Description
Book SynopsisNanotechnology: Basic Calculations for Engineers and Scientists addresses the needs of the environmental engineer and scientist in industry. With 200 worked calculation problems and solutions, this book bridges the gap between the developing industry of nanomanufacturing and the existing understanding of environmental issues.
Trade Review"…not only be helpful for students of this relatively new science but students of several related sciences…and anyone in the field." (
E-STREAMS, June 2007)
"...would benefit students and engineers or scientists working with nanomaterials or those needing to brush up on general chemistry or who need a reference book on various chemistry calculations." (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, November/December 2006)
"…the author has done an exceedingly good job at providing problems and their solutions." (Journal of Hazardous Materials, September 1, 2006)
Table of ContentsPreface xvii
Introduction xix
PART 1: CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS AND PRINCIPLES 1
1 Units, Conversion Constants, and Dimensional Analysis 3
1.1 Background on the Metric System 4
1.2 Describe the SI System of Units 6
1.3 The Conversion Constant gc 9
1.4 Unit Conversion Factors: General Approach 10
1.5 Temperature Conversions 11
1.6 Pressure Calculations 11
1.7 Density and Thermal Conductivity 13
1.8 Viscosity Conversions 14
1.9 Air Quality Standard 14
1.10 Conversion Factors for Particulate Measurements 15
1.11 Significant Figures and Scientific Notation 15
1.12 Uncertainty in Measurement 17
2 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic Table 19
2.1 Atomic Theory 21
2.2 The Avogadro Number 21
2.3 Mass and Size of Atoms 22
2.4 Atomic Conversions 23
2.5 Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, and Mass Number 24
2.6 Bismuth Application 24
2.7 Elements 24
2.8 Symbols for Elements 27
2.9 Periodic Table Application 28
2.10 Isotopes 29
3 Molecular Rearrangements 31
3.1 License Plate Sets 31
3.2 Chemical Permutations and Combinations 32
3.3 Formula Weight and Molecular Weight 34
3.4 Mole/Molecule Relationship 34
3.5 Pollutant Chemical Formulas 35
3.6 Stoichiometry 36
3.7 Limiting and Excess Reactants 36
3.8 Combustion of Chlorobenzene 37
3.9 Metal Alloy Calculation 39
3.10 Chemical Production 40
4 Concentration Terms 43
4.1 Density, Specific Gravity, and Bulk Density 43
4.2 Classes of Solution 45
4.3 Molality versus Molarity 45
4.4 Molar Relationships 46
4.5 Concentration Conversion 47
4.6 Chlorine Concentration 48
4.7 Trace Concentration 49
4.8 Ash Emission 50
4.9 Dilution Factor 51
4.10 Nano Exhaust to Atmosphere 52
4.11 Flue Gas Analysis 52
4.12 pH 53
5 Particle Size, Surface Area, and Volume 55
5.1 Sphere, Cube, Rectangular Parallelepiped, and Cylinder 56
5.2 Parallelogram, Triangle, and Trapezoid 57
5.3 Polygons 57
5.4 Elipse and Ellipsoid 58
5.5 Cones 58
5.6 Torus 59
5.7 Area to Volume Ratios 59
5.8 Area to Volume Calculation 60
5.9 Increase in Sphere Surface Area 60
5.10 Increase in Cube Surface Area 61
6 Materials Science Principles 63
6.1 Metals, Polymers, and Ceramics 63
6.2 Composites, Semiconductors, and Biomaterials 64
6.3 Crystal Coordination Numbers 64
6.4 Geometry of Metallic Unit Cells 70
6.5 Geometry of Ionic Unit Cells 75
6.6 Packing Factor 78
6.7 Density Calculation 80
6.8 Directions and Planes 83
6.9 Linear Density 88
6.10 Planar Density 90
7 Physical and Chemical Property Estimation 95
7.1 Property Differences 96
7.2 Material Selection 97
7.3 Vapor Pressure 97
7.4 Vapor Pressure Calculation 98
7.5 Heat of Vaporization From Vapor Pressure Data 99
7.6 Critical and Reduced Properties 100
7.7 Estimating Enthalpy of Vaporization 101
7.8 Viscosity 104
7.9 Thermal Conductivity 106
7.10 Thermal Conductivity Application 108
7.11 Nokay Equation and Lydersen’s Method 109
7.12 The Rihani and Doraiswamy Procedure, and the Lee–Kesler Equation 113
References: Part 1 117
PART 2: PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY 119
8 Nature of Particulates 121
8.1 Definition of Particulates 121
8.2 Dust, Smoke, and Fumes 122
8.3 Mist and Drizzle 123
8.4 Changing Properties 123
8.5 Dust Explosions 123
8.6 Adsorption and Catalytic Activity in the Atmosphere 125
8.7 Particle Size 125
8.8 Particle Volume and Surface Area 126
8.9 Volume/Surface Area Ratios 127
