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Book SynopsisCovering a wide range of remote sensing techniques and applications, this new edition is now more accessible to students, while retaining its focus on physical and mathematical principles. Chapter summaries, review questions, problem sets and supporting online material allow students to test their understanding and practise handling data for themselves.Trade Review'This is a welcome new edition of a popular text, with wonderful color illustrations. The author has managed to help students digest the principles by adding useful summaries and review questions. A practical improvement for students and instructors is the addition of the rich suite of online resources, which greatly add to the book's appeal.' Farouk El-Baz, Director, Center for Remote Sensing, Boston University'Rees' new edition of his popular remote sensing textbook is written in an easy-to-follow style, but doesn't neglect the mathematical underpinnings. It covers principles related to all the key wavelength regions, and such diverse topics as photogrammetry, atmospheric sounding and multispectral imaging. Including coverage of applications on land, in the atmosphere and oceans, it represents an excellent resource for students and practitioners alike.' Martin Wooster, Environmental Monitoring and Modelling Research Group, King's College London'The third edition of this well known, highly respected and authoritative textbook contains a wealth of new material that captures advances in optical and microwave sensor systems and applications. University teachers will be delighted that the format remains the same; theory and technical detail are explained in clear language and supported by excellent diagrams and figures. The book incorporates good pedagogic principles … additional text boxes to help guide students not familiar with certain theoretical concepts, and review questions with problems to assist teachers to set extension exercises. [It] uses excellent examples, many of which are new in this edition, that clearly demonstrate why remote sensing data from a very wide range of sensors and platforms has such an impact on science and society today. Every student of remote sensing, whatever their level, and every library should have a copy of this excellent book.' Daniel Donoghue, Durham University'This is a comprehensive updating of a popular undergraduate and postgraduate text. The wealth of resources, new links and plates support the existing material superbly. The end references have been updated with new papers and sources and all the references are well integrated into the main text. … this is a superb text book and an excellent reference text. Dr W. G. Rees has done a superb job of updating what was already a well-loved and established text in a way which makes it a worthwhile investment for anyone studying the remote sensing and mapping of our planet.' Mark Nicol, Contemporary PhysicsTable of ContentsPreface; Acknowledgements; 1. Introduction; 2. Electromagnetic waves in free space; 3. Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter; 4. Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the Earth's atmosphere; 5. Photographic systems; 6. Electro-optical systems; 7. Passive microwave systems; 8. Ranging systems; 9. Scattering systems; 10. Platforms for remote sensing; 11. Data processing; Appendix: data tables; Bibliography; Index.

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Book SynopsisPresents practical electro-optical applications in the context of the fundamental principles of communication theory, thermodynamics, information theory and propagation theory. Combining systems issues with fundamentals of communications, this is an essential reference for all practising engineers and academic researchers in optical engineering.Trade Review'… a single comprehensive book for anyone having anything to do with the vast field of electro-optics … If you are a scientist or engineer who has to manipulate photons, Fundamentals of Electro-Optic Systems Design belongs on your bookshelf - near the front.' Robert K. Tyson, University of North Carolina, Charlotte'… a must-have reference for the scientist or engineer involved with electro-optical system design.' Tony Tether, former DARPA Director (2001–2009)'… a comprehensive and authoritative treatment of free-space optical communications and Lidar.' Joseph W. Goodman, Stanford University'The material [is] very accessible … clear and well presented.' Ronald Phillips, University of Central Florida'This book offers an exhaustive treatment of free-space electro-optical instrumentation for remote sensing, such as LIDAR, detection techniques and communications in turbulent and turbid media … The core chapters are easy to follow and describe in detail LIDAR, free-space optical communication (including atmosphere absorption and scattering) and the optical thick communication channel. There should be no problem in using this publication as a textbook, because it includes many examples. This comprehensive book will also be a very useful reference for researchers and engineers involved in optical remote sensing and instrumentation.' Silvano Donati, Optics and Photonics News'The first feature of the book which astounds is its compactness. The authors have addressed an astonishing range of topics in a few hundred pages. … The second feature of this book which causes amazement is the breadth of the coverage. Arguably the secret of this success is the fact that the authors are highly accomplished and greatly experienced. This strength enables the authors to make judicious choices of subject matter and have the confidence to convey the essence of each topic in a convincing manner. … The depth and breadth of this volume together with the care that the authors have taken to present their material in a digestible form lead one to strongly recommend this book to as wide an audience as possible.' K. Alan Shore, Contemporary PhysicsTable of Contents1. Genesis of electro-optic systems; 2. Role of electromagnetic theory in electro-optics systems; 3. Photo-detection of electromagnetic radiation; 4. Metrics for evaluating photo-detected radiation; 5. Contrast, visibility and imaging; 6. Signal modulation schemes in optical communications; 7. Forward error correction coding; 8. Modern communications designs for FOC/FSOC applications; 9. Light detection and ranging (LIDAR); 10. Communications in the turbulent channel; 11. Communications in the optical scatter channel.

