Mechanical engineering and materials Books

Book SynopsisNew contributions to the cyclic plasticity of engineering materials Written by leading experts in the field, this book provides an authoritative and comprehensive introduction to cyclic plasticity of metals, polymers, composites and shape memory alloys. Each chapter is devoted to fundamentals of cyclic plasticity or to one of the major classes of materials, thereby providing a wide coverage of the field. The book deals with experimental observations on metals, composites, polymers and shape memory alloys, and the corresponding cyclic plasticity models for metals, polymers, particle reinforced metal matrix composites and shape memory alloys. Also, the thermo-mechanical coupled cyclic plasticity models are discussed for metals and shape memory alloys. Key features: Provides a comprehensive introduction to cyclic plasticity Presents Macroscopic and microscopic observations on the ratchetting of different materials Establishes cTable of ContentsIntroduction 1 I.1 Monotonic Elastoplastic Deformation 1 I.2 Cyclic Elastoplastic Deformation 3 I.2.1 Cyclic Softening/Hardening Features 3 I.2.2 Mean Stress Relaxation 6 I.2.3 Ratchetting 7 I.3 Contents of This Book 9 References 10 1 Fundamentals of Inelastic Constitutive Models 13 1.1 Fundamentals of Continuum Mechanics 13 1.1.1 Kinematics 13 1.1.2 Definitions of Stress Tensors 15 1.1.3 Frame‐Indifference and Objective Rates 16 1.1.4 Thermodynamics 17 1.1.4.1 The First Thermodynamic Principle 17 1.1.4.2 The Second Thermodynamic Principle 17 1.1.5 Constitutive Theory of Solid Continua 18 1.1.5.1 Constitutive Theory of Elastic Solids 18 1.1.5.2 Constitutive Theory of Elastoplastic Solids 19 1.2 Classical Inelastic Constitutive Models 22 1.2.1 J2 Plasticity Model 23 1.2.2 Unified Visco‐plasticity Model 24 1.3 Fundamentals of Crystal Plasticity 25 1.3.1 Single Crystal Version 25 1.3.2 Polycrystalline Version 27 1.4 Fundamentals of Meso‐mechanics for Composite Materials 28 1.4.1 Eshelby’s Inclusion Theory 29 1.4.2 Mori–Tanaka’s Homogenization Approach 30 References 32 2 Cyclic Plasticity of Metals: I. Macroscopic and Microscopic Observations and Analysis of Micro-mechanism 35 2.1 Macroscopic Experimental Observations 35 2.1.1 Cyclic Softening/Hardening Features in More Details 35 2.1.1.1 Uniaxial Cases 35 2.1.1.2 Multiaxial Cases 43 2.1.2 Ratchetting Behaviors 47 2.1.2.1 Uniaxial Cases 48 2.1.2.2 Multiaxial Cases 62 2.1.3 Thermal Ratchetting 75 2.2 Microscopic Observations of Dislocation Patterns and Their Evolutions 77 2.2.1 FCC Metals 80 2.2.1.1 Uniaxial Case 80 2.2.1.2 Multiaxial Case 86 2.2.2 BCC Metals 95 2.2.2.1 Uniaxial Case 95 2.2.2.2 Multiaxial Case 103 2.3 Micro‐mechanism of Ratchetting 111 2.3.1 FCC Metals 111 2.3.1.1 Uniaxial Ratchetting 111 2.3.1.2 Multiaxial Ratchetting 114 2.3.2 BCC Metals 115 2.3.2.1 Uniaxial Ratchetting 115 2.3.2.2 Multiaxial Ratchetting 117 2.4 Summary 118 References 119 3 Cyclic Plasticity of Metals: II. Constitutive Models 123 3.1 Macroscopic Phenomenological Constitutive Models 124 3.1.1 Framework of Cyclic Plasticity Models 124 3.1.1.1 Governing Equations 124 3.1.1.2 Brief Review on Kinematic Hardening Rules 126 3.1.1.3 Combined Kinematic and Isotropic Hardening Rules 131 3.1.2 Viscoplastic Constitutive Model for Ratchetting at Elevated Temperatures 136 3.1.2.1 Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Rules 136 3.1.2.2 Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening Rule 137 3.1.2.3 Verification and Discussion 138 3.1.3 Constitutive Models for Time‐Dependent Ratchetting 144 3.1.3.1 Separated Version 146 3.1.3.2 Unified Version 152 3.1.4 Evaluation of Thermal Ratchetting 161 3.2 Physical Nature‐Based Constitutive Models 163 3.2.1 Crystal Plasticity‐Based Constitutive Models 163 3.2.1.1 Single Crystal Version 163 3.2.1.2 Application to Polycrystalline Metals 167 3.2.2 Dislocation‐Based Crystal Plasticity Model 175 3.2.2.1 Single Crystal Version 175 3.2.2.2 Verification and Discussion 177 3.2.3 Multi‐mechanism Constitutive Model 183 3.2.3.1 2M1C Model 187 3.2.3.2 2M2C Model 188 3.3 Two Applications of Cyclic Plasticity Models 189 3.3.1 Rolling Contact Fatigue Analysis of Rail Head 189 3.3.1.1 Experimental and Theoretical Evaluation to the Ratchetting of Rail Steels 190 3.3.1.2 Finite Element Simulations 194 3.3.2 Bending Fretting Fatigue Analysis of Axles in Railway Vehicles 197 3.3.2.1 Equivalent Two‐Dimensional Finite Element Model 199 3.3.2.2 Finite Element Simulation to Bending Fretting Process 201 3.3.2.3 Predictions to Crack Initiation Location and Fretting Fatigue Life 203 3.4 Summary 209 References 211 4 Thermomechanically Coupled Cyclic Plasticity of Metallic Materials at Finite Strain 219 4.1 Cyclic Plasticity Model at Finite Strain 221 4.1.1 Framework of Finite Elastoplastic Constitutive Model 221 4.1.1.1 Equations of Kinematics 221 4.1.1.2 Constitutive Equations 221 4.1.1.3 Kinematic and Isotropic Hardening Rules 222 4.1.1.4 Logarithmic Stress Rate 223 4.1.2 Finite Element Implementation of the Proposed Model 224 4.1.2.1 Discretization Equations of the Proposed Model 224 4.1.2.2 Implicit Stress Integration Algorithm 227 4.1.2.3 Consistent Tangent Modulus 228 4.1.3 Verification of the Proposed Model 230 4.1.3.1 Determination of Material Parameters 230 4.1.3.2 Simulation of Monotonic Simple Shear Deformation 230 4.1.3.3 Simulation of Cyclic Free‐End Torsion and Tension–Torsion Deformations 231 4.1.3.4 Simulation of Uniaxial Ratchetting at Finite Strain 235 4.2 Thermomechanically Coupled Cyclic Plasticity Model at Finite Strain 239 4.2.1 Framework of Thermodynamics 239 4.2.1.1 Kinematics and Logarithmic Stress Rate 239 4.2.1.2 Thermodynamic Laws 239 4.2.1.3 Generalized Constitutive Equations 241 4.2.1.4 Restrictions on Specific Heat and Stress Response Function 243 4.2.2 Specific Constitutive Model 244 4.2.2.1 Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Rule 246 4.2.2.2 Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening Rule 247 4.2.3 Simulations and Discussions 249 4.3 Summary 261 References 262 5 Cyclic Viscoelasticity–Viscoplasticity of Polymers 267 5.1 Experimental Observations 268 5.1.1 Cyclic Softening/Hardening Features 268 5.1.1.1 Uniaxial Strain‐Controlled Cyclic Tests 269 5.1.1.2 Multiaxial Strain‐Controlled Cyclic Tests 273 5.1.2 Ratchetting Behaviors 275 5.1.2.1 Uniaxial Ratchetting 275 5.1.2.2 Multiaxial Ratchetting 288 5.2 Cyclic Viscoelastic Constitutive Model 299 5.2.1 Original Schapery’s Model 302 5.2.1.1 Main Equations of Schapery’s Viscoelastic Model 302 5.2.1.2 Determination of Material Parameters 303 5.2.1.3 Simulations and Discussion 303 5.2.2 Extended Schapery’s Model 304 5.2.2.1 Main Modification 304 5.2.2.2 Simulations and Discussion 307 5.3 Cyclic Viscoelastic–Viscoplastic Constitutive Model 310 5.3.1 Main Equations 310 5.3.1.1 Viscoelasticity 313 5.3.1.2 Viscoplasticity 314 5.3.2 Verification and Discussion 315 5.3.2.1 Determination of Material Parameters 315 5.3.2.2 Simulations and Discussion 316 5.4 Summary 327 References 327 6 Cyclic Plasticity of Particle‐Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites 331 6.1 Experimental Observations 332 6.1.1 Cyclic Softening/Hardening Features 332 6.1.2 Ratchetting Behaviors 335 6.1.2.1 Uniaxial Ratchetting at Room Temperature 335 6.1.2.2 Uniaxial Ratchetting at 573 K 338 6.2 Finite Element Simulations 341 6.2.1 Time‐Independent Cyclic Plasticity 342 6.2.1.1 Main Equations of the Time‐Independent Cyclic Plasticity Model 343 6.2.1.2 Basic Finite Element Model and Simulations 346 6.2.1.3 Effect of Interfacial Bonding 351 6.2.1.4 Results with 3D Multiparticle Finite Element Model 362 6.2.2 Time‐Dependent Cyclic Plasticity 367 6.2.2.1 Finite Element Model 368 6.2.2.2 Simulations and Discussion 368 6.3 Meso‐mechanical Time‐Independent Plasticity Model 373 6.3.1 Framework of the Model 373 6.3.1.1 Time‐Independent Cyclic Plasticity Model for the Matrix 374 6.3.1.2 Extension of the Mori–Tanaka Homogenization Approach 374 6.3.2 Numerical Implementation of the Model 376 6.3.2.1 Under the Strain‐Controlled Loading Condition 376 6.3.2.2 Under the Stress‐Controlled Loading Condition 378 6.3.2.3 Continuum and Algorithmic Consistent Tangent Operators 379 6.3.3 Verification and Discussion 380 6.3.3.1 Determination of Material Parameters 380 6.3.3.2 Simulations and Discussion 380 6.4 Meso‐mechanical Time‐Dependent Plasticity Model 387 6.4.1 Framework of the Model 388 6.4.1.1 Time‐Dependent Cyclic Plasticity Model for the Matrix 389 6.4.1.2 Mori–Tanaka Homogenization Approach 390 6.4.2 Numerical Implementation of the Model 390 6.4.2.1 Generalized Incrementally Affine Linearization Formulation 390 6.4.2.2 Extension of Mori–Tanaka’s Model 391 6.4.2.3 Algorithmic Consistent Tangent Operator and Its Regularization 393 6.4.2.4 Numerical Integration of the Viscoplasticity Model 394 6.4.3 Verification and Discussion 395 6.4.3.1 Under Monotonic Tension 395 6.4.3.2 Under Strain‐Controlled Cyclic Loading Conditions 395 6.4.3.3 Time‐Dependent Uniaxial Ratchetting 395 6.5 Summary 398 References 401 7 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation of Shape‐Memory Alloys 405 7.1 Experimental Observations 407 7.1.1 Degeneration of Super‐Elasticity and Transformation Ratchetting 407 7.1.1.1 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation Under Strain‐Controlled Loading Conditions 407 7.1.1.2 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation Under Uniaxial Stress‐Controlled Loading Conditions 411 7.1.1.3 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation Under Multiaxial Stress‐Controlled Loading Conditions 419 7.1.2 Rate‐Dependent Cyclic Deformation of Super‐Elastic NiTi SMAs 426 7.1.2.1 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation Under Strain‐Controlled Loading Conditions 428 7.1.2.2 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation Under Stress‐Controlled Loading Conditions 434 7.1.3 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation of Shape‐Memory NiTi SMAs 441 7.1.3.1 Pure Mechanical Cyclic Deformation under Stress‐Controlled Loading Conditions 441 7.1.3.2 Thermomechanical Cyclic Deformation with Thermal Cycling and Axial Stress 451 7.2 Phenomenological Constitutive Models 452 7.2.1 Pure Mechanical Version 452 7.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Equations and Internal Variables 452 7.2.1.2 Main Equations of Constitutive Model 453 7.2.1.3 Predictions and Discussions 457 7.2.2 Thermomechanical Version 464 7.2.2.1 Strain Definitions 464 7.2.2.2 Evolution Rules of Transformation and Transformation‐Induced Plastic Strains 469 7.2.2.3 Simplified Temperature Field 473 7.2.2.4 Predictions and Discussions 477 7.3 Crystal Plasticity‐Based Constitutive Models 489 7.3.1 Pure Mechanical Version 489 7.3.1.1 Strain Definitions 489 7.3.1.2 Evolution Rules of Internal Variables 492 7.3.1.3 Explicit Scale Transition Rule 494 7.3.1.4 Verifications and Discussions 495 7.3.2 Thermomechanical Version 500 7.3.2.1 Strain Definitions 502 7.3.2.2 Evolution Rules of Internal Variables 503 7.3.2.3 Thermomechanical Coupled Analysis for Temperature Field 505 7.3.2.4 Verifications and Discussions 507 7.4 Summary 524 References 525 Index 531

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Book SynopsisThis volume contains 40 papers from the following 10 Materials Science and Technology (MS&T''14) symposia: Rustum Roy Memorial Symposium: Processing and Performance of Materials Using Microwaves, Electric and Magnetic Fields, Ultrasound, Lasers, and Mechanical Work Advances in Dielectric Materials and Electronic Devices Innovative Processing and Synthesis of Ceramics, Glasses and Composites Advances in Ceramic Matrix Composites Sintering and Related Powder Processing Science and Technology Advanced Materials for Harsh Environments Thermal Protection Materials and Systems Advanced Solution Based Processing for Ceramic Materials Controlled Synthesis, Processing, and Applications of Structure and Functional Nanomaterials Surface Protection for Enhanced Materials Performance Table of ContentsPreface xi PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCE OF MATERIALS USING MICROWAVES, ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS Single-Mode Microwave Sintering of Er:Al2O3 3Robert Pavlacka, Claire Brennan, Victoria Blair, Raymond Brennan, Constantine Fountzoulas, Jiping Cheng, and Dinesh Agrawal A Study of High Temperature Refractory Insulation for Use in Ceramic and Microwave Metal Heating 13Edward B. Ripley and J. Cook Advancing Composites in Automotive by Electromagnetic Processing 21Lambert Feher Synthesis of Copper Spinels by Microwave Irradiation 33Jun Fukushima, Hirotsugu Takizawa, and Yamato Hayashi Analysis and Design of Multi-Tip Open-Ended Coaxial Probe for Very High Temperature Dielectric Measurements 43E. Ripley, J. Cook, M. Awida, K. Williams, B. Warren, and A. Fathy Magnetic Processing of Lead Free Solder Systems 51Edward Ripley, Russell Hallman, and Ashley C. Stowe Microwave Ultra-Rapid Sintering of Oxide Ceramics 57K. I. Rybakov, Yu. V. Bykov, A. G. Eremeev, S. V. Egorov, V. V. Kholoptsev, A. A. Sorokin, V. E. Semenov Thermal and Non-Thermal Phenomena in Microwave Processing 67N. Yoshikawa DIELECTRIC MATERIALS AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES Low Temperatures Dielectric Anomaly in BiFeO3–Based Multiferroic Ceramics 79J. D. S. Guerra, Madhuparna Pal, G. S. Dias, I. A. Santos, R. Guo, and A. S. Bhalla Quantification of Primary and Secondary Contribution on Magnetoelectric Effect of NiFe2O4/Pb(Zr0.52Ti0.48)O3/NiFe2O4 Tri-Layered Composite 87S. Betal, L. F. Cótica, C. T. Morrow, S. Priya, A. Bhalla, and R. Guo Dielectric and Electrical Properties of Undoped and Fe-Doped Yttrium Copper Titanate 95Sunita Sharma, M. M. Singh, and K. D. Mandal Analysis of Birefringence Behavior in the Determination of the Characteristics Temperatures of Transparent Ferroelectric Relaxor Ceramic Systems 107F. P. Milton, E. R. Botero, F. A. Londoño, J. A. Eiras, and D. Garcia Magnetic Sensors Based on Tuned Varistors of Ilmenite-Hematite, IHC45, Oxide Semiconductor 115R. K. Pandey, William A. Stapleton, and Ivan Sutanto Structural, Microstructural and Dielectric Properties of Tri-Layered Aurivillius-Type Structure Bi4Ti3O12 Ferroelectric Ceramics 131I. C. Reis, A. C. Silva, R. Guo, A. S. Bhalla, and J. D. S. Guerra Dielectric Properties and Applications of Nanocrystalline Diamond Thin Films 137N. Govindaraju and R. N. Singh Mounting of Multi-Pin Bare Chips with Ball Pins on a Flexible Polyimide Board 151N. Korobova, Yu Dolgovykh, A. Pogalov, G. Blinov, and S. Timoshenkov ADVANCES IN COMPOSITES Numerical Studies of Infiltration Dynamics of Liquid-Copper and Titanium/Solid-Carbon System 159Khurram Iqbal Reactive Melt Infiltration of Boron Containing Fiber Reinforced Preforms Forming a ZrB2 Matrix 169Marius Kütemeyer, Darren Shandler, Dietmar Koch, and Martin Friess STRUCTURAL CLAY Analysis of Morphologic and Thermic Behavior of Minerals from the Municipality of Campos Dos Goytacazes 183A. R. G. Azevedo, J. Alexandre, G. C.Xavier, S. N. Monteiro, F. M. Margem, N. G. Azeredo, and A. L. C. Paes Characterization of the Clay Used in Manufacturing Structural Clay Brick 191N. G. Azeredo, J. Alexandre, A. R. G. Azevedo, G. C. Xavier, and S. N. Monteiro INNOVATIVE PROCESSING Densification of SHS Obtained Ti2AlC Active Precursor Powder by Hot Pressing Method 205L Chlubny, J. Lis, and M. M. Bucko Numerical Studies of Wetting and Interfacial Phenomena in Liquid-Copper Alloy/Solid-Carbon and Titanium Carbide Systems 213Khurram Iqbal Properties of Porous Silicon Carbide Ceramics Prepared by Soft Templating Approach 221Thibaud Nardin, Benoît Gouze, Julien Cambedouzou, Daniel Meyer, and Olivier Diat Low-Temperature Synthesis Method of Aluminum Nitride Powder 229Kyyoul Yun, Yuya Takahashi, and Shunji Yanase THERMAL PROTECTION MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS Stiffness Response of Oxide Scales on Nickel Based ODS Alloys Exposed To Thermal Cyclic Oxidation 237Belachew N. Amare, Bruce S.-J. Kang, and Mary Anne Alvin HYDRA, A New Hybrid Thermal Protection System for LEO and Moon Mission Re-Entry Vehicles 251Wolfgang P. P. Fischer, J. Barcena, S. Florez, and B. Perez Maturation of AIRBUS D&S Thermal Protection Systems Portfolio 265Wolfgang P. P. Fischer Fabrication and Characterization of C/C-SiC Material Made with Pitch-Based Carbon Fibers 277Thomas Reimer, Ivaylo Petkov, Dietmar Koch, Martin Frieß, and Christoph Dellin MATERIALS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENTS Electrochemical Behavior of Ti(C,N)-Ni3Al Cermets 297M. B. Holmes, G. J. Kipouros, Z. N. Farhat, and K. P. Plucknett Extending the Lifetime of Mixer Paddles Used in the Production of a Low-Level Radioactive Cementitious Waste Form 309Marissa M. Reigel and Mark D. Fowley ADVANCED SOLUTION AND COLLOIDAL PROCESSING FOR CERAMICS Synthesis, Characterization of FexZr1-xO2 Solid Solution Nanoparticles and Bulk Powders Prepared Using a Sol-Gel Technique 323Guillermo Herrera-Pérez, Antonio Doménech-Carbó, Noemí Montoya, and Javier Alarcón Ferrite Nanoparticles: From Synthesis to New Advanced Materials 335Darja Lisjak CONTROLLED SYNTHESIS, PROCESSING, AND APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL NANOMATERIALS Structural and Optical Properties of Dysprosium-Doped SnO2 Nanocrystals and Their LPG-Sensing Behavior 351Ravi Chand Singh, Gurpreet Singh, and Anita Hastir Development and Characterization of a Graphene Nanosheet–Polyaniline (GNS–PANI) Nanocomposite for Conductive Ink Applications 361Ali Ramazani, Nasser Arsalani, Vahid Shirazi Khanamiri, Amin Goljanian Tabrizi,and Mahsa Sadat Safavi Design and Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticle-Ceramic Support Interfaces for Enhancing Thermal Stability 369D. Driscoll, C. Law, and S.W. Sofie SINTERING AND RELATED POWDER PROCESSING Effect of Alloying Elements on Mechanical Properties and Electrical Conductivity of P/M Copper Alloys Dispersed with Vapor-Grown Carbon Fiber 383Hisashi Imai, Kuan-Yu Chen, Katsuyoshi Kondoh, and Hung-Yin Tsai The Role of Liquid Phase on Microstructure Development and Mechanical Properties in Ceramic Tiles for Interior Wall Facing 393A. Poznyak, I. Levitskii, and S. Barantseva SURFACE PROTECTION FOR ENHANCED PERFORMANCE Simulation and Modeling of a Carburizing Process using Variables for Effective Performance in Service in AISI 1032 Steel 405Adekunle Adegbola, Ghazali Akeem, Ismaila Alabi, Mutiu Kareem, Olugbenga Fashina, Abolade Olaniyan, Joseph Omotoyinbo, and Oladayo Olaniran Pyrochlore Lanthanide Zirconates for Thermal Barrier Coatings 417Honglong Wang, Emily Tarwater, Xinxing Zhang, Zhizhi Sheng, and Jeffrey W. Fergus Optimization and Development of X-ray Microscopy Technique for Investigation of Thermal Barrier Coating 425Navid Asadizanjani, Sina Shahbazmohammadi, and Eric H. Jordan Author Index 441

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Book SynopsisSignificant research has been done in polymeric nanocomposites and progress has been made in understanding nanofiller-polymer interface and interphase and their relation to nanocomposite properties. However, the information is scattered in many different publication media. This is the first book that consolidates the current knowledge on understanding, characterization and tailoring interfacial interactions between nanofillers and polymers by bringing together leading researchers and experts in this field to present their cutting edge research. Eleven chapters authored by senior subject specialists cover topics including: Thermodynamic mechanisms governing nanofiller dispersion, engineering of interphase with nanofillers Role of interphase in governing the mechanical, electrical, thermal and other functional properties of nanocomposites, characterization and modelling of the interphase Effects of crystallization on the interface, chemicalTable of ContentsPreface xiii Part 1 Nanocomposite Interfaces/Interphases 1 Polymer Nanocomposite Interfaces: The Hidden Lever for Optimizing Performance in Spherical Nanofilled Polymers 3 Ying Li, Yanhui Huang, Timothy Krentz, Bharath Natarajan, Tony Neely and Linda S. Schadler 1.1 Introduction 4 1.1.1 Dispersion Control 5 1.1.2 Interface Structure 6 1.1.3 Interface Properties 6 1.1.4 Measuring and Modeling the Interface 7 1.2 Dispersion Control through Interfacial Modification 8 1.2.1 Introduction 8 1.2.2 Short Ligands 8 1.2.3 Polymer Brush 11 1.2.3.1 Polymer Brush Synthesis Methods 12 1.2.3.2 Enthalpic and Entropic Contributions of Polymer Brushes to Dispersion Control 13 1.3 Interface Structure 16 1.3.1 Introduction 16 1.3.2 Effects of Particle Size 17 1.3.3 Effects of Crystallinity and Crosslinking 18 1.3.4 Effects of Polymer Brush Penetration 19 1.3.4.1 The Athermal Case 19 1.3.4.2 The Enthalpic Case 21 1.3.5 Characterizing the Interface Structure 22 1.4 Interface Properties and Characterization Techniques 24 1.4.1 Introduction 24 1.4.2 Molecular Mobility in Nanocomposite Interfaces 25 1.4.3 Thermomechanical Properties and Measurements 28 1.4.3.1 Direct Measurement 30 1.4.3.2 Indirect Methods 32 1.4.4 Dielectric Properties and Measurements 40 1.4.4.1 Effects of Nanofillers 42 1.4.4.2 Measurement Techniques 43 1.4.4.3 Indirect Measurement 44 1.4.4.4 Finite Element Modeling 50 1.4.5 Remarks on Characterization Methods 52 1.5 Summary 53 Acknowledgements 54 References 55 2 Interphase Engineering with Nanofillers in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites 71 József Karger-Kocsis, Sándor Kéki, Haroon Mahmood and Alessandro Pegoretti 2.1 Introduction 72 2.2 Interphase Tailoring for Stress Transfer 74 2.2.1 Coating with Nanofillers 74 2.2.2 Creation of Hierarchical Fibers 80 2.2.2.1 Chemical Grafting of Nanofillers 80 2.2.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 81 2.2.2.3 Other “Grafting” Techniques 83 2.2.3 Effects of Matrix Modification with Nanofillers 85 2.3 Interphase Tailoring for Functionality 87 2.3.1 Sensing/Damage Detection 87 2.3.2 Self-Healing/Repair 89 2.3.3 Damping 91 2.4 Outlook and Future Trends 91 2.5 Summary 93 2.6 Acknowledgements 93 2.7 Nomenclature 94 References 94 3 Formation and Functionality of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 103 Peng-Cheng Ma, Bin Hao and Jang-Kyo Kim 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Formation of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 105 3.3 Functionality of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 111 3.3.1 Load Transfer in Nanocomposites 111 3.3.2 Reduction in Growth Rate of Fatigue Cracks in Nanocomposites 116 3.3.3 Controlling the Fracture Behavior of Nanocomposites 119 3.3.4 Enhancing the Damping Properties of Nanocomposites 121 3.3.5 Channels for the Transport of Ions and Moisture in Nanocomposites 123 3.3.6 Phonon Scattering in Nanocomposites 125 3.3.7 Electron Transfer in Nanocomposites 128 3.4 Summary and Prospects 130 Acknowledgements 133 References 133 4 Impact of Crystallization on the Interface in Polymer Nanocomposites 139 Nandika D’Souza Siddhi Pendse, Laxmi Sahu, Ajit Ranade and Shailesh Vidhate 4.1 Introduction 140 4.2 Thermodynamics of Crystallization 142 4.3 Nylon Nanocomposites 144 4.4 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 145 4.5 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in Nylon 146 4.6 Permeability 149 4.7 PET Nanocomposites 151 4.8 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 151 4.9 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in PET 151 4.10 PEN Nanocomposites 156 4.11 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 156 4.12 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in PEN 157 4.13 Permeability 162 4.14 The Role of the Interface in Permeability: PET versus PEN 162 4.15 Summary 167 References 168 5 Improved Nanofiller-Matrix Bonding and Distribution in GnP-reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites by Surface Plasma Treatments of GnP 171 Rafael J. Zaldivar and Hyun I. Kim 5.1 Introduction 172 5.2 Experimental 173 5.2.1 Composite Fabrication 173 5.2.2 Image Analysis 174 5.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy 174 5.2.4 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 174 5.2.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 175 5.2.6 Mechanical Testing 175 5.3 Results 175 5.4 Conclusions 187 Acknowledgement 187 References 187 6 Interfacial Effects in Polymer Nanocomposites Studied by Thermal and Dielectric Techniques 191 Panagiotis Klonos, Apostolos Kyritsis and Polycarpos Pissis 6.1 Introduction 192 6.2 Experimental Techniques 197 6.2.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 197 6.2.2 Dielectric Techniques 202 6.2.2.1 Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy (BDS) 203 6.2.2.2 Thermally Stimulated Depolarization Current (TSDC) Techniques 207 6.3 Evaluation in Terms of Interfacial Characteristics 209 6.3.1 Analysis of DSC Measurements 209 6.3.2 Analysis of Dielectric Measurements 211 6.3.3 Thickness of the Interfacial Layer 213 6.4 Examples 214 6.4.1 DSC Measurements 214 6.4.2 Dielectric Measurements 221 6.5 Prospects 235 6.6 Summary 236 Acknowledgements 237 References 237 Part 2 Techniques to Characterize/Control Nanoadhesion 7 Investigation of Interfacial Interactions between Nanofillers and Polymer Matrices Using a Variety of Techniques 251 Luqi Liu 7.1 Introduction 251 7.2 Observation of Interfacial Layer in Nanostructured Carbon Materials-based Nanocomposites 253 7.2.1 Characterization of Interface Layer Around CNTs 253 7.2.2 Characterization of Interface Layer Around Graphene Sheets 255 7.3 Interfacial Properties between Nanofiller and Polymer Matrix 256 7.3.1 Theoretical Simulations of CNT and/or Graphene-based Nanocomposites 256 7.3.1.1 Theoretical Simulation of CNT-based Nanocomposites 256 7.3.1.2 Theoretical Simulation of Graphene-based Nanocomposites 258 7.3.2 Experimental Studies to Characterize Interfacial Behavior in CNT and/or Graphene-based Nanocomposite Systems 260 7.3.2.1 Indirect Measurement 261 7.3.2.2 Direct Measurement 261 7.4 Summary 270 Acknowledgements 271 References 271 8 Chemical and Physical Techniques for Surface Modification of Nanocellulose Reinforcements 279 Viktoriya Pakharenko, Muhammad Pervaiz, Hitesh Pande and Mohini Sain 8.1 Introduction 279 8.2 Chemical Surface Modification 281 8.2.1 Acetylation 281 8.2.2 Silylation 284 8.2.3 Bacterial Treatment 285 8.2.4 Grafting 287 8.2.5 Surfactant Adsorption 289 8.2.6 TEMPO-mediated Oxidation 290 8.2.7 Click chemistry 292 8.3 Physical Surface Modification 292 8.3.1 Plasma 292 8.3.2 Corona 297 8.3.3 Laser 299 8.3.4 Flame 299 8.4 Use of Ions 300 8.5 Summary 300 Acknowledgments 301 References 301 9 Nondestructive Sensing of Interface/Interphase Damage in Fiber/Matrix Nanocomposites 307 Zuo-Jia Wang, Dong-Jun Kwon, Jin-Yeong Choi, Pyeong-Su Shin, K. Lawrence DeVries and Joung-Man Park 9.1 Introduction 308 9.2 Experimental Specimens and Methods 311 9.2.1 Gradient Specimen Test 311 9.2.2 Dual Matrix Fragmentation Test 314 9.3 Damage Sensing Using Electrical Resistance Measurements 317 9.3.1 Electrical Resistance Measurement for Strain Sensing Application 317 9.3.2 Electrical Resistance Measurement for Interface/Interphase Evaluation 321 9.4 Summary 327 References 327 10 Development of Polymeric Biocomposites: Particulate Incorporation, Interphase Generation and Evaluation by Nanoindentation 333 Oisik Das and Debes Bhattacharyya 10.1 Introduction 334 10.2 The Definitions of Composite and its Constituents 337 10.2.1 Composite 337 10.2.2 Biocomposite 337 10.2.3 The Reinforcement 337 10.2.4 The Matrix 338 10.3 Physical and Chemical Structures of Bio–based Reinforcements 339 10.3.1 Plant/Vegetable-based Reinforcements/Fibres 339 10.3.1.1 Physical Structure 339 10.3.1.2 Chemical Structure 339 10.3.2 Animal-based Reinforcements/Fibres 342 10.3.2.1 Physical Structure 342 10.3.2.2 Chemical Structure 343 10.4 Particulate and Short Fibre Composites 344 10.4.1 Biochar as Potential New Bio-based Particulate Reinforcement 345 10.4.2 Properties of Particulate-based Composites: Governing Factors 351 10.4.2.1 Particulate Properties 351 10.4.2.2 Particulate Structure 355 10.5 Nanoindentation Technique to Determine Interphase and Composite Properties 358 10.5.1 The Technique and Theory of Nanoindentation 358 10.5.1.1 Different Types of Indenter Tips 360 10.5.1.2 Nanoindentation Theory 362 10.5.1.3 Nanoindentation Instrument 364 10.5.2 Nanoindentation on Polymeric Composites and their Interphase 364 10.5 Concluding Remarks 369 References 370 11 Perspectives on the Use of Molecular Dynamics Simulations to Characterize Filler-Matrix Adhesion and Nanocomposite Mechanical Properties 375 Sanket A. Deshmukh, Benjamin J. Hanson, Qian Jiang and Melissa A. Pasquinelli 11.1 Introduction 376 11.2 Overview of Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulations 377 11.3 Characterization of Interfacial Adhesion with MD Simulations 381 11.3.1 Quantifying Adhesion Strength 381 11.3.2 Effect of the Strength of Matrix-Filler Interactions 383 11.3.3 Effect of Filler Geometry 386 11.3.4 Effect of Ordering and Crosslinking within the Polymer Matrix 388 11.4 Characterization of Mechanical Properties with MD Simulations 391 11.4.1 Predicting Static Mechanical Properties 392 11.4.2 Predicting Dynamic Mechanical Properties 395 11.5 Prospects 399 11.6 Summary 400 Acknowledgements 400 References 400

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Book SynopsisRobust Optimization is a method to improve robustness using low-cost variations of a single, conceptual design. The benefits of Robust Optimization include faster product development cycles; faster launch cycles; fewer manufacturing problems; fewer field problems; lower-cost, higher performing products and processes; and lower warranty costs. All these benefits can be realized if engineering and product development leadership of automotive and manufacturing organizations leverage the power of using Robust Optimization as a competitive weapon. Written by world renowned authors, Robust Optimization: World's Best Practices for Developing Winning Vehicles, is a ground breaking book whichintroduces the technical management strategy of Robust Optimization. The authors discuss what the strategy entails, 8 steps for Robust Optimization and Robust Assessment, and how to lead it in a technical organization with an implementation strategy. Robust Optimization is defined anTable of ContentsPreface xxi Acknowledgments xxv About the Authors xxvii 1 Introduction to Robust Optimization 1 1.1 What Is Quality as Loss? 2 1.2 What Is Robustness? 4 1.3 What Is Robust Assessment? 5 1.4 What Is Robust Optimization? 5 1.4.1 Noise Factors 8 1.4.2 Parameter Design 9 1.4.3 Tolerance Design 13 2 Eight Steps for Robust Optimization and Robust Assessment 17 2.1 Before Eight Steps: Select Project Area 18 2.2 Eight Steps for Robust Optimization 19 2.2.1 Step 1: Define Scope for Robust Optimization 19 2.2.2 Step 2: Identify Ideal Function/Response 20 2.2.2.1 Ideal Function: Dynamic Response 20 2.2.2.2 Nondynamic Responses 21 2.2.3 Step 3: Develop Signal and Noise Strategies 23 2.2.3.1 How Input M is Varied to Benchmark “Robustness” 23 2.2.3.2 How Noise Factors Are Varied to Benchmark “Robustness” 23 2.2.4 Step 4: Select Control Factors and Levels 32 2.2.4.1 Traditional Approach to Explore Control Factors 32 2.2.4.2 Exploration of Design Space by Orthogonal Array 33 2.2.4.3 Try to Avoid Strong Interactions between Control Factors 33 2.2.4.4 Orthogonal Array and its Mechanics 36 2.2.5 Step 5: Execute and Collect Data 38 2.2.6 Step 6: Conduct Data Analysis 38 2.2.6.1 Computations of S/N and β 39 2.2.6.2 Computation of S/N and β for L18 Data Sets 43 2.2.6.3 Response Table for S/N and β 43 2.2.6.4 Determination of Optimum Design 48 2.2.7 Step 7: Predict and Confirm 49 2.2.7.1 Confirmation 50 2.2.8 Step 8: Lesson Learned and Action Plan 50 2.3 Eight Steps for Robust Assessment 52 2.3.1 Step 1: Define Scope 52 2.3.2 Step 2: Identify Ideal Function/Response and Step 3: Develop Signal and Noise Strategies 52 2.3.3 Step 4: Select Designs for Assessment 52 2.3.4 Step 5: Execute and Collect Data 52 2.3.5 Step 6: Conduct Data Analysis 52 2.3.6 Step 7: Make Judgments 53 2.3.7 Step 8: Lesson Learned and Action Plan 53 2.4 As You Go through Case Studies in This Book 55 3 Implementation of Robust Optimization 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Robust Optimization Implementation 57 3.2.1 Leadership Commitment 58 3.2.2 Executive Leader and the Corporate Team 58 3.2.3 Effective Communication 60 3.2.4 Education and Training 61 3.2.5 Integration Strategy 62 3.2.6 Bottom Line Performance 62 PART ONE VEHICLE LEVEL OPTIMIZATION 63 4 Optimization of Vehicle Offset Crashworthy Design Using a Simplified AnalysisModel 65Chrysler LLC, USA 4.1 Executive Summary 65 4.2 Introduction 66 4.3 Stepwise Implementation of DFSS Optimization for Vehicle Offset Impact 67 4.3.1 Step 1: Scope Defined for Optimization 67 4.3.2 Step 2: Identify/Select Design Alternatives 67 4.3.3 Step 3: Identify Ideal Function 68 4.3.4 Step 4: Develop Signal and Noise Strategy 69 4.3.4.1 Input and Output Signal Strategy 69 4.3.5 Step 5: Select Control/Noise Factors and Levels 70 4.3.5.1 Simplified Spring Mass Model Creation and Validation 70 4.3.5.2 Control Variable Selection 72 4.3.5.3 Control Factor Level Application for Spring Stiffness Updates 73 4.3.6 Step 6: Execute and Conduct Data Analysis 73 4.3.7 Step 7: Validation of Optimized Model 74 4.4 Conclusion 77 4.4.1 Acknowledgments 77 4.5 References 77 5 Optimization of the Component Characteristics for Improving Collision Safety by Simulation 79Isuzu Advanced Engineering Center, Ltd, Japan 5.1 Executive Summary 79 5.2 Introduction 80 5.3 Simulation Models 81 5.4 Concept of Standardized S/N Ratios with Respect to Survival Space 82 5.5 Results and Consideration 86 5.6 Conclusion 94 5.6.1 Acknowledgment 94 5.7 Reference 94 PART TWO SUBSYSTEMS LEVEL OPTIMIZATION BY ORIGINAL EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS (OEMs) 95 6 Optimization of Small DC Motors Using Functionality for Evaluation 97Nissan Motor Co., Ltd, Japan and Jidosha Denki Kogyo Co., Ltd, Japan 6.1 Executive Summary 97 6.2 Introduction 98 6.3 Functionality for Evaluation in Case of DC Motors 98 6.4 Experiment Method and Measurement Data 99 6.5 Factors and Levels 100 6.6 Data Analysis 101 6.7 Analysis Results 104 6.8 Selection of Optimal Design and Confirmation 104 6.9 Benefits Gained 107 6.10 Consideration of Analysis for Audible Noise 108 6.11 Conclusion 110 6.11.1 The Importance of Functionality for Evaluation 110 6.11.2 Evaluation under the Unloaded (Idling) Condition 110 6.11.3 Evaluation of Audible Noise (Quality Characteristic) 111 6.11.4 Acknowledgment 111 7 Optimal Design for a Double-Lift Window Regulator System Used in Automobiles 113Nissan Motor Co., Ltd, Japan and Ohi Seisakusho Co., Ltd, Japan 7.1 Executive Summary 113 7.2 Introduction 114 7.3 Schematic Figure of Double-Lift Window Regulator System 114 7.4 Ideal Function 114 7.5 Noise Factors 116 7.6 Control Factors 117 7.7 Conventional Data Analysis and Results 119 7.8 Selection of Optimal Condition and Confirmation Test Results 120 7.9 Evaluation of Quality Characteristics 122 7.10 Concept of Analysis Based on Standardized S/N Ratio 124 7.11 Analysis Results Based on Standardized S/N Ratio 125 7.12 Comparison between Analysis Based on Standardized S/N Ratio and Analysis Based on Conventional S/N Ratio 127 7.13 Conclusion 132 7.13.1 Acknowledgments 132 7.14 Further Reading 132 8 Optimization of Next-Generation Steering System Using Computer Simulation 133Nissan Motor Co., Ltd, Japan 8.1 Executive Summary 133 8.2 Introduction 134 8.3 System Description 134 8.4 Measurement Data 135 8.5 Ideal Function 136 8.6 Factors and Levels 136 8.6.1 Signal and Response 136 8.6.2 Noise Factors 136 8.6.3 Indicative Factor 137 8.6.4 Control Factors 137 8.7 Pre-analysis for Compounding the Noise Factors 137 8.8 Calculation of Standardized S/N Ratio 138 8.9 Analysis Results 141 8.10 Determination of Optimal Design and Confirmation 141 8.11 Tuning to the Targeted Value 142 8.12 Conclusion 144 8.12.1 Acknowledgment 145 9 Future Truck Steering Effort Robustness 147General Motors Corporation, USA 9.1 Executive Summary 147 9.2 Background 148 9.2.1 Methodology 148 9.2.2 Hydraulic Power-Steering Assist System 149 9.2.3 Valve Assembly Design 152 9.2.4 Project Scope 153 9.3 Parameter Design 154 9.3.1 Ideal Steering Effort Function 154 9.3.2 Control Factors 157 9.3.3 Noise Compounding Strategy and Input Signals 157 9.3.4 Standardized S/N Post-Processing 159 9.3.5 Quality Loss Function 165 9.4 Acknowledgments 172 9.5 References 172 10 Optimal Design of Engine Mounting System Based on Quality Engineering 173Mazda Motor Corporation, Japan 10.1 Executive Summary 173 10.2 Background 174 10.3 Design Object 174 10.4 Application of Standard S/N Ratio Taguchi Method 175 10.5 Iterative Application of Standard S/N Ratio Taguchi Method 178 10.6 Influence of Interval of Factor Level 181 10.7 Calculation Program 184 10.8 Conclusions 185 10.8.1 Acknowledgments 186 10.9 References 186 11 Optimization of a Front-Wheel-Drive Transmission for Improved Efficiency and Robustness 187Chrysler Group, LLC, USA and ASI Consulting Group, LLC, USA 11.1 Executive Summary 187 11.2 Introduction 188 11.3 Experimental 189 11.3.1 Ideal Function and Measurement 189 11.4 Signal Strategy 190 11.5 Noise Strategy 191 11.6 Control Factor Selection 192 11.7 Orthogonal Array Selection 193 11.8 Results and Discussion 196 11.8.1 S/N Calculations 196 11.8.2 Graphs of Runs 200 11.8.3 Response Plots 201 11.8.4 Confirmation Run 201 11.8.5 Verification of Results 203 11.9 Conclusion 206 11.9.1 Acknowledgments 207 11.10 References 207 12 Fuel Delivery System Robustness 209Ford Motor Company, USA 12.1 Executive Summary 209 12.2 Introduction 210 12.2.1 Fuel System Overview 210 12.2.2 Conventional Fuel System 211 12.2.3 New Fuel System 211 12.3 Experiment Description 211 12.3.1 Test Method 211 12.3.2 Ideal Function 211 12.4 Noise Factors 213 12.4.1 Control Factors 213 12.4.2 Fixed Factors 214 12.5 Experiment Test Results 214 12.6 Sensitivity (β) Analysis 214 12.7 Confirmation Test Results 217 12.7.1 Bench Test Confirmation 217 12.7.1.1 Initial Fuel Delivery System 217 12.7.1.2 Optimal Fuel Delivery System 218 12.7.2 Vehicle Verification 218 12.7.2.1 Initial Fuel Delivery System 219 12.7.2.2 Optimal Fuel Delivery System 219 12.8 Conclusion 220 13 Improving Coupling Factor in Vehicle Theft Deterrent Systems Using Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) 223General Motors Corporation, USA 13.1 Executive Summary 223 13.2 Introduction 224 13.3 Objectives 225 13.4 The Voice of the Customer 225 13.5 Experimental Strategy 225 13.5.1 Response 225 13.5.2 Noise Strategy 226 13.5.3 Control Factors 226 13.5.4 Input Signal 227 13.6 The System 227 13.7 The Experimental Results 228 13.8 Conclusions 229 13.8.1 Summary 233 13.8.2 Acknowledgments 234 PART THREE SUBSYSTEMS LEVEL OPTIMIZATION BY SUPPLIERS 235 14 Magnetic Sensing System Optimization 237ALPS Electric, Japan 14.1 Executive Summary 237 14.1.1 The Magnetic Sensing System 238 14.2 Improvement of Design Technique 239 14.2.1 Traditional Design Technique 239 14.2.2 Design Technique by Quality Engineering 239 14.3 System Design Technique 241 14.3.1 Parameter Design Diagram 241 14.3.2 Signal Factor, Control Factor, and Noise Factor 242 14.3.3 Implementation of Parameter Design 244 14.3.4 Results of the Confirmation Experiment 244 14.4 Effect by Shortening of Development Period 246 14.5 Conclusion 246 14.5.1 Acknowledgments 247 14.6 References 247 15 Direct Injection Diesel Injector Optimization 249Delphi Automotive Systems, Europe and Delphi Automotive Systems, USA 15.1 Executive Summary 249 15.2 Introduction 250 15.2.1 Background 250 15.2.2 Problem Statement 250 15.2.3 Objectives and Approach to Optimization 251 15.3 Simulation Model Robustness 253 15.3.1 Background 253 15.3.2 Approach to Optimization 257 15.3.3 Results 257 15.4 Parameter Design 257 15.4.1 Ideal Function 257 15.4.2 Signal and Noise Strategies 258 15.4.2.1 Signal Levels 258 15.4.2.2 Noise Strategy 258 15.4.3 Control Factors and Levels 259 15.4.4 Experimental Layout 259 15.4.5 Data Analysis and Two-Step Optimization 259 15.4.6 Confirmation 263 15.4.7 Discussions on Parameter Design Results 264 15.4.7.1 Technical 264 15.4.7.2 Economical 264 15.5 Tolerance Design 268 15.5.1 Signal Point by Signal Point Tolerance Design 269 15.5.1.1 Factors and Experimental Layout 269 15.5.1.2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Each Injection Point 269 15.5.1.3 Loss Function 269 15.5.2 Dynamic Tolerance Design 270 15.5.2.1 Dynamic Analysis of Variance 271 15.5.2.2 Dynamic Loss Function 273 15.6 Conclusions 275 15.6.1 Project Related 275 15.6.2 Recommendations for Taguchi Methods 277 15.6.3 Acknowledgments 278 15.7 Reference and Further Reading 278 16 General Purpose Actuator Robust Assessment and Benchmark Study 279Robert Bosch, LLC, USA 16.1 Executive Summary 279 16.2 Introduction 280 16.3 Objectives 280 16.3.1 Robust Assessment Measurement Method 281 16.3.1.1 Test Equipment 281 16.3.1.2 Data Acquisition 284 16.3.1.3 Data Analysis Strategy 285 16.4 Robust Assessment 286 16.4.1 Scope and P-Diagram 286 16.4.2 Ideal Function 286 16.4.3 Signal and Noise Strategy 290 16.4.4 Control Factors 291 16.4.5 Raw Data 291 16.4.6 Data Analysis 291 16.5 Conclusion 296 16.5.1 Acknowledgments 297 16.6 Further Reading 297 17 Optimization of a Discrete Floating MOS Gate Driver 299Delphi-Delco Electronic Systems, USA 17.1 Executive Summary 299 17.2 Background 300 17.3 Introduction 302 17.4 Developing the “Ideal” Function 302 17.5 Noise Strategy 305 17.6 Control Factors and Levels 305 17.7 Experiment Strategy and Measurement System 306 17.8 Parameter Design Experiment Layout 306 17.9 Results 307 17.10 Response Charts 307 17.11 Two-Step Optimization 311 17.12 Confirmation 312 17.13 Conclusions 312 17.13.1 Acknowledgments 314 18 Reformer Washcoat Adhesion on Metallic Substrates 315Delphi Automotive Systems, USA 18.1 Executive Summary 315 18.2 Introduction 316 18.3 Experimental Setup 317 18.3.1 The Ideal Function 318 18.3.2 P-Diagram 318 18.3.3 Control Factors 319 18.3.3.1 Alloy Composition 319 18.3.3.2 Washcoat Composition 320 18.3.3.3 Slurry Parameters 320 18.3.3.4 Cleaning Procedures 320 18.3.3.5 Preparation 320 18.4 Control Factor Levels 320 18.5 Noise Factors 320 18.5.1 Signal Factor 320 18.5.2 Unwanted Outputs 320 18.6 Description of Experiment 322 18.6.1 Furnace 322 18.6.2 Orthogonal Array and Inner Array 323 18.6.3 Signal-to-Noise and Beta Calculations 323 18.6.4 Response Tables 323 18.7 Two Step Optimization and Prediction 323 18.7.1 Optimum Design 329 18.7.2 Predictions 329 18.8 Confirmation 329 18.8.1 Design Improvement 329 18.9 Measurement System Evaluation 334 18.10 Conclusion 334 18.11 Supplemental Background Information 336 18.12 Acknowledgment 340 18.13 Reference and Further Reading 340 19 Making Better Decisions Faster: Sequential Application of Robust Engineering to Math-Models, CAE Simulations, and Accelerated Testing 341Robert Bosch Corporation, USA 19.1 Executive Summary 341 19.2 Introduction 342 19.2.1 Thermal Equivalent Circuit – Detailed 343 19.2.2 Thermal Equivalent Circuit – Simplified 343 19.2.3 Closed Form Solution 343 19.3 Objective 345 19.3.1 Thermal Robustness Design Template 345 19.3.2 Critical Design Parameters for Thermal Robustness 345 19.3.3 Cascade Learning (aka Leveraged Knowledge) 346 19.3.4 Test Taguchi Robust Engineering Methodology 346 19.4 Robust Optimization 347 19.4.1 Scope and P-Diagram 347 19.4.2 Ideal Function 347 19.4.3 Signal and Noise Strategy 349 19.4.4 Input Signal 350 19.4.5 Control Factors and Levels 350 19.4.6 Math-Model Generated Data 351 19.4.7 Data Analysis 351 19.4.8 Thermal Robustness (Signal-to-Noise) 354 19.4.9 Subsystem Thermal Resistance (Beta) 356 19.4.10 Prediction and Confirmation 357 19.4.11 Verification 362 19.5 Conclusions 364 19.5.1 Acknowledgments 365 19.6 Futher Reading 366 20 Pressure Switch Module Normally Open Feasibility Investigation and Supplier Competition 367Robert Bosch, LLC, USA 20.1 Executive Summary 367 20.2 Introduction 368 20.2.1 Current Production Pressure Switch Module – Detailed 368 20.2.2 Current Production (N.C.) Switching Element – Detailed 369 20.3 Objective 370 20.4 Robust Assessment 370 20.4.1 Scope and P-Diagram 370 20.4.2 Ideal Function 371 20.4.3 Noise Strategy 372 20.4.4 Testing Criteria 372 20.4.5 Control Factors and Levels 373 20.4.6 Test Data 374 20.4.7 Data Analysis 375 20.4.8 Prediction and Confirmation 379 20.4.9 Verification 383 20.5 Summary and Conclusions 383 20.5.1 Acknowledgments 385 PART FOUR MANUFACTURING PROCESS OPTIMIZATION 387 21 Robust Optimization of a Lead-Free Reflow Soldering Process 389Delphi Delco Electronics Systems, USA and ASI Consulting Group, LLC, USA 21.1 Executive Summary 389 21.2 Introduction 390 21.3 Experimental 391 21.3.1 Robust Engineering Methodology 391 21.3.2 Visual Scoring 394 21.3.3 Pull Test 396 21.4 Results and Discussion 396 21.4.1 Visual Scoring Results 396 21.4.2 Pull Test Results 400 21.4.3 Next Steps 401 21.5 Conclusion 401 21.5.1 Acknowledgment 402 21.6 References 402 22 Catalyst Slurry Coating Process Optimization for Diesel Catalyzed Particulate Traps 403Delphi Energy and Chassis Systems, USA 22.1 Executive Summary 403 22.2 Introduction 404 22.3 Project Description 405 22.4 Process Map 406 22.4.1 Initial Performance 406 22.5 First Parameter Design Experiment 406 22.5.1 Function Analysis 407 22.5.2 Ideal Function 409 22.5.3 Measurement System Evaluation 409 22.5.4 Parameter Diagram 411 22.5.5 Factors and Levels 411 22.5.6 Compound Noise Strategy 412 22.5.7 Parameter Design Experiment Layout (1) 412 22.5.8 Means Plots 414 22.5.9 Means Tables 414 22.5.10 Two-Step Optimization and Prediction 415 22.5.11 Predicted Performance Improvement Before and After 416 22.6 Follow-up Parameter Design Experiment 416 22.6.1 Parameter Design Experiment Layout (2) 417 22.6.2 Means Plots for Signal-to-Noise Ratios 417 22.6.3 Confirmation Results in Tulsa 417 22.6.4 Noise Factor Q Affect on Slurry Coating 417 22.7 Transfer to Florange 419 22.7.1 Ideal Function and Parameter Diagram 421 22.7.2 Parameter Design Experiment Layout (3) 421 22.7.3 Means Plots for Signal-to-Noise Ratios 423 22.7.4 Prediction and Confirmation 423 22.7.5 Process Capability 423 22.8 Conclusion 424 22.8.1 The Team 424 Index 427

