Physics Books

Book SynopsisA guide to two-phase heat transfer theory, practice, and applications Designed primarily as a practical resource for design and development engineers, Two-Phase Heat Transfer contains the theories and methods of two-phase heat transfer that are solution oriented. Written in a clear and concise manner, the book includes information on physical phenomena, experimental data, theoretical solutions, and empirical correlations. A very wide range of real-world applications and formulas/correlations for them are presented. The two-phase heat transfer systems covered in the book include boiling, condensation, gas-liquid mixtures, and gas-solid mixtures. The author?a noted expert in this field?also reviews the numerous applications of two-phase heat transfer such as heat exchangers in refrigeration and air conditioning, conventional and nuclear power generation, solar power plants, aeronautics, chemical processes, petroleum industry, and more. Special attention is giveTable of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Scope and Objectives of the Book 1 1.2 Basic Definitions 1 1.3 Various Models 2 1.3.1 Homogeneous Model 2 1.3.2 Separated Flow Models 2 1.3.3 Flow Pattern-Based Models 3 1.4 Classification of Channels 3 1.4.1 Based on Physical Dimensions 3 1.4.2 Based on Condensation Studies 3 1.4.3 Based on Boiling Flow Studies 4 1.4.4 Based on Two-Component Flow 4 1.4.5 Discussion 5 1.4.6 Recommendation 5 1.5 Flow Patterns in Channels 5 1.5.1 Horizontal Channels 5 1.5.1.1 Description of Flow Patterns 5 1.5.1.2 Flow Pattern Maps 6 1.5.2 Vertical Channels 7 1.5.3 Inclined Channels 7 1.5.4 Annuli 8 1.5.5 Minichannels 8 1.5.6 Horizontal Tube Bundles with Crossflow 9 1.5.7 Vertical Tube Bundles 10 1.5.8 Effect of Low Gravity 10 1.5.9 Recommendations 12 1.6 Heat Transfer in Single-Phase Flow 12 1.6.1 Flow Inside Channels 12 1.6.2 Vertical Tube/Rod Bundles with Axial Flow 13 1.6.3 Various Geometries 14 1.6.4 Liquid Metals 14 1.7 Calculation of Pressure Drop 14 1.7.1 Single-Phase Pressure Drop in Pipes 14 1.7.2 Two-Phase Pressure Drop in Pipes 15 1.7.3 Annuli and Vertical Tube Bundles 17 1.7.4 Horizontal Tube Bundles 17 1.7.5 Recommendations 17 1.8 Calculation of Void Fraction 17 1.8.1 Flow Inside Pipes 17 1.8.2 Flow in Tube Bundles 18 1.8.3 Recommendations 18 1.9 CFD Simulation 18 1.10 General Information 19 Nomenclature 19 References 20 2 Heat Transfer During Condensation 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Condensation on Plates 25 2.2.1 Nusselt Equations 25 2.2.2 Modifications to the Nusselt Equations 26 2.2.3 Condensation with Turbulent Film 27 2.2.4 Condensation on Underside of a Plate 27 2.2.5 Recommendations 28 2.3 Condensation Inside Plain Channels 28 2.3.1 Laminar Condensation in Vertical Tubes 28 2.3.2 The Onset of Turbulence 28 2.3.3 Prediction of Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow 29 2.3.3.1 Analytical Models 29 2.3.3.2 CFD Models 30 2.3.3.3 Empirical Correlations 30 2.3.3.4 Correlations Applicable to Both Macro and Minichannels 34 2.3.4 Recommendation 41 2.4 Condensation Outside Tubes 41 2.4.1 Single Tube 41 2.4.1.1 Stagnant Vapor 41 2.4.1.2 Moving Vapor 42 2.4.2 Bundles of Horizontal Tubes 42 2.4.2.1 Vapor Entry from Top 42 2.4.2.2 Vapor Entry from Side 44 2.4.3 Recommendations 44 2.5 Condensation with Enhanced Tubes 44 2.5.1 Condensation on Outside Surface 44 2.5.1.1 Single Tubes 44 2.5.1.2 Tube Bundles 46 2.5.2 Condensation Inside Enhanced Tubes 47 2.5.3 Recommendations 49 2.6 Condensation of Superheated Vapors 49 2.6.1 Stagnant Vapor on External Surfaces 49 2.6.2 Forced Flow on External Surfaces 49 2.6.3 Flow inside Tubes 50 2.6.4 Plate-Type Heat Exchangers 50 2.6.5 Recommendations 51 2.7 Miscellaneous Condensation Problems 51 2.7.1 Condensation on Stationary Cone 51 2.7.2 Condensation on a Rotating Disk 51 2.7.3 Condensation on Rotating Vertical Cone 52 2.7.4 Condensation on Rotating Tubes 52 2.7.5 Plate-Type Condensers 53 2.7.5.1 Recommendation 54 2.7.6 Effect of Oil in Refrigerants 54 2.7.6.1 Recommendation 55 2.7.7 Effect of Gravity 55 2.7.7.1 Some Formulas for Zero Gravity 55 2.7.7.2 Experimental Studies 55 2.7.7.3 Conclusion 55 2.7.8 Effect of Non-condensable Gases 56 2.7.8.1 Prediction Methods 56 2.7.8.2 Recommendation 57 2.7.9 Flooding in Upflow 57 2.7.10 Condensation in Thermosiphons 58 2.7.11 Condensation in Helical Coils 58 2.8 Condensation of Vapor Mixtures 59 2.8.1 Physical Phenomena 59 2.8.2 Prediction Methods 60 2.8.3 Recommendation 61 2.9 Liquid Metals 61 2.9.1 Stagnant Vapors 61 2.9.2 Interfacial Resistance 62 2.9.3 Moving Vapors 62 2.9.4 Recommendation 62 2.10 Dropwise Condensation 63 2.10.1 Prediction of Mode of Condensation 63 2.10.2 Theories of Dropwise Condensation 63 2.10.3 Methods to Get Dropwise Condensations 63 2.10.4 Some Experimental Studies 64 2.10.5 Prediction of Heat Transfer 64 2.10.6 Recommendations 66 Nomenclature 66 References 67 3 Pool Boiling 77 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 Nucleate Boiling 77 3.2.1 Mechanisms of Nucleate Boiling 77 3.2.1.1 Bubble Agitation 77 3.2.1.2 Vapor–Liquid Exchange 77 3.2.1.3 Evaporative Mechanism 78 3.2.2 Bubble Nucleation 78 3.2.2.1 Inception of Boiling 78 3.2.2.2 Bubble Nucleation Cycle 79 3.2.2.3 Active Nucleation Site Density 81 3.2.2.4 Recommendations 81 3.2.3 Correlations for Heat Transfer 81 3.2.3.1 Conclusion and Recommendation 83 3.2.4 Multicomponent Mixtures 83 3.2.4.1 Physical Phenomena 83 3.2.4.2 Prediction of Heat Transfer 84 3.2.4.3 Recommendation 86 3.2.5 Liquid Metals 86 3.2.5.1 Physical Phenomena 86 3.2.5.2 Prediction of Heat Transfer 87 3.2.5.3 Recommendations 88 3.3 Critical Heat Flux 90 3.3.1 Models of Mechanisms 90 3.3.1.1 Bubble Interference Model 90 3.3.1.2 Hydrodynamic Instability Model 90 3.3.1.3 Macrolayer Dryout Model 91 3.3.1.4 Dry Spot Model 91 3.3.1.5 Interfacial Lift-off Model 92 3.3.2 Correlations for Inclined Surfaces 92 3.3.3 Various Correlations 93 3.3.4 Effect of Subcooling 93 3.3.5 Various Other Factors Affecting CHF 94 3.3.6 Evaluation of CHF Prediction Methods 94 3.3.7 Recommendations 94 3.3.8 Multicomponent Mixtures 95 3.3.8.1 Physical Phenomena and Prediction Methods 95 3.3.8.2 Recommendation 95 3.3.9 Liquid Metals 95 3.3.9.1 Physical Phenomena 97 3.3.9.2 Prediction of CHF 98 3.3.9.3 Recommendations 102 3.4 Transition Boiling 102 3.5 Minimum Film Boiling Temperature 104 3.5.1 Prediction Methods 104 3.5.1.1 Analytical Models 104 3.5.1.2 Empirical Correlations 105 3.5.2 Recommendations 106 3.6 Film Boiling 106 3.6.1 Methods for Predicting Heat Transfer 106 3.6.1.1 Vertical Plates 106 3.6.1.2 Horizontal Cylinders 107 3.6.1.3 Horizontal Plates 108 3.6.1.4 Inclined Plates 108 3.6.1.5 Spheres 109 3.6.2 Liquid Metals 109 3.6.3 Recommendations 110 3.7 Various Topics 110 3.7.1 Effect of Gravity 110 3.7.1.1 Scaling Method of Raj et al. 110 3.7.1.2 Scaling for Hydrogen 112 3.7.1.3 Some Other Studies 112 3.7.1.4 Recommendations 113 3.7.2 Effect of Oil in Refrigerants 113 3.7.2.1 Mechanisms 114 3.7.2.2 Correlations 114 3.7.2.3 Recommendation 115 3.7.3 Thermosiphons 115 3.7.4 Effect of Some Organic Additives 115 Nomenclature 115 References 116 4 Forced Convection Subcooled Boiling 123 4.1 Introduction 123 4.2 Inception of Boiling in Channels 123 4.2.1 Analytical Models and Correlations 123 4.2.2 Minichannels 125 4.2.3 Effect of Dissolved Gases 126 4.2.4 Recommendations 126 4.3 Prediction of Subcooled Boiling Regimes in Channels 126 4.3.1 Recommendation 127 4.4 Prediction of Void Fraction in Channels 127 4.4.1 Recommendations 129 4.5 Heat Transfer in Channels 129 4.5.1 Visual Observations and Mechanisms 129 4.5.2 Prediction of Heat Transfer 130 4.5.2.1 Some Dimensional Correlations 130 4.5.2.2 The Shah Correlation 130 4.5.2.3 Various Correlations 132 4.5.2.4 Recommendations 135 4.6 Single Cylinder with Crossflow 135 4.6.1 Experimental Studies 135 4.6.2 Prediction of Heat Transfer 135 4.6.2.1 Shah Correlation 135 4.6.2.2 Other Correlations 137 4.6.3 Recommendation 138 4.7 Various Geometries 138 4.7.1 Tube Bundles with Axial Flow 138 4.7.2 Tube Bundles with Crossflow 138 4.7.3 Flow Parallel to a Flat Plate 138 4.7.4 Helical Coils 138 4.7.5 Bends 139 4.7.6 Rotating Tube 139 4.7.7 Jets Impinging on Hot Surfaces 141 4.7.7.1 Experimental Studies and Correlations 142 4.7.7.2 Recommendations 145 4.7.8 Spray Cooling 145 Nomenclature 146 References 146 5 Saturated Boiling with Forced Flow 151 5.1 Introduction 151 5.2 Boiling in Channels 151 5.2.1 Effect of Various Parameters 151 5.2.2 Prediction of Heat Transfer 152 5.2.2.1 Correlations for Macro Channels 152 5.2.2.2 Correlations for Minichannels 158 5.2.2.3 Correlations for Both Minichannels and Macrochannels 159 5.2.2.4 Recommendations 162 5.3 Plate-Type Heat Exchangers 162 5.3.1 Herringbone Plate Type 162 5.3.1.1 Longo et al. Correlation 163 5.3.1.2 Almalfi et al. Correlation 163 5.3.1.3 Ayub et al. Correlation 164 5.3.1.4 Recommendation 164 5.3.2 Plane Plate Heat Exchangers 164 5.3.3 Serrated Fin Plate Heat Exchangers 164 5.3.4 Plate Fin Heat Exchangers 165 5.4 Boiling in Various Geometries 166 5.4.1 Helical Coils 166 5.4.1.1 Correlations for Heat Transfer 166 5.4.1.2 Evaluation of Correlations 167 5.4.1.3 Discussion 167 5.4.1.4 Recommendation 167 5.4.2 Rotating Disk 168 5.4.3 Cylinder Rotating in a Liquid Pool 169 5.4.3.1 Recommendation 169 5.4.4 Bends 170 5.4.5 Spiral Wound Heat Exchangers (SWHE) 170 5.4.6 Falling Thin Film on Vertical Surfaces 171 5.4.6.1 Various Studies and Correlations 171 5.4.6.2 Recommendation 171 5.4.7 Vertical Tube/Rod Bundles with Axial Flow 172 5.4.8 Spiral Plate Heat Exchangers 172 5.5 Horizontal Tube Bundles with Upward Crossflow 172 5.5.1 Physical Phenomena 172 5.5.2 Prediction Methods for Heat Transfer 173 5.5.2.1 Shah Correlation 175 5.5.3 Conclusion and Recommendation 176 5.6 Horizontal Tube Bundles with Falling Film Evaporation 177 5.6.1 Flow Patterns/Modes 177 5.6.2 Heat Transfer 178 5.6.3 Conclusion and Recommendation 180 5.7 Boiling of Multicomponent Mixtures 180 5.7.1 Boiling in Tubes 180 5.7.2 Boiling in Various Geometries 182 5.7.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 182 5.8 Liquid Metals 182 5.8.1 Inception of Boiling 182 5.8.2 Heat Transfer 184 5.8.2.1 Sodium 184 5.8.2.2 Potassium 184 5.8.2.3 Mercury 186 5.8.2.4 Cesium and Rubidium 186 5.8.2.5 Mixtures of Liquid Metals 187 5.8.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 187 5.9 Effect of Gravity 187 5.9.1 Experimental Studies 188 5.9.2 Conclusions and Recommendation 189 5.9.3 Effect of Oil in Refrigerants 189 5.9.3.1 Heat Transfer with Immiscible Oils 189 5.9.3.2 Heat Transfer with Miscible Oils 190 5.9.3.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 190 Nomenclature 191 References 192 6 Critical Heat Flux in Flow Boiling 201 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 CHF in Tubes 201 6.2.1 Types of Boiling Crisis and Mechanisms 201 6.2.2 Prediction Methods 201 6.2.2.1 Analytical Models 201 6.2.2.2 Lookup Tables of CHF 202 6.2.2.3 Dimensional Correlations for Water 203 6.2.2.4 General Correlations 203 6.2.2.5 Fluid-to-Fluid Modeling 213 6.2.2.6 Non-uniform Heat Flux 214 6.2.3 Recommendations 216 6.3 CHF in Annuli 216 6.3.1 Vertical Annuli with Upflow 216 6.3.1.1 Dimensional Correlations for Water 216 6.3.1.2 General Correlations 217 6.3.1.3 Recommendations 220 6.3.2 Horizontal Annuli 221 6.3.3 Eccentric Annuli 221 6.4 CHF in Various Geometries 222 6.4.1 Single Cylinder with Crossflow 222 6.4.2 Horizontal Tube Bundles 224 6.4.2.1 Recommendation 226 6.4.3 Vertical Tube/Rod Bundles 227 6.4.3.1 Mixed Flow Analyses 227 6.4.3.2 Subchannel Analysis 228 6.4.3.3 Phenomenological Analyses 228 6.4.4 Falling Films on Vertical Surfaces 229 6.4.5 Flow Parallel to a Flat Plate 230 6.4.6 Helical Coils 230 6.4.6.1 Recommendation 232 6.4.7 Spiral Wound Heat Exchangers (SWHE) 232 6.4.8 Rotating Liquid Film 232 6.4.9 Bends 233 6.4.10 Jets Impinging on Hot Surfaces 234 6.4.10.1 Correlations for CHF in Free Stream Jets 234 6.4.10.2 Effect of Contact Angle 235 6.4.10.3 Multiple Jets 236 6.4.10.4 Effect of Heater Thickness 236 6.4.10.5 Confined Jets 236 6.4.10.6 Submerged Jets 236 6.4.10.7 Recommendations 236 6.4.11 Spray Cooling 236 6.4.12 Effect of Gravity 237 6.4.12.1 Terrestrial Studies 237 6.4.12.2 Experimental Studies at Low Gravities 238 6.4.12.3 CHF Prediction Methods 239 6.4.12.4 Recommendation 239 Nomenclature 239 References 240 7 Post-CHF Heat Transfer in Flow Boiling 247 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Film Boiling in Vertical Tubes 247 7.2.1 Physical Phenomena 247 7.2.2 Prediction of Dispersed Flow Film Boiling in Upflow 248 7.2.2.1 Empirical Correlations 248 7.2.2.2 Mechanistic Analyses 249 7.2.2.3 Phenomenological Correlations 249 7.2.2.4 Lookup Tables 254 7.2.2.5 Recommendations 256 7.2.3 Prediction of Inverted Annular Film Boiling in Upflow 256 7.2.3.1 Recommendations 257 7.2.4 Film Boiling in Downflow 257 7.3 Film Boiling in Horizontal Tubes 257 7.3.1 Prediction Methods 258 7.3.2 Recommendations 259 7.4 Film Boiling in Various Geometries 259 7.4.1 Annuli 259 7.4.2 Vertical Tube Bundles 260 7.4.3 Single Horizontal Cylinder 261 7.4.3.1 Recommendation 262 7.4.4 Spheres 262 7.4.5 Jets Impinging on Hot Surfaces 264 7.4.6 Bends 265 7.4.7 Helical Coils 265 7.4.8 Chilldown of Cryogenic Pipelines 266 7.4.9 Flow Parallel to a Plate 267 7.4.10 Spray Cooling 267 7.5 Minimum Film Boiling Temperature and Heat Flux 268 7.5.1 Flow in Channels 268 7.5.2 Jets Impinging on Hot Surfaces 268 7.5.3 Chilldown of Cryogenic Lines 269 7.5.4 Spheres 269 7.5.5 Spray Cooling 270 7.6 Transition Boiling 270 7.6.1 Flow in Channels 270 7.6.2 Jets on Hot Surfaces 271 7.6.3 Spheres 272 7.6.4 Spray Cooling 272 Nomenclature 273 References 274 8 Two-Component Gas–Liquid Heat Transfer 279 8.1 Introduction 279 8.2 Pre-mixed Mixtures in Channels 279 8.2.1 Flow Pattern-Based Prediction Methods 279 8.2.1.1 Bubbly Flow 279 8.2.1.2 Slug Flow 281 8.2.1.3 Annular Flow 282 8.2.1.4 Post-dryout Dispersed Flow 283 8.2.2 General Correlations 283 8.2.2.1 Horizontal Channels 283 8.2.2.2 Vertical Channels 286 8.2.2.3 Horizontal and Vertical Channels 288 8.2.2.4 Inclined Channels 289 8.2.3 Recommendations 289 8.3 Gas Flow through Channel Walls 290 8.3.1 Experimental Studies 290 8.3.2 Heat Transfer Prediction 292 8.3.3 Conclusions 292 8.4 Cooling by Air–Water Mist 292 8.4.1 Single Cylinders in Crossflow 292 8.4.2 Flow over Tube Banks 294 8.4.3 Flow Parallel to Plates 294 8.4.4 Wedges 295 8.4.5 Jets 295 8.4.6 Sphere 297 8.5 Evaporation from Water Pools 297 8.5.1 Introduction 297 8.5.2 Empirical Correlations 297 8.5.3 Analytical Models 298 8.5.3.1 Shah Model 298 8.5.3.2 Other Models 300 8.5.4 CFD Models 301 8.5.5 Occupied Swimming Pools 301 8.5.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 301 8.6 Various Topics 301 8.6.1 Jets Impinging on Hot Surfaces 301 8.6.2 Vertical Tube Bundle 302 8.6.3 Effect of Gravity 302 8.7 Liquid Metal–Gas in Channels 303 8.7.1 Mercury 303 8.7.2 Various Liquid Metals 304 8.7.3 Discussion 305 Nomenclature 305 References 306 9 Gas-Fluidized Beds 311 9.1 Introduction 311 9.2 Regimes of Fluidization 311 9.2.1 Regime Transition Velocities 312 9.2.1.1 Minimum Fluidization Velocity 312 9.2.1.2 Various Regime Transition Velocities 312 9.2.2 Void Fraction and Bed Expansion 313 9.3 Properties of Solid Particles 313 9.3.1 Density 313 9.3.2 Particle Diameter 313 9.3.3 Particle Shape Factor 314 9.3.4 Classification of Particles 314 9.4 Parameters Affecting Heat Transfer to Surfaces 315 9.4.1 Gas Velocity 315 9.4.2 Particle Size and Shape 315 9.4.3 Pressure and Temperature 316 9.4.4 Heat Transfer Surface Diameter 317 9.4.5 Properties of Gas and Solid 317 9.4.6 Gas Distribution 317 9.4.7 Length and Location of Tube 317 9.4.8 Bed Diameter and Height 318 9.4.9 Tube Inclination 318 9.5 Theories of Heat Transfer 318 9.5.1 Film Theory 318 9.5.2 Penetration Theory 318 9.5.2.1 Particle Theory 319 9.5.2.2 Packet Theory 319 9.6 Prediction Methods for Single Tubes and Spheres 319 9.6.1 Analytical Models 319 9.6.1.1 Particle Models 319 9.6.1.2 Packet Models 320 9.6.2 Empirical Correlations 321 9.6.2.1 Maximum Heat Transfer 321 9.6.2.2 Correlations for the Entire Range 324 9.6.3 Recommendations 325 9.7 Tube Bundles 326 9.7.1 Horizontal Tube Bundles 326 9.7.2 Vertical Tube Bundles 328 9.7.3 Recommendations 328 9.8 Radiation Heat Transfer 329 9.8.1 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient and Effective Emissivity 329 9.8.2 Temperature for Significant Radiation Contribution 329 9.8.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 330 9.9 Heat Transfer to Bed Walls 330 9.9.1 Prediction Methods 330 9.9.2 Conclusions and Recommendations 331 9.10 Heat Transfer in Freeboard Region 331 9.10.1 Experimental Studies and Prediction Methods 332 9.10.2 Recommendation 332 9.11 Heat Transfer Between Gas and Particles 332 9.12 Gas–Solid Flow in Pipes 333 9.12.1 Regimes of Gas–Solid Flow 333 9.12.2 Experimental Studies of Heat Transfer 334 9.12.3 Prediction of Heat Transfer 334 9.12.3.1 Various Methods 334 9.12.3.2 Shah Correlation 336 9.12.4 Recommendation 337 9.13 Solar Collectors with Particle Suspensions 337 Nomenclature 338 References 340 Appendix 347 Index 357