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Book SynopsisPhotoalignment possesses significant advantages in comparison with the usual rubbing' treatment of the substrates of liquid crystal display (LCD) cells as it is a non-contact method with a high resolution. A new technique recently pioneered by the authors of this book, namely the photo-induced diffusion reorientation of azodyes, does not involve any photochemical or structural transformations of the molecules. This results in photoaligning films which are robust and possess good aligning properties making them particularly suitable for the new generation of liquid crystal devices. Photoalignment of Liquid Crystalline Materials covers state-of-the-art techniques and key applications, as well as the authors' own diffusion model for photoalignment. The book aims to stimulate new research and development in the field of liquid crystalline photoalignment and in so doing, enable the technology to be used in large scale LCD production. Key features: Provides a Trade Review"I believe that the reader will obtain beneficial information on the various aspects of the physics and applications of the photoalignment of LCs and the techniques involved." (Liquid Crystals Today, June 2010) Table of ContentsAbout the Authors. Series Editor's Foreword. 1. Introduction. References. 2. Mechanisms of LC Photoalignment. 2.1 Cis-Trans Isomerization. 2.2 Pure Reorientation of the Azo-Dye Chromophore Molecules or Azo-Dye Molecular Solvates. 2.3 Crosslinking in Cinnamoyl Side-Chain Polymers. 2.4 Photodegradation in Polymide Materials. 2.5 Photoinduced Order in Langmuir–Blodgett Films. References. 3. LC-Surface Interaction in a Photoaligned Cell. 3.1 Pretilt Angle Generation in Photoaligning Materials. 3.2 Generation of Large Pretilt Angles. 3.3 Anchoring Energy in Photoaligning Materials. 3.4 Stability of Photoaligning Materials Sensitivity to UV Light. 3.5 Comparison of the Characteristics of Photoalignment Layers for Different Mechanisms of LC Photoalignment. 3.6 Various Methods for the Experimental Characterization of Photoalignment Layers. References. 4. Photoalignment of LCs. 4.1 Vertical LC Alignment. 4.2 Twisted LC Photoalignment. 4.3 Photoalignment of Ferroelectric LC. 4.4 Optical Rewritable LC Alignment. 4.5 Photoalignment with Asymmetric Surface Anchoring. 4.6 LC Photoalignment on Plastic Substrates. 4.7 Photoalignment on Grating Surface. 4.8 Photoalignment of Lyotropic and Discotic LCs. 4.9 Other Types of LC Photoalignment. References. 5. Application of Photoalignment Materials in Optical Elements. 5.1 Polarizers. 5.2 Retardation Films. 5.3 Transflective LCD with Photo-Patterned Polarizers and Phase Retarders. 5.4 Security Applications of Photoaligning and Photo-Patterning. 5.5 Optical Elements Based on Photoaligning Technology. References. 6. Novel LCDs Based on Photoalignment. 6.1 Bistable Nematic Displays. 6.2 Photoaligned Liquid-Crystal-on-Silicon Microdisplays. 6.3 Photoaligned Ferroelectric LCDs. 6.4 New Optical Rewritable Electronic Paper. 6.5 Application of Photoalignment in Photonic LC Devices. References. 7. US Patents Related to Photoalignment of Liquid Crystals. 7.1 Introductory Remarks. 7.2 List of Patents Patent Classification. 7.3 Analysis and Comments on the Patents. Index.

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Book Synopsis*Trade Review"Provides a thorough presentation of the state-of-the art in computational modelling techniques for photonics Contains broad coverage of both frequency- and time-domain techniques to suit a wide range of photonic devices Reviews existing commercial software packages for photonics". (MyCFO, 20 January 2011) "In this book, the author provides a comprehensive coverage of modern numerical modelling techniques for designing photonic devices for use in modern optical telecommunication". (VentureBeat Profiles, 21 January 2011)Table of Contents1 Introduction 1.1 Photonics: the countless possibilities of light propagation 1.2 Modelling photonics 2 Full-vectorial Beam Propagation Method 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Overview of the beam propagation methods 2.3 Maxwell’s Equations 2.4 Magnetic field formulation of the wave equation 2.5 Electric field formulation of the wave equation 2.6 Perfectly-Matched Layer 2.7 Finite Element Analysis 2.8 Derivation of BPM Equations 2.9 Imaginary-Distance BPM: Mode Solver 3 Assessment of Full-Vectorial Beam Propagation Method 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Analysis of Rectangular waveguide 3.3 Photonic Crystal Fibre 3.4 Liquid Crystal Based Photonic Crystal Fibre 3.5 Electro-optical Modulators 3.6 Switches 4 Bidirectional Beam Propagation Method 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Optical Waveguide Discontinuity Problem 4.3 Finite element analysis of discontinuity problems 4.4 Derivation of Finite Element Matrices 4.5 Application of Taylor’s Series Expansion 4.6 Computation of Reflected, Transmitted and Radiation Waves 4.7 Optical fiber-facet problem 4.8 Finite element analysis of optical fiber facets 4.9 Iterative analysis of multiple-discontinuities 4.10 Numerical assessment 5 Complex-Envelope Alternating-Direction-Implicit Finite Difference Time Domain Method with Assessment 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Maxwell's equations 5.3 Brief history of Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) Method 5.4 Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) Method 5.5 -Direction-Implicit FDTD (ADI-FDTD): Beyond the Courant Limit 5.6 Complex-Envelope ADI-FDTD (CE-ADI- 5.7 Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) Boundary Conditions 5.8 Uniaxal Perfectly Matched Layer (UPML) Absorbing Boundary Condition 5.9 PML Parameters 5.10 PML Boundary Conditions for CE-ADI-FDTD 5.11 PhC Resonant Cavities 5.12 5x5 Rectangular Lattice PhC Cavity 5.13 Triangular Lattice PhC Cavity 5.14 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 5.15 Conclusions 6. Finite Volume time Domain (FVTD) Method 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Numerical analysis 6.3 UPWIND Scheme for the Calculation 6.4 NON-DIFFUSIVE Scheme for the Flux Calculation 6.5 2D Formulation of the FVTD Method 6.6 Boundary Conditions 6.7 Nonlinear Optics 6.8 