) and in other disciplines. 1.2.1 Absolute age and relative age. 1.2.2 Determination of absolute age of rocks. 1.2.3 Geological time table. 1.3 Groundwater age and groundwater residence time. 1.3.1 Young, old and very old groundwaters. 1.3.2 Dead water and active water. 1.3.3 Age gradient. 1.3.4 Age mass. 1.3.5 Mixing, dispersion and transport of groundwater age, mean age and distribution of ages. 1.3.6 Average residence time of water in various compartments of the hydrologic cycle . 1.3.7 Hydrogeochronolgy, interdisciplinary groundwater age science and hydrologic time concept. 1.3.8 Event markers. 1.4 Life expectancy. 1.5 Isochrone and life expectancy maps. 1.6 Some groundwater age related terms. 1.6.1 Isotopic age, radiometric age and decay age. 1.6.2 Hydraulic age. 1.6.3 Piston-flow age, streamtube age and advective age . 1.6.4 Model age and apparent age. 1.6.5 Storage time, mean transit time, turn over time, flushing time and travel time. 1.6.6 Reservoir theory and its relation with groundwater residence time. Chapter 2. History of groundwater age dating research. 2.1 Pioneer of Groundwater Age discipline-sequence of the earliest publications. 2.2 Laboratories worldwide for dating groundwater samples. 2.3 Major contributors to Groundwater Age dating discipline. 2.4 Names familiar in the Groundwater Dating business. 2.5 Important publications. 2.5.1 Book chapters. 2.5.2 PhD and MSc theses. 2.5.3 Journals. 2.5.4 Reports (mainly by the USGS) . 2.6 Aquifers subjected to extensive dating studies. Chapter 3. The applications of groundwater age data. 3.1 Renewability of the groundwater reservoirs. 3.2 An effective communication tool for scientists and managers- and curiosity to laymen as well. 3.3 Age monitoring for the prevention of over exploitation and contamination of aquifers. 3.4 Estimation of the recharge rate. 3.5 Calculation of the groundwater flow velocity. 3.6 Identification of the groundwater flow paths. 3.7 Assessing the rates of groundwater and contaminants transport through aquitards. 3.8 Constraining the parameters of groundwater flow and transports models (estimation of large scale flow and transport properties). 3.9 Identification of the mixing between different end members. 3.10 Study of the pre-Holocene (late Pleistocene) climate. 3.11 Evaluation of the groundwater pollution. 3.12 Calculation of the travel time of the groundwater plume to the points of interest. 3.13 Mapping vulnerability of the shallow aquifers. 3.14 Performance assessments for radioactive waste disposal facilities. 3.15 Site specific applications. 3.15.1 Identification of the seawater level fluctuations. 3.15.2 Calculating the timescale of seawater intrusion. 3.15.3 Disposal of wastes into the deep old saline groundwater systems. 3.15.4 Management of the dryland salinity in Australia. 3.15.5 Hydrograph separation. Chapter 4. Age-dating young groundwaters. 4.1 Important points. 4.2 Tritium. 4.2.1 Production of tritium. 4.2.2 Sampling, analyzing and reporting the results. 4.2.3 Age dating groundwater by tritium. 4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 4.2.5 Case studies. 4.3 3H/3He. 4.3.1 Sources of 3He. 4.3.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 4.3.3 Dating groundwater by 3H/3He. 4.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 4.3.5 Case studies. 4.4 Helium-4. 4.5 Krypton-85. 4.5.1 Production of 85Kr. 4.5.2 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for 85Kr. 4.5.3 Age dating groundwater with 85Kr. 4.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 4.5.5 Case studies. 4.6 CFCs. 4.6.1 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for CFCs. 4.6.2 Dating groundwater by CFCs. 4.6.3 Limitations and possible sources of error in CFCs dating technique. 4.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 4.6.5 Case studies. 4.7 SF6. 4.7.1 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for SF6. 4.7.2 Age dating groundwater with SF6. 4.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages. 4.7.4 Case studies. 4.8 36Cl/Cl. 4.8.1 Dating groundwater by 36Cl/Cl ratio and case studies. 4.9 Indirect methods. 4.9.1 Stable isotopes of water. 4.9.2 Case study. Chapter 5. Age-dating old groundwaters. 5.1 Silicon-32. 5.1.1 Production of 32Si. 5.1.2 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for 32Si. 5.1.3 Dating groundwater with 32Si. 5.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 5.1.5 Case studies. 5.2 Argon-39. 5.2.1 Production and sources of 39Ar. 5.2.2 Sampling and analyzing groundwaters for 39Ar . 5.2.3 Age dating groundwater by 39Ar. 5.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 5.2.5 Case studies. 5.3 Carbon-14. 5.3.1 Production of 14C. 5.3.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 5.3.3 Groundwater dating by 14C. 5.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 5.3.5 Case study. 5.4 Indirect methods. 5.4.1 Deuterium and oxygen-18. 5.4.2 Conservative and reactive ions. Chapter 6. Age-dating very old groundwaters. 6.1 Krypton-81. 6.1.1 Production of 81Kr. 6.1.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 6.1.3 Age-dating groundwater by 81Kr. 6.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 6.1.5 Case studies. 6.2 Chloride-36. 6.2.1 Production of 36Cl. 6.2.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 6.2.3 Groundwater dating by 36Cl. 6.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 6.2.5 Case studies. 6.3 Helium-4. 6.3.1 Production and sources of 4He. 6.3.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 6.3.3 Age-dating groundwater by 4He. 6.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 6.3.5 Case studies. 6.4 Argon-40. 6.4.1 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 6.4.2 Age-dating groundwater by 40Ar and obstacles. 6.4.3 Case studies. 6.5 Iodine-129. 6.5.1 Production of 129I . 6.5.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 6.5.3 Age-dating groundwater by 129I. 6.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages. 6.5.5 Case studies. 6.6 Uranium disequilibrium series. 6.6.1 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results. 6.6.2 Dating groundwater by UDS. 6.6.3 Case studies. Chapter 7. Modeling of groundwater age and residence time distributions. 7.1 Overview and state-of-the-art. 7.2 Basics in groundwater age transport. 7.2.1 The reservoir theory. 7.2.2 Determination of age and residence time distributions. 7.3 Selected typical examples. 7.3.1 Aquifer with uniform and localized recharge. 7.3.2 Hydro-dispersive multilayer aquifer. 7.3.3 The Seeland phreatic aquifer. Chapter 8. Issues and thoughts in groundwater dating. 8.1 The need for more dating methods and the currently proposed potential method. 8.2 Translating simulation of groundwater ages techniques into practice- More applications for age data. 8.3 Worldwide practices of groundwater age-dating. 8.4 Proposal for a groundwater age map - Worldwide groundwater age maps. 8.5 Works which can and need to be done to enhance groundwater age science. 8.5 Major problems facing groundwater dating discipline. 8.7 Some thoughtful questions - Concluding remarks and Future of groundwater dating. References. Appendix 1: Decay Curves of Groundwater Dating Isotopes. That of Tritium Is Shown in Chapter 4. Appendix 2: Some Useful Information for Groundwater Dating Studies and Table of Conversion of Units. Appendix 3: Concentration of Noble Gases (Used in Groundwater Dating) and Some Important Constituents of the Atmosphere. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book provides systematic and comprehensive description about the current state of CMP technology. It includes the important fundamentals and basic science as well, making the book fit as an introduction to CMP newcomers and a valuable reference source for professionals.Table of ContentsForeword xix Contributing Authors xxiii 1 Why CMP? 1Yuzhuo Li 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Preparation of Planar Surface 2 1.2.1 Multilevel Metallization and the Need for Planarization 2 1.2.2 Degrees of Planarization 4 1.2.3 Methods of Planarization 5 1.2.4 Chemical and Mechanical Planarization of Dielectric Films 7 1.2.5 Preparation of Planar Thin Films for Non-IC Applications Using CMP 8 1.3 Formation of Functional Microstructures 9 1.3.1 RC Delay and New Interconnect Materials 9 1.3.2 Damascene and Dual Damascene 12 1.3.3 Tungsten CMP 15 1.3.4 STI 16 1.4 CMP to Correct Defects 19 1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CMP 20 1.6 Conclusion 21 2 Current and Future Challenges in CMP Materials 25Mansour Moinpour 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Historic Prospective and Future Trends 27 2.3 CMP Material Characterization 32 2.3.1 Thermal Effects 33 2.3.2 Slurry Rheology Studies 35 2.3.3 Slurry–Pad Interactions 38 2.3.4 Pad Groove Effects 42 2.3.5 Pad–Wafer Contact and Slarry Transport: Dual Emission Laser Induced Fluorescence 43 2.3.6 Dynamic Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 45 2.3.7 CMP Slurry Stability and Correlation with Defectivity 49 2.4 Conclusions 51 3 Processing Tools for Manufacturing 57Manabu Tsujimura 3.1 CMP Operation and Characteristics 57 3.2 Description of the CMP Process 59 3.3 Overview of Polishers 60 3.3.1 CMP System 60 3.3.2 Brief History of CMP Systems 61 3.3.3 Diversity in CMP Tools 62 3.3.4 Polisher 62 3.3.5 Cleaning Module in a Dry-in/Dry-out System 64 3.4 Carriers and Dressers 65 3.4.1 Functions of Carriers and Dressers 65 3.4.2 Carrier 65 3.4.3 Profile Control by Carriers 68 3.4.4 Dressers 69 3.5 In Situ and Ex Situ Metrologies 72 3.5.1 Application 72 3.5.2 Representative Monitors 72 3.5.3 Other Applications for the Monitors 75 3.5.4 Communication 75 3.6 Conclusions 78 4 Tribometrology of CMP Process 81Norm Gitis and Raghu Mudhivarthi 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Tribometrology of CMP 82 4.3 Factors Influencing the Tribology During CMP 85 4.3.1 Process Parameters During CMP 85 4.3.2 Polishing Pad Characteristics 88 4.3.3 Slurry Characteristics 90 4.3.4 Water Contour Characterists 92 4.4 Optimizing Pad Conditioning Process 92 4.4.1 PadProbeTM 92 4.4.2 Effect of Temperature 100 4.5 Conditioner Design 102 4.6 CMP Consumable Testing 105 4.6.1 Slurry Testing 105 4.6.2 Pad Testing 108 4.6.3 Retaining Rings 110 4.7 Defect Analysis 113 4.7.1 Coefficient of Friction and Acoustic Emission Signal 113 4.7.2 Advanced Signal Processing 114 4.8 Summary 117 5 Pads for IC CMP 123Changxue Wang, Ed Paul, Toshihiro Kobayashi and Yuzhuo Li 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Physical Properties of CMP Pads and Their Effects on Polishing Performance 124 5.2.1 Pad Types 124 5.2.2 Pad Microstructures and Macrostructures 125 5.2.3 Polyurethane Pad Properties and Control 127 5.2.3.1 Hardness Young’s Modulus, and Strength 127 5.2.3.2 Pad Porosity/Density 128 5.2.3.3 Pad Thickness 128 5.2.3.4 Pad Stiffness/Stacked Pads 129 5.2.3.5 Pad Grooves 129 5.2.4 Effects of Pad Property on Polishing Performance 129 5.2.4.1 Pad Roughness Effects 130 5.2.4.2 Pad Porosity/Density Effects 131 5.2.4.3 Pad Hardness, Young’s Modulus, Stiffness, and Thickness Effects 136 5.2.4.4 Pad Groove Effects 138 5.3 Chemical Properties of CMP Pads and Their Effects on Polishing Performances 140 5.3.1 Polyurethane Pad Components 140 5.3.2 Polyurethane Property Control by Chemical Components 140 5.3.3 Chemical Effects on Polishing Performance 141 5.4 Pad Conditioning and Its Effect on CMP Performance 142 5.5 Modeling of Pad Effects on Polishing Performance 145 5.5.1 Review of Modeling of Pad Effects on Polishing Performance 145 5.5.2 Modeling of Pad Effects on Polishing Performance 148 5.5.2.1 Pads and Pressure 148 5.5.2.2 Pads and Abrasives 150 5.5.2.3 Pads, Dishing, and Erosion 154 5.6 Novel Designs of CMP Pads 159 5.6.1 Particle-Containing Pads 159 5.6.2 Surface-Treated Pads 162 5.6.3 Reactive Pad 164 6 Modeling 171Leonard Borucki and Ara Philipossian 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 A Two-Step Chemical Mechanical Material Removal Model 172 6.3 Pad Surfaces and Pad Surface Contact Modeling 175 6.4 Reaction Temperature 178 6.5 A Polishing Example 185 6.6 Topography Planarization 189 7 Key Chemical Components in Metal CMP Slurries 201Krishnayya Cheemalapati, Jason Keleher and Yuzhuo Li 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Oxidizers 202 7.2.1 Nitric Acid 202 7.2.2 Hydrogen Peroxide 203 7.2.3 Ferric Nitrate 210 7.2.4 Potassium Permanganate, Dichromates, and Iodate 212 7.3 Chelating Agents 214 7.3.1 Ammonia 215 7.3.2 Amino Acids 216 7.3.3 Organic Acids 217 7.3.4 Thermodynamic Consideration and Quantitative Description 218 7.4 Surfactants 219 7.4.1 Structures and Physical Properties of Surfactants 219 7.4.2 Dispersion of Particles 221 7.4.3 Surface Modification of Wafer Surface 222 7.5 Abrasive Particles 225 7.5.1 Hardness 225 7.5.2 Bulk Particle Density 227 7.5.3 Particle Crystallinity and Shapes 227 7.5.4 Particle Size and Oversized Particle Count 228 7.5.5 Particle Preparation 230 7.5.6 Surface Properties 231 7.6 Particle Surface Modification 233 7.7 Soft Particles 234 7.8 Case Study: Organic Particles as Abrasives in Cu CMP 235 7.8.1 Particle Characterization 235 7.8.2 Material Removal Rate and Selectivity 235 7.8.3 Step Height Reduction Efficiency and Overpolishing Window 239 7.8.4 Summary on the Organic Particles 239 7.9 Conclusions 239 8 Corrosion Inhibitor for Cu CMP Slurry 249Suresh Kumar Govindaswamy and Yuzhuo Li 8.1 Thermodynamic Considerations of Copper Surface 250 8.2 Types of Passivating Films on Copper Surface Under Oxdizing Conditions 252 8.3 Effect of pH on BTA in Glycine-Hydrogen Peroxide Based Cu CMP Slurry 257 8.4 Evaluation of Potential BTA Alternatives for Acidic Cu CMP Slurry 259 8.5 Electrochemical Polarization Study of Corrosion Inhibitors in Cu CMP Slurry 263 8.6 Hydrophobicity of the Surface Passivation Film 265 8.7 Competitive Surface Adsorption Behavior of Corrosion Inhibitors 266 8.8 Summary 270 9 Tungsten CMP Applications 277Jeff Visser 9.1 Introduction 277 9.2 Basic Tungsten Application, Requirements, and Process 278 9.2.1 Basic Applications of Tungsten CMP 278 9.2.2 Basic W CMP Requirements and Procedures 281 9.3 W CMP Defects 282 9.4 Various W CMP Processing Options 285 9.4.1 Basic Considerations 285 9.4.2 Barrier Polishing 289 9.4.3 Oxide Buffing 289 9.4.4 Post-W CMP Cleaning 290 9.5 Overall Tungsten Process (Various Processing Design Options and Suggestions) 290 9.5.1 W CMP Process Controls 290 9.5.2 Platen Temperature Control 291 9.5.3 Slurry Selectivity 292 9.6 Conclusions 292 10 Electrochemistry in ECMP 295Jinshan (Jason) Huo 10.1 Introduction 295 10.2 Physical and Chemical Processes in Electrochemical Planarization 297 10.2.1 Electrode/Electrolyte Interface 297 10.2.2 Electrochemical Reaction 298 10.2.3 Mass Transport 299 10.2.4 Anodic Polarization Curve and Conditions for Electrochemical Planarization 300 10.3 Mechanisms and Limitation of Electrochemical Planarization 304 10.3.1 Ohmic Leveling 304 10.3.2 Diffusion Leveling 305 10.3.3 Migration Leveling 307 10.4 In Situ Analysis of Anodic/Passivation Films 309 10.4.1 Impedance Measurement 309 10.4.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 310 10.4.3 Ellipsometry 311 10.5 Modified Electrochemical Polishing Approaches 312 11 Planarization Technologies Involving Electrochemical Reactions 319Laertis Economikos 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 CMP 321 11.3 ECP 322 11.4 ECMP 326 11.5 Full Sequence Electrochemical–Mechanical Planarization 334 11.6 Conclusions 340 12 Shallow Trench Isolation Chemical Mechanical Planarization 345Yordan Stefanov and Udo Schwalke 12.1 Introduction 345 12.2 LOCOS to STI 346 12.3 Shallow Trench Isolation 349 12.4 The Planarization Step in Detail 351 12.5 Optimization Techniques 358 12.5.1 Dummy Active Area Insertion 359 12.5.2 Patterned Oxide Etch Back 359 12.5.3 Nitride Overcoat 360 12.5.4 EXTIGATE 361 12.5.5 Selective Oxide Deposition 363 12.5.6 Polysilicon-Filled Trenches 363 12.6 Outlook 364 13 Consumables for Advanced Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) 369Craig D. Burkhard 13.1 Introduction 369 13.2 Representative Testing Wafers for STI Process and Consumable Evaluations 371 13.3 Effects of Abrasive Types on STI Slurry Performance 373 13.4 Effects of Chemical Additives to Oxide: Nitride Selectivity 379 13.5 Effect of Slurry pH 385 13.6 Effect of Abrasive Particle Size on Removal Rate and Defectivity 388 13.7 Conclusion 395 14 Fabrication of Microdevices Using CMP 401Gerfried Zwicker 14.1 Introduction 401 14.2 Microfabrication Processes 402 14.3 Microfabrication Products 403 14.4 CMP Requirements in Comparison with IC Fabrication 404 14.5 Examples of CMP Applications for Microfabrication 412 14.5.1 Case Study I: Integrated Pressure Sensor 416 14.5.2 Case Study II: Poly-Si Surface Micromachining and Angular Rate Sensor 417 14.5.3 Case Study III: Infrared Digital Micromirror Array 422 14.5.4 More Representative Applications 425 14.6 Outlook 426 15 Three-Dimensional (3D) Integration 431J. Jay McMahon, Jian-Qiang Lu and Ronald J. Gutmann 15.1 Overview of 3D Technology 431 15.2 Factors Motivating Research in 3D 432 15.2.1 Small Form Factor 432 15.2.2 Heterogeneous Integration 433 15.2.3 Performance Enhancement 434 15.3 Approaches to 3D 435 15.3.1 Singulated Die 3D 435 15.3.2 Wafer-Level 3D 436 15.3.2.1 Wafer-Level 3D Using Oxide–Oxide Bonding 436 15.3.2.2 Wafer-Level 3D Using Copper–Copper Bonding 438 15.3.2.3 Wafer-Level 3D Using Adhesive Bonding 439 15.3.2.4 3D Integration Using Redistribution Layer Bonding 440 15.3.2.5 Summary of Wafer Level 3D Approaches 440 15.4 Wafer-Level 3D Unit Processes 442 15.4.1 Wafer-to-Wafer Alignment 442 15.4.2 Wafer-to-Wafer Bonding 444 15.4.2.1 Oxide–Oxide and Silicon–Oxide Wafer Bondings 444 15.4.2.2 Copper–Copper Wafer Bonding 444 15.4.2.3 Polymer Adhesive Wafer Bonding 446 15.4.3 Wafer Thinning for 3D 447 15.4.3.1 Timed Removal Thinning Approaches 448 15.4.3.2 Thinning to Either an Etch or Polish Stop 448 15.4.4 Through-Silicon Vias 449 15.5 Planarity Issues in 3D Integration 450 15.5.1 CMP Planarity Capabilities 451 15.5.1.1 Nano- and Microscale Planarization 451 15.5.1.2 Wafer-Scale Planarity 451 15.5.2 Planarity Issues for Various 3D Approaches 452 15.5.2.1 CMP for Via-Last Approach to 3D Using Oxide-to-Oxide Bonding 452 15.5.2.2 CMP for Via-Last Approach to 3D Using Polymer Adhesive Bonding 454 15.5.2.3 CMP for Via-First Approach to 3D Using Copper-to-Copper Bonding 455 15.5.2.4 CMP for Via-First 3D Using Redistribution Layer Bonding 455 15.6 Conclusions 456 16 Post-CMP Cleaning 467Jin-Goo Park, Ahmed A. Busnaina and Yi-Koan Hong 16.1 Introduction 467 16.2 Types of Post-CMP Cleaning Processes 468 16.2.1 Wet Bath Type Cleaning 468 16.2.2 Single Wafer Cleanings 469 16.2.2.1 Immersion-Type Single-Wafer Post-CMP Cleaning System 469 16.2.2.2 Single-Wafer Spin Cleaner 469 16.2.2.3 Brush Cleaning 473 16.2.2.4 Drying 475 16.3 Post-CMP Cleaning Chemistry 477 16.3.1 Conventional Wet Cleanings 477 16.3.2 Chemicals Used in Post-CMP Cleaning and their Roles 478 16.3.2.1 NH4OH 478 16.3.2.2 HF 478 16.3.2.3 Organic Acids 479 16.3.2.4 Surfactants 479 16.4 Post-CMP Cleaning According to Applications 480 16.4.1 Post-Oxide CMP Cleaning 480 16.4.2 Post-W CMP Cleaning 481 16.4.3 Post-STI CMP Cleaning 481 16.4.4 Post-Poly-Si CMP Cleaning 482 16.4.5 Post-Cu/Low-k CMP Surface Cleaning 484 16.4.5.1 Corrosion 486 16.4.5.2 Organic Residue 487 16.4.5.3 Low-k Materials 489 16.4.5.4 Effect of Other Additives on Cleaning 491 16.5 Adhesion Force, Friction Force, and Defects During Cu CMP 492 16.5.1 Adhesion Force of Silica and Alumina on Cu 493 16.5.2 Friction Force in Cu CMP Process 494 16.5.3 Removal Rates of Cu Surface in Cu CMP 494 16.5.4 Surface Quality of Cu After Cu CMP Process 496 16.5.5 Correlation Among Friction, Adhesion Force, Removal Rate, and Surface Quality in Cu CMP 498 16.6 Case Study: Megasonic Post-CMP Cleaning of Thermal Oxide Wafers 499 16.6.1 Experimental Procedure 499 16.6.2 The Effect of Megasonic Input Power 500 16.6.3 The Effect of Temperature 503 16.6.4 The Effect of Etching on Cleaning 503 16.7 Summary 505 17 Defects Observed on the Wafer After the CMP Process 511Paul Lefevre 17.1 Introduction 511 17.2 Defects After Oxide CMP 512 17.2.1 Introduction 512 17.2.2 Scratches 513 17.2.3 Color Variation—Oxide Thickness Variation 516 17.2.4 Slurry Residues and Organic Residues 518 17.2.5 Other Particles 519 17.2.6 Crystal Formation 519 17.2.7 Traces Elements 519 17.2.8 Radioactive Contamination 519 17.2.9 Defects Existing Before Oxide CMP 520 17.2.10 Source of Defect-Causing Large Particles 520 17.3 Defects After Polysilicon CMP 520 17.3.1 Introduction 520 17.3.2 Scratches 521 17.3.3 Polysilicon Residues 521 17.3.4 Particles 522 17.3.5 Residues 522 17.3.6 Trace Elements 522 17.3.7 Polysilicon Pitting and Voids 523 17.3.8 Discoloration at the Edge of the Structure or Edge of the Arrays 523 17.3.9 Defects Existing Before and Revealed After Polysilicon CMP 523 17.3.10 Influence of Processing Temperature 524 17.4 Defects After Tungsten CMP 524 17.4.1 Introduction 524 17.4.2 Corrosion, Pitting, and Void 524 17.4.3 Tungsten Recess and Rough Tungsten Surface 525 17.4.4 Scratches 528 17.4.5 Discoloration—Edge Overerosion (EOE) 529 17.4.6 Tungsten and Metal Liner Residues 530 17.4.7 Particles, Slurry Residues, and Trace Metal 531 17.4.8 Delamination 531 17.4.9 Preexisting Defects Revealed After Tungsten CMP 531 17.5 Defects After Copper CMP 532 17.5.1 Introduction and Summary on Copper CMP Defects 532 17.5.2 Copper Corrosion 533 17.5.3 Copper Pitting 535 17.5.4 Trenching at the Copper Line Edge 537 17.5.5 Rough Copper and Copper Recess 539 17.5.6 Discoloration—Metals Thickness Variations and/or Dielectric Thickness Variation 540 17.5.7 Copper Electromigration 542 17.5.8 Scratches 544 17.5.9 Metal Residues 544 17.5.10 Particles, Residues, and Trace Metals 547 17.5.11 Delamination 548 17.6 Defect Observation and Characterization Techniques 551 17.6.1 Optical Microscope 551 17.6.2 Scanning Electron Microscope 552 17.6.3 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX) 552 17.6.4 Scanning Auger Microscope (SAM) 553 17.6.5 Atomic Force Microscopy 553 17.7 Ensemble Defect Detection and Inspection Techniques 554 17.7.1 Optical Scan of Flat Film Blanket Wafers 554 17.7.2 Optical Scan of Patterned Wafers 554 17.7.3 Defect Classification 555 17.8 Consideration for the Future 555 18 CMP Slurry Metrology, Distribution, and Filtration 563Rakesh K. Singh 18.1 Introduction 564 18.2 CMP Slurry Metrology and Characterization 567 18.2.1 Slurry Health Monitoring and Control 568 18.2.2 CMP Slurry Blend Control 569 18.2.2.1 Two-Component Blend Control 570 18.2.2.2 Three-Component Blend Control 572 18.2.3 CMP Slurry Characterization 573 18.2.4 Summary 576 18.3 CMP Slurry Blending and Distribution 577 18.3.1 Slurry Delivery Technologies 578 18.3.2 Continuous (On-Demand) Slurry Dispense and Metrology 578 18.3.3 Slurry Turnovers in Fab Distribution 580 18.3.4 Slurry Abrasive Settling and Dispersion 580 18.3.4.1 Slurry Settling Rate Quantification 580 18.3.4.2 Settling Behavior of Different Abrasive CMP Slurries 581 18.3.4.3 Required Minimum Flow Velocity for CMP Slurries 584 18.3.5 Summary 585 18.4 CMP Slurry Filtration 586 18.4.1 Slurry Filtration Methodology 587 18.4.2 Filter Design Consideration 588 18.4.3 Slurry Filter Characterization 591 18.4.4 CMP Process and Consumable Trends and Challenges 592 18.4.5 Slurry Filtration-Case Studies 595 18.4.5.1 Silica Dispersion Single-Pass High-Retention Filtration 595 18.4.5.2 Silica Slurry POU and Recirculation 596 18.4.5.3 Silica Ceria and Alumina Slurry Tighter Filtration 599 18.4.5.4 Polystyrene Latex (PSL) Bead Solution Filtration 602 18.4.6 Summary 602 18.5 Pump Handling Effects on CMP Slurry Filtration—Case Studies 603 18.5.1 Pump Technologies and Applications 604 18.5.2 Pump Shearing Effects on Slurry Abrasives 605 18.5.3 Pump Handling and Filtration Data 606 18.5.4 Test Cases 607 18.5.5 Summary 620 19 The Facilities Side of CMP 627John H. Rydzewski 19.1 Introduction 627 19.2 Characterization of the CMP Waste Stream 628 19.3 Materials of Compatibility 629 19.4 Collection System Methodologies 631 19.5 Treatment System Components 632 19.5.1 Collection Tank and pH Adjustment 632 19.5.2 Oxidizer Removal 633 19.5.3 Organics Removal 635 19.5.4 Treatment of Suspended Solids 635 19.5.5 Removal of Trace Metals 638 19.6 Integration of Components—Putting It All Together 644 19.6.1 Solids Treatment Before Metals Removal 644 19.6.2 Solids Treatment After Metals Removal 645 19.6.3 No Solids Removal 646 19.7 Conclusions 647 20 CMP—The Next Fifteen Years 651Joseph M. Steigerwald 20.1 The Past 15 Years 651 20.2 Challenges to Silicon IC Manufacturing 655 20.3 New CMP Processes 661 20.3.1 The Two-Year Development Cycle 661 20.3.2 Finfet Transistors 664 20.3.3 High-k Gate Oxides 665 20.3.4 Other Examples 670 20.4 CMP Challenges 673 20.4.1 Development Time of New CMP Materials 673 20.4.2 CMP Defect Reduction 675 20.4.3 CMP Process Control 677 20.4.3.1 CMP Film Thickness Control 678 20.4.3.2 Process Control Systems, Consumables Material Control, and Excursion Prevention 680 20.4.4 Cost of CMP 683 20.5 Summary 683 21 Utilitarian Information for CMP Scientists and Engineers 687Yongqing Lan and Yuzhuo Li 21.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Abrasive Particles 687 21.2 Physical and Chemical Properties on Oxidizers 690 21.3 Physical and Chemical Properties on Relevant Surfactants 690 21.3.1 Classification of Surfactants 690 21.3.2 Critical Micellar Concentration 692 21.3.3 Ternary Phase Diagrams Involving Surfactants 693 21.4 Relevant Pourbaix Diagram 696 21.5 Commonly Used Buffering Systems 703 21.6 Useful Web Sites 704 Index 725

