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Book SynopsisExplores the social, cultural and political changes needed to make possible a full-scale transition from fossil fuels to new forms of energy. Written collectively by participants in the first After Oil School, After Oil explains why the adoption of renewable, ecologically sustainable energy sources is only the first step of energy transition.

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Book SynopsisBased on a popular article in Laser and Photonics Reviews, this book provides an explanation and overview of the techniques used to model, make, and measure metal nanoparticles, detailing results obtained and what they mean. It covers the properties of coupled metal nanoparticles, the nonlinear optical response of metal nanoparticles, and the phenomena that arise when light-emitting materials are coupled to metal nanoparticles. It also provides an overview of key potential applications and offers explanations of computational and experimental techniques giving readers a solid grounding in the field.Trade Review“The present volume will be very useful for graduate students, post-doctoral researchers and advanced undergraduates. The instructors and advisers of such students will benefit from reading this book as well.” (Optics & Photonics News, 8 November 2013)Table of ContentsAcknowledgments ix Introduction xi I.1 Why All the Excitement? xi I.2 Historical Perspective xiv I.3 Book Outline xvii 1 Modeling: Understanding Metal-Nanoparticle Plasmons 1 1.1 Classical Picture: Solutions of Maxwell’s Equations 2 1.2 Discrete Plasmon Resonances in Particles 13 1.3 Overview of Numerical Methods 25 1.4 A Model System: Gold Nanorods 31 1.5 Size-Dependent Effects in Small Particles 39 References 46 2 Making: Synthesis and Fabrication of Metal Nanoparticles 51 2.1 Top-Down: Lithography 52 2.2 Bottom-Up: Colloidal Synthesis 67 2.3 Self-Assembly and Hybrid Methods 76 2.4 Chemical Assembly 86 References 92 3 Measuring: Characterization of Plasmons in Metal Nanoparticles 97 3.1 Ensemble Optical Measurements 97 3.2 Single-Particle Optical Measurements 102 3.3 Electron Microscopy 125 References 132 4 Coupled Plasmons in Metal Nanoparticles 135 4.1 Pairs of Metal Nanoparticles 136 4.2 Understanding Complex Nanostructures Using Coupled Plasmons 149 References 161 5 Nonlinear Optical Response of Metal Nanoparticles 165 5.1 Review of Optical Nonlinearities 166 5.2 Time-Resolved Spectroscopy 170 5.3 Harmonic Generation 187 References 191 6 Coupling Plasmons in Metal Nanoparticles to Emitters 193 6.1 Plasmon-Modified Emission 193 6.2 Plasmon–Emitter Interactions Beyond Emission Enhancement 210 References 225 7 Some Potential Applications of Plasmonic Metal Nanoparticles 229 7.1 Refractive-Index Sensing and Molecular Detection 229 7.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering 233 7.3 Near-Field Microscopy, Photolithography, and Data Storage 239 7.4 Photodetectors and Solar Cells 242 7.5 Optical Tweezers 249 7.6 Optical Metamaterials 254 References 266 Index 271

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Book SynopsisThis book is based on tried and tested courses taught by the author, George Stegeman, who is one of the experimental pioneers in nonlinear optics. The book starts with second order phenomena, goes on to explain the derivation of nonlinear susceptibilities, and finishes with a thorough discussion of third order nonlinear effects.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1. Introduction 1 1.1 What is Nonlinear Optics and What is it Good for? 1 1.2 Notation 2 1.3 Classical Nonlinear Optics Expansion 4 1.4 Simple Model: Electron on a Spring and its Application to Linear Optics 6 1.5 Local Field Correction 10 Suggested Further Reading 13 Part A: Second-order Phenomena 15 2. Second-Order Susceptibility and Nonlinear Coupled Wave Equations 17 2.1 Anharmonic Oscillator Derivation of Second-Order Susceptibilities 18 2.2 Input Eigenmodes, Permutation Symmetry, and Properties of χ (2) 23 2.3 Slowly Varying Envelope Approximation 25 2.4 Coupled Wave Equations 26 2.5 Manley–Rowe Relations and Energy Conservation 31 Suggested Further Reading 38 3. Optimization and Limitations of Second-Order Parametric Processes 39 3.1 Wave-Vector Matching 39 3.2 Optimizing d(2)eff 53 3.3 Numerical Examples 59 References 67 Suggested Further Reading 67 4. Solutions for Plane-Wave Parametric Conversion Processes 69 4.1 Solutions of the Type 1 SHG Coupled Wave Equations 69 4.2 Solutions of the Three-Wave Coupled Equations 77 4.3 Characteristic Lengths 80 4.4 Nonlinear Modes 81 References 84 Suggested Further Reading 85 5. Second Harmonic Generation with Finite Beams and Applications 86 5.1 SHG with Gaussian Beams 86 5.2 Unique and Performance-Enhanced Applications of Periodically Poled LiNbO3 (PPLN) 98 References 107 Suggested Further Reading 107 6. Three-Wave Mixing, Optical Amplifiers, and Generators 108 6.1 Three-Wave Mixing Processes 108 6.2 Manley–Rowe Relations 110 6.3 Sum Frequency Generation 111 6.4 Optical Parametric Amplifiers 113 6.5 Optical Parametric Oscillator 119 6.6 Mid-Infrared Quasi-Phase Matching Parametric Devices 128 References 139 Selected Further Reading 140 7. χ (2) Materials and Their Characterization 141 7.1 Survey of Materials 141 7.2 Oxide-Based Dielectric Crystals 143 7.3 Organic Materials 144 7.4 Measurement Techniques 149 Appendix 7.1: Quantum Mechanical Model for Charge Transfer Molecular Nonlinearities 153 References 157 Suggested Further Reading 158 Part B: Nonlinear Susceptibilities 159 8. Second- and Third-Order Susceptibilities: Quantum Mechanical Formulation 161 8.1 Perturbation Theory of Field Interaction with Molecules 162 8.2 Optical Susceptibilities 169 Appendix 8.1: χ (3)ijk‘ Symmetry Properties for Different Crystal Classes 192 Reference 196 Suggested Further Reading 196 9. Molecular Nonlinear Optics 197 9.1 Two-Level Model 198 9.2 Symmetric Molecules 210 9.3 Density Matrix Formalism 215 Appendix 9.1: Two-Level Model for Asymmetric Molecules—Exact Solution 216 Appendix 9.2: Three-Level Model for Symmetric Molecules—Exact Solution 218 References 222 Suggested Further Reading 223 Part C: Third-order Phenomena 225 10. Kerr Nonlinear Absorption and Refraction 227 10.1 Nonlinear Absorption 228 10.2 Nonlinear Refraction 238 10.3 Useful NLR Formulas and Examples (Isotropic Media) 243 Suggested Further Reading 250 11. Condensed Matter Third-Order Nonlinearities due to Electronic Transitions 251 11.1 Device-Based Nonlinear Material Figures of Merit 252 11.2 Local Versus Nonlocal Nonlinearities in Space and Time 253 11.3 Survey of Nonlinear Refraction and Absorption Measurements 255 11.4 Electronic Nonlinearities Involving Discrete States 256 11.5 Overview of Semiconductor Nonlinearities 266 11.6 Glass Nonlinearities 281 Appendix 11.1: Expressions for the Kerr, Raman, and Quadratic Stark Effects 284 References 286 Suggested Further Reading 289 12. Miscellaneous Third-Order Nonlinearities 290 12.1 Molecular Reorientation Effects in Liquids and Liquid Crystals 291 12.2 Photorefractive Nonlinearities 300 12.3 Nuclear (Vibrational) Contributions to n2|| (-ω; ω) 306 12.4 Electrostriction 310 12.5 Thermo-Optic Effect 312 12.6 χ(3) via Cascaded χ(2) Nonlinear Processes: Nonlocal 314 Appendix 12.1: Spontaneous Raman Scattering 317 References 328 Suggested Further Reading 329 13. Techniques for Measuring Third-Order Nonlinearities 330 13.1 Z-Scan 332 13.2 Third Harmonic Generation 339 13.3 Optical Kerr Effect Measurements 343 13.4 Nonlinear Optical Interferometry 344 13.5 Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing 345 References 346 Suggested Further Reading 346 14. Ramifications and Applications of Nonlinear Refraction 347 14.1 Self-Focusing and Defocusing of Beams 348 14.2 Self-Phase Modulation and Spectral Broadening in Time 352 14.3 Instabilities 354 14.4 Solitons (Nonlinear Modes) 363 14.5 Optical Bistability 372 14.6 All-Optical Signal Processing and Switching 375 References 382 Suggested Further Reading 383 15. Multiwave Mixing 384 15.1 Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing 385 15.2 Degenerate Three-Wave Mixing 397 15.3 Nondegenerate Wave Mixing 399 Reference 413 Suggested Further Reading 413 16. Stimulated Scattering 414 16.1 Stimulated Raman Scattering 415 16.2 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering 431 References 441 Suggested Further Reading 442 17. Ultrafast and Ultrahigh Intensity Processes 443 17.1 Extended Nonlinear Wave Equation 444 17.2 Formalism for Ultrafast Fiber Nonlinear Optics 448 17.3 Examples of Nonlinear Optics in Fibers 452 17.4 High Harmonic Generation 460 References 462 Suggested Further Reading 463 Appendix: Units, Notation, and Physical Constants 465 A.1 Units of Third-Order Nonlinearity 465 A.2 Values of Useful Constants 467 Reference 467 Index 469

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Book SynopsisThis book, edited by two of the most respected researchers in plasmonics, gives an overview of the current state in plasmonics and plasmonic-based metamaterials, with an emphasis on active functionalities and an eye to future developments.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Contributors xvii 1 Spaser, Plasmonic Amplification, and Loss Compensation 1 Mark I. Stockman 1.1 Introduction to Spasers and Spasing 1 1.2 Spaser Fundamentals 2 1.2.1 Brief Overview of the Latest Progress in Spasers 5 1.3 Quantum Theory of Spaser 7 1.3.1 Surface Plasmon Eigenmodes and Their Quantization 7 1.3.2 Quantum Density Matrix Equations (Optical Bloch Equations) for Spaser 9 1.3.3 Equations for CW Regime 11 1.3.4 Spaser operation in CW Mode 15 1.3.5 Spaser as Ultrafast Quantum Nanoamplifier 17 1.3.6 Monostable Spaser as a Nanoamplifier in Transient Regime 18 1.4 Compensation of Loss by Gain and Spasing 22 1.4.1 Introduction to Loss Compensation by Gain 22 1.4.2 Permittivity of Nanoplasmonic Metamaterial 22 1.4.3 Plasmonic Eigenmodes and Effective Resonant Permittivity of Metamaterials 24 1.4.4 Conditions of Loss Compensation by Gain and Spasing 25 1.4.5 Discussion of Spasing and Loss Compensation by Gain 27 1.4.6 Discussion of Published Research on Spasing and Loss Compensations 29 2 Nonlinear Effects in Plasmonic Systems 41 Pavel Ginzburg and Meir Orenstein 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 Metallic Nonlinearities—Basic Effects and Models 43 2.2.1 Local Nonlinearity—Transients by Carrier Heating 43 2.2.2 Plasma Nonlinearity—The Ponderomotive Force 45 2.2.3 Parametric Process in Metals 46 2.2.4 Metal Damage and Ablation 48 2.3 Nonlinear Propagation of Surface Plasmon Polaritons 49 2.3.1 Nonlinear SPP Modes 50 2.3.2 Plasmon Solitons 50 2.3.3 Nonlinear Plasmonic Waveguide Couplers 54 2.4 Localized Surface Plasmon Nonlinearity 55 2.4.1 Cavities and Nonlinear Interactions Enhancement 56 2.4.2 Enhancement of Nonlinear Vacuum Effects 58 2.4.3 High Harmonic Generation 60 2.4.4 Localized Field Enhancement Limitations 60 2.5 Summary 62 3 Plasmonic Nanorod Metamaterials as a Platform for Active Nanophotonics 69 Gregory A. Wurtz, Wayne Dickson, Anatoly V. Zayats, Antony Murphy, and Robert J. Pollard 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Nanorod Metamaterial Geometry 71 3.3 Optical Properties 72 3.3.1 Microscopic Description of the Metamaterial Electromagnetic Modes 72 3.3.2 Effective Medium Theory of the Nanorod Metamaterial 76 3.3.3 Epsilon-Near-Zero Metamaterials and Spatial Dispersion Effects 79 3.3.4 Guided Modes in the Anisotropic Metamaterial Slab 82 3.4 Nonlinear Effects in Nanorod Metamaterials 82 3.4.1 Nanorod Metamaterial Hybridized with Nonlinear Dielectric 84 3.4.2 Intrinsic Metal Nonlinearity of Nanorod Metamaterials 85 3.5 Molecular Plasmonics in Metamaterials 89 3.6 Electro-Optical Effects in Plasmonic Nanorod Metamaterial Hybridized with Liquid Crystals 97 3.7 Conclusion 98 4 Transformation Optics for Plasmonics 105 Alexandre Aubry and John B. Pendry 4.1 Introduction 105 4.2 The Conformal Transformation Approach 108 4.2.1 A Set of Canonic Plasmonic Structures 109 4.2.2 Perfect Singular Structures 110 4.2.3 Singular Plasmonic Structures 114 4.2.3.1 Conformal Mapping of Singular Structures 114 4.2.3.2 Conformal Mapping of Blunt-Ended Singular Structures 118 4.2.4 Resonant Plasmonic Structures 119 4.3 Broadband Light Harvesting and Nanofocusing 121 4.3.1 Broadband Light Absorption 121 4.3.2 Balance between Energy Accumulation and Dissipation 123 4.3.3 Extension to 3D 125 4.3.4 Conclusion 126 4.4 Surface Plasmons and Singularities 127 4.4.1 Control of the Bandwidth with the Vertex Angle 127 4.4.2 Effect of the Bluntness 129 4.5 Plasmonic Hybridization Revisited with Transformation Optics 130 4.5.1 A Resonant Behavior 131 4.5.2 Nanofocusing Properties 132 4.6 Beyond the Quasi-Static Approximation 133 4.6.1 Conformal Transformation Picture 134 4.6.2 Radiative Losses 135 4.6.3 Fluorescence Enhancement 137 4.6.3.1 Fluorescence Enhancement in the Near-Field of Nanoantenna 138 4.6.3.2 The CT Approach 139 4.7 Nonlocal effects 142 4.7.1 Conformal Mapping of Nonlocality 142 4.7.2 Toward the Physics of Local Dimers 143 4.8 Summary and Outlook 145 5 Loss Compensation and Amplification of Surface Plasmon Polaritons 153 Pierre Berini 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Surface Plasmon Waveguides 154 5.2.1 Unidimensional Structures 154 5.2.2 Bidimensional Structures 156 5.2.3 Confinement-Attenuation Trade-Off 156 5.2.4 Optical Processes Involving SPPs 157 5.3 Single Interface 157 5.3.1 Theoretical 157 5.3.2 Experimental 158 5.4 Symmetric Metal Films 160 5.4.1 Gratings 160 5.4.2 Theoretical 160 5.4.3 Experimental 161 5.5 Metal Clads 163 5.5.1 Theoretical 164 5.5.2 Experimental 164 5.6 Other Structures 164 5.6.1 Dielectric-Loaded SPP Waveguides 164 5.6.2 Hybrid SPP Waveguide 165 5.6.3 Nanostructures 166 5.7 Conclusions 166 6 Controlling Light Propagation with Interfacial Phase Discontinuities 171 Nanfang Yu, Mikhail A. Kats, Patrice Genevet, Francesco Aieta, Romain Blanchard, Guillaume Aoust, Zeno Gaburro, and Federico Capasso 6.1 Phase Response of Optical Antennas 172 6.1.1 Introduction 172 6.1.2 Single Oscillator Model for Linear Optical Antennas 174 6.1.3 Two-Oscillator Model for 2D Structures Supporting Two Orthogonal Plasmonic Modes 176 6.1.4 Analytical Models for V-Shaped Optical Antennas 179 6.1.5 Optical Properties of V-Shaped Antennas: Experiments and Simulations 183 6.2 Applications of Phased Optical Antenna Arrays 186 6.2.1 Generalized Laws of Reflection and Refraction: Meta-Interfaces with Phase Discontinuities 186 6.2.2 Out-of-Plane Reflection and Refraction of Light by Meta-Interfaces 192 6.2.3 Giant and Tuneable Optical Birefringence 197 6.2.4 Vortex Beams Created by Meta-Interfaces 200 7 Integrated Plasmonic Detectors 219 Pieter Neutens and Paul Van Dorpe 7.1 Introduction 219 7.2 Electrical Detection of Surface Plasmons 221 7.2.1 Plasmon Detection with Tunnel Junctions 221 7.2.2 Plasmon-Enhanced Solar Cells 222 7.2.3 Plasmon-Enhanced Photodetectors 225 7.2.4 Waveguide-Integrated Surface Plasmon Polariton Detectors 232 7.3 Outlook 236 8 Terahertz Plasmonic Surfaces for Sensing 243 Stephen M. Hanham and Stefan A. Maier 8.1 The Terahertz Region for Sensing 244 8.2 THz Plasmonics 244 8.3 SPPs on Semiconductor Surfaces 245 8.3.1 Active Control of Semiconductor Plasmonics 247 8.4 SSPP on Structured Metal Surfaces 247 8.5 THz Plasmonic Antennas 249 8.6 Extraordinary Transmission 253 8.7 THz Plasmons on Graphene 255 9 Subwavelength Imaging by Extremely Anisotropic Media 261 Pavel A. Belov 9.1 Introduction to Canalization Regime of Subwavelength Imaging 261 9.2 Wire Medium Lens at the Microwave Frequencies 264 9.3 Magnifying and Demagnifying Lenses with Super-Resolution 269 9.4 Imaging at the Terahertz and Infrared Frequencies 272 9.5 Nanolenses Formed by Nanorod Arrays for the Visible Frequency Range 276 9.6 Superlenses and Hyperlenses Formed by Multilayered Metal–Dielectric Nanostructures 279 10 Active and Tuneable Metallic Nanoslit Lenses 289 Satoshi Ishii, Xingjie Ni, Vladimir P. Drachev, Mark D. Thoreson, Vladimir M. Shalaev, and Alexander V. Kildishev 10.1 Introduction 289 10.2 Polarization-Selective Gold Nanoslit Lenses 290 10.2.1 Design Concept of Gold Nanoslit Lenses 291 10.2.2 Experimental Demonstration of Gold Nanoslit Lenses 292 10.3 Metallic Nanoslit Lenses with Focal-Intensity Tuneability and Focal Length Shifting 295 10.3.1 Liquid Crystal-Controlled Nanoslit Lenses 295 10.3.2 Nonlinear Materials for Controlling Nanoslit Lenses 300 10.4 Lamellar Structures with Hyperbolic Dispersion Enable Subwavelength Focusing with Metallic Nanoslits 301 10.4.1 Active Lamellar Structures with Hyperbolic Dispersion 302 10.4.2 Subwavelength Focusing with Active Lamellar Structures 307 10.4.3 Experimental Demonstration of Subwavelength Diffraction 308 10.5 Summary 313 Acknowledgments 313 References 313

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Book SynopsisThe Advances in Chemical Physics series provides the chemical physics field with a forum for critical, authoritative evaluations of advances in every area of the discipline.Table of ContentsHydrogen-Bond Topology and Proton Ordering in Ice and Water Clusters 1 By Sherwin J. Singer and Chris Knight Molecular Inner-Shell Spectroscopy. Arpis Technique and its Applications 75 By Eiji Shigemasa and Nobuhiro Kosugi Geometric Optimal Control of Simple Quantum Systems 127 By Dominique Sugny Density Matrix Equation for a Bathed Small System and its Application to Molecular Magnets 213 By D. A. Garanin A Fractional Langevin Equation Approach to Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging 279 By Jennie Cooke Author Index 379 Subject Index 399

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Book SynopsisThe Advances in Chemical Physics series provides the chemical physics field with a forum for critical, authoritative evaluations of advances in every area of the discipline.Table of ContentsControl of Quantum Phenomena 1 By Constantin Brif, Raj Chakrabarti, and Herschel Rabitz Crowded Charges in Ion Channels 77 By Bob Eisenberg Colloidal Crystallization Between Two and Three Dimensions 225 By H. Lowen, E. C. Oguz, L. Assoud, and R. Messina Statistical Mechanics of Liquids and Fluids in Curved Space 251 By Gilles Tarjus, Fran¸cois Sausset, and Pascal Viot Author Index 311 Subject Index 359

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Book SynopsisThis book allows readers to gain an intuitive understanding of the principles behind Quantum Mechanics through hands-on construction and replication of the original experiments that led to the current view of the quantum world. All of the experimental equipment can be built out of relatively inexpensive materials that are readily available.Trade Review“This unique book can also be highly recommended as supplementary reading, even in the absence of actual ‘hands-on’ participation in the many projects described.” (Contemporary Physics, 6 December 2013 Table of ContentsIntroduction xi Prologue xv Important Disclaimer and Warnings xix Acknowledgments xxiii About the Authors xxv 1 LIGHT AS AWAVE 1 Newton’s View: Light Consists of Particles 1 Young’s Interference of Light 3 Automatic Scanning of Interference Patterns 6 The Final Nail in the Coffin for Newton’s Theory of Light 8 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave 9 Polarization 11 Optics with 3-cm Wavelength “Light” 11 Real-World Behaviors 16 Double-Slit Interference with Microwaves 17 The Doppler Effect 18 Experiments and Questions 20 2 LIGHT AS PARTICLES 23 The Seed of Quantum Physics: Planck’s Formula 27 The Photoelectric Effect 28 Can we Detect Individual Photons? 36 Low-Cost PMT Power Supplies 38 Listening to Individual Photons 41 Where does this Leave Us? 45 Experiments and Questions 45 3 ATOMS AND RADIOACTIVITY 49 The Need for Vacuum 49 The Mechanical Vacuum Pump 51 The Vacuum Gauge 53 A Very-High-Voltage Power Supply 56 A Vacuum Tube Legow Set 56 Phosphor Screens 59 The Electron Gun 60 The Discovery of the Electron 61 Cathode-Ray Tubes 63 Thomson’s First 1897 Experiment—Negative Charge and Rays are Joined Together 65 Thomson’s Second Experiment—Electrostatic Deflection of Cathode Rays 67 Thomson and the Modern CRT 69 Thomson’s Third Experiment—Mass-to-Charge Ratio of the Electron 72 Measuring e/m with our CRT 74 A Magical Measurement of e/m 77 Thomson’s “Plum Pudding” Model of the Atom 79 Geiger–Mu¨ller Counter 80 a, b, and g 89 The Nature of Beta Radiation 92 The Ionizing Power of Alpha 92 What are Alpha Particles? 95 Rutherford’s Alpha-Scattering Experiment 96 Rutherford’s Planetary Model of the Atom 102 Experiments and Questions 103 4 THE PRINCIPLE OF QUANTUM PHYSICS 107 Emission Spectroscopy 107 Bohr’s Spark of Genius 113 Orbitals and Not Orbits 115 Quantization—The Core of Quantum Physics 117 Experiments and Questions 118 5 WAVE–PARTICLE DUALITY 121 Gamma-Ray Spectrum Analysis 122 What is the Nature of Light? 126 Two-Slit Interference with Single Photons 128 Imaging Single Photons 133 The Answer: Complementarity 135 Matter Waves 137 Matter Waves and the Bohr Atom 137 Experimental Confirmation of De Broglie’s Matter Waves 138 Two-Slit Interference with Single Electrons 142 A Simple TEM 144 Blurring the Line Between Quantum and Classical 148 Particle–Wave Duality in the Macroscopic World 148 Experiments and Questions 149 6 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 151 Wavefunctions 151 The Uncertainty Principle 153 Experimental Demonstration of the Uncertainty Principle 155 Time–Energy Uncertainty 159 Fourier Analysis 159 Bye, Bye Clockwork Universe 163 Experiments and Questions 165 7 SCHRO¨ DINGER (AND HIS ZOMBIE CAT) 167 Real-World Particle in a Box 171 Quantum Tunneling 174 Quantum Tunneling Time 178 Many-Worlds Interpretation 183 Schro¨dinger’s Cat in the Lab 184 Beam Splitters 186 Who Rolls the Dice? 190 The Mach–Zehnder Interferometer 192 “Which-Way” Experiments 197 The Quantum Eraser 199 Experiments and Questions 200 8 ENTANGLEMENT 203 Bell’s Inequalities 205 An Entangled-Photon Source 211 Detecting Entangled Photons 214 High-Purity Single-Photon Source 219 Testing Bell’s Inequality 220 Closing the Loopholes 225 The Age of Quantum Information 226 A Quantum Random-Number Generator 228 Quantum Information 229 Quantum Teleportation 230 Faster-Than-Light Communication 236 Quantum Cryptography 237 Quantum Computing and Technologies for the Future 240 Experiments and Questions 242 REFERENCES 245 SOURCES FOR MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS 249 ABBREVIATIONS 255 INDEX 257

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Book SynopsisThe Advances in Chemical Physics series provides the chemical physics field with a forum for critical, authoritative evaluations of advances in every area of the discipline.Table of ContentsMultidimensional Incoherent Time-Resolved Spectroscopy and Complex Kinetics 1 By Mark A. Berg Complex Multiconfigurational Self-Consistent Field-Based Methods to Investigate Electron-Atom/Molecule Scattering Resonances 103 By Kousik Samanta and Danny L. Yeager Determination of Molecular Orientational Correlations in Disordered Systems from Diffraction Data 143 By Szilvia Pothoczki, László Temleitner, and László Pusztai Recent Advances in Studying Mechanical Properties of DNA 169 By Reza Vafabakhsh, Kyung Suk Lee, and Taekjip Ha Viscoelastic Subdiffusion: Generalized Langevin Equation Approach 187 By Igor Goychuk Efficient and Unbiased Sampling of Biomolecular Systems in the Canonical Ensemble: A Review of Self-Guided Langevin Dynamics 255 By Xiongwu Wu, Ana Damjanovic, and Bernard R. Brooks Author Index 327 Subject Index 345

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Book SynopsisA tutorial for calculating the response of molecules to electric and magnetic fields with examples from research in ultracold physics, controlled chemistry, and molecular collisions in fields Molecules in Electromagnetic Fields is intended to serve as a tutorial for students beginning research, theoretical or experimental, in an area related to molecular physics. The authora noted expert in the fieldoffers a systematic discussion of the effects of static and dynamic electric and magnetic fields on the rotational, fine, and hyperfine structure of molecules. The book illustrates how the concepts developed in ultracold physics research have led to what may be the beginning of controlled chemistry in the fully quantum regime. Offering a glimpse of the current state of the art research, this book suggests future research avenues for ultracold chemistry. The text describes theories needed to understand recent exciting developments in the research on trapping moTable of ContentsList of Figures xiii List of Tables xxv Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxxi 1 Introduction to Rotational, Fine, and Hyperfine Structure of Molecular Radicals 1 1.1 Why Molecules are Complex 1 1.2 Separation of Scales 3 1.2.1 Electronic Energy 5 1.2.2 Vibrational Energy 10 1.2.3 Rotational and Fine Structure 14 1.3 Rotation of a Molecule 17 1.4 Hund’s Cases 21 1.4.1 Hund’s Coupling Case (a) 21 1.4.2 Hund’s Coupling Case (b) 22 1.4.3 Hund’s Coupling Case (c) 23 1.5 Parity of Molecular States 23 1.6 General Notation for Molecular States 27 1.7 Hyperfine Structure of Molecules 28 1.7.1 Magnetic Interactions with Nuclei 28 1.7.2 Fermi Contact Interaction 29 1.7.3 Long-Range Magnetic Dipole Interaction 30 1.7.4 Electric Quadrupole Hyperfine Interaction 31 Exercises 31 2 DCStarkEffect 35 2.1 Electric Field Perturbations 35 2.2 Electric Dipole Moment 37 2.3 Linear and Quadratic Stark Shifts 40 2.4 Stark Shifts of Rotational Levels 42 2.4.1 Molecules in a 1Σ Electronic State 42 2.4.2 Molecules in a 2Σ Electronic State 46 2.4.3 Molecules in a 3Σ Electronic State 48 2.4.4 Molecules in a 1Π Electronic State – Λ-Doubling 51 2.4.5 Molecules in a 2Π Electronic State 54 Exercises 56 3 Zeeman Effect 59 3.1 The Electron Spin 59 3.1.1 The Dirac Equation 60 3.2 Zeeman Energy of a Moving Electron 63 3.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment 64 3.4 Zeeman Operator in the Molecule-Fixed Frame 66 3.5 Zeeman Shifts of Rotational Levels 67 3.5.1 Molecules in a 2Σ State 67 3.5.2 Molecules in a 2Π Electronic State 71 3.5.3 Isolated Σ States 74 3.6 Nuclear Zeeman Effect 75 3.6.1 Zeeman Effect in a 1Σ Molecule 76 Exercises 78 4 ACStarkEffect 81 4.1 Periodic Hamiltonians 82 4.2 The Floquet Theory 84 4.2.1 Floquet Matrix 88 4.2.2 Time Evolution Operator 89 4.2.3 Brief Summary of Floquet Theory Results 90 4.3 Two-Mode Floquet Theory 92 4.4 RotatingWave Approximation 94 4.5 Dynamic Dipole Polarizability 96 4.5.1 Polarizability Tensor 97 4.5.2 Dipole Polarizability of a DiatomicMolecule 99 4.5.3 Rotational vs Vibrational vs Electronic Polarizability 101 4.6 Molecules in an Off-Resonant Laser Field 104 4.7 Molecules in a Microwave Field 107 4.8 Molecules in a Quantized Field 109 4.8.1 Field Quantization 109 4.8.2 Interaction of Molecules with Quantized Field 116 4.8.3 Quantized Field vs Floquet Theory 117 Exercises 118 5 Molecular Rotations Under Control 121 5.1 Orientation and Alignment 122 5.1.1 OrientingMolecular Axis in Laboratory Frame 123 5.1.2 Quantum Pendulum 126 5.1.3 Pendular States of Molecules 129 5.1.4 Alignment of Molecules by Intense Laser Fields 131 5.2 Molecular Centrifuge 136 5.3 OrientingMolecules Matters –Which Side Chemistry 140 5.4 Conclusion 142 Exercises 142 6 External Field Traps 145 6.1 Deflection and Focusing of Molecular Beams 146 6.2 Electric (and Magnetic) Slowing of Molecular Beams 151 6.3 Earnshaw’sTheorem 155 6.4 Electric Traps 158 6.5 Magnetic Traps 162 6.6 Optical Dipole Trap 165 6.7 Microwave Trap 167 6.8 Optical Lattices 168 6.9 Some Applications of External Field Traps 171 Exercises 173 7 Molecules in Superimposed Fields 175 7.1 Effects of Combined DC Electric andMagnetic Fields 175 7.1.1 Linear Stark Effect at Low Fields 175 7.1.2 Imaging of Radio-Frequency Fields 178 7.2 Effects of Combined DC and AC Electric Fields 181 7.2.1 Enhancement of Orientation by Laser Fields 181 7.2.2 Tug ofWar Between DC and Microwave Fields 182 8 Molecular Collisions in External Fields 187 8.1 Coupled-ChannelTheory of Molecular Collisions 188 8.1.1 A Very General Formulation 188 8.1.2 Boundary Conditions 191 8.1.3 Scattering Amplitude 194 8.1.4 Scattering Cross Section 197 8.1.5 Scattering of Identical Molecules 200 8.1.6 Numerical Integration of Coupled-Channel Equations 204 8.2 Interactions with External Fields 208 8.2.1 Coupled-Channel Equations in Arbitrary Basis 208 8.2.2 External Field Couplings 209 8.3 The Arthurs–Dalgarno Representation 211 8.4 Scattering Rates 214 9 Matrix Elements of Collision Hamiltonians 217 9.1 Wigner–EckartTheorem 218 9.2 Spherical Tensor Contraction 220 9.3 Collisions in a Magnetic Field 221 9.3.1 Collisions of 1S-Atoms with 2Σ-Molecules 221 9.3.2 Collisions of 1S-Atoms with 3Σ-Molecules 225 9.4 Collisions in an Electric Field 229 9.4.1 Collisions of 2Π Molecules with 1S Atoms 229 9.5 Atom–Molecule Collisions in a Microwave Field 232 9.6 Total Angular Momentum Representation for Collisions in Fields 234 10 Field-Induced Scattering Resonances 239 10.1 Feshbach vs Shape Resonances 239 10.2 The Green’s Operator in Scattering Theory 242 10.3 Feshbach Projection Operators 243 10.4 Resonant Scattering 246 10.5 Calculation of Resonance Locations andWidths 249 10.5.1 Single Open Channel 249 10.5.2 Multiple Open Channels 249 10.6 Locating Field-Induced Resonances 252 11 Field Control of Molecular Collisions 257 11.1 Why to Control Molecular Collisions 257 11.2 Molecular Collisions are Difficult to Control 259 11.3 General Mechanisms for External Field Control 261 11.4 Resonant Scattering 261 11.5 Zeeman and Stark Relaxation at Zero Collision Energy 264 11.6 Effect of Parity Breaking in Combined Fields 269 11.7 Differential Scattering in Electromagnetic Fields 271 11.8 Collisions in Restricted Geometries 272 11.8.1 Threshold Scattering of Molecules in Two Dimensions 276 11.8.2 Collisions in a Quasi-Two-Dimensional Geometry 280 12 Ultracold Controlled Chemistry 283 12.1 Can Chemistry Happen at Zero Kelvin? 284 12.2 Ultracold Stereodynamics 287 12.3 Molecular Beams Under Control 289 12.4 Reactions in Magnetic Traps 289 12.5 Ultracold Chemistry – The Why and What’s Next? 291 12.5.1 Practical Importance of Ultracold Chemistry? 291 12.5.2 Fundamental Importance of Ultracold Controlled Chemistry 293 12.5.3 A Brief Outlook 294 A Unit Conversion Factors 297 B Addition of AngularMomenta 299 B.1 The Clebsch–Gordan Coefficients 301 B.2 TheWigner 3j-Symbols 303 B.3 The Raising and Lowering Operators 304 C Direction Cosine Matrix 307 D Wigner D-Functions 309 D.1 Matrix elements involving D-functions 311 E Spherical tensors 315 E.1 Scalar and Vector Products of Vectors in Spherical Basis 317 E.2 Scalar and Tensor Products of Spherical Tensors 318 References 321 Index 347

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAbout the Author xi Preface xiii 1 Mid‐IR Spectral Range 1 1.1 Definition of the Mid‐IR 1 1.2 The World’s Second Laser 3 1.3 Internal Vibrations of Molecules 4 References 5 2 Solid-state Crystalline Mid‐IR Lasers 7 2.1 Rare-Earth-based Tm3+, Ho3+, and Er3+ Lasers 7 2.1.1 Tm3+ Lasers 7 2.1.2 Ho3+ Lasers 10 2.1.3 Er3+ Lasers 13 2.2 Transition Metal Cr2+ and Fe2+ Lasers 18 2.2.1 Spectroscopic Properties of Cr2+ and Fe2+ 18 2.2.2 Lasers Based on Chalcogenide Crystals Doped with Cr2+ 21 2.2.2.1 Broadly Tunable Cr2+ Lasers 21 2.2.2.2 High-power Continuous-wave Cr2+ Lasers 23 2.2.2.3 High-power Cr2+ CW Laser Systems Operating at 2.94 μm 23 2.2.2.4 Gain-switched High-power Cr2+ Lasers 24 2.2.2.5 Microchip Cr2+ Lasers 25 2.2.2.6 Waveguide and Thin-disk Cr:ZnSe Lasers 26 2.2.2.7 Mode-locked Cr:ZnS/Cr:ZnSe Lasers 27 2.2.3 Lasers Based on Chalcogenide Crystals Doped with Fe2+ 30 2.2.3.1 Free-running Pulsed Fe:ZnSe/ZnS Lasers 30 2.2.3.2 Gain-switched Regime of Fe2+ Lasers at Room Temperature 32 2.2.3.3 Continuous-wave Fe2+ Lasers 33 2.2.3.4 Tunable Fe2+ Lasers at Room Temperature 35 2.2.3.5 Ultrafast Amplifier in the 3.8–4.8 μm Range 35 2.3 Summary 35 References 36 3 Fiber Mid‐IR Lasers 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Continuous-wave Mid‐IR Fiber Lasers 44 3.2.1 Tm-based Fiber Lasers 44 3.2.2 Ho-based Fiber Lasers 47 3.2.3 Er-based Fiber Lasers 49 3.2.4 Dy-based Fiber Lasers 52 3.2.5 Raman Fiber Lasers 52 3.3 Q-switched Mid‐IR Fiber Lasers 54 3.4 Mode-locked Mid‐IR Fiber Lasers 56 3.5 Summary 60 References 61 4 Semiconductor Lasers 65 4.1 Heterojunction Mid‐IR Lasers 65 4.1.1 GaSb-based Diode Lasers 66 4.1.2 Distributed Feedback GaSb-based Lasers 70 4.2 Quantum Cascade Lasers 73 4.2.1 High Power and High Efficiency QCLs 76 4.2.2 Single-mode Distributed Feedback (DFB) QCLs 79 4.2.3 Broadly Tunable QCLs with an External Cavity 82 4.2.4 Short-wavelength (<4 μm) QCLs 85 4.2.5 QCLs at Long (16–21 μm) Wavelengths 86 4.3 Interband Cascade Lasers 87 4.4 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Disk Lasers (OPSDLs) 94 4.4.1 (AlGaIn)(AsSb)-based OPSDL at λ ≈ 2.3 μm 95 4.4.2 PbS-based OPSDL at λ = 2.6–3 μm 96 4.4.3 PbSe-based OPSDL at λ = 4.2–4.8 μm 96 4.4.4 PbTe-based OPSDL at λ = 4.7–5.6 μm 98 4.5 Summary 100 References 100 5 Mid‐IR by Nonlinear Optical Frequency Conversion 109 5.1 Two Approaches to Frequency Downconversion Using Second-order Nonlinearity 109 5.1.1 Difference Frequency Generation 111 5.1.2 Optical Parametric Oscillators (OPOs) 112 5.1.3 Brief Review of χ(2) Nonlinear Crystals for Mid‐IR 115 5.1.3.1 Periodically Poled Oxides 116 5.1.3.2 Birefringent Crystals 116 5.1.3.3 Emerging QPM Nonlinear Optical Materials 119 5.2 Continuous-wave (CW) Regime 121 5.2.1 DFG of CW Radiation 121 5.2.2 CW OPOs 123 5.3 Pulsed Regime 130 5.3.1 Pulsed DFG 130 5.3.2 Pulsed OPOs 133 5.3.2.1 Broadly Tunable Pulsed OPOs 133 5.3.2.2 Narrow-linewidth Pulsed OPOs 143 5.3.2.3 High Average Power OPOs 147 5.3.2.4 High Pulse Energy OPOs 150 5.3.2.5 Waveguide OPOs 152 5.4 Regime of Ultrashort (ps and fs) Pulses 153 5.4.1 Ultrafast DFG 153 5.4.2 Intra-pulse DFG (Optical Rectification) 157 5.4.3 Ultrafast OPOs 161 5.4.3.1 Picosecond Mode 161 5.4.3.2 Femtosecond Mode 163 5.4.4 Ultrafast OPGs 165 5.4.5 Ultrafast OPAs 167 5.5 Raman Frequency Converters 168 5.5.1 Crystalline Raman Converters 169 5.5.2 Fiber Raman Converters 169 5.5.3 Silicon Raman Converters 170 5.5.4 Diamond Raman Converters 171 5.5.5 Other Raman Converters 172 5.6 Summary 174 References 174 6 Supercontinuum and Frequency Comb Sources 189 6.1 Supercontinuum Sources 189 6.1.1 SC from Lead-silicate Glass Fibers 191 6.1.2 SC from Tellurite Glass Fibers 192 6.1.3 SC from ZBLAN Fibers 194 6.1.4 SC from Chalcogenide Glass Fibers 196 6.1.5 SC from Waveguides 203 6.1.6 SC from Bulk Crystals 207 6.1.7 Other SC Sources 212 6.2 Frequency Comb Sources 213 6.2.1 Direct Comb Sources from Mode-locked Lasers 214 6.2.2 Combs Produced by Spectral Broadening in NL Fibers and Waveguides 215 6.2.3 Combs Produced by Difference Frequency Generation 217 6.2.4 OPO-based Combs 220 6.2.5 Combs Based on Optical Subharmonic Generation 226 6.2.6 Microresonator-based Kerr Combs 229 6.2.7 Combs from Quantum Cascade Lasers 234 6.2.8 Combs from Interband Cascade Lasers 235 6.3 Summary 235 References 236 7 Mid‐IR Applications 247 7.1 Spectroscopic Sensing and Imaging 247 7.1.1 QCLs for Spectroscopy and Trace-gas Analysis 248 7.1.2 Spectroscopy with ICLs 252 7.1.3 Spectroscopy with DFG and OPO Sources 252 7.1.4 Broadband Spectroscopy with Frequency Combs 253 7.1.5 Hyperspectral Imaging 255 7.2 Medical Applications 258 7.2.1 Laser Tissue Interactions 258 7.2.1.1 Holmium and Thulium Surgical Lasers 258 7.2.1.2 Er:YAG Lasers (λ = 2.9 μm) 259 7.2.1.3 Importance of the Spectral Band of 6–7 μm 260 7.2.2 Medical Breath Analysis 261 7.2.2.1 Ethane (C2H6) 262 7.2.2.2 NO 262 7.2.2.3 NH3 263 7.2.2.4 CO 263 7.2.2.5 OCS 263 7.2.2.6 Optical Frequency Comb Spectroscopy for Breath Analysis 264 7.3 Nano‐IR Imaging and Chemical Mapping 265 7.4 Plasmonics in the Mid‐IR 267 7.5 Infrared Countermeasures 269 7.6 Extreme Nonlinear Optics and Attosecond Science 270 7.7 Other Applications 273 7.7.1 Laser Wake-field Accelerators 273 7.7.2 Laser Acceleration in Dielectric Structures 274 7.7.3 Free-space Communications 274 7.7.4 Organic Material Processing 275 References 276 Index 287