Nonlinear Optical Interactions 6.9 Extension of the FDTD Method to Nonlinear Problems 6.10 Extension of the FVTD Method to Nonlinear Problems 6.11 Conclusions 7 Numerical Analysis of Linear and Nonlinear PhC Based Devices 7.1 Introduction 7.2 FVTD Method Assessment: PhC Cavity 7.3 FVTD Method Assessment: PhC Waveguide 7.4 FVTD Method Assessment: PBG T-Branch 7.5 PhC Multimode Resonant Cavity 7.6 FDTD Analysis of Nonlinear Devices 7.7 FVTD Analysis of Nonlinear Photonic Crystal Wires 7.8 Conclusions 8 Multiresolution Time Domain 8.1 Introduction 8.2 MRTD basics 8.3 MRTD update scheme 8.4 Scaling-MRTD 8.5 Conclusions 9 MRTD Analysis of PhC-Devices 9.1 Introduction 9.2 UPML-MRTD: test and code validation 9.3 MRTD vs FDTD for the analysis of linear photonic crystals 9.4 Conclusions 10 MRTD Analysis of SHG PhC-Devices 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Second harmonic generation in optics 10.3 Extended S-MRTD for SHG analysis 10.4 SHG in PhC-waveguide 10.5 Selective SHG in compound PhC-based structures 10.6 New design for selective SHG: PhC-microcavities coupling 10.7 Conclusions 11 Dispersive Nonlinear MRTD for SHG Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Dispersion analysis 11.3 SHG-MRTD scheme for dispersive materials 11.4 Simulation results 11.5 Conclusions

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Book SynopsisMercury Cadmium Telluride delivers a comprehensive treatment of both the growth techniques and fundamental properties of mercury cadmium telluride (MCT).Table of ContentsSeries Preface Preface Foreword List of Contributors Part One - Growth 1 Bulk Growth of Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) P. Capper 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Phase Equilibria 1.3 Crystal Growth 1.4 Conclusions References 2 Bulk growth of CdZnTe/CdTe crystals A. Noda, H. Kurita and R. Hirano 2.1 Introduction 2.2 High-purity Cd and Te 2.3 Crystal Growth 2.4 Wafer processing 2.5 Summary Acknowledgements References 3 Properties of Cd(Zn)Te (relevant to use as substrates) S. Adachi 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Structural Properties 3.3 Thermal Properties 3.4 Mechanical and Lattice Vibronic Properties 3.5 Collective Effects and Some Response Characteristics 3.6 Electronic Energy-band Structure 3.7 Optical Properties 3.8 Carrier Transport Properties References 4 Substrates for the Epitaxial growth of MCT J. Garland and R. Sporken 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Substrate Orientation 4.3 CZT Substrates 4.4 Si-based Substrates 4.5 Other Substrates 4.6 Summary and Comclusions References 5 Liquid phase epitaxy of MCT P. Capper 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Growth 5.3 Material Characteristics 5.4 Device Status 5.5 Summary and Future Developments References 6 Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) Growth C. M. Maxey 6.1 Requirement for Epitaxy 6.2 History 6.3 Substrate Choices 6.4 Reactor Design 6.5 Process Parameters 6.6 Metalorganic Sources 6.7 Uniformity 6.8 Reproducibility 6.9 Doping 6.10 Defects 6.11 Annealing 6.12 In-situ monitoring 6.13 Conclusions References 7 MBE growth of Mercury Cadmium Telluride J. Garland 7.1 Introduction 7.2 MBE Growth theory and Growth Modes 7.3 Substrate Mounting 7.4 In-situ Characterization Tools 7.5 MCT Nucleation and Growth 7.6 Dopants and Dopant Activation 7.7 Properties of MCT epilayers grown by MBE 7.8 Conclusions References Part Two - Properties 8 Mechanical and Thermal Properties M. Martyniuk, J.M. Dell and L. Faraone 8.1 Density of MCT 8.2 Lattice Parameter of MCT 8.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for MCT 8.4 Elastic Parameters of MCT 8.5 Hardness and deformation characteristics of HgCdTe 8.6 Phase Diagrams of MCT 8.7 Viscosity of the MCT melt 8.8 Thermal properties of MCT References 9 Optical Properties of MCT J. Chu and Y. Chang 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Optical Constants and the Dielectric Function 9.3 Theory of Band-to-band Optical Transition 9.4 Near Band Gap Absorption 9.5 Analytic Expressions and Empirical Formulas for Intrinsic Absorption and Urbach Tail 9.6 Dispersion of the Refractive Index 9.7 Optical Constants and Related van Hover Singularities above the Energy Gap 9.8 Reflection Spectra and Dielectric Function 9.9 Multimode Model of Lattice Vibration 9.10 Phonon Absorption 9.11 Raman Scattering 9.12 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy References 10 Diffusion in MCT D. Shaw 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Self-Diffusion 10.3 Chemical Self-Diffusion 10.4 Compositional Interdiffusion 10.5 Impurity Diffusion References 11 Defects in HgCdTe – Fundamental M. A. Berding 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Ab Initio calculations 11.3 Prediction of Native Point Defect Densities in HgCdgTe 11.4 Future Challenges References 12 Band Structure and Related Properties of HgCdTe C. R. Becker and S. Krishnamurthy 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Parameters 12.3 Electronic Band Structure 12.4 Comparison with Experiment Acknowledgments References 13 Conductivity Type Conversion P. Capper and D. Shaw 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Native Defects in Undoped MCT 13.3 Native Defects in Doped MCT 13.4 Defect Concentrations During Cool Down 13.5 Change of Conductivity Type 13.6 Dry Etching by Ion Beam Milling 13.7 Plasma Etching 13.8 Summary References 14 Extrinsic Doping D. Shaw and P. Capper 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Impurity Activity 14.3 Thermal Ionization Energies of Impurities 14.4 Segregation Properties of Impurities 14.5 Traps and Recombination Centers 14.6 Donor and Acceptor Doping in LWIR and MWIR MCT 14.7 Residual Defects 14.8 Conclusions References 15 Structure and electrical characteristics of Metal/MCT interfaces R. J. Westerhout, C. A. Musca, Richard H. Sewell, John M. Dell, and L. Faraone 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Reactive/intermediately reactive/nonreactive categories 15.3 Ultrareactive/reactive categories 15.4 Conclusion 15.5 Passivation of MCT 15.6 Conclusion 15.7 Contacts to MCT 15.7 Surface Effects on MCT 15.8 Surface Structure of CdTe and MCT References 16 MCT Superlattices for VLWIR Detectors and Focal Plane Arrays James Garland 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Why HgTe-Based Superlattices 16.3 Calculated Properties 16.4 Growth 16.5 Interdiffusion 16.