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Book SynopsisClassical and Modern Approaches in the Theory of Mechanisms is a study of mechanisms in the broadest sense, covering the theoretical background of mechanisms, their structures and components, the planar and spatial analysis of mechanisms, motion transmission, and technical approaches to kinematics, mechanical systems, and machine dynamics. In addition to classical approaches, the book presents two new methods: the analytic-assisted method using Turbo Pascal calculation programs, and the graphic-assisted method, outlining the steps required for the development of graphic constructions using AutoCAD; the applications of these methods are illustrated with examples. Aimed at students of mechanical engineering, and engineers designing and developing mechanisms in their own fields, this book provides a useful overview of classical theories, and modern approaches to the practical and creative application of mechanisms, in seeking solutions to increasingly complex problems.Table of ContentsPreface xi About the Companion Website xiii 1 The Structure of Mechanisms 1 1.1 Kinematic Elements 1 1.2 Kinematic Pairs 1 1.3 Kinematic Chains 2 1.4 Mobility of Mechanisms 3 1.4.1 Definitions 3 1.4.2 Mobility Degree of Mechanisms without Common Constraints 5 1.4.3 Mobility Degree of Mechanisms with Common Constraints 5 1.4.4 Mobility of a MechanismWritten with the Aid of the Number of Loops 7 1.4.5 Families of Mechanisms 7 1.4.6 Actuation of Mechanisms 9 1.4.7 Passive Elements 9 1.4.8 Passive Kinematic Pairs 10 1.4.9 Redundant Degree of Mobility 10 1.4.10 Multiple Kinematic Pairs 11 1.5 Fundamental Kinematic Chains 11 1.6 Multi-pairs (Poly-pairs) 14 1.7 Modular Groups 15 1.8 Formation and Decomposition of PlanarMechanisms 16 1.9 Multi-poles and Multi-polar Schemata 18 1.10 Classification of Mechanisms 18 2 Kinematic Analysis of Planar Mechanisms with Bars 21 2.1 General Aspects 21 2.2 Kinematic Relations 21 2.2.1 Plane-parallel Motion 21 2.2.2 Relative Motion 23 2.3 Methods for Kinematic Analysis 24 2.3.1 The Grapho-analytical Method 24 2.3.2 The Method of Projections 24 2.3.3 The Newton–Raphson Method 25 2.3.4 Determination of Velocities and Accelerations using the Finite Differences Method 26 2.4 Kinematic Analysis of the RRR Dyad 27 2.4.1 The Grapho-analytical Method 27 2.4.2 The Analytical Method 31 2.4.3 The Assisted Analytical Method 35 2.4.4 The Assisted Graphical Method 35 2.5 Kinematic Analysis of the RRT Dyad 46 2.5.1 The Grapho-analytical Method 46 2.5.2 The Analytical Method 49 2.5.3 The Assisted Analytical Method 52 2.5.4 The Assisted Graphical Method 53 2.6 Kinematic Analysis of the RTR Dyad 60 2.6.1 The Grapho-analytical Method 60 2.6.2 The Analytical Method 63 2.6.3 The Assisted Analytical Method 66 2.6.4 The Assisted Graphical Method 66 2.7 Kinematic Analysis of the TRT Dyad 73 2.7.1 The Grapho-analytical Method 73 2.7.2 The Analytical Method 77 2.7.3 The Assisted Analytical Method 79 2.7.4 The Assisted Graphical Method 80 2.8 Kinematic Analysis of the RTT Dyad 85 2.8.1 The Grapho-analytical Method 85 2.8.2 The Analytical Method 87 2.8.3 The Assisted Analytical Method 90 2.8.4 The Assisted Graphical Method 90 2.9 Kinematic Analysis of the 6R Triad 95 2.9.1 Formulation of the Problem 95 2.9.2 Determination of the Positions 96 2.9.3 Determination of the Velocities and Accelerations 97 2.9.4 The Assisted Analytical Method 98 2.9.5 The Assisted Graphical Method 99 2.10 Kinematic Analysis of Some Planar Mechanisms 103 2.10.1 Kinematic Analysis of the Four-Bar Mechanism 103 2.10.2 Kinematic Analysis of the Crank-shaft Mechanism 109 2.10.3 Kinematic Analysis of the Crank and Slotted Lever Mechanism 113 3 Kinetostatics of Planar Mechanisms 117 3.1 General Aspects: Forces in Mechanisms 117 3.2 Forces of Inertia 118 3.2.1 The Torsor of the Inertial Forces 118 3.2.2 Concentration of Masses 118 3.3 Equilibration of the Rotors 119 3.3.1 Conditions of Equilibration 119 3.3.2 The Theorem of Equilibration 119 3.3.3 Machines for Dynamic Equilibration 121 3.4 Static Equilibration of Four-bar Mechanisms 124 3.4.1 Equilibration with Counterweights 124 3.4.2 Equilibration with Springs 126 3.5 Reactions in Frictionless Kinematic Pairs 126 3.5.1 General Aspects 126 3.5.2 Determination of the Reactions for the RRR Dyad 127 3.5.3 Determination of the Reactions for the RRT Dyad 133 3.5.4 Determination of the Reactions for the RTR Dyad 139 3.5.5 Determination of the Reactions for the TRT Dyad 145 3.5.6 Determination of the Reactions for the RTT Dyad 150 3.5.7 Determination of the Reactions at the Driving Element 155 3.5.8 Determination of the Equilibration Force (Moment) using the Virtual Velocity Principle 156 3.6 Reactions in Kinematic Pairs with Friction 157 3.6.1 Friction Forces and Moments 157 3.6.2 Determination of the Reactions with Friction 160 3.7 Kinetostatic Analysis of some Planar Mechanisms 161 3.7.1 Kinetostatic Analysis of Four-bar Mechanism 161 3.7.2 Kinetostatic Analysis of Crank-shaft Mechanism 164 3.7.3 Kinetostatic Analysis of Crank and Slotted Lever Mechanism 166 4 Dynamics of Machines 169 4.1 Dynamic Model: Reduction of Forces and Masses 169 4.1.1 Dynamic Model 169 4.1.2 Reduction of Forces 169 4.1.3 Reduction of Masses 171 4.2 Phases of Motion of a Machine 173 4.3 Efficiency of Machines 174 4.4 Mechanical Characteristics of Machines 175 4.5 Equation of Motion of a Machine 176 4.6 Integration of the Equation of Motion 177 4.6.1 General Case 177 4.6.2 The Regime Phase 178 4.7 Flywheels 181 4.7.1 Formulation of the Problem: Definitions 181 4.7.2 Approximate Calculation 182 4.7.3 Exact Calculation 183 4.8 Adjustment of Motion Regulators 186 4.9 Dynamics of Multi-mobile Machines 189 5 Synthesis of Planar Mechanisms with Bars 195 5.1 Synthesis of Path-generating Four-bar Mechanism 195 5.1.1 Conditions for Existence of the Crank 195 5.1.2 Equation of the Coupler Curve 196 5.1.3 Triple Generation of the Coupler Curve 198 5.1.4 Analytic Synthesis 199 5.1.5 Mechanisms for which Coupler Curves Approximate Circular Arcs and Segments of Straight Lines 201 5.1.6 Method of Reduced Positions 201 5.2 Positional Synthesis 204 5.2.1 Formulation of the Problem 204 5.2.2 Poles of Finite Rotation 205 5.2.3 Bipositional Synthesis 206 5.2.4 Three-positional Synthesis 207 5.2.5 Four-positional Synthesis 210 5.2.6 Five-positional Synthesis 214 5.3 Function-generating Mechanisms 215 6 Cam Mechanisms 219 6.1 Generalities. Classification 219 6.2 Analysis of Displacement of Follower 223 6.2.1 Formulation of the Problem 223 6.2.2 The Analytical Method 224 6.2.3 The Graphical Method 233 6.2.4 Analysis of Displacement of Follower using Auto Lisp 236 6.3 Analysis of Velocities and Accelerations 237 6.3.1 Analytical Method 237 6.3.2 Graphical Method: Graphical Derivation 241 6.4 Dynamical Analysis 243 6.4.1 Pre-load in the Spring 243 6.4.2 The Work of Friction 245 6.4.3 Pressure Angle, Transmission Angle 245 6.4.4 Determination of the Base Circle’s Radius 247 6.5 Fundamental Laws of the Follower’s Motion 248 6.5.1 General Aspects: Phases of Motion of the Follower 248 6.5.2 The Linear Law 249 6.5.3 The Parabolic Law 250 6.5.4 The Harmonic Law 252 6.5.5 The Polynomial Law: Polydyne Cams 254 6.6 Synthesis of Cam Mechanisms 256 6.6.1 Formulation of the Problem 256 6.6.2 The Equation of Synthesis 257 6.6.3 Synthesis of Mechanism with Rotational Cam and Translational Follower 258 6.6.4 Synthesis of Mechanism with Rotational Cam and Rotational Follower 260 6.6.5 Cam Synthesis using Auto Lisp Functions 262 6.6.6 Examples 263 7 Gear Mechanisms 273 7.1 General Aspects: Classifications 273 7.2 Relative Motion of Gears: Rolling Surfaces 273 7.3 Reciprocal Wrapped Surfaces 278 7.4 Fundamental Law of Toothing 280 7.5 Parallel Gears with Spur Teeth 281 7.5.1 Generalities. Notations 281 7.5.2 Determination of the Conjugate Profile and Toothing Curve 281 7.5.3 The Involute of a Circle 283 7.5.4 Involute Conjugate Profile and Toothing Line 283 7.5.5 The Main Dimensions of Involute Gears 284 7.5.6 Thickness of a Tooth on a Circle of Arbitrary Radius 286 7.5.7 Building-up of Gear Trains 287 7.5.8 The Contact Ratio 288 7.5.9 Interference of Generation 289 7.6 Parallel Gears with Inclined Teeth 290 7.6.1 Generation of the Flanks 290 7.6.2 The Equivalent Planar Gear 291 7.7 Conical Concurrent Gears with Spur Teeth 293 7.8 Crossing Gears 295 7.8.1 Helical Gears 295 7.8.2 Cylindrical Worm and Wheel Toothing 296 7.9 Generation of the Gears using a CAD Soft 297 7.9.1 Gear Tooth Manufacture 297 7.9.2 Algorithm and Auto Lisp Functions for Creating Gears from Solids 297 7.9.3 Generation of the Cylindrical Gears with Spur and Inclined Teeth 298 7.9.4 The Generation of the Cylindrical Gears with Curvilinear Teeth 302 7.9.5 The Generation of Conical Gears with Spur Teeth 305 7.10 Kinematics of Gear Mechanisms with Parallel Axes 311 7.10.1 Gear Mechanisms with Fixed Parallel Axes 311 7.10.2 The Willis Method 311 7.10.3 Planetary Gear Mechanisms with Four Elements 312 7.10.4 Planetary Gear Mechanisms with Six Mobile Elements 313 7.11 Kinematics of Mechanisms with Conical Gears 314 7.11.1 Planetary Transmission with Three Elements 314 7.11.2 Planetary Transmission with Four Elements 314 7.11.3 Automotive Differentials 315 8 Spatial Mechanisms 317 8.1 Kinematics of Spatial Mechanisms: Generalities 317 8.1.1 Kinematics of the RSSR Mechanism 317 8.1.2 Kinematics of the RSST Mechanism 321 8.1.3 Spatial Mechanism Generating Oscillatory Motion 323 8.2 Hydrostatic Pumps with Axial Pistons 325 8.3 Cardan Transmissions 328 8.4 Tripod Transmissions 330 8.4.1 General Aspects 330 8.4.2 The C2–C Tripod Kinematic Pair 332 8.4.3 The C1–C Tripod Kinematic Pair 335 8.4.4 The S1–P Tripod Kinematic Pair 338 8.4.5 The S2–P Tripod Kinematic Pair 338 8.4.6 Simple Mechanisms with Tripod Joints 340 8.4.7 Tripod Joint Transmissions 344 8.5 Animation of the Mechanisms 349 8.5.1 The Need for an Animation 349 8.5.2 The Animation Algorithm 349 8.5.3 Positional Analysis 349 8.5.4 Modelling the Elements of a Mechanism 357 8.5.5 Creation of the Animation Frames 361 8.5.6 Creation of Animation File for the Mechanism 364 8.5.7 Conclusions 366 9 Industrial Robots 369 9.1 General Aspects 369 9.2 Mechanical Systems of Industrial Robots 370 9.2.1 Structure 370 9.2.2 The Path-generating Mechanism 371 9.2.3 The Orientation Mechanism 373 9.2.4 The Grip Device 377 9.3 Actuation Systems of Industrial Robots 380 9.3.1 Electrical Actuation 380 9.3.2 Hydraulic Actuation 381 9.4 Control Systems of Industrial Robots 382 9.5 Walking Machines 384 9.5.1 The Mechanical Model of the Walking Mechanism 385 9.5.2 Animation of the Walking Machine 386 10 Variators of Angular Velocity with Bars 391 10.1 Generalities 391 10.2 Mono-loop Mechanisms Used in the Construction of the Variators of Angular Velocity with Bars 391 10.2.1 Kinematic Schemata 391 10.2.2 Kinematic Aspects 393 10.2.3 Numerical Example 394 10.3 Bi-loop Mechanisms in Variators of Angular Velocity with Bars 398 10.3.1 Kinematic Schemata 398 10.3.2 Kinematic Analysis 400 Further Reading 411 Index 417

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Book SynopsisAdvanced Magnetic and OpticalMaterials offers detailed up-to-date chapters on the functional optical and magnetic materials, engineering of quantum structures, high-tech magnets, characterization and new applications. It brings together innovative methodologies and strategies adopted in the research and development of the subject and all the contributors are established specialists in the research area. The 14 chapters are organized in two parts: Part 1: Magnetic Materials Magnetic Heterostructures and superconducting orderMagnetic Antiresonance in nanocompositesMagnetic bioactive glass-ceramics for bone healing and hyperthermic treatment of solid tumorsMagnetic iron oxide nanoparticlesMagnetic nanomaterial-based anticancer therapyTheoretical study of strained carbon-based nanobelts: Structural, energetical, electronic, and magnetic propertiesRoom temperature molecular magnets Modeling and applications Part 2: Optical Materials Advances and future of white LED phosphors for solid-statTable of ContentsPreface xix Part 1 Magnetic Materials 1 Superconducting Order in Magnetic Heterostructures 3 Sol H. Jacobsen, Jabir Ali Ouassou and Jacob Linder 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Fundamental Physics 6 1.3 Theoretical Framework 15 1.4 Experimental Status 23 1.5 Novel Predictions 33 1.6 Outlook 37 Acknowledgements 38 References 39 2 Magnetic Antiresonance in Nanocomposite Materials 47 Anatoly B. Rinkevich, Dmitry V. Perov and Olga V. Nemytova 2.1 Introduction: Phenomenon of Magnetic Antiresonance 47 2.2 Magnetic Antiresonance Review 49 2.3 Phase Composition and Structure of Nanocomposites Based on Artificial Opals 54 2.4 Experimental Methods of the Antiresonance Investigation 56 2.5 Nanocomposites Where the Antiresonance Is Observed in 60 2.6 Conditions of Magnetic Antiresonance Observation in Non-conducting Nanocomposite Plate 63 2.7 Magnetic Field Dependence of Transmission and Reflection Coefficients 70 2.8 Frequency Dependence of Resonance Amplitude 72 2.9 Magnetic Resonance and Antiresonance upon Parallel and Perpendicular Orientation of Microwave and a Permanent Magnetic Field 74 2.10 Conclusion 76 Acknowledgement 77 References 77 3 Magnetic Bioactive Glass Ceramics for Bone Healing and Hyperthermic Treatment of Solid Tumors 81 Andrea Cochis, Marta Miola, Oana Bretcanu, Lia Rimondini and Enrica Vernè 3.1 Bone and Cancer: A Hazardous Attraction 82 3.2 Hyperthermia Therapy for Cancer Treatment 86 3.3 Evidences of Hyperthermia Efficacy 94 3.4 Magnetic Composites for Hyperthermia Treatment 95 3.5 Conclusions 103 References 103 4 Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Advances on Controlled Synthesis, Multifunctionalization, and Biomedical Applications 113 Dung The Nguyen and Kyo-Seon Kim 4.1 Introduction 114 4.2 Controlled Synthesis of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles 115 4.3 Surface Modification of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications 122 4.4 Magnetism and Magnetically Induced Heating of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles 126 4.5 Applications of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles to Magnetic Hyperthermia 130 4.6 Applications of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles to Hyperthermia-based Controlled Drug Delivery 132 4.7 Conclusions 134 Acknowledgment 135 References 135 5 Magnetic Nanomaterial-based Anticancer Therapy 141 Catalano Enrico 5.1 Introduction 142 5.2 Magnetic Nanomaterials 144 5.3 Biomedical Applications of Magnetic Nanomaterials 145 5.4 Magnetic Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapies 146 5.5 Relevance of Nanotechnology to Cancer Therapy 147 5.6 Cancer Therapy with Magnetic Nanoparticle Drug Delivery 148 5.7 Drug Delivery in the Cancer Therapy 149 5.8 Magnetic Hyperthermia 151 5.9 Role of Theranostic Nanomedicine in Cancer Treatment 154 5.10 Magnetic Nanomaterials for Chemotherapy 155 5.11 Magnetic Nanomaterials as Carrier for Cancer Gene Therapeutics 156 5.12 Conclusions 156 5.13 Future Prospects 158 References 159 6 Theoretical Study of Strained Carbon-based Nanobelts: Structural, Energetic, Electronic, and Magnetic properties of [n]Cyclacenes 165 E. San-Fabián, A. Pérez-Guardiola, M. Moral, A. J. Pérez-Jiménez and J. C. Sancho-García 6.1 Introduction 166 6.2 Computational Strategy and Associated Details 168 6.3 Results and Discussion 171 6.4 Conclusions 181 Acknowledgments 182 References 182 7 Room Temperature Molecular Magnets: Modeling and Applications 185 Mihai A. Gîrţu and Corneliu I. Oprea 7.1 Introduction 186 7.2 Experimental Background 187 7.3 Ideal Structure and Sources of Structural Disorder 193 7.4 Exchange Coupling Constants and Ferrimagnetic Ordering 200 7.5 Magnetic Anisotropy 224 7.6 Applications of V[TCNE]x 233 7.7 Conclusions 241 Acknowledgments 243 References 243 8 Advances and Future of White LED Phosphors for Solid-State Lighting 251 Xianwen Zhang and Xin Zhang 8.1 Light Generation Mechanisms and History of LEDs Chips 251 8.2 Fabrication of WLEDs 254 8.3 Evaluation Criteria of WLEDs 257 8.4 Phosphors for WLEDs 261 8.5 Conclusions 271 References 272 Part 2 Optical Materials 277 9 Design of Luminescent Materials with “Turn-On/Off” Response for Anions and Cations 279 Serkan Erdemir and Sait Malkondu 9.1 Introduction 280 9.2 Luminescent Materials for Sensing of Cations 283 9.3 Luminescent Materials for Sensing of Anions 302 9.4 Conclusion 307 Acknowledgments 308 References 308 10 Recent Advancements in Luminescent Materials and Their Potential Applications 317 Devender Singh, Vijeta Tanwar, Shri Bhagwan and Ishwar Singh 10.1 Phosphor 317 10.2 An Overview on the Past Research on Phosphor 318 10.3 Luminescence 319 10.4 Mechanism of Emission of Light in Phosphor Particles 320 10.5 How Luminescence Occur in Luminescent Materials? 321 10.6 Luminescence Is Broadly Classified within the Following Categories 326 10.7 Inorganic phosphors 332 10.8 Organic Phosphors 332 10.9 Optical Properties of Inorganic Phosphors 333 10.10 Role of Activator and Coactivator 333 10.11 Role of Rare Earth as Activator and Coactivator in Phosphors 334 10.12 There Are Different Classes of Phosphors, Which May Be Classified According to the Host Lattice 342 10.13 Applications of Phosphors 345 10.14 Future Prospects of Phosphors 348 10.15 Conclusions 349 References 349 11 Strongly Confined PbS Quantum Dots: Emission Limiting, Photonic Doping, and Magneto-optical Effects 353 P. Barik, A. K. Singh, E. V. García-Ramírez, J. A. Reyes-Esqueda, J. S. Wang, H. Xi and B. Ullrich 11.1 Introduction 354 11.2 QDs Used and Sample Preparation 356 11.3 Basic Properties of PbS Quantum Dots 356 11.4 Measuring Techniques and Equipment Employed 358 11.5 Photoluminescence Limiting of Colloidal PbS Quantum Dots 361 11.6 Photonic Doping of Soft Matter 364 11.7 Magneto-optical Properties 370 11.8 Conclusions 380 Acknowledgment 380 References 380 12 Microstructure Characterization of Some Quantum Dots Synthesized by Mechanical Alloying 385 S. Sain and S.K. Pradhan 12.1 Introduction 386 12.2 Brief History of QDs 387 12.3 Theory of QDs 388 12.4 Different Processes of Synthesis of QDs 391 12.5 Structure of QDs 392 12.6 Applications of QDs 393 12.7 Mechanical Alloying 395 12.8 The Rietveld Refinement Method 398 12.9 Some Previous Work on Metal Chalcogenide QDs Prepared by Mechanical Alloying from Other Groups 402 12.11 Conclusions 419 References 419 13 Advances in Functional Luminescent Materials and Phosphors 425 Radhaballabh Debnath 13.1 Introduction 425 13.2 Some Theoretical Aspects of the Processes of Light Absorption/Emission by Matter 427 13.3 Sensitization/Energy Transfer Phenomenon in Luminescence Process 433 13.4 Functional Phosphors 435 13.5 Classifications of Functional Phosphors 438 13.6 Solid-state Luminescent Materials for Laser 460 Acknowledgments 467 References 467 14 Development in Organic Light-emitting Materials and Their Potential Applications 473 Devender Singh, Shri Bhagwan, Raman Kumar Saini, Vandna Nishal and Ishwar Singh 14.1 Luminescence in Organic Molecules 473 14.2 Types of Luminescence 475 14.3 Mechanism of Luminescence 479 14.4 Organic Compounds as Luminescent Material 480 14.5 Possible Transitions in Organic Molecules 494 14.6 OLED’s Structure and Composition 495 14.7 Basic Principle of OLEDs 502 14.8 Working of OLEDs 502 14.9 Light Emission in OLEDs 504 14.10 Types of OLED Displays 505 14.11 Techniques of Fabrication of OLEDs Devices 506 14.12 Advantages of OLEDs 507 14.13 Potential Applications of OLEDs 511 14.14 Future Prospects of OLEDs 512 14.15 Conclusions 512 References 513

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Book SynopsisThis book brings together innovative methodologies and strategies adopted in the research and developments of Advanced 2D Materials.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Part 1 Synthesis, Characterizations, Modelling and Properties 1 Two-Dimensional Layered Gallium Selenide: Preparation, Properties, and Applications 3 Wenjing Jie and Jianhua Hao 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Preparation of 2D Layered GaSe Crystals 5 1.3 Structure, Characterization, and Properties 10 1.4 Applications 24 1.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 31 Acknowledgment 32 References 32 2 Recent Progress on the Synthesis of 2D Boron Nitride Nanosheets 37 Li Fu and Aimin Yu 2.1 Boron Nitride and Its Nanomorphologies 37 2.2 Boron Nitride Nanosheets Synthesis 39 2.3 Conclusion 56 References 57 3 The Effects of Substrates on 2D Crystals 67 Emanuela Margapoti, Mahmoud M. Asmar and Sergio E. Ulloa 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 Fundamental Studies of 2D Crystals 71 3.3 Graphene Symmetries and Their Modification by Substrates and Functionalization 80 3.4 TMDs on Insulators and Metal Substrates 89 3.5 Conclusion 107 References 108 4 Hubbard Model in Material Science: Electrical Conductivity and Reflectivity of Models of Some 2D Materials 115 Vladan Celebonovic 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 The Hubbard Model 116 4.3 Calculations of Conductivity 124 4.4 The Hubbard Model and Optics 135 4.5 Conclusions 141 Acknowledgment 142 References 142 Part 2 State-of-the-art Design of Functional 2D composites 5 Graphene Derivatives in Semicrystalline Polymer Composites 147 Sandra Paszkiewicz, Anna Szymczyk and Zbigniew Rosłaniec 5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 Preparation of Polymer Nanocomposites Containing Graphene Derivatives 150 5.3 Properties of Graphene-based Polymer Nanocomposites 156 5.4 Synergic Effect of 2D/1D System 174 5.5 Conclusions (Summary) and Future Perspectives 175 References 180 6 Graphene Oxide: A Unique Nano-platform to Build Advanced Multifunctional Composites 193 André F. Girão, Susana Pinto, Ana Bessa, Gil Gonçalves, Bruno Henriques, Eduarda Pereira and Paula A. A. P. Marques 6.1 Introduction to Graphene Oxide as Building Unit 194 6.2 Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 196 6.3 Water Remediation 206 6.4 Multifunctional Structural Materials 212 6.5 Conclusions (Final Remarks) 223 Acknowledgments 224 References 224 7 Synthesis of ZnO–Graphene Hybrids for Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants 237 Alina Pruna and Daniele Pullini 7.1 Introduction into Wastewater Treatment 237 7.2 Semiconductor-based Photocatalytic Degradation Mechanism 239 7.3 ZnO Hybridization toward Enhanced Photocatalytic Efficiency 240 7.4 Synthesis Approaches for ZnO–Graphene Hybrid Photocatalysts 242 7.5 ZnO–Graphene Hybrid Photocatalysts 244 7.6 Ternary Hybrids with ZnO and rGO Materials 270 7.7 Conclusions 276 Acknowledgments 278 References 278 8 Covalent and Non-covalent Modification of Graphene Oxide Through Polymer Grafting 287 Akbar Hassanpour, Khatereh Gorbanpour and Abbas Dadkhah Tehrani 8.1 Introduction 288 8.2 Covalent Modification of Graphene Oxide 288 8.3 Non-covalent Modification of Graphene Oxide 314 8.4 Composites and Grafts of GO with Natural Polymers 321 8.5 Conclusion 333 Acknowledgment 334 References 334 Part 3 High-tech Applications of 2D Materials 9 Graphene–Semiconductor Hybrid Photocatalysts and Their Application in Solar Fuel Production 355 Pawan Kumar, Anurag Kumar, Chetan Joshi, Rabah Boukherrouband Suman L. Jain 9.1 Introduction 356 9.2 Conclusion 379 References 379 10 Graphene in Sensors Design 387 Andreea Cernat, Mihaela Tertiș, Luminiţa Fritea and Cecilia Cristea 10.1 Introduction 388 10.2 Fabrication and Characterization of Graphene-based Materials 389 10.3 Applications 394 10.4 Conclusions 418 Acknowledgements 418 References 419 11 Bio-applications of Graphene Composites: From Bench to Clinic 433 Meisam Omidi, A. Fatehinya, M. Frahani, Z. Niknam, A. Yadegari, M. Hashemi, H. Jazayeri, H. Zali, M. Zahedinik, and L. Tayebi 11.1 Introduction 433 11.2 Synthesis and Structural Features 435 11.3 Biomedical Applications 438 11.4 Conclusions (Current Limitations and Future Perspectives) 457 References 461 12 Hydroxyapatite–Graphene as Advanced Bioceramic Composites for Orthopedic Applications 473 Wan Jeffrey Basirun, Saeid Baradaran and Bahman Nasiri-Tabrizi 12.1 Background of Study 474 12.2 Literature Review 478 12.3 Functional Specifications 486 12.4 Summary and Concluding Remarks 494 References 495

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Book SynopsisThis text explores formation control of vehicle systems and introduces three representative systems: space systems, aerial systems and robotic systems Formation Control of Multiple Autonomous Vehicle Systems offers a review of the core concepts of dynamics and control and examines the dynamics and control aspects of formation control in order to study a wide spectrum of dynamic vehicle systems such as spacecraft, unmanned aerial vehicles and robots. The text puts the focus on formation control that enables and stabilizes formation configuration, as well as formation reconfiguration of these vehicle systems. The authors develop a uniform paradigm of describing vehicle systems' dynamic behaviour that addresses both individual vehicle's motion and overall group's movement, as well as interactions between vehicles. The authors explain how the design of proper control techniques regulate the formation motion of these vehicles and the development of a system level decision-making strategyTable of ContentsPreface xiii List of Tables xvii List of Figures xix Acknowledgments xxv Part I Formation Control: Fundamental Concepts 1 1 Formation Kinematics 3 1.1 Notation 3 1.2 Vectorial Kinematics 5 1.2.1 Frame Rotation 5 1.2.2 The Motion of a Vector 7 1.2.3 The First Time Derivative of a Vector 11 1.2.4 The Second Time Derivative of a Vector 12 1.2.5 Motion with Respect to Multiple Frames 12 1.3 Euler Parameters and Unit Quaternion 13 2 Formation Dynamics of Motion Systems 17 2.1 Virtual Structure 17 2.1.1 Formation Control Problem Statement 19 2.1.2 Extended Formation Control Problem 22 2.2 Behaviour-based Formation Dynamics 26 2.3 Leader–Follower Formation Dynamics 27 3 Fundamental Formation Control 29 3.1 Unified Problem Description 29 3.1.1 Some Key Definitions for Formation Control 29 3.1.2 A Simple Illustrative Example 30 3.2 Information Interaction Conditions 32 3.2.1 Algebraic GraphTheory 32 3.2.2 Conditions for the Case without a Leader 33 3.2.3 Conditions for the Case with a Leader 35 3.3 Synchronization Errors 36 3.3.1 Local Synchronization Error: Type I 37 3.3.2 Local Synchronization Error: Type II 38 3.3.3 Local Synchronization Error: Type III 40 3.4 Velocity Synchronization Control 42 3.4.1 Velocity Synchronization without a Leader 42 3.4.2 Velocity Synchronization with a Leader 43 3.5 Angular-position Synchronization Control 45 3.5.1 Synchronization without a Position Reference 45 3.5.2 Synchronization to a Position Reference 47 3.6 Formation via Synchronized Tracking 48 3.6.1 Formation Control Solution 1 50 3.6.2 Formation Control Solution 2 51 3.7 Simulations 52 3.7.1 Verification of Theorem 3.12 52 3.7.2 Verification of Theorem 3.13 54 3.7.3 Verification of Theorem 3.14 57 3.8 Summary 60 Bibliography for Part I 61 Part II Formation Control: Advanced Topics 63 4 Output-feedback Solutions to Formation Control 65 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Problem Statement 65 4.3 Linear Output-feedback Control 66 4.4 Bounded Output-feedback Control 68 4.5 Distributed Linear Control 71 4.6 Distributed Bounded Control 72 4.7 Simulations 73 4.7.1 Case 1: Verification of Theorem 4.1 73 4.7.2 Case 2: Verification of Theorem 4.5 76 4.8 Summary 78 5 Robust and Adaptive Formation Control 81 5.1 Problem Statement 81 5.2 Continuous Control via State Feedback 83 5.2.1 Controller Development 83 5.2.2 Analysis of Tracker u0i84 5.2.3 Design of Disturbance Estimators 85 5.2.4 Closed-loop Performance Analysis 87 5.3 Bounded State Feedback Control 90 5.3.1 Design of Bounded State Feedback 90 5.3.2 Robustness Analysis 92 5.3.3 The Effect of UDE on Stability 94 5.3.4 The Effect of UDE on the Bounds of Control 94 5.4 Continuous Control via Output Feedback 95 5.4.1 Design of u0i and d^i 95 5.4.2 Stability Analysis 96 5.5 Discontinuous Control via Output Feedback 97 5.5.1 Controller Design 98 5.5.2 Stability Analysis 100 5.6 GSE-based Synchronization Control 102 5.6.1 Coupled Errors 103 5.6.2 Controller Design and Convergence Analysis 105 5.7 GSE-based Adaptive Formation Control 108 5.7.1 Problem Statement 108 5.7.2 Controller Development 109 5.8 Summary 111 Bibliography for Part II 113 Part III Formation Control: Case Studies 115 6 Formation Control of Space Systems 117 6.1 Lagrangian Formulation of Spacecraft Formation 117 6.1.1 Lagrangian Formulation 117 6.1.2 Attitude Dynamics of Rigid Spacecraft 118 6.1.3 Relative Translational Dynamics 120 6.2 Adaptive Formation Control 122 6.3 Applications and Simulation Results 123 6.3.1 Application 1: Leader–Follower Spacecraft Pair 123 6.3.1.1 Simulation Condition 123 6.3.1.2 Control Parameters 123 6.3.1.3 Simulation Results and Analysis 124 6.3.2 Application 2: Multiple Spacecraft in Formation 124 6.4 Summary 130 7 Formation Control of Aerial Systems 131 7.1 Vortex-induced Aerodynamics 131 7.1.1 Model of the Trailing Vortices of Leader Aircraft 134 7.1.2 Single Horseshoe Vortex Model 135 7.1.3 Continuous Vortex Sheet Model 137 7.2 Aircraft Autopilot Models 138 7.2.1 Models for the Follower Aircraft 139 7.2.2 Kinematics for Close-formation Flight 140 7.3 Controller Design 140 7.3.1 Linear Proportional-integral Controller 140 7.3.2 UDE-based Formation-flight Controller 142 7.3.2.1 Formation Flight Controller Design 143 7.3.2.2 Uncertainty and Disturbance Estimator 144 7.4 Simulation Results 147 7.4.1 Simulation Results for Controller 1 147 7.4.2 Simulation Results for Controller 2 148 7.5 Summary 154 8 Formation Control of Robotic Systems 157 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Visual Tracking 159 8.2.1 Imaging Hardware 159 8.2.2 Image Distortion 160 8.2.3 Color Thresholding 163 8.2.4 Noise Rejection 163 8.2.5 Data Extraction 165 8.3 Synchronization Control 167 8.3.1 Synchronization 167 8.3.2 Formation Parameters 168 8.3.3 Architecture 169 8.3.4 Control Law 169 8.3.5 Simulations 170 8.3.5.1 Constant Formation along Circular Trajectory 171 8.3.5.2 Time-varying Formation along Linear Trajectory 173 8.4 Passivity Control 176 8.4.1 Passivity 176 8.4.2 Formation Parameters 176 8.4.3 Control Law 177 8.4.4 Simulation 178 8.5 Experiments 181 8.5.1 Setup 181 8.5.2 Results 182 8.5.2.1 Constant Formation along Circular Trajectory 182 8.5.2.2 Time-varying Formation along Linear Trajectory 183 8.6 Summary 186 Bibliography for Part III 189 Part IV Formation Control: Laboratory 191 9 Experiments on 3DOF Desktop Helicopters 193 9.1 Description of the Experimental Setup 193 9.2 MathematicalModels 196 9.2.1 Nonlinear 3DOF Model 196 9.2.2 2DOF Model for Elevation and Pitch Control 199 9.3 Experiment 1: GSE-based Synchronized Tracking 201 9.3.1 Objective 201 9.3.2 Initial Conditions and Desired Trajectories 202 9.3.3 Control Strategies 203 9.3.4 Disturbance Condition 203 9.3.5 Experimental Results 204 9.3.6 Summary 208 9.4 Experiment 2: UDE-based Robust Synchronized Tracking 208 9.4.1 Objective 208 9.4.2 Initial Conditions and Desired Trajectories 208 9.4.3 Control Strategies 209 9.4.4 Experimental Results and Discussions 210 9.4.5 Summary 215 9.5 Experiment 3: Output-feedback-based Sliding-mode Control 216 9.5.1 Objective 216 9.5.2 Initial Conditions and Desired Trajectories 216 9.5.3 Control Strategies 217 9.5.4 Experimental Results and Discussions 217 9.5.5 Summary 222 Bibliography for Part IV 223 Part V Appendix 225 Bibliography for Appendix 237 Index 239

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Book SynopsisThis book has been designed as a result of the author's teaching experiences; students in the courses came from various disciplines and it was very difficult to prescribe a suitable textbook, not because there are no books on these topics, but because they are either too exhaustive or very elementary. This book, therefore, includes only relevant topics in the fundamentals of the physics of semiconductors and of electrochemistry needed for understanding the intricacy of the subject of photovoltaic solar cells and photoelectrochemical (PEC) solar cells. The book provides the basic concepts of semiconductors, p:n junctions, PEC solar cells, electrochemistry of semiconductors, and photochromism. Researchers, engineers and students engaged in researching/teaching PEC cells or knowledge of our sun, its energy, and its distribution to the earth will find essential topics such as the physics of semiconductors, the electrochemistry of semiconductors, p:n junctions, Schottky junctions,Table of ContentsForeword xv Preface xvii 1 Our Universe and the Sun 1 1.1 Formation of the Universe 1 1.2 Formation of Stars 2 1.2.1 Formation of Energy in the Sun 3 1.2.2 Description of the Sun 6 1.2.3 Transfer of Solar Rays through the Ozone Layer 6 1.2.4 Transfer of Solar Layers through Other Layers 7 1.2.5 Effect of Position of the Sun vis-à-vis the Earth 8 1.2.6 Distribution of Solar Energy 8 1.2.7 Solar Intensity Calculation 8 1.3 Summary 12 Reference 12 2 Solar Energy and Its Applications 13 2.1 Introduction to a Semiconductor 14 2.2 Formation of a Compound 14 2.2.1 A Classical Approach 14 2.2.2 Why Call It a Band and Not a Level? 15 2.2.3 Quantum Chemistry Approach 17 2.2.3.1 Wave Nature of an Electron in a Fixed Potential 17 2.2.3.2 Wave Nature of an Electron under a Periodically Changing Potential 19 2.2.3.3 Bloch’s Solution to the Wave Function of Electrons under Variable Potentials 20 2.2.3.3 Concept of a Forbidden Gap in a Material 22 2.2.4 Band Model to Explain Conductivity in Solids 25 2.2.4.1 Which of the Total Electrons Will Accept the External Energy for Their Excitation? 26 2.2.4.2 Density of States 28 2.2.4.3 How Do We Find the Numbers of Electrons in These Bands? 29 2.2.5 Useful Deductions 31 2.2.5.1 Extrinsic Semiconductor 33 2.2.5.2 Role of Dopants in the Semiconductor 36 2.3 Quantum Theory Approach to Explain the Effect of Doping 37 2.3.1 A Mathematical Approach to Understanding This Problem 39 2.3.2 Representation of Various Energy Levels in a Semiconductor 40 2.4 Types of Carriers in a Semiconductor 42 2.4.1 Majority and Minority Carriers 42 2.4.2 Direction of Movement of Carriers in a Semiconductor 42 2.5 Nature of Band Gaps in Semiconductors 44 2.6 Can the Band Gap of a Semiconductor Be Changed? 45 2.7 Summary 47 Further Reading 47 3 Theory of Junction Formation 49 3.1 Flow of Carriers across the Junction 49 3.1.1 Why Do Carriers Flow across an Interface When n- and p-Type Semiconductors Are Joined Together with No Air Gap? 49 3.1.2 Does the Vacuum Level Remain Unaltered, and What Is the Significance of Showing a Bend in the Diagram? 52 3.1.3 Why Do We Draw a Horizontal or Exponential Line to Represent the Energy Level in the Semiconductor with a Long Line? 52 3.1.4 What Are the Impacts of Migration of Carriers toward the Interface? 52 3.2 Representing Energy Levels Graphically 54 3.3 Depth of Charge Separation at the Interface of n- and p-Type Semiconductors 56 3.4 Nature of Potential at the Interface 56 3.4.1 Does Any Current Flow through the Interface? 56 3.4.2 Effect of Application of External Potential to the p:n Junction Formed by the Two Semiconductors 58 3.4.2.1 Flow of Carriers from n-Type to p-Type 59 3.4.2.2 Flow of Carriers from p-Type to n-Type 60 3.4.2.3 Flow of Current due to Holes 60 3.4.2.4 Flow of Current due to Electrons 61 3.4.3 What Would Happen If Negative Potential Were Applied to a p-Type Semiconductor? 62 3.4.3.1 Flow of Majority Carriers from p- to n-Type Semiconductors 63 3.4.3.2 Flow of Majority Carriers from n- to p-Type 63 3.4.3.3 Flow of Minority Carrier from p- to n-Type Semiconductors 64 3.4.3.3 Flow of Minority Carriers from n- to p-Type Semiconductors 64 3.5 Expression for Saturation (or Exchange) Current I0 67 3.5.1 Factors on Which Diffusion Length Depends 70 3.6 Contact Potential θ 71 3.7 Width of the Space Charge Region 75 3.8 Metal–Schottky Junction 81 3.8.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics for Metal–Schottky Junctions 84 3.8.2 Saturation Current for Metal–Schottky Junctions 87 3.9 Effect of Light on p:n Junctions 90 3.10 Factors to Be Considered in Illuminating the p:n Junction 94 3.10.1 Grids for Collecting the Charges 95 3.10.2 Ohmic Contact on the Back Side of the Junction 96 3.11 Types of p:n Junctions 97 3.12 A Photoelectrochemical Cell 97 3.13 Summary 100 Further Reading 100 4 Effect of Illumination of a PEC Cell 101 4.1 Effect of Light on the Depletion Layer of the Semiconductor—Electrolyte Junction 101 4.1.1 Origin of Photopotential 102 4.1.2 Origin of Photocurrent 104 4.2 The Fate of Photogenerated Carriers 105 4.3 Magnitude of the Photocurrent 106 4.4 Gartner Model for Photocurrent 108 4.4.1 Photocurrent due to Photogenerated Carriers in the Space Charge Region 109 4.4.2 Photocurrent due to Photogenerated Carriers in the Diffusion Region 109 4.4.3 Application of the Gartner Model 111 4.4.4 When α Is Constant 112 4.4.5 When w Is Kept Constant 115 4.4.6 Lifetime of Carriers and Their Mobility 118 4.5 Carrier Recombination 118 4.5.1 Significance of the Lifetime of Carriers 119 4.5.2 Effect of Recombination Center on the Magnitude of Photocurrent 120 4.5.3 Origin of Recombination Centers 121 4.6 A Mathematical Treatment for the Lifetime of Carriers 122 4.7 Effect of Illumination on Fermi Level-Quasi Fermi Level 124 4.8 Solar Cell Performance 130 4.9 Current—Voltage Characteristics of a Solar Cell 135 4.10 The Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell 138 4.11 Solar Cell Efficiency 139 4.11.1 Absorption Efficiency αλ 141 4.11.2 Generation Efficiency gλ 141 4.11.3 Collection Efficiency Cλ 141 4.11.4 Current Efficiency Qλ 142 4.11.5 Voltage Factor and Fill Factor 142 4.11.6 Analytical Methods for J-V Characteristics of a Solar Cell 144 4.11.7 Back Wall Cell 145 4.12 Ohmic Contact 147 4.13 Defects in Solids 148 4.13.1 Bulk Defects 150 4.13.2 Surface Structure 150 4.14 Summary 153 Further Reading 153 References 154 5 Electrochemistry of the Metal–Electrolyte Interface 157 5.1 What Is a Metal? 158 5.2 What Is the Structure of Electrolyte and Water Molecules in an Aqueous Solution? 158 5.3 What Happens When a Metal Is Immersed in Solution? 160 5.4 Existence of a Double Layer Near the Metal–Electrolyte Interface 160 5.5 Influence of Concentration of Electrolyte on Helmholtz and Diffusion Potentials 166 5.6 Impact of Charge Accumulation at Various Regions 166 5.7 Electron Transfer and Its Impact on Potential Barrier 171 5.8 Butler–Volmer Approach to Electrochemical Reaction 181 5.9 Significance of Symmetry Factor β 191 5.10 Electrochemical Corrosion at the Metal–Electrolyte Interface 194 5.11 Summary 199 Further Reading 199 References 199 6 Electrochemistry of the Semiconductor–Electrolyte Interface 201 6.1 Difference between Metal and Semiconductor 201 6.1.1 Hydration of Electrolytes 202 6.1.2 Effect of Hydrogen Bond 203 6.2 Gaussian Distribution of the Potential Energy of Electrolytes 203 6.3 Capacitance at the Semiconductor–Electrolyte Interface 212 6.4 Stability of the Semiconductor 216 6.5 Modifying the Surface of Low Band Gap Materials 223 6.6 Summary 225 References 225 7 Impedance Studies 227 7.1 Types of AC Circuits 228 7.2 Significance of Vector Analysis 230 7.3 Impedance Measurement Techniques 234 7.3.1 Audio Frequency Bridges 234 7.3.2 Transformer Ratio Arms Bridge 236 7.3.3 Berberian–Cole Bridge Technique 237 7.3.4 Potentiostatic Measurement 238 7.3.5 Oscilloscope Technique 239 7.4 AC Impedance Plots and Data Analysis 242 7.4.1 Nyquist Plot 242 7.4.2 Bode Plot 243 7.4.3 Randles Plot 244 7.5 Equivalent Circuit Representation of a Simple System 245 7.6 Equivalent Circuit Representation for Electro-chemical Systems 246 7.7 Procedure for Running an Experiment 248 7.8 Semiconductor Interface 250 7.9 Summary 253 Further Reading 254 References 254 8 Photoelectrochemical Solar Cell 257 8.1 Classification of Photoelectrochemical Cells Based on the Energetics of the Reactions 263 8.2 Solar Chargeable Battery 264 8.3 Electrolyte-(Ohmic)-Semiconductor-Electrolyte (Schottky) Junction 273 8.3.1 On the Illuminated Side of Fe2O3 275 8.3.2 On the Dark Side of the Semiconductor—Compartment II 276 8.4 Synthesis of Value-Added Products 280 8.5 Summary 283 References 283 9 Photoeletrochromism 285 9.1 Photochromic Glasses 287 9.2 Electrochromism 291 9.2.1 Types of Chromogenic Materials 292 9.2.2 Electrolytes 294 9.2.3 Electrode Materials 294 9.2.4 Reservoir 294 9.3 Electrochromic Devices and Their Applications 295 9.4 Imaging Employing a Semiconductor Photo-electrode 301 9.4.1 Image-Forming Step 302 9.4.2 Image-Vanishing Step 302 9.5 Summary 303 References 303 10 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 305 10.1 The Dye-Sensitized Cell 306 10.2 Flexible Polymer Solar Cell 308 10.3 Summary 310 References 310 Index 313

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Book SynopsisAn updated and expanded edition of the popular guide to basic continuum mechanics and computational techniques This updated third edition of the popular reference covers state-of-the-art computational techniques for basic continuum mechanics modeling of both small and large deformations. Approaches to developing complex models are described in detail, and numerous examples are presented demonstrating how computational algorithms can be developed using basic continuum mechanics approaches. The integration of geometry and analysis for the study of the motion and behaviors of materials under varying conditions is an increasingly popular approach in continuum mechanics, and absolute nodal coordinate formulation (ANCF) is rapidly emerging as the best way to achieve that integration. At the same time, simulation software is undergoing significant changes which will lead to the seamless fusion of CAD, finite element, and multibody system computer codes in one computatTable of ContentsPREFACE ix 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Matrices / 2 1.2 Vectors / 6 1.3 Summation Convention / 11 1.4 Cartesian Tensors / 12 1.5 Polar Decomposition Theorem / 21 1.6 D’Alembert’s Principle / 23 1.7 Virtual Work Principle / 29 1.8 Approximation Methods / 32 1.9 Discrete Equations / 34 1.10 Momentum, Work, and Energy / 37 1.11 Parameter Change and Coordinate Transformation / 39 Problems / 43 2 KINEMATICS 47 2.1 Motion Description / 48 2.2 Strain Components / 55 2.3 Other Deformation Measures / 60 2.4 Decomposition of Displacement / 62 2.5 Velocity and Acceleration / 64 2.6 Coordinate Transformation / 68 2.7 Objectivity / 74 2.8 Change of Volume and Area / 77 2.9 Continuity Equation / 81 2.10 Reynolds’ Transport Theorem / 82 2.11 Examples of Deformation / 84 2.12 Important Geometry Concepts / 92 Problems / 94 3 FORCES AND STRESSES 97 3.1 Equilibrium of Forces / 97 3.2 Transformation of Stresses / 100 3.3 Equations of Equilibrium / 100 3.4 Symmetry of the cauchy Stress Tensor / 102 3.5 Virtual Work of the Forces / 103 3.6 Deviatoric Stresses / 113 3.7 Stress Objectivity / 115 3.8 Energy Balance / 119 Problems / 120 4 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 123 4.1 Generalized Hooke’s Law / 124 4.2 Anisotropic Linearly Elastic Materials / 126 4.3 Material Symmetry / 127 4.4 Homogeneous Isotropic Material / 129 4.5 Principal Strain Invariants / 136 4.6 Special Material Models for Large Deformations / 137 4.7 Linear Viscoelasticity / 141 4.8 Nonlinear Viscoelasticity / 155 4.9 A Simple Viscoelastic Model for Isotropic Materials / 161 4.10 Fluid Constitutive Equations / 162 4.11 Navier–Stokes Equations / 164 Problems / 164 5 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION: LARGE-DEFORMATION, LARGE-ROTATION PROBLEM 167 5.1 Displacement Field / 169 5.2 Element Connectivity / 176 5.3 Inertia and Elastic Forces / 178 5.4 Equations of Motion / 180 5.5 Numerical Evaluation of The Elastic Forces / 188 5.6 Finite Elements and Geometry / 193 5.7 Two-Dimensional Euler–Bernoulli Beam Element / 199 5.8 Two-Dimensional Shear Deformable Beam Element / 203 5.9 Three-Dimensional Cable Element / 205 5.10 Three-Dimensional Beam Element / 206 5.11 Thin-Plate Element / 208 5.12 Higher-Order Plate Element / 210 5.13 Brick Element / 211 5.14 Element Performance / 212 5.15 Other Finite Element Formulations / 216 5.16 Updated Lagrangian and Eulerian Formulations / 218 5.17 Concluding Remarks / 221 Problems / 223 6 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION: SMALL-DEFORMATION, LARGE-ROTATION PROBLEM 225 6.1 Background / 226 6.2 Rotation and Angular Velocity / 229 6.3 Floating Frame of Reference (FFR) / 234 6.4 Intermediate Element Coordinate System / 236 6.5 Connectivity and Reference Conditions / 238 6.6 Kinematic Equations / 243 6.7 Formulation of The Inertia Forces / 245 6.8 Elastic Forces / 248 6.9 Equations of Motion / 250 6.10 Coordinate Reduction / 251 6.11 Integration of Finite Element and Multibody System Algorithms / 253 Problems / 258 7 COMPUTATIONAL GEOMETRY AND FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS 261 7.1 Geometry and Finite Element Method / 262 7.2 ANCF Geometry / 264 7.3 Bezier Geometry / 266 7.4 B-Spline Curve Representation / 267 7.5 Conversion of B-Spline Geometry to ANCF Geometry / 271 7.6 ANCF and B-Spline Surfaces / 273 7.7 Structural and Nonstructural Discontinuities / 275 8 PLASTICITY FORMULATIONS 279 8.1 One-Dimensional Problem / 281 8.2 Loading and Unloading Conditions / 282 8.3 Solution of the Plasticity Equations / 283 8.4 Generalization of The Plasticity Theory: Small Strains / 291 8.5 J2 Flow Theory with Isotropic/Kinematic Hardening / 298 8.6 Nonlinear Formulation for Hyperelastic–Plastic Materials / 312 8.7 Hyperelastic–Plastic J2 FLOW THEORY / 322 Problems / 326 REFERENCES 329 INDEX 339

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Book SynopsisWhen installed and operated properly, general purpose steam turbines are reliable and tend to be forgotten, i.e., out of sound and out of mind. But, they can be sleeping giants that can result in major headaches if ignored. Three real steam turbine undesirable consequences that immediately come to mind are: Injury and secondary damage due to an overspeed failure. Anoverspeed failureon a big steam or gas turbine is one of the most frightening of industrial accidents. The high cost of an extensive overhaul due to an undetected component failure. A major steam turbine repair can cost ten or more times that of a garden variety centrifugal pump repair. Costly production loses due an extended outage if the driven pump or compressor train is unspared. The value of lost production can quickly exceed repair costs. A major goal of this book is to provide readers with detailed operating procedure aimed at reducing these risks to minimal levels. StarTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xix 1 Introduction to Steam Turbines 1 1.1 Why Do We Use Steam Turbines? 1 1.2 How Steam Turbines Work 2 1.2.1 Steam Generation 5 1.2.2 Waste Heat Utilization 5 1.2.3 The Rankine Cycle 7 1.3 Properties of Steam 8 1.3.1 Turbine Design Confi gurations 11 1.4 Steam and Water Requirements 13 1.4.1 Steam Conditions for Steam Turbines 13 1.4.2 Water Conditions for Steam Turbines 13 1.4.3 Advantages of Steam Turbine Drives 14 1.4.4 Speed Control 16 1.4.5 Turbine Overspeed Protection 17 Questions 18 Answers 19 2 General Purpose Back Pressure Steam Turbine 21 2.1 Single-Stage Back Pressure Steam Turbine 22 2.1.1 Steam Flow Path 23 2.2 Mechanical Components in General Purpose Back Pressure Steam Turbines 31 2.2.1 Radial and Th rust Bearings 31 2.2.2 Bearing Lubrication 33 2.2.3 Force Lubrication Systems 37 2.2.4 Lubrication 38 2.2.5 Bering Housing Seals 40 2.2.6 Lip Seals 41 2.2.7 Labyrinth Seals 42 2.2.8 Steam Packing Rings and Seals 44 Questions 48 Answers 49 3 Routine Steam Turbine Inspections 51 Questions 56 Answers 56 4 Steam Turbine Speed Controls and Safety Systems 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Speed Controls 60 4.3 Governor Classes 68 4.4 Overspeed Trip System 77 4.5 Overpressure Protection 81 4.6 Additional Advice 83 Questions 83 Answers 84 5 The Importance of Operating Procedures 85 5.1 Steam Turbine Start-up Risks 87 5.2 Starting Centrifugal Pumps and Compressors 91 5.3 Steam Turbine Train Procedures 93 5.4 Training Options 95 Questions 97 Answers 98 6 Overspeed Trip Testing 101 6.1 Overspeed Trip Pre-test Checks 104 6.2 Uncoupled Overspeed Trip Test Procedure 106 6.3 Acceptance Criteria for Overspeed Trip Test 110 Questions 113 Answers 114 7 Centrifugal Pump and Centrifugal Compressor Start-ups with a Steam Turbine Driver 115 7.1 Centrifugal Pump and Steam Turbine Start-up 117 7.2 Centrifugal Compressor and Steam Turbine Start-up 125 Questions 134 Answers 134 8 Centrifugal Pump and Centrifugal Compressor Shutdowns with a Steam Turbine Driver 137 8.1 Centrifugal Pump Steam Turbine Shutdown 139 8.2 Centrifugal Compressor Steam Turbine Shutdown 141 Questions 144 Answers 145 9 Installation, Commissioning and First Solo Run 147 9.1 Introduction 147 9.2 Equipment Installation 148 9.2.1 Foundations 148 9.2.2 Grouting 150 9.2.3 Piping 157 9.3 Commissioning 160 9.3.1 Steam Blowing 162 9.3.2 Strainers 165 9.3.3 Lubrication 167 9.3.4 Oil Sump Lubrication 167 9.3.5 Flushing Pressure Lubricated System 169 9.3.6 Hydraulic Governors 172 9.4 Turbine First Solo Run on Site 174 9.4.1 First Solo Run Pre-checks 175 9.4.2 Steam Turbine First Solo Run Procedure 179 Questions 186 Answers 187 10 Reinstating Steam Turbine after Maintenance 189 10.1 Turbine Reinstatment after Maintenance 189 10.2 Reinstatement after Maintenance Check List 190 10.3 Steam Turbine Reinstatement after Maintenance Procedure 194 Questions 201 Answers 202 11 Steam Turbine Reliability 205 11.1 Repairs versus Overhauls 205 11.2 Expected Lifetimes of Steam Turbines and Their Components 206 11.3 Common Failure Modes 207 11.4 Improvement Reliability by Design 211 Questions 214 Answers 215 12 Introduction to Field Troubleshooting 217 12.1 Common Symptoms 219 12.2 Common Potential Causes 219 12.3 Troubleshooting Example #1 222 12.4 Troubleshooting Example #2 223 12.5 Steam Turbine Troubleshooting Table 225 12.6 Other Troubleshooting Approaches 229 Questions 231 Answers 232 13 Steam Turbine Monitoring Advice 235 13.1 What Is the Steam Turbine Speed Telling You? 236 13.1.1 Is the Steam Turbine Running at the Correct Speed? 236 13.1.2 Is the Speed Steady? 237 13.1.3 Is a Speed Swing Acceptable? 237 13.2 Assessing Steam Turbine Vibrations 238 13.2.1 What is Normal? 238 13.2.2 What are Some Causes of Vibration in Steam Turbines? 239 13.3 Steam Turbine Temperature Assessments 243 13.3.1 Bearing Temperatures 243 13.3.2 Oil Temperatures 243 13.4 Common Governor Control Problems 244 13.4.1 Steam Turbine Loss of Power 245 13.4.2 Steam Turbine Sealing 245 13.4.3 Oil Analysis as it Applies to Steam Turbines 247 13.4.4 Formation of Sludge and Varnish 248 13.4.5 Steam Piping and Supports 249 13.4.6 Steam Turbine Supports 250 13.4.7 Overspeed Trip Systems 251 13.5 Other Inspections 252 13.6 Good Rules of Th umb for Steam Turbines 253 Questions 255 Answers 256 14 Beyond Start-ups, Shutdowns, and Inspections 257 Appendix A: An Introduction to Steam Turbine Selection 261 Appendix B: Glossary of Steam Turbine Terms 289 Appendix C: Predictive and Preventative Maintenance Activities 299 Appendix D: Properties of Saturated Steam 301 Index 305