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Book SynopsisThis book presents a solid introduction for undergraduates to the basic physics of vibrations and waves.Table of ContentsAcknowledgement x About the companion website xi Preface xii Introduction xiii Table of Constants xiv Table of Energy Storing Processes xv 1 Simple Harmonic Motion 1 1.1 Displacement in Simple Harmonic Motion 4 1.2 Velocity and Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion 7 1.2.1 Non-linearity 8 1.3 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator 8 1.4 Simple Harmonic Oscillations in an Electrical System 12 1.5 Superposition of Two Simple Harmonic Vibrations in One Dimension 14 2 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion 21 2.1 Complex Numbers 22 2.2 The Exponential Series 22 2.2.1 The Exponential Series and the Law of Compound Interest 23 2.2.2 Note on the Binomial Theorem 25 2.2.3 Region 1. Heavy Damping (r2/4m2 > ω20) 28 2.2.4 Region 2. Critical Damping (r2/4m2 = ω20) 30 2.2.5 Region 3. Damped Simple Harmonic Motion (r2/4m2 < ω20) 31 2.3 Methods of Describing the Damping of an Oscillator 33 2.3.1 Logarithmic Decrement 33 2.3.2 Relaxation Time or Modulus of Decay 35 2.3.3 The Quality Factor or Q-value of a Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator 35 2.3.4 Energy Dissipation 37 2.3.5 Damped SHM in an Electrical Circuit 38 3 The Forced Oscillator 41 3.1 The Operation of i upon a Vector 41 3.2 Vector Form of Ohm’s Law 43 3.3 The Tuned LCR Circuit 45 3.4 Power Supplied to Oscillator by the Input Voltage 47 3.5 The Q-Value in Terms of the Resonance Absorption Bandwidth 48 3.6 The Forced Mechanical Oscillator 50 3.7 Behaviour of Velocity v in Magnitude and Phase versus Driving Force Frequency ω 56 3.8 Behaviour of Displacement x versus Driving Force Frequency ω 57 3.9 The Q-Value as an Amplification Factor 59 3.10 Significance of the Two Components of the Displacement Curve 60 3.11 Problem on Vibration Insulation 63 3.12 The Effect of the Transient Term 65 4 Coupled Oscillations 69 4.1 Stiffness (or Capacitance) Coupled Oscillators 69 4.2 Normal Modes of Vibration, Normal Coordinates and Degrees of Freedom 72 4.3 Mass or Inductance Coupling 77 4.4 Coupled Oscillations of a Loaded String 81 4.5 The Wave Equation 87 5 Transverse Wave Motion (1) 95 5.1 Partial Differentiation 95 5.2 Waves 98 5.3 Velocities in Wave Motion 99 5.4 The Wave Equation 99 5.5 Solution of the Wave Equation 101 5.6 Characteristic Impedance of a String (the String as a Forced Oscillator) 105 5.7 Reflection and Transmission of Waves on a String at a Boundary 108 5.8 Reflection and Transmission of Energy 112 5.9 The Reflected and Transmitted Intensity Coefficients 113 5.10 Matching of Impedances 113 5.11 Standing Waves on a String of Fixed Length 113 5.12 Standing Wave Ratio 116 5.13 Energy in Each Normal Mode of a Vibrating String 116 6 Transverse Wave Motion (2) 121 6.1 Wave Groups, Group Velocity and Dispersion 121 6.1.1 Superposition of Two Waves of Almost Equal Frequencies 121 6.1.2 Wave Groups, Group Velocity and Dispersion 123 6.2 Wave Group of Many Components. The Bandwidth Theorem 125 6.3 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 128 6.4 Transverse Waves in Periodic Structures (1) Waves in a Crystal 129 6.5 Linear Array of Two Kinds of Atoms in an Ionic Crystal 132 6.6 Transverse Waves in Periodic Structures (2) The Diffusion Equation, Energy Loss from Wave Systems 135 7 Longitudinal Waves 141 7.1 Sound Waves in Gases 141 7.2 Energy Distribution in Sound Waves 145 7.3 Intensity of Sound Waves 148 7.4 Longitudinal Waves in a Solid 149 7.5 Application to Earthquakes 151 7.6 Reflection and Transmission of Sound Waves at Boundaries 152 7.7 Reflection and Transmission of Sound Intensity 154 7.8 Water Waves 154 7.9 Doppler Effect 156 8 Waves on Transmission Lines 161 8.1 Ideal or Lossless Transmission Line 163 8.2 Coaxial Cables 164 8.3 Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line 165 8.4 Reflections from the End of a Transmission Line 167 8.5 Short Circuited Transmission Line (ZL =0) 167 8.6 The Transmission Line as a Filter 169 8.7 Effect of Resistance in a Transmission Line 172 8.8 Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line with Resistance 176 8.9 Matching Impedances 178 9 Electromagnetic Waves 183 9.1 Maxwell’s Equations 183 9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in a Medium having Finite Permeability μ and Permittivity ε but with Conductivity σ = 0 186 9.3 The Wave Equation for Electromagnetic Waves 188 9.4 Illustration of Poynting Vector 189 9.5 Impedance of a Dielectric to Electromagnetic Waves 191 9.6 Electromagnetic Waves in a Medium of Properties μ, ε and σ (where σ ≠ 0) 193 9.7 Skin Depth 196 9.8 Electromagnetic Wave Velocity in a Conductor and Anomalous Dispersion 197 9.9 When is a Medium a Conductor or a Dielectric? 198 9.10 Why will an Electromagnetic Wave not Propagate into a Conductor? 199 9.11 Impedance of a Conducting Medium to Electromagnetic Waves 200 9.12 Reflection and Transmission of Electromagnetic Waves at a Boundary 203 9.12.1 Normal Incidence 203 9.13 Reflection from a Conductor (Normal Incidence) 205 10 Waves in More Than One Dimension 209 10.1 Plane Wave Representation in Two and Three Dimensions 209 10.2 Wave Equation in Two Dimensions 210 10.3 Wave Guides 212 10.3.1 Reflection of a 2D Wave at Rigid Boundaries 212 10.4 Normal Modes and the Method of Separation of Variables 216 10.5 Two-Dimensional Case 217 10.6 Three-Dimensional Case 218 10.7 Normal Modes in Two Dimensions on a Rectangular Membrane 219 10.8 Normal Modes in Three Dimensions 221 10.9 3D Normal Frequency Modes and the de Broglie Wavelength 223 10.10 Frequency Distribution of Energy Radiated from a Hot Body. Planck’s Law 223 10.11 Debye Theory of Specific Heats 225 11 Fourier Methods 229 11.1 Fourier Series 229 11.1.1 Worked Example of Fourier Series 233 11.1.2 Fourier Series for any Interval 233 11.2 Application of Fourier Sine Series to a Triangular Function 236 11.3 Application to the Energy in the Normal Modes of a Vibrating String 237 11.4 Fourier Series Analysis of a Rectangular Velocity Pulse on a String 240 11.5 Three-Phase Full Wave Rectification 243 11.6 The Spectrum of a Fourier Series 244 12 Waves in Optics (1) Interference 249 12.1 Light. Waves or Rays? 249 12.2 Fermat’s Principle 250 12.3 The Laws of Reflection 251 12.4 The Law of Refraction 253 12.5 Interference and Diffraction 254 12.6 Interference 254 12.7 Division of Amplitude 254 12.8 Newton’s Rings 257 12.9 Michelson’s Spectral Interferometer 259 12.10 The Structure of Spectral Lines 261 12.11 Fabry–Pérot Interferometer 262 12.12 Resolving Power of the Fabry–Pérot Interferometer 264 12.12.1 Resolving Power 266 12.12.2 Finesse 266 12.12.3 Free Spectral Range 267 12.12.4 The Laser Cavity 268 12.12.5 Total Internal Reflection 270 12.12.6 The Thin Film Optical Wave Guide 270 12.13 Division of Wavefront 272 12.13.1 Interference between Waves from Two Slits or Sources 272 12.14 Interference from Two Equal Sources of Separation f 274 12.14.1 Separation f >> λ. Young’s Slit Experiment 274 12.14.2 Separation f << λ (kf << 1 where k = 2π/λ) 279 12.14.3 Dipole Radiation (f << λ) 279 12.15 Interference from Linear Array of N Equal Sources 280 13 Waves in Optics (2) Diffraction 287 13.1 Diffraction 287 13.1.1 Fraunhofer Diffraction 287 13.2 Scale of the Intensity Distribution 290 13.3 Intensity Distribution for Interference with Diffraction from N Identical Slits 290 13.4 Fraunhofer Diffraction for Two Equal Slits (N = 2) 292 13.5 Transmission Diffraction Grating (N Large) 293 13.6 Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating 294 13.7 Resolving Power in Terms of the Bandwidth Theorem 296 13.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Rectangular Aperture 297 13.9 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Circular Aperture 299 13.10 The Airy Disc and Resolving Power 301 13.11 The Michelson Stellar Interferometer 301 13.12 Fresnel Diffraction 303 13.12.1 The Straight Edge and Slit 303 13.12.2 Circular Aperture (Fresnel Diffraction) 309 13.13 Zone Plate 311 13.14 Electron Diffraction and Brillouin Zones 312 14 Non-linear Oscillations 317 14.1 Free Vibrations of an Anharmonic Oscillator – Large Amplitude Motion of a Simple Pendulum 317 14.2 Forced Oscillations – Non-linear Restoring Force 318 14.3 Thermal Expansion of a Crystal 321 14.4 Non-linear Acoustic Waves and Shocks 323 14.5 Mach Number 327 Appendix 1 The Binomial Theorem 329 Appendix 2 Taylor’s and the Exponential Series 331 Appendix 3 Superposition of a Large Number n of Simple Harmonic Vibrations of Equal Amplitude a and Equal Successive Phase Difference δ 333 Appendix 4 Superposition of n Equal SHM Vectors of Length a with Random Phase φ 337 Appendix 5 Electromagnetic Wave Equations: Vector Method 341 Appendix 6 Planck’s Radiation Law 343 Appendix 7 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Rectangular Aperture 345 Appendix 8 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for a Wave Meeting a Boundary 347 Index 349

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Book SynopsisThis book presents a solid introduction for undergraduates to the basic physics of vibrations and waves.Table of ContentsAcknowledgement x About the companion website xi Preface xii Introduction xiii Table of Constants xiv Table of Energy Storing Processes xv 1 Simple Harmonic Motion 1 1.1 Displacement in Simple Harmonic Motion 4 1.2 Velocity and Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion 7 1.2.1 Non-linearity 8 1.3 Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator 8 1.4 Simple Harmonic Oscillations in an Electrical System 12 1.5 Superposition of Two Simple Harmonic Vibrations in One Dimension 14 2 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion 21 2.1 Complex Numbers 22 2.2 The Exponential Series 22 2.2.1 The Exponential Series and the Law of Compound Interest 23 2.2.2 Note on the Binomial Theorem 25 2.2.3 Region 1. Heavy Damping (r2/4m2 > ω20) 28 2.2.4 Region 2. Critical Damping (r2/4m2 = ω20) 30 2.2.5 Region 3. Damped Simple Harmonic Motion (r2/4m2 < ω20) 31 2.3 Methods of Describing the Damping of an Oscillator 33 2.3.1 Logarithmic Decrement 33 2.3.2 Relaxation Time or Modulus of Decay 35 2.3.3 The Quality Factor or Q-value of a Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator 35 2.3.4 Energy Dissipation 37 2.3.5 Damped SHM in an Electrical Circuit 38 3 The Forced Oscillator 41 3.1 The Operation of i upon a Vector 41 3.2 Vector Form of Ohm’s Law 43 3.3 The Tuned LCR Circuit 45 3.4 Power Supplied to Oscillator by the Input Voltage 47 3.5 The Q-Value in Terms of the Resonance Absorption Bandwidth 48 3.6 The Forced Mechanical Oscillator 50 3.7 Behaviour of Velocity v in Magnitude and Phase versus Driving Force Frequency ω 56 3.8 Behaviour of Displacement x versus Driving Force Frequency ω 57 3.9 The Q-Value as an Amplification Factor 59 3.10 Significance of the Two Components of the Displacement Curve 60 3.11 Problem on Vibration Insulation 63 3.12 The Effect of the Transient Term 65 4 Coupled Oscillations 69 4.1 Stiffness (or Capacitance) Coupled Oscillators 69 4.2 Normal Modes of Vibration, Normal Coordinates and Degrees of Freedom 72 4.3 Mass or Inductance Coupling 77 4.4 Coupled Oscillations of a Loaded String 81 4.5 The Wave Equation 87 5 Transverse Wave Motion (1) 95 5.1 Partial Differentiation 95 5.2 Waves 98 5.3 Velocities in Wave Motion 99 5.4 The Wave Equation 99 5.5 Solution of the Wave Equation 101 5.6 Characteristic Impedance of a String (the String as a Forced Oscillator) 105 5.7 Reflection and Transmission of Waves on a String at a Boundary 108 5.8 Reflection and Transmission of Energy 112 5.9 The Reflected and Transmitted Intensity Coefficients 113 5.10 Matching of Impedances 113 5.11 Standing Waves on a String of Fixed Length 113 5.12 Standing Wave Ratio 116 5.13 Energy in Each Normal Mode of a Vibrating String 116 6 Transverse Wave Motion (2) 121 6.1 Wave Groups, Group Velocity and Dispersion 121 6.1.1 Superposition of Two Waves of Almost Equal Frequencies 121 6.1.2 Wave Groups, Group Velocity and Dispersion 123 6.2 Wave Group of Many Components. The Bandwidth Theorem 125 6.3 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 128 6.4 Transverse Waves in Periodic Structures (1) Waves in a Crystal 129 6.5 Linear Array of Two Kinds of Atoms in an Ionic Crystal 132 6.6 Transverse Waves in Periodic Structures (2) The Diffusion Equation, Energy Loss from Wave Systems 135 7 Longitudinal Waves 141 7.1 Sound Waves in Gases 141 7.2 Energy Distribution in Sound Waves 145 7.3 Intensity of Sound Waves 148 7.4 Longitudinal Waves in a Solid 149 7.5 Application to Earthquakes 151 7.6 Reflection and Transmission of Sound Waves at Boundaries 152 7.7 Reflection and Transmission of Sound Intensity 154 7.8 Water Waves 154 7.9 Doppler Effect 156 8 Waves on Transmission Lines 161 8.1 Ideal or Lossless Transmission Line 163 8.2 Coaxial Cables 164 8.3 Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line 165 8.4 Reflections from the End of a Transmission Line 167 8.5 Short Circuited Transmission Line (ZL =0) 167 8.6 The Transmission Line as a Filter 169 8.7 Effect of Resistance in a Transmission Line 172 8.8 Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line with Resistance 176 8.9 Matching Impedances 178 9 Electromagnetic Waves 183 9.1 Maxwell’s Equations 183 9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in a Medium having Finite Permeability μ and Permittivity ε but with Conductivity σ =0 186 9.3 The Wave Equation for Electromagnetic Waves 188 9.4 Illustration of Poynting Vector 189 9.5 Impedance of a Dielectric to Electromagnetic Waves 191 9.6 Electromagnetic Waves in a Medium of Properties μ, ε and σ (where σ ≠ 0) 193 9.7 Skin Depth 196 9.8 Electromagnetic Wave Velocity in a Conductor and Anomalous Dispersion 197 9.9 When is a Medium a Conductor or a Dielectric? 198 9.10 Why will an Electromagnetic Wave not Propagate into a Conductor? 199 9.11 Impedance of a Conducting Medium to Electromagnetic Waves 200 9.12 Reflection and Transmission of Electromagnetic Waves at a Boundary 203 9.12.1 Normal Incidence 203 9.13 Reflection from a Conductor (Normal Incidence) 205 10 Waves in More Than One Dimension 209 10.1 Plane Wave Representation in Two and Three Dimensions 209 10.2 Wave Equation in Two Dimensions 210 10.3 Wave Guides 212 10.3.1 Reflection of a 2D Wave at Rigid Boundaries 212 10.4 Normal Modes and the Method of Separation of Variables 216 10.5 Two-Dimensional Case 217 10.6 Three-Dimensional Case 218 10.7 Normal Modes in Two Dimensions on a Rectangular Membrane 219 10.8 Normal Modes in Three Dimensions 221 10.9 3D Normal Frequency Modes and the de Broglie Wavelength 223 10.10 Frequency Distribution of Energy Radiated from a Hot Body. Planck’s Law 223 10.11 Debye Theory of Specific Heats 225 11 Fourier Methods 229 11.1 Fourier Series 229 11.1.1 Worked Example of Fourier Series 233 11.1.2 Fourier Series for any Interval 233 11.2 Application of Fourier Sine Series to a Triangular Function 236 11.3 Application to the Energy in the Normal Modes of a Vibrating String 237 11.4 Fourier Series Analysis of a Rectangular Velocity Pulse on a String 240 11.5 Three-Phase Full Wave Rectification 243 11.6 The Spectrum of a Fourier Series 244 12 Waves in Optics (1) Interference 249 12.1 Light. Waves or Rays? 249 12.2 Fermat’s Principle 250 12.3 The Laws of Reflection 251 12.4 The Law of Refraction 253 12.5 Interference and Diffraction 254 12.6 Interference 254 12.7 Division of Amplitude 254 12.8 Newton’s Rings 257 12.9 Michelson’s Spectral Interferometer 259 12.10 The Structure of Spectral Lines 261 12.11 Fabry–Pérot Interferometer 262 12.12 Resolving Power of the Fabry–Pérot Interferometer 264 12.12.1 Resolving Power 266 12.12.2 Finesse 266 12.12.3 Free Spectral Range 267 12.12.4 The Laser Cavity 268 12.12.5 Total Internal Reflection 270 12.12.6 The Thin Film Optical Wave Guide 270 12.13 Division of Wavefront 272 12.13.1 Interference between Waves from Two Slits or Sources 272 12.14 Interference from Two Equal Sources of Separation f 274 12.14.1 Separation f >> λ. Young’s Slit Experiment 274 12.14.2 Separation f << λ (kf << 1 where k = 2π/λ) 279 12.14.3 Dipole Radiation (f << λ) 279 12.15 Interference from Linear Array of N Equal Sources 280 13 Waves in Optics (2) Diffraction 287 13.1 Diffraction 287 13.1.1 Fraunhofer Diffraction 287 13.2 Scale of the Intensity Distribution 290 13.3 Intensity Distribution for Interference with Diffraction from N Identical Slits 290 13.4 Fraunhofer Diffraction for Two Equal Slits (N = 2) 292 13.5 Transmission Diffraction Grating (N Large) 293 13.6 Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating 294 13.7 Resolving Power in Terms of the Bandwidth Theorem 296 13.8 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Rectangular Aperture 297 13.9 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Circular Aperture 299 13.10 The Airy Disc and Resolving Power 301 13.11 The Michelson Stellar Interferometer 301 13.12 Fresnel Diffraction 303 13.12.1 The Straight Edge and Slit 303 13.12.2 Circular Aperture (Fresnel Diffraction) 309 13.13 Zone Plate 311 13.14 Electron Diffraction and Brillouin Zones 312 14 Non-linear Oscillations 317 14.1 Free Vibrations of an Anharmonic Oscillator – Large Amplitude Motion of a Simple Pendulum 317 14.2 Forced Oscillations – Non-linear Restoring Force 318 14.3 Thermal Expansion of a Crystal 321 14.4 Non-linear Acoustic Waves and Shocks 323 14.5 Mach Number 327 Appendix 1 The Binomial Theorem 329 Appendix 2 Taylor’s and the Exponential Series 331 Appendix 3 Superposition of a Large Number n of Simple Harmonic Vibrations of Equal Amplitude a and Equal Successive Phase Difference δ 333 Appendix 4 Superposition of n Equal SHM Vectors of Length a with Random Phase φ 337 Appendix 5 Electromagnetic Wave Equations: Vector Method 341 Appendix 6 Planck’s Radiation Law 343 Appendix 7 Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Rectangular Aperture 345 Appendix 8 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for a Wave Meeting a Boundary 347 Index 349

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Book SynopsisThis text is intended for the undergraduate course in math methods, with an audience of physics and engineering majors. As a required course in most departments, the text relies heavily on explained examples, real-world applications and student engagement.Trade Review"[Mathematical Methods in Engineering and Physics] is my book of choice for teaching undergraduates...I honestly never thought that I could be so enchanted by the heat equation before seeing how Felder and Felder effectively have students derive it as part of honing their intuition for how to think about partial differential equations." - Christine Aidala, PhD, Associate Professor of Physics at University of Michigan for the American Journal of Physics Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations 1 1.1 Motivating Exercise: The Simple Harmonic Oscillator 2 1.2 Overview of Differential Equations 3 1.3 Arbitrary Constants 15 1.4 Slope Fields and Equilibrium 25 1.5 Separation of Variables 34 1.6 Guess and Check, and Linear Superposition 39 1.7 Coupled Equations (see felderbooks.com) 1.8 Differential Equations on a Computer (see felderbooks.com) 1.9 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 2 Taylor Series and Series Convergence 50 2.1 Motivating Exercise: Vibrations in a Crystal 51 2.2 Linear Approximations 52 2.3 Maclaurin Series 60 2.4 Taylor Series 70 2.5 Finding One Taylor Series from Another 76 2.6 Sequences and Series 80 2.7 Tests for Series Convergence 92 2.8 Asymptotic Expansions (see felderbooks.com) 2.9 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 3 Complex Numbers 104 3.1 Motivating Exercise: The Underdamped Harmonic Oscillator 104 3.2 Complex Numbers 105 3.3 The Complex Plane 113 3.4 Euler’s Formula I—The Complex Exponential Function 117 3.5 Euler’s Formula II—Modeling Oscillations 126 3.6 Special Application: Electric Circuits (see felderbooks.com) 3.7 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 4 Partial Derivatives 136 4.1 Motivating Exercise: The Wave Equation 136 4.2 Partial Derivatives 137 4.3 The Chain Rule 145 4.4 Implicit Differentiation 153 4.5 Directional Derivatives 158 4.6 The Gradient 163 4.7 Tangent Plane Approximations and Power Series (see felderbooks.com) 4.8 Optimization and the Gradient 172 4.9 Lagrange Multipliers 181 4.10 Special Application: Thermodynamics (see felderbooks.com) 4.11 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 5 Integrals in Two or More Dimensions 188 5.1 Motivating Exercise: Newton’s Problem (or) The Gravitational Field of a Sphere 188 5.2 Setting Up Integrals 189 5.3 Cartesian Double Integrals over a Rectangular Region 204 5.4 Cartesian Double Integrals over a Non-Rectangular Region 211 5.5 Triple Integrals in Cartesian Coordinates 216 5.6 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 221 5.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 229 5.8 Line Integrals 240 5.9 Parametrically Expressed Surfaces 249 5.10 Surface Integrals 253 5.11 Special Application: Gravitational Forces (see felderbooks.com) 5.12 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 6 Linear Algebra I 266 6.1 The Motivating Example on which We’re Going to Base the Whole Chapter: The Three-Spring Problem 266 6.2 Matrices: The Easy Stuff 276 6.3 Matrix Times Column 280 6.4 Basis Vectors 286 6.5 Matrix Times Matrix 294 6.6 The Identity and Inverse Matrices 303 6.7 Linear Dependence and the Determinant 312 6.8 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues 325 6.9 Putting It Together: Revisiting the Three-Spring Problem 336 6.10 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 7 Linear Algebra II 346 7.1 Geometric Transformations 347 7.2 Tensors 358 7.3 Vector Spaces and Complex Vectors 369 7.4 Row Reduction (see felderbooks.com) 7.5 Linear Programming and the Simplex Method (see felderbooks.com) 7.6 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 8 Vector Calculus 378 8.1 Motivating Exercise: Flowing Fluids 378 8.2 Scalar and Vector Fields 379 8.3 Potential in One Dimension 387 8.4 From Potential to Gradient 396 8.5 From Gradient to Potential: The Gradient Theorem 402 8.6 Divergence, Curl, and Laplacian 407 8.7 Divergence and Curl II—The Math Behind the Pictures 416 8.8 Vectors in Curvilinear Coordinates 419 8.9 The Divergence Theorem 426 8.10 Stokes’ Theorem 432 8.11 Conservative Vector Fields 437 8.12 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 9 Fourier Series and Transforms 445 9.1 Motivating Exercise: Discovering Extrasolar Planets 445 9.2 Introduction to Fourier Series 447 9.3 Deriving the Formula for a Fourier Series 457 9.4 Different Periods and Finite Domains 459 9.5 Fourier Series with Complex Exponentials 467 9.6 Fourier Transforms 472 9.7 Discrete Fourier Transforms (see felderbooks.com) 9.8 Multivariate Fourier Series (see felderbooks.com) 9.9 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 10 Methods of Solving Ordinary Differential Equations 484 10.1 Motivating Exercise: A Damped, Driven Oscillator 485 10.2 Guess and Check 485 10.3 Phase Portraits (see felderbooks.com) 10.4 Linear First-Order Differential Equations (see felderbooks.com) 10.5 Exact Differential Equations (see felderbooks.com) 10.6 Linearly Independent Solutions and the Wronskian (see felderbooks.com) 10.7 Variable Substitution 494 10.8 Three Special Cases of Variable Substitution 505 10.9 Reduction of Order and Variation of Parameters (see felderbooks.com) 10.10 Heaviside, Dirac, and Laplace 512 10.11 Using Laplace Transforms to Solve Differential Equations 522 10.12 Green’s Functions 531 10.13 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 11 Partial Differential Equations 541 11.1 Motivating Exercise: The Heat Equation 542 11.2 Overview of Partial Differential Equations 544 11.3 Normal Modes 555 11.4 Separation of Variables—The Basic Method 567 11.5 Separation of Variables—More than Two Variables 580 11.6 Separation of Variables—Polar Coordinates and Bessel Functions 589 11.7 Separation of Variables—Spherical Coordinates and Legendre Polynomials 607 11.8 Inhomogeneous Boundary Conditions 616 11.9 The Method of Eigenfunction Expansion 623 11.10 The Method of Fourier Transforms 636 11.11 The Method of Laplace Transforms 646 11.12 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 12 Special Functions and ODE Series Solutions 652 12.1 Motivating Exercise: The Circular Drum 652 12.2 Some Handy Summation Tricks 654 12.3 A Few Special Functions 658 12.4 Solving Differential Equations with Power Series 666 12.5 Legendre Polynomials 673 12.6 The Method of Frobenius 682 12.7 Bessel Functions 688 12.8 Sturm-Liouville Theory and Series Expansions 697 12.9 Proof of the Orthgonality of Sturm-Liouville Eigenfunctions (see felderbooks.com) 12.10 Special Application: The Quantum Harmonic Oscillator and Ladder Operators (see felderbooks.com) 12.11 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) 13 Calculus with Complex Numbers 708 13.1 Motivating Exercise: Laplace’s Equation 709 13.2 Functions of Complex Numbers 710 13.3 Derivatives, Analytic Functions, and Laplace’s Equation 716 13.4 Contour Integration 726 13.5 Some Uses of Contour Integration 733 13.6 Integrating Along Branch Cuts and Through Poles (see felderbooks.com) 13.7 Complex Power Series 742 13.8 Mapping Curves and Regions 747 13.9 Conformal Mapping and Laplace’s Equation 754 13.10 Special Application: Fluid Flow (see felderbooks.com) 13.11 Additional Problems (see felderbooks.com) Appendix A Different Types of Differential Equations 765 Appendix B Taylor Series 768 Appendix C Summary of Tests for Series Convergence 770 Appendix D Curvilinear Coordinates 772 Appendix E Matrices 774 Appendix F Vector Calculus 777 Appendix G Fourier Series and Transforms 779 Appendix H Laplace Transforms 782 Appendix I Summary: Which PDE Technique Do I Use? 787 Appendix J Some Common Differential Equations and Their Solutions 790 Appendix K Special Functions 798 Appendix L Answers to “Check Yourself” in Exercises 801 Appendix M Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems (see felderbooks.com) Index 805

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Book SynopsisA full-colour undergraduate textbook, based on a two semester course, that presents the fundamentals of biological physics, introducing essential modern topics that include cells, polymers, polyelectrolytes, membranes, liquid crystals, phase transitions, self-assembly, photonics, fluid mechanics, motility, chemical kinetics, and enzyme kinetics.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xvii I Building Blocks 1 1 Molecules 3 1.1 Chemical Bonds and Molecular Interactions 3 1.2 Chirality 7 1.3 Proteins 7 1.4 Lipids 15 1.5 Nucleic Acids 16 1.6 Carbohydrates 21 1.7 Water 24 1.8 Proteoglycans and Glycoproteins 25 1.9 Viruses 26 1.10 Other Molecules 28 Suggested Reading 28 Tutorial Questions 1 29 2 Cells 31 2.1 The First Cell 32 2.2 Metabolism 33 2.3 Central Dogma of Biology 34 2.4 Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection 38 2.5 Mutations and Cancer 40 2.6 Prokaryotic Cells 41 2.7 Eukaryotic Cells 41 2.8 Chromosomes 44 2.9 Cell Cycle 45 2.10 Genetic Code 45 2.11 Genetic Networks 45 2.12 Human Genome Project 47 2.13 Genetic Fingerprinting 49 2.14 Genetic Engineering 50 2.15 Tissues 51 2.16 Cells as Experimental Models 51 2.17 Stem Cells 52 Suggested Reading 53 Tutorial Questions 2 54 II Soft Condensed-Matter Techniques in Biology 55 3 Introduction to Statistics in Biology 57 3.1 Statistics 57 3.2 Entropy 60 3.3 Information 61 3.4 Free Energy 62 3.5 Partition Function 63 3.6 Conditional Probability 65 3.7 Networks 66 Suggested Reading 67 Tutorial Questions 3 67 4 Mesoscopic Forces 69 4.1 Cohesive Forces 69 4.2 Hydrogen Bonding 71 4.3 Electrostatics 73 4.3.1 Unscreened Electrostatic Interactions 73 4.3.2 Screened Electrostatic Interactions 74 4.3.3 The Force Between Charged Aqueous Spheres 77 4.4 Steric and Fluctuation Forces 79 4.5 Depletion Forces 82 4.6 Hydrodynamic Interactions 84 4.7 Bell’s Equation 84 4.8 Direct Experimental Measurements 86 Suggested Reading 89 Tutorial Questions 4 89 5 Phase Transitions 91 5.1 The Basics 91 5.2 Helix–Coil Transition 94 5.3 Globule–Coil Transition 98 5.4 Crystallisation 101 5.5 Liquid–Liquid Demixing (Phase Separation) 104 Suggested Reading 108 Tutorial Questions 5 109 6 Liquid Crystallinity 111 6.1 The Basics 111 6.2 Liquid Nematic–Smectic Transitions 123 6.3 Defects 125 6.4 More Exotic Possibilities for Liquid-Crystalline Phases 130 Suggested Reading 132 Tutorial Questions 6 132 7 Motility 135 7.1 Diffusion 135 7.2 Low Reynolds Number Dynamics 142 7.3 Motility of Cells and Micro-Organisms 144 7.4 First-Passage Problem 148 7.5 Rate Theories of Chemical Reactions 152 7.6 Subdiffusion 153 Suggested Reading 155 Tutorial Questions 7 155 8 Aggregating Self-Assembly 157 8.1 Surface-Active Molecules (Surfactants) 160 8.2 Viruses 163 8.3 Self-Assembly of Proteins 167 8.4 Polymerisation of Cytoskeletal Filaments (Motility) 167 Suggested Reading 172 Tutorial Questions 8 172 9 Surface Phenomena 173 9.1 Surface Tension 173 9.2 Adhesion 175 9.3 Wetting 177 9.4 Capillarity 180 9.5 Experimental Techniques 183 9.6 Friction 184 9.7 Adsorption Kinetics 186 9.8 Other Physical Surface Phenomena 188 Suggested Reading 188 Tutorial Questions 9 188 10 Biomacromolecules 189 10.1 Flexibility of Macromolecules 189 10.2 Good/Bad Solvents and the Size of Flexible Polymers 198 10.3 Elasticity 203 10.4 Damped Motion of Soft Molecules 206 10.5 Dynamics of Polymer Chains 209 10.6 Topology of Polymer Chains – Supercoiling 214 Suggested Reading 216 Tutorial Questions 10 217 11 Charged Ions and Polymers 219 11.1 Electrostatics 222 11.2 Deybe–Huckel Theory 226 11.3 Ionic Radius 229 11.4 The Behaviour of Polyelectrolytes 232 11.5 Donnan Equilibria 234 11.6 Titration Curves 236 11.7 Poisson–Boltzmann Theory for Cylindrical Charge Distributions 238 11.8 Charge Condensation 239 11.9 Other Polyelectrolyte Phenomena 243 Suggested Reading 244 Tutorial Questions 11 245 12 Membranes 247 12.1 Undulations 248 12.2 Bending Resistance 250 12.3 Elasticity 253 12.4 Intermembrane Forces 258 12.5 Passive/Active Transport 260 12.6 Vesicles 267 Suggested Reading 268 Tutorial Questions 12 268 13 Continuum Mechanics 269 13.1 Structural Mechanics 270 13.2 Composites 273 13.3 Foams 275 13.4 Fracture 277 13.5 Morphology 278 Suggested Reading 278 Tutorial Questions 13 279 14 Fluid Mechanics 281 14.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity 282 14.2 Navier–Stokes Equations 282 14.3 Pipe Flow 283 14.4 Vascular Networks 285 14.5 Haemodynamics 285 14.6 Circulatory Systems 289 14.7 Lungs 289 Suggested Reading 291 Tutorial Questions 14 291 15 Rheology 293 15.1 Storage and Loss Moduli 295 15.2 Rheological Functions 298 15.3 Examples from Biology: Neutral Polymer Solutions, Polyelectrolytes, Gels, Colloids, Liquid Crystalline Polymers, Glasses, Microfluidics 299 15.3.1 Neutral Polymer Solutions 299 15.3.2 Polyelectrolytes 303 15.3.3 Gels 305 15.3.4 Colloids 309 15.3.5 Liquid-Crystalline Polymers 310 15.3.6 Glassy Materials 310 15.3.7 Microfluidics in Channels 312 15.4 Viscoelasticity of the Cell 312 Suggested Reading 314 Tutorial Questions 15 314 16 Motors 315 16.1 Self-Assembling Motility – Polymerisation of Actin and Tubulin 317 16.2 Parallelised Linear Stepper Motors – Striated Muscle 320 16.3 Rotatory Motors 325 16.4 Ratchet Models 327 16.5 Other Systems 329 Suggested Reading 329 Tutorial Questions 16 330 17 Structural Biomaterials 331 17.1 Cartilage – Tough Shock Absorbers in Human Joints 331 17.2 Spider Silk 341 17.3 Elastin and Resilin 342 17.4 Bone 343 17.5 Adhesive Proteins 343 17.6 Nacre and Mineral Composites 345 Suggested Reading 346 Tutorial Questions 17 346 18 Phase Behaviour of DNA 347 18.1 Chromatin – Naturally Packaged DNA Chains 347 18.2 DNA Compaction – An Example of Polyelectrolyte Complexation 350 18.3 Facilitated Diffusion 351 Suggested Reading 354 III Experimental Techniques 355 19 Experimental Techniques 357 19.1 Mass Spectroscopy 357 19.2 Thermodynamics 359 19.2.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 360 19.2.2 Isothermal Titration Calorimetry 360 19.2.3 Surface Plasmon Resonance and Interferometry-Based Biosensors 360 19.3 Hydrodynamics 362 19.4 Optical Spectroscopy 363 19.4.1 Rayleigh Scattering 363 19.4.2 Brillouin Scattering 364 19.4.3 Terahertz/Microwave Spectroscopy 364 19.4.4 Infrared Spectroscopy 365 19.4.5 Raman Spectroscopy 366 19.4.6 Nonlinear Spectroscopy 367 19.4.7 Circular Dichroism and UV Spectroscopy 369 19.5 Optical Microscopy 369 19.5.1 Fluorescence Microscopy 376 19.5.2 Super-Resolution Microscopy 378 19.5.3 Nonlinear Microscopy 382 19.5.4 Polarisation Microscopy 382 19.5.5 Optical Coherence Tomography 382 19.5.6 Holographic Microscopy 383 19.5.7 Other Microscopy Techniques 383 19.6 Single-Molecule Detection 384 19.7 Single-Molecule Mechanics and Force Measurements 384 19.8 Electron Microscopy 395 19.9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 396 19.10 Static Scattering Techniques 397 19.11 Dynamic Scattering Techniques 408 19.12 Osmotic Pressure 412 19.13 Chromatography 415 19.14 Electrophoresis 415 19.15 Sedimentation 420 19.16 Rheology 424 19.17 Tribology 431 19.18 Solid Mechanical Properties 432 Suggested Reading 432 Tutorial Questions 19 433 IV Systems Biology 437 20 Chemical Kinetics 439 20.1 Conservation Laws 440 20.2 Free Energy 440 20.3 Reaction Rates 441 20.4 Consecutive Reactions 449 20.5 Case I and II Reactions 450 20.6 Parallel Reactions 452 20.7 Approach to Chemical Equilibrium 453 20.8 Quasi-Steady-State Approximation 456 20.9 General Kinetic Equation Analysis 459 Suggested Reading 459 Tutorial Questions 20 460 21 Enzyme Kinetics 461 21.1 Michaelis–Menten Kinetics 461 21.2 Lineweaver–Burke Plot 465 21.3 Enzyme Inhibition 466 21.4 Competitive Inhibition 466 21.5 Allosteric Inhibition 467 21.6 Cooperativity 468 21.7 Hill Plot 470 21.8 Single Enzyme Molecules 470 Suggested Reading 472 Tutorial Questions 21 472 22 Introduction to Systems Biology 473 22.1 Integrative Model of the Cell 473 22.2 Transcription Networks 474 22.3 Gene Regulation 474 22.4 Lac Operon 477 22.5 Repressilator 479 22.6 Autoregulation 481 22.7 Network Motifs 483 22.8 Robustness 489 22.9 Morphogenesis 490 22.10 Kinetic Proofreading 492 22.11 Temporal Programs 493 22.12 Nonlinear Models 494 22.13 Population Dynamics 497 Suggested Reading 498 Tutorial Questions 22 499 V Spikes, Brains and the Senses 501 23 Spikes 503 23.1 Structure and Function of a Neuron 503 23.2 Membrane Potential 503 23.3 Ion Channels 506 23.4 Voltage Clamps and Patch Clamps 508 23.5 Nernst Equation 509 23.6 Electrical Circuit Model of a Cell Membrane 511 23.7 Cable Equation 513 23.8 Hodgkin–Huxley Model 515 23.9 Action Potential 518 23.10 Spikes – Travelling Electrical Waves 520 23.11 Cell Signalling 523 Suggested Reading 524 Tutorial Questions 23 525 24 Physiology of Cells and Organisms 527 24.1 Feedback Loops 528 24.2 Nonlinear Behaviour 533 24.3 Potential Outside an Axon 533 24.4 Electromechanical Properties of the Heart 535 24.5 Electrocardiogram 536 24.6 Electroencephalography 537 Suggested Reading 539 Tutorial Questions 24 540 25 The Senses 541 25.1 Biological Senses 541 25.2 Weber’s Law 542 25.3 Information Processing and Hyperacuity 543 25.4 Mechanoreceptors 543 25.5 Chemoreceptors 545 25.6 Photoreceptors 549 25.7 Thermoreceptors 551 25.8 Electroreceptors 552 25.9 Magnetoreceptors 552 Suggested Reading 553 Tutorial Questions 25 554 26 Brains 555 26.1 Neural Encoding Inverse Problem 558 26.2 Memory 560 26.3 Motor Processes 564 26.4 Connectome 565 26.5 Cohesive Properties 566 Suggested Reading 567 Tutorial Questions 26 568 Appendix A: Physical Constants 569 Appendix B: Answers to Tutorial Questions 571 Index 593

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Book SynopsisIncludes detailed reviews of topics in chemical physics. This title is dedicated to reviewing topics as well as the developments in traditional areas of study in the field of chemical physics. It is suitable for introducing novices to topics in chemical physics.Table of ContentsRecent Advances in Ultrafast X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy 1of SolutionsBy Thomas J. Penfold, Christopher J. Milne, and Majed Chergui Scaling Perspective on Intramolecular Vibrational Energy 43Flow: Analogies, Insights, and ChallengesBy Srihari Keshavamurthy Longest Relaxation Time of Relaxation Processes for Classical 111and Quantum Brownian Motion in a Potential: Escape Rate Theory ApproachBy William T. Coffey, Yuri P. Kalmykov, Serguey V. Titov, and William J. Dowling Local Fluctuations in Solution: Theory and Applications 311By Elizabeth A. Ploetz and Paul E. Smith The Macroscopic Effects of Microscopic Heterogeneity in 373Cell SignalingBy Andrew Mugler and Pieter Rein ten Wolde Ab Initio Methodology for Pseudospin Hamiltonians of 397Anisotropic Magnetic ComplexesBy L. F. Chibotaru Author Index 521 Subject Index 551

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Book SynopsisThis book is a comprehensive account of five extended modules covering the key branches of twentieth-century theoretical physics, taught by the author over a period of three decades to students on bachelor and master university degree courses in both physics and theoretical physics.Trade Review“The book is self-contained, and should be comprehensible to anyone who completed high-school mathematics.” (Book News, 1 June 2013)Table of ContentsNotation xiii Preface xv I NONRELATIVISTIC QUANTUM MECHANICS 1 1 Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics 3 1.1 Probability interpretation of the wave function 3 1.2 States of definite energy and states of definite momentum 4 1.3 Observables and operators 5 1.4 Examples of operators 5 1.5 The time-dependent Schr¨odinger equation 6 1.6 Stationary states and the time-independent Schr¨odinger equation 7 1.7 Eigenvalue spectra and the results of measurements 8 1.8 Hermitian operators 8 1.9 Expectation values of observables 10 1.10 Commuting observables and simultaneous observability 10 1.11 Noncommuting observables and the uncertainty principle 11 1.12 Time dependence of expectation values 12 1.13 The probability-current density 12 1.14 The general form of wave functions 12 1.15 Angular momentum 15 1.16 Particle in a three-dimensional spherically symmetric potential 17 1.17 The hydrogen-like atom 18 2 Representation Theory 23 2.1 Dirac representation of quantum mechanical states 23 2.2 Completeness and closure 27 2.3 Changes of representation 28 2.4 Representation of operators 29 2.5 Hermitian operators 31 2.6 Products of operators 31 2.7 Formal theory of angular momentum 32 3 Approximation Methods 39 3.1 Time-independent perturbation theory for nondegenerate states 39 3.2 Time-independent perturbation theory for degenerate states 44 3.3 The variational method 50 3.4 Time-dependent perturbation theory 54 4 Scattering Theory 63 4.1 Evolution operators and Møller operators 63 4.2 The scattering operator and scattering matrix 66 4.3 The Green operator and T operator 70 4.4 The stationary scattering states 76 4.5 The optical theorem 83 4.6 The Born series and Born approximation 85 4.7 Spherically symmetric potentials and the method of partial waves 87 4.8 The partial-wave scattering states 92 II THERMAL AND STATISTICAL PHYSICS 97 5 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 99 5.1 The nature of thermodynamics 99 5.2 Walls and constraints 99 5.3 Energy 100 5.4 Microstates 100 5.5 Thermodynamic observables and thermal fluctuations 100 5.6 Thermodynamic degrees of freedom 102 5.7 Thermal contact and thermal equilibrium 103 5.8 The zeroth law of thermodynamics 104 5.9 Temperature 104 5.10 The International Practical Temperature Scale 107 5.11 Equations of state 107 5.12 Isotherms 108 5.13 Processes 109 5.13.1 Nondissipative work 109 5.13.2 Dissipative work 111 5.13.3 Heat flow 112 5.14 Internal energy and heat 112 5.14.1 Joule’s experiments and internal energy 112 5.14.2 Heat 113 5.15 Partial derivatives 115 5.16 Heat capacity and specific heat 116 5.16.1 Constant-volume heat capacity 117 5.16.2 Constant-pressure heat capacity 117 5.17 Applications of the first law to ideal gases 118 5.18 Difference of constant-pressure and constant-volume heat capacities 119 5.19 Nondissipative-compression/expansion adiabat of an ideal gas 120 6 Quantum States and Temperature 125 6.1 Quantum states 125 6.2 Effects of interactions 128 6.3 Statistical meaning of temperature 130 6.4 The Boltzmann distribution 134 7 Microstate Probabilities and Entropy 141 7.1 Definition of general entropy 141 7.2 Law of increase of entropy 142 7.3 Equilibrium entropy S 144 7.4 Additivity of the entropy 146 7.5 Statistical–mechanical description of the three types of energy transfer 147 8 The Ideal Monatomic Gas 151 8.1 Quantum states of a particle in a three-dimensional box 151 8.2 The velocity-component distribution and internal energy 153 8.3 The speed distribution 156 8.4 The equation of state 158 8.5 Mean free path and thermal conductivity 160 9 Applications of Classical Thermodynamics 163 9.1 Entropy statement of the second law of thermodynamics 163 9.2 Temperature statement of the second law of thermodynamics 164 9.3 Summary of the basic relations 166 9.4 Heat engines and the heat-engine statement of the second law of thermodynamics 167 9.5 Refrigerators and heat pumps 169 9.6 Example of a Carnot cycle 170 9.7 The third law of thermodynamics 172 9.8 Entropy-change calculations 174 10 Thermodynamic Potentials and Derivatives 177 10.1 Thermodynamic potentials 177 10.2 The Maxwell relations 179 10.3 Calculation of thermodynamic derivatives 180 11 Matter Transfer and Phase Diagrams 183 11.1 The chemical potential 183 11.2 Direction of matter flow 184 11.3 Isotherms and phase diagrams 184 11.4 The Euler relation 187 11.5 The Gibbs–Duhem relation 188 11.6 Slopes of coexistence lines in phase diagrams 188 12 Fermi–Dirac and Bose–Einstein Statistics 191 12.1 The Gibbs grand canonical probability distribution 191 12.2 Systems of noninteracting particles 193 12.3 Indistinguishability of identical particles 194 12.4 The Fermi–Dirac and Bose–Einstein distributions 195 12.5 The entropies of noninteracting fermions and bosons 197 III MANY-BODY THEORY 199 13 Quantum Mechanics and Low-Temperature Thermodynamics of Many-Particle Systems 201 13.1 Introduction 201 13.2 Systems of noninteracting particles 201 13.2.1 Bose systems 202 13.2.2 Fermi systems 204 13.3 Systems of interacting particles 209 13.4 Systems of interacting fermions (the Fermi liquid) 211 13.5 The Landau theory of the normal Fermi liquid 214 13.6 Collective excitations of a Fermi liquid 221 13.6.1 Zero sound in a neutral Fermi gas with repulsive interactions 221 13.6.2 Plasma oscillations in a charged Fermi liquid 221 13.7 Phonons and other excitations 223 13.7.1 Phonons in crystals 223 13.7.2 Phonons in liquid helium-4 232 13.7.3 Magnons in solids 233 13.7.4 Polarons and excitons 233 14 Second Quantization 235 14.1 The occupation-number representation 235 14.2 Particle-field operators 246 15 Gas of Interacting Electrons 251 15.1 Hamiltonian of an electron gas 251 16 Superconductivity 261 16.1 Superconductors 261 16.2 The theory of Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer 262 16.2.1 Cooper pairs 267 16.2.2 Calculation of the ground-state energy 269 16.2.3 First excited states 277 16.2.4 Thermodynamics of superconductors 280 IV CLASSICAL FIELD THEORY AND RELATIVITY 287 17 The Classical Theory of Fields 289 17.1 Mathematical preliminaries 289 17.1.1 Behavior of fields under coordinate transformations 289 17.1.2 Properties of the rotation matrix 293 17.1.3 Proof that a “dot product” is a scalar 295 17.1.4 A lemma on determinants 297 17.1.5 Proof that the “cross product” of two vectors is a “pseudovector” 298 17.1.6 Useful index relations 299 17.1.7 Use of index relations to prove vector identities 300 17.1.8 General definition of tensors of arbitrary rank 301 17.2 Introduction to Einsteinian relativity 302 17.2.1 Intervals 302 17.2.2 Timelike and spacelike intervals 304 17.2.3 The light cone 304 17.2.4 Variational principle for free motion 305 17.2.5 The Lorentz transformation 305 17.2.6 Length contraction and time dilation 307 17.2.7 Transformation of velocities 308 17.2.8 Four-tensors 308 17.2.9 Integration in four-space 314 17.2.10 Integral theorems 316 17.2.11 Four-velocity and four-acceleration 317 17.3 Principle of least action 318 17.3.1 Free particle 318 17.3.2 Three-space formulation 318 17.3.3 Momentum and energy of a free particle 319 17.3.4 Four-space formulation 321 17.4 Motion of a particle in a given electromagnetic field 325 17.4.1 Equations of motion of a charge in an electromagnetic field 326 17.4.2 Gauge invariance 328 17.4.3 Four-space derivation of the equations of motion 329 17.4.4 Lorentz transformation of the electromagnetic field 332 17.4.5 Lorentz invariants constructed from the electromagnetic field 334 17.4.6 The first pair of Maxwell equations 335 17.5 Dynamics of the electromagnetic field 337 17.5.1 The four-current and the second pair of Maxwell equations 338 17.5.2 Energy density and energy flux density of the electromagnetic field 342 17.6 The energy–momentum tensor 345 17.6.1 Energy–momentum tensor of the electromagnetic field 350 17.6.2 Energy–momentum tensor of particles 353 17.6.3 Energy–momentum tensor of continuous media 355 18 General Relativity 361 18.1 Introduction 361 18.2 Space–time metrics 362 18.3 Curvilinear coordinates 364 18.4 Products of tensors 365 18.5 Contraction of tensors 366 18.6 The unit tensor 366 18.7 Line element 366 18.8 Tensor inverses 366 18.9 Raising and lowering of indices 367 18.10 Integration in curved space–time 367 18.11 Covariant differentiation 369 18.12 Parallel transport of vectors 370 18.13 Curvature 374 18.14 The Einstein field equations 376 18.15 Equation of motion of a particle in a gravitational field 381 18.16 Newton’s law of gravity 383 V RELATIVISTIC QUANTUM MECHANICS AND GAUGE THEORIES 385 19 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 387 19.1 The Dirac equation 387 19.2 Lorentz and rotational covariance of the Dirac equation 391 19.3 The current four-vector 398 19.4 Compact form of the Dirac equation 400 19.5 Dirac wave function of a free particle 401 19.6 Motion of an electron in an electromagnetic field 405 19.7 Behavior of spinors under spatial inversion 408 19.8 Unitarity properties of the spinor-transformation matrices 409 19.9 Proof that the four-current is a four-vector 411 19.10 Interpretation of the negative-energy states 412 19.11 Charge conjugation 413 19.12 Time reversal 414 19.13 PCT symmetry 417 19.14 Models of the weak interaction 422 20 Gauge Theories of Quark and Lepton Interactions 427 20.1 Global phase invariance 427 20.2 Local phase invariance? 427 20.3 Other global phase invariances 429 20.4 SU(2) local phase invariance (a non-abelian gauge theory) 433 20.5 The “gauging” of color SU(3) (quantum chromodynamics) 436 20.6 The weak interaction 436 20.7 The Higgs mechanism 439 20.8 The fermion masses 448 Appendices 451 A.1 Proof that the scattering states |φ+ ≡ Ω+|φ exist for all states |φ in the Hilbert space H 451 A.2 The scattering matrix in momentum space 452 A.3 Calculation of the free Green function r|G0(z)|r 454 Supplementary Reading 457 Index 459