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 17 Dry Plasma Processing of Mercury Cadmium Telluride and related II- VIs Andrew Stolz 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Effects of Plasma Gases on MCT 17.3 Plasma Parameters 17.4 Characterization – Surfaces of Plasma Processed MCT 17.5 Manufacturing Issues and Solutions 17.6 Plasma Processes in Production of II-VI materials 17.7 Conclusions and Future Efforts References 18 MCT Photoconductive Infrared Detectors I. M. Baker 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Applications and Sensor Design 18.3 Photoconductive Detectors in MCT and Related Alloys 18.4 SPRITE Detectors 18.5 Conclusions on Photoconductive MCT Detectors Ackowledgements References Part Three – Applications 19 HgCdTe Photovoltaic Infrared Detectors I. M. Baker 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Advantages of the Photovoltaic Device in MCT 19.3 Applications 19.4 Fundamentals of MCT Photodiodes 19.5 Theoretical Foundations for MCT Array Technology 19.6 Manufacturing Technology for MCT Arrays 19.7 Towards “GEN III” Detectors 19.8 Conclusions and Future Trends for Photovoltaic NCT Arrays References 20 Nonequilibrium, dual-band and emission devices C. Jones and N. Gordon 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Nonequilibrium Devices 20.3 Dual-Band Devices 20.4 Emission devices 20.5 Conclusions References 21 HgCdTe Electron Avalanche Photodiodes (EAPDs) I. M. Baker and M. Kinch 21.1 Introduction and Applications 21.2 The Avalanche Multiplication Effect 21.3 Physics of MCT EAPDs 21.4 Technology of MCT EAPDs 21.5 Reported Performance of Arrays of MCT EAPDs 21.6 Laser-gated Imaging as a Practical Example of MCT EAPDs 21.7 Conclusions and Future Developments References 22 Room-temperature IR photodetectors Jozef Piotrowski and Adam Piotrowski 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Performance of Room-Temperature Infrared Photodetectors 22.3 MCT as a Material for Room-Temperature Photodetectors 22.4 Photoconductive Devices 22.5 Photoelectromagnetic, Magnetoconcentration and Dember IR Detectors 22.6 Photodiodes 22.7 Conclusions References Index

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Book SynopsisA groundbreaking guide dedicated exclusively to the MCRT method in radiation heat transfer and applied optics The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Method in Radiation Heat Transfer and Applied Optics offers the most modern and up-to-date approach to radiation heat transfer modelling and performance evaluation of optical instruments. The Monte Carlo ray-trace (MCRT) method is based on the statistically predictable behavior of entities, called rays, which describe the paths followed by energy bundles as they are emitted, reflected, scattered, refracted, diffracted and ultimately absorbed. The author a noted expert on the subject covers a wide variety of topics including the mathematics and statistics of ray tracing, the physics of thermal radiation, basic principles of geometrical and physical optics, radiant heat exchange among surfaces and within participating media, and the statistical evaluation of uncertainty of results obtained using the method. The booTable of ContentsSeries Preface xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Fundamentals of Ray Tracing 1 1.1 Rays and Ray Segments 1 1.2 The Enclosure 2 1.3 Mathematical Preliminaries 2 1.4 Ideal Models for Emission, Reflection, and Absorption of Rays 11 1.5 Scattering and Refraction 17 1.6 Meshing and Indexing 18 Problems 21 Reference 28 2 Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation 29 2.1 Thermal Radiation 29 2.2 Terminology 31 2.3 Intensity of Radiation (Radiance) 32 2.4 Directional Spectral Emissive Power 34 2.5 Hemispherical Spectral Emissive Power 34 2.6 Hemispherical Total Emissive Power 34 2.7 The Blackbody Radiation Distribution Function 35 2.8 Blackbody Properties 38 2.9 Emission and Absorption Mechanisms 40 2.10 Definition of Models for Emission, Absorption, and Reflection 42 2.11 Introduction to the Radiation Behavior of Surfaces 52 2.12 Radiation Behavior of Surfaces Composed of Electrical Non-Conductors (Dielectrics) 54 2.13 Radiation Behavior of Surfaces Composed of Electrical Conductors (Metals) 59 Problems 61 References 65 3 The Radiation Distribution Factor for Diffuse-Specular Gray Surfaces 67 3.1 The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace (MCRT) Method and the Radiation Distribution Factor 67 3.2 Properties of the Total Radiation Distribution Factor 68 3.3 Estimation of the Distribution Factor Matrix Using the MCRT Method 69 3.4 Binning of Rays on a Surface Element; Illustrative Example 83 3.5 Case Study: Thermal and Optical Analysis of a Radiometric Instrument 85 3.6 Use of Radiation Distribution Factors for the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 94 3.7 Use of Radiation Distribution Factors When Some Surface Net Heat Fluxes Are Specified 96 Problems 97 Reference 101 4 Extension of the MCRT Method to Non-Diffuse, Non-Gray Enclosures 103 4.1 Bidirectional Spectral Surfaces 103 4.2 Principles Underlying a Practical Bidirectional Reflection Model 106 4.3 First Example: A Highly Absorptive Surface Whose Reflectivity is Strongly Specular 109 4.4 Second Example: A Highly Reflective Surface Whose Reflectivity is Strongly Diffuse 119 4.5 The Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor 127 4.6 Use of the Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor for the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 133 4.7 Use of the Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor for the Case of One or More Specified Surface Net Heat Fluxes 134 Problems 138 References 142 5 The MCRT Method for Participating Media 143 5.1 Radiation in a Participating Medium 143 5.2 Example: The Absorption Filter 146 5.3 Ray Tracing in a Participating Medium 154 5.4 Estimating the Radiation Distribution Factors in Participating Media 171 5.5 Using the Radiation Distribution Factors When All Temperatures are Specified 172 5.6 Using the Radiation Distribution