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Book SynopsisASTROPHYSICS This is a balanced textbook presenting the theory and observations of stars and their evolutiona cornerstone of Astrophysics. Astrophysics: Decoding the Stars is a companion volume to Astrophysics: Decoding the Cosmos from astrophysics teacher and researcher, Professor Judith Irwin. The text presents an accessible, student-friendly guide to the key theories and principles of stars, emphasizing the close connection between observation and theory. To aid in reader comprehension, the text includes online resources and problems at the end of each chapter. Many highlighted boxes summarize key concepts or point to example stars that can be seen with the naked eye. The text focuses on physical concepts, but it also refers to the results of numerical models using online resources. Sample topics covered in Astrophysics: Decoding the Stars include: The Sun, gaseous and radiative processes Stellar interiors, energy tranTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii Introduction xv I. 1 The Simple Physical Star xvii I. 2 The Dominance of Gravity for Stars xviii I. 3 The Numerical and Analytical Star xxii I. 4 The Theoretical and Observational Star xxiii Problems xxvi Chapter 1: The Closest Star 1 1.1 The Sun – First among Equals 2 1.2 The Solar Atmosphere 4 1.2.1 Physical Overview 4 1.2.2 The Photosphere 8 1.2.3 The Chromosphere 10 1.2.4 The Transition Region 12 1.2.5 The Corona 15 1.2.6 Energy Source for Heating the Solar Atmosphere 17 1.3 The Solar Interior 18 1.3.1 The Standard Solar Model (SSM) 18 1.3.2 Solar Rotation 21 1.4 The Magnetic Sun 23 Problems 27 Chapter 2: The Gaseous and Radiative Star – The Basics 29 2.1 The Gaseous Star 29 2.1.1 The Ideal Gas 29 2.1.2 Abundances and Metallicity 31 2.1.3 The Maxwell- Boltzmann Velocity Distribution and Gas Temperature 33 2.1.4 The Mean Molecular Weight 34 2.1.5 Fractional Ionization 35 2.1.6 Pressure of a Partially Ionized Ideal Gas 38 2.1.7 Degrees of Freedom, Adiabatic Index and Specific Heats 38 2.1.8 Adiabatic and Isothermal Gases 41 2.1.9 Gas Motions and the Doppler Shift 43 2.2 The Radiative Star 44 2.3 Stellar Opacities 46 Problems 49 Chapter 3: The Observed Star – Finding the Essential Parameters 53 3.1 Temperature and Spectral Type 54 3.2 Luminosity and Luminosity Class 59 3.3 Chemical Composition 62 3.4 Mass 64 3.4.1 Visual Binaries 67 3.4.2 Spectroscopic Binaries 68 3.5 Radius 71 3.5.1 Eclipsing Binaries 72 3.6 Rotation and Winds 75 Problems 78 Chapter 4: The Shining Star – Interiors 81 4.1 Energy Transport in Stars 82 4.2 Radiative Transport 82 4.2.1 The Rosseland Mean Opacity 83 4.2.2 Analytical Forms for the Mean Opacities 85 4.2.3 The Equation of Radiative Transport 88 4.3 Convective Transport 90 4.3.1 Condition for Convective Instability 90 4.3.2 Mixing Length Theory 95 4.3.3 Real Convection 99 4.4 Conductive Energy Transport in Dense Regions 103 Problems 105 Chapter 5: The Burning Star – Cores 109 5.1 Classical and Quantum Approaches 110 5.2 Energy Generation Rate 112 5.3 Energy Release and Binding Energy 113 5.4 Main Sequence Reactions 116 5.4.1 The PP-chain 117 5.4.2 The CNO Cycle 119 5.5 Reactions after the Main Sequence 121 5.5.1 The Triple-α Process – Helium Burning 122 5.5.2 Additional and Higher Temperature Reactions 123 Problems 125 Chapter 6: The Modelled Star 127 6.1 The Equations of Stellar Structure 127 6.1.1 Conservation of Mass 128 6.1.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium 129 6.1.3 Energy Conservation 129 6.1.4 Energy Transport 130 6.1.5 Constitutive Relations 130 6.1.6 Boundary Conditions 131 6.2 Solving the Equations of Stellar Structure 132 6.2.1 Numerical Solutions 132 6.2.2 Conceptual and Analytical Approaches 133 6.3 The Vogt-Russell Theorem, Mass-Luminosity Relation and Mass-Radius Relation 137 Problems 146 Chapter 7: The Quasistatic Star – Energies, Timescales and Limits 149 7.1 The Virial Theorem 150 7.2 Timescales 154 7.2.1 The Dynamical Timescale 154 7.2.2 The Thermal (Kelvin-Helmholtz) Timescale 155 7.2.3 The Nuclear Timescale 156 7.3 Stability 157 7.3.1 Stability against Perturbations 158 7.3.2 Secular Evolution of the Sun along the Main Sequence 158 7.4 The Minimum and Maximum Stable Stars 159 7.4.1 The Lowest-Mass Stars 159 7.4.2 The Highest-Mass Stars 160 7.5 A Main Sequence Primer 164 Problems 166 Chapter 8: The Forming and Ageing Star – Evolution to and from the Main Sequence 169 8.1 The Forming Star 169 8.1.1 The Jeans Criterion and Free-Fall Timescale 170 8.1.2 Real Star Formation 172 8.1.3 Protostars 173 8.1.4 From Protostar to the Zams 177 8.1.5 Number, Mass and Luminosity Functions 182 8.2 The Ageing Star 185 8.2.1 Post-Main-Sequence Evolution of a 1 M Star 186 8.2.2 Post-Main-Sequence Evolution of Stars of Different Mass 193 8.2.3 Connecting Theory with Observations 200 Problems 206 Chapter 9: The Variable Star – Pulsation 209 9.1 Pulsation 211 9.2 Asteroseismology 215 9.3 Radial Pulsation 222 9.4 The Drivers – The Kappa Mechanism 225 9.5 Period-Luminosity Relations 227 Problems 232 Chapter 10: The Dying Star and Its Remnant 233 10.1 Planetary Nebulae 234 10.2 White Dwarfs – Stellar Cinders 236 10.2.1 The Mass-Radius Relation for White Dwarfs 237 10.2.2 The Cooling Curve – A Cosmic Clock 242 10.3 Supernovae 244 10.3.1 Core-Collapse Supernovae 248 10.3.2 Thermonuclear Supernovae 251 10.4 The Densest Remnants – Neutron Stars and Pulsars 254 10.4.1 The Mass-Radius Relation for Neutron Stars 256 10.4.2 Stellar Beacons – Pulsars 257 10.4.3 The PṖ Relation and Characteristic Age 264 10.5 The Ultimate Stellar Remnants – Black Holes 266 10.5.1 Observational Evidence 269 Problems 272 Chapter 11: A Stellar Invitational 275 Appendix A: Physical and Astronomical Data 279 Appendix B: The Solar Atmosphere 283 Appendix C: The Standard Solar Model 287 Appendix D: Taylor Expansions for the Center of a Star 293 Appendix E: Chandrasekhar’s Argument for a Declining Pressure Distribution in a Star 295 Appendix F: Stellar Data 297 Bibliography 301 Index 323

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Book SynopsisTackling one of the most controversial subjects of our time, one of the world's foremost environmental and petroleum engineers explores the potential causes and ramifications of global climate change. For too many years climate change (also referred to as global warming) has been assigned predominantly to the emissions of carbon dioxide through the combustion of fossil fuels. It must never be forgotten or ignored, however, that the Earth has been constantly changing since its formation and has gone through different eras like glaciations, among others. These changes need thousands of years to be made visible, and are likely still continuing, given the increase in the average temperature of the Earth since the pre-industrial period (provided that the measurements of past climatic temperatures are accurate and beyond reproach). It follows that the warming trend that has occurred over the past 100 years is very likely to have some origins in natural events as well as in human activity.Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 The Climate of the Earth 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Atmosphere 4 1.2.1 Structure 5 1.2.1.1 The Troposphere 5 1.2.1.2 The Stratosphere 6 1.2.1.3 The Mesosphere 6 1.2.1.4 The Thermosphere 7 1.2.1.5 The Exosphere 7 1.2.1.6 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 8 1.2.2 Gases 9 1.3 The Hydrosphere 11 1.3.1 Groundwater 14 1.3.2 Wetlands 18 1.3.3 Ponds and Lakes 20 1.3.4 Streams and Rivers 23 1.3.5 The Oceans 25 1.4 The Cryosphere 32 1.4.1 Ice Sheets 33 1.4.2 Glaciers 35 1.4.3 Sea Ice 36 1.4.4 Permafrost 36 1.5 The Lithosphere 37 1.5.1 Types 39 1.5.2 Ecosystems 41 1.5.3 Composition of Soil 41 1.5.4 Soil Pollution 44 1.6 The Biosphere 46 1.7 Interrelationships 48 References 59 2 The Earth is a Variable Planet 63 2.1 Introduction 63 2.2 The Revolution of the Earth 65 2.2.1 Solstices and Equinoxes 65 2.2.2 Seasons 67 2.2.3 Effects on Climate 68 2.3 The Polar Regions 71 2.3.1 The Geographic Pole 71 2.3.2 The Geomagnetic Pole 72 2.3.3 The Equatorial Bulge 76 2.3.4 Effects on Climate 77 2.4 The Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn 79 2.4.1 Placement 79 2.4.2 Significance 79 2.4.3 Effects on Climate 80 2.5 Global Cycles 81 2.5.1 The Water Cycle 82 2.5.1.1 Basic Characteristics 83 2.5.1.2 Processes in the Ocean and on Land 83 2.5.2 Biogeochemical Cycles 84 2.5.2.1 Marine Biogeochemistry 85 2.5.2.2 Biogeochemical Cycles in Terrestrial Ecosystems 85 2.5.3 Effects on Climate 86 2.6 The Climate System 87 2.6.1 The Energy Balance 88 2.6.2 The Greenhouse Effect 89 2.6.3 Natural Changes 90 2.6.3.1 Time and Space Scales 92 2.6.3.2 Billions of Years: The Development of Life 92 2.6.3.3 Millions of Years: The Ice Ages 93 2.6.3.4 The Last 10,000 Years 95 2.6.3.5 Years and Decades 95 2.6.4 Anthropogenically Induced Changes 96 2.7 Climate Change 97 References 99 3 Interglacial Periods 103 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Geological History of the Earth 105 3.3 Glaciers 112 3.3.1 Causes of Glaciation 116 3.3.2 Formation 119 3.3.3 Movement 121 3.3.4 Geology 122 3.3.4.1 Tidewater Glaciers 123 3.3.4.2 Subglacial Lakes 124 3.3.4.3 Outlet Glaciers and Valley Glaciers 125 3.4 Interglacial Periods 127 3.4.1 Timing 128 3.4.2 Last Glacial Maximum 128 3.5 Glacial Melting 131 3.5.1 Melting 132 3.5.2 The Aftermath 134 3.5.3 Consequences 137 References 138 4 Factors Affecting Climate 143 4.1 Introduction 143 4.2 Latitude and Climate 147 4.2.1 Low-Latitude Climates 149 4.2.2 High-Latitude Climates 155 4.2.3 Mid-Latitude Climates 157 4.2.4 Effect on Climate 160 4.3 Ocean Water Circulation 161 4.3.1 Types 162 4.3.2 Cause and Effect 162 4.3.3 Ocean Circulation 165 4.3.4 Ocean Eddies 168 4.3.5 Undercurrents 168 4.3.6 El Nino and La Nina 169 4.3.7 Global Carbon Cycle 171 4.3.8 Effect on Climate 172 4.4 Wind Effects 173 4.4.1 Wind Terminology 174 4.4.2 Wind Patterns 175 4.4.2.1 Pressure Gradients and Winds 175 4.4.2.2 Friction and Wind 176 4.4.3 Wind-Driven Currents 177 4.4.4 Density-Driven Currents 178 4.4.5 Effect on Climate 178 4.5 Climate Change 179 References 185 5 Natural and Human Impacts on Climate 189 5.1 Introduction 189 5.2 Solar Radiation 192 5.3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 193 5.3.1 Human Activities 195 5.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 196 5.3.3 Carbon Dioxide in Ice Cores 199 5.4 Interglacial Periods 202 5.5 The Disappearing Glaciers 204 5.6 Human Impacts – Real and Imagined 206 5.6.1 General Observations 208 5.6.2 Human Factors vis-a-vis Natural Factors 211 5.7 Epilog 214 References 222 Coversion Factors 229 Glossary 233 About the Author 261 Index 263

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Book SynopsisBattery technology is constantly changing, and the concepts and applications of these changes are rapidly becoming increasingly more important as more and more industries and individuals continue to make greener choices in their energy sources. As global dependence on fossil fuels slowly wanes, there is a heavier and heavier importance placed on cleaner power sources and methods for storing and transporting that power. Battery technology is a huge part of this global energy revolution. Rechargeable battery technologies have been a milestone for moving toward a fossil-fuel-free society. They include groundbreaking changes in energy storage, transportation, and electronics. Improvements in battery electrodes and electrolytes have been a remarkable development, and, in the last few years, rechargeable batteries have attracted significant interest from scientists as they are a boon for electric vehicles, laptops and computers, mobile phones, portable electronics, and grid-level electric

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Book SynopsisElectromagnetic Wave Absorbing Materials Electromagnetic Wave Absorbing Materials presents information on the most promising electromagnetic wave absorbing materials, with timely coverage of both conventional and novel materials including 1D, 2D, and 3D materials. This book enables readers to address the growing specification needs in the field through optimizing electromagnetic parameters and promoting interface polarization, two key properties for wireless technology in electronic applications. Edited by three highly qualified academics with significant relevant research experience, Electromagnetic Wave Absorbing Materials includes discussions on: Materials including ferrites, graphene, carbon-based composite absorbers, SiC ceramics, MOFs, and meta-material based absorbers Recent advances in the field surrounding composite absorbers, conductive polymers, and ceramics, and other materials Potential improvements in the Internet