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Book SynopsisHydrogen and Syngas Production and Purification Technologies discusses promising, more efficient directions in the energy industry fuel cells and hydrogen-based energy. This book covers the fundamentals of catalysis and proceeds to discuss applications in practical systems, including nuclear and gas power plants.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Contributors xv 1. Introduction to Hydrogen and Syngas Production and Purification Technologies 1Chunshan Song 1.1 Importance of Hydrogen and Syngas Production 1 1.2 Principles of Syngas and Hydrogen Production 4 1.3 Options for Hydrogen and Syngas Production 6 1.4 Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells 8 1.5 Fuel Processing for Fuel Cells 9 1.6 Sulfur Removal 10 1.7 CO2 Capture and Separation 11 1.8 Scope of the Book 11 Acknowledgments 12 References 12 2. Catalytic Steam Reforming Technology for the Production of Hydrogen and Syngas 14Velu Subramani, Pradeepkumar Sharma, Lingzhi Zhang, and Ke Liu 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Steam Reforming of Light Hydrocarbons 17 2.2.1 Steam Reforming of Natural Gas 17 2.2.2 Steam Reforming of C2–C4 Hydrocarbons 36 2.3 Steam Reforming of Liquid Hydrocarbons 46 2.3.1 Chemistry 46 2.3.2 Thermodynamics 47 2.3.3 Catalyst 52 2.3.4 Kinetics 58 2.3.5 Mechanism 61 2.3.6 Prereforming 61 2.4 Steam Reforming of Alcohols 65 2.4.1 Steam Reforming of Methanol (SRM) 65 2.4.2 Steam Reforming of Ethanol (SRE) 77 2.5 Carbon Formation and Catalyst Deactivation 106 2.6 Recent Developments in Reforming Technologies 109 2.6.1 Microreactor Reformer 109 2.6.2 Plate Reformer 110 2.6.3 Membrane Reformer 110 2.6.4 Plasma Reforming (PR) 112 2.7 Summary 112 References 112 3. Catalytic Partial Oxidation and Autothermal Reforming 127Ke Liu, Gregg D. Deluga, Anders Bitsch-Larsen, Lanny D. Schmidt, and Lingzhi Zhang 3.1 Introduction 127 3.2 Natural Gas Reforming Technologies: Fundamental Chemistry 130 3.2.1 ATR 130 3.2.2 Homogeneous POX 132 3.2.3 CPO 133 3.3 Development/Commercialization Status of ATR, POX, and CPO Reformers 136 3.4 CPO Catalysts 138 3.4.1 Nickel-Based CPO Catalysts 138 3.4.2 Precious Metal CPO Catalysts 142 3.5 CPO Mechanism and Kinetics 146 3.5.1 Ni Catalyst Mechanism and Reactor Kinetics Modeling 146 3.5.2 Precious Metal Catalyst Mechanism and Reactor Kinetics Modeling 147 3.6 Start-Up and Shutdown Procedure of CPO 149 3.7 CPO of Renewable Fuels 150 3.8 Summary 151 Acknowledgments 151 References 151 4. Coal Gasification 156Ke Liu, Zhe Cui, and Thomas H. Fletcher 4.1 Introduction to Gasification 156 4.2 Coal Gasification History 158 4.3 Coal Gasification Chemistry 160 4.3.1 Pyrolysis Process 161 4.3.2 Combustion of Volatiles 163 4.3.3 Char Gasification Reactions 164 4.3.4 Ash–Slag Chemistry 166 4.4 Gasification Thermodynamics 169 4.5 Gasification Kinetics 173 4.5.1 Reaction Mechanisms and the Kinetics of the Boudouard Reaction 174 4.5.2 Reaction Mechanisms and the Kinetics of the Water-Gas Reaction 175 4.6 Classification of Different Gasifiers 176 4.7 GE (Texaco) Gasification Technology with CWS Feeding 178 4.7.1 Introduction to GE Gasification Technology 178 4.7.2 GE Gasification Process 179 4.7.3 Coal Requirements of the GE Gasifier 184 4.7.4 Summary of GE Slurry Feeding Gasification Technology 186 4.8 Shell Gasification Technology with Dry Feeding 187 4.8.1 Introduction to Dry-Feeding Coal Gasification 187 4.8.2 Shell Gasification Process 189 4.8.3 Coal Requirements of Shell Gasification Process 193 4.8.4 Summary of Dry-Feeding Shell Gasifier 194 4.9 Other Gasification Technologies 195 4.9.1 GSP Gasification Technology 195 4.9.2 East China University of Science and Technology (ECUST) Gasifier 198 4.9.3 TPRI Gasifier 199 4.9.4 Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers 199 4.9.5 ConocoPhillips Gasifier 202 4.9.6 Moving-Bed and Fixed-Bed Gasifiers: Lurgi’s Gasification Technology 203 4.9.7 Summary of Different Gasification Technologies 205 4.10 Challenges in Gasification Technology: Some Examples 206 4.10.1 High AFT Coals 206 4.10.2 Increasing the Coal Concentration in the CWS 207 4.10.3 Improved Performance and Life of Gasifier Nozzles 208 4.10.4 Gasifier Refractory Brick Life 208 4.10.5 Gasifier Scale-Up 209 4.11 Syngas Cleanup 210 4.12 Integration of Coal Gasification with Coal Polygeneration Systems 215 References 216 5. Desulfurization Technologies 219Chunshan Song and Xiaoliang Ma 5.1 Challenges in Deep Desulfurization for Hydrocarbon Fuel Processing and Fuel Cell Applications 219 5.2 HDS Technology 225 5.2.1 Natural Gas 225 5.2.2 Gasoline 226 5.2.3 Diesel 233 5.3 Adsorptive Desulfurization 243 5.3.1 Natural Gas 244 5.3.2 Gasoline 246 5.3.3 Jet Fuel 256 5.3.4 Diesel 258 5.4 Post-Reformer Desulfurization: H2S Sorption 264 5.4.1 H2S Sorbents 265 5.4.2 H2S Adsorption Thermodynamics 268 5.5 Desulfurization of Coal Gasification Gas 272 5.5.1 Absorption by Solvents 275 5.5.2 Hot and Warm Gas Cleanup 291 5.6 ODS 293 5.6.1 Natural Gas 293 5.6.2 Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels 295 5.7 Summary 298 References 300 6. Water-Gas Shift Technologies 311Alex Platon and Yong Wang 6.1 Introduction 311 6.2 Thermodynamic Considerations 312 6.3 Industrial Processes and Catalysts 313 6.3.1 Ferrochrome Catalyst for HTS Reaction 313 6.3.2 CuZn Catalysts for LTS Reaction 314 6.3.3 CoMo Catalyst for LTS Reaction 314 6.4 Reaction Mechanism and Kinetics 315 6.4.1 Ferrochrome Catalyst 315 6.4.2 CuZn-Based Catalyst 317 6.4.3 CoMo Catalyst 317 6.5 Catalyst Improvements and New Classes of Catalysts 318 6.5.1 Improvements to the Cu- and Fe-Based Catalysts 318 6.5.2 New Reaction Technologies 319 6.5.3 New Classes of Catalysts 321 References 326 7. Removal of Trace Contaminants from Fuel Processing Reformate: Preferential Oxidation (Prox) 329Marco J. Castaldi 7.1 Introduction 329 7.2 Reactions of Prox 331 7.3 General Prox Reactor Performance 333 7.3.1 Multiple Steady-State Operation 337 7.3.2 Water–Oxygen Synergy 339 7.4 Catalysts Formulations 342 7.5 Reactor Geometries 344 7.5.1 Monolithic Reactors 345 7.5.2 SCT Reactors 346 7.5.3 Microchannel Reactors 349 7.5.4 MEMS-Based Reactors 350 7.6 Commercial Units 352 Acknowledgments 353 References 353 8. Hydrogen Membrane Technologies and Application in Fuel Processing 357David Edlund 8.1 Introduction 357 8.2 Fundamentals of Membrane-Based Separations 358 8.3 Membrane Purification for Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell Applications 363 8.3.1 Product Hydrogen Purity 365 8.3.2 Process Scale 367 8.3.3 Energy Efficiency 368 8.4 Membrane Modules for Hydrogen Separation and Purification 369 8.5 Dense Metal Membranes 372 8.5.1 Metal Membrane Durability and Selectivity 375 8.6 Integration of Reforming and Membrane-Based Purification 378 8.7 Commercialization Activities 380 References 383 9. CO2-Selective Membranes for Hydrogen Fuel Processing 385Jin Huang, Jian Zou, and W.S. Winston Ho 9.1 Introduction 385 9.2 Synthesis of Novel CO2-Selective Membranes 388 9.3 Model Description 389 9.4 Results and Discussion 391 9.4.1 Transport Properties of CO2-Selective Membrane 391 9.4.2 Modeling Predictions 400 9.5 Conclusions 408 Glossary 410 Acknowledgments 410 References 411 10. Pressure Swing Adsorption Technology for Hydrogen Production 414Shivaji Sircar and Timothy C. Golden 10.1 Introduction 414 10.2 PSA Processes for Hydrogen Purification 418 10.2.1 PSA Processes for Production of Hydrogen Only 418 10.2.2 Process for Coproduction of Hydrogen and Carbon Dioxide 422 10.2.3 Processes for the Production of Ammonia Synthesis Gas 425 10.3 Adsorbents for Hydrogen PSA Processes 426 10.3.1 Adsorbents for Bulk CO2 Removal 427 10.3.2 Adsorbents for Dilute CO and N2 Removal 429 10.3.3 Adsorbents for Dilute CH4 Removal 432 10.3.4 Adsorbents for C1–C4 Hydrocarbon Removal 432 10.3.5 Other Adsorbent and Related Improvements in the H2 PSA 434 10.4 Future Trends for Hydrogen PSA 435 10.4.1 RPSA Cycles for Hydrogen Purification 436 10.4.2 Structured Adsorbents 438 10.4.3 Sorption-Enhanced Reaction Process (SERP) for H2 Production 439 10.5 PSA Process Reliability 441 10.6 Improved Hydrogen Recovery by PSA Processes 441 10.6.1 Integration with Additional PSA System 441 10.6.2 Hybrid PSA-Adsorbent Membrane System 442 10.7 Engineering Process Design 444 10.8 Summary 447 References 447 11. Integration of H2/Syngas Production Technologies with Future Energy Systems 451Wei Wei, Parag Kulkarni, and Ke Liu 11.1 Overview of Future Energy Systems and Challenges 451 11.2 Application of Reforming-Based Syngas Technology 454 11.2.1 NGCC Plants 454 11.2.2 Integration of H2/Syngas Production Technologies in NGCC Plants 455 11.3 Application of Gasification-Based Syngas Technology 465 11.3.1 IGCC Plant 468 11.4 Application of H2/Syngas Generation Technology to Liquid Fuels 477 11.4.1 Coal-to-H2 Process Description 479 11.4.2 Coal-to-Hydrogen System Performance and Economics 481 11.5 Summary 483 References 483 12. Coal and Syngas to Liquids 486Ke Liu, Zhe Cui, Wei Chen, and Lingzhi Zhang 12.1 Overview and History of Coal to Liquids (CTL) 486 12.2 Direct Coal Liquefaction (DCTL) 488 12.2.1 DCTL Process 488 12.2.2 The Kohleoel Process 490 12.2.3 NEDOL (NEDO Liquefaction) Process 491 12.2.4 The HTI-Coal Process 494 12.2.5 Other Single-Stage Processes 495 12.3 Indirect Coal to Liquid (ICTL) 496 12.3.1 Introduction 496 12.3.2 FT Synthesis 498 12.4 Mobil Methanol to Gasoline (MTG) 510 12.5 SMDS 511 12.6 Hybrid Coal Liquefaction 512 12.7 Coal to Methanol 513 12.7.1 Introduction of Methanol Synthesis 513 12.7.2 Methanol Synthesis Catalysts 514 12.7.3 Methanol Synthesis Reactor Systems 514 12.7.4 Liquid-Phase Methanol (LPMEOH™) Process 516 12.8 Coal to Dimethyl Ether (DME) 519 References 520 Index 522

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Book SynopsisSurfactants are catalysts that work by effecting or changing the surface of a material. Used in a wide range of industries, notably in the processing of soaps and detergents, surfactants have attracted a great deal of interest recently from environmental agencies concerned with effects of pollutants.Table of ContentsSample Preparation, Isolation and Characterization of Surfactants and Determination of Surface-Active Ions. Elementary Composition and Structural Characteristics: Controlled Degradation. Separation of Mixtures of Surfactants. Selected Methods for the Quantitative Analysis of Surfactants. Spectrometry. Electrometry and Other Physical and Physico-Chemical Methods. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisPrinciples of Mass Spectrometry Applied to Biomolecules teaches readers how to use what they know about Mass Spectrometry's advantages and limitations to develop novel ways of using the technique for the analysis of proteins and other biomolecules.Trade Review"this is a very impressive volume, which I recommend to anyone interested in fundamental principles governing peptide and protein ion behavior in the gas phase." (Journal of the American Chemical Society, April 4, 2007) "...the book is well written with numerous companion figures and tables and extensive up-to-date references..." (Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry, April 2007)Table of ContentsContributors. Preface. STRUCTURES AND DYNAMICS OF GAS-PHASE BIOMOLECULES. 1. Spectroscopy of neutral Peptides in the Gas Phase-Structure, Reactivity, Microsolvation, Molecular Recognition (M. Gerhards). 2. Probing the Electronic Structure of Fe-S Clusters Using Anoin Photoelectron Spectroscopy: Ubiquitous Electron Transfer Centers in Metalloproteins (X. Yang, et al.). 3. Ion/Molecule Reactions and H/D Exchange for Structural Characterization of Biomolecules (M. Green & C. Lebrilla). 4. Understanding Protein Interactions and their Representation in the Gas Phase of the Mass Spectrometer (F. Sobott & C. Robinson). 5. Protein Structure and Folding in the Gas Phase: Ubiquitin and Cytochrome c (K. Breuker). 6. Dyunamical Simulations of Photoionization of Small Biological Molecules (D. Shemesh & R. Gerber). 7. IVR and Ergodicity of Dissociation of Bio-Molecules (C. Lifshitz). PART II: ACTIVATION, DISSOCIATION AND REACTIVITY. 8. Mechanisms of Peptide Fragmentation (V. Wysocki, et al.). 9. Peptide Radical Cations (A. Hopkinson & K. Siu). 10. Photodissociation of Biomolecule Ions: Progress, Possibilities, and the Perspectives Coming From Small-Ion Models (R. Dunbar). 11. Chemical Dynamics Simulations of EnergyTransfer and Unimolecular Decomposition in Collision-Induced Dissociation (CID) and Surface-Induced Dissociation (SID) (A. Rahaman, et al.). 12. Ion Soft Landing: Instrumentation, Phenomena and Applications (B. Gologan, et al.). 13. Electron Capture Dissociation and Other Ion-electron Fragmentation Reactions (R. Zubarev). 14. Biomolecule Ion/Ion Reactions (S. McLuckey). PART III: THERMOCHEMISTRY AND ENERGETICS. 15. Thermochemistry Studies of Biomolecules (C. Wesdemiotis). 16. Energy and Entropy Effects in the Gas Phase Dissociation of Peptides and Proteins (J. Laskin). Index.

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Book SynopsisIntroducing environmental engineers and scientists (chemists, physicists, geologists, environmental planners, etc. ) to biology, Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists covers a far wider range of biology than has historically been taught to environmental engineers and offers a way to train future environmental engineers.Trade Review"…this is a great text that covers a multitude of topics well, and is well written and comprehensive. I predict it will be popular as a text for environmental engineering students." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, August 2006) "…a resource for a two-semester course but can be used as an outline…for a single-semester course…highly recommended." (CHOICE, May 2006) "...attempts to cover a wide range of biology without making it tedious to those working outside the area...an important reference for practicing environmental professionals…" (Journal of American Water Works Association, April 2006) "Based on a graduate level course designed to teach engineers to be literate in biological concepts and terminology, the text covers a wide range of biology without making it tedious for nonbiology majors." (Journal of the American Water Resources Association, February 2006)Table of ContentsPreface. 1. Perspectives on Biology. 2. Biology as a Whole. 3. The Substances of Life. 4. The Cell: the Common denominator of Living Things. 5. Energy and Metabolism. 6. Genetics. 7. The Plants. 8. The Animals. 9. The Human Animal. 10. Microbial Groups. 11. Quantifying Microorganisms and Their Activity. 12. Effect of Microbes on Human Health. 13. Microbial Transformations. 14. Ecology: the Global View of Life. 15. Ecosystems and Applications. 16. Biological Applications for Environmental Control. 17. The Science of Poisons. 18. Fate and Transport of Toxins. 19. Dose-Response Relationships. 20. Field and Laboratory Toxicology. 21. Toxicity of Specific Substances. 22. Applications of Toxicology. Appendixes. A: Physiochemical Properties of Common Pollutants. B: Biodegradability of Common Pollutants. C: Toxicological Properties of Common Pollutants. D: Standards for Exposure to Common Toxic Pollutants. E: Ambient Air Quality Standards. F: Unit Conversions and Physical Constants. G: The Elements. H: Periodic Table of the Elements. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a comprehensive survey of nanotechnology that reviews recent advances in nanotechnology-based drug and gene delivery systems and imaging approaches, and includes their biomedical significance, future prospects, and economic impact on pharmaceutical and biotechnological industries.Trade Review“This volume highlights a number of approaches toward using nanotechnology for drug delivery, imaging, and therapeutic applications.” (The Quarterly Review of Biology, March 2009) "[A] well-produced book, easy to find your way around … .Each chapter is accompanied by a detailed list of references that includes both popular science journals and the more specialised research literature." (Chemistry and Industry, November 2008)Table of ContentsPreface. Contributors. 1. Biological Applications of Multifunctional Magnetic Nanowires. 2. Nucleic Acid Delivery and Localizing Delivery with Magnetic Nanoparticles. 3. Magnetic Nanoparticles in Cancer Diagnosis and Hyperthermic Treatment. 4. Brownian Motion In Biological Sensing. 5. Dendrimers And Hyperbranched Polymers For Drug Delivery. 6. Nanogels: Chemistry to Drug Delivery. 7. Targeted Gold Nanoparticles for Imaging and Therapy. 8. Building Blocks of Nucleic Acid Nanostructures: Unfolding Thermodynamics of Intramolecular DNA Complexes. 9. Nanotoxicology. Index. About the Editors.

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Book SynopsisRisk assessment of drinking water is a major worldwide concern. Risk Assessment of Chemicals in Drinking Water provides a comprehensive reference on state-of-the-art risk assessment methodologies for drinking water, and is a definitive guide for professionals in the field.Trade ReviewCurrently accepted for use as landscaping, it becomes clear that recycled water will be injected into drinking water chain. That use makes the material in the book more important. (Journal of Hazardous Materials, January 31, 2008) "Provides a comprehensive reference on state-of-the-art risk assessment methodologies for drinking water." (International Food Information Service, 2007)Table of ContentsContributors ix Foreword xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction to Drinking Water Risk Assessment 1Robert A. Howd Development of Drinking Water Regulations 2 The Risk Assessment Process 8 Public Perceptions and the Precautionary Principle 13 References 14 2 Summary of the Development of Federal Drinking Water Regulations and Health-Based Guidelines for Chemical Contaminants 17Joyce Morrissey Donohue and Wynne Maynor Miller Selecting Candidates for Regulatory Consideration 19 Key Components for Regulatory Development 20 Development of Regulatory Values 28 Nonregulatory Options 30 References 32 3 Interpretation of Toxicologic Data for Drinking Water Risk Assessment 35Robert A. Howd and Anna M. Fan Animal Toxicity Studies 38 Human Toxicity Studies 47 Conclusions 57 References 57 4 Exposure Source and Multiroute Exposure Considerations for Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Contaminants 67Kannan Krishnan and Richard Carrier Exposure Source Considerations in Risk Assessment 68 Routes of Exposure and Dose Calculations 72 References 86 5 Toxicokinetics for Drinking Water Risk Assessment 91John C. Lipscomb Evaluation of Toxicity Data 93 Toxicokinetics: PBPK Modeling 95 Risk Assessment 101 Conclusions 117 References 118 6 Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures in Drinking Water 123Richard C. Hertzberg, Glenn E. Rice, Linda K. Teuschler, J. Michael Wright and Jane E. Simmons Drinking Water Mixture Concerns 124 Estimating Exposures to Multiple Chemicals in Drinking Water 130 Toxicological Concepts for Joint Toxicity 139 Chemical Mixtures Risk Assessment Methods 143 New Approaches for Assessing Risk from Exposure to Drinking Water Mixtures 155 Conclusions 162 References 163 7 Protection of Infants Children and Other Sensitive Subpopulations 171George V. Alexeeff and Melanie A. Marty Factors Influencing Differences in Susceptibility Between Infants and Children and Adults 173 Critical Systems and Periods in Development 185 Age at Exposure and Susceptibility to Carcinogens 189 Drinking Water Standards Developed to Protect Sensitive Subpopulations 190 References 192 8 Risk Assessment for Essential Nutrients 201Joyce Morrissey Donohue Assessment Approaches 203 Comparison of Guideline Values 206 Risk Assessment Recommendations 210 References 211 9 Risk Assessment for Arsenic in Drinking Water 213Joseph P. Brown Occurrence and Exposure 214 Metabolism 216 Health Effects 221 Risk Assessment 245 Conclusions 250 References 252 10 Risk Assessment for Chloroform Reconsidered 267Richard Sedman Carcinogenic Effects 268 Noncancer Toxic Effects 268 Mechanisms of Carcinogenicity 271 Regulation of Cancer Risk 280 Discussion 281 References 283 11 Risk Assessment of a Thyroid Hormone Disruptor: Perchlorate 287David Ting Background 287 Human Health Risk Assessment 292 Risk Characterization and Conclusions 296 References 298 12 Emerging Contaminants in Drinking Water: A California Perspective 303Steven A. Book and David P. Spath Emerging Chemicals of the Recent Past 304 Newer Emerging Contaminants 306 Future Emerging Chemicals 306 Conclusions 311 References 312 13 U.S. EPA Drinking Water Field Office Perspectives and Needs for Risk Assessment 315Bruce A. Macler The Nature of Regulatory Risk Assessments 315 Use of Drinking Water Risk Information in EPA Field Offices 318 Conclusions 322 References 322 14 Risk Assessment: Emerging Issues Recent Advances and Future Challenges 325Anna M. Fan and Robert A. Howd Emerging Issues 326 Advances in Science Approaches and Methods 332 Conclusions 357 References 359 Index 365

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Book SynopsisMethodology and applications of redox proteomics The relatively new and rapidly changing field of redox proteomics has the potential to revolutionize how we diagnose disease, assess risks, determine prognoses, and target therapeutic strategies for people with inflammatory and aging-associated diseases.Trade Review"...a major book...readers interested in mass spectrometry methods in proteomics will find much that is of interest here." (Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry, March 2007) "Every laboratory that uses redox proteomics in both clinical and academic research should possess a copy of this excellent book." (Doody's Health Services) "…highly recommended as a reference text…Redox Proteomics is thought to be a milestone in this field…" (Biotechnology Journal, March 2007)Table of Contents1. Oxidatively Modified Proteins and Proteomic Technologies. 1.1 Chemical Modification of Proteins by Reactive Oxygen Species (E. Stadtman & R. Levine). 1.2 The Chemistry of Protein Modifications Elicited By Nitric Oxide and Related Nitrogen Oxides (D. Thomas, et al.). 1.3 Mass Spectrometry Approaches for the Molecular Characterization of Oxidatively/Nitrosatively Modified Proteins (A. Scaloni). 1.4 Thiol-disulfide Oxidoreduction of Protein Cysteines: Old Methods Revisted for Proteomics (V. Bonetto & P. Ghezzi). 1.5 Carbonylated Proteins and their Implication in Physiology and Pathology (R. Levine & E. Stadtman). 1.6 S-Nitrosation of Cysteine thiols as a Redox Signal (Y. Zhang & N. Hogg). 1.7 Detection of Glycated and GlycoOxidated Proteins (A. Lapolla, et al.). 1.8 MudPIT (Multidimensaional Protein Identification Technology) for Identification of Post-translational Protein Modifications in Complex Biological Mixtures (S. Thomas, et al.). 1.9 Use of a Proteomic Technique to Identify Oxidant-Sensitive Thiol Proteins in Cultured Cells (M. Hampton, et al.). 1.10 ICAT (Isotope-Code Affinity Tag) Approach to Redox Proteomics: Identification and Quantification of Oxidant-Sensitive Protein Thiols (M. Sethuraman, et al.). 1.11 Quantitative Determination of Free and Protein-Associated 3-nitrotyrosine and S-nitrosothiols in the Circulation by Mass Spectrometry and Other Methodologies: A Critical Review and Discussion from the Analytical and Review Point of View (D. Tsikas). 2. Cellular Aspects of Protein Oxidation. 2.1 The Covalent Advantage: A New Paradigm for Cell Signaling Mediated by Thiol Reactive Lipid Oxidation Products (D. Dickinson, et al.). 2.2 Early Molecular Events During Response to Oxidative Stress in Human Cells by Differential Proteomics (G. Tell). 2.3 Oxidative Damage to Proteins: Structural Modifications and Consequences in Cell Function (E. Cabiscol & J. Ros). 2.4 Oxidative Damage and Cellular Senescence: Lessons from Bacteria and Yeast (T. Nyström). 3. Redox Proteomic Analysis in Human Diseases. 3.1 Proteins as Sensitive Biomarkers of Human Conditions Associated with Oxidative Stress (I. Dalle-Donne, et al.). 3.2 Degradation and Accumulation of Oxidized Proteins in Age-Related Diseases (P. Voss & T. Grune). 3.3 Redox Proteomics: A New Approach to Investgate Oxidative Stress in Alzheimer's Diseases (D. Butterfield, et al.). 3.4 Oxidized Proteins in Cardiac Ischemia-Reperfusion (J. Brennan & P. Eaton). 3.5 Proteome Anaylsis of Oxidative Stress: Glutathionyl Hemoglobin in Diabetic and Uremic Patients (T. Niwa). 3.6 Glyco-Oxidative Biochemistry in Diabetic Renal Injury (T. Miyata). 3.7 Quantitative Screnning of Protein Glycation, Oxidation, and Nitration Adducts by LC-MS/MS: Protein Damage in Diabetes, Uremia, Cirrhosis, and Alzheimer's Disease (P. Thornalley). 3.8 Protein Targets and Functional Consequences of Tyrosine Nitration in Vascular Disease (L. Baker, et al.). 3.9 Oxidation of Artery Wall Proteins by Myeloperoxidase: A proteomics Approach (T. Vaisar & J. Heinecke). 3.10 Oxidative Stress and Protein Oxidation in Pre-Eclampsia (M. Raijmakers, et al.). 3.11 The Involvement of Oxidants in the Etiology of Chronic Airway Diseases: Proteomic Approaches to Identify Redox Processes in Epithelial Cell Signal and Inflammation (A. van der Vliet, et al.). 3.12 Sequestering Agents of Intermediate Reactive Aldehydes as Inhibitors of Advanced Lipoxidation End-Products (ALEs) (M. Carini, et al.).

