Technology, Engineering & Agriculture Books

Book SynopsisThis book is a collection of papers from The American Ceramic Society''s 35th International Conference on Advanced Ceramics and Composites, held in Daytona Beach, Florida, January 23-28, 2011. This issue includes papers presented in the Thermal Management Materials and Technologies; Advanced Sensor Technology; Geopolymers; and Computational Design, Modeling, and Simulation of Ceramics and Composites symposia.Table of ContentsPreface ix Introduction xi GEOPOLYMERS AND OTHER INORGANIC POLYMERS Effect of External and Internal Calcium in Fly Ash on Geopolymer Formation 3 Kiatsuda Somna and Walairat Bumrongjaroen Synthesis and Thermal Properties of Fly-Ash Based Geopolymer Pastes and Mortars 17 Ch. Panagiotopoulou, A. Asprogerakas, G. Kakali, and S. Tsivilis Mechanical Response of Discontinuous Filament PVA Fiber Reinforced Geopolymers 29 Benjamin Varela and Jeffrey W. Rogers Microwave Enhanced Drying and Firing of Geopolymers 35 Tyler A Gubb, Inessa Baranova, Shawn M. Allan, Morgana L. Fall, Holly S. Shulman, and Waltraud M. Kriven Geopolymerization of Red Mud and Rice Husk Ash and Potentials of the Resulting Geopolymeric Products for Civil Infrastructure Applications 45 Jian He and Guoping Zhang The Effect of Addition of Pozzolanic Tuff on Geopolymers 53 Hani Khoury, Islam Al Dabsheh, Faten Slaty, Yousef Abu Salha, Hubert Rahier, Muayad Esaifan, and Jan Wastiels Bottom Ash-Based Geopolymer Materials: Mechanical and Environmental Properties 71 R. Onori, J. Will, A. Hoppe, A. Polettini, R. Pomi, and A. R. Boccaccini Production of Geopolymers from Untreated Kaolinite 83 H. Rahier, M. Esaifan, I. Aldabsheh, F. Slatyi, H. Khoury, and J. Wastiels Phosphate Geopolymers 91 Arun S. Wagh THERMAL MANAGEMENT MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES 3-Dimensional Modeling of Graphitic Foam Heat Sink 107 Adrian Bradu and Khairul Alam Enhancement of Heat Capacity of Molten Salt Eutectics using Inorganic Nanoparticles for Solar Thermal Energy Applications 119 Donghyun Shin and Debjyoti Banerjee Enhancement of Heat Capacity of Nitrate Salts using Mica Nanoparticles 127 Seunghwan Jung and Debjyoti Banerjee Enhanced Viscosity of Aqueous Silica Nanofluids 139 Byeongnam Jo and Debjyoti Banerjee Pumping Power of 50/50 Mixtures of Ethylene Glycol/Water Containing SiC Nanoparticles 147 Jules L. Routbort, Dileep Singh, Elena V. Timofeeva, Wenhua Yu, David M. France, and Roger K. Smith COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN Characterization of Non Uniform Veneer Layer Thickness Distribution on Curved Substrate Zirconia Ceramics using X-Ray Micro-Tomography 155 M. Allahkarami, H. A. Bale, and J. C. Hanan Computational Study of Wave Propagation in Second-Order Nonlinear Piezoelectric Media 165 David A. Hopkins and George A. Gazonas Impact of Material and Architecture Model Parameters on the Failure of Woven CMCS via the Multiscale Generalized Method of Cells 175 Kuang Liu, Aditi Chattopadhyay, and Steven M. Arnold Kinetic Monte Carlo Simulation of Oxygen and Cation Diffusion in Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia 193 Brian Good ADVANCED SENSOR TECHNOLOGY Nano-Calorimeter Platform for Explosive Sensing 209 Seok-Won Kang, Nicholas Niedbalski, Mathew R Lane, and Debjyoti Banerjee Polyaniline-Silica Nanocomposite: Application in Electrocatalysis of Acetylthiocholine 221 Prem C. Pandey, Vandana Singh, and S. Kumari Electrochemical Sensing of Dopamine over Polyindole-Composite Electrode 235 Prem C. Pandey, Dheeraj S. Chauhan, and S. Kumari Author Index 245

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Book SynopsisThis issue contains a collection of papers presented at the 71st Conference on Glass Problems, October 19-20, 2010 at The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Topics include glass melting, glass science - defects, safety, refractories, recycling, controls, and raw materials.Table of ContentsForeword ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii GLASS MELTING. Recent Developments of Batch and Cullet Preheating in Europe—Practical Experiences and Implications 3 Philipp Zippe Oxy-Fuel Conversion Reduces Fuel Consumption in Fiberglass Melting 19 John Rossi, Michael Habel, Kevin Lièvre, Xiaoyi He, and Matthew Watson Solar Glass Melting 33 Matthias Lindig Integrated Air Quality Control System for Float Glass Furnace 39 Michael Cheng and Nathan Blanton GLASS SCIENCE, DEFECTS, AND SAFETY. Heavy Metal Issues—In and Out of Glass 53 C. Philip Ross A Look at the Chemical Strengthening Process: Alkali Aluminosilicate Glasses vs. Soda-Lime Glass 61 Sinue Gomez, Matthew J. Dejneka, Adam J. Ellison, and Katherine R. Rossington Studying Bubble Glass Defects That are Caused by Refractory Materials 67 Jiri Ullrich and Erik Muijsenberg Analysis of Cord and Stones in Glass 81 Henry Dimmick, Neal Nichols, and Gary Smay "Cat Scratch" Cord Dispersal 87 Les Gaskell Tools Used to Improve Operational Safety in Johns Manville Glass Plants 95 Noel Camp REFRACTORIES AND RECYCLING. Extra Clear Glass Refractory Selection: A Follow Up 107 L. Massard, M. Gaubil, and J. Poiret Refractory Issues and Glass Processing and Preventative Solutions 115 Paul Myers Fuel Savings with High Emissivity Coatings 125 Tom Kleeb and Bill Fausey Regenerator Temperature Modeling for Proper Refractory Selection 137 Elias Carrillo and Mathew Wheeler Thinking Green: Recycling in the Refractory Industry 157 Werner Odreitz and Matt Wheeler Recycling of Post-Consumer Glass: Energy Savings, CO2 Emission Reduction, Effects on Glass Quality and Glass Melting 167 Ruud Beerkens, Goos Kers, and Engelbert van Santen Characterization and Improvement of Gob Delivery Systems Braden McDermott, Xu Ding, and Jonathan Simon CONTROLS AND RAW MATERIALS. Model Based Process Control for Glass Furnace Operation 205 Piet van Santen, Leo Huisman and Sander van Deelen Taking Full Benefit of Oxygen Sensors and Automatic Control 215 Peter Hemmann Flue Gas Treatment in the Glass Industry: Dry Process and Calcium-based Sorbents 225 Amandine Gambin and Xavier Pettiau To Wet or Not to Wet—That is the Question—Part A 235 Douglas H. Davis and Christopher J. Hoyle A Historical Perspective on Silica and the Glass Industry in the USA 249 Paul F. Guttmann Author Index 261

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Book Synopsis* The second edition of Analog Integrated Circuit Design focuses on several types of circuits that have increased in importance in the past decade. * The text is enhanced with material on CMOS IC device modeling, updated processing layout and expanded coverage to reflect technical innovations.Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1 INTEGRATED-CIRCUIT DEVICES AND MODELLING 1 1.1 Semiconductors and pn Junctions 1 1.1.1 Diodes 2 1.1.2 Reverse-Biased Diodes 4 1.1.3 Graded Junctions 8 1.1.4 Large-Signal Junction Capacitance 10 1.1.5 Forward-Biased Junctions 11 1.1.6 Junction Capacitance of Forward-Biased Diode 12 1.1.7 Small-Signal Model of a Forward-Biased Diode 13 1.1.8 Schottky Diodes 14 1.2 MOS Transistors 15 1.2.1 Symbols for MOS Transistors 16 1.2.2 Basic Operation 17 1.2.3 Large-Signal Modelling 22 1.2.4 Body Effect 25 1.2.5 p-Channel Transistors 26 1.2.6 Low-Frequency Small-Signal Modelling in the Active Region 26 1.2.7 High-Frequency Small-Signal Modelling in the Active Region 32 1.2.8 Small-Signal Modelling in the Triode and Cutoff Regions 35 1.2.9 Analog Figures of Merit and Trade-offs 37 1.3 Device Model Summary 39 1.3.1 Constants 40 1.3.2 Diode Equations 40 1.3.3 MOS Transistor Equations 41 1.4 Advanced MOS Modelling 43 1.4.1 Subthreshold Operation 43 1.4.2 Mobility Degradation 46 1.4.3 Summary of Subthreshold and Mobility Degradation Equations 48 1.4.4 Parasitic Resistances 48 1.4.5 Short-Channel Effects 49 1.4.6 Leakage Currents 50 1.5 SPICE Modelling Parameters 51 1.5.1 Diode Model 51 1.5.2 MOS Transistors 52 1.5.3 Advanced SPICE Models of MOS Transistors 52 1.6 Passive Devices 55 1.6.1 Resistors 55 1.6.2 Capacitors 59 1.7 Appendix 61 1.7.1 Diode Exponential Relationship 61 1.7.2 Diode-Diffusion Capacitance 63 1.7.3 MOS Threshold Voltage and the Body Effect 65 1.7.4 MOS Triode Relationship 67 1.8 Key Points 69 1.9 References 70 1.10 Problems 70 CHAPTER 2 PROCESSING AND LAYOUT 73 2.1 CMOS Processing 73 2.1.1 The Silicon Wafer 73 2.1.2 Photolithography and Well Definition 74 2.1.3 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 76 2.1.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition and Defining the Active Regions 78 2.1.5 Transistor Isolation 78 2.1.6 Gate-Oxide and Threshold-Voltage Adjustments 81 2.1.7 Polysilicon Gate Formation 82 2.1.8 Implanting the Junctions, Depositing SiO2, and Opening Contact Holes 82 2.1.9 Annealing, Depositing and Patterning Metal, and Overglass Deposition 84 2.1.10 Additional Processing Steps 84 2.2 CMOS Layout and Design Rules 86 2.2.1 Spacing Rules 86 2.2.2 Planarity and Fill Requirements 94 2.2.3 Antenna Rules 94 2.2.4 Latch-Up 95 2.3 Variability and Mismatch 96 2.3.1 Systematic Variations Including Proximity Effects 96 2.3.2 Process Variations 98 2.3.3 Random Variations and Mismatch 99 2.4 Analog Layout Considerations 103 2.4.1 Transistor Layouts 103 2.4.2 Capacitor Matching 104 2.4.3 Resistor Layout 107 2.4.4 Noise Considerations 109 2.5 Key Points 112 2.6 References 113 2.7 Problems 114 CHAPTER 3 BASIC CURRENT MIRRORS AND SINGLE-STAGE AMPLIFIERS 117 3.1 Simple CMOS Current Mirror 118 3.2 Common-Source Amplifier 120 3.3 Source-Follower or Common-Drain Amplifier 122 3.4 Common-Gate Amplifier 124 3.5 Source-Degenerated Current Mirrors 127 3.6 Cascode Current Mirrors 129 3.7 Cascode Gain Stage 131 3.8 MOS Differential Pair and Gain Stage 135 3.9 Key Points 138 3.10 References 139 3.11 Problems 139 CHAPTER 4 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 144 4.1 Frequency Response of Linear Systems 144 4.1.1 Magnitude and Phase Response 145 4.1.2 First-Order Circuits 147 4.1.3 Second-Order Low-Pass Transfer Functions with Real Poles 154 4.1.4 Bode Plots 157 4.1.5 Second-Order Low-Pass Transfer Functions with Complex Poles 163 4.2 Frequency Response of Elementary Transistor Circuits 164 4.2.1 High-Frequency MOS Small-Signal Model 164 4.2.2 Common-Source Amplifier 166 4.2.3 Miller Theorem and Miller Effect 169 4.2.4 Zero-Value Time-Constant Analysis 173 4.2.5 Common-Source Design Examples 176 4.2.6 Common-Gate Amplifier 179 4.3 Cascode Gain Stage 181 4.4 Source-Follower Amplifier 187 4.5 Differential Pair 193 4.5.1 High-Frequency T Model 193 4.5.2 Symmetric Differential Amplifier 194 4.5.3 Single-Ended Differential Amplifier 195 4.5.4 Differential Pair with Active Load 196 4.6 Key Points 197 4.7 References 198 4.8 Problems 198 CHAPTER 5 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS 204 5.1 Ideal Model of Negative Feedback 204 5.1.1 Basic Definitions 204 5.1.2 Gain Sensitivity 205 5.1.3 Bandwidth 206 5.1.4 Linearity 207 5.1.5 Summary 207 5.2 Dynamic Response of Feedback Amplifiers 208 5.2.1 Stability Criteria 209 5.2.2 Phase Margin 211 5.3 First- and Second-Order Feedback Systems 213 5.3.1 First-Order Feedback Systems 213 5.3.2 Second-Order Feedback Systems 217 5.3.3 Higher-Order Feedback Systems 220 5.4 Common Feedback Amplifiers 221 5.4.1 Obtaining the Loop Gain, L(s) 222 5.4.2 Noninverting Amplifier 226 5.4.3 Transimpedance (Inverting) Amplifiers 231 5.5 Summary of Key Points 235 5.6 References 236 5.7 Problems 236 CHAPTER 6 BASIC OPAMP DESIGN AND COMPENSATION 242 6.1 Two-Stage CMOS Opamp 242 6.1.1 Opamp Gain 243 6.1.2 Frequency Response 245 6.1.3 Slew Rate 249 6.1.4 n-Channel or p-Channel Input Stage 252 6.1.5 Systematic Offset Voltage 253 6.2 Opamp Compensation 254 6.2.1 Dominant-Pole Compensation and Lead Compensation 255 6.2.2 Compensating the Two-Stage Opamp 256 6.2.3 Making Compensation Independent of Process and Temperature 260 6.3 Advanced Current Mirrors 262 6.3.1 Wide-Swing Current Mirrors 262 6.3.2 Enhanced Output-Impedance Current Mirrors and Gain Boosting 263 6.3.3 Wide-Swing Current Mirror with Enhanced Output Impedance 266 6.3.4 Current-Mirror Symbol 267 6.4 Folded-Cascode Opamp 268 6.4.1 Small-Signal Analysis 270 6.4.2 Slew Rate 272 6.5 Current Mirror Opamp 275 6.6 Linear Settling Time Revisited 279 6.7 Fully Differential Opamps 281 6.7.1 Fully Differential Folded-Cascode Opamp 283 6.7.2 Alternative Fully Differential Opamps 284 6.7.3 Low Supply Voltage Opamps 286 6.8 Common-Mode Feedback Circuits 288 6.9 Summary of Key Points 292 6.10 References 293 6.11 Problems 294 CHAPTER 7 BIASING, REFERENCES, AND REGULATORS 302 7.1 Analog Integrated Circuit Biasing 302 7.1.1 Bias Circuits 303 7.1.2 Reference Circuits 305 7.1.3 Regulator Circuits 306 7.2 Establishing Constant Transconductance 307 7.2.1 Basic Constant-Transconductance Circuit 307 7.2.2 Improved Constant-Transconductance Circuits 309 7.3 Establishing Constant Voltages and Currents 310 7.3.1 Bandgap Voltage Reference Basics 310 7.3.2 Circuits for Bandgap References 314 7.3.3 Low-Voltage Bandgap Reference 319 7.3.4 Current Reference 320 7.4 Voltage Regulation 321 7.4.1 Regulator Specifications 321 7.4.2 Feedback Analysis 322 7.4.3 Low Dropout Regulators 324 7.5 Summary of Key Points 327 7.6 References 327 7.7 Problems 328 CHAPTER 8 BIPOLAR DEVICES AND CIRCUITS 331 8.1 Bipolar-Junction Transistors 331 8.1.1 Basic Operation 331 8.1.2 Analog Figures of Merit 341 8.2 Bipolar Device Model Summary 344 8.3 SPICE Modeling 345 8.4 Bipolar and BICMOS Processing 346 8.4.1 Bipolar Processing 346 8.4.2 Modern SiGe BiCMOS HBT Processing 347 8.4.3 Mismatch in Bipolar Devices 348 8.5 Bipolar Current Mirrors and Gain Stages 349 8.5.1 Current Mirrors 349 8.5.2 Emitter Follower 350 8.5.3 Bipolar Differential Pair 353 8.6 Appendix 356 8.6.1 Bipolar Transistor Exponential Relationship 356 8.6.2 Base Charge Storage of an Active BJT 359 8.7 Summary of Key Points 359 8.8 References 360 8.9 Problems 360 CHAPTER 9 NOISE AND LINEARITY ANALYSIS AND MODELLING 363 9.1 Time-Domain Analysis 363 9.1.1 Root Mean Square (rms) Value 364 9.1.2 SNR 365 9.1.3 Units of dBm 365 9.1.4 Noise Summation 366 9.2 Frequency-Domain Analysis 367 9.2.1 Noise Spectral Density 367 9.2.2 White Noise 369 9.2.3 1/f, or Flicker, Noise 370 9.2.4 Filtered Noise 371 9.2.5 Noise Bandwidth 373 9.2.6 Piecewise Integration of Noise 375 9.2.7 1/f Noise Tangent Principle 377 9.3 Noise Models for Circuit Elements 377 9.3.1 Resistors 378 9.3.2 Diodes 378 9.3.3 Bipolar Transistors 380 9.3.4 MOSFETS 380 9.3.5 Opamps 382 9.3.6 Capacitors and Inductors 382 9.3.7 Sampled Signal Noise 384 9.3.8 Input-Referred Noise 384 9.4 Noise Analysis Examples 387 9.4.1 Opamp Example 387 9.4.2 Bipolar Common-Emitter Example 390 9.4.3 CMOS Differential Pair Example 392 9.4.4 Fiber-Optic Transimpedance Amplifier Example 395 9.5 Dynamic Range Performance 397 9.5.1 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) 398 9.5.2 Third-Order Intercept Point (IP3) 400 9.5.3 Spurious-Free Dynamic Range (SFDR) 402 9.5.4 Signal-to-Noise and Distortion Ratio (SNDR) 404 9.6 Key Points 405 9.7 References 406 9.8 Problems 406 CHAPTER 10 COMPARATORS 413 10.1 Comparator Specifications 413 10.1.1 Input Offset and Noise 413 10.1.2 Hysteresis 414 10.2 Using an Opamp for a Comparator 415 10.2.1 Input-Offset Voltage Errors 417 10.3 Charge-Injection Errors 418 10.3.1 Making Charge-Injection Signal Independent 421 10.3.2 Minimizing Errors Due to Charge-Injection 421 10.3.3 Speed of Multi-Stage Comparators 424 10.4 Latched Comparators 426 10.4.1 Latch-Mode Time Constant 428 10.4.2 Latch Offset 430 10.5 Examples of CMOS and BiCMOS Comparators 432 10.5.1 Input-Transistor Charge Trapping 435 10.6 Examples of Bipolar Comparators 437 10.7 Key Points 439 10.8 References 440 10.9 Problems 441 CHAPTER 11 SAMPLE-AND-HOLD AND TRANSLINEAR CIRCUITS 444 11.1 Performance of Sample-and-Hold Circuits 444 11.1.1 Testing Sample-and-Holds 445 11.2 MOS Sample-and-Hold Basics 446 11.3 Examples of CMOS S/H Circuits 452 11.4 Bipolar and BiCMOS Sample-and-Holds 456 11.5 Translinear Gain Cell 460 11.6 Translinear Multiplier 462 11.7 Key Points 464 11.8 References 465 11.9 Problems 466 CHAPTER 12 CONTINUOUS-TIME FILTERS 469 12.1 Introduction to Continuous-Time Filters 469 12.1.1 First-Order Filters 470 12.1.2 Second-Order Filters 470 12.2 Introduction to Gm-C Filters 471 12.2.1 Integrators and Summers 472 12.2.2 Fully Differential Integrators 473 12.2.3 First-Order Filter 475 12.2.4 Biquad Filter 477 12.3 Transconductors Using Fixed Resistors 478 12.4 CMOS Transconductors Using Triode Transistors 483 12.4.1 Transconductors Using a Fixed-Bias Triode Transistor 484 12.4.2 Transconductors Using Varying Bias-Triode Transistors 486 12.4.3 Transconductors Using Constant Drain-Source Voltages 490 12.5 CMOS Transconductors Using Active Transistors 492 12.5.1 CMOS Pair 493 12.5.2 Constant Sum of Gate-Source Voltages 494 12.5.3 Source-Connected Differential Pair 495 12.5.4 Inverter-Based 495 12.5.5 Differential-Pair with Floating Voltage Sources 496 12.5.6 Bias-Offset Cross-Coupled Differential Pairs 499 12.6 Bipolar Transconductors 499 12.6.1 Gain-Cell Transconductors 500 12.6.2 Transconductors Using Multiple Differential Pairs 502 12.7 BiCMOS Transconductors 506 12.7.1 Tunable MOS in Triode 506 12.7.2 Fixed-Resistor Transconductor with a Translinear Multiplier 507 12.7.3 Fixed Active MOS Transconductor with a Translinear Multiplier 508 12.8 Active RC and MOSFET-C Filters 509 12.8.1 Active RC Filters 510 12.8.2 MOSFET-C Two-Transistor Integrators 512 12.8.3 Four-Transistor Integrators 515 12.8.4 R-MOSFET-C Filters 516 12.9 Tuning Circuitry 517 12.9.1 Tuning Overview 517 12.9.2 Constant Transconductance 519 12.9.3 Frequency Tuning 520 12.9.4 Q-Factor Tuning 522 12.9.5 Tuning Methods Based on Adaptive Filtering 523 12.10 Introduction to Complex Filters 525 12.10.1 Complex Signal Processing 525 12.10.2 Complex Operations 526 12.10.3 Complex Filters 527 12.10.4 Frequency-Translated Analog Filters 528 12.11 Key Points 531 12.12 References 532 12.13 Problems 534 CHAPTER 13 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS 537 13.1 Overview of Some Signal Spectra 537 13.2 Laplace Transforms of Discrete-Time Signals 537 13.2.1 Spectra of Discrete-Time Signals 540 13.3 z-Transform 541 13.4 Downsampling and Upsampling 543 13.5 Discrete-Time Filters 545 13.5.1 Frequency Response of Discrete-Time Filters 545 13.5.2 Stability of Discrete-Time Filters 548 13.5.3 IIR and FIR Filters 550 13.5.4 Bilinear Transform 550 13.6 Sample-and-Hold Response 552 13.7 Key Points 554 13.8 References 555 13.9 Problems 555 CHAPTER 14 SWITCHED-CAPACITOR CIRCUITS 557 14.1 Basic Building Blocks 557 14.1.1 Opamps 557 14.1.2 Capacitors 558 14.1.3 Switches 558 14.1.4 Nonoverlapping Clocks 559 14.2 Basic Operation and Analysis 560 14.2.1 Resistor Equivalence of a Switched Capacitor 560 14.2.2 Parasitic-Sensitive Integrator 563 14.2.3 Parasitic-Insensitive Integrators 565 14.2.4 Signal-Flow-Graph Analysis 569 14.3 Noise in Switched-Capacitor Circuits 570 14.4 First-Order Filters 572 14.4.1 Switch Sharing 575 14.4.2 Fully Differential Filters 575 14.5 Biquad Filters 577 14.5.1 Low-Q Biquad Filter 577 14.5.2 High-Q Biquad Filter 581 14.6 Charge Injection 585 14.7 Switched-Capacitor Gain Circuits 588 14.7.1 Parallel Resistor-Capacitor Circuit 588 14.7.2 Resettable Gain Circuit 588 14.7.3 Capacitive-Reset Gain Circuit 591 14.8 Correlated Double-Sampling Techniques 593 14.9 Other Switched-Capacitor Circuits 594 14.9.1 Amplitude Modulator 594 14.9.2 Full-Wave Rectifier 595 14.9.3 Peak Detectors 596 14.9.4 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 596 14.9.5 Sinusoidal Oscillator 598 14.10 Key Points 600 14.11 References 601 14.12 Problems 602 CHAPTER 15 DATA CONVERTER FUNDAMENTALS 606 15.1 Ideal D/A Converter 606 15.2 Ideal A/D Converter 608 15.3 Quantization Noise 609 15.3.1 Deterministic Approach 609 15.3.2 Stochastic Approach 610 15.4 Signed Codes 612 15.5 Performance Limitations 614 15.5.1 Resolution 614 15.5.2 Offset and Gain Error 615 15.5.3 Accuracy and Linearity 615 15.6 Key Points 620 15.7 References 620 15.8 Problems 620 CHAPTER 16 NYQUIST-RATE D/A CONVERTERS 623 16.1 Decoder-Based Converters 623 16.1.1 Resistor-String Converters 623 16.1.2 Folded Resistor-String Converters 625 16.1.3 Multiple Resistor-String Converters 626 16.1.4 Signed Outputs 628 16.2 Binary-Scaled Converters 629 16.2.1 Binary-Weighted Resistor Converters 629 16.2.2 Reduced-Resistance-Ratio Ladders 630 16.2.3 R-2R-Based Converters 631 16.2.4 Charge-Redistribution Switched-Capacitor Converters 632 16.2.5 Current-Mode Converters 633 16.2.6 Glitches 633 16.3 Thermometer-Code Converters 634 16.3.1 Thermometer-Code Current-Mode D/A Converters 636 16.3.2 Single-Supply Positive-Output Converters 637 16.3.3 Dynamically Matched Current Sources 638 16.4 Hybrid Converters 640 16.4.1 Resistor-Capacitor Hybrid Converters 640 16.4.2 Segmented Converters 640 16.5 Key Points 642 16.6 References 643 16.7 Problems 643 CHAPTER 17 NYQUIST-RATE A/D CONVERTERS 646 17.1 Integrating Converters 646 17.2 Successive-Approximation Converters 650 17.2.1 D/A-Based Successive Approximation 652 17.2.2 Charge-Redistribution A/D 653 17.2.3 Resistor-Capacitor Hybrid 658 17.2.4 Speed Estimate for Charge-Redistribution Converters 659 17.2.5 Error Correction in Successive-Approximation Converters 660 17.2.6 Multi-Bit Successive-Approximation 662 17.3 Algorithmic (or Cyclic) A/D Converter 662 17.3.1 Ratio-Independent Algorithmic Converter 663 17.4 Pipelined A/D Converters 667 17.4.1 One-Bit-Per-Stage Pipelined Converter 667 17.4.2 1.5 Bit Per Stage Pipelined Converter 670 17.4.3 Pipelined Converter Circuits 673 17.4.4 Generalized k-Bit-Per-Stage Pipelined Converters 673 17.5 Flash Converters 674 17.5.1 Issues in Designing Flash A/D Converters 675 17.6 Two-Step A/D Converters 678 17.6.1 Two-Step Converter with Digital Error Correction 679 17.7 Interpolating A/D Converters 681 17.8 Folding A/D Converters 684 17.9 Time-Interleaved A/D Converters 687 17.10 Key Points 690 17.11 References 691 17.12 Problems 692 CHAPTER 18 OVERSAMPLING CONVERTERS 696 18.1 Oversampling without Noise Shaping 696 18.1.1 Quantization Noise Modelling 697 18.1.2 White Noise Assumption 697 18.1.3 Oversampling Advantage 698 18.1.4 The Advantage of 1-Bit D/A Converters 700 18.2 Oversampling with Noise Shaping 701 18.2.1 Noise-Shaped Delta-Sigma Modulator 702 18.2.2 First-Order Noise Shaping 703 18.2.3 Switched-Capacitor Realization of a First-Order A/D Converter 705 18.2.4 Second-Order Noise Shaping 705 18.2.5 Noise Transfer-Function Curves 707 18.2.6 Quantization Noise Power of 1-Bit Modulators 708 18.2.7 Error-Feedback Structure 708 18.3 System Architectures 710 18.3.1 System Architecture of Delta-Sigma A/D Converters 710 18.3.2 System Architecture of Delta-Sigma D/A Converters 712 18.4 Digital Decimation Filters 713 18.4.1 Multi-Stage 714 18.4.2 Single Stage 716 18.5 Higher-Order Modulators 717 18.5.1 Interpolative Architecture 717 18.5.2 Multi-Stage Noise Shaping (MASH) Architecture 718 18.6 Bandpass Oversampling Converters 720 18.7 Practical Considerations 721 18.7.1 Stability 721 18.7.2 Linearity of Two-Level Converters 722 18.7.3 Idle Tones 724 18.7.4 Dithering 725 18.7.5 Opamp Gain 725 18.8 Multi-Bit Oversampling Converters 726 18.8.1 Dynamic Element Matching 726 18.8.2 Dynamically Matched Current Source D/A Converters 727 18.8.3 Digital Calibration A/D Converter 727 18.8.4 A/D with Both Multi-Bit and Single-Bit Feedback 728 18.9 Third-Order A/D Design Example 729 18.10 Key Points 731 18.11 References 733 18.12 Problems 734 CHAPTER 19 PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS 737 19.1 Basic Phase-Locked Loop Architecture 737 19.1.1 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 738 19.1.2 Divider 739 19.1.3 Phase Detector 740 19.1.4 Loop Filer 745 19.1.5 The PLL in Lock 746 19.2 Linearized Small-Signal Analysis 747 19.2.1 Second-Order PLL Model 748 19.2.2 Limitations of the Second-Order Small-Signal Model 750 19.2.3 PLL Design Example 752 19.3 Jitter and Phase Noise 754 19.3.1 Period Jitter 758 19.3.2 P-Cycle Jitter 758 19.3.3 Adjacent Period Jitter 759 19.3.4 Other Spectral Representations of Jitter 760 19.3.5 Probability Density Function of Jitter 761 19.4 Electronic Oscillators 763 19.4.1 Ring Oscillators 764 19.4.2 LC Oscillators 768 19.4.3 Phase Noise of Oscillators 770 19.5 Jitter and Phase Noise in PLLS 774 19.5.1 Input Phase Noise and Divider Phase Noise 775 19.5.2 VCO Phase Noise 775 19.5.3 Loop Filter Noise 776 19.6 Key Points 779 19.7 References 779 19.8 Problems 780 INDEX 783

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Book SynopsisDym, Little and Orwin''s Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction, 4th Edition gets students actively involved with conceptual design methods and project management tools. The book helps students acquire design skills as they experience the activity of design by doing design projects. It is equally suitable for use in project-based first-year courses, formal engineering design courses, and capstone project courses.Table of ContentsFOREWORD x PREFACE xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvi PART I INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1 ENGINEERING DESIGN What does it mean to design something? Is engineering design different from other kinds of design? 3 1.1 Where and when do engineers design? 3 1.2 A basic vocabulary for engineering design 7 1.3 Learning and doing engineering design 12 1.4 Managing engineering design projects 14 1.5 Notes 15 CHAPTER 2 DEFINING A DESIGN PROCESS AND A CASE STUDY How do I do engineering design? Can you show me an example? 16 2.1 The design process as a process of questioning 16 2.2 Describing and prescribing a design process 19 2.3 Informing a design process 24 2.4 Case study: Design of a stabilizer for microlaryngeal surgery 27 2.5 Illustrative design examples 34 2.6 Notes 35 PART II THE DESIGN PROCESS AND DESIGN TOOLS 37 CHAPTER 3 PROBLEM DEFINITION: DETAILING CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS What does the client require of this design? 39 3.1 Clarifying the initial problem statement 40 3.2 Framing customer requirements 41 3.3 Revised problem statements: Public statements of the design project 43 3.4 Designing an arm support for a CP-afflicted student 44 3.5 Notes 46 CHAPTER 4 PROBLEM DEFINITION: CLARIFYING THE OBJECTIVES What is this design intended to achieve? 47 4.1 Clarifying a client’s objectives 47 4.2 Measurement issues in ordering and evaluating objectives 53 4.3 Rank ordering objectives with pairwise comparison charts 54 4.4 Developing metrics to measure the achievement of objectives 57 4.5 Objectives and metrics for the Danbury arm support 62 4.6 Notes 66 CHAPTER 5 PROBLEM DEFINITION: IDENTIFYING CONSTRAINTS What are the limits for this design problem? 67 5.1 Identifying and setting the client’s limits 67 5.2 Displaying and using constraints 68 5.3 Constraints for the Danbury arm support 69 5.4 Notes 70 CHAPTER 6 PROBLEM DEFINITION: ESTABLISHING FUNCTIONS How do I express a design’s functions in engineering terms? 71 6.1 Establishing functions 71 6.2 Functional analysis: Tools for establishing functions 73 6.3 Design specifications: Specifying functions, features, and behavior 81 6.4 Functions for the Danbury arm support 88 6.5 Notes 91 CHAPTER 7 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN: GENERATING DESIGN ALTERNATIVES How do I generate or create feasible designs? 92 7.1 Generating the “design space,” a space of engineering designs 92 7.2 Navigating, expanding, and contracting design spaces 99 7.3 Generating designs for the Danbury arm support 101 7.4 Notes 105 CHAPTER 8 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN: EVALUATING DESIGN ALTERNATIVES AND CHOOSING A DESIGN Which design should I choose? Which design is “best”? 106 8.1 Applying metrics to objectives: Selecting the preferred design 106 8.2 Evaluating designs for the Danbury arm support 111 8.3 Notes 113 PART III DESIGN COMMUNICATION 115 CHAPTER 9 COMMUNICATING DESIGNS GRAPHICALLY Here’s my design; can you make it? 117 9.1 Engineering sketches and drawings speak to many audiences 117 9.2 Sketching 119 9.3 Fabrication specifications: The several forms of engineering drawings 122 9.4 Fabrication specifications: The devil is in the details 127 9.5 Final notes on drawings 129 9.6 Notes 130 CHAPTER 10 PROTOTYPING AND PROOFING THE DESIGN Here’s my design; how well does it work? 131 10.1 Prototypes, models, and proofs of concept 132 10.2 Building models and prototypes 135 10.3 Notes 141 CHAPTER 11 COMMUNICATING DESIGNS ORALLY AND IN WRITING How do we let our client know about our solutions? 142 11.1 General guidelines for technical communication 143 11.2 Oral presentations: Telling a crowd what’s been done 145 11.3 The project report: Writing for the client, not for history 150 11.4 Final report elements for the Danbury arm support 155 11.5 Notes 158 PART IV DESIGN MODELING, ENGINEERING ECONOMICS, AND DESIGN USE 159 CHAPTER 12 MATHEMATICAL MODELING IN DESIGN Math and physics are very much part of the design process! 161 12.1 Some mathematical habits of thought for design modeling 162 12.2 Some mathematical tools for design modeling 163 12.3 Modeling a battery-powered payload cart 177 12.4 Design modeling of a ladder rung 186 12.5 Preliminary design of a ladder rung 193 12.6 Closing remarks on mathematics, physics, and design 196 12.7 Notes 196 CHAPTER 13 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS IN DESIGN How much is this going to cost? 197 13.1 Cost estimation: How much does this particular design cost? 197 13.2 The time value of money 201 13.3 Closing considerations on engineering and economics 204 13.4 Notes 204 CHAPTER 14 DESIGN FOR PRODUCTION, USE, AND SUSTAINABILITY What other factors influence the design process? 205 14.1 Design for production: Can this design be made? 206 14.2 Design for use: How long will this design work? 209 14.3 Design for sustainability: What about the environment? 215 14.4 Notes 218 PART V DESIGN TEAMS, TEAM MANAGEMENT, AND ETHICS IN DESIGN 221 CHAPTER 15 DESIGN TEAM DYNAMICS We can do this together, as a team! 223 15.1 Forming design teams 223 15.2 Constructive conflict: Enjoying a good fight 227 15.3 Leading design teams 229 15.4 Notes 231 CHAPTER 16 MANAGING A DESIGN PROJECT What do you want? When do you want it? How much are we going to spend? 232 16.1 Getting started: Establishing the managerial needs of a project 232 16.2 Tools for managing a project’s scope 234 16.3 The team calendar: A tool for managing a project’s schedule 241 16.4 The budget: A tool for managing a project’s spending 243 16.5 Monitoring and controlling projects: Measuring a project’s progress 245 16.6 Managing the end of a project 248 16.7 Notes 249 CHAPTER 17 ETHICS IN DESIGN Design is not just a technical matter 250 17.1 Ethics: Understanding obligations 250 17.2 Codes of ethics: What are our professional obligations? 252 17.3 Obligations may start with the client . . . 255 17.4 . . . But what about the public and the profession? 256 17.5 On engineering practice and the welfare of the public 261 17.6 Ethics: Always a part of engineering practice 263 17.7 Notes 263 APPENDICES 264 APPENDIX A PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF PROTOTYPING 264 APPENDIX B PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF ENGINEERING DRAWING 279 APPENDIX C EXERCISES 300 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 309 INDEX 315

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Book SynopsisThe RICS New Rules of Measurement mean that the construction industry now has a way of allowing a more consistent approach to the measurement and estimating of buildings from the start of a project, right through until the end, and beyond.Table of ContentsForeword by Allan Ashworth ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii List of Tables and Diagrams xv Glossary of Terms xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Standard methods of measurement 4 1.3 Pricing 6 2 A Practical Introduction to Measurement 7 2.1 A practical introduction to measurement 7 2.2 Measurement procedure 11 3 Code of Measuring Practice 15 3.1 Introduction 15 3.2 The purpose of the Code 16 3.3 Measurement 18 3.4 Good practice 23 3.5 Practical application: GIFA London Road 33 3.6 Self-assessment exercise: GIFA London Road 35 4 How to Use the New Rules of Measurement 1 37 4.1 Introduction 37 4.2 Framework 39 4.3 Estimates 44 4.4 Cost plans 46 4.5 Information 50 4.6 Practical application: Included and excluded 51 4.7 Self-assessment exercise: Conversion to NRM 53 5 NRM 1 Estimates 55 5.1 Practice and procedure 55 5.2 Method of measurement 60 5.3 Practical application: Estimate London Road Basement 63 5.4 Self-assessment exercise: Estimate London Road RC Frame 69 6 NRM 1 Cost Plans 71 6.1 Practice and procedure 71 6.2 Elements 73 6.3 Method of measurement for cost plans 76 6.4 Cost plans 82 6.5 Practical application: Cost Plan London Road Basement 84 6.6 Self-assessment exercise: Cost Plan London Road RC Frame 93 7 Information 95 7.1 Introduction 95 7.2 Information requirements for estimates 96 7.3 Information required for the cost plans 98 7.4 Progressive provision of information 108 8 Preliminaries, Risk, Overheads and Profit 115 8.1 Introduction 115 8.2 Preliminaries 115 8.3 Risk 123 8.4 Overheads and profit 128 8.5 Practical example: Site based preliminaries 128 8.6 Self-assessment exercise: Weekly running costs 130 9 Unit Rates 131 9.1 Introduction 131 9.2 Labour rates 132 9.3 Labour constants 135 9.4 Materials 136 9.5 Plant 137 9.6 Practical application: For concrete, brickwork, partitioning, roofing, windows 139 9.7 Self-assessment exercise: Reinforcement 151 10 Cost Analyses 153 10.1 Introduction 153 10.2 Types of indices 154 10.3 Requirements of indices 156 10.4 Problems with indices 157 10.5 Using indices to adjust estimates 159 10.6 Practical application: Cost adjustment for customer service centre 165 10.7 Self-assessment exercise: Cost adjustment for educational building 176 Appendices 1. London Road drawing: No. SDCO/1/01 Site Layout, Size A 1 185 2. London Road drawing: No. SDCO/1/02 Plan, Elevation and Section. Size A1 187 References 189 Index 191

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Book SynopsisThis book is an updated in-depth study and explanation of avionics as applied to civil aircraft. Substantial new content covers changes in avionics technology, software, and system safety. Ian Moir and Allan Seabridge are both highly experienced in the aircraft industry and are also involved in devising and delivering training courses.Trade Review“In summary, this book has been researched, prepared and produced to a very high standard. It will provide a wealth of information for students in FE/HE, and will serve as an excellent resource throughout the industry.” (Aerospace, 1 December 2014) Table of ContentsAbout the Authors xix Series Preface xxi Preface to Second Edition xxii Preface to First Edition xxiii Acknowledgements xxv List of Abbreviations xxvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Advances since 2003 1 1.2 Comparison of Boeing and Airbus Solutions 2 1.3 Outline of Book Content 2 1.3.1 Enabling Technologies and Techniques 3 1.3.2 Functional Avionics Systems 4 1.3.3 The Flight Deck 4 1.4 The Appendices 4 2 Avionics Technology 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Avionics Technology Evolution 8 2.2.1 Introduction 8 References 77 3 Data Bus Networks 79 3.1 Introduction 79 3.2 Digital Data Bus Basics 80 References 118 4 System Safety 119 4.1 Introduction 119 4.2 Flight Safety 120 4.2.1 Introduction 120 4.2.2 Flight Safety Overview 120 4.2.3 Accident Causes 124 References 157 5 Avionics Architectures 159 5.1 Introduction 159 5.2 Avionics Architecture Evolution 159 5.2.1 Overview of Architecture Evolution 159 5.2.2 Distributed Analogue Architecture 161 5.2.3 Distributed Digital Architecture 162 5.2.4 Federated Digital Architecture 164 5.2.5 Integrated Modular Avionics 166 5.2.6 Open System Standards 169 5.3 Avionic Systems Domains 169 5.3.1 The Aircraft as a System of Systems 169 5.3.2 ATA Classification 171 5.4 Avionics Architecture Examples 172 5.4.1 The Manifestations of IMA 172 5.4.2 The Airbus A320 Avionics Architecture 173 5.4.3 The Boeing 777 Avionics Architecture 174 5.4.4 Honeywell EPIC Architecture 179 5.4.5 The Airbus A380 and A 350 180 5.4.6 The Boeing 787 184 5.5 IMA Design Principles 188 5.6 The Virtual System 189 5.6.1 Introduction to Virtual Mapping 189 5.6.2 Implementation Example: Airbus A 380 191 5.6.3 Implementation Example: Boeing 787 193 5.7 Partitioning 194 5.8 IMA Fault Tolerance 195 5.8.1 Fault Tolerance Principles 195 5.8.2 Data Integrity 196 5.8.3 Platform Health Management 197 5.9 Network Definition 197 5.10 Certification 198 5.10.1 IMA Certification Philosophy 198 5.10.2 Platform Acceptance 199 5.10.3 Hosted Function Acceptance 200 5.10.4 Cost of Change 200 5.10.5 Configuration Management 201 5.11 IMA Standards 201 References 203 6 Systems Development 205 6.1 Introduction 205 6.1.1 Systems Design 205 6.1.2 Development Processes 206 6.2 System Design Guidelines 206 6.2.1 Key Agencies and Documentation 206 6.2.2 Design Guidelines and Certification Techniques 207 6.2.3 Guidelines for Development of Civil Aircraft and Systems – SAE ARP 4754A 208 6.2.4 Guidelines and Methods for Conducting the Safety Assessment – SAE ARP 4761 208 6.2.5 Software Considerations – RTCA DO-178B 209 6.2.6 Hardware Development – RTCA DO- 254 209 6.2.7 Integrated Modular Avionics – RTCA DO- 297 209 6.2.8 Equivalence of US and European Specifications 210 6.3 Interrelationship of Design Processes 210 6.3.1 Functional Hazard Assessment (FHA) 210 6.3.2 Preliminary System Safety Assessment (PSSA) 212 6.3.3 System Safety Assessment (SSA) 213 6.3.4 Common Cause Analysis (CCA) 213 6.4 Requirements Capture and Analysis 213 6.4.1 Top-Down Approach 214 6.4.2 Bottom-Up Approach 214 6.4.3 Requirements Capture Example 215 6.5 Development Processes 217 6.5.1 The Product Life-Cycle 217 6.5.2 Concept Phase 218 6.5.3 Definition Phase 219 6.5.4 Design Phase 220 6.5.5 Build Phase 221 6.5.6 Test Phase 222 6.5.7 Operate Phase 223 6.5.8 Disposal or Refurbish Phase 223 6.6 Development Programme 224 6.6.1 Typical Development Programme 224 6.6.2 ‘V’ Diagram 226 6.7 Extended Operations Requirements 226 6.7.1 ETOPS Requirements 226 6.7.2 Equipment Requirements 228 6.8 ARINC Specifications and Design Rigour 229 6.8.1 ARINC 400 Series 229 6.8.2 ARINC 500 Series 229 6.8.3 ARINC 600 Series 229 6.8.4 ARINC 700 Series 230 6.8.5 ARINC 800 Series 230 6.8.6 ARINC 900 Series 230 6.9 Interface Control 231 6.9.1 Introduction 231 6.9.2 Interface Control Document 231 6.9.3 Aircraft-Level Data-Bus Data 231 6.9.4 System Internal Data-Bus Data 233 6.9.5 Internal System Input/Output Data 233 6.9.6 Fuel Component Interfaces 233 References 233 7 Electrical Systems 235 7.1 Electrical Systems Overview 235 7.1.1 Introduction 235 7.1.2 Wider Development Trends 236 7.1.3 Typical Civil Electrical System 238 7.2 Electrical Power Generation 239 7.2.1 Generator Control Function 239 7.2.2 DC System Generation Control 240 7.2.3 AC Power Generation Control 242 7.3 Power Distribution and Protection 248 7.3.1 Electrical Power System Layers 248 7.3.2 Electrical System Configuration 248 7.3.3 Electrical Load Protection 250 7.3.4 Power Conversion 253 7.4 Emergency Power 254 7.4.1 Ram Air Turbine 255 7.4.2 Permanent Magnet Generators 256 7.4.3 Backup Systems 257 7.4.4 Batteries 258 7.5 Power System Architectures 259 7.5.1 Airbus A320 Electrical System 259 7.5.2 Boeing 777 Electrical System 261 7.5.3 Airbus A380 Electrical System 264 7.5.4 Boeing 787 Electrical System 265 7.6 Aircraft Wiring 268 7.6.1 Aircraft Breaks 269 7.6.2 Wiring Bundle Definition 270 7.6.3 Wiring Routing 271 7.6.4 Wiring Sizing 272 7.6.5 Aircraft Electrical Signal Types 272 7.6.6 Electrical Segregation 274 7.6.7 The Nature of Aircraft Wiring and Connectors 274 7.6.8 Used of Twisted Pairs and Quads 275 7.7 Electrical Installation 276 7.7.1 Temperature and Power Dissipation 278 7.7.2 Electromagnetic Interference 278 7.7.3 Lightning Strikes 280 7.8 Bonding and Earthing 280 7.9 Signal Conditioning 282 7.9.1 Signal Types 282 7.9.2 Signal Conditioning 283 7.10 Central Maintenance Systems 284 7.10.1 Airbus A330/340 Central Maintenance System 285 7.10.2 Boeing 777 Central Maintenance Computing System 288 References 290 Further Reading 290 8 Sensors 291 8.1 Introduction 291 8.2 Air Data Sensors 292 8.2.1 Air Data Parameters 292 8.2.2 Pressure Sensing 292 8.2.3 Temperature Sensing 292 8.2.4 Use of Pressure Data 294 8.2.5 Pressure Datum Settings 295 8.2.6 Air Data Computers (ADCs) 297 8.2.7 Airstream Direction Detectors 299 8.2.8 Total Aircraft Pitot-Static System 300 8.3 Magnetic Sensors 301 8.3.1 Introduction 301 8.3.2 Magnetic Field Components 302 8.3.3 Magnetic Variation 303 8.3.4 Magnetic Heading Reference System 305 8.4 Inertial Sensors 306 8.4.1 Introduction 306 8.4.2 Position Gyroscopes 306 8.4.3 Rate Gyroscopes 306 8.4.4 Accelerometers 308 8.4.5 Inertial Reference Set 309 8.4.6 Platform Alignment 312 8.4.7 Gimballed Platform 315 8.4.8 Strap-Down System 317 8.5 Combined Air Data and Inertial 317 8.5.1 Introduction 317 8.5.2 Evolution of Combined Systems 317 8.5.3 Boeing 777 Example 319 8.5.4 ADIRS Data-Set 320 8.5.5 Further System Integration 320 8.6 Radar Sensors 323 8.6.1 Radar Altimeter 323 8.6.2 Weather Radar 324 References 327 9 Communications and Navigation Aids 329 9.1 Introduction 329 9.1.1 Introduction and RF Spectrum 329 9.1.2 Equipment 331 9.1.3 Antennae 332 9.2 Communications 332 9.2.1 Simple Modulation Techniques 332 9.2.2 HF Communications 335 9.2.3 VHF Communications 337 9.2.4 SATCOM 339 9.2.5 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Transponder 342 9.2.6 Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) 345 9.3 Ground-Based Navigation Aids 347 9.3.1 Introduction 347 9.3.2 Non-Directional Beacon 348 9.3.3 VHF Omni-Range 348 9.3.4 Distance Measuring Equipment 348 9.3.5 TACAN 350 9.3.6 VOR/TAC 350 9.4 Instrument Landing Systems 350 9.4.1 Overview 350 9.4.2 Instrument Landing System 351 9.4.3 Microwave Landing System 354 9.4.4 GNSS Based Systems 354 9.5 Space-Based Navigation Systems 354 9.5.1 Introduction 354 9.5.2 Global Positioning System 355 9.5.3 GLONASS 358 9.5.4 Galileo 359 9.5.5 COMPASS 359 9.5.6 Differential GPS 360 9.5.7 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS/SBAS) 360 9.5.8 Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS/LBAS) 360 9.6 Communications Control Systems 362 References 363 10 Flight Control Systems 365 10.1 Principles of Flight Control 365 10.1.1 Frame of Reference 365 10.1.2 Typical Flight Control Surfaces 366 10.2 Flight Control Elements 368 10.2.1 Interrelationship of Flight Control Functions 368 10.2.2 Flight Crew Interface 370 10.3 Flight Control Actuation 371 10.3.1 Conventional Linear Actuation 372 10.3.2 Linear Actuation with Manual and Autopilot Inputs 372 10.3.3 Screwjack Actuation 373 10.3.4 Integrated Actuation Package 374 10.3.5 FBW and Direct Electrical Link 376 10.3.6 Electrohydrostatic Actuation (EHA) 377 10.3.7 Electromechanical Actuation (EMA) 378 10.3.8 Actuator Applications 379 10.4 Principles of Fly-By-Wire 379 10.4.1 Fly-By-Wire Overview 379 10.4.2 Typical Operating Modes 380 10.4.3 Boeing and Airbus Philosophies 382 10.5 Boeing 777 Flight Control System 383 10.5.1 Top Level Primary Flight Control System 383 10.5.2 Actuator Control Unit Interface 384 10.5.3 Pitch and Yaw Channel Overview 386 10.5.4 Channel Control Logic 387 10.5.5 Overall System Integration 389 10.6 Airbus Flight Control Systems 389 10.6.1 Airbus FBW Evolution 389 10.6.2 A320 FBW System 391 10.6.3 A330/340 FBW System 393 10.6.4 A380 FBW System 394 10.7 Autopilot Flight Director System 396 10.7.1 Autopilot Principles 396 10.7.2 Interrelationship with the Flight Deck 398 10.7.3 Automatic Landing 400 10.8 Flight Data Recorders 401 10.8.1 Principles of Flight Data Recording 401 10.8.2 Data Recording Environments 403 10.8.3 Future Requirements 403 References 404 11 Navigation Systems 405 11.1 Principles of Navigation 405 11.1.1 Basic Navigation 405 11.1.2 Navigation using Ground-Based Navigation Aids 407 11.1.3 Navigation using Air Data and Inertial Navigation 408 11.1.4 Navigation using Global Navigation Satellite Systems 410 11.1.5 Flight Technical Error – Lateral Navigation 411 11.1.6 Flight Technical Error – Vertical Navigation 412 11.2 Flight Management System 413 11.2.1 Principles of Flight Management Systems (FMS) 413 11.2.2 FMS Crew Interface – Navigation Display 414 11.2.3 FMS Crew Interface – Control and Display Unit 417 11.2.4 FMS Functions 420 11.2.5 FMS Procedures 421 11.2.6 Standard Instrument Departure 423 11.2.7 En-Route Procedures 423 11.2.8 Standard Terminal Arrival Routes 424 11.2.9 ILS Procedures 427 11.2.10 Typical FMS Architecture 427 11.3 Electronic Flight Bag 427 11.3.1 EFB Functions 427 11.3.2 EFB Implementation 429 11.4 Air Traffic Management 430 11.4.1 Aims of Air Traffic Management 430 11.4.2 Communications, Navigation, Surveillance 430 11.4.3 NextGen 431 11.4.4 Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) 432 11.5 Performance-Based Navigation 433 11.5.1 Performance-Based Navigation Definition 433 11.5.2 Area Navigation (RNAV) 434 11.5.3 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) 438 11.5.4 Precision Approaches 440 11.6 Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast 442 11.7 Boeing and Airbus Implementations 442 11.7.1 Boeing Implementation 442 11.7.2 Airbus Implementation 444 11.8 Terrain Avoidance Warning System (TAWS) 444 References 447 Historical References (in Chronological Order) 447 12 Flight Deck Displays 449 12.1 Introduction 449 12.2 First Generation Flight Deck: the Electromagnetic Era 450 12.2.1 Embryonic Primary Flight Instruments 450 12.2.2 The Early Pioneers 451 12.2.3 The ‘Classic’ Electromechanical Flight Deck 453 12.3 Second Generation Flight Deck: the Electro-Optic Era 455 12.3.1 The Advanced Civil Flight Deck 455 12.3.2 The Boeing 757 and 767 456 12.3.3 The Airbus A320, A330 and A 340 457 12.3.4 The Boeing 747-400 and 777 458 12.3.5 The Airbus A 380 460 12.3.6 The Boeing 787 461 12.3.7 The Airbus A 350 462 12.4 Third Generation: the Next Generation Flight Deck 463 12.4.1 Loss of Situational Awareness in Adverse Operational Conditions 463 12.4.2 Research Areas 463 12.4.3 Concepts 464 12.5 Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) System 465 12.5.1 ECAM Scheduling 465 12.5.2 ECAM Moding 465 12.5.3 ECAM Pages 466 12.5.4 Qantas Flight QF 32 466 12.5.5 The Boeing Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) 468 12.6 Standby Instruments 468 12.7 Head-Up Display Visual Guidance System (HVGS) 469 12.7.1 Introduction to Visual Guidance Systems 469 12.7.2 HVGS on Civil Transport Aircraft 470 12.7.3 HVGS Installation 470 12.7.4 HVGS Symbology 471 12.8 Enhanced and Synthetic Vision Systems 473 12.8.1 Overview 473 12.8.2 EVS, EFVS and SVS Architecture Diagrams 474 12.8.3 Minimum Aviation System Performance Standard (MASPS) 474 12.8.4 Enhanced Vision Systems (EVS) 474 12.8.5 Enhanced Flight Vision Systems (EFVS) 478 12.8.6 Synthetic Vision Systems (SVS) 481 12.8.7 Combined Vision Systems 484 12.9 Display System Architectures 486 12.9.1 Airworthiness Regulations 486 12.9.2 Display Availability and Integrity 486 12.9.3 Display System Functional Elements 487 12.9.4 Dumb Display Architecture 488 12.9.5 Semi-Smart Display Architecture 490 12.9.6 Fully Smart (Integrated) Display Architecture 490 12.10 Display Usability 491 12.10.1 Regulatory Requirements 491 12.10.2 Display Format and Symbology Guidelines 492 12.10.3 Flight Deck Geometry 492 12.10.4 Legibility: Resolution, Symbol Line Width and Sizing 494 12.10.5 Colour 494 12.10.6 Ambient Lighting Conditions 496 12.11 Display Technologies 498 12.11.1 Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays (AMLCD) 499 12.11.2 Plasma Panels 501 12.11.3 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (O-LED) 501 12.11.4 Electronic Paper (e-paper) 502 12.11.5 Micro-Projection Display Technologies 503 12.11.6 Head-Up Display Technologies 504 12.11.7 Inceptors 505 12.12 Flight Control Inceptors 506 12.12.1 Handling Qualities 507 12.12.2 Response Types 507 12.12.3 Envelope Protection 508 12.12.4 Inceptors 508 References 509 13 Military Aircraft Adaptations 511 13.1 Introduction 511 13.2 Avionic and Mission System Interface 512 13.2.1 Navigation and Flight Management 515 13.2.2 Navigation Aids 516 13.2.3 Flight Deck Displays 517 13.2.4 Communications 518 13.2.5 Aircraft Systems 518 13.3 Applications 519 13.3.1 Green Aircraft Conversion 519 13.3.2 Personnel, Material and Vehicle Transport 521 13.3.3 Air-to-Air Refuelling 521 13.3.4 Maritime Patrol 522 13.3.5 Airborne Early Warning 528 13.3.6 Ground Surveillance 528 13.3.7 Electronic Warfare 530 13.3.8 Flying Classroom 530 13.3.9 Range Target/Safety 530 Reference 531 Further Reading 531 Appendices 533 Introduction to Appendices 533 Appendix A: Safety Analysis – Flight Control System 534 A. 1 Flight Control System Architecture 534 A. 2 Dependency Diagram 535 A. 3 Fault Tree Analysis 537 Appendix B: Safety Analysis – Electronic Flight Instrument System 539 B. 1 Electronic Flight Instrument System Architecture 539 B. 2 Fault Tree Analysis 540 Appendix C: Safety Analysis – Electrical System 543 C. 1 Electrical System Architecture 543 C. 2 Fault Tree Analysis 543 Appendix D: Safety Analysis – Engine Control System 546 D. 1 Factors Resulting in an In-Flight Shut Down 546 D. 2 Engine Control System Architecture 546 D. 3 Markov Analysis 548 Simplified Example (all failure rates per flight hour) 549 Index 551