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Book SynopsisThis textbook brings together the fundamentals of the macroscopic and microscopic aspects of thermal physics by presenting thermodynamics and statistical mechanics as complementary theories based on small numbers of postulates.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Part I Elements of Thermal Physics 1 1. Fundamentals 3 1.1 PVT Systems 3 1.2 Equilibrium States 6 1.3 Processes and Heat 10 1.4 Temperature 12 1.5 Size Dependence 13 1.6 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 14 Problems 17 2. First Law of Thermodynamics 19 2.1 Work 19 2.2 Heat 21 2.3 The First Law 21 2.4 Applications 22 Problems 26 3. Properties and Partial Derivatives 27 3.1 Conventions 27 3.2 Equilibrium Properties 28 3.3 Relationships between Properties 34 3.4 Series Expansions 40 3.5 Summary 41 Problems 42 4. Processes in Gases 45 4.1 Ideal Gases 45 4.2 Temperature Change with Elevation 48 4.3 Cyclic Processes 50 4.4 Heat Engines 52 Problems 58 5. Phase Transitions 61 5.1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases 61 5.2 Latent Heats 65 5.3 Van der Waals Model 67 5.4 Classification of Phase Transitions 70 Problems 72 6. Reversible and Irreversible Processes 75 6.1 Idealization and Reversibility 75 6.2 Nonequilibrium Processes and Irreversibility 76 6.3 Electrical Systems 79 6.4 Heat Conduction 82 Problems 86 Part II Foundations of Thermodynamics 89 7. Second Law of Thermodynamics 91 7.1 Energy, Heat, and Reversibility 91 7.2 Cyclic Processes 93 7.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics 95 7.4 Carnot Cycles 98 7.5 Absolute Temperature 100 7.6 Applications 103 Problems 107 8. Temperature Scales and Absolute Zero 109 8.1 Temperature Scales 109 8.2 Uniform Scales and Absolute Zero 111 8.3 Other Temperature Scales 114 Problems 115 9. State Space and Differentials 117 9.1 Spaces 117 9.2 Differentials 121 9.3 Exact Versus Inexact Differentials 123 9.4 Integrating Differentials 127 9.5 Differentials in Thermodynamics 129 9.6 Discussion and Summary 134 Problems 136 10. Entropy 139 10.1 Definition of Entropy 139 10.2 Clausius’ Theorem 142 10.3 Entropy Principle 145 10.4 Entropy and Irreversibility 148 10.5 Useful Energy 151 10.6 The Third Law 155 10.7 Unattainability of Absolute Zero 156 Problems 158 Appendix 10.A. Entropy Statement of the Second Law 158 11. Consequences of Existence of Entropy 165 11.1 Differentials of Entropy and Energy 165 11.2 Ideal Gases 167 11.3 Relationships Between CV, CP, BT , BS, and αV 170 11.4 Clapeyron’s Equation 172 11.5 Maximum Entropy, Equilibrium, and Stability 174 11.6 Mixing 178 Problems 184 12. Thermodynamic Potentials 185 12.1 Internal Energy 185 12.2 Free Energies 186 12.3 Properties From Potentials 188 12.4 Systems in Contact with a Heat Reservoir 193 12.5 Minimum Free Energy 194 Problems 197 Appendix 12.A. Derivatives of Potentials 197 13. Phase Transitions and Open Systems 201 13.1 Two-Phase Equilibrium 201 13.2 Chemical Potential 206 13.3 Multi-Component Systems 211 13.4 Gibbs Phase Rule 214 13.5 Chemical Reactions 215 Problems 217 14. Dielectric and Magnetic Systems 219 14.1 Dielectrics 219 14.2 Magnetic Materials 224 14.3 Critical Phenomena 229 Problems 233 Part III Statistical Thermodynamics 235 15. Molecular Models 237 15.1 Microscopic Descriptions 237 15.2 Gas Pressure 238 15.3 Equipartition of Energy 243 15.4 Internal Energy of Solids 246 15.5 Inactive Degrees of Freedom 247 15.6 Microscopic Significance of Heat 248 Problems 253 16. Kinetic Theory of Gases 255 16.1 Velocity Distribution 255 16.2 Combinatorics 256 16.3 Method of Undetermined Multipliers 258 16.4 Maxwell Distribution 260 16.5 Mean-Free-Path 265 Problems 267 Appendix 16.A. Quantum Distributions 267 17. Microscopic Significance of Entropy 273 17.1 Boltzmann Entropy 273 17.2 Ideal Gas 274 17.3 Statistical Interpretation 278 17.4 Thermodynamic Properties 279 17.5 Boltzmann Factors 284 Problems 286 Appendix 17.A. Evaluation of I3N 286 Part IV Statistical Mechanics I 289 18. Ensembles 291 18.1 Probabilities and Averages 291 18.2 Two-Level Systems 293 18.3 Information Theory 295 18.4 Equilibrium Ensembles 298 18.5 Canonical Thermodynamics 302 18.6 Composite Systems 305 Problems 308 Appendix 18.A. Uniqueness Theorem 308 19. Partition Function 311 19.1 Hamiltonians and Phase Space 311 19.2 Model Hamiltonians 312 19.3 Classical Canonical Ensemble 316 19.4 Thermodynamic Properties and Averages 318 19.5 Ideal Gases 322 19.6 Harmonic Solids 326 Problems 328 20. Quantum Systems 331 20.1 Energy Eigenstates 331 20.2 Quantum Canonical Ensemble 333 20.3 Ideal Gases 334 20.4 Einstein Model 337 20.5 Classical Approximation 341 Problems 344 Appendix 20.A. Ideal Gas Eigenstates 344 21. Independent Particles and Paramagnetism 349 21.1 Averages 349 21.2 Statistical Independence 351 21.3 Classical Systems 353 21.4 Paramagnetism 357 21.5 Spin Systems 360 21.6 Classical Dipoles 365 Problems 367 Appendix 21.A. Negative Temperature 367 22. Fluctuations and Energy Distributions 371 22.1 Standard Deviation 371 22.2 Energy Fluctuations 375 22.3 Gibbs Paradox 376 22.4 Microcanonical Ensemble 380 22.5 Comparison of Ensembles 386 Problems 391 23. Generalizations and Diatomic Gases 393 23.1 Generalized Coordinates 393 23.2 Diatomic Gases 397 23.3 Quantum Effects 402 23.4 Density Matrices 405 23.5 Canonical Ensemble 408 Problems 410 Appendix 23.A. Classical Approximation 410 Part V Statistical Mechanics II 415 24. Photons and Phonons 417 24.1 Plane Wave Eigenstates 417 24.2 Photons 421 24.3 Harmonic Approximation 425 24.4 Phonons 429 Problems 434 25. Grand Canonical Ensemble 435 25.1 Thermodynamics of Open Systems 435 25.2 Grand Canonical Ensemble 437 25.3 Properties and Fluctuations 438 25.4 Ideal Gases 441 Problems 443 26. Fermions and Bosons 445 26.1 Identical Particles 445 26.2 Exchange Symmetry 447 26.3 Fermi–Dirac and Bose–Einstein Statistics 452 Problems 456 Appendix 26.A. Fermions in the Canonical Ensemble 457 27. Fermi and Bose Gases 461 27.1 Ideal Gases 461 27.2 Fermi Gases 465 27.3 Low Temperature Heat Capacity 466 27.4 Bose Gases 469 Problems 472 28. Interacting Systems 475 28.1 Ising Model 475 28.2 Nonideal Gases 481 Problems 487 29. Computer Simulations 489 29.1 Averages 489 29.2 Virial Formula for Pressure 490 29.3 Simulation Algorithms 496 A. Mathematical Relations, Constants, and Properties 501 A.1 Partial Derivatives 501 A.2 Integrals and Series 501 A.3 Taylor Series 502 A.4 Hyperbolic Functions 502 A.5 Fundamental Constants 503 A.6 Conversion Factors 503 A.7 Useful Formulas 503 A.8 Properties of Water 504 A.9 Properties of Materials 504 Answers to Problems 505 Index 509

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface ix Constants and Symbols x 1 Introducing General Relativity 1 2 A Special Relativity Reminder 3 2.1 The need for Special Relativity 4 2.2 The Lorentz transformation 6 2.3 Time dilation 8 2.4 Lorentz–Fitzgerald contraction 9 2.5 Addition of velocities 11 2.6 Simultaneity, colocality, and causality 12 2.7 Space–time diagrams 13 3 Tensors in Special Relativity 17 3.1 Coordinates 18 3.2 4-vectors 20 3.3 4-velocity, 4-momentum, and 4-acceleration 24 3.4 4-divergence and the wave operator 26 3.5 Tensors 28 3.6 Tensors in action: the Lorentz force 30 4 Towards General Relativity 37 4.1 Newtonian gravity 37 4.2 Special Relativity and gravity 39 4.3 Motivations for a General Theory of Relativity 41 4.3.1 Mach’s Principle 42 4.3.2 Einstein’s Equivalence Principle 42 4.4 Implications of the Equivalence Principle 44 4.4.1 Gravitational redshift 45 4.4.2 Gravitational time dilation 46 4.5 Principles of the General Theory of Relativity 47 4.6 Towards curved space–time 49 4.7 Curved space in two dimensions 50 5 Tensors and Curved Space–Time 57 5.1 General coordinate transformations 57 5.2 Tensor equations and the laws of physics 59 5.3 Partial differentiation of tensors 59 5.4 The covariant derivative and parallel transport 60 5.5 Christoffel symbols of a two-sphere 65 5.6 Parallel transport on a two-sphere 66 5.7 Curvature and the Riemann tensor 68 5.8 Riemann curvature of the two-sphere 71 5.9 More tensors describing curvature 72 5.10 Local inertial frames and local flatness 73 6 Describing Matter 79 6.1 The Correspondence Principle 79 6.2 The energy–momentum tensor 80 6.2.1 General properties 80 6.2.2 Conservation laws and 4-vector flux 81 6.2.3 Energy and momentum belong in a rank-2 tensor 83 6.2.4 Symmetry of the energy–momentum tensor 84 6.2.5 Energy–momentum of perfect fluids 84 6.2.6 The energy–momentum tensor in curved space–time 87 7 The Einstein Equation 91 7.1 The form of the Einstein equation 91 7.2 Properties of the Einstein equation 93 7.3 The Newtonian limit 93 7.4 The cosmological constant 95 7.5 The vacuum Einstein equation 96 8 The Schwarzschild Space–time 99 8.1 Christoffel symbols 100 8.2 Riemann tensor 101 8.3 Ricci tensor 102 8.4 The Schwarzschild solution 103 8.5 The Jebsen–Birkhoff theorem 104 9 Geodesics and Orbits 109 9.1 Geodesics 109 9.2 Non-relativistic limit of geodesic motion 112 9.3 Geodesic deviation 113 9.4 Newtonian theory of orbits 115 9.5 Orbits in the Schwarzschild space–time 117 9.5.1 Massive particles 117 9.5.2 Photon orbits 120 10 Tests of General Relativity 123 10.1 Precession of Mercury’s perihelion 123 10.2 Gravitational light bending 125 10.3 Radar echo delays 127 10.4 Gravitational redshift 129 10.5 Binary pulsar PSR 1913+16 131 10.6 Direct detection of gravitational waves 135 11 Black Holes 139 11.1 The Schwarzschild radius 139 11.2 Singularities 140 11.3 Radial rays in the Schwarzschild space–time 141 11.4 Schwarzschild coordinate systems 143 11.5 The black hole space–time 145 11.6 Special orbits around black holes 147 11.7 Black holes in physics and in astrophysics 148 12 Cosmology 155 12.1 Constant-curvature spaces 156 12.2 The metric of the Universe 158 12.3 The matter content of the Universe 158 12.4 The Einstein equations 159 13 Cosmological Models 165 13.1 Simple solutions: matter and radiation 165 13.2 Light travel, distances, and horizons 169 13.2.1 Light travel in the cosmological metric 169 13.2.2 Cosmological redshift 170 13.2.3 The expansion rate 171 13.2.4 The age of the Universe 172 13.2.5 The distance–redshift relation and Hubble’s law 172 13.2.6 Cosmic horizons 173 13.2.7 The luminosity and angular-diameter distances 174 13.3 Ingredients for a realistic cosmological model 175 13.4 Accelerating cosmologies 180 14 General Relativity: The Next 100 Years 183 14.1 Developing General Relativity 183 14.2 Beyond General Relativity 184 14.3 Into the future 187 Advanced Topic A1 Geodesics in the Schwarzschild Space–Time 191 A1.1 Geodesics and conservation laws 191 A1.2 Schwarzschild geodesics for massive particles 192 A1.3 Schwarzschild geodesics for massless particles 194 Advanced Topic A2 The Solar System Tests in Detail 197 A2.1 Newtonian orbits in detail 197 A2.2 Perihelion shift in General Relativity 201 A2.3 Light deflection 204 A2.4 Time delay 205 Advanced Topic A3 Weak Gravitational Fields and Gravitational Waves 209 A3.1 Nearly-flat space–times 209 A3.2 Gravitational waves 211 A3.3 Sources of gravitational waves 214 Advanced Topic A4 Gravitational Wave Sources and Detection 219 A4.1 Gravitational waves from compact binaries 220 A4.2 The energy in gravitational waves 223 A4.3 Binary inspiral 224 A4.4 Detecting gravitational waves 227 A4.4.1 Laser interferometers 227 A4.4.2 Pulsar timing 230 A4.4.3 Interferometers in space 231 Bibliography 233 Answers to Selected Problems 237 Index 263

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Book SynopsisA multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science. Lord Kelvin Measurement is at the heart of any engineering and scientific discipline and job function. Whether engineers and scientists are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful data. The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering and scientific measurementsbeyond Table of ContentsVOLUME 3 List of Contributors xxi PREFACE xxv Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943 54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles 54.1 Introduction, 1945 54.1.1 History and Development of the MASER, 1945 54.1.2 Basic Laser Physics, 1946 54.1.3 Laser Beam Characteristics, 1951 54.1.4 Example: CO2 Laser Pumped Far‐Infrared Gas Laser Systems, 1956 54.1.5 Heterodyned Detection, 1959 54.1.6 Transformation of Multimode Laser Beams from THz Quantum Cascade Lasers, 1962 54.1.7 Suggested Reading, 1965 54.2 Laser Measurements: Laser‐Based Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965 54.2.1 ISAR Theory, 1966 54.2.2 DFT in Radar Imaging, 1967 54.2.3 Signal Processing Considerations: Sampling Theory, 1970 54.2.4 Measurement Calibration, 1971 54.2.5 Example Terahertz Compact Radar Range, 1972 54.2.6 Suggested Reading, 1974 54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974 54.3.1 Imaging System Measurement Parameters, 1975 54.3.2 Terahertz Polarized Reflection Imaging of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers, 1981 54.3.3 Confocal Imaging, 1985 54.3.4 Optical Coherence Tomography, 1987 54.3.5 Femtosecond Laser Imaging, 1990 54.3.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy, 1996 54.3.7 Suggested Reading, 1997 References, 1997 55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001Byung I. Kim 55.1 Introduction, 2001 55.2 Experiment, 2004 55.2.1 Principle, 2004 55.2.2 Instrumentation, 2004 55.2.3 Approach, 2005 55.3 Results and Discussion, 2006 55.3.1 Separation of Topographic Features from Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect, 2007 55.3.2 Effects of Long‐Range Tip–Sample Interaction on Magnetic Force Imaging: A Comparative Study Between Bimorph‐Driven System and Electrostatic Force Modulation, 2012 55.4 Conclusion, 2020 References, 2021 56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025Kwok‐Wai Ng 56.1 Introduction, 2025 56.2 Theory of Operation, 2026 56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current, 2030 56.4 The Scanner, 2032 56.5 Operating Mode, 2035 56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism, 2036 56.7 Summary, 2041 References, 2042 57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043John D. Bullough 57.1 Introduction, 2043 57.2 Lighting Terminology, 2043 57.2.1 Fundamental Light and Color Terms, 2043 57.2.2 Terms Describing the Amount and Distribution of Light, 2047 57.2.3 Terms Describing Lighting Technologies and Performance, 2048 57.2.4 Common Quantities Used in Lighting Specification, 2052 57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry, 2056 57.3.1 Photometry, 2056 57.3.2 Colorimetry, 2063 57.4 Instrumentation, 2072 57.4.1 Illuminance Meters, 2072 57.4.2 Luminance Meters, 2072 57.4.3 Spectroradiometers, 2074 References, 2074 58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075Clair J. Sullivan 58.1 Introduction, 2075 58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation, 2076 58.2.1 Radiation Interactions, 2076 58.3 The Measurement of Charge, 2077 58.3.1 Counting Statistics, 2078 58.3.2 The Two Measurement Modalities, 2080 58.4 Major Types of Detectors, 2081 58.4.1 Gas Detectors, 2081 58.4.2 Ionization Chambers, 2086 58.4.3 Proportional Counters, 2090 58.4.4 GM Detectors, 2092 58.4.5 Scintillators, 2092 58.4.6 Readout of Scintillation Light, 2094 58.4.7 Semiconductors, 2096 58.5 Neutron Detection, 2100 58.5.1 Thermal Neutron Detection, 2102 58.5.2 Fast Neutron Detection, 2104 58.6 Concluding Remarks, 2106 References, 2106 59 Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks 2109Judah Levine 59.1 Introduction, 2109 59.2 A Generic Clock, 2109 59.3 Characterizing the Stability of Clocks and Oscillators, 2110 59.3.1 Worst‐Case Analysis, 2111 59.3.2 Statistical Analysis and the Allan Variance, 2113 59.3.3 Limitations of the Statistics, 2116 59.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Oscillators, 2117 59.5 Comparing Clocks and Oscillators, 2119 59.6 Noise Models, 2121 59.6.1 White Phase Noise, 2121 59.6.2 White Frequency Noise, 2122 59.6.3 Long‐Period Effects: Frequency Aging, 2123 59.6.4 Flicker Noise, 2124 59.7 Measuring Tools and Methods, 2126 59.8 Measurement Strategies, 2129 59.9 The Kalman Estimator, 2133 59.10 Transmitting Time and Frequency Information, 2135 59.10.1 Modeling the Delay, 2136 59.10.2 The Common‐View Method, 2137 59.10.3 The “Melting‐Pot” Version of Common View, 2138 59.10.4 Two‐Way Methods, 2139 59.10.5 The Two‐Color Method, 2139 59.11 Examples of the Measurement Strategies, 2141 59.11.1 The Navigation Satellites of the GPS, 2141 59.11.2 The One‐Way Method of Time Transfer: Modeling the Delay, 2144 59.11.3 The Common‐View Method, 2145 59.11.4 Two‐Way Time Protocols, 2147 59.12 The Polling Interval: How Often Should I Calibrate a Clock?, 2152 59.13 Error Detection, 2155 59.14 Cost–Benefit Analysis, 2156 59.15 The National Time Scale, 2157 59.16 Traceability, 2158 59.17 Summary, 2159 59.18 Bibliography, 2160 References, 2160 60 Laboratory‐Based Gravity Measurement 2163Charles D. Hoyle, Jr. 60.1 Introduction, 2163 60.2 Motivation for Laboratory‐Scale Tests of Gravitational Physics, 2164 60.3 Parameterization, 2165 60.4 Current Status of Laboratory‐Scale Gravitational Measurements, 2166 60.4.1 Tests of the ISL, 2166 60.4.2 WEP Tests, 2167 60.4.3 Measurements of G, 2167 60.5 Torsion Pendulum Experiments, 2167 60.5.1 General Principles and Sensitivity, 2168 60.5.2 Fundamental Limitations, 2168 60.5.3 ISL Experiments, 2171 60.5.4 Future ISL Tests, 2172 60.5.5 WEP Tests, 2176 60.5.6 Measurements of G, 2176 60.6 Microoscillators and Submicron Tests of Gravity, 2177 60.6.1 Microcantilevers, 2177 60.6.2 Very Short‐Range ISL Tests, 2177 60.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Techniques, 2178 Acknowledgements, 2178 References, 2178 61 Cryogenic Measurements 2181Ray Radebaugh 61.1 Introduction, 2181 61.2 Temperature, 2182 61.2.1 ITS‐90 Temperature Scale and Primary Standards, 2182 61.2.2 Commercial Thermometers, 2183 61.2.3 Thermometer Use and Comparisons, 2193 61.2.4 Dynamic Temperature Measurements, 2199 61.3 Strain, 2201 61.3.1 Metal Alloy Strain Gages, 2202 61.3.2 Temperature Effects, 2203 61.3.3 Magnetic Field Effects, 2204 61.3.4 Measurement System, 2205 61.3.5 Dynamic Measurements, 2205 61.4 Pressure, 2205 61.4.1 Capacitance Pressure Sensors, 2206 61.4.2 Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensors, 2206 61.4.3 Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors, 2208 61.4.4 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors, 2210 61.5 Flow, 2211 61.5.1 Positive Displacement Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2212 61.5.2 Angular Momentum Flowmeter (Mass Flow), 2212 61.5.3 Turbine Flowmeter (Volume Flow), 2213 61.5.4 Differential Pressure Flowmeter, 2213 61.5.5 Thermal or Calorimetric (Mass Flow), 2216 61.5.6 Hot‐Wire Anemometer (Mass Flow), 2217 61.6 Liquid Level, 2218 61.7 Magnetic Field, 2219 61.8 Conclusions, 2220 References, 2220 62 Temperature‐Dependent Fluorescence Measurements 2225James E. Parks, Michael R. Cates, Stephen W. Allison, David L. Beshears, M. Al Akerman, and Matthew B. Scudiere 62.1 Introduction, 2225 62.2 Advantages of Phosphor Thermometry, 2227 62.3 Theory and Background, 2227 62.4 Laboratory Calibration of Tp Systems, 2235 62.5 History of Phosphor Thermometry, 2238 62.6 Representative Measurement Applications, 2239 62.6.1 Permanent Magnet Rotor Measurement, 2239 62.6.2 Turbine Engine Component Measurement, 2240 62.7 Two‐Dimensional and Time‐Dependent Temperature Measurement, 2241 62.8 Conclusion, 2243 References, 2243 63 Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems 2245Carlo Muscas and Nicola Locci 63.1 Introduction, 2245 63.2 Characterization of Voltage and Current Transducers, 2247 63.3 Instrument Transformers, 2248 63.3.1 Theoretical Fundamentals and Characteristics, 2248 63.3.2 Instrument Transformers for Protective Purposes, 2252 63.3.3 Instrument Transformers under Nonsinusoidal Conditions, 2253 63.3.4 Capacitive Voltage Transformer, 2254 63.4 Transducers Based on Passive Components, 2255 63.4.1 Shunts, 2255 63.4.2 Voltage Dividers, 2256 63.4.3 Isolation Amplifiers, 2257 63.5 Hall‐Effect and Zero‐Flux Transducers, 2258 63.5.1 The Hall Effect, 2258 63.5.2 Open‐Loop Hall‐Effect Transducers, 2259 63.5.3 Closed‐Loop Hall‐Effect Transducers, 2259 63.5.4 Zero‐Flux Transducers, 2262 63.6 Air‐Core Current Transducers: Rogowski Coils, 2262 63.7 Optical Current and Voltage Transducers, 2267 63.7.1 Optical Current Transducers, 2268 63.7.2 Optical Voltage Transducer, 2271 63.7.3 Applications of OCTs and OVTs, 2272 References and Further Reading, 2273 64 Electric Power and Energy Measurement 2275Alessandro Ferrero and Marco Faifer 64.1 Introduction, 2275 64.2 Power and Energy in Electric Circuits, 2276 64.2.1 DC Circuits, 2276 64.2.2 AC Circuits, 2277 64.3 Measurement Methods, 2282 64.3.1 DC Conditions, 2282 64.3.2 AC Conditions, 2285 64.4 Wattmeters, 2288 64.4.1 Architecture, 2288 64.4.2 Signal Processing, 2289 64.5 Transducers, 2290 64.5.1 Current Transformers, 2291 64.5.2 Hall‐Effect Sensors, 2296 64.5.3 Rogowski Coils, 2297 64.5.4 Voltage Transformers, 2299 64.5.5 Electronic Transformers, 2302 64.6 Power Quality Measurements, 2303 References, 2305 Part Viii CHEMISTRY 2307 65 An Overview of Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences 2309Brad Swarbrick and Frank Westad 65.1 Introduction: The Past and Present of Chemometrics, 2309 65.2 Representative Data, 2311 65.2.1 A Suggested Workflow for Developing Chemometric Models, 2313 65.2.2 Accuracy and Precision, 2313 65.2.3 Summary of Representative Data Principles, 2316 65.3 Exploratory Data Analysis, 2317 65.3.1 Univariate and Multivariate Analysis, 2317 65.3.2 Cluster Analysis, 2318 65.3.3 Principal Component Analysis, 2323 65.4 Multivariate Regression, 2352 65.4.1 General Principles of Univariate and Multivariate Regression, 2352 65.4.2 Multiple Linear Regression, 2354 65.4.3 Principal Component Regression, 2355 65.4.4 Partial Least Squares Regression, 2356 65.5 Multivariate Classification, 2369 65.5.1 Linear Discriminant Analysis, 2370 65.5.2 Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy, 2372 65.5.3 Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis, 2381 65.5.4 Support Vector Machine Classification, 2383 65.6 Techniques for Validating Chemometric Models, 2385 65.6.1 Test Set Validation, 2386 65.6.2 Cross Validation, 2388 65.7 An Introduction to Mspc, 2389 65.7.1 Multivariate Projection, 2389 65.7.2 Hotelling’s T2 Control Chart, 2390 65.7.3 Q‐Residuals, 2391 65.7.4 Influence Plot, 2391 65.7.5 Continuous versus Batch Monitoring, 2392 65.7.6 Implementing MSPC in Practice, 2394 65.8 Terminology, 2397 65.9 Chapter Summary, 2401 References, 2404 66 Liquid Chromatography 2409Zhao Li, Sandya Beeram, Cong Bi, Ellis Kaufmann, Ryan Matsuda, Maria Podariu, Elliott Rodriguez, Xiwei Zheng, and David S. Hage 66.1 Introduction, 2409 66.2 Support Materials in Lc, 2412 66.3 Role of the Mobile Phase in Lc, 2413 66.4 Adsorption Chromatography, 2414 66.5 Partition Chromatography, 2415 66.6 Ion‐Exchange Chromatography, 2417 66.7 Size‐Exclusion Chromatography, 2419 66.8 Affinity Chromatography, 2421 66.9 Detectors for Liquid Chromatography, 2423 66.10 Other Components of Lc Systems, 2426 Acknowledgements, 2427 References, 2427 67 Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine‐Containing Proteins 2431Xianquan Zhan and Dominic M. Desiderio 67.1 Introduction, 2431 67.1.1 Formation, Chemical Properties, and Related Nomenclature of Tyrosine Nitration, 2431 67.1.2 Biological Roles of Tyrosine Nitration in a Protein, 2432 67.1.3 Challenge and Strategies to Identify a Nitroprotein with Mass Spectrometry, 2432 67.1.4 Biological Significance Measurement of Nitroproteins, 2434 67.2 Mass Spectrometric Characteristics of Nitropeptides, 2434 67.2.1 MALDI‐MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide, 2434 67.2.2 ESI‐MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide, 2437 67.2.3 Optimum Collision Energy for Ion Fragmentation and Detection Sensitivity for a Nitropeptide, 2438 67.2.4 MS/MS Spectral Characteristics of a Nitropeptide under Different Ion‐Fragmentation Models, 2440 67.3 Ms Measurement of in vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2443 67.3.1 Importance of Measurement of In Vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2443 67.3.2 Commonly Used In Vitro Nitroproteins and Their Preparation, 2443 67.3.3 Methods Used to Measure in Vitro Synthetic Nitroproteins, 2444 67.4 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins, 2446 67.4.1 Importance of Isolation and Enrichment of In Vivo Nitroprotein/Nitropeptide Prior to MS Analysis, 2446 67.4.2 Methods Used to Isolate and Enrich In Vivo Nitroproteins/Nitropeptides, 2446 67.5 Ms Measurement of In Vivo Nitroproteins in Different Pathological Conditions, 2449 67.6 Biological Function Measurement of Nitroproteins, 2456 67.6.1 Literature Data‐Based Rationalization of Biological Functions, 2457 67.6.2 Protein Domain and Motif Analyses, 2459 67.6.3 Systems Pathway Analysis, 2459 67.6.4 Structural Biology Analysis, 2460 67.7 Pitfalls of Nitroprotein Measurement, 2462 67.8 Conclusions, 2463 Nomenclature, 2464 Acknowledgments, 2465 References, 2465 68 Fluorescence Spectroscopy 2475Yevgen Povrozin and Beniamino Barbieri 68.1 Observables Measured in Fluorescence, 2476 68.2 The Perrin–Jabłoński Diagram, 2476 68.3 Instrumentation, 2479 68.3.1 Light Source, 2480 68.3.2 Monochromator, 2480 68.3.3 Light Detectors, 2481 68.3.4 Instrumentation for Steady‐State Fluorescence: Analog and Photon Counting, 2483 68.3.5 The Measurement of Decay Times: Frequency‐Domain and Time‐Domain Techniques, 2484 68.4 Fluorophores, 2486 68.5 Measurements, 2487 68.5.1 Excitation Spectrum, 2487 68.5.2 Emission Spectrum, 2488 68.5.3 Decay Times of Fluorescence, 2490 68.5.4 Quantum Yield, 2492 68.5.5 Anisotropy and Polarization, 2492 68.6 Conclusions, 2498 References, 2498 Further Reading, 2498 69 X‐Ray Absorption Spectroscopy 2499Grant Bunker 69.1 Introduction, 2499 69.2 Basic Physics of X‐Rays, 2499 69.2.1 Units, 2500 69.2.2 X‐Ray Photons and Their Properties, 2500 69.2.3 X‐Ray Scattering and Diffraction, 2501 69.2.4 X‐Ray Absorption, 2502 69.2.5 Cross Sections and Absorption Edges, 2503 69.3 Experimental Requirements, 2505 69.4 Measurement Modes, 2507 69.5 Sources, 2507 69.5.1 Laboratory Sources, 2507 69.5.2 Synchrotron Radiation Sources, 2508 69.5.3 Bend Magnet Radiation, 2509 69.5.4 Insertion Devices: Wigglers and Undulators, 2509 69.6 Beamlines, 2512 69.6.1 Instrument Control and Scanning Modes, 2512 69.6.2 Double‐Crystal Monochromators, 2513 69.6.3 Focusing Conditions, 2514 69.6.4 X‐Ray Lenses and Mirrors, 2515 69.6.5 Harmonics, 2516 69.7 Detectors, 2518 69.7.1 Ionization Chambers and PIN Diodes, 2519 69.7.2 Solid‐State Detectors, SDDs, and APDs, 2520 69.8 Sample Preparation and Detection Modes, 2521 69.8.1 Transmission Mode, 2521 69.8.2 Fluorescence Mode, 2521 69.8.3 HALO, 2522 69.8.4 Sample Geometry and Background Rejection, 2523 69.8.5 Oriented Samples, 2525 69.9 Absolute Measurements, 2526 References, 2526 70 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 2529Kenneth R. Metz 70.1 Introduction, 2529 70.2 Historical Review, 2530 70.3 Basic Principles of Spin Magnetization, 2531 70.4 Exciting the NMR Signal, 2534 70.5 Detecting the NMR Signal, 2538 70.6 Computing the NMR Spectrum, 2540 70.7 NMR Instrumentation, 2542 70.8 The Basic Pulsed FTNMR Experiment, 2550 70.9 Characteristics of NMR Spectra, 2551 70.9.1 The Chemical Shift, 2552 70.9.2 Spin–Spin Coupling, 2557 70.10 NMR Relaxation Effects, 2563 70.10.1 Spin–Lattice Relaxation, 2563 70.10.2 Spin–Spin Relaxation, 2565 70.10.3 Quantitative Analysis by NMR, 2568 70.11 Dynamic Phenomena in NMR, 2568 70.12 Multidimensional NMR, 2573 70.13 Conclusion, 2580 References, 2580 71 Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Role in Scientific and Engineering Applications 2583Brad Swarbrick 71.1 Introduction to Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy and Historical Perspectives, 2583 71.1.1 A Brief Overview of Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Usage, 2583 71.1.2 A Short History of NIR, 2585 71.2 The Theory behind Nir Spectroscopy, 2588 71.2.1 IR Radiation, 2588 71.2.2 The Mechanism of Interaction of NIR Radiation with Matter, 2588 71.2.3 Absorbance Spectra, 2591 71.3 Instrumentation for Nir Spectroscopy, 2595 71.3.1 General Configuration of Instrumentation, 2595 71.3.2 Filter‐Based Instruments, 2597 71.3.3 Holographic Grating‐Based Instruments, 2598 71.3.4 Stationary Spectrographic Instruments, 2600 71.3.5 Fourier Transform Instruments, 2601 71.3.6 Acoustooptical Tunable Filter Instruments, 2603 71.3.7 Microelectromechanical Spectrometers, 2604 71.3.8 Linear Variable Filter Instruments, 2605 71.3.9 A Brief Overview of Detectors Used for NIR Spectroscopy, 2606 71.3.10 Summary, 2608 71.4 Modes of Spectral Collection and Sample Preparation in Nir Spectroscopy, 2609 71.4.1 Transmission Mode, 2609 71.4.2 Diffuse Reflectance, 2611 71.4.3 Sample Preparation, 2613 71.4.4 Fiber Optic Probes, 2617 71.4.5 Summary of Sampling Methods, 2619 71.5 Preprocessing of Nir Spectra for Chemometric Analysis, 2620 71.5.1 Preprocessing of NIR Spectra, 2621 71.5.2 Minimizing Additive Effects, 2621 71.5.3 Minimizing Multiplicative Effects, 2627 71.5.4 Preprocessing Summary, 2633 71.6 A Brief Overview of Applications of Nir Spectroscopy, 2633 71.6.1 Agricultural Applications, 2634 71.6.2 Pharmaceutical/Biopharmaceutical Applications, 2636 71.6.3 Applications in the Petrochemical and Refining Sectors, 2644 71.6.4 Applications in the Food and Beverage Industries, 2646 71.7 Summary and Future Perspectives, 2647 71.8 Terminology, 2648 References, 2652 72 Nanomaterials Properties 2657Paul J. Simmonds 72.1 Introduction, 2657 72.2 The Rise of Nanomaterials, 2660 72.3 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from High Surface‐Area‐to‐Volume Ratio, 2661 72.3.1 The Importance of Surfaces in Nanomaterials, 2661 72.3.2 Electrostatic and Van der Waals Forces, 2662 72.3.3 Color, 2663 72.3.4 Melting Point, 2663 72.3.5 Magnetism, 2664 72.3.6 Hydrophobicity and Surface Energetics, 2664 72.3.7 Nanofluidics, 2666 72.3.8 Nanoporosity, 2668 72.3.9 Nanomembranes, 2669 72.3.10 Nanocatalysis, 2670 72.3.11 Further Increasing the SAV Ratio, 2671 72.3.12 Nanopillars, 2672 72.3.13 Nanomaterial Functionalization, 2673 72.3.14 Other Applications for High SAV Ratio Nanomaterials, 2674 72.4 Nanomaterial Properties Resulting from Quantum Confinement, 2674 72.4.1 Quantum Well Nanostructures, 2677 72.4.2 Quantum Wire Nanostructures, 2682 72.4.3 Quantum Dot Nanostructures, 2691 72.5 Conclusions, 2695 References, 2695 73 Chemical Sensing 2707W. Rudolf Seitz 73.1 Introduction, 2707 73.2 Electrical Methods, 2709 73.2.1 Potentiometry, 2709 73.2.2 Voltammetry, 2713 73.2.3 Chemiresistors, 2715 73.2.4 Field Effect Transistors, 2716 73.3 Optical Methods, 2717 73.3.1 In situ Optical Measurements, 2717 73.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy, 2719 73.3.3 Indicator‐Based Optical Sensors, 2721 73.4 Mass Sensors, 2722 73.5 Sensor Arrays (Electronic Nose), 2724 References, 2724 Index 2727

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Book SynopsisSpintronics (short for spin electronics, or spin transport electronics) exploits both the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge, in solid-state devices.Table of ContentsList of Contributors Series Preface Preface Introduction Chapter 1: Fundamentals of magnetoresistance effectsK. Takanashi Chapter 2: Spintronics Materials with High Spin PolarizationY.K. Takahashi and K. Hono Chapter 3: Spin currentEijih Saitoh Chapter 4: Spin Hall effect and inverse spin Hall effectShuichi Murakami Chapter 5: Spin torque (domain wall drive, magnetization reversal)Akinobu Yamaguchi Chapter 6: Spin PumpingMatthias Althammer, Mathias Weiler, Hans Huebl, and Sebastian T.B.Goennenwein Chapter 7: Spin Seebeck effectJiang Xiao Chapter8: Spin conversion at magnetic interfacesTomoyasu Taniyama Chapter 9: Carbon-based SpintronicsMasashi Shiraishi Chapter 10: Silicon spintronics for next-generation devicesKohei Hamaya Chapter 11: Electric-field control of magnetism in ferromagnetic semiconductorsTomoteru Fukumura Chapter 12: Quantum information processing using nitrogen-vacancy centres in diamondNorikazu Mizuochi Chapter 13: Ultrafast light-induced spin reversal in amorphous rare earth-transition metal alloy filmsArata Sukamoto Index