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Book SynopsisThe latest edition of the leading resource on the properties and applications of liquid crystals In the newly revised Third Edition of Liquid Crystals, Professor Iam Choon Khoo delivers a comprehensive treatment of the fundamentals and applied aspects of optical physics, light scattering, electro-optics, and non-linear optics of liquid crystals. The book''s opening chapters include coverage of the foundational physics and optical properties of liquid crystals and lead to more advanced content on the display, photonics and nonlinear optics applications of liquid crystals. New topics, including photonic crystals, metamaterials, ultrafast nonlinear optics, and fabrication methods for massive cholesteric and blue phase liquid crystals are discussed at length. Analytical methods and experimental observations of nonlinear light propagation through liquid crystalline and anisotropic materials and devices are also discussed. Liquid Crystals offers an insightfulTable of ContentsPreface xiii Chapter 1. Introduction to Liquid Crystals 1 1.1. Molecular Structures and Chemical Compositions 1 1.2. Optical Properties 3 1.2.1. Electronic Optical Transitions and UV Absorption 3 1.2.2. Visible and Infrared Absorption; Terahertz, Microwave 4 1.3. Lyotropic, Polymeric, and Thermotropic Liquid Crystals 6 1.3.1. Lyotropic Liquid Crystals 6 1.3.2. Polymeric Liquid Crystals 7 1.3.3. Thermotropic Liquid Crystals: Smectic, Nematic, Cholesteric, and Blue-phase Liquid Crystals 8 1.3.4. Functionalized and Discotic Liquid Crystals 11 1.4. Mixtures, Polymer-dispersed, and Dye-doped Liquid Crystals 11 1.4.1. Mixtures 12 1.4.2. Dye-doped Liquid Crystals 14 1.4.3. Polymer-dispersed and Polymer-stabilized Liquid Crystals 14 1.5. Liquid Crystal Cells Fabrication 16 1.5.1. Nematic LC Cells Assembly 16 1.5.2. Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Cell Assembly 18 1.5.3. Blue-phase Liquid Crystal Cell Assembly 20 1.5.4. Photosensitive and Tunable Optical Waveguide, Photonic Crystals, and Metamaterial Nanostructures 22 1.5.5. Isotropic Liquid Crystal Cored Fiber Array 24 References 25 Chapter 2. Order Parameter, Phase Transition, and Free Energies 29 2.1. Basic Concepts 29 2.1.1. Introduction 29 2.1.2. Scalar and Tensor Order Parameters 30 2.1.3. Long- and Short-range Order 32 2.2. Molecular Interactions and Phase Transitions 33 2.3. Molecular Theories and Results for the Liquid Crystalline Phase 34 2.3.1. Maier–Saupe Theory: Order Parameter Near Tc 34 2.3.2. Nonequilibrium and Dynamical Dependence of the Order Parameter 36 2.4. Isotropic Phase of Liquid Crystals 39 2.4.1. Free Energy and Phase Transition 40 2.4.2. Free Energy in the Presence of an Applied Field 41 References 43 Chapter 3. Nematic Liquid Crystals 44 3.1. Introduction 44 3.2. Elastic Continuum Theory 44 3.2.1. The Vector Field: Director Axis 44 3.2.2. Elastic Constants, Free Energies, and Molecular Fields 46 3.3. Dielectric Constants and Refractive Indices 49 3.3.1. DC and Low-frequency Dielectric Permittivity, Conductivities, and Magnetic Susceptibility 49 3.3.2. Free Energy and Torques by Electric and Magnetic Fields 52 3.4. Optical Dielectric Constants and Refractive Indices 53 3.4.1. Linear Susceptibility and Local Field Effect 53 3.4.2. Equilibrium Temperature and Order Parameter Dependences of Refractive Indices 56 3.5. Flows and Hydrodynamics 60 3.5.1. Hydrodynamics of Ordinary Isotropic Fluids 61 3.5.2. General Stress Tensor for Nematic Liquid Crystals 64 3.5.3. Flows with Fixed Director Axis Orientation 65 3.5.4. Flows with Director Axis Reorientation 66 3.6. Field-induced Director Axis Reorientation Effects 67 3.6.1. Field-induced Reorientation Without Flow Coupling: Freedericksz Transition 68 3.6.2. Reorientation with Flow Coupling 70 References 72 Chapter 4. Cholesteric, Smectic, and Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals 73 4.1. Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 73 4.1.1. Free Energies 73 4.1.2. Field-induced Effects and Dynamics 75 4.1.3. Twist and Conic Mode Relaxation Times 78 4.2. Optical Properties of Cholesterics 79 4.2.1. Bragg Regime (Optical Wavelength Pitch) 79 4.2.2. Reflection and Transmission of Polarized Light: Normal Incidence 79 4.2.3. Cholesteric Liquid Crystal as a One-dimensional Photonic Crystal, Photonic Bandgap, and Dispersion 84 4.2.4. Cholesteric Liquid Crystals with Magneto-optic Activity: Negative Index of Refraction 89 4.2.5. Polarization Rotation and Switching by High Period Number CLC – Adiabatic Rotation and Circular Bragg Resonance 90 4.3. Cholesteric Blue Phase Liquid Crystals 97 4.3.1. Free Energies and Equation of Motion under an Applied Field 97 4.3.2. Field-induced Lattice Distortion and New Crystalline Structures 98 4.3.3. Polymer-stabilization and Electro-optical Properties of Non-cubic BPLC 99 4.4. Smectic and Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals: A Brief Survey 100 4.4.1. Smectic-A Liquid Crystals 101 4.4.2. Smectic-C Liquid Crystals 104 4.4.3. Smectic-C∗ and Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals 106 4.4.4. Smectic-C∗ – Smectic-A Phase Transition 111 References 113 Chapter 5. Light Scattering 115 5.1. Introduction 115 5.2. Electromagnetic Formalism of Light Scattering in Liquid Crystals 115 5.3. Scattering From Director Axis Fluctuations in Nematic Liquid Crystals 118 5.4. Light Scattering in the Isotropic Phase of Liquid Crystals 122 5.5. Temperature, Wavelength, and Cell Geometry Effects on Scattering 125 5.6. Spectrum of Light and Orientation Fluctuation Dynamics 127 5.7. Raman Scatterings 129 5.7.1. Introduction 129 5.7.2. Quantum Theory of Spontaneous and Stimulated Raman Scattering: Scattering Cross-section 130 5.7.3. Spontaneous Raman Scattering 132 5.7.4. Stimulated Raman Scattering 132 5.8. Brillouin and Rayleigh Scatterings 133 5.8.1. Brillouin Scattering 135 5.8.2. Rayleigh Scattering 137 5.9. A Brief Introduction to Nonlinear Light Scattering 138 References 140 Chapter 6. Liquid Crystals Optics and Electro-optics 142 6.1. Introduction 142 6.2. Review of Electro-Optics of Anisotropic and Birefringent Crystals 143 6.2.1. Anisotropic, Uniaxial and Biaxial Optical Crystals 143 6.2.2. Index Ellipsoid in the Presence of an Electric Field–Electro-optics Effect 145 6.2.3. Polarizers and Retardation Plate 146 6.2.4. Basic Electro-optics Modulation 148 6.3. Electro-Optics of Nematic Liquid Crystals 149 6.3.1. Director Axis Reorientation in Homeotropic and Planar Cell; Dual Frequency Liquid Crystals 149 6.3.2. Freedericksz Transition Revisited 151 6.3.3. Field-induced Refractive Index Change and Phase Shift 154 6.4. Nematic Liquid Crystal Switches for Display Application 156 6.4.1. Liquid Crystal Switch – on Axis Consideration for Twist, Planar, and Homeotropic Aligned Cells 156 6.4.2. Off-axis Transmission, Viewing Angle, and Birefringence Compensation 157 6.4.3. Liquid Crystal Display Electronics 159 6.5. Electro-Optical Effects in Other Phases of Liquid Crystals 159 6.5.1. Surface Stabilized FLC 160 6.5.2. Soft-mode FLCs 161 6.6. Non-Display Applications of Liquid Crystals 163 6.6.1. Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulator 164 6.6.2. Tunable Photonic Crystals with Liquid Crystal Infiltrated Nanostructures 165 6.6.3. Tunable Frequency Selective Structures, Metamaterial, and Metasurfaces 167 6.6.4. Liquid Crystals for Molecular Sensing and Detection 168 6.6.5. Beam Steering, Routing, and Tunable Micro-ring Resonator, and High-power Laser Optics 170 References 171 Chapter 7. Optical Propagation in Anisotropic Materials 175 7.1. Electromagnetic Formalisms for Optical Propagation 175 7.1.1. Maxwell Equations and Wave Equations in Anisotropic Media 176 7.1.2. Complex Refractive Index – Real and Imaginary Components 177 7.1.3. Negative Index Material 178 7.1.4. Normal Modes, Power Flow and Propagation Vectors in a Lossless Isotropic Medium 179 7.1.5. Normal Modes and Propagation Vectors in a Lossless Anisotropic Medium 181 7.2. Polarized Light Propagation in Liquid Crystal Display Panel 185 7.2.1. Pane Polarized Wave and Jones Vectors 185 7.2.2. Jones Matrix Method 189 7.2.3. Oblique Incidence – 4 × 4 Matrix Methods 191 7.3. Extended Jones Matrix Method 193 7.4. Finite-difference Time-domain technique 196 7.5. Nonlinear Light Propagation in Liquid Crystals – a First Look 197 7.6. Systems of Units 198 References 200 Chapter 8. Laser-induced Reorientation Nonlinear Optical Effects 203 8.1. Introduction 203 8.2. Laser-Induced Molecular Reorientations in the Isotropic Phase 204 8.2.1. Individual Molecular Reorientations in Anisotropic Liquids 204 8.2.2. Correlated Molecular Reorientation Dynamics 207 8.2.3. Influence of Molecular Structure on Isotropic Phase Reorientation Nonlinearities 210 8.3. Molecular Reorientations in the Nematic Phase 212 8.3.1. Simplified Treatment of Optical Field-induced Director Axis Reorientation 213 8.3.2. More Exact Treatment of Optical Field-induced Director Axis Reorientation 215 8.3.3. Nonlocal Director Axis Reorientation and Nonlocal Optical Nonlinearity 217 8.4. Nematic Phase Reorientation Dynamics 219 8.4.1. Plane Wave Optical Field 219 8.4.2. Sinusoidal Optical Intensity 222 8.4.3. Polarization Grating with Uniform Optical Intensity 224 8.5. Laser-Induced Director Axis Realignment in Dye-Doped Liquid Crystals 225 8.5.1. Reorientation Caused by Inter-Molecular Torque 225 8.5.2. Laser-induced Trans–Cis Isomerism in Dye-doped Liquid Crystals 226 8.6. DC Field Aided Optically Induced Nonlinear Optical Effects in Liquid Crystals – Photorefractivity 226 8.6.1. Orientation Photorefractivity – Bulk Effects 229 8.6.2. Experimental Results and Surface Charge/Field Contribution 233 8.7. Reorientation in Other Phases of Pristine (Undoped) Liquid Crystals 234 8.7.1. Smectic Phase 234 8.7.2. Cholesteric and Blue-phase Liquid Crystals 235 References 236 Chapter 9. Thermal, Density, Lattice Distortion Optical Nonlinearities in Nematic, Cholesteric, and Blue-phase Liquid Crystals 241 9.1. Introduction 241 9.2. Electrostriction and Flows in Non-Absorbing Liquid Crystals –a General Overview 242 9.3. Laser-Induced Density and Temperature Modulations in Liquid Crystals 245 9.3.1. Modulations by Sinusoidal Optical Intensity 247 9.3.2. Refractive Index Changes: Temperature and Density Effects 250 9.4. Optical Nonlinearities of Nematic Liquid Crystals 254 9.4.1. Steady-State Thermal Nonlinearity of Nematic Liquid Crystals 256 9.4.2. Short Laser Pulse-induced Thermal Index Change in Nematics and Near-Tc Effect 257 9.4.3. Optical Nonlinearities of Isotropic Liquid Crystals 258 9.5. Coupled Nonlinear Optical Effects in Nematic Liquid Crystals 260 9.5.1. Thermal Orientation Coupling Effect 261 9.5.2. Flow-reorientation Effect 262 9.6. Nonlinear Optical Responses of Cholesteric Blue-Phase Liquid Crystals 266 9.6.1. General Overview 266 9.6.2. Non-electronics Optical Nonlinearities of BPLC 268 References 272 Chapter 10. Electronic Optical Nonlinearities 275 10.1. Introduction to Quantum Mechanical Treatment of Molecules 275 10.2. Density Matrix Formalism for Optical Induced Molecular Electronic Polarizabilities 278 10.2.1. Field-induced Polarizations – First and Higher Orders 280 10.2.2. Linear and Nonlinear Absorptions 280 10.3. Linear and Nonlinear Electronic Susceptibilities 282 10.3.1. Linear Optical Polarizabilities of a Molecule 282 10.3.2. Complex Susceptibilities and Index of Refraction –Dispersion, Absorption, and Amplification of Light, Lasers 286 10.3.3. Second-order Electronic Polarizabilities 289 10.3.4. Third-order Electronic Polarizabilities 290 10.3.5. Local Field Effects and Symmetry 292 10.3.6. Symmetry Considerations 293 10.3.7. Permanent Dipole and Molecular Ordering 294 10.3.8. Quadrupole Contribution and Field-induced Symmetry Breaking 295 10.3.9. Influence of Molecular Structures 295 10.4. Intensity-Dependent Refractive Index Change and nonlinear Absorption 296 10.4.1. Nonlinear Absorption 298 References 300 Chapter 11. Nonlinear Optics 302 11.1. Introduction 302 11.1.1. General Nonlinear Polarization and Susceptibility 302 11.1.2. Convention and Symmetry 304 11.2. Coupled Maxwell Wave Equations 308 11.3. Nonlinear Optical Phenomena 310 11.3.1. Stationary Degenerate Optical Wave Mixing 310 11.3.2. Optical Phase Conjugation 314 11.3.3. Transient and Nearly Degenerate Wave Mixing 316 11.3.4. Nondegenerate Optical Wave Mixing; Harmonic Generations 320 11.3.5. Stationary Self-phase Modulation and Self-action 323 11.4. Stimulated Scatterings 328 11.4.1. Stimulated Raman Scatterings 329 11.4.2. Stimulated Brillouin Scatterings 332 11.4.3. Stimulated Orientation Scattering in Liquid Crystals 336 11.4.4. Stimulated Thermal Scattering 341 11.5. Ultrafast Laser Pulse Self-Action Effects in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 342 11.5.1. Coupled Wave Equations for Forward and Backward Propagating Waves 342 11.5.2. Ultrafast Pulse Modulations – Compression, Stretching, and Recompression with Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 344 References 345 Chapter 12. Nonlinear Optical Processes Observed in Liquid Crystals 348 12.1. Self-Action Nonlinear Optical Processes 348 12.1.1. Self-induced Spatial and Temporal Phase Shift 348 12.1.2. Self-phase Modulation, Self-focusing, -defocusing of Continuous-Wave (CW) or Pulsed Laser 349 12.1.3. Self-guiding, Spatial Soliton and Pattern Formation 353 12.1.4. Pulse Modulations, Polarization Rotation of and Switching by Ultrafast (Picosecond–Femtoseconds) Laser 355 12.2. Optical Wave Mixings 358 12.2.1. Stimulated Orientational Scattering and Polarization Self-switching–Steady State 358 12.2.2. Stimulated Orientational Scattering – Nonlinear Dynamics 361 12.2.3. Optical Phase Conjugation with Orientation and Thermal Gratings 363 12.2.4. Self-starting Optical Phase Conjugation 365 12.3. Liquid Crystals for All-Optical Image Processing 369 12.3.1. Liquid Crystals as All-optical Information Processing Materials 369 12.3.2. All-optical Image Processing 371 12.3.3. Intelligent Optical Processing 372 12.4. Harmonic Generations and Sum-Frequency Spectroscopy 374 12.5. Optical Switching 375 12.6. Nonlinear Absorption and Optical Limiting of Lasers for Eye/Sensor Protection 379 12.6.1. Introduction 379 12.6.2. Nonlinear Fiber Array – An Intensity Dependent Spatial Frequency Filter 381 12.6.3. Optical Limiting Action of Fiber Array Containing RSA Materials 383 12.6.4. Optical Limiting Action of Fiber Array Containing TPA Materials 387 References 390 Index 398

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Book SynopsisASTROBIOLOGY This unique book advances the frontier discussion of a wide spectrum of astrobiological issues on scientific advances, space ethics, social impact, religious meaning, and public policy formulation. Astrobiology is an exploding discipline in which not only the natural sciences, but also the social sciences and humanities converge. Astrobiology: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy is a multidisciplinary book that presents different perspectives and points of view by its contributing specialists. Epistemological, moral and political issues arising from astrobiology, convey the complexity of challenges posed by the search for life elsewhere in the universe. We ask: if a convoy of colonists from Earth make the trip to Mars, should their genomes be edited to adapt to the Red Planet's environment? If scientists discover a biosphere with microbial life within our solar system, will it possess intrinsic value or merely utilitarian value? If astronomers discover an intelligent civiliTable of ContentsÜber die Autoren 9 Einführung 19 Über dieses Buch 19 Törichte Annahmen über die Leser 20 Wie dieses Buch aufgebaut ist 21 Teil I: Bedeutung von Homeoffice 21 Teil II: Ich im Homeoffice 21 Teil III: Wir im Homeoffice 22 Teil IV: Der Top-Ten-Teil 22 Symbole, die in diesem Buch verwendet werden 22 Wie es weitergeht 23 Teil I: Was bedeutet »Homeoffice« eigentlich? 25 Kapitel 1 Bedeutung von »Homeoffice« und Abgrenzung 27 »Homeoffice« und »Telearbeit« 27 Abgrenzung zu »mobilem Arbeiten« oder »mobile working« 28 Die Arbeitsstättenverordnung 28 Rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen 29 Arbeitszeiten 29 Erreichbarkeit als Arbeitnehmer und Kollege 29 Ausstattung und Nutzung des privaten Wohnraums 29 Einbindung des Betriebsrats 30 Homeoffice und Mietvertrag 30 Mögliche Steuervorteile 31 Versicherungsschutz 31 Unfallversicherung 32 Haftpflicht-und Hausratversicherung 32 Kapitel 2 Trends und Studien 33 Die Gesellschaft ändert sich 35 Nachhaltigkeit 35 Demografischer Wandel 35 Veränderte Rollenbilder 37 Digitalisierung 38 Unternehmen ändern sich 41 Immobilienflächennutzung 42 Büroflächen 42 Coworking 43 Flächenumwandlung und Landflucht 43 Arbeitgeberattraktivität 44 Was braucht der Mensch? 44 Gesundheit und Wohlbefinden 44 Einflussfaktoren auf die Leistung 46 Psychische Gesundheit 47 Teil II: Ich im Homeoffice 49 Kapitel 3 Wie gestalte ich mein Arbeitszimmer? 51 Den geeigneten Platz finden 51 Raumgröße Arbeitszimmer 53 Arbeiten unter der Dachschräge 53 Im Keller 53 Im Gäste-,Kinder-oder Schlafzimmer 54 Bedarfsermittlung – was brauchen Sie wirklich? 55 Ihr typischer Alltag im Homeoffice 56 Haupt-oder Zusatzarbeitsplatz? 57 Beschaffenheit des Raums 57 Raumklima 57 Tageslicht 57 Planung der Ausstattung 58 (Schreib-) Tisch 58 Stuhl oder Steh-Sitz-Möglichkeit 59 Ergonomie 64 Ablage (Regale, Schränke und Rollcontainer) 67 Whiteboard, Flipchart & Co. 67 Künstliche Lichtquellen 68 Technik 70 Gestaltung 77 Wenn mehrere Personen im Homeoffice arbeiten 80 Kapitel 4 Auf das eigene Wohlbefinden achten 81 Körperliche Einflussfaktoren 82 Das Gehirn und sein Umgang mit Stress 82 Hormone 85 Biorhythmus 88 Persönlichkeitstypen 88 Die Organisierte (gewissenhaft) 89 Die Workaholikerin (dynamisch) 89 Die Bequeme (vorhersehbar) 89 Die Kommunikative (extrovertiert) 89 Die Scheue (gewissenhaft-vorhersehbar) 90 Eltern 90 Psychisches Wohlbefinden 90 Tagesstruktur und Ziele 91 Meditation 92 Körperliche Aktivitäten 92 Lachen 93 Musik 94 Tageslicht 95 Ernährung 96 Vereinbarkeit von Beruf-und Privatleben 97 Belohnungen 105 Der Arbeitsplatz 105 Professionelle Hilfe bei psychischer Belastung 105 Teil III: Wir im Homeoffice 107 Kapitel 5 Zusammenarbeit im Team 109 Der Mensch als soziales Wesen 110 Evolutionsbiologie und Hirnforschung 110 Bedürfnis nach sozialer Bindung 111 Theorien zur Motivation 111 Unternehmenskultur 116 Grundlagen einer gemeinschaftlichen Führungs-und Unternehmenskultur 117 Vertrauen und Kontrolle 120 Führen auf Distanz 125 Methoden und Tools 127 Werkzeuge für virtuelle Zusammenarbeit 127 Einsatz künstlicher Intelligenz (KI) 130 Ein Blick auf den Istzustand … 131 … und in die Zukunft 132 Kapitel 6 Ökosystem der Arbeit – mehr als Homeoffice 135 Hybrides Arbeiten 136 Verteiltes Arbeiten – »distributed work« 136 Checkliste zur Einführung von verteiltem Arbeiten 137 Fünf Ebenen verteilten Arbeitens 138 Weitere Begriffe beim verteilten Arbeiten 139 Weiterentwicklung von Arbeitsprozessen und selbstorganisierten Teams 141 Prozesse und Agilität 141 Selbstorganisation von Teams 142 Erfolgshebel für selbstorganisierte Teams 145 Homeoffice und sein Platz im zukünftigen Ökosystem der Arbeit 147 Zukunft des Ökosystems 148 Zusammenarbeiten mit virtuellen Realitäten 149 Augmented Reality, Augmented Virtuality und Virtual Reality 150 Teil IV: Der Top-Ten-Teil 151 Kapitel 7 Die zehn wichtigsten Trends 153 Digitalisierung und Breitbandausbau 153 Flexibilisierung von Arbeitszeit und -ort 153 Sinn und Wertebewusstsein 153 Vielfalt digitaler Tools 154 Hybride Zusammenarbeit 154 Veränderte Büroflächennutzung 154 Nachhaltigkeit und Mobilität 154 Corporate Coworking 155 Führung und Zusammenarbeit 155 Flexibilisierung der Arbeit 155 Kapitel 8 Die zehn größten Vorteile des Homeoffice 157 Zeitgewinn 157 Vereinbarung von Privat-und Berufsleben 157 Wahlfreiheit der Arbeitsmöglichkeiten 157 Unterstützung individueller Biorhythmus 158 Förderung der Gesundheit 158 Persönliches Wohlfühlen 158 Arbeitgeberattraktivität 158 Verbesserung des CO2-Footprint 158 Qualitativ höherwertigere Büros 159 Globales Rekrutieren 159 Kapitel 9 Die zehn größten Nachteile des Homeoffice 161 Fehlende Präsenz 161 Zu wenig Platz zum Arbeiten und Leben 161 Alternativlose Arbeitsumgebung 161 Fehlende mentale Abgrenzung 162 Weniger Bewegung 162 Fehlende räumliche Rückzugsmöglichkeit 162 Mangelndes Vertrauen von Führungskräften 162 Reduzierte Aufstiegschancen 163 Mangelhafte Büroausstattung 163 Unvollständige Gestik und Körperhaltung 163 Kapitel 10 Die zehn wichtigsten Tipps 165 Kamera an 165 Tagesstruktur und Wochenplan 165 Regelmäßig Pausen 165 Bestmögliche Ausstattung 166 Organisation und Agenda 166 Techniktraining 166 Bewegung und Abwechslung 166 Nachfragen 167 Virtuelle Veranstaltungen 167 Raumklima 167 Stichwortverzeichnis 171