Factors for a Mixture of Specified Temperatures and Specified Heat Transfer Rates 173 5.7 Simulating Infrared Images 175 Problems 178 References 179 6 Extension of the MCRT Method to Physical Optics 183 6.1 Some Ideas from Physical Optics 183 6.2 Geometrical Versus Physical Optics 185 6.3 Anatomy of a Ray Suitable for Physical Optics Applications 186 6.4 Modeling of Polarization Effects: A Case Study 187 6.5 Diffraction and Interference Effects: A Case Study 195 6.6 Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Diffraction Based on the Huygens–Fresnel Principle 198 Problems 209 References 210 7 Statistical Estimation of Uncertainty in the MCRT Method 213 7.1 Statement of the Problem 213 7.2 Statistical Inference 214 7.3 Hypothesis Testing for Population Means 218 7.4 Confidence Intervals for Population Proportions 220 7.5 Effects of Uncertainties in the Enclosure Geometry and Surface Models 224 7.6 Single-Sample versus Multiple-Sample Experiments 225 7.7 Evaluation of Aggravated Uncertainty 226 7.8 Uncertainty in Temperature and Heat Transfer Results 227 7.9 Application to the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 229 7.10 Experimental Design of MCRT Algorithms 232 Problems 237 References 239 A Random Number Generators and Autoregression Analysis 241 A.1 Pseudo-Random Number Generators 242 A.2 Properties of a “Good” Pseudo-Random Number Generator 242 A.3 A “Minimal Standard” Pseudo-Random Number Generator 245 A.4 Autoregression Analysis 247 Problems 253 References 254 Index 255

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Book SynopsisThe scientific and technical basis underpinning modern measurement techniques used for electromagnetic quantities and phenonema is necessarily wide-ranging, as the electromagnetic environment spans all possible frequencies and wavelengths. Measurements must be applicable in fields as varied as nanotechnologies, telecommunications, meteorology, geo-location, radio-astronomy, health, biology, and many others. In order to adequately cover the many different facets of the topic, this book provides examples from the entire range of the electromagnetic spectrum — covering frequencies from several hertz to terahertz, and considering wavelength distances ranging from nanometers to light-years in optics. It then provides coverage of the various measurement techniques using electromagnetic waves for various applications, devoting chapters to each different field of application. This comprehensive book gives detailed information on: the various techniques and methods available to measure the key characteristics of electromagnetic waves, in terms of the local field and phase for a broad field of frequencies; determination of physical quantities such as distance, time, etc., using electromagnetic properties; new approaches to measurements in the field of electromagnetic distribution in complex structures media, such as biological tissues and in the nanosciences. Table of ContentsPreface xiii Chapter 1. Electromagnetic Environment 1 Pierre-Noël FAVENNEC 1.1. Electromagnetic radiation sources 1 1.2. Electromagnetic fields 18 1.3. Bibliography 21 Chapter 2. From Measurement to Control of Electromagnetic Waves using a Near-field Scanning Optical Microscope 23 Loïc LALOUAT, Houssein NASRALLAH, Benoit CLUZEL, Laurent SALOMON, Colette DUMAS and Frédérique DE FORNEL 2.1. Introduction 23 2.2. Principle of the measurement using a local probe 24 2.3. Measurement of the electromagnetic field distribution inside nanophotonic components 30 2.4. Measuring the amplitude and phase in optical near-field 39 2.5. Active optical near-field microscopy 41 2.6. Conclusion 45 2.7. Acknowledgements 45 2.8. Bibliography 45 Chapter 3. Meteorological Visibility Measurement: Meteorological Optical Range 51 Hervé SIZUN and Maher AL NABOULSI 3.1. Introduction 51 3.2. Definitions 52 3.3. Atmospheric composition 53 3.4. Atmospheric effects on light propagation 54 3.5. Units and scales 57 3.6. Measurement methods 58 3.7. Visibility perturbation factors 68 3.8. Applications 71 3.9. Appendix – optical contrast and Koschmieder’s law 75 3.10. Glossary 77 3.11. Bibliography 78 Chapter 4. Low Coherence Interferometry 81 Xavier CHAPELEAU, Dominique LEDUC, Cyril LUPI, Virginie GAILLARD and Christian BOISROBERT 4.1. Introduction 81 4.2. Phase measurement 82 4.3. Metrology considerations 86 4.4. Applications 91 4.5. Conclusion 106 4.6. Bibliography 107 Chapter 5. Passive Remote Sensing at Submillimeter Wavelengths and THz 113 Gérard BEAUDIN 5.1. Introduction 113 5.2. Submillimeter-THz low noise heterodyne receivers 115 5.3. Submillimeter – THz applications for astronomy and astrophysics 120 5.4. Submillimeter – THz remote-sensing applications to aeronomy and planetology 124 5.5. Conclusion 126 5.6. Acknowledgements 127 5.7. Bibliography 127 Chapter 6. Exposimetry – Measurements of the Ambient RF Electromagnetic Fields 131 Pierre-Noël FAVENNEC 6.1. Introduction 131 6.2. Definitions 132 6.3. Interactions of the electromagnetic fields with biological tissues and medical risks 136 6.4. Exposure limit values 141 6.5. Electromagnetic environment to be measured 146 6.6. Measurement equipment 150 6.7. Measurements 159 6.8. Control stations and uninterrupted electromagnetic measurements: towards a 3D electromagnetic land register 175 6.9. Appendix 1 – some field measurements 176 6.10. Appendix 2 – principal characteristics of mobile communication systems 177 6.11. Bibliography 177 Chapter 7. Ambient RF Electromagnetic Measurements in a Rural Environment 181 Hervé SIZUN and Philippe MALIET 7.1. Introduction 181 7.2. Measurement set-up 182 7.3. Operating mode 184 7.4. Different studies 185 7.5. Measurements results 186 7.6. Electrical field strength 188 7.7. Conclusion 189 7.8. Acknowledgements 189 7.9. Bibliography 189 Chapter 8. Radio Mobile Measurement Techniques 191 Hervé SIZUN 8.1. Introduction 191 8.2. Field strength measurements 192 8.3. Measurement of the impulse response 195 8.4. Measurement of directions of arrival 198 8.5. WiFi measurements in a home environment (field strength, data rate) 216 8.6. Conclusion 222 8.7. Glossary 224 8.8. Acknowledgments 225 8.9. Bibliography 225 Chapter 9. Dosimetry of Interactions Between the Radioelectric Waves and Human