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Book SynopsisCovers the fundamental principles behind optomechanical design This book emphasizes a practical, systems-level overview of optomechanical engineering, showing throughout how the requirements on the optical system flow down to those on the optomechanical design.Trade Review“The whole book is written in a very accessible style, and there are plenty of good exercises for the reader. It would be a good resource for engineers and research students entering the field.” (Optics & Photonics News, 4 September 2015) Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Optomechanical Systems, 2 1.2 Optomechanical Engineering, 4 1.3 Optomechanical Systems Engineering, 9 References, 15 2 Optical Fundamentals 17 2.1 Geometrical Optics, 18 2.2 Image Quality, 26 Problems, 33 References, 34 3 Optical Fabrication 35 3.1 Index of Refraction, 38 3.2 Surface Curvature, 41 3.3 Surface Figure, 43 3.4 Surface Finish, 48 3.5 Surface Quality, 49 3.6 Center Thickness, 50 3.7 Wedge, 51 3.8 Clear Aperture, 53 Problems, 54 References, 55 4 Optical Alignment 57 4.1 Types of Misalignments, 58 4.1.1 Tilt, 59 4.1.2 Decenter, 61 4.1.3 Despace, 62 4.1.4 Defocus, 62 4.2 Alignment Requirements, 64 4.3 Correction and Mitigation, 66 4.4 Pointing and Boresighting, 70 Problems, 75 References, 76 5 Structural Design—Mechanical Elements 77 5.1 Stress, Strain, and Stiffness, 78 5.2 Mechanics, 82 5.3 Beam Stresses and Strains, 85 5.3.1 Bending Stresses, 86 5.3.2 Bending Strain, 89 5.3.3 Shear Stresses and Strains, 94 5.4 Structural Geometries, 95 5.5 Structural Materials, 99 5.5.1 Specific Stiffness, 100 5.5.2 Microcreep, 102 5.5.3 Materials Selection, 103 Problems, 104 References, 105 6 Structural Design—Optical Components 107 6.1 Structural Plates, 109 6.1.1 Windows, Lenses, and Mirrors, 109 6.1.2 Poisson’s Ratio, 111 6.1.3 Plate Bending, 113 6.1.4 Contact Stresses, 115 6.1.5 Stress Concentrations, 120 6.2 Glass Strength, 122 6.2.1 Fracture Toughness, 122 6.2.2 Weibull Statistics, 126 Problems, 130 References, 131 7 Structural Design—Vibrations 133 7.1 Sinusoidal Vibrations, 137 7.1.1 Free Vibrations, 137 7.1.2 Forced Vibrations, 140 7.1.3 Damping, 142 7.2 Random Vibrations, 146 7.3 Continuous Systems, 150 7.4 Structural Design and Materials Selection, 157 7.5 Vibration Isolation, 159 7.6 Vibration Compensation, 166 Problems, 168 References, 169 8 Thermal Design 171 8.1 Thermostructural Design, 173 8.1.1 Thermal Expansion, 173 8.1.2 Thermal Stress, 178 8.2 Thermo‐Optic and Stress‐Optic Effects, 181 8.2.1 Thermo‐Optic Effect, 182 8.2.2 Stress‐Optic Effect, 185 8.3 Heat Transfer, 187 8.3.1 Conduction, 187 8.3.2 Convection, 193 8.3.3 Radiation, 196 8.4 Thermal Management, 201 8.4.1 Heaters, 202 8.4.2 Fans, 203 8.4.3 Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs), 203 8.4.4 Thermoelectric Coolers (TECs), 204 8.5 Material Properties and Selection, 205 8.5.1 Thermal Expansion, 206 8.5.2 Thermal Distortion, 207 8.5.3 Thermal Mass, 208 8.5.4 Thermal Diffusivity, 209 8.5.5 Thermal Shock, 210 Problems, 211 References, 212 9 Kinematic Design 215 9.1 Kinematic and Semi‐Kinematic Mounts, 216 9.2 Optical Component Mounts, 222 9.3 Positioning and Alignment Mechanisms, 227 9.4 Material Properties and Selection, 233 Problems, 235 References, 235 10 System Design 237 10.1 STOP Analysis, 239 10.2 WFE and Zernike Polynomials, 243 10.3 Material Trades, 246 References, 250 Index 251

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Book SynopsisFundamentals of Ship Hydrodynamics: Fluid Mechanics, Ship Resistance and Propulsion Lothar Birk, University of New Orleans, USA Bridging the information gap between fluid mechanics and ship hydrodynamics Fundamentals of Ship Hydrodynamics is designed as a textbook for undergraduate education in ship resistance and propulsion. The book provides connections between basic training in calculus and fluid mechanics and the application of hydrodynamics in daily ship design practice. Based on a foundation in fluid mechanics, the origin, use, and limitations of experimental and computational procedures for resistance and propulsion estimates are explained. The book is subdivided into sixty chapters, providing background material for individual lectures. The unabridged treatment of equations and the extensive use of figures and examples enable students to study details at their own pace. Key featuresTable of ContentsList of Figures xvii List of Tables xxvii Preface xxxi Acknowledgments xxxv About the Companion Website xxxvii 1 Ship Hydrodynamics 1 1.1 Calm Water Hydrodynamics 1 1.2 Ship Hydrodynamics and Ship Design 6 1.3 Available Tools 7 2 Ship Resistance 10 2.1 Total Resistance 10 2.2 Phenomenological Subdivision 11 2.3 Practical Subdivision 12 2.3.1 Froude's hypothesis 14 2.3.2 ITTC's method 15 2.4 Physical Subdivision 17 2.4.1 Body forces 18 2.4.2 Surface forces 18 2.5 Major Resistance Components 20 3 Fluid and Flow Properties 26 3.1 A Word on Notation 26 3.2 Fluid Properties 29 3.2.1 Properties of water 29 3.2.2 Properties of air 31 3.2.3 Acceleration of free fall 32 3.3 Modeling and Visualizing Flow 32 3.4 Pressure 35 4 Fluid Mechanics and Calculus 41 4.1 Substantial Derivative 41 4.2 Nabla Operator and Its Applications 44 4.2.1 Gradient 44 4.2.2 Divergence 45 4.2.3 Rotation 47 4.2.4 Laplace operator 48 5 Continuity Equation 50 5.1 Mathematical Models of Flow 50 5.2 Infinitesimal Fluid Element Fixed in Space 51 5.3 Finite Control Volume Fixed in Space 54 5.4 Infinitesimal Element Moving With the Fluid 55 5.5 Finite Control Volume Moving With the Fluid 55 5.6 Summary 56 6 Navier-Stokes Equations 59 6.1 Momentum 59 6.2 Conservation of Momentum 60 6.2.1 Time rate of change of momentum 60 6.2.2 Momentum flux over boundary 60 6.2.3 External forces 63 6.2.4 Conservation of momentum equations 65 6.3 Stokes' Hypothesis 66 6.4 Navier-Stokes Equations for a Newtonian Fluid 67 7 Special Cases of the Navier-Stokes Equations 71 7.1 Incompressible Fluid of Constant Temperature 71 7.2 Dimensionless Navier-Stokes Equations 75 8 Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations (RANSE) 82 8.1 Mean and Turbulent Velocity 82 8.2 Time Averaged Continuity Equation 84 8.3 Time Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations 87 8.4 Reynolds Stresses and Turbulence Modeling 89 9 Application of the Conservation Principles 94 9.1 Body in a Wind Tunnel 94 9.2 Submerged Vessel in an Unbounded Fluid 99 9.2.1 Conservation of mass 100 9.2.2 Conservation of momentum 102 10 Boundary Layer Theory 106 10.1 Boundary Layer 106 10.1.1 Boundary layer thickness 107 10.1.2 Laminar and turbulent flow 108 10.1.3 Flow separation 110 10.2 Simplifying Assumptions 111 10.3 Boundary Layer Equations 115 11 Wall Shear Stress in the Boundary L Wall Shear Stress in the Boundary Layer 118 11.1 Control Volume Selection 118 11.2 Conservation of Mass in the Boundary Layer 119 11.3 Conservation of Momentum in the Boundary Layer 121 11.3.1 Momentum flux over boundary of control volume 122 11.3.2 Surface forces acting on control volume 124 11.3.3 Displacement thickness 130 11.3.4 Momentum thickness 131 11.4 Wall Shear Stress 12 Boundary Layer of a Flat Plate 132 12.1 Boundary Layer Equations for a Flat Plate 132 12.2 Dimensionless Velocity Profiles 134 12.3 Boundary Layer Thickness 136 12.4 Wall Shear Stress 140 12.5 Displacement Thickness 141 12.6 Momentum Thickness 142 12.7 Friction Force and Coefficients 143 13 Frictional Resistance 146 13.1 Turbulent Boundary Layers 146 13.2 Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 152 13.3 Friction Coefficients for Turbulent Flow 153 13.4 Model-Ship Correlation Lines 155 13.5 Effect of Surface Roughness 157 13.6 Effect of Form 160 13.7 Estimating Frictional Resistance 161 14 Inviscid Flow 165 14.1 Euler Equations for Incompressible Flow 165 14.2 Bernoulli Equation 166 14.3 Rotation, Vorticity, and Circulation 171 15 Potential Flow 177 15.1 Velocity Potential 177 15.2 Circulation and Velocity Potential 182 15.3 Laplace Equation 184 15.4 Bernoulli Equation for Potential Flow 187 16 Basic Solutions of the Laplace Equation 191 16.1 Uniform Parallel Flow 191 16.2 Sources and Sinks 192 16.3 Vortex 196 16.4 Combinations of Singularities 198 16.4.1 Rankine oval 198 16.4.2 Dipole 202 16.5 Singularity Distributions 204 17 Ideal Flow Around A Long Cylinder 207 17.1 Boundary Value Problem 207 17.1.1 Moving cylinder in fluid at rest 208 17.1.2 Cylinder at rest in parallel flow 210 17.2 Solution and Velocity Potential 211 17.3 Velocity and Pressure Field 214 17.3.1 Velocity field 215 17.3.2 Pressure field 216 17.4 D’Alembert's Paradox 218 17.5 Added Mass 219 18 Viscous Pressure Resistance 223 18.1 Displacement Effect of Boundary Layer 223 18.2 Flow Separation 226 19 Waves and Ship Wave Patterns 230 19.1 Wave Length, Period, and Height 230 19.2 Fundamental Observations 233 19.3 Kelvin Wave Pattern 235 20 Wave Theory 239 20.1 Overview 239 20.2 Mathematical Model for Long-crested Waves 240 20.2.1 Ocean bottom boundary condition 241 20.2.2 Free surface boundary conditions 242 20.2.3 Far field condition 246 20.2.4 Nonlinear boundary value problem 247 20.3 Linearized Boundary Value Problem 248 21 Linearization of Free Surface Boundary Conditions 250 21.1 Perturbation Approach 250 21.2 Kinematic Free Surface Condition 252 21.3 Dynamic Free Surface Condition 254 21.4 Linearized Free Surface Conditions for Waves 256 22 Linear Wave Theory 259 22.1 Solution of Linear Boundary Value Problem 259 22.2 Far Field Condition Revisited 265 22.3 Dispersion Relation 265 22.4 Deep Water Approximation 267 23 Wave Properties 271 23.1 Linear Wave Theory Results 271 23.2 Wave Number 272 23.3 Water Particle Velocity and Acceleration 275 23.4 Dynamic Pressure 279 23.5 Water Particle Motions 280 24 Wave Energy and Wave Propagation 284 24.1 Wave Propagation 284 24.2 Wave Energy 287 24.2.1 Kinetic wave energy 287 24.2.2 Potential wave energy 290 24.2.3 Total wave energy density 292 24.3 Energy Transport and Group Velocity 293 25 Ship Wave Resistance 299 25.1 Physics of Wave Resistance 299 25.2 Wave Superposition 301 25.3 Michell's Integral 310 25.4 Panel Methods 312 26 Ship Model Testing 316 26.1 Testing Facilities 316 26.1.1 Towing Lank 317 26.1.2 Cavitation tunnel 320 26.2 Ship and Propeller Models 321 26.2.1 Turbulence generation 322 26.2.2 Loading condition 323 26.2.3 Propeller models 324 26.3 Model Basins 324 27 Dimensional Analysis 327 27.1 Purpose of Dimensional Analysis 327 27.2 Buckingham -Theorem 328 27.3 Dimensional Analysis of Ship Resistance 328 28 Laws of Similitude 332 28.1 Similarities 332 28.1.1 Geometric similarity 333 28.1.2 Kinematic similarity 333 28.1.3 Dynamic similarity 334 28.1.4 Summary 340 28.2 Partial Dynamic Similarity 340 28.2.1 Hypothetical case: full dynamic similarity 340 28.2.2 Real world: partial dynamic similarity 342 28.2.3 Froude's hypothesis revisited 343 29 Resistance Test 345 29.1 Test Procedure 345 29.2 Reduction of Resistance Test Data 348 29.3 Form Factor k 351 29.4 Wave Resistance Coefficient Cw 354 29.5 Skin Friction Correction Force FD 355 30 Full Scale Resistance Prediction 357 30.1 Model Test Results 357 30.2 Corrections and Additional Resistance Components 358 30.3 Total Resistance and Effective Power 359 30.4 Example Resistance Prediction 360 31 Resistance Estimates - Guldhammer and Harvald's Method 367 31.1 Historical Development 367 31.2 Guldhammer and Harvald's Method 369 31.2.1 Applicability 369 31.2.2 Required input 369 31.2.3 Resistance estimate 372 31.3 Extended Resistance Estimate Example 378 31.3.1 Completion of input parameters 379 31.3.2 Range of speeds 380 31.3.3 Residuary resistance coefficient 380 31.3.4 Frictional resistance coefficient 383 31.3.5 Additional resistance coefficients 383 31.3.6 Total resistance coefficient 384 31.3.7 Total resistance and effective power 384 32 Introduction to Ship Propulsion 389 32.1 Propulsion Task 389 32.2 Propulsion Systems 391 32.2.1 Marine propeller 391 32.2.2 Water jet propulsion 392 32.2.3 Voith Schneider propeller (VSP) 393 32.3 Efficiencies in Ship Propulsion 394 33 Momentum Theory of the Propeller 398 33.1 Thrust, Axial Momentum, and Mass Flow 398 33.2 Ideal Efficiency and ^rust Loading Coefficient 403 34 Hull-Propeller Interaction 408 34.1 Wake- Fraction 408 34.2 ^rust Deduction Fraction 414 34.3 Relative Rotative Efficiency 417 35 Propeller Geometry 420 35.1 Propeller Parts 420 35.2 Principal Propeller Characteristics 422 35.3 Other Geometric Propeller Characteristics 431 36 Lifting Foils 435 36.1 Foil Geometry and Flow Patterns 435 36.2 Lift and Drag 438 36.3 Thin Foil Theory 440 36.3.1 Thin foil boundary value problem 441 36.3.2 Thin foil body boundary condition 442 36.3.3 Decomposition of disturbance potential 445 37 Thin Foil Theory – Displacement Flow 447 37.1 Boundary Value Problem 447 37.2 Pressure Distribution 452 37.3 Elliptical Thickness Distribution 454 38 Thin Foil Theory – Lifting Flow 459 38.1 Lifting Foil Problem 459 38.2 Glauert ’s Classical Solution 463 39 Thin Foil Theory – Lifting Flow Properties 469 39.1 Lift Force and Lift Coefficient 469 39.2 Moment and Center of Effort 474 39.3 Ideal Angle of Attack 478 39.4 Parabolic Mean Line 480 40 Lifting Wings 484 40.1 Effects of Limited Wingspan 484 40.2 Free and Bound Vorticity 488 40.3 Biot-Savart Law 493 40.4 Lifting Line Theory 497 41 Open Water Test 500 41.1 Test Conditions 500 41.2 Propeller Models 503 41.3 Test Procedure 504 41.4 Data Reduction 506 42 Full Scale Propeller Performance 509 42.1 Comparison of Model and Full Scale Propeller Forces 509 42.2 ITTC Full Scale Correction Procedure 511 43 Propulsion Test 516 43.1 Testing Procedure 516 43.2 Data Reduction 519 43.3 Hull-Propeller Interaction Parameters 520 43.3.1 Model wake- fraction 521 43.3.2 Thrust deduction fraction 522 43.3.3 Relative rotative efficiency 523 43.3.4 Full scale hull-propeller interaction parameters 523 43.4 Load Variation Test 525 44 ITTC 1978 Performance Prediction Method 530 44.1 Summary of Model Tests 530 44.2 Full Scale Power Prediction 531 44.3 Summary 534 44.4 Solving the Intersection Problem 535 44.5 Example 537 45 Cavitation 541 45.1 Cavitation Phenomenon 541 45.2 Cavitation Inception 543 45.3 Locations and Types of Cavitation 546 45.4 Detrimental Effects of Cavitation 548 46 Cavitation Prevention 552 46.1 Design Measures 552 46.2 Keller's Formula 553 46.3 Burrill's Cavitation Chart 554 46.4 Other Design Measures 557 47 Propeller Series Data 560 47.1 Wageningen B-Series 560 47.2 Wageningen B-Series Polynomials 561 47.3 Other Propeller Series 565 48 Propeller Design Process 569 48.1 Design Tasks and Input Preparation 569 48.2 Optimum Diameter Selection 571 48.2.1 Propeller design task 1 572 48.2.2 Propeller design task 2 577 48.3 Optimum Rate of Revolution Selection 579 48.3.1 Propeller design task 3 579 48.3.2 Propeller design task 4 581 48.4 Design Charts 581 48.5 Computational Tools 585 49 Hull-Propeller Matching Examples 587 49.1 Optimum Rate of Revolution Problem 587 49.1.1 Design constant 588 49.1.2 Initial expanded area ratio 589 49.1.3 First iteration 590 49.1.4 Cavitation check for first iteration 593 49.1.5 Second iteration 594 49.1.6 Final selection by interpolation 596 49.2 Optimum Diameter Problem 598 49.2.1 Design constant 599 49.2.2 Initial expanded area ratio 600 49.2.3 First iteration 601 49.2.4 Cavitation check for first iteration 604 49.2.5 Second iteration 605 49.2.6 Final selection by interpolation 607 49.2.7 Attainable speed check 608 50 Holtrop and Mennen's Method 611 50.1 Overview of the Method 611 50.1.1 Applicability 611 50.1.2 Required input 612 50.2 Procedure 614 50.2.1 Resistance components 615 50.2.2 Total resistance 621 50.2.3 Hull-propeller interaction parameters 621 50.3 Example 623 50.3.1 Completion of input parameters 623 50.3.2 Resistance estimate 623 50.3.3 Powering estimate 625 51 Hollenbach's Method 628 51.1 Overview of the method 628 51.1.1 Applicability 629 51.1.2 Required input 629 51.2 Resistance Estimate 631 51.2.1 Frictional resistance coefficient 632 51.2.2 Mean residuary resistance coefficient 632 51.2.3 Minimum residuary resistance coefficient 635 51.2.4 Residuary resistance coefficient 637 51.2.5 Correlation allowance 637 51.2.6 Appendage resistance 637 51.2.7 Environmental resistance 638 51.2.8 Total resistance 638 51.3 Hull-Propeller Interaction Parameters 639 51.3.1 Relative rotative efficiency 639 51.3.2 Thrust deduction fraction 640 51.3.3 Wake fraction 640 51.4 Resistance and Propulsion Estimate Example 642 51.4.1 Completion of input parameters 642 51.4.2 Powering estimate 643 Index 651

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Book SynopsisIn communication acoustics, the communication channel consists of a sound source, a channel (acoustic and/or electric) and finally the receiver: the human auditory system, a complex and intricate system that shapes the way sound is heard. Thus, when developing techniques in communication acoustics, such as in speech, audio and aided hearing, it is important to understand the timefrequencyspace resolution of hearing. This book facilitates the reader's understanding and development of speech and audio techniques based on our knowledge of the auditory perceptual mechanisms by introducing the physical, signal-processing and psychophysical background to communication acoustics. It then provides a detailed explanation of sound technologies where a human listener is involved, including audio and speech techniques, sound quality measurement, hearing aids and audiology. Key features: Explains perceptually-based audio: the authors take a detailed but accessible engineeringTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xix Preface xxi Preface to the Unfinished Manuscript of the Book xxiii Introduction 1 1 How to Study and Develop Communication Acoustics 7 1.1 Domains of Knowledge 7 1.2 Methodology of Research and Development 8 1.3 Systems Approach to Modelling 10 1.4 About the Rest of this Book 12 1.5 Focus of the Book 12 1.6 Intended Audience 13 References 14 2 Physics of Sound 15 2.1 Vibration and Wave Behaviour of Sound 15 2.1.1 From Vibration to Waves 16 2.1.2 A Simple Vibrating System 16 2.1.3 Resonance 18 2.1.4 Complex Mass–Spring Systems 19 2.1.5 Modal Behaviour 20 2.1.6 Waves 21 2.2 Acoustic Measures and Quantities 23 2.2.1 Sound and Voice as Signals 23 2.2.2 Sound Pressure 24 2.2.3 Sound Pressure Level 24 2.2.4 Sound Power 25 2.2.5 Sound Intensity 25 2.2.6 Computation with Amplitude and Level Quantities 25 2.3 Wave Phenomena 26 2.3.1 Spherical Waves 26 2.3.2 Plane Waves and the Wave Field in a Tube 27 2.3.3 Wave Propagation in Solid Materials 29 2.3.4 Reflection, Absorption, and Refraction 31 2.3.5 Scattering and Diffraction 32 2.3.6 Doppler Effect 33 2.4 Sound in Closed Spaces: Acoustics of Rooms and Halls 34 2.4.1 Sound Field in a Room 34 2.4.2 Reverberation 36 2.4.3 Sound Pressure Level in a Room 37 2.4.4 Modal Behaviour of Sound in a Room 38 2.4.5 Computational Modelling of Closed Space Acoustics 39 Summary 41 Further Reading 41 References 41 3 Signal Processing and Signals 43 3.1 Signals 43 3.1.1 Sounds as Signals 43 3.1.2 Typical Signals 45 3.2 Fundamental Concepts of Signal Processing 46 3.2.1 Linear and Time-Invariant Systems 46 3.2.2 Convolution 47 3.2.3 Signal Transforms 48 3.2.4 Fourier Analysis and Synthesis 49 3.2.5 Spectrum Analysis 50 3.2.6 Time–Frequency Representations 53 3.2.7 Filter Banks 54 3.2.8 Auto- and Cross-Correlation 55 3.2.9 Cepstrum 56 3.3 Digital Signal Processing (DSP) 56 3.3.1 Sampling and Signal Conversion 56 3.3.2 Z Transform 57 3.3.3 Filters as LTI Systems 58 3.3.4 Digital Filtering 58 3.3.5 Linear Prediction 59 3.3.6 Adaptive Filtering 62 3.4 Hidden Markov Models 62 3.5 Concepts of Intelligent and Learning Systems 63 Summary 64 Further Reading 64 References 64 4 Electroacoustics and Responses of Audio Systems 67 4.1 Electroacoustics 67 4.1.1 Loudspeakers 67 4.1.2 Microphones 70 4.2 Audio System Responses 71 4.2.1 Measurement of System Response 71 4.2.2 Ideal Reproduction of Sound 72 4.2.3 Impulse Response and Magnitude Response 72 4.2.4 Phase Response 74 4.2.5 Non-Linear Distortion 75 4.2.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 76 4.3 Response Equalization 76 Summary 77 Further Reading 78 References 78 5 Human Voice 79 5.1 Speech Production 79 5.1.1 Speech Production Mechanism 80 5.1.2 Vocal Folds and Phonation 80 5.1.3 Vocal and Nasal Tract and Articulation 82 5.1.4 Lip Radiation Measurements 84 5.2 Units and Notation of Speech used in Phonetics 84 5.2.1 Vowels 86 5.2.2 Consonants 86 5.2.3 Prosody and Suprasegmental Features 88 5.3 Modelling of Speech Production 90 5.3.1 Glottal Modelling 92 5.3.2 Vocal Tract Modelling 92 5.3.3 Articulatory Synthesis 94 5.3.4 Formant Synthesis 95 5.4 Singing Voice 96 Summary 96 Further Reading 97 References 97 6 Musical Instruments and Sound Synthesis 99 6.1 Acoustic Instruments 99 6.1.1 Types of Musical Instruments 99 6.1.2 Resonators in Instruments 100 6.1.3 Sources of Excitation 102 6.1.4 Controlling the Frequency of Vibration 103 6.1.5 Combining the Excitation and Resonant Structures 104 6.2 Sound Synthesis in Music 104 6.2.1 Envelope of Sounds 105 6.2.2 Synthesis Methods 106 6.2.3 Synthesis of Plucked String Instruments with a One-Dimensional Physical Model 107 Summary 108 Further Reading 108 References 108 7 Physiology and Anatomy of Hearing 111 7.1 Global Structure of the Ear 111 7.2 External Ear 112 7.3 Middle Ear 113 7.4 Inner Ear 115 7.4.1 Structure of the Cochlea 115 7.4.2 Passive Cochlear Processing 117 7.4.3 Active Function of the Cochlea 119 7.4.4 The Inner Hair Cells 122 7.4.5 Cochlear Non-Linearities 122 7.5 Otoacoustic Emissions 123 7.6 Auditory Nerve 123 7.6.1 Information Transmission using the Firing Rate 124 7.6.2 Phase Locking 126 7.7 Auditory Nervous System 127 7.7.1 Structure of the Auditory Pathway 127 7.7.2 Studying Brain Function 129 7.8 Motivation for Building Computational Models of Hearing 130 Summary 131 Further Reading 131 References 131 8 The Approach and Methodology of Psychoacoustics 133 8.1 Sound Events versus Auditory Events 133 8.2 Psychophysical Functions 135 8.3 Generation of Sound Events 135 8.3.1 Synthesis of Sound Signals 136 8.3.2 Listening Set-up and Conditions 137 8.3.3 Steering Attention to Certain Details of An Auditory Event 137 8.4 Selection of Subjects for Listening Tests 138 8.5 What are We Measuring? 138 8.5.1 Thresholds 138 8.5.2 Scales and Categorization of Percepts 140 8.5.3 Numbering Scales in Listening Tests 141 8.6 Tasks for Subjects 141 8.7 Basic Psychoacoustic Test Methods 142 8.7.1 Method of Constant Stimuli 143 8.7.2 Method of Limits 143 8.7.3 Method of Adjustment 143 8.7.4 Method of Tracking 144 8.7.5 Direct Scaling Methods 144 8.7.6 Adaptive Staircase Methods 144 8.8 Descriptive Sensory Analysis 145 8.8.1 Verbal Elicitation 147 8.8.2 Non-Verbal Elicitation 148 8.8.3 Indirect Elicitation 148 8.9 Psychoacoustic Tests from the Point of View of Statistics 149 Summary 149 Further Reading 150 References 150 9 Basic Function of Hearing 153 9.1 Effective Hearing Area 153 9.1.1 Equal Loudness Curves 155 9.1.2 Sound Level and its Measurement 156 9.2 Spectral Masking 156 9.2.1 Masking by Noise 157 9.2.2 Masking by Pure Tones 159 9.2.3 Masking by Complex Tones 159 9.2.4 Other Masking Phenomena 161 9.3 Temporal Masking 161 9.4 Frequency Selectivity of Hearing 163 9.4.1 Psychoacoustic Tuning Curves 164 9.4.2 ERB Bandwidths 166 9.4.3 Bark, ERB, and Greenwood Scales 167 Summary 169 Further Reading 169 References 169 10 Basic Psychoacoustic Quantities 171 10.1 Pitch 171 10.1.1 Pitch Strength and Frequency Range 171 10.1.2 JND of Pitch 172 10.1.3 Pitch Perception versus Duration of Sound 173 10.1.4 Mel Scale 174 10.1.5 Logarithmic Pitch Scale and Musical Scale 175 10.1.6 Detection Threshold of Pitch Change and Frequency Modulation 176 10.1.7 Pitch of Coloured Noise 176 10.1.8 Repetition Pitch 177 10.1.9 Virtual Pitch 178 10.1.10 Pitch of Non-Harmonic Complex Sounds 178 10.1.11 Pitch Theories 178 10.1.12 Absolute Pitch 179 10.2 Loudness 179 10.2.1 Loudness Determination Experiments 179 10.2.2 Loudness Level 180 10.2.3 Loudness of a Pure Tone 180 10.2.4 Loudness of Broadband Signals 182 10.2.5 Excitation Pattern, Specific Loudness, and Loudness 183 10.2.6 Difference Threshold of Loudness 185 10.2.7 Loudness versus Duration of Sound 187 10.3 Timbre 188 10.3.1 Timbre of Steady-State Sounds 189 10.3.2 Timbre of Sound Including Modulations 189 10.4 Subjective Duration of Sound 189 Summary 191 Further Reading 191 References 191 11 Further Analysis in Hearing 193 11.1 Sharpness 193 11.2 Detection of Modulation and Sound Onset 195 11.2.1 Fluctuation Strength 195 11.2.2 Impulsiveness 197 11.3 Roughness 198 11.4 Tonality 200 11.5 Discrimination of Changes in Signal Magnitude and Phase Spectra 201 11.5.1 Adaptation to the Magnitude Spectrum 201 11.5.2 Perception of Phase and Time Differences 202 11.6 Psychoacoustic Concepts and Music 206 11.6.1 Sensory Consonance and Dissonance 206 11.6.2 Intervals, Scales, and Tuning in Music 208 11.6.3 Rhythm, Tempo, Bar, and Measure 211 11.7 Perceptual Organization of Sound 212 11.7.1 Segregation of Sound Sources 213 11.7.2 Sound Streaming and Auditory Scene Analysis 214 Summary 216 Further Reading 217 References 217 12 Spatial Hearing 219 12.1 Concepts and Definitions for Spatial Hearing 219 12.1.1 Basic Concepts 219 12.1.2 Coordinate Systems for Spatial Hearing 221 12.2 Head-Related Acoustics 222 12.3 Localization Cues 226 12.3.1 Interaural Time Difference 227 12.3.2 Interaural Level Difference 228 12.3.3 Interaural Coherence 231 12.3.4 Cues to Resolve the Direction on the Cone of Confusion 232 12.3.5 Interaction Between Spatial Hearing and Vision 234 12.4 Localization Accuracy 235 12.4.1 Localization in the Horizontal Plane 235 12.4.2 Localization in the Median Plane 236 12.4.3 3D Localization 237 12.4.4 Perception of the Distribution of a Spatially Extended Source 238 12.5 Directional Hearing in Enclosed Spaces 239 12.5.1 Precedence Effect 239 12.5.2 Adaptation to the Room Effect in Localization 240 12.6 Binaural Advantages in Timbre Perception 241 12.6.1 Binaural Detection and Unmasking 241 12.6.2 Binaural Decolouration 243 12.7 Perception of Source Distance 243 12.7.1 Cues for Distance Perception 244 12.7.2 Accuracy of Distance Perception 245 Summary 246 Further Reading 246 References 246 13 Auditory Modelling 249 13.1 Simple Psychoacoustic Modelling with DFT 250 13.1.1 Computation of the Auditory Spectrum through DFT 250 13.2 Filter Bank Models 255 13.2.1 Modelling the Outer and Middle Ear 255 13.2.2 Gammatone Filter Bank and Auditory Nerve Responses 256 13.2.3 Level-Dependent Filter Banks 256 13.2.4 Envelope Detection and Temporal Dynamics 258 13.3 Cochlear Models 260 13.3.1 Basilar Membrane Models 260 13.3.2 Hair-Cell Models 261 13.4 Modelling of Higher-Level Systemic Properties 263 13.4.1 Analysis of Pitch and Periodicity 263 13.4.2 Modelling of Loudness Perception 265 13.5 Models of Spatial Hearing 265 13.5.1 Delay-Network-Based Models of Binaural Hearing 265 13.5.2 Equalization Cancellation and ILD Models 268 13.5.3 Count-Comparison Models 268 13.5.4 Models of Localization in the Median Plane 270 13.6 Matlab Examples 270 13.6.1 Filter-Bank Model with Autocorrelation-Based Pitch Analysis 270 13.6.2 Binaural Filter-Bank Model with Cross-Correlation-Based ITD Analysis 272 Summary 274 Further Reading 274 References 274 14 Sound Reproduction 277 14.1 Need for Sound Reproduction 277 14.2 Audio Content Production 279 14.3 Listening Set-ups 280 14.3.1 Loudspeaker Set-ups 280 14.3.2 Listening Room Acoustics 282 14.3.3 Audiovisual Systems 283 14.3.4 Auditory-Tactile Systems 284 14.4 Recording Techniques 284 14.4.1 Monophonic Techniques 285 14.4.2 Spot Microphone Technique 285 14.4.3 Coincident Microphone Techniques for Two-Channel Stereophony 286 14.4.4 Spaced Microphone Techniques for Two-Channel Stereophony 286 14.4.5 Spaced Microphone Techniques for Multi-Channel Loudspeaker Systems 287 14.4.6 Coincident Recording for Multi-Channel Set-up with Ambisonics 287 14.4.7 Non-Linear Time–Frequency-domain Reproduction of Spatial Sound 290 14.5 Virtual Source Positioning 293 14.5.1 Amplitude Panning 293 14.5.2 Amplitude Panning in a Stereophonic Set-up 294 14.5.3 Amplitude Panning in Horizontal Multi-Channel Loudspeaker Set-ups 295 14.5.4 3D Amplitude Panning 295 14.5.5 Virtual Source Positioning using Ambisonics 296 14.5.6 Wave Field Synthesis 296 14.5.7 Time Delay Panning 297 14.5.8 Synthesizing the Width of Virtual Sources 298 14.6 Binaural Techniques 298 14.6.1 Listening to Binaural Recordings with Headphones 299 14.6.2 HRTF Processing for Headphone Listening 299 14.6.3 Virtual Listening of Loudspeakers with Headphones 300 14.6.4 Headphone Listening to Two-Channel Stereophonic Content 301 14.6.5 Binaural Techniques with Cross-Talk-Cancelled Loudspeakers 301 14.7 Digital Audio Effects 302 14.8 Reverberators 303 14.8.1 Using Room Impulse Responses in Reverberators 304 14.8.2 DSP Structures for Reverberators 305 Summary 306 Further Reading and Available Toolboxes 306 References 307 15 Time–Frequency-domain Processing and Coding of Audio 311 15.1 Basic Techniques and Concepts for Time–Frequency Processing 311 15.1.1 Frame-Based Processing 311 15.1.2 Downsampled Filter-Bank Processing 313 15.1.3 Modulation with Tone Sequences 315 15.1.4 Aliasing 316 15.2 Time–Frequency Transforms 317 15.2.1 Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT) 318 15.2.2 Alias-Free STFT 320 15.2.3 Modified Discrete Cosine Transform (MDCT) 321 15.2.4 Pseudo-Quadrature Mirror Filter (PQMF) Bank 323 15.2.5 Complex QMF 323 15.2.6 Sub-Sub-Band Filtering of the Complex QMF Bands 325 15.2.7 Stochastic Measures of Time–Frequency Signals 325 15.2.8 Decorrelation 327 15.3 Time–Frequency-Domain Audio-Processing Techniques 328 15.3.1 Masking-Based Audio Coding 328 15.3.2 Audio Coding with Spectral Band Replication 328 15.3.3 Parametric Stereo, MPEG Surround, and Spatial Audio Object Coding 329 15.3.4 Stereo Upmixing and Enhancement for Loudspeakers and Headphones 330 Summary 332 Further Reading 332 References 332 16 Speech Technologies 335 16.1 Speech Coding 336 16.2 Text-to-Speech Synthesis 338 16.2.1 Early Knowledge-Based Text-to-Speech (TTS) Synthesis 339 16.2.2 Unit-Selection Synthesis 340 16.2.3 Statistical Parametric Synthesis 342 16.3 Speech Recognition 345 Summary 346 Further Reading 347 References 347 17 Sound Quality 349 17.1 Historical Background of Sound Quality 350 17.2 The Many Facets of Sound Quality 351 17.3 Systemic Framework for Sound Quality 352 17.4 Subjective Sound Quality Measurement 353 17.4.1 Mean Opinion Score 353 17.4.2 MUSHRA 354 17.5 Audio Quality 356 17.5.1 Monaural Quality 356 17.5.2 Perceptual Measures and Models for Monaural Audio Quality 356 17.5.3 Spatial Audio Quality 359 17.6 Quality of Speech Communication 360 17.6.1 Subjective Methods and Measures 361 17.6.2 Objective Methods and Measures 362 17.7 Measuring Speech Understandability with the Modulation Transfer Function 363 17.7.1 Modulation Transfer Function 363 17.7.2 Speech Transmission Index STI 367 17.7.3 STI and Speech Intelligibility 368 17.7.4 Practical Measurement of STI 369 17.8 Objective Speech Quality Measurement for Telecommunication 370 17.8.1 General Speech Quality Measurement Techniques 371 17.8.2 Measurement of the Perceptual Effect of Background Noise 372 17.8.3 Measurement of the Perceptual Effect of Echoes 373 17.9 Sound Quality in Auditoria and Concert Halls 374 17.9.1 Subjective Measures 374 17.9.2 Objective Measures 375 17.9.3 Percentage of Consonant Loss 377 17.10 Noise Quality 377 17.11 Product Sound Quality 378 Summary 380 Further Reading 380 References 380 18 Other Audio Applications 383 18.1 Virtual Reality and Game Audio Engines 383 18.2 Sonic Interaction Design 386 18.3 Computational Auditory Scene Analysis, CASA 387 18.4 Music Information Retrieval 387 18.5 Miscellaneous Applications 389 Summary 390 Further Reading 390 References 390 19 Technical Audiology 393 19.1 Hearing Impairments and Disabilities 393 19.1.1 Key Terminology 394 19.1.2 Classification of Hearing Impairments 395 19.1.3 Causes for Hearing Impairments 396 19.2 Symptoms and Consequences of Hearing Impairments 396 19.2.1 Hearing Threshold Shift 397 19.2.2 Distortion and Decrease in Discrimination 398 19.2.3 Speech Communication Problems 400 19.2.4 Tinnitus 400 19.3 The Effect of Noise on Hearing 401 19.3.1 Noise 401 19.3.2 Formation of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss 402 19.3.3 Temporary Threshold Shift 402 19.3.4 Hearing Protection 404 19.4 Audiometry 405 19.4.1 Pure-Tone Audiometry 405 19.4.2 Bone-Conduction Audiometry 406 19.4.3 Speech Audiometry 406 19.4.4 Sound-Field Audiometry 407 19.4.5 Tympanometry 407 19.4.6 Otoacoustic Emissions 408 19.4.7 Neural Responses 409 19.5 Hearing Aids 409 19.5.1 Types of Hearing Aids 409 19.5.2 Signal Processing in Hearing Aids 410 19.5.3 Transmission Systems and Assistive Listening Devices 414 19.6 Implantable Hearing Solutions 414 19.6.1 Cochlear Implants 414 19.6.2 Electric-Acoustic Stimulation 416 19.6.3 Bone-Anchored Hearing Aids 416 19.6.4 Middle-Ear Implants 416 Summary 416 Further Reading 417 References 417 Index 419

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Book SynopsisAn accessible and carefully structured introduction to Particle Physics, including important coverage of the Higgs Boson and recent progress in neutrino physics. Fourth edition of this successful title in the Manchester Physics series Includes information on recent key discoveries including: An account of the discovery of exotic hadrons,byond the simple quark model;Expanded treatments of neutrino physics and CP violationin B-decays;An updated account of physics beyond thestandard model', including the interaction of particle physics withcosmology Additional problems in allchapters, with solutions to selected problems available on the book's website Advanced material appears in optional starred sections Table of ContentsEditors’ preface to the Manchester Physics Series xiii Authors’ preface xv Suggested Short Course xvii Notes xixPhysical Constants, Conversion Factors and Natural Units xxi 1 Some basic concepts 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Antiparticles 3 1.2.1 Relativistic wave equations 3 1.2.2 Hole theory and the positron 6 1.3 Interactions and Feynman diagrams 9 1.3.1 Basic electromagnetic processes 10 1.3.2 Real processes 11 1.3.3 Electron–positron pair production and annihilation 13 1.3.4 Other processes 15 1.4 Particle exchange 15 1.4.1 Range of forces 15 1.4.2 The Yukawa potential 17 1.4.3 The zero-range approximation 18 1.5 Units and dimensions 19 Problems 1 22 2 Leptons and the weak interaction 24 2.1 Lepton multiplets and lepton numbers 24 2.1.1 Electron neutrinos 25 2.1.2 Further generations 28 2.2 Leptonic weak interactions 31 2.2.1 W± and Z0 exchange 31 2.2.2 Lepton decays and universality 33 2.3 Neutrino masses and neutrino mixing 35 2.3.1 Neutrino mixing 35 2.3.2 Neutrino oscillations 38 2.3.3 Neutrino masses 46 2.3.4 Lepton numbers revisited 48 Problems 2 50 3 Quarks and hadrons 52 3.1 Quarks 53 3.2 General properties of hadrons 55 3.3 Pions and nucleons 58 3.4 Strange particles, charm and bottom 61 3.5 Short-lived hadrons 66 3.6 Allowed and exotic quantum numbers 72 Problems 3 75 4 Experimental methods 77 4.1 Overview 77 4.2 Accelerators and beams 79 4.2.1 Linear accelerators 80 4.2.2 Cyclic accelerators 81 4.2.3 Fixed-target machines and colliders 83 4.2.4 Neutral and unstable particle beams 85 4.3 Particle interactions with matter 86 4.3.1 Short-range interactions with nuclei 86 4.3.2 Ionisation energy losses 89 4.3.3 Radiation energy losses 92 4.3.4 Interactions of photons in matter 93 4.3.5 Ranges and interaction lengths 94 4.4 Particle detectors 95 4.4.1 Introduction 96 4.4.2 Gaseous ionisation detectors 97 4.4.3 Semiconductor detectors 103 4.4.4 Scintillation counters 104 4.4.5 ˇCerenkov counters and transition radiation 105 4.4.6 Calorimeters 109 4.5 Detector systems and accelerator experiments 112 4.5.1 Discovery of the W± and Z0 bosons 113 4.5.2 Some modern detector systems 117 4.6 Non-accelerator experiments 121 Problems 4 123 5 Space–time symmetries 126 5.1 Translational invariance 127 5.2 Rotational invariance 129 5.2.1 Angular momentum conservation 129 5.2.2 Classification of particles 132 5.2.3 Angular momentum in the quark model 134 5.3 Parity 135 5.3.1 Leptons and antileptons 137 5.3.2 Quarks and hadrons 139 5.3.3 Parity of the charged pion 140 5.3.4 Parity of the photon 141 5.4 Charge conjugation 142 5.4.1 π0 and η decays 144 5.5 Positronium 145 5.5.1 Fine structure 147 5.5.2 C-parity and annihilations 148 5.6 Time reversal 149 5.6.1 Principle of detailed balance 151 5.6.2 Spin of the charged pion 152 Problems 5 153 6 The quark model 155 6.1 Isospin symmetry 156 6.1.1 Isospin quantum numbers 157 6.1.2 Allowed quantum numbers 158 6.1.3 An example: the sigma (Σ) baryons 159 6.1.4 The u, d quark mass splitting 161 6.2 The lightest hadrons 162 6.2.1 The light mesons 162 6.2.2 The light baryons 164 6.2.3 Baryon magnetic moments 167 6.2.4 Hadron mass splittings 169 6.3 The L = 0 heavy quark states 174 6.4 Colour 177 6.4.1 Colour charges and confinement 178 6.4.2 Colour wavefunctions and the Pauli principle 182 6.5 Charmonium and bottomonium 184 6.5.1 Charmonium 185 6.5.2 Bottomonium 189 6.5.3 The quark–antiquark potential 189 Problems 6 191 7 QCD, jets and gluons 193 7.1 Quantum chromodynamics 193 7.1.1 The strong coupling constant 197 7.1.2 Screening, antiscreening and asymptotic freedom 199 7.1.3 Exotic hadrons 201 7.1.4 The quark–gluon plasma 208 7.2 Electron–positron annihilation 210 7.2.1 Two-jet events 211 7.2.2 Three-jet events 213 7.2.3 The total cross-section 214 Problems 7 215 8 Quarks and partons 217 8.1 Elastic electron scattering: the size of the proton 217 8.1.1 Static charge distributions 218 8.1.2 Proton form factors 219 8.1.3 The basic cross-section formulas 221 8.2 Inelastic electron and muon scattering 222 8.2.1 Bjorken scaling 224 8.2.2 The parton model 226 8.2.3 Parton distributions and scaling violations 228 8.3 Inelastic neutrino scattering 231 8.3.1 Quark identification and quark charges 234 8.4 Other processes 236 8.4.1 Lepton pair production 239 8.4.2 Jets in pp collisions 242 8.5 Current and constituent quarks 243 Problems 8 246 9 Weak interactions: quarks and leptons 248 9.1 Charged current reactions 250 9.1.1 W±–lepton interactions 250 9.1.2 Lepton–quark symmetry and mixing 254 9.1.3 W boson decays 258 9.1.4 Selection rules in weak decays 259 9.2 The third generation 262 9.2.1 More quark mixing 263 9.2.2 Properties of the top quark 265 9.2.3 Discovery of the top quark 267 Problems 9 274 10 Weak interactions: electroweak unification 276 10.1 Neutral currents and the unified theory 277 10.1.1 The basic vertices 277 10.1.2 The unification condition and the W± and Z0 masses 279 10.1.3 Electroweak reactions 281 10.1.4 Z0 formation: how many generations are there? 284 10.2 Gauge invariance and the Higgs boson 287 10.2.1 Unification and the gauge principle 289 10.2.2 Particle masses and the Higgs field 290 10.2.3 Properties of the Higgs boson 294 10.2.4 The discovery of the Higgs boson 297 Problems 10 305 11 Discrete symmetries: C, P, CP and CPT 308 11.1 P violation, C violation and CP conservation 308 11.1.1 Muon decay symmetries 310 11.1.2 Left-handed neutrinos and right-handed antineutrinos 312 11.1.3 Pion and muon decays revisited 314 11.2 CP violation and particle–antiparticle mixing 316 11.2.1 CP eigenstates of neutral kaons 316 11.2.2 The discovery of CP violation 319 11.2.3 CP-violating K0L decays 321 11.2.4 Flavour oscillations and the CPT theorem 324 11.2.5 Direct CP violation in decay rates 328 11.2.6 B0 − B0 mixing 329 11.2.7 CP violation in interference 335 11.2.8 Derivation of the mixing formulas 338 11.3 CP violation in the standard model 340 Problems 11 343 12 Beyond the standard model 346 12.1 Grand unification 347 12.1.1 Quark and lepton charges 349 12.1.2 The weak mixing angle 349 12.1.3 Proton decay 350 12.2 Supersymmetry 354 12.2.1 The search for supersymmetry 356 12.3 Strings and things 358 12.4 Particle physics and cosmology 360 12.4.1 Dark matter 360 12.4.2 Matter–antimatter asymmetry 367 12.4.3 CP violation and electric dipole moments 369 12.4.4 Axions and the strong CP problem 371 12.5 Dirac or Majorana neutrinos? 373 12.5.1 Double beta decay 375 Problems 12 381 A Relativistic kinematics 383 A.1 The Lorentz transformation for energy and momentum 383 A.2 The invariant mass 385 A.2.1 Beam energies and thresholds 385 A.2.2 Masses of unstable particles 387 A.3 Transformation of the scattering angle 388 Problems A 390 B Amplitudes and cross-sections 392 B.1 Rates and cross-sections 392 B.2 The total cross-section 394 B.3 Differential cross-sections 395 B.4 The scattering amplitude 397 B.5 The Breit–Wigner formula 400 B.5.1 Decay distributions 401 B.5.2 Resonant cross-sections 404 Problems B 406 C The isospin formalism 408 C.1 Isospin operators 409 C.2 Isospin states 411 C.3 Isospin multiplets 411 C.3.1 Hadron states 412 C.4 Branching ratios 414 C.5 Spin states 416 Problems C 416 D Gauge theories 418 D.1 Electromagnetic interactions 419 D.2 Gauge transformations 420 D.3 Gauge invariance and the photon mass 421 D.4 The gauge principle 423 D.5 The Higgs mechanism 425 D.5.1 Charge and current densities 425 D.5.2 Spin-0 bosons 427 D.5.3 Spontaneous symmetry breaking 428 D.6 Quantum chromodynamics 429 D.7 Electroweak interactions 434 D.7.1 Weak isospin 434 D.7.2 Gauge invariance and charged currents 436 D.7.3 The unification condition 437 D.7.4 Spin structure and parity violation 440 Problems D 441 E Answers to selected questions 443 References 448 Index 451