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Book SynopsisEverything you need to care for and keep happy, healthy chickens With directives on diagnosing and treating sick or ailing chickens, as well as general information on how to keep chickens in peak condition, Chicken Health For Dummies is your go-to guide on how to best care for and keep chickens.Table of ContentsIntroduction 1 Part I: The Healthy Chicken 7 Chapter 1: A Picture of Backyard Flock Health 9 Chapter 2: The Anatomy and Body Functions of the Happy, Healthy Chicken 19 Chapter 3: That’s What Chickens Do: Healthy Chicken Behavior 35 Chapter 4: More Than an Ounce of Prevention: Biosecurity for the Backyard Flock 47 Chapter 5: Keeping the Flock Clean and Comfortable 63 Chapter 6: Feeding the Flock Well 75 Part II: Recognizing Signs of Chicken Illness 87 Chapter 7: Inspecting the Flock and Examining the Sick Chicken 89 Chapter 8: Troubleshooting Common Illnesses in Adult Chickens 101 Chapter 9: Sizing Up Sick Chicks 123 Chapter 10: Sleuthing Subtle Signs of Illness and Mysterious Sudden Death 133 Part III: A Close-Up Examination of Chicken Woes and Diseases 145 Chapter 11: Accidents of Flock Management 147 Chapter 12: My Chicken Has What? Diseases Caused by Bacteria and Viruses 165 Chapter 13: Exterminating Chicken Parasites and Other Creepy-Crawlies 181 Chapter 14: Identifying Miscellaneous and Mystery Chicken Diseases 197 Part IV: Your Chicken Repair Manual (and Advice for When to Close the Book) 207 Chapter 15: Making a Diagnosis: Getting Advice or Going It Alone 209 Chapter 16: Medicating and Vaccinating Chickens 225 Chapter 17: Performing Chicken Maintenance and First-Aid Procedures 243 Chapter 18: Euthanizing a Chicken and Disposing of the Remains 261 Part V: The Chicken/Human Interface 273 Chapter 19: Can You Get That from a Chicken? 275 Chapter 20: Food Safety and Quality of Homegrown Eggs and Meat 283 Part VI: The Part of Tens 293 Chapter 21: Answers to Ten Common Questions about Chicken Health 295 Chapter 22: Ten Common Misconceptions about Chicken Health and Treatments 301 Appendix: Chicken Health Formulary 305 Index 311

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Book SynopsisThis is the first book on adaptive aeroservoelasticity and it presents the nonlinear and recursive techniques for adaptively controlling the uncertain aeroelastic dynamics Covers both linear and nonlinear control methods in a comprehensive mannerMathematical presentation of adaptive control concepts is rigorousSeveral novel applications of adaptive control presented here are not to be found in other literature on the topicMany realistic design examples are covered, ranging from adaptive flutter suppression of wings to the adaptive control of transonic limit-cycle oscillationsTable of ContentsAbout the Author xv Series Editor’s Preface xvii Preface xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Aeroservoelasticity 1 1.2 Unsteady Aerodynamics 4 1.3 Linear Feedback Design 7 1.4 Parametric Uncertainty and Variation 11 1.5 Adaptive Control Design 13 1.5.1 Adaptive Control Laws 15 1.6 Organization 20 References 21 2 Linear Control Systems 23 2.1 Notation 23 2.2 Basic Control Concepts 23 2.3 Input–Output Representation 26 2.3.1 Gain and Stability 26 2.3.2 Small Gain Theorem 27 2.4 Input–Output Linear Systems 28 2.4.1 Laplace Transform and Transfer Function 30 2.5 Loop Shaping of Linear Control Systems 33 2.5.1 Nyquist Theorem 34 2.5.2 Gain and Phase Margins 36 2.5.3 Loop Shaping for Single Variable Systems 38 2.5.4 Singular Values 40 2.5.5 Multi-variable Robustness Analysis: Input–Output Model 42 2.6 State-Space Representation 42 2.6.1 State-Space Theory of Linear Systems 43 2.6.2 State Feedback by Eigenstructure Assignment 49 2.6.3 Linear Observers and Output Feedback Compensators 50 2.7 Stochastic Systems 52 2.7.1 Ergodic Processes 57 2.7.2 Filtering of Random Noise 59 2.7.3 Wiener Filter 60 2.7.4 Kalman Filter 61 2.8 Optimal Control 65 2.8.1 Euler–Lagrange Equations 65 2.8.2 Linear, Quadratic Optimal Control 67 2.9 Robust Control Design by LQG/LTR Synthesis 71 2.10 H2/H∞ Design 77 2.10.1 H2 Design Procedure 79 2.10.2 H∞ Design Procedure 80 2.11 𝜇-Synthesis 81 2.11.1 Linear Fractional Transformation 83 References 86 3 Aeroelastic Modelling 87 3.1 Structural Model 88 3.1.1 Statics 88 3.1.2 Dynamics 91 3.1.3 Typical Wing Section 93 3.2 Aerodynamic Modelling Concepts 98 3.2.1 Governing Equations for Unsteady Flow 99 3.2.2 Full-Potential Equation 100 3.2.3 Transonic Small-Disturbance Equation 104 3.3 Baseline Aerodynamic Model 106 3.3.1 Integral Equation Formulation 108 3.3.2 Subsonic Unsteady Aerodynamics 109 3.3.3 Supersonic Unsteady Aerodynamics 114 3.4 Preliminary Aeroelastic Modelling Concepts 115 3.5 Ideal Flow Model for Typical Section 120 3.6 Transient Aerodynamics of Typical Section 125 3.7 State-Space Model of the Typical Section 126 3.8 Generalized Aeroelastic Plant 128 References 135 4 Active Flutter Suppression 139 4.1 Single Degree-of-Freedom Flutter 141 4.2 Bending-Torsion Flutter 146 4.3 Active Suppression of Single Degree-of-Freedom Flutter 147 4.4 Active Flutter Suppression of Typical Section 153 4.4.1 Open-Loop Flutter Analysis 154 4.5 Linear Feedback Stabilization 157 4.5.1 Pole-Placement Regulator Design 157 4.5.2 Observer Design 160 4.5.3 Robustness of Compensated System 162 4.6 Active Flutter Suppression of Three-Dimensional Wings 164 References 168 5 Self-Tuning Regulation 171 5.1 Introduction 171 5.2 Online Plant Identification 172 5.2.1 Least-Squares Parameter Estimation 172 5.2.2 Least-Squares Method with Exponential Forgetting 174 5.2.3 Projection Algorithm 174 5.2.4 Autoregressive Identification 175 5.3 Design Methods for Stochastic Self-Tuning Regulators 176 5.4 Aeroservoelastic Applications 176 References 180 6 Nonlinear Systems Analysis and Design 181 6.1 Introduction 181 6.2 Preliminaries 182 6.2.1 Existence and Uniqueness of Solution 183 6.2.2 Expanded Solution 184 6.3 Stability in the Sense of Lyapunov 185 6.3.1 Local Linearization about Equilibrium Point 187 6.3.2 Lyapunov Stability Theorem 189 6.3.3 LaSalle Invariance Theorem 192 6.4 Input–Output Stability 192 6.4.1 Hamilton–Jacobi Inequality 193 6.4.2 Input-State Stability 194 6.5 Passivity 195 6.5.1 Positive Real Transfer Matrix 196 6.5.2 Stability of Passive Systems 198 6.5.3 Feedback Design for Passive Systems 200 References 201 7 Nonlinear Oscillatory Systems and Describing Functions 203 7.1 Introduction 203 7.2 Absolute Stability 205 7.2.1 Popov Stability Criteria 207 7.2.2 Circle Criterion 207 7.3 Describing Function Approximation 210 7.4 Applications to Aeroservoelastic Systems 212 7.4.1 Nonlinear and Uncertain Aeroelastic Plant 213 References 216 8 Model Reference Adaptation of Aeroservoelastic Systems 217 8.1 Lyapunov-Like Stability of Non-autonomous Systems 218 8.1.1 Uniform Ultimate Boundedness 219 8.1.2 Barbalat’s Lemma 220 8.1.3 LaSalle–Yoshizawa Theorem 220 8.2 Gradient-Based Adaptation 223 8.2.1 Least-Squared Error Adaptation 225 8.3 Lyapunov-Based Adaptation 225 8.3.1 Nonlinear Gain Evolution 228 8.3.2 MRAS for Single-Input Systems 231 8.4 Aeroservoelastic Applications 233 8.4.1 Reference Aeroelastic Model 234 8.4.2 Adaptive Flutter Suppression of Typical Section 236 8.4.3 Adaptive Stabilization of Flexible Fighter Aircraft 241 References 254 9 Adaptive Backstepping Control 255 9.1 Introduction 255 9.2 Integrator Backstepping 256 9.2.1 A Motivating Example 257 9.3 Aeroservoelastic Application 263 Reference 264 10 Adaptive Control of Uncertain Nonlinear Systems 265 10.1 Introduction 265 10.2 Integral Adaptation 266 10.2.1 Extension to Observer-Based Feedback 268 10.2.2 Modified Integral Adaptation with Observer 269 10.3 Model Reference Adaptation of Nonlinear Plant 273 10.4 Robust Model Reference Adaptation 275 10.4.1 Output-Feedback Design 285 10.4.2 Adaptive Flutter Suppression of a Three-Dimensional Wing 288 References 294 11 Adaptive Transonic Aeroservoelasticity 295 11.1 Steady Transonic Flow Characteristics 296 11.2 Unsteady Transonic Flow Characteristics 299 11.2.1 Thin Airfoil with Oscillating Flap 300 11.2.2 Supercritical Airfoil Oscillating in Pitch 308 11.3 Modelling for Transonic Unsteady Aerodynamics 310 11.3.1 Indicial Method 311 11.3.2 Volterra–Wiener Method 312 11.3.3 Describing Function Method 313 11.4 Transonic Aeroelastic Plant 316 11.5 Adaptive Control of Control-Surface Nonlinearity 317 11.5.1 Transonic Flutter Mechanism 319 11.6 Adaptive Control of Limit-Cycle Oscillation 322 References 330 Appendix A Analytical Solution for Ideal Unsteady Aerodynamics 331 A.1 Pure Heaving Oscillation 335 A.2 Küssner–Schwarz Solution for General Oscillation 336 References 337 Appendix B Solution to Possio’s Integral Equation for Subsonic, Unsteady Aerodynamics 339 B.1 Dietze’s Iterative Solution 340 B.2 Analytical Solution by Fettis 341 B.3 Closed-Form Solution 344 References 345 Appendix C Flutter Analysis of Modified DAST-ARW1 Wing 347 References 357 Index 359

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a complete guide on tools and techniques for modeling of supercritical and subcritical fluid extraction (SSFE) processes and phenomena. It provides details for SSFE from managing the experiments to modeling and optimization. It includes the fundamentals of SSFE as well as the necessary experimental techniques to validate the models. The optimization section includes the use of process simulators, conventional optimization techniques and state-of-the-art genetic algorithm methods. Numerous practical examples and case studies on the application of the modeling and optimization techniques on the SSFE processes are also provided. Detailed thermodynamic modeling with and without co-solvent and non equilibrium system modeling is another feature of the book.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Nomenclature xvii 1 Fundamentals of Supercritical and Subcritical Fluid Extraction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Supercritical Fluid Properties 2 1.3 Subcritical Condition 3 1.4 Physical Properties of Subcritical Fluid 5 1.5 Principles of Sub- and Supercritical Extraction Process 7 1.5.1 Solid Sample Extraction 8 1.5.2 Liquid Sample Extraction 9 1.6 Applications of SCF Extraction 11 1.6.1 Decaffeination of Coffee and Tea 11 1.6.2 Removal of FFA in Fats and Oils 15 1.6.3 Enrichment of Tocopherols 17 1.6.4 Carotenes from Crude Palm Oil and from Palm Fatty Acid Esters 18 1.7 Solubility of Solutes in SCFs 18 1.8 Solute–Solvent Compatibility 20 1.9 Solubility and Selectivity of Low-Volatility Organic Compounds in SCFs 21 1.10 Method of Solubility Measurement 24 1.10.1 Static Method 24 1.10.2 Dynamic Method 25 1.11 Determination of Solvent 27 1.11.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 30 1.11.2 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (R134a) as a Solvent 31 1.12 Important Parameters Affecting Supercritical Extraction Process 36 1.12.1 Pressure and Temperature 36 1.12.2 Solvent Flowrate 38 1.12.3 Cosolvent 39 1.12.4 Moisture Content 40 1.12.5 Raw Material 42 1.13 Profile of Extraction Curves 43 1.14 Design and Scale Up 45 2 Modeling and Optimization Concept 47 2.1 SFE Modeling 47 2.1.1 Importance of Knowing the Solid Matrix and Selecting a Suitable Model 48 2.1.2 Different Modeling Approaches in SFE 48 2.1.2.1 Experimental Models 49 2.1.2.2 Models Which Are Based on Similarity between Heat and Mass Transfer 49 2.1.2.3 Models Based on Conservation Balance Equations 49 2.2 First Principle Modeling 49 2.2.1 The Equation of Continuity 50 2.2.2 The Equation of Motion in Terms of τ 50 2.2.3 The Equation of Energy in Terms of q 52 2.3 Hybrid Modeling or Gray Box 53 2.4 ANN 55 2.4.1 Simple Neural Network Structure 55 2.4.1.1 Transfer Function 57 2.4.1.2 Activation Functions 57 2.4.1.3 Learning Rules 57 2.4.2 Network Architecture 58 2.5 Fuzzy Logic 61 2.5.1 Boolean Logic and Fuzzy Logic 61 2.5.2 Fuzzy Sets 62 2.5.3 Membership Function 63 2.5.3.1 Membership Function Types 63 2.5.4 Fuzzy Rules 64 2.5.4.1 Classical Rules and Fuzzy Rules 65 2.5.5 Fuzzy Expert System and Fuzzy Inference 66 2.5.5.1 Mamdani FIS 66 2.5.5.1.1 Fuzzification 66 2.5.5.1.2 Fuzzy Logical Operation and Rule Evaluation 66 2.5.5.1.3 Implication Method 67 2.5.5.1.4 Aggregation of the Rule Outputs 67 2.5.5.1.5 Defuzzification 67 2.5.5.2 Sugeno Fuzzy Inference 67 2.6 Neuro Fuzzy 68 2.6.1 Structure of a Neuro Fuzzy System 69 2.6.2 Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) 69 2.6.2.1 Learning in the ANFIS Model 71 2.7 Optimization 72 2.7.1 Traditional Optimization Methods 73 2.7.2 Evolutionary Algorithm 74 2.7.3 Simulated Annealing Algorithm 74 2.7.4 Genetic Algorithm 75 2.7.4.1 Genetic Algorithm Definitions 75 2.7.4.2 Genetic Algorithms Overview 76 2.7.4.3 Preliminary Considerations 77 2.7.4.4 Overview of Genetic Programming 78 2.7.4.5 Implementation Details 79 2.7.4.5.1 Selection Operator 79 2.7.4.5.2 Crossover Operator 79 2.7.4.5.3 Mutation Operator 79 2.7.4.6 Effects of Genetic Operators 80 2.7.4.7 The Algorithms 80 3 Physical Properties of Palm Oil as Solute 83 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 Palm Oil Fruit 83 3.3 Palm Oil Physical and Chemical Properties 84 3.3.1 Palm Oil Triglycerides 85 3.3.2 Minor Components in Palm Oil 89 3.4 Vegetable Oil Refining 91 3.5 Conventional Palm Oil Refining Process 91 3.5.1 Chemical Refining 93 3.5.2 Physical Refining 97 3.5.3 Effect of Palm Oil Refining 98 3.6 Conclusions 100 4 First Principle Supercritical and Subcritical Fluid Extraction Modeling 101 Part I: Modeling Methodology 101 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Phase Equilibrium Modeling 101 4.3 The Redlich–Kwong–Aspen Equation of State 102 4.3.1 Calculations of Pure Component Parameters for the RKA-EOS 102 4.3.2 Binary Mixture Calculations 103 4.4 Palm Oil System Characterization 103 4.4.1 Palm Oil Triglycerides 104 4.4.2 Free Fatty Acids 106 4.4.3 Palm Oil Minor Components 106 4.5 Development of Aspen Plus® Physical Property Database for Palm Oil Components 107 4.5.1 Vapor Pressure Estimation 107 4.5.2 Estimation of Pure Component Critical Properties 108 4.5.2.1 Critical Properties Estimation Using Normal Boiling Point 108 4.5.2.2 Critical Properties Estimation Using One Vapor Pressure Point 110 4.6 Binary Interaction Parameters Calculations 110 4.7 Supercritical Fluid Extraction Process Development 113 4.7.1 Hydrodynamics of Countercurrent SFE Process 113 4.7.2 Solubility of Palm Oil in Supercritical CO2 115 4.7.3 Process Modeling and Simulation 116 4.7.3.1 Simple Countercurrent Extraction 118 4.7.3.2 Countercurrent Extraction with External Reflux 118 4.7.4 Process Analysis and Optimization 119 Part II: Results and Discussion 120 4.8 Palm Oil Component Physical Properties 120 4.8.1 Vapor Pressure of Palm Oil Components 120 4.8.2 Pure Component Critical Properties 122 4.9 Regression of Interaction Parameters for the Palm Oil Components-Supercritical CO2 Binary System 122 4.9.1 Binary System: Triglyceride – Supercritical CO2 123 4.9.2 Binary System: Oleic Acid – Supercritical CO2 126 4.9.3 Binary System: α-Tocopherol – Supercritical CO2 128 4.9.4 Binary System: β-Carotene – Supercritical CO2 130 4.9.5 Temperature-Dependent Interaction Parameters 131 4.10 Phase Equilibrium Calculation for the Palm Oil–Supercritical CO2 System 132 4.11 Ternary System: CO2 – Triglycerides – Free Fatty Acids 133 4.12 Distribution Coefficients of Palm Oil Components 134 4.13 Separation Factor Between Palm Oil Components 138 4.13.1 Separation Factor Between Fatty Acids and Triglycerides 139 4.13.2 Separation Factor Between Fatty Acids and α-Tocopherols 140 4.14 Base Case Process Simulation 141 4.14.1 Palm Oil Deacidification Process 141 4.14.1.1 Solubility of Palm Oil in Supercritical CO2 141 4.14.1.2 Palm Oil Deacidification Process: Comparison to Pilot Plant Results 142 4.15 Conclusion 145 5 Application of Other Supercritical and Subcritical Modeling Techniques 147 5.1 Mass Transfer, Correlation, ANN, and Neuro Fuzzy Modeling of Sub-and Supercritical Fluid Extraction Processes 147 5.2 Mass Transfer Model 148 5.3 ANN Modeling 153 5.4 Neuro Fuzzy Modeling 153 5.5 ANFIS and Gray-box Modeling of Anise Seeds 154 5.6 White Box SFE Modeling of Anise 155 5.6.1 Gray Box Parameters 156 5.6.2 ANFIS 156 5.6.2.1 Preprocessing 157 5.6.3 Gray Box 158 5.7 Results and Discussion 159 5.7.1 ANFIS 159 5.7.2 Gray Box Modeling Results 159 5.7.2.1 Black Box 159 5.7.3 Comparison of ANFIS and Gray Box Models with ANN and White Box Models 161 5.8 Introduction – Statistical versus ANN Modeling 162 5.9 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Q. infectoria Oil 164 5.9.1 Materials and Methods 165 5.9.2 Experimental Design 165 5.9.3 Artificial Neural Network Modeling 168 5.10 Subcritical Ethanol Extraction of Java Tea Oil 168 5.10.1 Artificial Neural Network Modeling 172 5.11 SFE of Oil from Passion Fruit Seed 173 5.11.1 Experimental Procedures 173 5.11.2 RSM Statistical Modeling 174 5.11.3 ANN Modeling of Passion Fruit Seed Oil Extraction with Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 176 6 Experimental Design Concept and Notes on Sample Preparation and SFE Experiments 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Experimental Design 179 6.3 Statistical Optimization 180 6.4 Optimization of Palm Oil Subcritical R134a Extraction 182 6.4.1 Effect of Temperature and Pressure 184 6.4.2 Model Fitting 187 6.4.3 Process Optimization 189 6.5 Comparison of Subcritical R134a and Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Palm Oil 190 6.5.1 Extraction Performance 191 6.5.2 Economic Factor 196 6.6 Sample Pretreatment 197 6.6.1 Moisture Content Reduction 198 6.6.2 Sample Size Reduction 199 6.7 New Trends in Pretreatment 200 6.8 Optimal Pretreatment 203 7 Supercritical and Subcritical Optimization 205 Part I: First Principle Optimization 205 7.1 Introduction 205 7.2 Evaluation of Separation Performance 205 7.2.1 Effects of Temperature and Pressure 206 7.2.2 Effect of the Number of Stages 207 7.2.3 Effect of Solvent-to-Feed Ratio 208 7.2.4 Effect of Reflux Ratio 209 7.3 Parameter Optimization of Palm Oil Deacidification Process 210 7.3.1 Simple Countercurrent Extraction (Without Reflux) 212 7.3.2 Countercurrent Extraction with Reflux 213 7.4 Proposed Flowsheet for Palm Oil Refining Process 215 7.5 Conclusions 216 Part II: ANN, GA Statistical Optimization 217 7.6 Introduction 217 7.7 Traditional Optimization 217 7.8 Nimbin Extraction Process Optimization 220 7.9 Genetic Algorithm for Mass Transfer Correlation Development 223 7.10 Optimizing Chamomile Extraction 225 7.11 Statistical and ANN Optimization 227 7.12 Conclusion 232 Appendix A Calculation of the Composition for Palm Oil TG (Lim et al. 2003) 233 Appendix B Calculation of Distribution Coefficient and Separation Factor (Lim et al. 2003) 235 Appendix C Calculation of Palm Oil Solubility in Supercritical CO2 (Lim et al. 2003) 237 References 239 Index 265

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Book SynopsisCloud Computing: Business Trends and Technologies provides a broad introduction to Cloud computing technologies and their applications to IT and telecommunications businesses (i.e. , the network function virtualization, NFV). To this end, the book is expected to serve as a textbook in a graduate course on Cloud computing.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors ix Acknowledgments xi 1 Introduction 1 References 6 2 The Business of Cloud Computing 7 2.1 IT Industry Transformation through Virtualization and Cloud 7 2.2 The Business Model Around Cloud 13 2.2.1 Cloud Providers 14 2.2.2 Software and Service Vendors 15 2.3 Taking Cloud to the Network Operators 15 References 18 3 CPU Virtualization 19 3.1 Motivation and History 20 3.2 A Computer Architecture Primer 21 3.2.1 CPU, Memory, and I/O 21 3.2.2 How the CPU Works 23 3.2.3 In-program Control Transfer: Jumps and Procedure Calls 25 3.2.4 Interrupts and Exceptions—the CPU Loop Refined 28 3.2.5 Multi-processing and its Requirements—The Need for an Operating System 34 3.2.6 Virtual Memory—Segmentation and Paging 38 3.2.7 Options in Handling Privileged Instructions and the Final Approximation of the CPU Loop 42 3.2.8 More on Operating Systems 44 3.3 Virtualization and Hypervisors 48 3.3.1 Model, Requirements, and Issues 49 3.3.2 The x86 Processor and Virtualization 52 3.3.3 Dealing with a Non-virtualizable CPU 55 3.3.4 I/O Virtualization 57 3.3.5 Hypervisor Examples 60 3.3.6 Security 65 References 69 4 Data Networks—The Nervous System of the Cloud 71 4.1 The OSI Reference Model 74 4.1.1 Host-to-Host Communications 74 4.1.2 Interlayer Communications 76 4.1.3 Functional Description of Layers 79 4.2 The Internet Protocol Suite 85 4.2.1 IP—The Glue of the Internet 87 4.2.2 The Internet Hourglass 98 4.3 Quality of Service in IP Networks 102 4.3.1 Packet Scheduling Disciplines and Traffic Specification Models 103 4.3.2 Integrated Services 105 4.3.3 Differentiated Services 109 4.3.4 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) 112 4.4 WAN Virtualization Technologies 117 4.5 Software-Defined Network 120 4.6 Security of IP 125 References 129 5 Networking Appliances 131 5.1 Domain Name System 131 5.1.1 Architecture and Protocol 134 5.1.2 DNS Operation 140 5.1.3 Top-Level Domain Labels 142 5.1.4 DNS Security 145 5.2 Firewalls 149 5.2.1 Network Perimeter Control 153 5.2.2 Stateless Firewalls 155 5.2.3 Stateful Firewalls 158 5.2.4 Application-Layer Firewalls 161 5.3 NAT Boxes 163 5.3.1 Allocation of Private IP Addresses 165 5.3.2 Architecture and Operation of the NAT Boxes 168 5.3.3 Living with NAT 172 5.3.4 Carrier-Grade NAT 180 5.4 Load Balancers 184 5.4.1 Load Balancing in a Server Farm 185 5.4.2 A Practical Example: A Load-Balanced Web Service 187 5.4.3 Using DNS for Load Balancing 188 References 191 6 Cloud Storage and the Structure of a Modern Data Center 193 6.1 Data Center Basics 195 6.1.1 Compute 196 6.1.2 Storage 196 6.1.3 Networking 198 6.2 Storage-Related Matters 198 6.2.1 Direct-Attached Storage 200 6.2.2 Network-Attached Storage 208 6.2.3 Storage Area Network 215 6.2.4 Convergence of SAN and Ethernet 221 6.2.5 Object Storage 230 6.2.6 Storage Virtualization 233 6.2.7 Solid-State Storage 236 References 242 7 Operations, Management, and Orchestration in the Cloud 245 7.1 Orchestration in the Enterprise 247 7.1.1 The Service-Oriented Architecture 253 7.1.2 Workflows 255 7.2 Network and Operations Management 259 7.2.1 The OSI Network Management Framework and Model 261 7.2.2 Policy-Based Management 264 7.3 Orchestration and Management in the Cloud 267 7.3.1 The Life Cycle of a Service 268 7.3.2 Orchestration and Management in OpenStack 274 7.4 Identity and Access Management 287 7.4.1 Implications of Cloud Computing 289 7.4.2 Authentication 291 7.4.3 Access Control 295 7.4.4 Dynamic Delegation 299 7.4.5 Identity Federation 302 7.4.6 OpenStack Keystone (A Case Study) 303 References 309 Appendix: Selected Topics 313 A.1 The IETF Operations and Management Standards 313 A.1.1 SNMP 313 A.1.2 COPS 316 A.1.3 Network Configuration (NETCONF) Model and Protocol 319 A.2 Orchestration with TOSCA 324 A.3 The REST Architectural Style 329 A.3.1 The Origins and Development of Hypermedia 329 A.3.2 Highlights of the World Wide Web Architecture 332 A.3.3 The Principles of REST 334 A.4 Identity and Access Management Mechanisms 336 A.4.1 Password Management 336 A.4.2 Kerberos 338 A.4.3 Access Control Lists 341 A.4.4 Capability Lists 342 A.4.5 The Bell–LaPadula Model 343 A.4.6 Security Assertion Markup Language 345 A.4.7 OAuth 2.0 347 A.4.8 OpenID Connect 349 A.4.9 Access Control Markup Language 351 References 353 Index 355

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Book SynopsisPresenting a rigorous introduction to the theoretical principles and techniques of electrical machine design, Design of Rotating Electrical Machines outlines a detailed, step-by-step sequence of machine design, providing an invaluable guide on how to approach rotating electrical machine design.Trade Review“The insight gained by this book will provide the reader with an advantage in understanding the inner workings of motors and to be able to optimize designs for maximum efficiency.” (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 1 November 2014)Table of ContentsPreface xi About the Authors xiii Abbreviations and Symbols xv 1 Principal Laws and Methods in Electrical Machine Design 1 1.1 Electromagnetic Principles 1 1.2 Numerical Solution 8 1.3 The Most Common Principles Applied to Analytic Calculation 12 1.3.1 Flux Line Diagrams 16 1.3.2 Flux Diagrams for Current-Carrying Areas 22 1.4 Application of the Principle of Virtual Work in the Determination of Force and Torque 25 1.5 Maxwell’s Stress Tensor; Radial and Tangential Stress 32 1.6 Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance 36 1.7 Per Unit Values 42 1.8 Phasor Diagrams 45 Bibliography 47 2 Windings of Electrical Machines 48 2.1 Basic Principles 49 2.1.1 Salient-Pole Windings 49 2.1.2 Slot Windings 53 2.1.3 End Windings 54 2.2 Phase Windings 54 2.3 Three-Phase Integral Slot Stator Winding 57 2.4 Voltage Phasor Diagram and Winding Factor 64 2.5 Winding Analysis 72 2.6 Short Pitching 74 2.7 Current Linkage of a Slot Winding 81 2.8 Poly-Phase Fractional Slot Windings 94 2.9 Phase Systems and Zones of Windings 97 2.9.1 Phase Systems 97 2.9.2 Zones of Windings 99 2.10 Symmetry Conditions 101 2.10.1 Symmetrical Fractional Slot Windings 101 2.11 Base Windings 104 2.11.1 First-Grade Fractional Slot Base Windings 104 2.11.2 Second-Grade Fractional Slot Base Windings 105 2.11.3 Integral Slot Base Windings 106 2.12 Fractional Slot Windings 108 2.12.1 Single-Layer Fractional Slot Windings 108 2.12.2 Double-Layer Fractional Slot Windings 117 2.13 Single- and Double-Phase Windings 124 2.14 Windings Permitting a Varying Number of Poles 127 2.15 Commutator Windings 129 2.15.1 Lap Winding Principles 133 2.15.2 Wave Winding Principles 136 2.15.3 Commutator Winding Examples, Balancing Connectors 139 2.15.4 AC Commutator Windings 143 2.15.5 Current Linkage of the Commutator Winding and Armature Reaction 144 2.16 Compensating Windings and Commutating Poles 146 2.17 Rotor Windings of Asynchronous Machines 149 2.18 Damper Windings 152 Bibliography 153 3 Design of Magnetic Circuits 155 3.1 Air Gap and its Magnetic Voltage 161 3.1.1 Air Gap and Carter Factor 161 3.1.2 Air Gaps of a Salient-Pole Machine 166 3.1.3 Air Gap of Nonsalient-Pole Machine 172 3.2 Equivalent Core Length 173 3.3 Magnetic Voltage of a Tooth and a Salient Pole 176 3.3.1 Magnetic Voltage of a Tooth 176 3.3.2 Magnetic Voltage of a Salient Pole 180 3.4 Magnetic Voltage of Stator and Rotor Yokes 180 3.5 No-Load Curve, Equivalent Air Gap and Magnetizing Current of the Machine 183 3.6 Magnetic Materials of a Rotating Machine 186 3.6.1 Characteristics of Ferromagnetic Materials 189 3.6.2 Losses in Iron Circuits 194 3.7 Permanent Magnets in Rotating Machines 203 3.7.1 History and Development of Permanent Magnets 203 3.7.2 Characteristics of Permanent Magnet Materials 205 3.7.3 Operating Point of a Permanent Magnet Circuit 210 3.7.4 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets 217 3.7.5 Application of Permanent Magnets in Electrical Machines 219 3.8 Assembly of Iron Stacks 226 Bibliography 227 4 Inductances 229 4.1 Magnetizing Inductance 230 4.2 Leakage Inductances 233 4.2.1 Division of Leakage Flux Components 235 4.3 Calculation of Flux Leakage 238 4.3.1 Skewing Factor and Skew Leakage Inductance 239 4.3.2 Air-Gap Leakage Inductance 243 4.3.3 Slot Leakage Inductance 248 4.3.4 Tooth Tip Leakage Inductance 259 4.3.5 End Winding Leakage Inductance 260 Bibliography 264 5 Resistances 265 5.1 DC Resistance 265 5.2 Influence of Skin Effect on Resistance 266 5.2.1 Analytical Calculation of Resistance Factor 266 5.2.2 Critical Conductor Height in Slot 276 5.2.3 Methods to Limit the Skin Effect 277 5.2.4 Inductance Factor 278 5.2.5 Calculation of Skin Effect in Slots Using Circuit Analysis 279 5.2.6 Double-Sided Skin Effect 287 Bibliography 292 6 Design Process of Rotating Electrical Machines 293 6.1 Eco-Design Principles of Rotating Electrical Machines 293 6.2 Design Process of a Rotating Electrical Machine 294 6.2.1 Starting Values 294 6.2.2 Main Dimensions 297 6.2.3 Air Gap 305 6.2.4 Winding Selection 309 6.2.5 Air-Gap Flux Density 310 6.2.6 The No-Load Flux of an Electrical Machine and the Number of Winding Turns 311 6.2.7 New Air-Gap Flux Density 316 6.2.8 Determination of Tooth Width 317 6.2.9 Determination of Slot Dimensions 318 6.2.10 Determination of the Magnetic Voltages of the Air Gap, and the Stator and Rotor Teeth 323 6.2.11 Determination of New Saturation Factor 326 6.2.12 Determination of Stator and Rotor Yoke Heights and Magnetic Voltages 326 6.2.13 Magnetizing Winding 327 6.2.14 Determination of Stator Outer and Rotor Inner Diameter 329 6.2.15 Calculation of Machine Characteristics 329 Bibliography 330 7 Properties of Rotating Electrical Machines 331 7.1 Machine Size, Speed, Different Loadings and Efficiency 331 7.1.1 Machine Size and Speed 331 7.1.2 Mechanical Loadability 333 7.1.3 Electrical Loadability 337 7.1.4 Magnetic Loadability 338 7.1.5 Efficiency 340 7.2 Asynchronous Motor 342 7.2.1 Current Linkage and Torque Production of an Asynchronous Machine 342 7.2.2 Impedance and Current Linkage of a Cage Winding 349 7.2.3 Characteristics of an Induction Machine 356 7.2.4 Equivalent Circuit Taking Asynchronous Torques and Harmonics into Account 361 7.2.5 Synchronous Torques 367 7.2.6 Selection of the Slot Number of a Cage Winding 369 7.2.7 Construction of an Induction Motor 371 7.2.8 Cooling and Duty Types 373 7.2.9 Examples of the Parameters of Three-Phase Industrial Induction Motors 378 7.2.10 Asynchronous Generator 380 7.2.11 Wound Rotor Induction Machine 382 7.2.12 Asynchronous Motor Supplied with Single-Phase Current 383 7.3 Synchronous Machines 388 7.3.1 Inductances of a Synchronous Machine in Synchronous Operation and in Transients 390 7.3.2 Loaded Synchronous Machine and Load Angle Equation 400 7.3.3 RMS Value Phasor Diagrams of a Synchronous Machine 407 7.3.4 No-Load Curve and Short-Circuit Test 417 7.3.5 Asynchronous Drive 419 7.3.6 Asymmetric-Load-Caused Damper Currents 423 7.3.7 Shift of Damper Bar Slotting from the Symmetry Axis of the Pole 424 7.3.8 V Curve of a Synchronous Machine 426 7.3.9 Excitation Methods of a Synchronous Machine 426 7.3.10 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines 427 7.3.11 Synchronous Reluctance Machines 456 7.4 DC Machines 468 7.4.1 Configuration of DC Machines 468 7.4.2 Operation and Voltage of a DC Machine 470 7.4.3 Armature Reaction of a DC machine and Machine Design 474 7.4.4 Commutation 475 7.5 Doubly Salient Reluctance Machine 479 7.5.1 Operating Principle of a Doubly Salient Reluctance Machine 479 7.5.2 Torque of an SR Machine 480 7.5.3 Operation of an SR Machine 481 7.5.4 Basic Terminology, Phase Number and Dimensioning of an SR Machine 485 7.5.5 Control Systems of an SR Motor 489 7.5.6 Future Scenarios for SR Machines 491 Bibliography 492 8 Insulation of Electrical Machines 495 8.1 Insulation of Rotating Electrical Machines 497 8.2 Impregnation Varnishes and Resins 503 8.3 Dimensioning of an Insulation 506 8.4 Electrical Reactions Ageing Insulation 509 8.5 Practical Insulation Constructions 510 8.5.1 Slot Insulations of Low-Voltage Machines 511 8.5.2 Coil End Insulations of Low-Voltage Machines 512 8.5.3 Pole Winding Insulations 512 8.5.4 Low-Voltage Machine Impregnation 513 8.5.5 Insulation of High-Voltage Machines 513 8.6 Condition Monitoring of Insulation 515 8.7 Insulation in Frequency Converter Drives 518 Bibliography 521 9 Losses and Heat Transfer 523 9.1 Losses 524 9.1.1 Resistive Losses 524 9.1.2 Iron Losses 526 9.1.3 Additional Losses 526 9.1.4 Mechanical Losses 527 9.1.5 Decreasing Losses 529 9.1.6 Economics of Energy Savings 533 9.2 Heat Removal 534 9.2.1 Conduction 534 9.2.2 Radiation 538 9.2.3 Convection 541 9.3 Thermal Equivalent Circuit 548 9.3.1 Analogy between Electrical and Thermal Quantities 548 9.3.2 Average Thermal Conductivity of a Winding 549 9.3.3 Thermal Equivalent Circuit of an Electrical Machine 550 9.3.4 Modeling of Coolant Flow 560 9.3.5 Solution of Equivalent Circuit 565 9.3.6 Cooling Flow Rate 568 Bibliography 568 Appendix A 570 Appendix B 572 Index 575

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Book SynopsisThe most significant unanticipated costs on many construction projects are the financial impacts associated with delay and disruption to the works. Assessing these, and establishing a causal link from each delay event to its effect, contractual liability and the damages experienced as a direct result of each event, can be difficult and complex.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors ix Preface to the Second Edition xi Preface to the First Edition xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 General 1 1.1.1 Purpose of this book 2 1.1.2 Guidance 4 1.1.3 Construction planning and programming 5 1.2 Construction delays 6 1.2.1 Identifying delays 6 1.2.2 Analysing construction delays 7 1.2.3 Delay claim life cycle 9 1.3 Burning issues in delay analysis 10 1.4 Presentation and case study 11 2 Construction Programmes 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.1.1 Planning, programming and project controls 13 2.1.2 Elements of a successful project 15 2.2 Planning and programming 16 2.2.1 Project planning 17 2.2.2 Work breakdown structure 18 2.3 CPM programming techniques: the fundamentals 21 2.3.1 Activity durations 22 2.3.2 Activity relationships 24 2.3.3 Event date calculations 28 2.3.4 Forward pass 30 2.3.5 Backward pass 32 2.3.6 Total float 34 2.3.7 Constraints 37 2.4 Baseline validation 38 2.4.1 Joint baseline review 38 2.4.2 Programme approval 38 2.4.3 The project baseline 41 2.5 Other planning techniques 41 2.5.1 PERT – Project Evaluation and Review Technique 41 2.5.2 Gantt charts (bar charts) 43 2.5.3 Line of balance 45 2.5.4 Critical chain method/theory of constraints 47 2.6 Why use CPM planning or scheduling techniques? 49 2.6.1 Project management 49 2.6.2 As-planned programmes 50 2.7 Project controls and the project control cycle 51 2.7.1 Progress monitoring 52 2.7.2 Process and analyse information – Earned Value Method 54 2.7.3 The cost and schedule performance curves 56 2.7.4 Time control 58 2.7.5 Programme updates 582.8 Records, records, records… 64 2.8.1 Electronic records: management and storage 66 2.8.2 Electronic records in practice 67 2.8.3 Document controls 68 2.9 Predatory programming practices 71 2.10 Guidance 72 3 Identification of Construction Delays 73 3.1 Establishing a basis for identifying delay 73 3.1.1 General requirements 74 3.1.2 Validation of an as-planned programme 75 3.2 Factual evidence and as-built programmes 77 3.2.1 As-built programme preparation 78 3.2.2 Summary 86 3.3 Identification of delay events 86 3.3.1 Delay identification 87 3.3.2 Recording delays 89 3.4 Identification and analysis of disruption 92 3.4.1 Disruption and delay 92 3.4.2 Calculating disruption 94 3.4.3 Establishing cause 95 3.4.4 Total cost claims/global claims 97 3.4.5 Measured mile 99 3.4.6 Graphical presentation 103 3.4.7 Summary 109 4 Analysis of Construction Delays 111 4.1 Introduction 111 4.1.1 The use of CPM techniques 111 4.1.2 Project planning software 113 4.1.3 Identifying delays: cause or effect? 115 4.2 Selection criteria and guidance 117 4.2.1 The SCL Delay and Disruption Protocol 118 4.2.2 The core statements of principle 120 4.2.3 AACEI Recommended Practice No. 29R-03: Forensic Schedule Analysis 124 4.2.4 Which technique to use under given circumstances 131 4.3 Summary 132 5 Delay Analysis Techniques 135 5.1 Introduction to delay analysis techniques 135 5.1.1 Additive methods of delay analysis 137 5.1.2 Impacted as-planned 137 5.1.3 Time impact analysis 142 5.1.4 Collapsed as-built 151 5.1.5 As-built based methods of analysis 159 5.1.6 Total time assessments (observational/static/gross) 162 5.1.7 As-planned versus as-built windows analysis 169 5.1.8 Contemporaneous windows analysis 172 5.1.9 Month-to-month update analysis 175 5.2 Summary 180 6 Problematic Issues 183 6.1 Introduction 183 6.2 Float and delay claims 183 6.2.1 General definitions: what is ‘float’? 183 6.2.2 How float is used 184 6.2.3 Float loss and the impact 187 6.2.4 Measurement of float loss 188 6.2.5 Who owns the float? 190 6.3 Concurrency 194 6.3.1 Definitions 195 6.3.2 Delay analysis and Concurrency 196 6.3.3 SCL Delay and Disruption Protocol 205 6.3.4 Delay scenarios 205 6.3.5 Common questions 208 6.3.6 Experience and common sense 209 6.3.7 The concept of pacing 210 6.4 Programme approvals and onerous specifications 211 6.4.1 Programme requirements, format and compliance 211 6.4.2 Approval or acceptance of construction programme 217 6.5 Acceleration and mitigation 218 6.5.1 Mitigation 218 6.5.2 Acceleration 219 6.5.3 Contractors’ right to early completion 221 7 Effective Presentation of Delay Analysis 223 7.1 Introduction 223 7.2 Case study: airport terminal expansion 223 7.2.1 Initial analysis by party-appointed planning experts 224 7.2.2 Using time impact analysis for prolongation 227 7.2.3 Tribunal planning expert’s contemporaneous approach 228 7.2.4 Runway Extension: are delays to the runway extension relevant? 230 7.2.5 Terminal Building: are delays to the terminal building relevant? 231 7.3 Float mapping: approach and methodology 231 7.3.1 Extracting float values 233 7.3.2 Creating a float map 233 7.3.3 Identify driving activities 236 7.3.4 As-built critical path 237 7.4 Demonstrating acceleration 246 7.5 Presentation skills: demonstrative evidence 248 7.5.1 Demonstration 250 7.5.2 Reconstruction 251 7.5.3 Weather 252 7.5.4 Summary 252 Appendix 255 Glossary 259 Table of Cases 267 Index 271

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Book SynopsisThis updated and expanded edition of the bestselling textbook provides a comprehensive introduction to the methods and theory of nonlinear finite element analysis.Table of ContentsForeword xxi Preface xxiii List of Boxes xxvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Nonlinear Finite Elements in Design 1 1.2 Related Books and a Brief History of Nonlinear Finite Elements 4 1.3 Notation 7 1.4 Mesh Descriptions 9 1.5 Classification of Partial Differential Equations 13 1.6 Exercises 17 2 Lagrangian and Eulerian Finite Elements in One Dimension 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Governing Equations for Total Lagrangian Formulation 21 2.3 Weak Form for Total Lagrangian Formulation 28 2.4 Finite Element Discretization in Total Lagrangian Formulation 34 2.5 Element and Global Matrices 40 2.6 Governing Equations for Updated Lagrangian Formulation 51 2.7 Weak Form for Updated Lagrangian Formulation 53 2.8 Element Equations for Updated Lagrangian Formulation 55 2.10 Weak Forms for Eulerian Mesh Equations 68 2.11 Finite Element Equations 69 2.12 Solution Methods 72 2.13 Summary 74 2.14 Exercises 75 3 Continuum Mechanics 77 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 Deformation and Motion 78 3.3 Strain Measures 95 3.4 Stress Measures 104 3.5 Conservation Equations 111 3.6 Lagrangian Conservation Equations 123 3.7 Polar Decomposition and Frame-Invariance 130 3.8 Exercises 143 4 Lagrangian Meshes 147 4.1 Introduction 147 4.2 Governing Equations 148 4.3 Weak Form: Principle of Virtual Power 152 4.4 Updated Lagrangian Finite Element Discretization 158 4.5 Implementation 168 4.6 Corotational Formulations 194 4.7 Total Lagrangian Formulation 203 4.8 Total Lagrangian Weak Form 206 4.9 Finite Element Semidiscretization 209 4.10 Exercises 225 5 Constitutive Models 227 5.1 Introduction 227 5.2 The Stress–Strain Curve 228 5.3 One-Dimensional Elasticity 233 5.4 Nonlinear Elasticity 237 5.5 One-Dimensional Plasticity 254 5.6 Multiaxial Plasticity 262 5.7 Hyperelastic–Plastic Models 281 5.8 Viscoelasticity 292 5.9 Stress Update Algorithms 294 5.10 Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Models 314 5.11 Exercises 328 6 Solution Methods and Stability 329 6.1 Introduction 329 6.2 Explicit Methods 330 6.3 Equilibrium Solutions and Implicit Time Integration 337 6.4 Linearization 358 6.5 Stability and Continuation Methods 375 6.6 Numerical Stability 391 6.7 Material Stability 407 6.8 Exercises 415 7 Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian Formulations 417 7.1 Introduction 417 7.2 ALE Continuum Mechanics 419 7.3 Conservation Laws in ALE Description 426 7.4 ALE Governing Equations 428 7.5 Weak Forms 429 7.6 Introduction to the Petrov–Galerkin Method 433 7.7 Petrov–Galerkin Formulation of Momentum Equation 442 7.8 Path-Dependent Materials 445 7.9 Linearization of the Discrete Equations 457 7.10 Mesh Update Equations 460 7.11 Numerical Example: An Elastic–Plastic Wave Propagation Problem 468 7.12 Total ALE Formulations 471 7.13 Exercises 475 8 Element Technology 477 8.1 Introduction 477 8.2 Element Performance 479 8.3 Element Properties and Patch Tests 487 8.4 Q4 and Volumetric Locking 496 8.5 Multi-Field Weak Forms and Elements 501 8.6 Multi-Field Quadrilaterals 514 8.7 One-Point Quadrature Elements 518 8.8 Examples 527 8.9 Stability 531 8.10 Exercises 533 9 Beams and Shells 535 9.1 Introduction 535 9.2 Beam Theories 537 9.3 Continuum-Based Beam 540 9.4 Analysis of the CB Beam 551 9.5 Continuum-Based Shell Implementation 563 9.6 CB Shell Theory 578 9.7 Shear and Membrane Locking 584 9.8 Assumed Strain Elements 589 9.9 One-Point Quadrature Elements 592 9.10 Exercises 595 10 Contact-Impact 597 10.1 Introduction 597 10.2 Contact Interface Equations 598 10.3 Friction Models 609 10.4 Weak Forms 614 10.5 Finite Element Discretization 624 10.6 On Explicit Methods 638 11 EXtended Finite Element Method (XFEM) 643 11.1 Introduction 643 11.2 Partition of Unity and Enrichments 647 11.3 One-Dimensional XFEM 648 11.4 Multi-Dimension XFEM 656 11.5 Weak and Strong Forms 660 11.6 Discrete Equations 662 11.7 Level Set Method 668 11.8 The Phantom Node Method 670 11.9 Integration 673 11.10 An Example of XFEM Simulation 675 11.11 Exercise 678 12 Introduction to Multiresolution Theory 681 12.1 Motivation: Materials are Structured Continua 681 12.2 Bulk Deformation of Microstructured Continua 685 12.3 Generalizing Mechanics to Bulk Microstructured Continua 686 12.4 Multiscale Microstructures and the Multiresolution Continuum Theory 696 12.5 Governing Equations for MCT 699 12.6 Constructing MCT Constitutive Relationships 701 12.7 Basic Guidelines for RVE Modeling 705 12.8 Finite Element Implementation of MCT 710 12.9 Numerical Example 712 12.10 Future Research Directions of MCT Modeling 718 12.11 Exercises 719 13 Single-Crystal Plasticity 721 13.1 Introduction 721 13.2 Crystallographic Description of Cubic and Non-Cubic Crystals 723 13.3 Atomic Origins of Plasticity and the Burgers Vector in Single Crystals 726 13.4 Defining Slip Planes and Directions in General Single Crystals 729 13.5 Kinematics of Single Crystal Plasticity 735 13.6 Dislocation Density Evolution 740 13.7 Stress Required for Dislocation Motion 742 13.8 Stress Update in Rate-Dependent Single-Crystal Plasticity 743 13.9 Algorithm for Rate-Dependent Dislocation-Density Based Crystal Plasticity 745 13.10 Numerical Example: Localized Shear and Inhomogeneous Deformation 747 13.11 Exercises 750 Appendix 1 Voigt Notation 751 Appendix 2 Norms 757 Appendix 3 Element Shape Functions 761 Appendix 4 Euler Angles From Pole Figures 767 Appendix 5 Example of Dislocation-Density Evolutionary Equations 771 Glossary 777 References 781 Index 795