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Book SynopsisApplications of mathematical heat transfer and fluid flow models in engineering and medicine Abram S.Table of ContentsSeries Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xxvii About the Author xxix Nomenclature xxxi Part I APPLICATIONS IN CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER Introduction 1 When and why Conjugate Procedure is Essential 1 A Core of Conjugation 3 1 Universal Functions for Nonisothermal and Conjugate Heat Transfer 5 1.1 Formulation of Conjugate Heat Transfer Problem 5 1.2 Methods of Conjugation 9 1.2.1 Numerical Methods 9 1.2.2 Using Universal Functions 10 1.3 Integral Universal Function (Duhamel’s Integral) 10 1.3.1 Duhamel’s Integral Derivation 10 1.3.2 Influence Function 12 1.4 Differential Universal Function (Series of Derivatives) 13 1.5 General Forms of Universal Function 15 Exercises 1.1–1.32 16 1.6 Coefficients gk and Exponents C1 and C2 for Laminar Flow 19 1.6.1 Features of Coefficients gk of the Differential Universal Function 19 1.6.2 Estimation of Exponents C1 and C2 for Integral Universal Function 22 1.7 Universal Functions for Turbulent Flow 24 Exercises 1.33–1.47 27 1.8 Universal Functions for Compressible Low 28 1.9 Universal Functions for Power-Law Non-Newtonian Fluids 29 1.10 Universal Functions for Moving Continuous Sheet 32 1.11 Universal Functions for a Plate with Arbitrary Unsteady Temperature Distribution 34 1.12 Universal Functions for an Axisymmetric Body 35 1.13 Inverse Universal Function 36 1.13.1 Differential Inverse Universal Function 36 1.13.2 Integral Inverse Universal Function 37 1.14 Universal Function for Recovery Factor 38 Exercises 1.48–1.75 41 2 Application of Universal Functions 45 2.1 The Rate of Conjugate Heat Transfer Intensity 45 2.1.1 Effect of Temperature Head Distribution 45 2.1.2 Effect of Turbulence 50 2.1.3 Effect of Time-Variable Temperature Head 58 2.1.4 Effects of Conditions and Parameters in the Inverse Problems 60 2.1.5 Effect of Non-Newtonian Power-Law Rheology Fluid Behavior 66 2.1.6 Effect of Mechanical Energy Dissipation 67 2.1.7 Effect of Biot Number as a Measure of Problem Conjugation 68 Exercises 2.1–2.33 70 2.2 The General Convective Boundary Conditions 73 2.2.1 Accuracy of Boundary Condition of the Third Kind 73 2.2.2 Conjugate Problem as an Equivalent Conduction Problem 76 2.3 The Gradient Analogy 78 2.4 Heat Flux Inversion 82 2.5 Zero Heat Transfer Surfaces 84 2.6 Optimization in Heat Transfer Problems 86 2.6.1 Problem Formulation 87 2.6.2 Problem Formulation 89 2.6.3 Problem Formulation 92 Exercises 2.34–2.82 95 3 Application of Conjugate Heat Transfer Models in External and Internal Flows 102 3.1 External Flows 102 3.1.1 Conjugate Heat Transfer in Flows Past Thin Plates 102 Exercises 3.1–3.38 123 3.1.2 Conjugate Heat Transfer in Flows Past Bodies 126 3.2 Internal Flows-Conjugate Heat Transfer in Pipes and Channels Flows 141 4 Specific Applications of Conjugate Heat Transfer Models 155 4.1 Heat Exchangers and Finned Surfaces 155 4.1.1 Heat Exchange Between Two Fluids Separated by a Wall (Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient) 155 4.1.2 Applicability of One-Dimensional Models and Two-Dimensional Effects 166 4.1.3 Heat Exchanger Models 170 4.1.4 Finned Surfaces 175 4.2 Thermal Treatment and Cooling Systems 180 4.2.1 Treatment of Continuous Materials 180 4.2.2 Cooling Systems 185 4.3 Simulation of Industrial Processes 196 4.4 Technology Processes 202 4.4.1 Heat and Mass Transfer in Multiphase Processes 202 4.4.2 Drying and Food Processing 208 Summary of Part I 219 Effect of Conjugation 219 Part II APPLICATIONS IN FLUID FLOW 5 Two Advanced Methods 225 5.1 Conjugate Models of Peristaltic Flow 225 5.1.1 Model Formulation 225 5.1.2 The First Investigations 228 5.1.3 Semi-Conjugate Solutions 230 Exercises 5.1–5.19 236 5.1.4 Conjugate Solutions 237 Exercises 5.20–5.31 243 5.2 Methods of Turbulence Simulation 244 5.2.1 Introduction 244 5.2.2 Direct Numerical Simulation 244 5.2.3 Large Eddy Simulation 245 5.2.4 Detached Eddy Simulation 247 5.2.5 Chaos Theory 249 Exercises 5.32–5.44 249 6 Applications of Fluid Flow Modern Models 251 6.1 Applications of Fluid Flow Models in Biology and Medicine 251 6.1.1 Blood Flow in Normal and Pathologic Vessels 251 6.1.2 Abnormal Flows in Disordered Human Organs 261 6.1.3 Simulation of Biological Transport Processes 267 6.2 Application of Fluid Flow Models in Engineering 273 6.2.1 Application of Peristaltic Flow Models 273 6.2.2 Applications of Direct Simulation of Turbulence 278 Part III FOUNDATIONS OF FLUID FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER 7 Laminar Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 295 7.1 Navier-Stokes, Energy, and Mass Transfer Equations 295 7.1.1 Two Types of Transport Mechanism: Analogy Between Transfer Processes 295 7.1.2 Different Forms of Navier-Stokes, Energy, and Diffusion Equations 297 7.2 Initial and Boundary Counditions 302 7.3 Exact Solutions of Navier-Stokes and Energy Equations 303 7.3.1 Two Stokes Problems 303 7.3.2 Steady Flow in Channels and in a Circular Tube 304 7.3.3 Stagnation Point Flow (Hiemenz Flow) 304 7.3.4 Couette Flow in a Channel with Heated Walls 306 7.3.5 Adiabatic Wall Temperature 306 7.3.6 Temperature Distributions in Channels and in a Tube 306 7.4 Cases of Small and Large Reynolds and Peclet Numbers 307 7.4.1 Creeping Approximation (Small Reynolds and Peclet Numbers) 307 7.4.2 Stokes Flow Past Sphere 308 7.4.3 Oseen’s Approximation 308 7.4.4 Boundary Layer Approximation (Large Reynolds and Peclet Numbers) 309 7.5 Exact Solutions of Boundary Layer Equations 315 7.5.1 Flow and Heat Transfer on Isothermal Semi-infinite Flat Plate 315 7.5.2 Self-Similar Flows of Dynamic and Thermal Boundary Layers 319 7.6 Approximate Karman-Pohlhausen Integral Method 320 7.6.1 Approximate Friction and Heat Transfer on a Flat Plate 320 7.6.2 Flows with Pressure Gradients 322 7.7 Limiting Cases of Prandtl Number 323 7.8 Natural Convection 324 8 Turbulent Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 327 8.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 327 8.2 Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equation (RANS) 328 8.2.1 Some Physical Aspects 328 8.2.2 Reynolds Averaging 329 8.2.3 Reynolds Equations and Reynolds Stresses 330 8.3 Algebraic Models 331 8.3.1 Prandtl’s Mixing-Length Hypothesis 331 8.3.2 Modern Structure of Velocity Profile in Turbulent Boundary Layer 332 8.3.3 Mellor-Gibson Model 334 8.3.4 Cebeci-Smith Model 335 8.3.5 Baldwin-Lomax Model 336 8.3.6 Application of the Algebraic Models 337 8.3.7 The 1/2 Equation Model 338 8.3.8 Applicability of the Algebraic Models 339 8.4 One-Equation and Two-Equations Models 339 8.4.1 Turbulence Kinetic Energy Equation 340 8.4.2 One-Equation Models 340 8.4.3 Two-Equation Models 341 8.4.4 Applicability of the One-Equation and Two-Equation Models 343 9 Analytical and Numerical Methods in Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 344 Analytical Methods 344 9.1 Solutions Using Error Functions 344 9.2 Method of Separation Variables 345 9.2.1 General Approach, Homogeneous, and Inhomogeneous Problems 346 9.2.2 One-Dimensional Unsteady Problems 347 9.2.3 Orthogonal Eigenfunctions 348 9.2.4 Two-Dimensional Steady Problems 351 9.3 Integral Transforms 353 9.3.1 Fourier Transform 353 9.3.2 Laplace Transform 356 9.4 Green’s Function Method 358 Numerical Methods 361 9.5 What Method is Proper? 361 9.6 Approximate Methods for Solving Differential Equations 363 9.7 Computing Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics 368 9.7.1 Control-Volume Finite-Difference Method 368 9.7.2 Control-Volume Finite-Element Method 371 10 Conclusion 373 References 376 Author Index 397 Subject Index 409

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Book SynopsisAn authentic resource for thefundamentals, applied techniques, applicationsand recent advancements of all the main areas of technical textiles Created to be a comprehensive reference,High Performance Technical Textilesincludes the review of a wide range of technical textiles from household to space textiles. The contributorsnoted experts in the field from all the continentsoffer in-depth coverage on the fibre materials, manufacturing processes and techniques, applications, current developments, sustainability and future trends. The contributors include discussions on synthetic versus natural fibres, various textile manufacturing techniques, textile composites and finishing approaches that are involved in the manufacturing of textiles for a specific high performance application. Whilst the book provides the basic knowledge required for an understanding of technical textiles, it can serve as a springboard for inspiring new inventions in hi-tech fibres and textiles. This important bookTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi 1 High Performance Technical Textiles: An Overview 1 Roshan Paul 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Application Areas of Technical Textiles 1 1.3 Technical Textiles by Functional Finishing 2 1.4 High Performance Technical Textiles 3 1.5 Conclusion 9 2 Household and Packaging Textiles 11 Pelagia Glampedaki 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Textile Materials, Properties, and Manufacturing 11 2.3 High Performance Applications 20 2.4 Testing Methods and Quality Control 23 2.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 26 2.6 Conclusion 32 References 32 3 Sports Textiles and Comfort Aspects 37 Ali Harlin, Kirsi Jussila, and Elina Ilen 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Textile Fibres 37 3.3 Developments in Yarns 42 3.4 Developments in Fabric Structures 43 3.5 Special Finishes 45 3.6 High Performance Applications 46 3.7 Active Textiles 57 3.8 Smart Textiles and Garments 58 3.9 Testing Methods and Quality Control 61 3.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 62 3.11 Conclusion 62 References 62 4 Medical and Healthcare Textiles 69 Nuno Belino, Raul Fangueiro, Sohel Rana, Pelagia Glampedaki, and Georgios Priniotakis 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Textile Materials, Structures, and Processes 70 4.3 High Performance Applications of Medical Textiles 72 4.4 Nanotechnology in Medicine and Healthcare 76 4.5 Thermo‐Physiological Comfort of Medical Textiles 81 4.6 Biocompatibility – Bioresorbability – Biostability 83 4.7 Intelligent Medical and Healthcare Textiles 85 4.8 Antimicrobial Textiles 93 4.9 Testing Methods and Quality Control 95 4.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 98 4.11 Conclusion 100 References 100 5 Textile Materials for Protective Textiles 107 Ningtao Mao 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 Performance Requirements of Protective Textiles 109 5.3 High Performance Fibres 110 5.4 High Performance Textile Materials 115 5.5 Thermal Burden and Thermo‐Physiological Comfort 131 5.6 Testing Methods and Standards 138 5.7 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 148 5.8 Conclusion 148 References 149 6 Personal Protective Textiles and Clothing 159 Sumit Mandal, Simon Annaheim, Martin Camenzind, and René M. Rossi 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 General Aspects of Textile Based PPC 160 6.3 Fibres for PPC 162 6.4 Yarns for PPC 167 6.5 Fabrics for PPC 173 6.6 PPC Fabrication 183 6.7 Key Issues Related to PPC 187 6.8 Conclusion 189 References 189 7 Textiles for Military and Law Enforcement Personnel 197 Christopher Malbon and Debra Carr 7.1 Introduction 197 7.2 Ballistic and Sharp Weapon Protection 197 7.3 Protection from Heat and Flames 203 7.4 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) Protective Clothing 206 7.5 Functional Finishing 210 7.6 Conclusion 210 References 211 8 Industrial and Filtration Textiles 215 Tawfik A. Khattab and Hany Helmy 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Synthetic and Nanotechnical Fibres 216 8.3 Natural Fibres for Technical Applications 219 8.4 Manufacture of Technical Textiles 221 8.5 Functional Finishing 225 8.6 Textile Reinforced Composite Materials 227 8.7 High Performance Applications 228 8.8 Testing Methods and Quality Control 229 8.9 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 232 8.10 Conclusion 233 References 234 9 Geotextiles and Environmental Protection Textiles 239 Jiří Militký, Rajesh Mishra, and Mohanapriya Venkataraman 9.1 Introduction 239 9.2 Structure and Performance 240 9.3 Fibres for Geotextiles 243 9.4 Geotextiles and Soil 254 9.5 Manufacturing Techniques 260 9.6 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 272 9.7 Conclusion 274 References 275 10 Agrotextiles and Crop Protection Textiles 279 Adriana Restrepo‐Osorio, Catalina Alvarez‐López, Natalia Jaramillo‐Quiceno, and Patricia Fernandez‐Morales 10.1 Introduction 279 10.2 Fibres for Agrotextiles 280 10.3 Textile Structures for Agrotextiles 284 10.4 High Performance Applications 285 10.5 Testing Standards Applicable to Agrotextiles 295 10.6 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 311 10.7 Conclusion 312 References 313 11 Building and Construction Textiles 319 Jordan Tabor and Tushar Ghosh 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 Architectural Textiles 320 11.3 House Wraps 327 11.4 Insulation 334 11.5 Textile Reinforced Concrete 341 11.6 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 347 11.7 Conclusion 349 References 349 12 Automotive Textiles and Composites 353 Bijoy K. Behera 12.1 Introduction 353 12.2 Mobiltech 354 12.3 Application Areas of Automotive Textiles 355 12.4 Textile Composites for Automobiles 369 12.5 3D Fabrics for Automotive Applications 372 12.6 Comfort Properties of Automotive Interior 376 12.7 Conclusion 379 References 380 13 Marine Textiles and Composites 385 Chi‐wai Kan and Change Zhou 13.1 Introduction 385 13.2 Textiles for Marine Applications 385 13.3 Properties of Textiles for Marine Applications 394 13.4 Marine Textiles and Quality Standards 397 13.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 403 13.6 Conclusion 403 Acknowledgement 403 References 403 14 Aeronautical and Space Textiles 407 Sadaf A. Abbasi, Lijing Wang, Mazhar H. Peerzada, and Raj Ladani 14.1 Introduction 407 14.2 Synthetic and Nanotechnical Fibres 408 14.3 Natural and Bast Fibres for Technical Applications 413 14.4 Manufacture of Technical Textiles 415 14.5 Textile Reinforced Composite Materials 420 14.6 Textile Composite Material Finishing 425 14.7 High Performance Applications 426 14.8 Testing Methods and Quality Control 428 14.9 Self‐Healing of Composite Materials 431 14.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 432 14.11 Conclusion 432 References 433 15 Wearable and Smart Responsive Textiles 439 Lihua Lou, Weijie Yu, and Seshadri Ramkumar 15.1 Introduction 439 15.2 Characterization of Smart Textiles 440 15.3 Smart Textiles Grouped by Function 440 15.4 Application of Smart Textiles 453 15.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 462 15.6 Conclusion 464 Acknowledgements 464 References 464 Index 475

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive reference on biochemistry, bioimaging, bioanalysis, and therapeutic applications of carbon nanomaterials Carbon nanomaterials have been widely applied for biomedical applications in the past few decades, because of their unique physical properties, versatile functionalization chemistry, and biological compatibility. This book provides background knowledge at the entry level into the biomedical applications of carbon nanomaterials, focusing on three applications: bioimaging, bioanalysis, and therapy. Carbon Nanomaterials for Bioimaging, Bioanalysis and Therapy begins with a general introduction to carbon nanomaterials for biomedical applications, including a discussion about the pros and cons of various carbon nanomaterials for the respective therapeutic applications. It then goes on to cover fluorescence imaging; deep tissue imaging; photoacoustic imaging; pre-clinical/clinical bioimaging applications; carbon nanomaterial sensors for canceTable of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Series Preface xix Preface xxi Part I Basics of Carbon Nanomaterials 1 1 Introduction to Carbon Structures 3 Meng-Chih Su and Yuen Yung Hui 1.1 Carbon Age 3 1.2 Classification 4 1.3 Fullerene 4 1.4 Carbon Nanotubes 6 1.4.1 Structure 6 1.4.2 Electronics 8 1.5 Graphene 10 1.5.1 Structure 10 1.5.2 Electronics 11 1.6 Nanodiamonds and Carbon Dots 12 Acknowledgment 13 References 13 2 Using Polymers to Enhance the Carbon Nanomaterial Biointerface 15 Goutam Pramanik, Jitka Neburkova, Vaclav Vanek, Mona Jani, Marek Kindermann, and Petr Cigler 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Colloidal Stability of CNMs 16 2.3 Functionalization of CNMs with Polymers 18 2.3.1 Noncovalent Approaches 18 2.3.2 Covalent Approaches 18 2.4 Influence of Polymers on the Spectral Properties of CNMs 19 2.5 Functionalizing CNMs with Antifouling Polymers for Bioapplications 22 2.6 Functionalization of CNMs with Stimuli‐Responsive Polymers 26 2.6.1 Carbon Nanoparticles with Thermoresponsive Polymers 27 2.6.2 pH‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 27 2.6.3 Redox‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 28 2.6.4 Multi‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 28 2.7 Functionalization of CNMs with Polymers for Delivery of Nucleic Acids 29 2.8 Outlook 32 Acknowledgments 34 References 34 3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Optical Bioimaging and Phototherapy 43 Haifeng Dong and Yu Cao 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Surface Functionalization of Carbon Nanomaterials 43 3.3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Optical Imaging 45 3.3.1 Intrinsic Fluorescence of Carbon Nanomaterials 45 3.3.2 Imaging Utilizing Intrinsic Fluorescence Features of Carbon Nanomaterials 46 3.3.3 Imaging with Fluorescently Labeled Carbon Nanomaterials 51 3.4 Carbon Nanomaterials for Phototherapies of Cancer 51 3.4.1 Photothermal Therapy 52 3.4.2 Photodynamic Therapy 53 3.5 Conclusions and Outlook 56 References 56 Part II Bioimaging and Bioanalysis 63 4 High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Fluorescence Imaging with Carbon Nanomaterials for Preclinical and Clinical Applications 65 John Czerski and Susanta K. Sarkar 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Survey of Carbon Nanomaterials 66 4.2.1 Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 66 4.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 66 4.2.3 Graphene 69 4.2.4 Carbon Nanodots 69 4.3 Fluorescent Properties of FNDs and SWCNTs 69 4.3.1 FNDs 69 4.3.2 SWCNTs 71 4.4 Survey of High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Imaging 71 4.4.1 General Considerations for Eventual Human Use 71 4.4.2 General Considerations for Achieving High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Imaging 72 4.4.2.1 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI) 72 4.4.2.2 X‐ray Computed Tomographic (CT) Imaging 73 4.4.2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 73 4.4.2.4 Image Alignment and Drift Correction 74 4.4.3 Preclinical and Clinical Optical Imaging with CNMs 74 4.4.4 Optical Imaging in the Short‐Wavelength Window (~650–950 nm) 74 4.4.4.1 Optical Imaging beyond the Diffraction Limit 75 4.4.4.2 Selective Modulation of Emission 75 4.4.4.3 Time‐Gated Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging 77 4.4.5 Optical Imaging in the Long‐Wavelength Window (~950–1400 nm) 77 4.5 Conclusions 78 References 79 5 Carbon Nanomaterials for Deep‐Tissue Imaging in the NIR Spectral Window 87 Stefania Lettieri and Silvia Giordani 5.1 Introduction 87 5.1.1 Transparent Optical Windows in Biological Tissue 87 5.1.2 Near‐Infrared Imaging Materials 88 5.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for NIR Imaging 89 5.2.1 Biocompatibility of CNMs 90 5.2.2 Fluorescence of CNMs Probes 91 5.2.3 Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization 91 5.2.4 CNMs as Bioimaging Platforms 91 5.2.4.1 Fullerene 91 5.2.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes 93 5.2.4.3 Graphene Derivatives 99 5.2.4.4 Carbon Dots 100 5.2.4.5 Carbon Nano-onions 102 5.2.4.6 Nanodiamonds 104 5.3 Conclusions and Outlook 105 Acknowledgments 106 References 106 6 Tracking Photoluminescent Carbon Nanomaterials in Biological Systems 115 Simon Haziza, Laurent Cognet, and François Treussart Chapter Summary 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Tracking Cells in Organisms with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 116 6.3 Monitoring Inter and Intra Cellular Dynamics with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 120 6.4 Single‐Walled Carbon Nanotubes: A Near‐Infrared Optical Probe of the Nanoscale Extracellular Space in Live Brain Tissue 127 6.5 Conclusion 131 References 132 7 Photoacoustic Imaging with Carbon Nanomaterials 139 Seunghyun Lee, Donghyun Lee, and Chulhong Kim Chapter Summary 139 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Photoacoustic Imaging Systems 140 7.2.1 Photoacoustic Microscopy 141 7.2.2 Photoacoustic Computed Tomography 142 7.3 Photoacoustic Application of Carbon Nanomaterials 145 7.3.1 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photoacoustic Imaging Contrast Agents 146 7.3.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for Multimodal Photoacoustic Imaging 149 7.3.3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photoacoustic Image‐Guided Therapy 156 7.3.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 160 Acknowledgments 161 References 162 8 Carbon Nanomaterial Sensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 167 Tran T. Tung, Kumud M. Tripathi, TaeYoung Kim, Melinda Krebsz, Tibor Pasinszki, and Dusan Losic 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Detection of VOC by Using Gas/Vapor Sensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 169 8.2.1 Carbon Nanodots (CNDs) and Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) for VOC Sensors 171 8.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) for VOC Sensors 173 8.2.3 Graphene for VOC Sensors 176 8.3 Detection of Biomarkers Using Biosensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 179 8.3.1 Carbon Nanodot‐ and Graphene Quantum Dot‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarkers Detection 179 8.3.2 Carbon Nanotube‐Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Detection 182 8.3.3 Carbon Nanotube‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection 186 8.3.4 Graphene‐Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Detection 188 8.3.5 Graphene‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection 190 8.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 192 Acknowledgments 193 References 193 9 Recent Advances in Carbon Dots for Bioanalysis and the Future Perspectives 203 Jessica Fung Yee Fong, Yann Huey Ng, and Sing Muk Ng 9.1 Introduction 203 9.2 Fundamentals of CDs 205 9.2.1 Synthesis Approaches 205 9.2.2 Optical Properties 206 9.2.2.1 Absorbance and Photoluminescence (PL) 206 9.2.2.2 Quantum Yield (QY) 210 9.2.2.3 Photoluminescence Origins 210 9.2.2.4 Up‐Conversion Photoluminescence (UCPL) 211 9.2.2.5 Phosphorescence 212 9.2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 213 9.2.4 Biosafety Assessments 214 9.3 Bioengineering of CDs for Bioanalysis 216 9.3.1 Functionalization Mechanism and Strategies 216 9.3.1.1 Chemical Functionalization 216 9.3.1.2 Doping 217 9.3.1.3 Coupling with Gold Nanoparticles 217 9.3.1.4 Fabrication onto Solid Polymeric Matrices 218 9.3.2 Biomolecules Grafted on CDs as Sensing Receptors 218 9.3.2.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 218 9.3.2.2 Aptamers 219 9.3.2.3 Proteins/Peptides 219 9.3.2.4 Biopolymers 220 9.4 Bioanalysis Applications of CDs 221 9.4.1 Biosensing Mechanism/Transduction Schemes 221 9.4.1.1 Fluorescence 222 9.4.1.2 Chemiluminescence (CL) 223 9.4.1.3 Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) 224 9.4.1.4 Electrochemical 224 9.4.2 Uses of CDs in Bioanalysis 225 9.4.2.1 Heavy Metals/Elements 225 9.4.2.2 Reactive Oxygen/Nitrogen Species (ROS/RNS) 226 9.4.2.3 Oligonucleotides 227 9.4.2.4 Small Molecules/Pharmaceutical Drugs/Natural Compounds 228 9.4.2.5 Proteins 230 9.4.2.6 Enzyme Activities and Inhibitor Screening 231 9.4.2.7 pH 232 9.4.2.8 Temperature 234 9.4.3 Solid‐State Sensing for Point‐of‐Care Diagnostic Kits 234 9.4.4 Bioimaging/Real‐Time Monitoring 236 9.4.5 Theranostics 238 9.5 Future Perspectives 240 9.5.1 Better Understanding of PL Mechanisms 240 9.5.2 Establishment of Systematic Synthesis Protocol 241 9.5.3 QY Improvement and Spectral Expansion to Longer Wavelength 241 9.5.4 Sensitivity Improvement for Solid‐State Sensing 242 9.6 Conclusions 242 References 242 Part III Therapy 265 10 Functionalized Carbon Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery 267 Naoki Komatsu 267 10.1 Introduction 267 10.2 Direct Fabrication of Graphene‐Based Composite with Photosensitizer for Cancer Phototherapy 268 10.2.1 Fabrication of Graphene‐Based Composite with Chlorin e6 (G‐Ce6) 268 10.2.2 Characterization of G‐Ce6 268 10.2.3 In vitro Evaluation of G‐Ce6 for Cancer Phototherapy 272 10.3 Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug for Cancer Chemotherapy 274 10.3.1 Synthesis of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug and Targeting Peptide 274 10.3.2 Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond and the Derivatives 276 10.3.3 In vitro Evaluation of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug for Cancer Chemotherapy 279 10.4 Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Hybridized with DNA for Gene Therapy 280 10.4.1 Synthesis and Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Basic Polypeptides 280 10.4.2 Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Hybridized with Plasmid DNA 280 10.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 283 Acknowledgments 285 References 285 11 Multifunctional Graphene‐Based Nanocomposites for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 289 Ayuob Aghanejad, Parinaz Abdollahiyan, Jaleh Barar, and Yadollah Omidi 11.1 Introduction 289 11.2 Multifunctional Graphene‐Based Composites for the Diagnosis/Therapy of Cancer 291 11.2.1 Metal‐Graphene Nanocomposites 292 11.2.1.1 Gold‐Graphene Composites 292 11.2.1.2 Magnetic Graphene Nanocomposites 294 11.2.2 Polymeric Graphene Nanocomposites 295 11.2.3 Graphene Biomaterials for MR Imaging 299 11.3 Multimodal Graphene‐Based Composites for the Radiotherapy of Cancer 300 11.4 Graphene‐Based Nanobiomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis 302 11.5 Conclusion 302 Acknowledgment 303 References 303 12 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapies 309 Jiantao Yu, Lingyan Yang, Junyan Yan, Wen‐Cheng Wang, Yi‐Chun Chen, Hung‐Hsiang Chen, and Chia‐Hua Lin 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 GO for PTT 311 12.2.1 PTT‐Related Physical and Chemical Properties of GO 311 12.2.2 GO for in vitro PTT 312 12.2.3 GO for in vivo PTT 314 12.3 CNTs and CNHs for PTT 314 12.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of CNTs and CNHs Related to PTT 315 12.3.2 CNTs and CNHs for in vitro PTT 316 12.3.3 CNTs and CNHs for in vivo PTT 316 12.4 CDs and GDs for PTT 318 12.4.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of CDs and GDs Related to PTT 318 12.4.2 CDs and GDs for in vitro PTT 319 12.4.3 CDs and GDs for in vivo PTT 319 12.5 Fullerenes for PTT 320 12.5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Fullerenes Related to PTT 320 12.5.2 Fullerenes for in vitro PTT 320 12.5.3 Fullerenes for in vivo PTT 321 12.6 Carbon Nanomaterial‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 321 12.6.1 GO‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 322 12.6.2 CNT‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 323 12.6.3 CD‐ and GD‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 323 12.7 Carbon Nanomaterial‐Based Combined Therapy with PTT 324 12.7.1 Chemotherapy 324 12.7.2 RT 324 12.7.3 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) 325 12.7.4 Gene Therapy 325 12.7.5 Immune Therapy 327 12.7.6 Theranostic Applications 328 12.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 329 References 330 Index 341

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Book SynopsisAn informative look at the theory, computer implementation, and application of the scaled boundary finite element method This reliable resource, complete with MATLAB, is an easy-to-understand introduction to the fundamental principles of the scaled boundary finite element method. It establishes the theory of the scaled boundary finite element method systematically as a general numerical procedure, providing the reader with a sound knowledge to expand the applications of this method to a broader scope. The book also presents the applications of the scaled boundary finite element to illustrate its salient features and potentials. The Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method: Introduction to Theory and Implementation covers the static and dynamic stress analysis of solids in two and three dimensions. The relevant concepts, theory and modelling issues of the scaled boundary finite element method are discussed and the unique features of the method are highlightedTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgements xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Numerical Modelling 1 1.2 Overview of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 6 1.3 Features and Example Applications of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 10 1.3.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics: Crack Terminating at Material Interface 11 1.3.2 Automatic Mesh Generation Based on Quadtree/Octree 13 1.3.3 Treatment of Non-matching Meshes 14 1.3.4 Crack Propagation 17 1.3.5 Adaptive Analysis 17 1.3.6 TransientWave Scattering in an Alluvial Basin 19 1.3.7 Automatic Image-based Analysis 19 1.3.7.1 Two-dimensional Elastoplastic Analysis of Cast Iron 20 1.3.7.2 Three-dimensional Concrete Specimen 22 1.3.8 Automatic Analysis of STL Models 24 1.4 Summary 26 Part I Basic Concepts and MATLAB Implementation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method in Two Dimensions 27 2 Basic Formulations of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Modelling of Geometry in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 31 2.2.1 S-domains: Scaling Requirement on Geometry, Scaling Centre and Scaling of Boundary 31 2.2.2 S-elements: Boundary Discretization of S-domains 37 2.2.3 Scaled Boundary Transformation 40 2.2.3.1 Scaled Boundary Coordinates 40 2.2.3.2 Coordinate Transformation of Partial Derivatives 42 2.2.3.3 Geometrical Properties in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 44 2.3 Governing Equations of Linear Elasticity in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 50 2.4 Semi-analytical Representation of Displacement and Strain Fields 51 2.5 Derivation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation by the Virtual Work Principle 53 2.5.1 Virtual Displacement and Strain Fields in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 54 2.5.2 Nodal Force Functions 54 2.5.3 The Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 55 2.6 Computer Program Platypus: Coefficient Matrices of an S-element 63 2.6.1 Element Coefficient Matrices of a 2-node Line Element 63 2.6.2 Assembly of Coefficient Matrices of an S-element 67 3 Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation by Eigenvalue Decomposition 73 3.1 Solution Procedure for the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equations in Displacement 73 3.2 Pre-conditioning of Eigenvalue Problems 77 3.3 Computer Program Platypus: Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation of a Bounded S-element by the Eigenvalue Method 78 3.4 Assembly of S-elements and Solution of Global System of Equations 84 3.4.1 Assembly of S-elements 84 3.4.2 Surface Tractions 85 3.4.3 Enforcing Displacement Boundary Conditions 87 3.5 Computer Program Platypus: Assembly and Solution 87 3.5.1 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix 87 3.5.2 Assembly of Load Vector 95 3.5.3 Solution of Global System of Equations 96 3.5.4 Utility Functions 97 3.6 Examples of Static Analysis Using Platypus 102 3.7 Evaluation of Internal Displacements and Stresses of an S-element 111 3.7.1 Integration Constants and Internal Displacements 111 3.7.2 Strain/Stress Modes and Strain/Stress Fields 112 3.7.3 Shape Functions of Polygon Elements Modelled as S-elements 114 3.8 Computer Program Platypus: Internal Displacements and Strains 114 3.9 Body Loads 132 3.10 Dynamics and Vibration Analysis 135 3.10.1 Mass Matrix and Equation of Motion 135 3.10.2 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 140 3.10.3 Response History Analysis Using the Newmark Method 143 4 Automatic Polygon Mesh Generation for Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 149 4.1 Introduction 149 4.2 Basics of Geometrical Representation by Signed Distance Functions 150 4.3 Computer Program Platypus: Generation of Polygon S-elementMesh 154 4.3.1 Mesh Data Structure 157 4.3.2 Centroid of a Polygon 165 4.3.3 Converting a TriangularMesh to an S-elementMesh 166 4.3.4 Use of Polygon Meshes Generated by PolyMesher in a Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 171 4.3.5 Dividing Edges of Polygons into Multiple Elements 172 4.4 Examples of Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis Using Platypus 175 4.4.1 A Deep Beam 178 4.4.1.1 Static Analysis 186 4.4.1.2 Modal Analysis 189 4.4.1.3 Response History Analysis 190 4.4.1.4 Pure Bending of a Beam: 2 Line Elements on an Edge of Polygons 190 4.4.2 A Circular Hole in an Infinite Plane Under Remote Uniaxial Tension 193 4.4.3 An L-shaped Panel 197 4.4.3.1 Static Analysis 203 4.4.3.2 Modal Analysis 204 4.4.3.3 Response History Analysis 207 5 Modelling Considerations in the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 209 5.1 Effect of Location of Scaling Centre on Accuracy 209 5.2 Mesh Transition 212 5.2.1 Local Mesh Refinement 212 5.2.2 Rapid Mesh Transition 214 5.2.3 Effect of Nonuniformity of Line Element Length on the Boundary of S-elements 216 5.3 Connecting Non-matching Meshes of Multiple Domains 218 5.3.1 Computer Program Platypus: Combining Two Non-matching Meshes 220 5.3.2 Computer Program Platypus: Modelling of a Problem by Multiple Domains with Non-matching Meshes 223 5.3.3 Examples 225 5.4 Modelling of Stress Singularities 234 Part II Theory and Applications of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 237 6 Derivation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation in Three Dimensions 239 6.1 Introduction 239 6.2 Scaling of Boundary 239 6.3 Boundary Discretization of an S-domain 242 6.3.1 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements 243 6.3.1.1 Four-node Quadrilateral Element 243 6.3.1.2 Quadrilateral Element of Variable Number of Nodes 245 6.3.2 Isoparametric Triangular Elements 246 6.3.2.1 Three-node Triangular Elements 247 6.3.2.2 Six-node Triangular Elements 248 6.4 Scaled Boundary Transformation of Geometry 249 6.5 Geometrical Properties in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 253 6.6 Governing Equations of Elastodynamics with Geometry in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 257 6.7 Derivation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation by the Galerkin’s Weighted Residual Technique 259 6.7.1 Displacement, Strain Fields and Nodal Force Functions in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 259 6.7.2 The Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 262 6.8 Unified Formulations in Two andThree Dimensions 267 6.9 Formulation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation as a System of First-order Differential Equations 268 6.10 Properties of Coefficient Matrices 269 6.10.1 Coefficient Matrices [E0] and [M0] 270 6.10.2 Coefficient Matrix [E2] 270 6.10.3 Matrix [Zp] 271 6.11 Linear Completeness of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Solution 272 6.11.1 Constant Displacement Field 272 6.11.2 Linear Displacement Field 273 6.12 Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation in Stiffness 278 7 Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation in Statics by Schur Decomposition 281 7.1 Introduction 281 7.2 Basics of Matrix Exponential Function 283 7.3 Schur Decomposition 287 7.3.1 Introduction 287 7.3.2 Treatment of the Diagonal Block of Eigenvalues of 0 288 7.4 Solution Procedure for a Bounded S-element by Schur Decomposition 291 7.4.1 Transformation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 291 7.4.2 Enforcing the Boundary Condition at the Scaling Centre 292 7.4.3 Determining the Solution for Displacement and Nodal Force Functions 294 7.4.4 Determining the Static Stiffness Matrix 295 7.5 Solution of Displacement and Stress Fields of an S-element 295 7.5.1 Integration Constants 295 7.5.2 Stress Modes and Stresses on the Boundary 296 7.6 Block-diagonal Schur Decomposition 297 7.7 Solution Procedure by Block-diagonal Schur Decomposition 303 7.7.1 General Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 303 7.7.1.1 [Zp] Having No Eigenvalues of Zero 304 7.7.1.2 [Zp] Having Eigenvalues of Zero 304 7.7.2 Solution for Bounded S-elements 305 7.7.3 Solution for Unbounded S-elements 307 7.7.3.1 [Zp] Having No Eigenvalues of Zero 307 7.7.3.2 [Zp] Having Eigenvalues of Zero 308 7.8 Displacements and Stresses of an S-element by Block-diagonal Schur Decomposition 310 7.8.1 Integration Constants and Displacement Fields 310 7.8.2 Stress Modes and Stress Fields 311 7.8.3 Shape Functions of Polytope Elements 312 7.9 Body Loads 313 7.10 Mass Matrix 315 7.11 Remarks 317 7.12 Examples 319 7.12.1 Circular Cavity in Full-plane 319 7.12.2 Bi-materialWedge 322 7.12.3 Interface Crack in Anisotropic Bi-material Full-plane 325 7.13 Summary 327 8 High-order Elements 329 8.1 Lagrange Interpolation 330 8.2 One-dimensional Spectral Elements 333 8.2.1 Shape Functions 334 8.2.2 Numerical Integration of Element Coefficient Matrices 337 8.2.2.1 Gauss-Legendre Quadrature 337 8.2.2.2 Gauss-Lobatto-Legendre Quadrature 338 8.3 Two-dimensional Quadrilateral Spectral Elements 341 8.3.1 Shape Functions 341 8.3.2 Integration of Element Coefficient Matrices by Gauss-Lobatto-Legendre Quadrature 342 8.4 Examples 344 8.4.1 A Cantilever Beam Subject to End Loading 345 8.4.2 A Circular Hole in an Infinite Plate 347 8.4.3 An L-shaped Panel 349 8.4.4 A 3D Cantilever Beam Subject to End-shear Loading 351 8.4.5 A Pressurized Hollow Sphere 352 9 Quadtree/Octree Algorithm of Mesh Generation for Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 355 9.1 Introduction 355 9.1.1 Mesh Generation 355 9.1.2 The Quadtree/Octree Algorithm 357 9.2 Data Structure of S-element Meshes 360 9.3 Quadtree/Octree Mesh Generation of Digital Images 361 9.3.1 Illustration of Quadtree Decomposition of Two-dimensional Images by an Example 361 9.3.2 Octree Decomposition 366 9.4 Solutions of S-elements with the Same Pattern of Node Configuration 370 9.4.1 Two-dimensional S-elements 370 9.4.2 Three-dimensional S-elements 372 9.5 Examples of Image-based Analysis 374 9.5.1 A 2D Concrete Specimen 374 9.5.2 A 3D Concrete Specimen 376 9.6 Quadtree/Octree Mesh Generation for CAD Models 378 9.6.1 Quadtree/Octree Grid 380 9.6.2 Trimming of Boundary Cells 381 9.7 Examples Using Quadtree/Octree Meshes of CAD Models 383 9.7.1 Square Body with Multiple Holes 384 9.7.2 An Evolving Void in a Square Body 385 9.7.3 Adaptive Analysis of an L-shaped Panel 386 9.7.4 A Mechanical Part 387 9.7.5 STL Models 389 9.8 Remarks 394 10 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics 395 10.1 Introduction 395 10.2 Basics of Fracture Analysis: Asymptotic Solutions, Stress Intensity Factors, and the T-stress 397 10.2.1 Crack in Homogeneous Isotropic Material 397 10.2.2 Interfacial Cracks between Two Isotropic Materials 401 10.2.3 Interfacial Cracks between Two AnisotropicMaterials 402 10.2.4 Multi-materialWedges 405 10.3 Modelling of Singular Stress Fields by the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 406 10.4 Stress Intensity Factors and the T-stress of a Cracked Homogeneous Body 407 10.5 Definition and Evaluation of Generalized Stress Intensity Factors 416 10.6 Examples of Highly Accurate Stress Intensity Factors and T-stress 432 10.6.1 A Single Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under Tension 433 10.6.2 A Single Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under Bending 435 10.6.3 A Centre-cracked Rectangular Body Under Tension 437 10.6.4 A Double Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under Tension 438 10.6.5 A Single Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under End Shearing 439 10.7 Modelling of Crack Propagation 440 10.7.1 Modelling of Crack Paths by Polygon Meshes 442 10.7.2 Modelling of Crack Paths by Quadtree Meshes 443 10.7.3 Examples of Crack PropagationModelling 444 10.7.3.1 Fatigue Crack Propagation Using Polygon Mesh 444 10.7.3.2 Crack Propagation in a Beam with Three Holes 447 Appendix A Governing Equations of Linear Elasticity 449 A.1 Three-dimensional Problems 449 A.1.1 Strain 449 A.1.2 Stress and Equilibrium Equation 450 A.1.3 Stress-strain Relationship and Material Elasticity Matrix 451 A.1.4 Boundary Conditions 453 A.2 Two-dimensional Problems 454 A.2.1 Elasticity Matrix in Plane Stress 455 A.2.2 Elasticity Matrix in Plane Strain 456 A.3 Unified Expressions of Governing Equations 457 Appendix B Matrix Power Function 459 B.1 Definition of Matrix Power Function 459 B.2 Application to Solution of System of Ordinary Differential Equations 460 B.3 Computation of Matrix Power Function by Eigenvalue Method 461 Bibliography 463 Index 475

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive source of generalized design data for most widely used fin surfaces in CHEs Compact Heat Exchanger Analysis, Design and Optimization: FEM and CFD Approach brings new concepts of design data generation numerically (which is more cost effective than generic design data) and can be used by design and practicing engineers more effectively. The numerical methods/techniques are introduced for estimation of performance deteriorations like flow non-uniformity, temperature non-uniformity, and longitudinal heat conduction effects using FEM in CHE unit level and Colburn j factors and Fanning friction f factors data generation method for various types of CHE fins using CFD. In addition, worked examples for single and two-phase flow CHEs are provided and the complete qualification tests are given for CHEs use in aerospace applications. Chapters cover: Basic Heat Transfer; Compact Heat Exchangers; Fundamentals of Finite Element and Finite Volume Methods; Finite Element Analysis ofTable of ContentsPreface xiii Series Preface xv 1 Basic Heat Transfer 1 1.1 Importance of Heat Transfer 1 1.2 Heat Transfer Modes 2 1.3 Laws of Heat Transfer 3 1.4 Steady-State Heat Conduction 4 1.4.1 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction 5 1.4.2 Three-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation 7 1.4.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions 10 1.5 Transient Heat Conduction Analysis 11 1.5.1 Lumped Heat Capacity System 11 1.6 Heat Convection 13 1.6.1 Flat Plate in Parallel Flow 14 1.6.1.1 Laminar Flow Over an Isothermal Plate 14 1.6.1.2 Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate 16 1.6.1.3 Boundary Layer Development Over Heated Plate 17 1.6.2 Internal Flow 18 1.6.2.1 Hydrodynamic Considerations 19 1.6.2.2 Flow Conditions 19 1.6.2.3 Mean Velocity 20 1.6.2.4 Velocity Profile in the Fully Developed Region 21 1.6.3 Forced Convection Relationships 23 1.7 Radiation 28 1.7.1 Radiation – Fundamental Concepts 30 1.8 Boiling Heat Transfer 35 1.8.1 Flow Boiling 36 1.9 Condensation 38 1.9.1 Film Condensation 39 1.9.2 Drop-wise Condensation 39 Nomenclature 40 Greek Symbols 42 Subscripts 42 References 43 2 Compact Heat Exchangers 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Motivation for Heat Transfer Enhancement 46 2.3 Comparison of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 48 2.4 Classification of Heat Exchangers 49 2.5 Heat Transfer Surfaces 51 2.5.1 Rectangular Plain Fin 52 2.5.2 Louvred-Fin 52 2.5.3 Strip-Fin or Lance and Offset Fin 53 2.5.4 Wavy-Fin 53 2.5.5 Pin-Fin 53 2.5.6 Rectangular Perforated Fin 54 2.5.7 Triangular Plain Fin 54 2.5.8 Triangular Perforated Fin 54 2.5.9 Vortex Generator 55 2.6 Heat Exchanger Analysis 56 2.6.1 Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference 58 2.6.1.1 Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger 59 2.6.1.2 Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger 62 2.6.2 Effectiveness-NTU Method 65 2.6.3 Effectiveness-NTU Relations 69 2.6.4 Evaluation of Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Data 73 2.6.4.1 Flow Properties and Dimensionless Numbers 73 2.6.4.2 Data Curves for j andf 75 2.7 Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 77 2.7.1 Description 77 2.7.2 Geometric Characteristics 78 2.7.3 Correlations for Offset Strip Fin (OSF) Geometry 81 2.8 Finned-Tube Heat Exchanger 81 2.8.1 Geometrical Characteristics 82 2.8.2 Correlations for Circular-Finned-Tube Geometry 84 2.8.3 Pressure Drop 85 2.8.4 Correlations for Louvred Plate-Fin Flat-Tube Geometry 86 2.8.5 Louvre-Fin-Type Flat-Tube Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers 90 2.8.5.1 Geometric Characteristics 91 2.8.5.2 Correlations for Louvre Fin Geometry 93 2.9 Plate-Fin Exchangers Operating Limits 93 2.10 Plate-Fin Exchangers – Monitoring and Maintenance 94 2.10.1 Advantage 95 2.10.2 Disadvantages 95 Nomenclature 95 Greek Symbols 97 Subscripts 98 References 98 3 Fundamentals of Finite Element and Finite Volume Methods 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2 Finite Element Method 101 3.2.1 Finite Element Form of the Conduction Equation 103 3.2.2 Elements and Shape Functions 104 3.2.3 Two-Dimensional Linear Triangular Elements 109 3.2.3.1 Area Coordinates 112 3.2.4 Formulation for the Heat Conduction Equation 114 3.2.4.1 Variational Approach 115 3.2.4.2 Galerkin Method 118 3.2.5 Requirements for Interpolation Functions 119 3.2.6 Plane Wall with a Heat Source – Solution by Quadratic Element 128 3.2.7 Two-Dimensional Plane Problems 130 3.2.7.1 Triangular Elements 131 3.2.8 Finite Element Method-Transient Heat Conduction 141 3.2.8.1 Galerkin Method for Transient Heat Conduction 142 3.2.9 Time Discretization using the Finite Element Method 145 3.2.10 Finite Element Method for Heat Exchangers 146 3.2.10.1 Governing Equations 146 3.2.10.2 Finite Element Formulation 148 3.3 Finite Volume Method 164 3.3.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 165 3.3.1.1 Conservation of Momentum 168 3.3.1.2 Energy Equation 171 3.3.1.3 Non-Dimensional Form of the Governing Equations 173 3.3.1.4 Forced Convection 174 3.3.1.5 Natural Convection (Buoyancy-Driven Convection) 175 3.3.1.6 Mixed Convection 177 3.3.1.7 Transient Convection – Diffusion Problem 177 3.3.2 Boundary Conditions 178 Nomenclature 178 Greek Symbols 179 Subscripts 179 References 179 4 Finite Element Analysis of Compact Heat Exchangers 183 4.1 Introduction 183 4.2 Finite Element Discretization 184 4.3 Governing Equations 184 4.4 Finite Element Formulation 189 4.4.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 189 4.4.2 Counter Flow/Parallel Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers 193 4.4.3 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 194 4.5 Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction Effects 195 4.5.1 General 195 4.5.2 Validation 198 4.5.3 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 199 4.5.4 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 200 4.5.5 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger 206 4.5.6 Counter Flow Heat Exchanger 206 4.5.7 Relative Comparison of Results 207 4.6 Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity Effects 207 4.6.1 General 207 4.6.2 Validation 214 4.6.3 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 215 4.6.4 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 221 4.6.5 Pressure Drop Variations – Flow Non-Uniformity 224 4.7 Inlet Temperature Non-Uniformity Effects 228 4.7.1 General 228 4.7.2 Validation 229 4.7.3 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 229 4.7.4 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 233 4.8 Combined Effects of Longitudinal Heat Conduction, Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity and Temperature Non-Uniformity 235 4.8.1 General 235 4.8.2 Validation 237 4.8.3 Combined Effects of Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction and Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity 238 4.8.3.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN) 238 4.8.3.2 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN) 243 4.8.4 Combined Effects of Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction, Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity and Temperature Non-Uniformity 247 4.8.4.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN, TN) 251 4.8.4.2 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN, TN) 257 4.8.5 Combined Effects of Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity and Temperature Non-Uniformity 260 4.8.5.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 263 4.8.5.2 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 267 4.9 FEM Analysis of Micro Compact Heat Exchangers 273 4.9.1 Governing Equations and Finite Element Formulation 277 4.10 Influence of Heat Conduction from Horizontal Tube in Pool Boiling 282 4.10.1 General 282 4.10.2 Governing Equations 284 4.10.3 Finite Element Analysis 285 4.10.3.1 One-Dimensional Case 286 4.10.3.2 Two-Dimensional Case (Axial and Radial) 286 4.10.3.3 Two-Dimensional Case (Azimuthal and Radial) 287 4.10.3.4 Three-Dimensional Case 287 4.10.4 Results 288 4.10.4.1 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Case 290 4.10.4.2 Two-Dimensional Heat Conduction Case 292 4.10.4.3 Three-Dimensional Heat Conduction Case 293 4.11 Closure 298 Nomenclature 299 Greek Symbols 301 Subscripts 302 References 303 5 Generation of Design Data – Finite Volume Analysis 307 5.1 Introduction 307 5.2 Plate Fin Heat Exchanger 307 5.3 Heat Transfer Surfaces 308 5.3.1 Lance and Offset Fins 308 5.3.2 Wavy Fins 308 5.3.3 Rectangular Plain Fins 309 5.3.4 Rectangular Perforated Fins 310 5.3.5 Triangular Plain Fins 311 5.3.6 Triangular Perforated Fins 311 5.4 Performance Characteristic Curves 311 5.4.1 Working Fluids 312 5.5 CFD Analysis 312 5.5.1 Pre-Processor 313 5.5.2 Main Solver 313 5.5.3 Post-Processor 313 5.5.4 Errors and Uncertainty in CFD Modelling 313 5.6 CFD Approach 314 5.6.1 Mathematical Model 315 5.6.2 Governing Equations 315 5.6.3 Assumptions 316 5.6.4 Boundary Conditions 316 5.6.4.1 Inlet Boundary Conditions 317 5.6.4.2 Outlet Boundary Conditions 317 5.6.4.3 Wall Boundary Conditions 318 5.6.4.4 Constant Pressure Boundary Condition 318 5.6.4.5 Symmetric Boundary Condition 318 5.6.4.6 Periodic Boundary Condition 318 5.6.5 Turbulence Models 318 5.7 Numerical Simulation 319 5.7.1 Transient Analysis 320 5.7.1.1 Data Reduction and Validation 321 5.7.2 Steady State Analysis 328 5.7.2.1 Wavy Fin 328 5.7.2.2 Offset Fins 334 5.7.2.3 Rectangular Plain Fin 337 5.7.2.4 Rectangular Perforated Fin 344 5.7.2.5 Triangular Plain Fin Surface 350 5.7.2.6 Triangular Perforated Fin Surface 356 5.7.3 Flow Non-Uniformity Analysis 362 5.7.4 Characterization of CHE Fins for Two-Phase Flow 366 5.7.4.1 Experimental Set-Up 367 5.7.4.2 Brazed Test Core 368 5.7.4.3 Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient 370 5.7.4.4 Two-Phase Condensation 374 5.7.5 Estimation of Endurance Life of Compact Heat Exchanger 377 5.7.5.1 Computational Analysis 378 5.7.5.2 CFD Analysis of CHE 378 5.7.5.3 Endurance Life Estimation 382 5.7.5.4 Fatigue Life Estimation 382 5.7.5.5 Effect of Creep 383 5.7.5.6 Results of Endurance Life 384 5.8 Closure 385 Nomenclature 388 Greek Symbols 391 Subscripts 391 References 392 6 Thermal and Mechanical Design of Compact Heat Exchanger 399 6.1 Introduction 399 6.2 Basic Concepts and Initial Size Assessment 400 6.2.1 Effectiveness Method 400 6.2.2 Inverse Relationships 403 6.2.3 LMTD Method 403 6.3 Overall Conductance 407 6.3.1 Fin Efficiency and Surface Effectiveness 409 6.4 Pressure Drop Analysis 410 6.4.1 Single Phase Pressure Drop 410 6.4.2 Two-Phase Pressure Loss 413 6.4.2.1 Two-Phase Frictional Losses 414 6.4.2.2 Two-Phase Momentum Losses – Change of Quality 416 6.4.2.3 Two-Phase Gravitational Losses – Upward Flow (Boiling) 416 6.4.2.4 Downward Flow (Condensation) 417 6.5 Two-Phase Heat Transfer 417 6.5.1 Condensation 418 6.5.1.1 All Liquid Heat Transfer Coefficient 418 6.5.1.2 Correction for the Vapour Volume 418 6.5.1.3 Correction for the Multicomponent Streams 419 6.5.2 Evaporation 419 6.5.2.1 Reynolds Number Calculation 420 6.5.2.2 Determine j and f Factors 420 6.5.2.3 Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculation for Quality between 0 and 0.95 420 6.5.2.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient for High and Low Values of Quality 421 6.6 Useful Relations for Surface and Core Geometry 421 6.7 Core Design (Mechanical Design) 424 6.7.1 Fins 424 6.7.2 Separating/Parting Sheets 424 6.7.3 Cap Sheets 424 6.7.4 Headers 424 6.7.5 Supports 425 6.7.6 Fin Minimum Thickness 425 6.7.7 Parting/Separating and Cap Sheets Minimum Thickness 426 6.7.8 Side-Bar Minimum Thickness 426 6.7.9 Headers Minimum Thickness 427 6.8 Procedure for Sizing a Heat Exchanger 427 6.9 Design Procedure of a Typical Compact Heat Exchanger 430 6.10 Worked Examples 434 6.10.1 Example 1: Direct Transfer Heat Exchanger 434 6.10.2 Example 2: Two-Pass Cross Flow Heat Exchanger 442 6.10.3 Example 3: Compact Evaporator Design 450 6.10.4 Example 4: Compact Condenser Design 451 Nomenclature 454 Greek Symbols 456 Subscripts 457 References 457 7 Manufacturing and Qualification Testing of Compact Heat Exchangers 461 7.1 Construction of Brazed Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 461 7.2 Construction of Diffusion-Bonded Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 461 7.3 Brazing 464 7.3.1 Operations in Brazing 465 7.3.2 Brazing Filler Metals 469 7.3.3 Brazing Processes 469 7.3.4 Vacuum Brazing 470 7.3.4.1 Brazing of Aluminium and its Alloys 470 7.3.4.2 Brazing of Stainless Steels 474 7.3.4.3 Brazing of Super Alloys 475 7.3.5 Vacuum Furnace Brazing Cycles 476 7.3.5.1 Vacuum Level during Brazing 477 7.3.5.2 Cooling Gases 477 7.3.5.3 Post Brazing Inspection 478 7.4 Influence of Brazing on Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 478 7.5 Testing and Qualification of Compact Heat Exchangers 479 7.5.1 Acceptance Tests 480 7.5.1.1 Thermal Performance and Pressure Drop Test 480 7.5.1.2 Pressure Drop Test 484 7.5.1.3 Leakage Test 484 7.5.1.4 Proof Pressure Test 484 7.5.2 Qualification Tests 485 7.5.2.1 Vibration Test 485 7.5.2.2 Combined Pressure, Temperature and Flow Cycling 487 7.5.2.3 Experimental Evaluation of Endurance Life of Compact Heat Exchanger 488 7.5.2.4 Pressure Cycling Test 490 7.5.2.5 Thermal Shock Test 491 7.5.2.6 Acceleration Test 491 7.5.2.7 Shock Test 491 7.5.2.8 Humidity Test 492 7.5.2.9 Fungus Test 493 7.5.2.10 Salt Fog Test 493 7.5.2.11 Freeze and Thaw 493 7.5.2.12 Rain Resistance 493 7.5.2.13 Sand and Dust 494 7.5.2.14 Shock Test (Arrestor Landing) 494 7.5.2.15 Gunfire Vibration Test 494 7.5.2.16 Burst Pressure Test 495 References 496 Appendices 497 A.1 Derivation of Fourier Series Mathematical Equation 497 A.2 Molar, Gas and Critical Properties 501 A.3 Thermo-Physical Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure 502 A.4 Properties of Solid Materials 509 A.5 Thermo-Physical Properties of Saturated Fluids 515 A.6 Thermo-Physical Properties of Saturated Water 518 A.7 Solar Radiative Properties of Selected Materials 521 A.8 Thermo-Physical Properties of Fluids 522 References 524 Index 525