Tissues – Hybrid Approach of the Metrology 229 Joe WIART and Man Faï WONG 9.1. Introduction 229 9.2. Evaluation of the power absorber for the tissues 230 9.3. Experimental evaluation of the specific absorption rate (SAR) 232 9.4. SAR evaluation in biological tissues 235 9.5. Variability, representativeness and uncertainty 242 9.6. Conclusions 245 9.7. Bibliography 246 Chapter 10. Measurement for the Evaluation of Electromagnetic Compatibility 249 Philippe BESNIER, Christophe LEMOINE and Mohammed SERHIR 10.1. Introduction 249 10.2. General aspects of EMC measurement 250 10.3. Emissivity and radiated immunity testing 253 10.4. Efficiency and limitations of EMC measurement techniques 261 10.5. Mode-stirred reverberation chambers 262 10.6. Electromagnetic near-field measurement techniques applied to EMC 268 10.7. Conclusions and future prospects 272 10.8. Bibliography 272 Chapter 11. High Precision Pulsar Timing in Centrimetric Radioastronomy 277 Ismaël COGNARD 11.1. Introduction 277 11.2. Ultra-stable clocks to the limits of the Galaxy 277 11.3. Dispersion by the interstellar medium 280 11.4. Instrumentation used to study pulsars 281 11.5. Swept local oscillator dedispersion 282 11.6. Filterbank dedispersion 283 11.7. Real-time coherent dedispersion 284 11.8. The coherent pulsar instrumentation installed at Nançay 285 11.9. Conclusion 288 11.10. Bibliography 289 Chapter 12. Long Baseline Decameter Interferometry between Nançay and LOFAR 291 Philippe ZARKA 12.1. Introduction 291 12.2. Observations 293 12.3. Analysis 297 12.4. Conclusions and perspectives 303 12.5. Acknowledgements 305 12.6. Bibliography 305 List of Authors 307 Index 311

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Book SynopsisDedicated to remote sensing images, from their acquisition to their use in various applications, this book covers the global lifecycle of images, including sensors and acquisition systems, applications such as movement monitoring or data assimilation, and image and data processing. It is organized in three main parts. The first part presents technological information about remote sensing (choice of satellite orbit and sensors) and elements of physics related to sensing (optics and microwave propagation). The second part presents image processing algorithms and their specificities for radar or optical, multi and hyper-spectral images. The final part is devoted to applications: change detection and analysis of time series, elevation measurement, displacement measurement and data assimilation. Offering a comprehensive survey of the domain of remote sensing imagery with a multi-disciplinary approach, this book is suitable for graduate students and engineers, with backgrounds either in computer science and applied math (signal and image processing) or geo-physics. About the Authors Florence Tupin is Professor at Telecom ParisTech, France. Her research interests include remote sensing imagery, image analysis and interpretation, three-dimensional reconstruction, and synthetic aperture radar, especially for urban remote sensing applications. Jordi Inglada works at the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (French Space Agency), Toulouse, France, in the field of remote sensing image processing at the CESBIO laboratory. He is in charge of the development of image processing algorithms for the operational exploitation of Earth observation images, mainly in the field of multi-temporal image analysis for land use and cover change. Jean-Marie Nicolas is Professor at Telecom ParisTech in the Signal and Imaging department. His research interests include the modeling and processing of synthetic aperture radar images.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Part 1. Systems, Sensors and Acquisitions 1 Chapter 1. Systems and Constraints 3 Jean-Marie Nicolas Chapter 2. Image Geometry and Registration 33 Jean-Marie Nicolas and Jordi Inglada Chapter 3. The Physics of Optical Remote Sensing 53 Olivier Hagolle Chapter 4. The Physics of Radar Measurement 83 Jean-Claude Souyris Part 2. Physics and Data Processing 123 Chapter 5. Image Processing Techniques for Remote Sensing 125 Florence Tupin, Jordi Inglada and Grégoire Mercier Chapter 6. Passive Optical Data Processing 155 Devis Tuia Chapter 7. Models and Processing of Radar Signals 181 Florence Tupin, Jean-Marie Nicolas and Jean-Claude Souyris Part 3. Applications: Measures, Extraction, Combination and Information Fusion 203 Chapter 8. Analysis of Multi-Temporal Series and Change Detection 205 Grégoire Mercier and Florence Tupin Chapter 9. Elevation Measurements 223 Michel Roux, Olivier De Joinville, Florence Tupin and Jean-Marie Nicolas Chapter 10. Displacement Measurements 251 Yajing Yan, Virginie Pinel, Flavien Vernier and Emmanuel Trouvé Chapter 11. Data Assimilation for the Monitoring of Continental Surfaces 283 Lionel Jarlan and Gilles Boulet Bibliography 321 List of Authors 347 Index 349

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Book SynopsisThis book presents the basics of the non-invasive geophysical method for groundwater investigation, called Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) or Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (SNMR), and its practical application to the problems of groundwater localization and aquifer characterization. The method is based on the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) phenomenon and is selectively sensitive to groundwater. The main aims of the author are to teach the reader the basic principles of the method as well as to formulate consistent approximate models, leading to reasonably simple inverse problems. Containing an extensive bibliography, numerous practical and numerical examples as well as a detailed presentation of the nuts and bolts of the method based on the long-term experience of SNMR development and practical use, this book is useful for students, scientists and professional engineers working in the field of hydrogeophysics and hydrogeology. Contents 1. SNMR Imaging for Groundwater.2. The Basics of NMR.3. Forward Modeling.4. Inversion.5. Link Between SNMR and Aquifer Parameters.Table of ContentsPREFACE vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix CHAPTER 1. SNMR IMAGING FOR GROUNDWATER 1 1.1. Brief history of SNMR development 1 1.2. The basic principles 2 1.3. Magnetic Resonance Sounding 5 1.4. Measuring setup 8 1.5. Geophysical tool for hydrogeologists 12 CHAPTER 2. THE BASICS OF NMR 15 2.1. NMR phenomenon 15 2.1.1. Precession of free spins 15 2.1.2. Macroscopic spin magnetization 16 2.2. NMR relaxation 22 2.2.1. Longitudinal relaxation 22 2.2.2. Transverse relaxation 24 2.2.3. Diffusion in non-homogeneous magnetic field 26 2.3. NMR measurements 31 2.3.1. Free induction decay (FID) 31 2.3.2. Spin echo (SE) 38 CHAPTER 3. FORWARD MODELING 45 3.1. The imaging equation 45 3.2. The Earth’s magnetic field 54 3.3. Modeling typical SNMR signals 59 3.4. 