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Book SynopsisUpdated with color and gray scale illustrations, a companion website housing supplementary material, and new sections covering recent developments in antenna analysis and design This book introduces the fundamental principles of antenna theory and explains how to apply them to the analysis, design, and measurements of antennas.Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xix 1 Antennas 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Types of Antennas 3 1.3 Radiation Mechanism 7 1.4 Current Distribution on a Thin Wire Antenna 15 1.5 Historical Advancement 18 1.6 Multimedia 21 References 22 2 Fundamental Parameters and Figures-of-Merit of Antennas 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Radiation Pattern 25 2.3 Radiation Power Density 35 2.4 Radiation Intensity 37 2.5 Beamwidth 40 2.6 Directivity 41 2.7 Numerical Techniques 55 2.8 Antenna Efficiency 60 2.9 Gain, Realized Gain 61 2.10 Beam Efficiency 65 2.11 Bandwidth 65 2.12 Polarization 66 2.13 Input Impedance 75 2.14 Antenna Radiation Efficiency 79 2.15 Antenna Vector Effective Length and Equivalent Areas 81 2.16 Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Area 86 2.17 Friis Transmission Equation and Radar Range Equation 88 2.18 Antenna Temperature 96 2.19 Multimedia 100 References 103 Problems 105 3 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions 127 3.1 Introduction 127 3.2 The Vector Potential A for an Electric Current Source J 128 3.3 The Vector Potential F for A magnetic Current Source m 130 3.4 Electric and Magnetic Fields for Electric (J) and Magnetic (M) Current Sources 131 3.5 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Vector Potential Wave Equation 132 3.6 Far-Field Radiation 136 3.7 Duality Theorem 137 3.8 Reciprocity and Reaction Theorems 138 References 143 Problems 143 4 Linear Wire Antennas 145 4.1 Introduction 145 4.2 Infinitesimal Dipole 145 4.3 Small Dipole 155 4.4 Region Separation 158 4.5 Finite Length Dipole 164 4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole 176 4.7 Linear Elements Near or On Infinite Perfect Electric Conductors (PEC), Perfect Magnetic Conductors (PMC) and Electromagnetic Band-Gap (EBG) Surfaces 179 4.8 Ground Effects 203 4.9 Computer Codes 216 4.10 Multimedia 216 References 218 Problems 220 5 Loop Antennas 235 5.1 Introduction 235 5.2 Small Circular Loop 236 5.3 Circular Loop of Constant Current 250 5.4 Circular Loop with Nonuniform Current 259 5.5 Ground and Earth Curvature Effects for Circular Loops 268 5.6 Polygonal Loop Antennas 269 5.7 Ferrite Loop 270 5.8 Mobile Communication Systems Applications 272 5.9 Multimedia 272 References 275 Problems 277 6 Arrays: Linear, Planar, and Circular 285 6.1 Introduction 285 6.2 Two-Element Array 286 6.3 N-Element Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude and Spacing 293 6.4 N-Element Linear Array: Directivity 312 6.5 Design Procedure 318 6.6 N-Element Linear Array: Three-Dimensional Characteristics 319 6.7 Rectangular-to-Polar Graphical Solution 322 6.8 N-Element Linear Array: Uniform Spacing, Nonuniform Amplitude 323 6.9 Superdirectivity 345 6.10 Planar Array 348 6.11 Design Considerations 360 6.12 Circular Array 363 6.13 Multimedia 367 References 367 Problems 368 7 Antenna Synthesis and Continuous Sources 385 7.1 Introduction 385 7.2 Continuous Sources 386 7.3 Schelkunoff Polynomial Method 387 7.4 Fourier Transform Method 392 7.5 Woodward-Lawson Method 398 7.6 Taylor Line-Source (Tschebyscheff-Error) 404 7.7 Taylor Line-Source (One-Parameter) 408 7.8 Triangular, Cosine, and Cosine-Squared Amplitude Distributions 415 7.9 Line-Source Phase Distributions 416 7.10 Continuous Aperture Sources 417 7.11 Multimedia 420 References 420 Problems 421 8 Integral Equations, Moment Method, and Self and Mutual Impedances 431 8.1 Introduction 431 8.2 Integral Equation Method 432 8.3 Finite Diameter Wires 439 8.4 Moment Method Solution 448 8.5 Self-Impedance 455 8.6 Mutual Impedance Between Linear Elements 463 8.7 Mutual Coupling in Arrays 474 8.8 Multimedia 480 References 480 Problems 482 9 Broadband Dipoles and Matching Techniques 485 9.1 Introduction 485 9.2 Biconical Antenna 487 9.3 Triangular Sheet, Flexible and Conformal Bow-Tie, and Wire Simulation 492 9.4 Vivaldi Antenna 496 9.5 Cylindrical Dipole 500 9.6 Folded Dipole 505 9.7 Discone and Conical Skirt Monopole 512 9.8 Matching Techniques 513 9.9 Multimedia 523 References 524 Problems 525 10 Traveling Wave and Broadband Antennas 533 10.1 Introduction 533 10.2 Traveling Wave Antennas 533 10.3 Broadband Antennas 549 10.4 Multimedia 580 References 580 Problems 582 11 Frequency Independent Antennas, Antenna Miniaturization, and Fractal Antennas 591 11.1 Introduction 591 11.2 Theory 592 11.3 Equiangular Spiral Antennas 593 11.4 Log-Periodic Antennas 598 11.5 Fundamental Limits of Electrically Small Antennas 614 11.6 Antenna Miniaturization 619 11.7 Fractal Antennas 627 11.8 Multimedia 633 References 633 Problems 635 12 Aperture Antennas 639 12.1 Introduction 639 12.2 Field Equivalence Principle: Huygens’ Principle 639 12.3 Radiation Equations 645 12.4 Directivity 648 12.5 Rectangular Apertures 648 12.6 Circular Apertures 667 12.7 Design Considerations 675 12.8 Babinet’s Principle 680 12.9 Fourier Transforms in Aperture Antenna Theory 684 12.10 Ground Plane Edge Effects: The Geometrical Theory of Diffraction 702 12.11 Multimedia 707 References 707 Problems 709 13 Horn Antennas 719 13.1 Introduction 719 13.2 E-Plane Sectoral Horn 719 13.3 H-Plane Sectoral Horn 733 13.4 Pyramidal Horn 743 13.5 Conical Horn 756 13.6 Corrugated Horn 761 13.7 Aperture-Matched Horns 766 13.8 Multimode Horns 769 13.9 Dielectric-Loaded Horns 771 13.10 Phase Center 773 13.11 Multimedia 774 References 775 Problems 778 14 Microstrip and Mobile Communications Antennas 783 14.1 Introduction 783 14.2 Rectangular Patch 788 14.3 Circular Patch 815 14.4 Quality Factor, Bandwidth, and Efficiency 823 14.5 Input Impedance 826 14.6 Coupling 827 14.7 Circular Polarization 830 14.8 Arrays and Feed Networks 832 14.9 Antennas for Mobile Communications 837 14.10 Dielectric Resonator Antennas 847 14.11 Multimedia 858 References 862 Problems 867 15 Reflector Antennas 875 15.1 Introduction 875 15.2 Plane Reflector 875 15.3 Corner Reflector 876 15.4 Parabolic Reflector 884 15.5 Spherical Reflector 920 15.6 Multimedia 923 References 923 Problems 925 16 Smart Antennas 931 16.1 Introduction 931 16.2 Smart-Antenna Analogy 931 16.3 Cellular Radio Systems Evolution 933 16.4 Signal Propagation 939 16.5 Smart Antennas’ Benefits 942 16.6 Smart Antennas’ Drawbacks 943 16.7 Antenna 943 16.8 Antenna Beamforming 946 16.9 Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) 960 16.10 Smart-Antenna System Design, Simulation, and Results 964 16.11 Beamforming, Diversity Combining, Rayleigh-Fading, and Trellis-Coded Modulation 972 16.12 Other Geometries 975 16.13 Multimedia 976 References 976 Problems 980 17 Antenna Measurements 981 17.1 Introduction 981 17.2 Antenna Ranges 982 17.3 Radiation Patterns 1000 17.4 Gain Measurements 1003 17.5 Directivity Measurements 1010 17.6 Radiation Efficiency 1012 17.7 Impedance Measurements 1012 17.8 Current Measurements 1014 17.9 Polarization Measurements 1014 17.10 Scale Model Measurements 1019 References 1024 Appendix I: f(x) = sin(x)x1027 Appendix II: f N (x) = | sin(Nx)||N sin(x) N = 1, 3, 5, 10, 20| 1029 Appendix III: Cosine and Sine Integrals 1031 Appendix IV: Fresnel Integrals 1033 Appendix V: Bessel Functions 1035 Appendix VI: Identities 1041 Appendix VII: Vector Analysis 1045 Appendix VIII: Method of Stationary Phase 1055 Appendix IX: Television, Radio, Telephone, and Radar Frequency Spectrums 1061 Index 1065

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Book SynopsisFlexible Flat Panel Displays A complete treatment of the entire lifecycle of flexible flat panel displays, from raw material selection to commercialization In the newly revised Second Edition of Flexible Flat Panel Displays, a distinguished team of researchers delivers a completely restructured and comprehensive treatment of the field of flexible flat panel displays. With material covering the end-to-end process that includes commercial and technical aspects of the technology, the editors have included contributions that introduce the business, marketing, entrepreneurship, and intellectual property content relevant to flexible flat panel displays. This edited volume contains a brand-new section on case studies using the Harvard Business School format that discusses current and emerging markets in flexible displays, such as an examination of the use of electronic ink and QD Vision in commercial devices. From raw material selection to dTable of ContentsSeries Editor’s Foreword xv List of Contributors xvii 1 Introduction 1 Darran R. Cairns, Gregory P. Crawford, and Dirk J. Broer 1.1 Toward Flexible Mobile Devices 1 1.2 Flexible Display Layers 2 1.3 Other Flexible Displays and Manufacturing 2 2 Engineered Films for Display Technology 5 W.A. MacDonald 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Factors Influencing Film Choice 5 2.2.1 Application Area 5 2.2.2 Physical Form/Manufacturing Process 6 2.2.3 Film Property Set 7 2.2.3.1 Polymer Type 7 2.2.3.2 Optical Clarity 9 2.2.3.3 Birefringence 10 2.2.3.4 The Effect of Thermal Stress on Dimensional Reproducibility 10 2.2.3.5 Low-bloom Films 11 2.2.3.6 Solvent and Moisture Resistance 12 2.2.3.7 The Effect of Mechanical Stress on Dimensional Reproducibility 16 2.2.3.8 Surface Quality 18 2.3 Summary of Key Properties of Base Substrates 19 2.4 Planarizing Coatings 21 2.5 Examples of Film in Use 23 2.6 Concluding Remarks 24 Acknowledgments 25 3 Liquid Crystal Optical Coatings for Flexible Displays 27 Owain Parri, Johan Lub, and Dirk J. Broer 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 LCN Technology 27 3.3 Thin-film Polarizers 29 3.3.1 Smectic Polarizers 29 3.3.2 Cholesteric Polarizers 32 3.4 Thin-film Retarders 34 3.4.1 Reactive Mesogen Retarders 35 3.4.2 Chromonic Liquid Crystal-based Retarders 37 3.4.3 Liquid Crystal Alignment and Patterned Retarders 37 3.5 Color Filters 41 3.6 Conclusion 43 4 Large Area Flexible Organic Field-effect Transistor Fabrication 47 Zachary A. Lamport, Marco Roberto Cavallari, and Ioannis Kymissis 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Substrates 48 4.3 Photolithography 49 4.4 Printing for Roll-to-roll Fabrication 52 4.4.1 Inkjet Printing 52 4.4.2 Gravure and Flexographic Printing 55 4.4.3 Screen Printing 56 4.4.4 Aerosol Jet Printing 56 4.4.5 Contact Printing 58 4.4.6 Meniscus Dragging 60 4.5 Conclusions 62 5 Metallic Nanowires, Promising Building Nanoblocks for Flexible Transparent Electrodes 67 Jean-Pierre Simonato 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 TEs Based on Metallic Nanowires 68 5.2.1 Metallic Nanowires, New Building Nanoblocks 68 5.2.2 Random Network Fabrication 69 5.2.3 Optical Characterization 70 5.2.4 Electrical Characterization 71 5.2.5 Mechanical Aspect 73 5.3 Application to Flexible Displays 73 5.3.1 Touch Screens 73 5.3.2 Light-emitting Diodes Displays 74 5.3.3 Electrochromic Flexible Displays 76 5.3.4 Other Displays 77 5.4 Conclusions 78 6 Optically Clear Adhesives for Display Assembly 85 Albert I. Everaerts 6.1 Introduction 85 6.2 OCA Definition and General Performance Specifications 86 6.3 Application Examples and Challenges 89 6.3.1 Outgassing Tolerant Adhesives 90 6.3.2 Anti-whitening Adhesives 91 6.3.3 Non-corrosive OCAs 92 6.3.4 Compliant OCAs for High Ink-step Coverage and Mura-free Assembly of LCD Panels 94 6.3.5 Reworkable OCAs 102 6.3.6 Barrier Adhesives 103 6.4 Summary and Remaining Challenges 104 7 Self-healing Polymer Substrates 107 Progyateg Chakma, Zachary A. Digby, and Dominik Konkolewicz 7.1 Introduction 107 7.2 General Classes of Self-healing Polymers 108 7.2.1 Types of Dynamic Bonds in Self-healing Polymers 109 7.2.2 Supramolecularly Crosslinked Self-healing Polymers 109 7.2.2.1 Hydrogen Bonding 110 7.2.2.2 π–π Stacking 110 7.2.2.3 Ionic Interactions 111 7.2.3 Dynamic-covalently Crosslinked Self-healing Polymers 111 7.2.3.1 Cycloaddition Reactions 111 7.2.3.2 Disulfides-based Reversible Reactions 112 7.2.3.3 Acylhydrazones 113 7.2.3.4 Boronate Esters 113 7.3 Special Considerations for Flexible Self-healing Polymers 114 7.4 Incorporation of Electrically Conductive Components 115 7.4.1 Metallic Conductors 115 7.4.2 Conductive Polymers 116 7.4.3 Carbon Materials 118 7.4.4 Polymerized Ionic Liquids 119 7.5 Additional Possibilities Enabled by Three-dimensional Printing 119 7.6 Concluding Remarks 121 8 Flexible Glass Substrates 129 Armin Plichta, Andreas Habeck, Silke Knoche, Anke Kruse, Andreas Weber, and Norbert Hildebrand 8.1 Introduction 129 8.2 Display Glass Properties 129 8.2.1 Overview of Display Glass Types 129 8.2.2 Glass Properties 130 8.2.2.1 Optical Properties 130 8.2.2.2 Chemical Properties 130 8.2.2.3 Thermal Properties 131 8.2.2.4 Surface Properties 132 8.2.2.5 Permeability 133 8.3 Manufacturing of Thin “Flexible’’ Glass 134 8.3.1 Float and Downdraw Technology for Special Glass 134 8.3.2 Limits 135 8.3.2.1 Thickness Limits for Production 135 8.3.2.2 Surface Quality Limits for Production 136 8.4 Mechanical Properties 137 8.4.1 Thin Glass and Glass/Plastic Substrates 137 8.4.2 Mechanical Test Methods for Flexible Glasses 137 8.5 Improvement in Mechanical Properties of Glass 140 8.5.1 Reinforcement of Glass Substrates 140 8.5.1.1 Principal Methods of Reinforcement 141 8.5.1.2 Materials for Reinforcement Coatings 141 8.6 Processing of Flexible Glass 142 8.6.1 Cleaning 143 8.6.2 Separation 143 8.7 Current Thin Glass Substrate Applications and Trends 144 8.7.1 Displays 145 8.7.2 Touch Panels 145 8.7.3 Sensors 145 8.7.4 Wafer-level Chip Size Packaging 146 9 Toward a Foldable Organic Light-emitting Diode Display 149 Meng-Ting Lee, Chi-Shun Chan, Yi-Hong Chen, Chun-Yu Lin, Annie Tzuyu Huang, Jonathan HT Tao, and Chih-Hung Wu 9.1 Panel Stack-up Comparison: Glass-based and Plastic-based Organic Light-emitting Diode 149 9.1.1 Technology for Improving Contrast Ratio of OLED Display 151 9.2 CF–OLED for Achieving Foldable OLED Display 153 9.2.1 Mechanism of the AR coating in CF–OLED 154 9.2.2 Optical Performance of CF–OLED 155 9.3 Mechanical Performance of CF–OLED 157 9.3.1 Bi-directional Folding Performance and Minimum Folding Radius of SPS Cf–oled 159 9.4 Touch Panel Technology of CF–OLED 160 9.5 Foldable Application 162 9.5.1 Foldable Technology Summary 162 9.5.1.1 Polymer Substrates and Related Debonding Technology 162 9.5.1.2 Alternative TFT Types to LTPS 162 9.5.1.3 Encapsulation Systems to Protect Devices against Moisture 163 9.5.2 Novel and Next-generation Display Technologies 163 10 Flexible Reflective Display Based on Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 167 Deng-Ke Yang, J. W. Shiu, M. H. Yang, and Janglin Che 10.1 Introduction to Cholesteric Liquid Crystal 167 10.2 Reflection of CLC 169 10.3 Bistable CLC Reflective Display 171 10.4 Color Design of Reflective Bistable CLC Display 173 10.4.1 Mono-color Display 173 10.4.2 Full-color Display 173 10.5 Transitions between Cholesteric States 175 10.5.1 Transition from Planar State to Focal Conic State 175 10.5.2 Transition from Focal Conic State to Homeotropic State 177 10.5.3 Transition from Homotropic State to Focal Conic State 177 10.5.4 Transition from Homeotropic State to Transient Planar State 178 10.5.5 Transition from Transient Planar State to Planar State 179 10.6 Driving Schemes 181 10.6.1 Response to Voltage Pulse 181 10.6.2 Conventional Driving Scheme 183 10.6.3 Dynamic Driving Scheme 183 10.6.4 Thermal Driving Scheme 185 10.6.5 Flow Driving Scheme 186 10.7 Flexible Bistable CLC Reflective Display 187 10.8 Bistable Encapsulated CLC Reflective Display 188 10.9 Production of Flexible CLC Reflective Displays 189 10.9.1 Color e-Book with Single-layered Structure 191 10.9.2 Roll-to Roll E-paper and Applications 195 10.10 Conclusion 202 11 Electronic Paper 207 Guofu Zhou, Alex Henzen, and Dong Yuan 11.1 Introduction 207 11.2 Electrophoretic Display 210 11.2.1 Development History and Working Principle 210 11.2.2 Materials 212 11.2.2.1 Colored Particles/Pigments 212 11.2.2.2 Capsule Shell Materials 213 11.2.2.3 Suspending Medium (Mobile Phase) 213 11.2.2.4 Charge Control Agents 213 11.2.2.5 Stabilizers 213 11.2.3 Device Fabrication 214 11.2.4 Flexible EPD 215 11.3 Electrowetting Displays 216 11.3.1 Development History and Working Principle 216 11.3.2 Materials 218 11.3.2.1 Absorbing (Dyed) Hydrophobic Liquid 218 11.3.3 Device Fabrication 220 11.3.4 Flexible EWD 221 11.4 Other E-paper Display Technologies and Feasibility of Flexibility 222 11.4.1 Pcd 222 11.4.2 Lpd 223 11.5 Cholesteric (Chiral Nematic) LCDs 224 11.6 Electrochromic Displays 224 11.7 MEMS Displays 226 12 Encapsulation of Flexible Displays: Background, Status, and Perspective 229 Lorenza Moro and Robert Jan Visser 12.1 Introduction 229 12.2 Background 230 12.3 Multilayer TFE Technology 234 12.3.1 Multilayer Approach 234 12.3.2 Inorganic Layer Deposition Techniques 237 12.3.3 Organic Layer Deposition Techniques 238 12.4 Current Technology Implementation 242 12.5 Future Developments 246 12.6 Conclusions 249 Acknowledgments 250 13 Flexible Battery Fundamentals 255 Nicholas Winch, Darran R. Cairns, and Konstantinos A. Sierros 13.1 Introduction 255 13.2 Structural and Materials Aspects 256 13.2.1 Shape 257 13.2.2 One-dimensional Batteries 257 13.2.3 Two-dimensional Planar Batteries 258 13.2.4 Solid versus Liquid Electrolyte 259 13.2.5 Carbon Additives 259 13.3 Examples of Flexible Batteries 260 13.4 Future Perspectives 266 14 Flexible and Large-area X-ray Detectors 271 Gerwin Gelinck 14.1 Introduction 271 14.2 Direct and Indirect Detectors 272 14.3 Thin-film Photodiode Sensors for Indirect-conversion Detectors 273 14.3.1 Performance Parameters 273 14.3.2 Photodiode Materials on Plastic Substrates 275 14.3.2.1 Amorphous Silicon 275 14.3.2.2 Organic Semiconductor Materials 275 14.4 TFT Array 277 14.4.1 Pixel Architecture and Transistor Requirements 277 14.4.2 Flexible Transistor Arrays 278 14.5 Medical-grade Detector 282 14.6 Summary and Outlook 283 15 Interacting with Flexible Displays 287 Darran R. Cairns and Anthony S. Weiss 15.1 Introduction 287 15.2 Touch Technologies in Non-Flexible Displays 287 15.2.1 Resistive Touch Sensors 287 15.2.2 4-Wire Resistive 288 15.2.3 5-Wire Resistive 289 15.2.4 Capacitive Sensing 290 15.2.5 Surface Capacitive 291 15.2.6 Projected Capacitive 291 15.2.7 Infrared Sensing 293 15.2.8 Surface Acoustic Wave 293 15.2.9 Bending Wave Technologies 294 15.3 Touch Technologies in Flexible Displays 294 15.4 Summary 299 16 Mechanical Durability of Inorganic Films on Flexible Substrates 301 Yves Leterrier 16.1 Introduction 301 16.2 Flexible Display Materials 302 16.2.1 Property Contrast between Coating and Substrate Materials 302 16.2.2 Determination of Mechanical Properties of Inorganic Coatings 302 16.3 Stress and Strain Analyses 304 16.3.1 Intrinsic, Thermal, and Hygroscopic Stresses and Strains 304 16.3.2 Strain Analysis of Multilayer Films under Bending 307 16.3.3 Critical Radius of Curvature 308 16.4 Failure Mechanics of Brittle Films 309 16.4.1 Damage Phenomenology under Tensile and Compressive Loading 309 16.4.2 Experimental Methods 310 16.4.3 Fracture Mechanics Analysis 311 16.4.4 Role of Internal Stresses 312 16.4.5 Influence of Film Thickness on Critical Strain 312 16.5 Durability Influences 313 16.5.1 Influence of Temperature 313 16.5.2 Fatigue 314 16.5.3 Corrosion 315 16.6 Toward Robust Layers 317 16.7 Final Remarks 317 Acknowledgments 318 Nomenclature 318 17 Roll-to-roll Production Challenges for Large-area Printed Electronics 325 Dr. Grzegorz Andrzej Potoczny 17.1 Introduction 325 17.2 Infrastructure 327 17.3 Equipment 328 17.4 Materials 329 17.5 Processing 331 17.6 Summary 334 18 Direct Ink Writing of Touch Sensors and Displays: Current Developments and Future Perspectives 337 Konstantinos A. Sierros and Darran R. Cairns 18.1 Introduction 337 18.2 DIW and Ink Development 338 18.3 Applications of DIW for Displays and Touch Sensors 343 18.4 Future Challenges and Opportunities 347 19 Flexible Displays for Medical Applications 351 Uwadiae Obahiagbon, Karen S. Anderson, and Jennifer M. Blain Christen 19.1 Introduction 351 19.1.1 Flexible Displays in Medicine 351 19.1.2 A Brief Historical Perspective 351 19.1.3 Application of Flexible Displays for Biochemical Analysis 352 19.1.4 OLEDs and Organic Photodiodes as Optical Excitation Sources and Detectors 352 19.1.5 Device Integration 354 19.1.6 Fluorescence, Photoluminescence Intensity, and Decay-time Sensing 355 19.2 Flexible OLEDs for Oxygen Sensors 356 19.3 Glucose Sensing Using Flexible Display Technology 358 19.4 POC Disease Diagnosis and Pathogen Detection Using Flexible Display Optoelectronics 359 19.5 Flexible Display Technology for Multi-analyte Sensor Array Platforms 364 19.5.1 Integrated LOC and Flexible Display Devices 364 19.5.2 Multiplexed Sensor Platforms 364 19.6 Medical Diagnostic Displays 366 19.7 Wearable Health Monitoring Devices Based on Flexible Displays 366 19.7.1 Monitoring Vital Signs Using Flexible Display Technology 367 19.7.2 Flexible Display Technology for Phototherapy 369 19.7.3 Smart Clothing Using Flexible Display Technology 370 19.8 Competing Technologies, Challenges, and Future Trends 371 19.9 Conclusion 372 Acknowledgment 373 Conflicts of Interest 373 Index 379

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsDedication v Preface to the Second Edition ix Preface to the First Edition xi List of Contributors xiii 1. Introduction: Historical Highlights of Water Activity Research 1Jorge Chirife and Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. 2. Water Activity: Fundamentals and Relationships 13David S. Reid 3. Water Activity and Glass Transition 27Yrjö H. Roos 4. State and Supplemented Phase Diagrams for the Characterization of Food 45Yrjö H. Roos 5. Water Mobility in Foods 61Shelly J. Schmidt 6. Water–Solid Interactions in Food Ingredients and Systems 123Lisa J. Mauer 7. Water Activity Prediction and Moisture Sorption Isotherms 161Theodore P. Labuza and Bilge Altunakar 8. Measurement of Water Activity, Moisture Sorption Isotherm, and Moisture Content of Foods 207Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. and Brady P. Carter 9. Moisture Effects on Food’s Chemical Stability 227Leonard N. Bell 10. Water Activity and Physical Stability 255Gaëlle Roudaut 11. Enthalpy Relaxation and Food Stability 271Roopesh M. Syamaladevi, Shelly J. Schmidt, Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Cánovas, and Shyam S. Sablani 12. Diffusion and Sorption Kinetics of Water in Foods 287Theodore P. Labuza and Bilge Altunakar 13. Applications for Dynamic Moisture Sorption Profiles in Foods 311Brady P. Carter 14. Effects of Water Activity (aw) on Microbial Stability as a Hurdle in Food Preservation 323María S. Tapia, Stella M. Alzamora, and Jorge Chirife 15. Baroprotective Effect from Reduced aw 357Avelina Franco‐Vega, Fátima Reyes‐Jurado, Nelly Ramirez‐Corona, Enrique Palou, and Aurelio Lopez‐Malo 16. Principles of Intermediate‐Moisture Foods and Related Technology 385Petros S. Taoukis and Michelle Richardson 17. Desorption Phenomena in Food Dehydration Processes 425Gustavo V. Barbosa‐Cánovas and Pablo Juliano 18. Humidity Caking and Its Prevention 453Micha Peleg 19. Selected Applications of Water Activity Management in the Food Industry 465Zamantha Escobedo‐Avellaneda, Verónica Rodriguez‐Martínez, Vinicio Serment‐Moreno, Gonzalo Velázquez, Jorge Welti‐Chanes, and J. Antonio Torres 20. Water Relations in Confections 483Jade McGill and Richard W. Hartel 21. Applications of Probabilistic Engineering in Food Moisture Management to Meet Product Quality, Safety, and Shelf‐Life Requirements 501Verónica Rodriguez‐Martínez, Gonzalo Velázquez, Jorge Welti‐Chanes, and J. Antonio Torres 22. Applications of Water Activity in Nonfood Systems 521Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. and Gaylon S. Campbell 23. The Future of Water Activity in Food Processing and Preservation 535Cynthia M. Stewart, Kenneth A. Buckle, and Martin B. Cole Appendices A Water Activity of Saturated Salt Solutions 553Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. B Water Activity of Unsaturated Salt Solutions at 25°C 557Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. C Water Activity, Isotherm, and Glass Transition Equations 561Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. and Shafiur Rahman D Minimum Water Activity Limits for Growth of Microorganisms 571Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. E Water Activity Values of Select Food Ingredients and Products 573Shelly J. Schmidt and Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. F Water Activity Values of Select Consumer and Pharmaceutical Products 593Anthony J. Fontana, Jr. and Shelly J. Schmidt Index 595

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Book SynopsisAnalyzing how hacks are done, so as to stop them in the future Reverse engineering is the process of analyzing hardware or software and understanding it, without having access to the source code or design documents. Hackers are able to reverse engineer systems and exploit what they find with scary results.Table of ContentsIntroduction xxiii Chapter 1 x86 and x64 1 Register Set and Data Types 2 Instruction Set 3 Syntax 4 Data Movement 5 Exercise 11 Arithmetic Operations 11 Stack Operations and Function Invocation 13 Exercises 17 Control Flow 17 System Mechanism 25 Address Translation 26 Interrupts and Exceptions 27 Walk-Through 28 Exercises 35 x64 36 Register Set and Data Types 36 Data Movement 36 Canonical Address 37 Function Invocation 37 Exercises 38 Chapter 2 ARM 39 Basic Features 40 Data Types and Registers 43 System-Level Controls and Settings 45 Introduction to the Instruction Set 46 Loading and Storing Data 47 LDR and STR 47 Other Usage for LDR 51 LDM and STM 52 PUSH and POP 56 Functions and Function Invocation 57 Arithmetic Operations 60 Branching and Conditional Execution 61 Thumb State 64 Switch-Case 65 Miscellaneous 67 Just-in-Time and Self-Modifying Code 67 Synchronization Primitives 67 System Services and Mechanisms 68 Instructions 70 Walk-Through 71 Next Steps 77 Exercises 78 Chapter 3 The Windows Kernel 87 Windows Fundamentals 88 Memory Layout 88 Processor Initialization 89 System Calls 92 Interrupt Request Level 104 Pool Memory 106 Memory Descriptor Lists 106 Processes and Threads 107 Execution Context 109 Kernel Synchronization Primitives 110 Lists 111 Implementation Details 112 Walk-Through 119 Exercises 123 Asynchronous and Ad-Hoc Execution 128 System Threads 128 Work Items 129 Asynchronous Procedure Calls 131 Deferred Procedure Calls 135 Timers 140 Process and Thread Callbacks 142 Completion Routines 143 I/O Request Packets 144 Structure of a Driver 146 Entry Points 147 Driver and Device Objects 149 IRP Handling 150 A Common Mechanism for User-Kernel Communication 150 Miscellaneous System Mechanisms 153 Walk-Throughs 155 An x86 Rootkit 156 An x64 Rootkit 172 Next Steps 178 Exercises 180 Building Confidence and Solidifying Your Knowledge 180 Investigating and Extending Your Knowledge 182 Analysis of Real-Life Drivers 184 Chapter 4 Debugging and Automation 187 The Debugging Tools and Basic Commands 188 Setting the Symbol Path 189 Debugger Windows 189 Evaluating Expressions 190 Process Control and Debut Events 194 Registers, Memory, and Symbols 198 Breakpoints 208 Inspecting Processes and Modules 211 Miscellaneous Commands 214 Scripting with the Debugging Tools 216 Pseudo-Registers 216 Aliases 219 Language 226 Script Files 240 Using Scripts Like Functions 244 Example Debug Scripts 249 Using the SDK 257 Concepts 258 Writing Debugging Tools Extensions 262 Useful Extensions, Tools, and Resources 264 Chapter 5 Obfuscation 267 A Survey of Obfuscation Techniques 269 The Nature of Obfuscation: A Motivating Example 269 Data-Based Obfuscations 273 Control-Based Obfuscation 278 Simultaneous Control-Flow and Data-Flow Obfuscation 284 Achieving Security by Obscurity 288 A Survey of Deobfuscation Techniques 289 The Nature of Deobfuscation: Transformation Inversion 289 Deobfuscation Tools 295 Practical Deobfuscation 312 Case Study 328 First Impressions 328 Analyzing Handlers Semantics 330 Symbolic Execution 333 Solving the Challenge 334 Final Thoughts 336 Exercises 336 Appendix Sample Names and Corresponding SHA1 Hashes 341 Index 343

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Book SynopsisCovering classical aerodynamic theories and applications made possible by computational aerodynamics, this book provides a discussion on lift and drag from an overall dynamical approach, and after stating the governing Navier-Stokes equation, covers potential flows and panel method.Trade Review“The book ‘is aimed to be a comprehensive textbook’: the classical subject matter, including the transition and stability theory in Chapter 9, would be a useful addition to the literature of any undergraduate or graduate student; the computational sections contain little in terms of fundamentals of numerics but, accepting that useful computational results are the focus, results are presented for several applications that would be of interest to many aerodynamicists.” (The Aeronautical Journal, 3 February 2015)Table of ContentsSeries Preface xv Preface xvii Acknowledgements xxi 1 Introduction to Aerodynamics and Atmosphere 1 1.1 Motivation and Scope of Aerodynamics 1 1.2 Conservation Principles 4 1.2.1 Conservation Laws and Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT) 4 1.2.2 Application of RTT: Conservation of Linear Momentum 6 1.3 Origin of Aerodynamic Forces 6 1.3.1 Momentum Integral Theory: Real Fluid Flow 8 1.4 Flow in Accelerating Control Volumes: Application of RTT 9 1.5 Atmosphere and Its Role in Aerodynamics 11 1.5.1 Von Kármán Line 11 1.5.2 Structure of Atmosphere 11 1.5.3 Armstrong Line or Limit 12 1.5.4 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and Other Atmospheric Details 13 1.5.5 Property Variations in Troposphere and Stratosphere 15 1.6 Static Stability of Atmosphere 17 Bibliography 20 2 Basic Equations of Motion 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.1.1 Compressibility of Fluid Flow 22 2.2 Conservation Principles 23 2.2.1 Flow Description Method: Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches 23 2.2.2 The Continuity Equation: Mass Conservation 24 2.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum: Integral Form 25 2.4 Conservation of Linear Momentum: Differential Form 26 2.4.1 General Stress System in a Deformable Body 26 2.5 Strain Rate of Fluid Element in Flows 28 2.5.1 Kinematic Interpretation of Strain Tensor 29 2.6 Relation between Stress and Rate of Strain Tensors in Fluid Flow 32 2.7 Circulation and Rotationality in Flows 35 2.8 Irrotational Flows and Velocity Potential 36 2.9 Stream Function and Vector Potential 37 2.10 Governing Equation for Irrotational Flows 38 2.11 Kelvin’s Theorem and Irrotationality 40 2.12 Bernoulli’s Equation: Relation of Pressure and Velocity 41 2.13 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation: Air Speed Indicator 42 2.13.1 Aircraft Speed Measurement 43 2.13.2 The Pressure Coefficient 44 2.13.3 Compressibility Correction for Air Speed Indicator 44 2.14 Viscous Effects and Boundary Layers 46 2.15 Thermodynamics and Reynolds Transport Theorem 47 2.16 Reynolds Transport Theorem 48 2.17 The Energy Equation 49 2.17.1 The Steady Flow Energy Equation 51 2.18 Energy Conservation Equation 52 2.19 Alternate Forms of Energy Equation 54 2.20 The Energy Equation in Conservation Form 55 2.21 Strong Conservation and Weak Conservation Forms 55 2.22 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Entropy 56 2.23 Propagation of Sound and Mach Number 60 2.24 One-Dimensional Steady Flow 61 2.25 Normal Shock Relation for Steady Flow 62 2.26 Rankine--Hugoniot Relation 64 2.27 Prandtl or Meyer Relation 65 2.28 Oblique ShockWaves 69 2.29 Weak Oblique Shock 71 2.30 Expansion of Supersonic Flows 74 Bibliography 76 3 Theoretical Aerodynamics of Potential Flows 77 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 Preliminaries of Complex Analysis for 2D Irrotational Flows: Cauchy--Riemann Relations 78 3.2.1 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem 81 3.2.2 Complex Potential and Complex Velocity 81 3.3 Elementary Singularities in Fluid Flows 81 3.3.1 Superposing Solutions of Irrotational Flows 83 3.4 Blasius’ Theorem: Forces and Moment for Potential Flows 90 3.4.1 Force Acting on a Vortex in a Uniform Flow 92 3.4.2 Flow Past a Translating and Rotating Cylinder: Lift Generation Mechanism 94 3.4.3 Prandtl’s Limit on Maximum Circulation and its Violation 97 3.4.4 Pressure Distribution on Spinning and Translating Cylinder 98 3.5 Method of Images 99 3.6 Conformal Mapping: Use of Cauchy--Riemann Relation 101 3.6.1 Laplacian in the Transformed Plane 102 3.6.2 Relation between Complex Velocity in Two Planes 104 3.6.3 Application of Conformal Transformation 104 3.7 Lift Created by Jukowski Airfoil 111 3.7.1 Kutta Condition and Circulation Generation 113 3.7.2 Lift on Jukowski Airfoil 114 3.7.3 Velocity and Pressure Distribution on Jukowski Airfoil 116 3.8 Thin Airfoil Theory 116 3.8.1 Thin Symmetric Flat Plate Airfoil 119 3.8.2 Aerodynamic Centre and Centre of Pressure 122 3.8.3 The Circular Arc Airfoil 124 3.9 General Thin Airfoil Theory 129 3.10 Theodorsen Condition for General Thin Airfoil Theory 134 Bibliography 135 4 Finite Wing Theory 137 4.1 Introduction 137 4.2 Fundamental Laws of Vortex Motion 137 4.3 Helmholtz’s Theorems of Vortex Motion 138 4.4 The Bound Vortex Element 140 4.5 Starting Vortex Element 140 4.6 Trailing Vortex Element 141 4.7 Horse Shoe Vortex 142 4.8 The Biot-Savart Law 142 4.8.1 Biot-Savart Law for Simplified Cases 144 4.9 Theory for a Finite Wing 146 4.9.1 Relation between Spanwise Loading and Trailing Vortices 146 4.10 Consequence of Downwash: Induced Drag 147 4.11 Simple Symmetric Loading: Elliptic Distribution 149 4.11.1 Induced Drag for Elliptic Loading 151 4.11.2 Modified Elliptic Load Distribution 152 4.11.3 The Downwash for Modified Elliptic Loading 153 4.12 General Loading on a Wing 154 4.12.1 Downwash for General Loading 155 4.12.2 Induced Drag on a Finite Wing for General Loading 156 4.12.3 Load Distribution for Minimum Drag 157 4.13 Asymmetric Loading: Rolling and Yawing Moment 157 4.13.1 Rolling Moment (𝐿𝑅) 157 4.13.2 Yawing Moment (N) 159 4.13.3 Effect of Aspect Ratio on Lift Curve Slope 159 4.14 Simplified Horse Shoe Vortex 161 4.15 Applications of Simplified Horse Shoe Vortex System 162 4.15.1 Influence of Downwash on Tailplane 162 4.15.2 Formation-flight of Birds 163 4.15.3 Wing-in-Ground Effect 165 4.16 Prandtl’s Lifting Line Equation or the Monoplane Equation 167 Bibliography 169 5 Panel Methods 171 5.1 Introduction 171 5.2 Line Source Distribution 172 5.2.1 Perturbation Velocity Components due to Source Distribution 174 5.3 Panel Method due to Hess and Smith 176 5.3.1 Calculation of Influence Coefficients 180 5.4 Some Typical Results 183 Bibliography 188 6 Lifting Surface, Slender Wing and Low Aspect Ratio Wing Theories 189 6.1 Introduction 189 6.2 Green’s Theorems and Their Applications to Potential Flows 190 6.2.1 Reciprocal Theorem 192 6.3 Irrotational External Flow Field due to a Lifting Surface 192 6.3.1 Large Aspect Ratio Wings 197 6.3.2 Wings of Small Aspect Ratio 199 6.4 Slender Wing Theory 201 6.5 Spanwise Loading 205 6.6 Lift on Delta or Triangular Wing 206 6.6.1 Low Aspect Ratio Wing Aerodynamics and Vortex Lift 207 6.7 Vortex Breakdown 214 6.7.1 Types of Vortex Breakdown 216 6.8 Slender Body Theory 218 Bibliography 221 7 Boundary Layer Theory 223 7.1 Introduction 223 7.2 Regular and Singular Perturbation Problems in Fluid Flows 224 7.3 Boundary Layer Equations 225 7.3.1 Conservation of Mass 226 7.3.2 The 𝑥-Momentum Equation 226 7.3.3 The 𝑦-Momentum Equation 227 7.3.4 Use of Boundary Layer Equations 229 7.4 Boundary Layer Thicknesses 230 7.4.1 Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness 231 7.4.2 Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness 232 7.5 Momentum Integral Equation 233 7.6 Validity of Boundary Layer Equation and Separation 235 7.7 Solution of Boundary Layer Equation 237 7.8 Similarity Analysis 238 7.8.1 Zero Pressure Gradient Boundary Layer or Blasius Profile 243 7.8.2 Stagnation Point or the Hiemenz Flow 244 7.8.3 Flat Plate Wake at Zero Angle of Attack 245 7.8.4 Two-dimensional Laminar Jet 247 7.8.5 Laminar Mixing Layer 250 7.9 Use of Boundary Layer Equation in Aerodynamics 252 7.9.1 Differential Formulation of Boundary Layer Equation 253 7.9.2 Use of Momentum Integral Equation 254 7.9.3 Pohlhausen’s Method 254 7.9.4 Thwaite’s Method 257 Bibliography 258 8 Computational Aerodynamics 259 8.1 Introduction 259 8.2 A Model Dynamical Equation 260 8.3 Space--Time Resolution of Flows 263 8.3.1 Spatial Scales in Turbulent Flows and Direct Numerical Simulation 264 8.3.2 Computing Unsteady Flows: Dispersion Relation Preserving (DRP) Methods 265 8.3.3 Spectral or Numerical Amplification Factor 266 8.4 An Improved Orthogonal Grid Generation Method for Aerofoil 275 8.5 Orthogonal Grid Generation 279 8.5.1 Grid Generation Algorithm 281 8.6 Orthogonal Grid Generation for an Aerofoil with Roughness Elements 284 8.7 Solution of Navier--Stokes Equation for Flow Past AG24 Aerofoil 287 8.7.1 Grid Smoothness vs Deviation from Orthogonality 290 Bibliography 291 9 Instability and Transition in Aerodynamics 295 9.1 Introduction 295 9.2 Temporal and Spatial Instability 298 9.3 Parallel Flow Approximation and Inviscid Instability Theorems 299 9.3.1 Inviscid Instability Mechanism 300 9.4 Viscous Instability of Parallel Flows 301 9.4.1 Temporal and Spatial Amplification of Disturbances 303 9.5 Instability Analysis from the Solution of the Orr--Sommerfeld Equation 304 9.5.1 Local and Total Amplification of Disturbances 306 9.5.2 Effects of the Mean Flow Pressure Gradient 308 9.5.3 Transition Prediction Based on Stability Calculation: 𝑒𝑁 Method 312 9.5.4 Effects of FST 314 9.5.5 Distinction between Controlled and Uncontrolled Excitations 315 9.6 Transition in Three-Dimensional Flows 318 9.7 Infinite Swept Wing Flow 320 9.8 Attachment Line Flow 321 9.9 Boundary Layer Equations in the Transformed Plane 322 9.10 Simplification of Boundary Layer Equations in the Transformed Plane 324 9.11 Instability of Three-Dimensional Flows 325 9.11.1 Effects of Sweep-back and Cross Flow Instability 326 9.12 Linear Viscous Stability Theory for Three-Dimensional Flows 328 9.12.1 Temporal Instability of Three-dimensional Flows 329 9.12.2 Spatial Instability of Three-dimensional Flows 330 9.13 Experimental Evidence of Instability on Swept Wings 332 9.14 Infinite Swept Wing Boundary Layer 334 9.15 Stability of the Falkner--Skan--Cooke Profile 337 9.16 Stationary Waves over Swept Geometries 340 9.17 Empirical Transition Prediction Method for Three-Dimensional Flows 340 9.17.1 Streamwise Transition Criterion 341 9.17.2 Cross Flow Transition Criteria 341 9.17.3 Leading Edge Contamination Criterion 343 Bibliography 343 10 Drag Reduction: Analysis and Design of Airfoils 347 10.1 Introduction 347 10.2 Laminar Flow Airfoils 350 10.2.1 The Drag Bucket of Six-Digit Series Aerofoils 352 10.2.2 Profiling Modern Laminar Flow Aerofoils 353 10.3 Pressure Recovery of Some Low Drag Airfoils 358 10.4 Flap Operation of Airfoils for NLF 361 10.5 Effects of Roughness and Fixing Transition 362 10.6 Effects of Vortex Generator or Boundary Layer Re-Energizer 364 10.7 Section Characteristics of Various Profiles 364 10.8 A High Speed NLF Aerofoil 365 10.9 Direct Simulation of Bypass Transitional Flow Past an Airfoil 369 10.9.1 Governing Equations and Formulation 370 10.9.2 Results and Discussion 371 Bibliography 378 11 Direct Numerical Simulation of 2D Transonic Flows around Airfoils 381 11.1 Introduction 381 11.2 Governing Equations and Boundary Conditions 382 11.3 Numerical Procedure 384 11.4 Some Typical Results 387 11.4.1 Validation of Methodologies for Compressible Flow Calculations and Shock Capturing 387 11.4.2 Computing Strong Shock Cases 396 11.4.3 Unsteadiness of Compressible Flows 396 11.4.4 Creation of Rotational Effects 396 11.4.5 Strong Shock and Entropy Gradient 401 11.4.6 Lift and Drag Calculation 404 Bibliography 406 12 Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics 409 12.1 Introduction 409 12.2 Micro-air Vehicle Aerodynamics 412 12.3 Governing Equations in Inertial and Noninertial Frames 413 12.3.1 Pressure Solver 415 12.3.2 Proof of Equation (12.17) 416 12.3.3 Distinction between Low and High Reynolds Number Flows 418 12.3.4 Validation Studies of Computations 420 12.4 Flow Past an AG24 Airfoil at Low Reynolds Numbers 425 Bibliography 442 13 High Lift Devices and Flow Control 445 13.1 Introduction 445 13.1.1 High Lift Configuration 446 13.2 Passive Devices: Multi-Element Airfoils with Slats and Flaps 449 13.2.1 Optimization of Flap Placement and Settings 450 13.2.2 Aerodynamic Data of GA(W)-1 Airfoil Fitted with Fowler Flap 453 13.2.3 Physical Explanation of Multi-element Aerofoil Operation 455 13.2.4 Vortex Generator 457 13.2.5 Induced Drag and Its Alleviation 461 13.2.6 Theoretical Analysis of Induced Drag 463 13.2.7 Fuselage Drag Reduction 464 13.2.8 Instability of Flow over Nacelle 465 13.3 Flow Control by Plasma Actuation: High Lift Device and Drag Reduction 465 13.3.1 Control of Bypass Transitional Flow Past an Aerofoil by Plasma Actuation 466 13.4 Governing Equations for Plasma 468 13.4.1 Suzen et al.’s Model 470 13.4.2 Orlov’s Model 471 13.4.3 Spatio-temporal Lumped-element Circuit Model 472 13.4.4 Algorithm for Calculating Body Force 474 13.4.5 Lemire and Vo’s Model 474 13.5 Governing Fluid Dynamic Equations 475 13.6 Results and Discussions 476 Bibliography 484 Index 487

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Book SynopsisA sleeker, more comprehensive approach to construction projects BIM and Construction Management, Second Edition is a complete integration guide, featuring practical advice, project tested methods and workflows, and tutorials for implementing Building Information Modeling and technology in construction.Table of ContentsIntroduction xvii Chapter 1 Why Is Technology So Important to Construction Management? 1 The Promise of BIM 2 Processes 4 Technologies 5 Behaviors 7 The Value of BIM in Construction 8 Where Does BIM Play a Role in Construction Management? 15 Team Engagement 16 Project Pursuit and Business Development 16 Planning for BIM Success 19 Using Contracts in Planning 19 Scheduling 20 Logistics 22 Estimating Cost 23 Constructability 25 Analyzing Data in BIM 27 Designing for Prefabrication 29 Coordinating Construction 31 Using Mobile Devices 32 Controlling Schedules 33 Controlling Cost 34 Managing Change 35 Material Management 37 Tracking Equipment 37 Closeout 38 Managing Facilities 39 Knowledge Platform Population 40 Where the Industry Is Headed 42 Leadership Buy-In 42 The Evolving Role of the BIM Manager 43 What Have Been the Results? 43 Summary 44 Chapter 2 Project Planning 45 Delivery Methods 46 Design-Bid-Build 47 Construction Manager at Risk 52 Design-Build 56 Integrated Project Delivery 62 BIM Addenda (Contracts) 63 AIA: Document E202 65 AGC: ConsensusDocs 301 65 DBIA: Document E-BIMWD 65 AIA: Document E203 66 Contracts Summary 66 The Fundamental Uses of BIM 67 Level of Development 68 Model-Based Coordination 69 Model-Based Scheduling 72 Model-Based Estimating 72 Model-Based Facilities Management 73 Model-Based Analysis 74 BIM Execution Plan 75 History of the BIM Execution Plan 75 Communication 77 Expectation 83 Organization 85 Summary 89 Chapter 3 How to Market BIM and Win the Project 91 BIM Marketing Background 92 Building Your Team 94 Marketing Your Brand of BIM 97 Does What You Are Proposing Show Clear and Demonstrable Value? 98 Is This a Proven Tool or Process, a Developing One, or an Innovative One? 99 Can You Show Real Results from the Impact of Implementation? 102 Is This What the Owner Wants? 104 Is This Something You Can Deliver? 105 Using BIM to Enhance the Proposal 108 Addressing BIM in the RFP 108 Project Pursuit Images 110 Project Simulations 112 Project Pursuit Virtual/Augmented Reality Simulations 113 Other Marketing Tools 116 Tailor-Fit Your Offerings 116 Client Alignment 117 Pushing the Envelope 118 Seeking Value and Focusing on Results 118 Summary 121 Chapter 4 BIM and Preconstruction 123 Leaning on the Past 124 The Empire State Building 125 Adopting New Technology 132 The Journey to BIM 134 The Kickoff 136 Getting the Right People in the Room 136 Creating the Vision 138 Opening the Lines of Communication 139 Accounting for the Expectation Bias 139 Scheduling Design 139 Design Structure Matrix 145 Scheduling the LOD 148 Constructability Review 149 Leverage the Plans 150 Leverage the Details 153 Leverage the People 158 Estimating 163 Revit Schedules for Estimating 164 Cost Trending with Assemble 171 Analysis 175 The 2030 Challenge 176 Overview of Sustainability and BIM 177 Sustainability Analysis with Sefaira 182 Logistics and Planning 188 Summary 190 Chapter 5 BIM and Construction 191 Overview of BIM in Construction 192 Model Coordination 194 BIM and Site Coordination 194 Clash Detection 196 Navisworks Conflict Exercise 196 Fabrication 208 BIM Scheduling 213 Scheduling Software 217 Completing the Feedback Loop 226 Systems Installation 228 Installation Management 228 Installation Verification 232 Construction Activity Tracking 234 Field Issue Management 235 BIM and Safety 236 Producing Better Field Information 238 Beginning with the End in Mind 239 What Information Do You Need to Build? 242 Model Redlining Exercise 242 Video Embedding Exercise 250 The Virtual Job Trailer 252 The Conference Room 252 The Plans and Specifications Hub 254 The Jobsite Office as a Server 254 The Jobsite Office as a Communication Hub 255 Setting Up the Job Trailer 255 Summary 256 Chapter 6 BIM and Construction Administration 257 The Battle for BIM 258 Training Field Personnel 261 Training Goals for Basic Skills 263 Advanced Training Goals for Model Creation 263 Training Courses for Additional Uses 265 Document Control 270 Creating a Digital Plan Room with Bluebeam Revu eXtreme 272 The Real Value of 4D 281 Developing BIM Intuition 284 Starting with a Door 284 Assemble Systems: Beyond the Basics 286 Importing Search Sets into Navisworks 288 Mapping Equipment to BIM 360 Field 291 Information Loading and QR Coding 295 Using 360 Field to Status Material 299 Visualizing Equipment Status in the Model 301 Endless Possibilities 304 Small Wins to Big Change 305 Summary 305 Chapter 7 BIM and Close Out 307 True Costs of Facility Operations 308 Artifact Deliverables 310 Constant Deliverables 315 Taking a Hybrid Approach 317 Owners and BIM 317 Owner Options 318 Integration of a Record BIM 320 BIM and Information Handover 325 Maintaining the Model 329 Ongoing Investment and Logistics for Facility Management BIM 330 Training 332 Model Maintenance 333 One BIM = One Source of Information 334 Summary 337 Chapter 8 The Future of BIM 339 What Will BIM Be? 340 Industry Trends 340 BIM and Prefabrication 342 New Processes and Roles 343 Interoperability 345 BIM and Education 349 BIM and the New Construction Manager 351 BIM and the New Team 354 BIM and the New Process 356 Future Opportunities 357 Future Relationships 359 Virtual Builder Certification 360 Summary 362 Index 363