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Book SynopsisAcrucial overview of the cutting-edge in nanocarbon research and applications InSynthesis and Applications of Nanocarbons,the distinguished authors have set out to discussfundamental topics, synthetic approaches, materials challenges,and various applicationsof this rapidly developing technology.Nanocarbons haverecently emergedasa promising material for chemical, energy, environmental,and medical applicationsbecause oftheir unique chemical properties and their rich surface chemistries. This bookis the latestentry in the Wiley book seriesNanocarbon Chemistry and Interfacesand seeks to comprehensivelyaddress many of thenewly surfacingareas of controversy and development in the field. This book introduces foundational concepts in nanocarbon technology,hybrids, and applications, while also covering the most recent and cutting-edge developments in this area of study. Synthesis and Applications of Nanocarbonsaddresses new discoveries in the field, including: Nanodiamonds Onion-like carbons Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv 1 Properties of Carbon Bulk Materials: Graphite and Diamond 1Kamatchi Jothiramalingam Sankaran and Ken Haenen 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Graphite 2 1.2.1 History 2 1.2.2 sp2 Hybridization 3 1.2.3 Structure of Graphite 3 1.2.3.1 Hexagonal Graphite 3 1.2.3.2 Rhombohedral Graphite 3 1.2.3.3 Polycrystalline Graphite 4 1.2.3.4 Crystallite Imperfections 5 1.2.4 Natural and Synthetic Graphite 5 1.2.4.1 Natural Graphite 5 1.2.4.2 Synthetic Graphite 6 1.3 Diamond 7 1.3.1 History 7 1.3.2 sp3 Hybridization 8 1.3.3 Structure of Diamond 9 1.3.3.1 Crystal Forms of Diamond 9 1.3.4 Impurities in Diamond 10 1.3.4.1 Lattice Impurities 11 1.3.4.2 Inclusions 11 1.3.5 Natural and Synthetic Diamond 11 1.3.5.1 Natural Diamond 11 1.3.5.2 Synthetic Diamond 12 1.4 Characterization of Graphite and Diamond 14 1.4.1 Raman Spectroscopy 14 1.4.2 X-ray Diffraction 15 1.4.3 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 15 1.4.4 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 17 1.4.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy 17 1.4.6 Transmission Electron Microscopy 17 1.5 Properties of Graphite and Diamond 18 1.6 Applications of Graphite and Diamond 20 1.6.1 Graphite 20 1.6.2 Diamond 20 References 21 2 Endohedral and Exohedral Single-Layered Fullerenes 25Diana M. Bobrowska and Marta E. Plonska-Brzezinska 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Structure and Physicochemical Properties of “Empty” Single-Layered Fullerenes 25 2.3 Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Endohedral Fullerenes 29 2.4 Functionalization and Application of Single-Layered Fullerenes 32 2.4.1 Functionalization and Application of Exohedral Fullerenes 32 2.4.2 Functionalization and Application of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 38 2.5 Summary 42 Acknowledgments 42 References 42 3 Spherical Onion-Like Carbons 63Diana M. Bobrowska and Marta E. Plonska-Brzezinska 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Structure of Onion-Like Carbons and Their Physicochemical Properties 63 3.3 Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization of OLCs 69 3.4 Doping of OLCs by Heteroatoms 82 3.5 Applications of OLCs 84 3.5.1 Bioimaging 84 3.5.2 (Bio)Sensors 85 3.5.3 Energy Storage Devices 86 3.5.4 Solar Cells 88 3.5.5 Electronic and Photonic Applications 88 3.5.6 Sorbents 89 3.5.7 Catalysis and Electrocatalysis 89 3.5.8 Tribology 90 3.6 Summary 90 Acknowledgments 91 References 91 4 Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Properties, and New Developments in Research 107Marianna V. Kharlamova and Dominik Eder 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes 108 4.3 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 109 4.3.1 Electronic Properties 109 4.3.2 Mechanical Properties 110 4.3.3 Thermal Properties 111 4.4 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 111 4.4.1 Arc-Discharge 111 4.4.2 Laser Ablation 112 4.4.3 Molten Salt Route/Electrolytic Process 113 4.4.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 113 4.5 Postsynthesis Treatments of Carbon Nanotubes 114 4.5.1 Purification 114 4.5.2 Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting SWCNTs 115 4.5.3 Functionalization 116 4.6 New Developments in Carbon Nanotube Research: Toward Controllable Properties of Nanotubes 117 4.6.1 Chirality Selective Synthesis of SWCNTs 117 4.6.2 Chirality Selective Separation of SWCNTs 120 4.6.3 Substitutional Doping of SWCNTs 122 4.6.4 Exohedral Modification of CNTs: Nanotube Hybrids 123 4.6.5 Filling of SWCNT Interior Channels 124 4.7 Conclusions and Outlook 125 Acknowledgments 128 References 129 5 CNT Fiber-Based Hybrids: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications in Energy Management 149Moumita Rana, Cleis Santos, Alfonso Monreal-Bernal and Juan J. Vilatela 5.1 Introduction: What are CNT Fibers andWhy Do they Form Interesting Hybrids and Composites? 149 5.1.1 CNT Fiber Structure and Properties 149 5.1.2 Design Principles in CNT Fiber Hybrids 152 5.2 Hybridization with Metal Oxides 153 5.2.1 Surface Chemistry and Functionalization 154 5.2.2 Examples of Common Architectures: Layered, Particulates, Conformal 156 5.2.2.1 Particulate Systems 156 5.2.2.2 Layered Systems 161 5.2.2.3 Conformal CNT Fiber Hybrids 162 5.2.3 Hybrid Structure and Interfacial Characterization 163 5.2.3.1 Determination of Mass Fraction 163 5.2.3.2 Wetting and Interaction with Solvents 166 5.2.3.3 Specific Surface Area and Pore Size 168 5.2.4 Solid-State Transport Characterization of Layered Hybrids 169 5.2.4.1 Junction Characterization in Layered Hybrids 171 5.2.5 Interfacial Studies by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Methods 175 5.2.6 Advanced Interfacial Studies in ALD-Hybrid Test Systems 177 5.2.6.1 Residual Strain 177 5.2.6.2 Evidence of an Interfacial Ti—O—C Bond 179 5.2.6.3 Electronic Structure of the Ti—O—C Interface 180 5.3 EDLC Introducing Pseudocapacitive Reactions 182 5.4 Capacitive Deionization 185 5.5 Battery Electrodes 189 5.6 Conclusions and Perspective 193 References 194 6 Advanced Materials Designed with Nanodiamonds: Synthesis and Applications 201Jean-Charles Arnault 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Synthesis of Isolated Objects from ND 203 6.2.1 ND Grafted with Molecules 203 6.2.1.1 Electrostatic Grafting 203 6.2.1.2 Chemical Grafting 206 6.2.2 Nanodiamonds as Templates 209 6.2.2.1 Decoration by Atoms or Clusters 209 6.2.2.2 Core Shells with Diamond Core 212 6.3 Decoration of Particles by ND, Core Shells with Diamond Shell 215 6.3.1 Nanodiamonds to Decorate or to Graft to NP 215 6.3.1.1 Emulsion 215 6.3.1.2 Decoration of Nanoparticles with ND 216 6.3.1.3 Decoration of Carbon Nanostructures by ND 217 6.3.2 Silica/Diamond Core Shells 218 6.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 219 References 220 7 Chemical Functionalization of Nanodiamond for Nanobiomedicine 229Naoki Komatsu 7.1 Introduction 229 7.2 ND for Fluorescent Cell Labeling 229 7.2.1 Fluorophore-Immobilized ND 229 7.2.1.1 Synthesis 229 7.2.1.2 Cell Labeling 231 7.2.2 ND with Intrinsic Fluorescence 232 7.2.2.1 Synthesis 232 7.2.2.2 Cell Labeling 233 7.3 ND for MRI 235 7.3.1 Synthesis 235 7.3.2 MRI Relaxivity 238 7.4 ND for Gene Delivery 238 7.4.1 Synthesis 238 7.4.2 Gene Delivery 239 7.5 ND for Drug Delivery 241 7.5.1 Synthesis 241 7.5.2 Drug Delivery 243 7.6 Concluding Remarks 244 Acknowledgments 245 References 245 8 Nanocarbon Aerogels and Aerographite 247Hubert Beisch and Bodo Fiedler 8.1 Introduction 247 8.2 Fabrication 247 8.2.1 Non-template Based and Template Based Methods 248 8.2.1.1 Non-template Based Synthesis 248 8.2.1.2 Template Based Synthesis 249 8.2.2 Template Based Synthesis of Aerographite and Globugraphite 249 8.2.2.1 Fabrication of Porous Ceramic Templates 249 8.2.2.2 CVD Synthesis 250 8.3 Morphology 253 8.3.1 Tetrapodal Networks 253 8.3.2 Globular Foam Structures with Hierarchical Pore Morphology 254 8.3.3 ReticularMorphology 255 8.3.4 Carbon Hybrids 256 8.4 Properties 258 8.4.1 Density 258 8.4.2 Electrical and Electrochemical Properties 259 8.4.2.1 Electrical Conductivity 259 8.4.2.2 Electrochemical Performance 262 8.5 Modifications 267 8.5.1 Metal and Metal Oxide Hybrids 267 8.5.2 Thermal Treatment (Annealing) 267 8.6 Conclusion 270 8.6.1 Summary 270 8.6.2 Outlook 271 References 271 9 Optoelectronic Properties of Nanocarbons and Nanocarbon Films 275Cameron J. Shearer, LePing Yu and Joseph G. Shapter 9.1 Introduction 275 9.2 Nanocarbons 276 9.2.1 Graphene and Derivatives 276 9.2.1.1 Pristine Graphene via Micromechanical Exfoliation 276 9.2.1.2 Reduced Graphene/Graphite Oxide 278 9.2.1.3 Graphene from Chemical Vapor Deposition 278 9.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 279 9.2.2.1 SWCNT Chirality 280 9.3 Fundamentals of Optical and Electronic Properties of Nanocarbons 280 9.3.1 Electronic Properties 280 9.3.1.1 Graphene 280 9.3.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes 282 9.3.2 Optical Properties 284 9.3.2.1 Graphene 284 9.3.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 284 9.4 Optoelectronic Properties of Nanocarbon Films 287 9.4.1 The Figure of Merit (FOM) of Optoelectronic Devices 287 9.4.2 Techniques to Maximize FOM 287 9.5 Summary and Outlook 289 References 290 Index 295

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Book SynopsisExamines the concept of aging process facilities and infrastructure in high hazard industries and highlights options for dealing with the problem while addressing safety issues This book explores the many ways in which process facilities, equipment, and infrastructure might deteriorate upon continuous exposure to operating and climatic conditions. It covers the functional and physical failure modes for various categories of equipment and discusses the many warning signs of deterioration. Dealing with Aging Process Facilities and Infrastructure also explains how to deal with equipment that may not be safe to operate. The book describes a risk-based strategy in which plant leaders and supervisors can make more informed decisions on aging situations and then communicate them to upper management effectively. Additionally, it discusses the dismantling and safe removal of facilities that are approaching their intended lifecycle or have passed it altogether. Filled with numerous case studiTable of ContentsList of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Acknowledgments xv Preface 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Purpose 2 1.3 Aging: Concerns, Cause and Consequences 2 1.4 How Aging Occurs 6 1.4.1 Metallic Corrosion 7 1.4.2 Corrosion Under Deposits 8 1.4.3 Corrosion Under Insulation and Fireproofing 8 1.4.4 Manufacturing Defects 9 1.4.5 Excessive Wear and Tear 10 1.4.6 Fatigue 11 1.4.7 Non-Metallic Aging 12 1.4.8 Aging of Physical Structures 12 1.4.9 Process Chemicals Aging 13 1.4.10 Aging of Specialized Equipment 14 1.4.11 Obsolescence 14 1.4.12 Redundancy 15 1.4.13 Brownfield Construction 16 2. Aging Equipment Failures, Causes and Consequences 19 2.1 Aging Equipment Failure and Mechanisms 19 2.2 Consequences of Aging Equipment Incidents 20 2.3 Mechanical Failure of Metal 23 2.3.1 Deformation of Materials 23 2.3.2 Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture 24 2.3.3 Metal Fatigue 24 2.3.4 Corrosion/Erosion 25 2.3.5 Warning Signs 29 2.3.6 Aging Equipment Failure Case Studies 30 2.4 System Functional Aging 33 2.4.1 Aging Equipment Failure Mechanisms 34 2.5 Aging Structures 35 2.5.1 Warning Signs 36 2.5.2 Aging Structure Case Study 36 3. Plant Management Commitment and Responsibility 41 3.1 Promoting Site Safety Culture 41 3.2 Management Challenges 41 3.3 Monitoring Aging Process and Measuring Performance 42 3.4 Human Resources Requirements 44 3.5 Planning for Equipment Retirement and Replacement 45 3.6 Appreciating the Importance of Aging Infrastructure to the Business Enterprise 47 3.6.1 Structural Assets 47 3.6.2 Roads 47 3.6.3 Impoundments and Dikes 47 3.6.4 Fire Water, Cooling Water and Sewers 48 3.6.5 Electrical Distribution Systems 48 3.6.6 Marine Facilities 48 3.6.7 Other Process Facility Infrastructure 48 3.7 Addressing Aging Infrastructure in Decision Process 49 3.7.1 Questions Executives Need to Ask 49 3.7.2 Mergers and Acquisitions 50 4. Risk Based Decisions 51 4.1 Risk Management Basics 51 4.1.1 Risk Ranking 53 4.1.2 Risk Mitigation Controls 55 4.2 Risk Based Decisions 55 4.2.1 When to Apply Risk Based Decisions 57 4.3 How to Apply Risked Based Decisions 57 4.3.1 Determine Hazard Scenarios. 60 4.3.2 Assess Consequences 60 4.3.3 Assess Likelihood 61 4.3.4 Determine Risk 61 4.3.5 Develop Risk Mitigation Controls 62 4.3.6 Implement Risk Controls 63 4.3.7 Information Required for Risk Based Decisions 63 4.3.8 Documentation of Risk Based Decisions 64 4.4 Embracing Risk Based Management 65 4.4.1 Alignment of Management and Operations with Risk Based Decisions 65 4.4.2 Incorporate Corporate Responsibility and Economic Value 65 4.5 Dealing with Unexpected Events 66 4.6 Risk Based Decisions Success Metrics 67 5. Managing Process Equipment and Infrastructure Lifecycle 69 5.1 Lifecycle Stages 69 5.2 Asset Lifecycle Management 69 5.2.1 Management Strategy Development 70 5.2.2 Organizational Design 70 5.2.3 Long-Term Asset Planning 72 5.3 General Topics 72 5.3.1 Manage by Operational Integrity 72 5.3.2 Managing Change During Lifecycle 73 5.3.3 Orphaned Assets 76 5.3.4 Disrepair of Assets 76 5.3.5 Extending Lifecycle with Rebuilt Equipment 77 5.3.6 Managing Used or Refurbished Equipment 78 5.3.7 Mothballing and Re-commissioning of Aged Assets 79 5.3.8 Partial Upgrades to Older Facilities and Equipment 80 5.4 Predicting Asset Service Life 80 5.4.1 Mean Life and Age 80 5.4.2 Assessing End-of-Life Failure Probability 81 5.4.3 Aging Process and Maintenance 84 5.5 Infrastructure Specific Topics 85 6. Inspection and Maintenance Practices for Managing Life Cycle 87 6.1 Inspection and Maintenance Goals 88 6.1.1 Vision 88 6.1.2 Inspection and Maintenance Commitment for Expected Lifecycle of Equipment 88 6.1.3 Implementation of Formal Comprehensive Inspection, Testing and Preventive Maintenance Program 88 6.1.4 Need Justifiable Inspection and Maintenance Practices 89 6.1.5 Managing Aging Asset Strategies 89 6.2 Inspection and Maintenance Program Elements 91 6.2.1 Maintenance Program 94 6.2.2 Inspection Program 99 6.3 Inspection and Maintenance Program Resources 102 6.3.1 Human Resources 102 6.4 Addressing Infrastructure Deficiencies 104 6.4.1 Inspection Follow-up 105 7. Specific Aging Asset Integrity Management Practices 113 7.1 Structural Assets 113 7.1.1 Structure Foundations 113 7.1.2 Support Structures 116 7.1.3 Piping Systems, Pipe Racks and Overpass Information 119 7.1.4 Buildings 120 7.1.5 Inspection and Maintenance RAGAGEPs 123 7.2 Electrical Distribution and Controls 125 7.2.1 Electrical System 125 7.2.2 Control System 134 7.3 Earthworks: Roads, Impoundments, and Railways 137 7.3.1 Roads 137 7.3.2 Earthworks Infrastructure: Trenches, Dikes and Storage Ponds 139 7.3.3 Railways and Spurs 143 7.4 Marine Facilities: Terminals and Jetties 146 7.4.1 Marine Facilities Information 146 7.4.2 Marine Facility Inspection 148 7.4.3 Marine Facilities Aging Warning Signs 150 7.5 Underground Utility Systems 150 7.5.1 Electric Cables 151 7.5.2 Utility Underground Piping: Fuel Gas, Cooling Water, Fire Water, Drains and Sewers 153 8. Decommissioning, Dismantlement and Removal of Redundant Equipment 157 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Equipment Hazards 158 8.2.1 Unknown or Undocumented Condition 158 8.2.2 Dismantling Residual Chemical Hazards 158 8.2.3 Custody After Removal 160 8.3 Final Decommissioning Practices 160 8.3.1 Cleaning 160 8.3.2 Retaining Spare Equipment and Parts 161 8.3.3 Disposal of Chemicals 161 8.4 Dismantling and Disposal 162 8.4.1 Degassing 162 8.4.2 Inerting 162 8.4.3 Removal from Operating Facilities 163 8.4.4 Site Cleanup 163 8.4.5 Scrap Value 165 9. Onward and Beyond 167 Acronyms 169 References 173 Appendix A: Aging Asset Case Studies 177 Case Study 1: Gas Distribution Pipeline Explosion 177 Case Study 2: Mississippi Bridge Collapse 178 Case Study 3: Sinking Building Foundation 179 Case Study 4: Tailings Dam Failure 179 Case Study 5: Sinking of the Betelgeuse 180 Case Study 6: Alexander Kielland Drilling Rig Disaster 182 Case Study 7: Roof Collapse at Ore Processing Facility 182 Index 183

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Book SynopsisA unique text presenting practical information on the topic of nucleation and crystal growth processes from metastable solutions and melts Nucleation and Crystal Growth is a groundbreaking text thatoffers an overview and description of the processes and phenomena associated with metastability of solutions and melts. The authora noted expert in the fieldputs the emphasis on low-temperature solutions that are typically involved in crystallization in a wide range of industries. The text begins with a review of the basic knowledge of solutions and the fundamentals of crystallization processes. The author then explores topics related to the metastable state of solutions and melts from the standpoint of three-dimensional nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation and Crystal Growth is the first text that contains a unified description and discussion of the many processes and phenomena occurring in the metastable zone of solutions and melts from the considTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xix List of Frequently Used Symbols xxi 1 Structure and Properties of Liquids 1 1.1 Different States of Matter 1 1.2 Models of Liquid Structure 6 1.3 Water and Other Common Solvents 12 1.4 Properties of Solutions 15 1.4.1 The Solvation Process 17 1.4.2 The Concentration of Solutions 19 1.4.3 Density and Thermal Expansivity of Solutions 21 1.4.4 Viscosity of Solutions 27 1.5 Saturated Solutions 35 1.6 High-Temperature Solvents and Solutions 43 References 46 2 Three-dimensional Nucleation of Crystals and Solute Solubility 49 2.1 Driving Force for Phase Transition 49 2.2 3D Nucleation of Crystals 54 2.2.1 Nucleation Barrier 55 2.2.2 Nucleation Rate 56 2.2.3 3D Heterogeneous Nucleation 60 2.3 Ideal and Real Solubility 63 2.3.1 Basic Concepts 63 2.3.2 Examples of Experimental Data 68 2.3.3 Mathematical Representation of Solute Solubility in Solvent Mixtures 76 2.4 Solute Solubility as a Function of Solvent–Mixture Composition 78 2.4.1 A Simple Practical Approach 78 2.4.2 Physical Interpretation of the δ Factor and Solvent Activity 87 2.4.3 Preferential Solvation of Solute by Solvents 89 2.5 Solid–Solvent Interfacial Energy 92 2.6 Solubility and Supersolubility 96 References 101 3 Kinetics and Mechanism of Crystallization 105 3.1 Crystal Growth as a Kinetic Process 106 3.2 Types of Crystal–Medium Interfaces 107 3.3 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Roughening of Surfaces 108 3.4 Growth Kinetics of Rough Faces 111 3.5 Growth Kinetics of Perfect Smooth Faces 112 3.6 Growth Kinetics of Imperfect Smooth Faces 116 3.6.1 Surface Diffusion and Direct Integration Models 117 3.6.2 Bulk Diffusion Models 119 3.6.3 Growth at Edge Dislocations 120 3.7 Simultaneous Bulk-Diffusion and Surface-Reaction Controlled Growth 121 3.8 Effect of Impurities on Growth Kinetics 123 3.9 Overall Crystallization 127 3.9.1 Basic Theoretical Equations 129 3.9.2 Polynuclear Crystallization 133 3.9.2.1 Instantaneous Nucleation Mode 134 3.9.2.2 Progressive Nucleation Mode 135 3.9.2.3 Trends of Overall Crystallization Curves 136 3.9.2.4 Some Comments on the KJMA Theory 138 3.9.3 Mononuclear Crystallization 139 3.9.4 Effect of Additives on Overall Crystallization 139 References 140 4 Phase Transformation and Isothermal Crystallization Kinetics 145 4.1 Nucleation and Transformation of Metastable Phases 146 4.1.1 Thermodynamics of Crystallization of Metastable Phases 147 4.1.2 Transformation Kinetics of Metastable Phases 151 4.1.3 Transformation of Metastable Phases According to KJMA Theory 158 4.1.4 Effect of Solvent on Transformation of Metastable Phases 160 4.2 Some Non-KJMAModels of Isothermal Crystallization Kinetics 170 4.2.1 Approach Involving Formation of an Amorphous Precursor 170 4.2.2 Model of Mazzanti, Marangoni, and Idziak 175 4.2.3 Gompertz’s Model 178 4.2.4 Model of Foubert, Dewettinck, Jansen, and Vanrolleghem 179 4.3 Comparison of Different Models of Isothermal Crystallization Kinetics 181 References 186 5 Nonisothermal Crystallization Kinetics and the Metastable Zone Width 189 5.1 Theoretical Interpretations of MSZW 191 5.1.1 Nývlt’s Approach 192 5.1.2 Kubota’s Approach 194 5.1.3 Self-Consistent Nývlt-Like Equation of MSZW 195 5.1.4 Approach Based on the Classical Theory of 3D Nucleation 197 5.1.5 Approach Based on Progressive 3D Nucleation 199 5.1.6 Approach Based on Instantaneous 3D Nucleation 202 5.2 Experimental Results on MSZW of Solute−Solvent Systems 202 5.2.1 Dependence of Dimensionless Supercooling on Cooling Rate 204 5.2.2 Effect of Detection Technique on MSZW 210 5.2.3 Relationships between β and Z and between Φ and F 212 5.2.4 Relationship between Dimensionless F1 and Crystallization Temperature 220 5.2.5 Dependence of Parameters Φ and F on Saturation Temperature T9 222 5.2.6 Physical Significance of Esat and Its Relationship with ΔHs 225 5.2.7 The Nucleation Order m 230 5.3 Isothermal Crystallization 232 5.4 Effect of Additives on MSZW of Solutions 232 5.4.1 Some General Features 233 5.4.2 Theoretical Considerations 236 5.4.2.1 Approach Based on Classical Nucleation Theory 236 5.4.2.2 Final Expressions for Analysis of Experimental Data 238 5.4.3 Some Examples of Effect of Impurities on MSZW 239 5.4.3.1 Boric Acid Aqueous Solutions 239 5.4.3.2 KDP Aqueous Solutions 244 5.4.3.3 POP-Acetone Solutions Containing PPP Additive 246 5.4.4 Dependence of Maximum Supersaturation Ratio on Impurity Concentration 250 5.4.5 Solute-Additive Binding Energies and MSZW of Systems 252 5.5 Effects of Some Other Factors on MSZW of Solutions 255 5.5.1 Effect of Stirring and Ultrasound on MSZW 255 5.5.2 Effect of Solution Volume on MSZW 255 5.6 Nonisothermal Crystallization Kinetics in Melts 259 References 260 6 Antisolvent Crystallization and the Metastable Zone Width 267 6.1 Observation Techniques for Antisolvent Crystallization 268 6.2 Light Intensity Measurements 270 6.2.1 Some Experimental Data 270 6.2.2 Processes Involved in Antisolvent Crystallization 274 6.3 Temperature Measurements 276 6.3.1 Some Experimental Data 276 6.3.2 Kinetics of Temperature Increase 279 6.3.3 Physical Interpretation of Temperature Changes of ADP Solutions with Antisolvent Feeding Time at Different Rates 286 6.3.4 Origin of Two Minima and Maximum in Temperature Change ΔT During Antisolvent Crystallization 287 6.3.5 Relationship Between Different Temperature Changes, Antisolvent Feeding Rate, and Antisolvent Content 288 6.3.6 Comparison of Light-intensity and Temperature Measurements 291 6.4 Effect of Antisolvent Composition on Nucleation Rate 296 6.5 Different Approaches of MSZW 298 6.5.1 Modified Nývlt-like Approach 298 6.5.2 Kubota’s Approach 299 6.5.3 Another Derivation of Nývlt-like Equation 300 6.5.4 Approach Based on Classical Theory of 3D Nucleation 302 6.6 Experimental Data of MSZW in Antisolvent Crystallization 303 6.6.1 Analysis of Experimental Δxmax(RA) Data 304 6.6.2 Effect of Detection Technique on MSZW 312 6.6.3 Effect of Stirring on MSZW 315 6.6.4 Threshold and Limiting Antisolvent Addition Rates 318 6.7 Combined Antisolvent/Cooling Crystallization 319 References 321 7 Induction Period for Crystallization 325 7.1 Theoretical Background 327 7.1.1 Theoretical Interpretation of Induction Period 328 7.1.2 Some Other Relations 331 7.1.3 Basic Equations 333 7.2 Induction Period for Isothermal Crystallization 333 7.2.1 Crystallization from Solutions 333 7.2.2 Crystallization from the Melt 338 7.3 Induction Period in Antisolvent Crystallization 343 7.4 Induction Period for Nonisothermal Crystallization 345 7.4.1 Crystallization from Solutions 345 7.4.2 Effect of Impurities on Crystallization from Solutions 349 7.4.3 Crystallization from the Melt 354 References 358 8 Ostwald Ripening, Crystal Size Distribution, and Polymorph Selection 361 8.1 Supersaturation Decay During Antisolvent Crystallization 362 8.1.1 General Trends 362 8.1.2 Kinetics of Supersaturation Decay 362 8.1.3 Relationship between ConstantK and Antisolvent Feeding Rate RA 367 8.2 Solvation and Desolvation Processes 372 8.2.1 Origin of Minima in ΔTsw(t) Plots 373 8.2.2 Kinetics of Evolution of Minima in ΔTsw(t) Plots 374 8.3 Evolution of Desupersaturation Curves 383 8.4 Crystal Morphology 388 8.5 Growth Rate Dispersion 396 8.6 Ostwald Ripening 398 8.7 Crystal Size Distribution 403 8.8 Control of Phase and Size of Crystallizing Particles 412 References 417 9 Glass Formation and Crystallization Processes 423 9.1 Glass Formation by Cooling of Melts 424 9.2 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity and the Glass Transition Temperature 426 9.3 Composition Dependence of Glass Transition Temperature 431 9.4 Relationship between Glass Transition Temperature and Metastable Zone Width of Solutions 435 9.5 Metastable Zone Width of Melts and Glass Formation 438 9.5.1 Derivation of Basic Equations 438 9.5.2 Effect of Melt Viscosity and Additives on Z and F Parameters 441 9.5.3 Calculations of RLlim, Z, F, and TN for Molten Elements and Electrolytes 444 9.5.4 Relationship between Tg and Tm for Various Substances 446 9.5.5 Comparison of Cooling Behavior of Melts and Electrolyte Solutions 449 References 451 Appendix A Volumetric Thermal Expansion Coefficient of Melts 453 References 455 Appendix B Relationship between αV and Other Physical Properties 457 B.1 Molten Elements 457 B.2 Molten Halite-Type Electrolytes 457 Reference 461 Appendix C Relationship between Densities dm of Molten Metals and Electrolytes and Atomic Mass M 463 Reference 464 Index 465

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Book SynopsisLearn the fundamentals of materials design with this all-inclusive approach to the basics in the field Study of materials science is an important aspect of curricula at universities worldwide. This text is designed to serve students at a fundamental level, positioning materials design as an essential aspect of the study of electronics, medicine, and energy storage. Now in its 3rd edition, Principles of Inorganic Materials Design is an introduction to relevant topics including inorganic materials structure/property relations and material behaviors. The new edition now includes chapters on computational materials science, intermetallic compounds, and covalent compounds. The text is meant to aid students in their studies by providing additional tools to study the key concepts and understand recent developments in materials research. In addition to the many topics covered, the textbook includes: Accessible learning tools to help students better understand keTable of ContentsForeword to Second Edition xiii Foreword to First Edition xv Preface to Third Edition xix Preface to Second Edition xx Preface to First Edition xxi Acronyms xxiii 1 Crystallographic Considerations 1 1.1 Degrees of Crystallinity 1 1.1.1 Monocrystalline Solids 2 1.1.2 Quasicrystalline Solids 3 1.1.3 Polycrystalline Solids 4 1.1.4 Semicrystalline Solids 5 1.1.5 Amorphous Solids 8 1.2 Basic Crystallography 8 1.2.1 Crystal Geometry 8 1.2.1.1 Types of Crystallographic Symmetry 12 1.2.1.2 Space Group Symmetry 17 1.2.1.3 Lattice Planes and Directions 27 1.3 Single-Crystal Morphology and Its Relationship to Lattice Symmetry 32 1.4 Twinned Crystals, Grain Boundaries, and Bicrystallography 37 1.4.1 Twinned Crystals and Twinning 37 1.4.2 Crystallographic Orientation Relationships in Bicrystals 39 1.4.2.1 The Coincidence Site Lattice 39 1.4.2.2 Equivalent Axis–Angle Pairs 44 1.5 Amorphous Solids and Glasses 46 1.5.1 Oxide Glasses 49 1.5.2 Metallic Glasses and Metal–Organic Framework Glasses 51 1.5.3 Aerogels 53 Practice Problems 53 References 55 2 Microstructural Considerations 57 2.1 Materials Length Scales 57 2.1.1 Experimental Resolution of Material Features 61 2.2 Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline Materials 63 2.2.1 Grain Boundary Orientations 63 2.2.2 Dislocation Model of Low Angle Grain Boundaries 65 2.2.3 Grain Boundary Energy 66 2.2.4 Special Types of “Low-Energy” Boundaries 68 2.2.5 Grain Boundary Dynamics 69 2.2.6 Representing Orientation Distributions in Polycrystalline Aggregates 70 2.3 Materials Processing and Microstructure 72 2.3.1 Conventional Solidification 72 2.3.1.1 Grain Homogeneity 74 2.3.1.2 Grain Morphology 76 2.3.1.3 Zone Melting Techniques 78 2.3.2 Deformation Processing 79 2.3.3 Consolidation Processing 79 2.3.4 Thin-Film Formation 80 2.3.4.1 Epitaxy 81 2.3.4.2 Polycrystalline PVD Thin Films 81 2.3.4.3 Polycrystalline CVD Thin Films 83 2.4 Microstructure and Materials Properties 83 2.4.1 Mechanical Properties 83 2.4.2 Transport Properties 86 2.4.3 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 90 2.4.4 Chemical Properties 92 2.5 Microstructure Control and Design 93 Practice Problems 96 References 96 3 Crystal Structures and Binding Forces 99 3.1 Structure Description Methods 99 3.1.1 Close Packing 99 3.1.2 Polyhedra 103 3.1.3 The (Primitive) Unit Cell 103 3.1.4 Space Groups and Wyckoff Positions 104 3.1.5 Strukturbericht Symbols 104 3.1.6 Pearson Symbols 105 3.2 Cohesive Forces in Solids 106 3.2.1 Ionic Bonding 106 3.2.2 Covalent Bonding 108 3.2.3 Dative Bonds 110 3.2.4 Metallic Bonding 111 3.2.5 Atoms and Bonds as Electron Charge Density 112 3.3 Chemical Potential Energy 113 3.3.1 Lattice Energy for Ionic Crystals 114 3.3.2 The Born–Haber Cycle 119 3.3.3 Goldschmidt’s Rules and Pauling’s Rules 120 3.3.4 Total Energy 122 3.3.5 Electronic Origin of Coordination Polyhedra in Covalent Crystals 124 3.4 Common Structure Types 127 3.4.1 Iono-covalent Solids 128 3.4.1.1 AX Compounds 128 3.4.1.2 AX2 Compounds 130 3.4.1.3 AX6 Compounds 132 3.4.1.4 ABX2 Compounds 132 3.4.1.5 AB2X4 Compounds (Spinel and Olivine Structures) 134 3.4.1.6 ABX3 Compounds (Perovskite and Related Phases) 135 3.4.1.7 A2B2O5(ABO2.5) Compounds (Oxygen-Deficient Perovskites) 137 3.4.1.8 AxByOz Compounds (Bronzes) 139 3.4.1.9 A2B2X7 Compounds (Pyrochlores) 139 3.4.1.10 Silicate Compounds 140 3.4.1.11 Porous Structures 141 3.4.2 Metal Carbides, Silicides, Borides, Hydrides, and Nitrides 144 3.4.3 Metallic Alloys and Intermetallic Compounds 144 3.4.3.1 Zintl Phases 147 3.4.3.2 Nonpolar Binary Intermetallic Phases 149 3.4.3.3 Ternary Intermetallic Phases 151 3.5 Structural Disturbances 153 3.5.1 Intrinsic Point Defects 154 3.5.2 Extrinsic Point Defects 155 3.5.3 Structural Distortions 156 3.5.4 Bond Valence Sum Calculations 158 3.6 Structure Control and Synthetic Strategies 162 Practice Problems 165 References 167 4 The Electronic Level I: An Overview of Band Theory 171 4.1 The Many-Body Schrödinger Equation and Hartree–Fock 171 4.2 Choice of Boundary Conditions: Born’s Conditions 177 4.3 Free-Electron Model for Metals: From Drude (Classical) to Sommerfeld (Fermi–Dirac) 179 4.4 Bloch’s Theorem, Bloch Waves, Energy Bands, and Fermi Energy 180 4.5 Reciprocal Space and Brillouin Zones 182 4.6 Choices of Basis Sets and Band Structure with Applicative Examples 188 4.6.1 From the Free-Electron Model to the Plane Wave Expansion 189 4.6.2 Fermi Surface, Brillouin Zone Boundaries, and Alkali Metals versus Copper 191 4.6.3 Understanding Metallic Phase Stability in Alloys 193 4.6.4 The Localized Orbital Basis Set Method 195 4.6.5 Understanding Band Structure Diagram with Rhenium Trioxide 196 4.6.6 Probing DOS Band Structure in Metallic Alloys 199 4.7 Breakdown of the Independent-Electron Approximation 200 4.8 Density Functional Theory: The Successor to the Hartree–Fock Approach in Materials Science 202 4.9 The Continuous Quest for Better DFT XC Functionals 205 4.10 Van der Waals Forces and DFT 208 Practice Problems 210 References 210 5 The Electronic Level II: The Tight-Binding Electronic Structure Approximation 213 5.1 The General LCAO Method 214 5.2 Extension of the LCAO Treatment to Crystalline Solids 219 5.3 Orbital Interactions in Monatomic Solids 221 5.3.1 σ-Bonding Interactions 221 5.3.2 π-Bonding Interactions 225 5.4 Tight-Binding Assumptions 229 5.5 Qualitative LCAO Band Structures 232 5.5.1 Illustration 1: Transition Metal Oxides with Vertex-Sharing Octahedra 236 5.5.2 Illustration 2: Reduced Dimensional Systems 238 5.5.3 Illustration 3: Transition Metal Monoxides with Edge-Sharing Octahedra 240 5.5.4 Corollary 243 5.6 Total Energy Tight-Binding Calculations 244 Practice Problems 246 References 246 6 Transport Properties 249 6.1 An Introduction to Tensors 249 6.2 Microscopic Theory of Electrical Transport in Ceramics: The Role of Point Defects 254 6.2.1 Oxygen-Deficient/Metal Excess and Metal-Deficient/Oxygen Excess Oxides 256 6.2.2 Substitutions by Aliovalent Cations with Valence Isoelectronicity 261 6.2.3 Substitutions by Isovalent Cations That are Not Valence Isoelectronic 263 6.2.4 Nitrogen Vacancies in Nitrides 266 6.3 Thermal Conductivity 268 6.3.1 The Free Electron Contribution 269 6.3.2 The Phonon Contribution 271 6.4 Electrical Conductivity 274 6.4.1 Band Structure Considerations 278 6.4.1.1 Conductors 278 6.4.1.2 Insulators 279 6.4.1.3 Semiconductors 281 6.4.1.4 Semimetals 290 6.4.2 Thermoelectric, Photovoltaic, and Magnetotransport Properties 292 6.4.2.1 Thermoelectrics 292 6.4.2.2 Photovoltaics 298 6.4.2.3 Galvanomagnetic Effects and Magnetotransport Properties 301 6.4.3 Superconductors 303 6.4.4 Improving Bulk Electrical Conduction in Polycrystalline, Multiphasic, and Composite Materials 307 6.5 Mass Transport 308 6.5.1 Atomic Diffusion 309 6.5.2 Ionic Conduction 316 Practice Problems 321 References 322 7 Hopping Conduction and Metal–Insulator Transitions 325 7.1 Correlated Systems 327 7.1.1 The Mott–Hubbard Insulating State 329 7.1.2 Charge-Transfer Insulators 334 7.1.3 Marginal Metals 334 7.2 Anderson Localization 336 7.3 Experimentally Distinguishing Disorder from Electron Correlation 340 7.4 Tuning the M–I Transition 343 7.5 Other Types of Electronic Transitions 345 Practice Problems 347 References 347 8 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 349 8.1 Phenomenological Description of Magnetic Behavior 351 8.1.1 Magnetization Curves 354 8.1.2 Susceptibility Curves 355 8.2 Atomic States and Term Symbols of Free Ions 359 8.3 Atomic Origin of Paramagnetism 365 8.3.1 Orbital Angular Momentum Contribution: The Free Ion Case 366 8.3.2 Spin Angular Momentum Contribution: The Free Ion Case 367 8.3.3 Total Magnetic Moment: The Free Ion Case 368 8.3.4 Spin–Orbit Coupling: The Free Ion Case 368 8.3.5 Single Ions in Crystals 371 8.3.5.1 Orbital Momentum Quenching 371 8.3.5.2 Spin Momentum Quenching 373 8.3.5.3 The Effect of JT Distortions 373 8.3.6 Solids 374 8.4 Diamagnetism 376 8.5 Spontaneous Magnetic Ordering 377 8.5.1 Exchange Interactions 379 8.5.1.1 Direct Exchange and Superexchange Interactions in Magnetic Insulators 382 8.5.1.2 Indirect Exchange Interactions 387 8.5.2 Itinerant Ferromagnetism 390 8.5.3 Noncollinear Spin Configurations and Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy 394 8.5.3.1 Geometric Frustration 394 8.5.3.2 Magnetic Anisotropy 397 8.5.3.3 Magnetic Domains 398 8.5.4 Ferromagnetic Properties of Amorphous Metals 401 8.6 Magnetotransport Properties 401 8.6.1 The Double Exchange Mechanism 402 8.6.2 The Half-Metallic Ferromagnet Model 403 8.7 Magnetostriction 404 8.8 Dielectric Properties 405 8.8.1 The Microscopic Equations 407 8.8.2 Piezoelectricity 408 8.8.3 Pyroelectricity 414 8.8.4 Ferroelectricity 416 Practice Problems 421 References 422 9 Optical Properties of Materials 425 9.1 Maxwell’s Equations 425 9.2 Refractive Index 428 9.3 Absorption 436 9.4 Nonlinear Effects 441 9.5 Summary 446 Practice Problems 446 References 447 10 Mechanical Properties 449 10.1 Stress and Strain 449 10.2 Elasticity 452 10.2.1 The Elasticity Tensors 455 10.2.2 Elastically Isotropic and Anisotropic Solids 459 10.2.3 The Relation Between Elasticity and the Cohesive Forces in a Solid 465 10.2.3.1 Bulk Modulus 466 10.2.3.2 Rigidity (Shear) Modulus 467 10.2.3.3 Young’s Modulus 470 10.2.4 Superelasticity, Pseudoelasticity, and the Shape Memory Effect 473 10.3 Plasticity 475 10.3.1 The Dislocation-Based Mechanism to Plastic Deformation 481 10.3.2 Polycrystalline Metals 487 10.3.3 Brittle and Semi-brittle Solids 489 10.3.4 The Correlation Between the Electronic Structure and the Plasticity of Materials 490 10.4 Fracture 491 Practice Problems 494 References 495 11 Phase Equilibria, Phase Diagrams, and Phase Modeling 499 11.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Equilibrium 500 11.1.1 Equilibrium Thermodynamics 504 11.2 Thermodynamic Potentials and the Laws 507 11.3 Understanding Phase Diagrams 510 11.3.1 Unary Systems 510 11.3.2 Binary Systems 511 11.3.3 Ternary Systems 518 11.3.4 Metastable Equilibria 522 11.4 Experimental Phase Diagram Determinations 522 11.5 Phase Diagram Modeling 523 11.5.1 Gibbs Energy Expressions for Mixtures and Solid Solutions 524 11.5.2 Gibbs Energy Expressions for Phases with Long-Range Order 527 11.5.3 Other Contributions to the Gibbs Energy 530 11.5.4 Phase Diagram Extrapolations: The CALPHAD Method 531 Practice Problems 534 References 535 12 Synthetic Strategies 537 12.1 Synthetic Strategies 538 12.1.1 Direct Combination 538 12.1.2 Low Temperature 540 12.1.2.1 Sol–Gel 540 12.1.2.2 Solvothermal 543 12.1.2.3 Intercalation 544 12.1.3 Defects 546 12.1.4 Combinatorial Synthesis 548 12.1.5 Spinodal Decomposition 548 12.1.6 Thin Films 550 12.1.7 Photonic Materials 552 12.1.8 Nanosynthesis 553 12.1.8.1 Liquid Phase Techniques 554 12.1.8.2 Vapor/Aerosol Methods 556 12.1.8.3 Combined Strategies 556 12.2 Summary 558 Practice Problems 559 References 559 13 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 563 13.1 History of Nanotechnology 564 13.2 Nanomaterials Properties 565 13.2.1 Electrical Properties 566 13.2.2 Magnetic Properties 567 13.2.3 Optical Properties 567 13.2.4 Thermal Properties 568 13.2.5 Mechanical Properties 569 13.2.6 Chemical Reactivity 570 13.3 More on Nanomaterials Preparative Techniques 572 13.3.1 Top-Down Methods for the Fabrication of Nanocrystalline Materials 572 13.3.1.1 Nanostructured Thin Films 572 13.3.1.2 Nanocrystalline Bulk Phases 573 13.3.2 Bottom-Up Methods for the Synthesis of Nanostructured Solids 574 13.3.2.1 Precipitation 575 13.3.2.2 Hydrothermal Techniques 576 13.3.2.3 Micelle-Assisted Routes 577 13.3.2.4 Thermolysis, Photolysis, and Sonolysis 580 13.3.2.5 Sol–Gel Methods 581 13.3.2.6 Polyol Method 582 13.3.2.7 High-Temperature Organic Polyol Reactions (IBM Nanoparticle Synthesis) 584 13.3.2.8 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) 584 References 586 14 Introduction to Computational Materials Science 589 14.1 A Short History of Computational Materials Science 590 14.1.1 1945–1965: The Dawn of Computational Materials Science 591 14.1.2 1965–2000: Steady Progress Through Continued Advances in Hardware and Software 595 14.1.3 2000–Present: High-Performance and Cloud Computing 598 14.2 Spatial and Temporal Scales, Computational Expense, and Reliability of Solid-State Calculations 600 14.3 Illustrative Examples 604 14.3.1 Exploration of the Local Atomic Structure in Multi-principal Element Alloys by Quantum Molecular Dynamics 604 14.3.2 Magnetic Properties of a Series of Double Perovskite Oxides A2BCO6 (A = Sr, Ca; B = Cr; C = Mo, Re, W) by Monte Carlo Simulations in the Framework of the Ising Model 606 14.3.3 Crystal Plasticity Finite Element Method (CPFEM) Analysis for Modeling Plasticity in Polycrystalline Alloys 613 References 617 15 Case Study I: TiO2 619 15.1 Crystallography 619 15.2 Microstructure 623 15.3 Bonding 626 15.4 Electronic Structure 627 15.5 Transport 628 15.6 Metal–Insulator Transitions 632 15.7 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 632 15.8 Optical Properties 634 15.9 Mechanical Properties 635 15.10 Phase Equilibria 636 15.11 Synthesis 638 15.12 Nanomaterial 639 Practice Questions 639 References 640 16 Case Study II: GaN 643 16.1 Crystallography 643 16.2 Microstructure 646 16.3 Bonding 647 16.4 Electronic Structure 647 16.5 Transport 648 16.6 Metal–Insulator Transitions 650 16.7 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 652 16.8 Optical Properties 652 16.9 Mechanical Properties 653 16.10 Phase Equilibria 654 16.11 Synthesis 654 16.12 Nanomaterial 656 Practice Questions 657 References 658 Appendix A: List of the 230 Space Groups 659 Appendix B: The 32 Crystal Systems and the 47 Possible Forms 665 Appendix C: Principles of Tensors 667 Appendix D: Solutions to Practice Problems 679 Index 683

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive and versatile treatment of an important and complex topic in vehicle design Written by an expert in the field with over 30 years of NVH experience, Noise and Vibration Control of Automotive Body offers nine informative chapters on all of the core knowledge required for noise, vibration, and harshness engineers to do their job properly. It starts with an introduction to noise and vibration problems; transfer of structural-borne noise and airborne noise to interior body; key techniques for body noise and vibration control; and noise and vibration control during vehicle development. The book then goes on to cover all the noise and vibration issues relating to the automotive body, including: overall body structure; local body structure; sound package; excitations exerted on the body and transfer functions; wind noise; body sound quality; body squeak and rattle; and the vehicle development process for an automotive body. Vehicle noise and vibration is one of the most impoTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Automotive Body Structure and Noise and Vibration Problems 1 1.1.1 Automotive Body Structure 1 1.1.2 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Body Frame Structure 7 1.1.3 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Body Panel Structure 8 1.1.4 Interior Trimmed Structure and Sound Treatment 8 1.1.5 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Body Accessory Structures 9 1.2 Transfer of Structural‐Borne Noise and Airborne Noise to Interior 10 1.2.1 Description of Vehicle Noise and Vibration Sources 10 1.2.2 Structural‐Borne Noise and Airborne Noise 11 1.2.3 Transfer of Noise and Vibration Sources to Interior 13 1.3 Key Techniques for Body Noise and Vibration Control 14 1.3.1 Vibration and Control of Overall Body Structure 15 1.3.2 Vibration and Sound Radiation of Body Local Structures 17 1.3.3 Sound Package for Vehicle Body 24 1.3.4 Body Noise and Vibration Sensitivity 28 1.3.5 Wind Noise and Control 32 1.3.6 Door Closing Sound Quality and Control 35 1.3.7 Squeak and Rattle of Vehicle Body 38 1.4 Noise and Vibration Control During Vehicle Development 39 1.4.1 Modal Frequency Distribution for Vehicle Body 40 1.4.2 Body NVH Target System 41 1.4.3 Execution of Body NVH Targets 42 1.5 Structure of This Book 42 2 Vibration Control of Overall Body Structure 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.1.1 Overall Body Stiffness 45 2.1.2 Overall Body Modes 48 2.1.3 Scopes of Overall Body Vibration Research 50 2.2 Overall Body Stiffness 51 2.2.1 Body Bending Stiffness 52 2.2.2 Body Torsional Stiffness 57 2.3 Control of Overall Body Stiffness 61 2.3.1 Overall Layout of a Body Structure 62 2.3.2 Body Frame Cross‐Section and Stiffness Analysis 65 2.3.3 Joint Stiffness 67 2.3.4 Influence of Adhesive Bonding Stiffness on Overall Body Stiffness 71 2.3.5 Contribution Analysis of Beams and Joints on Overall Body Stiffness 72 2.4 Identification of Overall Body Modes 75 2.4.1 Foundation of Modal Analysis 75 2.4.2 Modal Shape and Frequency of Vehicle Body 78 2.4.3 Modal Testing for Vehicle Body 84 2.4.4 Calculation of Vehicle Body Mode 89 2.5 Control of Overall Body Modes 91 2.5.1 Separation and Decoupling of Body Modes 91 2.5.2 Planning Table/Chart of Body Modes 93 2.5.3 Control of Overall Body Modes 98 Bibliography 101 3 Noise and Vibration Control for Local Body Structures 103 3.1 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Vehicle Local Structures 103 3.1.1 Classification and Modes of Local Body Structures 103 3.1.2 Noise and Vibration Problems Generated by Local Modes 104 3.1.3 Control Strategy for Local Modes 111 3.2 Body Plate Vibration and Sound Radiation 112 3.2.1 Vibration of Plate Structure 113 3.2.2 Sound Radiation of Plate Structure 116 3.3 Body Acoustic Cavity Mode 120 3.3.1 Definition and Shapes of Acoustic Cavity Mode 120 3.3.2 Theoretical Analysis and Measurement of Acoustic Cavity Mode 122 3.3.3 Coupling of Acoustic Cavity Mode and Structural Mode 129 3.3.4 Control of Acoustic Cavity Mode 130 3.4 Panel Contribution Analysis 131 3.4.1 Concept of Panel Contribution 131 3.4.2 Contribution Analysis of Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 132 3.4.3 Testing Methods for Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 136 3.5 Damping Control for Structural Vibration and Sound Radiation 145 3.5.1 Damping Phenomenon and Description 145 3.5.2 Damping Models 146 3.5.3 Loss Factor 149 3.5.4 Characteristics of Viscoelastic Damping Materials 150 3.5.5 Classification of Body Damping Materials and Damping Structures 153 3.5.6 Measurement of Damping Loss Factor 157 3.5.7 Application of Damping Materials and Structures on Vehicle Body 159 3.6 Stiffness Control for Body Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 162 3.6.1 Mechanism of Stiffness Control 164 3.6.2 Tuning of Plate Stiffness 166 3.6.3 Influence of Plate Stiffness Tuning on Sound Radiation 170 3.6.4 Case Study of Body Stiffness Tuning 170 3.7 Mass Control for Body Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 175 3.7.1 Mechanism of Mass Control 175 3.7.2 Application of Mass Control 175 3.8 Damper Control for Body Vibration and Sound Radiation 179 3.8.1 Mechanism of Dynamic Damper 179 3.8.2 Application of Dynamic Damper to Attenuate Interior Booming 181 3.9 Noise and Vibration for Body Accessory Components 182 3.9.1 Bracket Mode and Control 182 3.9.2 Control of Steering System Vibration 185 3.9.3 Control of Seat Vibration 190 Bibliography 195 4 Sound Package 201 4.1 Introduction 201 4.1.1 Transfer of Airborne‐Noise to Passenger Compartment 201 4.1.2 Scopes of Sound Package Research 202 4.2 Body Sealing 203 4.2.1 Importance of Sealing 203 4.2.2 Static Sealing and Dynamic Sealing 207 4.2.3 Measurement of Static Sealing 207 4.2.4 Control of Static Sealing 210 4.3 Sound Absorptive Materials 216 4.3.1 Sound Absorption Mechanism and Sound Absorption Coefficient 216 4.3.2 Porous Sound Absorptive Material 217 4.3.3 Resonant Sound Absorption Structure 222 4.3.4 Measurement of Sound Absorption Coefficient 224 4.4 Sound Insulation Materials and Structures 229 4.4.1 Mechanism of Sound Insulation and Sound Transmission Loss 229 4.4.2 Sound Insulation of Single Plate 230 4.4.3 Sound Insulation of Double Plate 233 4.4.4 Measurement of Sound Insulation Materials 236 4.5 Application of Sound Package 240 4.5.1 Application of Sound Absorptive Materials and Structures 241 4.5.2 Application of Combination of Sound Insulation Structures and Sound Absorptive Materials 247 4.5.3 Application of Sound Baffle Material 252 4.6 Statistical Energy Analysis and Its Application 254 4.6.1 Concepts of Statistical Energy Analysis 255 4.6.2 Theory of Statistical Energy Analysis 256 4.6.3 Assumptions and Applications of Statistical Energy Analysis 258 4.6.4 Loss Factor 260 4.6.5 Input Power 263 4.6.6 Application of Statistical Energy Analysis on Vehicle Body 264 Bibliography 267 5 Vehicle Body Sensitivity Analysis and Control 273 5.1 Introduction 273 5.1.1 System and Transfer Function 273 5.1.2 Vibration and Sound Excitation Points on Vehicle Body 275 5.1.3 Response Points 278 5.1.4 Body Sensitivity 278 5.2 Source– Transfer Path–Response Model for Vehicle Body 280 5.2.1 Source–Transfer Path–Response Model 280 5.2.2 Source–Transfer Function–Vibration Model for Vehicle Body 280 5.2.3 Source−Transfer Function−Noise Model for Vehicle Body 281 5.3 Characteristics and Analysis of Noise and Vibration Sources 284 5.3.1 Excitation Characteristics of Engine and Related Systems 284 5.3.2 Excitation Characteristics of Drivetrain System 286 5.3.3 Excitation Characteristics of Tires 291 5.3.4 Excitation Characteristics of Rotary Machines 293 5.3.5 Excitation Characteristics of Random or Impulse Inputs 294 5.4 Dynamic Stiffness and Input Point Inertance 295 5.4.1 Mechanical Impedance and Mobility 295 5.4.2 Driving Point Dynamic Stiffness 296 5.4.3 IPI and Driving Point Dynamic Stiffness 298 5.4.4 Control of Driving Point Dynamic Stiffness 301 5.5 Vibration− Vibration Sensitivity and Sound−Vibration Sensitivity 304 5.5.1 Transfer Processing of Vibration Sources to Interior Vibration and Vibration−Vibration Sensitivity 304 5.5.2 Transfer Processing of Vibration Sources to Interior Noise and Sound−Vibration Sensitivity 308 5.5.3 Sensitivity Control 311 5.5.4 Sensitivity Targets 315 5.6 Sound− Sound Sensitivity and Control 316 5.6.1 Sound Transmission from Outside Body to Interior 316 5.6.2 Expression of Sound−Sound Sensitivity 317 5.6.3 Targets and Control of Sound−Sound Sensitivity 322 Bibliography 323 6 Wind Noise 327 6.1 Introduction 327 6.1.1 Problems Induced by Wind Noise 327 6.1.2 Sound Sources and Classification of Wind Noise 328 6.2 Mechanism of Wind Noise 331 6.2.1 Pulsating Noise 331 6.2.2 Aspiration Noise 333 6.2.3 Buffeting Noise 336 6.2.4 Cavity Noise 338 6.3 Control Strategy for Wind Noise 339 6.3.1 Transfer Paths of Wind Noise 339 6.3.2 Control Strategy of Wind Noise 341 6.4 Body Overall Styling and Wind Noise Control 343 6.4.1 Ideal Body Overall Styling 343 6.4.2 Design of Transition Region between Front Grill and Engine Hook 345 6.4.3 Design in Area between Engine Hood and Front Windshield 346 6.4.4 Design of A‐Pillar Area 347 6.4.5 Design of Transition Area of Roof, Rear Windshield, and Trunk Lid 352 6.4.6 Underbody Design 353 6.4.7 Design in an Area of Wheelhouse and Body Side Panel 354 6.5 Body Local Design and Wind Noise Control 354 6.5.1 Principles for Body Local Structure Design 354 6.5.2 Design of Side Mirror and Its Connection with Body 355 6.5.3 Sunroof Design and Wind Noise Control 359 6.5.4 Antenna Design and Wind Noise Control 361 6.5.5 Design of Roof Luggage Rack 363 6.5.6 Control of Other Appendages and Outside Cavity 364 6.6 Dynamic Sealing and Control 365 6.6.1 Dynamic Sealing and Its Importance 365 6.6.2 Expression for Dynamic Sealing 366 6.6.3 Dynamic Sealing between Door and Body 368 6.6.4 Control of Dynamic Sealing 371 6.7 Measurement and Evaluation of Wind Noise 373 6.7.1 Wind Noise Testing in Wind Tunnel 373 6.7.2 Wind Noise Testing on Road 378 6.7.3 Evaluation of Wind Noise 379 6.8 Analysis of Wind Noise 380 6.8.1 Relationship Between Aerodynamic Acoustics and Classical Acoustics 380 6.8.2 Lighthill Acoustic Analogy Theory 381 6.8.3 Lighthill‐Curl Acoustic Analogy Theory 382 6.8.4 Solution of Aerodynamic Equations 383 6.8.5 Simulation of Wind Noise 383 Bibliography 384 7 Door Closing Sound Quality 389 7.1 Vehicle Sound Quality 389 7.1.1 Concept of Sound Quality 389 7.1.2 Automotive Sound Quality 390 7.1.3 Importance of Automotive Sound Quality 391 7.1.4 Scope of Sound Quality 392 7.2 Evaluation Indexes of Sound Quality 393 7.2.1 Description of Psychoacoustics 393 7.2.2 Evaluation Indexes of Psychoacoustics 395 7.2.3 Critical Band 397 7.2.4 Loudness 398 7.2.5 Sharpness 402 7.2.6 Modulation, Fluctuation, and Roughness 404 7.2.7 Tonality 409 7.2.8 Articulation Index 409 7.2.9 Sound Masking 411 7.3 Evaluation Indexes of Automotive Sound Quality 413 7.3.1 Classification of Automotive Sound Quality 413 7.3.2 Indexes Used to Describe Automotive Sound Quality 415 7.3.3 Indexes Used to Describe System Sound Quality 416 7.4 Evaluation of Door Closing Sound Quality 417 7.4.1 Importance of Door Closing Sound Quality 417 7.4.2 Subjective Evaluation of Door Closing Sound Quality 417 7.4.3 Objective Evaluation of Door Closing Sound Quality 419 7.4.4 Relation between Subjective Evaluation and Objective Evaluation 423 7.5 Structure and Noise Source of Door Closing System 424 7.5.1 Structure of Door Closing System 424 7.5.2 Noise Sources of Door Closing 426 7.6 Control of Door Closing Sound Quality 428 7.6.1 Control of Door Panel Structure 428 7.6.2 Control of Door Lock 430 7.6.3 Control of Sealing System 432 7.7 Design Procedure and Example Analysis for Door Closing Sound Quality 432 7.7.1 Design Procedure for Door Closing Sound Quality 432 7.7.2 Analysis of Factors Influencing on Loudness, Sharpness, and Ring‐Down 434 7.7.3 Example Analysis of Door Closing Sound Quality 435 7.8 Sound Quality for Other Body Components 437 Bibliography 438 8 Squeak and Rattle Control in Vehicle Body 441 8.1 Introduction 441 8.1.1 What Is Squeak and Rattle? 441 8.1.2 Components Generating Squeak and Rattle 442 8.1.3 Importance of Squeak and Rattle 442 8.1.4 Mechanism of Squeak and Rattle 442 8.1.5 Identification and Control of Squeak and Rattle 443 8.2 Mechanism and Influence Factors of Squeak 444 8.2.1 Mechanism of Squeak 444 8.2.2 Factors Influencing Squeak 447 8.3 Mechanism and Influence Factors of Rattle 449 8.3.1 Mechanism of Rattle 449 8.3.2 Factors Influencing Rattle 450 8.4 CAE Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 452 8.4.1 Analysis of Stiffness, Mode, and Deformation of Body and Door 453 8.4.2 Modal Analysis of Body Subsystems 455 8.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 458 8.4.4 Dynamic Response Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 460 8.5 Subjective Evaluation and Testing of Squeak and Rattle 461 8.5.1 Subjective Identification and Evaluation of Squeak and Rattle 462 8.5.2 Objective Testing and Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 467 8.6 Control of Body Squeak and Rattle 471 8.6.1 Control Strategy during Vehicle Development 471 8.6.2 Body Structure‐Integrated Design and S&R Control 472 8.6.3 DMU Checking for Body S&R Prevention 476 8.6.4 Matching of Material Friction Pairs 477 8.6.5 Control of Manufacture Processes 478 8.6.6 Squeak and Rattle Issues for High Mileage Vehicle 478 8.6.7 Squeak and Rattle at High Mileage 479 Bibliography 480 9 Targets for Body Noise and Vibration 483 9.1 Target System for Vehicle Noise and Vibration 483 9.1.1 Period for Vehicle Development and Targets 483 9.1.2 Factors Influencing on Target Setting 485 9.1.3 Principles of Target Setting and Cascading 486 9.1.4 Principles of Modal Separation 488 9.1.5 Target System of Body NVH 489 9.2 NVH Targets for Vehicle‐Level Body 490 9.2.1 Vehicle‐Level Body NVH Targets 490 9.2.2 Vibration Targets for Vehicle‐Level Body 490 9.2.3 Noise Targets for Vehicle‐Level Body 491 9.3 NVH Targets for Trimmed Body 492 9.3.1 NVH Characteristics of Trimmed Body 492 9.3.2 Vibration Targets of Trimmed Body 493 9.3.3 Noise Targets for Trimmed Body 493 9.4 NVH Targets for Body‐in‐White 494 9.4.1 NVH Characteristics of BIW 494 9.4.2 Vibration Targets of BIW 495 9.4.3 Noise Target of BIW 496 9.5 NVH Targets for Body Components 496 9.5.1 Component‐Level Vibration Targets 497 9.5.2 Component‐Level Noise Target 497 9.5.3 Noise and Vibration Targets of Door 497 9.6 Execution and Realization of Body Targets 498 9.6.1 Control at Phase of Target Setting and Cascading 498 9.6.2 Target Checking at Milestones 499 9.6.3 CAE Analysis and DMU Checking 500 9.6.4 NVH Control for BIW 501 9.6.5 NVH Control for Trimmed Body and Full Vehicle 501 Bibliography 501 Index 503