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Book SynopsisAn emerging field at the interface of biology and engineering, mechanobiology explores the mechanisms by which cells sense and respond to mechanical signalsand holds great promise in one day unravelling the mysteries of cellular and extracellular matrix mechanics to cure a broad range of diseases. Mechanobiology: Exploitation for Medical Benefit presents a comprehensive overview of principles of mechanobiology, highlighting the extent to which biological tissues are exposed to the mechanical environment, demonstrating the importance of the mechanical environment in living systems, and critically reviewing the latest experimental procedures in this emerging field. Featuring contributions from several top experts in the field, chapters begin with an introduction to fundamental mechanobiological principles; and then proceed to explore the relationship of this extensive force in nature to tissues of musculoskeletal systems, heart and lung vasculature, the kidney glomerulusTable of Contents List of Contributors xiii Preface xvii 1 Extracellular Matrix Structure and Stem Cell Mechanosensing 1Nicholas D. Evans and Camelia G. Tusan 1.1 Mechanobiology 1 1.2 Stem Cells 3 1.3 Substrate Stiffness in Cell Behavior 5 1.3.1 A Historical Perspective on Stiffness Sensing 5 1.4 Stem Cells and Substrate Stiffness 7 1.4.1 ESCs and Substrate Stiffness 8 1.4.2 Collective Cell Behavior in Substrate Stiffness Sensing 11 1.5 Material Structure and Future Perspectives in Stem Cell Mechanobiology 14 1.6 Conclusion 15 References 16 2 Molecular Pathways of Mechanotransduction: From Extracellular Matrix to Nucleus 23Hamish T. J. Gilbert and Joe Swift 2.1 Introduction: Mechanically Influenced Cellular Behavior 23 2.2 Mechanosensitive Molecular Mechanisms 24 2.3 Methods Enabling the Study of Mechanobiology 29 2.4 Conclusion 34 Acknowledgements 34 References 34 3 Sugar-Coating the Cell: The Role of the Glycocalyx in Mechanobiology 43Stefania Marcotti and Gwendolen C. Reilly 3.1 What is the Glycocalyx? 43 3.2 Composition of the Glycocalyx 44 3.3 Morphology of the Glycocalyx 45 3.4 Mechanical Properties of the Glycocalyx 46 3.5 Mechanobiology of the Endothelial Glycocalyx 49 3.6 Does the Glycocalyx Play a Mechanobiological Role in Bone? 50 3.7 Glycocalyx in Muscle 52 3.8 How Can the Glycocalyx be Exploited for Medical Benefit? 53 3.9 Conclusion 53 References 54 4 The Role of the Primary Cilium in Cellular Mechanotransduction: An Emerging Therapeutic Target 61Kian F. Eichholz and David A. Hoey 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 The Primary Cilium 63 4.3 Cilia-Targeted Therapeutic Strategies 68 4.4 Conclusion 70 Acknowledgements 70 References 70 5 Mechanosensory and Chemosensory Primary Cilia in Ciliopathy and Ciliotherapy 75Surya M. Nauli, Rinzhin T. Sherpa, Caretta J. Reese, and Andromeda M. Nauli 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Mechanobiology and Diseases 76 5.3 Primary Cilia as Biomechanics 78 5.4 Modulating Mechanobiology Pathways 83 5.5 Conclusion 85 References 86 6 Mechanobiology of Embryonic Skeletal Development: Lessons for Osteoarthritis 101Andrea S. Pollard and Andrew A. Pitsillides 6.1 Introduction 101 6.2 An Overview of Embryonic Skeletal Development 102 6.3 Regulation of Joint Formation 103 6.4 Regulation of Endochondral Ossification 105 6.5 An Overview of Relevant Osteoarthritic Joint Changes 106 6.6 Lessons for Osteoarthritis from Joint Formation 108 6.7 Lessons for Osteoarthritis from Endochondral Ossification 109 6.8 Conclusion 110 Acknowledgements 111 References 111 7 Modulating Skeletal Responses to Mechanical Loading by Targeting Estrogen Receptor Signaling 115Gabriel L. Galea and Lee B. Meakin 7.1 Introduction 115 7.2 Biomechanical Activation of Estrogen Receptor Signaling: In Vitro Studies 116 7.3 Skeletal Consequences of Altered Estrogen Receptor Signaling: In Vivo Mouse Studies 120 7.4 Skeletal Consequences of Human Estrogen Receptor Polymorphisms: Human Genetic and Exercise-Intervention Studies 125 7.5 Conclusion 126 References 126 8 Mechanical Responsiveness of Distinct Skeletal Elements: Possible Exploitation of Low Weight-Bearing Bone 131Simon C. F. Rawlinson 8.1 Introduction 131 8.2 Anatomy and Loading-Related Stimuli 132 8.3 Preosteogenic Responses In Vitro 135 8.4 Site-Specific, Animal-Strain Differences 136 8.5 Exploitation of Regional Information 137 8.6 Conclusion 138 References 138 9 Pulmonary Vascular Mechanics in Pulmonary Hypertension 143Zhijie Wang, Lian Tian, and Naomi C. Chesler 9.1 Introduction 143 9.2 Pulmonary Vascular Mechanics 143 9.3 Measurements of Pulmonary Arterial Mechanics 147 9.4 Mechanobiology in Pulmonary Hypertension 150 9.5 Computational Modeling in Pulmonary Circulation 151 9.6 Impact of Pulmonary Arterial Biomechanics on the Right Heart 152 9.7 Conclusion 153 References 153 10 Mechanobiology and the Kidney Glomerulus 161Franziska Lausecker, Christoph Ballestrem, and Rachel Lennon 10.1 Introduction 161 10.2 Glomerular Filtration Barrier 161 10.3 Podocyte Adhesion 163 10.4 Glomerular Disease 165 10.5 Forces in the Glomerulus 166 10.6 Mechanosensitive Components and Prospects for Therapy 167 10.7 Conclusion 169 References 169 11 Dynamic Remodeling of the Heart and Blood Vessels: Implications of Health and Disease 175Ken Takahashi, Hulin Piao, and Keiji Naruse 11.1 Introduction 175 11.2 Causes of Remodeling 176 11.3 Mechanical Transduction in Cardiac Remodeling 177 11.4 The Remodeling Process 178 11.5 Conclusion 183 References 183 12 Aortic Valve Mechanobiology: From Organ to Cells 191K. Jane Grande-Allen, Daniel Puperi, Prashanth Ravishankar, and Kartik Balachandran 12.1 Introduction 191 12.2 Mechanobiology at the Organ Level 192 12.3 Mechanobiology at the Cellular Level 197 12.4 Conclusion 201 Acknowledgments 201 References 201 13 Testing the Perimenopause Ageprint using Skin Visoelasticity under Progressive Suction 207Gérald E. Piérard, Claudine Piérard-Franchimont, Ulysse Gaspard, Philippe Humbert, and Sébastien L. Piérard 13.1 Introduction 207 13.2 Gender-Linked Skin Aging 208 13.3 Dermal Aging, Thinning, and Wrinkling 209 13.4 Skin Viscoelasticity under Progressive Suction 209 13.5 Skin Tensile Strength during the Perimenopause 211 13.6 Conclusion 214 Acknowledgements 215 References 216 14 Mechanobiology and Mechanotherapy for Skin Disorders 221Chao-Kai Hsu and Rei Ogawa 14.1 Introduction 221 14.2 Skin Disorders Associated with Mechanobiological Dysfunction 223 14.3 Mechanotherapy 231 14.4 Conclusion 232 Acknowledgement 232 References 233 15 Mechanobiology and Mechanotherapy for Cutaneous Wound-Healing 239Chenyu Huang, Yanan Du, and Rei Ogawa 15.1 Introduction 239 15.2 The Mechanobiology of Cutaneous Wound-Healing 240 15.3 Mechanotherapy to Improve Cutaneous Wound-Healing 242 15.4 Future Considerations 246 References 246 16 Mechanobiology and Mechanotherapy for Cutaneous Scarring 255Rei Ogawa and Chenyu Huang 16.1 Introduction 255 16.2 Cutaneous Wound-Healing and Mechanobiology 255 16.3 Cutaneous Scarring and Mechanobiology 256 16.4 Cellular and Tissue Responses to Mechanical Forces 257 16.5 Keloids and Hypertrophic Scars and Mechanobiology 258 16.6 Relationship Between Scar Growth and Tension 260 16.7 A Hypertrophic Scar Animal Model Based on Mechanotransduction 261 16.8 Mechanotherapy for Scar Prevention and Treatment 262 16.9 Conclusion 263 References 264 17 Mechanobiology and Mechanotherapy for the Nail 267Hitomi Sano and Rei Ogawa 17.1 Introduction 267 17.2 Nail Anatomy 267 17.3 Role of Mechanobiology in Nail Morphology 268 17.4 Nail Diseases and Mechanical Forces 269 17.5 Current Nail Treatment Strategies 270 17.6 Mechanotherapy for Nail Deformities 270 17.7 Conclusion 271 References 271 18 Bioreactors: Recreating the Biomechanical Environment In Vitro 275James R. Henstock and Alicia J. El Haj 18.1 The Mechanical Environment: Forces in the Body 275 18.2 Bioreactors: A Short History 276 18.3 Bioreactor Types 278 18.4 Commercial versus Homemade Bioreactors 288 18.5 Automated Cell-Culture Systems 289 18.6 The Future of Bioreactors in Research and Translational Medicine 290 References 291 19 Cell Sensing of the Physical Properties of the Microenvironment at Multiple Scales 297Julien E. Gautrot 19.1 Introduction 297 19.2 Cells Sense their Mechanical Microenvironment at the Nanoscale Level 298 19.3 Cell Sensing of the Nanoscale Physicochemical Landscape of the Environment 306 19.4 Cell Sensing of the Microscale Geometry and Topography of the Environment 312 19.5 Conclusion 319 References 319 20 Predictive Modeling in Musculoskeletal Mechanobiology 331Hanifeh Khayyeri, Hanna Isaksson, and Patrick J. Prendergast 20.1 What is Mechanobiology? Background and Concepts 331 20.2 Examples of Mechanobiological Experiments 333 20.3 Modeling Mechanobiological Tissue Regeneration 337 20.4 Mechanoregulation Theories for Bone Regeneration 338 20.5 Use of Computational Modeling Techniques to Corroborate Theories and Predict Experimental Outcomes 340 20.6 Horizons of Computational Mechanobiology 341 References 343 21 Porous Bone Graft Substitutes: When Less is More 347Charlie Campion and Karin A. Hing 21.1 Introduction 347 21.2 Bone: The Ultimate Smart Material 350 21.3 Bone-Grafting Classifications 353 21.4 Synthetic Bone Graft Structures 356 21.5 Conclusion 361 References 362 22 Exploitation of Mechanobiology for Cardiovascular Therapy 373Winston Elliott, Amir Keshmiri, and Wei Tan 22.1 Introduction 373 22.2 Arterial Wall Mechanics and Mechanobiology 374 22.3 Mechanical Signal and Mechanotransduction on the Arterial Wall 375 22.4 Physiological and Pathological Responses to Mechanical Signals 377 22.5 The Role of Vascular Mechanics in Modulating Mechanical Signals 378 22.6 Therapeutic Strategies Exploiting Mechanobiology 380 22.7 The Role of Hemodynamics in Mechanobiology 381 22.8 Conclusion 390 References 391 Index 401

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Book SynopsisThis topical and timely textbook is a collection of problems for students, researchers, and practitioners interested in state-of-the-art material and device applications in quantum mechanics. Most problem are relevant either to a new device or a device concept or to current research topics which could spawn new technology. It deals with the practical aspects of the field, presenting a broad range of essential topics currently at the leading edge of technological innovation. Includes discussion on: Properties of Schroedinger Equation Operators Bound States in Nanostructures Current and Energy Flux Densities in Nanostructures Density of States Transfer and Scattering Matrix Formalisms for Modelling Diffusive Quantum Transport Perturbation Theory, Variational Approach and their Applications to Device Problems Electrons in a Magnetic or Electromagnetic Field and Associated Phenomena Time-dependent Perturbation Theory Table of ContentsAbout the Authors ix Preface xi 1 General Properties of the Schrodinger Equation 1 2 Operators 15 3 Bound States 47 4 Heisenberg Principle 80 5 Current and Energy Flux Densities 101 6 Density of States 128 7 Transfer Matrix 166 8 Scattering Matrix 205 9 Perturbation Theory 228 10 Variational Approach 245 11 Electron in a Magnetic Field 261 12 Electron in an Electromagnetic Field and Optical Properties of Nanostructures 281 13 Time-Dependent Schrodinger Equation 292 A Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 314 B Useful Relations for the One-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillator 317 C Properties of Operators 319 D The Pauli Matrices and their Properties 322 E Threshold Voltage in a High Electron Mobility Transistor Device 325 F Peierls’s Transformation 329 G Matlab Code 332 Index 343

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Book SynopsisIntroducing up-to-date coverage of research in electron field emission from nanostructures, Vacuum Nanoelectronic Devices outlines the physics of quantum nanostructures, basic principles of electron field emission, and vacuum nanoelectronic devices operation, and offers as insight state-of-the-art and future researches and developments. This book also evaluates the results of research and development of novel quantum electron sources that will determine the future development of vacuum nanoelectronics. Further to this, the influence of quantum mechanical effects on high frequency vacuum nanoelectronic devices is also assessed. Key features: In-depth description and analysis of the fundamentals of Quantum Electron effects in novel electron sources. Comprehensive and up-to-date summary of the physics and technologies for THz sources for students of physical and engineering specialties and electronics engineers. Unique coverage of quantum physical Table of ContentsPreface xi Part I THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS OF QUANTUM ELECTRON SOURCES 1 Transport through the Energy Barriers: Transition Probability 3 1.1 Transfer Matrix Technique 3 1.2 Tunneling through the Barriers and Wells 7 1.2.1 The Particle Moves on the Potential Step 7 1.2.2 The Particle Moves above the Potential Barrier 13 1.2.3 The Particle Moves above the Well 16 1.2.4 The Particle Moves through the Potential Barrier 18 1.3 Tunneling through Triangular Barrier at Electron Field Emission 22 1.4 Effect of Trapped Charge in the Barrier 24 1.5 Transmission Probability in Resonant Tunneling Structures: Coherent Tunneling 28 1.6 Lorentzian Approximation 32 1.7 Time Parameters of Resonant Tunneling 34 1.8 Transmission Probability at Electric Fields 38 1.9 Temperature Effects 42 1.9.1 One Barrier 42 1.9.2 Double-Barrier Resonance Tunneling Structure 45 2 Supply Function 48 2.1 Effective Mass Approximation 48 2.2 Electron in Potential Box 49 2.3 Density of States 52 2.3.1 Three-Dimension (3D) Case 52 2.3.2 Two-Dimension (2D) Case 58 2.3.3 One-Dimension (1D) Case 62 2.3.4 Zero Dimension (0D) Case 64 2.4 Fermi Distribution Function and Electron Concentration 66 2.4.1 Electron Concentration for 3D Structures 67 2.4.2 Electron Concentration for 2D Structures 71 2.5 Supply Function at Electron Field Emission 71 2.6 Electron in Potential Well 73 2.6.1 Quantum Well with Parabolic Shape of the Potential 76 2.7 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas in Heterojunction GaN-AlGaN 79 2.8 Electron Properties of Quantum-Size Semiconductor Films 82 3 Band Bending and Work Function 87 3.1 Surface Space-Charge Region 87 3.2 Quantization of the Energy Spectrum of Electrons in Surface Semiconductor Layer 91 3.3 Image Charge Potential 96 3.4 Work Function 99 3.4.1 Energy of Ionic Cores (εion) 102 3.4.2 Exchange-Correlation Potential (Uxc) 103 3.4.3 Dipole Term (ΔΦ) 104 3.4.4 Work Function of Semiconductor 106 3.4.5 Work Function of Cathode with Coating 107 3.5 Field and Temperature Dependences of Barrier Height 109 3.6 Influence of Surface Adatoms on Work Function 110 4 Current through the Barrier Structures 119 4.1 Current through One Barrier Structure 119 4.1.1 Case 1: High Bias 122 4.1.2 Case 2: High Bias and Low Temperature 122 4.1.3 Case 3: Small Bias: Linear Response 122 4.1.4 Case 4: Small Bias and Low Temperature 123 4.2 Field Emission Current 123 4.3 Electron Field Emission from Semiconductors 127 4.4 Current through Double Barrier Structures 134 4.4.1 Coherent Resonant Tunneling 134 4.4.2 Sequential Tunneling 139 4.5 Electron Field Emission from Multilayer Nanostructures and Nanoparticles 142 4.5.1 Resonant Tunneling at Electron Field Emission from Nanostructures 142 4.5.2 Two-Step Electron Tunneling through Electronic States in a Nanoparticle 150 4.5.3 Single-Electron Field Emission 159 5 Electron Energy Distribution 172 5.1 Theory of Electron Energy Distribution 172 5.2 Experimental Set Up 175 5.3 Peculiarities of Electron Energy Distribution Spectra at Emission from Semiconductors 177 5.3.1 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons Emitted from Semiconductors 179 5.4 Electron Energy Distribution at Emission from Spindt-Type Metal Microtips 180 5.5 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons Emitter from Silicon 185 5.5.1 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons from Silicon Tips and Arrays 185 5.5.2 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons from Nanocrystalline Silicon 193 Part II NOVEL ELECTRON SOURCES WITH QUANTUM EFFECTS 6 Si Based Quantum Cathodes 201 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Electron Field Emission from Porous Silicon 202 6.3 Electron Field Emission from Silicon with Multilayer Coating 207 6.4 Peculiarities of Electron Field Emission from Si Nanoparticles 208 6.4.1 Electron Field Emission from Nanocomposite SiOx(Si) and SiO2(Si) Films 208 6.4.2 Electron Field Emission from Si Nanocrystalline Films 212 6.4.3 Laser Produced Silicon Tips with SixOyNz(Si) Nanocomposite Film 215 6.5 Formation of Conducting Channels in SiOx Coating Film 217 6.6 Electron Field Emission from Si Nanowires 222 6.7 Metal-Insulator-Metal Emitters 227 6.7.1 Effect of the Top Electrode 237 6.8 Conclusion 240 7 GaN Based Quantum Cathodes 246 7.1 Introduction 246 7.2 Electron Sources with Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Films 247 7.2.1 AlGaN Based Electron Sources 249 7.2.2 Solid-State Field Controlled Emitter 255 7.2.3 Polarization Field Emission Enhancement Model 257 7.2.4 Emission from Nanocrystalline GaN Films 258 7.2.5 Graded Electron Affinity Electron Source 262 7.3 Resonant Tunneling of Field Emitted Electrons through Nanostructured Cathodes 263 7.3.1 Resonant-Tunneling AlxGa1−xN-GaN Structures 263 7.3.2 Multilayer Planar Nanostructured Solid-State Field-Controlled Emitter 266 7.3.3 Geometric Nanostructured AlGaN/GaN Quantum Emitter 270 7.3.4 AlN/GaN Multiple-Barrier Resonant-Tunneling Electron Emitter 273 7.4 Field Emission from GaN Nanorods and Nanowires 277 7.4.1 Intervalley Carrier Redistribution at EFE from Nanostructured Semiconductors 277 7.4.2 Electron Field Emission from GaN Nanowire Film 288 7.4.3 Electron Field Emission from Patterned GaN Nanowire Film 293 7.4.4 Electron Field Emission Properties of Individual GaN Nanowires 295 7.4.5 Photon-Assisted Field Emission from GaN Nanorods 299 7.5 Conclusions 305 8 Carbon-Based Quantum Cathodes 314 8.1 Introduction 314 8.2 Diamond and Diamond Film Emitters 315 8.2.1 Negative Electron Affinity 315 8.2.2 Emission from Diamond and Diamond Films 318 8.2.3 Models of EFE from Diamond 322 8.3 Diamond-Like Carbon Film Emitters 324 8.3.1 Electrically Nanostructured Heterogeneous Emitters 324 8.3.2 Nanostructured Diamond-Like Carbon Films 326 8.3.3 Electron Field Emission from DLC Films 328 8.3.4 Model of EFE from Si Tips Coated with DLC Film 330 8.3.5 Electron Field Emission from Tips Coated with Ultrathin DLC Films 334 8.3.6 Formation of Conductive Nanochannels in DLC Film 336 8.4 Carbon Nanotube Emitters 340 8.4.1 The Peculiarities of Electron Field Emission from CNTs 341 8.4.2 Stability of Electron Field Emission from CNTs 346 8.4.3 Models of Field Emission from CNTs 350 8.5 Electron Emission from Graphene and Nanocarbon 352 8.5.1 Electron Emission from Graphene 352 8.5.2 Electron Emission from CNT-Graphene Composites 355 8.5.3 Electron Emission from Nanocarbon 358 8.6 Conclusion 362 9 Quantum Electron Sources for High Frequency Applications 375 9.1 Introduction 375 9.2 High Frequency Application of Resonant Tunneling Diode 376 9.3 Field Emission Resonant Tunneling Diode 380 9.3.1 Direct Emission Current 381 9.3.2 Microwave Characteristics 383 9.3.3 Calculation of the Direct Emission Current 385 9.3.4 Calculation of Microwave Parameters 386 9.4 Generation of THz Signals in Field Emission Vacuum Devices 391 9.5 AlGaN/GaN Superlattice for THz Generation 398 9.6 Gunn Effect at Electron Field Emission 415 9.7 Field Emission Microwave Sources 420 9.7.1 Modulation of Gated FEAs 422 9.7.2 Current Density 432 9.7.3 CNT FEAs 436 9.8 Conclusion 440 Index 447

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Book SynopsisThe practical and comprehensive guide to the creation and application of holograms Written by Martin Richardson (an acclaimed leader and pioneer in the field) and John Wiltshire, The Hologram: Principles and Techniques is an important book that explores the various types of hologram in their multiple forms and explains how to create and apply the technology. The authors offer an insightful overview of the currently available recording materials, chemical formulas, and laser technology that includes the history of phase imaging and laser science. Accessible and comprehensive, the text contains a step-by-step guide to the production of holograms. In addition, The Hologram outlines the most common problems encountered in producing satisfactory images in the laboratory, as well as dealing with the wide range of optical and chemical techniques used in commercial holography. The Hologram is a well-designed instructive tool, involving three distincTable of ContentsForeword xi Preface xiii Dedications and Acknowledgements xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 What is a Hologram? 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Gabor’s Invention of Holography 1 1.3 The Work of Lippmann 5 1.4 Amplitude and Phase Holograms 5 1.5 Transmission Holograms 6 1.6 Reflection Holograms 7 1.7 Edge-lit Holograms 9 1.8 “Fresnel” and “Fraunhofer” Holograms 10 1.9 Display Holograms 12 1.10 Security Holograms 15 1.11 What is Not a Hologram? 16 1.11.1 Dot-matrix Holograms 17 1.11.2 Other Digital Image Types 18 1.11.3 Holographic Optical Element (HOE) 18 1.11.4 Pepper’s Ghost 18 1.11.5 Anaglyph Method 20 1.11.6 Lenticular Images 21 1.11.7 Scrambled Indicia 22 1.11.8 Hand-drawn “Holograms” 23 1.11.9 “Magic Eye” 24 Notes 25 2 Important Optical Principles and their Occurrence in Nature 27 2.1 Background 27 2.2 The Wave/Particle Duality of Light 29 2.3 Wavelength 30 2.4 Representation of the Behaviour of Light 32 2.4.1 A Ray of Light 32 2.4.2 A Wave Front 32 2.5 The Laws of Reflection 32 2.6 Refraction 34 2.7 Refractive Index 34 2.7.1 Refractive Index of Relevant Materials 34 2.8 Huygens’ Principle 34 2.9 The Huygens–Fresnel Principle 35 2.10 Snells Law 36 2.11 Brewster’s Law 38 2.12 The Critical Angle 40 2.13 TIR in Optical Fibres 42 2.14 Dispersion 42 2.15 Diffraction and Interference 43 2.16 Diffraction Gratings 45 2.17 The Grating Equation 45 2.18 Bragg’s Law 47 2.19 The Bragg Equation for the Recording of a Volume Hologram 50 2.20 The Bragg Condition in Lippmann Holograms 52 2.21 The Practical Preparation of Holograms 54 Notes 54 3 Conventional Holography and Lasers 55 3.1 Historical Aspect 55 3.2 Choosing a Laser for Holography 56 3.3 Testing a Candidate Laser 58 3.4 The Race for the Laser 59 3.5 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER) 60 3.6 The Ruby Laser 61 3.7 Laser Beam Quality 63 3.8 Photopic and Scotopic Response of the Human Eye 65 3.9 Eye Safety I 65 3.10 The Helium–Neon Laser 66 3.11 TheInert Gas Ion Lasers 68 3.12 Helium–Cadmium Lasers 69 3.13 Diode]pumped Solid]state Lasers 70 3.14 Fibre Lasers – A Personal Lament! 71 3.15 Eye Safety II 72 3.16 The Efficiency Revolution in Laser Technology 73 3.17 Laser Coherence 73 Notes 75 4 Digital Image Holograms 77 4.1 Why is There Such Desire to Introduce Digital Imaging into Holography? 77 4.2 The Kinegram 78 4.3 E]beam Lithographic Gratings 80 4.4 Grading Security Features 81 4.5 The Common “Dot]matrix” Technique 83 4.6 Case History: Pepsi Cola 88 4.7 Other Direct Methods of Producing Digital Holograms 88 4.8 Simian – The Ken Haines Approach to Digital Holograms 90 4.9 Zebra Reflection Holograms 90 Notes 92 5 Recording Materials for Holography 93 5.1 Silver Halide Recording Materials 93 5.2 Preparation of Silver Bromide Crystals 94 5.3 The Miraculous Photographic Application of Gelatin 95 5.4 Why Has it Taken so Long to Arrive at Today’s Excellent Standard of Recording Materials for Holography? 96 5.5 Controlled Growth Emulsions 97 5.6 Unique Requirements of Holographic Emulsions 100 5.7 Which Parameters Control Emulsion Speed? 101 5.8 Sensitisation 103 5.8.1 Chemical Sensitisation 103 5.8.2 Spectral Sensitisation 103 5.9 Developer Restrictions 104 5.10 The Coated Layer 105 5.11 The Non]typical Use of Silver Halides for Holography 106 5.12 Photopolymer 108 5.13 Photoresist 111 5.14 Dichromated Gelatin 112 5.14.1 Principle of Operation of DCG 113 5.14.2 Practical Experimentation with DCG 113 5.15 Photo]thermoplastics 114 Notes 115 6 Processing Techniques 117 6.1 Processing Chemistry for Silver Halide Materials 117 6.2 Pre]treatment of Emulsion 120 6.3 “Pseudo]colour” Holography 121 6.4 How Does Triethanolamine Treatment Work? 122 6.5 Wetting Emulsion Prior to Development 123 6.6 Development 124 6.7 Filamental and Globular Silver Grains 125 6.8 The H&D Curve 126 6.9 Chemical Development Mechanism 129 6.10 Pyro Developer Formulation 131 6.11 Ascorbic Acid Developers 131 6.11.1 Ascorbic Acid Developer Formulation 132 6.12 “Stop” Bath 133 6.12.1 “Stop” Bath Formulation 133 6.13 Fixing 134 6.13.1 Fixer Bath Formulation 135 6.14 Bleaching Solutions 135 6.15 Re]halogenating Bleaches 139 6.15.1 Ferric Re]halogenating Bleach Formulation 141 6.15.2 Cupric Re]halogenating Bleach Formulation 142 6.15.3 Re]halogenating Bleaching in Coarse]grain Emulsions such as “Holotest” 143 6.15.4 Re]halogenating Bleach Formulations for Coarse]grain Recording Materials 144 6.16 Post]process Conditioning Baths 144 6.17 Silver Halide Sensitised Gelatin (SHSG) 146 6.18 Surface]relief Effects by Etching Bleaches 147 6.18.1 Kodak EB4 Formulation 147 6.19 Photoresist Development Technique 148 Notes 150 7 Infrastructure of a Holography Studio and its Principal Components 153 7.1 Setting Up a Studio 153 7.2 Ground Vibration 154 7.3 Air Movement 155 7.4 Local Temperature Change 156 7.5 Safe Lighting 156 7.6 Organising Your Chemistry Laboratory 159 7.7 The Optical Table: Setting Up the Vital Components 159 7.8 Spatial Filtration 160 7.8.1 Mode of Operation of a Spatial Filter 160 7.8.2 Setting Up a Spatial Filter 161 7.8.3 Selection of Pinhole Diameter 163 7.8.4 Aligning the Spatial Filter in the Laser Beam 163 7.8.5 Centring the Pinhole 164 7.9 Filtering a “White” Laser Beam 166 7.10 Collimators 167 7.10.1 Mirror Collimators 168 7.10.2 Lens Collimation 171 7.10.3 Establishing the Approximate Focal Length of a Collimator 172 7.10.4 Finding the Precise Focal Point of a Collimator 172 7.10.5 Plano]convex Lens Alignment 173 7.10.6 Spherical Mirror Collimator Alignment 174 7.11 Organising Suitable Plate Holders for Holography 174 7.12 Hot Glue – The Holographer’s Disreputable Friend 175 7.13 Mirror Surfaces 176 7.13.1 Dielectric Mirrors 177 7.13.2 Metallic Coatings 177 7.14 Beam Splitters 178 7.14.1 Metallised Beam Splitters 179 7.14.2 Dielectric Beam Splitters 180 7.15 Shutters 181 7.16 Fringe Lockers 181 7.17 Optics Stands 182 7.18 Safety – Reprise 182 Notes 183 8 Making Conventional Denisyuk, Transmission and Reflection Holograms in the Studio 185 8.1 Introduction 185 8.2 The Denisyuk Configuration 186 8.3 The Realism of Denisyuk Holograms 186 8.4 The Limitations of Denisyuk Holograms 187 8.5 The Denisyuk Set]up 188 8.6 “Recording Efficiency” 189 8.7 Diffraction Efficiency 191 8.8 Spectrum of the Viewing Illumination 192 8.9 Other Factors Influencing Apparent Hologram Brightness 194 8.10 Problems Faced in the Production of High]quality Holograms 196 8.11 Selecting a Reference Angle 198 8.12 Index]matching Safety 200 8.13 Vacuum Chuck Method to Hold Film During Exposure 200 8.14 Setting the Plane of Polarisation 201 8.15 Full]colour “Denisyuk” Holograms 203 8.16 Perfect Alignment of Multiple Laser Beams 204 8.17 “Burn Out” 208 8.18 Hybrid (Boosted) Denisyuks 209 8.19 Contact Copying 211 8.20 The Rainbow Hologram Invention 212 8.21 A Laser Transmission Master Hologram 213 8.22 Laser Coherence Length 215 8.23 The Second Generation H2 Transmission Rainbow (Benton) Hologram 217 8.24 Developments of the Rainbow Hologram Technique 222 8.25 Using the α]Angle Theory to Produce Better Colour Rainbow Images 225 8.26 Aligning the Master Hologram with the α]Angle 228 8.27 Producing an α]Angle H2 Transfer 231 8.28 Utilising the Full Gamut of Rainbow Colours 232 8.29 Reflection Hologram Transfers 232 8.30 “Pseudo]colour” Holograms 235 8.31 Real]colour Holograms 237 Notes 237 9 Sources of Holographic Imagery 239 9.1 The Methods for Incorporation of 3D Artwork into Holograms 239 9.2 Making Holograms of Models and Real Objects 239 9.3 Models Designed for Multi]colour Rainbow Holograms 240 9.4 Supporting the Model 240 9.5 Pulse Laser Origination 242 9.6 The“2D/3D” Technique 244 9.7 The Rationale Behind Holographic Stereograms 246 9.8 Various Configurations for Holographic Stereograms 249 9.9 The Embossed Holographic Stereogram 250 9.10 Stereographic Film Recording Configuration 252 9.11 Shear Camera Recording 253 9.12 The Number of Image Channels for a Holographic Stereogram 256 9.13 Process Colours and Holography – An Uncomfortable Partnership 257 9.14 Assimilating CMYK Artwork with Holography 260 9.15 Interpretation of CMYK Separations in the RGB Format 261 Notes 262 10 A Personal View of the History of Holography 263 Notes 293 Epilogue: An Overview of the Impact of Holography in the World of Imaging 295 Notes 301 Index 303

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Book SynopsisThe 75thGlass Problem Conference is organized according to the following themes: Glass Melting, Forming,Energy and Environmental, Refractories, Sensors and Control, Modeling.Table of ContentsForeword ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Glass Melting Effect of Dissolved Water on Physical Properties of Soda-Lime- Silicate Glasses 3Udaya K. Vempati and Terence J. Clark Comparison of SEM/EDX Analysis to Petrographic Techniques for Identifying the Composition of Stones in Glass 13Brian Collins, Gary Smay, and Henry Dimmick Forming Multi Gob Weight Production 29Xu Ding, Jonathan Simon, Angelo Dinitto, and Andreas Helfenstein Closed Loop Control of Glass Container Forming 37Jonathan Simon and Andreas Helfenstein Hard Glass—Commercial Progress of Thermally Strengthened Container Glass 55Ken Bratton, Steven Brown, Tim Ringuette, and Dubravko Stuhne Energy and Environmental Oxygen Enhanced NOx Reduction (OENR) Technology for Glass Furnaces 69J. Pedel, H. Kobayashi, J. de Diego Rincón, U. Iyoha, E. Evenson, G. Cnossen, and P. Zucca U.S. Air Regulations Involving Glass Manufacturing 85Steven B. Smith New Combustion Technique for Reducing NOx and CO2 Emissions from a Glass Furnace 93R.S. Pont, N. Fricker, I. Alliat, Y. Agniel, and L. Kaya Environment and Energy: Flue Gas Treatment and Production of Electrical Power in the Glass Industry 107Alessandro Monteforte and Francesco Zatti OPTIMELT™ Regenerative Thermo-Chemical Heat Recovery for Oxy-Fuel Glass Furnaces 113A. Gonzalez, E. Solorzano, C. Lagos, G. Lugo, S. Laux, K.T. Wu, R.L. Bell, A. Francis, and H. Kobayashi Refractories Wear of Basic Refractories in Glass Tank Regenerators 123David J. Michael, H. Edward Wolfe, and Laura A. Lowe Modern and Competitive Regenerator Designs for Glass Industry 143Sébastien Bourdonnais Sensors and Control Detection of Early Stage Glass Penetration and Weak Refractory Spots on Furnace Walls 157Yakup Bayram, Alexander C. Ruege, Eric K. Walton, Peter Hagan, Elmer Sperry, Dan Cetnar, Robert Burkholder, Gokhan Mumcu, and Steve Weiser Fast and Objective Measurement of Residual Stresses in Glass 165Henning Katte Feeder Expert Control System for Improved Containers 177Fred Aker Modeling 3-D Transient Non-Isothermal CFD Modeling for Gob Formation 185Jian Jiao, Oluyinka Bamiro, David Lewis, and Xuelei Zhu Modeling of Heat Transfer and Gas Flows in Glass Furnace Regenerators 201Oscar Verheijen, Andries Habraken, and Heike Gramberg Energy Analysis for Preheating and Modeling of Heat Transfer from Flue Gas to a Granule 207Liming Shi, Udaya Vempati, and Sutapa Bhaduri Laboratory Facilities for Simulation of Essential Process Steps in Industrial Glass Furnaces 223Mathi Rongen, Mathieu Hubert, Penny Marson, Stef Lessmann, and Oscar Verheijen Heat Transfer in Glass Quenching for Glass Tempering 235Carlos J. Garciamoreno, David A. Everest, and Arvind Atreya Author Index 253