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Book SynopsisWidely used across industrial and manufacturing automation, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) perform a broad range of electromechanical tasks with multiple input and output arrangements, designed specifically to cope in severe environmental conditions such as automotive and chemical plants. Programmable Logic Controllers: A Practical Approach using CoDeSys is a hands-on guide to rapidly gain proficiency in the development and operation of PLCs based on the IEC 61131-3 standard. Using the freely-available* software tool CoDeSys, which is widely used in industrial design automation projects, the author takes a highly practical approach to PLC design using real-world examples. The design tool, CoDeSys, also features a built in simulator/soft PLC enabling the reader to undertake exercises and test the examples. Key features: Introduces to programming techniques using IEC 61131-3 guidelines in the five PLC-recognised programming languages. FocusesTable of ContentsPreface xiv Part One Hardware 1 1 About PLCs 3 1.1 History 4 1.1.1 More Recent Developments 6 1.2 Structure 7 1.2.1 Inputs and Outputs 10 1.3 PLC Operation 13 1.3.1 Process Knowledge 14 1.3.2 Standard Operations 16 1.3.3 Cyclic, Freewheeling, or Event‐Controlled Execution 18 1.4 Test Problems 19 2 Digital Signals and Digital Inputs and Outputs 20 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Terminology 21 2.2.1 Discrete, Digital, Logical, and Binary 21 2.2.2 Sensors, Transducers, and Transmitters 22 2.3 Switches 24 2.3.1 Limit Switches 24 2.3.2 Safety Devices 24 2.3.3 Magnetic Switches 25 2.4 Logical Sensors 26 2.4.1 Inductive Sensors 27 2.4.2 Capacitive Sensors 29 2.4.3 Photocells 30 2.4.4 Ultrasonic Sensors 33 2.4.5 Rotating Sensors (Encoders) 34 2.4.6 Other Detection Principles and Sensors 37 2.5 Connection of Logical Sensors 39 2.5.1 Sink/Source 41 2.5.2 Selecting a Sensor with the Proper Type of Output 43 2.6 Properties of Discrete Inputs 44 2.7 Discrete Actuators 45 2.7.1 Relays and Contactors 46 2.7.2 Solenoids and Magnetic Valves 47 2.7.3 Transistor Outputs versus Relay Outputs 49 2.8 Test Problems 50 3 Analog Signals and Analog I/O 52 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Digitalization of Analog Signals 53 3.2.1 Filtering 53 3.2.2 A/D Conversion 55 3.3 Analog Instrumentation 58 3.3.1 About Sensors 58 3.3.2 Standard Signal Formats 59 3.3.3 On the 4–20 mA Standard 59 3.3.4 Some Other Properties of Sensors 61 3.4 Temperature Sensors 61 3.4.1 Thermocouple 61 3.4.2 PT100/NI1000 62 3.4.3 Thermistors 64 3.5 Connection 64 3.5.1 About Noise, Loss, and Cabling 64 3.5.2 Connecting Sensors 67 3.5.3 Connection of a PT100 (RTD) 68 3.5.4 Connecting Thermocouples 72 3.6 Properties of Analog Input Modules 72 3.6.1 Measurement Ranges and Digitizing: Resolution 72 3.6.2 Important Properties and Parameters 74 3.7 Analog Output Modules and Standard Signal Formats 75 3.8 Test Problems 76 Part Two Methodic 79 4 Structured Design 81 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Number Systems 82 4.2.1 The Decimal Number Systems 82 4.2.2 The Binary Number System 82 4.2.3 The Hexadecimal Number System 83 4.2.4 Binary‐Coded Decimal Numbers 85 4.2.5 Conversion between Number Systems 86 4.3 Digital Logic 87 4.4 Boolean Design 91 4.4.1 Logical Functional Expressions 91 4.4.2 Boolean Algebra 93 4.5 Sequential Design 97 4.5.1 Flowchart 97 4.5.2 Example: Flowchart for Mixing Process 99 4.5.3 Example: Flowchart for an Automated Packaging Line 101 4.5.4 Sequence Diagrams 107 4.5.5 Example: Sequence Diagram for the Mixing Process 110 4.5.6 Example: Batch Process 112 4.6 State‐Based Design 113 4.6.1 Why Use State Diagrams? 114 4.6.2 State Diagrams 114 4.6.3 Example: Batch Process 117 4.6.4 Example: Level Process 118 4.6.5 Example: Packing Facility for Apples 121 4.7 Summary 124 4.8 Test Problems 125 Part Three IEC 61131‐3 131 5 Introduction to Programming and IEC 61131‐3 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.1.1 Weaknesses in Traditional PLCs 134 5.1.2 Improvements with IEC 61131‐3 136 5.1.3 On Implementation of the Standard 137 5.2 Brief Presentation of the Languages 138 5.2.1 ST 138 5.2.2 FBD 138 5.2.3 LD 139 5.2.4 IL 139 5.2.5 SFC 141 5.3 Program Structure in IEC 61131‐3 141 5.3.1 Example of a Configuration 145 5.4 Program Processing 146 5.4.1 Development of Programming Languages 146 5.4.2 From Source Code to Machine Code 147 5.5 Test Problems 151 6 IEC 61131‐3: Common Language Elements 152 6.1 Introduction 152 6.2 Identifiers, Keywords, and Comments 153 6.2.1 Identifiers 153 6.2.2 Keywords 154 6.2.3 Comments 154 6.3 About Variables and Data Types 156 6.4 Pragmas and Literals 156 6.4.1 Literal 157 6.5 Data Types 158 6.5.1 Numerical and Binary Data Types 158 6.5.2 Data Types for Time and Duration 161 6.5.3 Text Strings 163 6.5.4 Generic Data Types 164 6.5.5 User‐Defined Data Types 166 6.6 Variables 169 6.6.1 Conventional Addressing 170 6.6.2 Declaration of Variables with IEC 61131‐3 171 6.6.3 Local Versus Global Variables 174 6.6.4 Input and Output Variables 175 6.6.5 Other Variable Types 176 6.7 Direct Addressing 176 6.7.1 Addressing Structure 176 6.7.2 I/O‐Addressing 178 6.8 Variable versus I/O‐Addresses 179 6.8.1 Unspecified I/O‐Addresses 179 6.9 Declaration of Multielement Variables 180 6.9.1 Arrays 181 6.9.2 Data Structures 182 6.10 Test Problems 184 7 Functions 187 7.1 Introduction 187 7.2 On Functions 188 7.3 Standard Functions 189 7.3.1 Assignment 190 7.4 Boolean Operations 191 7.5 Arithmetic Functions 192 7.5.1 Overflow 193 7.6 Comparison 194 7.7 Numerical Operations 195 7.7.1 Priority of Execution 196 7.8 Selection 197 7.9 Type Conversion 197 7.10 Bit‐String Functions 199 7.11 Text‐String Functions 200 7.12 Defining New Functions 202 7.13 EN/ENO 203 7.14 Test Problems 204 8 Function Blocks 206 8.1 Introduction 206 8.1.1 The Standard’s FBs 207 8.2 Declaring and Calling FBs 207 8.3 FBs for Flank Detection 208 8.4 Bistable Elements 209 8.5 Timers 210 8.6 Counters 211 8.6.1 Up‐Counter 212 8.6.2 Down‐Counter 212 8.6.3 Up/Down‐Counter 212 8.7 Defining New FBs 213 8.7.1 Encapsulation of Code 214 8.7.2 Other Nonstandardized FBs 216 8.8 Programs 217 8.8.1 Program Calls 218 8.8.2 Execution Control 219 8.9 Test Problems 220 Part Four Programming 221 9 Ladder Diagram (LD) 223 9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 Program Structure 224 9.2.1 Contacts and Conditions 225 9.2.2 Coils and Actions 226 9.2.3 Graphical Elements: An Overview 227 9.3 Boolean Operations 227 9.3.1 AND/OR‐Conditions 227 9.3.2 Set/Reset Coils 230 9.3.3 Edge Detecting Contacts 233 9.3.4 Example: Control of a Mixing Process 234 9.4 Rules for Execution 237 9.4.1 One Output: Several Conditions 237 9.4.2 The Importance of the Order of Execution 238 9.4.3 Labels and Jumps 239 9.5 Use of Standard Functions in LD 240 9.6 Development and Use of FBs in LD 242 9.7 Structured Programming in LD 244 9.7.1 Flowchart versus RS‐Based LD Code 248 9.7.2 State Diagrams versus RS‐Based LD Code 253 9.8 Summary 259 9.9 Test Problems 260 10 Function Block Diagram (FBD) 262 10.1 Introduction 262 10.2 Program Structure 263 10.2.1 Concepts 264 10.3 Execution Order and Loops 264 10.3.1 Labels and Jumps 265 10.4 User‐Defined Functions and FBs 266 10.5 Integer Division 268 10.6 Sequential Programming with FBD 271 10.7 Test Problems 273 11 Structured Text (ST) 278 11.1 Introduction 278 11.2 ST in General 279 11.2.1 Program Structure 280 11.3 Standard Functions and Operators 281 11.3.1 Assignment 282 11.4 Calling FBs 283 11.4.1 Flank Detection and Memories 284 11.4.2 Timers 287 11.4.3 Counters 288 11.5 IF Statements 288 11.6 CASE Statements 290 11.7 ST Code Based upon State Diagrams 292 11.7.1 Example: Code for the Level Process 295 11.8 Loops 298 11.8.1 WHILE … DO… END_WHILE 298 11.8.2 FOR … END_FOR 299 11.8.3 REPEAT … END_REPEAT 300 11.8.4 The EXIT Instruction 300 11.9 Example: Defining and Calling Functions 301 11.10 Test Problems 302 12 Sequential Function Chart (SFC) 306 12.1 Introduction 306 12.1.1 SFC in General 307 12.2 Structure and Graphics 307 12.2.1 Overview: Graphic Symbols 309 12.2.2 Alternative Branches 309 12.2.3 Parallel Branches 311 12.3 Steps 312 12.3.1 Step Addresses 313 12.3.2 SFC in Text Form (for Those Specially Interested…) 314 12.4 Transitions 314 12.4.1 Alternative Definition of Transitions 315 12.5 Actions 317 12.5.1 Action Types 318 12.5.2 Action Control 319 12.5.3 Alternative Declaration and Use of Actions 321 12.6 Control of Diagram Execution 322 12.7 Good Design Technique 323 12.8 Test Problems 326 13 Examples 331 13.1 Example 1: PID Controller Function Block: Structured Text 331 13.2 Example 2: Sampling: SFC 333 13.2.1 List of Variables 334 13.2.2 Possible Solution 334 13.3 Example 3: Product Control: SFC 337 13.3.1 Functional Description 338 13.3.2 List of Variables 338 13.3.3 Possible Solution 339 13.4 Example 4: Automatic Feeder: ST/SFC/FBD 342 13.4.1 Planning and Structuring 344 13.4.2 Alternative 1: SFC 345 13.4.3 Alternative 2: ST/FBD 347 Part Five Implementation 351 14 CODESYS 2.3 353 14.1 Introduction 353 14.2 Starting the Program 354 14.2.1 The Contents of a Project 356 14.3 Configuring the (WAGO) PLC 357 14.4 Communications with the PLC 360 14.4.1 The Gateway Server 361 14.4.2 Local Connection via Service Cable 362 14.4.3 Via Ethernet 363 14.4.4 Communication with a PLC Connected to a Remote PC 364 14.4.5 Testing Communications 365 14.5 Libraries 365 14.6 Defining a POU 367 14.7 Programming in FBD/LD 368 14.7.1 Declaring Variables 369 14.7.2 Programming with FBD 371 14.7.3 Programming with LD 372 14.8 Configuring Tasks 375 14.9 Downloading and Testing Programs 376 14.9.1 Debugging 377 14.10 Global Variables and Special Data Types 379 15 CODESYS Version 3.5 381 15.1 Starting a New Project 381 15.1.1 Device 382 15.1.2 Application 384 15.2 Programming and Programming Units (POUs) 386 15.2.1 Declaration of Variables 388 15.3 Compiling and Running the Project 389 15.3.1 Start Gateway Server and PLS and Set Up Communications 390 15.4 Test Problems 393 Bibliography 395 Index 396

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Book SynopsisThe why, what and how of the electric vehicle powertrain Empowers engineering professionals and students with the knowledge and skills required to engineer electric vehicle powertrain architectures, energy storage systems, power electronics converters and electric drives. The modern electric powertrain is relatively new for the automotive industry, and engineers are challenged with designing affordable, efficient and high-performance electric powertrains as the industry undergoes a technological evolution. Co-authored by two electric vehicle (EV) engineers with decades of experience designing and putting into production all of the powertrain technologies presented, this book provides readers with the hands-on knowledge, skills and expertise they need to rise to that challenge. This four-part practical guide provides a comprehensive review of battery, hybrid and fuel cell EV systems and the associated energy sources, power electronics, machines, and drives. Introduces and holisTrade ReviewHayes and Goodarzi have focused their considerable talent and experience to teaching the inner workings of the electric car. Readers, whether engineers, students, or the interested public will find this book a treasure trove of knowledge on modern automotive technology. In conclusion, what a great book! —John M Miller, J-N-J Miller Design Services PLLC, Longview, Texas, USA I highly recommend 'Electric Powertrain: Energy Systems, Power Electronics and Drives for Hybrid, Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles' by Dr John G. Hayes and Dr G. Abas Goodarzi. I use this book as my core teaching text on my module Transportation Power and Systems 3, which I teach to third year BEng and MEng Mechanical Engineering undergraduates in Queen's University Belfast. This book captures the fundamentals and in-depth aspects of the key elements of the course I teach including drive cycles, power trains for hybrids, vehicle dynamics, batteries and machines. The worked examples are excellent. The text book is very well laid out with superb well thought-out practical problems at the end of each chapter. This book is very relevant to those who wish to expand their knowledge of hybrid vehicles. It seamlessly integrates the electrical, civil and mechanical disciplines in this growing and multidisciplinary area. This is especially important considering the sustainable direction of land-based transport will take over the next decade as we strive to combat global warming and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. —Dr Aoife Foley, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, United KingdomTable of ContentsPreface xix Acknowledgments xxi Textbook Structure and Suggested Teaching Curriculum xxii About the Companion Web Site xxiv Part 1 Vehicles and Energy Sources 1 1 Electromobility and the Environment 3 1.1 A Brief History of the Electric Powertrain 4 1.1.1 Part I – The Birth of the Electric Car 4 1.1.2 Part II – The Resurgent Electric Powertrain 5 1.1.3 Part III – Success at Last for the Electric Powertrain 6 1.2 Energy Sources for Propulsion and Emissions 10 1.2.1 Carbon Emissions from Fuels 12 1.2.2 Greenhouse Gases and Pollutants 13 1.3 The Advent of Regulations 15 1.3.1 Regulatory Considerations and Emissions Trends 17 1.3.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Regulations 18 1.4 Drive Cycles 19 1.4.1 EPA Drive Cycles 19 1.5 BEV Fuel Consumption, Range, and mpge 24 1.6 Carbon Emissions for Conventional and Electric Powertrains 25 1.6.1 Well-to-Wheel and Cradle-to-Grave Emissions 27 1.6.2 Emissions due to the Electrical Grid 28 1.7 An Overview of Conventional, Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Electric Systems 29 1.7.1 Conventional IC Engine Vehicle 30 1.7.2 BEVs 30 1.7.3 HEVs 31 1.7.4 FCEV 33 1.7.5 A Comparison by Efficiency of Conventional, Hybrid, Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 34 1.7.6 A Case Study Comparison of Conventional, Hybrid, Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles 35 1.8 A Comparison of Automotive and Other Transportation Technologies 36 References 37 Further Reading 38 Problems 38 Assignments 39 2 Vehicle Dynamics 40 2.1 Vehicle Load Forces 40 2.1.1 Basic Power, Energy, and Speed Relationships 41 2.1.2 Aerodynamic Drag 42 2.1.3 Rolling Resistance 45 2.1.4 Vehicle Road-Load Coefficients from EPA Coast-Down Testing 46 2.1.5 Battery Electric Vehicle Range at Constant Speed 49 2.1.6 Gradability 51 2.2 Vehicle Acceleration 52 2.2.1 Regenerative Braking of the Vehicle 54 2.2.2 Traction Motor Characteristics 54 2.2.3 Acceleration of the Vehicle 57 2.3 Simple Drive Cycle for Vehicle Comparisons 60 References 62 Further Reading 62 Problems 62 Sample MATLAB Code 63 Assignment: Modeling of a BEV 66 3 Batteries 68 3.1 Introduction to Batteries 68 3.1.1 Batteries Types and Battery Packs 68 3.1.2 Basic Battery Operation 73 3.1.3 Basic Electrochemistry 74 3.1.4 Units of Battery Energy Storage 76 3.1.5 Capacity Rate 77 3.1.6 Battery Parameters and Comparisons 79 3.2 Lifetime and Sizing Considerations 81 3.2.1 Examples of Battery Sizing 84 3.2.2 Battery Pack Discharge Curves and Aging 86 3.3 Battery Charging, Protection, and Management Systems 88 3.3.1 Battery Charging 88 3.3.2 Battery Failure and Protection 88 3.3.3 Battery Management System 89 3.4 Battery Models 90 3.4.1 A Simple Novel Curve Fit Model for BEV Batteries 92 3.4.2 Voltage, Current, Resistance, and Efficiency of Battery Pack 95 3.4.3 A Simple Curve-Fit Model for HEV Batteries 96 3.4.4 Charging 97 3.4.5 Determining the Cell/Pack Voltage for a Given Output\Input Power 99 3.4.6 Cell Energy and Discharge Rate 100 3.5 Example: The Fuel Economy of a BEV Vehicle with a Fixed Gear Ratio 102 References 105 Further Reading 106 Problems 106 Appendix: A Simplified Curve-Fit Model for BEV Batteries 108 4 Fuel Cells 111 4.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells 111 4.1.1 Fuel Cell Vehicle Emissions and Upstream Emissions 113 4.1.2 Hydrogen Safety Factors 113 4.2 Basic Operation 114 4.2.1 Fuel Cell Model and Cell Voltage 116 4.2.2 Power and Efficiency of Fuel Cell and Fuel Cell Power Plant System 118 4.2.3 Fuel Cell Characteristic Curves 119 4.3 Sizing the Fuel Cell Plant 120 4.3.1 Example: Sizing a Fuel Cell 121 4.3.2 Toyota Mirai 121 4.3.3 Balance of Plant 121 4.3.4 Boost DC-DC Converter 122 4.4 Fuel Cell Aging 122 4.5 Example: Sizing Fuel Cell System for Heavy Goods Tractor–Trailer Combination 124 4.6 Example: Fuel Economy of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 125 References 129 Problems 129 Assignments 130 5 Conventional and Hybrid Powertrains 131 5.1 Introduction to HEVs 131 5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption 134 5.2.1 Example: Energy Consumption, Power Output, Efficiency, and BSFC 135 5.3 Comparative Examples of Conventional, Series, and Series-Parallel Hybrid Systems 138 5.3.1 Example: Fuel Economy of IC Engine Vehicle with Gasoline or Diesel Engine 138 5.3.2 Example: Fuel Economy of Series HEV 144 5.3.3 Example: Fuel Economy of Series-Parallel HEV 146 5.3.4 Summary of Comparisons 148 5.4 The Planetary Gears as a Power-Split Device 148 5.4.1 Powertrain of 2004 Toyota Prius 150 5.4.2 Example: CVT Operating in Electric Drive Mode (Vehicle Launch and Low Speeds) 151 5.4.3 Example: CVT Operating in Full-Power Mode 153 5.4.4 Example: CVT Operating in Cruising and Generating Mode 154 References 155 Problems 155 Assignments 156 Part 2 Electrical Machines 159 6 Introduction to Traction Machines 161 6.1 Propulsion Machine Overview 161 6.1.1 DC Machines 162 6.1.2 AC Machines 163 6.1.3 Comparison of Traction Machines 167 6.1.4 Case Study – Mars Rover Traction Motor 169 6.2 Machine Specifications 170 6.2.1 Four-Quadrant Operation 170 6.2.2 Rated Parameters 171 6.2.3 Rated Torque 172 6.2.4 Rated and Base Speeds 172 6.2.5 Rated Power 172 6.2.6 Peak Operation 173 6.2.7 Starting Torque 173 6.3 Characteristic Curves of a Machine 173 6.3.1 Constant-Torque Mode 173 6.3.2 Constant-Power Mode 174 6.3.3 Maximum-Speed Mode 174 6.3.4 Efficiency Maps 174 6.4 Conversion Factors of Machine Units 176 References 177 7 The Brushed DC Machine 178 7.1 DC Machine Structure 178 7.2 DC Machine Electrical Equivalent Circuit 180 7.3 DC Machine Circuit Equations 182 7.3.1 No-Load Spinning Loss 183 7.3.2 No-Load Speed 184 7.3.3 Maximum Power 184 7.3.4 Rated Conditions 184 7.4 Power, Losses, and Efficiency in the PM DC Machine 185 7.5 Machine Control using Power Electronics 186 7.5.1 Example: Motoring using a PM DC Machine 186 7.6 Machine Operating as a Motor or Generator in Forward or Reverse Modes 189 7.6.1 Example: Generating/Braking using a PM DC Machine 190 7.6.2 Example: Motoring in Reverse 191 7.7 Saturation and Armature Reaction 191 7.7.1 Example: Motoring using PM DC Machine and Machine Saturation 192 7.8 Using PM DC Machine for EV Powertrain 193 7.8.1 Example: Maximum Speeds using PM DC Machine 194 7.9 Using WF DC Machine for EV Powertrain 195 7.9.1 Example: Motoring using WF DC Machine 197 7.10 Case Study – Mars Rover Traction Machine 199 7.11 Thermal Characteristics of Machine 201 7.11.1 Example of Steady-State Temperature Rise 202 7.11.2 Transient Temperature Rise 203 7.11.3 Example of Transient Temperature Rise 203 References 204 Problems 204 8 Induction Machines 206 8.1 Stator Windings and the Spinning Magnetic Field 207 8.1.1 Stator Magnetic Flux Density 209 8.1.2 Space-Vector Current and the Rotating Magnetic Field 211 8.2 Induction Machine Rotor Voltage, Current, and Torque 216 8.2.1 Rotor Construction 216 8.2.2 Induction Machine Theory of Operation 216 8.3 Machine Model and Steady-State Operation 219 8.3.1 Power in Three-Phase Induction Machine 222 8.3.2 Torque in Three-Phase Induction Machine 223 8.3.3 Phasor Analysis of Induction Motor 225 8.3.4 Machine Operation When Supplied by Current Source 225 8.4 Variable-Speed Operation of Induction Machine 234 8.4.1 Constant Volts per hertz Operation 235 8.4.2 Variable-Speed Operation 235 8.5 Machine Test 240 8.5.1 DC Resistance Test 240 8.5.2 Locked-Rotor Test 240 8.5.3 No-Load Test 242 References 244 Further Reading 244 Problems 245 Sample MATLAB Code 246 9 Surface-Permanent-Magnet AC Machines 249 9.1 Basic Operation of SPM Machines 249 9.1.1 Back EMF of a Single Coil 249 9.1.2 Back EMF of Single Phase 250 9.1.3 SPM Machine Equations 253 9.2 Per-Phase Analysis of SPM Machine 255 9.2.1 Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit Model for SPM Machine 256 9.2.2 Phasor Analysis of SPM Machine 257 9.2.3 Machine Saturation 263 9.2.4 SPM Torque–Speed Characteristics 264 9.2.5 High-Speed Operation of SPM Machine above Rated Speed 266 9.2.6 Machine Characteristics for Field-Weakened Operation 270 References 272 Further Reading 273 Problems 273 MATLAB Code 274 10 Interior-Permanent-Magnet AC Machine 276 10.1 Machine Structure and Torque Equations 276 10.2 d- and q-Axis Inductances 278 10.2.1 Example: Estimating the d-axis and q-axis Inductances for 2004 Toyota Prius Motor 281 10.3 IPM Machine Test 281 10.3.1 No-Load Spin Test 282 10.3.2 DC Torque Test 282 10.4 Basic Theory and Low-Speed Operation 286 10.4.1 Example: Motoring at Rated Condition 287 10.4.2 Maximum Torque per Ampere (MTPA) 289 10.4.3 Maximum Torque per Volt (MTPV) or Maximum Torque per Flux (MTPF) 289 10.5 High-Speed Operation of IPM Machine 289 10.5.1 Example: Motoring at High Speed using IPM Machine 289 10.6 dq Modeling of Machines 291 10.6.1 Constant Current Transformation 292 10.6.2 Constant Power Transformation 294 References 295 Further Reading 295 Problems 296 Assignments 298 Part 3 Power Electronics 299 11 DC-DC Converters 301 11.1 Introduction 301 11.2 Power Conversion – Common and Basic Principles 304 11.2.1 The Basic Topologies 306 11.2.2 The Half-Bridge Buck-Boost Bidirectional Converter 307 11.3 The Buck or Step-Down Converter 307 11.3.1 Analysis of Voltage Gain of Buck Converter in CCM 309 11.3.2 BCM Operation of Buck Converter 317 11.3.3 DCM Operation of Buck Converter 319 11.4 The Boost or Step-up Converter 325 11.4.1 Analysis of Voltage Gain of Boost Converter in CCM 326 11.4.2 BCM Operation of Boost Converter 330 11.4.3 DCM Operation of Boost Converter 332 11.5 Power Semiconductors 336 11.5.1 Power Semiconductor Power Loss 337 11.5.2 Total Semiconductor Power Loss and Junction Temperature 341 11.6 Passive Components for Power Converters 342 11.6.1 Example: Inductor Sizing 342 11.6.2 Capacitor Sizing 343 11.7 Interleaving 343 11.7.1 Example: Two-Phase Interleaved Boost Converter 345 References 346 Further Reading 346 Problems 346 Assignments 349 Appendix I 349 Appendix II: Buck-Boost Converter 349 Appendix III: Silicon Carbide Converters and Inverters 352 12 Isolated DC-DC Converters 353 12.1 Introduction 353 12.1.1 Advantages of Isolated Power Converters 353 12.1.2 Power Converter Families 354 12.2 The Forward Converter 355 12.2.1 CCM Currents in Forward Converter 357 12.2.2 CCM Voltages in Forward Converter 362 12.2.3 Sizing the Transformer 365 12.3 The Full-Bridge Converter 365 12.3.1 Operation of Hard-Switched Full-Bridge Converter 367 12.3.2 CCM Currents in Full-Bridge Converter 370 12.3.3 CCM Voltages in the Full-Bridge Converter 376 12.4 Resonant Power Conversion 377 12.4.1 LCLC Series-Parallel Resonant Converter 377 12.4.2 Desirable Converter Characteristics for Inductive Charging 378 12.4.3 Fundamental-Mode Analysis and Current-Source Operation 381 12.4.4 Simulation 385 References 388 Further Reading 388 Problems 388 Assignments 390 Appendix I: RMS and Average Values of Ramp and Step Waveforms 390 Appendix II: Flyback Converter 391 13 Traction Drives and Three-Phase Inverters 392 13.1 Three-Phase Inverters 392 13.2 Modulation Schemes 393 13.2.1 Sinusoidal Modulation 395 13.2.2 Sinusoidal Modulation with Third Harmonic Addition 396 13.2.3 Overmodulation and Square Wave 398 13.3 Sinusoidal Modulation 398 13.3.1 Modulation Index m 399 13.3.2 Inverter Currents 401 13.3.3 Switch, Diode, and Input Average Currents 401 13.3.4 Switch, Diode, DC Link, and Input Capacitor RMS Currents 403 13.3.5 Example: Inverter Currents 404 13.4 Inverter Power Loss 405 13.4.1 Conduction Loss of IGBT and Diode 405 13.4.2 Switching Loss of IGBT Module 405 13.4.3 Total Semiconductor Power Loss and Junction Temperature 407 13.4.4 Example: Regenerative Currents 408 References 409 Further Reading 409 Problems 410 Assignments 411 14 Battery Charging 412 14.1 Basic Requirements for Charging System 412 14.2 Charger Architectures 414 14.3 Grid Voltages, Frequencies, and Wiring 416 14.4 Charger Functions 418 14.4.1 Real Power, Apparent Power, and Power Factor 419 14.5 Charging Standards and Technologies 422 14.5.1 SAE J1772 422 14.5.2 VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 425 14.5.3 CHAdeMo 425 14.5.4 Tesla 425 14.5.5 Wireless Charging 425 14.6 The Boost Converter for Power Factor Correction 427 14.6.1 The Boost PFC Power Stage 428 14.6.2 Sizing the Boost Inductor 430 14.6.3 Average Currents in the Rectifier 431 14.6.4 Switch and Diode Average Currents 432 14.6.5 Switch, Diode, and Capacitor RMS Currents 434 14.6.6 Power Semiconductors for Charging 434 References 438 Further Reading 438 Problems 439 Assignments 440 15 Control of the Electric Drive 441 15.1 Introduction to Control 441 15.1.1 Feedback Controller Design Approach 442 15.2 Modeling the Electromechanical System 443 15.2.1 The Mechanical System 443 15.2.2 The PM DC Machine 446 15.2.3 The DC-DC Power Converter 447 15.2.4 The PI Controller 447 15.3 Designing Torque Loop Compensation 448 15.3.1 Example: Determining Compensator Gain Coefficients for Torque Loop 449 15.4 Designing Speed Control Loop Compensation 449 15.4.1 Example: Determining Compensator Gain Coefficients for Speed Loop 451 15.5 Acceleration of Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) using PM DC Machine 451 15.6 Acceleration of BEV using WF DC Machine 452 References 455 Problems 455 Assignment and Sample MATLAB Codes 456 Part 4 Electromagnetism 459 16 Introduction to Electromagnetism, Ferromagnetism, and Electromechanical Energy Conversion 461 16.1 Electromagnetism 462 16.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations 462 16.2 Ferromagnetism 467 16.2.1 Magnetism and Hysteresis 467 16.2.2 Hard and Soft Ferromagnetic Materials 470 16.3 Self-Inductance 473 16.3.1 Basic Inductor Operation 474 16.3.2 Inductor Equations 475 16.3.3 Reluctance 478 16.3.4 Energy Stored in Magnetic Field 481 16.3.5 Core Loss 482 16.3.6 Copper Loss 484 16.3.7 Inductor Sizing using Area Product 487 16.3.8 High-Frequency Operation and Skin Depth 488 16.4 Hard Ferromagnetic Materials and Permanent Magnets 489 16.4.1 Example: Remanent Flux Density 490 16.4.2 Example: The Recoil Line 492 16.4.3 Example: Air Gap Flux Density due to a Permanent Magnet 494 16.4.4 Maximum Energy Product 494 16.4.5 Force due to Permanent Magnet 494 16.4.6 Electromagnet 497 16.5 The Transformer 498 16.5.1 Theory of Operation 498 16.5.2 Transformer Equivalent Circuit 500 16.5.3 Transformer Voltages and Currents 501 16.5.4 Sizing the Transformer using the Area-Product (AP) Method 505 16.6 The Capacitor 506 16.6.1 Sizing Polypropylene High-Voltage Capacitor 508 16.7 Electromechanical Energy Conversion 509 16.7.1 Ampere’s Force Law 509 16.7.2 General Expression for Torque on Current-Carrying Coil 510 16.7.3 Torque, Flux Linkage, and Current 511 16.7.4 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 512 16.7.5 Lenz’s Law and Fleming’s Right Hand Rule 512 References 513 Further Reading 514 Further Viewing 515 Problems 515 Assignments 518 Reference Conversion Table 519 Index 521

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Book SynopsisBrings together leading thinking on issues of new professional practice and on the future of a sustainable built environment This book focuses on both construction and development issues, and examines how we can transition to a sustainable future by the year 2050bringing together leading research and practice at building, neighbourhood, and city levels. It deftly analyses how emerging socio-economic, technological, and environmental trends will influence the built environment of the future. The book covers a broad spectrum of interests across the scales of buildings, communities and cities, including how professional practice will need to adapt to these trends. The broader context is provided by an analysis of emergent business models and the changing requirements for expert advice from clients. Sustainable Futures in the Built Environment to 2050: A Foresight Approach to Construction and Development features chapters covering: data and trends, including Table of ContentsList of Contributors ix Notes on Contributors x Foreword xiv Preface xvii Acknowledgements xix Book Endorsements xx 1 Introduction: Foresight and Futures Studies in Construction and Development 1Tim Dixon, John Connaughton and Stuart Green Part 1 Sustainability and the Built Environment 25 2 Climate Change, Resilience and the Built Environment 27Janet F. Barlow, Li Shao and Stefan T. Smith 3 Sustainability in Real Estate Markets 50Jorn van de Wetering 4 From the ‘Sustainable Community’ to Prosperous People and Places: Inclusive Change in the Built Environment 72Saffron Woodcraft and Constance Smith 5 Smart and Sustainable?: The Future of ‘Future Cities’ 94Tim Dixon 6 Sustainable Infrastructure 117Martino Tran, Jim Hall, Robert Nicholls, Adrian J. Hickford, Modassar Chaudry and Geoff Watson 7 Sustainable Design of the Built Environment 137Lorraine Farrelly Part 2 Changing Professional Practice 155 8 Planning for Sustainability: Reflections on a Necessary Activity 157Joe Doak and Gavin Parker 9 Sustainable Construction: Contested Knowledge and the Decline of Professionalism 172Stuart Green 10 Sustainable Procurement 194John Connaughton and Will Hughes 11 Social Media in the Built Environment 223Bob Thompson Part 3 Provocations about the Future: Practitioners’ Viewpoints 249 12 Sustainability through Collaboration and Skills Development 251Andy Ford and Aaron Gillich 13 Built Environment Professionals as Sustainability Advocates 270Gerard Healey Part 4 Transformative Technologies and Innovation 285 14 Energy Interactions: The Growing Interplay between Buildings and Energy Networks 287Phil Coker and Jacopo Torriti 15 Sustained Innovation Uptake in Construction 310Graeme D. Larsen 16 Humanising the Digital: A Cautionary View of the Future 325Ian J. Ewart Part 5 Conclusions and Common Themes 337 17 Understanding and Shaping Sustainable Futures in the Built Environment to 2050 339Tim Dixon, John Connaughton and Stuart Green Index 339

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Book SynopsisThis student version of the popular bestseller, Life Cycle Assessment Handbook, is not a watered-down version of the original, but retains all of the important information and valuable lessons provided in the first book, along with helpful problems and solutions for the student learning about Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). As the last several decades have seen a dramatic rise in the application of LCA in decision making, the interest in the life cycle concept as an environmental management and sustainability tool continues to grow. The LCA Student Handbook offers a look at the role that life cycle information, in the hands of companies, governments and consumers, may have in improving the environmental performance of products and technologies. It concisely and clearly presents the various aspects of LCA in order to help the reader better understand the subject. The international success of the sustainability paradigm needs the participation of many stakeholders, including citizens,Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment 1 References from the LCA Handbook 1 Aims of the Chapter 2 1.1 Purpose of the Student Handbook 2 1.2 Why LCA? 2 1.3 Evolution of Environmental toward Life Cycle Thinking 2 1.4 Examples of Environmental Impact Trade-Offs 7 1.5 LCA Methodology 11 1.6 Maintaining Transparency (Openness) 15 1.7 Conclusions 16 References 16 Chapter 1 Exercises 18 2 Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment 19 References from the LCA Handbook 19 Aims of the Chapter 20 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Components of a Well-Defined Study 22 2.2.1 System Function 23 2.2.2 Functional Unit 23 2.2.3 Defining the System Boundaries (Scoping) 28 2.2.4 Co-Product Allocation 29 2.2.5 Impact Assessment 29 2.3 Consequential LCA 30 2.4 Carbon Footprint versus LCA 30 2.5 Creating a Goal Statement 31 2.6 Preparing a Goal and Scope Document 34 References 35 Appendix: Hypothetical Example of a Comparative, Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Support Government Decision Making 36 Chapter 2 Exercises 56 3 Life Cycle Inventory 61 References from the LCA Handbook 61 Aims of the Chapter 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Modeling Inputs and Outputs 63 3.3 Methodology Issues 64 3.3.1 Cut-Off Rules 64 3.3.2 Co-Product Allocation 66 3.3.3 Postconsumer Recycling 68 3.3.4 Converting Scrap 71 3.3.5 Water Use 72 3.3.6 Carbon Tracking Considerations 73 3.4 Data Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 74 3.5 Databases and Data Sources 75 3.5.1 Private Industrial Data 77 3.5.2 Public Industrial Data 79 3.5.3 Dedicated LCI databases 79 3.5.4 Non-LCI Data 80 3.6 Collecting LCI Data 86 3.7 Reporting Life Cycle Inventory 86 3.8 Life Cycle Inventory Data Quality 89 3.9 Economic Input/Output (EIO) Data 92 3.10 Consequential LCA 93 3.11 LCA Software 94 3.11.1 Characteristics of LCA Software Systems 95 3.11.2 Web Tools versus Desktop Tools 95 3.11.3 Commercial Tools versus Freeware 110 3.11.4 Open Source versus Closed Source 111 3.11.5 General LCA Tools versus Specialized Tools versus Add-Ons 112 3.11.6 Two Basic LCA Software User Types and Their Needs 113 3.11.7 The LCA Software Market 114 3.11.8 The Main LCA Software Systems 115 References 117 Chapter 3 Exercises 136 4 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 137 References from the LCA Handbook 137 Aims of the Chapter 138 4.1 Introduction 138 4.2 Choice of Impact Models and Categories 142 4.3 Current LCIA Approaches 143 4.3.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 144 4.3.2 Global Warming Potential 145 4.3.3 Nonrenewable Resource Depletion Potential 147 4.3.4 Acidification Potential 149 4.3.5 Eutrophication Potential 150 4.3.6 Energy 151 4.4 The Agri-Food Sector 152 4.4.1 Land Use 152 4.4.2 Water Use 154 LCIA Models and Tools 158 References 159 Chapter 4 Exercises 205 5 Normalization, Grouping and Weighting in Life Cycle Assessment 207 References from the LCA Handbook 207 Aims of the chapter 208 5.1 Introduction 208 5.2 Current Practice of Normalization and Weighting in LCIA 210 5.3 Principles of External Normalization 211 5.4 Issues with External Normalization 212 5.5 Inherent Data Gaps 212 5.6 Masking Salient Aspects 212 5.7 Compensation 214 5.8 Spatial Boundaries and Time Frames 214 5.9 Divergence in Databases 214 5.10 Principles of Internal Normalization 215 5.11 Compensatory Methods 215 5.12 Partially Compensatory Methods 216 5.13 Weighting 217 5.14 Multi-Criteria Decision Making 219 References 220 Appendix: TRACI 2.1 Normalization Factors 222 6 Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and Reporting 225 References from the LCA Handbook 225 Aims of the Chapter 226 6.1 Introduction 226 6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO 228 6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 230 6.3.1 Uncertainty Analysis 230 6.3.2 Uncertainty in Impact Models 230 6.3.3 Sensitivity Analysis 231 A SIMPLE BUT NON-LINEAR SYSTEM 232 6.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulation 233 6.4 Contribution Analysis 234 6.5 Presenting LCIA Results 236 6.6 Preparing the Final Report 236 6.7 The Review Process 241 6.7.1 ISO-Defined LCA Review 241 6.7.2 Conduct of an LCA Review 242 6.7.3 Review of Inventory Data 243 6.7.4 Timing the Review 243 6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product Declarations 244 6.8.1 Type III Environmental Product Declarations 245 6.8.2 An EPD is a Document 245 6.8.3 An EPD is Primarily Based on LCA 246 6.8.4 An EPD is Developed by Following a “Product Category Rule” 246 6.8.5 An EPD can contain other Relevant Information beyond the LCA 246 6.8.6 Further Information on EPDs and PCRs 247 References 247 Chapter 6 Exercises 249 7 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment 253 References from the LCA Handbook 253 Aims of the Chapter 253 7.1 Introduction 254 7.2 Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability 255 7.3 A Framework for LCSA 258 7.3.1 Broadening of the Object of Analysis 260 7.3.2 Broadening of the Spectrum of Indicators 261 7.3.3 Deepening 264 7.4 Social Responsibility 266 7.4.1 The Social LCA Framework 267 7.4.2 Iterative process of Social Life Cycle Assessment 268 7.4.3 SLCA and other Key Social Responsibility References and Instruments 275 7.5 Research Needs for LCSA Methodology 279 References 281 Chapter 7 Exercises 286 8 Resources for Conducting Life Cycle Assessment 287 Books 287 Organizations 288 LCA Centers and Societies 292 Glossary 297

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface to the Third, Expanded and Completely Revised, Edition: From the Fundamentals to Beyond 5G xxv Preface and Acknowledgements to the Second Edition xxix Preface and Acknowledgements to the First Edition xxx List of Abbreviations xxxiii List of Symbols xxxv About the Companion Website xxxvii Part I Introduction 1 1 Applications and Requirements of Wireless Services 3 1.1 History 3 1.2 Types of Services 7 1.3 Requirements for the Services 12 1.4 Economic and Social Aspects 17 Exercises: Sec. 36.1 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 18 2 Technical Challenges of Wireless Communications 19 2.1 Broadcast Effect 19 2.2 Multi-path Propagation 19 2.3 Spectrum Limitations 23 2.4 Limited Energy 25 2.5 User Mobility 26 Exercises: Sec. 36.2 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 26 3 Wireless System Design Overview 27 3.1 Noise-limited Systems and Link Budgets 27 3.2 Digital Modulation and Receiver Signal Processing 34 3.3 Multi-user Systems 39 3.4 Summary 44 Exercises: Sec. 36.3 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 45 Part II Wireless Propagation Channels 47 4 Propagation Mechanisms 49 4.1 Free Space Attenuation 49 4.2 Reflection and Transmission 52 4.3 Diffraction 57 4.4 Scattering by Rough Surfaces 64 4.5 Waveguiding 66 4.6 Atmospheric Absorption 67 4.7 Deterministic Channel Modeling 67 4.8 Appendices: App4.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 71 App. 4.A: Derivation of the d-4 Law 71 App. 4.B: Diffraction Coefficients for Diffraction by a Wedge or Cylinder 71 Further Reading 71 Exercises: Sec. 36.4 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 71 5 Statistical Description of the Wireless Channel 73 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 The Time-Invariant Two-Path Model 74 5.3 The Time-Variant Two-Path Model 76 5.4 Small-Scale Fading Without a Dominant Component 77 5.5 Small-Scale Fading with a Dominant Component 85 5.6 Doppler Spectra and Statistics of Temporal Channel Variations 89 5.7 Temporal Fading Characterization 92 5.8 Large-Scale Fading 95 5.9 Appendices: App5.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 99 App. 5.A: The Central Limit Theorem 99 App. 5.B: Derivation of the Rayleigh Distribution 99 App. 5.C: Derivation of the Level Crossing Rate 99 Further Reading 99 Exercises: Sec. 36.5 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 99 6 Wideband and Directional Channel Characterization 101 6.1 Introduction 101 6.2 The Causes of Delay Dispersion 102 6.3 System-Theoretic Description of Wireless Channels 105 6.4 The WSSUS Model 108 6.5 Condensed Parameters 110 6.6 Ultra Wideband Channels 115 6.7 Directional Description 117 6.8 Appendices: App6.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 121 App. 6A: Validity of WSSUS in Mobile Radio 121 App. 6B: Instantaneous Channel Parameters 121 Further Reading 121 Exercises: Sec. 36.6 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 122 7 Channel Models 123 7.1 Narrowband Models 123 7.2 Delay Dispersion Models 132 7.3 Angular Dispersion 135 7.4 Joint Dispersion Characteristics and Clustering 136 7.5 Generalized Tapped-Delay Line Models 140 7.6 Geometry-Based Stochastic Channel Models 143 7.7 Semi-Deterministic Models 146 7.8 Blockage 148 7.9 Special Models 148 7.10 Appendices: App7.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 151 App. 7.A: The Okumura-Hata Model 151 App. 7.B: The COST 231-Walfish-Ikegami Model 151 App. 7.C: The COST 207 GSM Model 151 App. 7.D: The 3GPP Spatial Channel Model 151 App. 7.E: The 802.15.4a UWB Channel Model 151 App. 7.F: The COST 259/273/2100 Channel Model 152 Further Reading 152 Exercises: Sec. 36.7 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 152 8 Antennas 153 8.1 Introduction and Brief Characterization 153 8.2 Characterization of Antennas 157 8.3 Popular Antenna Types 165 8.5 Special Aspects of Antennas for BS and UE 177 Further Reading 181 Exercises: Sec. 36.8 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 181 9 Channel Sounding 183 9.1 Introduction 183 9.2 Time-Domain Measurements 186 9.3 Frequency Domain Analysis 188 9.5 Directionally Resolved Measurements 192 9.6 Appendices: App9.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 201 App. 9.A: The ESPRIT Algorithm 201 App. 9.B: Guidelines for Evaluation of Channel Measurements 201 Further Reading 201 Exercises: Sec. 36.9 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 201 Part III Wireless Communication Over a Single Link 203 10 Modulation Formats 205 10.1 Introduction 205 10.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation 209 10.3 Widely Used PAM Modulation Formats 212 10.4 Multi-Pulse Modulation 223 10.5 Summary of Spectral Efficiencies 233 10.6 Appendix: App10.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 233 App. 10.A: Interpretation of MSK as OQPSK 233 Further Reading 233 Exercises: Sec. 36.10 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 233 11 Demodulation 235 11.1 Demodulator Structure and Error Probability in Additive White Gaussian Noise Channels 235 11.2 Error Probability in Flat-Fading Channels 244 11.3 Error Probability in Delay- and Frequency-Dispersive Fading Channels 250 Further Reading 257 Exercises: Sec. 36.11 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 257 12 Diversity 259 12.1 Introduction 259 12.2 Microdiversity 260 12.3 Macrodiversity and Simulcast 266 12.4 Combination of Signals 267 12.5 Error Probability in Fading Channels with Diversity Reception 273 12.6 Appendix: App12.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 277 App. 12.A: Correlation Coefficient of Two Signals with Frequency Separation 277 Further Reading 277 Exercises: Sec. 36.12 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 278 13 Channel Coding and Information Theory 279 13.1 Fundamentals of Coding and Information Theory 279 13.2 Block Codes 284 13.3 Convolutional Codes 288 13.4 Trellis Coded Modulation 297 13.5 Bit Interleaved Coded Modulation (BICM) 301 13.6 Turbo Codes 302 13.7 Low-Density Parity-Check Codes 306 13.8 Polar Codes 310 13.9 Comparison of Capacity-Approaching Codes 314 13.10 Coding for the Fading Channel 315 13.10.1 Interleaving 315 13.10.2 Block Codes and Convolutional Codes 317 13.10.3 Concatenated Codes 318 13.10.4 Trellis Coded Modulation in Fading Channels 318 13.11 Information-Theoretic Performance Limits of Fading Channels 318 13.11.1 Ergodic Capacity vs. Outage Capacity 318 13.11.2 Capacity for Channel State Information at the Receiver (CSIR) Only 319 13.11.3 Capacity for CSIT and CSIR – Waterfilling 320 13.12 Automatic Repeat Request 320 Further Reading 321 Exercises: Sec. 36.13 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 322 14 Equalizers 323 14.1 Introduction 323 14.2 Linear Equalizers 326 14.3 Decision Feedback Equalizers 331 14.4 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation – Viterbi Detector 333 14.5 Comparison of Equalizer Structures 335 14.6 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers 335 14.8 Predistortion at the Transmitter 337 14.9 Appendices: App14.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 338 App. 14.A: Equivalence of Peak Distortion and Zero-Forcing Criterion 338 App. 14.B: Derivation of the Mean-Square Error Criterion 338 App. 14.C: The Recursive Least Squares Algorithm 338 Further Reading 338 Exercises: Sec. 36.14 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 338 15 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 339 15.1 Introduction 339 15.2 Principle of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 339 15.3 Implementation of Transceivers 340 15.4 Frequency-Selective Channels 341 15.6 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio 350 15.7 Inter Carrier Interference 352 15.8 Synchronization 355 15.9 Adaptive Power Allocation, Modulation, and Coding 359 15.10 Generalizations of OFDM 362 15.10.1 General Framework – Gabor Systems 362 15.10.2 Filters (Pulses) 363 15.10.3 Lattices 364 15.10.4 Dichotomy of Multi-Carrier Schemes 364 15.10.5 Filtered Multitone (FMT) and UFMC 366 15.10.6 Generalized FDM 366 15.10.7 Staggered Multitone – FBMC/OQAM 367 15.11 Multi-Carrier Spread Spectrum 368 15.11.1 MC-CDMA 368 15.11.2 DFT-Spread OFDM 370 15.12 Orthogonal Time Frequency Spreading (OTFS) 371 15.12.1 Introduction 371 15.12.2 Mathematical Description 371 15.12.3 Implementation as Overlay 373 15.12.4 Diversity and Channel Gain 373 Further Reading 374 Exercises: Sec. 36.15 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 374 16 Multiple Antenna Systems – SIMO, MISO, and MIMO 375 16.1 Diversity and Beamforming 375 16.2 Spatial Multiplexing 395 Further Reading 430 Exercises: Sec. 36.16 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 430 17 Hardware Aspects 431 17.1 Introduction 431 17.2 General Concepts 434 17.3 ADCs and DACs 438 17.4 Amplifiers 440 17.5 Filters, Power Dividers, and Phase Shifters 444 17.6 Oscillators 447 17.7 Mixers and Frequency Conversion 453 17.8 Transceiver Structures 453 17.9 Spectrum Masks 456 17.10 Full Duplex 457 17.11 Appendices: App17.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 459 App. 17.A: Two-port Network and S-parameters 459 App. 17.B: Matching 459 Further Reading 459 Exercises: Sec. 36.22 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 459 Part IV Wireless Communication with Multiple Users 461 18 Multiple Access 463 18.1 Introduction 463 18.2 Performance Limits for Multiple Access 464 18.3 Contention-Free Multiple Access 467 18.4 Contention Multiple Access 471 18.5 Duplexing 479 18.6 Broadcast and Multi-Cast 481 Further Reading 481 Exercises: Sec. 36.18 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 481 19 Spread Spectrum Systems 483 19.1 Frequency Hopping Multiple Access (FHMA) 483 19.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum – Single-User Case 485 19.3 Code-Division-Multiple-Access Systems 490 19.4 Time Hopping Impulse Radio 496 Further Reading 499 Exercises: Sec. 36.19 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 500 20 Resource Allocation: Scheduling, Power Control, and Admission Control 501 20.1 Rate and Latency Requirements for Different Kinds of Traffic 501 20.2 Dichotomy of Resource Allocation 505 20.3 Resource Allocation in OFDMA with Infinite Backlog 506 20.4 Resource Allocation in CDMA with Infinite Backlog 512 20.5 Scheduling with Random Data Arrivals 513 20.6 Multi-Channel Systems and Admission Control 518 20.7 Machine Learning for Resource Allocation 524 Further Reading 525 Exercises: Sec. 36.20 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 525 21 Principles of Cellular Networks 527 21.1 Frequency Reuse 527 21.2 Cell Planning with Symmetric BS Deployment 528 21.3 Inter-Cell Interference Reduction 533 21.4 Cell Planning with Irregular Deployment 539 21.5 CDMA-Based Cellular Systems 547 21.6 Handover 549 21.7 Heterogeneous Networks 550 21.8 Backhaul 555 21.9 Other Methods for Increasing Capacity 555 Further Reading 556 Exercises: Sec. 36.21 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 556 22 Multiple Antennas for Multi-User Systems – MU-MIMO, Massive MIMO, and CoMP 557 22.1 Introduction and Intuition 557 22.2 System Model 559 22.3 Performance Limits 562 22.4 Linear Processing for Uplink 565 22.5 Linear Processing for the Downlink 567 22.6 Beamforming Based on Second-Order Statistics 573 22.7 Channel Estimation and Feedback 574 22.8 Scheduling for MU-MIMO 575 22.9 Massive MIMO Theory 579 22.10 Massive MIMO Implementation Aspects 589 22.10.1 Antenna Configurations and Propagation Channels 589 22.10.2 Hybrid Beamforming Transceivers 591 ∗ 22.10.3 Implementation Aspects – Load Modulators 594 ∗ 22.10.4 Low-Resolution ADCs 595 22.11 Base Station Cooperation and Distributed Antenna Systems 596 22.11.1 Principle of Capacity Increase 596 22.11.2 Single-Cell MIMO versus CoMP-JP 598 22.11.3 Challenges Related to Channel Information Acquisition 598 22.11.4 Imperfect Backhaul 600 22.11.5 Cell-Free MIMO 601 ∗ 22.12 Appendix: App22.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 604 App. 22.A: Smart Antennas for CDMA 604 Further Reading 604 Exercises: Sec. 36.22 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 604 23 Ad hoc Networks, Device-to-Device Communications, and Mesh Networks 605 23.1 Introduction and Motivation 605 23.2 Applications 606 23.3 Node Types and Hierarchical Structure 607 23.4 Neighbor Discovery and Channel Estimation 608 23.5 Scheduling of Single-Hop Transmissions 612 23.6 Routing and Resource Allocation for Multi-Hop Networks 614 23.7 Routing and Resource Allocation in Collaborative Networks 624 23.9 Energy Management 630 23.10 Cellular vs. D2D Mode in Hybrid Networks 632 23.11 Mesh Networks 632 Further Reading 634 Exercises: Sec. 36.23 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 634 Part V Advanced Transmission Techniques and Special Features 635 24 Speech Coding 637Gernot Kubin 24.1 Introduction 637 24.2 The Sound of Speech 639 24.3 Stochastic Models for Speech 642 24.4 Quantization and Coding 645 24.5 From Speech Transmission to Acoustic Telepresence 651 Further Reading 653 Exercises: Sec. 36.24 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 653 25 Video Coding 655Anthony Vetro 25.1 Introduction 655 25.2 Transform and Quantization 657 25.3 Prediction 659 25.4 Entropy Coding 661 25.5 Video Coding Standards 662 25.6 Video Coding Extensions 665 25.7 Error Control 668 25.8 Video Streaming 671 Further Reading 673 Exercises: Sec. 36.25 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 673 26 Cognitive Radio 675 26.1 Types of Cognitive Radio 675 26.2 Cognitive Transceiver Architecture 678 26.3 Principles of Interweaving 679 26.4 Spectrum Sensing 679 26.5 Spectrum Management 683 26.6 Spectrum Sharing 683 26.7 Overlay 686 26.8 Underlay Hierarchical Access – Ultra Wide Bandwidth System Communications 687 Further Reading 690 Exercises: Sec. 36.26 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 690 27 Relaying, Cooperative Communications, and Network Coding 691 27.1 Introduction and Motivation 691 27.2 Fundamentals of Relaying 692 27.3 Relaying with Multiple, Parallel Relays 696 27.4 Applications 703 27.5 Network Coding 704 Further Reading 709 Exercises: Sec. 36.27 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 710 28 Advanced Interference Processing: Multi-User Detection, Nonorthogonal Multiple Access, and Interference Alignment 711 28.1 Introduction and Motivation 711 28.2 Multi-User Detectors 711 28.3 NOMA in the Power Domain 715 28.4 NOMA in the Code Domain 721 28.5 Interference Alignment 723 Further Reading 728 Exercises: Sec. 36.28 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 728 29 Localization 729 29.1 Introduction and Motivation 729 29.2 Principles of TOA/TDOA 730 29.3 NLOS Detection, Mitigation, and Exploitation 741 29.4 Direction-Of-Arrival (DoA) 744 29.5 RSSI and Fingerprinting 745 29.6 Global Positioning System (GPS) 747 29.7 Localization in Cellular Systems 751 29.8 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 754 29.9 Cooperative Localization 755 29.10 Tracking 757 29.10.1 Motivation for Tracking 757 29.10.2 Linear Kalman Filters 757 29.10.3 Extended Kalman Filters 759 29.10.4 Accuracy Improvements of Kalman Filters 760 ∗ 29.11 Machine Learning for Localization 761 29.11.1 Types of ML Problems 761 29.11.2 Supervised Learning 762 29.11.3 Training and Preprocessing 763 29.11.4 Other Learning Solutions 764 Further Reading 764 Exercises: Sec. 36.29 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 764 Part VI System Design and Standardization 765 30 System Design and Standardization 767 30.1 From Components to Systems 767 30.2 Motivation and Operation of Standards 769 30.3 Some Important Standards 773 30.4 Appendices: App30.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 775 App. 30.A: 2G Cellular - GSM 775 App. 30.B: 3G Cellular - WCDMA/UMTS 775 App. 30.C: Cordless Telephony - DECT 776 Exercises: Sec. 36.30 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 776 31 4G Cellular – 3GPP Long-Term Evolution (LTE) 777 31.1 Introduction 777 31.3 Physical Layer 784 31.4 Logical and Physical Channels 799 31.5 Physical Layer Procedures 807 31.6 Carrier Aggregation and License-Assisted Access 811 31.7 CoMP, Dual Connectivity, and Hetnet Support 812 31.8 Relaying 814 31.9 LTE for Machine-Type Applications 815 31.10 Device-to-Device Communications – Sidelink 817 31.10.1 Motivation, Architecture, and Channel Structure 817 31.10.2 Synchronization 818 31.10.3 Discovery 819 31.10.4 Communications 819 Glossary for LTE 820 Further Reading 822 Exercises: Sec. 36.31 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 822 32 5G Cellular – 3GPP New Radio (NR) 823 32.1 Introduction 823 32.2 System Overview 825 32.3 Physical Layer 830 32.4 Physical and Logical Channels 843 32.5 Physical Layer Procedures 851 32.6 Carrier Aggregation and License-Assisted Access 854 32.7 CoMP, Dual Connectivity, and HetNet Support 856 32.8 Relaying 856 32.9 NR for Machine-Type Communications 857 32.10 Device-to-Device Communications – Sidelink 858 32.10.1 Motivation, Architecture, and Channel Structure 858 32.10.2 Synchronization 859 32.10.3 Discovery and Resource Allocation 859 32.10.4 Communications 859 Glossary for 5G-NR 860 Further Reading 862 Exercises: Sec. 36.32 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 862 33 Wireless Local Area Networks 863 33.1 Introduction 863 33.2 802.11a/g – OFDM-Based LANs 867 33.3 802.11n – High-throughput Transmission 870 33.5 IEEE 802.11ac 883 33.6 802.11ax/Wi-Fi 6 886 Glossary for WiFi 892 Further Reading 894 Exercises: Sec. 36.33 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 894 34 PAN and Internet of Things – Bluetooth and Zigbee 895 34.1 Bluetooth 895 34.2 Zigbee 907 Glossary 912 Further Reading 912 Exercises: Sec. 36.34 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 912 35 Beyond 5G 913 35.1 Motivation and Process 913 35.2 Applications 913 35.3 Network Design in B5G 916 35.4 Spectrum Usage for B5G 918 35.5 Physical and MAC Layer Aspects 918 35.6 Real-Time Processing and RF Transceiver Design 922 35.7 Use of Machine Learning 923 35.8 A Final Word on New Technologies 924 Further Reading 925 Exercises: Sec. 36.35 of Exercises.pdf at www.wiley.com/go/molisch/wireless3e 925 References 927 Index 953 About the Author 963