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Book SynopsisA groundbreaking guide dedicated exclusively to the MCRT method in radiation heat transfer and applied optics The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Method in Radiation Heat Transfer and Applied Optics offers the most modern and up-to-date approach to radiation heat transfer modelling and performance evaluation of optical instruments. The Monte Carlo ray-trace (MCRT) method is based on the statistically predictable behavior of entities, called rays, which describe the paths followed by energy bundles as they are emitted, reflected, scattered, refracted, diffracted and ultimately absorbed. The author a noted expert on the subject covers a wide variety of topics including the mathematics and statistics of ray tracing, the physics of thermal radiation, basic principles of geometrical and physical optics, radiant heat exchange among surfaces and within participating media, and the statistical evaluation of uncertainty of results obtained using the method. The booTable of ContentsSeries Preface xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Fundamentals of Ray Tracing 1 1.1 Rays and Ray Segments 1 1.2 The Enclosure 2 1.3 Mathematical Preliminaries 2 1.4 Ideal Models for Emission, Reflection, and Absorption of Rays 11 1.5 Scattering and Refraction 17 1.6 Meshing and Indexing 18 Problems 21 Reference 28 2 Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation 29 2.1 Thermal Radiation 29 2.2 Terminology 31 2.3 Intensity of Radiation (Radiance) 32 2.4 Directional Spectral Emissive Power 34 2.5 Hemispherical Spectral Emissive Power 34 2.6 Hemispherical Total Emissive Power 34 2.7 The Blackbody Radiation Distribution Function 35 2.8 Blackbody Properties 38 2.9 Emission and Absorption Mechanisms 40 2.10 Definition of Models for Emission, Absorption, and Reflection 42 2.11 Introduction to the Radiation Behavior of Surfaces 52 2.12 Radiation Behavior of Surfaces Composed of Electrical Non-Conductors (Dielectrics) 54 2.13 Radiation Behavior of Surfaces Composed of Electrical Conductors (Metals) 59 Problems 61 References 65 3 The Radiation Distribution Factor for Diffuse-Specular Gray Surfaces 67 3.1 The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace (MCRT) Method and the Radiation Distribution Factor 67 3.2 Properties of the Total Radiation Distribution Factor 68 3.3 Estimation of the Distribution Factor Matrix Using the MCRT Method 69 3.4 Binning of Rays on a Surface Element; Illustrative Example 83 3.5 Case Study: Thermal and Optical Analysis of a Radiometric Instrument 85 3.6 Use of Radiation Distribution Factors for the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 94 3.7 Use of Radiation Distribution Factors When Some Surface Net Heat Fluxes Are Specified 96 Problems 97 Reference 101 4 Extension of the MCRT Method to Non-Diffuse, Non-Gray Enclosures 103 4.1 Bidirectional Spectral Surfaces 103 4.2 Principles Underlying a Practical Bidirectional Reflection Model 106 4.3 First Example: A Highly Absorptive Surface Whose Reflectivity is Strongly Specular 109 4.4 Second Example: A Highly Reflective Surface Whose Reflectivity is Strongly Diffuse 119 4.5 The Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor 127 4.6 Use of the Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor for the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 133 4.7 Use of the Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor for the Case of One or More Specified Surface Net Heat Fluxes 134 Problems 138 References 142 5 The MCRT Method for Participating Media 143 5.1 Radiation in a Participating Medium 143 5.2 Example: The Absorption Filter 146 5.3 Ray Tracing in a Participating Medium 154 5.4 Estimating the Radiation Distribution Factors in Participating Media 171 5.5 Using the Radiation Distribution Factors When All Temperatures are Specified 172 5.6 Using the Radiation Distribution Factors for a Mixture of Specified Temperatures and Specified Heat Transfer Rates 173 5.7 Simulating Infrared Images 175 Problems 178 References 179 6 Extension of the MCRT Method to Physical Optics 183 6.1 Some Ideas from Physical Optics 183 6.2 Geometrical Versus Physical Optics 185 6.3 Anatomy of a Ray Suitable for Physical Optics Applications 186 6.4 Modeling of Polarization Effects: A Case Study 187 6.5 Diffraction and Interference Effects: A Case Study 195 6.6 Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Diffraction Based on the Huygens–Fresnel Principle 198 Problems 209 References 210 7 Statistical Estimation of Uncertainty in the MCRT Method 213 7.1 Statement of the Problem 213 7.2 Statistical Inference 214 7.3 Hypothesis Testing for Population Means 218 7.4 Confidence Intervals for Population Proportions 220 7.5 Effects of Uncertainties in the Enclosure Geometry and Surface Models 224 7.6 Single-Sample versus Multiple-Sample Experiments 225 7.7 Evaluation of Aggravated Uncertainty 226 7.8 Uncertainty in Temperature and Heat Transfer Results 227 7.9 Application to the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 229 7.10 Experimental Design of MCRT Algorithms 232 Problems 237 References 239 A Random Number Generators and Autoregression Analysis 241 A.1 Pseudo-Random Number Generators 242 A.2 Properties of a “Good” Pseudo-Random Number Generator 242 A.3 A “Minimal Standard” Pseudo-Random Number Generator 245 A.4 Autoregression Analysis 247 Problems 253 References 254 Index 255

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 1 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 4 1.2.1 Systems of Units 7 1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior 12 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 12 1.4.1 Density 12 1.4.2 Specific Weight 14 1.4.3 Specific Gravity 14 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 14 1.6 Viscosity 17 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 23 1.7.1 Bulk Modulus 23 1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases 24 1.7.3 Speed of Sound 25 1.8 Vapor Pressure 26 1.9 Surface Tension 27 1.10 A Brief Look Back in History 30 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 32 References 34 2 Fluid Statics 35 Learning Objectives 35 2.1 Pressure at a Point 35 2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field 36 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 38 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid 39 2.3.2 Compressible Fluid 42 2.4 Standard Atmosphere 43 2.5 Measurement of Pressure 45 2.6 Manometry 47 2.6.1 Piezometer Tube 47 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer 48 2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer 50 2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices 51 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 54 2.9 Pressure Prism 60 2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface 63 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 65 2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle 65 2.11.2 Stability 68 2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 70 2.12.1 Linear Motion 70 2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation 72 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 74 References 75 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 76 Learning Objectives 76 3.1 Newton’s Second Law 76 3.2 F = ma along a Streamline 79 3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline 83 3.4 Physical Interpretations and Alternate Forms of the Bernoulli Equation 85 3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 88 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 93 3.6.1 Free Jets 93 3.6.2 Confined Flows 96 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement 102 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line 106 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 109 3.8.1 Compressibility Effects 109 3.8.2 Unsteady Effects 110 3.8.3 Rotational Effects 111 3.8.4 Other Restrictions 112 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 113 References 114 4 Fluid Kinematics 115 Learning Objectives 115 4.1 The Velocity Field 115 4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions 118 4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 119 4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 120 4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines 120 4.2 The Acceleration Field 124 4.2.1 Acceleration and the Material Derivative 124 4.2.2 Unsteady Effects 127 4.2.3 Convective Effects 127 4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates 130 4.3 Control Volume and System Representations 132 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 134 4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem 136 4.4.2 Physical Interpretation 141 4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative 141 4.4.4 Steady Effects 142 4.4.5 Unsteady Effects 142 4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes 143 4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume 145 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 145 References 146 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis 147 Learning Objectives 147 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 148 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation 148 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume 150 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume 156 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 158 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 160 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation 160 5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation 161 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 174 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 176 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 182 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation 182 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation 185 5.3.3 The Mechanical Energy Equation and the Bernoulli Equation 189 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows 195 5.3.5 Comparison of Various Forms of the Energy Equation 197 5.3.6 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 199 5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics—Irreversible Flow 200 5.4.1 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy Equation 200 5.4.2 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 201 5.4.3 Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 202 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 203 References 204 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow 205 Learning Objectives 205 6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 206 6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited 206 6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation 207 6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation 208 6.2 Conservation of Mass 211 6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity Equation 211 6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 214 6.2.3 The Stream Function 214 6.3 The Linear Momentum Equation 217 6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element 218 6.3.2 Equations of Motion 220 6.4 Inviscid Flow 221 6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion 221 6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation 222 6.4.3 Irrotational Flow 223 6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow 225 6.4.5 The Velocity Potential 226 6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows 228 6.5.1 Uniform Flow 230 6.5.2 Source and Sink 230 6.5.3 Vortex 232 6.5.4 Doublet 235 6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows 237 6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body 237 6.6.2 Rankine Ovals 240 6.6.3 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder 242 6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis 248 6.8 Viscous Flow 248 6.8.1 Stress–Deformation Relationships 249 6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations 249 6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Laminar, Viscous, Incompressible Flows 251 6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates 251 6.9.2 Couette Flow 253 6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes 255 6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus 258 6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis 260 6.10.1 Numerical Methods 260 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 261 References 262 7 Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling 263 Learning Objectives 263 7.1 The Need for Dimensional Analysis 264 7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 266 7.3 Determination of Pi Terms 267 7.4 Some Additional Comments about Dimensional Analysis 273 7.4.1 Selection of Variables 273 7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions 274 7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms 276 7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection 276 7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 278 7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data 283 7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term 283 7.7.2 Problems with Two or More Pi Terms 284 7.8 Modeling and Similitude 286 7.8.1 Theory of Models 287 7.8.2 Model Scales 290 7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models 291 7.9 Some Typical Model Studies 293 7.9.1 Flow Through Closed Conduits 293 7.9.2 Flow Around Immersed Bodies 295 7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface 299 7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations 302 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 305 References 306 8 Viscous Flow in Pipes 307 Learning Objectives 307 8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 308 8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow 309 8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow 311 8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 312 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 313 8.2.1 From F = ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element 314 8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes Equations 318 8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis 319 8.2.4 Energy Considerations 320 8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 322 8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 322 8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress 324 8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile 329 8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling 332 8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence 333 8.4 Pipe Flow Losses via Dimensional Analysis 333 8.4.1 Major Losses 333 8.4.2 Minor Losses 339 8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits 348 8.5 Pipe Flow Examples 351 8.5.1 Single Pipes 351 8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems 360 8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement 364 8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters 364 8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters 369 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 370 References 372 9 Flow over Immersed Bodies 373 Learning Objectives 373 9.1 General External Flow Characteristics 374 9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts 375 9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 378 9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 382 9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate 382 9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution 385 9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate 389 9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 394 9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 396 9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient 399 9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient 404 9.3 Drag 405 9.3.1 Friction Drag 405 9.3.2 Pressure Drag 407 9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples 409 9.4 Lift 422 9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution 424 9.4.2 Circulation 429 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 434 References 435 10 Open-Channel Flow 437 Learning Objectives 437 10.1 General Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 437 10.2 Surface Waves 439 10.2.1 Wave Speed 439 10.2.2 Froude Number Effects 442 10.3 Energy Considerations 444 10.3.1 Energy Balance 444 10.3.2 Specific Energy 445 10.4 Uniform Flow 448 10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations 448 10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations 449 10.4.3 Uniform Flow Examples 451 10.5 Gradually Varied Flow 457 10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow 458 10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump 460 10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs 464 10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs 467 10.6.4 Underflow (Sluice) Gates 470 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 471 References 472 11 Compressible Flow 473 Learning Objectives 473 11.1 Ideal Gas Thermodynamics 474 11.2 Stagnation Properties 479 11.3 Mach Number and Speed of Sound 480 11.4 Compressible Flow Regimes 485 11.5 Shock Waves 489 11.5.1 Normal Shock 489 11.6 Isentropic Flow 495 11.6.1 Steady Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 495 11.6.2 Incompressible Flow and the Bernoulli Equation 498 11.6.3 The Critical State 500 11.7 One-Dimensional Flow in a Variable Area Duct 500 11.7.1 General Considerations 501 11.7.2 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas with Area Change 504 11.7.3 Operation of a Converging Nozzle 510 11.7.4 Operation of a Converging–Diverging Nozzle 512 11.8 Constant-Area Duct Flow with Friction 516 11.8.1 Preliminary Consideration: Comparison with Incompressible Duct Flow 516 11.8.2 The Fanno Line 517 11.8.3 Adiabatic Frictional Flow (Fanno Flow) of an Ideal Gas 520 11.9 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Heating or Cooling 528 11.9.1 The Rayleigh Line 528 11.9.2 Frictionless Flow of an Ideal Gas with Heating or Cooling (Rayleigh Flow) 531 11.9.3 Rayleigh Lines, Fanno Lines, and Normal Shocks 534 11.10 Analogy Between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows 535 11.11 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow 536 11.12 Effects of Compressibility in External Flow 538 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 541 References 544 12 Turbomachines 545 Learning Objectives 545 12.1 Introduction 546 12.2 Basic Energy Considerations 547 12.3 Angular Momentum Considerations 551 12.4 The Centrifugal Pump 553 12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations 554 12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 558 12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 560 12.4.4 System Characteristics, Pump-System Matching, and Pump Selection 562 12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws 566 12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws 568 12.5.2 Specific Speed 569 12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed 570 12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps 571 12.7 Fans 573 12.8 Turbines 574 12.8.1 Impulse Turbines 575 12.8.2 Reaction Turbines 582 12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 585 12.9.1 Compressors 585 12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines 589 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 591 References 593 Appendix A Computational Fluid Dynamics 594 Appendix B Physical Properties of Fluids 613 Appendix C Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 618 Appendix D Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 620 Appendix E Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors 628 Questions and Problems SP-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisA GUIDE TO THE FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND PRACTICE OF OPTICAL COMMUNICATION Fiber Optic and Atmospheric Optical Communication offers a much needed guide to characterizing and overcoming the drawbacks associated with optical communication links that suffer from various types of fading when optical signals with information traverse these wireless (atmospheric) or wired (fiber optic) channels. The authorsnoted experts on the topicpresent material that aids in predicting the capacity, data rate, spectral efficiency, and bit-error-rate associated with a channel that experiences fading. They review modulation techniques and methods of coding and decoding that are useful when implementing communications systems. The book also discusses how to model the channels, including treating distortion due to the various fading phenomena. Light waves and their similarity to radio waves are explored, and the way light propagates through the atmosphere, through materials, and through the boundary between two materials is explained. This important book: Characterizes principal optical sources and detectors, including descriptions of their advantages and disadvantages, to show how to design systems from start to finishProvides a new method of predicting and dealing with the dispersive properties of fiber optic cables and other optical guiding structures in order to increase data stream capacityHighlights effects of material and multimode (multi-ray) dispersion during propagation of optical signals with data through fiber optic channelsPresents modulation techniques and methods of coding and decoding that are useful when implementing communications systems Written for professionals dealing with optical and electro-optical communications, Fiber Optic and Atmospheric Optical Communication explores the theory and practice of optical communication both when the optical signal is propagating through the atmosphere and when it is propagating through an optical fiber.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations xvii Nomenclature xix Part I Optical Communication Link Fundamentals 1 1 Basic Elements of Optical Communication 3 1.1 Spectrum of Optical Waves 3 1.2 Optical Communication in Historical Perspective 4 1.3 Optical Communication Link Presentation 5 References 8 2 Optical Wave Propagation 11 2.1 Similarity of Optical and Radio Waves 11 2.2 Electromagnetic Aspects of Optical Wave Propagation 13 2.3 Propagation of Optical Waves in Free Space 16 2.4 Propagation of Optical Waves Through the Boundary of Two Media 16 2.4.1 Boundary Conditions 16 2.4.2 Main Formulations of Reflection and Refraction Coefficients 17 2.5 Total Intrinsic Reflection in Optics 20 2.6 Propagation of Optical Waves in Material Media 23 2.6.1 Imperfect Dielectric Medium 25 2.6.2 Good Conductor Medium 25 Problems 25 References 28 Part II Fundamentals of Optical Communication 29 3 Types of Signals in Optical Communication Channels 31 3.1 Types of Optical Signals 31 3.1.1 Narrowband Optical Signals 31 3.1.2 Wideband Optical Signals 34 3.2 Mathematical Description of Narrowband Signals 35 3.3 Mathematical Description of Wideband Signals 39 References 41 4 An Introduction to the Principles of Coding and Decoding of Discrete Signals 43 4.1 Basic Concepts of Coding and Decoding 43 4.1.1 General Communication Scheme 43 4.1.2 The Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC) 45 4.1.3 Channel Model with AWGN 46 4.2 Basic Aspects of Coding and Decoding 47 4.2.1 Criteria of Coding 47 4.2.2 Code Parameters for Error Correction 50 4.2.3 Linear Codes 51 4.2.4 Estimation of Error Probability of Decoding 54 4.3 Codes with Algebraic Decoding 56 4.3.1 Cyclic Codes 56 4.3.2 BCH Codes 57 4.3.3 Reed–Solomon Codes 59 4.4 Decoding of Cyclic Codes 60 References 63 5 Coding in Optical Communication Channels 67 5.1 Peculiarities of Cyclic Codes in Communication Systems 67 5.2 Codes with Low Density of Parity Checks 68 5.2.1 Basic Definitions 68 5.2.2 Decoding of LDPC Codes 72 5.2.3 Construction of Irregular LDPC Codes 73 5.2.4 Construction of Regular LDPC Codes 74 5.3 Methods of Combining Codes 76 5.4 Coding in Optical Channels 79 References 83 6 Fading in Optical Communication Channels 87 6.1 Parameters of Fading in Optical Communication Channel 87 6.1.1 Time Dispersion Parameters 88 6.1.2 Coherence Bandwidth 89 6.1.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time 89 6.2 Types of Small-Scale Fading 91 6.3 Mathematical Description of Fast Fading 93 6.3.1 Rayleigh PDF and CDF 94 6.3.2 Ricean PDF and CDF 96 6.3.2.1 Gamma-Gamma Distribution 99 6.4 Mathematical Description of Large-Scale Fading 100 6.4.1 Gaussian PDF and CDF 101 References 102 7 Modulation of Signals in Optical Communication Links 103 7.1 Analog Modulation 104 7.1.1 Analog Amplitude Modulation 104 7.1.2 Analog Angle Modulation – Frequency and Phase 106 7.1.2.1 Phase Modulation 107 7.1.3 Spectra and Bandwidth of FM or PM Signals 107 7.1.4 Relations Between SNR and Bandwidth in AM and FM Signals 108 7.2 Digital Signal Modulation 109 7.2.1 Main Characteristics of Digital Modulation 110 7.2.1.1 Power Efficiency and Bandwidth Efficiency 110 7.2.1.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals 111 7.2.2 Linear Digital Modulation 112 7.2.2.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation 112 7.2.2.2 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Modulation 113 7.2.2.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation 114 7.2.3 Nonlinear Digital Modulation 114 7.2.3.1 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation 114 Problems 115 References 115 8 Optical Sources and Detectors 117 8.1 Emission and Absorption of Optical Waves 117 8.2 Operational Characteristics of Laser 119 8.3 Light-Emitting Sources and Detectors 122 8.3.1 Light-Emitting p–n Type Diode 122 8.3.2 Laser p–n Type Diode 124 8.3.3 Photodiode 125 8.3.4 PiN and p–n Photodiodes – Principle of Operation 126 8.4 Operational Characteristics of Light Diodes 129 References 130 Part III Wired Optical Communication Links 133 9 Light Waves in Fiber Optic Guiding Structures 135 9.1 Propagation of Light in Fiber Optic Structures 135 9.1.1 Types of Optical Fibers 135 9.1.2 Propagation of Optical Wave Inside the Fiber Optic Structure 137 References 139 10 Dispersion Properties of Fiber Optic Structures 141 10.1 Characteristic Parameters of Fiber Optic Structures 141 10.2 Dispersion of Optical Signal in Fiber Optic Structures 142 10.2.1 Material Dispersion 142 10.2.2 Modal Dispersion 143 Problems 145 References 146 Part IV Wireless Optical Channels 147 11 Atmospheric Communication Channels 149 11.1 Basic Characteristics of Atmospheric Channel 149 11.2 Effects of Aerosols on Atmospheric Communication Links 150 11.2.1 Aerosol Dimensions 150 11.2.2 Aerosol Altitudes Localization 151 11.2.3 Aerosol Concentration 152 11.2.4 Aerosol Size Distribution and Spectral Extinction 152 11.3 Effects of Hydrometeors 154 11.3.1 Effects of Fog 154 11.3.2 Effects of Rain 155 11.3.3 Effects of Clouds 157 11.3.3.1 Snow 158 11.4 Effects of Turbulent Gaseous Structures on Optical Waves Propagation 158 11.4.1 Turbulence Phenomenon 158 11.4.2 Scintillation Phenomenon of Optical Wave Passing the Turbulent Atmosphere 161 11.4.3 Scintillation Index 162 11.4.4 Signal Intensity Scintillations in the Turbulent Atmosphere 162 11.4.5 Effects of Atmosphere Turbulences on Signal Fading 165 11.5 Optical Waves Propagation Caused by Atmospheric Scattering 166 References 168 Part V Data Stream Parameters in Atmospheric and Fiber Optic Communication Links with Fading 173 12 Transmission of Information Data in Optical Channels: Atmospheric and Fiber Optics 175 12.1 Characteristics of Information Signal Data in Optical Communication Links 176 12.2 Bit Error Rate in Optical Communication Channel 181 12.3 Relations Between Signal Data Parameters and Fading Parameters in Atmospheric Links 183 12.4 Effects of Fading in Fiber Optic Communication Link 188 References 191 Index 195

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 1 1.1 What Is Mechanics of Materials?, 1 1.2 The Fundamental Equations of Deformable-Body Mechanics, 5 1.3 Problem-Solving Procedures, 7 1.4 Review of Static Equilibrium; Equilibrium of Deformable Bodies, 9 Chapter 1 Review, 19 2 Stress and Strain; Introduction to Design 20 2.1 Introduction, 20 2.2 Normal Stress, 21 2.3 Extensional Strain; Thermal Strain, 29 2.4 Stress-Strain Diagrams; Mechanical Properties of Materials, 35 2.5 Elasticity and Plasticity; Temperature Effects, 43 2.6 Linear Elasticity; Hooke’s Law and Poisson’s Ratio, 46 2.7 Shear Stress and Shear Strain; Shear Modulus, 49 2.8 Introduction to Design—Axial Loads and Direct Shear, 55 2.9 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in an Axially Loaded Member, 62 2.10 Saint-Venant’s Principle, 64 2.11 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress; the Relationship Between E and G, 66 2.12 General Definitions of Stress and Strain, 69 *2.13 Cartesian Components of Stress; Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Materials, 79 *2.14 Mechanical Properties of Composite Materials, 84 Chapter 2 Review, 86 3 Axial Deformation 91 3.1 Introduction, 91 3.2 Basic Theory of Axial Deformation, 91 3.3 Examples of Nonuniform Axial Deformation, 99 3.4 Statically Determinate Structures, 109 3.5 Statically Indeterminate Structures, 116 3.6 Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation, 125 3.7 Geometric “Misfits”, 136 3.8 Displacement-Method Solution of Axial-Deformation Problems, 141 *3.9 Force-Method Solution of Axial-Deformation Problems, 153 *3.10 Introduction to the Analysis of Planar Trusses, 162 *3.11 Inelastic Axial Deformation, 170 Chapter 3 Review, 183 4 Torsion 186 4.1 Introduction, 186 4.2 Torsional Deformation of Circular Bars, 187 4.3 Torsion of Linearly Elastic Circular Bars, 190 4.4 Stress Distribution in Circular Torsion Bars; Torsion Testing, 198 4.5 Statically Determinate Assemblages of Uniform Torsion Members, 202 4.6 Statically Indeterminate Assemblages of Uniform Torsion Members, 207 *4.7 Displacement-Method Solution of Torsion Problems, 215 4.8 Power-Transmission Shafts, 221 *4.9 Thin-Wall Torsion Members, 224 *4.10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic Bars, 229 *4.11 Inelastic Torsion of Circular Rods, 233 Chapter 4 Review, 239 5 Equilibrium of Beams 241 5.1 Introduction, 241 5.2 Equilibrium of Beams Using Finite Free-Body Diagrams, 246 5.3 Equilibrium Relationships Among Loads, Shear Force, and Bending Moment, 250 5.4 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams: Equilibrium Method, 253 5.5 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams: Graphical Method, 258 *5.6 Discontinuity Functions to Represent Loads, Shear, and Moment, 265 Chapter 5 Review, 272 6 Stresses in Beams 275 6.1 Introduction, 275 6.2 Strain-Displacement Analysis, 278 6.3 Flexural Stress in Linearly Elastic Beams, 284 6.4 Design of Beams for Strength, 293 6.5 Flexural Stress in Nonhomogeneous Beams, 299 *6.6 Unsymmetric Bending, 306 *6.7 Inelastic Bending of Beams, 316 6.8 Shear Stress and Shear Flow in Beams, 326 6.9 Limitations on the Shear-Stress Formula, 332 6.10 Shear Stress in Thin-Wall Beams, 335 6.11 Shear in Built-up Beams, 345 *6.12 Shear Center, 349 Chapter 6 Review, 356 7 Deflection of Beams 359 7.1 Introduction, 359 7.2 Differential Equations of the Deflection Curve, 360 7.3 Slope and Deflection by Integration—Statically Determinate Beams, 366 7.4 Slope and Deflection by Integration—Statically Indeterminate Beams, 379 *7.5 Use of Discontinuity Functions to Determine Beam Deflections, 384 7.6 Slope and Deflection of Beams: Superposition Method, 391 *7.7 Slope and Deflection of Beams: Displacement Method, 409 Chapter 7 Review, 416 8 Transformation of Stress And Strain; Mohr’s Circle 418 8.1 Introduction, 418 8.2 Plane Stress, 419 8.3 Stress Transformation for Plane Stress, 421 8.4 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress, 428 8.5 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress, 434 8.6 Triaxial Stress; Absolute Maximum Shear Stress, 441 8.7 Plane Strain, 448 8.8 Transformation of Strains in a Plane, 449 8.9 Mohr’s Circle for Strain, 453 8.10 Measurement of Strain; Strain Rosettes, 459 *8.11 Analysis of Three-Dimensional Strain, 464 Chapter 8 Review, 466 9 Pressure Vessels; Stresses Due to Combined Loading 469 9.1 Introduction, 469 9.2 Thin-Wall Pressure Vessels, 470 9.3 Stress Distribution in Beams, 476 9.4 Stresses Due to Combined Loads, 481 Chapter 9 Review, 490 10 Buckling Of Columns 492 10.1 Introduction, 492 10.2 The Ideal Pin-Ended Column; Euler Buckling Load, 495 10.3 The Effect of End Conditions on Column Buckling, 501 *10.4 Eccentric Loading; the Secant Formula, 508 *10.5 Imperfections in Columns, 514 *10.6 Inelastic Buckling of Ideal Columns, 515 10.7 Design of Centrally Loaded Columns, 519 Chapter 10 Review, 526 11 Energy Methods 528 11.1 Introduction, 528 11.2 Work and Strain Energy, 529 11.3 Elastic Strain Energy for Various Types of Loading, 536 11.4 Work-Energy Principle for Calculating Deflections, 542 11.5 Castigliano’s Second Theorem; the Unit-Load Method, 547 *11.6 Virtual Work, 558 *11.7 Strain-Energy Methods, 562 *11.8 Complementary-Energy Methods, 567 *11.9 Dynamic Loading; Impact, 577 Chapter 11 Review, 582 12 Special Topics Related to Design 584 12.1 Introduction, 584 12.2 Stress Concentrations, 584 *12.3 Failure Theories, 591 *12.4 Fatigue and Fracture, 599 Chapter 12 Review, 604 PROBLEMS P-1 A Numerical Accuracy; Approximations A-1 A.1 Numerical Accuracy; Significant Digits, A-1 A.2 Approximations, A-2 B Systems of Units A-3 B.1 Introduction, A-3 B.2 SI Units, A-3 B.3 U.S. Customary Units; Conversion of Units, A-5 B.4 Useful Physical Properties, A-6 C Geometric Properties of Plane Areas A-7 C.1 First Moments of Area; Centroid, A-7 C.2 Moments of Inertia of an Area, A-10 C.3 Product of Inertia of an Area, A-14 C.4 Area Moments of Inertia about Inclined Axes; Principal Moments of Inertia, A-16 C.5 Geometric Properties of Plane Areas, A-22 D Section Properties of Selected Structural Shapes A-24 E Deflections and Slopes of Beams; Fixed-End Actions A-35 F Mechanical Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-40 Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems Ans-1 References R-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisThis book gives a comprehensive explanation of what governs the breakage of extruded materials, and what techniques are used to measure it. The breakage during impact aka collision is explained using basic laws of nature allowing readers to determine the handling severity of catalyst manufacturing equipment and the severity of entire plants. This information can then be used to improve on the architecture of existing plants and how to design grass-roots plants. The book begins with a summary of particle forming techniques in the particle technology industry. It covers extrusion technology in more detail since extrusion is one of the workhorses for particle manufacture. A section is also dedicated on how to describe transport and chemical reaction in such particulates for of course their final use. It presents the fundamentals of the study of breakage by relating basic laws in different fields (mechanics and physics) and this leads to two novel dimensionless groups that govern breakaTable of ContentsAbout the Author ix Acknowledgments xi Foreword xiii 1 Catalyst Preparation Techniques and Equipment 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Forming of Catalysts 4 1.3 Impregnation and Drying 12 1.4 Rotary Calcination 13 1.5 From the Laboratory to a Commercial Plant 29 Nomenclature 29 References 30 2 Extrusion Technology 35 2.1 Background 35 2.2 Rheology 36 2.3 Extrusion 47 Nomenclature 57 References 59 3 The Aspect Ratio of an Extruded Catalyst: An In-depth Study 61 3.1 General 61 3.2 Introduction to Catalyst Strength and Catalyst Breakage 63 3.3 Mechanical Strength of Catalysts 67 3.4 Experimental Measurement of Mechanical Strength 76 3.5 Breakage by Collision 88 3.6 Breakage by Stress in a Fixed Bed 129 3.7 Breakage in Contiguous Equipment 145 3.8 Statistical Methods Applied to Manufacturing Materials 158 Nomenclature 159 Greek Symbols 161 Subscripts 162 References 162 4 Steady-state Diffusion and First-order Reaction in Catalyst Networks 165 4.1 Introduction 165 4.2 Classic Continuum Approach 169 4.3 The Network Approach 171 Nomenclature 270 Greek Symbols 270 References 271 Appendix 4.1 Diffusion in a simple network 272 Appendix 4.2 Property of the semi-inverse 272 Appendix 4.3 Diffusion and reaction in a simple network 273 Appendix 4.4 Matrix properties for diffusion and reaction in a simple network 274 Appendix 4.5 Perturbation in a simple network 274 Appendix 4.6 A random variable 275 Appendix 4.7 Diffusion along a string of nodes 275 Appendix 4.8 Diffusion in a rectangular strip with an equal number of nodes 276 Appendix 4.9 Diffusion in a rectangular strip with an unequal number of nodes 277 Appendix 4.10 Diffusion and first-order reaction in a very deep network of 500 layers deep and five nodes per layer 279 Appendix 4.11 Diffusion and first-order reaction 280 Index 281

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Book SynopsisFabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels A comprehensive guide to processes and topics in pressure vessel fabrication Fabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels delivers comprehensive coverage of the various processes used in the fabrication of process equipment. The authors, both accomplished engineers, offer readers a broad understanding of the steps and processes required to fabricate pressure vessels, including cutting, forming, welding, machining, and testing, as well as suggestions on controlling costs. Each chapter provides a complete description of a specific fabrication process and details its characteristics and requirements. Alongside the accessible and practical text, you'll find equations, charts, copious illustrations, and other study aids designed to assist the reader in the real-world implementation of the concepts discussed within the book. You'll find numerous appendices that include weld symbols, volume and area equations, pipe and tube dimensions, weld deposition rateTable of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Fabrication Sequence 1 1.3 Cost Considerations 5 1.3.1 Types of costs 5 1.3.2 Design choices 6 1.3.3 Shipping 11 1.3.4 General approach to cost control 12 1.4 Fabrication of Nonnuclear Versus Nuclear Pressure Vessels 12 1.5 Units and Abbreviations 13 1.6 Summary 14 2 Materials of Construction 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Ferrous Alloys 16 2.2.1 Carbon steels (Mild steels) 16 2.2.2 Low alloy steels (Cr–Mo steels) 18 2.2.3 High alloy steels (stainless steels) 19 2.2.4 Cost of ferrous alloys 20 2.3 Nonferrous Alloys 20 2.3.1 Aluminum alloys 20 2.3.2 Copper alloys 22 2.3.3 Nickel alloys 30 2.3.4 Titanium alloys 30 2.3.5 Zirconium alloys 30 2.3.6 Tantalum alloys 32 2.3.7 Price of nonferrous alloys 33 2.4 Density of Some Ferrous and Nonferrous Alloys 34 2.5 Nonmetallic Vessels 35 2.6 Forms and Documentation 35 2.7 Miscellaneous Materials 38 2.7.1 Cast iron 38 2.7.2 Gaskets 38 References 43 3 Layout 44 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Applications 44 3.3 Tools and Their Use 45 3.4 Layout Basics 45 3.4.1 Projection 46 3.4.2 Triangulation 46 3.5 Material Thickness and Bending Allowance 49 3.6 Angles and Channels 50 3.7 Marking Conventions 52 3.8 Future of Plate Layout 54 Reference 54 4 Material Forming 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.1.1 Bending versus three-dimensional forming 55 4.1.2 Other issues 55 4.1.3 Plastic Theory 56 4.1.4 Forming limits 62 4.1.5 Grain direction 64 4.1.6 Cold versus hot forming 64 4.1.7 Spring back 64 4.2 Brake Forming (Angles, Bump-Forming) 65 4.2.1 Types of dies 67 4.2.2 Brake work forming limits 68 4.2.3 Crimping 68 4.2.4 Bending of pipes and tubes 69 4.2.5 Brake forming loads 70 4.3 Roll Forming (Shells, Reinforcing Pads, Pipe/Tube) 70 4.3.1 Pyramid rolls 70 4.3.2 Pinch rolls 71 4.3.3 Two-roll systems 71 4.3.4 Rolling radius variability compensation 72 4.3.5 Heads and caps 72 4.3.6 Hot forming 74 4.4 Tolerances 74 4.4.1 Brake forming tolerances 75 4.4.2 Roll forming tolerances 76 4.4.3 Press forming tolerances 76 4.4.4 Flanging tolerances 76 Reference 76 5 Fabrication 77 5.1 Introduction 77 5.2 Layout 77 5.3 Weld Preparation 78 5.3.1 Hand and automatic grinders 78 5.3.2 Nibblers 78 5.3.3 Flame cutting 79 5.3.4 Boring mills 79 5.3.5 Lathes 80 5.3.6 Routers 80 5.3.7 Other cutter arrangements 82 5.4 Forming 82 5.5 Vessel Fit Up and Assembly 83 5.5.1 The fitter 84 5.5.2 Fit up tools 84 5.5.3 Persuasion and other fit up techniques 84 5.5.4 Fixturing 85 5.5.5 Welding fit up 86 5.5.6 Weld shrinkage 88 5.5.7 Order of assembly 89 5.6 Welding 90 5.6.1 Welding position 90 5.6.2 Welding residual stresses 90 5.6.3 Welding positioners, turning rolls, column and boom weld manipulators 91 5.7 Correction of Distortion 94 5.8 Heat Treatment 94 5.8.1 Welding preheat 95 5.8.2 Interpass temperature 95 5.8.3 Post weld heat treatment 96 5.9 Post-fabrication Machining 96 5.10 Field Fabrication – Special Issues 96 5.10.1 Exposure to the elements 97 5.10.2 Staging area 97 5.10.3 Tool and equipment availability 98 5.10.4 Staffing 98 5.10.5 Material handling 98 5.10.6 Energy sources 99 5.10.7 PWHT 99 5.10.8 Layout 100 5.10.9 Fit up 100 5.10.10 Welding 100 5.11 Machining 101 5.12 Cold Springing 101 6 Cutting and Machining 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Common Cutting Operations for Pressure Vessels 102 6.3 Cutting Processes 103 6.3.1 Plate cutting 103 6.3.2 Pipe, bar, and structural shape cutting 108 6.4 Common Machining Functions and Processes 110 6.5 Common Machining Functions for Pressure Vessels 111 6.5.1 Weld preparation 111 6.5.2 Machining of flanges 111 6.5.3 Tubesheets 112 6.5.4 Heat exchanger channels 113 6.5.5 Heat exchanger baffles 113 6.6 Setup Issues 114 6.7 Material Removal Rates 116 6.7.1 Feed 116 6.7.2 Speed 116 6.7.3 Depth of cut 116 6.8 Milling 117 6.9 Turning and Boring 119 6.10 Machining Centers 120 6.11 Drilling 120 6.12 Tapping 121 6.13 Water Jet Cutting 122 6.14 Laser Machining 123 6.15 Reaming 123 6.16 Electrical Discharge Machining, Plunge and Wire 123 6.17 Electrochemical Machining 124 6.18 Electron Beam Machining 124 6.19 Photochemical Machining 124 6.20 Ultrasonic Machining 125 6.21 Planing and Shaping 125 6.22 Broaching 125 6.23 3D Printing 125 6.24 Summary 126 Reference 126 7 Welding 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Weld Details and Symbols 127 7.2.1 Single fillet welds 128 7.2.2 Double fillet welds 128 7.2.3 Intermittent fillet welds 128 7.2.4 Single-bevel butt welds 129 7.2.5 Double-bevel butt welds 129 7.2.6 J-groove or double J-groove welds 129 7.2.7 Backing strips 131 7.2.8 Consumables 131 7.2.9 Tube-to-tubesheet welds 131 7.2.10 Weld symbols 131 7.3 Weld Processes 132 7.3.1 Diffusion welding (DFW) 135 7.3.2 Electron beam welding (EBW) 135 7.3.3 Electrogas welding (EGW) 136 7.3.4 Electroslag welding (ESW) 136 7.3.5 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) 137 7.3.6 Flash welding 137 7.3.7 Friction stir welding (FSW) 137 7.3.8 Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) 138 7.3.9 Gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW) 138 7.3.10 Laser beam welding (LBW) 139 7.3.11 Orbital welding 140 7.3.12 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) 140 7.3.13 Plasma-arc welding (PAW) 141 7.3.14 Resistance spot welding (RSW) 141 7.3.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW) 142 7.3.16 Submerged-arc welding (SAW) 142 7.3.17 Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) 142 7.3.18 Stud welding 143 7.4 Weld Preheat and Interpass Temperature 143 7.5 Post Weld Heat Treating 143 7.6 Welding Procedures 143 7.7 Control of Residual Stress and Distortion 144 7.8 Material Handling to Facilitate Welding 145 7.9 Weld Repair 145 7.10 Brazing 145 7.10.1 Applications 145 7.10.2 Filler metal 145 7.10.3 Heating 145 7.10.4 Flux 145 7.10.5 Brazing procedures 146 Reference 146 8 Welding Procedures and Post Weld Heat Treatment 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Welding Procedures 147 8.3 Weld Preparation Special Requirements 153 8.4 Weld Joint Design and Process to Reduce Stress and Distortion 156 8.4.1 Reduced heat input 156 8.4.2 Lower temperature differential 156 8.4.3 Choice of weld process 156 8.4.4 Weld configuration and sequencing 157 8.5 Weld Preheat and Interpass Temperature 157 8.6 Welder Versus Welding Operator 158 8.6.1 Welders 158 8.6.2 Welding operators 158 8.6.3 Differences in qualifications 159 8.7 Weld Repair 159 8.7.1 Slag inclusion during welding 159 8.7.2 Surface indications after cooling of welds 159 8.7.3 Delayed hydrogen cracking after welding 159 8.7.4 Cracks occurring subsequent to PWHT 160 8.8 Post Weld Heat Treating 160 8.8.1 PWHT of carbon steels 160 8.8.2 PWHT of low alloy steels 161 8.8.3 Some general PWHT requirements for carbon steels and low alloy steels 161 8.8.4 PWHT of stainless steel 162 8.8.5 PWHT of nonferrous alloys 162 8.9 Cladding, Overlay, and Loose Liners 162 8.9.1 Cladding 162 8.9.2 Weld overlay 163 8.9.3 Loose liners 164 8.10 Brazing 164 8.10.1 Applications 165 8.10.2 Filler metal 165 8.10.3 Heating 165 8.10.4 Flux 166 8.10.5 Brazing procedures 166 Reference 166 9 Fabrication of Pressure Equipment Having Unique Characteristics 167 9.1 Introduction 167 9.2 Heat Exchangers 167 9.2.1 U-tube heat exchangers 169 9.2.2 Fixed heat exchangers 170 9.2.3 Floating head heat exchangers 170 9.2.4 Attachment of tubes-to-tubesheets and tubes-to-headers 170 9.2.5 Expansion joints 176 9.2.6 Assembly of heat exchangers 178 9.3 Dimpled Jackets 180 9.4 Layered Vessels 181 9.4.1 Introduction 181 9.4.2 Fabrication of layered shells 181 9.5 Rectangular Vessels 187 9.6 Vessels with Refractory and Insulation 188 9.7 Vessel Supports 190 9.8 Summary 191 References 192 10 Surface Finishes 193 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Types of Surface Finishes 193 10.2.1 Surface characteristics, unfinished 194 10.2.2 Passivation 195 10.2.3 Applied coatings 196 Reference 199 11 Handling and Transportation 200 11.1 Introduction 200 11.2 Handling of Vessels and Vessel Components Within the Fabrication Plant 200 11.3 Transportation of Standard Loads 202 11.4 Transportation of Heavy Vessels 204 11.4.1 Handling heavy vessels using specialty cranes 204 11.4.2 Shipping by truck 204 11.4.3 Shipping by rail 208 11.4.4 Shipping by barge or ship 212 11.4.5 Shipping by air 215 11.5 Summary 216 12 ASME Code Compliance and Quality Control System 217 12.1 Need for ASME Code Compliance 217 12.2 What the ASME Code Provides 217 12.3 Fabrication in Accordance with the ASME Code 217 12.4 ASME Code Stamped Vessels 218 12.4.1 Design calculations 218 12.4.2 Fabrication drawings 218 12.4.3 Material mill test reports 218 12.4.4 WPS for the vessel welds 219 12.4.5 Records of nondestructive (NDE) examination 219 12.4.6 Record of PWHT 219 12.4.7 Record of hydrotesting 220 12.4.8 Manufacturer’s Data Report, U-1 Form 220 12.4.9 Manufacturer’s Partial Data Report, U-2 form 222 12.4.10 Name plate 222 12.5 Authorized Inspector and Authorized Inspection Agency 224 12.6 Quality Control System for Fabrication 224 12.6.1 Organizational chart 225 12.6.2 Authority and responsibility 225 12.6.3 Quality control system 225 12.6.4 Design and drawing control 225 12.6.5 Material control 225 12.6.6 Production control 225 12.6.7 Inspection 225 12.6.8 Hydrostatic and pneumatic testing 225 12.6.9 Code stamping 226 12.6.10 Discrepancies and nonconformances 226 12.6.11 Welding 226 12.6.12 Nondestructive examination 226 12.6.13 Heat treatment control 226 12.6.14 Calibration of measuring and test equipment 226 12.6.15 Records retention 226 12.6.16 Handling, storage, and shipping 226 12.7 Additional Stamps Required for Pressure Vessels 226 12.7.1 National Board stamping, NB 227 12.7.2 Jurisdictional stamping 227 12.7.3 User stamping 227 12.7.4 Canadian Registration Numbers 227 12.8 Non-Code Jurisdictions 227 12.9 Temporary Shop Locations 228 Reference 229 13 Repair of Existing Equipment 230 13.1 Introduction 230 13.2 National Board Inspection Code, NBIC, NB-23 231 13.2.1 Repairs 231 13.2.2 Alterations 232 13.2.3 Reratings 232 13.2.4 Post weld heat treating of repaired components 232 13.2.5 Hydrostatic or pneumatic testing of repaired vessels 234 13.3 ASME Post Construction Code, PCC-2 236 13.3.1 External weld buildup to repair internal thinning 236 13.3.2 Full encirclement steel reinforcing sleeves for pipes in corroded areas 237 13.3.3 Welded hot taps 238 13.4 API Pressure Vessel Inspection Code, API-510 241 13.5 API 579/ASME FFS-1 Fitness-For-Service Code 242 13.6 Miscellaneous Repairs 242 13.6.1 Removal of seized nuts 243 13.6.2 Structural supports and foundation 243 References 244 Appendix A Units and Conversion Factors 245 Appendix B Welding Symbols 247 Appendix C Weld Process Characteristics 251 Appendix D Weld Deposition 254 Appendix E Shape Properties 257 Appendix F Pipe and Tube Dimensions and Weights 263 Appendix G Bending and Expanding of Pipes and Tubes 278 Appendix H Dimensions of Some Commonly Used Bolts and Their Required Minimum Spacing 286 Appendix I Shackles 288 Appendix J Shears, Moments, and Deflections of Beams 295 Appendix K Commonly Used Terminology 299 Index 304