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Book SynopsisA solid collection of interdisciplinary review articles on the latest developments in adhesion science and adhesives technology With the ever-increasing amount of research being published, it is a Herculean task to be fully conversant with the latest research developments in any field, and the arena of adhesion and adhesives is no exception. Thus, topical review articles provide an alternate and very efficient way to stay abreast of the state-of-the-art in many subjects representing the field of adhesion science and adhesives. Based on the success of the preceding volumes in this series Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives, the present volume comprises 13 review articles published in Volume 7 (2019) of Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives.The subject of these reviews fall into the following general areas. 1. Adhesively bonded joints2. Adhesives (including bioadhesives) and their applications3. Nanocomposite polymer adhesives4. Polymer Table of ContentsPreface xv 1 Physico-Tribo-Mechanical and Adhesion Behaviour of Plasma Treated Steel and Its Alloys: A Critical Review 1Jitendra K. Katiyar and Vinay Kumar Patel 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Single Plasma Treatment for Improvement of Physico-Mechanical and Adhesion Properties 3 1.3 Double Plasma Treatment for Improvement of Physico-Mechanical and Adhesion Properties 14 1.4 Tribological Properties of Plasma Treated Steel and Its Grades 19 1.5 Conclusions 27 References 28 2 Debonding on Demand of Adhesively Bonded Joints: A Critical Review 33Mariana D. Banea 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Design of Structures with Debondable Adhesives 34 2.3 Methodologies for Adhesive Debonding on Demand 35 2.3.1 Debonding on Demand of Adhesively Bonded Joints Using Reversible/Reworkable Adhesive Systems 35 2.3.1.1 Reversible Adhesive Technologies Based on Diels-Alder Chemistry 36 2.3.1.2 Supramolecular Polymers 36 2.3.2 Electrically Induced Debonding of Adhesive Joints 37 2.3.3 Debonding on Demand of Adhesively Bonded Joints Using Reactive Fillers 38 2.3.3.1 Nanoparticles 38 2.3.3.2 Microparticles 40 2.4 Summary 44 Acknowledgements 45 References 45 3 Chitosan-Catechol Conjugates–A Novel Class of Bioadhesive Polymers: A Critical Review 51Loveleen Kaur and Inderbir Singh 3.1 Introduction 51 3.1.1 Polymers Used for Developing Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery Systems 52 3.1.2 Chitosan and Its Associated Problems 53 3.2 Preparation Methods for Chitosan-Catechol Conjugates 54 3.3 Characterization 55 3.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 55 3.3.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 56 3.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 57 3.3.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 57 3.3.5 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 57 3.4 Properties of Chitosan-Catechol Conjugates 57 3.4.1 Stability 57 3.4.2 Permeation 58 3.4.3 Mucoadhesion 58 3.4.4 Solubility 59 3.4.5 Antibacterial Property 59 3.4.6 Mechanical Strength 60 3.4.7 Biocompatibility 60 3.4.8 Bioink for 3D Printing 60 3.5 Applications of Chitosan-Catechol Conjugates 61 3.5.1 Nanoparticles 61 3.5.2 Hydrogels 62 3.5.3 Microspheres 62 3.5.4 Sponges 64 3.5.5 Films 64 3.6 Patent Updates 64 3.7 Summary and Future Aspects 64 Acknowledgement 65 Conflict of Interest 65 References 65 4 Adhesives in the Footwear Industry: A Critical Review 69Elena Orgilés-Calpena, Francisca Arán-Aís, Ana M. Torró-Palau and Miguel Angel Martínez Sánchez 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 The Footwear Industry 70 4.2.1 Substrates and Adhesives 70 4.2.2 Surface Treatments 73 4.2.3 Adhesives Requirements 77 4.2.4 Bonding Stages in Footwear Manufacturing Process 78 4.2.5 Debonding Real Cases in Footwear 81 4.3 Sustainable Adhesives for the Footwear Industry 82 4.3.1 Water-Based Adhesives 82 4.3.2 Hot-Melt Adhesives 84 4.4 Future Trends in Footwer Adhesives 86 4.5 Summary 88 Acknowledgements 88 References 89 5 Nanocomposite Polymer Adhesives: A Critical Review 93S. Kenig, H. Dodiuk, G. Otorgust and S. Gomid 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Nanostructuring of Adhesives – Methodology 94 5.3 Nanoparticles Types – Basic Compositions and Properties 95 5.3.1 Nanoclays 95 5.3.2 Nanosilica (NS) 96 5.3.3 POSS – Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxanes 97 5.3.4 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 97 5.3.5 Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) and Expanded Graphite (EG) 99 5.3.6 Inorganic Fullerenes (IFs) and Inorganic Nanotubes (INTs) of Tungsten Disulfide (WS2) 101 5.4 Adhesives Types – Basic Compositions and Properties 102 5.4.1 Epoxies 102 5.4.2 Polyurethanes (PUs) 102 5.4.3 Polyimides (PIs) 103 5.4.4 Silicones 103 5.4.5 Acrylics 104 5.5 Nanocomposite Adhesives–Composition–Properties Relationships, Reinforcement and Toughening Mechanisms 104 5.5.1 Introduction 104 5.5.2 Epoxy/Nanoclay Composite Adhesives 105 5.5.2.1 Bulk Properties 105 5.5.2.2 Adhesive Properties 107 5.5.3 Epoxy/Silica Nanocomposite Adhesives 108 5.5.3.1 Bulk Properties 108 5.5.3.2 Adhesive Properties 110 5.5.4 Epoxy/CNT Nanocomposite Adhesives 110 5.5.4.1 Bulk Properties 110 5.5.4.2 Adhesive Properties 113 5.5.5 Epoxy/POSS Nanocomposite Adhesives 115 5.5.5.1 Bulk Properties 115 5.5.5.2 Adhesive Properties 118 5.5.6 Epoxy/GNPs and EG Nanocomposite Adhesives 118 5.5.6.1 Bulk Properties 119 5.5.6.2 Adhesive Properties 122 5.5.7 Epoxy/WS2 Nanocomposite Adhesives 125 5.5.8 Polyurethane/POSS Nanocomposite Adhesives 126 5.5.8.1 Bulk Properties 126 5.5.8.2 Adhesive Properties 127 5.5.9 PU/WS2 Nanocomposite Adhesives 128 5.5.10 Polyimide/NCs Nanocomposite Adhesives 128 5.5.10.1 Bulk properties 128 5.5.10.2 Adhesive Properties 129 5.5.11 Polyimide/CNTs Nanocomposite Adhesives 129 5.5.11.1 Bulk Properties 129 5.5.11.2 Adhesive Properties 132 5.5.12 PU/NCs Nanocomposite Adhesives 132 5.5.13 Polyurethane/CNTs/GNPs Nanocomposite Adhesives 132 5.5.13.1 Bulk Properties 132 5.5.13.2 Adhesive Properties 133 5.5.14 PU/WS2 Nanocomposite Adhesives 134 5.5.15 Acrylic/Nanosilica Nanocomposite Adhesives 135 5.5.16 Acrylic/Titania and Alumina NPs Nanocomposite Adhesives 136 5.5.17 Acrylic/NCs Nanocomposite Adhesives 136 5.5.18 Acrylic/POSS Nanocomposite Adhesives 136 5.5.19 Silicone/WS2 Nanocomposite Adhesives 137 5.6 Fracture and Toughening Mechanisms 137 5.6.1 Fracture Surfaces 138 5.6.2 Toughening Micro and Nanomechanisms 138 5.7 Nanocomposite Adhesives – Applications, Challenges and Opportunities 143 5.7.1 Applications of Nanocomposite Adhesives 146 5.7.1.1 Electronics and Nanoelectronics 146 5.7.1.2 Aerospace 146 5.7.1.3 Biomedical 147 5.8 Summary 148 References 148 6 Adhesion Enhancement of Polymer Surfaces by Ion Beam Treatment: A Critical Review 169Endu Sekhar Srinadhu, Radhey Shyam, Jatinder Kumar, Dinesh P R Thanu, Mingrui Zhao and Manish Keswani 6.1 Introduction 169 6.1.1 Ion-Solid Interactions 170 6.1.2 Computer Simulations of Ion Beam – Solid Interactions 171 6.2 Ion Beam Treatment of Polymers 172 6.3 Analysis Techniques to Analyze Post Ion Beam Treated Target Surfaces 172 6.3.1 X-ray Diffraction 173 6.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 173 6.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 174 6.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy 174 6.3.5 UV Spectroscopy 175 6.3.6 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 175 6.3.7 Wettability Measurements 176 6.3.8 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 177 6.4 Biomedical Applications 178 6.4.1 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 178 6.4.2 Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) 180 6.4.3 Poly(L-lactide) (PLA), Poly(D, L-Lactide-coglycolide) (PDLG) and Poly(L-lactide-cocaprolactone) (PLC) Films 180 6.5 Microelectronics Applications 182 6.5.1 Bisphenol A polycarbonate (PC) 182 6.5.2 Aluminum Films on Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (PC) 184 6.5.3 Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Films on Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (PC) 185 6.5.4 Polyimide Films 187 6.5.5 Cu/Polyimide Films 187 6.5.6 Multiple Ion Beam Treatment of Polymers 188 6.6 Summary 190 References 190 7 Non-Wettable Surfaces – From Natural to Artificial and Applications: A Critical Review 195Andrew Terhemen Tyowua, Msugh Targema and Emmanuel Etim Ubuo 7.1 Introduction 195 7.2 The Basic Wetting Models 198 7.3 Non-Wettable Surfaces 200 7.3.1 Non-Wettable Surfaces in Nature: Their Importance to Plants and Animals 200 7.3.2 Artificial Non-Wettable Surfaces 206 7.3.3 Preparation of Non-Wettable Surfaces 208 7.3.4 Properties of Non-Wettable Surfaces 214 7.4 Applications of Non-Wettable Surfaces and Challenges 217 7.4.1 Non-Wettable Surfaces for Water Collection and Transportation 217 7.4.2 Non-Wettable Surfaces as Self-Cleaning and Icephobic Surfaces 218 7.4.3 Non-Wettable Surfaces for Biomedical Applications 219 7.5 Summary and Future Prospects 220 Acknowledgements 220 References 221 8 Plasma Oxidation of Polyolefins - Course of O/C Ratio from Unmodified Bulk to Surface and Finally to CO2 in the Gas Phase: A Critical Review 233J. Friedrich, M. Jabłońska and G. Hidde 8.1 Introduction 234 8.2 Chemistry of Polyolefin Oxidation 235 8.2.1 Binding Energies of Covalent Bonds in Polyolefins 235 8.2.2 Thermal Oxidation and Auto-Oxidation on the Surface of Paraffins 236 8.2.3 Decarboxylation and Emission of CO2 237 8.2.4 Formation of Gaseous Low-Molecular Weight Products on Thermal or Photo-Oxidation in Analogy to Oxygen Plasma Treatment 238 8.3 Processes at Polyolefin Surfaces 239 8.3.1 Formation of Gaseous Low-Molecular Weight Products on Exposure to Oxygen Plasma 239 8.3.2 Introduction of Oxygen-Containing Groups at the Surface of Polyolefins on Exposure to Oxygen Plasma 240 8.3.3 Formation and Characterization of LMWOM 243 8.3.3.1 LMWOM Formation by Fragmentation and Oxidation of Macromolecules 243 8.3.3.2 LMWOM Formation by Re-Deposition of Fragments or Plasma Polymerization 245 8.4 Depth Profiles at the Surface of Polyolefins 246 8.4.1 Analytical Depth Profiles 246 8.4.2 Measured Oxidation Depth Profiles 247 8.4.2.1 Plasma Parameters Influencing the Depth Profile and Its Range 247 8.4.2.2 Angle-Resolved XPS. 247 8.4.2.3 Dynamic SIMS 247 8.4.2.4 Sputtering 248 8.4.2.5 Post-Plasma Oxidation 248 8.5 Modes of the Oxidation Process at Polyolefin Surfaces on Exposure to Oxygen Plasma 249 8.6 Summary and Conclusions 251 References 253 9 Procedures for the Characterization of Wettability and Surface Free Energy of Textiles - Use, Abuse, Misuse and Proper Use: A Critical Review 259Thomas Bahners and Jochen S. Gutmann 9.1 Introduction 260 9.2 Peculiarities of Textile Substrates 262 9.2.1 Geometric Hierarchy 262 9.2.2 Attempts to Model the Textile Geometry 266 9.3 Characterization of Fabrics – Drop Tests 270 9.3.1 Contact Angle Measurements 270 9.3.2 Characterization by Roll-Off Angle 272 9.3.3 Drop Penetration Tests 273 9.3.4 Characterization of Fabrics – Wicking or Rising Height Test 277 9.3.5 Fabric Characterization Based on The Wilhelmy Method 278 9.4 Contact Angle Measurement on Single Fibers 279 9.5 Methods for the Characterization of Fiber Bundles 280 9.5.1 The Washburn Approach – Wilhelmy Wicking Method 280 9.5.2 Inverse Gas Chromatography (IGC) 282 9.5.3 Using IGC as an Alternative Concept to Characterize Adhesion-Related Surface Modification 283 9.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks 284 References 288 10 Bioadhesive Nanoformulations—Concepts and Preclinical Studies: A Critical Review 295Monika Joshi, Ravi Shankar and Kamla Pathak 10.1 Introduction to Nanoformulations 295 10.2 Types of Nanoformulations 296 10.2.1 Liposomes 296 10.2.2 Ethosomes 297 10.2.3 Niosomes 297 10.2.4 Nanoparticles 298 10.2.4.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 298 10.2.4.2 Lipid Nanoparticles 298 10.2.5 Polymeric Micelles (PMs) 298 10.2.6 Nanoemulsions 299 10.2.7 Dendrimers 299 10.3 Bioadhesion: Physiological and Pharmaceutical Aspects 299 10.4 Bioadhesive Polymers 300 10.4.1 Non-Specific Bioadhesive Polymers (Old Generation) 300 10.4.1.1 Cationic Polymers 300 10.4.1.2 Anionic Polymers 300 10.4.2 Specific Bioadhesive Polymers 301 10.4.2.1 Thiolated Polymers 301 10.4.2.2 Lectin-Based Polymers 301 10.5 Mechanism of Bioadhesion 302 10.6 Bioadhesive Nanoformulations and Their Supremacy Over Other Systems 302 10.6.1 Buccal/Sublingual Administration 303 10.6.2 Intranasal Bioadhesive Nanoformulations for Various Therapeutic Purposes 306 10.6.3 Ocular Administration 310 10.6.4 Oral Administration 313 10.6.5 Summary 318 References 319 11 Laser-Assisted Tailoring of Surface Wettability -Fundamentals and Applications: A Critical Review 331Alina Peethan, V. K. Unnikrishnan, Santhosh Chidangil and Sajan D. George 11.1 Introduction 332 11.1.1 Laser-Matter Interaction 332 11.1.2 Wettability and Laser-Assisted Tailoring of Surface Wettability 334 11.2 Nanosecond Laser Patterning 337 11.3 Picosecond Laser Patterning 341 11.4 Femtosecond Laser Patterning 344 11.5 Applications of laser textured surfaces 350 11.5.1 Biomedical applications 350 11.5.2 Water harvesting 351 11.5.3 Anti-Bacterial Activity 353 11.5.4 Spectroscopic Applications 353 11.5.5 Other Applications 354 11.6 Summary 357 Conflict of Interest 358 Acknowledgments 358 References 358 12 Improved Mathematical Models of Thermal Residual Stresses in Functionally Graded Adhesively Bonded Joints: A Critical Review 367M. Kemal Apalak and M. Didem Demirbas 12.1 Introduction 368 12.2 Mechanical and Physical Relations 374 12.3 Heat Transfer Model 377 12.4 Thermal Initial and Boundary Conditions 380 12.5 Elasticity Equations in Terms of Displacements 382 12.6 Finite-Difference Discretization 385 12.7 Implementation of Boundary Conditions 387 12.8 Results 389 12.9 Summary and Conclusions 408 Acknowledgement 409 References 410 13 Adhesion of Colloids and Bacteria to Porous Media: A Critical Review 417Runwei Li, Changfu Wei, Hefa Cheng and Gang Chen 13.1 Introduction 417 13.2 Adhesion Theory 418 13.2.1 Dupré Energy of Adhesion 418 13.2.2 Lifshitz-van der Waals Forces 421 13.2.3 Lewis Acid/Base Forces 422 13.2.4 Hydration Forces 424 13.2.5 Electrical Double Layer Forces 425 13.2.6 Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationship (QSAR) Analysis 426 13.2.7 Capillary Forces 426 13.3 Adhesion of Colloids and Bacteria at Interfaces 428 13.3.1 Adhesion at the Liquid-Solid Interface 428 13.3.2 Adhesion at the Air-Water Interface 431 13.3.2.1 Water Structure and Hydrogen Bonding 431 13.3.2.2 Air-Water Interface Charges 434 13.3.2.3 Impact of Surfactants 435 13.3.2.4 Air-Water Interface in a Porous Medium 437 13.3.2.5 Force Balance at the Air-Water Interface 438 13.3.2.6 Impact of Air-Water Interface on Adhesion to Porous Media 439 13.4 Adhesion Theory Implementations 440 13.4.1 Water Saturation and Air-Water Interface in Porous Media 440 13.4.2 Liquid-Gas-Solid Three-Phase Interface and Particle Transport 441 13.4.3 Force Quantification 443 13.4.4 Atomic Force Microscopy Measurements 445 13.4.5 Linkage of Interactions and Transport 446 13.4.6 Surfactant Attachment at the Air-Water Interface 448 13.5 Summary 450 Acknowledgments 450 References 451