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisReceive comprehensive instruction on the fundamentals of wireless security from three leading international voices in the field Security in Wireless Communication Networksdelivers a thorough grounding in wireless communication security. The distinguished authors pay particular attention to wireless specific issues, like authentication protocols for various wireless communication networks,encryption algorithms and integrity schemes on radio channels, lessons learned from designing secure wireless systems and standardization for security in wireless systems. The book addresses how engineers, administrators, and others involved in the design and maintenance of wireless networks can achieve security while retaining the broadcast natureof the system, with all of its inherent harshness and interference. Readers will learn: A comprehensive introduction to the background of wireless communication network security, including a broad overview of wireless communication networks, security serviTable of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xxiii About the Companion Website xxv Part I Introduction and Mathematics Background 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 General Computer Communication Network Architecture 3 1.1.1 Wired Communication Network Infrastructure 3 1.1.2 Wireless Communication Network Infrastructure 4 1.2 Different Types of Wireless Communication Systems 5 1.2.1 Classification of Wireless Communication Systems 5 1.2.1.1 Based on Coverage 5 1.2.1.2 Based on Topology 6 1.2.1.3 Based on Mobility 6 1.2.2 Wireless Personal Area Networks 7 1.2.3 Wireless Local Area Networks 7 1.2.4 Wireless Wide Area Networks 7 1.3 Network Security and Wireless Security 9 1.3.1 Network Security 9 1.3.2 Security Threats in Wireless Networks 10 1.4 Summary 11 2 Basic Network Security Concepts 13 2.1 Security Attacks 13 2.1.1 Passive Attacks 13 2.1.1.1 Eavesdropping 13 2.1.1.2 Traffic Analysis 14 2.1.2 Active Attacks 15 2.2 Security Services 16 2.2.1 Access Control 17 2.2.2 Authentication 17 2.2.3 Confidentiality 18 2.2.4 Integrity 18 2.2.5 Non-repudiation 19 2.2.6 Availability 19 2.3 Security Mechanisms 21 2.3.1 Encipherment 21 2.3.2 Authentication 21 2.3.3 Access Control 22 2.3.4 Digital Signature 22 2.3.5 Data Integrity 23 2.3.6 Traffic Padding and Routing Control 23 2.3.7 Notarization 24 2.4 Other Security Concepts 24 2.4.1 Levels of Impact 24 2.4.2 Cryptographic Protocols 25 2.5 Summary 25 3 Mathematical Background 27 3.1 Basic Concepts in Modern Algebra and Number Theory 27 3.1.1 Group 27 3.1.1.1 Abelian Group 28 3.1.1.2 Cyclic Group 28 3.1.2 Ring 29 3.1.3 Field 29 3.2 Prime Numbers, Modular Arithmetic, and Divisors 30 3.2.1 Prime Numbers 30 3.2.2 Modular Arithmetic 30 3.2.3 Divisors and GCD 31 3.2.4 Multiplicative Inverse 33 3.3 Finite Field and Galois Field 34 3.4 Polynomial Arithmetic 35 3.4.1 Ordinary Polynomial Arithmetic 35 3.4.2 Polynomial Arithmetic in Finite Fields 36 3.4.3 Modular Polynomial Arithmetic 37 3.4.4 Computational Considerations 39 3.4.5 Generating a Finite Field with a Generator 40 3.5 Fermat’s Little Theorem, Euler’s Totient Function, and Euler’s Theorem 41 3.5.1 Fermat’s Little Theorem 41 3.5.2 Euler Totient Function 𝜙(n) 42 3.5.3 Euler’s Theorem 43 3.6 Primality Testing 44 3.7 Chinese Remainder Theorem 46 3.8 Discrete Logarithm 48 3.9 Summary 49 Part II Cryptographic Systems 51 4 Cryptographic Techniques 53 4.1 Symmetric Encryption 53 4.2 Classical Cryptographic Schemes 53 4.2.1 Classical Substitution Ciphers 54 4.2.1.1 Caesar Cipher 54 4.2.1.2 Monoalphabetic Cipher 55 4.2.1.3 Playfair Cipher 57 4.2.1.4 Polyalphabetic Cipher 58 4.2.1.5 Autokey Cipher 59 4.2.1.6 One-Time Pad 60 4.2.2 Classical Transposition Ciphers 60 4.2.2.1 Rail Fence Cipher 60 4.2.2.2 Row Transposition Cipher 60 4.2.2.3 Product Cipher 61 4.2.3 More Advanced Classical Ciphers 61 4.2.3.1 Rotor Machines 61 4.2.3.2 Steganography 61 4.3 Stream Cipher 62 4.3.1 Rivest Cipher 4 62 4.4 Modern Block Ciphers 63 4.4.1 Overview of Modern Block Ciphers 63 4.4.2 Feistel Block Cipher 64 4.4.2.1 Ideal Block Cipher 64 4.4.2.2 Feistel Cipher Structure 65 4.4.3 Block Cipher Design 67 4.5 Data Encryption Standards (DES) 67 4.5.1 Overview of DES 67 4.5.2 Initial Permutation (IP) 68 4.5.3 DES Round Function 69 4.5.3.1 DES S-Boxes 71 4.5.3.2 DES Permutation Function 72 4.5.4 DES Key Schedule 72 4.5.5 DES Security 74 4.5.6 Multiple Encryption and DES 75 4.6 Summary 76 5 More on Cryptographic Techniques 77 5.1 Advanced Encryption Standards 77 5.1.1 The AES Cipher: Rijndael 77 5.1.2 AES Data Structure 77 5.1.3 Details in Each Round 79 5.1.3.1 Substitute Bytes 79 5.1.3.2 Shift Rows 81 5.1.3.3 Mix Columns 81 5.1.3.4 Add Round Key 82 5.1.3.5 AES Key Expansion 82 5.1.3.6 AES Decryption 84 5.1.3.7 AES Implementation Aspects 84 5.2 Block Cipher Modes of Operation 85 5.2.1 Electronic Codebook (ECB) Mode 85 5.2.2 Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) Mode 86 5.2.3 Cipher Feedback (CFB) Mode 87 5.2.4 Output Feedback (OFB) Mode 88 5.2.5 The Counter (CTR) Mode 89 5.2.6 Last Block in Different Modes 90 5.2.7 XTS-AES Mode 90 5.3 Public Key Infrastructure 92 5.3.1 Basics of Public Key Cryptography 92 5.3.2 Public-Key Applications 94 5.3.3 Security of Public Key Schemes 94 5.4 The RSA Algorithm 95 5.4.1 RSA Key Setup 95 5.4.2 RSA Encryption and Decryption 96 5.4.3 RSA Security Analysis 96 5.4.3.1 Factoring Problem 97 5.4.3.2 Timing attacks 97 5.4.3.3 Chosen Ciphertext Attacks 97 5.5 Diffie–Hellman (D–H) Key Exchange 97 5.5.1 Finite-Field Diffie–Hellman 97 5.5.2 Elliptic-Curve Diffie–Hellman 98 5.5.3 Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange Vulnerability 98 5.6 Summary 99 6 Message Authentication, Digital Signature, and Key Management 101 6.1 Message Authentication 101 6.1.1 Message Authentication Functions 101 6.1.2 Message Authentication Code 102 6.1.3 Hash Functions 103 6.1.4 Size of MAC and Hash Value 104 6.2 MAC and Hash Algorithms 105 6.2.1 Data Authentication Algorithm 105 6.2.2 A Basic Hash Function Structure 106 6.2.3 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) 106 6.2.4 SHA-512 107 6.2.4.1 SHA-512 Compression Function 108 6.2.4.2 SHA-512 Round Function 109 6.2.5 Whirlpool 111 6.2.6 Other MAC Functions 112 6.2.6.1 Keyed Hash Functions as MACs 112 6.2.6.2 Cipher-Based MAC 113 6.3 Digital Signature and Authentication 114 6.3.1 Digital Signature Properties 115 6.3.2 Digital Signature Standard and Algorithm 116 6.3.3 The Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm 117 6.3.3.1 ECDSA Domain Parameters 117 6.3.3.2 ECDSA Private/Public Keys 118 6.3.3.3 ECDSA Digital Signature Generation 119 6.3.3.4 ECDSA Digital Signature Verification 120 6.3.4 Authentication Protocols 120 6.4 Key Management 122 6.4.1 Key Distribution with Symmetric Key Encryptions 122 6.4.2 Symmetric Key Distribution Using Public Key Cryptosystems 123 6.4.3 Distribution of Public Keys 124 6.4.4 Public Key Infrastructure 126 6.4.5 X.509 Authentication Service 126 6.5 Summary 128 Part III Security for Wireless Local Area Networks 129 7 WLAN Security 131 7.1 Introduction to WLAN 131 7.1.1 Wi-Fi Operating Modes 131 7.1.2 Challenges in WLAN Security 132 7.1.3 Tricks that Fail to Protect WLAN 133 7.2 Evolution of WLAN Security 133 7.3 Wired Equivalent Privacy 135 7.3.1 WEP Access Control 135 7.3.2 WEP Integrity and Confidentiality 136 7.3.3 WEP Key Management 136 7.3.4 WEP Security Problems 137 7.3.4.1 Problems in WEP Access Control 138 7.3.4.2 Problems in WEP Integrity 138 7.3.4.3 Problems in WEP Confidentiality 138 7.3.4.4 Problems in WEP Key Management 139 7.3.5 Possible WEP Security Enhancement 140 7.4 IEEE 802.1X Authentication Model 140 7.4.1 An Overview of IEEE 802.1X 140 7.4.2 Protocols in IEEE 802.1X 141 7.4.3 Mapping the IEEE 802.1X model to WLAN 143 7.5 IEEE 802.11i Standard 143 7.5.1 Overview of IEEE 802.11i 143 7.5.2 IEEE 802.11i Access Control 143 7.5.3 IEEE 802.1i Key Management 145 7.5.4 IEEE 802.11i Integrity and Confidentiality 147 7.5.4.1 TKIP Mode 147 7.5.4.2 AES-CCMP Mode 148 7.5.5 Function Michael 148 7.5.6 Weakness in 802.11i 150 7.6 Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 and Opportunistic Wireless Encryption 150 7.6.1 WPA3-Personal 150 7.6.2 WPA3-Enterprise 150 7.6.3 Opportunistic Wireless Encryption 151 7.7 Summary 152 8 Bluetooth Security 153 8.1 Introduction to Bluetooth 153 8.1.1 Overview of Bluetooth Technology 153 8.1.2 Bluetooth Vulnerabilities and Threats 154 8.1.2.1 Bluesnarfing 155 8.1.2.2 Bluejacking 155 8.1.2.3 Bluebugging 155 8.1.2.4 Car Whisperer 155 8.1.2.5 Fuzzing Attacks 155 8.1.3 Bluetooth Security Services and Security Modes 156 8.1.3.1 Bluetooth Security Services 156 8.1.3.2 Bluetooth Security Modes 156 8.2 Link Key Generation 157 8.2.1 Link Key Generation for Security Modes 2 and 3 157 8.2.2 Link Key Generation for Security Mode 4 158 8.2.3 Association Model in Mode 4 159 8.2.3.1 Numeric comparison 159 8.2.3.2 Out-of-Band (OOB) 160 8.2.3.3 Passkey entry 162 8.3 Authentication, Confidentiality, and Trust and Service Levels 163 8.3.1 Authentication 163 8.3.2 Confidentiality 164 8.3.3 Trust and Security Service Levels 165 8.4 Cryptographic Functions for Security Modes 1, 2, and 3 166 8.4.1 SAFER+ 166 8.4.1.1 Overview of the SAFER+ Structure 166 8.4.1.2 SAFER+ Round Function 166 8.4.1.3 SAFER+ Key Schedule for 128-Bit Key 168 8.4.2 Function E1(⋅) 168 8.4.3 Function E21(⋅) 170 8.4.4 Function E22(⋅) 170 8.4.5 Function E3(⋅) 171 8.4.6 Function E0(⋅) 171 8.5 Cryptographic Functions in Security Mode 4 (SSP) 173 8.5.1 Function P192(⋅) 173 8.5.2 Function f1(⋅) 174 8.5.3 Function g(⋅) 174 8.5.3.1 Function f2(⋅) 174 8.5.3.2 Function f3(⋅) 174 8.6 Summary 174 9 Zigbee Security 177 9.1 Introduction to Zigbee 177 9.1.1 Overview of Zigbee 177 9.1.2 Security Threats Against Zigbee 178 9.2 IEEE 802.15.4 Security Features 179 9.2.1 Security Levels 179 9.2.2 IEEE 802.15.4 Frame Structure 180 9.3 Zigbee Upper Layer Security 182 9.3.1 Zigbee Security Models 182 9.3.2 Security Keys in Zigbee 183 9.3.3 Zigbee Network Layer Security 184 9.3.4 Zigbee Application Support Layer Security 184 9.3.5 Other Security Features in Zigbee 185 9.4 Security-Related MAC PIB Attributes 187 9.5 Mechanisms Used in Zigbee Security 188 9.5.1 AES-CTR 188 9.5.2 AES-CBC-MAC 189 9.5.3 Overview of the AES-CCM 189 9.5.4 Nonces Applied to the Security Mechanisms 189 9.5.5 Matyas–Meyer–Oseas Hash Function 190 9.6 Summary 191 10 RFID Security 193 10.1 Introduction to RFID 193 10.1.1 Overview of RFID Subsystems 193 10.1.2 Types of RFID Tags 193 10.1.3 RFID Transactions 194 10.1.4 RFID Frequency Bands 194 10.2 Security Attacks, Risks, and Objectives of RFID Systems 195 10.2.1 Security Attacks to RFID Systems 195 10.2.2 RFID Privacy Risks 195 10.2.3 Security Objectives 196 10.3 Mitigation Strategies and Countermeasures for RFID Security Risks 196 10.3.1 Cryptographic Strategies 196 10.3.1.1 Encryption 196 10.3.1.2 One-Way Hash Locks 196 10.3.1.3 EPC Tag PINs 197 10.3.2 Anti-Collision Algorithms 197 10.3.2.1 Tree-Walking 197 10.3.2.2 The Selective Blocker Tag 197 10.3.3 Other Mitigation Strategies 198 10.3.3.1 Physical Shielding Sleeve (The Faraday Cage) 198 10.3.3.2 Secure Reader Protocol 1.0 198 10.4 RFID Security Mechanisms 199 10.4.1 Hash Locks 199 10.4.1.1 Default Hash Locking 199 10.4.1.2 Randomized Hash Locking 200 10.4.2 HB Protocol and the Enhancement 200 10.4.2.1 HB Protocol 200 10.4.2.2 HB+ Protocol 202 10.4.2.3 HB++ Protocol 203 10.5 Summary 205 Part IV Security for Wireless Wide Area Networks 207 11 GSM Security 209 11.1 GSM System Architecture 209 11.1.1 Mobile Station 209 11.1.2 Base Station Subsystem 210 11.1.3 Network Subsystem 211 11.2 GSM Network Access Security Features 212 11.2.1 GSM Entity Authentication 212 11.2.2 GSM Confidentiality 214 11.2.3 GSM Anonymity 215 11.2.4 Detection of Stolen/Compromised Equipment in GSM 215 11.3 GSM Security Algorithms 215 11.3.1 Algorithm A3 216 11.3.2 Algorithm A8 216 11.3.3 Algorithm COMP128 216 11.3.4 Algorithm A5 220 11.3.4.1 A5∕1 220 11.3.4.2 Algorithm A5∕2 223 11.4 Attacks Against GSM Security 225 11.4.1 Attacks Against GSM Authenticity 225 11.4.1.1 Attacks Against GSM Confidentiality 226 11.4.2 Other Attacks against GSM Security 227 11.5 Possible GSM Security Improvements 227 11.5.1 Improvement over Authenticity and Anonymity 227 11.5.2 Improvement over Confidentiality 228 11.5.3 Improvement of the Signaling Network 228 11.6 Summary 228 12 UMTS Security 229 12.1 UMTS System Architecture 229 12.1.1 User Equipment 229 12.1.2 UTRAN 230 12.1.3 Core Network 231 12.2 UMTS Security Features 231 12.3 UMTS Network Access Security 232 12.3.1 Authentication and Key Agreement 232 12.3.1.1 The AKA Mechanism 232 12.3.1.2 Authentication Vector Generation 234 12.3.1.3 AKA on the UE Side 236 12.3.2 Confidentiality 237 12.3.3 Data Integrity 238 12.3.4 User Identity Confidentiality 239 12.4 Algorithms in Access Security 240 12.4.1 Encryption Algorithm f8 240 12.4.1.1 Integrity Algorithm f9 241 12.4.2 Description of KASUMI 242 12.4.2.1 An Overview of KASUMI Algorithm 242 12.4.2.2 Round Function Fi(⋅) 244 12.4.2.3 Function FL 244 12.4.2.4 Function FO 244 12.4.2.5 Function FI 245 12.4.2.6 S-boxes S7 and S9 245 12.4.2.7 Key Schedule 247 12.4.3 Implementation and Operational Considerations 248 12.5 Other UMTS Security Features 249 12.5.1 Mobile Equipment Identification 249 12.5.2 Location Services 249 12.5.3 User-to-USIM Authentication 249 12.6 Summary 250 13 LTE Security 251 13.1 LTE System Architecture 251 13.2 LTE Security Architecture 253 13.3 LTE Security 255 13.3.1 LTE Key Hierarchy 255 13.3.2 LTE Authentication and Key Agreement 257 13.3.3 Signaling Protection 258 13.3.3.1 Protection of Radio-Specific Signaling 259 13.3.3.2 Protection of User-Plane Traffic 259 13.3.4 Overview of Confidentiality and Integrity Algorithms 259 13.3.4.1 Confidentiality Mechanism 259 13.3.4.2 Integrity Mechanism 260 13.3.5 Non-3GPP Access 261 13.4 Handover Between eNBs 261 13.4.1 Overview 261 13.4.2 Key Handling in Handover 262 13.4.2.1 Initialization 262 13.4.2.2 Intra-eNB Key Handling 264 13.4.2.3 Intra-MME Key Handling 265 13.4.2.4 Inter-MME Key Handling 266 13.5 Security Algorithms 268 13.5.1 128-EEA2 268 13.5.2 128-EIA2 269 13.5.3 EEA3 270 13.5.4 EIA3 271 13.6 Security for Interworking Between LTE and Legacy Systems 273 13.6.1 Between LTE and UMTS 273 13.6.1.1 Idle Mode Mobility from E-UTRAN to UTRAN 273 13.6.1.2 Idle Mode Mobility from UTRAN to E-UTRAN 274 13.6.1.3 Handover Mode from E-UTRAN to UTRAN 275 13.6.1.4 Handover Mode from UTRAN to E-UTRAN 276 13.6.2 Between E-UTRAN and GERAN 277 13.6.2.1 Idle Mode 277 13.6.2.2 Handover Mode 277 13.7 Summary 278 Part V Security for Next Generation Wireless Networks 279 14 Security in 5G Wireless Networks 281 14.1 Introduction to 5GWireless Network Systems 281 14.1.1 The Advancement of 5G 281 14.1.2 5GWireless Network Systems 282 14.2 5G Security Requirements and Major Drives 283 14.2.1 Security Requirements for 5GWireless Networks 283 14.2.2 Major Drives for 5GWireless Security 284 14.2.2.1 Supreme Built-in-Security 284 14.2.2.2 Flexible Security Mechanisms 285 14.2.2.3 Automation 285 14.2.3 Attacks in 5G Wireless Networks 286 14.2.3.1 Eavesdropping and Traffic Analysis 286 14.2.3.2 Jamming 286 14.2.3.3 DoS and DDoS 287 14.2.3.4 Man-In-The-Middle (MITM) 287 14.3 A 5G Wireless Security Architecture 287 14.3.1 New Elements in 5G Wireless Security Architecture 287 14.3.2 A 5G Wireless Security Architecture 288 14.3.2.1 Network Access Security (I) 288 14.3.2.2 Network Domain Security (II) 289 14.3.2.3 User Domain Security (III) 289 14.3.2.4 Application Domain Security (IV) 289 14.4 5GWireless Security Services 289 14.4.1 Cryptography in 5G 289 14.4.2 Identity Management 290 14.4.3 Authentication in 5G 291 14.4.3.1 Flexible Authentication 291 14.4.3.2 Authentication Through Legacy Cellular System 291 14.4.3.3 SDN Based Authentication in 5G 293 14.4.3.4 Authentication of D2D in 5G 294 14.4.3.5 Authentication of RFID in 5G 294 14.4.4 Data Confidentiality in 5G 295 14.4.4.1 Power Control 295 14.4.4.2 Artificial Noise and Signal Processing 297 14.4.5 Handover Procedure and Signaling Load Analysis 297 14.4.6 Availability in 5G 297 14.4.7 Location and Identity Anonymity in 5G 300 14.5 5G Key Management 300 14.5.1 3GPP 5G Key Architecture 300 14.5.2 Key Management in 5G Handover 301 14.5.3 Key Management for D2D Users 302 14.6 Security for New Communication Techniques in 5G 303 14.6.1 Heterogeneous Network and Massive MIMO in 5G 303 14.6.2 Device-to-Device Communications in 5G 304 14.6.3 Software-Defined Network in 5G 306 14.6.4 Internet-of-Things in 5G 308 14.7 Challenges and Future Directions for 5G Wireless Security 308 14.7.1 New Trust Models 308 14.7.2 New Security Attack Models 308 14.7.3 Privacy Protection 309 14.7.4 Flexibility and Efficiency 309 14.7.5 Unified Security Management 309 14.8 Summary 310 15 Security in V2X Communications 311 15.1 Introduction to V2X Communications 311 15.1.1 Generic System Architecture of V2X Communications 311 15.1.2 Dedicated Short Range Communications 312 15.1.3 Cellular Based V2X Communications 313 15.2 Security Requirements and Possible Attacks in V2X Communications 314 15.2.1 Security Requirements 314 15.2.2 Attacks in V2X Communications 315 15.2.3 Basic Solutions 316 15.3 IEEEWAVE Security Services for Applications and Management Messages 316 15.3.1 Overview of the WAVE Protocol Stack and Security Services 316 15.3.2 Secure Data Service and Security Service Management Entity 318 15.3.3 CRL Verification Entity and P2P Certificate Distribution Entity 319 15.4 Security in Cellular Based V2X Communications 320 15.4.1 LTE-V2X Communication Security 320 15.4.2 5G-V2X Communication Security 322 15.5 Cryptography and Privacy Preservation in V2X Communications 323 15.5.1 Identity Based Schemes 323 15.5.2 Group Signature Based Schemes 325 15.5.3 Batch Verification Schemes 326 15.5.4 Reputation and Trust Based Schemes 327 15.5.5 Identity Anonymity Preservation 328 15.5.6 Location Anonymity Preservation 328 15.6 Challenges and Future Research Directions 329 15.6.1 Highly Efficient Authentication Schemes 329 15.6.2 Efficient Revocation Mechanisms 330 15.6.3 Advancing OBU and TPD Technologies 330 15.6.4 Advancing Cryptography and Privacy Preservation Schemes 330 15.6.5 Advancing Solutions to HetNet, SDN, and NFV 330 15.6.6 Advancing Artificial Intelligence in V2X Communication Security 330 15.7 Summary 331 References 333 Index 345

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Book SynopsisIn 2010 the then current European national standards for building and construction were replaced by the EN Eurocodes, a set of pan-European model building codes developed by the European Committee for Standardization.Table of ContentsIntroduction to the seventh edition xv Contributors xix Introduction 1 Introduction – designing to the Eurocodes 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Creation of the Eurocodes 2 1.3 Structure of the Eurocodes 2 1.4 Non-contradictory complementary information – NCCI 5 1.5 Implementation in the UK 5 1.6 Benefits of designing to the Eurocodes 6 1.7 Industry support for the introduction of the Eurocodes 7 1.8 Conclusions 8 2 Integrated design for successful steel construction 10 2.1 Client requirements for whole building performance, value and impact 10 2.2 Design for sustainability 19 2.3 Design for overall economy 27 2.4 Conclusions 33 References to Chapter 2 34 3 Loading to the Eurocodes 35 3.1 Imposed loads 35 3.2 Imposed loads on roofs 38 3.3 Snow loads 39 3.4 Accidental actions 52 3.5 Combinations of actions 54 References to Chapter 3 60 Worked example 61 Design Synthesis 4 Single-storey buildings 65 4.1 The roles for steel in single-storey buildings 65 4.2 Design for long term performance 66 4.3 Anatomy of structure 70 4.4 Loading 78 4.5 Common types of primary frame 80 4.6 Preliminary design of portal frames 90 4.7 Bracing 101 4.8 Design of portal frames to BS EN 1993-1-1 109 References to Chapter 4 127 Worked example 128 5 Multi-storey buildings 134 5.1 Introduction 134 5.2 Costs and construction programme 135 5.3 Understanding the design brief 137 5.4 Structural arrangements to resist sway 140 5.5 Stabilising systems 150 5.6 Columns 154 5.7 Floor systems 157 References to Chapter 5 169 6 Industrial steelwork 171 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 Anatomy of structure 181 6.3 Loading 195 6.4 Thermal effects 201 6.5 Crane girder/lifting beam design 202 6.6 Structure in its wider context 204 References to Chapter 6 205 Further reading for Chapter 6 205 7 Special steel structures 207 7.1 Introduction 207 7.2 Space frame structures: 3-dimensional grids based on regular solids 208 7.3 Lightweight tension steel cable structures 210 7.4 Lightweight compression steel structures 219 7.5 Steel for stadiums 226 7.6 Information and process in the current digital age – the development of technology 228 References to Chapter 7 235 Further reading for Chapter 7 236 8 Light steel structures and modular construction 238 8.1 Introduction 238 8.2 Building applications 242 8.3 Benefits of light steel construction 245 8.4 Light steel building elements 248 8.5 Modular construction 252 8.6 Hybrid construction 257 8.7 Structural design issues 260 8.8 Non-structural design issues 264 References to Chapter 8 270 9 Secondary steelwork 271 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 Issues for consideration 271 9.3 Applications 280 References to Chapter 9 303 Applied Metallurgy 10 Applied metallurgy of steel 305 10.1 Introduction 305 10.2 Chemical composition 306 10.3 Heat treatment 309 10.4 Manufacture and effect on properties 315 10.5 Engineering properties and mechanical tests 319 10.6 Fabrication effects and service performance 321 10.7 Summary 327 References to Chapter 10 329 Further reading for Chapter 10 330 11 Failure processes 331 11.1 Fracture 331 11.2 Linear elastic fracture mechanics 335 11.3 Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics 337 11.4 Materials testing for fracture properties 340 11.5 Fracture-safe design 343 11.6 Fatigue 345 11.7 Final comments 356 References to Chapter 11 357 Further reading for Chapter 11 358 Analysis 12 Analysis 359 12.1 Introduction 359 12.2 The basics 360 12.3 Analysis and design 364 12.4 Analysis by hand 368 12.5 Analysis by software 371 12.6 Analysis of multi-storey buildings 381 12.7 Portal frame buildings 391 12.8 Special structural members 404 12.9 Very important issues 425 References to Chapter 12 427 13 Structural vibration 430 13.1 Introduction 430 13.2 Causes of vibration 432 13.3 Perception of vibration 433 13.4 Types of response 436 13.5 Determining the modal properties 437 13.6 Calculating vibration response 443 13.7 Acceptability criteria 449 13.8 Practical considerations 450 13.9 Synchronised crowd activities 452 References to Chapter 13 452 Element Design 14 Local buckling and cross-section classification 454 14.1 Introduction 454 14.2 Cross-sectional dimensions and moment-rotation behaviour 457 14.3 Effect of moment-rotation behaviour on approach to design and analysis 461 14.4 Classification table 462 14.5 Economic factors 462 References to Chapter 14 463 15 Tension members 464 15.1 Introduction 464 15.2 Types of tension member 464 15.3 Design for axial tension 465 15.4 Combined bending and tension 468 15.5 Eccentricity of end connections 471 15.6 Other considerations 472 15.7 Cables 473 Further reading for Chapter 15 476 16 Columns and struts 477 16.1 Introduction 477 16.2 Common types of member 477 16.3 Design considerations 478 16.4 Cross-sectional considerations 480 16.5 Column buckling resistance 484 16.6 Torsional and flexural-torsional buckling 486 16.7 Effective (buckling) lengths L cr 487 16.8 Special types of strut 493 16.9 Economic points 496 References to Chapter 16 497 Further reading for Chapter 16 497 Worked example 498 17 Beams 503 17.1 Introduction 503 17.2 Common types of beam 503 17.3 Cross-section classification and moment resistance M c,Rd 506 17.4 Basic design 507 17.5 Laterally unrestrained beams 513 17.6 Beams with web openings 520 References to Chapter 17 521 Worked example 522 18 Plate girders 533 18.1 Introduction 533 18.2 Advantages and disadvantages 533 18.3 Initial choice of cross-section for plate girders 534 18.4 Design of plate girders to BS EN 1993-1-5 536 References to Chapter 18 552 Worked example 553 19 Members with compression and moments 563 19.1 Occurrence of combined loading 563 19.2 Types of response – interaction 564 19.3 Effect of moment gradient loading 570 19.4 Selection of type of cross-section 574 19.5 Basic design procedure to Eurocode 3 575 19.6 Special design methods for members in portal frames 577 References to Chapter 19 584 Further reading for Chapter 19 585 Worked example 586 20 Trusses 600 20.1 Introduction 600 20.2 Types of truss 600 20.3 Guidance on overall concept 602 20.4 Selection of elements and connections 603 20.5 Analysis of trusses 604 20.6 Detailed design considerations for elements 607 20.7 Bracing 609 20.8 Rigid-jointed Vierendeel girders 610 References to Chapter 20 612 Worked example 613 21 Composite slabs 623 21.1 Definition 623 21.2 General description 623 21.3 Design for the construction condition 626 21.4 Design of composite slabs 628 21.5 Design for shear and concentrated loads 633 21.6 Tests on composite slabs 635 21.7 Serviceability limits and crack control 636 21.8 Shrinkage and creep 638 21.9 Fire resistance 639 References for Chapter 21 640 Worked example 641 22 Composite beams 647 22.1 Introduction 647 22.2 Material properties 649 22.3 Composite beams 651 22.4 Plastic analysis of composite section 654 22.5 Shear resistance 658 22.6 Shear connection 659 22.7 Full and partial shear connection 664 22.8 Transverse reinforcement 669 22.9 Primary beams and edge beams 672 22.10 Continuous composite beams 673 22.11 Serviceability limit states 675 22.12 Design tables for composite beams 680 References to Chapter 22 682 Worked example 684 23 Composite columns 701 23.1 Introduction 701 23.2 Design of composite columns 702 23.3 Simplified design method 704 23.4 Illustrative examples of design of composite columns 718 23.5 Longitudinal and transverse shear forces 720 References to Chapter 23 722 Worked example 723 24 Design of light gauge steel elements 733 24.1 Introduction 733 24.2 Section properties 736 24.3 Local buckling 741 24.4 Distortional buckling 744 24.5 Design of compression members 748 24.6 Design of members in bending 751 References to Chapter 24 756 Worked example 757 Connection Design 25 Bolting assemblies 769 25.1 Types of structural bolting assembly 769 25.2 Methods of tightening and their application 771 25.3 Geometric considerations 772 25.4 Methods of analysis of bolt groups 774 25.5 Design strengths 778 25.6 Tables of resistance 783 References to Chapter 25 783 Further reading for Chapter 25 784 26 Welds and design for welding 785 26.1 Advantages of welding 785 26.2 Ensuring weld quality and properties by the use of standards 786 26.3 Recommendations for cost reduction 792 26.4 Welding processes 797 26.5 Geometric considerations 803 26.6 Methods of analysis of weld groups 804 26.7 Design strengths 807 26.8 Concluding remarks 809 References to Chapter 26 810 27 Joint design and simple connections 812 27.1 Introduction 812 27.2 Simple connections 820 References to Chapter 27 842 Worked example 844 28 Design of moment connections 868 28.1 Introduction 868 28.2 Design philosophy 869 28.3 Tension zone 870 28.4 Compression zone 876 28.5 Shear zone 878 28.6 Stiffeners 879 28.7 Design moment of resistance of end-plate joints 879 28.8 Rotational stiffness and rotation capacity 882 28.9 Summary 883 References to Chapter 28 883 Foundations 29 Foundations and holding-down systems 885 29.1 Types of foundation 885 29.2 Design of foundations 887 29.3 Fixed and pinned column bases 891 29.4 Pinned column bases – axially loaded I-section columns 891 29.5 Design of fixed column bases 902 29.6 Holding-down systems 906 References to Chapter 29 908 Further reading for Chapter 29 909 Worked example 910 30 Steel piles and steel basements 916 30.1 Introduction 916 30.2 Types of steel piles 916 30.3 Geotechnical uncertainty 920 30.4 Choosing a steel basement 923 30.5 Detailed basement design: Introduction 929 30.6 Detailed basement designs: Selection of soil parameters 934 30.7 Detailed basement design: Geotechnical analysis 937 30.8 Detailed basement design: Structural design 943 30.9 Other design details 949 30.10 Constructing a steel basement: Pile installation techniques 950 30.11 Specification and site control 953 30.12 Movement and monitoring 955 References to Chapter 30 956 Further reading for Chapter 30 957 Construction 31 Design for movement in structures 959 31.1 Introduction 959 31.2 Effects of temperature variation 961 31.3 Spacing of expansion joints 962 31.4 Design for movement in typical single-storey industrial steel buildings 962 31.5 Design for movement in typical multi-storey buildings 964 31.6 Treatment of movement joints 965 31.7 Use of special bearings 967 References to Chapter 31 969 32 Tolerances 970 32.1 Introduction 970 32.2 Standards 972 32.3 Implications of tolerances 974 32.4 Fabrication tolerances 976 32.5 Erection tolerances 982 References to Chapter 32 1000 Further reading for Chapter 32 1000 33 Fabrication 1002 33.1 Introduction 1002 33.2 Economy of fabrication 1002 33.3 Welding 1009 33.4 Bolting 1009 33.5 Cutting 1012 33.6 Handling and routeing of steel 1016 33.7 Quality management 1020 References to Chapter 33 1023 Further reading for Chapter 33 1023 34 Erection 1024 34.1 Introduction 1024 34.2 Method statements, regulations and documentation 1025 34.3 Planning 1026 34.4 Site practices 1029 34.5 Site fabrication and modifications 1035 34.6 Steel decking and shear connectors 1037 34.7 Cranes and craneage 1038 34.8 Safety 1048 34.9 Accidents 1055 References to Chapter 34 1056 Further reading for Chapter 34 1056 35 Fire protection and fire engineering 1057 35.1 Introduction 1057 35.2 Building regulations 1057 35.3 Fire engineering design codes 1058 35.4 Structural performance in fire 1062 35.5 Fire protection materials 1072 35.6 Advanced fire engineering 1073 35.7 Selection of an appropriate approach to fire protection and fire engineering for specific buildings 1078 References to Chapter 35 1078 Worked example 1081 36 Corrosion and corrosion prevention 1088 36.1 Introduction 1088 36.2 General corrosion 1089 36.3 Other forms of corrosion 1090 36.4 Corrosion rates 1091 36.5 Effect of the environment 1091 36.6 Design and corrosion 1092 36.7 Surface preparation 1093 36.8 Metallic coatings 1095 36.9 Paint coatings 1097 36.10 Application of paints 1101 36.11 Weather-resistant steels 1102 36.12 The protective treatment specification 1104 Relevant standards 1107 Appendix 1110 Steel technology Elastic properties 1111 European standards for structural steels 1112 Design theory Bending moment, shear and deflection 1115 Second moments of area 1143 Geometrical properties of plane sections 1151 Plastic moduli 1154 Formulae for rigid frames 1157 Design of elements and connections Explanatory notes on section dimensions and properties 1175 Tables of dimensions and gross section properties 1193 Bolt and Weld Data for S 275 1259 Bolt and Weld Data for S 355 1274 Eurocodes Extracts from Concise Eurocodes 1289 Floors Floor plates 1309 Construction Fire resistance 1312 Section factors for fire design 1332 Corrosion resistance 1337 Standards British and European Standards for steelwork 1340 Index 1351

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Book SynopsisLeverage the power of Git to smooth out the development cycle Professional Git takes a professional approach to learning this massively popular software development tool, and provides an up-to-date guide for new users.Trade Review"This is a deep and immersive guide to Git, with plenty to teach those who've been using it for a while, yet goes out of its way to be welcoming to new Git users coming from other version control systems." (The MagPi, June 2017)Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION xxiii PART I: UNDERSTANDING GIT CONCEPTS CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS GIT? 3 CHAPTER 2: KEY CONCEPTS 19 CHAPTER 3: THE GIT PROMOTION MODEL 31 PART II: USING GIT CHAPTER 4: CONFIGURATION AND SETUP 49 CHAPTER 5: GETTING PRODUCTIVE 73 CHAPTER 6: TRACKING CHANGES 105 CHAPTER 7: WORKING WITH CHANGES OVER TIME AND USING TAGS 131 CHAPTER 8: WORKING WITH LOCAL BRANCHES 159 CHAPTER 9: MERGING CONTENT 193 CHAPTER 10: SUPPORTING FILES IN GIT 245 CHAPTER 11: DOING MORE WITH GIT 263 CHAPTER 12: UNDERSTANDING REMOTES—BRANCHES AND OPERATIONS 321 CHAPTER 13: UNDERSTANDING REMOTES—WORKFLOWS FOR CHANGES 355 CHAPTER 14: WORKING WITH TREES AND MODULES IN GIT 381 CHAPTER 15: EXTENDING GIT FUNCTIONALITY WITH GIT HOOKS 423 Summary 441 INDEX 443

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Book SynopsisThe revised and updated comprehensive resource for Quantity Surveyors working with a construction contractor The second edition of Construction Quantity Surveying offers a practical guide to quantity surveying from a main contractor''s perspective.This indispensable resource covers measurement methodology (including samples using NRM2 as a guide), highlights the complex aspects of a contractor''s business, reviews the commercial and contractual management of a construction project and provides detailed and practical information on running a project from commencement through to completion. Today's Quantity Surveyor (QS) plays an essential role in the management of construction projects, although the exact nature of the role depends on who employs the QS. The QS engaged by the client and the contractor''s QS have different parts to play in any construction project, with the contractor''s QS role extending beyond traditional measurement activities, to encompTable of ContentsPreface vii 1 The Construction Industry and the Quantity Surveyor 1 1.1 Industry Overview 1 1.2 Parties Involved in a Construction Project 4 1.3 Legislation and Control of the Building Process 15 1.4 Industrial Bodies 20 1.5 Funding and Market Drivers 24 1.6 Economic and Construction Cycles 25 1.7 Development of Quantity Surveying 26 1.8 Construction Innovation and the Contractor’s Quantity Surveyor 28 1.9 Prospects for the Contractor’s Quantity Surveyor 36 2 Measurement and Quantities 41 2.1 Measurement Guides and Coverage Rules 41 2.2 RICS New Rules of Measurement (NRM) 42 2.3 Other Measurement Guides 44 2.4 Arrangement of Project Information 45 2.5 Measurement Terminology 50 2.6 Measurement Example 55 2.7 Builder’s Quantities 57 2.8 Software Systems 72 2.9 Alternative Bills of Quantities 73 3 Working with the Main Contractor 77 3.1 Contracting Organisations 77 3.2 Management Systems 83 3.3 Marketing for Contracts 87 3.4 Procurement 89 3.5 Estimating and the Contractor’s Quantity Surveyor 111 3.6 Construction Contracts 149 3.7 Remedies for Breach of Contract 165 4 Project Commencement 175 4.1 The Project Team 175 4.2 Pre]Construction Handover 177 4.3 Office and Site]Based Roles 178 4.4 Construction Programme 179 4.5 Project Administration 184 4.6 Site Establishment 205 4.7 Review of the Main Contract 209 5 Supply Chain Procurement 243 5.1 The Supply Chain 243 5.2 Labour]Only Subcontractors 245 5.3 Labour and Material Subcontractors 248 5.4 Material Supply Scheduling and Purchase Ordering 267 5.5 Labour Hire Agreements 272 5.6 Plant Hire Agreements 274 5.7 Consultant Appointments 275 6 Running the Project 279 6.1 Document Control 279 6.2 Changes to the Works 283 6.3 Reimbursement 292 6.4 Cost Centres and Financial Reporting 309 6.5 Tracking Expenditure 310 6.6 Extension of Time (EOT) Claims 314 6.7 Financial Claims 318 6.8 Voluntary and Involuntary Contract Terminations 328 6.9 Project Reporting 336 7 Project Completion 339 7.1 Sectional and Practical Completion 339 7.2 Operating Manuals and As]Built Information 342 7.3 Defects 345 7.4 Final Accounts 347 7.5 Project Closure 355 Further Reading 359 Index 361