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Book SynopsisAdvanced Engineering Economics, Second Edition, provides an integrated framework for understanding and applying project evaluation and selection concepts that are critical to making informed individual, corporate, and public investment decisions. Grounded in the foundational principles of economic analysis, this well-regarded reference describes a comprehensive range of central topics, from basic concepts such as accounting income and cash flow, to more advanced techniques including deterministic capital budgeting, risk simulation, and decision tree analysis. Fully updated throughout, the second edition retains the structure of its previous iteration, covering basic economic concepts and techniques, deterministic and stochastic analysis, and special topics in engineering economics analysis. New and expanded chapters examine the use of transform techniques in cash flow modeling, procedures for replacement analysis, the evaluation of public investments, corporate taxation, utility theory, and more. Now available as interactive eBook, this classic volume is essential reading for both students and practitioners in fields including engineering, business and economics, operations research, and systems analysis.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors vii Preface ix Part 1 Basic Concepts and Tools in Economic Analysis 1 Accounting Income and Cash Flow 3 1.1 What Is Investment? 3 1.2 The Corporate Investment Framework 4 1.2.1 The Objective of the Firm 4 1.2.2 The Functions of the Firm 4 1.2.3 The Analysis Framework 6 1.2.4 Accounting Information 6 1.3 The Balance Sheet 7 1.3.1 Reporting Format 7 1.3.2 Cash versus Other Assets 10 1.3.3 Liabilities versus Stockholders’ Equity 10 1.3.4 Inventory Valuation 11 1.3.5 Depreciation 12 1.3.6 Working Capital 12 1.4 The Income Statement 13 1.4.1 Methods of Reporting Income 13 1.4.2 Reporting Format 13 1.4.3 Measurement of Revenue 15 1.4.4 Measurement of Expenses 16 1.4.5 Retained Earnings, Cash Dividends, and Earnings per Share 16 1.4.6 Return on Common Equity (ROE) 17 1.5 The Funds Flow Statement 18 1.5.1 The Cash Flow Cycle 19 1.5.2 Basic Relationship 20 1.5.3 Funds Statement on a Cash Basis 21 1.5.4 Funds Statement as Working Capital 23 1.6 Net Income Versus Cash Flows 24 1.6.1 Deferred Income Taxes 24 1.6.2 Computing Deferred Income Taxes 24 1.6.3 Estimating Cash Flows from Income Statement 26 1.6.4 Use of Cash Flows in Evaluating Investments 26 1.7 Investment Project and Its Cash Flows 27 1.7.1 The Project Cash Flow Statement 28 1.7.2 Cash Flows over the Project Life 29 Summary 31 Problems 32 2 Interest Rates and Valuing Cash Flows 36 2.1 Cash Flow Diagram 36 2.2 Time Preference and Interest 36 2.2.1 Time Preference 37 2.2.2 Types of Interest 37 2.2.3 Nominal and Effective Interest Rates 39 2.3 Discrete Compounding 42 2.3.1 Comparable Payment and Compounding Periods 42 2.3.2 Noncomparable Payment and Compounding Periods 53 2.4 Continuous Compounding 55 2.4.1 Discrete Payments 56 2.4.2 Continuous Cash Flows 58 2.5 Equivalence of Cash Flows 60 2.5.1 Concepts of Equivalence 61 2.5.2 Equivalence Calculations with Several Interest Factors 62 2.6 Effect of Inflation on Cash Flow Equivalence 65 2.6.1 Measure of Inflation 65 2.6.2 Explicit and Implicit Treatments of Inflation in Discounting 66 2.6.3 Case Study—Home Ownership Analysis during Inflation 71 Summary 74 Problems 75 3 Advanced Cash Flow Modeling Techniques 80 3.1 Z-Transforms and Discrete Cash Flows 80 3.1.1 The Z-Transform and Present Value 80 3.1.2 Properties of the Z-Transform 82 3.2 Development of Discrete Present Value Models 87 3.2.1 Extensive Present Value Models 87 3.2.2 Simplified Present Value Model 90 3.2.3 Applications of Z-Transforms 90 3.3 Laplace Transforms and Continuous Cash Flows 96 3.3.1 Laplace Transform and Present Value 96 3.3.2 Properties of Laplace Transforms 97 3.4 Development of Continuous Present Value Models 102 3.4.1 Extensive Present Value Models 102 3.4.2 Present Values of Impulse Cash Flows 105 3.4.3 Extension to Future and Annual Equivalent Models 106 3.5 Application of the Laplace Transform 107 Summary 109 Problems 110 4 Developing Project Cash Flows 113 4.1 Corporate Tax Rates 113 4.1.1 Tax Structure for Corporations 113 4.1.2 Depreciation and Its Relation to Income Taxes 113 4.1.3 Use of Effective and Marginal Income Tax Rates in Project Evaluations 115 4.2 Depreciation Methods 116 4.2.1 Depreciation Regulations and Notation 116 4.2.2 Book Depreciation Methods 117 4.2.3 Tax Depreciation Method 121 4.2.4 Multiple-Asset Depreciation 126 4.3 Capital Gains and Adjustments to Income Taxes 126 4.4 After-Tax Cash Flow Analysis 128 4.4.1 Income Statement Approach 128 4.4.2 Generalized Cash Flows 129 4.4.3 Effects of Depreciation Methods 131 4.4.4 Effects of Financing Costs 134 4.4.5 Effects of Inflation 137 4.4.6 Cash Flow Analysis for Tax-Exempt Corporations 139 Summary 140 Problems 140 5 Selecting a Discount Rate for Project Evaluation 144 5.1 Investment and Borrowing Opportunities 144 5.1.1 Future Investment Opportunities 144 5.1.2 Financing Sources 146 5.1.3 Capital Rationing 147 5.2 Costs of Capital from Individual Sources 147 5.2.1 Debt Capital 147 5.2.2 Equity Capital 154 5.3 Use of a Weighted-Average Cost of Capital 157 5.3.1 Net Equity Flows 158 5.3.2 After-Tax Composite Flows 160 5.4 Specifying the Weighted-Average Cost of Capital 161 5.4.1 Basic Valuation Forms 161 5.4.2 Valuation with Debt and Taxes 163 5.4.3 The Firm’s Capitalization Rate 163 5.4.4 Obtaining a Cutoff Rate 166 5.4.5 Other Issues 167 5.4.6 Effect of Inflation 168 Summary 168 Problems 169 Part 2 Deterministic Analysis 6 Measures of Investment Worth—Single Project 175 6.1 Initial Assumptions 175 6.2 The Net Present Value Criterion 176 6.2.1 Mathematical Definition 176 6.2.2 Economic Interpretation Through Project Balance 180 6.3 Internal Rate-of-Return Criterion 182 6.3.1 Computational Methods 182 6.3.2 Classification of Investment Projects 185 6.3.3 IRR and Pure Investments 188 6.3.4 IRR and Mixed Investments 190 6.3.5 Modified Internal Rate of Return 194 6.4 Benefit–Cost Ratios 197 6.4.1 Benefit–Cost Ratios Defined 198 6.4.2 Equivalence of B/C Ratios and PV 199 6.5 Payback Period 200 6.5.1 Payback Period Defined 200 6.5.2 Popularity of the Payback Period 201 6.6 Time-Dependent Measure of Investment Worth 202 6.6.1 Areas of Negative and Positive Balances 202 6.6.2 Investment Flexibility 203 Summary 205 Problems 207 7 Decision Rules for Selecting among Multiple Alternatives 213 7.1 Formulating Mutually Exclusive Alternatives 213 7.2 Project Ranking Based on Total Investment Approach 216 7.2.1 Total Investment Approach 216 7.2.2 Consistency Within Groups 217 7.2.3 Modification of Criteria to Include Unspent Budget Amounts 219 7.3 Incremental Analysis 220 7.3.1 Irrelevance of Ordering for PV, FV, AE, and PBN 220 7.3.2 Agreement on Increments Between PV and Other Relative Measures 221 7.3.3 Alternative Derivations 221 7.3.4 Decision Rules for IRR 222 7.3.5 A Comprehensive Example for Incremental Analysis 224 7.4 Reinvestment Issues 228 7.4.1 Net Present Value 228 7.4.2 Internal Rate of Return 230 7.4.3 Benefit–Cost Ratio 231 7.5 Comparison of Projects with Unequal Lives 232 7.5.1 Common Service Period Approach 232 7.5.2 Estimating Salvage Value of Longer-Lived Projects 235 7.5.3 Reinvestment Issues When Revenues Are Known 239 7.5.4 Summary Treatment of Unequal Lives 239 7.6 Decisions on the Timing of Investments 239 Summary 240 Problems 242 8 Deterministic Capital Budgeting Models 247 8.1 The Use of Linear Programming Models 247 8.1.1 Description of a Basic Capital Budgeting Problem 248 8.1.2 Criterion Function to Be Optimized 248 8.1.3 Multiple Budget Periods 249 8.1.4 Project Limits and Interdependencies 249 8.1.5 LP Formulation of Lorie–Savage Problem 250 8.1.6 Duality Analysis 250 8.2 Pure Capital Rationing Models 253 8.2.1 Criticisms of the PV Model 254 8.2.2 Consistent Discount Factors 255 8.3 Net Present Value Maximization with Lending and Borrowing 258 8.3.1 Inclusion of Lending Opportunities 258 8.3.2 Inclusion of Borrowing Opportunities 259 8.4 Weingartner’s Horizon Model 259 8.4.1 Equal Lending and Borrowing Rates 259 8.4.2 Lending Rates Less than Borrowing Rates 265 8.4.3 Inclusion of Borrowing Limits Supply Schedule of Funds 267 8.4.4 Dual Analysis with Project Interdependencies 271 8.5 Bernhard’s General Model 272 8.5.1 Model Formulation 272 8.5.2 Major Results 273 8.6 Discrete Capital Budgeting 276 8.6.1 Number of Fractional Projects in LP Solution 276 8.6.2 Branch-and-Bound Solution Procedure 277 8.6.3 Duality Analysis for Integer Solutions 279 8.7 Capital Budgeting with Multiple Objectives 281 8.7.1 Goal Programming 281 8.7.2 Interactive Multiple-Criteria Optimization 283 Summary 284 Problems 285 Part 3 Stochastic Analysis 9 Utility Theory 295 9.1 The Concept of Risk 295 9.1.1 Role of Utility Theory 297 9.1.2 Alternative Approaches to Decision Making 298 9.2 Preference and Ordering Rules 298 9.2.1 Bernoulli Hypothesis 298 9.3 Properties of Utility Functions 301 9.3.1 Risk Attitudes 301 9.3.2 Relationship between Certainty Equivalent and Risk Premium 304 9.3.3 Types of Utility Functions 304 9.4 Empirical Determination of Utility Functions 307 9.4.1 General Procedure 307 9.4.2 Sample Results 309 9.5 Mean–Variance Analysis 310 9.5.1 Indifference Curves 310 9.5.2 Coefficient of Risk Aversion 312 9.5.3 Justification of the Mean and Variance Criterion 312 9.5.4 Justification of Certainty Equivalent Method 314 Summary 317 Problems 318 10 Probabilistic Cash Flow Analysis—Single Project 322 10.1 Measures of Project Risk 322 10.1.1 Downside Risk 322 10.1.2 How Businesspeople Perceive Risk in Project Evaluation 323 10.2 Estimating Values in Probabilistic Terms 324 10.2.1 Statistical Moments of a Single Random Variable 325 10.2.2 Statistical Moments of Linear Combinations of Random Variables 328 10.2.3 Products of Random Variables 332 10.2.4 Quotients of Random Variables 334 10.2.5 Powers of Independent Random Variables 335 10.2.6 General Approximation Formulas 338 10.3 Statistical Moments of Discounted Cash Flows 339 10.3.1 Expected Net Present Value 339 10.3.2 Variance of Net Present Value 340 10.3.3 Mixed Net Cash Flows 343 10.3.4 Net Cash Flows Consisting of Several Components 344 10.3.5 Cash Flows with Uncertain Timing: Continuous Case 345 10.3.6 Cash Flows with Uncertain Timing: Discrete Case 352 10.4 Probability Distributions of Net Present Value 355 10.4.1 Discrete Cash Flows Described by a Probability Tree 355 10.4.2 Use of the First Two Statistical Moments 357 10.4.3 Use of the First Four Statistical Moments 358 10.5 Estimating Risky Cash Flows 359 10.5.1 Beta-Function Estimators for Single Cash Flows 359 10.5.2 Hiller’s Method for Correlated Cash Flows 365 10.6 Measure of Operational Risk 367 10.6.1 Value at Risk—Downside Risk Measurements 367 10.6.2 How to Calculate the Value at Risk? 367 10.6.3 Conditional Value at Risk (CVaR) 371 Summary 373 Problems 375 11 Comparing Risky Projects and Portfolio Optimization Theory 386 11.1 Comparative Measures of Investment Worth 386 11.1.1 Mean–Variance, E–V 386 11.1.2 Mean–Semivariance, E–Sh 388 11.1.3 Safety First 391 11.2 Stochastic Dominance 392 11.2.1 First-Degree Stochastic Dominance 392 11.2.2 Second-Degree Stochastic Dominance 395 11.2.3 Third-Degree Stochastic Dominance 399 11.2.4 Relationship Between Dominance and Mean–Variance Criterion 402 11.3 Portfolio Theory 403 11.3.1 Efficiency Frontier 404 11.3.2 Diversification of Risk 406 11.3.3 Full Covariance Model 407 11.3.4 Index Model 408 11.3.5 Capital Market Theory 409 11.4 Discrete Capital-Rationing Models Under Risk 412 11.4.1 Hillier’s Method for Correlated Projects 413 11.4.2 Stochastic Programming 414 11.5 Multiperiod Index Model for Project Portfolio 415 11.5.1 Model Structure and Assumptions 415 11.5.2 Procedure 417 11.6 Uncertainty Resolution 419 Summary 421 Problems 423 12 Risk Simulation 430 12.1 An Overview of the Logic of Simulation 430 12.1.1 Monte Carlo Sampling 431 12.1.2 Using the Simulation Output 431 12.2 Selecting Input Probability Distributions 432 12.2.1 Selecting a Distribution Based on Observed Data 432 12.2.2 Selecting a Distribution in the Absence of Data 439 12.3 Sampling Procedures for Independent Random Variables 441 12.3.1 Inverse Transformation Techniques 441 12.3.2 Other Frequently Used Random Deviates 444 12.4 Sampling Procedures for Dependent Random Variables 446 12.4.1 Assessment of Conditional Probabilities 446 12.4.2 Sampling a Pair of Dependent Random Samples 447 12.4.3 Sampling Based on Regression Equation 450 12.4.4 Conditional Sampling in the Absence of Data 455 12.4.5 Normal Transformation Method 457 12.5 Output Data Analysis 460 12.5.1 Replication and Precision of Results 460 12.5.2 Comparison of Two Projects 462 12.6 A Simple Risk Simulation Example 465 12.6.1 Decision Problem 465 12.6.2 Replication Results 468 Summary 469 Problems 470 13 Decision Analysis and Value of Information 474 13.1 Sequential Decision Process 474 13.1.1 Structuring the Decision Tree 474 13.1.2 Expected Value as a Decision Criterion 478 13.2 Obtaining Additional Information 478 13.2.1 The Value of Perfect Information 479 13.2.2 Determining Revised Probabilities 481 13.2.3 Expected Monetary Value after Receiving Sample Information 486 13.2.4 Value of the Market Survey 486 13.3 Decision Tree and Risk 487 13.3.1 Sensitivity Analysis 487 13.3.2 Decision Based on Certainty Equivalents 488 13.4 Investment Decisions with Replication Opportunities 490 13.4.1 The Opportunity to Replicate 490 13.4.2 Experiment Leading to Perfect Information 490 13.4.3 A Case Example—Flexible Cellular Manufacturing Operation 491 13.4.4 Sampling Leading to Imperfect Information 494 13.5 Bayesian Inference and Value of Sampling 495 13.5.1 Bayesian Inference 495 13.5.2 Bayesian Update with a Discrete Prior Distribution 497 13.5.3 Bayesian Update with a Continuous Prior Probability Distribution 500 13.6 Conjugate Prior Distributions 503 13.6.1 Types of Sampling 503 13.6.2 Conjugate Distribution for Bernoulli Process 505 13.6.3 Conjugate Distribution for Poisson Process 507 13.6.4 Conjugate Distribution for Normal Process 509 13.6.5 Lognormal Process 512 13.7 Terminal Analysis: Opportunity Loss and Value of Perfect Information 513 13.7.1 Opportunity Loss Function 513 13.7.2 The Expected Value of Sample Information 515 13.7.3 Optimal Sample Size 517 Summary 518 Problems 519 14 Basic Options Theory 527 14.1 Financial Options Concepts 527 14.1.1 Call Options 528 14.1.2 Put Options 529 14.2 Stochastic Process of Asset Dynamics 530 14.2.1 Underlying Asset Price Movement—Geometric Brownian Motion 531 14.2.2 Simulated Stock Prices Based on Brownian Motion 534 14.2.3 Discrete-Time Price Movement 535 14.2.4 How to Determine the Binomial Parameters 537 14.3 Upper and Lower Bounds for Option Prices 539 14.3.1 Upper and Lower Bounds 539 14.3.2 Put–Call Parity 540 14.4 Binomial Option Pricing Model 541 14.4.1 Option Pricing for a Single-Period Model 541 14.4.2 Risk-Neutral Probabilities 543 14.4.3 Properties of Option Attributes 544 14.4.4 Effects of Dividends 545 14.5 Option Pricing for the Multi-Period Binomial Model 546 14.6 Pricing an American Option 548 14.6.1 Early Exercise for an American Call Option 550 14.7 Black–Scholes Model 550 14.7.1 Call and Put Options Formulas 551 14.7.2 Components of the Black–Scholes Model 552 14.7.3 Formal Derivation of the Black–Scholes Formula 553 14.7.4 Relationship Between the Binomial Lattice Model and the Black–Scholes Model 555 14.8 Dividends and Black–Sholes Model 556 14.8.1 Known Dividend Yield 556 14.8.2 Known Dollar Dividend 556 14.9 Pricing Exotic Options 557 14.9.1 Exchange Options—Margrabe Model 557 14.9.2 The Geske Model—Compound Option 558 14.10 Estimating Volatility for Traded Financial Assets 560 Summary 563 Problems 564 15 Real Options Analysis 567 15.1 A New Way of Thinking of Investment Strategy under Uncertainty 567 15.1.1 Identify the Level of Uncertainty 567 15.1.2 Analytic Tools and Strategies to Resolve Uncertainty 568 15.2 What Is the Investment Flexibility? 572 15.3 Real Options Valuation with Financial Option Framework 575 15.3.1 Basic Modeling Concept 575 15.3.2 SNPV Calculation with Black–Scholes Formula 576 15.4 Real Call Options Models 577 15.4.1 Option to Wait—Delay Options 577 15.4.2 Option to Expand—Growth Options 579 15.4.3 Research and Development 580 15.4.4 Scale-Up Options by Binomial Lattice 582 15.4.5 Exchange Option—Delay Options with Stochastic Investment Cost 584 15.5 Real Put Options Models 586 15.5.1 Option to Abandon 586 15.5.2 Option to Switch 589 15.5.3 Option to Scale Down 590 15.6 Option to Choose 591 15.7 Compound Real Options 594 15.7.1 Geske Model 594 15.7.2 Compound Options with Changing Volatility 598 15.7.3 A Four-Phased Compound Option with Varying Volatility—A Case Example 599 15.8 Estimating the Implied Project Volatility 605 15.9 An Alternative Real Options Valuation Based on the Loss Function Approach 606 15.9.1 The Concept of Opportunity Loss Function 607 15.9.2 Valuing Real Call Option with the Standardized Loss Function Approach 607 15.9.3 Valuing Real Put Option with the Standardized Loss Function Approach 612 15.9.4 Determining the Correct Amount of Premium to Pay for Real Options 614 Summary 618 Problems 619 15A Bayesian Real Options Analysis 625 15A.1 Real Options Premium and Value of Information 625 15A.1.1 Real Options Valuation Based on Linear Payoff Analysis 625 15A.1.2 Expected Value of Perfect Information and Its Relation to Option Premium 626 15A.2 Option Valuation with Opportunity to Replicate 628 15A.2.1 Option Value with Imperfect Information 629 15A.2.2 Revised Option Values 631 15A.3 Bayesian Compound Option—Delay Real Options with Learning 632 15A.3.1 A Conceptual Modeling Framework 632 15A.3.2 Effects of Learning 634 15A.3.3 Decision to Invest in Phase 1 with Upstream Learning 634 15A.3.4 Development of a Learning Real Options Framework 635 15A.3.5 Incorporating Bayesian Learning 636 15A.3.6 Posterior Properties 638 15A.4 A Case Study—Learning Options in Aerospace Industry 638 15A.4.1 Background 638 15A.4.2 Applying the Decision Model 639 15A.4.3 Option Value Based on Posterior Information 640 15A.4.4 Economic Interpretation 641 Summary 642 Part 4 Special Topics in Engineering Economic Analysis 16 Evaluation of Public Investments 647 16.1 The Nature of Public Activities 647 16.2 The Procedure of Benefit–Cost Analysis 648 16.2.1 Valuation of Benefits and Costs 649 16.2.2 Decision Criteria 651 16.3 The Benefit–Cost Concept Applied to a Mass Transit System 654 16.3.1 The Problem Statement 655 16.3.2 Users’ Benefits and Disbenefits 656 16.3.3 Sponsor’s Costs 662 16.3.4 Benefit–Cost Ratio for Project 665 16.4 Cost–Benefit/Cost-Effectiveness Analyses 666 16.4.1 Cost–Benefit Analysis 666 16.4.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 667 16.5 Risk and Uncertainty in Benefit–Cost Analysis 667 16.5.1 Exact Distribution of Benefit–Cost Ratio 668 16.5.2 Exact Distribution of Incremental Benefit–Cost Ratio 669 16.5.3 Computer Simulation Approach 673 Summary 676 Problems 677 17 Economic Analysis in Public Utilities 681 17.1 Utility Firms and Fair Returns 681 17.2 Capital Costs for Public Utilities 682 17.2.1 Debt and Equity Financing for Public Utilities 682 17.2.2 Weighted After-Tax Cost of Capital 682 17.2.3 Capital Recovery Cost Based on Book Depreciation Schedule 683 17.3 The Revenue Requirement Method 685 17.3.1 Assumptions of the Revenue Requirement Method 685 17.3.2 Determination of Annual Revenue Requirements 686 17.3.3 Effect of Inflation in Revenue Requirements 689 17.4 Equivalence of the Present Value and Revenue Requirement Methods 692 17.4.1 The A/T Equity Cash Flows and Revenue Requirement Series 692 17.4.2 Important Results Regarding the Equivalence of the PV and RR Methods 694 17.5 Flow-Through and Normalization Accounting 696 17.5.1 Flow-Through Method 696 17.5.2 Normalizing Method 698 Summary 704 Problems 704 18 Procedures for Replacement Analysis 708 18.1 Quantifying Obsolescence and Deterioration 708 18.2 Forecasting Future Data 713 18.3 Basic Concepts in Replacement Analysis 715 18.3.1 Sunk Costs 715 18.3.2 Outsider Point of View 716 18.4 Economic Life of an Asset 721 18.5 Infinite Planning Period Methods 724 18.5.1 No Technology or Cost Changes, AE Method 724 18.5.2 Geometric Changes in Purchase Costs and O&M Costs, PV Method 727 18.6 Finite Planning Period Methods 730 18.6.1 Sensitivity Analysis of PV with Respect to Inflation 730 18.6.2 Dynamic Programming Method 732 18.7 Building a Data Base 738 18.8 Recent Advances in Fleet Replacement Studies 740 Summary 741 Problems 742 Appendix A Discrete Interest Compounding Tables A-1 Appendix B Statistical Tables A-29 Table B.1 Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution A-29 Table B.2 Percentage Points of the χ2 Distribution A-30 Table B.3 Standard Normal Distribution Loss Function A-31 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisOCCUPATIONAL ERGONOMICS Develop a healthier connection between worker and work with this practical introduction The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that 34% of all workdays lost each year are the result of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs). These disorders result from a mismatch between a worker, their working conditions, and the task they perform. Improperly designed tasks or equipment, insufficient downtime between shifts or tasks, or even simple sitting position can all produce WMSDs. The key insights into preventing these disorders are produced by ergonomics, the scientific study of human bodies as they relate to objects, systems, and environments, especially work environments. Occupational Ergonomics: A Practical Approach aims to supply an ergonomic toolkit for creating healthier relationships between workers' bodies and their work. Beginning with a set of foundational ergonomic principles, it then details multiple assessment techniques in ways easTable of ContentsPreface ix About the Companion Website x 1 Book Organization 1 2 The Basics of Ergonomics 5 3 Anthropometry 19 4 Office Ergonomics 101 5 Exercise Physiology 125 6 Elements of Ergonomics Programs 153 7 Biomechanics 185 8 Psychophysics 201 9 Hand Tools 227 10 Vibration 251 11 Industrial Workstation Design 275 12 Manual Materials Handling 297 13 Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders 307 14 How to Conduct an Ergonomic Assessment and Ergonomic Assessment Tools 345 15 Ergonomics in the Healthcare Industry 381 16 Case Studies 429 17 Return on Investment 461 18 Ergonomic Climate 493 Appendix A Guides 501 Appendix B Tools 513 Glossary 541 Index 545

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStudent solution available in interactive e-text Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 2 Note to Students 2 Scope of Fluid Mechanics 3 Definition of a Fluid 3 1.2 Basic Equations 4 1.3 Methods of Analysis 5 System and Control Volume 6 Differential versus Integral Approach 7 Methods of Description 7 1.4 Dimensions and Units 9 Systems of Dimensions 9 Systems of Units 10 Preferred Systems of Units 11 Dimensional Consistency and “Engineering” Equations 11 1.5 Analysis of Experimental Error 13 1.6 Summary 14 References 14 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts 15 2.1 Fluid as a Continuum 16 2.2 Velocity Field 17 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 18 Timelines, Pathlines, Streaklines, and Streamlines 19 2.3 Stress Field 23 2.4 Viscosity 25 Newtonian Fluid 26 Non-Newtonian Fluids 28 2.5 Surface Tension 29 2.6 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions 30 Viscous and Inviscid Flows 32 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 34 Compressible and Incompressible Flows 34 Internal and External Flows 35 2.7 Summary and Useful Equations 36 References 37 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics 38 3.1 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics 39 3.2 The Standard Atmosphere 42 3.3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid 43 Incompressible Liquids: Manometers 43 Gases 48 3.4 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surfaces 50 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Submerged Surface 50 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Submerged Surface 57 3.5 Buoyancy and Stability 60 3.6 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion 63 3.7 Summary and Useful Equations 68 References 69 Chapter 4 Basic Equations In Integral Form For a Control Volume 70 4.1 Basic Laws for a System 71 Conservation of Mass 71 Newton’s Second Law 72 The Angular-Momentum Principle 72 The First Law of Thermodynamics 72 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 73 4.2 Relation of System Derivatives to the Control Volume Formulation 73 Derivation 74 Physical Interpretation 76 4.3 Conservation of Mass 77 Special Cases 78 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 82 Differential Control Volume Analysis 93 Control Volume Moving with Constant Velocity 97 4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 99 4.6 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Arbitrary Acceleration 105 4.7 The Angular-Momentum Principle 110 Equation for Fixed Control Volume 110 Equation for Rotating Control Volume 114 4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 118 Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume 119 Control Volume Equation 121 4.9 Summary and Useful Equations 125 Chapter 5 Introduction to Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion 128 5.1 Conservation of Mass 129 Rectangular Coordinate System 129 Cylindrical Coordinate System 133 5.2 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Incompressible Flow 135 5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics) 137 Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field 138 Fluid Rotation 144 Fluid Deformation 147 5.4 Momentum Equation 151 Forces Acting on a Fluid Particle 151 Differential Momentum Equation 152 Newtonian Fluid: Navier–Stokes Equations 152 5.5 Summary and Useful Equations 160 References 161 Chapter 6 Incompressible Inviscid Flow 162 6.1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler’s Equation 163 6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow 167 Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates 167 Derivation Using Rectangular Coordinates 168 Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures 169 Applications 171 Cautions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 176 6.3 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation 177 6.4 Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line 181 6.5 Unsteady Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline 183 6.6 Irrotational Flow 185 Bernoulli Equation Applied to Irrotational Flow 185 Velocity Potential 186 Stream Function and Velocity Potential for Two-Dimensional, Irrotational, Incompressible Flow: Laplace’s Equation 187 Elementary Plane Flows 189 Superposition of Elementary Plane Flows 191 6.7 Summary and Useful Equations 200 References 201 Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 202 7.1 Nondimensionalizing the Basic Differential Equations 204 7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 206 7.3 Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 212 7.4 Flow Similarity and Model Studies 214 Incomplete Similarity 216 Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters 221 Comments on Model Testing 224 7.5 Summary and Useful Equations 225 References 226 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow 227 8.1 Internal Flow Characteristics 228 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 228 The Entrance Region 229 Part A. Fully Developed Laminar Flow 230 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between Infinite Parallel Plates 230 Both Plates Stationary 230 Upper Plate Moving with Constant Speed, U 236 8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe 241 Part B. Flow In Pipes and Ducts 245 8.4 Shear Stress Distribution in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 246 8.5 Turbulent Velocity Profiles in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 247 8.6 Energy Considerations in Pipe Flow 251 Kinetic Energy Coefficient 252 Head Loss 252 8.7 Calculation of Head Loss 253 Major Losses: Friction Factor 253 Minor Losses 258 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers in Fluid Systems 262 Noncircular Ducts 262 8.8 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems 263 Single-Path Systems 264 Multiple-Path Systems 276 Part C. Flow Measurement 279 8.9 Restriction Flow Meters for Internal Flows 279 The Orifice Plate 282 The Flow Nozzle 286 The Venturi 286 The Laminar Flow Element 287 Linear Flow Meters 288 Traversing Methods 289 8.10 Summary and Useful Equations 290 References 292 Chapter 9 External Incompressible Viscous Flow 293 Part A. Boundary Layers 295 9.1 The Boundary Layer Concept 295 9.2 Laminar Flat Plate Boundary Layer: Exact Solution 299 9.3 Momentum Integral Equation 302 9.4 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient 306 Laminar Flow 307 Turbulent Flow 311 9.5 Pressure Gradients in Boundary Layer Flow 314 Part B. Fluid Flow About Immersed Bodies 316 9.6 Drag 316 Pure Friction Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow 317 Pure Pressure Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Normal to the Flow 320 Friction and Pressure Drag: Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder 320 Streamlining 326 9.7 Lift 328 9.8 Summary and Useful Equations 340 References 342 Chapter 10 Fluid Machinery 343 10.1 Introduction and Classification of Fluid Machines 344 Machines for Doing Work on a Fluid 344 Machines for Extracting Work (Power) from a Fluid 346 Scope of Coverage 348 10.2 Turbomachinery Analysis 348 The Angular Momentum Principle: The Euler Turbomachine Equation 348 Velocity Diagrams 350 Performance—Hydraulic Power 352 Dimensional Analysis and Specific Speed 353 10.3 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers 358 Application of Euler Turbomachine Equation to Centrifugal Pumps 358 Application of the Euler Equation to Axial Flow Pumps and Fans 359 Performance Characteristics 362 Similarity Rules 367 Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head 371 Pump Selection: Applications to Fluid Systems 374 Blowers and Fans 380 10.4 Positive Displacement Pumps 384 10.5 Hydraulic Turbines 387 Hydraulic Turbine Theory 387 Performance Characteristics for Hydraulic Turbines 389 10.6 Propellers and Wind Turbines 395 Propellers 395 Wind Turbines 400 10.7 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 406 Application of the Energy Equation to a Compressible Flow Machine 406 Compressors 407 Compressible-Flow Turbines 410 10.8 Summary and Useful Equations 410 References 412 Chapter 11 Flow In Open Channels 414 11.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions 416 Simplifying Assumptions 416 Channel Geometry 418 Speed of Surface Waves and the Froude Number 419 11.2 Energy Equation for Open-Channel Flows 423 Specific Energy 425 Critical Depth: Minimum Specific Energy 426 11.3 Localized Effect of Area Change (Frictionless Flow) 431 Flow over a Bump 431 11.4 The Hydraulic Jump 435 Depth Increase Across a Hydraulic Jump 438 Head Loss Across a Hydraulic Jump 439 11.5 Steady Uniform Flow 441 The Manning Equation for Uniform Flow 443 Energy Equation for Uniform Flow 448 Optimum Channel Cross Section 450 11.6 Flow with Gradually Varying Depth 451 Calculation of Surface Profiles 452 11.7 Discharge Measurement Using Weirs 455 Suppressed Rectangular Weir 455 Contracted Rectangular Weirs 456 Triangular Weir 456 Broad-Crested Weir 457 11.8 Summary and Useful Equations 458 References 459 Chapter 12 Introduction to Compressible Flow 460 12.1 Review of Thermodynamics 461 12.2 Propagation of Sound Waves 467 Speed of Sound 467 Types of Flow—The Mach Cone 471 12.3 Reference State: Local Isentropic Stagnation Properties 473 Local Isentropic Stagnation Properties for the Flow of an Ideal Gas 474 12.4 Critical Conditions 480 12.5 Basic Equations for One-Dimensional Compressible Flow 480 Continuity Equation 481 Momentum Equation 481 First Law of Thermodynamics 481 Second Law of Thermodynamics 482 Equation of State 483 12.6 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Variation 483 Subsonic Flow, M <1 485 Supersonic Flow, M >1 486 Sonic Flow, M =1 486 Reference Stagnation and Critical Conditions for Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 487 Isentropic Flow in a Converging Nozzle 492 Isentropic Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle 496 12.7 Normal Shocks 501 Basic Equations for a Normal Shock 501 Normal-Shock Flow Functions for One-Dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas 503 12.8 Supersonic Channel Flow with Shocks 507 12.9 Summary and Useful Equations 509 References 511 Problems P-1 Appendix A Fluid Property Data A-1 Appendix B Videos For Fluid Mechanics A-13 Appendix C Selected Performance Curves For Pumps and Fans A-15 Appendix D Flow Functions For Computation of Compressible Flow A-26 Appendix E Analysis of Experimental Uncertainty A-29 Appendix F Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics A-35 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Getting Started 1 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 2 1.2 Defining Systems 2 1.2.1 Closed Systems 4 1.2.2 Control Volumes 4 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 5 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 6 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics 6 1.3.2 Property, State, and Process 7 1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 7 1.3.4 Equilibrium 8 1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 8 1.4.1 SI Units 9 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 10 1.5 Specific Volume 11 1.6 Pressure 12 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 12 1.6.2 Buoyancy 14 1.6.3 Pressure Units 14 1.7 Temperature 15 1.7.1 Thermometers 16 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 17 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 17 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 19 1.8.1 Design 19 1.8.2 Analysis 19 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 20 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 22 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 23 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 24 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 24 2.1.2 Potential Energy 25 2.1.3 Units for Energy 26 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 27 2.1.5 Closing Comment 27 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 27 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 28 2.2.2 Power 29 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 30 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual Processes 31 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 31 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 34 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 35 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 36 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 36 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 37 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate 38 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 39 2.4.3 Closing Comments 40 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems 41 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 43 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed Systems 44 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State Operation 47 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 49 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 50 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 51 2.6.2 Power Cycles 52 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 52 2.7 Energy Storage 53 2.7.1 Overview 54 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 54 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 55 3 Evaluating Properties 57 3.1 Getting Started 58 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 58 3.1.2 Fixing the State 58 3.2 p–υ–T Relation 59 3.2.1 p–υ–T Surface 60 3.2.2 Projections of the p–υ–T Surface 61 3.3 Studying Phase Change 63 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 65 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume, and Temperature 66 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 66 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 68 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy 72 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 72 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 72 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 74 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Software 74 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Software 76 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 77 3.8.2 Using Software 79 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cυ and cp 80 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 82 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 82 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 83 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 85 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R– 85 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 85 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 86 3.11.4 Equations of State 89 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 90 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 90 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 90 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 92 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 92 3.13.1 Δu, Δh, cυ , and cp Relations 92 3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 93 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specific Heats, and Software 95 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 95 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 97 3.14.3 Using Computer Software 98 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 100 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 102 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 105 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 106 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 106 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 107 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 107 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 108 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 109 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 109 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 109 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 109 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 110 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 112 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 112 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 113 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 114 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 114 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 115 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 115 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 116 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 117 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations 118 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 118 4.7 Turbines 119 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 120 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 121 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 122 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 122 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 122 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 125 4.9 Heat Exchangers 126 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 127 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 128 4.10 Throttling Devices 130 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 130 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 131 4.11 System Integration 132 4.12 Transient Analysis 135 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 135 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 135 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 136 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 142 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 145 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 146 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 146 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 147 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 148 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 149 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 149 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 149 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 151 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 151 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 151 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 152 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 153 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 155 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 156 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 157 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 158 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 159 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 159 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 160 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 161 5.7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 161 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 162 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 163 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 163 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 164 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 165 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 166 5.9.1 Power Cycles 167 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 168 5.10 Carnot Cycle 171 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 171 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 172 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 173 5.11 Clausius Inequality 173 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 175 6 Using Entropy 177 6.1 Entropy–A System Property 178 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 178 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 179 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 179 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 179 6.2.1 Vapor Data 180 6.2.2 Saturation Data 180 6.2.3 Liquid Data 180 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 181 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 181 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 182 6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 184 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 184 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 185 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 186 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 187 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 187 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 188 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 188 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water 189 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 190 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 191 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 192 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance 192 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 195 6.8 Directionality of Processes 196 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 196 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 198 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 200 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 201 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 202 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State 202 6.11 Isentropic Processes 207 6.11.1 General Considerations 207 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 208 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 210 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 212 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 212 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 215 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies 216 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 218 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 218 6.13.2 Work 219 6.13.3 Work in Polytropic Processes 220 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 222 7 Exergy Analysis 225 7.1 Introducing Exergy 226 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 227 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 227 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 228 7.3 Exergy of a System 228 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 230 7.3.2 Specific Exergy 230 7.3.3 Exergy Change 232 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 233 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance 233 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance 236 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 237 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 239 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State 240 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 242 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at Steady State 243 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 246 7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Efficiency 249 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 249 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Components 251 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Efficiencies 253 7.7 Thermoeconomics 253 7.7.1 Costing 254 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design 254 7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System 256 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 260 8 Vapor Power Systems 261 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 266 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 268 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 269 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 271 8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the Rankine Cycle 274 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 276 8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical 279 8.4 Improving Performance—Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 284 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 284 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 287 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 289 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 292 8.5.1 Working Fluids 292 8.5.2 Cogeneration 293 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 295 8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 296 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 301 9 Gas Power Systems 303 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 304 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 306 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 311 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 314 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 317 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 318 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 318 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 319 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses 324 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 326 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 329 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 329 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 331 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 335 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 337 9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 339 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle 339 9.9.2 Cogeneration 344 9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants 344 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 346 9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 350 9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Flow 350 9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach Number 351 9.12.3 Determining Stagnation State Properties 353 9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers 353 9.13.1 Exploring the Effects of Area Change in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 353 9.13.2 Effects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 356 9.13.3 Flow Across a Normal Shock 358 9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of Ideal Gases with Constant Specific Heats 359 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions 359 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions 362 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 366 10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems 369 10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 370 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 370 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle 371 10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 372 10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 372 10.2.2 Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression Systems 373 10.2.3 Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression Systems 375 10.2.4 The p–h Diagram 378 10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 379 10.4 Other Vapor-Compression Applications 382 10.4.1 Cold Storage 382 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles 383 10.4.3 Multistage Compression with Intercooling 384 10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 385 10.6 Heat Pump Systems 386 10.6.1 Carnot Heat Pump Cycle 387 10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps 387 10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 390 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle 390 10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications 394 10.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon Dioxide 395 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 396 11 Thermodynamic Relations 399 11.1 Using Equations of State 400 11.1.1 Getting Started 400 11.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State 401 11.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State 404 11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 405 11.3 Developing Property Relations 408 11.3.1 Principal Exact Differentials 408 11.3.2 Property Relations from Exact Differentials 409 11.3.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 413 11.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy 414 11.4.1 Considering Phase Change 414 11.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Regions 417 11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 422 11.5.1 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility 422 11.5.2 Relations Involving Specific Heats 423 11.5.3 Joule–Thomson Coefficient 426 11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 428 11.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using p–υ –T and Specific Heat Data 428 11.6.2 Developing Tables by Differentiating a Fundamental Thermodynamic Function 430 11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy 432 11.8 p–υ–T Relations for Gas Mixtures 438 11.9 Analyzing Multicomponent Systems 442 11.9.1 Partial Molal Properties 443 11.9.2 Chemical Potential 445 11.9.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions for Multicomponent Systems 446 11.9.4 Fugacity 448 11.9.5 Ideal Solution 451 11.9.6 Chemical Potential for Ideal Solutions 452 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 453 12 Ideal Gas Mixture and Psychrometric Applications 457 12.1 Describing Mixture Composition 458 12.2 Relating p, V, and T for Ideal Gas Mixtures 461 12.3 Evaluating U, H, S, and Specific Heats 463 12.3.1 Evaluating U and H 463 12.3.2 Evaluating cυ and cp 463 12.3.3 Evaluating S 464 12.3.4 Working on a Mass Basis 464 12.4 Analyzing Systems Involving Mixtures 465 12.4.1 Mixture Processes at Constant Composition 465 12.4.2 Mixing of Ideal Gases 470 12.5 Introducing Psychrometric Principles 474 12.5.1 Moist Air 474 12.5.2 Humidity Ratio, Relative Humidity, Mixture Enthalpy, and Mixture Entropy 475 12.5.3 Modeling Moist Air in Equilibrium with Liquid Water 477 12.5.4 Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature 478 12.5.5 Evaluating Humidity Ratio Using the Adiabatic-Saturation Temperature 482 12.6 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures 483 12.7 Psychrometric Charts 484 12.8 Analyzing Air-Conditioning Processes 486 12.8.1 Applying Mass and Energy Balances to Air-Conditioning Systems 486 12.8.2 Conditioning Moist Air at Constant Composition 488 12.8.3 Dehumidification 490 12.8.4 Humidification 493 12.8.5 Evaporative Cooling 494 12.8.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams 496 12.9 Cooling Towers 499 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 501 13 Reacting Mixtures and Combustion 503 13.1 Introducing Combustion 504 13.1.1 Fuels 505 13.1.2 Modeling Combustion Air 505 13.1.3 Determining Products of Combustion 508 13.1.4 Energy and Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 511 13.2 Conservation of Energy—Reacting Systems 511 13.2.1 Evaluating Enthalpy for Reacting Systems 511 13.2.2 Energy Balances for Reacting Systems 514 13.2.3 Enthalpy of Combustion and Heating Values 520 13.3 Determining the Adiabatic Flame Temperature 523 13.3.1 Using Table Data 523 13.3.2 Using Computer Software 523 13.3.3 Closing Comments 525 13.4 Fuel Cells 526 13.4.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 527 13.4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 529 13.5 Absolute Entropy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 530 13.5.1 Evaluating Entropy for Reacting Systems 530 13.5.2 Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 531 13.5.3 Evaluating Gibbs Function for Reacting Systems 534 13.6 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy 536 13.6.1 Working Equations for Chemical Exergy 538 13.6.2 Evaluating Chemical Exergy for Several Cases 538 13.6.3 Closing Comments 540 13.7 Standard Chemical Exergy 540 13.7.1 Standard Chemical Exergy of a Hydrocarbon: CaHb 541 13.7.2 Standard Chemical Exergy of Other Substances 544 13.8 Applying Total Exergy 545 13.8.1 Calculating Total Exergy 545 13.8.2 Calculating Exergetic Efficiencies of Reacting Systems 549 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 552 14 Chemical and Phase Equilibrium 555 14.1 Introducing Equilibrium Criteria 556 14.1.1 Chemical Potential and Equilibrium 557 14.1.2 Evaluating Chemical Potentials 559 14.2 Equation of Reaction Equilibrium 560 14.2.1 Introductory Case 560 14.2.2 General Case 561 14.3 Calculating Equilibrium Compositions 562 14.3.1 Equilibrium Constant for Ideal Gas Mixtures 562 14.3.2 Illustrations of the Calculation of Equilibrium Compositions for Reacting Ideal Gas Mixtures 565 14.3.3 Equilibrium Constant for Mixtures and Solutions 569 14.4 Further Examples of the Use of the Equilibrium Constant 570 14.4.1 Determining Equilibrium Flame Temperature 570 14.4.2 Van’t Hoff Equation 573 14.4.3 Ionization 574 14.4.4 Simultaneous Reactions 575 14.5 Equilibrium between Two Phases of a Pure Substance 578 14.6 Equilibrium of Multicomponent, Multiphase Systems 579 14.6.1 Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium 580 14.6.2 Gibbs Phase Rule 582 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 583 Appendix Tables, Figures, and Charts A-1 Index to Tables in SI Units A-1 Index to Tables in English Units A-49 Index to Figures and Charts A-97 Exercises and Problems P-1 Chapter 1 P-1 Chapter 2 P-8 Chapter 3 P-17 Chapter 4 P-28 Chapter 5 P-42 Chapter 6 P-52 Chapter 7 P-67 Chapter 8 P-82 Chapter 9 P-97 Chapter 10 P-112 Chapter 11 P-122 Chapter 12 P-129 Chapter 13 P-141 Chapter 14 P-150 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Symbols xix 1. Introduction 1 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19 Atomic Structure 20 Atomic Bonding in Solids 30 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 48 Crystal Structures 49 Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 61 Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 79 4. Imperfections in Solids 92 Point Defects 93 Miscellaneous Imperfections 102 Microscopic Examination 110 5. Diffusion 121 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 142 Elastic Deformation 148 Plastic Deformation 154 Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 171 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 180 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation 181 Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 193 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 199 8. Failure 209 Fatigue 229 Creep 240 9. Phase Diagrams 251 Definitions and Basic Concepts 252 Binary Phase Diagrams 256 The Iron–Carbon System 287 10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 303 Phase Transformations 304 Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron–Carbon Alloys 317 11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys 347 Types of Metal Alloys 349 Fabrication of Metals 373 Thermal Processing of Metals 382 12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics 405 Ceramic Structures 406 Mechanical Properties 428 13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 442 Types and Applications of Ceramics 444 Fabrication and Processing of Ceramics 461 14. Polymer Structures 479 15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers 511 Mechanical Behavior of Polymers 512 Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 522 Crystallization, Melting, and Glass-Transition Phenomena in Polymers 530 Polymer Types 536 Polymer Synthesis and Processing 549 16. Composites 564 Particle-Reinforced Composites 567 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 572 Structural Composites 595 17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 607 Corrosion of Metals 609 Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 639 Degradation of Polymers 639 18. Electrical Properties 648 Electrical Conduction 649 Semiconductivity 659 Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 679 Dielectric Behavior 681 Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 689 19. Thermal Properties 698 20. Magnetic Properties 714 21. Optical Properties 746 Basic Concepts 747 Optical Properties of Metals 751 Optical Properties of Nonmetals 752 Applications of Optical Phenomena 761 22. Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 775 Questions and Problems P-1 Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) A-1 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-3 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials A-32 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers A-37 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials A-41 Appendix F Characteristics of Selected Elements A-43 Appendix G Values of Selected Physical Constants, Unit Abbreviations, SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes A-44 Appendix H Unit Conversion Factors, Periodic Table of the Elements A-45 Glossary G-1 Answers to Selected Problems PA-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsContent available in eBook Student solution available in interactive e-text 1 Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing 1 1.1 What Is Manufacturing? 2 1.2 Materials in Manufacturing 8 1.3 Manufacturing Processes 10 1.4 Production Systems 17 1.5 Manufacturing Economics 20 Part I Material Properties and Product Attributes 27 2 The Nature of Materials 27 2.1 Atomic Structure and the Elements 27 2.2 Bonding between Atoms and Molecules 30 2.3 Crystalline Structures 32 2.4 Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures 37 2.5 Engineering Materials 38 3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 40 3.1 Stress–Strain Relationships 40 3.2 Hardness 53 3.3 Effect of Temperature on Properties 57 3.4 Fluid Properties 59 3.5 Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers 61 4 Physical Properties of Materials 64 4.1 Volumetric and Melting Properties 64 4.2 Thermal Properties 67 4.3 Mass Diffusion 69 4.4 Electrical Properties 71 4.5 Electrochemical Processes 73 5 Dimensions, Surfaces, and Their Measurement 75 5.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes 75 5.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages 76 5.3 Surfaces 84 5.4 Measurement of Surfaces 88 5.5 Effect of Manufacturing Processes 90 Part II Engineering Materials 93 6 Metals 93 6.1 Alloys and Phase Diagrams 94 6.2 Ferrous Metals 98 6.3 Nonferrous Metals 114 6.4 Superalloys 124 7 Ceramics 126 7.1 Structure and Properties of Ceramics 127 7.2 Traditional Ceramics 129 7.3 New Ceramics 131 7.4 Glass 134 7.5 Some Important Elements Related to Ceramics 138 8 Polymers 142 8.1 Fundamentals of Polymer Science and Technology 144 8.2 Thermoplastic Polymers 153 8.3 Thermosetting Polymers 157 8.4 Elastomers 160 8.5 Polymer Recycling and Biodegradability 166 9 Composite Materials 169 9.1 Technology and Classification of Composite Materials 170 9.2 Metal Matrix Composites 177 9.3 Ceramic Matrix Composites 179 9.4 Polymer Matrix Composites 180 Part III Solidification Processes 184 10 Fundamentals of Metal Casting 184 10.1 Overview of Casting Technology 186 10.2 Heating and Pouring 188 10.3 Solidification and Cooling 192 11 Metal Casting Processes 200 11.1 Sand Casting 200 11.2 Other Expendable-Mold Casting Processes 204 11.3 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes 209 11.4 Foundry Practice 218 11.5 Casting Quality 222 11.6 Castability and Casting Economics 224 11.7 Product Design Considerations 229 12 Glassworking 232 12.1 Raw Materials Preparation and Melting 232 12.2 Shaping Processes in Glassworking 233 12.3 Heat Treatment and Finishing 239 12.4 Product Design Considerations 240 13 Shaping Processes For Plastics 242 13.1 Properties of Polymer Melts 243 13.2 Extrusion 245 13.3 Production of Sheet and Film 257 13.4 Fiber and Filament Production (Spinning) 260 13.5 Coating Processes 261 13.6 Injection Molding 262 13.7 Compression and Transfer Molding 275 13.8 Blow Molding and Rotational Molding 277 13.9 Thermoforming 282 13.10 Casting 286 13.11 Polymer Foam Processing and Forming 287 13.12 Product Design Considerations 288 14 Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites and Rubber 291 14.1 Overview of PMC Processing 291 14.2 Open-Mold Processes 295 14.3 Closed-Mold Processes 299 14.4 Other PMC Shaping Processes 301 14.5 Rubber Processing and Shaping 305 14.6 Manufacture of Tires and Other Rubber Products 310 Part IV Particulate Processing of Metals and Ceramics 315 15 Powder Metallurgy 315 15.1 Characterization of Engineering Powders 317 15.2 Production of Metallic Powders 321 15.3 Conventional Pressing and Sintering 323 15.4 Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques 329 15.5 Powder Metallurgy Materials and Economics 331 15.6 Product Design Considerations in Powder Metallurgy 334 16 Processing of Ceramics and Cermets 338 16.1 Processing of Traditional Ceramics 338 16.2 Processing of New Ceramics 345 16.3 Processing of Cermets 348 16.4 Product Design Considerations 350 Part V Metal Forming and Sheet Metalworking 352 17 Fundamentals of Metal Forming 352 17.1 Overview of Metal Forming 352 17.2 Material Behavior in Metal Forming 355 17.3 Temperature in Metal Forming 356 17.4 Strain Rate Sensitivity 358 17.5 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming 360 18 Bulk Deformation Processes In Metal Working 362 18.1 Rolling 362 18.2 Forging 372 18.3 Extrusion 387 18.4 Wire and Bar Drawing 397 19 Sheet Metalworking 405 19.1 Cutting Operations 406 19.2 Bending Operations 412 19.3 Drawing 416 19.4 Equipment and Economics for Sheet-Metal Pressworking 423 19.5 Other Sheet-Metal-Forming Operations 432 19.6 Sheet-Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses 435 19.7 Bending of Tube Stock 440 Part VI Material Removal Processes 443 20 Theory of Metal Machining 443 20.1 Overview of Machining Technology 445 20.2 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining 448 20.3 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation 452 20.4 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining 458 20.5 Cutting Temperature 460 21 Machining Operations and Machine Tools 463 21.1 Machining and Part Geometry 463 21.2 Turning and Related Operations 466 21.3 Drilling and Related Operations 475 21.4 Milling 479 21.5 Machining Centers and Turning Centers 487 21.6 Other Machining Operations 489 21.7 Machining Operations for Special Geometries 494 21.8 High-Speed Machining 500 22 Cutting-Tool Technology 503 22.1 Tool Life 503 22.2 Tool Materials 509 22.3 Tool Geometry 517 22.4 Cutting Fluids 526 23 Economic and Product Design Considerations In Machining 530 23.1 Machinability 530 23.2 Tolerances and Surface Finish 531 23.3 Machining Economics 536 23.4 Product Design Considerations in Machining 543 24 Grinding and Other Abrasive Processes 546 24.1 Grinding 547 24.2 Related Abrasive Processes 562 25 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes 567 25.1 Mechanical Energy Processes 568 25.2 Electrochemical Machining Processes 571 25.3 Thermal Energy Processes 575 25.4 Chemical Machining 584 25.5 Application Considerations 589 Part VII Property Enhancing and Surface Processing Operations 592 26 Heat Treatment of Metals 592 26.1 Annealing 592 26.2 Martensite Formation in Steel 593 26.3 Precipitation Hardening 597 26.4 Surface Hardening 598 26.5 Heat Treatment Methods and Facilities 599 27 Surface Processing Operations 602 27.1 Industrial Cleaning Processes 602 27.2 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 606 27.3 Plating and Related Processes 607 27.4 Conversion Coating 611 27.5 Vapor Deposition Processes 612 27.6 Organic Coatings 618 27.7 Porcelain Enameling and Other Ceramic Coatings 620 27.8 Thermal and Mechanical Coating Processes 621 Part VIII Joining and Assembly Processes 623 28 Fundamentals of Welding 623 28.1 Overview of Welding Technology 624 28.2 The Weld Joint 627 28.3 Physics of Welding 629 28.4 Features of a Fusion-Welded Joint 633 29 Welding Processes 635 29.1 Arc Welding 635 29.2 Resistance Welding 644 29.3 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 651 29.4 Other Fusion-Welding Processes 655 29.5 Solid-State Welding 657 29.6 Weld Quality 663 29.7 Weldability and Welding Economics 667 29.8 Design Considerations in Welding 670 30 Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding 672 30.1 Brazing 672 30.2 Soldering 677 30.3 Adhesive Bonding 681 31 Mechanical Assembly 687 31.1 Threaded Fasteners 687 31.2 Rivets and Eyelets 694 31.3 Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits 695 31.4 Other Mechanical Fastening Methods 698 31.5 Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners 699 31.6 Design for Assembly 700 Part IX Special Processing and Assembly Technologies (Available in e-text for students) W-1 32 Additive Manufacturing W-1 (Available in e-text for students) 33 Processing of Integrated Circuits W-21 (Available in e-text for students) 34 Electronics Assembly and Packaging W-50 (Available in e-text for students) 35 Microfabrication Technologies W-71 (Available in e-text for students) 36 Nanofabrication Technologies W-83 (Available in e-text for students) Part X Manufacturing Systems (Available in e-text for students) W-97 37 Automation Technologies For Manufacturing Systems W-97 (Available in e-text for students) 38 Integrated Manufacturing Systems W-122 (Available in e-text for students) Part XI Manufacturing Support Systems W-144 39 Process Planning and Production Control W-144 (Available in e-text for students) 40 Quality Control and Inspection W-170 (Available in e-text for students) Review Questions and Problems P-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsSymbols xix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What and How? 2 1.2 Physical Origins and Rate Equations 3 1.2.1 Conduction 3 1.2.2 Convection 6 1.2.3 Radiation 8 1.2.4 The Thermal Resistance Concept 12 1.3 Relationship to Thermodynamics 12 1.3.1 Relationship to the First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy) 13 1.3.2 Relationship to the Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Efficiency of Heat Engines 28 1.4 Units and Dimensions 33 1.5 Analysis of Heat Transfer Problems: Methodology 35 1.6 Relevance of Heat Transfer 38 1.7 Summary 42 References 45 Chapter 2 Introduction to Conduction 47 2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation 48 2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter 50 2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity 51 2.2.2 Other Relevant Properties 58 2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation 62 2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions 70 2.5 Summary 74 References 75 Chapter 3 One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 77 3.1 The Plane Wall 78 3.1.1 Temperature Distribution 78 3.1.2 Thermal Resistance 80 3.1.3 The Composite Wall 81 3.1.4 Contact Resistance 83 3.1.5 Porous Media 85 3.2 An Alternative Conduction Analysis 99 3.3 Radial Systems 103 3.3.1 The Cylinder 103 3.3.2 The Sphere 108 3.4 Summary of One-Dimensional Conduction Results 109 3.5 Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation 109 3.5.1 The Plane Wall 110 3.5.2 Radial Systems 116 3.5.3 Tabulated Solutions 117 3.5.4 Application of Resistance Concepts 117 3.6 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces 121 3.6.1 A General Conduction Analysis 123 3.6.2 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area 125 3.6.3 Fin Performance Parameters 131 3.6.4 Fins of Nonuniform Cross-Sectional Area 134 3.6.5 Overall Surface Efficiency 137 3.7 Other Applications of One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 141 3.7.1 The Bioheat Equation 141 3.7.2 Thermoelectric Power Generation 145 3.7.3 Nanoscale Conduction 153 3.8 Summary 157 References 159 Chapter 4 Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 161 4.1 General Considerations and Solution Techniques 162 4.2 The Method of Separation of Variables 163 4.3 The Conduction Shape Factor and the Dimensionless Conduction Heat Rate 167 4.4 Finite-Difference Equations 173 4.4.1 The Nodal Network 173 4.4.2 Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation: No Generation and Constant Properties 174 4.4.3 Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation: The Energy Balance Method 175 4.5 Solving the Finite-Difference Equations 182 4.5.1 Formulation as a Matrix Equation 182 4.5.2 Verifying the Accuracy of the Solution 183 4.6 Summary 188 References 189 Chapter 5 Transient Conduction 191 5.1 The Lumped Capacitance Method 192 5.2 Validity of the Lumped Capacitance Method 195 5.3 General Lumped Capacitance Analysis 199 5.3.1 Radiation Only 200 5.3.2 Negligible Radiation 200 5.3.3 Convection Only with Variable Convection Coefficient 201 5.3.4 Additional Considerations 201 5.4 Spatial Effects 210 5.5 The Plane Wall with Convection 211 5.5.1 Exact Solution 212 5.5.2 Approximate Solution 212 5.5.3 Total Energy Transfer: Approximate Solution 214 5.5.4 Additional Considerations 214 5.6 Radial Systems with Convection 215 5.6.1 Exact Solutions 215 5.6.2 Approximate Solutions 216 5.6.3 Total Energy Transfer: Approximate Solutions 216 5.6.4 Additional Considerations 217 5.7 The Semi-Infinite Solid 222 5.8 Objects with Constant Surface Temperatures or Surface Heat Fluxes 229 5.8.1 Constant Temperature Boundary Conditions 229 5.8.2 Constant Heat Flux Boundary Conditions 231 5.8.3 Approximate Solutions 232 5.9 Periodic Heating 239 5.10 Finite-Difference Methods 242 5.10.1 Discretization of the Heat Equation: The Explicit Method 242 5.10.2 Discretization of the Heat Equation: The Implicit Method 249 5.11 Summary 256 References 257 Chapter 6 Introduction to Convection 259 6.1 The Convection Boundary Layers 260 6.1.1 The Velocity Boundary Layer 260 6.1.2 The Thermal Boundary Layer 261 6.1.3 The Concentration Boundary Layer 263 6.1.4 Significance of the Boundary Layers 264 6.2 Local and Average Convection Coefficients 264 6.2.1 Heat Transfer 264 6.2.2 Mass Transfer 265 6.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 271 6.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Velocity Boundary Layers 271 6.3.2 Laminar and Turbulent Thermal and Species Concentration Boundary Layers 273 6.4 The Boundary Layer Equations 276 6.4.1 Boundary Layer Equations for Laminar Flow 277 6.4.2 Compressible Flow 280 6.5 Boundary Layer Similarity: The Normalized Boundary Layer Equations 280 6.5.1 Boundary Layer Similarity Parameters 281 6.5.2 Dependent Dimensionless Parameters 281 6.6 Physical Interpretation of the Dimensionless Parameters 290 6.7 Boundary Layer Analogies 292 6.7.1 The Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy 293 6.7.2 Evaporative Cooling 296 6.7.3 The Reynolds Analogy 299 6.8 Summary 300 References 301 Chapter 7 External Flow 303 7.1 The Empirical Method 305 7.2 The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow 306 7.2.1 Laminar Flow over an Isothermal Plate: A Similarity Solution 307 7.2.2 Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate 313 7.2.3 Mixed Boundary Layer Conditions 314 7.2.4 Unheated Starting Length 315 7.2.5 Flat Plates with Constant Heat Flux Conditions 316 7.2.6 Limitations on Use of Convection Coefficients 317 7.3 Methodology for a Convection Calculation 317 7.4 The Cylinder in Cross Flow 325 7.4.1 Flow Considerations 325 7.4.2 Convection Heat and Mass Transfer 327 7.5 The Sphere 335 7.6 Flow Across Banks of Tubes 338 7.7 Impinging Jets 347 7.7.1 Hydrodynamic and Geometric Considerations 347 7.7.2 Convection Heat and Mass Transfer 348 7.8 Packed Beds 352 7.9 Summary 353 References 356 Chapter 8 Internal Flow 357 8.1 Hydrodynamic Considerations 358 8.1.1 Flow Conditions 358 8.1.2 The Mean Velocity 359 8.1.3 Velocity Profile in the Fully Developed Region 360 8.1.4 Pressure Gradient and Friction Factor in Fully Developed Flow 362 8.2 Thermal Considerations 363 8.2.1 The Mean Temperature 364 8.2.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling 365 8.2.3 Fully Developed Conditions 365 8.3 The Energy Balance 369 8.3.1 General Considerations 369 8.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux 370 8.3.3 Constant Surface Temperature 373 8.4 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes: Thermal Analysis and Convection Correlations 377 8.4.1 The Fully Developed Region 377 8.4.2 The Entry Region 382 8.4.3 Temperature-Dependent Properties 384 8.5 Convection Correlations: Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes 384 8.6 Convection Correlations: Noncircular Tubes and the Concentric Tube Annulus 392 8.7 Heat Transfer Enhancement 395 8.8 Forced Convection in Small Channels 398 8.8.1 Microscale Convection in Gases (0.1 μm ≤ Dh ≤ 100 μm) 398 8.8.2 Microscale Convection in Liquids 399 8.8.3 Nanoscale Convection (Dh ≤ 100 nm) 400 8.9 Convection Mass Transfer 403 8.10 Summary 405 References 408 Chapter 9 Free Convection 409 9.1 Physical Considerations 410 9.2 The Governing Equations for Laminar Boundary Layers 412 9.3 Similarity Considerations 414 9.4 Laminar Free Convection on a Vertical Surface 415 9.5 The Effects of Turbulence 418 9.6 Empirical Correlations: External Free Convection Flows 420 9.6.1 The Vertical Plate 421 9.6.2 Inclined and Horizontal Plates 424 9.6.3 The Long Horizontal Cylinder 429 9.6.4 Spheres 433 9.7 Free Convection Within Parallel Plate Channels 434 9.7.1 Vertical Channels 435 9.7.2 Inclined Channels 437 9.8 Empirical Correlations: Enclosures 437 9.8.1 Rectangular Cavities 437 9.8.2 Concentric Cylinders 440 9.8.3 Concentric Spheres 441 9.9 Combined Free and Forced Convection 443 9.10 Convection Mass Transfer 444 9.11 Summary 445 References 446 Chapter 10 Boiling and Condensation 449 10.1 Dimensionless Parameters in Boiling and Condensation 450 10.2 Boiling Modes 451 10.3 Pool Boiling 452 10.3.1 The Boiling Curve 452 10.3.2 Modes of Pool Boiling 453 10.4 Pool Boiling Correlations 456 10.4.1 Nucleate Pool Boiling 456 10.4.2 Critical Heat Flux for Nucleate Pool Boiling 458 10.4.3 Minimum Heat Flux 459 10.4.4 Film Pool Boiling 459 10.4.5 Parametric Effects on Pool Boiling 460 10.5 Forced Convection Boiling 465 10.5.1 External Forced Convection Boiling 466 10.5.2 Two-Phase Flow 466 10.5.3 Two-Phase Flow in Microchannels 469 10.6 Condensation: Physical Mechanisms 469 10.7 Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate 471 10.8 Turbulent Film Condensation 475 10.9 Film Condensation on Radial Systems 480 10.10 Condensation in Horizontal Tubes 485 10.11 Dropwise Condensation 486 10.12 Summary 487 References 487 Chapter 11 Heat Exchangers 491 11.1 Heat Exchanger Types 492 11.2 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 494 11.3 Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference 497 11.3.1 The Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger 498 11.3.2 The Counterflow Heat Exchanger 500 11.3.3 Special Operating Conditions 501 11.4 Heat Exchanger Analysis: The Effectiveness–NTU Method 508 11.4.1 Definitions 508 11.4.2 Effectiveness–NTU Relations 509 11.5 Heat Exchanger Design and Performance Calculations 516 11.6 Additional Considerations 525 11.7 Summary 533 References 534 Chapter 12 Radiation: Processes and Properties 535 12.1 Fundamental Concepts 536 12.2 Radiation Heat Fluxes 539 12.3 Radiation Intensity 541 12.3.1 Mathematical Definitions 541 12.3.2 Radiation Intensity and Its Relation to Emission 542 12.3.3 Relation to Irradiation 547 12.3.4 Relation to Radiosity for an Opaque Surface 549 12.3.5 Relation to the Net Radiative Flux for an Opaque Surface 550 12.4 Blackbody Radiation 550 12.4.1 The Planck Distribution 551 12.4.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 552 12.4.3 The Stefan–Boltzmann Law 552 12.4.4 Band Emission 553 12.5 Emission from Real Surfaces 560 12.6 Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission by Real Surfaces 569 12.6.1 Absorptivity 570 12.6.2 Reflectivity 571 12.6.3 Transmissivity 573 12.6.4 Special Considerations 573 12.7 Kirchhoff’s Law 578 12.8 The Gray Surface 580 12.9 Environmental Radiation 586 12.9.1 Solar Radiation 587 12.9.2 The Atmospheric Radiation Balance 589 12.9.3 Terrestrial Solar Irradiation 591 12.10 Summary 594 References 598 Chapter 13 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces 599 13.1 The View Factor 600 13.1.1 The View Factor Integral 600 13.1.2 View Factor Relations 601 13.2 Blackbody Radiation Exchange 610 13.3 Radiation Exchange Between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray Surfaces in an Enclosure 614 13.3.1 Net Radiation Exchange at a Surface 615 13.3.2 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces 616 13.3.3 The Two-Surface Enclosure 622 13.3.4 Two-Surface Enclosures in Series and Radiation Shields 624 13.3.5 The Reradiating Surface 626 13.4 Multimode Heat Transfer 631 13.5 Implications of the Simplifying Assumptions 634 13.6 Radiation Exchange with Participating Media 634 13.6.1 Volumetric Absorption 634 13.6.2 Gaseous Emission and Absorption 635 13.7 Summary 639 References 640 Chapter 14 Diffusion Mass Transfer 641 14.1 Physical Origins and Rate Equations 642 14.1.1 Physical Origins 642 14.1.2 Mixture Composition 643 14.1.3 Fick’s Law of Diffusion 644 14.1.4 Mass Diffusivity 645 14.2 Mass Transfer in Nonstationary Media 647 14.2.1 Absolute and Diffusive Species Fluxes 647 14.2.2 Evaporation in a Column 650 14.3 The Stationary Medium Approximation 655 14.4 Conservation of Species for a Stationary Medium 655 14.4.1 Conservation of Species for a Control Volume 656 14.4.2 The Mass Diffusion Equation 656 14.4.3 Stationary Media with Specified Surface Concentrations 658 14.5 Boundary Conditions and Discontinuous Concentrations at Interfaces 662 14.5.1 Evaporation and Sublimation 663 14.5.2 Solubility of Gases in Liquids and Solids 663 14.5.3 Catalytic Surface Reactions 668 14.6 Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reactions 670 14.7 Transient Diffusion 673 14.8 Summary 679 References 680 Appendix A Thermophysical Properties of Matter 681 Appendix B Mathematical Relations and Functions 713 Appendix C Thermal Conditions Associated with Uniform Energy Generation in One-Dimensional, Steady-State Systems 719 APPENDIX D The Gauss–Seidel Method 725 APPENDIX E The Convection Transfer Equations 727 E.1 Conservation of Mass 728 E.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 728 E.3 Conservation of Energy 729 E.4 Conservation of Species 730 APPENDIX F Boundary Layer Equations for Turbulent Flow 731 APPENDIX G An Integral Laminar Boundary Layer Solution for Parallel Flow over a Flat Plate 735 Conversion Factors 739 Physical Constants 740 Index 741 Problems P-1 Chapter 1 Problems P-1 Chapter 2 Problems P-13 Chapter 3 Problems P-24 Chapter 4 Problems P-49 Chapter 5 Problems P-63 Chapter 6 Problems P-85 Chapter 7 Problems P-95 Chapter 8 Problems P-115 Chapter 9 Problems P-133 Chapter 10 Problems P-149 Chapter 11 Problems P-157 Chapter 12 Problems P-168 Chapter 13 Problems P-189 Chapter 14 Problems P-210