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Book SynopsisCurrent oxide nanomaterials knowledge to draw from and build on Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Oxide Nanomaterials summarizes the existing knowledge in oxide-based materials research. It gives researchers one comprehensive resource that consolidates general theoretical knowledge alongside practical applications. Organized by topic for easy access, this reference: * Covers the fundamental science, synthesis, characterization, physicochemical properties, and applications of oxide nanomaterials * Explains the fundamental aspects (quantum-mechanical and thermodynamic) that determine the behavior and growth mode of nanostructured oxides * Examines synthetic procedures using top-down and bottom-up fabrication technologies involving liquid-solid or gas-solid transformations * Discusses the sophisticated experimental techniques and state-of-the-art theory used to characterize the structural and electronic properties of nanostructured oxidesTrade Review"…researchers…will benefit from useful information about the basic science...scientists will learn more about how thee oxide nanomaterials are prepared…" (Advanced Materials, January 2008) "…an indispensable resource for a broad readership…" (Journal of Metals Online, February 8, 2008)Table of ContentsCONTRIBUTORS. INTRODUCTION THE WORLD OF OXIDE NANOMATERIALS (José A. Rodríguez and Marcos Fernández-García). PART I BASIC CONCEPTS. Chapter 1. Theory of Size, Confinement, and Oxidation Effects (Chang Q. Sun). Chapter 2. On Aqueous Interfacial Thermodynamics and the Design of Metal-Oxide Nanostructures (Lionel Vayssieres). PART II SYNTHESIS AND PREPARATION OF NANOSTRUCTURED OXIDES. Chapter 3. Synthesis of Metal-Oxide Nanoparticles: Liquid–Solid Transformations (Lawrence D’Souza and Ryan Richards). Chapter 4. Synthesis of Metal-Oxide Nanoparticles: Gas–Solid Transformations (S. Buzby, S. Franklin, and S. Ismat Shah). PART III STUDY AND CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOSTRUCTURED OXIDES. Chapter 5. Techniques for the Study of the Structural Properties (José A. Rodriguez, Marcos Fernández-García,Arturo Martínez-Arias, and Jonathan C. Hanson). Chapter 6. Techniques for the Study of the Electronic Properties (Marcos Fernández-García and José A. Rodriguez). Chapter 7. Post Hartree-Fock and Density Functional Theory Formalisms (Francesc Illas and Gianfranco Pacchioni). Chapter 8. Parametric Quantum Methods in Modeling Metal Oxide Nanoclusters and Surfaces (F. Ruette and M. Sánchez). Chapter 9. Atomistic Models and Molecular Dynamics (D.C. Sayle and T.X.T. Sayle). PART IV PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF OXIDE NANOMATERIALS. Chapter 10. Theoretical Aspects of Oxide Particle Stability and Chemical Reactivity (Ye Xu, William A. Shelton, and William F. Schneider). Chapter 11. Adsorption of Probe Molecules on Nanostructured Oxides (James A. Anderson and Russell F. Howe). Chapter 12. Chemical Properties of Oxide Nanoparticles: Surface Adsorption Studies from Gas- and Liquid-Phase Environments (John M. Pettibone, Jonas Baltrusaitis, and Vicki H. Grassian). Chapter 13. Transport Properties and Oxygen Handling (Glenn C. Mather and Arturo Martínez-Arias). PART V INDUSTRIAL/TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF OXIDE NANOMATERIALS. Chapter 14. Adsorbents (Pethaiyan Jeevanandam and Kenneth J. Klabunde). Chapter 15. Gas Sensors (Doina Lutic, Mehri Sanati, and Anita Lloyd Spetz). Chapter 16. Photovoltaic, Photoelectronic, and Electrochemical Devices Based on Metal-Oxide Nanoparticles and Nanostructures (Juan Bisquert). Chapter 17. Nanostructured Oxides in Photo-Catalysis (Gerardo Colón-Ibáñez, Carolina Belver-Coldeira, and Marcos Fernández-García). Chapter 18. Oxide Nanomaterials for the Catalytic Combustion of Hydrocarbons (Ilenia Rossetti and Lucio Forni). Chapter 19. Nanostructured Oxides in DeNOx Technologies (Marcos Fernández-García, Arturo Martínez-Arias, and Javier Pérez-Ramírez). Chapter 20. Chemistry of SO2 and DeSOx Processes on Oxide Nanoparticles (José A. Rodriguez). Chapter 21. H2 Production and Fuel Cells (Xianqin Wang and José A. Rodriguez). Chapter 22. Oxide Nanomaterials in Ceramics (Vicente Rives, Raquel Trujillano, and Miguel A. Vicente). Index.

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Book SynopsisBridging the knowledge gap between scientists that develop and apply proteomics technologies and oncologists who focus on understanding the biological basis behind cancer manifestation and progression, this title provides an account of how the multiple facets of proteomics have been applied to cancer.Trade Review“By guiding readers through the latest proteomic technologies and their applications in cancer research, “Proteomic Applications in Cancer Detection and Discovery" enhances the ability of researchers in proteomics and researchers in oncology to collaborate in order to better understand cancer and develop strategies to prevent and treat it.” (Newbooks.lib, 11 September 2014Table of ContentsPreface vii Acknowledgments ix 1 Systems Biology 1 2 Mass Spectrometry in Cancer Research 27 3 Quantitative Proteomics 59 4 Proteomic Analysis of Posttranslational Modifications 87 5 Characterization of Protein Complexes 117 6 Global Phosphorylation Analysis 145 7 the Search for Biomarkers in Biofluids 171 8 Proteomic Patterns: a New Paradigm in Diagnostics And Therapeutics? 195 9 the Emergence of Protein Arrays 215 10 the Role of Proteomics in Personalized Medicine 241 11 the Critical Role of Bioinformatics 263 12 Future Prospects of Proteomics in Cancer Research 281 Index 305

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Book SynopsisFractals, Diffusion, and Relaxation in Disordered Complex Systems is a special guest-edited, two-part volume of Advances in Chemical Physics that continues to report recent advances with significant, up-to-date chapters by internationally recognized researchers.Table of ContentsChapter 1 Dielectic Relaxation Phenomena in Complex Materials 1 By Yuri Feldman, Alexander Puzenko, and Yaroslav Ryabov Chapter 2 Evolution of the Dynamic Susceptibility in Supercooled Liquids and Glasses 127 By Thomas Blochowicz, Alexander Brodin, and Ernst Rössler Chapter 3 Slow Relaxation, Anomalous Diffusion, and Aging in Equilibrated Or Nonequilibrated Environments 257 By Noëlle Pottier Chapter 4 Power-law Blinking Quantum Dots: Stochastic And Physical Models 327 By Gennady Margolin, Vladimir Protasenko, Masaru Kuno, and Eli Barkai Chapter 5 the Continuous-time Random Walk Versus The Generalized Master Equation 357 By Paolo Grigolini Author Index 475 Subject Index 513 Chapter 6 Fractal Physiology, Complexity, and the Fractional Calculus 1 By Bruce J. West Chapter 7 Physical Properties of Fractal Structures 93 By Vitaly V. Novikov Chapter 8 Fractional Rotational Diffusion and Anomalous Dielectric Relaxation in Dipole Systems 285 By William T. Coffey, Yuri P. Kalmykov, and Sergey V. Titov Chapter 9 Fundamentals of Lévy Flight Processes 439 By Aleksei V. Chechkin, Vsevolod Y. Gonchar, Joseph Klafter, and Ralf Metzler Chapter 10 Dispersion of the Structural Relaxation and The Vitrification of Liquids 497 By Kia L. Ngai, Riccardo Casalini, Simone Capaccioli, Marian Paluch, and C.M. Roland Chapter 11 Molecular Dynamics in Thin Polymer Films 595 By Friedrich Kremer and Anatoli Serghei Author Index 633 Subject Index 671

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Book SynopsisFractals, Diffusion and Relaxation in Disordered Complex Systems is a special guest--edited, two--part volume of Advances in Chemical Physics that continues to report recent advances with significant, up--to--date chapters by internationally recognized researchers. .Table of ContentsChapter 6. Fractal Physiology, Complexity, and the Fractional Calculus (Bruce J. West). Chapter 7. Physical Properties of Fractal Structures (Vitaly V. Novikov). Chapter 8. Fractional Rotational Diffusion and Anomalous Dielectric Relaxation Dipole Systems (William T. Coffey, Yuri P. Kalmykov and Sergey V. Titov). Chapter 9. Fundamentals of Lévy Flight Processes (Aleksei V. Chechkin, Vsevolod Y. Gonchar, Joseph Klafter and Ralf Metzler). Chapter 10. Dispersion of the Structural Relaxation and the Vitrification of Liquids (Kia L. Ngai, Riccardo Casalini, Simone Capaccioli, Marian Paluch and C. M. Roland). Chapter 11. Molecular Dynamics in Thin Polymer Films (Friedrich Kremer and Anatoli Serghei). Author Index. Subject Index.

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Book SynopsisOrganic and Physical Chemistry of Polymers provides a thorough introduction to the fundamentals of polymers, including their structure and synthesis as well as their chemical and physical properties.Trade Review"It is a valuable as a reference source for students or practioners who desire a broad, general, basic introduction to the chemistry and properties of polymers." (CHOICE, August 2008)Table of Contents1. Introduction. 2. Cohesive energies of polymeric systems. 3. Molecular structure of polymers. 4. Thermodynamics of Macromolecular Systems. 5. Conformational structures and morphologies. 6. Determination of molar masses and study of conformations and morphologies by physical methods. 7. Step-growth polymerizations. 8. Chain polymerizations. 9. Reactivity and chemical modification of polymers. 10. Macromolecular synthesis. 11. Thermo-mechanical properties of polymers. 12. Mechanical properties of polymers. 13. Rheology, Formulation and Polymer Processing Techniques. 14. Natural and artificial polymers. 15. Linear (monodimensional) synthetic polymers. 16. Three-dimensional synthetic polymers.

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Book SynopsisThis book describes new developments and research results in catalysts, biomaterials, and nanomaterials, and informatics approaches to analyze CombiSci data and:* Integrates the scientific fundamentals required to develop and apply CombiSci concepts to areas of National Need in materials.Table of ContentsChapter 1: Combinatorial Materials Science: Measures of Success (Michael J. Fasolka and Eric J. Amis). Chapter 2: Experimental Design in High Throughput Systems (James N. Cawse). Chapter 3: Polymeric Discrete Libraries for High-Throughput Materials Science: Conventional and Microfluidic Library Fabrication and Synthesis (Kathryn L. Beers and Brandon M. Vogel). Chapter 4: Strategies in the Use of Atomic Force Microscopy as a Multiplexed Readout Tool of Chip-Scale Protein Motifs (Jeremy R. Kenseth, Karen M. Kwarta, Jeremy D. Driskell, and Marc D. Porter, John D. Neill and Julia F. Ridpath). Chapter 5: Informatics Methods for Combinatorial Materials Science (Changwon Suh, Krishna Rajana, Brandon M. Vogel, Balaji Narasimhan, and Surya K. Mallapragada). Chapter 6: Combinatorial Approaches and Molecular Evolution of Homogeneous Catalysts (L. Keith Woo). Chapter 7: Biomaterials Informatics (Nicole K. Harris, Joachim Kohn, W.J. Welsh, and Doyle Knight). Chapter 8: Combinatorial Methods and their Application to Mapping Wetting-Dewetting Transition Lines on Gradient Surface Energy Substrates (D. Raghavan, K. M. Ashley, A. Seghal, J. F. Douglas, and A. Karim). Chapter 9: Combinatorial Materials Science: Challenges and Outlook (Balaji Narasimhan, Surya K. Mallapragada, and Marc D. Porter).

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Book SynopsisNMR Spectroscopy Explained : Simplified Theory, Applications and Examples for Organic Chemistry and Structural Biology provides a fresh, practical guide to NMR for both students and practitioners, in a clearly written and non-mathematical format. It gives the reader an intermediate level theoretical basis for understanding laboratory applications, developing concepts gradually within the context of examples and useful experiments. Introduces students to modern NMR as applied to analysis of organic compounds. Presents material in a clear, conversational style that is appealing to students. Contains comprehensive coverage of how NMR experiments actually work. Combines basic ideas with practical implementation of the spectrometer. Provides an intermediate level theoretical basis for understanding laboratory experiments. Develops concepts gradually within the context of examples and useful experiments. Introduces the prTrade Review"The uses of the many modern multiple NMW techniques are explained and demonstrated quite well." (CHOICE, September 2008)Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xv 1 Fundamentalsof NMR Spectroscopy in Liquids 1 1.1 Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy 1 1.2 Examples: NMR Spectroscopy of Oligosaccharides and Terpenoids 12 1.3 Typical Values of Chemical Shifts and Coupling Constants 27 1.4 Fundamental Concepts of NMR Spectroscopy 30 2 Interpretation of Proton (1 H) NMR Spectra 39 2.1 Assignment 39 2.2 Effect of B o Field Strength on the Spectrum 40 2.3 First-Order Splitting Patterns 45 2.4 The Use of 1 H– 1 H Coupling Constants to Determine Stereochemistry and Conformation 52 2.5 Symmetry and Chirality in NMR 54 2.6 The Origin of the Chemical Shift 56 2.7 J Coupling to Other NMR-Active Nuclei 61 2.8 Non-First-Order Splitting Patterns: Strong Coupling 63 2.9 Magnetic Equivalence 71 3 NMR Hardware and Software 74 3.1 Sample Preparation 75 3.2 Sample Insertion 77 3.3 The Deuterium Lock Feedback Loop 78 3.4 The Shim System 81 3.5 Tuning and Matching the Probe 88 3.6 NMR Data Acquisition and Acquisition Parameters 90 3.7 Noise and Dynamic Range 108 3.8 Special Topic: Oversampling and Digital Filtering 110 3.9 NMR Data Processing—Overview 118 3.10 The Fourier Transform 119 3.11 Data Manipulation Before the Fourier Transform 122 3.12 Data Manipulation After the Fourier Transform 126 4 Carbon-13 (13 C) NMR Spectroscopy 135 4.1 Sensitivity of 13 C 135 4.2 Splitting of 13 C Signals 135 4.3 Decoupling 138 4.4 Heteronuclear Decoupling: 1 H Decoupled 13 C Spectra 139 4.5 Decoupling Hardware 145 4.6 Decoupling Software: Parameters 149 4.7 The Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE) 150 4.8 Heteronuclear Decoupler Modes 152 5 NMR Relaxation—Inversion-Recovery and the Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE) 155 5.1 The Vector Model 155 5.2 One Spin in a Magnetic Field 155 5.3 A Large Population of Identical Spins: Net Magnetization 157 5.4 Coherence: Net Magnetization in the x–y Plane 161 5.5 Relaxation 162 5.6 Summary of the Vector Model 168 5.7 Molecular Tumbling and NMR Relaxation 170 5.8 Inversion-Recovery: Measurement of T 1 Values 176 5.9 Continuous-Wave Low-Power Irradiation of One Resonance 181 5.10 Homonuclear Decoupling 182 5.11 Presaturation of Solvent Resonance 185 5.12 The Homonuclear Nuclear Overhauser Effect (NOE) 187 5.13 Summary of the Nuclear Overhauser Effect 198 6 The Spin Echo and the Attached Proton Test (APT) 200 6.1 The Rotating Frame of Reference 201 6.2 The Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse 203 6.3 The Effect of RF Pulses 206 6.4 Quadrature Detection Phase Cycling and the Receiver Phase 209 6.5 Chemical Shift Evolution 212 6.6 Scalar (J) Coupling Evolution 213 6.7 Examples of J-coupling and Chemical Shift Evolution 216 6.8 The Attached Proton Test (APT) 220 6.9 The Spin Echo 226 6.10 The Heteronuclear Spin Echo: Controlling J-Coupling Evolution and Chemical Shift Evolution 232 7 Coherence Transfer: INEPT and DEPT 238 7.1 Net Magnetization 238 7.2 Magnetization Transfer 241 7.3 The Product Operator Formalism: Introduction 242 7.4 Single Spin Product Operators: Chemical Shift Evolution 244 7.5 Two-Spin Operators: J-coupling Evolution and Antiphase Coherence 247 7.6 The Effect of RF Pulses on Product Operators 251 7.7 INEPT and the Transfer of Magnetization from 1 Hto 13 C 253 7.8 Selective Population Transfer (SPT) as a Way of Understanding INEPT Coherence Transfer 257 7.9 Phase Cycling in INEPT 263 7.10 Intermediate States in Coherence Transfer 265 7.11 Zero- and Double-Quantum Operators 267 7.12 Summary of Two-Spin Operators 269 7.13 Refocused INEPT: Adding Spectral Editing 270 7.14 DEPT: Distortionless Enhancement by Polarization Transfer 276 7.15 Product Operator Analysis of the DEPT Experiment 283 8 Shaped Pulses Pulsed Field Gradients and Spin Locks: Selective 1D NOE and 1D TOCSY 289 8.1 Introducing Three New Pulse Sequence Tools 289 8.2 The Effect of Off-Resonance Pulses on Net Magnetization 291 8.3 The Excitation Profile for Rectangular Pulses 297 8.4 Selective Pulses and Shaped Pulses 299 8.5 Pulsed Field Gradients 301 8.6 Combining Shaped Pulses and Pulsed Field Gradients: “Excitation Sculpting” 308 8.7 Coherence Order: Using Gradients to Select a Coherence Pathway 316 8.8 Practical Aspects of Pulsed Field Gradients and Shaped Pulses 319 8.9 1D Transient NOE using DPFGSE 321 8.10 The Spin Lock 333 8.11 Selective 1D ROESY and 1D TOCSY 338 8.12 Selective 1D TOCSY using DPFGSE 343 8.13 RF Power Levels for Shaped Pulses and Spin Locks 348 9 Two-Dimensional NMR Spectroscopy: HETCOR COSY and TOCSY 353 9.1 Introduction to Two-Dimensional NMR 353 9.2 HETCOR: A 2D Experiment Created from the 1D INEPT Experiment 354 9.3 A General Overview of 2D NMR Experiments 364 9.4 2D Correlation Spectroscopy (COSY) 370 9.5 Understanding COSY with Product Operators 386 9.6 2D TOCSY (Total Correlation Spectroscopy) 393 9.7 Data Sampling in t 1 and the 2D Spectral Window 398 10 Advanced NMR Theory: NOESY and DQF-COSY 408 10.1 Spin Kinetics: Derivation of the Rate Equation for Cross-Relaxation 409 10.2 Dynamic Processes and Chemical Exchange in NMR 414 10.3 2D NOESY and 2D ROESY 425 10.4 Expanding Our View of Coherence: Quantum Mechanics and Spherical Operators 439 10.5 Double-Quantum Filtered COSY (DQF-COSY) 447 10.6 Coherence Pathway Selection in NMR Experiments 450 10.7 The Density Matrix Representation of Spin States 469 10.8 The Hamiltonian Matrix: Strong Coupling and Ideal Isotropic (TOCSY) Mixing 478 11 Inverse Heteronuclear 2D Experiments: HSQC HMQC and HMBC 489 11.1 Inverse Experiments: 1 H Observe with 13 C Decoupling 490 11.2 General Appearance of Inverse 2D Spectra 498 11.3 Examples of One-Bond Inverse Correlation (HMQC and HSQC) Without 13 C Decoupling 501 11.4 Examples of Edited 13 C-Decoupled HSQC Spectra 504 11.5 Examples of HMBC Spectra 509 11.6 Structure Determination Using HSQC and HMBC 517 11.7 Understanding the HSQC Pulse Sequence 522 11.8 Understanding the HMQC Pulse Sequence 533 11.9 Understanding the Heteronuclear Multiple-Bond Correlation (HMBC) Pulse Sequence 535 11.10 Structure Determination by NMR—An Example 538 12 Biological NMR Spectroscopy 551 12.1 Applications of NMR in Biology 551 12.2 Size Limitations in Solution-State NMR 553 12.3 Hardware Requirements for Biological NMR 558 12.4 Sample Preparation and Water Suppression 564 12.5 1 H Chemical Shifts of Peptides and Proteins 570 12.6 NOE Interactions Between One Residue and the Next Residue in the Sequence 577 12.7 Sequence-Specific Assignment Using Homonuclear 2D Spectra 580 12.8 Medium and Long-Range NOE Correlations 586 12.9 Calculation of 3D Structure Using NMR Restraints 590 12.10 15 N-Labeling and 3D NMR 596 12.11 Three-Dimensional NMR Pulse Sequences: 3D HSQC–TOCSY and 3D TOCSY–HSQC 601 12.12 Triple-Resonance NMR on Doubly-Labeled (15 N 13 C) Proteins 610 12.13 New Techniques for Protein NMR: Residual Dipolar Couplings and Transverse Relaxation Optimized Spectroscopy (TROSY) 621 Appendix A: A Pictorial Key to NMR Spin States 627 Appendix B: A Survey of Two-Dimensional NMR Experiments 634 Index 643

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Book SynopsisMembrane manufacturing processes are sensitive to operating conditions and raw material properties, making quality control a key concern in the industry. This book comprehensively covers the manufacturing and industrial applications of membranes plus quality management and Six Sigma, along with providing membrane fundamentals.Table of ContentsPREFACE xv ABOUT THE EDITORS xvii CONTRIBUTORS xix PART I MEMBRANES AND APPLICATIONS IN WATER AND WASTEWATER 1 1. Thin-Film Composite Membranes for Reverse Osmosis 3 Tadahiro Uemura and Masahiro Henmi 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Application of RO Membranes 3 1.3 Major Progress in RO Membranes 4 1.4 Trends in RO Membrane Technology 6 1.5 Reverse Osmosis/Biofouling Protection 13 1.6 Low-Fouling RO Membrane for Wastewater Reclamation 14 1.7 Chlorine Tolerance of Cross-Linked Aromatic Polyamide Membrane 17 2. Cellulose Triacetate Membranes for Reverse Osmosis 21 A. Kumano and N. Fujiwara 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 History of Cellulose Acetate Membrane 21 2.3 Toyobo RO Module for Seawater Desalination 22 2.4 Actual Performance of Toyobo RO Module for Seawater Desalination 28 2.5 Most Recent RO Module of Cellulose Triacetate 35 2.6 Conclusion 43 3. Seawater Desalination 47 Nikolay Voutchkov and Raphael Semiat 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Seawater Desalination Plant Configuration 50 3.3 Water Production Costs 82 3.4 Future Trends 84 3.5 Conclusion 85 4. Seawater Desalination by Ultralow-Energy Reverse Osmosis 87 R. L. Truby 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 SWRO Energy Reduction Using Energy Recovery Technology 88 4.3 SWRO Energy Optimization 95 4.4 Affordable Desalination Collaboration (ADC) 96 4.5 Conclusion 99 5. Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 101 N. Kubota, T. Hashimoto, and Y. Mori 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Recent Trends and Progress in MF/UF Technology 104 5.3 Future Prospects 127 6. Water Treatment by Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 131 M. D. Kennedy, J. Kamanyi, S. G. Salinas Rodrı´guez, N. H. Lee, J. C. Schippers, and G. Amy 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Materials, Module Configurations, and Manufacturers 133 6.3 Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration Pretreatment 142 6.4 Membrane Applications 146 6.5 Membrane Fouling and Cleaning 149 6.6 Integrated Membrane Systems (MF or UF þ RO or NF) 160 6.7 Backwash Water Reuse, Treatment, and Disposal 164 7. Water Reclamation and Desalination by Membranes 171 Pierre Cote, Mingang Liu, and Steven Siverns 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Water Reclamation and Seawater Desalination 172 7.3 Cost Estimation 173 7.4 Process Options for Water Reclamation 174 7.5 Cost of Water Reclamation 177 7.6 Process Options for Desalination 181 7.7 Cost of Desalination 181 7.8 Water Reuse versus Desalination 185 7.9 Conclusions 186 8. Chitosan Membranes with Nanoparticles for Remediation of Chlorinated Organics 189 Yit-Hong Tee and Dibakar Bhattacharyya 8.1 Introduction 189 8.2 Experimental Section 191 8.3 Results and Discussions 197 8.4 Conclusions 212 9. Membrane Bioreactors for Wastewater Treatment 217 P. Cornel and S. Krause 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Principle of the Membrane Bioreactor Process 217 9.3 MBR Design Considerations 230 9.4 Applications and Cost 233 9.5 Conclusions and Summary 235 10. Submerged Membranes 239 Anthony G. Fane 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Modes of Operation of Submerged Membranes 241 10.3 Submerged Membrane Module Geometries 246 10.4 Bubbling and Hydrodynamic Considerations 253 10.5 Practical Aspects 262 10.6 Applications 267 10.7 Conclusions 268 11. Nanofiltration 271 Bart Van der Bruggen and Jeroen Geens 11.1 Introduction 271 11.2 Process Principles 272 11.3 Application of Nanofiltration for Production of Drinking Water and Process Water 276 11.4 Wastewater Polishing and Water Reuse 280 11.5 Other Applications 283 11.6 Solvent-Resistant Nanofiltration 284 11.7 Conclusions 287 12. Membrane Distillation 297 Mohamed Khayet 12.1 Introduction to Membrane Distillation 297 12.2 Membrane Distillation Membranes and Modules 305 12.3 Membrane Distillation Membrane Characterization Techniques 320 12.4 Transport Mechanisms in MD: Temperature Polarization, Concentration Polarization, and Theoretical Models 331 12.5 Membrane Distillation Applications 341 12.6 Long-Term MD Performance and Membrane Fouling in MD 355 12.7 Hybrid MD Systems 356 12.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions in MD 357 13. Ultrapure Water by Membranes 371 Avijit Dey 13.1 Introduction 371 13.2 Integrated Membrane Technology in UPW Systems 377 PART II MEMBRANES FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY AND CHEMICAL/BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS 407 14. Tissue Engineering with Membranes 409 Zhanfeng Cui 14.1 Introduction 409 14.2 Hollow-Fiber Membrane Bioreactors for Three-Dimensional Tissue Culture 412 14.3 Micromembrane Probes for Tissue Engineering Monitoring 420 14.4 Future Opportunities 427 14.5 Summary 429 15. Biopharmaceutical Separations by Ultrafiltration 435 Raja Ghosh 15.1 Introduction 435 15.2 Ultrafiltration: An Overview 436 15.3 Basic Working Principles of Ultrafiltration 437 15.4 Ultrafiltration Membranes and Devices 438 15.5 Ultrafiltration Processes 446 15.6 Conclusion 449 16. Nanofiltration in Organic Solvents 451 P. Silva, L. G. Peeva, and A. G. Livingston 16.1 Organic Solvent Nanofiltration Membranes 451 16.2 OSN Transport Mechanisms—Theoretical Background 458 16.3 Applications of Organic Solvent Nanofiltration 461 17. Pervaporation 469 Fakhir U. Baig 17.1 Introduction 469 17.2 Applications of AZEO SEP and VOC SEP 471 17.3 Computer Simulation of Module Performance 475 17.4 Permeation and Separation Model in Hollow-Fiber Membrane Module 481 17.5 Conclusion 487 18. Biomedical Applications of Membranes 489 G. Catapano and J. Vienken 18.1 Introduction 489 18.2 Membrane Therapeutic Treatments 490 18.3 Medical Membrane Properties 496 18.4 Medical Membrane Materials 501 18.5 Biocompatibility of Membrane-Based Therapeutic Treatments 508 18.6 Conclusions 511 19. Hemodialysis Membranes 519 Norma J. Ofsthun, Sujatha Karoor, and Mitsuru Suzuki 19.1 Introduction 519 19.2 Transport Requirements 521 19.3 Other Requirements 525 19.4 Membrane Materials, Spinning Technology, and Structure 527 19.5 Dialyzer Design and Performance 530 19.6 Current Market Trends 533 19.7 Future Directions 533 19.8 Conclusions 536 20. Tangential-Flow Filtration for Virus Capture 541 S. Ranil Wickramasinghe 20.1 Introduction 541 20.2 Tangential-Flow Filtration 543 20.3 Tangential-Flow Filtration for Virus Capture 545 20.4 Tangential-Flow Filtration for Virus Clearance 550 20.5 Conclusions 552 PART III GAS SEPARATIONS 557 21. Vapor and Gas Separation by Membranes 559 Richard W. Baker 21.1 Introduction to Membranes and Modules 559 21.2 Membrane Process Design 563 21.3 Applications 567 21.4 Conclusions 577 21.5 Glossary 577 22. Gas Separation by Polyimide Membranes 581 Yoji Kase 22.1 Introduction 581 22.2 Permeability and Chemical Structure of Polyimides 582 22.3 Manufacture of Asymmetric Membrane 587 22.4 Membrane Module 588 22.5 Applications of Polyimide Gas Separation Membranes 589 23. Gas Separation by Carbon Membranes 599 P. Jason Williams and William J. Koros 23.1 Introduction 599 23.2 Structure of Carbon Membranes 599 23.3 Transport in Carbon Membranes 601 23.4 Formation of Carbon Membranes 604 23.5 Current Separation Performance 616 23.6 Production of CMS Modules 620 23.7 Challenges and Disadvantages of CMS Membranes 622 23.8 Direction of Carbon Membrane Development 626 24. Polymeric Membrane Materials and Potential Use in Gas Separation 633 Ho Bum Park and Young Moo Lee 24.1 Introduction 633 24.2 Basic Principles of Gas Separation in Polymer Membranes 635 24.3 Limitations of Gas Separations Using Polymer Membranes 643 24.4 Polymer Membrane Materials 646 24.5 Membrane Gas Separation Applications and Conclusions 659 25. Hydrogen Separation Membranes 671 Yi Hua Ma 25.1 Introduction 671 25.2 Porous Nonmetallic Membranes for Hydrogen Separations 672 25.3 High-Temperature Hydrogen Separation Membranes 674 25.4 Concluding Remarks 680 PART IV MEMBRANE CONTACTORS AND REACTORS 685 26. Membrane Contactors 687 Kamalesh K. Sirkar 26.1 Introduction 687 26.2 Membrane-Based Contacting of Two Fluid Phases 690 26.3 Membrane-Based Solid–Fluid Contacting 696 26.4 Two Immobilized Phase Interfaces 697 26.5 Dispersive Contacting in a Membrane Contactor 699 26.6 Concluding Remarks 700 27. Membrane Reactors 703 Enrico Drioli and Enrica Fontananova 27.1 State-of-the-Art On Catalytic Membrane Reactors 703 27.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatments 704 27.3 Selective Oxidations 710 27.4 Biocatalytic Membrane Reactors 712 27.5 Catalytic Crystals 712 27.6 Inorganic Membrane Reactors 713 27.7 Microreactors 713 27.8 Conclusions 714 PART V ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENERGY APPLICATIONS 719 28. Facilitated Transport Membranes for Environmental, Energy, and Biochemical Applications 721 Jian Zou, Jin Huang, and W. S. Winston Ho 28.1 Introduction 721 28.2 Supported Liquid Membranes with Strip Dispersion 729 28.3 Carbon-Dioxide-Selective Membranes 737 28.4 Conclusions 747 29. Fuel Cell Membranes 755 Peter N. Pintauro and Ryszard Wycisk 29.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells 755 29.2 Background on Fuel Cell Membranes 759 29.3 Recent Work on New Fuel Cell Membranes 764 29.4 Conclusions 779 PART VI MEMBRANE MATERIALS AND CHARACTERIZATION 787 30. Recent Progress in Mixed-Matrix Membranes 789 Chunqing Liu, Santi Kulprathipanja, Alexis M. W. Hillock, Shabbir Husain, and William J. Koros 30.1 Introduction 789 30.2 Recent Progress in Mixed-Matrix Membranes 794 30.3 Summary and Future Opportunities 809 31. Fabrication of Hollow-Fiber Membranes by Phase Inversion 821 Tai-Shung Neal Chung 31.1 Introduction 821 31.2 Basic Understanding 822 31.3 Recent Progresses on Single-Layer Asymmetric Hollow-Fiber Membranes 825 31.4 Dual-Layer Hollow Fibers 831 31.5 Concluding Remarks 835 32. Membrane Surface Characterization 841 M. Kallioinen and M. Nystrom 32.1 Introduction 841 32.2 Characterization of the Chemical Structure of a Membrane 842 32.3 Characterization of Membrane Hydrophilicity 852 32.4 Characterization of Membrane Charge 855 32.5 Characterization of Membrane Morphology 859 32.6 Conclusions 867 33. Membrane Characterization by Ultrasonic Time-Domain Reflectometry 879 William B. Krantz and Alan R. Greenberg 33.1 Introduction 879 33.2 Principle of UTDR Measurement 880 33.3 Characterization of Inorganic Membrane Fouling 882 33.4 Characterization of Membrane Biofouling 885 33.5 Characterization of Membrane Compaction 886 33.6 Characterization of Membrane Formation 889 33.7 Characterization of Membrane Morphology 891 33.8 Summary and Recommendations 894 34. Microstructural Optimization of Thin Supported Inorganic Membranes for Gas and Water Purification 899 M. L. Mottern, J. Y. Shi, K. Shqau, D. Yu, and Henk Verweij 34.1 Introduction 899 34.2 Morphology, Porosity, and Defects 902 34.3 Optimization of Supported Membrane Structures 908 34.4 Synthesis and Manufacturing 917 34.5 Characterization 918 34.6 Conclusions 923 35. Structure/Property Characteristics of Polar Rubbery Membranes for Carbon Dioxide Removal 929 Victor A. Kusuma, Benny D. Freeman, Miguel Jose-Yacaman, Haiqing Lin, Sumod Kalakkunnath, and Douglass S. Kalika 35.1 Introduction and Background 929 35.2 Theory and Experiment 931 35.3 Results and Discussion 937 35.4 Conclusions 950 Index 955