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Book SynopsisSMALL-ANGLE SCATTERING A comprehensive and timely volume covering contemporary research, practical techniques, and theoretical approaches to SAXS and SANSSmall-Angle Scattering: Theory, Instrumentation, Data, and Applications provides authoritative coverage of both small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and grazing incidence small-angle scattering (GISAS) including GISAXS and GISANS. This single-volume resource offers readers an up-to-date view of the state of the field, including the theoretical foundations, experimental methods, and practical applications of small-angle scattering (SAS) techniques including laboratory and synchrotron SAXS and reactor/spallation SANS. Organized into six chapters, the text first describes basic theory, instrumentation, and data analysis. The following chapters contain in-depth discussion on various applications of SAXS and SANS and GISAXS and GISANS, and on specific techniques for investigating structure and order in soft materials, biomolecules, and inorganic and magnetic materials. Author Ian Hamley draws from his more than thirty years' experience working with many systems, instruments, and types of small-angle scattering experiments across most European facilities to present the most complete introduction to the field available. This book:Presents uniquely broad coverage of practical and theoretical approaches to SAXS and SANSIncludes practical information on instrumentation and data analysisOffers useful examples and an accessible and concise presentation of topicsCovers new developments in the techniques of SAXS and SANS, including GISAXS and GISANSSmall-Angle Scattering: Theory, Instrumentation, Data, and Applications is a valuable source of detailed information for researchers and postgraduate students in the field, as well as other researchers using X-ray and neutron scattering to investigate soft materials, other nanostructured materials and biomolecules such as proteins.Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 Basic Theory 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Wavenumber and Scattering Amplitude 2 1.3 Intensity for Anisotropic and Isotropic Systems and Relationships to Pair Distance Distribution and Autocorrelation Functions 3 1.4 Guinier Approximation 7 1.5 Form and Structure Factors 8 1.6 Structure Factors 11 1.7 Form Factors 26 1.8 Form and Structure Factors for Polymers 36 References 41 2 Data Analysis 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Pre-Measurement Sample Concentration and Polydispersity Measurements 46 2.3 Overview: Data Reduction Pipeline 46 2.4 Corrections for Sample Transmission and Others 48 2.5 Background Corrections 49 2.6 Detector Corrections, Mask Files, and Integration 51 2.7 Anisotropic Data 54 2.8 Calibration of q Scale 54 2.9 Absolute Intensity Calibration 56 2.10 Absorption 58 2.11 Smearing Effects 59 2.12 Solution SAXS Data Checks 60 2.13 Porod Regime 67 2.14 Kratky Plots 68 2.15 Zimm Plots 70 2.16 Invariant and Related Information Content From SAS Measurements 72 2.17 Form Factor Fitting 73 2.18 SAS Software 80 References 80 3 Instrumentation for SAXS and SANS 87 3.1 Introduction 87 3.2 Synchrotron Facilities 88 3.3 Neutron Scattering Facilities 88 3.4 Synchrotron SAXS Instrumentation 91 3.5 Laboratory SAXS Instrumentation 99 3.6 SANS Instrumentation 101 3.7 Ultra-Small-Angle Scattering Instruments 104 3.8 Standard Sample Environments – SAXS 106 3.9 Standard Sample Environments – SANS 109 3.10 Standard Sample Environments – GISAS 109 3.11 Microfocus SAXS and WAXS 110 3.12 Specialized Sample Environments 111 References 127 4 Applications and Specifics of SAXS 137 4.1 Introduction 137 4.2 Production of X-Rays 139 4.3 Scattering Processes for X-Rays 142 4.4 Atomic Scattering Factors 144 4.5 Anomalous SAXS and SAXS Contrast Variation 145 4.6 BioSAXS: Solution SAXS from Biomacromolecules, Especially Proteins 147 4.7 Solution SAXS from Multi-Domain and Flexible Macromolecules 154 4.8 Solution SAXS from Multi-Component Systems – Biomolecular Assemblies 160 4.9 Protein Structure Factor SAXS 161 4.10 SAXS (and WAXS) Studies of Soft Matter Systems 163 4.11 SAXS and WAXS From Semicrystalline Polymers 164 4.12 Lipid Phases: Electron Density Profile Reconstruction 168 4.13 SAXS Studies of Peptide and Lipopeptide Assemblies 171 4.14 SAXS Studies of the Structure Factor of Colloids 173 4.15 SAXS and SAXS/WAXS Studies of Biomaterials 177 4.16 Fast Time-Resolved SAXS 182 References 187 5 Applications and Specifics of SANS 197 5.1 Introduction 197 5.2 Production of Neutrons 198 5.3 Differential Scattering Cross-Section 199 5.4 Scattering Lengths 200 5.5 SANS Data Reduction Considerations 202 5.6 Contrast Variation 203 5.7 Single Molecule Scattering from Mixtures of Protonated and Deuterated Molecules 215 5.8 SANS from Labelled Polymers 217 5.9 Kinetic SANS Using Labelled Mixtures 222 5.10 Ultra-Small-Angle Sans (USANS) 223 5.11 SANS and USANS (AND SAXS and USAXS) Studies on Porous Structures 224 5.12 SANS on Magnetic Materials 227 5.13 Spin-Echo SANS (SESANS) 232 5.14 Complementary SAXS AND SANS 233 References 233 6 Grazing-Incidence Small-Angle Scattering 241 6.1 Introduction 241 6.2 Basic Quantities: Definition of Angles, Refractive Index, and Scattering Length Density 242 6.3 Characteristic Scans 245 6.4 The Distorted Wave Born Approximation 252 6.5 Data Analysis 256 6.6 Experimental Examples of GISAS Data 257 6.7 Experimental Examples of GIWAXS/GIXD Data 265 References 269 Index 273

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Book SynopsisEnergy and the Environment Examine the tension between energy production and consumption and environmental conservation with the latest edition of this widely read text In the newly revised Fourth Edition of Energy and the Environment, the authors deliver an insightful and expanded discussion on the central topics regarding the interaction between energy production, consumption, and environmental stewardship. The book explores every major form of energy technology, including fossil fuels, renewables, and nuclear power, wrapping up with chapters on how energy usage affects our atmosphere, and the resulting global effects. The latest edition includes new figures and tables that reflect the most recent numbers on conventional and renewable energy production and consumption. The history and current status of relevant U.S. and international governmental energy legislation is discussed along with the text. Readers will also find: A thorough introductionTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgment xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Energy Fundamentals, Energy Use in an Industrial Society 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Why Do We Use So Much Energy? 4 1.3 Energy Basics 7 1.3.1 General 7 1.3.2 Forms of Energy 8 1.3.3 Power 10 1.4 Units of Energy 11 1.4.1 The Joule 12 1.4.2 The British Thermal Unit 12 1.4.3 The Calorie 12 1.4.4 The Foot-Pound 12 1.4.5 The Electron-Volt 12 1.5 Scientific Notation 13 1.6 Energy Consumption in the United States 14 1.7 The Principle of Energy Conservation 20 1.8 Transformation of Energy from One Form to Another 21 1.9 Renewable and Nonrenewable Energy Sources 22 1.9.1 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 23 1.9.2 Renewable Energy Sources 23 Key Terms 24 Questions and Problems 25 Multiple Choice Questions 26 Suggested Reading and References 28 2 The Fossil Fuels 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Petroleum 32 2.3 History of the Production of Petroleum in the United States 33 2.4 Petroleum Resources of the United States 34 2.5 World Production of Petroleum 38 2.6 The Cost of Gasoline in the United States 39 2.7 Petroleum Refining 40 2.8 Natural Gas 43 2.9 The History of Use of Natural Gas 44 2.10 The Natural Gas Resource Base in the United States 47 2.11 The Natural Gas Resource Base for the World 48 2.12 The Formation of Coal 50 2.13 Coal Resources and Consumption 50 2.14 Oil Shale 53 2.15 Tar Sands 56 2.16 Summary 57 Key Terms 58 Questions and Problems 58 Multiple Choice Questions 59 Suggested Reading and References 62 3 Heat Engines 65 3.1 The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat 65 3.2 The Energy Content of Fuels 66 3.3 The Thermodynamics of Heat Engines 67 3.4 Generation of Electricity 69 3.5 Electric Power Transmission 71 3.6 Practical Heat Engines 73 3.6.1 Steam Engines 74 3.6.2 Gasoline Engines 75 3.6.3 Diesel Engines 77 3.6.4 Gas Turbines 78 3.7 Heat Pumps 79 3.8 Cogeneration 82 Key Terms 84 Questions and Problems 85 Multiple Choice Questions 86 Suggested Reading and References 90 4 Renewable Energy Sources I: Solar Energy 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Energy from the Sun 93 4.3 A Flat-Plate Collector System 97 4.4 Passive Solar 102 4.5 Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation 105 4.5.1 Power Towers 107 4.5.2 Parabolic Dishes and Troughs 109 4.6 The Direct Conversion of Solar Energy to Electrical Energy 110 4.7 Solar Cooling 118 Key Terms 119 Questions and Problems 119 Multiple Choice Questions 120 Suggested Reading and References 123 5 Renewable Energy Sources II: Alternatives 125 5.1 Introduction 125 5.2 Hydropower 126 5.3 Wind Power 132 5.4 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 139 5.5 Biomass as an Energy Feedstock 143 5.6 Biomass: Municipal Solid Waste 149 5.7 Biomass-Derived Liquid and Gaseous Fuels 150 5.8 Geothermal Energy 154 5.9 Tidal Energy 159 5.10 Wave Energy 161 5.11 Summary 162 Key Terms 162 Questions and Problems 162 Multiple Choice Questions 164 Suggested Reading and References 167 6 The Promise and Problems of Nuclear Energy 169 6.1 Introduction 169 6.2 A Short History of Nuclear Energy 170 6.3 Radioactivity 173 6.4 Nuclear Reactors 175 6.5 The Boiling Water Reactor 177 6.6 Fuel Cycle 179 6.7 Uranium Resources 180 6.8 Environmental and Safety Aspects of Nuclear Energy 182 6.9 Nuclear Reactor Accidents 185 6.9.1 The Chernobyl Disaster 185 6.9.2 Fukushima Daiichi Disaster 186 6.10 Nuclear Weapons 187 6.11 The Storage of High-Level Radioactive Waste 189 6.12 The Cost of Nuclear Power 191 6.13 Nuclear Fusion as an Energy Source 192 6.14 Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions 194 6.15 A Fusion Reactor 194 Key Terms 199 Questions and Problems 199 Multiple Choice Questions 201 Suggested Reading and References 204 7 Energy Conservation 207 7.1 A Penny Saved Is a Penny Earned 207 7.2 Space Heating 210 7.2.1 Thermal Insulation 210 7.2.2 Air Infiltration 215 7.2.3 Furnaces, Stoves, and Fireplaces 216 7.2.4 Solar and Other Sources of Heat Energy 219 7.2.5 Standards for Home Heating 220 7.3 Water Heaters, Home Appliances, and Lighting 221 7.3.1 Water Heating 221 7.3.2 Appliances 222 7.3.3 Lighting 225 7.3.4 The Energy-Conserving House 227 7.4 Energy Conservation in Industry and Agriculture 227 7.4.1 Housekeeping 228 7.4.2 Waste Heat Recovery and Cogeneration 229 7.4.3 Process Changes 229 7.4.4 Recycling 229 7.4.5 New Developments 230 7.4.6 Help from Public Utilities 231 Key Terms 232 Questions and Problems 232 Multiple Choice Questions 234 Suggested Reading and References 236 8 Transportation 239 8.1 Introduction 239 8.2 Power and Energy Requirements 242 8.3 Electric Batteries, Flywheels, Hybrids, Hydrogen, Alcohol 248 8.3.1 Electric Vehicles 250 8.3.2 Flywheel-Powered Vehicles 252 8.3.3 Hybrid Vehicles 255 8.3.4 Hydrogen, Fuel Cells 257 8.3.5 Alcohol as a Transportation Fuel 261 8.4 Mass Transportation 263 Key Terms 266 Questions and Problems 266 Multiple Choice Questions 267 Suggested Reading and References 270 9 Air Pollution 271 9.1 Spaceship Earth 271 9.2 The Earth’s Atmosphere 272 9.3 Thermal Inversions 273 9.4 Carbon Monoxide 277 9.5 The Oxides of Nitrogen 282 9.6 Hydrocarbon Emissions and Photochemical Smog 284 9.7 Reduction of Vehicle Emissions 286 9.8 Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmosphere 289 9.9 Particulates as Pollutants 292 9.10 Acid Rain 295 Key Terms 300 Questions and Problems 301 Multiple Choice Questions 302 Suggested Reading and References 305 10 Global Effects 307 10.1 Introduction 308 10.2 Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere 308 10.3 The Greenhouse Effect and World Climate Changes 312 Key Terms 326 Questions and Problems 326 Multiple Choice Questions 327 Suggested Reading and References 328 Appendix 329 Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Problems 335 Index 337

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Pressure 1 2 Macroscopic Balance of Mass, Momentum, and Energy 29 3 Differential Equations of Motions 71 4 Curved Motions 105 5 Vortex Dynamics 137 6 External Viscous Flows 181 7 Internal Viscous Flows 231 8 Compressible Flows 267 Index 303

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a unique approach to introduce undergraduate students to the concepts and methods of physical chemistry, which are the foundational principles of Chemistry. The book introduces the student to the principles underlying the essential sub-fields of quantum mechanics, atomic and molecular structure, atomic and molecular spectroscopy, statistical thermodynamics, classical thermodynamics, solutions and equilibria, electrochemistry, kinetics and reaction dynamics, macromolecules, and organized molecular assemblies. Importantly, the book develops and applies these principles to supramolecular assemblies and supramolecular machines, with many examples from biology and nanoscience. In this way, the book helps the student to see the frontier of modern physical chemistry developments. The book begins with a discussion of wave-particle duality and proceeds systematically to more complex chemical systems in order to relate the story of physical chemistry in an intellectually coherent manner. The topics are organized to correspond with those typically given in each of a two course semester sequence. The first 13 chapters present quantum mechanics and spectroscopy to describe and predict the structure of matter: atoms, molecules, and solids. Chapters 14 to 29 present statistical thermodynamics and kinetics and applies their principles to understanding equilibria, chemical transformations, macromolecular properties and supramolecular machines. Each chapter of the book begins with a simplified view of a topic and evolves to more rigorous description, in order to provide the student (and instructor) flexibility to choose the level of rigor and detail that suits them best. The textbook treats important new directions in physical chemistry research, including chapters on macromolecules, principles of interfaces and films for organizing matter, and supramolecular machines -- as well as including discussions of modern nanoscience, spectroscopy, and reaction dynamics throughout the text.

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface ix About the Companion Website xi 1 Basics 1 1.1 Wave Mechanics of de Broglie and Schrödinger 1 1.2 Klein-Gordon Equation 2 1.3 Non-Relativistic Approximation 2 1.4 Free-Particle Probability Current 3 1.5 Expectation Values 4 1.6 Particle in a Static, Conservative Force Field 6 1.7 Ehrenfest Theorem 6 1.8 Schrödinger Equation in Momentum Space 8 1.9 Spread in Time of a Free-Particle Wave Packet 8 1.10 The Nature of Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation 9 1.11 A Bound-State Problem: Linear Potential 10 1.12 Sturm-Liouville Eigenvalue Problem 11 1.13 Linear Operators on Functions 13 1.14 Eigenvalue Problem for a Hermitian Operator 14 1.15 Variational Methods for Energy Eigenvalues 14 1.16 Rayleigh-Ritz Method 16 Problems 18 2 Reformulation 21 2.1 Stern-Gerlach Experiment 22 2.2 Linear Vector Spaces 22 2.3 Linear Operators 25 2.4 Unitary Transformations of Operators 27 2.5 Generalized Uncertainty Relation for Self-Adjoint Operators 27 2.6 Infinite-Dimensional Vector Spaces - Hilbert Space 28 2.7 Assumptions of Quantum Mechanics 29 2.8 Mixtures and the Density Matrix 30 2.9 Measurement 32 2.10 Classical vs. Quantum Probabilities 33 2.11 Capsule Review of Classical Mechanics and Conservation Laws 34 2.12 Translation Invariance and Momentum Conservation 37 2.13 Dirac’s p’s and q’s 38 2.14 Time Development of the State Vector 41 2.15 Schrödinger and Heisenberg Pictures 42 2.16 Simple Harmonic Oscillator 46 Problems 51 3 Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) Method 55 3.1 Semi-classical Approximation 55 3.2 Solution in One Dimension 56 3.3 Schrödinger Equation for the Linear Potential 58 3.4 Connection Formulae for the WKB Method 63 3.5 WKB Formula for Bound States 65 3.6 Example of WKB with a Power Law Potential 67 3.7 Normalization of WKB Bound State Wave Functions 68 3.8 Bohr’s Correspondence Principle and Classical Motion 68 3.9 Power of WKB 72 3.10 Barrier Penetration with the WKB Method 73 3.11 Symmetrical Double-Well Potential 75 3.12 Application of the WKB Method to Ammonia Molecule 79 Problems 80 4 Rotations, Angular Momentum, and Central Force Motion 85 4.1 Infinitesimal Rotations 85 4.2 Construction of Irreducible Representations 88 4.3 Coordinate Representation of Angular Momentum Eigenvectors 91 4.4 Observation of Sign Change for Rotation by 2π 92 4.5 Euler Angles, Wigner d-functions 95 4.6 Application to Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 98 4.7 Addition of Angular Momenta 104 4.8 Integration Over the Rotation Group 106 4.9 Gaunt Integral 108 4.10 Tensor Operators 109 4.11 Wigner-Eckart Theorem 112 4.12 Applications of the Wigner-Eckart Theorem 114 4.13 Two-Body Central Force Motion 118 4.14 The Coulomb Problem 121 4.15 Patterns of Bound States 125 4.16 Hellmann-Feynman Theorem 127 Problems 128 5 Time-Independent Perturbation Theory 135 5.1 Time-Independent Perturbation Expansion 135 5.2 Interlude: Spectra and History 137 5.3 Fine Structure of Hydrogen 139 5.4 Stark Effect in Ground-State Hydrogen 141 5.5 Perturbation Theory with Degeneracy 143 5.6 Linear Stark Effect in Hydrogen 145 5.7 Perturbation Theory with Near Degeneracy 146 5.8 Zeeman and Paschen-Back Effects in Hydrogen 149 Problems 149 6 Atomic Structure 151 6.1 Parity 151 6.2 Identical Particles and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 153 6.3 Atoms 158 6.4 Helium Atom 159 6.5 Periodic Table 164 6.6 Multiplet Structure, Russell-Saunders Coupling 165 6.7 Spin-Orbit Interaction 172 6.8 Intermediate Coupling 176 6.9 Thomas-Fermi Atom 180 6.10 Hartree-Fock Approximation 185 Problems 189 7 Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory and Scattering 197 7.1 Time-dependent Perturbation Theory 197 7.2 Fermi’s Golden Rule 202 7.3 Scattering Amplitude 204 7.4 Born Approximation 205 7.5 Scattering Theory from Fermi’s Golden Rule 207 7.6 Inelastic Scattering 211 7.7 Optical Theorem 214 7.8 Validity Criterion for the First Born Approximation 216 7.9 Eikonal Approximation 216 7.10 Method of Partial Waves 223 7.11 Behavior of the Cross Section and the Argand Diagram 225 7.12 Hard Sphere Scattering 227 7.13 Strongly Attractive Potentials and Resonance 229 7.14 Levinson’s Theorem 232 Problems 234 8 Semi-Classical and Quantum Electromagnetic Field 241 8.1 Electromagnetic Hamiltonian and Gauge Invariance 241 8.2 Aharonov-Bohm Effect 242 8.3 Semi-Classical Radiation Theory 244 8.4 Scalar Field Quantization 246 8.5 Quantization of the Radiation Field 247 8.6 States of the Electromagnetic Field 252 8.7 Vacuum Expectation Values of E, E ⋅ E over Finite Volume 253 8.8 Classical vs. Quantum Radiation 254 8.9 Quasi-Classical Fields and Coherent States 255 Problems 257 9 Emission and Absorption of Radiation 259 9.1 Matrix Elements and Rates 259 9.2 Dipole Transitions 261 9.3 General Selection Rules 262 9.4 Charged Particle in a Central Field 263 9.5 Decay Rates with LS Coupling 264 9.6 Line Breadth and Level Shift 267 9.7 Alteration of Spontaneous Emission from Changed Density of States 272 Problems 277 10 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 281 10.1 Klein-Gordon Equation 281 10.2 Dirac Equation 283 10.3 Angular Momentum in Dirac Equation 285 10.4 Two-Component Equation and Plane-Wave Solutions 286 10.5 Dirac’s Treatment of Negative Energy States 288 10.6 Heisenberg Operators and Equations of Motion 289 10.7 Hydrogen in the Dirac Equation 290 10.8 Foldy-Wouthuysen Transformation 291 10.9 Lorentz Covariance 294 10.10 Discrete Symmetries 297 10.11 Bilinear Covariants 301 10.12 Applications to Electromagnetic Form Factors 302 10.13 Potential Scattering of a Dirac Particle 305 10.14 Neutron-Electron Scattering 307 10.15 Compton Scattering 312 Problems 322 A Dimensions and Units 327 B Mathematical Tools 329 B. 1 Contour Integration 329 B. 2 Green Function for Helmholtz Equation 333 B. 3 Wigner 3-j and 6-j Symbols 335 C Selected Solutions 339 C. 1 Chapter 1 339 C. 2 Chapter 2 340 C. 3 Chapter 3 343 C. 4 Chapter 4 352 C. 5 Chapter 5 362 C. 6 Chapter 6 366 C. 7 Chapter 7 375 C. 8 Chapter 8 377 C. 9 Chapter 9 380 C. 10 Chapter 10 387 Bibliography 393 Index 395