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Stress 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Normal Stress Under Axial Loading 2 1.3 Direct Shear Stress 8 1.4 Bearing Stress 13 1.5 Stresses on Inclined Sections 17 1.6 Equality of Shear Stresses on Perpendicular Planes 20 2 Strain 25 2.1 Displacement, Deformation, and the Concept of Strain 25 2.2 Normal Strain 27 2.3 Shear Strain 32 2.4 Thermal Strain 35 3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 37 3.1 The Tension Test 37 3.2 The Stress–Strain Diagram 40 3.3 Hooke’s Law 48 3.4 Poisson’s Ratio 49 4 Design Concepts 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Types of Loads 56 4.3 Safety 58 4.4 Allowable Stress Design 58 4.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design 65 5 Axial Deformation 71 5.1 Introduction 71 5.2 Saint-Venant’s Principle 72 5.3 Deformations in Axially Loaded Bars 74 5.4 Deformations in a System of Axially Loaded Bars 81 5.5 Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Members 88 5.6 Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation 101 5.7 Stress Concentrations 110 6 Torsion 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Torsional Shear Strain 117 6.3 Torsional Shear Stress 118 6.4 Stresses on Oblique Planes 120 6.5 Torsional Deformations 122 6.6 Torsion Sign Conventions 124 6.7 Gears in Torsion Assemblies 133 6.8 Power Transmission 138 6.9 Statically Indeterminate Torsion Members 142 6.10 Stress Concentrations in Circular Shafts Under Torsional Loadings 155 6.11 Torsion of Noncircular Sections 158 6.12 Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes: Shear Flow 161 7 Equilibrium of Beams 165 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 Shear and Moment in Beams 167 7.3 Graphical Method for Constructing Shear and Moment Diagrams 176 7.4 Discontinuity Functions to Represent Load, Shear, and Moment 194 8 Bending 205 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 Flexural Strains 207 8.3 Normal Stresses in Beams 208 8.4 Analysis of Bending Stresses in Beams 220 8.5 Introductory Beam Design for Strength 230 8.6 Flexural Stresses in Beams of Two Materials 234 8.7 Bending Due to an Eccentric Axial Load 244 8.8 Unsymmetric Bending 251 8.9 Stress Concentrations Under Flexural Loadings 259 8.10 Bending of Curved Bars 263 9 Shear Stress in Beams 271 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 Resultant Forces Produced by Bending Stresses 272 9.3 The Shear Stress Formula 277 9.4 The First Moment of Area, Q 282 9.5 Shear Stresses in Beams of Rectangular Cross Section 284 9.6 Shear Stresses in Beams of Circular Cross Section 288 9.7 Shear Stresses in Webs of Flanged Beams 289 9.8 Shear Flow in Built-Up Members 294 9.9 Shear Stress and Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members 302 9.10 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open Sections 319 10 Beam Deflections 331 10.1 Introduction 331 10.2 Moment–Curvature Relationship 332 10.3 The Differential Equation of the Elastic Curve 332 10.4 Determining Deflections by Integration of a Moment Equation 336 10.5 Determining Deflections by Integration of Shear-Force or Load Equations 348 10.6 Determining Deflections by Using Discontinuity Functions 350 10.7 Determining Deflections by the Method of Superposition 357 11 Statically Indeterminate Beams 377 11.1 Introduction 377 11.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate Beams 378 11.3 The Integration Method 379 11.4 Use of Discontinuity Functions for Statically Indeterminate Beams 384 11.5 The Superposition Method 390 12 Stress Transformations 405 12.1 Introduction 405 12.2 Stress at a General Point in an Arbitrarily Loaded Body 406 12.3 Equilibrium of the Stress Element 408 12.4 Plane Stress 410 12.5 Generating the Stress Element 410 12.6 Equilibrium Method for Plane Stress Transformations 413 12.7 General Equations of Plane Stress Transformation 415 12.8 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress 422 12.9 Presentation of Stress Transformation Results 429 12.10 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 435 12.11 General State of Stress at a Point 452 13 Strain Transformations 459 13.1 Introduction 459 13.2 Plane Strain 460 13.3 Transformation Equations for Plane Strain 461 13.4 Principal Strains and Maximum Shearing Strain 466 13.5 Presentation of Strain Transformation Results 468 13.6 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain 470 13.7 Strain Measurement and Strain Rosettes 473 13.8 Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Materials 478 13.9 Generalized Hooke’s Law for Orthotropic Materials 494 14 Pressure Vessels 499 14.1 Introduction 499 14.2 Thin-Walled Spherical Pressure Vessels 500 14.3 Thin-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 502 14.4 Strains in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 505 14.5 Stresses in Thick-Walled Cylinders 509 14.6 Deformations in Thick-Walled Cylinders 517 14.7 Interference Fits 520 15 Combined Loads 527 15.1 Introduction 527 15.2 Combined Axial and Torsional Loads 528 15.3 Principal Stresses in a Flexural Member 530 15.4 General Combined Loadings 540 15.5 Theories of Failure 557 16 Columns 567 16.1 Introduction 567 16.2 Buckling of Pin-Ended Columns 570 16.3 The Effect of End Conditions on Column Buckling 578 16.4 The Secant Formula 587 16.5 Empirical Column Formulas—Centric Loading 592 16.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns 600 17 Energy Methods 607 17.1 Introduction 607 17.2 Work and Strain Energy 608 17.3 Elastic Strain Energy for Axial Deformation 613 17.4 Elastic Strain Energy for Torsional Deformation 614 17.5 Elastic Strain Energy for Flexural Deformation 616 17.6 Impact Loading 620 17.7 Work–Energy Method for Single Loads 633 17.8 Method of Virtual Work 636 17.9 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual-Work Method 641 17.10 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual-Work Method 649 17.11 Castigliano’s Second Theorem 658 17.12 Calculating Deflections of Trusses by Castigliano’s Theorem 660 17.13 Calculating Deflections of Beams by Castigliano’s Theorem 665 Appendix A Geometric Properties Of An Area 671 A.1 Centroid of an Area 671 A.2 Moment of Inertia for an Area 675 A.3 Product of Inertia for an Area 680 A.4 Principal Moments of Inertia 682 A.5 Mohr’s Circle for Principal Moments of Inertia 686 Appendix B Geometric Properties Of Structural Steel Shapes 691 Appendix C Table Of Beam Slopes And Deflections 703 Appendix D Average Properties Of Selected Materials 707 Appendix E Fundamental Mechanics Of Materials Equations 711 Problems P-1 Chapter 1 Problems P-1 Chapter 2 Problems P-7 Chapter 3 Problems P-11 Chapter 4 Problems P-14 Chapter 5 Problems P-18 Chapter 6 Problems P-29 Chapter 7 Problems P-39 Chapter 8 Problems P-46 Chapter 9 Problems P-63 Chapter 10 Problems P-76 Chapter 11 Problems P-87 Chapter 12 Problems P-95 Chapter 13 Problems P-108 Chapter 14 Problems P-115 Chapter 15 Problems P-119 Chapter 16 Problems P-129 Chapter 17 Problems P-138 Answers to Odd Numbered Problems A-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface iii Acronyms xiii 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 1 1.1 Materials, Manufacturing, and the Standard of Living 1 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 2 2 Properties of Materials 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Static Properties 24 2.3 Dynamic Properties 34 2.4 Temperature Effects (Both High and Low) 39 2.5 Machinability, Formability, and Weldability 42 2.6 Fracture Toughness and the Fracture Mechanics Approach 42 2.7 Physical Properties 43 2.8 Testing Standards and Testing Concerns 43 3 Nature of Materials 45 3.1 Structure—Property—Processing—Performance Relationships 45 3.2 The Structure of Atoms 45 3.3 Atomic Bonding 46 3.4 Secondary Bonds 47 3.5 Atom Arrangements in Materials 48 3.6 Crystal Structures 48 3.7 Development of a Grain Structure 49 3.8 Elastic Deformation 50 3.9 Plastic Deformation 50 3.10 Dislocation Theory of Slippage 52 3.11 Strain Hardening or Work Hardening 53 3.12 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline Material 53 3.13 Grain Shape and Anisotropic Properties 54 3.14 Fracture 54 3.15 Cold Working, Recrystallization, and Hot Working 54 3.16 Grain Growth 55 3.17 Alloys and Alloy Types 55 3.18 Atomic Structure and Electrical Properties 56 4 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams and the Iron–Carbon System 57 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Phases 57 4.3 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams 57 4.4 Iron–Carbon Equilibrium Diagram 63 4.5 Steels and the Simplified Iron–Carbon Diagram 64 4.6 Cast Irons 65 5 Heat Treatment 67 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 Processing Heat Treatments 67 5.3 Heat Treatments Used to Increase Strength 69 5.4 Strengthening Heat Treatments for Nonferrous Metals 70 5.5 Strengthening Heat Treatments for Steel 72 5.6 Surface Hardening of Steel 83 5.7 Furnaces 84 5.8 Heat Treatment and Energy 86 6 Ferrous Metals and Alloys 87 6.1 Introduction to History-Dependent Materials 87 6.2 Ferrous Metals 87 6.3 Iron 88 6.4 Steel 88 6.5 Stainless Steels 98 6.6 Tool Steels 100 6.7 Cast Irons 102 6.8 Cast Steels 105 6.9 The Role of Processing on Cast Properties 105 7 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys 106 7.1 Introduction 106 7.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 106 7.3 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 111 7.4 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 115 7.5 Zinc and Zinc Alloys 118 7.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 119 7.7 Nickel-Based Alloys 120 7.8 Superalloys, Refractory Metals, and Other Materials Designed for High-Temperature Service 120 7.9 Lead and Tin and Their Alloys 123 7.10 Some Lesser-Known Metals and Alloys 123 7.11 Metallic Glasses 123 7.12 Graphite 123 7.13 Materials for Specific Applications 124 7.14 High Entropy Alloys 124 8 Nonmetallic Materials: Plastics, Elastomers, Ceramics, and Composites 125 8.1 Introduction 125 8.2 Plastics 125 8.3 Elastomers 135 8.4 Ceramics 137 8.5 Composite Materials 145 9 Material Selection 153 9.1 Introduction 153 9.2 Material Selection and Manufacturing Processes 155 9.3 The Design Process 155 9.4 Approaches to Material Selection 156 9.5 Additional Factors to Consider 158 9.6 Consideration of the Manufacturing Process 159 9.7 Ultimate Objective 159 9.8 Materials Substitution 161 9.9 Effect of Product Liability on Materials Selection 161 9.10 Aids to Material Selection 162 10 Measurement and Inspection 163 10.1 Introduction 163 10.2 Standards of Measurement 163 10.3 Allowance and Tolerance 166 10.4 Inspection Methods for Measurement 171 10.5 Measuring Instruments 172 10.6 Vision Systems 180 10.7 Coordinate Measuring Machines 180 10.8 Angle-Measuring Instruments 181 10.9 Gages for Attributes Measuring 182 11 Nondestructive Examination (NDE) / Nondestructive Testing (NDT) 186 11.1 Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing 186 11.2 Visual Inspection 187 11.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection 188 11.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection 189 11.5 Ultrasonic Inspection 190 11.6 Radiography 191 11.7 Eddy-Current Testing 192 11.8 Acoustic Emission Monitoring 194 11.9 Other Methods of Nondestructive Testing and Inspection 195 11.10 Dormant vs. Critical Flaws 196 11.11 Current and Future Trends 196 12 Process Capability and Quality Control 197 12.1 Introduction 197 12.2 Determining Process Capability 198 12.3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control 204 12.4 Sampling Errors 207 12.5 Gage Capability 208 12.6 Just in Time/Total Quality Control 209 12.7 Six Sigma 217 12.8 Summary 220 13 Fundamentals of Casting 221 13.1 Introduction to Materials Processing 221 13.2 Introduction to Casting 222 13.3 Casting Terminology 223 13.4 The Solidification Process 223 13.5 Patterns 231 13.6 Design Considerations in Castings 232 13.7 The Casting Industry 234 14 Expendable-Mold Casting Processes 236 14.1 Introduction 236 14.2 Sand Casting 236 14.3 Cores and Core Making 249 14.4 Other Expendable-Mold Processes with Multiple- Use Patterns 252 14.5 Expendable-Mold Processes Using Single-Use Patterns 253 14.6 Shakeout, Cleaning, and Finishing 259 14.7 Summary 259 15 Multiple-Use-Mold Casting Processes 260 15.1 Introduction 260 15.2 Permanent-Mold Casting 260 15.3 Die Casting 263 15.4 Squeeze Casting and Semisolid Casting 266 15.5 Centrifugal Casting 267 15.6 Continuous Casting 269 15.7 Melting 269 15.8 Pouring Practice 271 15.9 Cleaning, Finishing, Heat Treating, and Inspection 272 15.10 Automation in Foundry Operations 273 15.11 Process Selection 273 16 Powder Metallurgy (Particulate Processing) 275 16.1 Introduction 275 16.2 The Basic Process 275 16.3 Powder Manufacture 276 16.4 Powder Testing and Evaluation 277 16.5 Powder Mixing and Blending 277 16.6 Compacting 278 16.7 Sintering 281 16.8 Advances in Sintering (Shorter Time, Higher Density, Stronger Products) 282 16.9 Hot-Isostatic Pressing 282 16.10 Other Techniques to Produce High-Density P/M Products 283 16.11 Metal Injection Molding (MIM) 284 16.12 Secondary Operations 285 16.13 Properties of P/M Products 287 16.14 Design of Powder Metallurgy Parts 288 16.15 Powder Metallurgy Products 289 16.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy 290 16.17 Process Summary 291 17 Fundamentals of Metal Forming 292 17.1 Introduction 292 17.2 Forming Processes: Independent Variables 292 17.3 Dependent Variables 293 17.4 Independent–Dependent Relationships 294 17.5 Process Modeling 295 17.6 General Parameters 295 17.7 Friction, Lubrication, and Wear under Metalworking Conditions 296 17.8 Temperature Concerns 297 17.9 Formability 303 18 Bulk-Forming Processes 304 18.1 Introduction 304 18.2 Classification of Deformation Processes 304 18.3 Bulk Deformation Processes 304 18.4 Rolling 305 18.5 Forging 309 18.6 Extrusion 318 18.7 Wire, Rod, and Tube Drawing 322 18.8 Cold Forming, Cold Forging, and Impact Extrusion 324 18.9 Piercing 327 18.10 Other Squeezing Processes 328 18.11 Surface Improvement by Deformation Processing 330 19 Sheet-Forming Processes 331 19.1 Introduction 331 19.2 Shearing Operations 331 19.3 Bending 337 19.4 Drawing and Stretching Processes 343 19.5 Alternative Methods of Producing Sheet-Type Products 353 19.6 Seamed Pipe Manufacture 354 19.7 Presses 354 20 Fabrication of Plastics, Ceramics, and Composites 359 20.1 Introduction 359 20.2 Fabrication of Plastics 359 20.3 Processing of Rubber and Elastomers 369 20.4 Processing of Ceramics 369 20.5 Fabrication of Composite Materials 372 21 Fundamentals of Machining/ Orthogonal Machining 381 21.1 Introduction 381 21.2 Fundamentals 381 21.3 Forces and Power in Machining 386 21.4 Orthogonal Machining (Two Forces) 390 21.5 Chip Thickness Ratio, rc 394 21.6 Mechanics of Machining (Statics) 395 21.7 Shear Strain, γ, and Shear Front Angle, ϕ 397 21.8 Mechanics of Machining (Dynamics) (Section courtsey of Dr. Elliot Stern) 399 22 Cutting Tool Materials 405 22.1 Cutting Tool Materials 408 22.2 Tool Geometry 417 22.3 Tool-Coating Processes 419 22.4 Tool Failure and Tool Life 420 22.5 Taylor Tool Life 421 22.6 Cutting Fluids 425 22.7 Economics of Machining 426 23 Turning and Boring Processes 428 23.1 Introduction 428 23.2 Fundamentals of Turning, Boring, and Facing Turning 430 23.3 Lathe Design and Terminology 434 23.4 Cutting Tools for Lathes 438 23.5 Workholding in Lathes 442 24 Milling 447 24.1 Introduction 447 24.2 Fundamentals of Milling Processes 447 24.3 Milling Tools and Cutters 453 24.4 Machines for Milling 457 25 Drilling and Related Hole-Making Processes 462 25.1 Introduction 462 25.2 Fundamentals of the Drilling Process 463 25.3 Types of Drills 464 25.4 Tool Holders for Drills 472 25.5 Workholding for Drilling 474 25.6 Machine Tools for Drilling 475 25.7 Cutting Fluids for Drilling 478 25.8 Counterboring, Countersinking, and Spot Facing 479 25.9 Reaming 480 26 CNC Processes and Adaptive Control: A(4) and A(5) Levels of Automation 482 26.1 Introduction 482 26.2 Basic Principles of Numerical Control 482 26.3 CNC Part Programming 488 26.4 Interpolation and Adaptive Control 494 26.5 Machining Center Features and Trends 497 26.6 Summary 501 27 Sawing, Broaching, Shaping, and Filing Machining Processes 502 27.1 Introduction 502 27.2 Introduction to Sawing 502 27.3 Introduction to Broaching 510 27.4 Fundamentals of Broaching 512 27.5 Broaching Machines 516 27.6 Introduction to Shaping and Planing 516 27.7 Introduction to Filing 520 28 Abrasive Machining Processes 523 28.1 Introduction 523 28.2 Abrasives 524 28.3 Grinding Wheel Structure and Grade 528 28.4 Grinding Wheel Identification 531 28.5 Grinding Machines 534 28.6 Honing 540 28.7 Superfinishing 542 28.8 Free Abrasives 543 28.9 Design Considerations in Grinding 547 29 Nano and Micro-Manufacturing Processes 548 29.1 Introduction 548 29.2 Lithography 551 29.3 Micromachining Processes 554 29.4 Deposition Processes 556 29.5 How ICs Are Made 562 29.6 Nano- and Micro-Scale Metrology 568 30 Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes 570 30.1 Introduction 570 30.2 Chemical Machining Processes 572 30.3 Electrochemical Machining Processes 576 30.4 Electrical Discharge Machining 581 31 Thread and Gear Manufacturing 589 31.1 Introduction 589 31.2 Thread Making 592 31.3 Internal Thread Cutting–Tapping 595 31.4 Thread Milling 597 31.5 Thread Grinding 599 31.6 Thread Rolling 599 31.7 Gear Theory and Terminology 601 31.8 Gear Types 603 31.9 Gear Manufacturing 604 31.10 Machining of Gears 605 31.12 Gear Finishing 610 31.13 Gear Inspection 611 32 Surface Integrity and Finishing Processes 613 32.1 Introduction 613 32.2 Surface Integrity 613 32.3 Abrasive Cleaning and Finishing 620 32.4 Chemical Cleaning 624 32.5 Coatings 626 32.6 Vaporized Metal Coatings 633 32.7 Clad Materials 633 32.8 Textured Surfaces 633 32.9 Coil-Coated Sheets 633 32.10 Edge Finishing and Burr Removal 634 33 Additive Processes—Including 3-D Printing 637 33.1 Introduction 637 33.2 Layerwise Manufacturing 638 33.3 Liquid-Based Processes 641 33.4 Powder-Based Processes 643 33.5 Deposition-Based Processes 647 33.6 Uses and Applications 649 33.7 Pros, Cons, and Current and Future Trends 652 33.8 Economic Considerations 655 34 Manufacturing Automation and Industrial Robots 656 34.1 Introduction 656 34.2 The A(4) Level of Automation 660 34.3 A(5) Level of Automation Requires Evaluation 666 34.4 Industrial Robotics 669 34.5 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) 675 34.6 Computer-Aided Design 677 34.7 Computer-Aided Manufacturing 678 34.8 Summary 679 35 Fundamentals of Joining 680 35.1 Introduction to Consolidation Processes 680 35.2 Classification of Welding and Thermal Cutting Processes 681 35.3 Some Common Concerns 681 35.4 Types of Fusion Welds and Types of Joints 681 35.5 Design Considerations 682 35.6 Heat Effects 684 35.7 Weldability or Joinability 688 35.8 Summary 689 36 Gas Flame and Arc Processes 690 36.1 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding 690 36.2 Oxygen Torch Cutting 693 36.3 Flame Straightening 694 36.4 Arc Welding 695 36.5 Consumable-Electrode Arc Welding 696 36.6 Nonconsumable Electrode Arc Welding 702 36.7 Other Processes Involving Arcs 706 36.8 Arc Cutting 707 36.9 Metallurgical and Heat Effects in Thermal Cutting 709 36.10 Welding Equipment 710 36.11 Thermal Deburring 711 37 Resistance and Solid-State Welding Processes 712 37.1 Introduction 712 37.2 Theory of Resistance Welding 712 37.3 Resistance Welding Processes 714 37.4 Advantages and Limitations of Resistance Welding 717 37.5 Solid-State Welding Processes 718 38 Other Welding Processes, Brazing, and Soldering 726 38.1 Introduction 726 38.2 Other Welding and Cutting Processes 726 38.3 Surface Modification by Welding-Related Processes 732 38.4 Brazing 735 38.5 Soldering 742 39 Adhesive Bonding, Mechanical Fastening, and Joining of Nonmetals 746 39.1 Adhesive Bonding 746 39.2 Mechanical Fastening 752 39.3 Joining of Plastics 755 39.4 Joining of Ceramics and Glass 758 39.5 Joining of Composites 758 40 JIG and Fixture Design W 1 41 The Enterprise (Production System) W 20 42 Lean Engineering W 35 43 Mixed-Model Final Assembly W 65 Index I- 1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface v 1 Basic Concepts of measurement methods 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 General Measurement System 2 Sensor and Transducer 2 Signal-Conditioning Stage 3 Output Stage 4 General Template for a Measurement System 4 1.3 Experimental Test Plan 5 Variables 6 Noise and Interference 8 Randomization 9 Replication and Repetition 13 Concomitant Methods 14 1.4 Calibration 14 Static Calibration 14 Dynamic Calibration 14 Static Sensitivity 15 Range and Span 15 Resolution 16 Accuracy and Error 16 Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty 16 Sequential Test 19 Hysteresis 19 Random Test 19 Linearity Error 19 Sensitivity and Zero Errors 21 Instrument Repeatability 21 Reproducibility 21 Instrument Precision 21 Overall Instrument Error and Instrument Uncertainty 22 Verification and Validation 22 1.5 Standards 22 Primary Unit Standards 22 Base Dimensions and Their Units 23 Derived Units 25 Hierarchy of Standards 28 Test Standards and Codes 29 1.6 Presenting Data 30 Rectangular Coordinate Format 30 Semilog Coordinate Format 30 Full-Log Coordinate Format 30 Significant Digits 30 Summary 33 Nomenclature 34 References 34 2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics Of Signals 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Input/Output Signal Concepts 35 Generalized Behavior 36 Classification of Waveforms 36 Signal Waveforms 38 2.3 Signal Analysis 39 Signal Root-Mean-Square Value 40 Discrete Time or Digital Signals 40 Direct Current Offset 41 2.4 Signal Amplitude and Frequency 42 Periodic Signals 43 Frequency Analysis 45 Fourier Series and Coefficients 48 Fourier Coefficients 48 Special Case: Functions with T = 2π 49 Even and Odd Functions 49 2.5 Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum 55 Discrete Fourier Transform 56 Analysis of Signals in Frequency Space 60 Summary 62 References 63 Suggested Reading 63 Nomenclature 63 3 Measurement System Behavior 64 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 General Model for a Measurement System 64 Dynamic Measurements 65 Measurement System Model 66 3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model 68 Zero-Order Systems 68 First-Order Systems 69 Second-Order Systems 79 3.4 Transfer Functions 88 3.5 Phase Linearity 90 3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs 91 3.7 Coupled Systems 93 3.8 Summary 95 References 95 Nomenclature 96 Subscripts 96 4 Probability and Statistics 97 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory 98 Probability Density Functions 98 4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population 103 4.4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets 107 Standard Deviation of the Means 110 Repeated Tests and Pooled Data 113 4.5 Hypothesis Testing 114 4.6 Chi-Squared Distribution 117 Precision Interval in a Sample Variance 118 Goodness-of-Fit Test 119 4.7 Regression Analysis 121 Least-Squares Regression Analysis 121 Linear Polynomials 124 4.8 Data Outlier Detection 126 4.9 Number of Measurements Required 127 4.10 Monte Carlo Simulations 129 Summary 131 References 132 Nomenclature 132 5 Uncertainty Analysis 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Measurement Errors 134 5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis 136 Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method 137 Design-Stage Uncertainty 137 5.4 Identifying Error Sources 140 Calibration Errors 141 Data-Acquisition Errors 141 Data-Reduction Errors 142 5.5 Systematic and Random Errors and Standard Uncertainties 142 Systematic Error 142 Random Error 143 Other Ways Used to Classify Error and Uncertainty 144 5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Multi-Variable Error Propagation 144 Propagation of Error 145 Approximating a Sensitivity Index 146 Sequential Perturbation 149 Monte Carlo Method 151 5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis 151 Zero-Order Uncertainty 152 Higher-Order Uncertainty 152 Nth-Order Uncertainty 152 5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis 157 Propagation of Elemental Errors 157 Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result 163 5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors 168 5.10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval 170 Summary 172 References 172 Nomenclature 172 6 Analog Electrical Devices and measurements 174 6.1 Introduction 174 6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements 174 Direct Current 174 Alternating Current 178 6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements 179 Analog Voltage Meters 179 Oscilloscope 179 Potentiometer 181 6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements 182 Ohmmeter Circuits 182 Bridge Circuits 182 Null Method 184 Deflection Method 185 6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching 188 Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit 189 Interstage Loading Errors 190 6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers 193 6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits 196 Analog Voltage Comparator 196 Sample-and-Hold Circuit 197 Charge Amplifier 197 4–20 mA Current Loop 199 Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits 199 6.8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters 201 Butterworth Filter Design 202 Improved Butterworth Filter Designs 203 Bessel Filter Design 208 Active Filters 209 6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires 211 Ground and Ground Loops 211 Shields 212 Connecting Wires 213 Summary 213 References 214 Nomenclature 214 7 Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition 215 7.1 Introduction 215 7.2 Sampling Concepts 216 Sample Rate 216 Alias Frequencies 218 Amplitude Ambiguity 221 Leakage 221 Waveform Fidelity 223 7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words 223 7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals 226 7.5 Voltage Measurements 227 Digital-to-Analog Converter 227 Analog-to-Digital Converter 228 Successive Approximation Converters 232 7.6 Data Acquisition Systems 237 7.7 Data Acquisition System Components 238 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification 238 Components for Acquiring Data 241 7.8 Analog Input–Output Communication 242 Data Acquisition Modules 242 7.9 Digital Input–Output Communication 246 Data Transmission 247 Universal Serial Bus 248 Bluetooth Communications 248 Other Serial Communications: RS-232C 249 Parallel Communications 249 7.10 Digital Image Acquisition and Processing 252 Image Acquisition 252 Image Processing 253 Summary 256 References 256 Nomenclature 256 8 Temperature measurements 258 8.1 Introduction 258 Historical Background 258 8.2 Temperature Standards and Definition 259 Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation 259 Temperature Scales and Standards 260 8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion 261 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 262 Bimetallic Thermometers 262 8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry 263 Resistance Temperature Detectors 264 Thermistors 271 8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement 276 Seebeck Effect 276 Peltier Effect 277 Thomson Effect 277 Fundamental Thermocouple Laws 278 Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples 279 Thermocouple Standards 280 Thermocouple Voltage Measurement 287 Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits 289 Applications for Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement: Heat Flux 291 Data Acquisition Considerations 294 8.6 Radiative Temperature Measurements 297 Radiation Fundamentals 297 Radiation Detectors 299 Radiometer 299 Pyrometry 300 Optical Fiber Thermometers 301 Narrow-Band Infrared Temperature Measurement 302 Fundamental Principles 302 Two-Color Thermometry 303 Full-Field IR Imaging 303 8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement 304 Insertion Errors 305 Conduction Errors 306 Radiation Errors 308 Radiation Shielding 310 Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement 311 Summary 313 References 313 Suggested Reading 313 Nomenclature 314 9 Pressure and Velocity measurements 315 9.1 Introduction 315 9.2 Pressure Concepts 315 9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments 318 McLeod Gauge 318 Barometer 319 Manometer 320 Deadweight Testers 324 9.4 Pressure Transducers 325 Bourdon Tube 326 Bellows and Capsule Elements 326 Diaphragms 327 Piezoelectric Crystal Elements 330 9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration 331 Static Calibration 331 Dynamic Calibration 331 9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids 333 Total Pressure Measurement 334 Static Pressure Measurement 335 9.7 Modeling Pressure–Fluid Systems 336 9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects 337 Liquids 338 Gases 339 Heavily Damped Systems 340 9.9 Acoustical Measurements 341 Signal Weighting 341 Microphones 342 9.10 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems 345 Pitot–Static Pressure Probe 346 Thermal Anemometry 348 Doppler Anemometry 350 Particle Image Velocimetry 352 Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods 353 Summary 354 References 354 Nomenclature 355 10 Flow measurements 357 10.1 Introduction 357 10.2 Historical Background 357 10.3 Flow Rate Concepts 358 10.4 Volume Flow Rate through Velocity Determination 359 10.5 Pressure Differential Meters 361 Obstruction Meters 361 Orifice Meter 364 Venturi Meter 366 Flow Nozzles 368 Sonic Nozzles 373 Obstruction Meter Selection 374 Laminar Flow Elements 376 10.6 Insertion Volume Flow Meters 377 Electromagnetic Flow Meters 377 Vortex Shedding Meters 379 Rotameters 381 Turbine Meters 382 Transit Time and Doppler (Ultrasonic) Flow Meters 383 Positive Displacement Meters 384 10.7 Mass Flow Meters 386 Thermal Flow Meter 386 Coriolis Flow Meter 387 10.8 Flow Meter Calibration and Standards 391 10.9 Estimating Standard Flow Rate 392 Summary 393 References 393 Nomenclature 393 11 Strain measurement 395 11.1 Introduction 395 11.2 Stress and Strain 395 Lateral Strains 397 11.3 Resistance Strain Gauges 398 Metallic Gauges 398 Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding 400 Semiconductor Strain Gauges 403 11.4 Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits 404 11.5 Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement 407 The Multiple Gauge Bridge 407 Bridge Constant 408 11.6 Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation 409 Temperature Compensation 410 Bridge Static Sensitivity 412 Practical Considerations 413 Analysis of Strain Gauge Data 413 Signal Conditioning 416 11.7 Optical Strain Measuring Techniques 418 Basic Characteristics of Light 418 Photoelastic Measurement 419 Moiré Methods 421 Fiber Bragg Strain Measurement 422 Summary 424 References 424 Nomenclature 424 12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls 426 12.1 Introduction 426 12.2 Sensors 426 Displacement Sensors 426 Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration 430 Velocity Measurements 437 Angular Velocity Measurements 441 Force Measurement 444 Torque Measurements 447 Mechanical Power Measurements 448 12.3 Actuators 450 Linear Actuators 450 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators 452 Rotary Actuators 455 Flow-Control Valves 455 12.4 Controls 457 Dynamic Response 460 Laplace Transforms 460 Block Diagrams 463 Model for Oven Control 464 Proportional–Integral (PI) Control 468 Proportional–Integral–Derivative Control of a Second-Order System 469 Summary 474 References 474 Nomenclature 474 Chapter Homework Problems P-1 A Property Data and Conversion Factors A-1 B Laplace Transform Basics A-8 B.1 Final Value Theorem A-9 B.2 Laplace Transform Pairs A-9 Reference A-9 Glossary G-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStudent solution available in interactive e-text Preface viii 1 Introduction to Dynamic Systems and Control 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Classification of Dynamic Systems 2 1.3 Modeling Dynamic Systems 3 1.4 Objectives and Textbook Outline 4 References 5 2 Modeling Mechanical Systems 6 2.1 Introduction 6 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws 6 2.3 Translational Mechanical Systems 11 2.4 Rotational Mechanical Systems 21 Summary 26 References 27 3 Modeling Electrical and Electromechanical Systems 28 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Electrical Element Laws 28 3.3 Electrical Systems 31 3.4 Operational-Amplifier Circuits 38 3.5 Electromechanical Systems 41 Summary 51 References 52 4 Modeling Fluid and Thermal Systems 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Hydraulic Systems 53 4.3 Pneumatic Systems 65 4.4 Thermal Systems 70 Summary 75 References 75 5 Standard Models for Dynamic Systems 76 5.1 Introduction 76 5.2 State-Variable Equations 76 5.3 State-Space Representation 79 5.4 Linearization 88 5.5 Input–Output Equations 93 5.6 Transfer Functions 95 5.7 Block Diagrams 98 5.8 Standard Input Functions 102 Summary 104 Reference 104 6 Numerical Simulation of Dynamic Systems 105 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 System Response Using MATLAB Commands 105 6.3 Building Simulations Using Simulink 111 6.4 Simulating Linear Systems Using Simulink 113 6.5 Simulating Nonlinear Systems 117 6.6 Building Integrated Systems 124 Summary 129 References 129 7 Analytical Solution of Linear Dynamic Systems 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Analytical Solutions to Linear Differential Equations 131 7.3 First-Order System Response 138 7.4 Second-Order System Response 145 7.5 Higher-Order Systems 161 7.6 State-Space Representation and Eigenvalues 162 7.7 Approximate Models 165 Summary 167 Reference 168 8 System Analysis Using Laplace Transforms 169 8.1 Introduction 169 8.2 Laplace Transformation 169 8.3 Inverse Laplace Transformation 176 8.4 Analysis of Dynamic Systems Using Laplace Transforms 180 Summary 191 References 191 9 Frequency-Response Analysis 192 9.1 Introduction 192 9.2 Frequency Response 192 9.3 Bode Diagrams 203 9.4 Vibrations 218 Summary 223 References 224 10 Introduction to Control Systems 225 10.1 Introduction 225 10.2 Feedback Control Systems 225 10.3 Feedback Controllers 231 10.4 Steady-State Accuracy 245 10.5 Closed-Loop Stability 250 10.6 Root-Locus Method 252 10.7 Stability Margins 271 10.8 Implementing Control Systems 278 Summary 281 References 282 11 Case Studies in Dynamic Systems and Control 283 11.1 Introduction 283 11.2 Vibration Isolation System for a Commercial Vehicle 283 11.3 Solenoid Actuator–Valve System 294 11.4 Pneumatic Air-Brake System 301 11.5 Hydraulic Servomechanism Control 311 11.6 Feedback Control of a Magnetic Levitation System 326 Summary 335 References 336 Problems P-1 Appendix A Units A-1 Appendix B MATLAB Primer for Analyzing Dynamic Systems A-2 B.1 Introduction A-2 B.2 Basic MATLAB Computations A-2 B.3 Plotting with MATLAB A-5 B.4 Constructing Basic M-files A-6 B.5 Commands for Linear System Analysis A-7 B.6 Commands for Laplace Transform Analysis A-8 B.7 Commands for Control System Analysis A-9 Appendix C Simulink Primer A-11 C.1 Introduction A-11 C.2 Building Simulink Models of Linear Systems A-11 C.3 Building Simulink Models of Nonlinear Systems A-19 C.4 Summary of Useful Simulink Blocks A-22 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction to Statics 1 1/1 Mechanics 1 1/2 Basic Concepts 2 1/3 Scalars and Vectors 2 1/4 Newton’s Laws 5 1/5 Units 6 1/6 Law of Gravitation 9 1/7 Accuracy, Limits, and Approximations 10 1/8 Problem Solving in Statics 11 1/9 Chapter Review 14 2 Force Systems 17 2/1 Introduction 17 2/2 Force 17 Section A Two-Dimensional Force Systems 20 2/3 Rectangular Components 20 2/4 Moment 26 2/5 Couple 31 2/6 Resultants 34 Section B Three-Dimensional Force Systems 37 2/7 Rectangular Components 37 2/8 Moment and Couple 41 2/9 Resultants 48 2/10 Chapter Review 54 3 Equilibrium 55 3/1 Introduction 55 Section A Equilibrium in Two Dimensions 56 3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram 56 3/3 Equilibrium Conditions 66 Section B Equilibrium in Three Dimensions 74 3/4 Equilibrium Conditions 74 3/5 Chapter Review 82 4 Structures 83 4/1 Introduction 83 4/2 Plane Trusses 84 4/3 Method of Joints 86 4/4 Method of Sections 92 4/5 Space Trusses 96 4/6 Frames and Machines 99 4/7 Chapter Review 105 5 Distributed Forces 106 5/1 Introduction 106 Section A Centers of Mass and Centroids 108 5/2 Center of Mass 108 5/3 Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes 110 5/4 Composite Bodies and Figures; Approximations 118 5/5 Theorems of Pappus 122 Section B Special Topics 125 5/6 Beams—External Effects 125 5/7 Beams—Internal Effects 128 5/8 Flexible Cables 135 5/9 Fluid Statics 143 5/10 Chapter Review 153 6 Friction 154 6/1 Introduction 154 Section A Frictional Phenomena 155 6/2 Types of Friction 155 6/3 Dry Friction 155 Section B Applications of Friction in Machines 164 6/4 Wedges 164 6/5 Screws 165 6/6 Journal Bearings 169 6/7 Thrust Bearings; Disk Friction 169 6/8 Flexible Belts 172 6/9 Rolling Resistance 173 6/10 Chapter Review 176 7 Virtual Work 177 7/1 Introduction 177 7/2 Work 177 7/3 Equilibrium 180 7/4 Potential Energy and Stability 188 7/5 Chapter Review 197 Appendix A Area Moments of Inertia 198 A/1 Introduction 198 A/2 Definitions 199 A/3 Composite Areas 206 A/4 Products of Inertia and Rotation of Axes 209 Appendix B Mass Moments of Inertia 214 Appendix C Selected Topics of Mathematics 215 C/1 Introduction 215 C/2 Plane Geometry 215 C/3 Solid Geometry 216 C/4 Algebra 216 C/5 Analytic Geometry 217 C/6 Trigonometry 217 C/7 Vector Operations 218 C/8 Series 221 C/9 Derivatives 221 C/10 Integrals 222 C/11 Newton’s Method for Solving Intractable Equations 225 C/12 Selected Techniques for Numerical Integration 227 Appendix D Useful Tables 230 Table D/1 Physical Properties 230 Table D/2 Solar System Constants 231 Table D/3 Properties of Plane Figures 232 Table D/4 Properties of Homogeneous Solids 234 Table D/5 Conversion Factors; SI Units 238 Problems P-1 Chapter 1 P-1 Chapter 2 P-2 Chapter 3 P-39 Chapter 4 P-64 Chapter 5 P-92 Chapter 6 P-131 Chapter 7 P-158 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsChapter 1 Principles and Tools For Static Analysis 1 1.1 How Does Engineering Analysis Fit Into Engineering Practice? 2 1.2 Physics Principles: Newton’s Laws Reviewed 4 1.3 Properties and Units in Engineering Analysis 5 Exercises 1.3 8 1.4 Coordinate Systems and Vectors 9 Exercises 1.4 12 1.5 Drawing 12 Exercises 1.5 15 1.6 Problem Solving 16 Exercises 1.6 20 1.7 A Map of This Text 21 1.8 Just the Facts 23 Chapter 2 Forces 25 2.1 What are Forces? An Overview 26 2.2 Gravitational Forces 27 Example 2.2.1 Gravity, Weight, and Mass 30 Example 2.2.2 Is Assuming Gravity is a Constant Reasonable? 32 Example 2.2.3 Gravitational Force from Two Planets 33 Exercises 2.2 34 2.3 Contact Forces 34 Example 2.3.1 Identifying Types of Forces 38 Exercises 2.3 39 2.4 Identifying Forces for Analysis 40 Example 2.4.1 Defining a System for Analysis 43 Exercises 2.4 45 2.5 Representing Force Vectors 46 Example 2.5.1 Rectangular Components of a Nonplanar Force Given its Line of Action 51 Example 2.5.2 Representing Nonplanar Forces with Rectangular Coordinates 52 Example 2.5.3 Representing a Planar Force in Skewed Coordinate System 54 Example 2.5.4 Representing Direction of a Planar Force 59 Example 2.5.5 Scalar Components of a Planar Force 60 Example 2.5.6 Representing a Planar Force with Spherical Coordinates 63 Example 2.5.7 Representing Nonplanar Forces with Spherical Angles 64 Exercises 2.5 66 2.6 Resultant Force—Vector Addition 76 Example 2.6.1 Component Addition: Planar 79 Example 2.6.2 Component Addition: Nonplanar 80 Example 2.6.3 Graphical Addition Using Force Triangle 83 Example 2.6.4 Graphical Addition Using Parallelogram Law 85 Example 2.6.5 Resultant of Two Forces Using a Trigonometric Approach 87 Example 2.6.6 Analyzing a System: Trigonometric Addition 89 Example 2.6.7 Analyzing a System: Trigonometric Approach 90 Exercises 2.6 92 2.7 Angle Between Two Forces—the Dot Product 99 Example 2.7.1 Projection of a Vector in Two Dimensions 102 Example 2.7.2 Projection of a Vector in Three Dimensions 103 Example 2.7.3 Angle Between Two Vectors 104 Exercises 2.7 105 2.8 Just the Facts 108 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 112 Chapter 3 Moments 117 3.1 What are Moments? 118 Example 3.1.1 Specifying the Position Vector - Planar 125 Example 3.1.2 Specifying the Position Vector - Nonplanar 126 Example 3.1.3 The Magnitude of a Moment - Planar 127 Example 3.1.4 The Magnitude of a Moment - Nonplanar 128 Example 3.1.5 Moment Center on the Line of Action of Force 130 Exercises 3.1 131 3.2 Mathematical Representation of a Moment 135 Example 3.2.1 Calculating the Moment About the z Axis with a Vector-Based Approach 140 Example 3.2.2 Calculating the Moment About the z Axis with the Component of the Force Perpendicular to the Position Vector 141 Example 3.2.3 Calculating the Moment - Nonplanar 142 Example 3.2.4 Calculating the Magnitude and Direction of a Moment - Nonplanar 144 Example 3.2.5 Finding the Force to Create a Moment - Nonplanar 145 Exercises 3.2 146 3.3 Finding Moment Components in a Particular Direction 155 Example 3.3.1 Finding the Moment About the z Axis 157 Example 3.3.2 Finding the Moment in a Particular Direction 158 Exercises 3.3 159 3.4 When are Two Forces Equal to a Moment? (When They are a Couple) 162 Example 3.4.1 A Couple in the xy Plane 164 Example 3.4.2 Working with Couples 165 Exercises 3.4 167 3.5 Equivalent Loads 171 Example 3.5.1 Equivalent Moment and Equivalent Force - Planar 173 Example 3.5.2 Equivalent Moment and Equivalent Force - Nonplanar 175 Example 3.5.3 Equivalent Load for an Applied Couple 177 Exercises 3.5 178 3.6 Just the Facts 184 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 188 Chapter 4 Modeling Systems with Free-Body Diagrams 195 4.1 Types of External Loads Acting on Systems 196 Exercises 4.1 198 4.2 Planar System Supports 200 Example 4.2.1 Free-Body Diagram of a Planar System 206 Example 4.2.2 Free-Body Diagram of a Planar System with Moment 207 Example 4.2.3 Using Questions to Determine Loads at Supports 208 Exercises 4.2 210 4.3 Nonplanar System Supports 213 Example 4.3.1 Exploring Single and Double Bearings and Hinges 219 Exercises 4.3 221 4.4 Modeling Systems as Planar or Nonplanar 223 Example 4.4.1 Identifying Planar and Nonplanar Systems 225 Example 4.4.2 Identifying Planar and Nonplanar Systems with a Plane of Symmetry 226 Exercises 4.4 227 4.5 A Step-By-Step Approach to Free-Body Diagrams 230 Example 4.5.1 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of an Airplane Wing 232 Example 4.5.2 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of a Ladder 234 Example 4.5.3 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of a Nonplanar System 234 Example 4.5.4 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of a Leaning Person 235 Exercises 4.5 236 4.6 Just the Facts 243 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 244 Chapter 5 Mechanical Equilibrium 249 5.1 Conditions of Mechanical Equilibrium 250 Exercises 5.1 251 5.2 The Equilibrium Equations 252 Example 5.2.1 Using a Free-Body Diagram to Write Equilibrium Equations 254 Exercises 5.2 256 5.3 Applying the Planar Equilibrium Equations 257 Example 5.3.1 Applying the Analysis Procedure to a Planar Equilibrium Problem 260 Example 5.3.2 Analysis of a Simple Structure 262 Example 5.3.3 Analysis of a Planar Truss 263 Exercises 5.3 264 5.4 Equilibrium Applied to Four Special Cases 273 Example 5.4.1 Analyzing a Planar Truss Connection as a Particle 274 Exercises 5.4.1 276 Example 5.4.2 Two-Force Member Analysis 279 Exercises 5.4.2 281 Example 5.4.3 Climbing Cam Analysis 283 Example 5.4.4 Three-Force Member Analysis 285 Exercises 5.4.3 287 Example 5.4.5 Ideal Pulley Analysis 289 Exercises 5.4.4 291 5.5 Applying the Nonplanar Equilibrium Equations 293 Example 5.5.1 Analysis of a Nonplanar System with Simple Loading 295 Example 5.5.2 Analysis of a Nonplanar System with Complex Loading 298 Example 5.5.3 High-Wire Circus Act 300 Example 5.5.4 Analysis of a Nonplanar System with Unknowns Other than Loads 302 Exercises 5.5 304 5.6 Zooming in on Subsystems 312 Example 5.6.1 Analysis of a Toggle Clamp 313 Example 5.6.2 Analysis of a Pulley System 316 Exercises 5.6 318 5.7 Determinate, Indeterminate, and Underconstrained Systems 324 Example 5.7.1 Identify Status of a Structure 326 Exercises 5.7 327 5.8 Just the Facts 330 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 333 Chapter 6 Distributed Force 339 6.1 Center of Mass, Center of Gravity, and the Centroid 340 Example 6.1.1 Centroid of a Volume 347 Example 6.1.2 Center of Mass with Variable Density 348 Example 6.1.3 Locating the Centroid of a Composite Volume 349 Example 6.1.4 Finding the Centroid of An Area 351 Example 6.1.5 Center of Mass of a Composite Assembly 353 Example 6.1.6 Centroid of a Built-Up Section 355 Exercises 6.1 356 6.2 Distributed Force Acting on a Boundary 366 Example 6.2.1 Using Integration to Find Total Force 373 Example 6.2.2 Inclined Beam with Nonuniform Distribution 375 Example 6.2.3 Beam Subjected to Polynomial Load Distribution 377 Example 6.2.4 Using Properties of Standard Shapes to Find Total Force 379 Example 6.2.5 Centroid of Distribution Composed of Standard Line Loads 381 Example 6.2.6 Calculating Center of Pressure of a Pressure Distribution 382 Example 6.2.7 Pressure on a Rectangular Water Gate 383 Exercises 6.2 385 6.3 Hydrostatic Pressure 392 Example 6.3.1 Proof of Nondirectionality of Fluid Pressure 395 Example 6.3.2 Proof that Hydrostatic Pressure Increases Linearly with Depth 396 Example 6.3.3 Hydrostatic Pressure on Vertical Reservoir Gate 397 Example 6.3.4 Hydrostatic Pressure on Sloped Gate 398 Example 6.3.5 Pressure Distribution Over a Curved Surface 400 Example 6.3.6 Center of Buoyancy and Stability 402 Exercises 6.3 403 6.4 Area Moment of Inertia 409 Example 6.4.1 Moment of Inertia Using Integration 413 Example 6.4.2 Moment of Inertia Using Parallel Axis Theorem 414 Example 6.4.3 Moment of Inertia of a Composite Area 415 Exercises 6.4 416 6.5 Just the Facts 419 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 425 Chapter 7 Dry Friction and Rolling Resistance 431 7.1 Coulomb Friction Model 432 Example 7.1.1 Dry Friction - Sliding or Tipping 435 Exercises 7.1 436 7.2 Friction in Static Analysis: Wedges, Belts, and Journal Bearings 439 Example 7.2.1 Analysis of a Pulley System with Bearing Friction 444 Exercises 7.2 446 7.3 Rolling Resistance 452 Example 7.3.1 Rolling Resistance 453 Exercises 7.3 454 7.4 Just the Facts 456 Chapter 8 Member Loads In Trusses 459 8.1 Defining a Truss 460 8.2 Truss Analysis by Method of Joints 463 Example 8.2.1 Truss Analysis Using Method of Joints 466 Exercises 8.2 468 8.3 Truss Analysis by Method of Sections 473 Example 8.3.1 Method of Sections and Wise Selection of Moment Center Location 475 Example 8.3.2 Method of Sections and Where to Cut 476 Example 8.3.3 Combining Method of Joints and Method of Sections 478 Exercises 8.3 480 8.4 Identifying Zero-Force Members 484 Example 8.4.1 Identifying Zero-Force Members 486 Exercises 8.4 488 8.5 Determinate, Indeterminate, and Unstable Trusses 490 Example 8.5.1 Checking the Status of Planar Trusses 492 Example 8.5.2 Checking the Status of Space Trusses 493 Exercises 8.5 495 8.6 Just the Facts 496 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 498 Chapter 9 Member Loads In Frames And Machines 503 9.1 Defining and Analyzing Frames 504 Example 9.1.1 Identify Systems as Trusses or Frames 505 Example 9.1.2 Planar Frame Analysis 507 Example 9.1.3 Finding Loads at Frame Supports 509 Example 9.1.4 Analysis of Frame with Friction 511 Example 9.1.5 Nonplanar Frame Analysis 512 Exercises 9.1 514 9.2 Defining and Analyzing Machines 526 Example 9.2.1 Analysis of a Bicycle Brake 527 Example 9.2.2 Analysis of a Toggle Clamp 529 Example 9.2.3 Analysis of a Frictionless Gear Train 531 Example 9.2.4 Analysis of a Gear Train with Friction 533 Exercises 9.2 535 9.3 Determinacy and Stability in Frames 543 Example 9.3.1 Determining Status of a Frame 546 Exercises 9.3 547 9.4 Just the Facts 549 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 551 Chapter 10 Internal Loads In Beams 557 10.1 Defining Beams and Recognizing Beam Configurations 558 Example 10.1.1 Beam Identification 561 Example 10.1.2 Determine Loads Acting on a Beam 562 Exercises 10.1 564 10.2 Beam Internal Loads 566 Example 10.2.1 Internal Loads in a Planar Simply Supported Beam 569 Example 10.2.2 Internal Loads in a Planar Cantilever Beam 571 Example 10.2.3 Internal Loads in a Nonplanar Beam 572 Exercises 10.2 574 10.3 Axial Force, Shear Force, and Bending Moment Diagrams 578 Example 10.3.1 Shear, Moment, and Axial Force Diagram for a Simply Supported Beam 581 Example 10.3.2 A Simple Beam with an Applied Moment 583 Example 10.3.3 Beam with Distributed Load 584 Example 10.3.4 Simply Supported Beam with an Overhang 586 Exercises 10.3 588 10.4 Bending Moment Related to Shear Force and Normal Stress 594 Example 10.4.1 Using the Relationships Between ω, V, and M 596 Example 10.4.2 Calculating Beam Normal Stress 598 Exercises 10.4 599 10.5 Just the Facts 602 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 604 Chapter 11 Internal Loads in Cables 611 11.1 Cables with Point Loads 612 Example 11.1.1 Flexible Cable with Concentrated Loads 613 Exercises 11.1 615 11.2 Cables with Distributed Loads 616 Example 11.2.1 Catenary Curve with Supports at Same Height 621 Example 11.2.2 Catenary with Supports at Different Elevations 622 Example 11.2.3 Uniformly Loaded Cable with Supports at Same Height 624 Example 11.2.4 Uniformly Loaded Cable with Supports at Unequal Heights 625 Example 11.2.5 Catenary Versus Parabolic 627 Exercises 11.2 628 11.3 Just the Facts 632 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 637 Appendix A Selected Topics In Mathematics 641 Appendix B Physical Quantities 645 Appendix C Properties of Areas and Volumes 649 Appendix D Case Study: The Bicycle 655 Appendix E Case Study: The Golden Gate Bridge 671 Index 687