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Book SynopsisThis one-of-a-kind book introduces the fundamentals of ESR to polymer scientists while focusing on the significance of recent advanced ESR methods for polymeric systems. The "Fundamentals" section provides information on ESR spectra, experimental techniques, and data analysis.Table of ContentsPREFACE ix ABOUT THE EDITOR xi CONTRIBUTORS xiii PART I ESR FUNDAMENTALS 1 1 Continuous-Wave and Pulsed ESR Methods 3Gunnar Jeschke and Shulamith Schlick 2 Double Resonance ESR Methods 25Gunnar Jeschke 3 Calculating Slow-Motion ESR Spectra of Spin-Labeled Polymers 53Keith A. Earle and David E. Budil 4 ESR Imaging 85Shulamith Schlick PART II ESR APPLICATIONS 99 5 ESR Study of Radicals in Conventional Radical Polymerization Using Radical Precursors Prepared by Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization 101Atsushi Kajiwara and Krzysztof Matyjaszewski 6 Local Dynamics of Polymers in Solution by Spin-Label ESR 133Jan PilarB 7 Site-Specific Information on Macromolecular Materials by Combining CW and Pulsed ESR on Spin Probes 165Gunnar Jeschke 8 ESR Methods for Assessing the Stability of Polymer Membranes Used in Fuel Cells 197Emil Roduner and Shulamith Schlick 9 Spatially Resolved Degradation in Heterophasic Polymers From 1D and 2D Spectral–Spatial ESR Imaging Experiments 229Shulamith Schlick and Krzysztof Kruczala 10 ESR Studies of Photooxidation and Stabilization of Polymer Coatings 255David R. Bauer and John L. Gerlock 11 Characterization of Dendrimer Structures by ESR Techniques 279M. Francesca Ottaviani and Nicholas J. Turro 12 High-Field ESR Spectroscopy of Conductive Polymers 307Victor I. Krinichnyi INDEX 339

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Book SynopsisDrug Metabolism in Drug Design and Development provides a practical description of what happens during the drug design and development process and focuses on issues such as: what data are needed; what experiments and analytical methods are typically employed; and how to interpret and apply data.Trade Review"I highly recommend this book to anyone interested in drug metabolism." (Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 2008)Table of ContentsPreface. Contributors. Part I: Basic Concepts of Drug Metabolism. 1. Overview: Drug Metabolism in the Modern Pharmaceutical Industry (Scott J. Grossman) 2. Oxidative, Reductive, and Hydrolytic Metabolism of Drugs (F. Peter Guengerich) 3. Conjugative Metabolism of Drugs (Rory Remmel, Swati Nagar and Upendra Argikar) 4. Enzyme Kinetics (Timothy S. Tracy) 5. Metabolism-Mediated Drug-Drug Interactions (Hongjian Zhang, Michael W. Sinz, and A. David Rodrigues) 6. Drug Transporters in Drug Disposition, Drug Interactions, and Drug Resistance (Cindy Q. Xia, Johnny J. Yang, and Suresh K. balani) 7. Regulatory Considerations of Drug Metabolism and Drug Interaction Studies (Xiaoxiong Wei and Mingshe Zhu) Part II: Role of Drug Metabolism in the Pharmaceutical Industry. 8. Drug Metabolism Research as an Integral Part of the Drug Discovery Process (W. Griffith Humphreys) 9. Role of Drug Metabosim in Drug Development (Ramaswamy Iyer and Donglu Zhang) Part III: Analytical techniques in Drug Metabolism. 10. Applications of Liquid Radiochromatography Techniques in Drug Metabolism Studies (Mingshe Zhu, Weiping Zhao, and W. Griffith Humphreys) 11. Application of Liquid Chromatogrpahy/Mass Spectrometry for Metabolite Identification (Shuguang Ma and Swapan K. Chowdhury) 12. Introductin to NMR and Its Application in Metabolite Structure Determination (Xiaohua Huang, Robert Powers, Adrienne Tymiak, Robert Espina, and Vikram Roongta) Part IV: Common Experimental Approaches and Protocols. 13. Determination of Metabolic Rats and Enzyme Kinetics (Zhi-Yi Zhang and Laurence S. Kaminsky) 14. Protocols for Assessment of In vitro and In vivo Bioactivation Potential of Drug Candidates (Zhoupeng Zhang and Jinping Gan) 15. Reaction Phenotyping (Susan Hurst, J. Andrew Williams, and Steven Hansel) 16. Analysis of In vitro Cytochrome P450 Inhibition in Drug Discovery and Development (Magang Shou and Renke Dai) 17. Testing Drug Candidates for CYP3A4 Induction (Gang Luo, Liang-Shang Gan, and Thomas M. Guenthner) 18. ADME Studies in Animals and Humans: Experimental Design, Metabolite Profoling and Identification, and Data Presentation (Donglu Zhang and S. Nilgun Comezoglu) Index.

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Book SynopsisThe single greatest reservoir of usable water for man lies underground. Its location, management, protection and remediation have been a central focus of hydrology for much of the past century. Experts throughout the world have covered this subject, in unimagined detail.Trade Review"Inclusion of this set in reference library collections is...mandatory." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, January 2006)Table of ContentsPreface ix Contributors xi Ground Water Acid Mine Drainage: Sources and Treatment in the United States 1 Aquifers 9 Artificial Recharge of Unconfined Aquifer 11 Groundwater and Arsenic: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 17 Treatment of Arsenic, Chromium, and Biofouling in Water Supply Wells 22 Artesian Water 29 Modeling Contaminant Transport and Biodegradation in Groundwater 30 Biofouling in Water Wells 35 In Situ Bioremediation of Contaminated Groundwater 38 Process Limitations of In Situ Bioremediation of Groundwater 42 Black Mesa Monitoring Program 48 Brine Deposits 51 Connate Water 54 Consolidated Water Bearing Rocks 55 Sensitivity of Groundwater to Contamination 56 Water Contamination by Low Level Organic Waste Compounds in the Hydrologic System 60 Darcy’s Law 63 Groundwater Dating with Radiocarbon 64 Groundwater Dating with H–He 65 Dating Groundwaters with Tritium 69 Recharge in Desert Regions Around The World 72 Hydrologic Feasibility Assessment and Design in Phytoremediation 76 Well Design and Construction 87 Physical Properties of DNAPLs and Groundwater Contamination 91 Water Dowsing (Witching) 92 Subsurface Drainage 94 Drawdown 101 Water Level Drawdown 102 Water Well Drilling Techniques 105 Groundwater Dye Tracing in Karst 107 Earthquakes—Rattling the Earth’s Plumbing System 111 In Situ Electrokinetic Treatment of MtBE, Benzene, and Chlorinated Solvents 116 Field Capacity 124 Groundwater Flow Properties 128 Fluoride Contamination in Ground Water 130 Rock Fracture 136 Geochemical Models 138 Geochemical Modeling-Computer Codes 140 Geochemical Modeling—Computer Code Concepts 142 Geological Occurrence of Groundwater 145 Geophysics and Remote Sensing 145 Geothermal Water 156 Ghijben–Herzberg Equilibrium 158 Groundwater Balance 162 Hydraulic Head 169 The Role of Heat in Groundwater Systems 172 Groundwater Flow in Heterogenetic Sediments and Fractured Rock Systems 175 Horizontal Wells 177 Horizontal Wells in Groundwater Remediation 178 Head 180 Well Hydraulics and Aquifer Tests 182 Hydraulic Properties Characterization 184 Mobility of Humic Substances in Groundwater 188 Assessment of Groundwater Quality in District Hardwar, Uttaranchal, India 192 Irrigation Water Quality in District Hardwar, Uttaranchal, India 204 Infiltration and Soil Water Processes 210 Infiltration/Capacity/Rates 212 Infiltrometers 214 Summary of Isotopes in Contaminant Hydrogeology 216 Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology 227 Water-Jetting Drilling Technologies for Well Installation And In Situ Remediation of Hydrocarbons, Solvents, and Metals 234 Karst Hydrology 235 Karst Topography 243 Detecting Modern Groundwaters with 85Kr 248 Land Use Impacts on Groundwater Quality 250 Groundwater Contamination From Municipal Landfills in the USA 253 Metal Organic Interactions in Subtitle D Landfill Leachates and Associated Ground Waters 258 Leaching 260 Well Maintenance 263 Megawatersheds 266 Mass Transport in Saturated Media 273 Soil and Water Contamination by Heavy Metals 275 Source, Mobility, and Remediation of Metals 280 Genetics of Metal Tolerance and Accumulation in Higher Plants 284 In Situ Groundwater Remediation for Heavy Metal Contamination 290 Methane in Groundwater 293 Fossil Aquifers 294 What is a Hydrochemical Model? 295 Modeling Non-Point Source Pollutants in the Vadose Zone Using GIS 299 Modeling Techniques for Solute Transport in Groundwater 305 Ambient Groundwater Monitoring Network Strategies and Design 313 Limiting Geochemical Factors in Remediation Using Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced Bioremediation 319 Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater 322 Treatment for Nitrates in Groundwater 323 Nonpoint Sources 331 Organic Compounds in Ground Water 337 Overdraft 340 Chemical Oxidation Technologies for Groundwater Remediation 344 Particulate Transport in Groundwater—Bacteria and Colloids 349 Perched Groundwater 352 Permeability 355 Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: An Overview of Approaches and Methods of Evaluation 357 High pH Groundwater—The Effect of The Dissolution of Hardened Cement Pastes 362 Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization: Technical, Economic and Regulatory Considerations of the Soil-Lead Issue 365 Phytoextraction of Zinc and Cadmium from Soils Using Hyperaccumulator Plants 369 Phytoremediation Enhancement of Natural Attenuation Processes 374 Bacteria Role in the Phytoremediation of Heavy Metals 376 Phytoremediation of Lead-Contaminated Soils 381 Phytoremediation of Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether 385 Phytoremediation of Selenium-Laden Soils 397 Soil Pipes and Pipe Flow 401 Low Flow Groundwater Purging and Surging 404 Groundwater Quality 406 Radial Wells 407 Recharge in Arid Regions 408 Sub-Surface Redox Chemistry: A Comparison of Equilibrium and Reaction-Based Approaches 413 Regional Flow Systems 417 Groundwater Remediation by Injection and Problem Prevention 421 Groundwater Remediation: In Situ Passive Methods 423 Groundwater Remediation by In Situ Aeration and Volatilization 426 Remediation of Contaminated Soils 432 Groundwater Remediation Project Life Cycle 436 Innovative Contaminated Groundwater Remediation Technologies 438 Resistivity Methods 443 Risk Analysis of Buried Wastes From Electricity Generation 448 Groundwater Contamination from Runoff 451 Saline Seep 453 Groundwater Sampling Techniques for Environmental Projects 454 Groundwater Sampling with Passive Diffusion Samplers 456 Specific Capacity 460 Soil Water 461 Soil and Groundwater Geochemistry and Microbiology 463 Characterizing Soil Spatial Variability 465 Deep Soil-Water Movement 471 Specific Gravity 473 Hot Springs 475 Squeezing Water from Rock 477 Storage Coefficient 480 Qanats: An Ingenious Sustainable Groundwater Resource System 483 Lysimeters 487 Steady-State Flow Aquifer Tests 491 Tidal Efficiency 497 Combined Free and Porous Flow in the Subsurface 498 Groundwater Tracing 501 Hydraulic Conductivity/Transmissibility 507 Groundwater Flow and Transport Process 514 Reactive Transport in The Saturated Zone: Case Histories for Permeable Reactive Barriers 518 Transport of Reactive Solute in Soil and Groundwater 524 Water in The Unsaturated Zone 531 Groundwater and Vadose Zone Hydrology 533 Vadose Zone Monitoring Techniques 538 Vapor Transport in the Unsaturated Zone 543 Applications of Soil Vapor Data to Groundwater Investigations 548 Groundwater Velocities 554 Viscous Flow 555 Vulnerability Mapping of Groundwater Resources 561 Water/Rocks Interaction 566 Ground Water: Wells 571 Well Screens 572 Well TEST 574 Safe Yield of an Aquifer 575 Specific Yield Storage Equation 576 Microbial Processes Affecting Monitored Natural Attenuation of Contaminants in the Subsurface 578 Groundwater Vulnerability to Pesticides: Statistical Approaches 594 Groundwater—Nature’s Hidden Treasure 599 Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Other Organic Wastewater Contaminants in U.S. Streams 605 The Environmental Impact of Iron in Groundwater 608 Groundwater and Cobalt: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 610 Groundwater and Cadmium: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 613 Groundwater Modeling 619 Groundwater and Benzene: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 626 Groundwater and Nitrate: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 628 Groundwater and Perchlorate: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 631 Groundwater and Vinyl Chloride: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 634 Groundwater and Uranium: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 640 Groundwater and Mercury: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 642 Groundwater and Lead: Chemical Behavior and Treatment 645 Laminar Flow 649 Finite Element Modeling of Coupled Free and Porous Flow 655 Unconfined Groundwater 662 Modeling of DNAPL Migration in Saturated Porous Media 668 The Use of Semipermeable Membrane Devices (SPMDs) for Monitoring, Exposure, and Toxicity Assessment 672 River-Connected Aquifers: Geophysics, Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology, and Geochemistry 677 Index 689 Cumulative Index 711

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Book SynopsisMaximizing the use of our visible surface supplies in light of their greatest need in agriculture presents an enormous challenge throughout the world. New techniques in agricultural applications to preserve resources and increase yields are featured.Table of ContentsPreface ix Contributors xi Surface Water Hydrology Acidification—Chronic 1 Episodic Acidification 5 Acidification of Freshwater Resources 7 Geochemistry of Acid Mine Drainage 13 The Aral Sea Disaster: Environment Issues and Nationalist Tensions 15 Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies 20 Base Flow 22 River Basins 28 River Basin Planning and Coordination 33 Bioaccumulation 34 Biotic Integrity Index to Evaluate Water Resource Integrity in Freshwater Systems 36 Reversal of the Chicago River 41 Flood Control in the Yellow River Basin in China 45 Chironomids in Sediment Toxicity Testing 50 Cienega 57 Time-Area and The Clark Rainfall-Runoff Transformation 60 Stream Classification 65 Coastal Wetlands 71 Freshwater Colloids 74 Culvert Design 75 Dilution-Mixing Zones and Design Flows 78 Drainage Ditches 87 Drainage Networks 93 Dyes As Hydrological Tracers 95 Flow-duration Curves 102 Environmental Flows 106 Eutrophication (Excessive Fertilization) 107 Cultural Eutrophication 114 Fish Cells in the Toxicological Evaluation of Environmental Contaminants 115 Fish Consumption Advisories 118 Fisheries: History, Science, and Management 121 Factors Affecting Fish Growth and Production 129 Water Needs for Freshwater Fisheries Management 133 An Outline of the History of Fishpond Culture in Silesia, the Western Part of Poland 135 Floods 142 Flood Control Structures 150 Floods as a Natural Hazard 153 Flood Source Mapping in Watersheds 155 Urban Flooding 159 Floodwater Spreading 163 Minimum Environmental Flow Regimes 166 Forensic Hydrogeology 168 Forests and Wetlands 170 Rock Glacier 174 Great Lakes 175 Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Hydroelectric Reservoirs 180 Gully Erosion 183 Potential Health Issues Associated With Blue-Green Algae Blooms in Impoundments, Ponds and Lakes 188 Heat Balance of Open Waterbodies 190 Hydraulics 194 Hydraulics of Pressurized Flow 196 Hydroelectric Power 199 Hydroelectric Reservoirs as Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases 203 Hydrologic Persistence and The Hurst Phenomenon 210 Unit Hydrograph 221 Hydrological Processes and Measured Pollutant Loads 222 Hydrologic Thresholds 229 Ganga River, India 232 Interception 235 Kinematic Shock 239 Kinematic Wave Method For Storm Drainage Design 242 Kinematic Wave and Diffusion Wave Theories 246 Kinematic Wave Flow Routing 253 Reliability Concepts in Reservoir Design 259 Lakes 265 The Theory of Alternative Stable States in Shallow Lake Ecosystems 272 NOAA Lake Level Forecast for Lake Michigan Right on Target 274 Submerged Aquatic Plants Affect Water Quality in Lakes 275 Lakes—Discharges To 281 Lasers Scan Levees from the Air 284 Levees for Flood Protection 286 Limnology 291 Adsorption of Metal Ions On Bed Sediments 295 Microbiology of Lotic Aggregates and Biofilms 305 Microorganisms in Their Natural Environment 309 Calibration of Hydraulic Network Models 313 Numerical Modeling of Currents 320 Uncertainty Analysis in Watershed Modeling 325 Watershed Modeling 327 Modeling of Water Quality in Sewers 331 Modeling of Urban Drainage and Stormwater 337 Modeling Ungauged Watersheds 342 Corps Turned Niagara Falls Off, On Again 345 Open Channel Design 346 Organic Compounds and Trace Elements in Freshwater Streambed Sediment and Fish from the Puget Sound Basin 349 Impervious Cover—Paving Paradise 363 Phytoremediation By Constructed Wetlands 364 Unrecognized Pollutants 371 Pollution of Surface Waters 373 Pond Aquaculture—Modeling and Decision Support Systems 375 Pumping Stations 379 Regulated Rivers 381 Reservoirs-Multipurpose 382 Dam Removal as River Restoration 387 Riparian Systems 390 Rivers 392 River and Water Facts 394 Sediment Load Measurements 397 Sedimentation 401 Sedimentation and Flotation 404 Reservoir Sedimentation 408 Water from Saturated River Sediment—Sand Abstraction 412 Sediment Transport 417 Stochastic Simulation of Hydrosystems 421 Storage and Detention Facilities 430 Urban Stormwater Runoff Water Quality Issues 432 Rivers and Streams: One-Way Flow System 437 Streamflow 439 Water Quality in Suburban Watersheds 441 Surface Water Pollution 444 Surface Runoff and Subsurface Drainage 451 Trace Elements in Water, Sediment, and Aquatic Biota—Effects of Biology and Human Activity 454 Innovative Pens Hatch Thousands of Trout 458 Watershed 460 Combustible Watersheds 461 Time of Concentration and Travel Time in Watersheds 469 Watershed Hydrology 472 Watershed Management for Environmental Quality and Food Security 479 Water Hyacinth—The World’s Most Problematic Weed 479 Water Quality in Ponds 484 Water Turbine 487 Wetlands: Uses, Functions, and Values 489 Wetlands Overview 493 Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States 496 Urban Runoff 498 Urban Water Studies 501 Subglacial Lake Vostok 503 Water—The Canadian Transporter 507 Flood Prevention 510 Effects of DDT in Surface Water on Bird Abundance and Reproduction—A History 513 Instream Flow Methods 526 Floodplain 527 Fish Passage Facilities 529 Fishing Waters 532 Land Surface Modeling 533 Agricultural Water Animal Farming Operations: Groundwater Quality Issues 538 Aquaculture Technology for Producers 540 Biofuel Alternatives to Fossil Fuels 545 Soil Conservation 549 Landscape Water-Conservation Techniques 553 Crop Water Requirements 557 Agricultural Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and Productivity (WP) 558 Large Area Surface Energy Balance Estimation Using Satellite Imagery 560 Soil Erosion and Control Practices 565 Water Table Contribution to Crop Evapotranspiration 570 Crop Evapotranspiration 571 Water Pollution From Fish Farms 579 World’s Major Irrigation Areas 581 Irrigation in The United States 586 Irrigation Wells 594 Agriculture and Land Use Planning 595 Waterlogging 599 Water Quality Management in an Agricultural Landscape 604 Classification and Mapping of Agricultural Land for National Water-Quality Assessment 608 Metal Tolerance in Plants: The Roles of Thiol-Containing Peptides 609 Microirrigation 615 Microirrigation: An Approach to Efficient Irrigation 620 Plant and Microorganism Selection for Phytoremediation of Hydrocarbons and Metals 628 Nitrate Pollution Prevention 637 Nitrification 640 Occurrence of Organochlorine Pesticides in Vegetables Grown on Untreated Soils from an Agricultural Watershed 643 Pesticide Chemistry in the Environment 647 Remediation of Pesticide-Contaminated Soil at Agrichemical Facilities 651 Pesticide Occurrence and Distribution in Relation to Use 655 Assessment of Pollution Outflow From Large Agricultural Areas 657 Deep-Well Turbine Pumps 664 Microbial Quality of Reclaimed Irrigation: International Perspective 667 Soil Salinity 673 Maintaining Salt Balance on Irrigated Land 677 Salt Tolerance 681 Groundwater Assessment Using Soil Sampling Techniques 688 Skimmed Groundwater 691 Soil Moisture Measurement—Neutron 692 Soil N Management Impact on The Quality of Surface and Subsurface Water 694 Soil Phosphorus Availability and Its Impact on Surface Water Quality 701 Soil Water Issues 706 Water Spreading 708 Sprinkler Irrigation 712 Stomates 714 Crop Water Stress Detection Using Remote Sensing 719 Vacuum Gauge Tensiometer 724 Tile Drainage 729 Tile Drainage: Impacts, Plant Growth, and Water Table Levels 731 Measuring and Modeling Tree and Stand Level Transpiration 732 Water Logging: Topographic and Agricultural Impacts 741 Weed Control Strategies 742 Screen Filters for Microirrigation 748 Xeriscape 750 Media Filters for Microirrigation 752 Index 755