3-D sensitivity of the SNMR loop 68 3.5. Experimental verification 76 CHAPTER 4. INVERSION 85 4.1. The SNMR inverse problem 85 4.2. Linearization. 89 4.3. Discretization 92 4.3.1. The 1-D inverse problem 92 4.3.2. The 3-D inverse problem 105 4.4. Linear inverse problems 113 4.5. Nonlinear inverse problems 115 4.5.1. Inversion of the geomagnetic field variations 116 4.5.2. Inversion of the resistivity distribution 118 CHAPTER 5. LINK BETWEEN SNMR AND AQUIFER PARAMETERS 121 5.1. Parameters used for characterizing an aquifer 122 5.2. Available SNMR estimates on aquifer parameters 126 5.2.1. Detection of groundwater 126 5.2.2. Aquifers and geometry 128 5.2.3. Storage-related parameters 131 5.2.4. Flow-related parameters 134 5.3. Joint use of SNMR and resistivity data 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 INDEX 155

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Book SynopsisNanophotonicsis a comprehensive introduction to the emerging area concerned with controlling and shaping optical fields at a subwavelength scale. Photonic crystals and microcavities are extensively described, including non-linear optical effects. Local-probe techniques are presented and are used to characterize plasmonic devices. The emerging fields of semiconductor nanocrystals and nanobiophotonics are also presented.Table of ContentsPreface 13 Chapter 1. Photonic Crystals: From Microphotonics to Nanophotonics 17 Pierre VIKTOROVITCH 1.1. Introduction 17 1.2. Reminders and prerequisites 19 1.2.1. Maxwell equations 19 1.2.1.1. Optical modes 20 1.2.1.2. Dispersion characteristics 20 1.2.2. A simple case: three-dimensional and homogeneous free space 20 1.2.3. Structuration of free space and optical mode engineering 21 1.2.4. Examples of space structuration: objects with reduced dimensionality 22 1.2.4.1. Two 3D sub-spaces 22 1.2.4.2. Two-dimensional isotropic propagation: planar cavity 24 1.2.4.3. One-dimensional propagation: photonic wire 25 1.2.4.4. Case of index guiding (two- or one-dimensionality) 26 1.2.4.5. Zero-dimensionality: optical (micro)-cavity 26 1.2.5. Epilogue 27 1.3. 1D photonic crystals 28 1.3.1. Bloch modes 29 1.3.2. Dispersion characteristics of a 1D periodic medium 30 1.3.2.1. Genesis and description of dispersion characteristics 30 1.3.2.2. Density of modes along the dispersion characteristics 32 1.3.3. Dynamics of Bloch modes 33 1.3.3.1. Coupled mode theory 33 1.3.3.2. Lifetime of a Bloch mode 34 1.3.3.3. Merit factor of a Bloch mode 35 1.3.4. The distinctive features of photonic crystals 35 1.3.5. Localized defect in a photonic band gap or optical microcavity 36 1.3.5.1. Donor and acceptor levels 37 1.3.5.2. Properties of cavity modes in a 1DPC 38 1.3.5.3. Fabry-Perot type optical filter 39 1.3.6. 1D photonic crystal in a dielectric waveguide and waveguided Bloch modes 40 1.3.6.1. Various diffractive coupling processes between optical modes 40 1.3.6.2. Determination of the dispersion characteristics of waveguided Bloch modes 42 1.3.6.3. Lifetime and merit factor of waveguided Bloch modes: radiation optical losses 43 1.3.6.4. Localized defect or optical microcavity 44 1.3.7. Epilogue 46 1.4. 3D photonic crystals 46 1.4.1. From dream 46 1.4.2. … to reality 47 1.5. 2D photonic crystals: the basics 49 1.5.1. Conceptual tools: Bloch modes, direct and reciprocal lattices, dispersion curves and surfaces 50 1.5.1.1. Bloch modes 50 1.5.1.2. Direct and reciprocal lattices 51 1.5.1.3. Dispersion curves and surfaces 52 1.5.2. 2D photonic crystal in a planar dielectric waveguide 54 1.5.2.1. An example of the potential of 2DPC in terms of angular resolution: the super-prism effect 56 1.5.2.2. Strategies for vertical confinement in 2DPC waveguided configurations 57 1.6. 2D photonic crystals: basic building blocks for planar integrated photonics 59 1.6.1. Fabrication: a planar technological approach 59 1.6.1.1. 2DPC formed in an InP membrane suspended in air 59 1.6.1.2. 2DPC formed in an InP membrane bonded onto silica on silicon by molecular bonding 60 1.6.2. Localized defect in the PBG or microcavity 62 1.6.3. Waveguiding structures 64 1.6.3.1. Propagation losses in a straight waveguide 66 1.6.3.2. Bends 67 1.6.3.3. The future of PC-based waveguides lies principally in the guiding of light 69 1.6.4. Wavelength selective transfer between two waveguides 70 1.6.5. Micro-lazers 73 1.6.5.1. Threshold power 74 1.6.5.2. Example: the case of the surface emitting Bloch mode lazer 75 1.6.6. Epilogue 77 1.7. Towards 2.5-dimensional Microphotonics 77 1.7.1. Basic concepts 77 1.7.2. Applications 80 1.8. General conclusion 81 1.9. References 82 Chapter 2. Bidimensional Photonic Crystals for Photonic Integrated Circuits 85 Anne TALNEAU 2.1. Introduction 85 2.2. The three dimensions in space: planar waveguide perforated by a photonic crystal on InP substrate 86 2.2.1. Vertical confinement: a planar waveguide on substrate 86 2.2.2. In-plane confinement: intentional defects within the gap 87 2.2.2.1. Localized defects 88 2.2.2.2. Linear defects 88 2.2.3. Losses 89 2.3. Technology for drilling holes on InP-based materials 90 2.3.1. Mask generation 90 2.3.2. Dry-etching of InP-based semiconductor materials 91 2.4. Modal behavior and performance of structures 92 2.4.1. Passive structures 92 2.4.1.1. Straight guides, taper 93 2.4.1.2. Bend, combiner 96 2.4.1.3. Filters 100 2.4.2. Active structures: lazers 102 2.5. Conclusion 104 2.6. References 105 Chapter 3. Photonic Crystal Fibers 109 Dominique PAGNOUX 3.1. Introduction 109 3.2. Two guiding principles in microstructured fibers 112 3.3. Manufacture of microstructured fibers 116 3.4. Modeling TIR-MOFs 117 