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisComplete and comprehensive reference on the principles of diagnostic and therapeutic techniques using pressure oscillation Pressure Oscillation in Biomedical Diagnostics and Therapy presents key findings in imaging, diagnostics, and therapies using high and low frequency pressure waves in a concise and easy-to-understand way, focusing primarily on the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems that utilize acoustics (mechanical wave motion). The work provides basic background in relevant acoustic theory as well as specific technical information associated with modern medical applications. Low frequency acoustics (pressure oscillation) and some aspects of ultrasound (radiation force) are also reviewed. The principles in the work can be extended to include other areas relating to materials and metal diagnostics. To allow for maximum reader comprehension regardless of current expertise on the subject, each chapter includes a brief history, current developments, aTable of ContentsCHAPTER I PRESSURE WAVES FOR DIAGNOSTICS AND THERAPY 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM MODELLING 1.3 WAVE EQUATION 1.4 GOVERNING EQUATION 1.4.1 Assumptions 1.4.2 Derivation 1.4.3 Solution 1.5 BIFURCATION 1.6 DIAGNOSTICS AND THERAPY 1.6.1 Diagnostics Applications 1.6.2 Therapy Applications 1.7 CLOSURE 1.8 REFRENCES PART I: DIAGNOSTICS AND IMIGING CHAPTER II: PULSE WAVE FOR ARTERIAL DIAGNOSTICS 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 2.2.1 Arterial System 2.2.2 Properties of Arteries 2.2.3 Arterial Stiffness (AS) 2.3 NON-INVASIVE ARTERIAL STIFFNESS DETECTION 2.3.1 Local Methods 2.3.2 Regional Methods 2.3.3 Waveform Analysis Methods 2.4 ARTERIAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT 2.5 LUMPED MODELLING OF THE AORTA AND BRACHIAL ARTERIES... 2.5.1 Input Signal 2.5.2 Wave Reflection Locations 2.5.3 Cuff-Soft Tissue -Brachial Artery Model 2.5.4 Brachial Artery Model 2.5.5 Combined Model 2.6 ARTERIAL BLOOD PRESSURE 2.6.1 Pulse Pressure 2.6.2 Mean Arterial Pressure 2.6.3 Non-invasive Blood Pressure Measurement Methods 2.6.4 Proposed Blood Pressure Measurement Method 2.7 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK CLASSIFICATION 2.8 PULSE WAVE 2.8.1 Pulse Wave History 2.8.2 Pulse Wave Types 2.8.3 Augmentation Index 2.8.4 Pulse Wave Velocity (PWV 2.8.5 Arterial Stiffness Index 2.8.6 Cardiac Output (CO 2.8.7 Pulse Wave Analysis (PWA) Methods 2.9 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF PULSE WAVE ANALYSIS 2.9.1 Pulse Wave Analysis for the Early Detection of Cardiovascular Disease 2.9.2 Pulse Wave Analysis in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 2.9.3 Pulse Wave in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) 2.9.4 Pulse Wave Analysis for the Prediction of Preeclampsia BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER III: RADIATION FORCE 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 ACOUSTIC RADIATION FORCE 3.2.1 Types of Radiation Force 3.2.2 Acoustic Radiation Force History 3.2.3 Applications of Acoustic Radiation Force 3.2.4 Acoustic Radiation Force Based Elasticity Imaging Techniques 3.2.5 Commercial Implementations of Acoustic Radiation Force Based Imaging 3.3 VIBRO ACOUSTOGRAPHY 3.3.1 Soft Tissue Material Properties 3.3.2 Dynamic Radiation Force in Vibro-Acoustography 3.3.3 Acoustic Emission 3.3.4 Ultrasound Beam Forming 3.3.5 Image Formation 3.3.6 Experimental System 3.3.7 Multi-frequency Vibro-Acoustography 3.4 VIBRO-ACOUSTOGRAPHY APPLICATIONS 3.4.1 Breast Imaging Application 3.4.2 Arteries Imaging Application 3.4.3 Prostate Imaging Application 3.4.4 Other Applications 3.5 GENERAL REMARKS ON VA 3.5.1 Benefits and Limitations of VA 3.5.2 Limitations of VA 3.5.3 Comparison of Vibro-Acoustography with Pulse–echo Systems 3.5.4 Future Directions BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER IV: HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 4.2.1 Upper Airways 4.2.2 Lower Airways 4.3 LUNG DEVELOPMENT 4.4 GAS EXCHANGE AND CONTROL 4.5 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM MECHANICS 4.5.1 Mechanical Properties 4.5.2 Airway Resistance 4.5.3 Surface Tension 4.5.4 Elastance and Compliance 4.5.5 Impedance 4.6 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM MODELS 4.7 MEASUREMENT METHODS 4.7.1 Lung Function Tests 4.7.2 Spirometry 4.7.2 Forced Oscillation Technique 4.8 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISEASES 4.8.1 Obstructive Lung Diseases 4.8.2 Restrictive Lung Diseases 4.9 DIAGNOSIS OF LUNG DISEASES 4.10 RESPIRATORY DISEASES TREATMENT 4.10.1 Surfactant Therapy 4.10.2 Ventilation Treatments 4.10.3 Ventilation Techniques using Pressure Oscillations 4.10.4 High Frequency Ventilation 4.10.5 Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) with Pressure Oscillations 4.10.6 Noisy ventilation 4.10.7 The Role of Vibration 4.11 CLOSURE BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER V: FORCED OSCILLATION TECHNIQUE 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 FORCED OSCILLATION TECHNIQUE 5.2.1 FOT Development History 5.2.2 Forced Oscillation Technique Types 5.2.3 FOT Setup 5.3 MEASUREMENT ARRANGEMENT 5.3.1 Resistance Measurement 5.3.2 Impedance Measurement Method 5.4 CLINICAL APPLICATIONS 5.4.1 FOT in Responsiveness Tests 5.4.2 FOT for Detecting Asthma Phenotypes 5.4.3 FOT in Patients Subjected to Ventilator Support 5.4.4 Monitoring of Respiratory Mechanics 5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS BIBLIOGRAPHY PART TWO: LUNG THERAPIES CHAPTER VI: OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA 6.1 INTRODUCTION 6.2 OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA 6.2.1 Anatomic Contributors to OSA 6.2.2 OSA Risks and Symptoms 6.2.3 OSA Diagnostic Methods 6.3 TREATMENT OPTION FOR OSA 6.4 SURGICAL TREATMENTS 6.4.1 Palatal Surgeries 6.4.2 Hypopharyngeal Procedures 6.4. 3 Other Procedures 6.5 CONTINUOUS POSITIVE AIRWAY PRESSURE 6.5.1 CPAP Principle 6.5.2 CPAP Main Components 6.5.3 Titration Pressure 6.6 OTHER FORMS OF CPAP 6.6.1 Bi-Level Positive Airway Pressure 6.6.2 Automatic Continuous Positive Airway Pressure 6.6.3 Auto Bi-Level Machines 6.6.4 Adaptive Pressure Support Servo-Ventilators 6.7 CLINICAL STUDIES 6.7.1 CPAP 6.7.2 Auto-CPAP 6.7.3 Clinical Comparison Studies of Auto CPAP and CPAP 6.8 SIDE EFFECTS WITH CPAP APPLICATIONS 6.9 SIGNIFICANCE OF PRESSURE OSCILLATION 6.9.1 Rationales 6.9.2 Pressure Oscillation 6.9.3 Pressure Oscillations Superimposed on CPAP 6.10 IMPROVEMENTS ON CPAP THERAPY 6.10.1 SIPO Modulate the Obstructed UA 6.10.2 SIPO for Saliva Stimulation 6.11 DEMONSTRATING SIPO CLINICALLY 6.11.1 Polysomnography setup 6.11.2 Saliva collection test 6.11.3 Concluding Remarks BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER VII: PRESSURE OSCILLATIONS IN ASTHMA TREATMENT 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 ASTHMA 7.2.1 Types of Asthma 7.2.2 Asthma Diagnostics 7.2.3 Asthma Treatment 7.2.3.1 Pharmacotherapy Treatments 7.2.3.2 Non-pharmacological Treatments 7.3 AIRWAY SMOOTH MUSCLES (ASM) 7.3.1 Structure of Airway Smooth Muscle 7.3.2 ASM Function in Health and Disease 7.3.3 ASM and Airway Responsiveness 7.3.4 Mechanical Properties of Airway Smooth Muscle 7.4 BREATHING DYNAMICS AND ASM 7.4.1 ASM Dynamics 7.4.2 Modelling of Airway Smooth Muscle Dynamics 7.5 LENGTH OSCILLATION BRONCHODILATION 7.5.1 Filament Sliding Model 7.5.2 Finite Duration for Length Steps 7.5.3 ASM Response 7.6 LENGTH OSCILLATION BRONCHOPROTECTION 7.6.1 Effect of Length Oscillations on ASM Reactivity and Cross-Bridge Cycling 7.6.2 Concluding Remarks 7.7 ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVES OF CONTRACTION-RELAXATION MECHANISM 7. 8. ANIMAL MODELS 7.8.1 Mouse Anatomy 7.8.2 Acute and Chronical Asthmatic Models 7.8.3 Model Limitations 7.9 MODEL SENSITIZATION 7.9.1 Sensitization Assessment 7.9.2 AHR / Plethysmography 7.9.3 ELISA (IgE) 7.9.4 BAL 7.10 SUPERIMPOSED PRESSURE OSCILLATION 7.10.1 Experimental layout 7.10.2 Nebulization System for the Drugs and Allergen 7.10.3 Pressure Oscillation Setup 7.11 IN VIVO TEST 7.11.1 Relaxation 7.11.2 Lung Resistance 7.11.3 Compliance 7.11.4 Concluding Remarks BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER VIII: PRESSURE OSCILLATION IN NEONATAL RESPIRATORY DISEASES TREATMENT 8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.2 NEONATAL RESPIRATORY DISEASES 8.2.1 Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia 8.2.2 Pneumonia 8.2.3 Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn 8.2.4 Meconium Aspiration Syndrome 8.2.5 Respiratory Distress Syndrome 8.2.6 Neonatal RDS Treatments 8.2.7 Role of Pressure Oscillations 8.3 HIGH-FREQUENCY VENTILATION 8.3.1 Mechanics of High-Frequency Oscillation 8.3.2 Modalities of High-Frequency Ventilation 8.3.3 High-Frequency Oscillatory Ventilation System 8.3.4 Gas Transport During HFOV 8.3.5 Control of Gas Exchange 8.3.6 Ventilator 8.3.7 Adjusting Ventilatory Parameters 8.3.8 Noninvasive Assessment of Lung Volume 8.3.9 Weaning 8.4 NOISY VENTILATION 8.5 CONTINUOUS POSITIVE AIRWAY PRESSURE 8.5.1 Nasal CPAP 8.5.2 Bubble CPAP System 8.6 MODELLING OF BUBBLE CPAP 8.6.1 Model Formulation 8.6.2 Structural Correlation 8.6.3 Results and Discussion 8.7 CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF PRESSURE OSCILLATIONS 8.7.1 HFOV in the Neonate and Infant 8.7.2 HFOV in the Children 8.7.3 HFOV in Adolescent and Adult 8.7.4 Clinical Benefits and Disadvantages of HFOV 8.7.5 Clinical Applications of CPAP BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Book Synopsis3D DIGITAL GEOLOGICAL MODELS Discover the practical aspects of modeling techniques and their applicability on both terrestrial and extraterrestrial structures A wide overlap exists in the methodologies used by geoscientists working on the Earth and those focused on other planetary bodies in the Solar System. Over the course of a series of sessions at the General Assemblies of the European Geosciences Union in Vienna, the intersection found in 3D characterization and modeling of geological and geomorphological structures for all terrestrial bodies in our solar system revealed that there are similar datasets and common techniques for the study of all planetsEarth and beyondfrom a geological point-of-view. By looking at Digital Outcrop Models (DOMs), Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), or Shape Models (SM), researchers may achieve digital representations of outcrops, topographic surfaces, or entire small bodies of the Solar System, like asteroids or comet nuclei. 3DTable of ContentsList of Contributors Preface 1. Introduction: 3D Digital Geological Models: From Terrestrial Outcrops to Planetary Surfaces Andrea Bistacchi, Matteo Massironi and Sophie Viseur Part I: DOM and SM reconstruction and interpretation workflows 2. Digital Outcrop Model reconstruction and interpretation Andrea Bistacchi, Silvia Mittempergher and Mattia Martinelli 3. The PRoViDE Framework: Accurate 3D geological models for virtual exploration of the Martian surface from rover and orbital imagery. Christoph Traxler, T. Ortner, G. Hesina, R. Barnes, S. Gupta, G. Paar, J.-P. Muller, Y. Tao and K. Willner 4. Vombat: an open source tool for creating stratigraphic logs from Virtual Outcrops L. Penasa, M. Franceschi and N. Preto 5. Interpretation and mapping of geological features using mobile devices in outcrop geology - A case study of the Saltwick Formation, North Yorkshire, UK Christian Kehl, James R. Mullins, Simon J. Buckley, John A. Howell and Robert L. Gawthorpe 6. Image analysis algorithms for semi-automatic lineament detection in geological outcrops Silvia Mittempergher and Andrea Bistacchi Part II: Morphometric analysis across different scales and planets 7. Mapping coastal erosion of a Mediterranean cliff with a boat-borne laser scanner: performance, processing and cliff erosion rate Jérémy Giuliano, Thomas J. B. Dewez, Thomas Lebourg, Vincent Godard, Mélody Prémaillon, Nathalie Marçot 8. A DTM-based volume extraction approach: from micro-scale weathering forms to planetary lava tubes Pozzobon, Riccardo; Mazzoli, Claudio; Salvini, Silvia; Sauro, Francesco; Massironi, Matteo; Santagata, Tommaso 9. Robust detection of circular shapes on 3D meshes based on discrete curvatures - Application to impact craters recognition Jean-Luc Mari, Sophie Viseur, Sylvain Bouley, Martin-Pierre Schmidt, Jennifer Muscato, Florian Beguet, Sarah Bali, Laurent Jorda Part III: 3D modelling of the subsurface from surface data 10. Remote sensing and field data based structural 3D modelling (Haslital, Switzerland) in combination with uncertainty estimation and verification by underground data Roland Baumberger, Marco Herwegh and Edi Kissling 11. Application of implicit 3D modeling to reconstruct the layered structure of the comet 67P L. Penasa, M. Massironi, E. Simioni, M. Franceschi, G. Naletto, S. Ferrari, F. Preusker, F. Scholten, L. Jorda, R. Gaskell, H. Sierks and the OSIRIS team Index

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive text that reviews the methods and technologies that explore emergent behavior in complex systems engineering in multidisciplinary fields In Emergent Behavior in Complex Systems Engineering, the authors present the theoretical considerations and the tools required to enable the study of emergent behaviors in manmade systems. Information Technology is key to today's modern world. Scientific theories introduced in the last five decades can now be realized with the latest computational infrastructure. Modeling and simulation, along with Big Data technologies are at the forefront of such exploration and investigation. The text offers a number of simulation-based methods, technologies, and approaches that are designed to encourage the reader to incorporate simulation technologies to further their understanding of emergent behavior in complex systems. The authors present a resource for those designing, developing, managing, operating, and maintaiTable of ContentsFOREWORD x PREFACE xiii ABOUT THE EDITORS xvi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xviii SECTION I EMERGENT BEHAVIOR IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS 1 1 Metaphysical and Scientific Accounts of Emergence: Varieties of Fundamentality and Theoretical Completeness 3John Symons 2 Emergence: What does it mean and How is it Relevant to Computer Engineering? 21Wesley J. Wildman and F. LeRon Shults 3 System Theoretic Foundations for Emergent Behavior Modeling: The Case of Emergence of Human Language in a Resource-Constrained Complex Intelligent Dynamical System 35Bernard P. Zeigler and Saurabh Mittal 4 Generative Parallax Simulation: Creative Cognition Models of Emergence for Simulation-Driven Model Discovery 59Levent Yilmaz SECTION II EMERGENT BEHAVIOR MODELING IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS ENGINEERING 77 5 Complex Systems Engineering and the Challenge of Emergence 79Andreas Tolk, Saikou Diallo, and Saurabh Mittal 6 Emergence in Complex Enterprises 99William B. Rouse 7 Emergence in Information Economies: An Agent-Based Modeling Perspective 129Erika Frydenlund and David C. Earnest 8 Modeling Emergence in Systems of Systems using Thermodynamic Concepts 149John J. Johnson IV, Jose J. Padilla, and Andres Sousa-Poza 9 Induced Emergence in Computational Social Systems Engineering: Multimodels and Dynamic Couplings as Methodological Basis 171Tuncer Ören, Saurabh Mittal, and Umut Durak 10 Applied Complexity Science: Enabling Emergence through Heuristics and Simulations 201Michael D. Norman, Matthew T.K. Koehler, and Robert Pitsko SECTION III ENGINEERING EMERGENT BEHAVIOR IN COMPUTATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS 227 11 Toward the Automated Detection of Emergent Behavior 229Claudia Szabo and Lachlan Birdsey 12 Isolating the Causes of Emergent Failures in Computer Software 263Ross Gore 13 From Modularity to Complexity: A Cross-Disciplinary Framework for Characterizing Systems 285Chih-Chun Chen and Nathan Crilly 14 The Emergence of Social Schemas and Lossy Conceptual Information Networks: How Information Transmission can lead to the Apparent "Emergence" of Culture 321Justin E. Lane 15 Modeling and Simulation of Emergent Behavior in Transportation Infrastructure Restoration 349Akhilesh Ojha, Steven Corns, Tom Shoberg, Ruwen Qin, and Suzanna Long SECTION IV RESEARCH AGENDA 369 16 Research Agenda for Next-Generation Complex Systems Engineering 371Saikou Diallo, Saurabh Mittal, and Andreas Tolk INDEX 391

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Book SynopsisProvides a comprehensive and updated account of WDM optical network systems Optical networking has advanced considerably since 2010. A host of new technologies and applications has brought a significant change in optical networks, migrating it towards an all-optical network. This book places great emphasis on the network concepts, technology, and methodologies that will stand the test of time and also help in understanding and developing advanced optical network systems. The first part of Optical WDM Networks: From Static to Elastic Networks provides a qualitative foundation for what followspresenting an overview of optical networking, the different network architectures, basic concepts, and a high-level view of the different network structures considered in subsequent chapters. It offers a survey of enabling technologies and the hardware devices in the physical layer, followed by a more detailed picture of the network in the remaining chapters. The next Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction to Optical Networks 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Trends in Optical Networking 2 1.1.2 Classification of Optical Networks 3 1.2 Optical Networks: A Brief Picture 7 1.2.1 Multiplexing in Optical Networks 8 1.2.2 Services Supported by Optical Networks 9 1.2.3 WDM Optical Network Architectures 10 1.2.3.1 Broadcast‐and‐Select Networks 10 1.2.3.2 Wavelength Routed Networks 11 1.2.3.3 Linear Lightwave Networks 13 1.2.4 Services Types 13 1.2.5 Types of Traffic 14 1.2.6 Switching Granularities 14 1.2.6.1 Optical Circuit Switching 15 1.2.6.2 Packet Switching for Bursty Traffic 15 1.3 Optical Network Layered Architecture 16 1.3.1 Layers and Sub‐layers 19 1.4 Organization of the Book 23 1.5 Summary 24 Problems 24 References 25 2 Network Elements 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Optical Fiber 29 2.2.1 Loss and Bandwidth Windows 30 2.2.2 Linear and Nonlinear Effects 32 2.3 Laser Transmitters 33 2.3.1 Laser Characteristics 34 2.3.2 Tunable Lasers 34 2.3.3 Modulation Techniques 35 2.4 Optical Receivers 36 2.5 Optical Amplifiers 37 2.5.1 Types of Optical Amplifiers 38 2.5.1.1 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier 38 2.5.1.2 Fiber Amplifiers 39 2.6 Optical Network Components 40 2.6.1 Passive Coupler Devices 40 2.6.1.1 Coupler Parameters 41 2.6.1.2 Scattering Matrix Formulation of the 2 × 2 Coupler 42 2.6.2 Switching Elements 44 2.6.2.1 Directive Switches 46 2.6.2.2 Gate Switches 46 2.6.2.3 Micro‐Electro Mechanical Switches 47 2.6.2.4 Liquid Crystal Optical Switch 48 2.6.3 N × N Star Coupler 49 2.6.4 Gratings 52 2.6.4.1 Fiber Bragg Gratings 53 2.6.4.2 Arrayed Waveguide Grating 54 2.6.5 Optical Filters 55 2.6.5.1 Fabry‐Perot Filter 56 2.6.5.2 Multi‐Layer Dielectric Thin‐Film Filter 58 2.6.5.3 Acousto‐Optic Filter 58 2.7 Optical Multiplexer and De‐Multiplexer 58 2.7.1 Mach‐Zehnder Interferometer (MZI) Multiplexer 59 2.8 Routers 62 2.8.1 Static Wavelength Router 62 2.8.2 Reconfigurable Wavelength Router 62 2.8.3 Optical Packet Routing Switches 64 2.9 Optical Switching Fabrics 64 2.9.1 Classification of Switching Fabrics 65 2.9.1.1 Permutation Switching Fabric 65 2.9.1.2 Generalized Switching Fabric 65 2.9.1.3 Linear Divider and Combiner Switching Fabric 65 2.9.2 Classification According to Blocking Characteristics 66 2.9.3 Types of Space Switching Fabrics 67 2.9.3.1 Cross‐Bar Switching Fabric 67 2.9.3.2 Clos Switch Fabric 69 2.9.3.3 Spanke Switch Fabric 70 2.9.3.4 Benes Switch Fabric 71 2.9.3.5 Spanke‐Benes Switch Fabric 72 2.10 Wavelength Converter 72 2.10.1 Opto‐Electronic Wavelength Converters 73 2.10.2 All‐Optical Wavelength Converters 74 2.10.2.1 Transparent All‐Optical Wavelength Converters 74 2.10.2.2 Opaque All‐Optical Wavelength Converter 74 2.11 Optical Network Functional Blocks 76 2.11.1 Network Access Terminal 76 2.11.2 Optical Network Node 78 2.11.2.1 Optical Add‐Drop Multiplexers 79 2.11.2.2 Optical Cross‐Connect 82 2.12 Summary 85 Problems 86 References 88 3 Broadcast‐and‐Select Local Area Networks 91 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 Physical Topologies of Single‐Hop Networks 92 3.2.1 Star Topology 92 3.2.2 Folded Bus Topology 93 3.2.3 Tree Topology 93 3.3 Multiplexing and Multiple Access in B&S Networks 95 3.4 Network Traffic 95 3.4.1 Circuit‐Switched Traffic 97 3.4.1.1 Streamed Synchronous Traffic on Dedicated Connections 97 3.4.1.2 Packet Traffic with Fixed Frame on Dedicated Connections 98 3.4.1.3 Traffic with Demand‐Assigned Circuit‐Switched Connections 102 3.4.2 Optical Packet Switching 105 3.5 Network Resource Sharing in Optical Networks 106 3.5.1 Capacity Increase with Number of λ‐Channels 107 3.5.2 Capacity Increase with Number of Time Slots 107 3.6 Capacity of the B&S Network 108 3.6.1 Scheduling Efficiency 109 3.7 Packet Switching in the Optical Layer in B&S Networks 110 3.8 Medium Access Protocols 111 3.8.1 Non‐pre‐transmission Coordination 112 3.8.2 Pre‐transmission Coordinated MAC Protocol 113 3.8.2.1 Slotted Aloha/Slotted Aloha Protocols 114 3.8.2.2 DT‐WDMA Scheduling Protocol 118 3.8.2.3 MAC Scheduling Protocols 121 3.9 Summary 122 Problems 122 References 124 4 Optical Access Networks 127 4.1 Introduction 127 4.2 Available Access Technologies 128 4.2.1 Access Network Classification 129 4.2.1.1 Digital Subscriber Line 130 4.2.1.2 Cable Television 130 4.2.1.3 Hybrid Fiber Coaxial Network 130 4.2.1.4 Fixed Wireless Access Networks 131 4.2.1.5 Satellite Wireless Access Networks 132 4.3 Optical Fiber Access Networks 132 4.3.1 Passive Optical Network Topology 134 4.4 PON Architectures in Access Networks 135 4.4.1 Broadcast‐and‐Select Passive Optical Networks 135 4.5 TDM/TDMA EPON Operation 138 4.5.1 Upstream Communication in PON 138 4.5.2 Multi‐Point Control Protocol 139 4.5.2.1 Auto‐Discovery and Registration 140 4.5.2.2 Ranging and Clock Synchronization 141 4.5.2.3 Signaling Messages Used for Arbitration 142 4.5.3 Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation Algorithms 143 4.5.3.1 Service Disciplines 144 4.5.3.2 Interleaved Polling with Adaptive Cycle Time DBA Protocol 145 4.6 WDM PON Network Architecture 146 4.6.1 WDM PON with TPON Architecture 146 4.6.2 Wavelength Routing WDM PON 147 4.7 Next‐Generation PONs 147 4.7.1 NG‐PON1 148 4.7.2 Long‐Term Evolution – NG‐PON2 150 4.8 Free Space Optical Access and WOBAN 151 4.8.1 Optical Wireless Access System 152 4.8.2 Hybrid Wireless‐Optical Broadband Access Network 153 4.9 Summary 153 Problems 154 References 155 5 Optical Metropolitan Area Networks 159 5.1 Introduction 159 5.2 Synchronous Optical Network/Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 161 5.2.1 SONET Networks 161 5.2.2 SONET Multiplexing 163 5.2.2.1 Virtual Tributaries 164 5.2.3 SONET Frame 165 5.2.4 SONET/SDH Devices 166 5.2.4.1 Terminal Multiplexer/De‐multiplexer 166 5.2.4.2 Regenerator 167 5.2.4.3 Add/Drop Multiplexer 167 5.2.4.4 Digital Cross‐Connect 167 5.2.5 SONET Protocol Hierarchy 167 5.2.6 SONET Network Configurations 169 5.2.6.1 SONET Ring Architecture 169 5.2.7 Traffic Grooming in SONET/SDH Networks 172 5.2.8 Scalability of SONET/SDH Networks 173 5.3 Optical Transport Network 174 5.3.1 Layered Hierarchy of OTN 175 5.3.2 Lines Rates of OTN 177 5.3.3 OTN Frame Structure 179 5.3.3.1 OTN Frame Structure Overheads 180 5.3.4 OTN Switching 181 5.3.4.1 OTN Switch 182 5.3.5 Tandem Connection Monitoring 183 5.4 Summary 186 Problems 186 References 188 6 Wavelength Routed Wide Area Networks 189 6.1 Introduction 189 6.2 The Hybrid Wavelength Routed Network Architecture 192 6.3 The Optical Layer in Wavelength Routing Networks 196 6.4 Design of Wavelength Routed Network with Logical Routing Network Overlay 197 6.5 Analysis of WDM Wavelength Routing Networks 199 6.5.1 Optimization Problem Formulation of the WRN 200 6.6 Heuristic Solutions for WDM Wavelength Routing Networks 205 6.6.1 Design Parameters, Performance Metrics, and QoS Issues 206 6.6.2 Route Selection Algorithms 207 6.6.2.1 Breadth‐First‐Search Algorithm 208 6.6.2.2 Dijkstra Algorithm 210 6.6.3 Heuristic Wavelength Routing Algorithms 211 6.6.3.1 Fixed Routing 211 6.6.3.2 Fixed‐Alternate Routing 212 6.6.3.3 Adaptive Routing 212 6.6.3.4 Least Congested Path Routing 213 6.6.4 Wavelength Assignment Algorithms 213 6.6.4.1 Fixed Order First Fit 214 6.6.4.2 Random Assignment 214 6.6.4.3 Least Used Wavelength Assignment 214 6.6.4.4 Most Used Wavelength Assignment 215 6.6.5 Joint Routing‐Wavelength Assignment Algorithm 218 6.7 Logical Topology Design Heuristics 218 6.7.1 Logical Topology Design Algorithm with Congestion Minimization 219 6.7.2 Logical Topology Design Algorithm with Delay Minimization 220 6.7.3 Logical Topology Design Algorithm with Link Elimination and Matching 220 6.7.4 Simulated Annealing‐Based LT Heuristics 221 6.8 Summary 222 Problems 222 References 225 7 Network Control and Management 229 7.1 Introduction 229 7.2 NMS Architecture of Optical Transport Network 232 7.3 Logical Architecture of Automatic Switched Optical Network 234 7.3.1 Interaction Between the Client Control Layer and the Optical Control Layer 236 7.4 Functions of Management and Control Plane 238 7.4.1 Discovery or State Information 238 7.4.2 Routing 240 7.4.3 Signaling 240 7.4.3.1 Signaling Network 241 7.4.3.2 Alarm Management System 242 7.4.3.3 Resource Reservation Signaling Protocol 242 7.4.4 Performance Monitoring 244 7.4.5 Fault Management 245 7.4.6 Security, Accounting Management, and Policing 246 7.5 Generalized Multi‐Protocol Label Switching 246 7.5.1 Interfaces in GMPLS 248 7.5.2 GMPLS Control Plane Functions and Services 248 7.5.3 GMPLS Protocol Suite 251 7.5.4 Path Computation Element 254 7.6 Summary 256 Problems 256 References 257 8 Impairment Management and Survivability 261 8.1 Introduction 261 8.2 Impairments in Optical Networks 262 8.2.1 Impairments in Transparent Optical Networks 263 8.2.2 Evaluation Criteria of Signal Quality 264 8.2.3 Optical System Impairments 266 8.2.3.1 Linear Impairments 267 8.2.3.2 Impairments Due to Nonlinearities 272 8.2.4 Impairment Awareness and Compensation in Optical Networks 276 8.3 Survivability in Optical Networks 279 8.4 Protection and Restoration 280 8.4.1 Protection and Restoration Schemes 280 8.4.2 Restoration Schemes 283 8.5 Survivability in Multilayer WDM Optical Networks 284 8.5.1 Survivability in the Electronic Logical Layer 285 8.5.2 Optical Layer Protection/Restoration 287 8.6 Summary 291 Problems 292 References 295 9 Flexible Optical Networks 297 9.1 Introduction 297 9.2 Coherent Modulation Schemes 298 9.2.1 Dual Polarization‐Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DP‐QPSK) 299 9.2.2 M‐Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (M‐QAM) 301 9.3 Multi‐Carrier Modulation Schemes 301 9.3.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 303 9.3.1.1 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM 305 9.3.1.2 Peak‐to‐Average Power Ratio for OFDM 306 9.3.2 Optical OFDM 307 9.3.2.1 Direct‐Detection Optical OFDM 309 9.3.2.2 Coherent‐Detection Optical OFDM 310 9.3.2.3 All‐Optical OFDM 311 9.4 Elastic Optical Network 312 9.5 Elastic Optical Network Elements 314 9.5.1 Flexible‐Grid Fiber 314 9.5.2 Bandwidth Variable Transponder 317 9.5.3 Flexible Spectrum Selective Switches 319 9.5.4 Reconfigurable Optical Add Drop Multiplexers 320 9.6 Routing and Spectrum Assignment Algorithms 321 9.6.1 Static and Dynamic RSA 322 9.6.1.1 Static ILP and Heuristic RSA Solutions 322 9.6.1.2 RSA for Time‐Varying Traffic 324 9.6.1.3 Network Defragmentation RSA 325 9.7 Network Control and Management 325 9.8 Summary 326 References 326 10 Software‐Defined Optical Networks 331 10.1 Introduction 331 10.2 Software‐Defined Networking 333 10.2.1 Functions of SDN Layers 335 10.2.1.1 Infrastructure Layer 336 10.2.1.2 South Bound Interface 336 10.2.1.3 Network Hypervisors 338 10.2.1.4 Network Operating System 339 10.2.1.5 North Bound Interfaces Layer 342 10.2.1.6 Network Application Layer 342 10.3 Software‐Defined Optical Networking 343 10.3.1 SDON Architecture 344 10.3.1.1 SDON Data Plane 345 10.3.1.2 SDON Control Plane 349 10.3.1.3 SDON Application Layer 354 10.4 Summary 355 References 355 Index 359

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Book SynopsisThis book is the first pedagogical synthesis of the field of topological insulators and superconductors, one of the most exciting areas of research in condensed matter physics. Presenting the latest developments, while providing all the calculations necessary for a self-contained and complete description of the discipline, it is ideal for researchers and graduate students preparing to work in this area, and it will be an essential reference both within and outside the classroom. The book begins with the fundamental description on the topological phases of matter such as one, two- and three-dimensional topological insulators, and methods and tools for topological material's investigations, topological insulators for advanced optoelectronic devices, topological superconductors, saturable absorber and in plasmonic devices. Advanced Topological Insulators provides researchers and graduate students with the physical understanding and mathematical tools needed to embark on research in this rTable of ContentsPreface xv 1 Characterization of Phase Transition Points for Topological Gapped Systems 1Linhu Li and Shu Chen 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 General Definition of Topological Invariant of Phase Transition Points 3 1.2.1 A 1D Example: the Su-Schrieffer-Heeger Model 3 1.2.2 General Characterization of Topological Phase Transition 7 1.3 Phase Transition Points of One-Dimensional Systems 9 1.3.1 Z -Type Topological Gapped Systems 10 1.3.1.1 Class BDI: An Extended Version of the SSH Model 14 1.3.1.2 Class AIII: The Creutz Model 16 1.3.2 Z2 Topological Gapped Systems 17 1.3.2.1 Class D: An Extended Version of the Kiteav Model 21 1.3.2.2 Class DIII: An Example Model 23 1.3.3 A Non-Topological Example of 1D Insulating Systems 26 1.4 Phase Transition Points of Two-Dimensional Systems 26 1.4.1 The Haldane Model 28 1.4.2 An Extended Version of the Qi-Wu-Zhang Model 33 1.5 An Example of 3D Topological Insulators 36 References 41 2 Topological Insulator Materials for Advanced Optoelectronic Devices 45Zengji Yue, Xiaolin Wang and Min Gu 2.1 Excellent Electronic Properties 46 2.1.1 Quantum Spin Hall Effect 46 2.1.2 Topological Magnetoelectric Effects 47 2.1.3 Magnetic Monopole Image 47 2.1.4 Topological Superconductors 48 2.1.5 Quantum Anomalous Hall Effects 49 2.1.6 Giant Magnetoresistance Effects 49 2.1.7 Shubnikov-De Haas Effects 50 2.2 Excellent Optical Properties 50 2.2.1 Ultrahigh Bulk Refractive Index 50 2.2.2 Near-Infrared Transparency 52 2.2.3 Faraday Rotation and Unusual Electromagnetic Scattering 53 2.2.4 Ultra-Broadband Plasmon Excitations 54 2.2.5 Polarized Light Induced Photocurrent 56 2.2.6 Broadband Optical Nonlinear Response 56 2.3 Advanced Optoelectronic Devices 57 2.3.1 Plasmonic Solar Cells 57 2.3.2 Nanometric Holograms 57 2.3.3 Ultrathin Flat Lens 59 2.3.4 Near-Infrared Photodetector 59 2.3.5 Saturable Absorber 60 2.4 Conclusion and Outlook 62 References 63 3 Topological Insulator Thin Films and Artificial Topological Superconductors 71Hao Zheng, Yaoyi Li and Jin-Feng Jia 3.1 Theoretical Background 72 3.1.1 Berry Phase and Topology in Condensed Matter Physics 72 3.1.2 Topological Insulator 73 3.1.3 Topological Superconductor and Majorana Fermionic Mode 75 3.2 Introduction of the Experimental Methods 78 3.2.1 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 78 3.2.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 80 3.3 Topological Insulator Thin Films 82 3.4 Artificial Two-Dimensional Topological Superconductor 88 3.5 Discovery of Majorana Zero Mode 94 3.5.1 Identification of a Majorana Zero Mode Base on Its Lateral Extension 95 3.5.2 Identification of a Majorana Zero Mode Based on Its Spin 99 3.6 Summary 102 References 103 4 Topological Matter in the Absence of Translational Invariance 109Koji Kobayashi, Tomi Ohtsuki and Ken-Ichiro Imura 4.1 Introduction 109 4.2 Topological Insulator and Real-Space Topology 114 4.2.1 Cylindrical Topological Insulator 115 4.2.2 Spherical Topological Insulator 115 4.2.3 Protection of the Surface States: Berry Phase Point of View 118 4.3 Layer Construction: Dimensional Crossovers of Topological Properties 119 4.3.1 Time-Reversal Invariant (Z2) Type Lattice Model: STI/WTI 119 4.3.2 Time-Reversal Broken (Z) Type Lattice Model: WSM/CI 120 4.3.3 Similarity Between Two Phase Diagrams 121 4.3.4 Stacked QSH/QAH Model 122 4.3.5 Dimensional Crossover 124 4.3.6 Topological Insulator Terraces and 1D Perfectly Conducting Helical Channel 125 4.4 Effects of Disorder 126 4.4.1 Model for Disordered STI/WTI 127 4.4.2 Phase Diagram of Disordered Topological Insulators 127 4.4.2.1 Phase Diagram: Isotropic Case 127 4.4.2.2 Phase Diagram: Anisotropic Case 130 4.5 Critical Properties of Topological Quantum Phase Transitions 130 4.5.1 Quantum Phase Transition in Random Systems 130 4.5.2 Critical Properties of Topological Insulator-Metal Transition 132 4.5.3 Topological Semimetal-Metal Transition: Evolution of Density of States 133 4.5.4 Effect of Disorder on Weyl/Dirac Semimetals 134 4.5.5 Density of State Scaling 134 4.5.6 Numerical Verification of Density of State Scaling 136 4.5.7 Relationships Derived from the Density of States Scaling 136 4.5.7.1 Conductivity 136 4.5.7.2 Specific Heat and Susceptibility 139 4.5.8 Future Problem for Semimetal-Metal Transition 140 4.6 Phase Diagrams Obtained from Machine Learning 142 4.6.1 Phase Diagram for Disordered Topological Insulators 144 4.6.2 Phase Diagram for Disordered Weyl Semimetal 146 4.6.3 Comparison of CNN Method and the Conventional Method 148 4.7 Summary and Concluding Remarks 149 References 149 5 Changing the Topology of Electronic Systems Through Interactions or Disorder 159M.A.N. Araújo, E.V. Castro and P.D. Sacramento 5.1 Introduction 160 5.2 Change of an Insulator’s Topological Properties by a Hubbard Interaction 163 5.2.1 A Model for Spinless Fermions with Z Topological Number 163 5.2.2 A Spinful Model with Z Topological Number 169 5.2.3 Model with Z2 Topological Number 170 5.3 Effects of Disorder on Chern Insulators 172 5.3.1 Model and Methods 174 5.3.2 Disorder Equally Distributed in Both Sublattices 176 5.3.3 Disorder Selectively Distributed in Only One Sublattice and Anomalous Hall Metal 179 5.3.4 Wrapping Up the Effect of Disorder 182 5.4 Topological Superconductors 183 5.4.1 Magnetic Adatom Chains on a S-Wave Superconductor: Topological Modes and Quantum Phase Transitions 183 5.4.1.1 Model: S-Wave Superconductor with Magnetic Impurities 184 5.4.1.2 Energy Levels and Topological Invariant 185 5.4.1.3 Wave Functions: Cross-Over from YSR States to MZEM 186 5.4.2 Triplet Two-Dimensional Superconductor with Magnetic Chains 187 5.4.2.1 Pure Triplet Superconductor 187 5.4.2.2 Addition of Magnetic Impurities 188 5.4.3 Chern Number Analysis When Translational Invariance Is Broken 189 5.4.4 Magnetic Islands on a P-Wave Superconductor 190 5.5 Conclusions 191 5.6 Acknowledgements 195 References 196 6 Q-Switching Pulses Generation Using Topology Insulators as Saturable Absorber 207Sulaiman Wadi Harun, Nurfarhanah Zulkipli, Ahmad Razif Muhammad and Anas Abdul Latiff 6.1 Introduction 208 6.2 Fiber Laser Technology 209 6.2.1 Working Principle of Erbium-Doped Fiber Laser (EDFL) 211 6.2.2 Q-Switching 212 6.3 Topology Insulator (TI) 215 6.4 Pulsed Laser Parameters 216 6.5 Bi2 Se3 Material as Saturable Absorber in Passively Q-Switched Fiber Laser 218 6.5.1 Preparation and Optical Characterization of Bi2 Se3 Based SA 219 6.5.2 Configuration of the Q-Switched Laser with Bi2 Se3 Based SA 221 6.5.3 Q-Switching Performances 222 6.6 Q-Switched EDFL with Bi2 Te3 Material as Saturable Absorber 226 6.6.1 Preparation and Optical Characterization of the SA 226 6.6.2 Experimental Setup 228 6.6.3 Q-Switched Laser Performances 229 6.7 Conclusion 233 References 234 7 Topological Phase Transitions: Criticality, Universality, and Renormalization Group Approach 239Wei Chen and Manfred Sigrist 7.1 Generic Features Near Topological Phase Transitions 240 7.1.1 Topological Phase Transition in Lattice Models 240 7.1.2 Gap-Closing and Reopening 242 7.1.3 Divergence of the Curvature Function 243 7.1.4 Renormalization Group Approach 245 7.2 Topological Invariant in 1D Calculated from Berry Connection 249 7.2.1 Berry Connection and Theory of Charge Polarization 249 7.2.2 Su-Schrieffer-Heeger Model 251 7.2.3 Kitaev’s P-Wave Superconducting Chain 256 7.3 Topological Invariant in 2D Calculated from Berry Curvature 261 7.3.1 Berry Curvature and Theory of Orbital Magnetization 261 7.4 Universality Class of Higher Order Dirac Model 262 7.5 Topological Invariant in D-Dimension Calculated from Pfaffian 268 7.5.1 Pfaffian of the m-Matrix 268 7.5.2 Bernevig-Hughes-Zhang Model 272 7.6 Summary 277 References 277 8 Behaviour of Dielectric Materials Under Electron Irradiation in a SEM 281Slim Fakhfakh, Khaled Raouadi and Omar Jbara 8.1 Introduction 282 8.2 Fundamental Aspects of Electron Irradiation of Solids 283 8.2.1 Volume of Interaction and Penetration Depth 283 8.2.2 Emissions and Spatial Resolutions Resulting from Electron Irradiation 284 8.3 Electron Emission of Solid Materials 285 8.3.1 Spectrum or Energy Distribution of the Electron Emission 285 8.3.2 Backscattered Electron Emission 286 8.3.3 Secondary Electron Emission 289 8.3.3.1 Mechanism of Secondary Electron Emission 289 8.3.3.2 Variation of the Electron Emission Rate as a Function of Primary Energy 292 8.3.4 Auger Electron Emission 293 8.3.5 Total Emission Yield 294 8.4 Electron Emission of Solid Materials 295 8.5 Trapping and Charge Transport in Insulators 296 8.5.1 Generalities 296 8.5.2 Defects and Impurities 297 8.5.3 Amorphous or Very Disordered Insulators: Disorder and Localized States in the Conduction Band 298 8.5.4 Injection, Localization and Transport of Charges 299 8.5.5 Space Charge 299 8.6 Application: Dynamic Trapping Properties of Dielectric Materials Under Electron Irradiation 300 8.6.1 Measurement of the Trapped Charge from Displacement Current and Conservation Law of the Current 301 8.6.1.1 Measurement of the Trapped Charge from the Displacement Current 301 8.6.1.2 Conservation Law of the Current and the Induced Charge 303 8.6.2 Device and Experimental Procedure 305 8.6.3 Typical Curves of Measured Currents and Influence Factor 307 8.6.4 Trapped Charge 309 8.6.4.1 Characteristic Parameters of the Charging Process 311 8.6.4.2 Characteristic Parameters of Discharging Process 311 8.6.5 Determination of the Total Electron Emission Yield 314 8.6.6 Flashover Phenomena and Determination of the Trapping Cross Section for Electrons 315 8.6.7 Determination of Effective Resistivity and Estimation of the Electric Field Strength Initiating Surface Discharge 319 8.6.8 Effect of Current Density 322 8.7 Conclusion 325 References 326 9 Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) is a New Paradigm for Realization of Topological Insulator 331Gopinath Palai 9.1 Introduction 331 9.1.1 Electrical Topological Insulator 332 9.1.1.1 Hall Effect 332 9.1.2 Photonic Crystal Fiber 341 9.1.2.1 Solid-Core PCFs 343 9.1.2.2 Hollow-Core PCFs 344 9.1.3 Photonic Topological Insulator 345 9.2 Structure of Photonic Crystal Fiber 346 9.3 Result and Discussion 347 9.4 Conclusion 353 References 35310 Patterned 2D Thin Films Topological Insulators for Potential Plasmonic Applications 361G. Padmalaya, E. Manikandan, S. Radha, B.S. Sreeja and P. Senthil Kumar 10.1 Introduction 362 10.2 Fundamentals of Plasmons 363 10.2.1 Plasmons at Metals/Insulator Interfaces 363 10.2.1.1 Properties of Surface Plasmons 363 10.2.2 Plasmons-Based on Electromagnetic Fields 364 10.2.3 Plasmons at Planar Interfaces 366 10.2.3.1 Behaviors of Plasmons at Planar Surfaces 366 10.2.4 Plasmons at Surface Imaging 366 10.3 Plasmons at Structured Surfaces 370 10.3.1 Graphene-Based Structure 370 10.3.2 Metal Oxide-Based Structure 371 10.3.3 Dimensional Thin Films-Based Topological Insulators 371 10.3.3.1 Graphene-Based Topological Insulators 372 10.3.3.2 Graphene in Spintronics Applications 372 10.3.3.3 Graphene in Memory-Based Applications 373 10.3.3.4 Graphene-Based Topological Insulator for Thermoelectric Applications 374 10.3.3.5 Graphene in Sensing Applications Based Topological Line Defects 375 10.3.4 Piezotronics-Based Topological Insulators 377 10.3.4.1 Fundamental Physics of Piezotronics and Its Applications 377 10.3.5 Metamaterials-Based Topological Insulators 379 10.3.5.1 Operation Principle 379 10.3.5.2 Mapping of MM with TI 380 10.4 Nanostructured Thin Films and Its Applications 387 10.4.1 Plasmonic Applications 387 10.4.2 Biomedical Applications 387 10.5 Summary 388 References 389 Index 393