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Book SynopsisThis volume deals with the big picture of regional water supplies, how they become contaminated, how they can be protected and how they can best serve the surrounding populations and industries. Significant focus is placed upon the natural chemistry of available water supplies and its biological impacts.Table of ContentsPreface ix Contributors xi Water Quality Control Acid Mine Drainage—Extent and Character 1 The Control of Algal Populations in Eutrophic Water Bodies 2 Arsenic Compounds in Water 7 Arsenic Health Effects 15 Background Concentration of Pollutants 18 Waterborne Bacteria 20 Water Assessment and Criteria 24 Physiological Biomarkers and the Trondheim Biomonitoring System 28 Biomarkers, Bioindicators, and the Trondheim Biomonitoring System 29 Active Biomonitoring (ABM) by Translocation of Bivalve Molluscs 33 Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Other Organic Pollution Measures 37 Biodegradation 41 Bioluminescent Biosensors for Toxicity Testing 45 Biomanipulation 50 Genomic Technologies in Biomonitoring 58 Macrophytes as Biomonitors of Trace Metals 64 Biosorption of Toxic Metals 68 Bromide Influence on Trihalomethane and Haloacetic Acid Formation 74 Activated Carbon: Ion Exchange and Adsorption Properties 79 Activated Carbon—Powdered 86 Chlorination 88 Chlorination By-Products 91 Classification and Environmental Quality Assessment in Aquatic Environments 94 Coagulation and Flocculation in Practice 98 Colloids and Dissolved Organics: Role in Membrane and Depth Filtration 99 Column Experiments in Saturated Porous Media Studying Contaminant Transport 103 Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenase as an Indicator of PCB/Dioxin-Like Compounds in Fish 106 Water Related Diseases 111 Dishwashing Water Quality Properties 112 Disinfection By-Product Precursor Removal from Natural Waters 115 Alternative Disinfection Practices and Future Directions for Disinfection By-Product Minimization 118 Water Quality Aspects of Dredged Sediment Management 122 The Economics of Water Quality 127 Understanding Escherichia Coli O157:H7 and the Need for Rapid Detection in Water 136 Eutrophication and Organic Loading 142 Trace Element Contamination in Groundwater of District Hardwar, Uttaranchal, India 143 Iron Bacteria 149 Cartridge Filters for Iron Removal 152 Irrigation Water Quality in Areas Adjoining River Yamuna At Delhi, India 155 Water Sampling and Laboratory Safety 161 Municipal Solid Waste Landfills—Water Quality Issues 163 Land Use Effects on Water Quality 169 Monitoring Lipophilic Contaminants in the Aquatic Environment using the SPMD-TOX Paradigm 170 Use of Luminescent Bacteria and the Lux Genes For Determination of Water Quality 172 Water Quality Management 176 Water Quality Management and Nonpoint Source Control 184 Water Quality Management in an Urban Landscape 189 Water Quality Management in the U.S.: History of Water Regulation 193 Water Quality Management in a Forested Landscape 199 Trace Metal Speciation 202 Metal Ion Humic Colloid Interaction 205 Heavy Metal Uptake Rates Among Sediment Dwelling Organisms 211 Methemoglobinemia 219 Microbial Activities Management 223 Microbial Dynamics of Biofilms 228 Microbial Enzyme Assays for Detecting Heavy Metal Toxicity 233 Microbial Forms in Biofouling Events 239 Microbiological Quality Control in Distribution Systems 243 Water Quality Models for Developing Soil Management Practices 248 Water Quality Modeling—Case Studies 255 Field Sampling and Monitoring of Contaminants 263 Water Quality Models: Chemical Principles 269 Water Quality Models: Mathematical Framework 273 Environmental Applications with Submitochondrial Particles 278 Interest in the Use of an Electronic Nose for Field Monitoring of Odors in the Environment 281 Oil-Field Brine 284 Oil Pollution 290 Indicator Organisms 292 pH 294 Perchloroethylene (PCE) Removal 299 A Primer on Water Quality 301 Overview of Analytical Methods of Water Analyses With Specific Reference to EPA Methods for Priority Pollutant Analysis 304 Source-Water Protection 311 Protozoa in Water 313 Water Quality 314 Water Quality 316 Emerging and Recalcitrant Compounds in Groundwater 316 Road Salt 319 Review of River Water Quality Modeling Software Tools 325 River Water Quality Calibration 331 Salmonella: Monitoring and Detection in Drinking Water 337 Lysimeter Soil Water Sampling 340 Regulatory and Security Requirements for Potable Water 343 A Weight of Evidence Approach to Characterize Sediment Quality Using Laboratory and Field Assays: An Example For Spanish Coasts 350 Remediation and Bioremediation of Selenium-Contaminated Waters 355 Shellfish Growing Water Classification 360 Sorptive Filtration 362 Quality of Water in Storage 367 Quality of Water Supplies 370 The Submitochondrial Particle Assay as a Biological Monitoring Tool 376 Microscale Test Relationships to Responses to Toxicants in Natural Systems 379 Toxicity Identification Evaluation 380 Whole Effluent Toxicity Controls 382 Development and Application of Sediment Toxicity Tests for Regulatory Purposes 383 Algal Toxins in Water 387 Ground Water Quality in Areas Adjoining River Yamuna at Delhi, India 392 Chlorine Residual 398 Source Water Quality Management 399 Dose-Response of Mussels to Chlorine 401 Metallothioneins as Indicators of Trace Metal Pollution 406 Amphipod Sediment Toxicity Tests 408 Ciliated Protists as Test Organisms in Toxicity Assessment 413 SOFIE: An Optimized Approach for Exposure Tests and Sediment Assays 418 Passive Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage (Wetlands) 423 Biomarkers and Bioaccumulation: Two Lines of Evidence to Assess Sediment Quality 426 Lead and its Health Effects 432 Microbial Detection of Various Pollutants as an Early Warning System for Monitoring of Water Quality and Ecological Integrity of Natural Resources, in Russia 440 Luminescent Bacterial Biosensors for the Rapid Detection of Toxicants 453 Development and Application of Sediment Toxicity Test for Regulatory Purposes 458 Eh 464 Water Resource Development and Management Water Resources Challenges in the Arab World 470 Effluent Water Regulations in Arid Lands 475 California—Continually the Nation’s Leader in Water Use 478 Lessons from the Rising Caspian 480 Institutional Aspects of Water Management in China 484 Will Water Scarcity Limit China’s Agricultural Potential? 488 Water and Coastal Resources 489 Water Use Conservation and Efficiency 489 Conservation of Water 495 The Development of American Water Resources: Planners, Politicians, and Constitutional Interpretation 498 Water Markets: Transaction Costs and Institutional Options 499 Averting Water Disputes 501 Water Supply and Water Resources: Distribution System Research 509 Drought in the Dust Bowl Years 511 Drought Management Planning 514 Drought and Water Supply Management 515 Assessment of Ecological Effects in Water-Limited Environments 516 Reaching Out: Public Education and Community Involvement in Groundwater Protection 518 Integration of Environmental Impacts into Water Resources Planning 520 The Expansion of Federal Water Projects 522 Flood Control History in the Netherlands 524 Food and Water in an Emergency 526 Water Demand Forecasting 529 Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Water Resources 531 Globalization of Water 536 Water Science Glossary of Terms 541 Harvesting Rainwater 548 Urban Water Resource and Management in Asia: Ho Chi Minh City 552 Hydropower—Energy from Moving Water 554 Water Markets in India: Economic and Institutional Aspects 555 Water Resources of India 559 Water Infrastructure and Systems 567 Overview and Trends in the International Water Market 568 Best Management Practices for Water Resources 570 Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) 574 Management of Water Resources for Drought Conditions 576 Water Resources Management 586 NASA Helping to Understand Water Flow in the West 587 Transboundary Water Conflicts in the Nile Basin 590 Planning and Managing Water Infrastructure 594 Application of the Precautionary Principle to Water Science 595 Water Pricing 603 Spot Prices, Option Prices, and Water Markets 606 Water Managed in the Public Trust 608 Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits 610 State and Regional Water Supply 613 River Basin Decisions Support Systems 619 Water Resource Sustainability: Concepts and Practices 624 The Provision of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries 630 Sustainable Management of Natural Resources 633 Sustainable Water Management On Mediterranean Islands: Research and Education 638 Meeting Water Needs in Developing Countries with Tradable Rights 643 Water Use in the United States 645 How We Use Water in These United States 650 Valuing Water Resources 653 Water—Here, There, and Everywhere in Canada 656 Water Conservation—Every Drop Counts in Canada 660 Ecoregions: A Spatial Framework for Environmental Management 667 Flood of Portals on Water 668 Fuzzy Criteria for Water Resources Systems Performance Evaluation 674 Participatory Multicriteria Flood Management 678 Water Resources Systems Analysis 683 Index 689

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Book SynopsisLeading experts in water-related fields have come together to make Water Encyclopedia a one-stop, comprehensive reference about the world s most important natural resource. It covers designated topics in a clear concise and authoritative manner. The treatment is practical in orientation, keeping in mind the needs of the users. Theory is included only where required for an understanding of the topic.Trade Review"...comprehensive coverage of the topic. I strongly urge that it be purchased for all reference libraries." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, January 2006)Table of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgments xi Contributors xiii Domestic Water Supply The Arsenic Drinking Water Crisis in Bangladesh 1 Bottled Water 3 Corrosion Control in Drinking Water Systems 5 Economics of Residential Water Demands 12 Gray Water Reuse in Households 16 Water and Human Health 19 Nitrate Health Effects 30 Domestic Water Supply—Public–Private Partnership 42 Methods of Reducing Radon in Drinking Water 51 Water Reuse 53 Roof Drainage Hydraulics 54 Septic Tank Systems 61 Domestic Solar Water Heaters 63 Household Drinking Water Treatment and Safe Storage 67 Virus Transport in the Subsurface 70 Windmills 73 Municipal Water Supply Mixing and Agitation in Water Treatment Systems 76 Arsenic in Natural Waters 81 Evaluation of Microbial Components of Biofouling 83 Threat Agents and Water Biosecurity 87 Granular Activated Carbon 92 Competitive Adsorption of Several Organics and Heavy Metals on Activated Carbon in Water 107 A Real-Time Hydrological Information System for Cities 121 Chlorine and Chlorine Residuals 127 Modeling Chlorine Residuals in Urban Water Distribution Systems 131 Particulate Matter Removal by Coagulation 137 Selective Coagulant Recovery from Water Treatment Plant Residuals Using the Domain Membrane Process 139 Physical Water Conditioning 141 Consumer Confidence Reports 145 Water Conservation Measures 146 Preventing Well Contamination 149 Corrosion Control 152 Cross Connection and Backflow Prevention 155 Molecular-Based Detection of Cryptosporidium Parvum in Water 158 Cryptosporidium 162 Measuring Cryptosporidium Parvum Oocyst Inactivation Following Disinfection With Ultraviolet Light 165 Dechlorination 169 Desalination 170 Diatomaceous Earth Filtration for Drinking Water 174 Emerging Waterborne Infectious Diseases 177 Improving Waterborne Disease Surveillance 183 Disinfectants 192 Disinfection 196 Water Distribution System Operation 200 Water Quality in Distribution Systems 204 Design of Water Distribution Systems 207 What is in Our Drinking Water? 213 The Economics of Water Resources Allocation 215 Answering the Challenge 218 Key Causes of Drinking Water Quality Failure in a Rural Small Water Supply of South Africa 221 Filtration 227 Water Filtration 230 Filtration With Granular Media 233 Slow Sand Filtration and the Impact of Schmutzdecke 235 Multistage Drinking Water Filtration 237 Multistage Filtration: An Innovative Water Treatment Technology 238 Particulate Matter Removal by Filtration and Sedimentation 243 Filtration Water Treatment 245 Synthetic and Natural Organic Removal by Biological Filtration 248 Granular Bed and Precoat Filtration 249 Flocculation 252 Fluoridation 254 Giardiasis 257 Gravity Separation/Sedimentation 259 Water Hammer 261 Health Effects of Commonly Occurring Disinfection Byproducts in Municipal Water Supplies 264 Health Effects of Microbial Contaminants and Biotoxins in Drinking Water 277 Drinking Water and Public Health Protection 281 1962 U.S. Public Health Service Standards 292 Ion Exchange and Demineralization 297 The State of the Water Industry—2004 301 Iron and Manganese Removal 312 Extraterritorial Land Use Control to Protect Water Supplies 315 Leak Detection and Water Loss Control 317 Lime–Soda Ash Processes 320 Lime Softening 322 Ion Exchange—Use of Magnetic Ion Exchange Resin For DOC Removal 325 Membrane Filtration 331 Water Meters 337 Microbiological Concerns of Drinking Water Distribution Systems 341 Nitrification of Potable Water Using Trickling Filters 346 Organic Removal 350 Ozone 354 Ozone With Activated Carbon for Drinking Water Treatment 357 Ozone–Bromide Interactions 357 Municipal Water Supply: Ozonation 362 Review of Parasite Fate and Transport in Karstic Aquifers 365 Particulate Removal 370 Pharmaceuticals in Water Systems 372 Point-of-Use/Point-of-Entry Systems (POU/POE) 378 Assessing the Bactericidal Efficiency of Polydex for the Disinfection of Drinking Water in Rural Areas of South Africa 382 Private Sector Participation, Marketing and Corporate Strategies in Municipal Water Supply and Sewerage 387 Pumps 391 Radionuclides 395 Use of Redox Potentials in Wastewater Treatment 399 Repairing Distribution Line Breaks 400 Role of Small Water Reservoirs in Environment 403 Reservoirs, Towers, and Tanks Drinking Water Storage Facilities 408 Water Treatment Plant Residuals Management 411 Reverse Osmosis, Process Chemistry 414 Reverse Osmosis, Membrane Foulants 416 Reverse Osmosis, Membrane Cleaning 419 Application of Risk Assessments in Crafting Drinking Water Regulations 422 Potential Risks of Waterborne Transmission of Escherichia coli O157:H7 429 Slow Sand Filtration 431 Approaches for Securing a Water Distribution System 434 Water Security: An Emerging Issue 437 Guide to Selection of Water Treatment Processes 439 Source Water Assessment 444 Hydraulic Design of Water Distribution Storage Tanks 448 System Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) 449 Settling Tanks 452 Treatment for Technologies for Small Drinking Water Systems 457 Ultraviolet Disinfection 466 Ultraviolet Irradiation 469 Water Disinfection Using UV Radiation—A Sri Lankan Experience 471 Drinking Water Quality Standards (DWQS)-United States 476 Valves 482 Removal of Pathogenic Bacteria, Viruses, and Protozoa 485 Water Meter 489 Municipal Watersheds 495 Public Water Supply World 500 Ten Key Trends That Will Shape the Future of the World Water Industry 508 Zebra Mussel Control Without Chemicals 510 Package Plants 514 Anaerobic Sewage Treatment 517 Persistence of Pathogens in Water 521 Well Head Protection 524 Chemical Drinking Water Standards, Past, Present, and Future 529 Industrial Water Magnetic Water Conditioning 534 Water Impacts from Construction Sites 537 Industrial Cooling Water—Biofouling 538 Industrial Cooling Water—Corrosion 542 Industrial Cooling Water—Scale Formation 545 Economics of Industrial Water Demands 549 Electric Generating Plants—Effects of Contaminants 553 Energy Dissipation 558 Water Use in Energy Production 560 Evaluation of Toxic Properties of Industrial Effluents by on-Line Respirometry 565 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 571 Hydrocarbon Treatment Techniques 575 Use of Anaerobic-Aerobic Treatment Systems for Maize Processing Plants 581 Bonding of Toxic Metal Ions 586 Application of Microfiltration to Industrial Wastewaters 591 Water Treatment in Spent Nuclear Fuel Storage 595 Industrial Mine Use: Mine Waste 609 Sugarcane Industry Wastewaters Treatment 614 Estimated Use of Water in The United States in 1990 Industrial Water Use 620 Waste Water Treatment Aeration 623 Fine Bubble Diffused Air Aeration Systems 626 Air Stripping 631 Land Applications of Wastewater in Arid Lands: Theory and Case Studies 632 Technologies for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Water Sources 636 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 639 Molecular Biology Tools for Monitoring Biodiversity in Wastewater Treatment Plants 642 Biosolids 646 Integrated Capacity Building Needs for Water Supply and Wastewater Sanitation 651 Wastewater Characterization 656 Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment of Wastewater 659 Getting Our Clean Water Act Together 660 Inadequate Treatment of Wastewater: A Source of Coliform Bacteria in Receiving Surface Water Bodies in Developing Countries—Case Study: Eastern Cape Province of South Africa 661 Denitrification in The Activated Sludge Process 667 Detergents 669 Ecological Wastewater Management 675 Waste Treatment in Fish Farms 681 Flotation as A Separation Process 684 Degradation of Chloro-Organics and Hydrocarbons 688 Landfill 695 Landfill Leachates, Part I: Origin and Characterization 699 Landfill Leachates: Part 2: Treatment 702 Macrophytes as Biomonitors of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 714 Wastewater Management for Developing Countries 718 Mercury Removal From Complex Waste Waters 722 Metal Speciation and Mobility as Influenced by Landfill Disposal Practices 723 Microbial Foaming in the Activated Sludge Process 728 Introduction to Wastewater Modeling and Treatment Plant Design 730 Practical Applications of Wastewater Modeling and Treatment Plant Design 738 New York City Harbor Survey 745 Nitrification in the Activated Sludge Process 751 Effluent Limitations and the NPDES Permit 755 Odor Abatement in Wastewater Treatment Plants 760 Aqueous Reactions of Specific Organic Compounds with Ozone 765 The Fate of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in The Wastewater Treatment Process 766 The Role of Organoclay in Water Cleanup 771 Combined Sewer Overflow Treatment 782 Biological Phosphorus Removal in the Activated Sludge Process 788 Photocatalytic Membrane Reactors in Water Purification 791 EPA’s National Pretreatment Program, 1973–2003: Thirty Years of Protecting The Environment 798 Problems Encountered During Pipe Repair and Renewal 801 Radioactive Waste 802 Reclaimed Water 805 Wastewater Treatment and Recycling Technologies 808 Wastewater Treatment Processes and Water Reuse 814 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Research 819 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse 825 Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Treatment Technology 826 Sewage 828 Domestic Sewage 830 Solidification/Stabilization of Hazardous Solid Wastes 835 Wastewater Treatment—Small Scale 840 Microbial Foaming and Bulking in Activated Sludge Plants 844 Aqueous Behavior of Elements in a Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge Disposal Site 848 Sludge Treatment and Disposal 853 Wastewater Sludge 861 Processing of Sludge 864 Municipal Storm Water Management 866 What Wastewater Utilities Can Do Now to Guard Against Terrorist and Security Threats 870 Wastewater Treatment Techniques—Advanced 871 Trenchless Repair and Rehabilitation Techniques 876 Basics of Underground Water and Sewer Pipeline Assessment, Repair, and Rehabilitation 883 Water Hammer: Quantitative Causes and Effects 891 Constructed Wetlands 892 Using Ecosystem Processes in a Constructed Wetland to Treat Mine Wastewater in Ireland 897 Water and Wastewater Properties and Characteristics 900 Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment 904 Sewerage Odors—How to Control 910 Ultrafiltration—Complexation in Wastewater Treatment 916 Index 923

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Book SynopsisAdventures in Chemical Physics continues to report recent advances with significant, up-to-date chapters by internationally recognized researchers from a variety of prestigious academic and professional institutions such as McGill University, the University of Pennsylvania, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Tel Aviv University, and the University of Chicago.Table of ContentsDynamical Models for Two-Dimensional Infrared Spectroscopy of Peptides 1By Robin M. Hochstrasser Energy Transfer and Photosynthetic Light Harvesting 57By Gregory D. Scholes and Graham R. Fleming Second- and First-Order Phase Transitions in Molecular Nanoclusters 131By A. Proykova, I. P. Daykov, and R. Stephen Berry A Calculus for Relating the Dynamics and Structure of Complex Biological Networks 151By R. Edwards and L. Glass Analysis and Control of Ultrafast Dynamics in Clusters: Theory and Experiment 179By Vlasta Bonacic-Koutecky, Roland Mitric, Thorsten M. Bernhardt, Ludger Wöste, and Joshua Jortner Ultracold Large Finite Systems 247By Joshua Jortner and Michael Rosenblit Author Index 345 Subject Index 369

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Book SynopsisMultidimensional Liquid Chromatography (MDLC) is a very powerful separation technique for analyzing exceptionally complex samples in one step. This authoritative reference presents a number of recent contributions that help define the current art and science of MDLC. Topics covered include instrumentation, theory, methods development, and applications of MDLC in the life sciences and in industrial chemistry. With the information to help you perform very difficult separations of complex samples, this reference includes chapters contributed by leading experts or teams of experts.Trade Review"It is a timely publication and present a valuable resource of scientific information on MDLC…It presents systematically gathered scientific information from a plethora of articles scattered over a wide range of sources. This effort should be appreciated by a wide audience of scientists and researchers who deal with complex separation programs in biomedical, environmental, and natural products; industrial polymers; food and other sources." (Journal of the American Chemical Society, November 12, 2008)Table of ContentsForeword xiii Preface xv Contributors xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Previous Literature Which Covers MDLC 4 1.2 How this Book is Organized 5 References 6 Part I Theory 9 2 Elements of the Theory of Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Peak Capacity 13 2.3 Resolution 17 2.4 Orthogonality 19 2.5 Two-Dimensional Theory of Peak Overlap 21 2.6 Dimensionality, Peak Ordering, and Clustering 23 2.7 Theory of Zone Sampling 24 2.8 Dilution and Limit of Detection 26 2.9 Chemometric Analysis 27 2.10 Future Directions 28 References 30 3 Peak Capacity in Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Theory 37 3.3 Procedures 41 3.4 Results and Discussion 42 3.5 Conclusions 49 Appendix 3A Generation of Random Correlated Coordinates 50 Appendix 3B Derivation of Limiting Correlation Coefficient r 54 References 56 4 Decoding Complex 2D Separations 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Fundamentals: The Statistical Description of Complex Multicomponent Separations 62 4.3 Decoding 1D and 2D Multicomponent Separations by Using the SMO Poisson Statistics 68 4.4 Decoding Multicomponent Separations by the Autocovariance Function 74 4.5 Application to 2D Separations 78 4.5.1 Results from SMO Method 81 4.5.2 Results from 2D Autocovariance Function Method 84 4.6 Concluding Remarks 88 Acknowledgments 88 References 88 Part II Columns, Instrumentation and Methods Development 91 5 Instrumentation for Comprehensive Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography 93 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Heart-Cutting Versus Comprehensive Mode 95 5.3 Chromatographic Hardware 97 5.3.1 Valves 97 5.4 CE Interfaces 104 5.4.1 Gated Interface for HPLC–CE 104 5.4.2 Microfluidic Valves for On-Chip Multidimensional Analysis 105 5.5 Columns and Combinations 106 5.5.1 Column Systems, Dilution, and Splitting 108 5.6 Detection 109 5.7 Computer Hardware and Software 109 5.7.1 Software Development 110 5.7.2 Valve Sequencing 111 5.7.3 Data Format and Storage 113 5.8 Zone Visualization 115 5.8.1 Contour Visualization 115 5.8.2 2D Peak Presentation 117 5.8.3 Zone Visualization in Specific Chemical (pI) Regions 117 5.8.4 External Plotting Programs 117 5.8.5 Difference Plots 118 5.8.6 Multi-channel Data 118 5.9 Data Analysis and Signal Processing 119 5.10 Future Prospects 120 References 121 6 Method Development in Comprehensive Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography 127 6.1 Introduction 127 6.2 Previous Work 128 6.3 Column Variables 130 6.4 Method Development 130 6.4.1 The Cardinal Rules of 2DLC Method Development 132 6.5 Planning the Experiment 143 6.6 General Comments on Optimizing the 2DLC Experiment: Speed–Resolution Trade-off 143 Acknowledgment 144 References 144 7 Monolithic Columns and Their 2D-HPLC Applications 147 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 Monolithic Polymer Columns 148 7.2.1 Structural Properties of Polymer Monoliths 148 7.2.2 Chromatographic Properties of Polymer Monolithic Columns 150 7.2.3 Two-Dimensional HPLC Using Polymer Monoliths 152 7.3 Monolithic Silica Columns 153 7.3.1 Preparation 154 7.3.2 Structural Properties of Monolithic Silica Columns 154 7.3.3 Chromatographic Properties of Monolithic Silica Columns 156 7.4 Peak Capacity Increase by Using Monolithic Silica Columns in Gradient Elution 158 7.5 2D HPLC Using Monolithic Silica Columns 159 7.5.1 RP-RP 2D HPLC Using Two Different Columns 161 7.5.2 RP–RP 2D HPLC Using Two Similar Columns 164 7.5.3 Ion Exchange–Reversed-Phase 2D HPLC Using a Monolithic Column for the 2nd-D 166 7.5.4 IEX-RP 2D HPLC Using a Monolithic RP Capillary Column for the 2nd-D 168 7.6 Summary and Future Improvement of 2D HPLC 171 References 171 8 Ultrahigh Pressure Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography 177 8.1 Background: MDLC in the Jorgenson Lab 177 8.1.1 Cation Exchange–Size Exclusion 178 8.1.2 Anion Exchange–Reversed Phase 180 8.1.3 Cation Exchange–Reversed Phase 181 8.1.4 Size Exclusion–Reversed Phase 183 8.2 Online Versus Off-Line MDLC 188 8.3 MDLC Using Ultrahigh Pressure Liquid Chromatography: Benefits and Challenges 189 8.3.1 An Introduction to UHPLC 190 8.3.2 UHPLC for LC LC: High Speed Versus High Peak Capacity 191 8.3.3 LC UHPLC for Separations of Intact Proteins 191 8.4 Experimental Details 193 8.4.1 Instrumentation 193 8.4.2 Data Analysis 194 8.4.3 Chromatographic Conditions 195 8.4.4 Samples 196 8.5 Results and Discussion 196 8.6 Future Directions for UHP-MDLC 202 References 203 Part III Life Science Applications 205 9 Peptidomics 207 9.1 State of the Art—Why Peptidomics? 207 9.2 Strategies and Solutions 208 9.3 Summary and Conclusions 218 References 218 10 A Two-Dimensional Liquid Mass Mapping Technique for Biomarker Discovery 221 10.1 Introduction 221 10.2 Methods for Separating and Identifying Proteins 223 10.2.1 pI-Based Methods of Separation 223 10.2.2 Chromatofocusing-A Column Based pH Separation 225 10.2.3 Nonporous Separation of Proteins 226 10.2.4 Electrospray-Time of Flight-Mass Spectrometry 228 10.2.5 MALDI Peptide Mass Fingerprinting 229 10.2.6 Data Analysis and Recombination 230 10.3 Applications 230 10.3.1 Proteomic Mapping and Clustering of Multiple Samples—Application to Ovarian Cancer Cell Lines 230 10.3.2 2D Liquid Mass Mapping of Tumor Cell Line Secreted Samples, Application to Metastasis-Associated Protein Profiles 233 10.3.3 Identification Annotation and Data Correlation in MCF10 Human Breast Cancer Cell Lines 235 10.4 Summary and Conclusions 237 Acknowledgments 238 References 238 11 Coupled Multidimensional Chromatography and Tandem Mass Spectrometry Systems for Complex Peptide Mixture Analysis 243 11.1 Scx-rp/ms/ms 245 11.2 Scx/rp/ms/ms 248 11.3 MudPIT 251 11.4 Alternative First Dimension Approaches 254 11.5 Conclusion 255 References 255 12 Development of Orthogonal 2DLC Methods for Separation of Peptides 261 12.1 Introduction 261 12.2 Previous Work 263 12.3 Developing Orthogonal 2DLC Methods 264 12.3.1 LC Selectivity for Peptides: Experimental Design 264 12.3.2 Investigation of 2DLC Orthogonality for Separation of Peptides 266 12.3.3 Geometric Approach to Orthogonality in 2DLC 271 12.3.4 Practical 2DLC Considerations in Proteome Research 275 12.3.5 Evaluation of Selected 2DLC MS/MS Systems 276 12.3.6 Peak Capacity in 2DLC-MS/MS 280 12.3.7 Considerations of Concentration Dynamic Range 282 12.4 Conclusions 284 Acknowledgment 284 References 284 13 Multidimensional Separation of Proteins with Online Electrospray Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometric Detection 291 13.1 Introduction 291 13.2 Chromatographic Parameters 293 13.3 Analyte Detection and Subsequent Analysis 293 13.4 Building a Multidimensional Protein Separation 294 13.4.1 Selection of an Ion-Exchange–Reversed-Phase Separation System for Protein-Level Separations 295 13.4.2 Chromatographic Sorbent Considerations 295 13.4.3 Chromatographic Behavior of Proteins 296 13.5 Comprehensive Multidimensional Chromatographic Systems 296 13.6 Coupling 2DLC with Online ESI–MS Detection 299 13.6.1 Interactions between the Two Dimensions of Chromatography (Step Vs. Linear) 304 13.6.2 Recognizing Increased Selectivity in 2DLC Separations 306 13.7 Expanding Multidimensional Separations into a “Middle-Out” Approach to Proteomic Analysis 308 13.8 Future Directions in Protein MDLC 311 13.8.1 Protein Chromatography 312 13.8.2 MS Analysis of Proteins 313 13.8.3 Data Interpretation 314 13.9 Conclusion 314 References 315 14 Analysis of Enantiomeric Compounds Using Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography 319 14.1 Online Achiral-Chiral LC-LC 320 14.2 Applications 323 14.2.1 Analysis of Enantiomers in Plasma and Urine 323 14.3 Amino Acids 328 14.3.1 Physiological Fluids or Tissues 328 14.3.2 In Food, Beverages, and Other Products 333 14.4 Other Applications 334 14.4.1 Analysis of Enantiomers from Plant and Environmental Sources 334 14.5 Miscellaneous Applications 336 14.6 Conclusion 338 References 339 Part IV Multidimensional Separation Using Capillary Electrophoresis 345 15 Two-Dimensional Capillary Electrophoresis for the Comprehensive Analysis of Complex Protein Mixtures 347 15.1 Introduction 347 15.2 Previous Work 348 15.2.1 Miniaturized IEF/SDS-PAGE 348 15.2.2 One-Dimensional Capillary Electrophoresis for Protein Analysis 349 15.3 Two-Dimensional Capillary Separations for Analysis of Peptides and Proteins 352 15.3.1 Capillary Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Capillary Electrophoresis for Analysis of Unlabeled Peptides and Proteins 352 15.3.2 Two-Dimensional Capillary Electrophoresis for Analysis of Proteins 352 15.3.3 High-Speed Two-Dimensional Capillary Electrophoresis 356 15.3.4 The Analysis of a Single Fixed Cell 358 15.4 Conclusions 360 15.5 Abbreviations 360 References 360 16 Two-Dimensional HPLC–CE Methods for Protein/Peptide Separation 365 16.1 Introduction 365 16.2 Off-line Versus Online 366 16.3 HPLC Fractionation 366 16.4 2d Hplc–ce 367 16.5 CE–MS Detection 368 16.6 Applications 370 16.7 Concluding Remarks 380 Acknowledgment 381 References 381 Part V Industrial Applications 385 17 Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography in Industrial Applications 387 17.1 Introduction 387 17.2 Principles of Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography as Applied to Polymer Analysis 390 17.3 Experimental 393 17.4 Analysis of Alkylene Oxide-Based Polymers 395 17.4.1 Amphiphilic Polyalkylene Oxides 395 17.5 Excipients 399 17.6 Polyether Polyols 403 17.7 Analysis of Condensation Polymers 406 17.8 Polyamides 407 17.9 Aromatic Polyesters 414 17.10 Aliphatic Polyesters 417 References 420 18 The Analysis of Surfactants by Multidimensional Liquid Chromatography 425 18.1 Introduction 425 18.2 Analytical Characterization Methods 428 18.2.1 CE and CGE 429 18.2.2 Sec 430 18.2.3 Nplc 431 18.2.4 Rplc 433 18.3 Detection Methods 434 18.4 2dlc 434 18.4.1 RPLC Coupled to SEC 435 18.4.2 NPLC Coupled to RPLC 435 18.5 Conclusions 442 References 443 Index 447