8.10 Particle Formation 128
9 Particle Size Distribution 131
9.1 Representative Sampling 131
9.2 Typical Particle Size Ranges 132
9.3 Particle Size Distribution and Concentration for Industrial Particulates 132
9.4 Particle Size Distribution 133
9.5 Median and Mean Particle Size 133
9.6 Standard Deviation 136
9.7 The Frequency Distribution Curve 137
9.8 The Cumulative Distribution Curve 138
9.9 The Normal Distribution 139
9.10 The Log Normal Distribution 141
9.11 Effect of Size Distribution on Cumulative Distribution Plots 143
9.12 Nanoparticle Size Variation With Time 145
10 Particle Sizing and Measurement Methods 151
10.1 Tyler and U.S. Standard Screens 152
10.2 Equivalent Diameter Terms 154
10.3 Aerodynamic Diameter 155
10.4 Sizing Devices 157
10.5 Rectangular Conduit Sampling 159
10.6 Volumetric Flow Rate Calculation 160
10.7 Particle Mass Flow Rate Calculation 162
10.8 Average Particle Concentration 163
10.9 Equal Annular Areas for Circular Ducts 164
10.10 Traverse Point Location in Circular Ducts 165
10.11 Duct Flow Equation Derivation 166
10.12 Source Characteristics and Variations 168
11 Fluid Particle Dynamics 171
11.1 The Gravitational Force 172
11.2 The Buoyant Force 172
11.3 The Drag Force 174
11.4 The Drag Coefficient 174
11.5 Equation of Particle Motion/Balance of Forces on a Particle 176
11.6 Particle Settling Velocity Equations 177
11.7 Determination of the Flow Regime 178
11.8 Settling Velocity Application 179
11.9 The Cunningham Correction Factor 180
11.10 Cunningham Correction Factor Values for Air at Atmospheric Pressure 181
11.11 Particle Settling Velocity – Different Regimes 182
11.12 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion 186
12 Particle Collection Mechanisms 187
12.1 Gravity 188
12.2 Centrifugal Force 188
12.3 Inertial Impaction and Interception 190
12.4 Electrostatic Effects 192
12.5 Thermophoresis and Diffusiophoresis 193
12.6 Acceleration Effects 194
12.7 Brownian Motion/Molecular Diffusion Effects 194
12.8 Nonspherical Particles 196
12.9 Wall Effects 197
12.10 Multiparticle Effects 198
12.11 Multidimensional Flow 198
12.12 Collection Efficiency for Nanosized/Submicron Particles 199
13 Particle Collection Efficiency 201
13.1 Collection Efficiency: Loading Data 202
13.2 Collection Efficiency: Mass Rate 202
13.3 Efficiency of Multiple Collectors 204
13.4 Penetration 204
13.5 Collection Efficiency: Numbers Basis 205
13.6 Particle Size–Collection Efficiency Relationships 206
13.7 Collection Efficiency: Surface Area Basis 207
13.8 Particle Size Distribution/Size–Efficiency Calculation 208
13.9 Check for Emission Standards Compliance: Numbers Basis 210
13.10 Anderson 2000 Sampler 211
References: Part 2 215
PART 3: APPLICATIONS 217
14 Legal Considerations 219
14.1 Intellectual Property Law 219
14.2 Patents 220
14.3 Contract Law 220
14.4 Tort Law 221
14.5 Recent Patent Activity 222
14.6 Conservation Law For Mass 222
14.7 Conservation Law for Energy 224
14.8 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 226
14.9 Allowable Patent Application Claims 228
14.10 Practicing One’s Own Invention 229
15 Size Reduction 231
15.1 Size Reduction Objectives 231
15.2 Plasma-Based and Flame-Hydrolysis Methods 232
15.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition and Electrodeposition 233
15.4 Sol-Gel Processing 233
15.5 Mechanical Crushing 235
15.6 Promising Technologies 235
15.7 Energy and Power Requirements 236
15.8 Potential Dust Explosions With Size Reduction 238
15.9 Material Balance Size Reduction 238
15.10 Size Reduction Surface Area Increase 239
15.11 Fines Eductor Application 241
15.12 Fines Eductor Size Reduction 242
16 Prime Materials 245
16.1 Metals 246
16.2 Iron 246
16.3 Aluminum 247
16.4 Nickel 247
16.5 Silver 248
16.6 Gold 248
16.7 Iron Oxides 248
16.8 Aluminum Oxide 249
16.9 Zirconium Dioxide 249
16.10 Titanium Dioxide 250
16.11 Zinc Oxide 251
16.12 Silica Products 251
17 Production Manufacturing Routes 253
17.1 Carbon Nanotubes and Buckyballs 254
17.2 Semiconductor Manufacturing 255
17.3 Advanced Composites 256
17.4 Advanced Ceramics 258
17.5 Catalytic and Photocatalytic Applications 260
17.6 Gas Sensors and Other Analytical Devices 261
17.7 Consumer Products 262
17.8 Drug Delivery Mechanisms and Medical Therapeutics 262
17.9 Microelectronics Applications 264