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Book SynopsisMust-have reference on electronic packaging technology! The electronics industry is shifting towards system packaging technology due to the need for higher chip circuit density without increasing production costs. Electronic packaging, or circuit integration, is seen as a necessary strategy to achieve a performance growth of electronic circuitry in next-generation electronics. With the implementation of novel materials with specific and tunable electrical and magnetic properties, electronic packaging is highly attractive as a solution to achieve denser levels of circuit integration. The first part of the book gives an overview of electronic packaging and provides the reader with the fundamentals of the most important packaging techniques such as wire bonding, tap automatic bonding, flip chip solder joint bonding, microbump bonding, and low temperature direct Cu-to-Cu bonding. Part two consists of concepts of electronic circuit design and its role in low power devices, biomedical devTable of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology 3 1.3 5G Technology and AI Applications 4 1.4 3D IC Packaging Technology 7 1.5 Reliability Science and Engineering 11 1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology 13 1.7 Outline of the Book 14 References 15 Part I 17 2 Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic Packaging 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Wire Bonding 20 2.3 Tape-Automated Bonding 23 2.4 Flip-Chip Solder Joint Bonding 26 2.5 Micro-Bump Bonding 32 2.6 Cu-to-Cu Direct Bonding 35 2.6.1 Critical Factors for Cu-to-Cu Bonding 36 2.6.2 Analysis of Cu-to-Cu Bonding Mechanism 39 2.6.3 Microstructures at the Cu-to-Cu Bonding Interface 46 2.7 Hybrid Bonding 51 2.8 Reliability – Electromigration and Temperature Cycling Tests 54 Problems 56 References 57 3 Randomly-Oriented and (111) Uni-directionally-Oriented Nanotwin Copper 61 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Formation Mechanism of Nanotwin Cu 63 3.3 In Situ Measurement of Stress Evolution During Nanotwin Deposition 67 3.4 Electrodeposition of Randomly Oriented Nanotwinned Copper 69 3.5 Formation of Unidirectionally (111)-oriented Nanotwin Copper 71 3.6 Grain Growth in [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 75 3.7 Uni-directional Growth of η-Cu 6 Sn 5 in Microbumps on (111) Oriented nt-Cu 77 3.8 Low Thermal-Budget Cu-to-Cu Bonding Using [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 78 3.9 Nanotwin Cu RDL for Fanout Package and 3D IC Integration 83 Problems 86 References 87 4 Solid–Liquid Interfacial Diffusion Reaction (SLID) Between Copper and Solder 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Kinetics of Scallop-Type IMC Growth in SLID 93 4.3 A Simple Model for the Growth of Mono-Size Hemispheres 95 4.4 Theory of Flux-Driven Ripening 97 4.5 Measurement of the Nano-channel Width Between Two Scallops 100 4.6 Extremely Rapid Grain Growth in Scallop-Type Cu6Sn5 in Slid 100 Problems 102 References 103 5 Solid-State Reactions Between Copper and Solder 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Layer-Type Growth of IMC in Solid-State Reactions 106 5.3 Wagner Diffusivity 111 5.4 Kirkendall Void Formation in Cu 3 Sn 113 5.5 Sidewall Reaction to Form Porous Cu 3 Sn in μ-Bumps 114 5.6 Effect of Surface Diffusion on IMC Formation in Pillar-Type μ-Bumps 120 Problems 124 References 125 Part II 127 6 Essence of Integrated Circuits and Packaging Design 129 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 Transistor and Interconnect Scaling 131 6.3 Circuit Design and LSI 133 6.4 System-on-Chip (SoC) and Multicore Architectures 139 6.5 System-in-Package (SiP) and Package Technology Evolution 140 6.6 3D IC Integration and 3D Silicon Integration 144 6.7 Heterogeneous Integration: An Introduction 145 Problems 146 References 146 7 Performance, Power, Thermal, and Reliability 149 7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Field-Effect Transistor and Memory Basics 151 7.3 Performance: A Race in Early IC Design 155 7.4 Trend in Low Power 157 7.5 Trade-off between Performance and Power 159 7.6 Power Delivery and Clock Distribution Networks 160 7.7 Low-Power Design Architectures 163 7.8 Thermal Problems in IC and Package 166 7.9 Signal Integrity and Power Integrity (SI/PI) 168 7.10 Robustness: Reliability and Variability 169 Problems 171 References 172 8 2.5D/3D System-in-Packaging Integration 173 8.1 Introduction 173 8.2 2.5D IC: Redistribution Layer (RDL) and TSV-Interposer 174 8.3 2.5D IC: Silicon, Glass, and Organic Substrates 176 8.4 2.5D IC: HBM on Silicon Interposer 177 8.5 3D IC: Memory Bandwidth Challenge for High-Performance Computing 178 8.6 3D IC: Electrical and Thermal TSVs 180 8.7 3D IC: 3D-Stacked Memory and Integrated Memory Controller 182 8.8 Innovative Packaging for Modern Chips/Chiplets 183 8.9 Power Distribution for 3D IC Integration 186 8.10 Challenge and Trend 187 Problems 188 References 188 Part III 191 9 Irreversible Processes in Electronic Packaging Technology 193 9.1 Introduction 193 9.2 Flow in Open Systems 196 9.3 Entropy Production 198 9.3.1 Electrical Conduction 199 9.3.1.1 Joule Heating 201 9.3.2 Atomic Diffusion 203 9.3.3 Heat Conduction 203 9.3.4 Conjugate Forces When Temperature Is a Variable 205 9.4 Cross-Effects in Irreversible Processes 206 9.5 Cross-Effect Between Atomic Diffusion and Electrical Conduction 207 9.5.1 Electromigration and Stress-Migration in Al Strips 209 9.6 Irreversible Processes in Thermomigration 211 9.6.1 Thermomigration in Unpowered Composite Solder Joints 212 9.7 Cross-Effect Between Heat Conduction and Electrical Conduction 215 9.7.1 Seebeck Effect 216 9.7.2 Peltier Effect 218 Problems 219 References 219 10 Electromigration 221 10.1 Introduction 221 10.2 To Compare the Parameters in Atomic Diffusion and Electric Conduction 222 10.3 Basic of Electromigration 224 10.3.1 Electron Wind Force 225 10.3.2 Calculation of the Effective Charge Number 227 10.3.3 Atomic Flux Divergence Induced Electromigration Damage 228 10.3.4 Back Stress in Electromigration 230 10.4 Current Crowding and Electromigration in 3-Dimensional Circuits 231 10.4.1 Void Formation in the Low Current Density Region 234 10.4.2 Current Density Gradient Force in Electromigration 238 10.4.3 Current Crowding Induced Pancake-Type Void Formation in Flip-Chip Solder Joints 242 10.5 Joule Heating and Heat Dissipation 243 10.5.1 Joule Heating and Electromigration 244 10.5.2 Joule Heating on Mean-Time-to-Failure in Electromigration 245 Problems 245 References 246 11 Thermomigration 249 11.1 Introduction 249 11.2 Driving Force of Thermomigration 249 11.3 Analysis of Heat of Transport, Q* 250 11.4 Thermomigration Due to Heat Transfer Between Neighboring Pairs of Poweredand Unpowered Solder Joints 253 Problems 255 References 255 12 Stress-Migration 257 12.1 Introduction 257 12.2 Chemical Potential in a Stressed Solid 258 12.3 Stoney’s Equation of Biaxial Stress in Thin Films 260 12.4 Diffusional Creep 264 12.5 Spontaneous Sn Whisker Growth at Room Temperature 267 12.5.1 Morphology 267 12.5.2 Measurement of the Driving Force to Grow a Sn Whisker 271 12.5.3 Kinetics of Sn Whisker Growth 272 12.5.4 Electromigration-Induced Sn Whisker Growth in Solder Joints 275 12.6 Comparison of Driving Forces Among Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 277 12.6.1 Products of Force 278 Problems 279 References 280 13 Failure Analysis 281 13.1 Introduction 281 13.2 Microstructure Change with or Without Lattice Shift 285 13.3 Statistical Analysis of Failure 287 13.3.1 Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 287 13.3.2 Weibull Distribution Function and JMA Theory of Phase Transformations 289 13.4 A Unified Model of MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 290 13.4.1 Revisit Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 290 13.4.2 MTTF for Thermomigration 292 13.4.3 MTTF for Stress-Migration 292 13.4.4 The Link Among MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 293 13.4.5 MTTF Equations for Other Irreversible Processes in Open Systems 293 13.5 Failure Analysis in Mobile Technology 293 13.5.1 Joule Heating Enhanced Electromigration Failure of Weak-Link in 2.5D IC Technology 294 13.5.2 Joule Heating Induced Thermomigration Failure Due to Thermal Crosstalk in 2.5D IC Technology 298 Problems 301 References 302 14 Artificial Intelligence in Electronic Packaging Reliability 303 14.1 Introduction 303 14.2 To Change Time-Dependent Event to Time-Independent Event 304 14.3 To Deduce MTTF from Mean Microstructure Change to Failure 305 14.4 Summary 306 Index 307

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Book SynopsisIntroduces the fundamentals of numerical mathematics and illustrates its applications to a wide variety of disciplines in physics and engineering Applying numerical mathematics to solve scientific problems, this book helps readers understand the mathematical and algorithmic elements that lie beneath numerical and computational methodologies in order to determine the suitability of certain techniques for solving a given problem. It also contains examples related to problems arising in classical mechanics, thermodynamics, electricity, and quantum physics. Fundamentals of Numerical Mathematics for Physicists and Engineers is presented in two parts. Part I addresses the root finding of univariate transcendental equations, polynomial interpolation, numerical differentiation, and numerical integration. Part II examines slightly more advanced topics such as introductory numerical linear algebra, parameter dependent systems of nonlinear equations, numerical Fourier analysis, and ordinary diTable of ContentsAbout the Author ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xv Part I 1 1 Solution Methods for Scalar Nonlinear Equations 3 1.1 Nonlinear Equations in Physics 3 1.2 Approximate Roots: Tolerance 5 1.2.1 The Bisection Method 6 1.3 Newton’s Method 10 1.4 Order of a Root-Finding Method 13 1.5 Chord and Secant Methods 16 1.6 Conditioning 18 1.7 Local and Global Convergence 20 Problems and Exercises 24 2 Polynomial Interpolation 29 2.1 Function Approximation 29 2.2 Polynomial Interpolation 30 2.3 Lagrange’s Interpolation 33 2.3.1 Equispaced Grids 37 2.4 Barycentric Interpolation 39 2.5 Convergence of the Interpolation Method 43 2.5.1 Runge’s Counterexample 46 2.6 Conditioning of an Interpolation 49 2.7 Chebyshev’s Interpolation 54 Problems and Exercises 60 3 Numerical Differentiation 63 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Differentiation Matrices 66 3.3 Local Equispaced Differentiation 72 3.4 Accuracy of Finite Differences 75 3.5 Chebyshev Differentiation 80 Problems and Exercises 84 4 Numerical Integration 87 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Interpolatory Quadratures 88 4.2.1 Newton–Cotes Quadratures 92 4.2.2 Composite Quadrature Rules 95 4.3 Accuracy of Quadrature Formulas 98 4.4 Clenshaw–Curtis Quadrature 104 4.5 Integration of Periodic Functions 112 4.6 Improper Integrals 115 4.6.1 Improper Integrals of the First Kind 116 4.6.2 Improper Integrals of the Second Kind 119 Problems and Exercises 125 Part II 129 5 Numerical Linear Algebra 131 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Direct Linear Solvers 132 5.2.1 Diagonal and Triangular Systems 133 5.2.2 The Gaussian Elimination Method 135 5.3 LU Factorization of a Matrix 140 5.3.1 Solving Systems with LU 145 5.3.2 Accuracy of LU 147 5.4 LU with Partial Pivoting 150 5.5 The Least Squares Problem 160 5.5.1 QR Factorization 162 5.5.2 Linear Data Fitting 173 5.6 Matrix Norms and Conditioning 178 5.7 Gram–Schmidt Orthonormalization 183 5.7.1 Instability of CGS: Reorthogonalization 187 5.8 Matrix-Free Krylov Solvers 193 Problems and Exercises 204 6 Systems of Nonlinear Equations 209 6.1 Newton’s Method for Nonlinear Systems 210 6.2 Nonlinear Systems with Parameters 220 6.3 Numerical Continuation (Homotopy) 224 Problems and Exercises 232 7 Numerical Fourier Analysis 235 7.1 The Discrete Fourier Transform 235 7.1.1 Time–Frequency Windows 243 7.1.2 Aliasing 246 7.2 Fourier Differentiation 251 Problems and Exercises 258 8 Ordinary Differential Equations 261 8.1 Boundary Value Problems 262 8.1.1 Bounded Domains 262 8.1.2 Periodic Domains 275 8.1.3 Unbounded Domains 277 8.2 The Initial Value Problem 279 8.2.1 Runge–Kutta One-Step Formulas 281 8.2.2 Linear Multistep Formulas 287 8.2.3 Convergence of Time-Steppers 297 8.2.4 A-Stability 301 8.2.5 A-Stability in Nonlinear Systems: Stiffness 315 Problems and Exercises 330 Solutions to Problems and Exercises 335 Glossary of Mathematical Symbols 367 Bibliography 369 Index 373

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Book SynopsisA detailed account of various applications and uses of transparent ceramics and the future of the industry In Transparent Ceramics: Materials, Engineering, and Applications, readers will discover the necessary foundation for understanding transparent ceramics (TCs) and the technical and economic factors that determine the overall worth of TCs. This book provides readers with a thorough history of TCs, as well as a detailed account of the materials, engineering and applications of TC in its various forms; fabrication and characterization specifics are also described. With this book, researchers, engineers, and students find a definitive guide to past and present use cases, and a glimpse into the future of TC materials. The book covers a variety of TC topics, including: ? The methods employed for materials produced in a transparent state ? Detailed applications of TCs for use in lasers, IR domes, armor-windows, and various medical prosthetics<Trade Review"... this work can be unreservedly recommended to anyone who works or wants to become active in the field of transparent ceramics. Due to its autonomy in the relevant literature - in relation to both physics and materials science - it should definitely be purchased by libraries and companies in the field of technical ceramics. With its value as a source for facts, background information, connections and data, anyone doing research in this area will hardly be able to put this book down and should, thus, purchase it personally."—Prof. Rainer Telle, RWTH Aachen, cfi Ceramic Forum International / Ber. DKG 98 (2021) 4, D8-D9 (translated from the original article in German)Table of ContentsForeword xiii Acknowledgments xv General Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Importance of Transparent Ceramics: The Book’s Rationale Topic and Aims 1 1.2 Factors Determining the Overall Worth of Transparent Ceramics 2 1.2.1 Technical Characteristics 2 1.2.2 Fabrication and Characterization Costs 3 1.2.3 Overview of Worth 3 1.3 Spectral Domain for Ceramics High Transmission Targeted in This Book 3 1.3.1 High Transmission Spectral Domain 3 1.3.2 Electromagnetic Radiation/Solid Interaction in the Vicinity of the Transparency Domain 4 1.4 Definition of Transparency Levels 4 1.5 Evolution of Transmissive Ability Along the Ceramics Development History 6 1.5.1 Ceramics with Transparency Conferred by Glassy Phases 6 1.5.2 The First Fully Crystalline Transparent Ceramic 7 1.5.3 A Brief Progress History of All-Crystalline Transparent Ceramics 8 2 Electromagnetic Radiation: Interaction with Matter 11 2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation: Phenomenology and Characterizing Parameters 11 2.2 Interference and Polarization 13 2.3 Main Processes which Disturb Electromagnetic Radiation After Incidence on a Solid 13 2.3.1 Refraction 14 2.3.2 Reflection 17 2.3.3 Birefringence 20 2.3.4 Scattering 22 2.3.4.1 Scattering by Pores 22 2.3.4.2 Scattering Owed to Birefringence 24 2.3.5 Absorption 27 2.3.5.1 Transition Metal and Rare-Earth Cations in Transparent Ceramic Hosts 27 2.3.5.2 Absorption Spectra of Metal and Rare-Earth Cations Located in TC Hosts 28 2.3.5.2.1 Transition Metal and Rare-Earth Cations’ Electronic Spectra: Theoretical Basis 29 2.3.5.2.1.1 Electronic States of a Cation in Free Space 29 2.3.5.2.2 Absorption Spectra of Transition Metal and Rare-Earth Cations: Examples 50 2.3.5.2.2.1 The Considered Solid Hosts 50 2.4 Physical Processes Controlling Light Absorption in the Optical Window Vicinity 54 2.4.1 High Photon Energy Window Cutoff: Ultraviolet Light Absorption in Solids 54 2.4.2 Low Photon Energy Window Cutoff: Infrared Light Absorption in Solids 58 2.4.2.1 Molecular Vibrations 58 2.4.2.2 Solid Vibrations 59 2.4.2.3 Acoustic Modes 61 2.4.2.4 Optical Modes 62 2.5 Thermal Emissivity 66 2.6 Color of Solids 67 2.6.1 Quantitative Specification of Color 67 2.6.2 Coloration Mechanisms: Coloration Based on Conductive Colloids 71 3 Ceramics Engineering: Aspects Specific to Those Transparent 73 3.1 Processing 73 3.1.1 List of Main Processing Approaches 73 3.1.2 Powder Compacts Sintering 73 3.1.2.1 Configuration Requirements for High Green Body Sinterability: Factors of Influence 73 3.1.2.2 Powder Processing and Green-Body Forming 77 3.1.2.2.1 Agglomerates 77 3.1.2.2.2 Powder Processing 80 3.1.2.2.3 Forming Techniques 81 3.1.2.2.3.1 Press Forming 81 3.1.2.2.3.2 Liquid-Suspensions Based Forming 84 3.1.2.2.3.3 Slip-Casting Under Strong Magnetic Fields 86 3.1.2.2.3.4 Gravitational Deposition, Centrifugal-Casting, and Filter-Pressing 88 3.1.2.3 Sintering 89 3.1.2.3.1 Low Relevancy of Average Pore Size 89 3.1.2.3.2 Pore Size Distribution Dynamics During Sintering 89 3.1.2.3.3 Grain Growth 93 3.1.2.3.4 Methods for Pores Closure Rate Increase 93 3.1.2.3.4.1 Liquid Assisted Sintering 94 3.1.2.3.4.2 Pressure Assisted Sintering 94 3.1.2.3.4.3 Sintering Under Electromagnetic Radiation 96 3.1.2.3.4.4 Sintering Slip-Cast Specimens Under Magnetic Field 97 3.1.2.3.4.5 Reaction-Preceded Sintering 97 3.1.2.3.4.6 Use of Sintering Aids 98 3.1.3 Bulk Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 98 3.1.4 Glass-Ceramics Fabrication by Controlled Glass Crystallization 98 3.1.4.1 Introduction 98 3.1.4.2 Glass Crystallization: Basic Theory 100 3.1.4.2.1 Nucleation 100 3.1.4.2.2 Crystal Growth 102 3.1.4.2.3 Phase Separation in Glass 102 3.1.4.2.4 Crystal Morphologies 103 3.1.4.3 Requirements for the Obtainment of Performant Glass-Ceramics 103 3.1.4.3.1 Nucleators 103 3.1.4.4 Influence of Controlled Glass Crystallization on Optical Transmission 104 3.1.4.4.1 Full Crystallization 105 3.1.5 Bulk Sol–Gel 105 3.1.6 Polycrystalline to Single Crystal Conversion via Solid-State Processes 107 3.1.7 Transparency Conferred to Non-cubic Materials by Limited Lattice Disordering 109 3.1.8 Transparent Non-cubic Nanoceramics 109 3.1.9 Grinding and Polishing 109 3.2 Characterization 111 3.2.1 Characterization of Particles, Slurries, Granules, and Green Bodies Relevant in Some Transparent Ceramics Fabrication 111 3.2.1.1 Powder Characterization 112 3.2.1.2 Granules Measurement and Slurry Characterization 113 3.2.1.3 Green-Body Characterization 114 3.2.2 Scatters Topology Illustration 115 3.2.2.1 Laser-Scattering Tomography (LST) 116 3.2.3 Discrimination Between Translucency and High Transmission Level 116 3.2.4 Bulk Density Determination from Optical Transmission Data 117 3.2.5 Lattice Irregularities: Grain Boundaries, Cations Segregation, Inversion 118 3.2.6 Parasitic Radiation Absorbers’ Identification and Spectral Characterization 123 3.2.6.1 Absorption by Native Defects of Transparent Hosts 123 3.2.7 Detection of ppm Impurity Concentration Levels 124 3.2.8 Mechanical Issues for Windows and Optical Components 126 4 Materials and Their Processing 131 4.1 Introduction 131 4.1.1 General 131 4.1.2 List of Materials and Their Properties 131 4.2 Principal Materials Description 131 4.2.1 Mg and Zn Spinels 131 4.2.1.1 Mg-Spinel 131 4.2.1.1.1 Structure 131 4.2.1.1.2 Fabrication 136 4.2.1.1.3 Properties of Spinel 146 4.2.1.2 Zn-Spinel 152 4.2.2 γ-Al-oxynitride 152 4.2.2.1 Composition and Structure 152 4.2.2.2 Processing 154 4.2.2.2.1 Fabrication Approaches 154 4.2.2.2.2 Powder Synthesis 155 4.2.2.2.3 Green Parts Forming. Sintering 155 4.2.2.3 Characteristics of Densified Parts 156 4.2.3 Transparent and Translucent Alumina 157 4.2.3.1 Structure 158 4.2.3.1.1 Utility of T-PCA 158 4.2.3.2 Processing of Transparent Ceramic Alumina 159 4.2.3.2.1 Raw Materials 159 4.2.3.2.2 Processing 159 4.2.3.3 Properties of Transparent Alumina 163 4.2.4 Transparent Magnesia and Calcia 163 4.2.4.1 Structure 164 4.2.4.2 Raw Materials and Processing 165 4.2.4.3 Properties 167 4.2.4.4 Transparent Calcium Oxide 169 4.2.5 Transparent YAG and Other Garnets 169 4.2.5.1 Structure, Processing, and Properties of YAG 170 4.2.5.1.1 Processing 170 4.2.5.1.2 Properties of YAG 174 4.2.5.2 LuAG 177 4.2.5.3 Garnets Based on Tb 178 4.2.5.4 Garnets Based on Ga 179 4.2.5.5 Other Materials Usable for Magneto-Optical Components 179 4.2.6 Transparent Yttria and Other Sesquioxides 180 4.2.6.1 Structure of Y2O3 180 4.2.6.2 Processing of Y2O3 181 4.2.6.2.1 Y2O3 Powders 181 4.2.6.2.2 Processing Approaches 181 4.2.6.2.3 Discussion of Processing 185 4.2.6.3 Properties of Y2O3 187 4.2.6.4 Other Sesquioxides with Bixbyite Lattice 187 4.2.6.4.1 Sc2O3 188 4.2.6.4.2 Lu2O3 189 4.2.7 Transparent Zirconia 190 4.2.7.1 Structure: Polymorphism, Effect of Alloying 190 4.2.7.2 Processing–Transparency Correlation in Cubic Zirconia Fabrication 192 4.2.7.2.1 Zirconia Powders 192 4.2.7.2.2 Forming and Sintering 193 4.2.7.3 Properties 194 4.2.7.3.1 Density of Zirconias 194 4.2.7.4 Types of Transparent Zirconia 195 4.2.7.4.1 TZPs 195 4.2.7.4.2 Cubic ZrO2 195 4.2.7.4.3 Monoclinic Zirconia 196 4.2.7.4.4 Electronic Absorption 197 4.2.8 Transparent Metal Fluoride Ceramics 198 4.2.8.1 Crystallographic Structure 199 4.2.8.2 Processing of Transparent-Calcium Fluoride 199 4.2.8.3 Properties 200 4.2.9 Transparent Chalcogenides 201 4.2.9.1 Composition and Structure 201 4.2.9.2 Processing 201 4.2.9.3 Properties 203 4.2.10 Ferroelectrics 203 4.2.10.1 Ferroelectrics with Perovskite-Type Lattice 203 4.2.10.2 PLZTs: Fabrication and Properties 204 4.2.10.2.1 Electro-optic Properties of PLZTs 207 4.2.10.3 Other Perovskites Including Pb 207 4.2.10.4 Perovskites Free of Pb 208 4.2.10.4.1 Ba Metatitanate 208 4.2.10.4.2 Materials Based on the Potassium Niobate-sodium Niobate System 209 4.2.11 Transparent Glass-Ceramics 210 4.2.11.1 Transparent Glass Ceramics Based on Stuffed β-Quartz Solid Solutions 210 4.2.11.2 Transparent Glass Ceramics Based on Crystals Having a Spinel-Type Lattice 212 4.2.11.3 Mullite-Based Transparent Glass-Ceramics 213 4.2.11.4 Other Transparent Glass-Ceramics Derived from Polinary Oxide Systems 214 4.2.11.5 Oxyfluoride Matrix Transparent Glass-Ceramics 214 4.2.11.6 Transparent Glass-Ceramics Including Very High Crystalline Phase Concentration 216 4.2.11.6.1 Materials of Extreme Hardness (Al2O3–La2O3, ZrO2) 216 4.2.11.6.2 TGCs of High Crystallinity Including Na3Ca Silicates 216 4.2.11.6.3 Materials for Scintillators 217 4.2.11.7 Pyroelectric and Ferroelectric Transparent Glass-Ceramics 217 4.2.12 Cubic Boron Nitride 222 4.2.13 Ultrahard Transparent Polycrystalline Diamond Parts 222 4.2.13.1 Structure 222 4.2.13.2 Fabrication 224 4.2.13.3 Properties 225 4.2.14 Galium Phosphide (GaP) 225 4.2.15 Transparent Silicon Carbide and Nitride and Aluminium Oxynitride 226 5 TC Applications 227 5.1 General Aspects 227 5.2 Brief Description of Main Applications 227 5.2.1 Envelopes for Lighting Devices 227 5.2.2 Transparent Armor Including Ceramic Layers 229 5.2.2.1 Armor: General Aspects 229 5.2.2.1.1 The Threats Armor Has to Defeat (Projectiles) 229 5.2.2.1.2 The Role of Armor 230 5.2.2.1.3 Processes Generated by the Impact of a Projectile on a Ceramic Strike-Face (Small Arm Launchers) 231 5.2.2.1.4 Final State of the Projectile/Armor Impact Event Participants 234 5.2.2.1.4.1 Armor Performance Descriptors 235 5.2.2.1.5 Characteristics which Influence Armor Performance 236 5.2.2.1.6 Ceramic Armor Study and Design 236 5.2.2.2 Specifics of the Transparent-Ceramic Based Armor 239 5.2.2.3 Materials for Transparent Armor 243 5.2.2.3.1 Ceramics 243 5.2.2.3.2 Single Crystals 245 5.2.2.3.3 Glass-Ceramics 246 5.2.2.3.4 Glasses 248 5.2.2.4 Examples of Transparent Ceramics Armor Applications 248 5.2.3 Infrared Windows 249 5.2.3.1 The Infrared Region 249 5.2.3.2 Background Regarding Heavy Duty Windows 249 5.2.3.2.1 Threats to Missile IR Domes: Material Characteristics Relevant for Their Protection 249 5.2.3.2.1.1 Impact of Particulates (Erosion) 249 5.2.3.2.1.2 Thermal Shock 250 5.2.3.3 Applications of infrared transparent ceramics 251 5.2.3.3.1 Missile Domes and Windows for Aircraft-Sensor Protection 251 5.2.3.3.2 Laser Windows: Igniters, Cutting Tools, LIDARs 251 5.2.3.3.2.1 Igniters 251 5.2.3.3.2.2 LIDAR-Windows 252 5.2.3.3.3 Windows for Vacuum Systems 252 5.2.3.4 Ceramic Materials Optimal for the Various IR Windows Applications 252 5.2.3.4.1 Competitor Materials: Glasses and Single Crystals 253 5.2.3.4.2 Glasses 253 5.2.3.4.3 Single Crystals 253 5.2.3.4.4 Sapphire 254 5.2.3.4.5 Crystals for the 8–12 μm Window 254 5.2.3.5 Radomes 254 5.2.4 Transparent Ceramics for Design, Decorative Use, and Jewelry 254 5.2.5 Components of Imaging Optic Devices (LENSES) 258 5.2.6 Dental Ceramics 260 5.2.7 Applications of Transparent Ferroelectric and Pyroelectric Ceramics 262 5.2.7.1 Flash Goggles 263 5.2.7.2 Color Filter 263 5.2.7.3 Stereo Viewing Device 264 5.2.7.4 Applications of Second-Generation (Non-PLZT) Ferroelectric Ceramics 265 5.2.8 Applications of Ceramics with Magnetic Properties 265 5.2.9 Products Based on Ceramic Doped with Transition and/or Rare-Earth Cations 267 5.2.9.1 Gain Media for Solid-State Lasers 267 5.2.9.1.1 Lasers: Definition and Functioning Mechanisms 267 5.2.9.1.1.1 Lasing Mechanisms 267 5.2.9.1.2 Laser Systems Efficiency: Characterizing Parameters 277 5.2.9.1.3 Laser Oscillators and Amplifiers 277 5.2.9.1.4 Device Operation Related Improvements Allowing Increase of Ceramic Lasers Performance 278 5.2.9.1.4.1 Diode Lasers as Pumping Sources 278 5.2.9.1.4.2 Cryogenic Operation 278 5.2.9.1.4.3 Cavity-Loss Control 279 5.2.9.1.4.4 Laser Output Signal Manipulation 280 5.2.9.1.4.5 Lasing Device Configuration Optimization 281 5.2.9.1.4.6 ThinZag Configuration 281 5.2.9.1.4.7 Virtual Point Source Pumping 282 5.2.9.1.5 Ceramic Gain Media (Host+Lasant Ion) Improvements 283 5.2.9.1.5.1 The Hosts 283 5.2.9.1.5.2 Principal Lasing Cations Operating in Ceramic Hosts 289 5.2.9.1.6 Applications of Ceramic Lasers 299 5.2.9.1.6.1 Materials Working 299 5.2.9.1.6.2 Laser Weapons 300 5.2.9.1.6.3 Combustion Ignitors: Cars and Guns 300 5.2.9.1.6.4 Other Applications 300 5.2.9.2 Q-switches 303 5.2.9.2.1 General 303 5.2.9.2.2 Transition Metal Cations Usable for Switching 304 5.2.9.2.2.1 Co2+ 304 5.2.9.2.2.2 Cr4+,5+ 306 5.2.9.2.2.3 V3+ 308 5.2.9.2.2.4 Cr2+ (d4), Fe2+ (d6) 309 5.2.9.3 Ceramic Phosphors for Solid State Lighting Systems 309 5.2.9.3.1 Artificial Light Sources: General Considerations 309 5.2.9.3.1.1 Conventional Light Sources Powered by Electricity 310 5.2.9.3.1.2 Incandescent Lamps 311 5.2.9.3.1.3 Discharge Lamps 311 5.2.9.3.1.4 Fluorescent Lamps 313 5.2.9.3.1.5 Solid-State Lighting Sources 313 5.2.9.3.2 Transparent Bulk Ceramics Based Phosphors for Light Sources Based on LEDs 314 5.2.9.3.2.1 Ce3+:YAG and Ce3+, RE3+:YAG Phosphors 314 5.2.9.3.2.2 Bathochrome Moving (Redshifting) of Ce3+ Emission by YAG Lattice Straining 318 5.2.9.3.2.3 Summary of SSLSs 321 5.2.9.4 Scintillators 321 6 Future Developments 325 7 Conclusions 327 References 329 Index 357

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Book SynopsisBuilding Electro-Optical Systems In the newly revised third edition of Building Electro-Optical Systems: Making It All Work, renowned Dr. Philip C. D. Hobbs delivers a birds-eye view of all the topics you'll need to understand for successful optical instrument design and construction. The author draws on his own work as an applied physicist and consultant with over a decade of experience in designing and constructing electro-optical systems from beginning to end. The book's topics are chosen to allow readers in a variety of disciplines and fields to quickly and confidently decide whether a given device or technique is appropriate for their needs. Using accessible prose and intuitive organization, Building Electro-Optical Systems remains one of the most practical and solution-oriented resources available to graduate students and professionals. The newest edition includes comprehensive revisions that reflect progress in the field of electro-optical instrumTable of ContentsPreface xxxix Acknowledgments xliii 1 Basic Optical Calculations 1 2 Sources And Illuminators 41 3 Optical Detection 81 4 Lenses, Prisms, and Mirrors 137 5 Coatings, Filters, and Surface Finishes 165 6 Polarization 191 7 Exotic Optical Components 211 8 Fiber Optics 239 9 Optical Systems 279 10 Optical Measurements 315 11 Designing Electro-Optical Systems 343 12 Building Optical Systems 371 13 Signal Processing 405 14 Electronic Building Blocks 457 15 Electronic Subsystem Design 507 16 Electronic Construction Techniques 559 17 Digital Signal Processing 591 18 Front Ends 627 19 Bringing Up the System 665 20 Thermal Control 695 Appendix A Good Books 735 A.1 Why Books? 735 A.2 Good Books for Instrument Builders 735 Notation 743 Physical Constants and Rules of Thumb 745 Index 747

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Book SynopsisA practical guide to microgrid systems architecture, design topologies, control strategies and integration approaches Microgrid Planning and Design offers a detailed and authoritative guide to microgrid systems. The authors - noted experts on the topic - explore what is involved in the design of a microgrid, examine the process of mapping designs to accommodate available technologies and reveal how to determine the efficacy of the final outcome. This practical book is a compilation of collaborative research results drawn from a community of experts in 8 different universities over a 6-year period. Microgrid Planning and Design contains a review of microgrid benchmarks for the electric power system and covers the mathematical modeling that can be used during the microgrid design processes. The authors include real-world case studies, validated benchmark systems and the components needed to plan and design an effective microgrid system. This important guide: Offers a practical and up-to-Table of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Disclaimer xv List of Figures xvii List of Tables xxiii Foreword xxv Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxix Acronyms and Abbreviations xxxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why Microgrid Research Requires a Network Approach 5 1.2 NSERC Smart MicroGrid Network (NSMG-Net) – The Canadian Experience 7 1.3 Research Platform 8 1.4 Research Program and Scope 9 1.5 Research Themes in Smart Microgrids 10 1.5.1 Theme 1: Operation, Control, and Protection of Smart Microgrids 10 1.5.1.1 Topic 1.1: Control, Operation, and Renewables for Remote Smart Microgrids 12 1.5.1.2 Topic 1.2: Distributed Control, Hybrid Control, and Power Management for Smart Microgrids 12 1.5.1.3 Topic 1.3: Status Monitoring, Disturbance Detection, Diagnostics, and Protection for Smart Microgrids 13 1.5.1.4 Topic 1.4: Operational Strategies and Storage Technologies to Address Barriers for Very High Penetration of DG Units in Smart Microgrids 13 1.5.2 Theme 2 Overview: Smart Microgrid Planning, Optimization, and Regulatory Issues 14 1.5.2.1 Topic 2.1: Cost–Benefits Framework – Secondary Benefits and Ancillary Services 16 1.5.2.2 Topic 2.2: Energy and Supply Security Considerations 16 1.5.2.3 Topic 2.3: Demand Response Technologies and Strategies – Energy Management and Metering 16 1.5.2.4 Topic 2.4: Integration Design Guidelines and Performance Metrics – Study Cases 17 1.5.3 Theme 3: Smart Microgrid Communication and Information Technologies 18 1.5.3.1 Topic 3.1: Universal Communication Infrastructure 20 1.5.3.2 Topic 3.2: Grid Integration Requirements, Standards, Codes, and Regulatory Considerations 20 1.5.3.3 Topic 3.3: Distribution Automation Communications: Sensors, Condition Monitoring, and Fault Detection 20 1.5.3.4 Topic 3.4: Integrated Data Management and Portals 21 1.6 Microgrid Design Process and Guidelines 21 1.7 Microgrid Design Objectives 23 1.8 Book Organization 23 2 Microgrid Benchmarks 25 2.1 Campus Microgrid 25 2.1.1 Campus Microgrid Description 25 2.1.2 Campus Microgrid Subsystems 27 2.1.2.1 Components and Subsystems 27 2.1.2.2 Automation and Instrumentation 28 2.2 Utility Microgrid 30 2.2.1 Description 30 2.2.2 Utility Microgrid Subsystems 32 2.3 CIGRE Microgrid 33 2.3.1 CIGRE Microgrid Description 33 2.3.2 CIGRE Microgrid Subsystems 35 2.3.2.1 Load 35 2.3.2.2 Flexibility 35 2.4 Benchmarks Selection Justification 36 3 Microgrid Elements and Modeling 37 3.1 Load Model 37 3.1.1 Current Source Based 37 3.1.2 Grid-Tie Inverter Based 38 3.2 Power Electronic Converter Models 39 3.3 PV Model 41 3.4 Wind Turbine Model 43 3.5 Multi-DER Microgrids Modeling 44 3.6 Energy Storage System Model 47 3.7 Electronically Coupled DER (EC-DER) Model 49 3.8 Synchronous Generator Model 50 3.9 Low Voltage Networks Model 50 3.10 Distributed Slack Model 51 3.11 VVO/CVR Modeling 53 4 Analysis and Studies Using Recommended Models 57 4.1 Energy Management Studies 57 4.2 Voltage Control Studies 57 4.3 Frequency Control Studies 58 4.4 Transient Stability Studies 58 4.5 Protection Coordination and Selectivity Studies 59 4.6 Economic Feasibility Studies 59 4.6.1 Benefits Identification 59 4.6.2 Reduced Energy Cost 59 4.6.3 Reliability Improvement 60 4.6.4 Investment Deferral 61 4.6.5 Power Fluctuation 61 4.6.6 Improved Efficiency 61 4.6.7 Reduced Emission 62 4.7 Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Impact Studies 62 4.8 DER Sizing of Microgrids 62 4.9 Ancillary Services Studies 62 4.10 Power Quality Studies 63 4.11 Simulation Studies and Tools 63 5 Control, Monitoring, and Protection Strategies 65 5.1 Enhanced Control Strategy – Level 1 Function 65 5.1.1 Current-Control Scheme 66 5.1.2 Voltage Regulation Scheme 68 5.1.3 Frequency Regulation Scheme 68 5.1.4 Enhanced Control Strategy Under Network Faults 68 5.2 Decoupled Control Strategy – Level 1 Function 70 5.3 Electronically Coupled Distributed Generation Control Loops – Level 1 Function 71 5.3.1 Voltage Regulation 71 5.3.2 Frequency Regulation 71 5.4 Energy Storage System Control Loops – Level 1 Function 72 5.4.1 Voltage Regulation 72 5.4.2 Frequency Regulation 74 5.5 Synchronous Generator (SG) Control Loops – Level 1 Function 77 5.5.1 Voltage Regulation 77 5.5.2 Frequency Regulation 77 5.6 Control of Multiple Source Microgrid – Level 1 Function 77 5.7 Fault Current Limiting Control Strategy – Level 1 Function 80 5.8 Mitigating the Impact on Protection System – Level 1 Function 80 5.9 Adaptive Control Strategy – Level 2 Function 81 5.10 Generalized Control Strategy – Level 2 Function 81 5.11 Multi-DER Control – Level 2 Function 83 5.12 Centralized Microgrid Controller Functions – Level 3 Function 84 5.13 Protection and Control Requirements 85 5.14 Communication-Assisted Protection and Control 85 5.15 Fault Current Control of DER 86 5.16 Load Monitoring for Microgrid Control – Level 3 Function 87 5.17 Interconnection Transformer Protection 88 5.18 Volt-VAR Optimization Control – Level 3 Function 89 6 Information and Communication Systems 91 6.1 IT and Communication Requirements in a Microgrid 91 6.1.1 HAN Communications 92 6.1.2 LAN Communications 92 6.1.3 WAN Communications 94 6.2 Technological Options for Communication Systems 94 6.2.1 Cellular/Radio Frequency 95 6.2.2 Cable/DSL 95 6.2.3 Ethernet 95 6.2.4 Fiber Optic SONET/SDH and E/GPON over Fiber Optic Links 96 6.2.5 Microwave 96 6.2.6 Power Line Communication 96 6.2.7 WiFi (IEEE 802.11) 96 6.2.8 WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) 96 6.2.9 ZigBee 97 6.3 IT and Communication Design Examples 97 6.3.1 Universal Communication Infrastructure 97 6.3.2 Grid Integration Requirements, Standard, Codes, and Regulatory Considerations 97 6.3.2.1 Recommended Signaling Scheme and Capacity Limit of PLC Under Bernoulli-Gaussian Impulsive Noise 98 6.3.2.2 Studying and Developing Relevant Networking Techniques for an Efficient and Reliable Smart Grid Communication Network (SGCN) 98 6.3.3 Distribution Automation 98 6.3.3.1 Apparent Power Signature Based Islanding Detection 98 6.3.3.2 ZigBee in Electricity Substations 99 6.3.4 Integrated Data Management and Portals 99 6.3.4.1 The Multi Agent Volt-VAR Optimization (VVO) Engine 99 7 Power and Communication Systems 101 7.1 Example of Real-Time Systems Using the IEC 61850 Communication Protocol 103 8 System Studies and Requirements 105 8.1 Data and Specification Requirements 105 8.1.1 Topology-Related Characteristics 107 8.1.2 Demand-Related Characteristics 108 8.1.3 Economics- and Environment-Related Characteristics 108 8.2 Microgrid Design Criteria 108 8.2.1 Reliability and Resilience 108 8.2.1.1 Reliability 109 8.2.1.2 Resilience 109 8.2.2 DER Technologies 109 8.2.2.1 Electric Storage Systems 109 8.2.2.2 Photovoltaic Solar Power 110 8.2.2.3 Wind Power 111 8.2.3 DER Sizing 112 8.2.4 Load Prioritization 114 8.2.5 Microgrid Operational States 114 8.2.5.1 Grid-connected Mode 114 8.2.5.2 Transition to Islanded Mode 115 8.2.5.3 Islanded Mode 115 8.2.5.4 Transition to Grid-connected Mode 116 8.3 Design Standards and Application Guides 116 8.3.1 ANSI/NEMA 116 8.3.2 IEEE 116 8.3.3 UL 118 8.3.4 NEC 118 8.3.5 IEC 118 8.3.6 CIGRE 118 9 Sample Case Studies for Real-Time Operation 121 9.1 Operational Planning Studies 121 9.2 Economic and Technical Feasibility Studies 122 9.3 Policy and Regulatory Framework Studies 123 9.4 Power-Quality Studies 125 9.5 Stability Studies 125 9.6 Microgrid Design Studies 128 9.7 Communication and SCADA System Studies 129 9.8 Testing and Evaluation Studies 129 9.9 Example Studies 130 10 Microgrid Use Cases 133 10.1 Energy Management System Functional Requirements Use Case 133 10.2 Protection 136 10.3 Intentional Islanding 139 11 Testing and Case Studies 143 11.1 EMS Economic Dispatch 143 11.1.1 Applicable Design on the Campus Microgrid 143 11.1.2 Design Guidelines 144 11.1.3 Multi-Objective Optimization – Example 145 11.1.3.1 System Description 145 11.1.3.2 Optimization Formulation 146 11.1.4 Results and Discussion 149 11.1.4.1 Comparison to Existing Campus DEMS 149 11.1.4.2 Business Case Overview 152 11.2 Voltage and Reactive Power Control 153 11.2.1 VVO/CVR Architecture 153 11.3 Microgrid Anti-Islanding 155 11.3.1 Test System 156 11.3.1.1 Distribution System 156 11.3.1.2 Inverter System 158 11.3.2 Tests Performed and Results 158 11.3.2.1 Nuisance Tripping 159 11.3.2.2 Islanding 160 11.4 Real-Time Testing 166 11.4.1 Hardware-In-The-Loop Real Time Test Bench 167 11.4.2 Real-Time System Using IEC 61850 Communication Protocol 169 12 Conclusion 173 12.1 Challenges and Methodologies 173 12.1.1 Theme 1 – Operation, Control, and Protection of Smart Microgrids 173 12.1.1.1 Topic 1.1 – Control, Operation, and Renewables for Remote Smart Microgrids 174 12.1.1.2 Topic 1.2 – Distributed Control, Hybrid Control, and Power Management for Smart Microgrids 176 12.1.1.3 Topic 1.3 – Status Monitoring, Disturbance Detection, Diagnostics, and Protection for Smart Microgrids 180 12.1.1.4 Topic 1.4 – Operational Strategies and Storage Technologies to Address Barriers for Very High Penetration of DG Units in Smart Microgrids 183 12.1.2 Theme 2: Smart Microgrid Planning, Optimization, and Regulatory Issues 185 12.1.2.1 Topic 2.1 Cost-Benefits Framework – Secondary Benefits and Ancillary Services 185 12.1.2.2 Topic 2.2 Energy and Supply Security Considerations 187 12.1.2.3 Topic 2.3 Demand-Response Technologies and Strategies – Energy Management and Metering 190 12.1.2.4 Topic 2.4: Integration Design Guidelines and Performance Metrics – Study Cases 192 12.1.3 Theme 3: Smart Microgrid Communication and Information Technologies 193 12.1.3.1 Topic 3.1 Universal Communication Infrastructure 194 12.1.3.2 Topic 3.2 Grid Integration Requirements, Standards, Codes, and Regulatory Considerations 195 12.1.3.3 Topic 3.3: Distribution Automation Communications: Sensors, Condition Monitoring, and Fault Detection (Topic Leader: Meng; Collaborators: Chang, Li, Iravani, Farhangi, NB Power) 200 12.1.3.4 Topic 3.4: Integrated Data Management and Portals 202 12.2 Final Thoughts 204 References 205 Index 211