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Book SynopsisNanotechnology: Basic Calculations for Engineers and Scientists addresses the needs of the environmental engineer and scientist in industry. With 200 worked calculation problems and solutions, this book bridges the gap between the developing industry of nanomanufacturing and the existing understanding of environmental issues.Trade Review"…not only be helpful for students of this relatively new science but students of several related sciences…and anyone in the field." (E-STREAMS, June 2007) "...would benefit students and engineers or scientists working with nanomaterials or those needing to brush up on general chemistry or who need a reference book on various chemistry calculations." (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, November/December 2006) "…the author has done an exceedingly good job at providing problems and their solutions." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, September 1, 2006)Table of ContentsPreface xvii Introduction xix PART 1: CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES 1 1 Units, Conversion Constants, and Dimensional Analysis 3 1.1 Background on the Metric System 4 1.2 Describe the SI System of Units 6 1.3 The Conversion Constant gc 9 1.4 Unit Conversion Factors: General Approach 10 1.5 Temperature Conversions 11 1.6 Pressure Calculations 11 1.7 Density and Thermal Conductivity 13 1.8 Viscosity Conversions 14 1.9 Air Quality Standard 14 1.10 Conversion Factors for Particulate Measurements 15 1.11 Significant Figures and Scientific Notation 15 1.12 Uncertainty in Measurement 17 2 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table 19 2.1 Atomic Theory 21 2.2 The Avogadro Number 21 2.3 Mass and Size of Atoms 22 2.4 Atomic Conversions 23 2.5 Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, and Mass Number 24 2.6 Bismuth Application 24 2.7 Elements 24 2.8 Symbols for Elements 27 2.9 Periodic Table Application 28 2.10 Isotopes 29 3 Molecular Rearrangements 31 3.1 License Plate Sets 31 3.2 Chemical Permutations and Combinations 32 3.3 Formula Weight and Molecular Weight 34 3.4 Mole/Molecule Relationship 34 3.5 Pollutant Chemical Formulas 35 3.6 Stoichiometry 36 3.7 Limiting and Excess Reactants 36 3.8 Combustion of Chlorobenzene 37 3.9 Metal Alloy Calculation 39 3.10 Chemical Production 40 4 Concentration Terms 43 4.1 Density, Specific Gravity, and Bulk Density 43 4.2 Classes of Solution 45 4.3 Molality versus Molarity 45 4.4 Molar Relationships 46 4.5 Concentration Conversion 47 4.6 Chlorine Concentration 48 4.7 Trace Concentration 49 4.8 Ash Emission 50 4.9 Dilution Factor 51 4.10 Nano Exhaust to Atmosphere 52 4.11 Flue Gas Analysis 52 4.12 pH 53 5 Particle Size, Surface Area, and Volume 55 5.1 Sphere, Cube, Rectangular Parallelepiped, and Cylinder 56 5.2 Parallelogram, Triangle, and Trapezoid 57 5.3 Polygons 57 5.4 Elipse and Ellipsoid 58 5.5 Cones 58 5.6 Torus 59 5.7 Area to Volume Ratios 59 5.8 Area to Volume Calculation 60 5.9 Increase in Sphere Surface Area 60 5.10 Increase in Cube Surface Area 61 6 Materials Science Principles 63 6.1 Metals, Polymers, and Ceramics 63 6.2 Composites, Semiconductors, and Biomaterials 64 6.3 Crystal Coordination Numbers 64 6.4 Geometry of Metallic Unit Cells 70 6.5 Geometry of Ionic Unit Cells 75 6.6 Packing Factor 78 6.7 Density Calculation 80 6.8 Directions and Planes 83 6.9 Linear Density 88 6.10 Planar Density 90 7 Physical and Chemical Property Estimation 95 7.1 Property Differences 96 7.2 Material Selection 97 7.3 Vapor Pressure 97 7.4 Vapor Pressure Calculation 98 7.5 Heat of Vaporization From Vapor Pressure Data 99 7.6 Critical and Reduced Properties 100 7.7 Estimating Enthalpy of Vaporization 101 7.8 Viscosity 104 7.9 Thermal Conductivity 106 7.10 Thermal Conductivity Application 108 7.11 Nokay Equation and Lydersen’s Method 109 7.12 The Rihani and Doraiswamy Procedure, and the Lee–Kesler Equation 113 References: Part 1 117 PART 2: PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 119 8 Nature of Particulates 121 8.1 Definition of Particulates 121 8.2 Dust, Smoke, and Fumes 122 8.3 Mist and Drizzle 123 8.4 Changing Properties 123 8.5 Dust Explosions 123 8.6 Adsorption and Catalytic Activity in the Atmosphere 125 8.7 Particle Size 125 8.8 Particle Volume and Surface Area 126 8.9 Volume/Surface Area Ratios 127 8.10 Particle Formation 128 9 Particle Size Distribution 131 9.1 Representative Sampling 131 9.2 Typical Particle Size Ranges 132 9.3 Particle Size Distribution and Concentration for Industrial Particulates 132 9.4 Particle Size Distribution 133 9.5 Median and Mean Particle Size 133 9.6 Standard Deviation 136 9.7 The Frequency Distribution Curve 137 9.8 The Cumulative Distribution Curve 138 9.9 The Normal Distribution 139 9.10 The Log Normal Distribution 141 9.11 Effect of Size Distribution on Cumulative Distribution Plots 143 9.12 Nanoparticle Size Variation With Time 145 10 Particle Sizing and Measurement Methods 151 10.1 Tyler and U.S. Standard Screens 152 10.2 Equivalent Diameter Terms 154 10.3 Aerodynamic Diameter 155 10.4 Sizing Devices 157 10.5 Rectangular Conduit Sampling 159 10.6 Volumetric Flow Rate Calculation 160 10.7 Particle Mass Flow Rate Calculation 162 10.8 Average Particle Concentration 163 10.9 Equal Annular Areas for Circular Ducts 164 10.10 Traverse Point Location in Circular Ducts 165 10.11 Duct Flow Equation Derivation 166 10.12 Source Characteristics and Variations 168 11 Fluid Particle Dynamics 171 11.1 The Gravitational Force 172 11.2 The Buoyant Force 172 11.3 The Drag Force 174 11.4 The Drag Coefficient 174 11.5 Equation of Particle Motion/Balance of Forces on a Particle 176 11.6 Particle Settling Velocity Equations 177 11.7 Determination of the Flow Regime 178 11.8 Settling Velocity Application 179 11.9 The Cunningham Correction Factor 180 11.10 Cunningham Correction Factor Values for Air at Atmospheric Pressure 181 11.11 Particle Settling Velocity – Different Regimes 182 11.12 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion 186 12 Particle Collection Mechanisms 187 12.1 Gravity 188 12.2 Centrifugal Force 188 12.3 Inertial Impaction and Interception 190 12.4 Electrostatic Effects 192 12.5 Thermophoresis and Diffusiophoresis 193 12.6 Acceleration Effects 194 12.7 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion Effects 194 12.8 Nonspherical Particles 196 12.9 Wall Effects 197 12.10 Multiparticle Effects 198 12.11 Multidimensional Flow 198 12.12 Collection Efficiency for Nanosized/Submicron Particles 199 13 Particle Collection Efficiency 201 13.1 Collection Efficiency: Loading Data 202 13.2 Collection Efficiency: Mass Rate 202 13.3 Efficiency of Multiple Collectors 204 13.4 Penetration 204 13.5 Collection Efficiency: Numbers Basis 205 13.6 Particle Size–Collection Efficiency Relationships 206 13.7 Collection Efficiency: Surface Area Basis 207 13.8 Particle Size Distribution/Size–Efficiency Calculation 208 13.9 Check for Emission Standards Compliance: Numbers Basis 210 13.10 Anderson 2000 Sampler 211 References: Part 2 215 PART 3: APPLICATIONS 217 14 Legal Considerations 219 14.1 Intellectual Property Law 219 14.2 Patents 220 14.3 Contract Law 220 14.4 Tort Law 221 14.5 Recent Patent Activity 222 14.6 Conservation Law For Mass 222 14.7 Conservation Law for Energy 224 14.8 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 226 14.9 Allowable Patent Application Claims 228 14.10 Practicing One’s Own Invention 229 15 Size Reduction 231 15.1 Size Reduction Objectives 231 15.2 Plasma-Based and Flame-Hydrolysis Methods 232 15.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition and Electrodeposition 233 15.4 Sol-Gel Processing 233 15.5 Mechanical Crushing 235 15.6 Promising Technologies 235 15.7 Energy and Power Requirements 236 15.8 Potential Dust Explosions With Size Reduction 238 15.9 Material Balance Size Reduction 238 15.10 Size Reduction Surface Area Increase 239 15.11 Fines Eductor Application 241 15.12 Fines Eductor Size Reduction 242 16 Prime Materials 245 16.1 Metals 246 16.2 Iron 246 16.3 Aluminum 247 16.4 Nickel 247 16.5 Silver 248 16.6 Gold 248 16.7 Iron Oxides 248 16.8 Aluminum Oxide 249 16.9 Zirconium Dioxide 249 16.10 Titanium Dioxide 250 16.11 Zinc Oxide 251 16.12 Silica Products 251 17 Production Manufacturing Routes 253 17.1 Carbon Nanotubes and Buckyballs 254 17.2 Semiconductor Manufacturing 255 17.3 Advanced Composites 256 17.4 Advanced Ceramics 258 17.5 Catalytic and Photocatalytic Applications 260 17.6 Gas Sensors and Other Analytical Devices 261 17.7 Consumer Products 262 17.8 Drug Delivery Mechanisms and Medical Therapeutics 262 17.9 Microelectronics Applications 264 17.10 Future Activites 264 18 Ventilation 267 18.1 Indoor Air Quality 268 18.2 Indoor Air/Ambient Air Comparison 269 18.3 Sources of Contaminents in Indoor Air 269 18.4 Industrial Ventilation System 271 18.5 Dilution Ventilation vs. Local Exhaust Systems 271 18.6 Ventilation Definitions 273 18.7 Air Exchange Rate 276 18.8 Accidental Emission 278 18.9 Dilution Ventilation Application 279 18.10 Vinyl Chloride Application 280 18.11 Ventilation Models 282 18.12 Minimum Ventilation Flowrate 286 19 Dispersion Considerations 289 19.1 Atmospheric Deposition Calculation 290 19.2 Ground Deposition of Particles 291 19.3 Plume Rise 293 19.4 Pasquill–Gifford Model 294 19.5 Ground-Level Particle Deposition 298 19.6 Line and Area Sources 300 19.7 Instantaneous “Puff” Model 303 19.8 Instantaneous “Puff” Sources 306 19.9 U.S. EPA Dispersion Models 307 19.10 Dispersion in Water Systems and Soils 308 19.11 Canal Concentration Profile 309 19.12 Accidenctal/Emergency Discharge into a Lake/Reservoir 311 20 Ethics 315 20.1 Determination of Ethical Values 315 20.2 Do’s and Don’ts 316 20.3 Codes of Ethics 316 20.4 The Heavy Metal Dilemma 317 20.5 Let Them Worry About It 319 20.6 It’s In the Air 321 20.7 Cheap at What Price 322 20.8 Safety Comes First 323 20.9 Intellectual Property 324 20.10 There’s No Such Thing as a Free Seminar 325 References: Part 3 327 PART 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 331 21 Environmental Regulations 333 21.1 The Regulatory System 334 21.2 Air Quality Issues 335 21.3 Particulate Loading 337 21.4 Clean Air Act Acronyms 339 21.5 Water Pollution Control 342 21.6 Water Quality Issues 343 21.7 Clean Water Act and PWPs 345 21.8 Wastewater Composition 346 21.9 Solid Waste Management Issues 348 21.10 Hazardous Waste Incinerator 349 21.11 Nanotechnology Environmental Regulations Overview 350 21.12 Nanotechnology Opponents 352 22 Toxicology 353 22.1 The Science of Toxicology 353 22.2 Toxicology Classifications 354 22.3 Routes of Exposure 354 22.4 Threshold Limit Value (TLV) 355 22.5 Toxicology Terminology 356 22.6 TLV vs. PEL 357 22.7 Toxicity Factors 357 22.8 OSHA and NIOSH 358 22.9 Toxicology Determination 359 22.10 IDLH and Lethal Level 359 22.11 Chemical Exposure 361 22.12 Threshold Limit Values 362 23 Noncarcinogens 365 23.1 Hazard Quotient 365 23.2 Reference Dose 366 23.3 Concept of Threshold 367 23.4 Exposure Duration Classification 368 23.5 Risk For Multiple Agents: Chronic Exposure 369 23.6 Risk for Multiple Agents: Subchronic Exposure 370 23.7 Multiple Exposure Pathways 371 23.8 MCL and RfD 372 23.9 Uncertainly and Modifying Factors 372 23.10 Calculating an RfD from NOAEL 373 23.11 Metal Plating Facility Application 374 23.12 Noncarcinogen Calculation Procedure 374 24 Carcinogens 377 24.1 Nonthreshold Concept 377 24.1 Weight of Evidence and Slope Factor 378 24.3 Carcinogenic Toxicity Values 380 24.4 Benzene in Water Application 381 24.5 Excess Lifetime Cancer Cases 382 24.6 Action Level 382 24.7 Accidental Spill 383 24.8 Uncertainties and Limitations 384 24.9 Multiple Chemical Agents and Exposure Pathways 385 24.10 Exponential Risk Model 386 24.11 Risk Algorithm 386 24.12 Risk Algorithm Application for Benzene 388 25 Health Risk Assessment 391 25.1 Risk Definitions 392 25.2 The Health Risk Evaluation Process 392 25.3 Standand Values for Individuals 394 25.4 Qualitative Risk Scenarios 395 25.5 Example of a Health Risk Assessment 396 25.6 Chemical Exposure in a Laboratory 397 25.7 Laboratory Spill 398 25.8 Respirators 399 25.9 Performance of a Carbon Cartridge Respirator 400 25.10 Sampling Program 402 26 Hazard Risk Assessment 407 26.1 Example of a Hazard 408 26.2 Risk Evaluation Process for Accidents 408 26.3 Plant and Process Safety 411 26.4 Series and Parallel Systems 412 26.5 Binomial Distribution 413 26.6 The Poisson Distribution 414 26.7 The Weibull Distribution 415 26.8 The Normal Distribution 416 26.9 Soil Contamination 419 26.10 Event Tree Analysis 420 26.11 Fault Tree Analysis 421 26.12 Upper and Lower Flamability Limits 425 27 Epidemiology 429 27.1 Historical View 429 27.2 Occupational Health 430 27.3 Descriptive Studies 431 27.4 Probability 432 27.5 Prevalence 432 27.6 Incidence Rate 433 27.7 The Mean 434 27.8 The Variance and the Standard Deviation 435 References: Part 4 437 Appendix Quantum Mechanics 439 Index 447

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Book SynopsisLipid-based drug delivery systems is an emerging field that uses lipids to make drugs more soluble in water and better able to function in the body.Table of ContentsPreface. Contributors. Chapter 1. Interaction of Drug Transporters with Excipients (K. Sandy Pang, Lichuan Liu, and Huadong Sun). Chapter 2. Formulation Issues around Lipid-Based Oral and Parenteral Delivery Systems (Seong Hoon Jeong, Jae Hyung Park and Kinam Park). Chapter 3. Lipid-Based Parenteral Drug Delivery Systems: Biological Implications (Vladimir P. Torchilin). Chapter 4. Principles in the Development of Intravenous Lipid Emulsions (Joanna Rossi and Jean-Christophe Leroux). Chapter 5. Protein adsorption patterns on parenteral lipid formulations-key factor determining the in vivo fate (Rainer H. Muller and Torsten M. Goppert). Chapter 6. Nanoparticle targeting for drug delivery across the blood brain barrier (James Egbert, Werner Geldenhuys, Fancy Thomas, Paul R. Lockman, Russell J. Mumper and David D. Allen). Chapter 7. Lipid-Coated Perfluorocarbon Nanostructures as Parenteral Therapeutic Agents (Evan C. Unger, Terry O. Matsunaga and Reena Zutshi). Index.

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Book SynopsisChoosing the right column is key in Gas Chromatography Gas Chromatography (GC) is the most widely used method for separating and analyzing a wide variety of organic compounds and gases. There have been many recent advancements in both packed column and capillary column GC.Trade Review"This book provides the necessary guidance for column selection and type of column chosen with the injection system and detectors in mind." (International Journal of Environmental and Analytical Chemistry, January 2008) "A very useful book for chromatographers and researchers." (CHOICE, September 2007) "…a practical resource for scientists and technicians…" (Journal of the American Chemical Society, August 15, 2007)Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. 1 Introduction. 1.1 Evolution of Gas Chromatographic Columns. 1.2 Central Role Played by the Column. 1.3 Justification for Column Selection and Care. 1.4 Literature on Gas Chromatographic Columns. 1.5 Gas Chromatographic Resources on the Internet. References. 2 Packed Column Gas Chromatography. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Solid Supports and Adsorbents. Supports for Gas–Liquid Chromatography. Adsorbents for Gas–Solid Chromatography. 2.3 Stationary Phases. Requirements of a Stationary Phase. USP Designation of Stationary Phases. Kovats Retention Index. McReynolds and Rohrschneider Classifications of Stationary Phases. Evaluation of Column Operation. Optimization of Packed Column Separations. 2.4 Column Preparation. Coating Methods. Tubing Materials and Dimensions. Glass Wool Plugs and Column Fittings. Filling the Column. Conditioning the Column and Column Care. 2.5 United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary Chromatographic Methods. References. 3 Capillary Column Gas Chromatography. 3.1 Introduction. Significance and Impact of Capillary Gas Chromatography. Chronology of Achievements in Capillary Gas Chromatography. Comparison of Packed and Capillary Columns. 3.2 Capillary Column Technology. Capillary Column Materials. Fused Silica and Other Glasses. Extrusion of a Fused-Silica Capillary Column. Aluminum-Clad Fused-Silica Capillary Columns. Fused-Silica-Lined Stainless Steel Capillary Columns. 3.3 Preparation of Fused-Silica Capillary Columns. Silanol Deactivation Procedures. Static Coating of Capillary Columns. Capillary Cages. Test Mixtures for Monitoring Column Performance. Diagnostic Role Played by Components of Test Mixtures. 3.4 Chromatographic Performance of Capillary Columns. Golay Equation Versus the van Deemter Expression. Choice of Carrier Gas. Measurement of Linear Velocity and Flow Rate. Effect of Carrier Gas Viscosity on Linear Velocity. Phase Ratio. Coating Efficiency. 3.5 Stationary-Phase Selection for Capillary Gas Chromatography. Requirements. History. Comparison of Columns from Manufacturers. Polysiloxane Phases. Polyethylene Glycol Phases. Cross-Linked Versus Chemically Bonded Phase. Chemical Bonding. MS-Grade Phases Versus Polysilarylene or Polysilphenylene Phases. Sol-Gel Stationary Phases. Phenylpolycarborane–Siloxane Phases. 3.6 Specialty Columns. EPA Methods. Chiral Stationary Phases. Gas–Solid Adsorption Capillary Columns: PLOT Columns. 3.7 Capillary Column Selection. Practical Considerations of Column Diameter, Film Thickness, and Column Length. Capillary Columns of 0.53mm i.d.: Megabore Columns. Correlation of Column Dimensions and Film Thickness with Parameters in the Fundamental Resolution Equation. Column Selection for Gas Chromatography by Specifications. 3.8 Column Installation and Care. Carrier Gas Purifiers. Ferrule Materials and Fittings. Column Installation. Column Conditioning. Column Bleed. Retention Gap and Guard Columns. Column Fatigue and Regeneration. 3.9 Special Gas Chromatographic Techniques. Simulated Distillation. Multidimensional Gas Chromatography. Computer Modeling of Stationary Phases. References. 4 Column Oven Temperature Control. 4.1 Thermal Performance Variables and Electronic Considerations. 4.2 Advantages of Temperature Programming over Isothermal Operation. 4.3 Oven Temperature Profiles for Programmed-Temperature Gas Chromatography. 4.4 Role of Computer Assistance in Optimizing Separations in Gas Chromatography. DryLab (LC Resources). ProezGC (Restek Corporation). GC-SOS (Chem SW). 4.5 Fast or High-Speed Gas Chromatography. Selectivity Tuning. Resistively Heated Columns and Column Jackets. 4.6 Subambient Oven Temperature Control. References. Selected References. Appendix A: Guide to Selection of Packed Columns. Appendix B: Column Selection. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe comprehensive reference on modern techniques and methods for monitoring and inspecting corrosion Strategic corrosion inspection and monitoring can improve asset management and life cycle assessment and optimize operational budgets.Table of ContentsPreface. Chapter 1. Corrosion and its Cost in a Modern World. Chapter 2. Corrosion Detectability. Chapter 3. Maintenance, Management, and Inspection Strategies. Chapter 4. Corrosion Monitoring. Chapter 5. Nondestructive Evaluation. Appendix A. SI Units Conversion Table. Appendix B. Index.

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Book SynopsisAdvances that open new avenues in developing aminoglycoside antibiotics During the last twenty years, there have been numerous advances in the understanding of the chemistry, biochemistry, and recognition of aminoglycosides. This has led to the development of novel antibiotics and opened up new therapeutic targets for intervention. This is the first book to provide a complete overview of recent advances in the field and explore their tremendous potential for drug discovery and rational drug design. With chapters written by one or more leading experts in their specialty areas, the book addresses the chemistry, biology, and toxicology of aminoglycosides. Aminoglycoside Antibiotics: From Chemical Biology to Drug Discovery is a great resource for academic and industrial researchers in drug design and mechanism studies and for researchers studying antibiotic resistance, antibiotic design and synthesis, and the discovery of novel pharmaceuticals. It is also a valuabTrade Review"This is a 'must-have' text for anyone involved in AGA teaching or research. No better comprehensive treatise exists…" (Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, October 18, 2007) "There is little doubt that this volume will be a tremendous resource for any investigator interested in the biochemistry of aminoglycosides." (Journal of the American Chemical Society, September 26, 2007) Table of ContentsPreface vii Contributors ix 1. In the Beginning There Was Streptomycin 1 Julian Davies 2. The Biochemistry and Genetics of Aminoglycoside Producers 15 Wolfgang Piepersberg, Khaled M. Aboshanab, Heike Schmidt-Beißner, and Udo F. Wehmeier 3. Mechanisms of Aminoglycoside Antibiotic Resistance 119 Tushar Shakya and Gerard D. Wright 4. Design, Chemical Synthesis, and Antibacterial Activity of Kanamycin and Neomycin Class Aminoglycoside Antibiotics 141 Jinhua Wang and Cheng-Wei Tom Chang 5. NMR Structural Studies of Aminoglycoside: RNA Interaction 181 R. Andrew Marshall and Joseph D. Puglisi 6. Structural Comparisons Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Ribosomal Decoding a Sites Free and Complexed with Aminoglycosides 209 Jiro Kondo and Eric Westhof 7. Binding of Antibiotics to the Aminoacyl-tRNA Site of Bacterial Ribosome 225 Dale Kling, Christine Chow, and Shahriar Mobashery 8. Metalloaminoglycosides: Chemistry and Biological Relevance 235 Nikhil Gokhale, Anjali Patwardhan, and J. A. Cowan 9. Adverse Effects of Aminoglycoside Therapy 255 Andra E. Talaska and Jochen Schacht 10. Targeting HIV-1 RNA with Aminoglycoside Antibiotics and Their Derivatives 267 Lev Elson-Schwab and Yitzhak Tor 11. Novel Targets for Aminoglycosides 289 Dev P. Arya, Nicholas Shaw, and Hongjuan Xi Index 315

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Book SynopsisPostharvest diseases caused by microbial pathogens account for millions of dollars in losses of both durable and perishable produce products every year.Trade Review"This book will be useful for researchers, teachers, and students in plant pathology and food microbiology." (The Quarterly Review of Biology, September 2006) "...efficient, economical and environmentally friendly..."(Food Science and Technology Abstracts,January 2007) Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. PART I: CAUSES AND EFFECTS. 1. Introduction. 1.1 Importance of postharvest diseases. 1.2 Factors favoring development of postharvest diseases. 1.3 Development of disease management strategies. Summary. References. 2. Detection and Identification of Postharvest Microbial Pathogens. 2.1 Microbial pathogens in seeds. 2.2 Microbial pathogens in propagative plant materials. 2.3 Microbial pathogens in fruits. 2.4 Microbial pathogens in vegetables. Summary. Appendix. References. 3. Ecology of Postharvest Microbial Plant Pathogens. 3.1 Seed microflora. 3.2 Fruit microflora. 3.3 Vegetable microflora. Summary. References. 4. Disease Development and Symptom Expression. 4.1 Seed infection. 4.2 Seed deterioration. 4.3 Infection of fruits and vegetables. Summary. Appendix. References. PART II: FACTORS INFLUENCING DISEASE DEVELOPMENT IN STORAGE. 5. Influence of Cultivation Practices and Harvesting Methods. 5.1 Cultivation practices. 5.2 Harvest-related operations. Summary. References. 6. Influence of Postharvest Handling and Storage Conditions. 6.1 Postharvest handling. 6.2 Storage conditions. Summary. References. PART III: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF POSTHARVEST DISEASE MANAGEMENT. 7. Preventive and Physical Methods of Disease Management. 7.1 Seeds and propagative materials. 7.2 Fruits and vegetables. Summary. References. 8. Genetic Resistance of Host Plants for Disease Management. 8.1 Molecular biology of host plant resistance. 8.2 Resistance to seed infection. 8.3 Development of disease resistant cultivars. Summary. Appendix. References. 9. Biocontrol Agents for Disease Management. 9.1 Biological control of postharvest diseases of fruits. 9.2 Biological control of postharvest diseases of vegetables. 9.3 Biocontrol of seed spoilage. 9.4 Mechanisms of biocontrol. 9.5 Enhancement of efficiency of biocontrol agents. 9.6 Formulation of biocontrol agents. 9.7 Natural compounds. Summary. Appendix. References. 10. Biotechnology for Improvement of Resistance to Postharvest Diseases. 10.1 Genetic manipulation. 10.2 Activation of natural host defense mechanisms. 10.3 Mycotoxin management through transformation. Summary. Appendix. References. 11. Postharvest Disease Management through Chemicals. 11.1 Fumigants. 11.2 Chemicals used as dips. 11.3 Chemicals applied as sprays or dusts. 11.4 Assessment of fungicidal activity. 11.5 Chemicals as alternative to fungicides. 11.6 Seed treatment with chemicals. 11.7 Development of resistance to fungicides. 11.8 Assessment of fungicide residues. 11.9 Control of fresh-cut produce-borne pathogens. Summary. Appendix. References. 12. Integrated Systems of Management of Postharvest Diseases. 12.1 Seedborne diseases. 12.2 Postharvest diseases of perishables. Summary. References. Addendum: Basic Methods . References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe essential primer on injection molding design and execution Injection molding has become ubiquitous, and the proof is in the product from parts to packaging to products, this versatile manufacturing method has become a hallmark of the plastics industry. Injection Molding: Theory and Practice is an essential primer for designers and line workers alike, providing clear, expert guidance for every step of the process. From molds and materials to hydraulics and electrical mechanisms, this book tells you everything you need to know to effectively design for and work with an injection molding machine.Table of ContentsAbbreviations Used in the References 1 The Injection Molding Machine 2 Molds 3 Theory and Practice of Injection Molding 4 Materials and Theft Properties 5 Correcting Molding Faults 6 Hydraulic Mechanisms and Circuits 7 Electrical Mechanisms and Circuits 8 Examples of Molded Parts Appendix Index