17.10 Future Activites 264
18 Ventilation 267
18.1 Indoor Air Quality 268
18.2 Indoor Air/Ambient Air Comparison 269
18.3 Sources of Contaminents in Indoor Air 269
18.4 Industrial Ventilation System 271
18.5 Dilution Ventilation vs. Local Exhaust Systems 271
18.6 Ventilation Definitions 273
18.7 Air Exchange Rate 276
18.8 Accidental Emission 278
18.9 Dilution Ventilation Application 279
18.10 Vinyl Chloride Application 280
18.11 Ventilation Models 282
18.12 Minimum Ventilation Flowrate 286
19 Dispersion Considerations 289
19.1 Atmospheric Deposition Calculation 290
19.2 Ground Deposition of Particles 291
19.3 Plume Rise 293
19.4 Pasquill–Gifford Model 294
19.5 Ground-Level Particle Deposition 298
19.6 Line and Area Sources 300
19.7 Instantaneous “Puff” Model 303
19.8 Instantaneous “Puff” Sources 306
19.9 U.S. EPA Dispersion Models 307
19.10 Dispersion in Water Systems and Soils 308
19.11 Canal Concentration Profile 309
19.12 Accidenctal/Emergency Discharge into a Lake/Reservoir 311
20 Ethics 315
20.1 Determination of Ethical Values 315
20.2 Do’s and Don’ts 316
20.3 Codes of Ethics 316
20.4 The Heavy Metal Dilemma 317
20.5 Let Them Worry About It 319
20.6 It’s In the Air 321
20.7 Cheap at What Price 322
20.8 Safety Comes First 323
20.9 Intellectual Property 324
20.10 There’s No Such Thing as a Free Seminar 325
References: Part 3 327
PART 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS 331
21 Environmental Regulations 333
21.1 The Regulatory System 334
21.2 Air Quality Issues 335
21.3 Particulate Loading 337
21.4 Clean Air Act Acronyms 339
21.5 Water Pollution Control 342
21.6 Water Quality Issues 343
21.7 Clean Water Act and PWPs 345
21.8 Wastewater Composition 346
21.9 Solid Waste Management Issues 348
21.10 Hazardous Waste Incinerator 349
21.11 Nanotechnology Environmental Regulations Overview 350
21.12 Nanotechnology Opponents 352
22 Toxicology 353
22.1 The Science of Toxicology 353
22.2 Toxicology Classifications 354
22.3 Routes of Exposure 354
22.4 Threshold Limit Value (TLV) 355
22.5 Toxicology Terminology 356
22.6 TLV vs. PEL 357
22.7 Toxicity Factors 357
22.8 OSHA and NIOSH 358
22.9 Toxicology Determination 359
22.10 IDLH and Lethal Level 359
22.11 Chemical Exposure 361
22.12 Threshold Limit Values 362
23 Noncarcinogens 365
23.1 Hazard Quotient 365
23.2 Reference Dose 366
23.3 Concept of Threshold 367
23.4 Exposure Duration Classification 368
23.5 Risk For Multiple Agents: Chronic Exposure 369
23.6 Risk for Multiple Agents: Subchronic Exposure 370
23.7 Multiple Exposure Pathways 371
23.8 MCL and RfD 372
23.9 Uncertainly and Modifying Factors 372
23.10 Calculating an RfD from NOAEL 373
23.11 Metal Plating Facility Application 374
23.12 Noncarcinogen Calculation Procedure 374
24 Carcinogens 377
24.1 Nonthreshold Concept 377
24.1 Weight of Evidence and Slope Factor 378
24.3 Carcinogenic Toxicity Values 380
24.4 Benzene in Water Application 381
24.5 Excess Lifetime Cancer Cases 382
24.6 Action Level 382
24.7 Accidental Spill 383
24.8 Uncertainties and Limitations 384
24.9 Multiple Chemical Agents and Exposure Pathways 385
24.10 Exponential Risk Model 386
24.11 Risk Algorithm 386
24.12 Risk Algorithm Application for Benzene 388
25 Health Risk Assessment 391
25.1 Risk Definitions 392
25.2 The Health Risk Evaluation Process 392
25.3 Standand Values for Individuals 394
25.4 Qualitative Risk Scenarios 395
25.5 Example of a Health Risk Assessment 396
25.6 Chemical Exposure in a Laboratory 397
25.7 Laboratory Spill 398
25.8 Respirators 399
25.9 Performance of a Carbon Cartridge Respirator 400
25.10 Sampling Program 402
26 Hazard Risk Assessment 407
26.1 Example of a Hazard 408
26.2 Risk Evaluation Process for Accidents 408
26.3 Plant and Process Safety 411
26.4 Series and Parallel Systems 412
26.5 Binomial Distribution 413
26.6 The Poisson Distribution 414
26.7 The Weibull Distribution 415
26.8 The Normal Distribution 416
26.9 Soil Contamination 419
26.10 Event Tree Analysis 420
26.11 Fault Tree Analysis 421
26.12 Upper and Lower Flamability Limits 425
27 Epidemiology 429
27.1 Historical View 429
27.2 Occupational Health 430
27.3 Descriptive Studies 431
27.4 Probability 432
27.5 Prevalence 432
27.6 Incidence Rate 433
27.7 The Mean 434
27.8 The Variance and the Standard Deviation 435
References: Part 4 437
Appendix Quantum Mechanics 439
Index 447