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive guide to a new technology for enabling high-performance spectroscopy and laser sources Resonance Enhancement in Laser-Produced Plasmasoffers a guide to the most recent findings in the newly emerged field of resonance-enhanced high-order harmonic generation using the laser pulses propagating through the narrow and extended laser-produced plasma plumes. The authora noted expert in the fieldpresents an introduction and the theory that underpin the roles of resonances in harmonic generation. The book also contains a review of the most advanced methods of plasma harmonics generation at the conditions of coincidence of some harmonics, autoionizing states, and some ionic transitions possessing strong oscillator strengths. Comprehensive in scope, this text clearly demonstrates the importance of resonance-enhanced nonlinear optical effects leading to formation of efficient sources of coherent extreme ultraviolet radiation that can be practically apTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 High-Order Harmonic Studies of the Role of Resonances on the Temporal and Efficiency Characteristics of Converted Coherent Pulses: Different Approaches 1 1.1 Resonance Harmonic Generation in Gases:Theory and Experiment 1 1.2 Role of Resonances in Plasma Harmonic Experiments: Intensity and Temporal Characterization of Harmonics 9 References 13 2 Different Theoretical Approaches in Plasma HHG Studies at Resonance Conditions 17 2.1 Comparative Analysis of the High-Order Harmonic Generation in the Laser Ablation Plasmas Prepared on the Surfaces of Complex and Atomic Targets 18 2.2 Nonperturbative HHG in Indium Plasma: Theory of Resonant Recombination 22 2.2.1 Principles ofTheory 22 2.2.2 Discussion 24 2.2.3 Important Consequences 27 2.3 Simulation of Resonant High-Order Harmonic Generation in Three-Dimensional Fullerenelike System by Means of Multiconfigurational Time-Dependent Hartree–Fock Approach 29 2.3.1 Basics of the Nonlinear Optical Studies of Fullerenes 29 2.3.2 Simulations and Discussion 32 2.4 Endohedral Fullerenes: AWay to Control Resonant HHG 35 2.4.1 Theoretical Approach and Details of Computation 37 2.4.2 Results of Simulations and Discussion 39 References 43 3 Comparison of Resonance Harmonics: Experiment and Theory 47 3.1 Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Two-Color Pump Resonance-Induced Enhancement of Odd and Even Harmonics from a Tin Plasma 47 3.1.1 Experimental Studies 48 3.1.2 Theoretical Approach 52 3.2 Comparative Studies of Resonance Enhancement of Harmonic Radiation in Indium Plasma Using Multicycle and Few-Cycle Pulses 58 3.2.1 Introduction 58 3.2.2 Indium Emission Spectra in the Cases of 40 and 3.5 fs Driving Pulses 60 3.2.3 Testing the Indium Emission Spectra Obtained Using 3.5 fs Pulses 64 3.2.4 Theoretical Consideration of the Microscopic Response 67 3.2.5 Experimental Studies of Harmonic Yield on the CEP of Laser Pulse 70 3.2.6 Discussion 73 3.3 Indium Plasma in the Single- and Two-Color Near-Infrared Fields:Enhancement of Tunable Harmonics 76 3.3.1 Description of Problem 76 3.3.2 Experimental Arrangements for HHG in Indium Plasma Using Tunable NIR Pulses 77 3.3.3 Experimental Studies of the Resonance Enhancement of NIR-Induced Harmonics in the Indium Plasma 80 3.3.4 Theory of the Process 86 3.3.5 Discussion and Comparison ofTheory and Experiment 91 3.4 Resonance Enhancement of Harmonics in Laser-Produced Zn II and Zn III Containing Plasmas Using Tunable Near-Infrared Pulses 95 3.4.1 Single- and Two-Color Pumps of Zinc Plasma 95 3.4.2 Modification of Harmonic Spectra at Excitation of Neutrals and Doubly Charged Ions of Zn 97 3.4.3 Peculiarities of HHG in Zinc Plasma Using Tunable Pulses 100 3.5 Application of Tunable NIR Radiation for Resonance Enhancement of Harmonics in Tin, Antimony, and Chromium Plasmas 105 3.5.1 Experimental Results 105 3.5.2 Theoretical Analysis of Resonance-Enhanced Harmonic Spectra from Sn, Sb, and Cr Plasmas 113 3.5.3 Discussion 118 3.6 Model of Resonant High Harmonic Generation in Multi-Electron Systems 120 3.6.1 Theory 121 3.6.2 Calculations 127 3.6.3 Experiment 131 References 134 4 Resonance Enhancement of Harmonics in Metal-Ablated Plasmas: Early Studies 139 4.1 Indium Plasma: Ideal Source for Strong Single Enhanced Harmonic 139 4.1.1 Strong Resonance Enhancement of Single Harmonic Generated in Extreme Ultraviolet Range 139 4.1.2 Chirp-Induced Enhancement of Harmonic Generation from Indium-Containing Plasmas 143 4.1.2.1 Preparation of the Optimal Plasmas 145 4.1.2.2 Optimization of High Harmonic Generation 148 4.1.2.3 Chirp Control 150 4.1.2.4 Discussion 152 4.2 Harmonic Generation from Different Metal Plasmas 158 4.2.1 Chromium Plasma: Sample for Enhancement and Suppression of Harmonics 158 4.2.2 Studies of Resonance-Induced Single Harmonic Enhancement in Manganese, Tin, Antimony, and Chromium Plasmas 161 4.2.2.1 Manganese Plasma 162 4.2.2.2 Chromium Plasma 164 4.2.2.3 Antimony Plasma 167 4.2.2.4 Tin Plasma 169 4.2.2.5 Discussion of Harmonic Enhancement 170 4.2.3 Enhancement of High Harmonics from Plasmas Using Two-Color Pump and Chirp Variation of 1 kHz Ti:Sapphire Laser Pulses 172 4.2.3.1 Advances in Using High Pulse Repetition Source for HHG in Plasmas 172 4.2.3.2 Comparison of Plasmas Allowing Generation of Featureless and Resonance-Enhanced HHG Spectra 173 4.2.3.3 Discussion 179 4.3 Peculiarities of Resonant and Nonresonant Harmonics Generating in Laser-Produced Plasmas 181 4.3.1 Spatial Coherence Measurements of Nonresonant and Resonant High-Order Harmonics Generated in Different Plasmas 181 4.3.1.1 Introduction 181 4.3.1.2 Measurements of the Spatial Coherence of Harmonics 182 4.3.2 Demonstration of the 101st Harmonic Generation from Laser-Produced Manganese Plasma 188 4.3.2.1 Low Cutoffs from Plasma Harmonics 188 4.3.2.2 Experimental Arrangements and Initial Research 189 4.3.2.3 Analysis of Cutoff Extension 193 4.3.3 Isolated Subfemtosecond XUV Pulse Generation in Mn Plasma Ablation 198 4.3.3.1 Application of a Few-Cycle Pulses for Harmonic Generation in Plasmas: Experiments with Manganese Plasma 198 4.3.3.2 Theoretical Calculations and Discussion 202 References 207 5 Resonance Processes in Ablated Semiconductors 213 5.1 High-Order Harmonic Generation During Propagation of Femtosecond PulsesThrough the Laser-Produced Plasmas of Semiconductors 215 5.1.1 Optimization of HHG 215 5.1.2 Resonance-Induced Enhancement of Harmonics 217 5.1.3 Two-Color Pump 219 5.1.4 Quasi-Phase-Matching 221 5.1.5 Properties of Semiconductor Plasmas 224 5.1.6 Harmonic Cutoffs 225 5.2 27th Harmonic Enhancement by Controlling the Chirp of the Driving Laser Pulse During High-Order Harmonic Generation in GaAs and Te Plasmas 226 5.2.1 Optimization of HHG in GaAs Plasma 227 5.2.2 Variation of the Chirp of Femtosecond Pulses 230 5.2.3 Observation of Single-Harmonic Enhancement Due to Quasi-Resonance with the Tellurium Ion Transition at 29.44 nm 233 5.3 Resonance Enhanced Twenty-First Harmonic Generation in the Laser-Ablation Antimony Plume at 37.67 nm 236 References 239 6 Resonance Processes at Different Conditions of Harmonic Generation in Laser-Produced Plasmas 241 6.1 Application of Picosecond Pulses for HHG 241 6.1.1 High-Order Harmonic Generation of Picosecond Laser Radiation in Carbon-Containing Plasmas 242 6.1.1.1 Experimental Arrangements and Results 242 6.1.1.2 Discussion 250 6.1.2 Resonance Enhancement of the 11th Harmonic of 1064 nm Picosecond Radiation Generating in the Lead Plasma 252 6.1.2.1 Analysis of Resonantly Enhanced 11th Harmonic 253 6.1.2.2 Variation of Resonance Enhancement by Insertion of Gases 258 6.2 Size-Related Resonance Processes Influencing Harmonic Generation in Plasmas 261 6.2.1 Resonance-Enhanced Harmonic Generation in Nanoparticle-Containing Plasmas 261 6.2.1.1 Experimental Arrangements 262 6.2.1.2 In2O3 Nanoparticles 264 6.2.1.3 Mn2O3 Nanoparticles 267 6.2.1.4 Sn Nanoparticles 269 6.2.1.5 Discussion 270 6.2.2 High-Order Harmonic Generation from Fullerenes 271 References 276 7 Comparison of the Resonance-, Nanoparticle-, and Quasi-Phase-Matching-Induced Processes Leading to the Growth of High-Order Harmonic Yield 281 7.1 Introduction 281 7.2 Quasi-Phase-Matched High-Order Harmonic Generation in Laser-Produced Plasmas 283 7.2.1 Experimental Arrangements 284 7.2.2 Experimental Observations of QPM 286 7.2.3 Modeling HHG in Plasma Plumes 290 7.2.4 Discussion and Comparison of Theory and Experiment 296 7.2.4.1 Scenario 1 297 7.2.4.2 Scenario 2 297 7.3 Influence of a Few-Atomic Silver Molecules on the High-Order Harmonic Generation in the Laser-Produced Plasmas 299 7.3.1 Introduction 299 7.3.2 Experimental Setup 300 7.3.3 Harmonic Generation and Morphology of Ablated Materials 301 7.3.4 Discussion 306 7.4 Controlling Single Harmonic Enhancement in Laser-Produced Plasmas 310 7.4.1 On the Method of Harmonic Enhancement 310 7.4.2 Experimental Conditions for Observation of the Control of Harmonic Enhancement 311 7.4.3 Featureless and Resonance-Enhanced Harmonic Distributions 312 7.4.4 Comparison of Plasma and Harmonic Spectra in the LPPs Allowing Generation of Resonantly Enhanced Harmonics 316 7.4.4.1 Zinc Plasma 317 7.4.4.2 Antimony Plasma 319 7.4.4.3 Cadmium Plasma 320 7.4.4.4 Indium Plasma 320 7.4.4.5 Manganese Plasma 321 7.4.5 Basics of AlternativeModel of Enhancement 322 7.5 Comparison of Micro- and Macroprocesses during the High-Order Harmonic Generation in Laser-Produced Plasma 322 7.5.1 Basic Principles of Comparison 322 7.5.2 Results of Comparative Experiments 324 7.5.3 Discussion of Comparative Experiments 333 References 335 Summary 339 Index 347

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Book SynopsisExplore an authoritative resource with coverage of foundational concepts of photoconductivity and photoconductive materials In Photoconductivity and Photoconductive Materials, Professor Kasap delivers a definitive guide to the basic principles of photoconductivity and a selection of present topical photoconductive materials. Divided into two parts, the set begins with basic concepts and definitions and coverage of characterization using steady state, transient and modulated photoconductivity techniques, including the novel charge extraction by linearly increasing voltage (CELIV) method The physics of terahertz photoconductivity and fundamentals of organic semiconductors lsois are also covered. Part Two of the set starts with a comprehensive review of a wide range of photoconductive materials and then focuses on some of the most important photoconductors, including hydrogenated amorphous silicon, cadmium mercury telluride, various x-ray photoconductors, diamond fTable of ContentsVolume 1 Preface xiii Series Preface xvi List of Contributors xvii 1 Photoconductivity: Fundamental Concepts 1 Safa O. Kasap Abbreviations 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Major Photoconductivity Classifications 10 1.3 Dark Current and Electrical Contacts 13 1.3.1 Injecting Contacts 13 1.3.2 Noninjecting Contacts 18 1.4 Shockley–Ramo Theorem 24 1.5 Major Recombination Mechanism 27 1.5.1 Direct Recombination 27 1.5.2 Indirect Recombination in Semiconductors: Shockley–Read–Hall Model 30 1.5.2.1 Weak Photogeneration 33 1.5.2.2 Strong Photogeneration 36 1.5.3 Impact or Auger Recombination 37 1.6 Quasi-Fermi Levels and Distribution of Recombination Centers in Energy 39 1.6.1 Quasi-Fermi Levels for Free Carriers 39 1.6.2 Quasi-Fermi Levels (QFLs) for Trapped Carriers in the Presence of Localized States 40 1.6.3 Demarcation Energy and Dead Carriers 46 1.7 Elementary Photoconductor with Ohmic Contacts and Absorption Transverse to Applied Field 47 1.7.1 Elementary Photoconductivity Without Diffusion 47 1.7.2 Elementary Photoconductivity with Diffusion 51 1.8 Elementary Photoconductor with Noninjecting Contacts and Optical Absorption Along the Field 53 1.9 Absorbed Light Intensity with Rear Reflection 56 1.10 Photoconductive Gain 58 1.11 Effects of Traps on Photoconductivity 60 1.12 Sinusoidally Modulated Photoexcitation: Frequency-Resolved Photoconductivity 62 1.13 Noise in Photoconductors 69 Ackowledgments 78 References 78 2 Characterization of Semiconductors from Photoconductivity Techniques: Uniform and Monochromatic Illumination 89 Christophe Longeaud, Javier Schmidt, and Jean-Paul Kleider 2.1 Introduction 89 2.2 Steady-State Photoconductivity (SSPC) 92 2.2.1 Basic Equations 93 2.2.2 DOS Determination 96 2.2.3 Illustration by Means of Simulations 97 2.3 Modulated Photocurrent (MPC) 100 2.3.1 High-Frequency Regime (HF-MPC) 104 2.3.2 Low-Frequency Regime (LF-MPC) 106 2.3.3 Summary of the Two MPC Regimes 107 2.3.4 Illustration by Means of Simulations 108 2.3.5 Experimental Results 114 2.3.5.1 Application to a Crystalline Material 114 2.3.5.2 Application to Amorphous Thin Films 116 2.4 Conclusion 119 Symbols and Abbreviations 120 Acknowledgments 122 References 122 3 Characterization of Semiconductors from Photoconductivity Techniques: Uniform and Polychromatic Illumination 125 Christophe Longeaud, Javier Schmidt, and Jean-Paul Kleider 3.1 Introduction 125 3.2 The Constant Photocurrent Method (CPM) 126 3.2.1 CPM Principle 126 3.2.2 Absolute CPM 130 3.2.3 Determination of the DOS from a CPM Spectrum 131 3.2.3.1 Deconvolution of a CPM Spectrum 131 3.2.3.2 Calculation of the Excess Absorption 132 3.2.3.3 Absorption at a Single Energy 132 3.2.4 Limits of the CPM 133 3.2.5 AC CPM vs. DC CPM 133 3.3 The Fourier-Transform Photocurrent Spectroscopy (FTPS) 134 3.3.1 FTPS Bases 134 3.3.2 FTPS Bench 137 3.3.3 Experimental Results 138 3.3.3.1 Comparison of Calibrations with Transmitted or Direct Flux 138 3.3.3.2 Comparison of FTPS Performed on Thin Films and Solar Cells 140 3.3.3.3 Application of FTPS to the Study of Perovskite Thin Films 143 3.4 Conclusion 147 Symbols and Abbreviations 147 Acknowledgments 148 References 149 4 Characterization of Semiconductors from Photoconductivity Techniques: Photocarrier Grating Techniques 151 Christophe Longeaud, Javier Schmidt, and Jean-Paul Kleider 4.1 Introduction 151 4.2 Steady-State Photocarrier Grating (SSPG) 154 4.2.1 Fundamentals 154 4.2.2 Description of an Automated SSPG Bench 157 4.2.3 Use of the SSPG Technique to Derive the DOS 159 4.3 Modulated Photocarrier Grating (MPG) 162 4.4 Moving Grating Technique (MGT) 164 4.5 Oscillating Photocarrier Grating (OPG) 167 4.6 DOS Determination from the Small Signal Recombination Lifetime 171 4.7 Conclusions 174 Symbols and Abbreviations 175 Acknowledgments 177 References 177 5 Time-of-Flight Transient Photoconductivity Technique 179 Safa O. Kasap 5.1 Basic Principles 179 5.2 Shallow Traps, Effective Drift Mobility, and Effective Lifetime 187 5.2.1 Effective Drift Mobility 187 5.2.2 Deep Trapping in the Presence of Shallow Traps 192 5.3 Exponential Absorption: exp(−αx) 195 5.4 Continuity Equation Formalism Under Multiple Trapping 197 5.5 Generalized Quasi-equilibrium Transport 202 5.6 Anomalous Dispersion and Thickness Dependent TOF Drift Mobility 206 5.7 Experimental Implementation and Artifacts 212 5.7.1 Single-Shot TOF Experiments and Apparatus 213 5.7.2 Operational Definition of Transit Time 215 5.7.3 Finite Photogeneration Depth (δ) 219 5.7.4 Finite Photoexcitation Duration 220 5.7.5 Maximum I-Mode and V -Mode Signals 221 5.7.6 RC Time Constant and Instrument Bandwidth 222 5.8 Xerographic Time-of-Flight Experiment 223 5.9 Lateral or Coplanar Time-of-Flight (CTOF) 226 5.10 Time-of-Flight Study of Recombination: Double Photoexcitation 228 5.11 Interrupted Field Time-of-Flight (IFTOF) 231 5.12 Space Charge Perturbed Photocurrents 234 5.13 Charge Collection Efficiency (CCE) 237 5.14 Monte Carlo Simulation of Carrier Transport 241 Acknowledgments 245 References 245 6 Transient Photocurrent of Disordered Semiconducting Thin Films with Coplanar Electrode Configurations 253 Hayate Fujimura, Takashi Nagase, and Hiroyoshi Naito 6.1 Introduction 253 6.2 Theory of Laplace Transform Methods 255 6.2.1 Determination of Localized-State Distribution 255 6.2.2 Determination of Localized-State Distribution with High Energy Resolution 258 6.2.3 Determination of Free Carrier Lifetime 259 6.2.4 Determination of Drift Mobility 260 6.2.4.1 Uniform Optical Excitation Between Coplanar Electrodes with a Blocking Contact 260 6.2.4.2 Optical Excitation Near an Electrode 261 6.3 Numerical Calculation of Transient Photocurrent 261 6.3.1 Localized-State Distribution 261 6.3.2 Free Carrier Lifetime 266 6.3.3 Drift Mobility 266 6.3.3.1 Uniform Excitation 266 6.3.3.2 Local Excitation 268 6.4 Experimental Results 269 6.4.1 Localized-State Distribution 269 6.4.2 Free Carrier Lifetime 270 6.4.3 Drift Mobility 271 6.4.3.1 Uniform Excitation 271 6.4.3.2 Local Excitation 271 6.5 Conclusions 272 References 273 7 Organic Photoconductors: Photogeneration, Transport, and Applications in Printing 275 David S. Weiss 7.1 Introduction: Organic Photoconductors (OPC) 275 7.1.1 OPC Structure, Photodischarge Physics, and Process Considerations 276 7.2 History of Electrophotography and OPC Developments 281 7.2.1 Electrophotography 281 7.2.2 Electrophotographic Copying and Printing 282 7.2.3 OPC Development 283 7.3 OPC Photogeneration Efficiency and Mechanisms 287 7.3.1 OPC Charge Generation: Hole Transporting Materials (Aromatic Amines) 289 7.3.2 OPC Charge Generation: Molecular Complexes 290 7.3.2.1 PVK–TNF 291 7.3.2.2 Dye–Polymer Aggregate 294 7.3.3 OPC Charge Generation: Pigments 295 7.3.3.1 Azo Pigments 296 7.3.3.2 Phthalocyanine Pigments 297 7.3.3.3 Perylene Pigments 300 7.3.3.4 Squaraine Pigments 301 7.3.4 Summary of Charge Generation Mechanism in OPCs 301 7.4 Dark Conductivity 303 7.5 Charge Transport 304 7.5.1 Charge Transport Experimental Methods 304 7.5.2 Theory: Charge Transport in Organic Semiconductors 307 7.5.3 Charge Transport in Molecularly Doped Polymers (MDP) and Polymers 312 7.5.3.1 Hole Transport: MDPs and Polymers 312 7.5.3.2 Electron Transport: MDPs and Polymers 314 7.5.3.3 Bipolar Transport: MDPs and Polymers 315 7.6 Charge Transport Disruptions 317 7.6.1 Medium and Polarity Effects 317 7.6.2 Charge Trapping 318 7.7 OPC Charge Transport 318 7.7.1 Disruptions of OPC Functionality 320 7.7.1.1 OPC Photofatigue 321 7.7.1.2 OPC Corona Chemical Fatigue 322 7.8 OPC New Materials Applications 324 7.9 OPC New Printing Applications and Future Developments 326 7.9.1 Current OPC Printing Applications 326 7.9.2 New OPC Printing Applications 327 References 328 8 Charge Extraction by Linearly Increasing Voltage (CELIV) Method for Investigation of Charge Carrier Transport and Recombination in Disordered Materials 339 Oleksandr Grynko, Gytis Juška, and Alla Reznik 8.1 Introduction 339 8.2 Charge Extraction by Linearly Increasing Voltage (CELIV) Technique 341 8.2.1 Dark-CELIV 341 8.2.2 Dark-CELIV Measurements in Low-Conductivity Materials 344 8.2.3 Dark-CELIV Measurements in High-Conductivity Materials 345 8.3 Photo-CELIV 349 8.3.1 Photo-CELIV: Surface vs. Bulk Photogeneration 351 8.3.2 Photo-CELIV in the Case of Langevin Recombination 354 8.3.3 Photo-CELIV in the Case of Electric Field-Dependent Mobility 357 8.3.4 Analysis of Photo-CELIV for Dispersive Transport 359 8.4 i-CELIV 361 8.5 Summary 367 References 367 9 Terahertz Photoconductivity 369 David G. Cooke 9.1 THz Pulses 369 9.2 Drude Conductivity of Free Charges 371 9.3 ac Conductivity of Bound Charges: Lorentz Response 373 9.4 Generation and Detection Techniques 373 9.4.1 Photoconductive Switches 373 9.4.2 Nonlinear Generation and Detection of THz Pulses 375 9.4.3 Tilted Pulse Front Optical Rectification 376 9.4.4 Ultra-Broadband THz Pulses 378 9.4.5 Air Plasma Generation and Detection 378 9.5 Terahertz Spectroscopy 379 9.5.1 Time-Domain THz Spectroscopy 379 9.5.2 Time-Resolved THz Spectroscopy 381 9.6 Transient Photoconductivity: Semiconductors 384 9.6.1 Carrier Trapping and Diffusion 387 9.6.2 Plasmon and Optical Phonon Dynamics 388 9.6.3 Polarons 390 9.6.4 Excitons 392 9.6.5 Semiconductor Nanostructures 394 9.7 Conclusions 396 References 397 Volume 2 Preface xiii Series Preface xvii List of Contributors xix 10 Photoconductive Materials 399 Alan Owens 11 Photoconductivity of Nanowire Systems 493 Harry E. Ruda 12 Photoconductivity of Semiconductor Nanocrystals 523 Richard J. Curry 13 Persistent Photocurrents and Defects 549 Ruben J. Freitas and Koichi Shimakawa 14 Photoconductivity in the Infrared: Mercury Cadmium Telluride 577 Peter Capper 15 X-ray Photoconductivity and Typical Large-Area X-ray Photoconductors 613 Zahangir Kabir 16 Progress in Lead Oxide X-Ray Photoconductive Layers 643 Oleksandr Grynko and Alla Reznik 17 Diamond Radiation Detectors 689 Gabriele Chiodini and Maurizio Martino 18 Doped and Stabilized Amorphous Selenium Single and Multilayer Photoconductive Layers for X-Ray Imaging Detector Applications 715 Safa O. Kasap 19 Metal Halide Perovskites for Photodetection 781 Qianqian Lin 20 Photoconductive Antennas for Terahertz Applications 807 Roger Lewis 21 Phthalocyanines: A Class of Organic Photoconductive Materials 831 Asim K. Ray, Debdyuti Mukherjee, and Sujoy Sarkar Index 853

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Book SynopsisA concise and up-to-date introduction to mathematical methods for students in the physical sciences Mathematical Methods in Physics, Engineering and Chemistry offers an introduction to the most important methods of theoretical physics. Written by two physics professors with years of experience, the text puts the focus on the essential math topics that the majority of physical science students require in the course of their studies. This concise text also contains worked examples that clearly illustrate the mathematical concepts presented and shows how they apply to physical problems. This targeted text covers a range of topics including linear algebra, partial differential equations, power series, Sturm-Liouville theory, Fourier series, special functions, complex analysis, the Green's function method, integral equations, and tensor analysis. This important text: Provides a streamlined approach to the subject by putting the focus on the mathematical topics that physical science studeTable of ContentsPreface xi 1 Vectors and linear operators 1 1.1 The linearity of physical phenomena 1 1.2 Vector spaces 2 1.2.1 A word on notation 4 1.2.2 Linear independence, bases, and dimensionality 5 1.2.3 Subspaces 7 1.2.4 Isomorphism of N-dimensional spaces 8 1.2.5 Dual spaces 8 1.3 Inner products and orthogonality 10 1.3.1 Inner products 10 1.3.2 The Schwarz inequality 11 1.3.3 Vector norms 12 1.3.4 Orthonormal bases and the Gram–Schmidt process 12 1.3.5 Complete sets of orthonormal vectors 15 1.4 Operators and matrices 16 1.4.1 Linear operators 17 1.4.2 Representing operators with matrices 18 1.4.3 Matrix algebra 20 1.4.4 Rank and nullity 22 1.4.5 Bounded operators 23 1.4.6 Inverses 24 1.4.7 Change of basis and the similarity transformation 25 1.4.8 Adjoints and Hermitian operators 27 1.4.9 Determinants and the matrix inverse 29 1.4.10 Unitary operators 33 1.4.11 The trace of a matrix 35 1.5 Eigenvectors and their role in representing operators 36 1.5.1 Eigenvectors and eigenvalues 36 1.5.2 The eigenproblem for Hermitian and unitary operators 39 1.5.3 Diagonalizing matrices 40 1.6 Hilbert space: Infinite-dimensional vector space 43 Exercises 47 2 Sturm–Liouville theory 51 2.1 Second-order differential equations 52 2.1.1 Uniqueness and linear independence 52 2.1.2 The adjoint operator 55 2.1.3 Self-adjoint operator 56 2.2 Sturm–Liouville systems 57 2.3 The Sturm–Liouville eigenproblem 60 2.4 The Dirac delta function 64 2.5 Completeness 66 2.6 Recap 68 Summary 68 Exercises 69 3 Partial differential equations 71 3.1 A survey of partial differential equations 71 3.1.1 The continuity equation 71 3.1.2 The diffusion equation 72 3.1.3 The free-particle Schrödinger equation 73 3.1.4 The heat equation 73 3.1.5 The inhomogeneous diffusion equation 74 3.1.6 Schrödinger equation for a particle in a potential field 74 3.1.7 The Poisson equation 74 3.1.8 The Laplace equation 75 3.1.9 The wave equation 75 3.1.10 Inhomogeneous wave equation 76 3.1.11 Summary of PDEs 76 3.2 Separation of variables and the Helmholtz equation 76 3.2.1 Rectangular coordinates 78 3.2.2 Cylindrical coordinates 80 3.2.3 Spherical coordinates 82 3.3 The paraxial approximation 83 3.4 The three types of linear PDEs 84 3.4.1 Hyperbolic PDEs 85 3.4.2 Parabolic PDEs 87 3.4.3 Elliptic PDEs 87 3.5 Outlook 88 Summary 88 Exercises 89 4 Fourier analysis 91 4.1 Fourier series 91 4.2 The exponential form of Fourier series 96 4.3 General intervals 98 4.4 Parseval’s theorem 103 4.5 Back to the delta function 105 4.6 Fourier transform 107 4.7 Convolution integral 111 Summary 115 Exercises 116 5 Series solutions of ordinary differential equations 121 5.1 The Frobenius method 122 5.1.1 Power series 122 5.1.2 Introductory example 123 5.1.3 Ordinary points 125 5.1.4 Regular singular points 130 5.2 Wronskian method for obtaining a second solution 137 5.3 Bessel and Neumann functions 137 5.4 Legendre polynomials 142 Summary 144 Exercises 145 6 Spherical harmonics 147 6.1 Properties of the Legendre polynomials, Pl(x) 148 6.1.1 Rodrigues formula 148 6.1.2 Orthogonality 150 6.1.3 Completeness 151 6.1.4 Generating function 152 6.1.5 Recursion relations 155 6.2 Associated Legendre functions, Pm l (x) 157 6.3 Spherical harmonic functions, Yml (θ, φ) 158 6.4 Addition theorem for Ym l (θ, φ) 160 6.5 Laplace equation in spherical coordinates 166 Summary 167 Exercises 168 7 Bessel functions 173 7.1 Small-argument and asymptotic forms 173 7.1.1 Limiting forms for small argument 173 7.1.2 Asymptotic forms for large argument 174 7.1.3 Hankel functions 174 7.2 Properties of the Bessel functions, Jn(x) 175 7.2.1 Series associated with the generating function 175 7.2.2 Recursion relations 177 7.2.3 Integral representation 178 7.3 Orthogonality 180 7.4 Bessel series 182 7.5 The Fourier-Bessel transform 185 7.6 Spherical Bessel functions 186 7.6.1 Reduction to elementary functions 186 7.6.2 Small-argument forms 188 7.6.3 Asymptotic forms 188 7.6.4 Orthogonality and completeness 189 7.7 Expansion of plane waves in spherical harmonics 190 Summary 192 Exercises 192 8 Complex analysis 195 8.1 Complex functions 195 8.2 Analytic functions: differentiable in a region 197 8.2.1 Continuity, differentiability, and analyticity 197 8.2.2 Cauchy–Riemann conditions 198 8.2.3 Analytic functions are functions only of z = x + iy 201 8.2.4 Useful definitions 201 8.3 Contour integrals 202 8.4 Integrating analytic functions 206 8.5 Cauchy integral formulas 210 8.5.1 Derivatives of analytic functions 211 8.5.2 Consequences of the Cauchy formulas 212 8.6 Taylor and Laurent series 213 8.6.1 Taylor series 213 8.6.2 The zeros of analytic functions are isolated 215 8.6.3 Laurent series 215 8.7 Singularities and residues 217 8.7.1 Isolated singularities, residue theorem 217 8.7.2 Multivalued functions, branch points, and branch cuts 220 8.8 Definite integrals 221 8.8.1 Integrands containing cos θ and sin θ 222 8.8.2 Infinite integrals 223 8.8.3 Poles on the contour of integration 226 8.9 Meromorphic functions 228 8.10 Approximation of integrals 230 8.10.1 The method of steepest descent 233 8.10.2 The method of stationary phase 235 8.11 The analytic signal 236 8.11.1 The Hilbert transform 237 8.11.2 Paley–Wiener and Titchmarsh theorems 239 8.11.3 Is the analytic signal, analytic? 241 8.12 The Laplace transform 242 Summary 245 Exercises 245 9 Inhomogeneous differential equations 251 9.1 The method of Green functions 251 9.1.1 Boundary conditions 252 9.1.2 Reciprocity relation: G(x, x’) = G(x’, x) 253 9.1.3 Matching conditions 254 9.1.4 Direct construction of G(x, x’) 255 9.1.5 Eigenfunction expansions 257 9.2 Poisson equation 260 9.2.1 Boundary conditions and reciprocity relations 261 9.2.2 So, what’s the Green function? 263 9.3 Helmholtz equation 266 9.3.1 Green function for two-dimensional problems 267 9.3.2 Free-space Green function for three dimensions 270 9.3.3 Expansion in spherical harmonics 270 9.4 Diffusion equation 272 9.4.1 Boundary conditions, causality, and reciprocity 272 9.4.2 Solution to the diffusion equation 274 9.4.3 Free-space Green function 275 9.5 Wave equation 279 9.6 The Kirchhoff integral theorem 283 Summary 284 Exercises 284 10 Integral equations 287 10.1 Introduction 287 10.1.1 Equivalence of integral and differential equations 287 10.1.2 Role of coordinate systems in capturing boundary data 288 10.2 Classification of integral equations 290 10.3 Neumann series 291 10.4 Integral transform methods 293 10.4.1 Difference kernels 293 10.4.2 Fourier kernels 294 10.5 Separable kernels 295 10.6 Self-adjoint kernels 297 10.7 Numerical approaches 302 10.7.1 Matrix form 302 10.7.2 Measurement space 303 10.7.3 The generalized inverse 306 Summary 314 Exercises 315 11 Tensor analysis 319 11.1 Once over lightly: A quick intro to tensors 319 11.2 Transformation properties 327 11.2.1 The two types of vector: Contravariant and covariant 327 11.2.2 Coordinate transformations 328 11.2.3 Contravariant vectors and tensors 332 11.2.4 Covariant vectors and tensors 336 11.2.5 Mixed tensors 339 11.2.6 Covariant equations 339 11.3 Contraction and the quotient theorem 340 11.4 The metric tensor 342 11.5 Raising and lowering indices 344 11.6 Geometric properties of covariant vectors 347 11.7 Relative tensors 350 11.8 Tensors as operators 353 11.9 Symmetric and antisymmetric tensors 356 11.10 The Levi-Civita tensor 357 11.11 Pseudotensors 360 11.12 Covariant differentiation of tensors 363 Summary 373 Exercises 374 A Vector calculus 377 A.1 Scalar fields 377 A.1.1 The directional derivative 377 A.1.2 The gradient 378 A.2 Vector fields 379 A.2.1 Divergence 379 A.2.2 Curl 380 A.2.3 The Laplacian 380 A.2.4 Vector operator formulae 381 A.3 Integration 382 A.3.1 Line integrals 382 A.3.2 Surface integrals 383 A.4 Important integral theorems in vector calculus 384 A.4.1 Green’s theorem in the plane 384 A.4.2 The divergence theorem 386 A.4.3 Stokes’ theorem 386 A.4.4 Conservative fields 387 A.4.5 The Helmholtz theorem 389 A.5 Coordinate systems 390 A.5.1 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates 390 A.5.2 Unit vectors 391 A.5.3 Differential displacement 392 A.5.4 Differential surface and volume elements 393 A.5.5 Transformation of vector components 393 A.5.6 Cylindrical coordinates 394 B Power series 401 C The gamma function, Γ(x) 403 Recursion relation 403 Limit formula 404 Reflection formula 405 Digamma function 405 D Boundary conditions for Partial Differential Equations 409 Summary 417 References 419 Index 421

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Book SynopsisThe text focuses on the basic issues and also the literature of the past decade. The book provides a broad overview of functional synthetic polymers. Special issues in the text are: Surface functionalization supramolecular polymers, shape memory polymers, foldable polymers, functionalized biopolymers, supercapacitors, photovoltaic issues, lithography, cleaning methods, such as recovery of gold ions olefin/paraffin, separation by polymeric membranes, ultrafiltration membranes, and other related topics.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Basic Issues of Functionalized Polymers 1 2 Methods and Principles of Functionalization 11 3 Technical Applications 95 4 Medical Applications 221 5 Pharmaceutical Applications 247 Index 275

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Book SynopsisPolyvinyl Alcohol-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites Serves as a one-stop reference resource for important research accomplishments in the area of polyvinyl alcohol-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites. Many recent research accomplishments in the area of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are summarized in this book. In it, the editors discuss as many topics as possible on the most recent state-of-the-art developments regarding these biocomposites and bionanocomposites, the challenges faced when using them, and their future prospects. In addition to providing a biodegradation study of them, their significance and applications are also discussed, along with practical steps toward their commercialization. Moreover, PVA/cellulose-based and PVA/starch-based biocomposites and bionanocomposites are discussed, along with the biomedical applications of PVA-based composites and nanocomposites, and PVA-based hybrid interpolymeric comTable of ContentsPreface xi 1 Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites: State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities 1Visakh P. M. 1.1 Biodegradation Study of Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 1 1.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites: Significance and Applications, Practical Step Toward Commercialization 4 1.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 7 1.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Starch-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 9 1.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Polylactic Acid–Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 11 1.6 Biomedical Applications of Polyvinyl Alcohol‑Based Bionanocomposites 13 1.7 Hybrid Interpolymeric Complexes 16 References 18 2 Biodegradation Study of Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 31Zahid Majeed, Muhammad Mubashir, Pau Loke Show and Eefa Manzoor 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Biodegradable PVA Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 38 2.2.1 PVA/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 39 2.2.2 PVA/Chitin-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 40 2.3 PVA/Starch-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 42 2.4 PVA/Hemicellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 45 2.5 PVA/Polylactic Acid-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 48 2.6 PVA/Polyhydroxyalkanoates-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 49 2.7 Conclusion 51 References 52 3 Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Bionanocomposites: Significance and Applications, Practical Step Towards Commercialization 59S. Mohanapriya 3.1 Introduction: Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 60 3.2 Properties of PVA 61 3.3 PVA Composites and Nancomposites 61 3.3.1 Fabrication of PVA-Based Composites and Bionanocomposites 64 3.4 Categorization and Advantages of PVA Composites 65 3.5 Issues Associated with PVA-Based Composites/Nanocomposites 66 3.6 Diverse Applications of PVA-Based Composites/Nanocomposites 66 3.6.1 Biomedical Applications 66 3.6.1.1 Wound Dressing Material 68 3.6.2 Cartilage and Orthopedic Applications 68 3.6.3 Electrochemical Applications 69 3.6.4 Optical and Photonic Applications 71 3.6.5 Renewable Energy Source-Based Applications 71 3.6.6 Food Packaging Applications 74 3.7 PVA Composites/Nanocomposites: Future Outlook 76 References 76 4 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 81Nor Asikin Awang, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed and Wan Norharyati Wan Salleh 4.1 Introduction 82 4.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites and Their Preparation 84 4.2.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose Fibers 84 4.2.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose Acetate 86 4.2.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Bacterial Cellulose 87 4.2.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Regenerated Cellulose 90 4.2.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose Aerogel or Hydrogel 92 4.2.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose Nanocrystals 94 4.2.7 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Cellulose Nanofiber 96 4.3 Properties and Characterizations Techniques 98 4.3.1 Tensile Characterizations 98 4.3.2 Thermal Characterizations 99 4.3.3 X-Ray Diffraction 100 4.3.4 Morphological Characterizations 101 4.3.5 Rheological and Viscoelastic Characterizations 104 4.4 Potential Applications 108 4.4.1 Biomedical Applications 108 4.4.2 Packaging Applications 110 4.4.3 Heavy Metal Applications 113 4.4.4 Gas Separation 114 4.5 Conclusion 116 References 116 5 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Starch-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 131Nor Fasihah Binti Zaaba and Hanafi Bin Ismail 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Starch-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 132 5.3 Preparation 134 5.4 Characterizations 135 5.4.1 Mechanical Properties 135 5.4.2 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy 137 5.4.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 138 5.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 141 5.5 Applications 143 5.6 Conclusion 143 References 144 6 Polyvinyl Alcohol/Polylactic Acid-Based Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 151Ashitha Jose and Radhakrishnan E.K. 6.1 Introduction 152 6.2 PVA Composites and Bionanocomposites 153 6.3 Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) Composites and Bionanocomposites 155 6.4 The Role of Plasticizers and Fillers in Composite Development 157 6.5 Methods Employed in the Development of Structured Polymers 158 6.5.1 Melt Compounding 158 6.5.2 Solvent-Based Methods 158 6.5.3 Electrospinning 158 6.5.3.1 Melt Electrospinning 159 6.5.3.2 Near Field Electrospinning (NFES) 160 6.5.3.3 Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) 160 6.5.3.4 Coelectrospinning 161 6.6 Techniques for Analyzing the Biocomposites and Bionanocomposites 162 6.6.1 FTIR 162 6.6.2 Thermal Properties of Films 163 6.6.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 164 6.6.4 TEM 165 6.6.5 Barrier Properties 165 6.6.5.1 Light Barrier Properties and Transparency 165 6.6.5.2 Oxygen Barrier Properties 165 6.6.5.3 Water Vapour Barrier Property 166 6.7 Application of Polymers in Food Industry 167 6.8 Application of Polymers in Medicine 168 6.9 Biodegradability of PVA 170 6.10 Conclusions 174 References 175 7 Biomedical Applications of Polyvinyl Alcohol-Based Bionanocomposites 179Bruno Leandro Pereira, Viviane Seba Sampaio, Gabriel Goetten de Lima, Carlos Maurício Lepienski, Mozart Marins, Bor Shin Chee and Michael J. D. Nugent 7.1 Introduction 180 7.2 Application in Drug Delivery Systems 181 7.3 Applications in Wound Healing 184 7.4 Applications in Tissue Engineering 189 7.5 Applications in Regenerative Medicine 192 7.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 193 References 194 8 Hybrid Interpolymeric Complexes 205Igor Prosanov 8.1 Introduction 205 8.1.1 Historical Overview 205 8.1.2 General Description of HICs 207 8.1.3 Relative Materials 210 8.1.4 To Summarize 211 8.2 Production of HICs 211 8.2.1 To Summarize 215 8.3 Structure of Hybrid Interpolymeric Complexes 215 8.3.1 General Description of Experimental Methods and Computations 215 8.3.2 Halides of Second Group Elements as HICs Components 217 8.3.2.1 Cadmium Halides Based HICs 220 8.3.2.2 Zinc Halides Based HICs 227 8.3.3 Sulfides as HICs Components 227 8.3.4 Boric Acid as HIC Component 230 8.3.5 Copper Hydroxide/Oxide as HIC Component 232 8.3.6 Hydroxides and Oxides Other then Copper Elements as HICs Components 236 8.3.7 To Summarize 243 8.4 Possible Applications of HICs 243 8.4.1 To Summarize 247 8.5 Conclusion 248 References 248 Index 253

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Book SynopsisGAUGE INTEGRAL STRUCTURES FOR STOCHASTIC CALCULUS AND QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS A stand-alone introduction to specific integration problems in the probabilistic theory of stochastic calculusPicking up where his previous book, A Modern Theory of Random Variation, left off, Gauge Integral Structures for Stochastic Calculus and Quantum Electrodynamics introduces readers to particular problems of integration in the probability-like theory of quantum mechanics. Written as a motivational explanation of the key points of the underlying mathematical theory, and including ample illustrations of the calculus, this book relies heavily on the mathematical theory set out in the author's previous work. That said, this work stands alone and does not require a reading of A Modern Theory of Random Variation in order to be understandable. Gauge Integral Structures for Stochastic Calculus and Quantum Electrodynamics takes a gradual, relaxed, and discursive approach to the subject in a successful attempTable of ContentsI Stochastic Calculus 23 1 Stochastic Integration 25 2 Random Variation 37 2.1 What is Random Variation? 37 2.2 Probability and Riemann Sums 40 2.3 A Basic Stochastic Integral 42 2.4 Choosing a Sample Space 50 2.5 More on Basic Stochastic Integral 52 3 Integration and Probability 55 3.1 -Complete Integration 55 3.2 Burkill-complete Stochastic Integral 62 3.3 The Henstock Integral 63 3.4 Riemann Approach to Random Variation 67 3.5 Riemann Approach to Stochastic Integrals 70 4 Stochastic Processes 79 4.1 From Rn to Rª 79 4.2 Sample Space RT with T Uncountable 87 4.3 Stochastic Integrals for Example 12 92 4.4 Example 12 97 4.5 Review of Integrability Issues 104 5 Brownian Motion 107 5.1 Introduction to Brownian Motion 107 5.2 Brownian Motion Preliminaries 114 5.3 Review of Brownian Probability 117 5.4 Brownian Stochastic Integration 120 5.5 Some Features of Brownian Motion 127 5.6 Varieties of Stochastic Integral 130 6 Stochastic Sums 139 6.1 Review of Random Variability 140 6.2 Riemann Sums for Stochastic Integrals 142 6.3 Stochastic Sum as Observable 145 6.4 Stochastic Sum as Random Variable 146 6.5 Introduction to RT(dXs)2 = t 149 6.6 Isometry Preliminaries 151 6.7 Isometry Property for Stochastic Sums 153 6.8 Other Stochastic Sums 157 6.9 Introduction to Itô's Formula 162 6.10 Itô's Formula for Stochastic Sums 164 6.11 Proof of Itô's Formula 165 6.12 Stochastic Sums or Stochastic Integrals? 167 II Field Theory 173 7 Gauges for Product Spaces 175 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2 Three-dimensional Brownian Motion 175 7.3 A Structured Cartesian Product Space 178 7.4 Gauges for Product Spaces 181 7.5 Gauges for Infinite-dimensional Spaces 184 7.6 Higher-dimensional Brownian Motion 191 7.7 Infinite Products of Infinite Products 196 8 Quantum Field Theory 203 8.1 Overview of Feynman Integrals 206 8.2 Path Integral for Particle Motion 210 8.3 Action Waves 212 8.4 Interpretation of Action Waves 215 8.5 Calculus of Variations 217 8.6 Integration Issues 221 8.7 Numerical Estimate of Path Integral 228 8.8 Free Particle in Three Dimensions 236 8.9 From Particle to Field 240 8.10 Simple Harmonic Oscillator 245 8.11 A Finite Number of Particles 251 8.12 Continuous Mass Field 257 9 Quantum Electrodynamics 265 9.1 Electromagnetic Field Interaction 265 9.2 Constructing the Field Interaction Integral 270 9.3 -Complete Integral Over Histories 273 9.4 Review of Point-Cell Structure 278 9.5 Calculating Integral Over Histories 279 9.6 Integration of a Step Function 283 9.7 Regular Partition Calculation 286 9.8 Integrand for Integral over Histories 288 9.9 Action Wave Amplitudes 291 9.10 Probability and Wave Functions 295 III Appendices 303 10 Appendix 1: Integration 307 10.1 Monstrous Functions 308 10.2 A Non-monstrous Function 309 10.3 Riemann-complete Integration 313 10.4 Convergence Criteria 318 10.5 \I would not care to y in that plane" 324 11 Appendix 2: Theorem 63 325 11.1 Fresnel's Integral 325 11.2 Theorem 188 of [MTRV] 330 11.3 Some Consequences of Theorem 63 Fallacy 335 12 Appendix 3: Option Pricing 337 12.1 American Options 337 12.2 Asian Options 344 13 Appendix 4: Listings 357 13.1 Theorems 357 13.2 Examples 358 13.3 Definitions 360 13.4 Symbols 360

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