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Book SynopsisHandbook and reference for industrial statisticians and system reliability engineers System Reliability Theory: Models, Statistical Methods, and Applications, Third Editionpresents an updated and revised look at system reliability theory, modeling, and analytical methods. The new edition is based on feedback to the second edition from numerous students, professors,researchers,and industries around the world. New sections and chapters are added together with new real-world industry examples,andstandards and problemsare revised and updated. System Reliability Theorycovers a broad and deep array of system reliability topics, including: In depth discussion of failures and failure modes The main system reliability assessment methods Common-cause failure modeling Deterioration modeling Maintenance modeling andassessmentusing Python code Bayesian probability and methods Life data analysis using RTable of ContentsPreface xxiii About the Companion Website xxix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is Reliability? 1 1.1.1 Service Reliability 2 1.1.2 Past and Future Reliability 3 1.2 The Importance of Reliability 3 1.2.1 Related Applications 4 1.3 Basic Reliability Concepts 6 1.3.1 Reliability 6 1.3.2 Maintainability and Maintenance 8 1.3.3 Availability 8 1.3.4 Quality 9 1.3.5 Dependability 9 1.3.6 Safety and Security 10 1.3.7 RAM and RAMS 10 1.4 Reliability Metrics 11 1.4.1 Reliability Metrics for a Technical Item 11 1.4.2 Reliability Metrics for a Service 12 1.5 Approaches to Reliability Analysis 12 1.5.1 The Physical Approach to Reliability 13 1.5.2 Systems Approach to Reliability 13 1.6 Reliability Engineering 15 1.6.1 Roles of the Reliability Engineer 16 1.6.2 Timing of Reliability Studies 17 1.7 Objectives, Scope, and Delimitations of the Book 17 1.8 Trends and Challenges 19 1.9 Standards and Guidelines 20 1.10 History of System Reliability 20 1.11 Problems 26 References 27 2 The Study Object and its Functions 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 System and System Elements 31 2.2.1 Item 32 2.2.2 Embedded Item 33 2.3 Boundary Conditions 33 2.3.1 Closed and Open Systems 34 2.4 Operating Context 35 2.5 Functions and Performance Requirements 35 2.5.1 Functions 35 2.5.2 Performance Requirements 36 2.5.3 Classification of Functions 37 2.5.4 Functional Modeling and Analysis 38 2.5.5 Function Trees 38 2.5.6 SADT and IDEF 0 39 2.6 System Analysis 41 2.6.1 Synthesis 41 2.7 Simple, Complicated, and Complex Systems 42 2.8 System Structure Modeling 44 2.8.1 Reliability Block Diagram 44 2.8.2 Series Structure 46 2.8.3 Parallel Structure 46 2.8.4 Redundancy 47 2.8.5 Voted Structure 47 2.8.6 Standby Structure 48 2.8.7 More Complicated Structures 48 2.8.8 Two Different System Functions 49 2.8.9 Practical Construction of RBDs 50 2.9 Problems 51 References 52 3 Failures and Faults 55 3.1 Introduction 55 3.1.1 States and Transitions 56 3.1.2 Operational Modes 56 3.2 Failures 57 3.2.1 Failures in a State 58 3.2.2 Failures During Transition 59 3.3 Faults 60 3.4 Failure Modes 60 3.5 Failure Causes and Effects 62 3.5.1 Failure Causes 62 3.5.2 Proximate Causes and Root Causes 63 3.5.3 Hierarchy of Causes 64 3.6 Classification of Failures and Failure Modes 64 3.6.1 Classification According to Local Consequence 65 3.6.2 Classification According to Cause 65 3.6.3 Failure Mechanisms 70 3.6.4 Software Faults 71 3.6.5 Failure Effects 71 3.7 Failure/Fault Analysis 72 3.7.1 Cause and Effect Analysis 73 3.7.2 Root Cause Analysis 74 3.8 Problems 76 References 77 4 Qualitative System Reliability Analysis 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.1.1 Deductive Versus Inductive Analysis 80 4.2 FMEA/FMECA 80 4.2.1 Types of FMECA 81 4.2.2 Objectives of FMECA 82 4.2.3 FMECA Procedure 83 4.2.4 Applications 87 4.3 Fault Tree Analysis 88 4.3.1 Fault Tree Symbols and Elements 88 4.3.2 Definition of the Problem and the Boundary Conditions 91 4.3.3 Constructing the Fault Tree 92 4.3.4 Identification of Minimal Cut and Path Sets 95 4.3.5 MOCUS 96 4.3.6 Qualitative Evaluation of the Fault Tree 98 4.3.7 Dynamic Fault Trees 101 4.4 Event Tree Analysis 103 4.4.1 Initiating Event 104 4.4.2 Safety Functions 105 4.4.3 Event Tree Construction 106 4.4.4 Description of Resulting Event Sequences 106 4.5 Fault Trees versus Reliability Block Diagrams 109 4.5.1 Recommendation 111 4.6 Structure Function 111 4.6.1 Series Structure 112 4.6.2 Parallel Structure 112 4.6.3 koon:G Structure 113 4.6.4 Truth Tables 114 4.7 System Structure Analysis 114 4.7.1 Single Points of Failure 115 4.7.2 Coherent Structures 115 4.7.3 General Properties of Coherent Structures 117 4.7.4 Structures Represented by Paths and Cuts 119 4.7.5 Pivotal Decomposition 123 4.7.6 Modules of Coherent Structures 124 4.8 Bayesian Networks 127 4.8.1 Illustrative Examples 128 4.9 Problems 131 References 138 5 Probability Distributions in Reliability Analysis 141 5.1 Introduction 141 5.1.1 State Variable 142 5.1.2 Time-to-Failure 142 5.2 A Dataset 143 5.2.1 Relative Frequency Distribution 143 5.2.2 Empirical Distribution and Survivor Function 144 5.3 General Characteristics of Time-to-Failure Distributions 145 5.3.1 Survivor Function 147 5.3.2 Failure Rate Function 148 5.3.3 Conditional Survivor Function 153 5.3.4 Mean Time-to-Failure 154 5.3.5 Additional Probability Metrics 155 5.3.6 Mean Residual Lifetime 157 5.3.7 Mixture of Time-to-Failure Distributions 160 5.4 Some Time-to-Failure Distributions 161 5.4.1 The Exponential Distribution 161 5.4.2 The Gamma Distribution 168 5.4.3 TheWeibull Distribution 173 5.4.4 The Normal Distribution 180 5.4.5 The Lognormal Distribution 183 5.4.6 Additional Time-to-Failure Distributions 188 5.5 Extreme Value Distributions 188 5.5.1 The Gumbel Distribution of the Smallest Extreme 190 5.5.2 The Gumbel Distribution of the Largest Extreme 191 5.5.3 TheWeibull Distribution of the Smallest Extreme 191 5.6 Time-to-Failure Models With Covariates 193 5.6.1 Accelerated Failure Time Models 194 5.6.2 The Arrhenius Model 195 5.6.3 Proportional Hazards Models 198 5.7 Additional Continuous Distributions 198 5.7.1 The Uniform Distribution 198 5.7.2 The Beta Distribution 199 5.8 Discrete Distributions 200 5.8.1 Binomial Situation 200 5.8.2 The Binomial Distribution 201 5.8.3 The Geometric Distribution 201 5.8.4 The Negative Binomial Distribution 202 5.8.5 The Homogeneous Poisson Process 203 5.9 Classes of Time-to-Failure Distributions 205 5.9.1 IFR and DFR Distributions 206 5.9.2 IFRA and DFRA Distributions 208 5.9.3 NBU and NWU Distributions 208 5.9.4 NBUE and NWUE Distributions 209 5.9.5 Some Implications 209 5.10 Summary of Time-to-Failure Distributions 210 5.11 Problems 210 References 218 6 System Reliability Analysis 221 6.1 Introduction 221 6.1.1 Assumptions 222 6.2 System Reliability 222 6.2.1 Reliability of Series Structures 223 6.2.2 Reliability of Parallel Structures 224 6.2.3 Reliability of koon Structures 225 6.2.4 Pivotal Decomposition 226 6.2.5 Critical Component 227 6.3 Nonrepairable Systems 228 6.3.1 Nonrepairable Series Structures 228 6.3.2 Nonrepairable Parallel Structures 230 6.3.3 Nonrepairable 2oo3 Structures 234 6.3.4 A Brief Comparison 235 6.3.5 Nonrepairable koon Structures 236 6.4 Standby Redundancy 237 6.4.1 Passive Redundancy, Perfect Switching, No Repairs 238 6.4.2 Cold Standby, Imperfect Switch, No Repairs 240 6.4.3 Partly Loaded Redundancy, Imperfect Switch, No Repairs 241 6.5 Single Repairable Items 242 6.5.1 Availability 243 6.5.2 Average Availability with Perfect Repair 244 6.5.3 Availability of a Single Item with Constant Failure and Repair Rates 246 6.5.4 Operational Availability 247 6.5.5 Production Availability 248 6.5.6 Punctuality 249 6.5.7 Failure Rate of Repairable Items 249 6.6 Availability of Repairable Systems 252 6.6.1 The MUT and MDT of Repairable Systems 253 6.6.2 Computation Based on Minimal Cut Sets 258 6.6.3 Uptimes and Downtimes for Reparable Systems 260 6.7 Quantitative Fault Tree Analysis 262 6.7.1 Terminology and Symbols 263 6.7.2 Delimitations and Assumptions 263 6.7.3 Fault Trees with a Single AND-Gate 264 6.7.4 Fault Tree with a Single OR-Gate 265 6.7.5 The Upper Bound Approximation Formula for Q0(t) 265 6.7.6 The Inclusion–Exclusion Principle 267 6.7.7 ROCOF of a Minimal Cut Parallel Structure 271 6.7.8 Frequency of the TOP Event 271 6.7.9 Binary Decision Diagrams 273 6.8 Event Tree Analysis 275 6.9 Bayesian Networks 277 6.9.1 Influence and Cause 278 6.9.2 Independence Assumptions 278 6.9.3 Conditional Probability Table 279 6.9.4 Conditional Independence 280 6.9.5 Inference and Learning 282 6.9.6 BN and Fault Tree Analysis 282 6.10 Monte Carlo Simulation 284 6.10.1 Random Number Generation 285 6.10.2 Monte Carlo Next Event Simulation 287 6.10.3 Simulation of Multicomponent Systems 289 6.11 Problems 291 References 296 7 Reliability Importance Metrics 299 7.1 Introduction 299 7.1.1 Objectives of Reliability Importance Metrics 300 7.1.2 Reliability Importance Metrics Considered 300 7.1.3 Assumptions and Notation 301 7.2 Critical Components 302 7.3 Birnbaum’s Metric for Structural Importance 304 7.4 Birnbaum’s Metric of Reliability Importance 305 7.4.1 Birnbaum’s Metric in Fault Tree Analysis 307 7.4.2 A Second Definition of Birnbaum’s Metric 308 7.4.3 A Third Definition of Birnbaum’s Metric 310 7.4.4 Computation of Birnbaum’s Metric for Structural Importance 312 7.4.5 Variants of Birnbaum’s Metric 312 7.5 Improvement Potential 313 7.5.1 Relation to Birnbaum’s Metric 314 7.5.2 A Variant of the Improvement Potential 314 7.6 Criticality Importance 315 7.7 Fussell–Vesely’s Metric 317 7.7.1 Derivation of Formulas for Fussell–Vesely’s Metric 317 7.7.2 Relationship to Other Metrics for Importance 320 7.8 Differential Importance Metric 323 7.8.1 Option 1 323 7.8.2 Option 2 324 7.9 Importance Metrics for Safety Features 326 7.9.1 Risk AchievementWorth 327 7.9.2 Risk ReductionWorth 329 7.9.3 Relationship with the Improvement Potential 330 7.10 Barlow–Proschan’s Metric 331 7.11 Problems 333 References 335 8 Dependent Failures 337 8.1 Introduction 337 8.1.1 Dependent Events and Variables 337 8.1.2 Correlated Variables 338 8.2 Types of Dependence 340 8.3 Cascading Failures 340 8.3.1 Tight Coupling 342 8.4 Common-Cause Failures 342 8.4.1 Multiple Failures that Are Not a CCF 344 8.4.2 Causes of CCF 344 8.4.3 Defenses Against CCF 345 8.5 CCF Models and Analysis 346 8.5.1 Explicit Modeling 347 8.5.2 Implicit Modeling 348 8.5.3 Modeling Approach 348 8.5.4 Model Assumptions 349 8.6 Basic Parameter Model 349 8.6.1 Probability of a Specific Multiplicity 350 8.6.2 Conditional Probability of a Specific Multiplicity 351 8.7 Beta-Factor Model 352 8.7.1 Relation to the BPM 354 8.7.2 Beta-Factor Model in System Analysis 354 8.7.3 Beta-Factor Model for Nonidentical Components 358 8.7.4 C-Factor Model 360 8.8 Multi-parameter Models 360 8.8.1 Binomial Failure Rate Model 360 8.8.2 Multiple Greek Letter Model 362 8.8.3 Alpha-Factor Model 364 8.8.4 Multiple Beta-Factor Model 365 8.9 Problems 366 References 368 9 Maintenance and Maintenance Strategies 371 9.1 Introduction 371 9.1.1 What is Maintenance? 372 9.2 Maintainability 372 9.3 Maintenance Categories 374 9.3.1 Completeness of a Repair Task 377 9.3.2 Condition Monitoring 377 9.4 Maintenance Downtime 378 9.4.1 Downtime Caused by Failures 379 9.4.2 Downtime of a Series Structure 381 9.4.3 Downtime of a Parallel Structure 381 9.4.4 Downtime of a General Structure 382 9.5 Reliability Centered Maintenance 382 9.5.1 What is RCM? 383 9.5.2 Main Steps of an RCM Analysis 384 9.6 Total Productive Maintenance 396 9.7 Problems 398 References 399 10 Counting Processes 401 10.1 Introduction 401 10.1.1 Counting Processes 401 10.1.2 Basic Concepts 406 10.1.3 Martingale Theory 408 10.1.4 Four Types of Counting Processes 409 10.2 Homogeneous Poisson Processes 410 10.2.1 Main Features of the HPP 411 10.2.2 Asymptotic Properties 412 10.2.3 Estimate and Confidence Interval 412 10.2.4 Sum and Decomposition of HPPs 413 10.2.5 Conditional Distribution of Failure Time 414 10.2.6 Compound HPPs 415 10.3 Renewal Processes 417 10.3.1 Basic Concepts 417 10.3.2 The Distribution of Sn 418 10.3.3 The Distribution of N(t) 420 10.3.4 The Renewal Function 421 10.3.5 The Renewal Density 423 10.3.6 Age and Remaining Lifetime 427 10.3.7 Bounds for the Renewal Function 431 10.3.8 Superimposed Renewal Processes 433 10.3.9 Renewal Reward Processes 434 10.3.10 Delayed Renewal Processes 436 10.3.11 Alternating Renewal Processes 438 10.4 Nonhomogeneous Poisson Processes 447 10.4.1 Introduction and Definitions 447 10.4.2 Some Results 449 10.4.3 Parametric NHPP Models 452 10.4.4 Statistical Tests of Trend 454 10.5 Imperfect Repair Processes 455 10.5.1 Brown and Proschan’s model 456 10.5.2 Failure Rate Reduction Models 458 10.5.3 Age Reduction Models 461 10.5.4 Trend Renewal Process 462 10.6 Model Selection 464 10.7 Problems 466 References 470 11 Markov Analysis 473 11.1 Introduction 473 11.1.1 Markov Property 475 11.2 Markov Processes 476 11.2.1 Procedure to Establish the Transition Rate Matrix 479 11.2.2 Chapman–Kolmogorov Equations 482 11.2.3 Kolmogorov Differential Equations 483 11.2.4 State Equations 484 11.3 Asymptotic Solution 487 11.3.1 System Performance Metrics 492 11.4 Parallel and Series Structures 495 11.4.1 Parallel Structures of Independent Components 495 11.4.2 Series Structures of Independent Components 497 11.4.3 Series Structure of Components Where Failure of One Component Prevents Failure of the Other 499 11.5 Mean Time to First System Failure 501 11.5.1 Absorbing States 501 11.5.2 Survivor Function 504 11.5.3 Mean Time to the First System Failure 505 11.6 Systems with Dependent Components 507 11.6.1 Common Cause Failures 508 11.6.2 Load-Sharing Systems 510 11.7 Standby Systems 512 11.7.1 Parallel System with Cold Standby and Perfect Switching 513 11.7.2 Parallel System with Cold Standby and Perfect Switching (Item A is the Main Operating Item) 515 11.7.3 Parallel System with Cold Standby and Imperfect Switching (Item A is the Main Operating Item) 517 11.7.4 Parallel System with Partly Loaded Standby and Perfect Switching (Item A is the Main Operating Item) 518 11.8 Markov Analysis in Fault Tree Analysis 519 11.8.1 Cut Set Information 520 11.8.2 System Information 521 11.9 Time-Dependent Solution 521 11.9.1 Laplace Transforms 522 11.10 Semi-Markov Processes 524 11.11 Multiphase Markov Processes 526 11.11.1 Changing the Transition Rates 526 11.11.2 Changing the Initial State 527 11.12 Piecewise Deterministic Markov Processes 528 11.12.1 Definition of PDMP 529 11.12.2 State Probabilities 529 11.12.3 A Specific Case 530 11.13 Simulation of a Markov Process 532 11.14 Problems 536 References 543 12 Preventive Maintenance 545 12.1 Introduction 545 12.2 Terminology and Cost Function 546 12.3 Time-Based Preventive Maintenance 548 12.3.1 Age Replacement 549 12.3.2 Block Replacement 553 12.3.3 P–F Intervals 557 12.4 Degradation Models 564 12.4.1 Remaining Useful Lifetime 565 12.4.2 Trend Models; Regression-Based Models 567 12.4.3 Models with Increments 569 12.4.4 Shock Models 571 12.4.5 Stochastic Processes with Discrete States 573 12.4.6 Failure Rate Models 574 12.5 Condition-Based Maintenance 574 12.5.1 CBM Strategy 575 12.5.2 Continuous Monitoring and Finite Discrete State Space 576 12.5.3 Continuous Monitoring and Continuous State Space 581 12.5.4 Inspection-Based Monitoring and Finite Discrete State Space 583 12.5.5 Inspection-Based Monitoring and Continuous State Space 586 12.6 Maintenance of Multi-Item Systems 587 12.6.1 System Model 587 12.6.2 Maintenance Models 589 12.6.3 An Illustrative Example 591 12.7 Problems 595 References 601 13 Reliability of Safety Systems 605 13.1 Introduction 605 13.2 Safety-Instrumented Systems 606 13.2.1 Main SIS Functions 607 13.2.2 Testing of SIS Functions 608 13.2.3 Failure Classification 609 13.3 Probability of Failure on Demand 611 13.3.1 Probability of Failure on Demand 612 13.3.2 Approximation Formulas 617 13.3.3 Mean Downtime in a Test Interval 618 13.3.4 Mean Number of Test Intervals Until First Failure 619 13.3.5 Staggered Testing 620 13.3.6 Nonnegligible Repair Time 621 13.4 Safety Unavailability 622 13.4.1 Probability of Critical Situation 623 13.4.2 Spurious Trips 623 13.4.3 Failures Detected by Diagnostic Self-Testing 625 13.5 Common Cause Failures 627 13.5.1 Diagnostic Self-Testing and CCFs 629 13.6 CCFs Between Groups and Subsystems 631 13.6.1 CCFs Between Voted Groups 632 13.6.2 CCFs Between Subsystems 632 13.7 IEC 61508 632 13.7.1 Safety Lifecycle 633 13.7.2 Safety Integrity Level 634 13.7.3 Compliance with IEC 61508 635 13.8 The PDS Method 638 13.9 Markov Approach 639 13.9.1 All Failures are Repaired After Each Test 643 13.9.2 All Critical Failures Are Repaired after Each Test 644 13.9.3 Imperfect Repair after Each Test 644 13.10 Problems 644 References 652 14 Reliability Data Analysis 655 14.1 Introduction 655 14.1.1 Purpose of the Chapter 656 14.2 Some Basic Concepts 656 14.2.1 Datasets 657 14.2.2 Survival Times 658 14.2.3 Categories of Censored Datasets 660 14.2.4 Field Data Collection Exercises 662 14.2.5 At-Risk-Set 663 14.3 Exploratory Data Analysis 663 14.3.1 A Complete Dataset 664 14.3.2 Sample Metrics 665 14.3.3 Histogram 669 14.3.4 Density Plot 670 14.3.5 Empirical Survivor Function 671 14.3.6 Q–Q Plot 673 14.4 Parameter Estimation 674 14.4.1 Estimators and Estimates 675 14.4.2 Properties of Estimators 675 14.4.3 Method of Moments Estimation 677 14.4.4 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 680 14.4.5 Exponentially Distributed Lifetimes 686 14.4.6 Weibull Distributed Lifetimes 692 14.5 The Kaplan–Meier Estimate 696 14.5.1 Motivation for the Kaplan–Meier Estimate Based a Complete Dataset 696 14.5.2 The Kaplan–Meier Estimator for a Censored Dataset 697 14.6 Cumulative Failure Rate Plots 701 14.6.1 The Nelson–Aalen Estimate of the Cumulative Failure Rate 703 14.7 Total-Time-on-Test Plotting 708 14.7.1 Total-Time-on-Test Plot for Complete Datasets 708 14.7.2 Total-Time-on-Test Plot for Censored Datasets 721 14.7.3 A Brief Comparison 722 14.8 Survival Analysis with Covariates 723 14.8.1 Proportional Hazards Model 723 14.8.2 Cox Models 726 14.8.3 Estimating the Parameters of the Cox Model 727 14.9 Problems 730 References 736 15 Bayesian Reliability Analysis 739 15.1 Introduction 739 15.1.1 Three Interpretations of Probability 739 15.1.2 Bayes’ Formula 741 15.2 Bayesian Data Analysis 742 15.2.1 Frequentist Data Analysis 743 15.2.2 Bayesian Data Analysis 743 15.2.3 Model for Observed Data 745 15.2.4 Prior Distribution 745 15.2.5 Observed Data 746 15.2.6 Likelihood Function 746 15.2.7 Posterior Distribution 747 15.3 Selection of Prior Distribution 749 15.3.1 Binomial Model 749 15.3.2 Exponential Model – Single Observation 752 15.3.3 Exponential Model – Multiple Observations 753 15.3.4 Homogeneous Poisson Process 755 15.3.5 Noninformative Prior Distributions 757 15.4 Bayesian Estimation 758 15.4.1 Bayesian Point Estimation 758 15.4.2 Credible Intervals 760 15.5 Predictive Distribution 761 15.6 Models with Multiple Parameters 762 15.7 Bayesian Analysis with R 762 15.8 Problems 764 References 766 16 Reliability Data: Sources and Quality 767 16.1 Introduction 767 16.1.1 Categories of Input Data 767 16.1.2 Parameters Estimates 768 16.2 Generic Reliability Databases 769 16.2.1 OREDA 770 16.2.2 PDS Data Handbook 772 16.2.3 PERD 773 16.2.4 SERH 773 16.2.5 NPRD, EPRD, and FMD 773 16.2.6 GADS 774 16.2.7 GIDEP 774 16.2.8 FMEDA Approach 775 16.2.9 Failure Event Databases 775 16.3 Reliability Prediction 775 16.3.1 MIL-HDBK-217 Approach 776 16.3.2 Similar Methods 778 16.4 Common Cause Failure Data 778 16.4.1 ICDE 779 16.4.2 IEC 61508 Method 779 16.5 Data Analysis and Data Quality 780 16.5.1 Outdated Technology 780 16.5.2 Inventory Data 781 16.5.3 Constant Failure Rates 781 16.5.4 Multiple Samples 783 16.5.5 Data From Manufacturers 785 16.5.6 Questioning the Data Quality 785 16.6 Data Dossier 785 16.6.1 Final Remarks 785 References 787 Appendix A Acronyms 789 Appendix B Laplace Transforms 793 B.1 Important Properties of Laplace Transforms 794 B.2 Laplace Transforms of Some Selected Functions 794 Author Index 797 Subject Index 803

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Book SynopsisIntroduces risk assessment with key theories, proven methods, and state-of-the-art applications Risk Assessment: Theory, Methods, and Applicationsremains one of the few textbooks to address current risk analysis and risk assessment with an emphasis on the possibility of sudden, major accidents across various areas of practicefrom machinery and manufacturing processes to nuclear power plants and transportation systems. Updated to align with ISO 31000 and other amended standards, this all-new2nd Editiondiscusses the main ideas and techniques for assessing risk today. The book begins with an introduction of risk analysis, assessment, and management, and includes a new section on the history of risk analysis. It covers hazards and threats, how to measure and evaluate risk, and risk management. It also adds new sections on risk governance and risk-informed decision making; combining accident theories and criteria for evaluating data sources; and subjectTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Site xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Risk in Our Modern Society 1 1.2 Important Trends 2 1.3 Major Accidents 4 1.4 History of Risk Assessment 4 1.5 Applications of Risk Assessment 9 1.6 Objectives, Scope, and Delimitation 11 1.7 Problems 12 References 13 2 The Words of Risk Analysis 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Risk 16 2.3 What Can Go Wrong? 20 2.4 What is the Likelihood? 38 2.5 What are the Consequences? 44 2.6 Additional Terms 49 2.7 Problems 54 References 56 3 Main Elements of Risk Assessment 59 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Risk Assessment Process 60 3.3 Risk Assessment Report 76 3.4 Risk Assessment in Safety Legislation 81 3.5 Validity and Quality Aspects of a Risk Assessment 82 3.6 Problems 83 References 84 4 Study Object and Limitations 87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Study Object 87 4.3 Operating Context 91 4.4 System Modeling and Analysis 92 4.5 Complexity 95 4.6 Problems 97 References 98 5 Risk Acceptance 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Risk Acceptance Criteria 99 5.3 Approaches to Establishing Risk Acceptance Criteria 106 5.4 Risk Acceptance Criteria for Other Assets than Humans 114 5.5 Closure 115 5.6 Problems 115 References 117 6 Measuring Risk 121 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Risk Metrics 121 6.3 Measuring Risk to People 123 6.4 Risk Matrices 148 6.5 Reduction in Life Expectancy 154 6.6 Choice and Use of Risk Metrics 156 6.7 Risk Metrics for Other Assets 158 6.8 Problems 159 References 163 7 Risk Management 167 7.1 Introduction 167 7.2 Scope, Context, and Criteria 170 7.3 Risk Assessment 170 7.4 Risk Treatment 171 7.5 Communication and Consultation 172 7.6 Monitoring and Review 173 7.7 Recording and Reporting 174 7.8 Stakeholders 175 7.9 Risk and Decision-Making 176 7.10 Safety Legislation 179 7.11 Problems 180 References 180 8 Accident Models 183 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Accident Classification 183 8.3 Accident Investigation 188 8.4 Accident Causation 188 8.5 Accident Models 190 8.6 Energy and Barrier Models 193 8.7 Sequential Accident Models 195 8.8 Epidemiological Accident Models 201 8.9 Event Causation and Sequencing Models 208 8.10 Systemic Accident Models 213 8.11 Combining Accident Models 228 8.12 Problems 229 References 230 9 Data for Risk Analysis 235 9.1 Types of Data 235 9.2 Quality and Applicability of Data 238 9.3 Data Sources 239 9.4 Expert Judgment 250 9.5 Data Dossier 254 9.6 Problems 254 References 257 10 Hazard Identification 259 10.1 Introduction 259 10.2 Checklist Methods 263 10.3 Preliminary Hazard Analysis 266 10.4 Job Safety Analysis 278 10.5 FMECA 287 10.6 HAZOP 295 10.7 STPA 306 10.8 SWIFT 316 10.9 Comparing Semiquantitative Methods 322 10.10 Master Logic Diagram 322 10.11 Change Analysis 324 10.12 Hazard Log 327 10.13 Problems 331 References 335 11 Causal and Frequency Analysis 339 11.1 Introduction 339 11.2 Cause and Effect Diagram Analysis 341 11.3 Fault Tree Analysis 344 11.4 Bayesian Networks 370 11.5 Markov Methods 384 11.6 Problems 396 References 400 12 Development of Accident Scenarios 401 12.1 Introduction 401 12.2 Event Tree Analysis 402 12.3 Event Sequence Diagrams 426 12.4 Cause–Consequence Analysis 426 12.5 Hybrid Causal Logic 428 12.6 Escalation Problems 429 12.7 Consequence Models 429 12.8 Problems 431 References 435 13 Dependent Failures and Events 437 13.1 Introduction 437 13.2 Dependent Failures and Events 437 13.3 Dependency in Accident Scenarios 439 13.4 Cascading Failures 441 13.5 Common-Cause Failures 442 13.6 𝛽-Factor Model 452 13.7 Binomial Failure Rate Model 456 13.8 Multiple Greek Letter Model 457 13.9 𝛼-Factor Model 459 13.10 Multiple 𝛽-Factor Model 461 13.11 Problems 461 References 462 14 Barriers and Barrier Analysis 465 14.1 Introduction 465 14.2 Barriers and Barrier Classification 466 14.3 Barrier Management 474 14.4 Barrier Properties 476 14.5 Safety-Instrumented Systems 477 14.6 Hazard–Barrier Matrices 487 14.7 Safety Barrier Diagrams 488 14.8 Bow-Tie Diagrams 490 14.9 Energy Flow/Barrier Analysis 490 14.10 Layer of Protection Analysis 493 14.11 Barrier and Operational Risk Analysis 502 14.12 Systematic Identification and Evaluation of Risk Reduction Measures 512 14.13 Problems 518 References 520 15 Human Reliability Analysis 525 15.1 Introduction 525 15.2 Task Analysis 536 15.3 Human Error Identification 543 15.4 HRA Methods 552 15.5 Problems 573 References 574 16 Risk Analysis and Management for Operation 579 16.1 Introduction 579 16.2 Decisions About Risk 581 16.3 Aspects of Risk to Consider 583 16.4 Risk Indicators 585 16.5 Risk Modeling 594 16.6 Operational Risk Analysis – Updating the QRA 596 16.7 MIRMAP 598 16.8 Problems 601 References 602 17 Security Assessment 605 17.1 Introduction 605 17.2 Main Elements of Security Assessment 608 17.3 Industrial Control and Safety Systems 615 17.4 Security Assessment 617 17.5 Security Assessment Methods 625 17.6 Application Areas 626 17.7 Problems 627 References 628 18 Life Cycle Use of Risk Analysis 631 18.1 Introduction 631 18.2 Phases in the Life Cycle 631 18.3 Comments Applicable to all Phases 634 18.4 Feasibility and Concept Selection 635 18.5 Preliminary Design 637 18.6 Detailed Design and Construction 639 18.7 Operation and Maintenance 641 18.8 Major Modifications 641 18.9 Decommissioning and Removal 643 18.10 Problems 643 References 643 19 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis 645 19.1 Introduction 645 19.2 Uncertainty 647 19.3 Categories of Uncertainty 648 19.4 Contributors to Uncertainty 651 19.5 Uncertainty Propagation 656 19.6 Sensitivity Analysis 661 19.7 Problems 663 References 664 20 Development and Applications of Risk Assessment 667 20.1 Introduction 667 20.2 Defense and Defense Industry 668 20.3 Nuclear Power Industry 670 20.4 Process Industry 674 20.5 Offshore Oil and Gas Industry 678 20.6 Space Industry 681 20.7 Aviation 683 20.8 Railway Transport 685 20.9 Marine Transport 686 20.10 Machinery Systems 689 20.11 Food Safety 690 20.12 Other Application Areas 692 20.13 Closure 695 References 697 Appendix A Elements of Probability Theory 701 A.1 Introduction 701 A.2 Outcomes and Events 701 A.3 Probability 706 A.4 Random Variables 710 A.5 Some Specific Distributions 718 A.6 Point and Interval Estimation 728 A.7 Bayesian Approach 732 A.8 Probability of Frequency Approach 733 References 739 Appendix B Acronyms 741 Author Index 747 Subject Index 753

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAcknowledgement xv Acronyms xvii Notations xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Birth of Satellite Communications 1 1.2 Development of Satellite Communications 1 1.3 Configuration of a Satellite Communications System 3 1.4 Types of Orbit 11 1.5 Radio Regulations 16 1.6 Technology Trends 21 1.7 Services 23 1.8 The Way Forward 25 2 Orbits and Related Issues 29 2.1 Keplerian Orbits 29 2.2 Useful Orbits for Satellite Communication 53 2.3 Perturbations of Orbits 80 2.4 Conclusion 110 3 Baseband Digital Signals, Packet Networks, and Quality of Service (QOS) 113 3.1 Baseband Signals 114 3.2 Performance Objectives 123 3.3 Availability Objectives 124 3.4 Delay 126 3.5 IP Packet Transfer QOS and Network Performance 128 3.6 Conclusion 133 4 Digital Communications Techniques 135 4.1 Baseband Formatting 137 4.2 Digital Modulation 138 4.3 Channel Coding 153 4.4 Channel Coding and the Power–Bandwidth Trade-Off 157 4.5 Coded Modulation 162 4.6 End-To-End Error Control 169 4.7 Digital Video Broadcasting via Satellite (DVB-S) 170 4.8 Second Generation DVB-S (DVB-S2) 175 4.9 New Features of DVB-S2X 183 4.10 Conclusion 184 5 Uplink, Downlink, and Overall Link Performance; Intersatellite Links 189 5.1 Configuration of a Link 190 5.2 Antenna Parameters 190 5.3 Radiated Power 196 5.4 Received Signal Power 197 5.5 Noise Power Spectral Density at the Receiver Input 203 5.6 INDIVIDUAL LINK PERFORMANCE 213 5.7 Influence of the Atmosphere 219 5.8 Mitigation of Atmospheric Impairments 238 5.9 Overall Link Performance with Transparent Satellite 241 5.10 Overall Link Performance with Regenerative Satellite 252 5.11 Link Performance with Multibeam Antenna Coverage vs. Monobeam Coverage 257 5.12 Intersatellite Link Performance 265 6 Multiple Access 275 6.1 Layered Data Transmission 275 6.2 Traffic Parameters 276 6.3 TRAFFIC ROUTING 280 6.4 ACCESS TECHNIQUES 281 6.5 FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA) 284 6.6 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA) 290 6.7 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA) 303 6.8 FIXED AND ON-DEMAND ASSIGNMENT 314 6.9 RANDOM ACCESS 317 6.10 CONCLUSION 322 7 Satellite Networks 325 7.1 Network Reference Models and Protocols 325 7.2 Reference Architecture for Satellite Networks 329 7.3 Basic Characteristics of Satellite Networks 330 7.4 Satellite On-Board Connectivity 334 7.5 Connectivity Through Intersatellite Links (ISLs) 347 7.6 Satellite Broadcast Networks 353 7.7 Broadband Satellite Networks 356 7.8 Transmission Control Protocol 387 7.9 IPV6 OVER SATELLITE NETWORKS 393 7.10 CONCLUSION 396 8 Earth Stations 401 8.1 Station Organisation 401 8.2 Radio-Frequency Characteristics 402 8.3 The Antenna Subsystem 415 8.4 The Radio-Frequency Subsystem 450 8.5 Communication Subsystems 459 8.6 The Network Interface Subsystem 466 8.7 Monitoring and Control; Auxiliary Equipment 474 8.8 Conclusion 476 9 The Communication Payload 479 9.1 Mission and Characteristics of the Payload 479 9.2 Transparent Repeater 482 9.3 Regenerative Repeater 509 9.4 Multibeam Antenna Payload 511 9.5 Introduction to Flexible Payloads 520 9.6 Solid State Equipment Technology 522 9.7 Antenna Coverage 523 9.8 Antenna Characteristics 543 9.9 Conclusion 569 10 The Platform 573 10.1 Subsystems 575 10.2 Attitude Control 576 10.3 The Propulsion Subsystem 595 10.4 The Electric Power Supply 610 10.5 Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TTC) and On-Board Data Handling (OBDH) 629 10.6 Thermal Control and Structure 648 10.7 Developments and Trends 655 11 Satellite Installation and Launch Vehicles 659 11.1 Installation in Orbit 659 11.2 Launch Vehicles 685 12 The Space Environment 721 12.1 Vacuum 721 12.2 The Mechanical Environment 722 12.3 Radiation 726 12.4 Flux of High-Energy Particles 730 12.5 The Environment During Installation 734 13 Reliability and Availability of Satellite Communications Systems 737 13.1 Introduction to Reliability 737 13.2 Satellite System Availability 741 13.3 Subsystem Reliability 743 13.4 Component Reliability 749 References 754 Index 755

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive tutorial on photovoltaic technology now fully updated to include solar storage and the latest methods for on-site plant measurements Starting with the basic principles of solar energy, this fully updated, practical text explains the fundamentals of semiconductor physics and the structure and functioning of the solar cell. It describes the latest measurement techniques for solar modules, and the planning and operation of grid-connected and off-grid PV systems. It also looks at other thin film cells, hybrid wafer cells, and concentrator systems. Additionally, this Second Edition covers solar modules and solar generators; system technology of grid connected plants; the storage of solar energy; photovoltaic measurement technology; the planning and operation of grid-connected systems; economic efficiency of PV systems; and the future development of PV. Presents the latest advances in PV R&D and industry deployment Updated Table of ContentsPreface to the First International Edition xv Preface to the Second International Edition xvii Abbreviations xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Why Photovoltaics? 1 1.1.2 Who Should Read This Book? 2 1.1.3 Structure of the Book 2 1.2 What Is Energy? 3 1.2.1 Definition of Energy 3 1.2.2 Units of Energy 4 1.2.3 Primary, Secondary, and End Energy 5 1.2.4 Energy Content of Various Substances 6 1.3 Problems with Today’s Energy Supply 7 1.3.1 Growing Energy Requirements 7 1.3.2 Tightening of Resources 8 1.3.3 Climate Change 9 1.3.4 Hazards and Disposal 11 1.4 Renewable Energies 11 1.4.1 The Family of Renewable Energies 11 1.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Renewable Energies 12 1.4.3 Previous Development of Renewable Energies 13 1.5 Photovoltaics – The Most Important in Brief 13 1.5.1 What Does “Photovoltaics” Mean? 13 1.5.2 What Are Solar Cells and Solar Modules? 14 1.5.3 How Is a Typical Photovoltaic Plant Structured? 14 1.5.4 What Does a Photovoltaic Plant “Bring?” 15 1.6 History of Photovoltaics 16 1.6.1 How It all Began 16 1.6.2 The First Real Solar Cells 17 1.6.3 From Space to Earth 19 1.6.4 From Toy to Energy Source 20 2 Solar Radiation 23 2.1 Properties of Solar Radiation 23 2.1.1 Solar Constant 23 2.1.2 Spectrum of the Sun 23 2.1.3 Air Mass 25 2.2 Global Radiation 25 2.2.1 Origin of Global Radiation 25 2.2.2 Contributions of Diffuse and Direct Radiation 26 2.2.3 Global Radiation Maps 28 2.3 Calculation of the Position of the Sun 30 2.3.1 Declination of the Sun 30 2.3.2 Calculating the Path of the Sun 32 2.4 Radiation on Tilted Surfaces 35 2.4.1 Radiation Calculation with the Three-component Model 35 2.4.1.1 Direct Radiation 35 2.4.1.2 Diffuse Radiation 36 2.4.1.3 Reflected Radiation 37 2.4.2 Radiation Estimates with Diagrams and Tables 38 2.4.3 Yield Gain through Tracking 41 2.5 Radiation Availability and World Energy Consumption 41 2.5.1 The Solar Radiation Energy Cube 41 2.5.2 The Sahara Miracle 45 3 Fundamentals of Semiconductor Physics 47 3.1 Structure of a Semiconductor 47 3.1.1 Bohr’s Atomic Model 47 3.1.2 Periodic Table of Elements 49 3.1.3 Structure of the Silicon Crystal 49 3.1.4 Compound Semiconductors 49 3.2 Band Model of a Semiconductor 51 3.2.1 Origin of Energy Bands 51 3.2.2 Differences in Isolators, Semiconductors, and Conductors 53 3.2.3 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration 53 3.3 Charge Transport in Semiconductors 55 3.3.1 Field Currents 55 3.3.2 Diffusion Currents 56 3.4 Doping of Semiconductors 57 3.4.1 n-Doping 57 3.4.2 p-Doping 58 3.5 The p–n Junction 59 3.5.1 Principle of Method of Operation 59 3.5.2 Band Diagram of the p–n Junction 61 3.5.3 Behavior with Applied Voltage 62 3.5.4 Diode Characteristics 63 3.6 Interaction of Light and Semiconductors 64 3.6.1 Phenomenon of Light Absorption 64 3.6.1.1 Absorption Coefficient 65 3.6.1.2 Direct and Indirect Semiconductors 65 3.6.2 Light Reflection on Surfaces 67 3.6.2.1 Reflection Factor 67 3.6.2.2 Antireflection Coating 69 4 Structure and Method of Operation of Solar Cells 71 4.1 Consideration of the Photodiode 71 4.1.1 Structure and Characteristics 71 4.1.2 Equivalent Circuit 73 4.2 Method of Function of the Solar Cell 73 4.2.1 Principle of the Structure 73 4.2.2 Recombination and Diffusion Length 74 4.2.3 What Happens in the Individual Cell Regions? 75 4.2.3.1 Absorption in the Emitter 75 4.2.3.2 Absorption in the Space Charge Region 76 4.2.3.3 Absorption Within the Diffusion Length of the Electrons 76 4.2.3.4 Absorption Outside the Diffusion Length of the Electrons 76 4.2.4 Back-surface Field 77 4.3 Photocurrent 77 4.3.1 Absorption Efficiency 78 4.3.2 Quantum Efficiency 79 4.3.3 Spectral Sensitivity 79 4.4 Characteristic Curve and Characteristic Parameters 80 4.4.1 Short-circuit Current ISC 81 4.4.2 Open-circuit Voltage V OC 82 4.4.3 Maximum Power Point (MPP) 82 4.4.4 Fill Factor (FF) 82 4.4.5 Efficiency 𝜂 83 4.4.6 Temperature Dependence of Solar Cells 83 4.5 Electrical Description of Real Solar Cells 85 4.5.1 Simplified Model 85 4.5.2 Standard Model (Single-diode Model) 86 4.5.3 Two-diode Model 86 4.5.4 Determining the Parameters of the Equivalent Circuit 88 4.6 Considering Efficiency 90 4.6.1 Spectral Efficiency 91 4.6.2 Theoretical Efficiency 94 4.6.3 Losses in Real Solar Cells 96 4.6.3.1 Optical Losses, Reflection on the Surface 96 4.6.3.2 Electrical Losses and Ohmic Losses 98 4.7 High-efficiency Cells 99 4.7.1 Buried-contact Cell 99 4.7.2 Point-contact Cell (IBC Cell) 99 4.7.3 PERL and PERC Cell 101 5 Cell Technologies 103 5.1 Production of Crystalline Silicon Cells 103 5.1.1 From Sand to Silicon 103 5.1.1.1 Production of Polysilicon 103 5.1.1.2 Production of Monocrystalline Silicon 105 5.1.1.3 Production of Multicrystalline Silicon 106 5.1.2 From Silicon to Wafer 107 5.1.2.1 Wafer Production 107 5.1.2.2 Wafers from Ribbon Silicon 107 5.1.3 Production of Standard Solar Cells 108 5.1.4 Production of Solar Modules 111 5.2 Cells of Amorphous Silicon 112 5.2.1 Properties of Amorphous Silicon 112 5.2.2 Production Process 113 5.2.3 Structure of the Pin Cell 113 5.2.4 Staebler–Wronski Effect 115 5.2.5 Stacked Cells 116 5.2.6 Combined Cells of Micromorphous Material 118 5.2.7 Integrated Series Connection 119 5.3 Further Thin Film Cells 120 5.3.1 Cells of Cadmium-Telluride 120 5.3.2 CIS Cells 121 5.4 Hybrid Wafer Cells 123 5.4.1 Combination of c-Si and a-Si (HIT Cell) 123 5.4.2 Stacked Cells of III/V Semiconductors 124 5.5 Other Cell Concepts 125 5.6 Concentrator Systems 126 5.6.1 Principle of Radiation Bundling 126 5.6.2 What Is the Advantage of Concentration? 127 5.6.3 Examples of Concentrator Systems 128 5.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrator Systems 128 5.7 Ecological Questions on Cell and Module Production 129 5.7.1 Environmental Effects of Production and Operation 129 5.7.1.1 Example of Cadmium-Telluride 129 5.7.1.2 Example of Silicon 129 5.7.2 Availability of Materials 130 5.7.2.1 Silicon 130 5.7.2.2 Cadmium-Telluride 131 5.7.2.3 Cadmium Indium Selenide 131 5.7.2.4 III/V Semiconductors 132 5.7.3 Energy Amortization Time and Yield Factor 132 5.8 Summary 135 6 Solar Modules and Solar Generators 139 6.1 Properties of Solar Modules 139 6.1.1 Solar Cell Characteristic Curve in All Four Quadrants 139 6.1.2 Parallel Connection of Cells 139 6.1.3 Series Connection of Cells 141 6.1.4 Use of Bypass Diodes 142 6.1.4.1 Reducing Shading Losses 142 6.1.4.2 Prevention of Hotspots 144 6.1.5 Typical Characteristic Curves of Solar Modules 147 6.1.5.1 Variation of the Irradiance 147 6.1.5.2 Temperature Behavior 147 6.1.6 Special Case Thin-film Modules 149 6.1.7 Examples of Data Sheet Information 150 6.2 Connecting Solar Modules 150 6.2.1 Parallel Connection of Strings 150 6.2.2 What Happens in Case of Cabling Errors? 152 6.2.3 Losses Due to Mismatching 153 6.2.4 Smart Installation in Case of Shading 153 6.3 Direct Current Components 156 6.3.1 Principle of Plant Construction 156 6.3.2 Direct Current Cabling 156 6.4 Types of Plants 158 6.4.1 Ground-mounted Plants 158 6.4.2 Flat-roof Plants 161 6.4.3 Pitched-roof Systems 162 6.4.4 Facade Systems 164 7 System Technology of Grid-connected Plants 165 7.1 Solar Generator and Load 165 7.1.1 Resistive Load 165 7.1.2 DC/DC Converter 166 7.1.2.1 Idea 166 7.1.2.2 Buck Converter 166 7.1.2.3 Boost Converter 169 7.1.3 MPP Tracker 171 7.2 Construction of Grid-connected Systems 172 7.2.1 Feed-in Variations 172 7.2.2 Plant Concepts 173 7.3 Construction of Inverters 174 7.3.1 Tasks of the Inverter 175 7.3.2 Line-commutated and Self-commutated Inverter 175 7.3.3 Inverters Without Transformers 175 7.3.4 Inverters with Mains Transformer 177 7.3.5 Inverters with HF Transformer 178 7.3.6 Three-phase Feed-in 179 7.3.7 Further Clever Concepts 180 7.4 Efficiency of Inverters 181 7.4.1 Conversion Efficiency 181 7.4.2 European Efficiency 184 7.4.3 Clever MPP Tracking 185 7.5 Dimensioning of Inverters 186 7.5.1 Power Dimensioning 186 7.5.2 Voltage Dimensioning 187 7.5.3 Current Dimensioning 188 7.6 Requirements of the Grid Operators 188 7.6.1 Prevention of Stand-Alone Operation 188 7.6.2 Maximum Feed-in Power 190 7.6.3 Reactive Power Provision 191 7.7 Safety Aspects 194 7.7.1 Earthing of the Generator and Lightning Protection 194 7.7.2 Fire Protection 194 8 Storage of Solar Energy 197 8.1 Principle of Solar Storage 197 8.2 Batteries 198 8.2.1 Lead-acid Battery 199 8.2.1.1 Principle and Build-up 199 8.2.1.2 Types of Lead Batteries 201 8.2.1.3 Battery Capacity 203 8.2.1.4 Voltage Progression 203 8.2.1.5 Summary 204 8.2.2 Charge Controllers 204 8.2.2.1 Series Controller 204 8.2.2.2 Shunt Controller 205 8.2.2.3 MPP Controller 205 8.2.2.4 Examples of Products 206 8.2.3 Lithium Ion Battery 206 8.2.3.1 Principle and Build-up 207 8.2.3.2 Reactions During Charging and Discharging 208 8.2.3.3 Material Combinations and Cell Voltage 209 8.2.3.4 Safety Aspects 210 8.2.3.5 Charging Procedures 211 8.2.3.6 Battery Design 211 8.2.3.7 Lifespan 212 8.2.3.8 Application Areas 213 8.2.3.9 Summary 213 8.2.4 Sodium Sulfur Battery 213 8.2.4.1 Principle and Build-up 213 8.2.4.2 Peculiarities of the High Temperature Battery 214 8.2.4.3 Sodium Sulfur Batteries in Practice 215 8.2.4.4 Summary 216 8.2.5 Redox Flow Battery 216 8.2.5.1 Principle and Build-up 216 8.2.5.2 Behavior in Practice 218 8.2.5.3 Concrete Applications 219 8.2.5.4 Summary 220 8.2.6 Comparison of the Different Battery Types 220 8.3 Storage Use for Increase of Self-consumption 220 8.3.1 Self-consumption in Domestic Households 221 8.3.1.1 Solution Without Storage 222 8.3.1.2 Solution with Storage 223 8.3.1.3 Examples of Storage Systems 223 8.3.1.4 How Much Cost a Kilowatt-Hour? 225 8.3.1.5 The Smart Home 226 8.3.2 Self-consumption in Commercial Enterprises 227 8.3.2.1 Example Production Factory 227 8.3.2.2 Example Hospital 227 8.4 Storage Deployment from the Point of View of the Grid 228 8.4.1 Peak-shaving with Storages 229 8.4.2 Governmental Funding Program for Solar Storages 229 8.5 Stand-alone Systems 232 8.5.1 Principal Structure 232 8.5.2 Examples of Stand-alone Systems 232 8.5.2.1 Solar Home Systems 232 8.5.2.2 Hybrid Systems 234 8.5.3 Dimensioning Stand-alone Plants 235 8.5.3.1 Acquiring the Energy Consumption 235 8.5.3.2 Dimensioning the PV Generator 236 8.5.3.3 Selecting the Battery 238 9 Photovoltaic Metrology 241 9.1 Measurement of Solar Radiation 241 9.1.1 Global Radiation Sensors 241 9.1.1.1 Pyranometer 241 9.1.1.2 Radiation Sensors from Solar Cells 243 9.1.2 Measuring Direct and Diffuse Radiation 244 9.2 Measuring the Power of Solar Modules 245 9.2.1 Build-up of a Solar Module Power Test Rig 245 9.2.2 Quality Classification of Module Flashers 246 9.2.3 Determination of the Module Parameters 247 9.3 Peak Power Measurement at Site 248 9.3.1 Principle of Peak Power Measurement 248 9.3.2 Possibilities and Limits of the Measurement Principle 248 9.4 Thermographic Measuring Technology 249 9.4.1 Principle of Infrared Temperature Measurement 250 9.4.2 Bright Thermography of Solar Modules 251 9.4.3 Dark Thermography 254 9.5 Electroluminescence Measuring Technology 254 9.5.1 Principle of Measurement 254 9.5.2 Examples of Photos 255 9.5.3 Low-cost Outdoor Electroluminescence Measurements 257 9.6 Analysis of Potential Induced Degradation (PID) 259 9.6.1 Explanation of the PID Effect 260 9.6.2 Test of Modules for PID 262 9.6.3 EL Investigations to PID 263 10 Design and Operation of Grid-connected Plants 265 10.1 Planning and Dimensioning 265 10.1.1 Selection of Site 265 10.1.2 Shading 265 10.1.2.1 Shading Analysis 266 10.1.2.2 Near Shading 266 10.1.2.3 Self-shading 268 10.1.2.4 Optimized String Connection 269 10.1.3 Plant Dimensioning and Simulation Programs 270 10.1.3.1 Inverter Design Tools 270 10.1.3.2 Simulation Programs for Photovoltaic Plants 270 10.2 Economics of Photovoltaic Plants 272 10.2.1 The Renewable Energy Law 273 10.2.2 Return Calculation 273 10.2.2.1 Input Parameters 273 10.2.2.2 Amortization Time 274 10.2.2.3 Property Return 274 10.2.2.4 Profit Increase Through Self-consumption of Solar Power 276 10.2.2.5 Further Influences 276 10.3 Surveillance, Monitoring, and Visualization 277 10.3.1 Methods of Plant Surveillance 277 10.3.2 Monitoring PV Plants 278 10.3.2.1 Specific Yields 278 10.3.2.2 Losses 279 10.3.2.3 Performance Ratio 279 10.3.2.4 Concrete Measures for Monitoring 280 10.3.3 Visualization 280 10.4 Operating Results of Actual Installations 281 10.4.1 Pitched Roof Installation from 1996 281 10.4.2 Pitched Roof Installation from 2002 282 10.4.3 Flat Roof from 2008 283 11 Future Development 285 11.1 Potential of Photovoltaics 285 11.1.1 Theoretical Potential 285 11.1.2 Technically Useful Radiation Energy 285 11.1.2.1 Roofs 286 11.1.2.2 Facades 286 11.1.2.3 Traffic Routes 287 11.1.2.4 Free Areas 287 11.1.3 Technical Electrical Energy Generation Potential 287 11.1.4 Photovoltaics versus Biomass 288 11.2 Efficient Promotion Instruments 289 11.3 Price and Feed-in Tariff Development 290 11.3.1 Price Development of Solar Modules 290 11.3.2 Development of Feed-in Tariffs 292 11.4 Renewable Energies in Today’s Power Supply System 292 11.4.1 Structure of Electricity Generation 293 11.4.2 Types of Power Plants and Control Energy 293 11.4.3 Interplay Between Sun and Wind 294 11.4.4 Exemplary Electricity Generation Courses 295 11.5 Thoughts on Future Energy Supply 298 11.5.1 Consideration of Different Future Scenarios 298 11.5.2 Options to Store Electrical Energy 301 11.5.2.1 Pumped Storage Power Plants 301 11.5.2.2 Compressed Air Storage 301 11.5.2.3 Battery Storage 302 11.5.2.4 Electric Mobility 302 11.5.2.5 Hydrogen as Storage 302 11.5.2.6 Power to Gas: Methanation 303 11.5.3 Alternatives to Storage 304 11.5.3.1 Active Load Management by Smart Grids 304 11.5.3.2 Expansion of the Electricity Grids 304 11.5.3.3 Limitation of the Feed-in Power 304 11.5.3.4 Use of Flexible Power Plants 304 11.6 Conclusion 305 12 Exercises 307 A Solar Radiation Diagrams 317 B Checklist for Planning, Installing, and Operating a Photovoltaic Plant 327 C Physical Constants/Material Parameters 329 References 331 Further Information on Photovoltaics 339 Index 341