3.4.1. The “effective-V model” 117 3.4.2. Modal methods for calculating the fields 118 3.5. Main properties and applications of TIR-MOFs 120 3.5.1. Single mode propagation 120 3.5.2. Propagation loss 120 3.5.3. Chromatic dispersion 121 3.5.4. Birefringence 123 3.5.5. Non-conventional effective areas 124 3.6. Photonic bandgap fibers 125 3.6.1. Propagation in photonic bandgap fibers 125 3.6.2. Some applications of photonic crystal fibers 127 3.7. Conclusion 128 3.8. References 129 Chapter 4. Quantum Dots in Optical Microcavities 135 Jean-Michel GERARD 4.1. Introduction 135 4.2. Building blocks for solid-state CQED 137 4.2.1. Self-assembled QDs as “artificial atoms” 137 4.2.2. Solid-state optical microcavities 139 4.3. QDs in microcavities: some basic CQED experiments 142 4.3.1. Strong coupling regime 142 4.3.2. Weak coupling regime: enhancement/inhibition of the SE rate and “nearly” single mode SE 145 4.3.3. Applications of CQED effects to single photon sources and nanolazers 150 4.4. References 154 Chapter 5. Nonlinear Optics in Nano- and Microstructures 159 Yannick DUMEIGE and Fabrice RAINERI 5.1. Introduction 159 5.2. Introduction to nonlinear optics 160 5.2.1. Maxwell equations and nonlinear optics 160 5.2.2. Second order nonlinear processes 164 5.2.2.1. Three wave mixing 165 5.2.2.2. Second harmonic generation 166 5.2.2.3. Parametric amplification 169 5.2.2.4. How can phase matching be achieved? 170 5.2.2.5. Applications of second order nonlinearity 173 5.2.3. Third order processes 173 5.2.3.1. Four wave mixing 173 5.2.3.2. Optical Kerr effect 175 5.2.3.3. Nonlinear spectroscopy: Raman, Brillouin and Rayleigh scatterings 177 5.3. Nonlinear optics of nano- or microstructured media 177 5.3.1. Second order nonlinear optics in III–V semiconductors 178 5.3.1.1. Quasi-phase matching in III–V semiconductors 178 5.3.1.2. Quasi-phase matching in microcavity 179 5.3.1.3. Bidimensional quasi-phase matching 180 5.3.1.4. Form birefringence 180 5.3.1.5. Phase matching in one-dimensional photonic crystals 181 5.3.1.6. Phase matching in two-dimensional photonic crystal waveguide 183 5.3.2. Third order nonlinear effects 184 5.3.2.1. Continuum generation in microstructured optical fibers 184 5.3.2.2. Optical reconfiguration of two-dimensional photonic crystal slabs 184 5.3.2.3. Spatial solitons in microcavities 186 5.4. Conclusion 187 5.5. References 187 Chapter 6. Third Order Optical Nonlinearities in Photonic Crystals 191 Robert FREY, Philippe DELAYE and Gerald ROOSEN 6.1. Introduction 191 6.2. Third order nonlinear optic reminder 192 6.2.1. Third order optical nonlinearities 192 6.2.2. Some third order nonlinear optical processes 194 6.2.3. Influence of the local field 196 6.3. Local field in photonic crystals 198 6.4. Nonlinearities in photonic crystals 203 6.5. Conclusion 204 6.6. References 204 Chapter 7. Controling the Optical Near Field: Implications for Nanotechnology 207 Frederique DE FORNEL 7.1. Introduction 207 7.2. How is the near field defined? 208 7.2.1. Dipolar emission 208 7.2.2. Diffraction by a sub-wavelength aperture 212 7.2.3. Total internal reflection 213 7.3. Optical near field microscopies 217 7.3.1. Introduction 217 7.3.2. Fundamental principles 217 7.3.3. Realization of near field probes 219 7.3.4. Imaging methods in near field optical microscopes 220 7.3.5. Feedback 222 7.3.6. What is actually measured in near field? 223 7.3.7. PSTM configuration 223 7.3.8. Apertureless microscope 225 7.3.9. Effect of coherence on the structure of near field images 226 7.4. Characterization of integrated-optical components 227 7.4.1. Characterization of guided modes 227 7.4.2. Photonic crystal waveguides 229 7.4.3. Excitation of cavity modes 230 7.4.4. Localized generation of surface plasmons 232 7.5. Conclusion 235 7.6. References 236 Chapter 8. Sub-Wavelength Optics: Towards Plasmonics 239 Alain DEREUX 8.1. Technological context 239 8.2. Detecting optical fields at the sub-wavelength scale 240 8.2.1. Principle of sub-wavelength measurement 240 8.2.2. Scattering theory of electromagnetic waves 242 8.2.3. Electromagnetic LDOS 244 8.2.4. PSTM detection of the electric or magnetic components of optical waves 246 8.2.5. SNOM detection of the electromagnetic LDOS 247 8.3. Localized plasmons 249 8.3.1. Squeezing of the near-field by localized plasmons coupling 250 8.3.2. Controling the coupling of localized plasmons 251 8.4. Sub– optical devices 254 8.4.1. Coupling in 254 8.4.2. Sub– waveguides 254 8.4.3. Towards plasmonics: plasmons on metal stripes 255 8.4.4. Prototypes of submicron optical devices 256 8.5. References 263 Chapter 9. The Confined Universe of Electrons in Semiconductor Nanocrystals 265 Maria CHAMARRO 9.1. Introduction 265 9.2. Electronic structure 266 9.2.1. “Naif” model 266 9.2.1.1. Absorption and luminescence spectra 269 9.2.2. Fine electronic structure 271 9.2.2.1. Size-selective excitation 271 9.2.2.2. “Dark” electron-hole pair 274 9.3. Micro-luminescence 276 9.4. Auger effect 279 9.5. Applications in nanophotonics 281 9.5.1. Semiconductor nanocrystals: single photon sources 281 9.5.2. Semiconductor nanocrystals: new fluorescent labels for biology 283 9.5.3. Semiconductor nanocrystals: a new active material for tunable lazers 285 9.6. Conclusions 286 9.7. References 287 Chapter 10. Nano-Biophotonics 293 Herve RIGNEAULT and Pierre-Francois LENNE 10.1. Introduction 293 10.2. The cell: scale and constituents 295 10.3. Origin and optical contrast mechanisms 296 10.3.1. Classical contrast mechanisms: bright field, dark field, phase contrast and interferometric contrast 297 10.3.2. The fluorescence contrast mechanism 298 10.3.2.1. The lifetime contrast 300 10.3.2.2. Resolving power in fluorescence microscopy 301 10.3.3. Non-linear microscopy 303 10.3.3.1. Second harmonic generation (SHG) 304 10.3.3.2. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) 305 10.4. Reduction of the observation volume 307 10.4.1. Far field methods 308 10.4.1.1. 4Pi microscopy 308 10.4.1.2. Microscopy on a mirror 309 10.4.1.3. Stimulated emission depletion: STED 309 10.4.2. Near field methods 311 10.4.2.1. NSOM 312 10.4.2.2. TIRF 312 10.4.2.3. Nanoholes 313 10.5. Conclusion 314 10.6. References 314 List of Authors 319 Index 323

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