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Book SynopsisPresents the science of colour from new perspectives and outlines results obtained from the authors' work in the mathematical theory of colour This innovative volume summarizes existing knowledge in the field, attempting to present as much data as possible about colour, accumulated in various branches of science (physics, phychophysics, colorimetry, physiology) from a unified theoretical position. Written by a colour specialist and a professional mathematician, the book offers a new theoretical framework based on functional analysis and convex analysis. Employing these branches of mathematics, instead of more conventional linear algebra, allows them to provide the knowledge required for developing techniques to measure colour appearance to the standards adopted in colorimetric measurements. The authors describe the mathematics in a language that is understandable for colour specialists and include a detailed overview of all chapters to help readers not familiar with colour science. Divided into two parts, the book first covers various key aspects of light colour, such as colour stimulus space, colour mechanisms, colour detection and discrimination, light-colour perception typology, and light metamerism. The second part focuses on object colour, featuring detailed coverage of object-colour perception in single- and multiple-illuminant scenes, object-colour solid, colour constancy, metamer mismatching, object-colour indeterminacy and more. Throughout the book, the authors combine differential geometry and topology with the scientific principles on which colour measurement and specification are currently based and applied in industrial applications. Presents a unique compilation of the author's substantial contributions to colour scienceOffers a new approach to colour perception and measurement, developing the theoretical framework used in colorimetryBridges the gap between colour engineering and a coherent mathematical theory of colourOutlines mathematical foundations applicable to the colour vision of humans and animals as well as technologies equipped with artificial photosensorsContains algorithms for solving various problems in colour science, such as the mathematical problem of describing metameric lightsFormulates all results to be accessible to non-mathematicians and colour specialistsFoundations of Colour Science: From Colorimetry to Perception is an invaluable resource for academics, researchers, industry professionals and undergraduate and graduate students with interest in a mathematical approach to the science of colour.Table of Contents1 Outline for readers in a hurry 1 I Light colour 81 2 Colour stimulus space and colour mechanisms 85 2.1 Grassmann structures and Grassmann colour codes 89 2.2 Continuous Grassmann structures and continuous Grassmann colour codes 97 3 Identification of Grassmann structures based on metameric matching 101 3.1 Colourmatching functions 102 3.2 Monochromatic primaries and colour matching functions in the trichromatic case (=3) 109 3.3 Fundamental colour mechanisms in human colour vision 112 3.3.1 K¨onig’s approach to identification of the fundamental colourmechanisms 120 3.3.2 Some estimates of the cone fundamentals used in colour research and applications 123 4 Colour-signal cone 129 4.1 Strong colour-signal-cone-boundary hypothesis 133 4.2 Empirical status of the strong colour-signal-cone-boundary hypothesis 138 4.3 Colour-signal-cone-boundary hypothesis 145 4.4 The colour-signal cone of a 3-pigment Grassmann-Govardovskii structure 149 5 Colour stimulus manifold 153 5.1 Three-dimensional colour stimulusmanifold 155 5.2 Non-linear colour stimulus map Colour stimulus transformation caused by themedium 160 5.2.1 The colour stimulus shift caused by the medium variations 161 5.2.2 Colour robustness tomediumvariations 163 5.3 Causes of individual differences in trichromatic colour matching 165 5.3.1 Effect of the photopigment peak sensitivity on the-coordinates 166 5.3.2 Effect of the ocular media transmittance on -coordinates 171 5.3.3 Trade-off between the ocular media spectral transmittance and the photopigment peak sensitivity in their effect on colour 174 5.3.4 Dependence of the equivalent peak-wavelength shift on light Impossibility to overcome colour deficiency using a coloured filter 176 5.3.5 Parametric identification of fundamental colour mechanisms 180 6 Light metamerism 183 6.1 Metamer sets 184 6.2 Colour mechanisms’ transformations preserving light metamerism 188 6.3 Lightmetamerismindex 190 7 Light metamer mismatching 191 7.1 Metamer-mismatch regions 191 7.2 Indices of lightmetamer mismatching 197 7.3 Computing trichromaticmetamer-mismatch regions 202 7.3.1 Effect of the spectral positioning of photopigments onmetamer mismatching 206 7.3.2 Effect of the peak photopigment absorbance on metamer mismatching 210 7.3.3 Metamer mismatching depending on the position in the chromaticity diagram 211 7.3.4 Metamer mismatching induced by pre-receptoral filters 211 7.3.5 Differences between cone fundamentals as revealed bymetamer mismatching 217 7.3.6 Metamer mismatching for the 10◦ colour matching functions of Stiles and Burch 221 7.3.7 Metamer mismatching induced by neutral density filters 234 7.3.8 Metamer mismatching produced by camera sensors 238 8 Light-colour perception 243 8.1 Achromatic scales and achromatic codes 248 8.1.1 Ordinal brightness scales 249 8.1.2 Grassmann brightness code Luminance 254 8.2 Hue, purity, and brightness fibre bundles Cylindrical and psychophysical colour coordinates 262 8.3 Colour transformation caused by media and metamer mismatching, as expressed in the psychophysical colour coordinates 270 8.4 Light-colour perception in dichromats 273 8.5 Chromatic structures 280 8.5.1 Partial hue-matching 283 8.5.2 Experiment on partial hue-matching 289 8.5.3 Colour categories 292 8.5.4 Chromatically ordered structures 297 8.5.5 Chromatic scales and chromatic codes 299 8.5.6 Hue, purity and saturation in chromatic structures 301 8.6 Light-colour manifold 304 8.6.1 Hue cyclic order 305 8.6.2 Light-colour manifold 308 8.6.3 Circular Hering structures, their representation and experimental identification 311 8.6.4 Light-colour manifold vs colour stimulus manifold 321 9 Typology of light-colour perception Inter-individual differences 329 10 Colour matching structures and matching metamerism 341 10.1 Colourmatching structures 347 10.2 Matchingmetamerism 358 11 Identification of Grassmann structures induced by colour matching structures 363 11.1 Colour matching set, threshold set, and sensitivity function 364 11.2 Regular and strongly regular tolerance extensions 368 11.3 Identification of Grassmann structures induced by colour matching tolerance relations 371 11.3.1 Identification of the linear colour mechanism space as a subspace in the linear span of a given set of linearly independent functionals 372 11.3.2 Deriving the linear colour mechanism space from the colour matching set (the method of tangential hyperplane 378 11.3.3 Deriving the fundamental colour mechanisms from the colour matching set that they generate (the method of quadratic approximation) 383 12 Identification of indiscriminate relations Colour detection and discrimination 391 12.1 Colour detectionmodels 394 12.1.1 Single-channel detectionmodels 394 12.1.2 Fundamental colour mechanisms revisited 397 12.1.3 Multi-channel detectionmodels 399 12.2 Peak-detector model equivalent to a sublinear colour detectionmodel 400 12.2.1 Sublinear colour detectionmodels 401 12.2.2 Multi-channel sublinearmodels 402 12.2.3 Themost sensitive colour mechanisms 404 12.3 Colour discriminationmodels 409 13 In search of colour mechanisms in the eye and the brain 413 13.1 Do the cone photoreceptor responses encode the colour stimulus? 413 13.1.1 Local non-linearity of the photoreceptor response 414 13.1.2 Light adaptation in photoreceptors 415 13.1.3 Spatial interaction between the cone photoreceptors 417 13.1.4 Why the colour stimulus cannot be derived from the cone photoreceptor responses 417 13.2 Do cone-opponent neural cells encode the opponent chromatic codes? 418 13.3 Transition to a different paradigm 425 13.3.1 From symmetric to asymmetric colour matching 425 13.3.2 Fromlight stimulus to light-stimulus array 428 13.3.3 On the notion of ”neural image” 430 13.4 Spatio-chromatic processing in the visual cortex 436 13.4.1 Estimating luminance-pattern gradient using simple cortical cells 436 13.4.2 Directional gradient-encoding with double-opponent cells 446 13.4.3 Difference in spatial sensitivity of (M+L)-, (M-L)-, and S-(M+L)-cells, and its implication for colour perception 449 13.4.4 Representation of the colour-signal surface in the form of its tangent bundle 450 Object colour 458 14 Object-colour solid 465 14.1 General properties of the object-colour solid 466 14.2 Optimal object stimuli 468 14.3 Elementary step functions as optimal object stimuli 470 14.4 Optimal object stimuli for trichromatic human observers 472 14.5 Condition for all step functions of degree to be optimal object stimuli 472 15 Trichromatic regular object-colour solid 475 15.1 Meridians of the trichromatic regular object-colour solid 475 15.2 Equator of the trichromatic object-colour solid and strictly optimal object stimuli 481 16 Object-colour stimulus manifold 489 16.1 Objectmetamerism 489 16.2 Object atlas 493 16.3 Object-colour stimulus manifold Illuminant-induced nonlinear object-colour stimulusmap 496 16.4 Trichromatic object-colour stimulusmanifold 497 16.4.1 Trichromatic regular object-colour stimulus manifold and its spherical representation 497 16.4.2 Spherical representation of the trichromatic objectcolour stimulus manifold and the object-colour stimulus gamut 502 16.4.3 Object-colour stimulus shift induced by the illuminant change 504 17 Object-colour perception in a single-illuminant scene 507 17.1 Perceptual object-colour coordinates 513 17.2 Perceptual correlates of coordinates 516 17.3 Effect of illumination on object-colour in a single-illuminant scene: Object-colour shift induced by illumination 521 17.4 Object-colour perception by dichromats in a single-illuminant scene 524 18 Object metamer mismatching 535 18.1 Metamer-mismatch regions 535 18.2 Numerical evaluation ofmetamer-mismatch regions 539 18.3 Indices of objectmetamer mismatching 542 18.4 Object-metamerism-preserving transformations of colour mechanisms 545 19 Object-colour perception in a multiple-illuminant scene 549 19.1 Object/light colour equivalence and its inseparability 554 19.2 Object/light atlas 556 19.3 Object/light colour stimulusmanifold 557 19.3.1 Asymmetric colourmatching 557 19.3.2 Material colour 561 19.3.3 Lighting colour 562 19.3.4 Object/light colour stimulus manifold Material and lighting components of object/light colour stimulus manifold Material- and lighting-colour coordinates 564 19.4 Material colour shift induced by illumination change Implication for the problemof ”colour constancy” 569 20 Object-colour indeterminacy 573 20.1 Trade-off between object and light components 573 20.2 Trade-off betweenmaterial and lighting colours 579 20.2.1 Invariant relationship between lightness and lighting brightness 581 20.2.2 Invariant relationship between lightness, lighting brightness and shading brightness 586 20.2.3 Shading as a sensory basis of shape 588 20.2.4 Invariant relationship between material-colour image and lighting-colour image in the chromatic domain 590 20.3 Object-colour indeterminacy in variegated scenes Impact of articulation 591 20.4 Implication for measuring object-colour 594 21 On perception in general: An outline of an alternative approach 601 21.1 What is colour for? 603 21.2 The need for a new approach to perception: Linguistic metaphor 607 22 Epilogue 619 References 623 A Some auxiliary facts from functional analysis 649 A.1 Banach spaces of measures and functions, and stimulus spaces 649 A.2 Convex analysis 652 B Proofs 657

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Book SynopsisBIOFLUIDS MODELING The first book offering analytical and modern computational solutions to important biofluids problems, such as non-Newtonian flows in blood vessels, clogged arteries and veins, bifurcated arteries and veins, arbitrary stent geometries, tissue properties prediction, and porous media Darcy flow simulation in large-scale organ analysis, this is a must-have for any library. This book introduces new methods for biofluids modeling and biological engineering. The foregoing subjects are treated rigorously, with all modeling assumptions stated and solutions clearly derived. But that's not all. Key supporting physics-based ideas, algorithmic details, and software design interfaces are equally emphasized, in order to support our overriding objective of getting the anatomical and clinical information that physicians need. Importantly, this volume provides a self-contained exposition that includes all required biological concepts, plus the background preparTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgements xix Dedication xxi 1 Fluid Physics in Circulatory Systems – Problems, Analogies and Methods 1 1.1 Basic Biological Notions and Fluid-Dynamical Ideas 3 1.2 Quantitative Modeling Perspectives 16 1.3 Preview of Complicated but Simple Boundary Value Problem Solutions 24 1.4 References 27 2 Math Models, Differential Equations and Numerical Methods 29 2.1 Presentation Approach 31 2.2 Diffusion Processes, Partial Differential Equations and Formulation Development 34 2.3 Boundary-Conforming Curvilinear Grid Generation 41 2.4 Finite Difference Solutions Made Easy – Iterative Methods, Programming and Source Code Details 63 2.5 References 98 3 Hagen-Poiseuille Extensions – Real Flow Effects and General Bifurcations 100 3.1 Blood Rheology and Overview 101 3.2 Newtonian Flow in Simple Bifurcations 112 3.3 Theory – Complicated Arteries with Chained Bifurcations 120 3.4 Network with Arbitrary Number of Bifurcations 122 3.5 Bifurcated Newtonian Flow in Noncircular Clogged Blood Vessels 123 3.6 References 125 4 Non-Newtonian Flow in Circular Conduits and Networks 127 4.1 Power Law Fluids with Inlet Flow Rate Prescribed 130 4.2 Herschel-Bulkley Fluids and Yield Stress 141 4.3 Newtonian and Herschel-Bulkley Examples 149 4.4 References 154 5 Flows in Clogged Arteries and Veins 155 5.1 Hagen-Poiseuille Revisited – Rectangular Coordinates 157 5.2 Non-Newtonian Power Law Circular Pipe Flow in Rectangular Coordinates 164 5.3 Clinical Implications for Pressure Gradient and Viscous Shear Stress 167 5.4 Evolutionary Approaches for Complicated Geometries 168 5.5 A Detailed Clog Flow Computation 175 5.6 References 182 6 Square Stents, Centrifugal Effects, Pulsatile Flow, Clogged Bifurcations and Axial Variations 183 6.1 Stent Geometry Effects on Volume Flow Rate 183 6.2 General Formulations and Solutions for Complicated Geometries and Arbitrary Fluids 200 6.3 Centrifugal Force Influence on Volume Flow Rate 204 6.4 Unsteady Pulsatile Flow Model for Complicated Duct Cross-Sections 214 6.5 Bifurcated Conduits with Newtonian Flow in Clogged Geometric Cross-sections 220 6.6 Modeling Axial Variations with Pseudo-Three- Dimensional Method 221 6.7 Modeling Transient Wall Effects 223 6.8 Steady Bifurcated Newtonian Flows With Arbitrary Clogs, A Numerical Example 225 6.9 References 233 7 Tissue Properties from Steady and Transient Syringe Pressure Analysis 234 7.1 Importance of Compressibility, Permeability, Anisotropy, Pressure and Porosity in Medical Applications 236 7.2 Geoscience Perspectives and Background 246 7.3 Formation Testing in Petroleum Well Logging 249 7.4 Operational Guidelines to Biofluids Pressure Testing 255 7.5 Intelligent Syringe Fundamentals 263 7.6 Mathematical Models for Porous Media Flow 286 7.7 References 374 8 Artery, Capillary and Vein Interactions in Anisotropic Heterogeneous Porous Tissue Flows 380 8.1 Qualitative Review of the Circulatory System 383 8.2 Porous Media Flows in the Geosciences and in Biofluids Applications 389 8.3 Electrical and Biological Analogies 393 8.4 References 407 9 Geoscience Ideas in Biofluids Modeling 408 9.1 Multisim Background and Biofluids Applications 414 9.2 Running Multisim 421 9.3 Closing Remarks 447 9.4 References 449 Cumulative References 450 About the Authors 460 Index 461

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Book SynopsisThis textbook presents essential methodology for physicists of the theory and applications of fluid mechanics within a single volume. Building steadily through a syllabus, it will be relevant to almost all undergraduate physics degrees which include an option on hydrodynamics, or a course in which hydrodynamics figures prominently.Trade Review“Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates and graduate students in physics and mathematics.” (Choice, 1 January 2014) Table of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Introduction 1 2 Flow of Ideal Fluids 25 3 Viscous Fluids 75 4 Waves and Instabilities in Fluids 93 5 Turbulent Flow 117 6 Boundary Layer Flow 139 7 Convective Heat Transfer 175 8 Compressible Flow and Sound Waves 209 9 Characteristics and Rarefactions 219 10 Shock Waves 241 11 Aerofoils in Low-Speed Incompressible Flow 295 12 Aerofoils in High-Speed Compressible Fluid Flow 341 13 Deflagrations and Detonations 363 14 Self-similar Methods in Compressible Gas Flow and Intermediate Asymptotics 383 Problems 417 Solutions 427 Bibliography 455 Index 463