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Book SynopsisA brand new edition of the definitive textbook on humankind's impact on the Earth's environmentnow in full color This classic text explores the multitude of impacts that humans have had over time upon vegetation, animals, soils, water, landforms, and the atmosphere. It considers the ways in which climate changes and modifications in land cover may change the environment in coming decades. Thoroughly revised to cover the remarkable transformation in interest that humans are having in the environment, this book examines previously uncovered topics, such as rewilding, ecosystem services, techniques for study, novel and no analogue ecosystems, and more. It also presents the latest views on big themes such as human origins, the anthropocene, domestication, extinctions, and ecological invasions. Extensively re-written, Human Impact on the Natural Environment, Eighth Edition contains many new and updated statistical tables, figures, and references. It offers enlTable of ContentsPreface to the Eighth Edition xi About the Companion Website xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Development of Ideas 1 1.2 The Anthropocene 5 1.3 The Development of Human Population and Stages of Cultural Development 6 1.4 Hunting and Gathering 10 1.5 Humans as Cultivators and Keepers 12 1.6 Mining and Metals 18 1.7 Modern Industrial and Urban Civilizations 19 1.8 The Great Acceleration 21 1.9 Methods of Study 24 Guide to Reading 25 2 The Human Impact on Vegetation 27 2.1 Human Impacts on Nature 27 2.2 Vegetation Change: Introduction 28 2.3 The Use of Fire 32 2.4 Fires: Natural and Anthropogenic 34 2.5 Some Consequences of Fire Suppression 34 2.6 Some Effects of Fire on Vegetation 35 2.7 The Role of Grazing 37 2.8 Deforestation 39 2.9 Tropical Forests 40 2.10 The Forest Transition 45 2.11 Secondary Rain Forest 48 2.12 The Human Role in the Creation and Maintenance of Savanna 49 2.13 The Spread of Desert Vegetation on Desert Margins 52 2.14 The Maquis of the Mediterranean Lands 56 2.15 The Prairies and Other Mid‐latitude and High‐altitude Grasslands 56 2.16 Post‐glacial Vegetational Change in Britain and Europe 59 2.17 Lowland Heaths 60 2.18 Introduction, Invasion, and Explosion 61 2.19 Air Pollution and Its Effects on Plants 65 2.20 Forest Decline 67 2.21 Miscellaneous Causes of Plant Decline 70 2.22 The Change in Genetic and Species Diversity 71 2.23 Conclusion: Threats to Plant Life 72 Guide to Reading 72 3 The Human Impact on Animals 75 3.1 Domestication of Animals 75 3.2 Dispersal and Invasions of Animals 76 3.3 Human Influence on the Expansion of Animal Populations 82 3.4 Causes of Animal Contractions and Decline: Pollution 86 3.5 Habitat Change and Animal Decline 89 3.6 Other Causes of Animal Decline 93 3.7 Animal Extinctions in Prehistoric Times 98 3.8 Modern‐day Extinctions 102 Guide to Reading 108 4 The Human Impact on the Soil 111 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Salinity: Natural Sources 112 4.3 Human Agency and Increased Salinity 112 4.4 Irrigation Salinity 113 4.5 Dryland Salinity 114 4.6 Urban Salinity 116 4.7 Inter‐basin Water Transfers 116 4.8 Coastal Zone Salinity 116 4.9 Consequences of Salinity 118 4.10 Reclamation of Salt‐affected Lands 118 4.11 Lateritization 120 4.12 Accelerated Podzolization and Acidification 121 4.13 Soil Carbon 122 4.14 Soil Structure Alteration 123 4.15 Soil Drainage and its Impact 125 4.16 Soil Fertilization 126 4.17 Fires and Soil Quality 126 4.18 Some Anthrosols Resulting from Agriculture and Urbanization 127 4.19 Soil Erosion: General Considerations 127 4.20 The Causes of Soil Erosion 128 4.21 Forest Removal 129 4.22 Soil Erosion Associated with Grazing 132 4.23 Irrigation and Erosion 132 4.24 Replacement of Grassland by Shrubland in Drylands 133 4.25 Soil Erosion Produced by Fire 133 4.26 Soil Erosion Associated with Construction and Urbanization 134 4.27 Long‐term Studies of Rates of Erosion 134 4.28 Peat Bog Erosion 137 4.29 Accelerated Wind Erosion 138 4.30 Soil Conservation 140 4.31 Soils, Microbiology, and the Earth System 143 Guide to Reading 144 5 The Human Impact on the Waters 145 5.1 Introduction 145 5.2 Deliberate Modification of River Systems Connectivity 146 5.3 Changes in River Flow 154 5.3.1 The Effects of Dams 154 5.3.2 Vegetation Modification and its Effect on River Flow 154 5.3.3 The Role of Invasive Plants 158 5.3.4 Land Drainage 158 5.3.5 Groundwater Exploitation 160 5.3.6 Urbanization and its Effects on River Flow 160 5.4 The Human Impact on Lake Levels 162 5.5 Changes in Groundwater Conditions 168 5.6 Water Pollution 171 5.7 Eutrophication 177 5.8 Pollution by Acid Rain 178 5.9 Deforestation and its Effects on Water Quality 180 5.10 Thermal Pollution 181 5.11 Pollution with Suspended Sediments 182 5.12 Marine Pollution 182 Guide to Reading 185 6 Human Agency in Geomorphology 187 6.1 Introduction 187 6.2 Landforms Produced by Excavation 188 6.3 Landforms Produced by Construction and Dumping 192 6.4 Ground Subsidence 192 6.5 The Human Impact on Seismicity and Volcanoes 198 6.6 Accelerated Sedimentation 200 6.7 Sediment Transport by Rivers 203 6.8 Deliberate Modification of Channels 205 6.9 Non‐deliberate River Channel Changes 208 6.10 Arroyo Trenching and Gullies 213 6.11 Accelerated Mass Movements 216 6.12 Accelerated Weathering and the Tufa Decline 219 6.13 Reactivation and Stabilization of Sand Dunes 220 6.14 Accelerated Coastal Erosion 223 6.15 Changing Rates of Salt Marsh Accretion 229 Guide to Reading 231 7 The Human Impact on Climate and the Atmosphere 233 7.1 World Climates 233 7.2 The Greenhouse Gases – Carbon Dioxide 235 7.3 Other Gases 236 7.4 Ozone Depletion and Climate Change 239 7.5 Aerosols 239 7.6 Global Dimming and Global Brightening 241 7.7 Vegetation and Albedo Change 242 7.8 Forests, Irrigation, and Climate 244 7.9 The Possible Effects of Water Diversion Schemes 244 7.10 Lakes and Climate 245 7.11 Urban Climates 245 7.12 Deliberate Climatic Modification 250 7.13 Geoengineering 252 7.14 Urban Air Pollution 252 7.15 Air Pollution: Some Further Effects 256 7.16 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 263 7.17 Conclusions 265 Guide to Reading 266 8 The Future: Introduction 267 8.1 Introduction 267 8.2 Changes in the Biosphere 271 8.3 Climate and Geomorphology 278 Guide to Reading 282 9 The Future: Coastal Environments 283 9.1 Introduction 283 9.2 The Steric Effect 284 9.3 Anthropogenic Contributions to Sea‐Level Change 284 9.3.1 Reduction in Lake‐Water Volumes 284 9.3.2 Water Impoundment in Reservoirs 285 9.3.3 Groundwater Mining 285 9.3.4 Urbanization and Runoff 285 9.3.5 Deforestation and Runoff 285 9.3.6 Wetland Losses 285 9.3.7 Irrigation 286 9.3.8 Synthesis 286 9.4 Permafrost Degradation, Melting of Glaciers, and Sea‐Level Rise 286 9.5 Ice Sheets and Sea‐Level Rise 286 9.6 How Fast are Sea Levels Rising? 287 9.7 The Amount of Sea‐Level Rise By 2100 287 9.8 Land Subsidence 287 9.9 Coral Reefs 289 9.10 Salt Marshes and Mangrove Swamps 292 9.11 River Deltas 296 9.12 Estuaries 297 9.13 Cliffed Coasts 298 9.14 Sandy Beaches 298 9.15 Conclusions 300 Guide to Reading 300 10 The Future: Hydrological and Geomorphological Impacts 301 10.1 Introduction 301 10.2 Rainfall Intensity 302 10.3 Changes in Tropical Cyclones 302 10.4 Runoff Response 304 10.5 Cold Regions 305 10.6 Changes in Runoff in the UK 307 10.7 Europe 307 10.8 Geomorphological Consequences of Hydrological and Other Changes 309 10.9 Weathering 310 Guide to Reading 311 11 The Future: The Cryosphere 313 11.1 The Nature of the Cryosphere 313 11.2 The Polar Ice Sheets and Ice Caps 313 11.3 Valley Glaciers and Small Ice Caps 316 11.4 Predicted Rates of Glacier Retreat and Some Environmental Consequences 320 11.5 Sea Ice in the Arctic and Antarctic 322 11.6 Permafrost Regions 323 Guide to Reading 328 12 The Future: Drylands 329 12.1 Introduction 329 12.2 Climate Changes in the Past 330 12.3 Future Changes in Climate in Drylands 331 12.4 Wind Erosivity and Erodibility 332 12.5 Future Dust Storm Activity 333 12.6 Sand Dunes 334 12.7 Rainfall and Runoff 337 12.8 Lake Levels 338 12.9 Sea‐level Rise and Arid‐zone Coastlines 338 12.10 Salt Weathering and Salinization 339 Guide to Reading 340 13 Conclusion 341 13.1 The Power of Non‐industrial and Pre‐industrial Civilizations 341 13.2 The Proliferation of Impacts 342 13.3 The Inter‐relationships of Changes in the Earth System 346 13.4 Human Impacts on the Environment in China 348 13.5 Are Changes Reversible? 349 13.6 The Susceptibility to Change 354 13.7 Human Influence or Nature? 356 13.8 Global Warming and Other Pressures 357 13.9 Into the Unknown 358 Guide to Reading 359 References 361 Index 451

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Book SynopsisElectromagnetism for Engineers An easily accessible textbook to introduce the power of electromagnetism Electromagnetism can be a difficult subject to grasp and to teach. Much of what we take for granted in modern life is enabled by electromagnetic effects, but it isn't always easy to understand the impact of electromagnetism compared to other areas of engineering, such as mechanics, which are more tangibly observed and felt. Although electromagnetism is a crucial and important branch of physics with elegant mathematics, many students can find the study of electromagnetism inaccessible. It is crucial for students of electrical and electronic engineering and physics to have a strong understanding of electromagnetism and how it impacts communications, power generation and transmission, semiconductor devices, motors, and more. Electromagnetism for Engineers aims to develop a student's understanding of electromagnetism in the context of real effects and how they apply to such applicationsTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgements xi About the Author xii Symbols xiii About the Companion Website xv Part I Fundamentals of Electricity and Magnetism 1 1 Charge and Electric Fields 3 2 Electric Fields in Materials 15 3 Currents and Magnetic Fields 37 4 Magnetic Fields in Materials 51 5 The Maxwell Equations of Elecromagnetism 71 Part II Applications of Electromagnetism 83 6 Transmission Lines 85 7 Electromagnetic Waves in Dielectric Media 115 8 Antennas 131 9 Electromagnetic Waves at Dielectric Interfaces 143 10 Electromagnetic Waves in Conducting Media 161 11 Waveguides 173 12 Three-Phase Electrical Power 187 Epilogue 203 Index 205

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Book SynopsisAn essential guide to modern circuit board design based on simple physics and practical applications The fundamentals taught in circuit theory were never intended to work above a few megahertz, let alone at a gigahertz. While electronics is grounded in physics, most engineers' education in this area is too general and mathematical to be easily applied to the problem of high speed circuits. Left to their own devices, many engineers produce layouts that require expensive revisions in order to finally meet specifications. Fast Circuit Boards fills the gap in knowledge by providing clear, down-to-earth guidance on designing digital circuit boards that function at high clock rates. By making the direct connection between physics and fast circuits, this book instills the fundamental universal principles of information transfer to give engineers a solid basis for hardware design. Using simple tools, simple physics, and simple language, this invaluable resource wTable of ContentsPreface ix 1 Electric and Magnetic Fields 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Electrons and the Force Field 8 1.3 The Electric Field and Voltage 11 1.4 Electric Field Patterns and Charge Distributions 14 1.5 Field Energy 17 1.6 Dielectrics 19 1.7 Capacitance 20 1.8 Capacitors 21 1.9 The D or Displacement Field 21 1.10 Mutual and Self Capacitance 22 1.11 Current Flow in a Capacitance 23 1.12 The Magnetic Field 24 1.13 The B Field of Induction 27 1.14 Inductance 28 1.15 Inductors 30 1.16 The Inductance of a Solenoid in Air 32 1.17 Magnetic Field Energy Stored in Space 33 1.18 Mutual Inductance 34 1.19 Transformer Action 35 1.20 Poynting’s Vector 35 1.21 Resistors and Resistance 36 Problem Set 39 Glossary 39 Answers to Problems 42 2 Transmission Lines—Part 1 43 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 The Ideal World 44 2.3 Transmission Line Representations 45 2.4 Characteristic Impedance 47 2.5 Waves and Wave Velocity 48 2.6 The Balance of Field Energies 50 2.7 A Few Comments on Transmission Lines 51 2.8 The Propagation of a Wave on a Transmission Line 51 2.9 Initial Wave Action 53 2.10 Reflections and Transmissions at Impedance Transitions 55 2.11 The Unterminated (Open) Transmission Line 57 2.12 The Short‐Circuited Transmission Line 61 2.13 Voltage Doubling and Rise Time 61 2.14 Matched Shunt Terminated Transmission Lines 64 2.15 Matched Series Terminated Transmission Lines 68 2.16 Extending a Transmission Line 69 2.17 Skin Effect 70 Problem Set 71 Glossary 72 Answers to Problems 74 3 Transmission Lines—Part 2 75 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 Energy Sources 75 3.3 The Ground Plane/Power Plane as an Energy Source 77 3.4 What Is a Capacitor? 77 3.5 Turning Corners 79 3.6 Practical Transmissions 80 3.7 Radiation and Transmission Lines 81 3.8 Multilayer Circuit Boards 83 3.9 Vias 85 3.10 Layer Crossings 85 3.11 Vias and Stripline 87 3.12 Stripline and the Power Plane 87 3.13 Stubs 88 3.14 Traces and Ground (Power) Plane Breaks 89 3.15 Characteristic Impedance of Traces 89 3.16 Microstrip 90 3.17 Centered Stripline 93 3.18 Asymmetric Stripline 94 3.19 Two‐Layer Boards 95 3.20 Sine Waves on Transmission Lines 95 3.21 Shielded Cables 96 3.22 Coax 97 3.23 Transfer Impedance 97 3.24 Waveguides 100 3.25 Balanced Lines 101 3.26 Circuit Board Materials 101 Problem Set 102 Glossary 102 Answers to Problems 104 4 Interference 105 4.1 Introduction 105 4.2 Radiation—General Comments 106 4.3 The Impedance of Space 107 4.4 Field Coupling to Open Parallel Conductors (Sine Waves) 107 4.5 Cross‐Coupling 108 4.6 Shielding—General Comments 110 4.7 Even‐Mode Rejection 111 4.8 Ground—A General Discussion 112 4.9 Grounds on Circuit Boards 115 4.10 Equipment Ground 116 4.11 Guard Shields 116 4.12 Forward Referencing Amplifiers 117 4.13 A/D Converters 118 4.14 Utility Transformers and Interference 118 4.15 Shielding of Distribution Power Transformers 119 4.16 Electrostatic Discharge 120 4.17 Aliasing Errors 122 Glossary 123 5 Radiation 125 5.1 Introduction 125 5.2 Standing Wave Ratio 126 5.3 The Transmission Coefficient τ 127 5.4 The Smith Chart 127 5.5 Smith Chart and Wave Impedances (Sine Waves) 130 5.6 Stubs and Impedance Matching 133 5.7 Radiation—General Comments 134 5.8 Radiation from Dipoles 134 5.9 Radiation from Loops 136 5.10 Effective Radiated Power for Sinusoids 137 5.11 Apertures 137 5.12 Honeycomb Filters 138 5.13 Shielded Enclosures 139 5.14 Screened Rooms 139 5.15 Line Filters 140 Glossary 141 Appendix A: Sine Waves in Circuits 143 A. 1 Introduction 143 A. 2 Unit Circle and Sine Waves 143 A. 3 Angles, Frequency, and rms 145 A. 4 The Reactance of an Inductor 147 A. 5 The Reactance of a Capacitor 148 A. 6 An Inductor and a Resistor in Series 150 A. 7 A Capacitor and a Resistor in Series 151 A. 8 The Arithmetic of Complex Numbers 152 A. 9 Resistance, Conductance, Susceptance, Reactance, Admittance, and Impedance 153 A.10 Resonance 155 A.11 Answers to Problems 156 Appendix B: Square‐Wave Frequency Spectrum 159 B.1 Introduction 159 B.2 Ideal Square Waves 159 B.3 Square Waves with a Rise Time 161 Appendix C: The Decibel 163 Appendix D: Abbreviations and Acronyms 165 Index 173

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Book SynopsisA practical guide for putting PMBOK concepts to work A Project Manager's Book of Tools and Techniques is an invaluable resource for students and working professionals alike. Whether you're preparing for the PMP exam or just looking to optimize your project management skills, this book provides detailed explanations for over 100 essential tools described in the Project Management Institute's A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) Sixth Edition. Going beyond theory and concept to real-world practice, these tools and techniques are the how of effective project management; from planning, to implementation, to oversight, and beyond, all phases of the project are represented here to help you more effectively apply critical PMBOK concepts. Comprehensive examples illustrate real-world implementation, and detailed discussion provides expert guidance for both new and experienced project management professionals. KnowiTable of ContentsAcknowledgments vii Introduction ix Part 1 Data Gathering 1 1.0 Data Gathering Techniques 2 1.1 Benchmarking 3 1.2 Brainstorming 6 1.3 Check Sheets 8 1.4 Checklists 10 1.5 Focus Groups 12 1.6 Statistical Sampling 14 Part 2 Data Analysis 17 2.0 Data Analysis Techniques 18 2.1 Alternatives Analysis 19 2.2 Cost Benefi t Analysis 24 2.3 Cost of Quality 27 2.4 Decision Tree 31 2.5 Earned Value Analysis 36 2.6 Infl uence Diagrams 41 2.7 Make-or-Buy Analysis 44 2.8 Performance Index 46 2.9 Regression Analysis 48 2.10 Reserve Analysis 51 2.11 Root Cause Analysis 55 2.12 Sensitivity Analysis 58 2.13 Stakeholder Analysis 63 2.14 SWOT Analysis 67 2.15 Technical Performance Analysis 70 2.16 Variance Analysis 72 2.17 What-If Analysis 74 Part 3 Data Representation 77 3.0 Data Representation Techniques 78 3.1 Cause-and-Effect Diagram 79 3.2 Control Charts 82 3.3 Flowcharts 87 3.4 Histograms 90 3.5 Logical Data Model 93 3.6 Mind Mapping 96 3.7 Probability and Impact Matrix 98 3.8 Resource Breakdown Structure 101 3.9 Responsibility Assignment Matrix 103 3.10 Scatter Diagrams 106 3.11 Stakeholder Mapping 108 Part 4 Estimating 111 4.0 Estimating Techniques 112 4.1 Analogous Estimating 113 4.2 Bottom-Up Estimating 116 4.3 Estimate at Completion 119 4.4 Estimate to Complete 123 4.5 Parametric Estimating 126 4.6 To-Complete Performance Index 128 4.7 Three-Point Estimating 131 4.8 Variance at Completion 134 Part 5 Interpersonal and Team Skills 137 5.0 Interpersonal and Team Skills 138 5.1 Confl ict Management 139 5.2 Decision Making 145 5.3 Nominal Group Technique 151 5.4 Problem Solving 153 Part 6 Other Techniques 157 6.0 Other Techniques 158 6.1 Context Diagram 159 6.2 Critical Path Method 161 6.3 Funding Limit Reconciliation 170 6.4 Inspection 172 6.5 Leads and Lags 174 6.6 Precedence Diagramming Method 177 6.7 Prompt Lists 181 6.8 Prototypes 184 6.9 Resource Optimization 186 6.10 Rolling-Wave Planning 189 6.11 Schedule Compression 192 Appendix: Case Study Scenarios 197 Index 203

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Book SynopsisFully updated and authoritative reference to wind energy technology written by leading academic and industry professionals The newly revised Third Edition of the Wind Energy Handbook delivers a fully updated treatment of key developments in wind technology since the publication of the book's Second Edition in 2011. The criticality of wakes within wind farms is addressed by the addition of an entirely new chapter on wake effects, including 'engineering' wake models and wake control. Offshore, attention is focused for the first time on the design of floating support structures, and the new 'PISA' method for monopile geotechnical design is introduced. The coverage of blade design has been completely rewritten, with an expanded description of laminate fatigue properties and new sections on manufacturing methods, blade testing, leading-edge erosion and bend-twist coupling. These are complemented by new sections on blade add-ons and noise in the aerodynamics chapters, which now also include a description of the Leishman-Beddoes dynamic stall model and an extended introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis. The importance of the environmental impact of wind farms both on- and offshore is recognized by expanded coverage, and the requirements of the Grid Codes to ensure wind energy plays its full role in the power system are described. The conceptual design chapter has been extended to include a number of novel concepts, including low induction rotors, multiple rotor structures, superconducting generators and magnetic gearboxes. References and further reading resources are included throughout the book and have been updated to cover the latest literature. As in previous editions, the core subjects constituting the essential background to wind turbine and wind farm design are covered. These include: The nature of the wind resource, including geographical variation, synoptic and diurnal variations, and turbulence characteristicsThe aerodynamics of horizontal axis wind turbines, including the actuator disc concept, rotor disc theory, the vortex cylinder model of the actuator disc and the Blade-Element/Momentum theoryDesign loads for horizontal axis wind turbines, including the prescriptions of international standardsAlternative machine architecturesThe design of key componentsWind turbine controller design for fixed and variable speed machinesThe integration of wind farms into the electrical power systemWind farm design, siting constraints, and the assessment of environmental impact Perfect for engineers and scientists learning about wind turbine technology, the Wind Energy Handbook will also earn a place in the libraries of graduate students taking courses on wind turbines and wind energy, as well as industry professionals whose work requires a deep understanding of wind energy technology.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors xxi Preface to Second Edition xxiii Preface to Third Edition xxv Acknowledgements for the First Edition xxix Acknowledgements for the Second Edition xxxi Acknowledgements for the Third Edition xxxiii List of Symbols xxxv Figures C1 and C2 -- coordinate systems xlv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical development of wind energy 1 1.2 Modern wind turbines 6 1.3 Scope of the book 8 2 The wind resource 11 2.1 The nature of the wind 11 2.2 Geographical variation in the wind resource 13 2.3 Long-term wind speed variations 14 2.4 Annual and seasonal variations 14 2.5 Synoptic and diurnal variations 16 2.6 Turbulence 16 2.7 Gust wind speeds 30 2.8 Extreme wind speeds 31 2.9 Wind speed prediction and forecasting 35 2.10 Turbulence in complex terrain 37 3 Aerodynamics of horizontal axis wind turbines 39 3.1 Introduction 40 3.2 The actuator disc concept 41 3.3 Rotor disc theory 45 3.4 Vortex cylinder model of the actuator disc 49 3.5 Rotor blade theory (blade-element/momentum theory) 59 3.6 Actuator line theory, including radial variation 65 3.7 Breakdown of the momentum theory 66 3.8 Blade geometry 68 3.9 The effects of a discrete number of blades 77 3.10 Stall delay 92 3.11 Calculated results for an actual turbine 95 3.12 The performance curves 98 3.13 Constant rotational speed operation 102 3.14 Pitch regulation 106 3.15 Comparison of measured with theoretical performance 107 3.16 Estimation of energy capture 109 3.17 Wind turbine aerofoil design 113 3.18 Add-ons (including blade modifications independent of the main structure) 121 3.19 Aerodynamic noise 126 Appendix A.3 Lift and drag of aerofoils 133 A3.1 Drag 134 A3.2 The boundary layer 135 A3.3 Boundary layer separation 136 A3.4 Laminar and turbulent boundary layers and transition 138 A3.5 Definition of lift and its relationship to circulation 141 A3.6 The stalled aerofoil 145 A3.7 The lift coefficient 145 A3.8 Aerofoil drag characteristics 147 4 Further aerodynamic topics for wind turbines 153 4.1 Introduction 153 4.2 The aerodynamics of turbines in steady yaw 153 4.3 Circular wing theory applied to a rotor in yaw 180 4.4 Unsteady flow 189 4.5 Unsteady aerofoil aerodynamics 194 4.6 Dynamic stall 201 4.7 Computational fluid dynamics 207 5 Design loads for HAWTs 227 5.1 National and international standards 227 5.2 Basis for design loads 228 5.3 Turbulence and wakes 231 5.4 Extreme loads 233 5.5 Fatigue loading 240 5.6 Stationary blade loading 240 5.7 Blade loads during operation 248 5.8 Blade dynamic response 277 5.9 Blade fatigue stresses 302 5.10 Hub and low-speed shaft loading 309 5.11 Nacelle loading 312 5.12 Tower loading 315 5.13 Wind turbine dynamic analysis codes 325 5.14 Extrapolation of extreme loads from simulations 331 Appendix A.5 Dynamic response of stationary blade in turbulent wind 345 A5.1 Introduction 345 A5.2 Frequency response function 345 A5.3 Resonant displacement response ignoring wind variations along the blade 347 A5.4 Effect of across wind turbulence distribution on resonant displacement response 349 A5.5 Resonant root bending moment 352 A5.6 Root bending moment background response 354 A5.7 Peak response 355 A5.8 Bending moments at intermediate blade positions 358 6 Conceptual design of horizontal axis wind turbines 361 6.1 Introduction 361 6.2 Rotor diameter 361 6.3 Machine rating 370 6.4 Rotational speed 375 6.5 Number of blades 379 6.6 Teetering 388 6.7 Power control 391 6.8 Braking systems 398 6.9 Fixed-speed, two-speed, variable-slip, and variable-speed operation 400 6.10 Other drive trains and generators 411 6.11 Drive train mounting arrangement options 419 6.12 Drive train compliance 425 6.13 Rotor position with respect to tower 426 6.14 Tower stiffness 427 6.15 Multiple rotor structures 430 6.16 Augmented flow 435 6.17 Personnel safety and access issues 435 7 Component design 441 7.1 Blades 441 7.2 Pitch bearings 519 7.3 Rotor hub 521 7.4 Gearbox 524 7.5 Generator 537 7.6 Mechanical brake 548 7.7 Nacelle bedplate 555 7.8 Yaw drive 555 7.9 Tower 558 7.10 Foundations 570 8 The controller 579 8.1 Functions of the wind turbine controller 580 8.2 Closed-loop control: issues and objectives 583 8.3 Closed-loop control: general techniques 589 8.4 Closed-loop control: analytical design methods 617 8.5 Pitch actuators 629 8.6 Control system implementation 631 9 Wake effects and wind farm control 637 9.1 Introduction 637 9.2 Wake characteristics 638 9.3 Active wake control methods 652 9.4 Wind farm control and the grid system 658 10 Onshore wind turbine installations and wind farms 665 10.1 Project development 666 10.2 Landscape and visual impact assessment 678 10.3 Noise 687 10.4 Electromagnetic interference 698 10.5 Ecological assessment 706 11 Wind energy and the electric power system 717 11.1 Introduction 717 11.2 Wind turbine electrical systems 721 11.3 Wind farm electrical systems 730 11.4 Connection of wind farms to distribution networks 735 11.5 Grid codes and the connection of large wind farms to transmission networks 742 11.6 Wind energy and the generation system 750 11.7 Power quality 756 Appendix A.11 Simple calculations for the connection of wind turbines 766 A11.1 The per-unit system 766 A11.2 Power flows, slow voltage variations, and network losses 767 12 Offshore wind turbines and wind farms 771 12.1 Offshore wind farms 771 12.2 The offshore wind resource 776 12.3 Design loads 781 12.4 Machine size optimisation 822 12.5 Reliability of offshore wind turbines 824 12.6 Fixed support structures -- overview 828 12.7 Fixed support structures 829 12.8 Floating support structures 883 12.9 Environmental assessment of offshore wind farms 908 12.10 Offshore power collection and transmission systems 913 References 922 Appendix A.12 Costs of electricity 931 A12.1 Levelised cost of electricity 931 A12.2 Strike price and contract for difference 931 Index 933

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Book SynopsisAN AUTHORITATIVE GUIDE THAT EXPLAINS THE EFFECTIVENESS AND IMPLEMENTATION OF BOW TIE ANALYSIS, A QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT AND BARRIER MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGY From a collaborative effort of the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) and the Energy Institute (EI) comes an invaluable book that puts the focus on a specific qualitative risk management methodology bow tie barrier analysis. The book contains practical advice for conducting an effective bow tie analysis and offers guidance for creating bow tie diagrams for process safety and risk management. Bow Ties in Risk Management clearly shows how bow tie analysis and diagrams fit into an overall process safety and risk management framework. Implementing the methods outlined in this book will improve the quality of bow tie analysis and bow tie diagrams across an organization and the industry. This important guide: Explains the proven concept of bow tie barrier analysis for the preventing and mitTable of ContentsList of Tables ix List of Figures xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii Glossary xv Acknowledgments xxiii Online Materials Accompanying this Book xxvii Preface xxix 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Purpose 1 1.2 Scope and Intended Audience 1 1.3 Organization of this Concept Book 2 1.4 Introduction to the Bow Tie Concept 4 1.5 Conclusions 12 2 THE BOW TIE MODEL 15 2.1 Bow Tie Model Elements 15 2.2 Hazard 17 2.3 Top Event 20 2.4 Consequences 24 2.5 Threats 27 2.6 Barriers 32 2.7 Degradation actors and Degradation Controls 45 2.8 Conclusions 51 3 BOW TIE DEVELOPMENT 53 3.1 Rationale for Bow Tie Development 53 3.2 Bow Tie workshop 53 3.3 Postow Tie Workshop Activities and Quality Checks 64 Conclusions 51 4 ADDRESSING HUMAN FACTORS IN BOW TIE ANALYSIS 69 4.1 Human and Organiational Factors Fundamentals 69 4.2 Standard and MultiLevel Bow Tie Approaches 74 4.3 Human and Organiational Factors as a Barrier or Degradation Control 80 4.4 Validating Human Performance in Barriers and Degradation Controls 84 4.5 Quantifying Human Reliability in Bow Ties 86 4.6 Conclusions 86 5 PRIMARY USES OF BOW TIES 89 5.1 Primary Use Examples 89 5.2 Linking Bow Ties to the Risk Management System 89 5.3 Communication of Major Accident Scenarios and Degradation Controls 94 5.4 Use of Bow Ties in Design and Operations 101 5.5 Identification of Safety Critical Information 107 5.6 Conclusions 113 6 BARRIER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 115 6.1 Barrier Management Strategy 115 6.2 Barrier and Degradation Control Management Program 118 6.3 Organizational Learning 127 6.4 Conclusions 128 7 ADDITIONAL USES OF BOW TIES 131 7.1 Additional Use Examples 131 7.2 Linking Bow Ties to HAZOP, LOPA and SIL 131 7.3 Integrating Bow Ties into ALARP Demonstrations 134 7.4 Operationalizing Bow Ties (MOPO / SOOB) 135 7.5 Incident Investigation using Bow Ties 139 7.6 Real-time Dashboards using Bow Ties 142 7.7 Barrier and Degradation Control Verification 143 7.8 Bow Tie Chaining 144 7.9 Enterprise-wide Analysis and Window on Systemic Risks 146 7.10 Conclusions 147 APPENDIX A – SOFTWARE TOOLS 149 Software used for Bow Tie Diagrams 149 APPENDIX B – CASE STUDY 153 Introduction 153 Volatile Hydrocarbons under Pressure in a Pipeline 153 APPENDIX C – MULTI-LEVEL BOW TIES 161 Multilevel Bow Tie for Tank Overfill 161 References 171 Index 177

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Book SynopsisThe essential roadmaps for enterprise cloud adoption As cloud technologies continue to challenge the fundamental understanding of how businesses work, smart companies are moving quickly to adapt to a changing set of rules. Adopting the cloud requires a clear roadmap backed by use cases, grounded in practical real-world experience, to show the routes to successful adoption. The Cloud Adoption Playbook helps business and technology leaders in enterprise organizations sort through the options and make the best choices for accelerating cloud adoption and digital transformation. Written by a team of IBM technical executives with a wealth of real-world client experience, this book cuts through the hype, answers your questions, and helps you tailor your cloud adoption and digital transformation journey to the needs of your organization. This book will help you: Discover how the cloud can fulfill major business needsAdopt a standardized Cloud Adoption Framework and understand the key dimensTable of ContentsForeword xxi Introduction xxiii 1 Business Drivers 1 Addressing Challenges for the Enterprise 1 What Drives a Business to the Cloud? 3 What Do You Gain from Cloud? 5 Implications to the Enterprise 7 Summary 9 2 Framework Overview 11 The Framework 13 Key dimensions of cloud adoption 15 Steps in the adoption journey 16 Ten Key Actions of the Framework 17 1. Involve the right people 17 2. Achieve business and technology alignment 18 3. Take a holistic approach across dimensions 19 4. Assume an outside-in, client-centered approach 20 5. Open the aperture to new possibilities 20 6. Show progress and quick wins 21 7. Collaborate actively 23 8. Balance sustained and disruptive innovation 23 9. Establish success criteria 24 10. Account for a multicloud hybrid model 24 Summary 25 3 Strategy 27 What Does a Cloud Strategy Mean for the CIO? 28 What Do We Really Mean by “Strategy”? 28 Developing a Cloud Strategy 30 What Are the Complete Dimensions of a Cloud Strategy? 31 What Key Considerations Should a Cloud Strategy Address? 34 Service types 35 Deployment models 36 Roles 37 Controls 39 Vendor relationships 41 What Prescriptive Steps Are Required to Develop a Cloud Strategy? 44 Step 1: Define business objectives and constraints 44 Step 2: Complete analysis of your workload portfolio 46 Step 3: Envision your future state and analyze your current state 48 Step 4: Assess your organization’s readiness 50 Step 5: Build an execution framework with defined strategic milestones 52 Step 6: Define proven approaches best suited to your organization 53 Summary 55 4 Culture and Organization 57 What Does the Cloud Mean for Human Resources? 57 What Do We Really Mean by “Culture”? 58 What cultural elements make cloud adoption easier or harder? 59 Talent and flexibility 69 Basic Squad Organization 71 SRE model and squads 73 Tribes and guilds 74 Cultural elements of the squad model 75 Advantages of a COC 77 What are the goals of a COC? 78 Life cycle of a COC 78 When a COC is not the right approach 79 Summary 81 5 Architecture and Technology 83 What Does Cloud Adoption Mean for Enterprise Architects? 83 Role of Enterprise Architects in Cloud Adoption 85 Workload assessment 85 Reference architectures 90 Example Microservices Reference Architecture 94 Style introduction 94 An example reference architecture 95 Reference Implementations 100 DevOps implementation 103 Resiliency patterns 104 Security 104 Management 105 Summary 105 6 Security and Compliance 107 What Does the Cloud Mean to the CISO? 107 Will My People, Processes, Tools, and Approaches Change? 108 How Is Cloud Adoption Affected by Compliance Issues? 111 How Do I Protect Against Data Breaches and Loss? 113 Key management 113 Certificate management 114 Data integrity 115 How Do I Protect Against Networking Vulnerabilities? 116 Cloud-hosted firewalls 116 Intrusion prevention systems 117 Distributed denial of service 117 Microsegmentation 118 What Does a Secure Cloud-Native System Look Like? 118 Identity and Access Management for Applications 120 Authentication 120 Multifactor authentication 121 Directory services 121 Reporting 121 Implementing identity and access for cloud-native applications 122 Secure DevOps 123 Dynamic analysis 124 Static analysis 124 How Do I Get Visibility to My Cloud Applications? 125 Summary 125 7 Emerging Innovation Spaces 127 Innovation as a Business Driver 127 Examples of Innovation 128 Data and analytics 128 Blockchain 130 Containers 132 IoT 134 Cognitive 135 Summary 136 8 Methodology 137 What Does the Cloud Mean for the VP of the VP of Method & and Tools? 137 Introducing the IBM Cloud Garage Method 138 Culture 139 Think 139 Code 140 Deliver 140 Run 141 Manage 141 Learn 142 Connections between Cloud and Agile 142 Lean Startup and Lean Development 144 Why Design Thinking Is the Missing Link 145 Starting a Project with the IBM Cloud Garage Method 146 Wrapping Up the Workshop 150 Our Approach to Project Inception 150 Starting Development 151 The Role of Technology Choices 154 Expanding to Deliver the MVP 154 The Role of Testing in the Squad Model 156 Customer Example 156 Summary 158 9 Service Management and Operations 159 What Does Cloud Mean for the VP of Operations? 159 Operational Transformation 160 Organizational changes 161 Process changes 164 Technology changes 165 Cultural changes 169 New Roles 171 Roles and responsibilities 171 Organizational alignment 173 Operational Readiness 178 Operationalizing the cloud 178 Operationalizing application readiness 180 Incident Management 182 Designing resilient applications for the cloud 182 Taking a fresh approach to incident management 183 Event management 184 Runbooks 185 Log management 187 Dashboards 187 Ticketing 188 Root-Cause Analysis and Postmortems 190 Root-cause analysis 190 Postmortem 192 Deployment, Release Management, and Change Management 194 Deployment 194 Release management 197 Change management 198 Configuration Management 199 Configuration items and relationships 200 CMDB/CMS 200 Discovery 201 Summary 202 10 Governance 203 Cloud Challenges 203 Regulatory requirements 204 Sourcing and standardization issues 204 Threats to security and reputation 205 Aspects of a Governance Model 206 Defining a Governance Model 207 Considerations for your governance model 208 Cloud center of competence 209 Chapters and guilds 211 Summary 213 Conclusion 215 Notes 219 Index 223

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Book SynopsisA fully updated and expanded new edition of the official reference to all the recognised Poultry Standards in Great Britain The seventh edition of British Poultry Standards contains complete specifications together with judging points for all standardised breeds and varieties of poultry, as compiled by the specialist Breed Clubs and published under the guidance of the Poultry Club of Great Britain. Intended as a manual to aid in the instruction and identification of breeds for the novice through to the veterinarian, this new edition has been thoroughly revised and edited, with numerous changes to breed pictures and profiles, providing a well-defined update for contemporary breeding, judging and exhibiting. Under the guardianship of the Poultry Club of Great Britain, this book details the authorised standards of excellence for each breed, covering categories such as feather markings, breed classification, and defects and deformities. Table of ContentsAcknowledgements ix Introduction 1 Standard feather markings 4 Chief points of the fowl 13 Complete classification of pure breed poultry 21 Defects and deformities 25 Large fowl and bantams 31 Ancona 31 Andalusian 34 Appenzeller 36 Araucana 41 Rumpless Araucana 45 Asil 48 Australorp 50 Autosexing breeds 53 Brockbar 54 Brussbar 55 Cambar 57 Dorbar 59 Legbar 60 Rhodebar 63 Welbar 65 Wybar 68 Ayam Cemani 71 Barnevelder 72 Belgian Bearded bantams 75 Barbu d’Anvers 75 Barbu d’Uccle 77 Barbu de Watermael 78 Barbu d’Everberg (Rumpless d’Uccle) 80 Barbu du Grubbe (Rumpless d’Anvers) 81 Barbu de Boitsfort (Rumpless de Watermael) 81 Booted bantam 87 Rumpless Booted Bantam 92 Brabanter 93 Brahma 95 Brakel 100 Breda 102 Bresse-Gauloise 104 Burmese 106 Campine 108 Cochin 111 Crèvecoeur 114 Croad Langshan 115 Dandarawi 118 Derbyshire Redcap 120 Dominique 121 Dorking 124 Dutch bantam 128 British Faverolles 133 Fayoumi 137 Friesian 139 Frizzle 143 German Langshan 145 Groninger 149 Hamburgh 152 Houdan 155 Indian Game 158 Ixworth 162 Japanese bantam 164 Jersey Giant 169 Ko Shamo 171 Kraienköppe 173 Kulang 177 La Flèche 179 Lakenvelder 181 Leghorn 183 Lincolnshire Buff 188 Malay 191 Marans 194 Marsh Daisy 198 Minorca 201 Modern Game 204 Modern Langshan 209 Nankin bantam 212 Nankin Shamo 214 New Hampshire Red 215 Norfolk Grey 218 North Holland Blue 220 Ohiki 222 Carlisle Old English Game 223 Oxford Old English Game 230 Old English Game bantam 236 Old English Pheasant Fowl 242 Orloff 244 Orpington 247 Pekin bantam 251 Plymouth Rock 255 Poland 261 Rhode Island Red 265 Rosecomb bantam 269 Rumpless Game 272 Satsumadori 274 Scots Dumpy 277 Scots Grey 280 Sebright 282 Serama 285 Shamo 288 Sicilian Buttercup 290 Silkie 293 Spanish 296 Suffolk Chequer 298 Sulmtaler 300 Sultan 303 Sumatra 305 Sussex 307 Taiwan 311 Thai Game 312 Thüringian 313 Transylvanian Naked Neck 317 Tuzo 318 Vorwerk 320 Welsummer 323 Wyandotte 327 Yakido 336 Yamato Gunkei 337 Yokohama 339 Long-tailed breeds standardised in Japan 343 Turkeys 345 General Standard: Heavy Breeds 345 General Standard: Light Breeds 345 Judging – Scale of Points for All Colours 346 Serious Defects 346 Disqualifications 346 Turkey Eggs 346 Blue 347 Bourbon Red 348 Bronze 349 Buff 352 Crimson Dawn/Black-Winged Bronze 353 Crollwitzer (Pied) 353 Harvey Speckled 354 Narragansett 355 Nebraskan 357 Norfolk Black 358 Slate 359 White 361 Other Varieties 361 Waterfowl 363 Geese 363 African 364 American Buff 366 Brecon Buff 368 Buff Back (Saddleback) 369 Chinese 371 Czech 373 Embden 375 Franconian 376 Grey Back 378 Pilgrim 379 Pomeranian 381 Roman 383 Sebastopol 384 Shetland 386 Skå´ne 388 Steinbacher 390 Toulouse 392 West of England 394 Ducks 397 Abacot Ranger 398 Aylesbury 401 Bali 403 Black East Indian 405 Blue Swedish 407 Call 409 Campbell 435 Cayuga 439 Crested 441 Crested Miniature 443 Hook Bill 444 Indian Runner 447 Magpie 461 Muscovy 463 Orpington 467 Pekin 469 Rouen 472 Rouen Clair 475 Saxony 477 Silver Appleyard 480 Silver Appleyard Miniature 483 Silver Bantam 484 Welsh Harlequin 486 Other breeds 489 Standard for utility 491 Standard for eggs 493 Glossary 499

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Book SynopsisProvides construction industry professionals with a practical and detailed guide to the NEC4 contract The NEC contract takes a collaborative, project management based approach to construction projects, which is very different to the other standard forms of construction contract. This new edition of the book covers all changes in the 4th Edition of the Engineering and Construction Contract, issued in June 2017, and will provide practical guidance to help users transitioning from NEC3 to NEC4. Inside A Practical Guide to the NEC4 Engineering and Construction Contract, readers will find chapters on the background of the NECECC; contract data and other documents; thespirit of mutual trust'; all of the individuals involved in the process (eg: project managers, clients, supervisors, subcontractors, etc.); communication issues, early warnings and other matters; quality management; titles; dealing with timing; payment processes; cost components; compensation procedures and assessments; dealingTable of Contents1 Introduction 1 1.1 General 1 1.2 Mechanics not law 2 1.3 A simple formula for understanding a contract 3 1.4 Mandatory or discretionary 4 1.5 Conditions precedent 4 1.6 Note on use of uppercase in keywords and phrases 5 2 Background to the NECECC 7 2.1 The background: First edition 7 2.2 The second edition 8 2.3 The third edition 9 2.4 The third edition (reprinted) 9 2.5 The fourth edition 9 2.6 Endorsement of NEC3 by the Office of Government Commerce 10 2.7 Endorsement by the Development Bureau, HKSAR Government 11 2.8 General philosophy: Aims and objectives 12 2.9 Flexibility 12 2.10 Clarity and simplicity 13 2.11 Stimulus to good management 14 2.12 Other characteristics 15 3 The Options: An Overview 17 3.1 General arrangement of the ECC 17 3.2 Other documents referred to 19 3.3 Contract Data 20 3.4 The published documents 20 3.5 Main Options: General outline 21 4 Spirit of Mutual Trust and Cooperation 25 4.1 Introduction 25 4.2 The clauses 25 4.3 What does it mean? 27 4.4 Practical issues 28 5 The Cast of Characters 33 5.1 Introduction 33 5.2 The Client 33 5.3 The Project Manager 35 5.4 The Supervisor 38 5.5 The Contractor 38 5.6 The Senior Representatives 39 5.7 The Adjudicator 40 5.8 The Tribunal 41 5.9 The Dispute Avoidance Board 41 5.10 Subcontractors 42 5.11 ‘Others’ 42 5.12 Named Suppliers 43 5.13 Designers 43 5.14 Principal Designer 44 5.15 Principal Contractor 45 5.16 Practical issues 45 6 Communications, Early Warnings and other General Matters 47 6.1 Introduction 47 6.2 Communications:The clause 47 6.3 Communications: Practical issues 49 6.4 Early warnings: The clause 51 6.5 Early warnings: Practical issues 53 6.6 Other matters:The clauses 55 6.7 Other matters: Practical issues 59 7 The Contractor’s Main Responsibilities 61 7.1 Introduction 61 7.2 Providing theWorks 61 7.3 Contractor’s design 62 7.4 Information modelling 66 7.5 Other matters 68 7.6 Practical issues 72 8 Subcontracting 75 8.1 Introduction 75 8.2 Definition of a Subcontractor 75 8.3 The core clauses 76 8.4 Provisions in the Main Options 76 8.5 Practical issues 77 8.6 Options for forms of subcontract in the NEC4 family 78 9 Quality Management 81 9.1 Introduction 81 9.2 Quality management system 81 9.3 Tests and inspections 82 9.4 What is a Defect? 84 9.5 The Defect procedure 84 9.6 The Defects Certificate 86 9.7 Uncorrected Defects 87 9.8 Practical issues 87 10 Title 91 10.1 Introduction 91 10.2 The core clauses 91 10.3 Practical issues 92 11 Liabilities and Insurance 95 11.1 Introduction 95 11.2 The core clauses 95 11.3 Secondary options 98 11.4 Practical issues 99 12 Time 101 12.1 Introduction 101 12.2 The programme: Contents 102 12.3 The programme: Submitting, accepting and revising 107 12.4 The programme: Practical issues 110 12.5 Starting and finishing 118 12.6 Other matters 121 12.7 Secondary Options related to Time 124 12.8 Practical issues 126 13 Payment 131 13.1 Introduction 131 13.2 The payment process 131 13.3 Payments in multiple currencies 134 13.4 Interim payments – The amount due and the Price for Work Done to Date 135 13.5 Supporting documents and records 145 13.6 Final assessment 148 13.7 The Contractor’s share 150 13.8 The Contractor’s share: Practical issues 152 13.9 Special provisions for the United Kingdom 153 13.10 Related Secondary Options 157 13.11 Practical issues 162 14 The Schedules of Cost Components 169 14.1 Introduction 169 14.2 The Schedule of Cost Components 169 14.3 The Short Schedule of Cost Components 174 14.4 Application to Subcontractors 175 14.5 Practical issues 176 15 Compensation Events:Theory and Events 179 15.1 Introduction 179 15.2 The theory 179 15.3 The events 181 15.4 Practical issues 196 16 Compensation Events: Procedures 199 16.1 Introduction 199 16.2 Notification by the Project Manager 200 16.3 Notification by the Contractor and the Project Manager’s reply 203 16.4 Other matters associated with notifying compensation events 206 16.5 Quotations: Substance 208 16.6 Quotations: Submission and reply 210 16.7 Assessments by the Project Manager 215 16.8 Proposed instructions 217 16.9 Implementing compensation events 218 16.10 Practical issues 219 17 Compensation Events: Assessment 227 17.1 Introduction 227 17.2 Changes to the Prices 228 17.3 Changes to the Completion Date and Any Key Dates 232 17.4 Project Manager’s assumptions 234 17.5 Other related matters 236 17.6 Practical issues 238 18 Termination 243 18.1 Introduction 243 18.2 Reasons for termination 243 18.3 Secondary Option X11 247 18.4 Implementing termination 248 18.5 Procedures after termination 248 18.6 Assessing the amount due after termination 250 18.7 Practical issues 252 19 Resolving and Avoiding Disputes 255 19.1 Introduction 255 19.2 Option W1 256 19.3 Option W2 261 19.4 Option W3 267 19.5 Practical issues 270 20 Secondary Options 273 20.1 Introduction 273 20.2 X2: Changes in the law 273 20.3 X4: Ultimate holding company guarantee 274 20.4 X12: Multiparty Collaboration 274 20.5 X13: Performance bond 279 20.6 X17: Low performance damages 280 20.7 X18: Limitation of liability 280 20.8 X20: Key Performance Indicators 281 20.9 X21:Whole Life Cost 282 20.10 X22: Early Contractor Involvement 283 20.11 Y(UK)3:The Contracts (Rights ofThird Parties) Act 1999 288 20.12 Z: Additional conditions of contract 288 20.13 Practical issues 289 21 Completing the Contract Data 291 21.1 Introduction 291 21.2 Purpose and form of the Contract Data 291 21.3 Contract Data Part One 292 21.4 Contract Data Part Two 304 21.5 Practical issues 309 22 The Supporting Documents: Need and Content 311 22.1 Introduction 311 22.2 Scope 312 22.3 Site Information 324 22.4 Practical issues 325 Bibliography 329 Appendix 1 Tables of Clause Numbers, Case Lawand Statutes 331 Appendix 2 Tables of Client’s, Project Manager’s, Supervisor’s, Contractor’s, Senior Representatives, Adjudicator’s, Dispute Avoidance Board and Tribunals Actions 341 Appendix 3 Tables of Communication Forms and Their Uses 379

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Book SynopsisDiscover a comprehensive exploration of recent developments and fundamental concepts in the applications of metasurfaces. In Electromagnetic Metasurfaces: Theory and Applications, distinguished researchers and authors Karim Achouri and Christophe Caloz deliver an introduction to the fundamentals and applications of metasurfaces and an insightful analysis of recent and future developments in the field. The book describes the precursors and history of metasurfaces before continuing on to an exploration of the physical insights that can be gleaned from the material parameters of the metasurface. You'll learn how to compute the fields scattered by a metasurface with known material parameters being illuminated by an arbitrary incident field, as well as how to realize a practical metasurface and relate its material parameters to its physical structures. The authors provide examples to illustrate all the concepts discussed in the book to improve and simplify reaTable of ContentsPreface ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Metamaterials 1 1.2 Emergence of Metasurfaces 4 2 Electromagnetic Properties of Materials 9 2.1 Bianisotropic Constitutive Relations 10 2.2 Temporal Dispersion 14 2.2.1 Causality and Kramers-Kronig Relations 15 2.2.2 Lorentz Oscillator Model 17 2.3 Spatial Dispersion 23 2.4 Lorentz Reciprocity Theorem 27 2.5 Poynting Theorem 32 2.6 Energy Conservation in Lossless-Gainless Systems 38 2.7 Classi_cation of Bianisotropic Media 41 3 Metasurface Modeling 43 3.1 E_ective Homogeneity 44 3.1.1 The Homogeneity Paradox 44 3.1.2 Theory of Periodic Structures 44 3.1.3 Scattering from Gratings 46 3.1.4 Homogenization 47 3.2 E_ective Zero Thickness 50 3.3 Sheet Boundary Conditions 53 3.3.1 Impedance Modeling 54 3.3.2 Polarizability Modeling 57 3.3.3 Susceptibility Modeling 60 3.3.4 Comparisons between the Models 66 4 Susceptibility Synthesis 69 4.1 Linear Time-Invariant Metasurfaces 69 4.1.1 Basic Assumptions 69 4.1.2 Birefringent Metasurfaces 76 4.1.3 Multiple-Transformation Metasurfaces 78 4.1.4 Relations between Susceptibilities and Scattering Parameters 81 4.1.5 Surface-Wave Eigenvalue Problem 92 4.1.5.1 Formulation of the Problem 92 4.1.5.2 Dispersion in a Symmetric Environments 96 4.1.6 Metasurfaces with Normal Polarizations 100 4.1.7 Illustrative Examples 104 4.1.7.1 Polarization Rotation 104 4.1.7.2 Multiple Nonreciprocal Transformations 109 4.1.7.3 Angle-Dependent Transformations 112 4.2 Time-Varying Metasurfaces 117 4.2.1 Formulation of the Problem 117 4.2.2 Harmonic-Generation Time-Varying Metasurface 120 4.3 Nonlinear Metasurfaces 121 4.3.1 Second-Order Nonlinearity 122 4.3.1.1 Frequency-Domain Approach 123 4.3.1.2 Time-Domain Approach 128 5 Scattered Field Computation 133 5.1 Fourier-Based Propagation Method 134 5.2 Finite-Di_erence Frequency-Domain Method 141 5.3 Finite-Di_erence Time-Domain Method 147 5.3.1 Time-Varying Dispersionless Metasurfaces 150 5.3.2 Time-Varying Dispersive Metasurfaces 156 5.4 Spectral-Domain Integral Equation Method 164 6 Practical Implementation 173 6.1 General Implementation Procedure 174 6.2 Basic Strategies for Full-Phase Coverage 178 6.2.1 Linear Polarization 179 6.2.1.1 Metallic Scattering Particles 179 6.2.1.2 Dielectric Scattering Particles 188 6.2.2 Circular Polarization 194 6.3 Full-Phase Coverage with Perfect Matching 198 6.4 Effects of Symmetry Breaking 207 6.4.1 Angular Scattering 208 6.4.2 Polarization Conversion 215 7 Applications 223 7.1 Angle-Independent Transformation 224 7.2 Perfect Matching 229 7.3 Generalized Refraction 234 7.3.1 Limitations of Conventional Synthesis Methods 234 7.3.2 Perfect Refraction using Bianisotropy 239 8 Conclusions 245 9 Appendix 249 9.1 Approximation of Average Fields at an Interface 249 9.2 Fields Radiated by a Sheet of Dipole Moments 252 9.3 Relations between Susceptibilities and Polarizabilities 255 Bibliography 260