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Book SynopsisThe first edition of Assurance Technologies addresses the various declines within assurance technologies. This new edition addresses fundamentals, which remain appropriate. However, the book also enhances the material by providing current examples, additional methods, techniques, and best practices.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Assurance Technologies, Profits, and Managing Safety-Related Risks. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Cheaper, Better, and Faster Products. 1.3 What is System Assurance. 1.4 Key Management Responsibilities. 1.5 Is System Assurance a Process?. 1.6 System Assurance Programs. References. Further Reading. Chapter 2. Introduction to Statistical Concepts. 2.1 Probabilistic Designs. Construction of a histogram and the empirical distribution. 2.2 Computing reliability. Failure rate and hazard function. 2.3 Normal Distribution. 2.4 Log Normal Distribution. 2.5 Exponential Distribution. 2.6 Weibull Distribution. Plotting the data. 2.8 Discrete Distributions. 2.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 3. Reliability Engineering and Safety-related Applications. 3.1 Reliability Principles. 3.2 Reliability in the Design Phase. 3.3 Reliability in the Manufacturing Phase. 3.4 Reliability in the Test Phase. 3.5 Reliability in the Use Phase. 3.6 Reliability and Safety Commonalities. 3.7 Topics foe Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 4. Maintainability Engineering and Safety-related Applications. 4.1 Maintainability Engineering Principles. 4.2 Maintainability during the Design Phase. 4.3 Maintainability in the Manufacturing Stage. 4.4 Maintainability in the Test Stage. 4.5 Maintainability in the Use Stage. 4.6 Maintainability and System Safety. 4.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 5. System Safety Engineering. 5.1 System Safety Principles. 5.2 System Safety in Design. 5.3 System Safety in manufacturing. 5.4 System Safety in the Test Stage. 5.5 System Safety in the Use Stage. 5.6 Analyzing System Hazards and Risks. 5.7 Hazard Identification. 5.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 6. Quality Assurance Engineering and Preventing Latent Safety Defects. 6.1 Quality Assurance Principles. 6.2 Quality Assurance in the Design Phase. 6.3.Evaluation of pilot run. 6.4 Quality Assurance in the Test Phase. 6.5 Quality Assurance in the Use Phase. 6.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 7. Logistics Support Engineering and System Safety Considerations. 7.1 Logistics Support Principles. 7.2 Logistics Engineering during the Design Phase. documentation. 7.3 Logistics Engineering during the Manufacturing Phase. 7.4 Logistics Engineering during the Test Phase. 7.5 Logistics Engineering in the Use Phase. 7.6 Logistics Support Engineering and System Safety. 7.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 8. Human Factors Engineering and System Safety Considerations. 8.1 Human Engineering Principles. 8.2 Human Factors in the Design Phase. 8.3 Human Factors in the Manufacturing Phase. 8.4 Human Factors in the Test Phase. 8.5 Human Factors in the Use Phase. 8.6 Additional considerations involving Human Factors and System Safety. 8.7 Real Time and Latent Errors. 8.8 Analyses in Support of Human Factors and System Safety. 8.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Chapter 9. Software Performance Assurance. 9.1 Software Performance Principles. 9.2 Software Performance in the Design Phase. 9.3 Software Requirements during Coding and Integration. 9.4 Software Testing. 9.5 Software Performance in the Use Stage. 9.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Chapter 10. System Effectiveness. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 System Effectiveness Principles. 10.3 Implementing the Programs. 10.4 Managing by Life-Cycle Costs. 10.5 System Effectiveness Model. 10.6 Author?s Recommendation. 10.7 System Risk and Effects on System Effectiveness. 10.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. References. Further Reading. Additional Reading. Chapter 11. Managing Safety-Related Risks. 11.1 Establish the Appropriate Safety Program to Manage Risk. 11.2 Programs to Address Product, Process, and System Safety. 11.3 Resource Allocation and Coast Analysis in Safety Management. 11.4 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. 11.5 System Safety-related Literature. Chapter 12. Statistical Concepts, Loss Analysis, and Safety-Related Applications. 12.1 Use of Distributions and Statistical Applications Associated with Safety. 12.2 Statistical Analysis Techniques used within Safety Analysis. 12.3 Using Statistical Control in Decision-Making for Safety. 12.4 Behavior Sampling. 12.5 Calculating Hazardous Exposures to the Human System. 12.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. Further Reading. Chapter 13. Models, Concepts and Examples: Applying Scenario-Driven Hazard Analysis. 13.1 Adverse Sequences. 13.2 Designing Formats for Conducting Analysis and Reporting Results. 13.3 Documentation Reports. 13.4 Conceptual Models. 13.5 Lifecycle of a System Accident. 13.6 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis Example. 13.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. Additional Reading and Reference Sources. Chapter 14. Automation, Computer, and Software Complexities. 14.1 Complex Systems Analysis. 14.2 System Context. 14.3 Understanding the Adverse Sequence. 14.4 Additional Software Safety Analysis Techniques. 14.5 True Redundancy. 14.6 Complexities and Hazards within Computer Hardware. 14.7 Initiators, contributors, the Errors Associated with Software. 14.8 Other Specialized Techniques, Analysis Methods, and Tools for Evaluating Software and Computer Systems. 14.9 Existing Legacy Systems, Reusable Software, Commercial Off-the-Shelf Software (COTS) and Non-Development Items (NDI). 14.10 Topics for Student Projects and Theses. Additional References.

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Book SynopsisThe 6th edition of this classic comprises the most comprehensive guide to infrared and Raman spectra of inorganic, organometallic, bioinorganic, and coordination compounds. From fundamental theories of vibrational spectroscopy to applications in a variety of compound types, it is extensively updated. Part B details applications of Raman and IR spectroscopy to larger and complex systems. It covers interactions of cisplatin and other metallodrugs with DNA and cytochrome c oxidase and peroxidase. This is a great reference for chemists and medical professionals working with infrared or Raman spectroscopies and for graduate students.Table of ContentsPREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. ABBREVIATIONS. 1. Applications in Coordination Chemistry. 1.1. Ammine, Amido, and Related Complexes. 1.2. Complexes of Ethylenediamine and Related Ligands. 1.3. Complexes of Pyridine and Related Ligands. 1.4. Complexes of Bipyridine and Related Ligands. 1.5. Metalloporphyrins. 1.6. Metallochlorins, Chlorophylls, and Metallophthalocyanines. 1.7. Nitro and Nitrito Complexes. 1.8. Lattice Water and Aquo and Hydroxo Complexes. 1.9. Complexes of Alkoxides, Alcohols, Ethers, Ketones, Aldehydes, Esters, and Carboxylic Acids. 1.10. Complexes of Amino Acids, EDTA, and Related Ligands. 1.11. Infrared Spectra of Aqueous Solutions. 1.12. Complexes of Oxalato and Related Ligands. 1.13. Complexes of Sulfate, Carbonate, and Related Ligands. 1.14. Complexes of b-Diketones. 1.15. Complexes of Urea, Sulfoxides, and Related Ligands. 1.16. Cyano and Nitrile Complexes. 1.17. Thiocyanato and Other Pseudohalogeno Complexes. 1.18. Complexes of Carbon Monoxide. 1.19. Complexes of Carbon Dioxide. 1.20. Nitrosyl Complexes. 1.21. Complexes of Dioxygen. 1.22. Metal Complexes Containing Oxo Groups. 1.23. Complexes of Dinitrogen and Related Ligands. 1.24. Complexes of Dihydrogen and Related Ligands. 1.25. Halogeno Complexes. 1.26. Complexes Containing Metal–Metal Bonds. 1.27. Complexes of Phosphorus and Arsenic Ligands . 1.28. Complexes of Sulfur and Selenium Ligands. References. 2. Applications in Organometallic Chemistry. 2.1. Methylene, Methyl, and Ethyl Compounds. 2.2. Vinyl, Allyl, Acetylenic, and Phenyl Compounds. 2.3. Halogeno, Pseudohalogeno, and Acido Compounds. 2.4. Compounds Containing Other Functional Groups. 2.5. p-Bonded Complexes of Olefins, Acetylenes, and Related Ligands. 2.6. Cyclopentadienyl Compounds. 2.7. Cyclopentadienyl Compounds Containing Other Groups. 2.8. Complexes of Other Cyclic Unsaturated Ligands. 2.9. Miscellaneous Compounds. References. 3. Applications in Bioinorganic Chemistry. 3.1. Myoglobin and Hemoglobin. 3.2. Ligand Binding to Myoglobin and Hemoglobin. 3.3. Cytochromes and Other Heme Proteins. 3.4. Bacteriochlorophylls. 3.5. Hemerythrins. 3.6. Hemocyanins. 3.7. Blue Copper Proteins. 3.8. Iron–Sulfur Proteins. 3.9. Interactions of Metal Complexes with Nucleic Acids. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisNitrile Oxides, Nitrones & Nitronates in Organic Synthesis provides comprehensive systematisation of novel data in nitrile oxide chemistry. With in-depth information on stable and unstable nitrile oxides, it is an invaluable reference for professionals in the field of organic synthesis.Table of ContentsIntroduction. Chapter 1. Nitrile Oxides by Leonid I. Belen'kii, N.D. Zelinksy). Chapter 2. Nitrones: Novel Strategies in Synthesis (Igor Alexeevich Grigor'ev). Chapter 3. Nitronates (Sema L. Ioffe, and N. D. Zelinsky).

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Book SynopsisAn overview of current research and developments in ultrasensitive bioanalysis New platforms of ultrasensitive analysis of biomolecules and single living cells using multiplexing, single nanoparticle sensing, nano-fluidics, and single-molecule detection are advancing every scientific discipline at an unprecedented pace.Table of ContentsPreface. Contributors. Chapter 1. Is One Enough (Andrew C. Beveridge, James H. Jett, and Richard A. Keller)? Chapter 2. Dissecting Cellular Activity from Single Genes to Single mRNAs (Xavier Darzacq, Robert H. Singer, and Yaron Shav-Tal). Chapter 3. Probing Membrane Transport of Single Live Cells Using Single Molecule Detection and Single Nanoparticle Assay (Xiao-Hong Nancy Xu, Yujun Song, and Prakash D. Nallathamby). Chapter 4. Nanoparticle Probes for Ultrasensitive Biological Detection and Imaging (Amit Agrawal, Tushar Sathe, and Shuming Nie). Chapter 5. Tailoring Nanoparticles for the Recognition of Biomacromolecule Surfaces (Mrinmoy De, Rochelle R. Arvizo, Ayush Verma and Vincent M. Rotello). Chapter 6. Nanoscale Chemical Analysis of Individual Subcellular Compartments (Gina S. Fiorini and Daniel T. Chiu). Chapter 7. Ultra-sensitive Time-resolved Near-IR Fluorescence for Multiplexed Bioanalysis (Li Zhu and Steven A. Soper). Chapter 8. Ultra-Sensitive Microarray Detection of DNA using Enzymatically Amplified SPR Imaging (Hye Jin Lee, Alastair W. Wark and Robert M. Corn). Chapter 9. Ultrasensitive Analysis of Metal Ions and Small Molecules in Living Cells (Richard B. Thompson). Chapter 10. Electrochemistry Inside and Outside Single Nerve Cells (Daniel J. Eves and Andrew G. Ewing). Chapter 11. New Bioanalytical Applications of Electrochemiluminescence (Yanbing Zu and Xiao-Hong Nancy Xu). Chapter 12. Single Cell Measurements with Mass Spectrometry (Eric B. Monroe, John C. Jurchen, Stanislav Rubakhin, and Jonathan V. Sweedler). Chapter 13. Outlooks of Ultrasensitive Detection in Bioanalysis (Xiao-Hong Nancy Xu).

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Book SynopsisThe collection contains 2,979 EI mass spectra of androgens and estrogens and their trimethylsily-, O-methoxyoxime- and acetal derivatives. Each spectrum is accompanied by the structure and trivial name, molecular formula, molecular weight, nominal mass and base peak.

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Book SynopsisSTATIC HEADSPACE-GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY THE ONLY REFERENCE TO PROVIDE BOTH CURRENT AND THOROUGH COVERAGE OF THIS IMPORTANT ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE Static headspace-gas chromatography (HS-GC) is an indispensable technique for analyzing volatile organic compounds, enabling the analyst to assay a variety of sample matrices while avoiding the costly and time-consuming preparation involved with traditional GC. Static Headspace-Gas Chromatography: Theory and Practice has long been the only reference to provide in-depth coverage of this method of analysis. The Second Edition has been thoroughly updated to reflect the most recent developments and practices, and also includes coverage of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and the purge-and-trap technique. Chapters cover: Principles of static and dynamic headspace analysis, including the evolution of HS-GC methods and regulatory methods using static HS-GC Basic theory of headspace analysisphysicocheTrade Review"This is an important resource on an increasingly useful technique. It should be in the library of any chromatographer...Essential." (CHOICE, November 2006)Table of ContentsPreface xi Preface to the First Edition xv List of Acronyms and Symbols xix 1 General Introduction 1 1.1 Principles of Headspace Analysis 1 1.2 Types of Headspace Analysis 3 1.2.1 Principles of Static HS-GC 4 1.2.2 Principles of Dynamic HS-GC 5 1.2.2.1 The Trap 5 1.2.2.2 The Water Problem 7 1.2.2.3 The Flow Problem 7 1.2.2.4 The Time Problem 8 1.2.2.5 Comparison of Static HS-GC with P&T 9 1.3 The Evolution of the HS-GC Methods 10 1.4 HS-GS Literature 12 1.5 Regulatory Methods Utilizing (Static) HS-GC 13 References 15 2 Theoretical Background of HS-GC and Its Applications 19 2.1 Basic Theory of Headspace Analysis 19 2.2 Basic Physicochemical Relationships 23 2.3 Headspace Sensitivity 25 2.3.1 Influence of Temperature on Vapor Pressure and Partition Coefficient 26 2.3.1.1 Enhancement of Lower Boiling Compounds 28 2.3.2 Influence of Temperature on Headspace Sensitivity for Compounds with Differing Partition Coefficients 29 2.3.3 Influence of Sample Volume on Headspace Sensitivity for Compounds with Differing Partition Coefficients 34 2.3.3.1 Sample-to-Sample Reproducibility 36 2.3.4 Changing the Sample Matrix by Varying the Activity Coefficient 37 2.4 Headspace Linearity 42 2.5 Duplicate Analyses 43 2.6 Multiple Headspace Extraction (MHE) 45 2.6.1 Principles of MHE 45 2.6.2 Theoretical Background of MHE 46 2.6.3 Simplified MHE Calculation 49 References 49 3 The Technique of HS-GC 51 3.1 Sample Vials 53 3.1.1 Vial Types 53 3.1.2 Selection of the Vial Volume 54 3.1.3 Vial Cleaning 55 3.1.4 Wall Adsorption Effects 55 3.2 Caps 56 3.2.1 Pressure on Caps 58 3.2.2 Safety Closures 58 3.3 Septa 58 3.3.1 Septa Types 58 3.3.2 Septum Blank 60 3.3.3 Should a Septum Be Pierced Twice? 62 3.3.3.1 Closed-Vial versus Open-Vial Sample Introduction Technique 65 3.4 Thermostatting 66 3.4.1 Influence of Temperature 66 3.4.2 Working Modes 69 3.5 The Fundamental Principles of Headspace Sampling Systems 70 3.5.1 Systems Using Gas Syringes 70 3.5.2 Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) 73 3.5.2.1 Comparison of the Sensitivities in HS-SPME and Direct Static HS-GC 80 3.5.3 Balanced Pressure Sampling Systems 81 3.5.4 Pressure/Loop Systems 83 3.5.5 Conditions for Pressurization Systems 84 3.5.6 Volume of the Headspace Gas Sample 86 3.5.6.1 Sample Volume with Gas Syringes 87 3.5.6.2 Sample Volume with Loop Systems 87 3.5.6.3 Sample Volume with the Balanced Pressure System 88 3.6 Use of Open-Tubular (Capillary) Columns 89 3.6.1 Properties of Open-Tubular Columns for Gas Samples 89 3.6.2 Headspace Sampling with Split or Splitless Introduction 90 3.6.3 Comparison of Split and Splitless Headspace Sampling 93 3.6.4 Band Broadening During Sample Introduction 96 3.6.5 Influence of Temperature on Band Broadening 99 3.6.5.1 Conclusions 101 3.6.6 The Combination of Different Columns and Detectors 101 3.7 Enrichment Techniques in HS-GC 105 3.7.1 Systems for Cryogenic Trapping 108 3.7.1.1 Trapping by Cryogenic Condensation 109 3.7.1.2 Trapping by Cryogenic Focusing 110 3.7.1.3 Influence of Temperature on Cryogenic Focusing 118 3.7.1.4 Comparison of the Various Techniques of Cryogenic Trapping 122 3.7.2 Influence of Water in Cryogenic HS-GC 124 3.7.2.1 Water Removal in Static HS-GC 127 3.7.2.2 Applications 129 3.7.3 Enrichment by Adsorption 134 3.7.3.1 Water Removal from an Adsorption Trap 134 3.8 Special Techniques with the Balanced Pressure Systems 139 3.8.1 Instrumentation for MHE 139 3.8.2 Backflushing 140 3.9 Reaction HS-GC 143 3.9.1 Derivatization in the Headspace Vial 145 3.9.1.1 Methylation 146 3.9.1.2 Esterification 146 3.9.1.3 Transesterification 148 3.9.1.4 Acetylation 149 3.9.1.5 Carbonyl Compounds 149 3.9.2 Subtraction HS-GC 149 3.9.3 Special Reactions 153 3.9.4 HS-GC Analysis of Volatile Derivatives from Inorganic Compounds 158 References 160 4 Sample Handling in HS-GC 165 4.1 Equilibration 166 4.1.1 Gas Samples 167 4.1.2 Liquid Samples 168 4.1.2.1 General Properties 168 4.1.2.2 Reduction of the Equilibration Time for Liquid Samples 169 4.1.3 Solid Samples 171 4.2 Solution Approach 174 4.3 Sample Handling and Sample Introduction 177 4.3.1 Gas Samples 177 4.3.2 Liquid Samples 179 4.3.3 Solid Samples 180 4.4 Preparation of Standard Solutions 181 4.4.1 Preparation of a Standard Solution from a Liquid or Solid Substance 182 4.4.2 Preparation of a Standard Solution from a Gaseous Compound 184 4.5 Influence of the Matrix 186 4.5.1 Clean Matrix is Available 187 4.5.2 Matrix Effect Can Be Eliminated 187 4.5.3 Artificial Matrix Can Be Prepared 189 4.6 Methods Aiming at Complete Evaporation of the Analyte 189 4.6.1 The Total Vaporization Technique (TVT) 190 4.6.2 The Full Evaporation Technique (FET) 191 4.6.3 Calculation of the Extraction Yield in FET 194 4.6.4 Comparison of Headspace Sensitivities 195 References 195 5 Headspace Methods for Quantitative Analysis 197 5.1 Internal Normalization 199 5.2 Internal Standard Method 202 5.2.1 Blood Alcohol Determination 207 5.3 External Standard Method 207 5.4 Standard Addition Method 213 5.4.1 Single Addition 213 5.4.2 Handling of the Added Standard 214 5.4.3 Determination by Multiple Additions 218 5.5 Multiple Headspace Extraction (MHE) 221 5.5.1 Principles of MHE 221 5.5.2 Calibration in MHE 222 5.5.2.1 External Standard 222 5.5.2.2 Internal Standard 226 5.5.2.3 Standard Addition 226 5.5.3 The Use of Gaseous External Standards in MHE 227 5.5.3.1 Correction for Sample Volume 228 5.5.4 The Role of Quotient Q 229 5.5.4.1 Relationship between Q and Pressures 229 5.5.4.2 Value of Q in the Case of Total Vaporization 230 5.5.4.3 The Relative Position of the MHE Plots as a Function of Q 232 5.5.5 The Correlation Coefficient r 234 5.5.6 Evaluation of the Shape of the Regression Plot 234 5.5.7 Influence of K/ß 236 5.6 Analysis of Solid Samples (Adsorption Systems) 237 5.6.1 Suspension Approach 238 5.6.2 Surface-Modification Techniques 244 5.6.3 Highly Adsorptive Solid Samples 250 5.7 Calibration Techniques with Headspace Samples of Varying Volumes 252 5.8 Analysis of Gas Samples 253 References 255 6 Method Development in HS-GC 257 6.1 General Guidelines 258 6.2 Determination of the Residual Monomer Content of Polystyrene Pellets 259 6.2.1 First Approach: Use of Internal Standard with MHE 259 6.2.2 Second Approach: Single Determination with Internal Standard 262 6.2.3 Third Approach: Use of External Standard with MHE 263 6.2.4 Fourth Approach: Use of the Solution Approach 263 6.3 Determination of Residual Solvents in a Printed Plastic Film 263 6.3.1 First Approach: Use of External Standard with MHE 265 6.3.2 Second Approach: Use of Standard Addition with MHE 266 6.3.3 Third Approach: Use of Internal Standard 267 6.3.4 Fourth Approach: Use of Standard Addition 267 6.4 Determination of the Volatile Constituents of a Cathodic Electrolytic Plating Bath 268 6.4.1 First Approach: Use of External Standard with MHE 268 6.4.2 Second Approach: Dilution and Use of External Standard 269 7 Nonequilibrium Static Headspace Analysis 271 7.1 Accelerated Analysis 272 7.2 Heat-Sensitive Samples 274 References 277 8 Qualitative Analysis by HS-GC 279 8.1 The Use of HS-GC in “Fingerprinting” 282 8.2 The Use of Headspace Sampling in Hyphenated Systems 282 8.3 The Use of HS-GC in Microbiology 286 References 291 9 Special Measurements 293 9.1 Determination of Vapor Pressures 294 9.2 Determination of Activity Coefficients 299 9.3 Determination of Related Physicochemical Functions 302 9.4 Determination of Phase Distribution (Partition Coefficient) 303 9.4.1 The Vapor-Phase Calibration (VPC) Method 305 9.4.2 The Phase Ratio Variation (PRV) Method 308 9.4.2.1 Principles 309 9.4.2.2 Limitation of the PRV Method 311 9.4.3 MHE Methods for the Determination of the Partition Coefficient 312 9.4.3.1 VPC/MHE Method 313 9.4.3.2 PRV/MHE Method 316 9.5 Reaction Constant Measurements 316 9.6 Determination of Solute Solubility by MHE 319 9.7 Gas–Solid Systems 320 9.7.1 Determination of Adsorption Isotherms 320 9.7.2 Determination of the Rate of Release of a Volatile Analyte 321 9.8 Validation of Headspace Instrumentation: Investigation of Detector Linearity and Detection Limit 324 9.8.1 Definitions 325 9.8.2 Linear Range of the Detector 326 9.8.3 Precision of the Range 330 9.8.4 Minimum Detectability 330 References 332 Index 335

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Book SynopsisThis work provides both newcomers and advanced computer scientists and chemists with an excellent comprehensive how-to guide to developing chemical information systems. The author served as lead architect on the design of said systems at Merck and Co. , Inc.Trade Review"…a practical how-to guide for applying the Java technology with an object-oriented approach to developing chemical information systems." (E-STREAMS, September 2007)Table of Contents1. Introduction 1 2. Software Development Principles: High–Low Open–Closed Principles 6 3. Introduction to the Object-Oriented Approach and Its Benefits 12 4. Build Versus Buy 23 5. The Agile and Iterative Development Process 26 6. UML Modeling 34 7. Deployment Architecture 38 8. Software Architecture 43 9. A Case Study: Develop a Chemical Registration System (CRS) 49 10. A Chemical Informatics Domain Analysis Object Model 61 11. Presentation Layer 65 12. Business Layer 69 13. Entity Dictionary 147 14. Chemistry Intelligence API 168 15. Data Persistence Layer 186 16. Put Everything Together 204 Bibliography 207 Index 209

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Book SynopsisThe Art of Drug Synthesis illustrates how chemistry, biology, pharmacokinetics, and a host of other disciplines come together to produce successful medicines. The authors have compiled a collection of 21 representative categories of drugs, from which they have selected as examples many of the best-selling drugs on the market today.Trade Review“This is a most topical and useful short primer on estab1ished drugs and their synthesis.” (American Journal of Therapeutics, June 2009) "The book is very felicitous and closes a gap in the literature by covering the subject of drug development in this particular way." (Angewandte Chemie, June 23, 2008) "This book is a very entertaining read." (ChemMedChem, 2008, 3) "The editors and contriubting authros have certainly provided a most useful book for the medicinal and organic chemistry community." (Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, March 2008) "Where I see the book being very useful is as a starting point for student seminars or discussion groups... Also, it is highly illuminating just to dip into for a browse and to marvel at some of the excellent chemistry that goes on in the pharmaceutical industry." (Chemistry World, January 2008)Table of ContentsForeword xi Preface xiii Contributors xv 1 THE ROLE OF MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY IN DRUG DISCOVERY 1John A. Lowe, III 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Hurdles in the Drug Discovery Process 2 1.3 The Tools of Medicinal Chemistry 3 1.4 The Role of Synthetic Chemistry in Drug Discovery 6 2 PROCESS RESEARCH: HOW MUCH? HOW SOON? 11Neal G. Anderson 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Considerations for Successful Scale-up to Tox Batches and Phase I Material 15 2.3 Considerations for Phase 2 Material and Beyond 16 2.4 Summary 26 I CANCER AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES 3 AROMATASE INHIBITORS FOR BREAST CANCER: EXEMESTANE (AROMASIN), ANASTROZOLE (ARIMIDEX), AND LETROZOLE (FEMARA) 31Jie Jack Li 3.1 Introduction 32 3.2 Synthesis of Exemestane 35 3.3 Synthesis of Anastrozole 36 3.4 Synthesis of Letrozole 37 4 QUINOLONE ANTIBIOTICS: LEVOFLOXACIN (LEVAQUIN), MOXIFLOXACIN (AVELOX), GEMIFLOXACIN (FACTIVE), AND GARENOXACIN (T-3811) 39Chris Limberakis 4.1 Introduction 40 4.2 Levofloxacin 47 4.3 Moxifloxacin 57 4.4 Gemifloxacin 60 4.5 Garenoxacin (T-3811): A Promising Clinical Candidate 64 5 TRIAZOLE ANTIFUNGALS: ITRACONAZOLE (SPORANOX), FLUCONAZOLE (DIFLUCAN), VORICONAZOLE (VFEND), AND FOSFLUCONAZOLE (PRODIF) 71Andrew S. Bell 5.1 Introduction 72 5.2 Synthesis of Itraconazole 74 5.3 Synthesis of Fluconazole 76 5.4 Synthesis of Voriconazole 77 5.5 Synthesis of Fosfluconazole 80 6 NON-NUCLEOSIDE HIV REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITORS 83Arthur Harms 6.1 Introduction 84 6.2 Synthesis of Nevirapine 85 6.3 Synthesis of Efavirenz 87 6.4 Synthesis of Delavirdine Mesylate 90 7 NEURAMINIDASE INHIBITORS FOR INFLUENZA: OSELTAMIVIR PHOSPHATE (TAMIFLU) AND ZANAMIVIR (RELENZA) 95Douglas S. Johnson and Jie Jack Li 7.1 Introduction 95 7.1.1 Relenza 97 7.1.2 Tamiflu 97 7.2 Synthesis of Oseltamivir Phosphate (Tamiflu) 99 7.3 Synthesis of Zanamivir (Relenza) 110 II CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC DISEASES 8 PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR-ACTIVATED RECEPTOR (PPAR) AGONISTS FOR TYPE 2 DIABETES 117Jin Li 8.1 Introduction 117 8.2 Synthesis of Rosiglitazone 121 8.3 Synthesis of Pioglitazone 122 8.4 Synthesis of Muraglitazar 124 9 ANGIOTENSIN AT1 ANTAGONISTS FOR HYPERTENSION 129Larry Yet 9.1 Introduction 130 9.2 Losartan Potassium 132 9.3 Valsartan 134 9.4 Irbesartan 135 9.5 Candesartan Cilexetil 136 9.6 Olmesartan Medoxomil 137 9.7 Eprosartan Mesylate 138 9.8 Telmisartan 139 10 LEADING ACE INHIBITORS FOR HYPERTENSION 143Victor J. Cee and Edward J. Olhava 10.1 Introduction 144 10.2 Synthesis of Enalapril Maleate 146 10.3 Synthesis of Lisinopril 147 10.4 Synthesis of Quinapril 148 10.5 Synthesis of Benazepril 150 10.6 Synthesis of Ramipril 151 10.7 Synthesis of Fosinopril Sodium 154 11 DIHYDROPYRIDINE CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS FOR HYPERTENSION 159Daniel P. Christen 11.1 Introduction 160 11.2 Synthesis of Nifedipine (Adalat) 162 11.3 Synthesis of Felodepine (Plendil) 163 11.4 Synthesis of Amlodipine Besylate (Norvasc) 164 11.5 Synthesis of Azelnidipine (Calblock) 165 12 SECOND-GENERATION HMG-CoA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS 169Jeffrey A. Pfefferkorn 12.1 Introduction 170 12.2 Synthesis of Fluvastatin (Lescol) 171 12.3 Synthesis of Rosuvastatin (Crestor) 174 12.4 Synthesis of Pitavastatin (Livalo) 177 13 CHOLESTEROL ABSORPTION INHIBITORS: EZETIMIBE (ZETIA) 183Stuart B. Rosenblum 13.1 Introduction 183 13.2 Discovery Path to Ezetimibe 184 13.3 Synthesis of Ezetimibe (Zetia) 187 III CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES 14 DUAL SELECTIVE SEROTONIN AND NOREPINEPHRINE REUPTAKE INHIBITORS (SSNRIs) FOR DEPRESSION 199Marta Pineiro-Nunez 14.1 Introduction 200 14.2 Synthesis of Venlafaxine 203 14.3 Synthesis of Milnacipran 205 14.4 Synthesis of Duloxetine 207 15 GABAA RECEPTOR AGONISTS FOR INSOMNIA: ZOLPIDEM (AMBIEN), ZALEPLON (SONATA), ESZOPICLONE (ESTORRA, LUNESTA), AND INDIPLON 215Peter R. Guzzo 15.1 Introduction 216 15.2 Synthesis of Zolpidem 217 15.3 Synthesis of Zaleplon 219 15.4 Synthesis of Eszopiclone 220 15.5 Synthesis of Indiplon 221 16 Alpha2Delta LIGANDS: NEURONTIN (GABAPENTIN) AND LYRICA (PREGABALIN) 225Po-Wai Yuen 16.1 Introduction 225 16.2 Synthesis of Gabapentin 227 16.3 Synthesis of Pregabalin 234 17 APPROVED TREATMENTS FOR ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER: AMPHETAMINE (ADDERALL), METHYLPHENIDATE (RITALIN), AND ATOMOXETINE (STRATERRA) 241David L. Gray 17.1 Introduction 242 17.2 Synthesis of Amphetamine 244 17.3 Synthesis of Methylphenidate 247 17.4 Synthesis of Atomoxetine 253 References 257 Index 261