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Book SynopsisThis undergraduate textbook provides students with a statistical mechanical foundation to the classical laws of thermodynamics through a comprehensive treatment of the basics of classical thermodynamics, equilibrium statistical mechanics, irreversible thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics of non-equilibrium phenomena.Trade Review“Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates.” (Choice, 1 March 2014) “The best choice is finally that the entropy is uncertainty commodified". The reviewer believes that the aim of the book is evident and it is worthwhile to make a detailed study of it from time to time.” (Zentralblatt MATH, 1 October 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xiii 1. Disorder or Uncertainty? 1 2. Classical Thermodynamics 5 2.1 The Classical Laws of Thermodynamics 5 2.2 Macroscopic State Variables and Thermodynamic Processes 6 2.3 Properties of the Ideal Classical Gas 8 2.4 Thermodynamic Processing of the Ideal Gas 10 2.5 Entropy of the Ideal Gas 13 2.6 Entropy Change in Free Expansion of an Ideal Gas 15 2.7 Entropy Change due to Nonquasistatic Heat Transfer 17 2.8 Cyclic Thermodynamic Processes, the Clausius Inequality and Carnot’s Theorem 19 2.9 Generality of the Clausius Expression for Entropy Change 21 2.10 Entropy Change due to Nonquasistatic Work 23 2.11 Fundamental Relation of Thermodynamics 25 2.12 Entropy Change due to Nonquasistatic Particle Transfer 28 2.13 Entropy Change due to Nonquasistatic Volume Exchange 30 2.14 General Thermodynamic Driving 31 2.15 Reversible and Irreversible Processes 32 2.16 Statements of the Second Law 33 2.17 Classical Thermodynamics: the Salient Points 35 Exercises 35 3. Applications of Classical Thermodynamics 37 3.1 Fluid Flow and Throttling Processes 37 3.2 Thermodynamic Potentials and Availability 39 3.2.1 Helmholtz Free Energy 40 3.2.2 Why Free Energy? 43 3.2.3 Contrast between Equilibria 43 3.2.4 Gibbs Free Energy 44 3.2.5 Grand Potential 46 3.3 Maxwell Relations 47 3.4 Nonideal Classical Gas 48 3.5 Relationship between Heat Capacities 49 3.6 General Expression for an Adiabat 50 3.7 Determination of Entropy from a Heat Capacity 50 3.8 Determination of Entropy from an Equation of State 51 3.9 Phase Transitions and Phase Diagrams 52 3.9.1 Conditions for Coexistence 53 3.9.2 Clausius–Clapeyron Equation 55 3.9.3 The Maxwell Equal Areas Construction 57 3.9.4 Metastability and Nucleation 59 3.10 Work Processes without Volume Change 59 3.11 Consequences of the Third Law 60 3.12 Limitations of Classical Thermodynamics 61 Exercises 62 4. Core Ideas of Statistical Thermodynamics 65 4.1 The Nature of Probability 65 4.2 Dynamics of Complex Systems 68 4.2.1 The Principle of Equal a Priori Probabilities 68 4.2.2 Microstate Enumeration 71 4.3 Microstates and Macrostates 72 4.4 Boltzmann’s Principle and the Second Law 75 4.5 Statistical Ensembles 77 4.6 Statistical Thermodynamics: the Salient Points 78 Exercises 79 5. Statistical Thermodynamics of a System of Harmonic Oscillators 81 5.1 Microstate Enumeration 81 5.2 Microcanonical Ensemble 83 5.3 Canonical Ensemble 84 5.4 The Thermodynamic Limit 88 5.5 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 91 5.6 Generalisation 91 Exercises 92 6. The Boltzmann Factor and the Canonical Partition Function 95 6.1 Simple Applications of the Boltzmann Factor 95 6.1.1 Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution 95 6.1.2 Single Classical Oscillator and the Equipartition Theorem 97 6.1.3 Isothermal Atmosphere Model 98 6.1.4 Escape Problems and Reaction Rates 99 6.2 Mathematical Properties of the Canonical Partition Function 99 6.3 Two-Level Paramagnet 101 6.4 Single Quantum Oscillator 103 6.5 Heat Capacity of a Diatomic Molecular Gas 104 6.6 Einstein Model of the Heat Capacity of Solids 105 6.7 Vacancies in Crystals 106 Exercises 108 7. The Grand Canonical Ensemble and Grand Partition Function 111 7.1 System of Harmonic Oscillators 111 7.2 Grand Canonical Ensemble for a General System 115 7.3 Vacancies in Crystals Revisited 116 Exercises 117 8. Statistical Models of Entropy 119 8.1 Boltzmann Entropy 119 8.1.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 120 8.1.2 The Maximum Entropy Macrostate of Oscillator Spikiness 122 8.1.3 The Maximum Entropy Macrostate of Oscillator Populations 122 8.1.4 The Third Law of Thermodynamics 126 8.2 Gibbs Entropy 127 8.2.1 Fundamental Relation of Thermodynamics and Thermodynamic Work 129 8.2.2 Relationship to Boltzmann Entropy 130 8.2.3 Third Law Revisited 131 8.3 Shannon Entropy 131 8.4 Fine and Coarse Grained Entropy 132 8.5 Entropy at the Nanoscale 133 8.6 Disorder and Uncertainty 134 Exercises 135 9. Statistical Thermodynamics of the Classical Ideal Gas 137 9.1 Quantum Mechanics of a Particle in a Box 137 9.2 Densities of States 138 9.3 Partition Function of a One-Particle Gas 140 9.4 Distinguishable and Indistinguishable Particles 141 9.5 Partition Function of an N -Particle Gas 145 9.6 Thermal Properties and Consistency with Classical Thermodynamics 146 9.7 Condition for Classical Behaviour 147 Exercises 149 10. Quantum Gases 151 10.1 Spin and Wavefunction Symmetry 151 10.2 Pauli Exclusion Principle 152 10.3 Phenomenology of Quantum Gases 153 Exercises 154 11. Boson Gas 155 11.1 Grand Partition Function for Bosons in a Single Particle State 155 11.2 Bose–Einstein Statistics 156 11.3 Thermal Properties of a Boson Gas 158 11.4 Bose–Einstein Condensation 161 11.5 Cooper Pairs and Superconductivity 166 Exercises 167 12. Fermion Gas 169 12.1 Grand Partition Function for Fermions in a Single Particle State 169 12.2 Fermi–Dirac Statistics 170 12.3 Thermal Properties of a Fermion Gas 171 12.4 Maxwell–Boltzmann Statistics 173 12.5 The Degenerate Fermion Gas 176 12.6 Electron Gas in Metals 177 12.7 White Dwarfs and the Chandrasekhar Limit 179 12.8 Neutron Stars 182 12.9 Entropy of a Black Hole 183 Exercises 184 13. Photon Gas 187 13.1 Electromagnetic Waves in a Box 187 13.2 Partition Function of the Electromagnetic Field 189 13.3 Thermal Properties of a Photon Gas 191 13.3.1 Planck Energy Spectrum of Black-Body Radiation 191 13.3.2 Photon Energy Density and Flux 193 13.3.3 Photon Pressure 193 13.3.4 Photon Entropy 194 13.4 The Global Radiation Budget and Climate Change 195 13.5 Cosmic Background Radiation 197 Exercises 198 14. Statistical Thermodynamics of Interacting Particles 201 14.1 Classical Phase Space 201 14.2 Virial Expansion 203 14.3 Harmonic Structures 206 14.3.1 Triatomic Molecule 207 14.3.2 Einstein Solid 208 14.3.3 Debye Solid 209 Exercises 211 15. Thermodynamics away from Equilibrium 213 15.1 Nonequilibrium Classical Thermodynamics 213 15.1.1 Energy and Particle Currents and their Conjugate Thermodynamic Driving Forces 213 15.1.2 Entropy Production in Constrained and Evolving Systems 218 15.2 Nonequilibrium Statistical Thermodynamics 220 15.2.1 Probability Flow and the Principle of Equal a Priori Probabilities 220 15.2.2 The Dynamical Basis of the Principle of Entropy Maximisation 222 Exercises 223 16. The Dynamics of Probability 225 16.1 The Discrete Random Walk 225 16.2 Master Equations 226 16.2.1 Solution to the Random Walk 228 16.2.2 Entropy Production during a Random Walk 229 16.3 The Continuous Random Walk and the Fokker–Planck Equation 230 16.3.1 Wiener Process 232 16.3.2 Entropy Production in the Wiener Process 233 16.4 Brownian Motion 235 16.5 Transition Probability Density for a Harmonic Oscillator 236 Exercises 238 17. Fluctuation Relations 241 17.1 Forward and Backward Path Probabilities: a Criterion for Equilibrium 241 17.2 Time Asymmetry of Behaviour and a Definition of Entropy Production 243 17.3 The Relaxing Harmonic Oscillator 245 17.4 Entropy Production Arising from a Single Random Walk 247 17.5 Further Fluctuation Relations 249 17.6 The Fundamental Basis of the Second Law 253 Exercises 253 18. Final Remarks 255 Further Reading 261 Index 263

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Book SynopsisThis reference book provides a fully integrated novel approach to the development of high-power, single-transverse mode, edge-emitting diode lasers by addressing the complementary topics of device engineering, reliability engineering and device diagnostics in the same book, and thus closes the gap in the current book literature.Trade Review“With invaluable practical advice, this new reference book is suited to practising researchers in diode laser technologies, and to postgraduate engineering students.” (The German Branch of the European Optical Society, 1 October 2013) "This book would be a valuable reference and essential source for researchers and engineers who work on the development of diode laser products. It will also be useful for academics and teachers for educational purposes." (Optics & Photonics News, 25 October 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xix About the author xxiii Part 1 Diode Laser Engineering 1 Overview 1 1 Basic diode laser engineering principles 3 Introduction 4 1.1 Brief recapitulation 4 1.1.1 Key features of a diode laser 4 1.1.1.1 Carrier population inversion 4 1.1.1.2 Net gain mechanism 6 1.1.1.3 Optical resonator 9 1.1.1.4 Transverse vertical confinement 11 1.1.1.5 Transverse lateral confinement 12 1.1.2 Homojunction diode laser 13 1.1.3 Double-heterostructure diode laser 15 1.1.4 Quantum well diode laser 17 1.1.4.1 Advantages of quantum well heterostructures for diode lasers 22 Wavelength adjustment and tunability 22 Strained quantum well lasers 23 Optical power supply 25 Temperature characteristics 26 1.1.5 Common compounds for semiconductor lasers 26 1.2 Optical output power – diverse aspects 31 1.2.1 Approaches to high-power diode lasers 31 1.2.1.1 Edge-emitters 31 1.2.1.2 Surface-emitters 33 1.2.2 High optical power considerations 35 1.2.2.1 Laser brightness 36 1.2.2.2 Laser beam quality factor M2 36 1.2.3 Power limitations 37 1.2.3.1 Kinks 37 1.2.3.2 Rollover 38 1.2.3.3 Catastrophic optical damage 38 1.2.3.4 Aging 39 1.2.4 High power versus reliability tradeoffs 39 1.2.5 Typical and record-high cw optical output powers 40 1.2.5.1 Narrow-stripe, single spatial mode lasers 40 1.2.5.2 Standard 100 μm wide aperture single emitters 42 1.2.5.3 Tapered amplifier lasers 43 1.2.5.4 Standard 1 cm diode laser bar arrays 44 1.3 Selected relevant basic diode laser characteristics 45 1.3.1 Threshold gain 45 1.3.2 Material gain spectra 46 1.3.2.1 Bulk double-heterostructure laser 46 1.3.2.2 Quantum well laser 47 1.3.3 Optical confinement 49 1.3.4 Threshold current 52 1.3.4.1 Double-heterostructure laser 52 1.3.4.2 Quantum well laser 54 1.3.4.3 Cavity length dependence 54 1.3.4.4 Active layer thickness dependence 56 1.3.5 Transverse vertical and transverse lateral modes 58 1.3.5.1 Vertical confinement structures – summary 58 Double-heterostructure 58 Single quantum well 58 Strained quantum well 59 Separate confinement heterostructure SCH and graded-index SCH (GRIN-SCH) 59 Multiple quantum well (MQW) 59 1.3.5.2 Lateral confinement structures 60 Gain-guiding concept and key features 60 Weakly index-guiding concept and key features 62 Strongly index-guiding concept and key features 63 1.3.5.3 Near-field and far-field pattern 64 1.3.6 Fabry–P´erot longitudinal modes 67 1.3.7 Operating characteristics 69 1.3.7.1 Optical output power and efficiency 72 1.3.7.2 Internal efficiency and optical loss measurements 74 1.3.7.3 Temperature dependence of laser characteristics 74 1.3.8 Mirror reflectivity modifications 77 1.4 Laser fabrication technology 81 1.4.1 Laser wafer growth 82 1.4.1.1 Substrate specifications and preparation 82 1.4.1.2 Substrate loading 82 1.4.1.3 Growth 83 1.4.2 Laser wafer processing 84 1.4.2.1 Ridge waveguide etching and embedding 84 1.4.2.2 The p-type electrode 84 1.4.2.3 Ridge waveguide protection 85 1.4.2.4 Wafer thinning and the n-type electrode 85 1.4.2.5 Wafer cleaving; facet passivation and coating; laser optical inspection; and electrical testing 86 1.4.3 Laser packaging 86 1.4.3.1 Package formats 87 1.4.3.2 Device bonding 87 1.4.3.3 Optical power coupling 89 1.4.3.4 Device operating temperature control 95 1.4.3.5 Hermetic sealing 95 References 96 2 Design considerations for high-power single spatial mode operation 101 Introduction 102 2.1 Basic high-power design approaches 103 2.1.1 Key aspects 103 2.1.2 Output power scaling 104 2.1.3 Transverse vertical waveguides 105 2.1.3.1 Substrate 105 2.1.3.2 Layer sequence 107 2.1.3.3 Materials; layer doping; graded-index layer doping 108 Materials 108 Layer doping 113 Layer doping – n-type doping 113 Layer doping – p-type doping 113 Graded-index layer doping 114 2.1.3.4 Active layer 114 Integrity – spacer layers 114 Integrity – prelayers 115 Integrity – deep levels 115 Quantum wells versus quantum dots 116 Number of quantum wells 119 2.1.3.5 Fast-axis beam divergence engineering 121 Thin waveguides 122 Broad waveguides and decoupled confinement heterostructures 122 Low refractive index mode puller layers 124 Optical traps and asymmetric waveguide structures 126 Spread index or passive waveguides 127 Leaky waveguides 128 Spot-size converters 128 Photonic bandgap crystal 130 2.1.3.6 Stability of the fundamental transverse vertical mode 133 2.1.4 Narrow-stripe weakly index-guided transverse lateral waveguides 134 2.1.4.1 Ridge waveguide 134 2.1.4.2 Quantum well intermixing 135 2.1.4.3 Weakly index-guided buried stripe 137 2.1.4.4 Slab-coupled waveguide 138 2.1.4.5 Anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguide 140 2.1.4.6 Stability of the fundamental transverse lateral mode 141 2.1.5 Thermal management 144 2.1.6 Catastrophic optical damage elimination 146 2.2 Single spatial mode and kink control 146 2.2.1 Key aspects 146 2.2.1.1 Single spatial mode conditions 147 2.2.1.2 Fundamental mode waveguide optimizations 150 Waveguide geometry; internal physical mechanisms 150 Figures of merit 152 Transverse vertical mode expansion; mirror reflectivity; laser length 153 2.2.1.3 Higher order lateral mode suppression by selective losses 154 Absorptive metal layers 154 Highly resistive regions 156 2.2.1.4 Higher order lateral mode filtering schemes 157 Curved waveguides 157 Tilted mirrors 158 2.2.1.5 Beam steering and cavity length dependence of kinks 158 Beam-steering kinks 158 Kink versus cavity length dependence 159 2.2.1.6 Suppression of the filamentation effect 160 2.3 High-power, single spatial mode, narrow ridge waveguide lasers 162 2.3.1 Introduction 162 2.3.2 Selected calculated parameter dependencies 163 2.3.2.1 Fundamental spatial mode stability regime 163 2.3.2.2 Slow-axis mode losses 163 2.3.2.3 Slow-axis near-field spot size 164 2.3.2.4 Slow-axis far-field angle 166 2.3.2.5 Transverse lateral index step 167 2.3.2.6 Fast-axis near-field spot size 167 2.3.2.7 Fast-axis far-field angle 168 2.3.2.8 Internal optical loss 170 2.3.3 Selected experimental parameter dependencies 171 2.3.3.1 Threshold current density versus cladding layer composition 171 2.3.3.2 Slope efficiency versus cladding layer composition 172 2.3.3.3 Slope efficiency versus threshold current density 172 2.3.3.4 Threshold current versus slow-axis far-field angle 172 2.3.3.5 Slope efficiency versus slow-axis far-field angle 174 2.3.3.6 Kink-free power versus residual thickness 174 2.4 Selected large-area laser concepts and techniques 176 2.4.1 Introduction 176 2.4.2 Broad-area (BA) lasers 178 2.4.2.1 Introduction 178 2.4.2.2 BA lasers with tailored gain profiles 179 2.4.2.3 BA lasers with Gaussian reflectivity facets 180 2.4.2.4 BA lasers with lateral grating-confined angled waveguides 182 2.4.3 Unstable resonator (UR) lasers 183 2.4.3.1 Introduction 183 2.4.3.2 Curved-mirror UR lasers 184 2.4.3.3 UR lasers with continuous lateral index variation 187 2.4.3.4 Quasi-continuous unstable regrown-lens-train resonator lasers 188 2.4.4 Tapered amplifier lasers 189 2.4.4.1 Introduction 189 2.4.4.2 Tapered lasers 189 2.4.4.3 Monolithic master oscillator power amplifiers 192 2.4.5 Linear laser array structures 194 2.4.5.1 Introduction 194 2.4.5.2 Phase-locked coherent linear laser arrays 194 2.4.5.3 High-power incoherent standard 1 cm laser bars 197 References 201 Part 2 Diode Laser Reliability 211 Overview 211 3 Basic diode laser degradation modes 213 Introduction 213 3.1 Degradation and stability criteria of critical diode laser characteristics 214 3.1.1 Optical power; threshold; efficiency; and transverse modes 214 3.1.1.1 Active region degradation 214 3.1.1.2 Mirror facet degradation 215 3.1.1.3 Lateral confinement degradation 215 3.1.1.4 Ohmic contact degradation 216 3.1.2 Lasing wavelength and longitudinal modes 220 3.2 Classification of degradation modes 222 3.2.1 Classification of degradation phenomena by location 222 3.2.1.1 External degradation 222 Mirror degradation 222 Contact degradation 223 Solder degradation 224 3.2.1.2 Internal degradation 224 Active region degradation and junction degradation 224 3.2.2 Basic degradation mechanisms 225 3.2.2.1 Rapid degradation 226 Features and causes of rapid degradation 226 Elimination of rapid degradation 229 3.2.2.2 Gradual degradation 229 Features and causes of gradual degradation 229 Elimination of gradual degradation 230 3.2.2.3 Sudden degradation 231 Features and causes of sudden degradation 231 Elimination of sudden degradation 233 3.3 Key laser robustness factors 234 References 241 4 Optical strength engineering 245 Introduction 245 4.1 Mirror facet properties – physical origins of failure 246 4.2 Mirror facet passivation and protection 249 4.2.1 Scope and effects 249 4.2.2 Facet passivation techniques 250 4.2.2.1 E2 process 250 4.2.2.2 Sulfide passivation 251 4.2.2.3 Reactive material process 252 4.2.2.4 N2IBE process 252 4.2.2.5 I-3 process 254 4.2.2.6 Pulsed UV laser-assisted techniques 255 4.2.2.7 Hydrogenation and silicon hydride barrier layer process 256 4.2.3 Facet protection techniques 258 4.3 Nonabsorbing mirror technologies 259 4.3.1 Concept 259 4.3.2 Window grown on facet 260 4.3.2.1 ZnSe window layer 260 4.3.2.2 AlGaInP window layer 260 4.3.2.3 AlGaAs window layer 261 4.3.2.4 EMOF process 261 4.3.2.5 Disordering ordered InGaP 262 4.3.3 Quantum well intermixing processes 262 4.3.3.1 Concept 262 4.3.3.2 Impurity-induced disordering 263 Ion implantation and annealing 263 Selective diffusion techniques 265 Ion beam intermixing 266 4.3.3.3 Impurity-free vacancy disordering 267 4.3.3.4 Laser-induced disordering 268 4.3.4 Bent waveguide 269 4.4 Further optical strength enhancement approaches 270 4.4.1 Current blocking mirrors and material optimization 270 4.4.1.1 Current blocking mirrors 270 4.4.1.2 Material optimization 272 4.4.2 Heat spreader layer; device mounting; and number of quantum wells 273 4.4.2.1 Heat spreader and device mounting 273 4.4.2.2 Number of quantum wells 273 4.4.3 Mode spot widening techniques 274 References 276 5 Basic reliability engineering concepts 281 Introduction 282 5.1 Descriptive reliability statistics 283 5.1.1 Probability density function 283 5.1.2 Cumulative distribution function 283 5.1.3 Reliability function 284 5.1.4 Instantaneous failure rate or hazard rate 285 5.1.5 Cumulative hazard function 285 5.1.6 Average failure rate 286 5.1.7 Failure rate units 286 5.1.8 Bathtub failure rate curve 287 5.2 Failure distribution functions – statistical models for nonrepairable populations 288 5.2.1 Introduction 288 5.2.2 Lognormal distribution 289 5.2.2.1 Introduction 289 5.2.2.2 Properties 289 5.2.2.3 Areas of application 291 5.2.3 Weibull distribution 291 5.2.3.1 Introduction 291 5.2.3.2 Properties 292 5.2.3.3 Areas of application 294 5.2.4 Exponential distribution 294 5.2.4.1 Introduction 294 5.2.4.2 Properties 295 5.2.4.3 Areas of application 297 5.3 Reliability data plotting 298 5.3.1 Life-test data plotting 298 5.3.1.1 Lognormal distribution 298 5.3.1.2 Weibull distribution 300 5.3.1.3 Exponential distribution 303 5.4 Further reliability concepts 306 5.4.1 Data types 306 5.4.1.1 Time-censored or time-terminated tests 306 5.4.1.2 Failure-censored or failure-terminated tests 307 5.4.1.3 Readout time data tests 307 5.4.2 Confidence limits 307 5.4.3 Mean time to failure calculations 309 5.4.4 Reliability estimations 310 5.5 Accelerated reliability testing – physics–statistics models 310 5.5.1 Acceleration relationships 310 5.5.1.1 Exponential; Weibull; and lognormal distribution acceleration 311 5.5.2 Remarks on acceleration models 312 5.5.2.1 Arrhenius model 313 5.5.2.2 Inverse power law 315 5.5.2.3 Eyring model 316 5.5.2.4 Other acceleration models 318 5.5.2.5 Selection of accelerated test conditions 319 5.6 System reliability calculations 320 5.6.1 Introduction 320 5.6.2 Independent elements connected in series 321 5.6.3 Parallel system of independent components 322 References 323 6 Diode laser reliability engineering program 325 Introduction 325 6.1 Reliability test plan 326 6.1.1 Main purpose; motivation; and goals 326 6.1.2 Up-front requirements and activities 327 6.1.2.1 Functional and reliability specifications 327 6.1.2.2 Definition of product failures 328 6.1.2.3 Failure modes, effects, and criticality analysis 328 6.1.3 Relevant parameters for long-term stability and reliability 330 6.1.4 Test preparations and operation 330 6.1.4.1 Samples; fixtures; and test equipment 330 6.1.4.2 Sample sizes and test durations 331 6.1.5 Overview of reliability program building blocks 332 6.1.5.1 Reliability tests and conditions 334 6.1.5.2 Data collection and master database 334 6.1.5.3 Data analysis and reporting 335 6.1.6 Development tests 336 6.1.6.1 Design verification tests 336 Reliability demonstration tests 336 Step stress testing 337 6.1.6.2 Accelerated life tests 339 Laser chip 339 Laser module 341 6.1.6.3 Environmental stress testing – laser chip 342 Temperature endurance 342 Mechanical integrity 343 Special tests 344 6.1.6.4 Environmental stress testing – subcomponents and module 344 Temperature endurance 345 Mechanical integrity 346 Special tests 346 6.1.7 Manufacturing tests 348 6.1.7.1 Functionality tests and burn-in 348 6.1.7.2 Final reliability verification tests 349 6.2 Reliability growth program 349 6.3 Reliability benefits and costs 350 6.3.1 Types of benefit 350 6.3.1.1 Optimum reliability-level determination 350 6.3.1.2 Optimum product burn-in time 350 6.3.1.3 Effective supplier evaluation 350 6.3.1.4 Well-founded quality control 350 6.3.1.5 Optimum warranty costs and period 351 6.3.1.6 Improved life-cycle cost-effectiveness 351 6.3.1.7 Promotion of positive image and reputation 351 6.3.1.8 Increase in customer satisfaction 351 6.3.1.9 Promotion of sales and future business 351 6.3.2 Reliability–cost tradeoffs 351 References 353 Part 3 Diode Laser Diagnostics 355 Overview 355 7 Novel diagnostic laser data for active layer material integrity; impurity trapping effects; and mirror temperatures 361 Introduction 362 7.1 Optical integrity of laser wafer substrates 362 7.1.1 Motivation 362 7.1.2 Experimental details 363 7.1.3 Discussion of wafer photoluminescence (PL) maps 364 7.2 Integrity of laser active layers 366 7.2.1 Motivation 366 7.2.2 Experimental details 367 7.2.2.1 Radiative transitions 367 7.2.2.2 The samples 369 7.2.2.3 Low-temperature PL spectroscopy setup 369 7.2.3 Discussion of quantum well PL spectra 371 7.2.3.1 Exciton and impurity-related recombinations 371 7.2.3.2 Dependence on thickness of well and barrier layer 373 7.2.3.3 Prelayers for improving active layer integrity 375 7.3 Deep-level defects at interfaces of active regions 376 7.3.1 Motivation 376 7.3.2 Experimental details 377 7.3.3 Discussion of deep-level transient spectroscopy results 382 7.4 Micro-Raman spectroscopy for diode laser diagnostics 386 7.4.1 Motivation 386 7.4.2 Basics of Raman inelastic light scattering 388 7.4.3 Experimental details 391 7.4.4 Raman on standard diode laser facets 394 7.4.5 Raman for facet temperature measurements 395 7.4.5.1 Typical examples of Stokes- and anti-Stokes Raman spectra 396 7.4.5.2 First laser mirror temperatures by Raman 398 7.4.6 Various dependencies of diode laser mirror temperatures 401 7.4.6.1 Laser material 402 7.4.6.2 Mirror surface treatment 403 7.4.6.3 Cladding layers; mounting of laser die; heat spreader; and number of active quantum wells 404 References 406 8 Novel diagnostic laser data for mirror facet disorder effects; mechanical stress effects; and facet coating instability 409 Introduction 410 8.1 Diode laser mirror facet studies by Raman 410 8.1.1 Motivation 410 8.1.2 Raman microprobe spectra 410 8.1.3 Possible origins of the 193 cm−1 mode in (Al)GaAs 412 8.1.4 Facet disorder – facet temperature – catastrophic optical mirror damage robustness correlations 413 8.2 Local mechanical stress in ridge waveguide diode lasers 416 8.2.1 Motivation 416 8.2.2 Measurements – Raman shifts and stress profiles 417 8.2.3 Detection of “weak spots” 419 8.2.3.1 Electron irradiation and electron beam induced current (EBIC) images of diode lasers 419 8.2.3.2 EBIC – basic concept 421 8.2.4 Stress model experiments 422 8.2.4.1 Laser bar bending technique and results 422 8.3 Diode laser mirror facet coating structural instability 424 8.3.1 Motivation 424 8.3.2 Experimental details 424 8.3.3 Silicon recrystallization by internal power exposure 425 8.3.3.1 Dependence on silicon deposition technique 425 8.3.3.2 Temperature rises in ion beam- and plasma enhanced chemical vapor-deposited amorphous silicon coatings 427 8.3.4 Silicon recrystallization by external power exposure –control experiments 428 8.3.4.1 Effect on optical mode and P/I characteristics 429 References 430 9 Novel diagnostic data for diverse laser temperature effects; dynamic laser degradation effects; and mirror temperature maps 433 Introduction 434 9.1 Thermoreflectance microscopy for diode laser diagnostics 435 9.1.1 Motivation 435 9.1.2 Concept and signal interpretation 437 9.1.3 Reflectance–temperature change relationship 439 9.1.4 Experimental details 439 9.1.5 Potential perturbation effects on reflectance 441 9.2 Thermoreflectance versus optical spectroscopies 442 9.2.1 General 442 9.2.2 Comparison 442 9.3 Lowest detectable temperature rise 444 9.4 Diode laser mirror temperatures by micro-thermoreflectance 445 9.4.1 Motivation 445 9.4.2 Dependence on number of active quantum wells 445 9.4.3 Dependence on heat spreader 446 9.4.4 Dependence on mirror treatment and coating 447 9.4.5 Bent-waveguide nonabsorbing mirror 448 9.5 Diode laser mirror studies by micro-thermoreflectance 451 9.5.1 Motivation 451 9.5.2 Real-time temperature-monitored laser degradation 451 9.5.2.1 Critical temperature to catastrophic optical mirror damage 451 9.5.2.2 Development of facet temperature with operation time 453 9.5.2.3 Temperature associated with dark-spot defects in mirror facets 454 9.5.3 Local optical probe 455 9.5.3.1 Threshold and heating distribution within near-field spot 455 9.6 Diode laser cavity temperatures by micro-electroluminescence 456 9.6.1 Motivation 456 9.6.2 Experimental details – sample and setup 456 9.6.3 Temperature profiles along laser cavity 457 9.7 Diode laser facet temperature – two-dimensional mapping 460 9.7.1 Motivation 460 9.7.2 Experimental concept 460 9.7.3 First temperature maps ever 460 9.7.4 Independent temperature line scans perpendicular to the active layer 461 9.7.5 Temperature modeling 462 9.7.5.1 Modeling procedure 463 9.7.5.2 Modeling results and discussion 465 References 466 Index 469