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xv About the Companion Website xix 1 Fundamentals 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 What Is a Robot? 2 1.3 Classification of Robots 3 1.4 What Is Robotics? 3 1.5 History of Robotics 3 1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots 4 1.7 Robot Components 5 1.8 Robot Degrees of Freedom 7 1.9 Robot Joints 9 1.10 Robot Coordinates 9 1.11 Robot Reference Frames 11 1.12 Programming Modes 12 1.13 Robot Characteristics 13 1.14 Robot Workspace 13 1.15 Robot Languages 14 1.16 Robot Applications 17 1.17 Other Robots and Applications 23 1.18 Collaborative Robots 28 1.19 Social Issues 29 1.20 Summary 30 References 30 Problems 32 2 Kinematics of Serial Robots: Position Analysis 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Robots as Mechanisms 35 2.3 Conventions 37 2.4 Matrix Representation 37 2.4.1 Representation of a Point in Space 37 2.4.2 Representation of a Vector in Space 38 2.4.3 Representation of a Frame at the Origin of a Fixed-Reference Frame 40 2.4.4 Representation of a Frame Relative to a Fixed Reference Frame 41 2.4.5 Representation of a Rigid Body 42 2.5 Homogeneous Transformation Matrices 45 2.6 Representation of Transformations 46 2.6.1 Representation of a Pure Translation 46 2.6.2 Representation of a Pure Rotation about an Axis 47 2.6.3 Representation of Combined Transformations 50 2.6.4 Transformations Relative to the Current (Moving) Frame 52 2.6.5 Mixed Transformations Relative to Rotating and Reference Frames 53 2.7 Inverse of Transformation Matrices 54 2.8 Forward and Inverse Kinematics of Robots 59 2.9 Forward and Inverse Kinematic Equations: Position 60 2.9.1 Cartesian (Gantry, Rectangular) Coordinates 60 2.9.2 Cylindrical Coordinates 61 2.9.3 Spherical Coordinates 63 2.9.4 Articulated Coordinates 65 2.10 Forward and Inverse Kinematic Equations: Orientation 65 2.10.1 Roll, Pitch, Yaw (RPY) Angles 65 2.10.2 Euler Angles 68 2.10.3 Articulated Joints 70 2.11 Forward and Inverse Kinematic Equations: Position and Orientation 70 2.12 Denavit-Hartenberg Representation of Forward Kinematic Equations of Robots 70 2.13 The Inverse Kinematic Solution of Robots 84 2.13.1 General Solution for Articulated Robot Arms 86 2.14 Inverse Kinematic Programming of Robots 89 2.15 Dual-Arm Cooperating Robots 91 2.16 Degeneracy and Dexterity 92 2.16.1 Degeneracy 92 2.16.2 Dexterity 93 2.17 The Fundamental Problem with the Denavit-Hartenberg Representation 93 2.18 Design Projects 95 2.18.1 Stair-Climbing Robot 96 2.18.2 A 3-DOF Robot 96 2.18.3 A 3-DOF Mobile Robot 98 2.19 Summary 99 References 99 Problems 99 3 Robot Kinematics with Screw-Based Mechanics 111 3.1 Introduction 111 3.2 What Is a Screw? 111 3.3 Rotation about a Screw Axis 112 3.4 Homogenous Transformations about a General Screw Axis 115 3.5 Successive Screw-Based Transformations 119 3.6 Forward and Inverse Position Analysis of an Articulated Robot 120 3.7 Design Projects 127 3.8 Summary 127 Additional Reading 128 Problems 128 4 Kinematics Analysis of Parallel Robots 133 4.1 Introduction 133 4.2 Physical Characteristics of Parallel Robots 134 4.3 The Denavit-Hartenberg Approach vs. the Direct Kinematic Approach 139 4.4 Forward and Inverse Kinematics of Planar Parallel Robots 140 4.4.1 Kinematic Analysis of a 3-RPR Planar Parallel Robot 141 4.4.2 Kinematic Analysis of a 3-RRR Planar Parallel Robot 143 4.5 Forward and Inverse Kinematics of Spatial Parallel Robots 147 4.5.1 Kinematic Analysis of a Generic 6-6 Stewart-Gough Platform 147 4.5.2 Kinematic Analysis of a Generic 6-3 Stewart-Gough Platform 152 4.5.3 Kinematic Analysis of a 3-Axis RSS-Type Parallel Robot 154 4.5.4 Kinematic Analysis of a 4-Axis RSS-Type Parallel Robot 160 4.5.5 Kinematic Analysis of a 3-Axis PSS-Type Parallel Robot 167 4.6 Other Parallel Robot Configurations 169 4.7 Design Projects 169 4.8 Summary 170 References 170 Problems 170 5 Differential Motions and Velocities 173 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 Differential Relationships 173 5.3 The Jacobian 174 5.4 Differential versus Large-Scale Motions 176 5.5 Differential Motions of a Frame versus a Robot 177 5.6 Differential Motions of a Frame 178 5.6.1 Differential Translations 178 5.6.2 Differential Rotations about Reference Axes 178 5.6.3 Differential Rotation about a General Axis q 179 5.6.4 Differential Transformations of a Frame 181 5.7 Interpretation of the Differential Change 182 5.8 Differential Changes between Frames 183 5.9 Differential Motions of a Robot and Its Hand Frame 185 5.10 Calculation of the Jacobian 185 5.11 How to Relate the Jacobian and the Differential Operator 188 5.12 The Inverse Jacobian 191 5.13 Calculation of the Jacobian with Screw-Based Mechanics 197 5.14 The Inverse Jacobian for the Screw-Based Method 206 5.15 Calculation of the Jacobians of Parallel Robots 206 5.15.1 The Jacobian of a Planar 3-RRR Parallel Robot 207 5.15.2 The Jacobian of a Generic 6-6 Stewart-Gough Parallel Robot 208 5.16 Design Projects 210 5.16.1 The 3-DOF Robot 210 5.16.2 The 3-DOF Mobile Robot 210 5.17 Summary 210 References 211 Problems 211 6 Dynamic and Force Analysis 219 6.1 Introduction 219 6.2 Lagrangian Mechanics: A Short Overview 220 6.3 Effective Moments of Inertia 229 6.4 Dynamic Equations for Multiple-DOF Robots 229 6.4.1 Kinetic Energy 229 6.4.2 Potential Energy 234 6.4.3 The Lagrangian 234 6.4.4 Robot’s Equations of Motion 234 6.5 Static Force Analysis of Robots 239 6.6 Transformation of Forces and Moments between Coordinate Frames 242 6.7 Design Project 244 6.8 Summary 244 References 244 Problems 245 7 Trajectory Planning 247 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Path vs. Trajectory 247 7.3 Joint-Space vs. Cartesian-Space Descriptions 248 7.4 Basics of Trajectory Planning 249 7.5 Joint-Space Trajectory Planning 252 7.5.1 Third-Order Polynomial Trajectory Planning 252 7.5.2 Fifth-Order Polynomial Trajectory Planning 255 7.5.3 Linear Segments with Parabolic Blends 257 7.5.4 Linear Segments with Parabolic Blends and Via Points 259 7.5.5 Higher-Order Trajectories 260 7.5.6 Other Trajectories 263 7.6 Cartesian-Space Trajectories 263 7.7 Continuous Trajectory Recording 267 7.8 Design Project 268 7.9 Summary 269 References 269 Problems 269 8 Motion Control Systems 273 8.1 Introduction 273 8.2 Basic Components and Terminology 273 8.3 Block Diagrams 274 8.4 System Dynamics 274 8.5 Laplace Transform 278 8.6 Inverse Laplace Transform 281 8.6.1 Partial Fraction Expansion When F(s) Involves Only Distinct Poles 281 8.6.2 Partial Fraction Expansion When F(s) Involves Repeated Poles 282 8.6.3 Partial Fraction Expansion When F(s) Involves Complex Conjugate Poles 283 8.7 Transfer Functions 285 8.8 Block Diagram Algebra 288 8.9 Characteristics of First-Order Transfer Functions 290 8.10 Characteristics of Second-Order Transfer Functions 292 8.11 Characteristic Equation: Pole/Zero Mapping 294 8.12 Steady-State Error 296 8.13 Root Locus Method 298 8.14 Proportional Controllers 303 8.15 Proportional-Plus-Integral Controllers 306 8.16 Proportional-Plus-Derivative Controllers 308 8.17 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller (PID) 311 8.18 Lead and Lag Compensators 313 8.19 Bode Diagram and Frequency-Domain Analysis 313 8.20 Open-Loop vs. Closed-Loop Applications 314 8.21 Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output Systems 314 8.22 State-Space Control Methodology 316 8.23 Digital Control 320 8.24 Nonlinear Control Systems 322 8.25 Electromechanical Systems Dynamics: Robot Actuation and Control 323 8.26 Design Projects 326 8.27 Summary 327 References 327 Problems 327 9 Actuators and Drive Systems 331 9.1 Introduction 331 9.2 Characteristics of Actuating Systems 331 9.2.1 Nominal Characteristics – Weight, Power-to-Weight Ratio, Operating Pressure, Voltage, and Others 331 9.2.2 Stiffness vs. Compliance 332 9.2.3 Use of Reduction Gears 332 9.3 Comparison of Actuating Systems 335 9.4 Hydraulic Actuators 335 9.5 Pneumatic Devices 337 9.6 Electric Motors 338 9.6.1 Fundamental Differences Between AC- and DC-Type Motors 339 9.6.2 DC Motors 341 9.6.3 AC Motors 344 9.6.4 Brushless DC Motors 345 9.6.5 Direct-Drive Electric Motors 346 9.6.6 Servomotors 346 9.6.7 Stepper Motors 347 9.7 Microprocessor Control of Electric Motors 360 9.7.1 Pulse Width Modulation 361 9.7.2 Direction Control of DC Motors with an H-Bridge 363 9.8 Magnetostrictive Actuators 364 9.9 Shape-Memory Type Metals 364 9.10 Electroactive Polymer Actuators (EAPs) 364 9.11 Speed Reduction 365 9.12 Other Systems 367 9.13 Design Projects 367 9.14 Summary 370 References 371 Problems 372 10 Sensors 375 10.1 Introduction 375 10.2 Sensor Characteristics 375 10.3 Sensor Utilization 377 10.4 Position Sensors 378 10.4.1 Potentiometers 378 10.4.2 Encoders 379 10.4.3 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 382 10.4.4 Resolvers 383 10.4.5 (Linear) Magnetostrictive Displacement Transducer (LMDT or MDT) 383 10.4.6 Hall-effect Sensors 384 10.4.7 Global Positioning System (GPS) 384 10.4.8 Other Devices 385 10.5 Velocity Sensors 385 10.5.1 Encoders 385 10.5.2 Tachometers 385 10.5.3 Differentiation of Position Signal 386 10.6 Acceleration Sensors 386 10.7 Force and Pressure Sensors 386 10.7.1 Piezoelectric 386 10.7.2 Force-Sensing Resistor 386 10.7.3 Strain Gauge 387 10.7.4 Antistatic Foam 388 10.8 Torque Sensors 388 10.9 Microswitches 389 10.10 Visible Light and Infrared Sensors 389 10.11 Touch and Tactile Sensors 390 10.12 Proximity Sensors 391 10.12.1 Magnetic Proximity Sensors 391 10.12.2 Optical Proximity Sensors 391 10.12.3 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors 392 10.12.4 Inductive Proximity Sensors 392 10.12.5 Capacitive Proximity Sensors 393 10.12.6 Eddy Current Proximity Sensors 393 10.13 Range Finders 393 10.13.1 Ultrasonic Range Finders 394 10.13.2 Light-Based Range Finders 395 10.14 Sniff Sensors 396 10.15 Vision Systems 396 10.16 Voice-Recognition Devices 396 10.17 Voice Synthesizers 397 10.18 Remote Center Compliance (RCC) Device 397 10.19 Design Project 400 10.20 Summary 400 References 401 11 Image Processing and Analysis with Vision Systems 403 11.1 Introduction 403 11.2 Basic Concepts 403 11.2.1 Image Processing vs. Image Analysis 403 11.2.2 Two- and Three-Dimensional Image Types 403 11.2.3 The Nature of an Image 404 11.2.4 Acquisition of Images 405 11.2.5 Digital Images 405 11.2.6 Frequency Domain vs. Spatial Domain 406 11.3 Fourier Transform and Frequency Content of a Signal 406 11.4 Frequency Content of an Image: Noise and Edges 409 11.5 Resolution and Quantization 410 11.6 Sampling Theorem 412 11.7 Image-Processing Techniques 415 11.8 Histograms of Images 415 11.9 Thresholding 418 11.10 Spatial Domain Operations Convolution Mask 419 11.11 Connectivity 424 11.12 Noise Reduction 426 11.12.1 Neighborhood Averaging with Convolution Masks 427 11.12.2 Image Averaging 428 11.12.3 Frequency Domain 429 11.12.4 Median Filters 429 11.13 Edge Detection 430 11.14 Sharpening an Image 436 11.15 Hough Transform 437 11.16 Segmentation 440 11.17 Segmentation by Region Growing and Region Splitting 441 11.18 Binary Morphology Operations 444 11.18.1 Thickening Operation 446 11.18.2 Dilation 446 11.18.3 Erosion 447 11.18.4 Skeletonization 447 11.18.5 Open Operation 448 11.18.6 Close Operation 448 11.18.7 Fill Operation 448 11.19 Gray Morphology Operations 449 11.19.1 Erosion 449 11.19.2 Dilation 449 11.20 Image Analysis 449 11.21 Object Recognition by Features 450 11.21.1 Basic Features Used for Object Identification 450 11.21.2 Moments 451 11.21.3 Template Matching 456 11.21.4 Discrete Fourier Descriptors 456 11.21.5 Computed Tomography (CT) 457 11.22 Depth Measurement with Vision Systems 457 11.22.1 Scene Analysis vs. Mapping 457 11.22.2 Range Detection and Depth Analysis 458 11.22.3 Stereo Imaging 458 11.22.4 Scene Analysis with Shading and Sizes 459 11.23 Specialized Lighting 459 11.24 Image Data Compression 460 11.24.1 Intraframe Spatial Domain Techniques 460 11.24.2 Interframe Coding 461 11.24.3 Compression Techniques 461 11.25 Color Images 462 11.26 Heuristics 462 11.27 Applications of Vision Systems 462 11.28 Design Project 463 11.29 Summary 464 References 464 Problems 465 12 Fuzzy Logic Control 475 12.1 Introduction 475 12.2 Fuzzy Control: What Is Needed 476 12.3 Crisp Values vs. Fuzzy Values 476 12.4 Fuzzy Sets: Degrees of Truth and Membership 477 12.5 Fuzzification 477 12.6 Fuzzy Inference Rules 480 12.7 Defuzzification 481 12.7.1 Center of Gravity Method 481 12.7.2 Mamdani Inference Method 481 12.8 Simulation of a Fuzzy Logic Controller 485 12.9 Applications of Fuzzy Logic in Robotics 487 12.10 Design Project 488 12.11 Summary 489 References 489 Problems 490 Appendix A 491 Appendix B 499 Index 501

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Book SynopsisAn updated fourth edition of the text that provides an understanding of chemical transformations and the formation of structures at surfaces The revised and enhanced fourth edition of Surface Science covers all the essential techniques and phenomena that are relevant to the field. The text elucidates the structural, dynamical, thermodynamic and kinetic principles concentrating on gas/solid and liquid/solid interfaces. These principles allow for an understanding of how and why chemical transformations occur at surfaces. The author (a noted expert on in the field) combines the required chemistry, physics and mathematics to create a text that is accessible and comprehensive. The fourth edition incorporates new end-of-chapter exercises, the solutions to which are available on-line to demonstrate how problem solving that is relevant to surface science should be performed. Each chapter begins with simple principles and builds to more advanced ones. The advancedTable of ContentsDedication i Preface ii Surface Science: Fundamentals of Catalysis and Nanoscience 1 Introduction 1 I.1 Heterogeneous Catalysis 2 I.2 Why surfaces? 4 I.3 Where are surfaces, interfaces and nanoscale objects important? 5 I.3.1 Ammonia Synthesis 5 I.3.2 Gas-to-Liquids: Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis, C1 Chemistry & Artificial Photosynthesis 6 I.3.3 Clean Propulsion Three-way Catalyst, Lithium ion batteries, fuel cells 7 I.3.4 Water Splitting: Oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions (OER and HER) 8 I.4 Semiconductor Processing and Nanotechnology 9 I.5 Other Areas of Relevance 12 I.6 Structure of the Book 12 Further Reading 14 References 14 Chapter 1. Surface and Adsorbate Structure 2 1.1 Clean Surface Structure 3 1.1.1 Ideal flat surfaces 3 1.1.2 High index and vicinal planes 9 1.1.3 Faceted Surfaces 10 1.1.4 Bimetallic Surfaces 11 1.1.5 Oxide and Compound Semiconductor Surfaces 13 1.1.6 The Carbon Family: Diamond, Graphite, Graphene, Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes 17 1.1.7 Two-Dimensional Solids (2D solids) 26 Advanced Topic: Stacked Two-Dimensional Materials and Moiré Superlattices 28 1.1.8 Porous Solids 31 1.2 Reconstruction and adsorbate structure 34 1.2.1 Implications of surface heterogeneity for adsorbates 34 1.2.2 Clean Surface Reconstructions 37 1.2.3 Adsorbate induced reconstructions 39 1.2.4 Islands 45 1.2.5 Chiral surfaces 45 1.3 Band structure of solids 48 1.3.1 Bulk electronic states 48 1.3.2 Metals, semiconductors and insulators 50 1.3.3 Energy levels at metal interfaces 57 1.3.4 Energy Levels at Metal-Semiconductor Interfaces 61 1.3.5 Surface electronic states 64 1.3.6 Size effects in nanoscale systems 67 1.4 The vibrations of solids 71 1.4.1 Bulk systems 71 1.4.2 Nanoscale systems 73 1.5 Summary of important concepts 74 1.6 Frontiers and Challenges 75 1.7 Further Reading 76 1.8 Exercises 77 References 81 Chapter 2. Experimental Probes and Techniques 2 2.1 Ultrahigh vacuum 2 2.1.1 The need for UHV 2 2.1.2 Attaining UHV 4 2.2 Light and electron sources 6 2.2.1 Types of lasers 7 2.2.2 Atomic lamps 10 2.2.3 Synchrotrons 10 2.2.4 Free electron laser (FEL) 11 2.2.5 Electron guns 11 2.3 Molecular beams 12 2.3.1 Knudsen molecular beams 13 2.3.2 Free jets 15 2.2.3 Comparison of Knudsen and Supersonic Beams 18 2.4 Scanning probe techniques 22 2.4.1 Scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) 23 2.4.2 Scanning tunnelling spectroscopy (STS) 29 2.4.3 Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) 32 2.4.4 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) 32 2.4.5 Near-field optical microscopy (NSOM) 39 2.5 Low energy electron diffraction (LEED) 46 Advanced Topic: LEED structure determination 51 2.6 Electron spectroscopy 57 2.6.1 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) 59 2.6.1.1 Quantitative analysis 64 2.6.2 Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) 66 2.6.2.1 Angle-resolved ultraviolet photoemission (ARUPS) 69 Advanced Topic: Multiphoton photoemission (MPPE) 73 2.6.3 Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) 75 2.6.3.1 Quantitative analysis 78 2.6.4 Photoelectron microscopy 81 2.6.4.1 Profiling and xy mapping with XPS 81 2.6.4.2 Depth profiling and xy mapping with AES 82 2.6.4.3 Photoemission electron microscope (PEEM) 82 2.7 Vibrational spectroscopy 83 2.7.1 IR spectroscopy 88 2.7.2 Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) 94 2.7.2.1 Three scattering mechanisms 96 2.8 Second Harmonic and Sum Frequency Generation 97 2.9 Summary of important concepts 101 2.10 Frontiers and challenges 102 2.12 Further reading 103 2.13 Exercises 104 References 112 Chapter 3. Chemisorption, Physisorption and Dynamics 1 3.1 Types of interactions 1 3.2 Binding sites and diffusion 3 3.3 Physisorption 9 Advanced Topic: Theoretical Description of Physisorption 9 3.4 Non-dissociative chemisorption 11 3.4.1 Theoretical treatment of chemisorption 11 3.4.2 The Blyholder model of CO chemisorption on a metal 17 3.4.3 Molecular oxygen chemisorption 21 3.4.4 The binding of ethene 22 3.5 Dissociative chemisorption: H2 on a simple metal 25 3.6 What determines the reactivity of metals? 28 3.7 Atoms and molecules incident on a surface 34 3.7.1 Scattering channels 35 3.7.2 Non-activated adsorption 38 3.7.3 Hard cube model 42 3.7.4 Activated adsorption 46 3.7.5 Direct versus precursor mediated adsorption 48 3.8 Microscopic reversibility in ad/desorption phenomena 51 3.9 The influence of individual degrees of freedom on adsorption and desorption 59 3.9.1 Energy exchange 59 3.9.2 PES topography and the relative efficacy of energetic components 62 3.10 Translations, corrugation, surface atom motions 63 3.10.1 Effects on adsorption 63 3.10.2 Connecting adsorption and desorption with microscopic reversibility 68 3.10.3 Normal energy scaling 70 3.11 Rotations and adsorption 72 3.11.1 Non-activated adsorption 72 3.11.2 Activated adsorption 76 3.12 Vibrations and adsorption 76 3.13 Competitive adsorption and collision induced processes 78 3.13.1 High energy collisions 82 3.14 Classification of reaction mechanisms 84 3.14.1 Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism 84 3.14.2 Eley-Rideal mechanism 87 3.14.3 Hot atom mechanism 89 3.15 Measurement of sticking coefficients 91 3.16 Summary of Important Concepts 97 3.17 Frontiers and challenges 99 3.18 Further Reading 100 3.19 Exercises 101 References 113 Table of Figures and Tables iii Chapter 4. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Adsorption & Desorption 5 4.1 Thermodynamics of ad/desorption 2 4.1.1 Single-particle versus distribution-averaged quantities 2 4.1.2 Binding energies and activation barriers 5 4.1.3 Thermodynamic quantities 8 4.1.4 Some definitions 9 4.1.5 Absorption enthalpy 11 4.2 Adsorption isotherms from thermodynamics 15 4.2.1 Adsorbate chemical potential and activity 19 4.3 Lateral interactions 21 4.4 Rate of desorption 24 4.4.1 First-order desorption 25 4.4.2 Transition state theory treatment of first-order desorption 26 4.4.3 Thermodynamic treatment of first-order desorption 33 4.4.4 Adsorption entropy 36 4.4.5 Configurational entropy 40 4.4.6 Non-first-order desorption 41 4.5 Kinetics of adsorption 44 4.5.1 CTST approach to adsorption kinetics 44 4.5.2 Langmuirian adsorption: Non-dissociative adsorption 45 4.5.3 Langmuirian adsorption: Dissociative adsorption 49 4.5.4 Dissociative Langmuirian adsorption with lateral interactions 50 4.5.5 Precursor mediated adsorption 52 4.6 Adsorption isotherms from kinetics 55 4.6.1 Langmuir Isotherm 55 4.6.2 Classification of adsorption isotherms 57 4.6.3 Thermodynamic measurements via isotherms 60 4.7 Temperature programmed desorption (TPD) 61 4.7.1 The basis of TPD 61 4.7.2 Qualitative analysis of TPD spectra 64 4.7.3 Quantitative analysis of TPD spectra 68 4.8 Summary of Important Concepts 72 4.9 Frontiers and Challenges 74 4.10 Further Reading 74 4.11 Exercises 75 References 85 Chapter 5. Liquid interfaces 1 5.1 Structure of the liquid/solid interface 2 5.1.1 The structure of the water/solid interface 4 5.2 Surface energy and surface tension 9 5.2.1 Liquid surfaces 10 5.2.2 Curved interfaces 14 5.2.3 Surface Melting and Surface Crystallization 17 5.2.4 Capillary Waves 18 5.3 Liquid films 21 5.3.1 Liquid-on-solid films 21 5.4 Langmuir films 25 5.5 Langmuir-Blodgett films 29 5.5.1 Capillary condensation and meniscus formation 29 5.5.2 Vertical Deposition 33 5.5.3 Horizontal Lifting (Schaefer's method) 36 5.6 Self assembled monolayers (SAMs) 37 5.6.1 Thermodynamics of self-assembly 38 5.6.2 Amphiphiles and bonding interactions 40 5.6.3 Mechanism of SAM formation 41 Advanced Topic: Chemistry with Self Assembled Monolayers 46 5.7 Thermodynamics of liquid interfaces 47 5.7.1 The Gibbs model 48 5.7.2 Surface Excess 50 5.7.3 Interfacial enthalpy and internal, Helmholtz and Gibbs surface energies 50 5.7.4 Gibbs adsorption isotherm 52 5.8 Electrified and Charged Interfaces 54 5.8.1 Surface charge and potential 54 5.8.2 Relating work functions to the electrochemical series 58 5.9 Summary of important concepts 61 5.10 Frontiers and challenges 62 5.11 Further reading 63 5.12 Exercises 64 References 70 Chapter 6. Heterogeneous Catalysis 1 6.1 The prominence of heterogeneous reactions 1 6.2 How to choose a catalyst 4 6.3 Sabatier analysis and optimal catalyst selection 9 6.4 Measurement of surface kinetics and reaction mechanisms 13 6.5 Haber-Bosch process 19 6.6 From microscopic kinetics to catalysis 27 6.6.1 Reaction kinetics 27 6.6.2 Kinetic analysis using De Donder relations 30 6.6.3 Counting sites in surface kinetics 31 6.6.4 Definition of the rate determining step (RDS) 33 6.6.5 Microkinetic analysis of ammonia synthesis 36 6.7 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and related chemistry 40 6.7.1 Steam Reforming 41 6.7.2 Water gas shift reaction 42 6.7.3 Methanol synthesis 42 6.7.4 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis 43 6.8 The three-way automotive catalyst 49 6.9 Promoters 54 6.10 Poisons 56 6.11 Bimetallic & bifunctional catalysts 58 6.12 Rate oscillations and spatiotemporal pattern formation 61 Advanced Topic: Cluster assembled catalysts 65 6.13 Electrocatalysis 66 6.13.1 Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and H2 oxidation reaction (HOR) 68 6.13.2 Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and O2 reduction reaction (ORR) 70 Advanced Topic: Water Splitting in Photosystem II 73 6.14 Summary of Important Concepts 75 6.15 Frontiers and Challenges 76 6.16 Further Reading 77 6.17 Exercises 78 Chapter 7. Growth and Epitaxy 7 7.1 Stress and Strain 7 7.2 Types of Interfaces 12 7.2.1 Strain Relief 13 7.3 Surface Energy, Surface Tension & Strain Energy 15 7.4 Growth Modes 20 7.4.1 Solid-on-Solid Growth 20 7.4.2 Strain in Solid-on-Solid Growth 22 Layer by layer Growth = Frank-van der Merwe (FM) [34] 22 Layer + island growth = Stranski-Krastanov (SK) [35] 22 Three Dimensional Island Growth = Volmer-Weber (VW) [36] 23 7.4.3 Ostwald Ripening 25 7.4.4 Equilibrium Overlayer Structure and Growth Mode 27 7.5 Nucleation theory 30 7.5.1 Cloud Formation: Heterogeneous versus Homogeneous Nucleation 34 7.6 Growth Away from Equilibrium 35 7.6.1 Thermodynamics versus Dynamics 35 7.6.2 Non-equilibrium growth modes 37 7.7 Techniques for Growing Layers 41 7.7.1 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) 42 7.7.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) 47 7.7.3 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) 53 7.7.4 Ablation Techniques 54 7.7.5 Growth on liquid metals 55 7.7.6 van der Waals epitaxy 56 7.8 Catalytic Growth of Nanotubes and Nanowires 59 7.9 Etching 67 7.9.1 Classification of Etching 69 7.9.2 Etch morphologies 74 7.9.3 Porous Solid Formation 76 7.9.4 Silicon etching in aqueous fluoride solutions 80 7.9.5 Selective Area Growth and Etching 85 7.9.6 Atomic Layer Etching (ALE) 89 Advanced Topic: Nanosphere Lithography 91 7.9.7 Coal Gasification and Graphite Etching 93 7.10 Summary of Important Concepts 95 7.11 Frontiers and Challenges 96 7.12 Further Reading 98 7.13 Exercises 99 References 103 Chapter 8. Laser & Non-thermal chemistry: Photon and electron stimulated chemistry & atom manipulation 1 8.1 Photon Excitation of Surfaces 2 8.1.1 Light absorption by condensed matter 2 8.1.2 Lattice heating 5 8.1.3 Advanced Topic: Temporal evolution of electronic excitations 11 8.1.3.1 Slow pulse excitation (>100 ps) 16 8.1.3.2 Ultrafast pulse excitation (1–10 ps) 17 8.1.3.3 Even faster (<1 ps) 18 8.1.4 Summary of Laser Excitations 22 8.1.5 Plasmon Excitation 23 8.2 Mechanisms of Electron and photon stimulated processes 24 8.2.1 Direct versus substrate mediated processes 24 8.2.2 Gas phase photochemistry 26 8.2.3 Gas Phase Electron Stimulated Chemistry 29 8.2.4 MGR & Antoniewicz models of DIET 30 8.2.5 Desorption Induced by Ultrafast Excitation 35 8.3 Photon and electron induced chemistry at surfaces 37 8.3.1 Thermal desorption, reaction and diffusion 37 8.3.2 Stimulated desorption/reaction 39 8.3.2.1 High-Energy Radiation 40 8.3.2.2 IR-Visible-UV radiation 46 8.3.2.3 Ultrafast IR-Visible-UV radiation 49 8.3.3 Ablation 51 8.4 Charge transfer & electrochemistry 61 8.4.1 Homogeneous Electron Transfer 63 8.4.2 Corrections to and improvements on Marcus theory 68 8.4.3 Heterogeneous Electron Transfer 69 8.4.4 Current flow at a metal electrode 74 8.4.5 Advanced Topic: Semiconductor Photoelectrodes and the Grätzel Photovoltaic Cell 77 8.5 Tip induced process: Mechanisms of atom manipulation 83 8.5.1 Electric Field Effects 84 8.5.2 Tip Induced ESD 84 8.5.3 Vibrational Ladder Climbing 87 8.5.4 Pushing 90 8.5.5 Pulling 91 8.5.6 Atom Manipulation by Covalent Forces 91 8.6 Summary of Important Concepts 94 8.7 Frontiers and Challenges 96 8.8 Further Reading 97 8.9 Exercises 98 References 104

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive and thoroughly revised text on dairy science that contains information on the most recent developments The fully updated third edition of Understanding the Dairy Cow explores the scientific principles that provide a foundation for understanding the animal's body system. The comprehensive text also reveals how to properly manage dairy cattle with economic efficiency whilst taking into consideration the cow's welfare. The revised new edition contains expanded coverage on topics including insight into cow behaviour and welfare, genetic selection indices, new strategies for control of mastitis and lameness and information on the overworked cow. It also contains the most recent developments in breeding, nutrition and management. Is an authoritative text on the dairy cow that covers a wide-ranging subject area including the science, disease and husbandry Presents the information and knowledge necessary for the efficient andTable of ContentsAcknowledgements xiii Preface to the Third Edition xiv About the Companion Website xvi Part I How the Cow Works 1 1 Introduction – The Dairy Cow of Today 3 Milk as Food 6 Nutrient Supply 7 Healthy Digestion 8 Taste and Appetite 9 Do no Harm 9 Biological Efficiency of Milk Production 10 Milk Production: Species and Breed Comparisons 11 Efficiency of Feed Conversion to Milk, Eggs and Meat: Competitive and Complementary Feeds 12 Behaviour and Welfare 14 2 Digestion and Metabolism 18 Structure of the Digestive Tract 18 Eating and Rumination 22 Grazing 22 Salivation 23 Rumen Movements 23 Rumination 25 Digestion 26 Fermentation of Carbohydrates in the Rumen 28 Utilization of Metabolizable Energy for Maintenance and Production 31 Digestion of Crude Protein 32 Microbial Protein Synthesis 35 Truly Absorbed Amino Nitrogen 37 Urea Recycling 38 Digestion of Lipids 38 Absorption and Secretion of Minerals 39 Calcium Exchange 41 Appetite and Food Intake 42 3 Reproduction and Lactation 45 Anatomy of the Female Reproductive Tract 45 Follicle Development and Ovulation 45 The Oestrus Cycle 49 Puberty 49 Fertilisation 50 Pregnancy 51 Placental Transfer and Foetal Nutrition 53 Parturition 53 Dystocia 55 Lactation 56 Anatomy of the Udder 56 Milk Yield 58 Extended Lactations 59 Hormonal Control of Lactation 60 Reproduction in the Male 61 4 Environment, Behaviour and Welfare 64 Environmental Needs 64 Behaviour 65 Physical Comfort 66 Thermal Comfort 68 Sensible Heat Loss 68 Evaporative Heat Loss 69 Metabolic Heat Production 71 Climate, Production and Welfare 73 Tropical Climates 73 Cold Climates 74 Security and Social Behaviour 74 Sexual and Maternal Behaviour 75 Behaviour as an Indicator of Welfare 76 Part II Feeding the Dairy Cow 77 5 Nutrition: Supply and Demand 79 Nutrient Requirements and Responses 81 Nutrient Allowances for the Lactating Cow 84 Mineral Requirements 88 Nutritive Value of Feeds 90 Ration Formulation 93 Prediction of Food Intake 93 Assessment of an Existing Ration 94 Feeding Plans for Dairy Cows 95 Inputs 95 Outputs 96 Allowances for Growing Heifers 97 6 Feeds and Feeding Strategies 99 Pasture 100 Grazing Strategies 102 Legumes 104 Grass Silage 104 Dry Matter 105 Metabolisable Energy 106 Protein 106 Silage Additives 107 Hay 107 Straw 108 Ensiled Whole-crop Cereals 108 Other Green Feeds 109 Root Crops 109 Cereals 109 By-products 111 Oilseed Cakes and Meals 111 Miscellaneous By-products 113 Sugar Beet Pulp 113 Maize Gluten 113 Brewers’ and Distillers’ Grains 114 Wheat Bran 114 Balancing Forages and Concentrates 114 Feeding Strategies 117 Feeding to Yield 117 Total Mixed Rations and Flat Rate Feeding 119 7 Feeding Problems and Metabolic Diseases 121 Feeding Problems 123 Rumen Acidosis 123 Abomasal Disorders 125 Bloat 126 Metabolic Disorders 127 Ketosis 127 Prevention and Treatment 129 Parturient Hypocalcaemia (‘Milk Fever’) 130 Prevention and Treatment 131 The Downer Cow 132 Hypomagnesaemic Tetany (Grass Staggers) 133 Prevention and Treatment 135 Other Mineral Deficiencies 136 Phosphorus 136 Copper and Molybdenum 137 Cobalt 138 Selenium 138 Vitamin Deficiencies 139 Vitamin A 139 Vitamin D 140 Vitamin E 140 Last Words on Minerals and Vitamins 141 Part III Housing Health and Management 143 8 Healthy and Humane Housing and Handling 145 Accommodation 145 The Cow House 146 Cubicle Design 150 The Cubicle Bed 153 Passageways 154 Calving and Isolation Boxes 154 Heifer Yards 156 Handling Facilities 156 Lameness 157 Conditions that Cause Lameness 159 Sole Haemorrhage and Sole Ulcers 159 White Line Disease 161 Digital Dermatitis 161 Interdigital Necrobacillosis ‘Foul’ 162 Aseptic Laminitis, ‘Founder’ 162 Risk Factors for Lameness 162 Transport and Slaughter 164 Loading and Unloading 164 The Journey 165 A Gentle Death 166 9 Milking and Mastitis 168 The Milking Machine 171 The Milking Parlour 174 Hygiene in the Milking Parlour 174 Mastitis 175 Indicators of Mastitis 176 Contagious Mastitis 177 Environmental Mastitis 178 Summer Mastitis 180 Dry Cow Therapy 181 10 Miscellaneous Maladies 182 Signs of Disease 183 Sudden Death 183 Drooling 185 Abdominal Symptoms 186 Nervous Symptoms 187 Fever 187 Inappetence and Anorexia 188 Notifiable Diseases 189 Bovine Tuberculosis 191 Foot and Mouth Disease 192 Other Infectious Diseases 193 Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) 193 Johne’s Disease 194 Salmonellosis 194 Leptospirosis 195 Parasitic Diseases 195 Part IV Breeding and Fertility 197 11 Breeding 199 Selection Criteria 202 Genomic Selection 206 Sexed Semen 206 Cow Selection 207 Beef Bulls 209 12 Fertility 211 Fertility Management 212 Behaviour at Oestrus 212 Aids to Oestrus Detection 213 Synchronisation of Oestrus 216 Time of Insemination 217 Pregnancy Diagnosis 217 Rebreeding 219 Infertility 219 Ovarian Dysfunction 220 Uterine Disorders 221 Retained Placenta 221 Endometritis 222 Early Foetal Death 222 Abortion 223 Nutrition and Infertility 223 Condition Score at Calving? 225 Condition Score at the Time for Rebreeding? 225 Milk Yields in Early and Mid-lactation? 225 How Well Does Nutrient Supply Match Requirements? 226 Transition Management 226 Part V Cows, People and the Environment 229 13 Cows, People and the Living Environment 231 Most of Those who can Consume Too Much Meat and Milk 232 Food We Could Eat is Fed to Animals While the Poor Grow Hungry 233 Intensive Livestock Production is Incompatible with Animal Welfare 233 Livestock’s Long Shadow is Destroying the Planet 235 Methane Production and Climate Change 237 Pollution from Dairy Units 238 Alternative Husbandry Systems 240 Organic Dairy Farming 240 Traditional and Village Systems 241 Fair Play for Cows, People and the Planet 242 Herd Health and Welfare 242 Herd Health Management 243 Animal Welfare: Quality Assurance and Quality Control 243 Further Reading 247 Index 252

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Book SynopsisPARTIAL DISCHARGES (PD) DETECTION, IDENTIFICATION AND LOCALIZATION Explore state-of-the-art partial discharge measurement techniques In Partial Discharges (PD) Detection, Identification and Localization, a team of distinguished electrical engineers delivers a comprehensive treatment of the behavior, modeling, measurement, monitoring, localization, and evaluation of partial discharges. It includes coverage of all major advancements in the field that have occurred over the last few decades. It also discusses partial discharge phenomena, detection methods, and strategies for analyzing and processing collected data. Mechanisms of insulation failure are explored, as is the denoising of partial discharge measurement data and the localization of partial discharge in large, high-voltage equipment. Non-electric principles and procedures are discussed, and the book offers a variety of tables, figures, and photographs to illustrate the concepts discussed within. Table of ContentsAuthor Biographies xi Foreword xiii Symbols and Abbreviations xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 2 1.2 Acknowledgments 3 1.3 Users 3 2 Physical Behavior of Partial Discharges 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 External Discharges 7 2.2.1 Tip with Negative Polarity 10 2.2.2 Tip with Positive Polarity 11 2.3 Internal Discharges 17 2.3.1 Discharges in Liquid Insulation 17 2.3.2 Discharges in Solid Insulation 18 2.4 Gliding Discharges 24 2.5 PD Quantities 24 References 29 3 Modeling of PD Behavior 33 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Network-Based Model 33 3.3 Field-Based Model 42 3.3.1 Stages of PD Behavior Modeling for DC Conditions 48 3.3.1.1 Stage 1: Inception of Ionization Processes 48 3.3.1.2 Stage 2: Establishment of an Electrical Dipole 49 3.3.1.3 Stage 3: Dissipation of the Electrical Dipole 49 3.3.2 Extended Modeling Parameters 49 3.3.3 Summary 52 References 53 4 Measurement of Partial Discharges 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Signal Properties 57 4.2.1 Device Under Test 57 4.2.2 High Voltage Circuit 58 4.3 Coupling Methods 59 4.3.1 Capacitive Coupling with Measuring Impedance 60 4.3.2 Inductive Coupling with High-Frequency Current Transformer 65 4.4 Signal Processing 68 4.4.1 Full Analog Processing 68 4.4.2 Semi-Digital Processing 68 4.4.3 Full Digital Processing 69 4.5 Measurement Principles 70 4.5.1 Narrow-Band Measurement 72 4.5.2 Wide-Band Measurement 76 4.5.3 Time Domain Integration 79 4.5.4 Radio Interference Voltage (RIV) Measurement 83 4.5.5 Synchronous Measurement for Multichannel Application 84 4.6 Noise Suppression and Reduction 86 4.6.1 Introduction 86 4.6.2 Noise Sources 87 4.6.2.1 Main Sources of Conducted Coupled Noise 87 4.6.2.2 Blocking Impedance and Filters 88 4.6.2.3 Electrodes and Wire 88 4.6.2.4 Coupling Capacitor 88 4.6.2.5 Floating Potential Elements 88 4.6.2.6 Pulse-Shaped and Harmonic Noise 89 4.6.2.7 Noise via Grounding System or Wire Loops 89 4.6.2.8 Mains Plug and Background Noise of the Measurement Instrument 89 4.6.3 Denoising Methods 89 4.6.3.1 Shielding 90 4.6.3.2 Filters 90 4.6.3.3 Balanced Bridge Measurements 90 4.6.3.4 Windowing 92 4.6.3.5 Gating 93 4.6.3.6 Clustering 93 4.7 Visualization and Interpretation of PD Events 96 4.7.1 Introduction 96 4.7.2 Classical Methods 97 4.7.3 Advanced Methods 99 4.7.4 Pulse Sequence Analysis 103 4.8 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems 104 4.8.1 Introduction 104 4.8.2 Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Neural Networks 105 4.8.2.1 Learning Process 107 4.8.2.2 ANN Architecture 108 4.8.2.3 Common Principles 108 4.8.2.4 Applications for PD Classification and Localization 110 4.8.2.5 Basic Principles of PD Recognition 110 4.8.3 Expert System 116 4.8.3.1 Introduction 116 4.8.3.2 Application for PD Diagnostic 118 4.9 Calibration 119 4.9.1 Calibration of PD Measuring Circuit 119 4.9.2 Performance Test of PD Calibrators 122 References 124 5 Electromagnetic Methods for PD Detection 129 5.1 Introduction 129 5.2 PD Measurement by HF and VHF Sensors 129 5.2.1 PD Measurement by cc 129 5.2.1.1 Theory 129 5.2.1.2 cc Characteristics and Installation Aspect for PD Measurement 133 5.2.1.3 cc Installation 134 5.2.1.4 cc for PD Measurement 134 5.2.2 PD Measurement by Inductive Couplers 137 5.2.2.1 PD Measurement by High-Frequency Current Transformers 137 5.2.2.2 PD Measurement by Rogowski Coil 141 5.2.3 PD Measurement by DCS 144 5.2.3.1 Theory 144 5.2.3.2 DCS Structure and Characteristic 144 5.2.3.3 Application of DCS for Cable and Joint PD Measurement 146 5.3 PD Measurement by UHF Method 146 5.3.1 Theory 146 5.3.1.1 General Idea 146 5.3.1.2 Propagation and Attenuation of UHF Signal 147 5.3.1.3 UHF Signal Attenuation 150 5.3.2 UHF Sensors 150 5.3.3 UHF PD Measurement System 154 5.3.3.1 Sensitivity Verification for GIS PD Measurement 157 5.3.3.2 Determination of PD Measurement by UHF PD Technique 160 5.3.4 Application of UHF PD Measurement 161 5.3.4.1 PD Detection by UHF in GIS and GIL 161 5.3.4.2 UHF PD Detection in Transformers 161 5.3.4.3 Application of UHF PD Detection to Other High-Voltage Equipment 161 References 164 6 Non-electrical Methods for PD Measurement 167 6.1 Introduction 167 6.2 Optical PD Measurement 167 6.2.1 Theory 167 6.2.2 Principle for Optical PD Measurement Technique 169 6.2.3 Application of Optical PD Measurement 171 6.2.3.1 Insulators, Transformer Bushings, Surge Arrestors, Transmission Lines, and Fittings 171 6.2.3.2 Rotating Machines 172 6.3 Acoustic Emission PD Measurement 172 6.3.1 Theory 172 6.3.2 Acoustic Receivers and Acoustic Sensors 175 6.3.2.1 Hand-Held AE PD Receivers 175 6.3.2.2 Instrument-Based AE PD Detection 177 6.3.3 Acoustic Noises in AE PD Measurement 183 6.3.4 General Idea for AE PD Measurement 184 6.3.4.1 Sensitivity Check for AE PD Measurement 184 6.3.4.2 AE PD Measurement 184 6.3.5 Application of Acoustic PD Measurement for High-Voltage Apparatus 184 6.3.5.1 Detection of Corona and Surface Discharge from Outdoor Insulators or High- Voltage Conductors 184 6.3.5.2 PD Detection in Transformers 185 6.3.5.3 PD Detection by AE PD Measurement Technique in GIS and GIL 185 6.3.5.4 PD Detection in Rotating Machine by AE PD Measurement Technique 187 6.3.5.5 PD Detection for Other High-Voltage Equipment 188 6.4 Chemical Byproducts 188 6.4.1 Theory 188 6.4.2 Dissolved Gas Analysis for Liquid Insulation 188 6.4.2.1 Dissolved Gas Generation in Liquid Insulation 188 6.4.2.2 Application of DGA for PD Analysis 189 6.4.3 Decomposition Gas Analysis 194 6.4.3.1 Decomposition SF 6 Analysis for Gas-Insulated High-Voltage Equipment 194 6.4.4 Ozone Measurement and Analysis for Air-Cooled Hydrogenerators 195 References 195 7 PD Localization 199 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 The Complexity of PD Localization 199 7.3 Classification of PD Localization 200 7.3.1 PD Localization for the Internal Insulation 200 7.3.2 PD Localization for the External Insulation 200 7.4 PD Localization Techniques for the Internal Insulation 200 7.4.1 Pulse Time Arrival Method 201 7.4.1.1 Concept of Pulse Time Arrival Method 201 7.4.1.2 Application of the Pulse Time Arrival Method for PD Localization in High Voltage Equipment 201 7.4.2 Auscultatory Method 205 7.4.2.1 Concept of Auscultatory Method 205 7.4.2.2 Application of the Auscultatory Method for PD Localization in a Transformer 206 7.4.3 Triangulation Method 206 7.4.3.1 Concept of Triangulation Method 206 7.4.3.2 Application of the Triangulation Method for PD Localization in a Transformer 210 7.4.4 Bouncing Particle Localization Method 216 7.5 PD Localization Techniques for the External Insulation 217 7.5.1 Application of the Corona Camera 217 7.5.2 Application of the Airborne Acoustic Probe 217 References 218 8 PD Measurement Under Direct and Impulse Voltage Stress Conditions 221 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 PD Measurement at Direct Voltage Conditions 222 8.3 PD Measurement at Impulse Voltage Conditions 229 8.3.1 PD Measurement at Classical Impulse Voltage Conditions 230 8.3.2 PD Measurement at Repetitive Pulse Voltage Conditions 233 References 236 9 Monitoring of PD Behavior 239 9.1 Introduction 239 9.2 PD Monitoring 239 9.2.1 Off-Line and On-Line PD Measurement 240 9.2.1.1 Off-Line PD Monitoring 240 9.2.1.2 On-Line PD Monitoring 242 9.2.2 PD Monitoring System 247 9.2.2.1 PD Sensor 247 9.2.2.2 Data Acquisition 249 9.3 Application of PD Monitoring 254 9.3.1 Application of PD Monitoring for the Existing High-Voltage Equipment 254 9.3.2 Application of PD Monitoring for the New Equipment Supporting Smart Grid 255 9.4 Challenges for PD Monitoring in Future 256 References 258 10 Evaluation of PDs 261 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 In-House and On-Site PD Testing 262 10.2.1 In-House PD Testing 263 10.2.2 On-Site PD Testing 263 10.3 How to Evaluate PD Test Results 264 10.4 Effect of PD on Insulation Degradation 264 10.5 Integrity of PD Measurement 266 10.6 PD Quantity 267 10.6.1 Discharge Magnitude 267 10.6.2 PDIV, PDEV, and Other PD Quantities 267 10.6.3 PD Quantity as Criteria for Evaluation of Insulation Condition 268 10.7 PD Patterns 270 10.7.1 Analysis of PD Patterns 270 10.7.2 PD Patterns as Criteria for Evaluation of Insulation Condition 271 10.8 PD Signal in Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis 275 10.9 PD Source as Criteria for Evaluation of Insulation Condition 280 10.10 Noise Patterns and Noise Reduction 280 10.10.1 Noise Patterns 280 10.10.2 Noise Reduction 281 10.11 Effective Evaluation of PD Phenomena 283 References 284 11 Standards 285 11.1 Standards 285 11.2 Technical Brochures 287 11.3 Books 289 References 289 12 Conclusions and Outlook 291 Index 293

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Book SynopsisFor two decades,Understanding Clinical Papershas been helpingstudents and professionalsunderstandtheresearch that supportsevidence-based practice. Now in its fourth edition, this popularintroductorytextbookcovers everymajoraspect ofreadingand evaluatingclinical research literature, from identifying the aims and objectives of a paper toanalysingthe data with different multivariable methods.Numerousexcerptsfrom actual clinicalresearchpapersmakelearningreal and immediate,supported by a unique visual approach that reinforceskey points and connectsexampleswith the chapter material. The fourth editionincludes extensivelyrevised content throughout,includingfour brand-new chapters covering qualitative?studies, Poisson regression, studies of complex interventions, and research usingpreviouslycollected data.New and updated materialdiscussesthedifference between clinical and statistical significance, the consequences of multiple testing?and methods of correction,how?topic guides Table of ContentsPreface to the First Edition vii Preface to the Second Edition ix Preface to the Third Edition xi Preface to the Fourth Edition xii Part I Setting the Scene: Who Did What, and Why 1 1 Some Preliminaries 3 2 The Abstract and Introduction 8 3 The Aims and Objectives 15 Part II Design Matters: What Type of Study Is It? 21 4 Descriptive Studies: Qualitative 23 5 Descriptive Studies: Quantitative 29 6 Analytic Studies 36 7 Intervention Studies 45 8 Mixed Methods Research 57 9 Studies of Complex Interventions 60 10 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis 65 11 Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies 75 Part III The Cast: Finding Out About the Subjects of the Research 79 12 The Research Setting 81 13 Populations and Samples in Quantitative Research 85 14 Research Using Already-Collected Data 90 15 The Sample in Qualitative Research 95 16 Identifying and Defining Cases 99 17 Controls and Comparisons 102 Part IV Establishing The Facts: Starting With Basic Observations 107 18 Identifying the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 109 19 Summarizing the Characteristics of Quantitative Data 116 20 Identifying and Summarising the Characteristics of Qualitative Data 121 21 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Quantitative 124 22 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Qualitative 130 23 Diagnostic Tests: Measuring the Characteristics of Measures 133 24 Measurement Scales 138 25 Exploring and Explaining: Topic Guides 150 Part V Establishing More of the Facts: Some Common Ways of Describing Results 153 26 Fractions, Proportions, and Rates 155 27 Risks and Odds 157 28 Ratios of Risks and Odds 160 Part VI Analysing the Data: Estimation and Hypothesis Testing 167 29 Confidence Intervals for Means, Proportions, and Medians 169 30 Confidence Intervals for Ratios 176 31 Testing Hypotheses – The p-value 181 Part VII Analysing the Data: Multivariable Methods 197 32 Measuring Association 199 33 Measuring Agreement 206 34 Linear Regression 211 35 Logistic Regression 222 36 Poisson Regression 228 37 Measuring Survival 237 38 Analysing Qualitative Data 244 Part VIII Reading Between the Lines: How Authors Use Text, Tables, and Pictures to Tell You the Story 249 39 Results in Text and Tables 251 40 Results in Pictures 260 41 The Discussion and Conclusions 270 References 274 Index 282

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