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Book SynopsisBased on the third edition of the Collection of Lectures of the Summer Schools on Green Chemistry held in Venice, Italy in the summers of 1998-2003, Green Chemistry stimulates and promotes the wide-ranging aspects of green chemistry and its major role in ensuring sustainable development.Trade Review"…a good representation of the current state of green chemistry…" (CHOICE, January 2008) "These are most excellent papers dealing with a very real and growing problem." (Journal of Hazardous Material, January 15, 2008) "…a good starting resource for readers seeking to employ sustainable chemistry." (Journal of the American Chemical Society, January 9, 2008) "For advanced students...this book will catch the eye, as it will do as well for chemists in research and development..." (Organic Chemistry Portal, November 2007)" Das Buch ist für fortgeschrittene Studenten interessant, die sich für "Green Chemistry" interessieren, und eine Übersicht über aktuelle Forschungsfelder erhalten wollen, als auch für Chemiker in Forschung und Entwicklung, um mögliche Kooperationspartner zu finden." http://www.organische-chemie.ch/Buch/0471754005.htm Nov. 07Table of ContentsForeword. Preface. Contributors. PART 1. GREEN REAGENTS. 1. The Four-Component reaction and Other MultiComponent Reactions of the Isocyanides (Ivar Ugi and Birgit Werner). 2. Carbohydrates as Renewable Raw Materials: A Major Challenge of Green Chemistry (Frieder W. Lichtenthaler). 3. Photoinitiated Synthesis: A Useful Perspective in Green Chemistry (Angelo Albini). 4. Dimethyl Caronate as a Green Reagent (Pietro Tundo & Maurizio Selva). PART 2. ALTERNATIVE REACTION CONDITIONS. 5. Ionic Liquids: "Designer" Solvents for Green Chemistry (Natalia V. Plechkova and Kenneth R. Seddon). 6. Supported Liquid-Phase Systems in Transition Metal Catalysis (Alvise Perosa and Sergei Zinovyev). 7. Organic Chemistry in Water: Green and Fast (Jan B. F. N. Engberts). 8. Formation, Mechanisms, and Minimization of Chlorinated Micropollutants (Dioxins) Formed in Technical Incineration Processes (Dieter Lenoir, Ernst Anton Feicht, Marchela Pandelova, and karl-Werner Schramm). PART 3. GREEN CATALYSIS AND BIOCATALYSIS. 9. Green Chemistry: Catalysis and Waste Minimization (Roger A Sheldon). 10. Seamless Chemistry for Sustainability (Johan Thoen and Jean Luc Guillaume). 11. Enantioselective Metal Catalyzed Oxidation Processes (David StC. Black). 12. Zeolite Catalysts for Cleaner Technologies (Michel Guisnet). 13. Acid and Superacid Solid Materials as Noncontaminant Alternative Catalysts in Refining (José M. López Nieto). 14. The Oxidation of Isobutane to Methacrylic Acid: An Alternative Technology for MMA Production (Nicola Ballarini, Fabrizio Cavani, Hélène Degrand, Eric Etienne, Anne Pigano, Ferruccio Trifitrò, and J. L. Dubois). 15. Biocatalysis for Industrial Green Chemistry (Zhi Li, Martin Held, Sven Panke, Andrew Schnid, Renata Mathys and Bernard Witholt). Index.

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Book SynopsisMycoremediation: Fungal Bioremediation provides comprehensive coverage, history, and the most up-to-date account of this dynamic and emerging field. This book focuses on the current status of role of fungi in biodegradation and bioremediation of various hazardous wastes and wastewaters.Trade Review"Useful for students, newcomers to the field, and teachers." (Mycological Research, July 2009) "If you want to know about the latest in mycoengineering technologies, or what your mycoreactor should look like, this is the reference you've been looking for. Those interested in the theoretical underpinnings of mycoremediation, fungal metabolism or modeling approaches to fungal physiology will also learn much from this monumental work." (Inoculum, May 2008) "The book is unique in its form, since it is the first encyclopedic examination of this topic ... .This book is recommended for scientists, engineers, regulatory experts and students working in the field of bioremediation and should be present in all libraries of universities and offices involved in waste management." (International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, January 2008) "A well written, extremely well referenced, comprehensive treatment of a formerly ... undeveloped topic." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, June 1, 2007) "For the first time, readers have a single, cohesive presentation of the current state of the science that will serve as a springboard for future research and new innovations." (Journal of the American Water Resources Association, April 2007)Table of ContentsPreface xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Fungal Biodegradation and Biodeterioration 2 1.2 How a Fungus Escapes Water to Grow in Air 3 1.3 Fungal Morphology Analysis and Growth Measurement 3 1.3.1 Fungal Morphology 3 1.3.2 Analysis of Fungal Morphology 4 1.3.3 Pellet Formation and Structure 5 1.3.4 Growth Measurement 6 1.4 Mass Transfer Growth Kinetics and Bioreactors 7 1.5 Methods for Detection of Degradative Fungi 10 1.5.1 Immunological Assays 10 1.5.2 Molecular Assays 11 1.6 Fungi as Environmental Indicators 13 1.7 Fungal Attack on Coal 14 1.8 Thermophilic Alpine and Lichen-Forming Fungi 15 1.9 Mycoremediation: Fungal Bioremediation 16 1.9.1 White-Rot Fungi in Bioremediation 16 1.10 Ecology of Mycoremediation 18 1.11 Genetic Engineering of Mycoremediation 19 References 20 2 Fungal Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Alternative Industrial Wastewater Bioreactors 30 2.3 Fungal Treatment of Industrial Wastewaters 31 2.3.1 Starch-Processing Wastewater 32 2.3.1.1 Background 32 2.3.1.2 Composition and Characteristics 33 2.3.1.3 Bioreactors and Fermentation 33 2.3.1.4 Enzyme Treatment 34 2.3.1.5 Production of Fungal Protein 35 2.3.2 Dairy Industry Wastewater 36 2.3.2.1 Background 36 2.3.2.2 Bioreactors and Modeling 37 2.3.2.3 Production of Fungal Biomass 39 2.3.2.4 Lactases 40 2.3.2.5 Genetics of Lactose Utilization 40 2.3.3 Pharmaceutical Industry Wastewater 41 2.3.3.1 Background 41 2.3.3.2 Process Development 42 2.3.3.3 Conclusions 42 2.3.4 Protein-Containing Wastewater 42 2.3.4.1 Background 42 2.3.4.2 Bioreactors 43 2.3.5 Oil Manufacturing Plant Wastewater 44 2.3.5.1 Background 44 2.3.5.2 Assay of Oil-Decomposing Ability 45 2.3.5.3 Bioreactors 45 2.3.6 Silage Wastewater 47 2.3.6.1 Background 47 2.3.6.2 Legislation 48 2.3.6.3 Growth of Fungi 48 2.3.6.4 On-Farm Treatment 50 2.3.6.5 Production of Fungal Biomass 50 2.3.7 Acidogenic Wastewater 50 2.3.7.1 Background 50 2.3.7.2 Bioreactors and Modeling 51 2.3.8 Olive Mill Wastewater 53 2.3.8.1 Background 53 2.3.8.2 Composition and Characteristics 54 2.3.8.3 Fermentation 54 2.3.8.4 Modeling 57 2.3.8.5 Immobilization 57 2.3.8.6 Enzyme Treatment 59 2.3.8.7 Toxicity Testing 60 2.3.8.8 Economic Importance 61 2.4 Biotechnology 62 2.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 63 References 63 3 Fungal Treatment of Distillery and Brewery Wastes 76 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Composition and Characteristics of Stillage 77 3.3 Alternative Industrial Stillage Treatment Reactors 78 3.4 Fungal Treatment of Distillery and Brewery Wastes 80 3.5 Fungal Fermentation and Decolorization 80 3.5.1 Yeasts 81 3.5.2 Filamentous Fungi 84 3.5.3 White-Rot Fungi 85 3.5.4 Mixed Cultures 86 3.6 Molasses Toxicity to Fungi 87 3.7 Factors Affecting Fungal Fermentation and Decolorization 87 3.7.1 Carbon Source 89 3.7.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Sources 89 3.7.3 Temperature 90 3.7.4 pH 90 3.7.5 Agitation and Aeration 90 3.7.6 Inoculum Size 91 3.7.7 Effluent Dilution Rate 91 3.8 Mechanisms of Melanoidin Degradation 92 3.9 Fungal Bioreactors for Distillery and Brewery Wastes 93 3.9.1 Fed-Batch Bioreactors 95 3.9.2 Bubble Column Bioreactors 95 3.9.3 Fluidized-Bed Bioreactors 95 3.9.4 Immobilized Bioreactors 96 3.10 Modeling 97 3.11 Economic Importance 98 3.11.1 Single-Cell Protein Production 98 3.11.2 Ethanol Production 99 3.11.3 Bioproducts 101 3.11.4 Algal Production 103 3.12 Biotechnology 103 3.13 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 104 References 106 4 Fungal Metabolism of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 115 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 Fate of Oil in the Environment 116 4.3 Composition of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 117 4.4 Methods of Analysis of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 117 4.5 Alternative Treatment Technologies 119 4.6 Hydrocarbon-Utilizing Yeasts and Fungi 119 4.7 Fungal Methods of Assessment 121 4.7.1 Fungal Enumeration 122 4.7.2 Respirometric Tests 123 4.7.3 Soil Microcosm Tests 123 4.7.4 Miscellaneous Tests 124 4.8 Hydrocarbon Metabolism by Yeasts and Fungi 124 4.9 Taxonomic Relationship of Hydrocarbon-Utilizing Yeasts and Fungi 129 4.10 Factors Affecting Metabolism of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 130 4.10.1 Physical Nature 130 4.10.2 Temperature 130 4.10.3 pH 131 4.10.4 Oxygen 131 4.10.5 Nutrients Dispersants and Biosurfactants 131 4.11 Fungal Mechanisms of Metabolism of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 132 4.11.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 133 4.11.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 134 4.11.3 Cooxidation of Hydrocarbons 134 4.11.4 Uptake of Hydrocarbons 134 4.12 Oxidation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons by Fungal Enzymes 135 4.13 Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Systems 136 4.14 Economic Importance 137 4.14.1 Single-Cell Protein 137 4.14.2 Surfactant Production 137 4.14.3 Metabolite Overproduction 138 4.15 Biotechnology and Bioengineering 139 4.16 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 140 References 140 5 Fungal Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Dioxins 149 5.1 Introduction 149 5.2 Nomenclature 150 5.3 Bioaccumulation and Toxicity 150 5.4 Alternative PCB Remediation Technologies 151 5.5 Analysis of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 151 5.6 Bioavailability of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 153 5.7 Fungal Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 154 5.7.1 Filamentous Fungi 154 5.7.2 Yeasts 156 5.7.3 White-Rot Fungi 158 5.7.3.1 White-Rot Fungal Bioreactors 158 5.7.3.2 Degradation and Mineralization 159 5.7.3.3 Effects of Chlorination Grades and Patterns 162 5.7.3.4 Metabolic Products and Pathways 163 5.7.3.5 Role of Manganese in PCB Biodegradation 167 5.7.3.6 PCB Bioremediation in Soils 167 5.7.3.7 Biotransformation of PCBs by Laccases 169 5.7.3.8 Comparison with Bacterial Systems 171 5.8 Fungal Degradation of Dioxins 172 5.9 Genetic Manipulation 173 5.10 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 173 References 174 6 Fungal Degradation of Pesticides 181 6.1 Introduction 181 6.2 Classification 182 6.3 Biosensors for Detection of Pesticides 182 6.4 Fungal Degradation of Insecticides 184 6.4.1 Chlorinated Compounds 184 6.4.2 Organophosphorus Compounds 189 6.4.3 Miscellaneous Compounds 190 6.5 Fungal Degradation of Herbicides 190 6.5.1 Phenoxyalkanoate Compounds 190 6.5.2 Phenylamide Compounds 194 6.5.2.1 Acylanilides 194 6.5.2.2 Phenylureas 195 6.5.2.3 Phenylcarbamates 197 6.5.3 s-Triazine Compounds 198 6.5.4 Miscellaneous Compounds 199 6.6 Fungal Degradation of Fungicides 199 6.6.1 Organomercurial Compounds 200 6.6.2 Organosulfur Compounds 200 6.6.3 Organophosphorus Compounds 203 6.6.4 Aromatic and Heterocyclic Compounds 203 6.7 Biotransformation of Pesticides by Fungal Enzymes 203 6.8 Genetic Manipulation 205 6.9 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 207 References 208 7 Fungal Metabolism of Phenols Chlorophenols and Pentachlorophenol 215 7.1 Introduction 215 7.2 Alternative Treatment Technologies 216 7.2.1 Physicochemical Methods 216 7.2.2 Biological Methods 217 7.2.2.1 Metabolism by Bacteria 217 7.2.2.2 Metabolism by Actinomycetes 218 7.2.2.3 Metabolism by Algae and Higher Plants 218 7.3 Fungal Biosensors for Determination of Various Types of Phenols 219 7.3.1 Enzyme-Based Systems 219 7.3.2 Biological Affinity Assays (Immunoassays) 221 7.4 Methods of Analysis of Various Types of Phenols 221 7.5 Fungal Bioreactors for Removal of Various Types of Phenols 221 7.5.1 Rotating Tube Bioreactors 222 7.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors 222 7.5.3 Packed-Bed/Immobilized Bioreactors 222 7.5.4 Upflow Column Bioreactors 225 7.5.5 Miscellaneous Bioreactors 226 7.6 Fungal Metabolism of Phenols Chlorophenols and Pentachlorophenol 226 7.6.1 Fungal Metabolism of Phenols 226 7.6.2 Fungal Metabolism of Chlorophenols 230 7.6.3 Fungal Metabolism of Pentachlorophenol 230 7.7 Factors Affecting Fungal Metabolism of Various Types of Phenols 231 7.7.1 Effect of Static Versus Agitated Culture Conditions 231 7.7.2 Effect of Culture Age Type of Inoculum and Carbon and Nitrogen Sources 234 7.8 Physiological Alterations of Fungi by Phenols 235 7.9 Taxonomic Relationship of Phenol-Utilizing Yeasts and Fungi 236 7.10 Mechanisms of Metabolism Metabolic Pathways and Metabolites 237 7.11 Degradation of Phenols by Fungal Enzymes 245 7.11.1 Peroxidase-Catalyzed Degradation 246 7.11.1.1 Peroxidase Bioreactors 246 7.11.2 Polyphenol Oxidase/Tyrosinase-Catalyzed Degradation 250 7.11.2.1 Polyphenol Oxidase/Tyrosinase Bioreactors 251 7.11.3 Laccase-Catalyzed Degradation 253 7.11.3.1 Influence of Cosubstrates 257 7.11.3.2 Laccase Bioreactors 258 7.11.4 Miscellaneous Enzymes 259 7.12 Fungal Transformation of Pentachlorophenol in Soils 261 7.12.1 Bound Residue Formation 261 7.12.2 Degradation and Mineralization 263 7.12.3 Fungal Augmentation 264 7.13 Cytochrome P450 Systems in Degradation of Phenols 265 7.14 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 266 References 267 8 Fungal Metabolism of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 283 8.1 Introduction 283 8.2 Occurrence of PAHs in the Environment 284 8.3 Alternative PAH Metabolism 285 8.3.1 Bacteria 285 8.3.2 Algae Cyanobacteria and Higher Plants 287 8.4 Fungal Metabolism of PAHs 287 8.4.1 Fungal Metabolism of Naphthalene 296 8.4.2 Fungal Metabolism of Acenaphthene 296 8.4.3 Fungal Metabolism of Anthracene 296 8.4.4 Fungal Metabolism of Phenanthrene 297 8.4.5 Fungal Metabolism of Fluorene 298 8.4.6 Fungal Metabolism of Fluoranthene 300 8.4.7 Fungal Metabolism of Chrysene 300 8.4.8 Fungal Metabolism of Pyrene 302 8.4.9 Fungal Metabolism of Benz[a]anthracene 304 8.4.10 Fungal Metabolism of Benzo[a]pyrene 305 8.5 Mutagenicity of Fungal Metabolites of PAHs 306 8.6 Fungal Bioreactors for Removal of PAHs 306 8.6.1 Immobilized Bioreactors 307 8.6.2 Closed-Batch Feed Bioreactors 307 8.6.3 Compost Bioreactors 310 8.6.4 Miscellaneous Bioreactors 311 8.7 PAH Degradation by Fungal Enzymes 311 8.7.1 Peroxidase-Catalyzed Degradation 312 8.7.1.1 Role of Miscible Solvents 314 8.7.1.2 Influence of Cyclodextrins 315 8.7.2 Laccase-Catalyzed Degradation 316 8.7.2.1 Laccase Bioreactors 319 8.7.2.2 Influence of Mediators 319 8.7.3 Miscellaneous Enzymes 320 8.8 Cytochrome P450 in Degradation of PAHs 322 8.9 Fungal Degradation of PAHs in Soils 323 8.9.1 Influence of Cosubstrates and Surfactants 324 8.9.2 Fate of PAH Disappearance 330 8.9.2.1 PAH Degradation and Mineralization 330 8.9.2.2 Bound Residue Formation 333 8.9.3 Factors Affecting Biodegradation of PAHs 334 8.10 Fungal Metabolism of Complex PAH Mixtures 335 8.11 PAH Degradation by Fungal–Bacterial Co-cultures 336 8.12 Biotechnology and Bioengineering 337 8.13 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 339 References 340 9 Fungal Lignin Degradation and Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 357 9.1 Introduction 357 9.2 Distribution and Structure of Lignin 358 9.3 Lignin-Degrading Microorganisms 360 9.3.1 Bacterial Degradation 360 9.3.2 Fungal Degradation 360 9.4 Fungal Lignin-Degrading Enzymes 362 9.4.1 Lignin Peroxidases 363 9.4.2 Manganese Peroxidases 368 9.4.3 Laccases 372 9.4.4 Hydrogen Peroxide–Producing Enzymes 375 9.4.5 Reactive Oxygen Species 378 9.4.6 Miscellaneous Enzymes 380 9.5 Mechanisms of Fungal Lignin Degradation and Metabolic Products 381 9.6 Fungal Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 382 9.7 Fungal Bioreactors for Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 384 9.7.1 Batch and Continuous Bioreactors 384 9.7.2 Upflow Column Bioreactors 387 9.7.3 Immobilized Bioreactors 388 9.7.4 Miscellaneous Bioreactors 389 9.8 Factors Affecting Decolorization of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents 391 9.8.1 Carbon Cosubstrate 391 9.8.2 Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur and Chloride Concentrations 391 9.8.3 Hydrogen Ion Concentration and Temperature 395 9.8.4 Dilution of Effluent 395 9.8.5 Inoculum Dose and Nature 395 9.8.6 Static Versus Agitated Culture Conditions 396 9.9 Effect of Fungal Treatment on Chlorophenols and Chloroaldehydes in Effluents 396 9.10 Decolorization of Effluents by Fungal Enzymes 397 9.11 Wetlands Treatment 399 9.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 399 References 400 10 Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 420 10.1 Introduction 420 10.2 Classification Structure and Color Measurements 421 10.3 Legislation and Regulations 422 10.4 Alternative Decolorization Treatment Technologies 423 10.4.1 Physicochemical Methods 423 10.4.2 Biological Methods 425 10.4.2.1 Degradation by Bacteria 425 10.4.2.2 Degradation by Actinomycetes 425 10.4.2.3 Degradation by Algae and Higher Plants 425 10.5 Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 426 10.5.1 Azo Dyes 426 10.5.2 Phthalocyanine Dyes 434 10.5.3 Anthraquinone Dyes 434 10.5.4 Heterocyclic Dyes 435 10.5.5 Indigo Dyes 435 10.5.6 Polymeric Dyes 435 10.5.7 Triphenylmethane Dyes 435 10.6 Yeast Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 436 10.7 White-Rot Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 438 10.8 Mechanisms of Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 438 10.9 Metabolic Products and Pathways 440 10.10 Factors Affecting Fungal Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 442 10.10.1 Media Composition 443 10.10.2 Static Versus Agitated Culture Conditions 447 10.10.3 pH and Temperature 447 10.10.4 C and N Sources TOC/N Ratio and Salts 447 10.10.5 Initial Dye Concentration 448 10.11 Fungal Dye Decolorization and Degradation Bioreactors 448 10.11.1 Rotating Drum Stirred-Tank and Membrane Bioreactors 452 10.11.2 Packed- and Fluidized-Bed Bioreactors 452 10.11.3 Immobilized Bioreactors 453 10.12 Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes by Fungal Enzymes 454 10.12.1 Peroxidase-Catalyzed Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 455 10.12.1.1 Peroxidase Bioreactors 461 10.12.2 Laccase-Catalyzed Decolorization and Degradation of Dyes 462 10.12.2.1 Laccase Bioreactors 466 10.12.2.2 Influence of Mediators 467 10.13 Decolorization of Artificial Textile Effluent 467 10.14 Sequential Dye Decolorization 470 10.15 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 470 References 472 11 Fungal Biosorption of Heavy Metals 484 11.1 Introduction 484 11.2 Biosorption and Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals 485 11.3 Evaluation of Sorption Performance 486 11.4 Mechanisms of Fungal Biosorption of Heavy Metals 487 11.5 Fungal Biosorption Reactors for Heavy Metals 491 11.5.1 Types of Reactors 491 11.5.1.1 Batch Stirred-Tank Reactors 491 11.5.1.2 Continuous-Flow Stirred-Tank Reactors 491 11.5.1.3 Fixed Packed-Bed Reactors 491 11.5.1.4 Immobilized Reactors 491 11.5.2 Models of Process Development 496 11.5.3 Desorption and Regeneration 498 11.5.4 Effect of Effluent Composition 499 11.6 Applications of Fungal Biosorption of Heavy Metals 499 11.6.1 Biosorption by Filamentous Fungi 499 11.6.2 Biosorption by White-Rot Fungi 504 11.6.3 Biosorption by Yeasts 505 11.6.4 Biosorption by Aspergillus niger 507 11.6.4.1 Role in Soil Bioremediation 509 11.7 Fungal Biosorption of Herbicides and Phenols 509 11.8 Fungal Biosorption of Dyes 512 11.9 Fungal Binary and Ternary Biosorption Systems 512 11.9.1 Binary Biosorption Systems 512 11.9.2 Ternary Biosorption Systems 515 11.9.3 Effect of Co-cations 516 11.10 Biosorption of Heavy Metal Anions 516 11.11 Metal Ion Resistance 517 11.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 518 References 519 12 Mycorrhizal Fungi in Rhizosphere Remediation 533 12.1 Introduction 533 12.2 Classification of Mycorrhizal Fungi 534 12.3 Functions of Mycorrhizal Mycelium 535 12.4 Methods for Studying Mycorrhizal Fungi 536 12.5 Molecular Mechanisms of Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 538 12.6 Metabolism of Mycorrhizal Fungi 539 12.6.1 General Metabolism 539 12.6.2 Degradative Metabolism 539 12.7 Uptake of Toxic Metals 541 12.7.1 Metal Tolerance in Mycorrhizal Symbiosis 541 12.7.2 Mechanisms of Response to Metals 543 12.7.3 Transport of Radionuclides 545 12.7.4 Genetics of Metal Tolerance 547 12.8 Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation 547 12.9 Lignin and Phenolic Degradation 549 12.10 PAH and TNT Degradation 552 12.11 PCB Degradation 555 12.12 Herbicide Degradation 555 12.13 Comparison of Mycorrhizal and White-Rot Fungi 556 12.14 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 558 References 559 Index 573

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Book SynopsisOrganic reactions in water have proven a useful synthetic tool, and provide cost-efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly alternatives to organic-solvent based reactions. This field has been greatly expanded over the last decade, and currently there are many diverse applications in both industry and academic laboratories.Trade Review"As it is a conference report, the book is clearly intended for specialists in the field." (Angewandte Chemie, 2008-47/11) "…a testament to the enormous expansion in the field of water-based chemistry, and compiling it in a single volume is very useful." (Journal of the American Chemical Society, December 26, 2007) "Advanced students and research and development chemists with an interest in green chemistry are highly recommended to purchase this book." (Organic Chemistry Portal, January 2008)"Diese Aktualisierung einer klassischen Monographie fasst die bedeutenden Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet organischer Reaktionen in wassriger Phase in den letzten Jahren hervorragend zusammen." Angewandte Chemie 2008-120/11Table of ContentsPREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1 The Structure and Forms of Water. 1.2 Properties of Water. 1.3 Solvation. 1.4 Hydrophobic Effect. 1.5 Salt Effect. 1.6 Water Under Extreme Conditions. References. 2. ALKANES. 2.1 Oxygenation of Alkanes. 2.2 Halogenation of Alkanes. 2.3 Formation of Carbon–Carbon Bonds. 2.4 D/H Exchange of Alkanes in Water. References. 3. ALKENES. 3.1 Reduction. 3.2 Electrophilic Additions. 3.3 Radical Reactions of Alkenes. 3.4 Carbene Reactions. 3.5 Alkene Isomerization. 3.6 Transition-Metal Catalyzed C–C Formation Reactions. 3.7 Olefin Metathesis. 3.8 Reaction of Allylic C–H Bond. 4. ALKYNES. 4.1 Reaction of Terminal Alkynes. 4.2 Additions of C≡C bonds. 4.3 Transition-Metal Catalyzed Cycloadditions. 4.4 Other Reactions. References. 5. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS, ETHERS, THIOLS, AND THIOETHERS. 5.1 Oxidation of Alcohols. 5.2 Substitutions/Elimination. 5.3 Addition of Alcohols, Phenols, and Thiols to Alkene and Alkyne Bonds. 5.4 Addition of Alcohols to C=O Bonds: Esterification and Acetal Formations. 5.5 Reaction of Ethers and Cyclic Ethers. 5.6 Reaction of Sulfur Compounds. 6. ORGANIC HALIDES. 6.1 General. 6.2 Reduction. 6.3 Elimination Reactions. 6.4 Nucleophilic Substitutions. 6.5 Reductive Coupling. 6.6 Carbonylation of Organic Halides. 6.7 Transition-Metal Catalyzed Coupling Reactions. References. 7. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS. 7.1 General. 7.2 Substitution Reactions. 7.3 Oxidation Reactions. 7.4 Reductions. References. 8. ALDEHDYE AND KETONES. 8.1 Reduction. 8.2 Oxidation. 8.3 Nucleophilic Addition: C–C Bond Formation. 8.4 Pinacol Coupling. 8.5 Other Reactions (Halogenation and Oxidation of α-H). References. 9. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES. 9.1 General. 9.2 Carboxylic Acids. 9.3 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives. References. 10. CONJUGATED CARBONYL COMPOUNDS. 10.1 Reduction. 10.2 Epoxidation, Dihydroxylation, Hydroxyamination. 10.3 Conjugate Addition: Heteroatom. 10.4 C–C Bond Formation. 10.5 Other Reactions. References. 11. NITROGEN COMPOUNDS. 11.1 Amines. 11.2 Imines. 11.3 Diazo Compounds. 11.4 Azides. 11.5 Nitro Compounds. References. 12. PERICYCLIC REACTIONS. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Diels-Alder Reactions. 12.3 Sigmatropic Rearrangements. 12.4 Photochemical Cycloaddition Reactions. References. INDEX.

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