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is Thermodynamics? 2 1.2 What Is Statistical Mechanics? 5 1.3 Our Approach 6 2 Introduction to Probability Theory 9 2.1 Understanding Probability 9 2.2 Randomness, Fairness, and Probability 10 2.3 Mean Values 15 2.4 Continuous Probability Distributions 18 2.5 Common Probability Distributions 20 2.5.1 Binomial Distribution 20 2.5.2 Gaussian Distribution 21 2.6 Summary 22 Problems 23 References 28 3 Introduction to Information Theory 31 3.1 Missing Information 31 3.2 Missing Information for a General Probability Distribution 37 3.3 Summary 41 Problems 42 References 45 Further Reading 45 4 Statistical Systems and the Microcanonical Ensemble 47 4.1 From Probability and Information Theory to Physics 47 4.2 States in Statistical Systems 48 4.3 Ensembles in Statistical Systems 50 4.4 From States to Information 54 4.5 Microcanonical Ensemble: Counting States 59 4.5.1 Discrete Systems 59 4.5.2 Continuous Systems 62 4.5.3 From φ → Ω 64 4.5.4 Classical Ideal Gas 67 4.6 Interactions Between Systems 70 4.6.1 Thermal Interaction 70 4.6.2 Mechanical Interaction 71 4.7 Quasistatic Processes 73 4.7.1 Exact vs. Inexact Differentials 74 4.7.2 Physical Examples 77 4.8 Summary 79 Problems 79 References 85 5 Equilibrium and Temperature 87 5.1 Equilibrium and the Approach to it 87 5.1.1 Equilibrium 87 5.1.2 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 89 5.1.3 Two Systems in Equilibrium 90 5.1.4 Approaching Thermal Equilibrium 93 5.2 Temperature 95 5.3 Properties of Temperature 96 5.3.1 Negative Absolute Temperature 97 5.3.2 Temperature Scales 98 5.4 Summary 101 Problems 101 References 103 6 Thermodynamics: The Laws and the Mathematics 105 6.1 Interactions Between Systems 105 6.1.1 Quasistatic Thermal Interaction 105 6.1.2 The Heat Reservoir 106 6.1.3 General Interactions Between Systems 108 6.1.4 The Entropy in the Ground state 116 6.2 The First Derivatives 119 6.2.1 Heat Capacity 120 6.2.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 125 6.2.3 Isothermal Compressibility 125 6.3 The Legendre Transform and Thermodynamic Potentials 125 6.3.1 Naturally Independent Variables 126 6.3.2 Legendre Transform 127 6.3.3 Thermodynamic Potentials 130 6.3.4 Fundamental Relations and the Equations of State 135 6.4 Derivative Crushing 136 6.5 More About the Classical Ideal Gas 142 6.6 First Derivatives Near Absolute Zero 145 6.7 Empirical Determination of the Entropy and Internal Energy 146 6.8 Summary 150 Problems 150 References 157 7 Applications of Thermodynamics 159 7.1 Adiabatic Expansion 159 7.2 Cooling Gases 162 7.2.1 Free Expansion 162 7.2.2 Throttling (Joule–Thomson) Process 165 7.3 Heat Engines 168 7.3.1 Carnot Cycle 171 7.4 Refrigerators 173 7.5 Summary 175 Problems 175 References 180 Further Reading 180 8 The Canonical Distribution 181 8.1 Restarting Our Study of Systems 181 8.1.1 A as an Isolated System 182 8.1.2 System in Contact with a Heat Reservoir 182 8.2 Connecting to the Microcanonical Ensemble 188 8.2.1 Mean Energy 189 8.2.2 Variance in Ē 189 8.2.3 Mean Pressure 190 8.3 Thermodynamics and the Canonical Ensemble 191 8.4 Classical Ideal Gas (Yet Again) 193 8.5 Fudged Classical Statistics 196 8.6 Non-ideal Gases 198 8.7 Specified Mean Energy 203 8.8 Summary 204 Problems 205 9 Applications of the Canonical Distribution 211 9.1 Equipartition Theorem 211 9.2 Specific Heat of Solids 213 9.2.1 The Classical Case 214 9.2.2 The Einstein Model 216 9.2.3 A More Realistic Model 218 9.2.4 The Debye Model 220 9.3 Paramagnetism 221 9.4 Introduction to Kinetic Theory 226 9.4.1 Maxwell Velocity Distribution 226 9.4.2 Molecules Striking a Surface 231 9.4.3 Effusion 233 9.5 Summary 234 Problems 234 References 238 10 Phase Transitions and Chemical Equilibrium 241 10.1 Introduction to Phases 241 10.2 Equilibrium Conditions 243 10.2.1 Isolated System 243 10.2.2 A System in Contact with a Heat and Work Reservoir 245 10.3 Phase Equilibrium 247 10.3.1 Phase Diagram of Water 250 10.3.2 Vapor Pressure of an Ideal Gas 251 10.4 From the Equation of State to a Phase Transition 252 10.4.1 Stable Equilibrium Requirements 254 10.4.2 Back to Our Phase Transition 256 10.4.3 Density Fluctuations 262 10.5 Different Phases as Different Substances 263 10.5.1 Systems with Many Components 265 10.5.2 Gibbs–Duhem Relation 266 10.6 Chemical Equilibrium 268 10.7 Chemical Equilibrium Between Ideal Gases 270 10.8 Summary 275 Problems 275 References 281 11 Quantum Statistics 283 11.1 Grand Canonical Ensemble 283 11.1.1 A System in Contact with a Particle Reservoir 283 11.1.2 Connecting Ƶ to Thermodynamics 286 11.2 Classical vs. Quantum Statistics 288 11.2.1 Symmetry Requirements 289 11.3 The Occupation Number 294 11.3.1 Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution Function 295 11.3.2 Photon Distribution Function 297 11.3.3 Bose–Einstein Statistics 298 11.3.4 Fermi–Dirac Statistics 299 11.4 Classical Limit 301 11.4.1 From Quantum States to Classical Phase Space 304 11.5 Quantum Partition Function in the Classical Limit 307 11.6 Vapor Pressure of a Solid 308 11.6.1 General Expression for the Vapor Pressure 309 11.6.2 Vapor Pressure of a Solid in the Einstein Model 311 11.7 Partition Function of Ideal Polyatomic Molecules 312 11.7.1 Translational Motion of the Center of Mass 313 11.7.2 Electronic States 314 11.7.3 Rotation 314 11.7.4 Vibration 316 11.7.5 Molar Specific Heat of a Diatomic Molecule 317 11.8 Summary 317 Problems 318 Reference 320 12 Applications of Quantum Statistics 321 12.1 Blackbody Radiation 321 12.1.1 From E&M to Photons 321 12.1.2 Photon Gas 323 12.1.3 Radiation Pressure 326 12.1.4 Radiation from a Hot Object 327 12.2 Bose–Einstein Condensation 329 12.3 Fermi Gas 333 12.4 Summary 337 Problems 338 References 340 13 Black Hole Thermodynamics 341 13.1 Brief Introduction to General Relativity 341 13.1.1 Geometrized Units 341 13.1.2 Black Holes 343 13.1.3 Hawking Radiation 345 13.2 Black Hole Thermodynamics 345 13.2.1 Black Hole Heat Engine 346 13.2.2 The Math of Black Hole Thermodynamics 348 13.3 Heat Capacity of a Black Hole 351 13.4 Summary 352 Problems 352 References 353 Appendix A Important Constants and Units 355 References 357 Appendix B Periodic Table of Elements 359 Appendix C Gaussian Integrals 361 Appendix D Volumes in n-Dimensions 363 Appendix E Partial Derivatives in Thermodynamics 367 Reference 371 Index 373

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Book SynopsisComprehensive resource reviewing fundamentals, device physics and reliability, fabrication processes, and numerous emerging applications of oxide thin film transistor technology over performing traditional thin film transistor technologies Oxide Thin Film Transistors book presents a comprehensive overview of oxide thin film transistor (TFT) science and technology, including fundamental material properties, device operation principles, modeling, fabrication processes, and applications. Split into four sections, the book first details oxide TFT materials including material parameters, and electrical and contact properties. The next section describes oxide TFT devices including designs, reliability, and comparison with other TFT types. The third part delves into the fabrication processes of oxide TFTs. The last section provides insight into existing and emerging applications of oxide TFTs including displays, imagers, circuits, sensors, flexible electronics, and circuits. Written by a team of well-reputed researchers in the field including the inventor of the IGZO TFT, Oxide Thin Film Transistors include information on: Electronic and crystal structure of widegap oxides, covering electronic structure of n- and p-type oxide semiconductors as well as doping limit and band alignmentDevice physics, covering operation principles, reliability, comparison with other TFT types, and high-frequency performanceFabrication processes, covering deposition methods, gate insulators, and passivation layersApplications, covering liquid crystal, light emitting diode, and electrophoretic displays, flexible electronics, imagers, and integrated circuits Oxide Thin Film Transistors is an ideal textbook resource for students who want to learn about oxide TFTs and a useful, up-to-date reference for researchers and engineers working on oxide TFTs and in related areas.

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Book SynopsisOverview of techniques in the field of microwave photonics, including recent developments in quantum microwave photonics and integrated microwave photonics Microwave Photonics offers a comprehensive overview of the microwave photonic techniques developed in the last 30 years, covering topics such as photonics generation of microwave signals, photonics processing of microwave signals, photonics distribution of microwave signals, photonic generation and distribution of UWB signals, photonics generation and processing of arbitrary microwave waveforms, photonic true time delay beamforming for phased array antennas, photonics-assisted instantaneous microwave frequency measurement, quantum microwave photonics, analog-to-digital conversion and more. The text is supported by a companion website for instructors, including learning objectives and questions/problems to further enhance student learning. Written by key researchers in the field, Microwave Photonics includes information on: Group-v

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Book SynopsisThis is a solutions manual to accompany Fundamentals and Practice in Statistical Thermodynamics This textbook supplements, modernizes, and updates thermodynamics courses for both advanced undergraduates and graduate students by introducing the contemporary topics of statistical mechanics such as molecular simulation and liquid-state methods with a variety of realistic examples from the emerging areas of chemical and materials engineering. Current curriculum does not provide the necessary preparations required for a comprehensive understanding of these powerful tools for engineering applications. This text presents not only the fundamental ideas but also theoretical developments in molecular simulation and analytical methods to engineering students by illustrating why these topics are of pressing interest in modern high-tech applications.

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Book Synopsis

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