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsChapter 1 Background and Roadmap 1 1.1 Newton’s Laws 2 1.2 How You’ll Be Approaching Dynamics 3 1.3 Units 5 1.4 Symbols, Notation, and Conventions 7 1.5 Gravitation 13 1.6 A Comprehensive Dynamics Application 14 Chapter 2 Motion of Translating Bodies 17 2.1 Straight-Line Motion 18 Example 2.1 Velocity Determination Via Integration 25 Example 2.2 Deceleration Limit Determination 26 Example 2.3 Constant Acceleration/Speed/Distance Relationship 27 Example 2.4 Position-Dependent Acceleration 28 Example 2.5 Velocity-Dependent Acceleration (A) 30 Example 2.6 Velocity-Dependent Acceleration (B) 31 Exercises 2.1 32 2.2 Cartesian Coordinates 36 Example 2.7 Coordinate Transformation (A) 42 Example 2.8 Coordinate Transformation (B) 43 Example 2.9 Rectilinear Trajectory Determination (A) 44 Example 2.10 Rectilinear Trajectory Determination (B) 46 Exercises 2.2 48 2.3 Polar and Cylindrical Coordinates 52 Example 2.11 Velocity—Polar Coordinates 58 Example 2.12 Acceleration—Polar Coordinates (A) 60 Example 2.13 Acceleration—Polar Coordinates (B) 61 Example 2.14 Velocity And Acceleration—Cylindrical Coordinates 62 Exercises 2.3 64 2.4 Path Coordinates 69 Example 2.15 Analytical Determination of Radius of Curvature 72 Example 2.16 Acceleration—Path Coordinates 74 Example 2.17 Speed Along A Curve 76 Exercises 2.4 78 2.5 Relative Motion and Constraints 82 Example 2.18 One Body Moving on Another 89 Example 2.19 Two Bodies Moving Independently (A) 90 Example 2.20 Two Bodies Moving Independently (B) 91 Example 2.21 Simple Pulley 92 Example 2.22 Double Pulley 93 Exercises 2.5 95 2.6 Just the Facts 101 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 104 Chapter 3 Inertial Response of Translating Bodies 107 3.1 Cartesian Coordinates 108 Example 3.1 Analysis of A Spaceship 110 Example 3.2 Forces Acting on An Airplane 111 Example 3.3 Sliding Ming Bowl 112 Example 3.4 Response of An Underwater Probe 114 Example 3.5 Particle in an Enclosure 116 Exercises 3.1 118 3.2 Polar Coordinates 128 Example 3.6 Ming Bowl on A Moving Slope 129 Example 3.7 Ming Bowl in Motion 130 Example 3.8 Ming Bowl on A Moving Slope With Friction 132 Example 3.9 No-Slip In A Rotating Arm 134 Example 3.10 Forces Acting on A Payload 136 Exercises 3.2 138 3.3 Path Coordinates 144 Example 3.11 Forces Acting on My Car 145 Example 3.12 Finding A Rocket’s Radius of Curvature 146 Example 3.13 Force and Acceleration for A Sliding Pebble 148 Example 3.14 Determining Slip Point in A Turn 150 Exercises 3.3 151 3.4 Linear Momentum and Linear Impulse 155 Example 3.15 Changing the Space Shuttle’s Orbit 156 Example 3.16 Block on A Sanding Belt 158 Example 3.17 Two-Car Collision 159 Exercises 3.4 160 3.5 Angular Momentum and Angular Impulse 166 Example 3.18 Change In Speed of A Model Plane 169 Example 3.19 Angular Momentum of A Bumper 170 Example 3.20 Angular Momentum of A Tetherball 172 Exercises 3.5 174 3.6 Orbital Mechanics 175 Example 3.21 Analysis of an Elliptical Orbit 188 Example 3.22 Determining Closest Approach Distance 189 Exercises 3.6 190 3.7 Impact 196 Example 3.23 Dynamics of Two Pool Balls 200 Example 3.24 More Pool Ball Dynamics 202 Exercises 3.7 202 3.8 Oblique Impact 205 Example 3.25 Oblique Billiard Ball Collision 207 Example 3.26 Another Oblique Collision 209 Exercises 3.8 212 3.9 Just The Facts 215 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 218 Chapter 4 Energetics of Translating Bodies 221 4.1 Kinetic Energy 222 Example 4.1 Speed of an Arrow 224 Example 4.2 Change in Speed Due to an Applied Force 225 Example 4.3 Change in Speed Due to Slipping 226 Exercises 4.1 228 4.2 Potential Energy 233 Example 4.4 Speed Due to A Drop 237 Example 4.5 Designing A Nutcracker 238 Example 4.6 Change in Speed Using Potential Energy 240 Example 4.7 Falling Enclosure 241 Example 4.8 Reexamination of an Orbital Problem 243 Exercises 4.2 244 4.3 Power 255 Example 4.9 Time Needed to Increase Speed 258 Example 4.10 0 to 60 Time at Constant Power 259 Example 4.11 Determining A Cyclist’s Energy Efficiency 260 Exercises 4.3 261 4.4 Just the Facts 265 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 268 Chapter 5 Multibody Systems 269 5.1 Force Balance and Linear Momentum 270 Example 5.1 Finding A Mass Center 274 Example 5.2 Finding A System’s Linear Momentum 275 Example 5.3 Motion of A Two-Particle System 276 Example 5.4 Finding Speed of A Bicyclist/Cart 277 Example 5.5 Momentum of A Three-Mass System 278 Exercises 5.1 279 5.2 Angular Momentum 285 Example 5.6 Angular Momentum of Three Particles 288 Example 5.7 Angular Momentum About A System’s Mass Center 289 Exercises 5.2 290 5.3 Work and Energy 293 Example 5.8 Kinetic Energy of A Modified Baton 295 Example 5.9 Kinetic Energy of A Translating Modified Baton 296 Example 5.10 Spring-Mass System 297 Exercises 5.3 299 5.4 Stationary Enclosures with Mass Inflow and Outflow 300 Example 5.11 Water Jet Impinging on Stationary Vane 303 Example 5.12 Force Due to A Stream of Mass Particles 304 Exercises 5.4 305 5.5 Nonconstant Mass Systems 311 Example 5.13 Motion of A Toy Rocket 315 Example 5.14 Helicopter Response to A Stream of Bullets 317 Exercises 5.5 318 5.6 Just the Facts 323 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 326 Chapter 6 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies Undergoing Planar Motion 327 6.1 Relative Velocities on A Rigid Body 328 Example 6.1 Velocity of A Pendulum 334 Example 6.2 Velocity of A Constrained Link 335 Example 6.3 Angular Speed of A Spinning Disk 336 Example 6.4 Velocity of Link-Constrained Body 337 Example 6.5 Relative Angular Velocity 338 Exercises 6.1 340 6.2 Instantaneous Center of Rotation (ICR) 347 Example 6.6 Angular Speed Determination Via ICR 348 Example 6.7 Velocity on A Constrained Body Via ICR 350 Example 6.8 Velocity of the Contact Point During Roll Without Slip 351 Example 6.9 Pedaling Cadence and Bicycle Speed 352 Example 6.10 Rotation Rate of An Unwinding Reel Via ICR 354 Exercises 6.2 355 6.3 Rotating Reference Frames and Rigid-Body Accelerations 360 Example 6.11 Acceleration of A Pedal Spindle 363 Example 6.12 Acceleration During Roll Without Slip 364 Example 6.13 Tip Acceleration of A Two-Link Manipulator 365 Example 6.14 Acceleration of A Point on A Cog of A Moving Bicycle 367 Example 6.15 Path of Point on Rolling Disk 369 Exercises 6.3 370 6.4 Relative Motion on A Rigid Body 375 Example 6.16 Absolute Velocity of A Specimen In A Centrifuge 379 Example 6.17 Velocity Constraints—Closing Scissors 380 Example 6.18 Velocity and Acceleration In A Tube 381 Example 6.19 Angular Acceleration of A Constrained Body 383 Example 6.20 Angular Acceleration 385 Exercises 6.4 386 6.5 Just the Facts 393 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 395 Chapter 7 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies Undergoing Two-Dimensional Motions 397 7.1 Curvilinear Translation 398 Example 7.1 Determining the Acceleration of A Translating Body 399 Example 7.2 Tension In Support Chains 400 Example 7.3 General Motion of A Swinging Sign 403 Example 7.4 Normal Forces on A Steep Hill 406 Exercises 7.1 408 7.2 Rotation About A Fixed Point 412 Example 7.5 Mass Moment of Inertia of A Rectangular Plate 417 Example 7.6 Mass Moment of Inertia of A Circular Sector 418 Example 7.7 Mass Moment of Inertia of A Complex Disk 421 Example 7.8 Analysis of A Rotating Body 422 Example 7.9 Forces Acting at Pivot of Fireworks Display 425 Example 7.10 Determining A Wheel’s Imbalance Eccentricity 428 Exercises 7.2 429 7.3 General Motion 439 Example 7.11 Acceleration Response of an Unrestrained Body 442 Example 7.12 Response of A Falling Rod 446 Example 7.13 More Response of A Falling Rod 448 Example 7.14 Acceleration Response of A Driven Wheel 450 Example 7.15 Acceleration Response of A Driven Wheel—Take Two 452 Example 7.16 Falling Spool 455 Example 7.17 Tipping of A Ming Vase 456 Example 7.18 Equations of Motion for A Simple Car Model 459 Example 7.19 Analysis of A Simple Transmission 461 Exercises 7.3 463 7.4 Linear/Angular Momentum of Two-Dimensional Rigid Bodies 476 Example 7.20 Angular Impulse Applied to Space Station 478 Example 7.21 Impact Between A Pivoted Rod and A Moving Particle 479 Exercises 7.4 481 7.5 Work/Energy of Two-Dimensional Rigid Bodies 487 Example 7.22 Angular Speed of A Hinged Two-Dimensional Body 488 Example 7.23 Response of A Falling Rod Via Energy 490 Example 7.24 Design of A Spring-Controlled Drawbridge 491 Exercises 7.5 493 7.6 Just The Facts 500 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 502 Chapter 8 Kinematics and Kinetics of Rigid Bodies In Threedimensional Motion 505 8.1 Spherical Coordinates 506 8.2 Angular Velocity of Rigid Bodies in Three-Dimensional Motion 508 Example 8.1 Angular Velocity of A Simplified Gyroscope 512 Example 8.2 Angular Velocity of A Hinged Plate 513 8.3 Angular Acceleration of Rigid Bodies in Three-Dimensional Motion 514 Example 8.3 Angular Acceleration of A Simple Gyroscope 515 8.4 General Motion of and on Three-Dimensional Bodies 516 Example 8.4 Motion of A Disk Attached to A Bent Shaft 517 Example 8.5 Velocity and Acceleration of A Robotic Manipulator 520 Exercises 8.4 522 8.5 Moments and Products of Inertia for A Three-Dimensional Body 527 8.6 Parallel Axis Expressions For Inertias 530 Example 8.6 Inertial Properties of A Flat Plate 532 Exercises 8.6 533 8.7 Angular Momentum 535 Example 8.7 Angular Momentum of A Flat Plate 540 Example 8.8 Angular Momentum of A Simple Structure 540 Exercises 8.7 542 8.8 Equations of Motion For A Three-Dimensional Body 544 Example 8.9 Reaction Forces of A Constrained, Rotating Body 546 Exercises 8.8 548 8.9 Energy of Three-Dimensional Bodies 553 Example 8.10 Kinetic Energy of A Rotating Disk 555 Exercises 8.9 557 8.10 Just The Facts 559 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 563 Chapter 9 Vibratory Motions 565 9.1 Undamped, Free Response for Single-Degreeof-Freedom Systems 566 Example 9.1 Natural Frequency of A Cantilevered Balcony 569 Example 9.2 Displacement Response of A Single-Story Building 572 Exercises 9.1 573 9.2 Undamped, Sinusoidally Forced Response for Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 580 Example 9.3 Forced Response of A Spring-Mass System 582 Example 9.4 Time Response of an Undamped System 583 Exercises 9.2 584 9.3 Damped, Free Response for Single-Degree-ofFreedom Systems 588 Example 9.5 Vibration Response of A Golf Club 591 Exercises 9.3 592 9.4 Damped, Sinusoidally Forced Response for Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 593 Example 9.6 Response of A Simple Car Model on A Wavy Road 596 Example 9.7 Response of A Sinusoidally Forced, Spring-Mass Damper 598 Exercises 9.4 599 9.5 Just The Facts 600 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 603 Appendix A Numerical Integration Light 605 Appendix B Properties of Plane and Solid Bodies 613 Appendix C Some Useful Mathematical Facts 617 Appendix D Material Densities 621 Biblography 623 Index 625

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 The Role of Statistics in Engineering 1 1.1 The Engineering Method and Statistical Thinking 2 1.1.1 Variability 3 1.1.2 Populations and Samples 5 1.2 Collecting Engineering Data 5 1.2.1 Basic Principles 5 1.2.2 Retrospective Study 5 1.2.3 Observational Study 6 1.2.4 Designed Experiments 6 1.2.5 Observing Processes Over Time 9 1.3 Mechanistic and Empirical Models 12 1.4 Probability and Probability Models 15 2 Probability 17 2.1 Sample Spaces and Events 18 2.1.1 Random Experiments 18 2.1.2 Sample Spaces 19 2.1.3 Events 21 2.2 Counting Techniques 23 2.3 Interpretations and Axioms of Probability 26 2.4 Unions of Events and Addition Rules 29 2.5 Conditional Probability 31 2.6 Intersections of Events and Multiplication and Total Probability Rules 34 2.7 Independence 36 2.8 Bayes’ Theorem 39 2.9 Random Variables 40 3 Discrete Random Variables and Probability Distributions 42 3.1 Probability Distributions and Probability Mass Functions 43 3.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions 45 3.3 Mean and Variance of a Discrete Random Variable 47 3.4 Discrete Uniform Distribution 49 3.5 Binomial Distribution 51 3.6 Geometric and Negative Binomial Distributions 55 3.7 Hypergeometric Distribution 59 3.8 Poisson Distribution 63 4 Continuous Random Variables and Probability Distributions 66 4.1 Probability Distributions and Probability Density Functions 67 4.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions 70 4.3 Mean and Variance of a Continuous Random Variable 71 4.4 Continuous Uniform Distribution 72 4.5 Normal Distribution 73 4.6 Normal Approximation to the Binomial and Poisson Distributions 79 4.7 Exponential Distribution 83 4.8 Erlang and Gamma Distributions 86 4.9 Weibull Distribution 89 4.10 Lognormal Distribution 90 4.11 Beta Distribution 92 5 Joint Probability Distributions 95 5.1 Joint Probability Distributions for Two Random Variables 96 5.2 Conditional Probability Distributions and Independence 102 5.3 Joint Probability Distributions for More Than Two Random Variables 107 5.4 Covariance and Correlation 110 5.5 Common Joint Distributions 113 5.5.1 Multinomial Probability Distribution 113 5.5.2 Bivariate Normal Distribution 115 5.6 Linear Functions of Random Variables 117 5.7 General Functions of Random Variables 120 5.8 Moment-Generating Functions 121 6 Descriptive Statistics 126 6.1 Numerical Summaries of Data 127 6.2 Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams 131 6.3 Frequency Distributions and Histograms 135 6.4 Box Plots 139 6.5 Time Sequence Plots 140 6.6 Scatter Diagrams 142 6.7 Probability Plots 144 7 Point Estimation of Parameters and Sampling Distributions 148 7.1 Point Estimation 149 7.2 Sampling Distributions and the Central Limit Theorem 150 7.3 General Concepts of Point Estimation 156 7.3.1 Unbiased Estimators 156 7.3.2 Variance of a Point Estimator 157 7.3.3 Standard Error: Reporting a Point Estimate 158 7.3.4 Bootstrap Standard Error 159 7.3.5 Mean Squared Error of an Estimator 160 7.4 Methods of Point Estimation 161 7.4.1 Method of Moments 162 7.4.2 Method of Maximum Likelihood 163 7.4.3 Bayesian Estimation of Parameters 167 8 Statistical Intervals for a Single Sample 170 8.1 Confidence Interval on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Known 172 8.1.1 Development of the Confidence Interval and Its Basic Properties 172 8.1.2 Choice of Sample Size 175 8.1.3 One-Sided Confidence Bounds 176 8.1.4 General Method to Derive a Confidence Interval 176 8.1.5 Large-Sample Confidence Interval for μ 177 8.2 Confidence Interval on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Unknown 179 8.2.1 t Distribution 180 8.2.2 t Confidence Interval on μ 181 8.3 Confidence Interval on the Variance and Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution 182 8.4 Large-Sample Confidence Interval for a Population Proportion 185 8.5 Guidelines for Constructing Confidence Intervals 188 8.6 Bootstrap Confidence Interval 189 8.7 Tolerance and Prediction Intervals 189 8.7.1 Prediction Interval for a Future Observation 189 8.7.2 Tolerance Interval for a Normal Distribution 191 9 Tests of Hypotheses for a Single Sample 193 9.1 Hypothesis Testing 194 9.1.1 Statistical Hypotheses 194 9.1.2 Tests of Statistical Hypotheses 196 9.1.3 One-Sided and Two-Sided Hypotheses 202 9.1.4 P-Values in Hypothesis Tests 203 9.1.5 Connection between Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals 206 9.1.6 General Procedure for Hypothesis Tests 206 9.2 Tests on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Known 208 9.2.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Mean 208 9.2.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 211 9.2.3 Large-Sample Test 215 9.3 Tests on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Unknown 215 9.3.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Mean 215 9.3.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 220 9.4 Tests on the Variance and Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution 222 9.4.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Variance 222 9.4.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 224 9.5 Tests on a Population Proportion 225 9.5.1 Large-Sample Tests on a Proportion 225 9.5.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 227 9.6 Summary Table of Inference Procedures for a Single Sample 229 9.7 Testing for Goodness of Fit 229 9.8 Contingency Table Tests 232 9.9 Nonparametric Procedures 234 9.9.1 The Sign Test 235 9.9.2 The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test 239 9.9.3 Comparison to the t-Test 240 9.10 Equivalence Testing 240 9.11 Combining P-Values 242 10 Statistical Inference for Two Samples 244 10.1 Inference on the Difference in Means of Two Normal Distributions, Variances Known 245 10.1.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Difference in Means, Variances Known 247 10.1.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 249 10.1.3 Confidence Interval on the Difference in Means, Variances Known 251 10.2 Inference on the Difference in Means of Two Normal Distributions, Variances Unknown 253 10.2.1 Hypotheses Tests on the Difference in Means, Variances Unknown 253 10.2.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 259 10.2.3 Confidence Interval on the Difference in Means, Variances Unknown 260 10.3 A Nonparametric Test for the Difference in Two Means 261 10.3.1 Description of the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test 262 10.3.2 Large-Sample Approximation 263 10.3.3 Comparison to the t-Test 264 10.4 Paired t-Test 264 10.5 Inference on the Variances of Two Normal Distributions 268 10.5.1 F Distribution 268 10.5.2 Hypothesis Tests on the Equity of Two Variances 270 10.5.3 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 272 10.5.4 Confidence Interval on the Ratio of Two Variances 273 10.6 Inference on Two Population Proportions 273 10.6.1 Large-Sample Tests on the Difference in Population Proportions 274 10.6.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 276 10.6.3 Confidence Interval on the Difference in Population Proportions 277 10.7 Summary Table and Road Map for Inference Procedures for Two Samples 278 11 Simple Linear Regression and Correlation 280 11.1 Empirical Models 281 11.2 Simple Linear Regression 284 11.3 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators 288 11.4 Hypothesis Tests in Simple Linear Regression 288 11.4.1 Use of t-Tests 289 11.4.2 Analysis of Variance Approach to Test Significance of Regression 291 11.5 Confidence Intervals 292 11.5.1 Confidence Intervals on the Slope and Intercept 292 11.5.2 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response 293 11.6 Prediction of New Observations 295 11.7 Adequacy of the Regression Model 296 11.7.1 Residual Analysis 296 11.7.2 Coefficient of Determination (R2) 298 11.8 Correlation 299 11.9 Regression on Transformed Variables 303 11.10 Logistic Regression 305 12 Multiple Linear Regression 310 12.1 Multiple Linear Regression Model 311 12.1.1 Introduction 311 12.1.2 Least Squares Estimation of the Parameters 314 12.1.3 Matrix Approach to Multiple Linear Regression 316 12.1.4 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators 321 12.2 Hypothesis Tests in Multiple Linear Regression 322 12.2.1 Test for Significance of Regression 322 12.2.2 Tests on Individual Regression Coefficients and Subsets of Coefficients 325 12.3 Confidence Intervals in Multiple Linear Regression 329 12.3.1 Confidence Intervals on Individual Regression Coefficients 329 12.3.2 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response 330 12.4 Prediction of New Observations 331 12.5 Model Adequacy Checking 333 12.5.1 Residual Analysis 333 12.5.2 Influential Observations 335 12.6 Aspects of Multiple Regression Modeling 337 12.6.1 Polynomial Regression Models 337 12.6.2 Categorical Regressors and Indicator Variables 339 12.6.3 Selection of Variables and Model Building 341 12.6.4 Multicollinearity 349 13 Design and Analysis of Single-Factor Experiments: The Analysis of Variance 351 13.1 Designing Engineering Experiments 352 13.2 Completely Randomized Single-Factor Experiment 353 13.2.1 Example: Tensile Strength 353 13.2.2 Analysis of Variance 354 13.2.3 Multiple Comparisons Following the ANOVA 359 13.2.4 Residual Analysis and Model Checking 361 13.2.5 Determining Sample Size 363 13.3 The Random-Effects Model 365 13.3.1 Fixed Versus Random Factors 365 13.3.2 ANOVA and Variance Components 365 13.4 Randomized Complete Block Design 368 13.4.1 Design and Statistical Analysis 368 13.4.2 Multiple Comparisons 372 13.4.3 Residual Analysis and Model Checking 373 14 Design of Experiments with Several Factors 375 14.1 Introduction 376 14.2 Factorial Experiments 378 14.3 Two-Factor Factorial Experiments 382 14.3.1 Statistical Analysis 382 14.3.2 Model Adequacy Checking 386 14.3.3 One Observation per Cell 387 14.4 General Factorial Experiments 388 14.5 2k Factorial Designs 390 14.5.1 22 Design 390 14.5.2 2k Design for k ≥ 3 Factors 396 14.6 Single Replicate of the 2k Design 402 14.7 Addition of Center Points to a 2k Design 405 14.8 Blocking and Confounding in the 2k Design 408 14.9 One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design 413 14.10 Smaller Fractions: The 2k−p Fractional Factorial 418 14.11 Response Surface Methods and Designs 425 15 Statistical Quality Control 434 15.1 Quality Improvement and Statistics 435 15.1.1 Statistical Quality Control 436 15.1.2 Statistical Process Control 436 15.2 Introduction to Control Charts 436 15.2.1 Basic Principles 436 15.2.2 Design of a Control Chart 440 15.2.3 Rational Subgroups 441 15.2.4 Analysis of Patterns on Control Charts 442 15.3 X and R or S Control Charts 444 15.4 Control Charts for Individual Measurements 450 15.5 Process Capability 452 15.6 Attribute Control Charts 456 15.6.1 P Chart (Control Chart for Proportions) 456 15.6.2 U Chart (Control Chart for Defects per Unit) 458 15.7 Control Chart Performance 460 15.8 Time-Weighted Charts 462 15.8.1 Exponentially Weighted Moving-Average Control Chart 462 15.8.2 Cumulative Sum Control Chart 465 15.9 Other SPC Problem-Solving Tools 471 15.10 Decision Theory 473 15.10.1 Decision Models 473 15.10.2 Decision Criteria 474 15.11 Implementing SPC 476 Appendix A Statistical Tables and Charts A-3 Table I Summary of Common Probability Distributions A-4 Table II Cumulative Binomial Probabilities P(X ≤ x) A-5 Table III Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution A-8 Table IV Percentage Points χ2α,v of the Chi-Squared Distribution A-10 Table V Percentage Points tα,v of the t Distribution A-11 Table VI Percentage Points fα,v1,v2 of the F Distribution A-12 Chart VII Operating Characteristic Curves A-17 Table VIII Critical Values for the Sign Test A-26 Table IX Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test A-26 Table X Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test A-27 Table XI Factors for Constructing Variables Control Charts A-28 Table XII Factors for Tolerance Intervals A-29 Appendix B Bibliography A-31 Appendix C Summary of Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing Equations for One and Two Sample Applications A-33 Glossary G-1 Exercises P-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Figures x List of Tables xvi Preface xvii Symbols and Abbreviations xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Current State of Knowledge 1 1.2 Review of the Literature on Numerical Determination of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 6 1.3 Review of the Literature on Experimental Determination of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 7 1.4 Purpose and Scope of the Work 10 2 Practical Applications of Bearing Dynamic Coefficients 14 2.1 Single Degree of Freedom System Oscillations 16 2.1.1 Constant excitation Force 18 2.1.2 Excitation by Unbalance 20 2.1.3 Impact of Damping and Stiffness 24 2.2 Oscillation of Mass with Two Degrees of Freedom 26 2.3 Cross-Coupled Stiffness and Damping Coefficients 28 2.4 Summary 33 3 Characteristics of the Research Subject 34 3.1 Basic Technical Data of the Laboratory Test Rig 34 3.2 Analysis of Rotor Dynamics 36 3.3 Analysis of the Supporting Structure 42 3.4 Summary 44 4 Research Tools 46 4.1 Test Equipment 46 4.2 Test.Lab Software 49 4.3 Samcef Rotors Software 51 4.4 Matlab Software 51 4.5 MESWIR Series Software (KINWIR, LDW, NLDW) 52 4.6 Abaqus Software 53 5 Algorithms for the Experimental Determination of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 55 5.1 Development of the Calculation Algorithm 55 5.2 Verification of the Calculation Algorithm on the Basis of a Numerical Model 58 5.3 Results of Calculations of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 62 5.4 Summary 64 6 Inclusion of the Impact of an Unbalanced Rotor 65 6.1 Calculation Scheme 65 6.2 Definition of the Scope of Identification 67 6.3 Results of the Calculation of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings Including Rotor Unbalance 68 6.4 Summary 69 7 Sensitivity Analysis of the Experimental Method of Determining Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 70 7.1 Method of Carrying Out a Sensitivity Analysis 70 7.2 Description of the Reference Model 71 7.3 Influence of the Stiffness of the Rotor Material 71 7.4 Influence of Uneven Force Distribution on Two Bearings 72 7.5 Changing the Direction of the Excitation Force and its Effect on the Results Obtained 75 7.6 Eddy Current Sensor Displacement Impact Assessment 76 7.7 Calculation Results for an Asymmetrical Rotor 77 7.8 Summary 79 8 Experimental Studies 81 8.1 Software Used for Processing of Signals from Experimental Research 82 8.2 Software Used for Calculations of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 83 8.3 Preparation of Experimental Tests 85 8.4 Implementation of Experimental Research 87 8.5 Processing of the Signal Measured During Experimental Tests 91 8.6 Results of Calculations of Dynamic Coefficients of Hydrodynamic Bearings on the Basis of Experimental Research 93 8.7 Verification of Results Obtained 98 8.8 Summary 100 9 Numerical Calculations of Bearing Dynamic Coefficients 102 9.1 Method of Calculating Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 102 9.2 Calculation of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings Using a Method with Linear Calculation Algorithm 107 9.3 Calculation of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings Using a Method with Non-linear Calculation Algorithm 113 9.4 Verification of Results Obtained 119 9.5 Summary 123 10 Comparison of Bearing Dynamic Coefficients Calculated with Different Methods 125 11 Summary and Conclusions 129 Appendix A 134 Appendix B 145 Appendix C 152 Research Funding 155 References 156 Index 163

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface vii About the Author viii 1 Basics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Overview 2 1.3 Modern Era 3 1.3.1 Actual Flights 5 1.3.2 Compressibility Issues 5 1.3.3 Supersonic Speeds 7 1.3.4 Continuity Concept 9 1.4 Conservation Laws 9 1.4.1 Conservation of Mass 9 1.4.2 Conservation of Momentum 10 1.4.3 Conservation of Energy 11 1.5 Incompressible Aerodynamics 11 1.5.1 Subsonic flow 12 1.6 Compressible Aerodynamics 12 1.6.1 Transonic Flow 12 1.6.2 Supersonic Flow 13 1.6.3 Hypersonic Flow 13 1.7 Vocabulary 14 1.7.1 Boundary Layers 14 1.7.2 Turbulence 14 1.8 Aerodynamics in Other Fields 14 1.9 Summary 15 2 International Standard Atmosphere 21 2.1 Layers in the ISA 22 2.1.1 ICAO Standard Atmosphere 22 2.1.2 Temperature Modeling 23 2.2 Pressure Modelling 24 2.2.1 Pressure above the Tropopause 26 2.3 Density Modeling 26 2.3.1 Other standard atmospheres 33 2.4 Relative Density 33 2.5 Altimeter 34 2.6 Summary 34 3 Aircraft Configurations 37 3.1 Structure 38 3.2 Propulsion 38 3.3 Summary 40 4 Low-Speed Aerofoils 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 The Aerofoil 43 4.3 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on an Aerofoil 44 4.4 Force and Moment Coefficients 45 4.5 Pressure Distribution 46 4.6 Variation of Pressure Distribution with Incidence Angle 50 4.7 The Lift Curve Slope 51 4.8 Profile Drag 53 4.9 Pitching Moment 54 4.10 Movement of Center of Pressure 58 4.11 Finite or Three-Dimensional Wing 59 4.12 Geometrical Parameters of a Finite Wing 59 4.12.1 Leading-edge Radius and Chord Line 60 4.12.2 Mean Camber Line 60 4.12.3 Thickness Distribution 60 4.12.4 Trailing-Edge Angle 61 4.13 Wing Geometrical Parameters 61 4.14 Span wise Flow Variation 65 4.15 Lift and Downwash 67 4.16 The Lift Curve of a Finite Wing 69 4.17 Induced Drag 71 4.18 The Total Drag of a Wing 74 4.19 Aspect Ratio Effect on Aerodynamic Characteristics 76 4.20 Pitching Moment 78 4.21 The Complete Aircraft 78 4.22 Straight and Level Flight 78 4.23 Total Drag 81 4.24 Reynolds Number Effect 82 4.25 Variation of Drag in Straight and Level Flight 83 4.26 The Minimum Power Condition 91 4.27 Minimum Drag - Velocity Ratio 92 4.28 The Stall 94 4.28.1 The Effect of Wing Section 94 4.28.2 Wing Planform Effect 95 4.29 The Effect of Protuberances 96 4.30 Summary 97 5 High-Lift Devices 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 The Trailing Edge Flap 104 5.3 The Plain Flap 104 5.4 The Split Flap 106 5.5 The Slotted Flap 107 5.6 The Fowler Flap 108 5.7 Comparison of Different Types of Flaps 108 5.8 Flap Effect on Aerodynamic Center and Stability 110 5.9 The Leading Edge Slat 111 5.10 The Leading Edge Flap 112 5.11 Boundary Layer Control 114 5.11.1 Boundary Layer Blowing 114 5.12 Boundary Layer Suction 115 5.13 The Jet Flap 116 5.14 Summary 116 6 Thrust 119 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Thrust Generation 120 6.2.1 Types of Jet Engines 123 6.2.1.1 Turbojets 123 6.2.1.2 Turboprops 124 6.2.1.3 Turbofans 125 6.2.1.4 Turboshafts 126 6.2.1.5 Ramjets 126 6.3 Turbojet 126 6.4 Turboprop and Turboshaft Engines 127 6.5 Ramjet and Scramjet 128 6.6 The Ideal Ramjet 130 6.7 Rocket Propulsion 131 6.8 Propeller Engines 132 6.9 Thrust and Momentum 133 6.10 By-pass and Turbofan Engines 133 6.11 The Propeller 134 6.11.1 Working of a Propeller 135 6.11.2 Helix Angle and Blade Angle 136 6.11.3 Advance per Revolution 137 6.11.4 Pitch of a Propeller 138 6.11.5 Propeller Efficiency 139 6.11.6 Tip Speed 140 6.11.7 Variable Pitch 141 6.11.8 Number and Shape of Blades 142 6.12 The Slipstream 143 6.13 Gyroscopic Effect 144 6.14 Swing on Take-off 144 6.15 Thermodynamic Cycles of Jet Propulsion 144 6.15.1 Efficiency 145 6.15.2 Brayton Cycle 145 6.15.3 Ramjet Cycle 146 6.15.4 Turbojet cycle 147 6.15.5 Turbofan Cycle 148 6.16 Summary 148 7 Level Flight 151 7.1 Introduction 151 7.2 The Forces in Level Flight 151 7.3 Equilibrium Condition 152 7.4 Balancing the Forces 153 7.4.1 Control Surface 154 7.4.2 Tail-less and Tail-first Aircraft 155 7.4.3 Forces on Tail Plane 155 7.4.4 Effect of Downwash 157 7.4.5 Varying the Tail Plane Lift 157 7.4.6 Straight and Level Flight 158 7.4.7 Relation between Flight Speed and Angle of Attack 159 7.5 Range Maximum 160 7.5.1 Flying with Minimum Drag 161 7.6 Altitude Effect on Propeller Efficiency 161 7.7 Wind Effect on Range 162 7.8 Endurance of Flight 163 7.9 Range Maximum 163 7.10 Endurance of Jet Engine 164 7.11 Summary 165 8 Gliding 167 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Angle of Glide 168 8.3 Effect of weight on Gliding 169 8.4 Endurance of Glide 169 8.5 Gliding Angle 169 8.6 Landing 170 8.7 Stalling Speed 172 8.8 High Lift Aerofoils 173 8.9 Wing Loading 174 8.9.1 Calculation of Minimum Landing Speed 175 8.10 Landing Speed 177 8.11 Short and Vertical Take-off and Landing 178 8.11.1 Gyroplane 178 8.12 The Helicopter 179 8.13 Jet Lift 180 8.14 Hovercraft 180 8.15 Landing 180 8.16 Effect of Flaps on Trim 182 8.17 Summary 184 9 Performance 187 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Take-off 187 9.3 Climbing 188 9.4 Power Curves - Propeller Engine 189 9.5 Maximum and Minimum Speeds in Horizontal Flight 190 9.6 Effect of Engine Power Variation 191 9.7 Flight Altitude Effect on Engine Power 191 9.8 Ceiling 193 9.9 Effect of Weight on Performance 193 9.10 Jet Propulsion Effect on Performance 195 9.11 Summary 196 10 Stability and Control 199 10.1 Introduction 199 10.2 Longitudinal Stability 201 10.3 Longitudinal Dihedral 201 10.4 Lateral Stability 203 10.4.1 Dihedral Angle 203 10.4.2 High Wing and Low Center of Gravity 205 10.4.3 Lateral Stability of Aircraft with Sweepback 206 10.4.4 Fin Area and Lateral Stability 206 10.5 Directional Stability 207 10.6 Lateral and Directional Stability 209 10.7 Control of an Aircraft 210 10.8 Balanced Control 211 10.9 Mass Balance 214 10.10 Control at Low Speeds 215 10.11 Power Controls 219 10.12 Dynamic Stability 220 10.13 Summary 220 11 Manoeuvres 223 11.1 Introduction 223 11.2 Acceleration 224 11.3 Pulling out from a Dive 226 11.3.1 The Load Factor 227 11.3.2 Turning 228 11.3.3 Loads During a Turn 229 11.4 Correct Angles of Bank 229 11.5 Other Problems of Turning 230 11.6 Steep Bank 232 11.7 Aerobatics 233 11.8 Inverted Manoeuvres 238 11.9 Abnormal Weather 239 11.10 Manoeuvrability 239 11.11 Summary 240 12 Rockets 243 12.1 Introduction 243 12.2 Chemical Rocket 244 12.3 Engine design 246 12.4 Thrust Generation 248 12.5 Specific Impulse 249 12.6 Rocket Equation 250 12.7 Efficiency 252 12.8 Trajectories 253 12.8.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion 254 12.8.2 Newton’s Laws of Gravitation 254 12.8.3 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 254 12.8.4 Some Important Equations of Orbital Dynamics 255 12.8.5 Lagrange Points 255 12.8.6 Hohmann Minimum-Energy Trajectory 256 12.8.7 Gravity Assist 256 12.9 High-Exhaust-Velocity, Low-Thrust Trajectories 257 12.9.1 High-Exhaust-Velocity Rocket Equation 258 12.10 Plasma and Electric Propulsion 259 12.10.1 Types of Plasma Engines 260 12.11 Pulsed Plasma Thruster 261 12.11.1Operating Principle 261 12.12 Summary 265 12.13 Exercise Problems 267 References 268 Index 271

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Book SynopsisA compelling exploration of how social norms and commercial culture impact the safety of organizational operations In Impact of Societal Norms on Safety, Health, and the Environment: Case Studies in Society and Safety Culture, distinguished engineer Dr. Lee T. Ostrom delivers an authoritative treatment of the cultural, social, and human factors of safety cultures and issues in the workplace. The book offers readers compelling discussions of how those factors impact organizational operations and what contributes to making those impacts beneficial or detrimental. The author provides numerous real-world case studies from North America and Europe that are relevant to a global audience, highlighting the central message of the book: that an organization that views its safety culture as unimportant could be setting itself up for a significant workplace accident. Readers will also find: A thorough introduction to social norms that impact how commercial organiTable of ContentsPreface xvii Abbreviations xix 1 Safety Culture Concepts 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Culture 2 1.2 Safety and Health Pioneers 4 1.3 The Evolution of Accident Causation Models 5 1.4 Safety and Common Sense 13 1.5 Interviews with Safety Professionals 14 1.6 Chapter Summary 59 References 59 2 History of Safety Culture 61 2.1 Life Expectancy and Safety 61 2.2 Consumer Items and Toys 65 2.2.1 Vintage Toys and Other Items 66 2.3 Flawed Cars 69 2.4 Ford Pinto 69 2.5 Off-Highway-Vehicle-Related Fatalities Reported 70 2.6 Work Relationships 71 2.7 Food 75 2.7.1 Food Trends and Culture 78 2.7.1.1 The Tomato 78 2.7.1.2 Fad Diets 78 2.8 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Foods 80 2.8.1 Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA) Vaccines 82 2.9 Traffic Safety 83 2.10 Public Acceptance of Seatbelts and Masks for Protection from Respiratory Disease 86 2.11 Radiation Hazards and Safety 90 2.11.1 Radiation 91 2.11.2 Measuring Radiation (CDC 2021) 93 2.11.3 Health Effects of Radiation (EPA 2021) 95 2.11.4 Uses of Radiation (NRC 2020) 97 2.11.5 Medical Uses 97 2.11.6 Academic and Scientific Applications 98 2.11.7 Industrial Uses 98 2.11.8 Nuclear Power Plants 100 2.11.9 Misuse of Radiation (EPA 2021) 101 2.11.10 Radium Dial Painters 101 2.11.11 Safety Culture Issues 103 2.12 The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 103 2.12.1 Who Does OSHA Cover 105 2.12.1.1 Private Sector Workers 105 2.12.1.2 State and Local Government Workers 105 2.12.1.3 Federal Government Workers 106 2.12.1.4 Not Covered Under the OSHA Act 106 2.12.2 Voluntary Protection Program 107 2.13 Human Performance Improvement (HPI) 111 2.14 Chapter Summary 112 References 112 3 Chemical Manufacturing 119 3.0 Introduction 119 3.1 Process Safety Management 119 3.1.1 Introduction 119 3.1.2 Process Safety Management 121 3.1.2.1 Process Safety Information 123 3.1.2.2 Process Hazards Analysis 126 3.1.2.3 Operating Procedures 129 3.1.2.4 Mechanical Integrity 131 3.1.2.5 Management of Change 136 3.2 DuPont La Porte, TX, Methyl Mercaptan Release – November 15, 2014 138 3.2.1 Accident Description and Analysis 139 3.2.2 DuPont’s Initiation of Process Safety Culture Assessments 160 3.2.3 Summary of Safety Culture Findings 162 3.3 BP Texas City Refinery Explosion – March 23, 2005 163 3.3.1 Introduction 163 3.3.2 Texas City 164 3.3.3 Description of the BP Refinery 165 3.3.4 The Accident 167 3.3.5 Trailer Siting Recommendations 173 3.3.6 Blowdown Drum and Stack Recommendations 174 3.3.7 Additional Recommendations from July 28, 2005, Incident 174 3.3.8 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 174 3.4 T2 Laboratories, Inc. Explosion – December 19, 2007 175 3.4.1 T2 Laboratories, Inc. 175 3.4.2 Event Description 176 3.4.3 Events Leading Up to the Explosion 176 3.4.4 Analysis of the Accident 180 3.4.5 Process Development 183 3.4.6 Manufacturing Process 184 3.4.7 Summary Safety Culture Issues 185 3.5 Final Thoughts for This Chapter 186 References 186 4 Chemical Storage Explosions 189 4.0 Introduction 189 4.1 Port of Lebanon – August 4, 2020 190 4.1.1 PEPCON Explosion – May 4, 1988 191 4.1.2 Lessons Learned 201 4.1.3 Safety Culture Issues 203 4.2 PCA DeRidder Paper Mill Gas System Explosion, DeRidder, Louisiana – February 8, 2017 203 4.2.1 PCA DeRidder Mill 205 4.2.2 The Explosion 205 4.2.3 Safety Culture Summary 210 4.3 West Fertilizer Explosion – April 17, 2013 211 4.3.1 The Fire and Explosion 212 4.3.2 Injuries and Fatalities 215 4.3.3 Safety Culture Summary 215 References 216 5 Dust Explosions and Entertainment Venue Case Studies 219 5.0 Introduction 219 5.1 Dust Explosion Information and Case Studies 221 5.2 AL Solutions December 9, 2010 225 5.2.1 Facility Description 225 5.2.2 Zirconium 228 5.2.3 Description of the Incident 228 5.2.4 The Origin of the Explosion 231 5.2.5 AL Solutions Dust Management Practices 234 5.2.6 Water Deluge System 235 5.2.7 Safety Audits 235 5.2.8 Hydrogen Explosion 237 5.2.9 Previous Fires And Explosions 237 5.2.10 Summary of Safety Culture Findings 239 5.3 Imperial Sugar Company, February 7, 2008 239 5.3.1 Sugar 239 5.3.2 Accident Description 240 5.3.3 Synopsis of Events 240 5.3.4 Detailed Accident Scenario 242 5.3.5 The Chemical Safety Board Investigation 243 5.3.6 South Packing Building 248 5.3.7 Sugar Spillage and Dust Control 249 5.3.8 Force of the Explosion 250 5.3.9 Pre-explosion Sugar Dust Incident History 251 5.3.10 Steel Belt Conveyor Modifications 251 5.3.11 Primary Event Location 252 5.3.12 Primary Event Combustible Dust Source 253 5.3.13 Secondary Dust Explosions 255 5.3.14 Ignition Sources 256 5.3.15 Open Flames and Hot Surfaces 256 5.3.16 Ignition Sources Inside the Steel Belt Enclosure 257 5.3.16.1 Hot Surface Ignition 257 5.3.16.2 Friction Sparks 258 5.3.16.3 Worker Training 258 5.3.17 Evacuation, Fire Alarms, and Fire Suppression 259 5.3.18 Electrical Systems Design 260 5.3.19 Sugar Dust Handling Equipment 261 5.3.20 Housekeeping and Dust Control 262 5.3.21 Imperial Sugar Management and Workers 263 5.3.22 Chemical Safety Board Key Findings 265 5.3.23 Summary of Safety Culture Findings 266 5.4 Entertainment Venue Case Studies 267 5.4.1 Introduction 267 5.4.2 Crowd Surge Events 267 5.4.3 Fires at Bars and Nightclubs 267 5.4.4 The New Taipei Water Park Fire – June 2015 268 5.5 Safety Culture Summary 270 References 270 6 University Laboratory Accident Case Studies 273 6.0 Introduction 273 6.1 My Experience at Aalto University 273 6.2 Texas Tech University October 2008 284 6.2.1 Specifically, the CSB Found 299 6.3 University of California Los Angeles – December 29, 2008 300 6.4 University of Utah – July 2017 302 6.4.1 Utah, Report to the Utah Legislature Number 2019-06 302 6.5 University of Hawaii – March 16, 2016 306 6.5.1 Grounding (OSHA 2021) 307 6.5.1.1 Summary of Grounding Requirements 308 6.5.1.2 Methods of Grounding Equipment 308 6.5.1.3 Event Description 309 6.5.1.4 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 311 References 312 7 Aviation Case Studies 315 7.0 Introduction 315 7.1 Helicopter Accident 337 7.1.1 Liberty Helicopter Crash March 11, 2018 338 7.1.1.1 Overview 338 7.1.1.2 Liberty Helicopter’s Safety Program 346 7.1.1.3 Safety Culture Summary 354 7.2 Commercial Aviation 355 7.2.1 Successful Landing of Crippled Commercial Airliners 355 7.2.2 Gimli Glider – Successful Landing of a Crippled Commercial Airliner 1 – July 23, 1983 356 7.2.2.1 Accident Information 356 7.2.2.2 Analysis of the Fuel Problem 362 7.3 Illegal Dispatch Contrary to the MEL: Taking Off With Blank Fuel Gauges 370 7.4 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 373 7.5 Miracle on the Hudson River – Successful Landing of a Crippled Commercial Airliner 2, January 15, 2009 374 7.5.1 Accident Information 374 7.5.2 Flight Crew and Cabin Crew 377 7.5.3 The Captain’s 72-Hour History 379 7.5.4 The First Officer 380 7.5.4.1 The First Officer’s 72-Hour History 380 7.5.4.2 The Flight Attendants 381 7.5.4.3 Airbus A320-214 381 7.5.4.4 Operational Factors 382 7.5.4.5 Flight Crew Training 384 7.5.4.6 Dual-Engine Failure Training 385 7.5.4.7 Ditching Training 386 7.5.4.8 CRM and TEM Training 387 7.5.4.9 FAA Oversight 388 7.5.4.10 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 389 7.6 737 MAX 389 7.6.1 Introduction 389 7.6.2 737 MAX Design and Manufacture 390 7.6.3 Accidents 391 7.6.4 Design Certification of the 737 MAX 8 and Safety Assessment of the MCAS 393 7.6.5 Assumptions about Pilot Recognition and Response in the Safety Assessment 395 7.7 De Haviland Comet 400 7.8 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 401 References 401 8 Nuclear Energy Case Studies 405 8.0 Introduction 405 8.1 Nuclear Power 405 8.1.1 Sodium Cooled Reactors 409 8.1.1.1 Santa Susana – 1959 410 8.1.1.2 Fission Gas Release 411 8.1.1.3 Fermi 1 – Near Detroit Michigan – 1966 413 8.1.1.4 Safety Culture Summary of Sodium Cooled Reactors 414 8.1.2 The Vladimir Lenin Nuclear Power Plant or Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (ChNPP) – April 26, 1986 415 8.1.2.1 Reactivity and Power Control 416 8.1.2.2 Chernobyl Accident 418 8.1.3 Three Mile Island Accident – March 28, 1979 (NRC 2022a) 421 8.1.3.1 Accident 421 8.1.3.2 Summary of Events 422 8.1.3.3 Health Effects 425 8.1.3.4 Impact of the Accident 425 8.1.3.5 Current Status 426 8.1.3.6 Human Factor Engineering Findings (Malone et al. 1980) 427 8.1.3.7 Human Engineering and Human Error 428 8.1.3.8 Procedures 428 8.2 Nuclear Criticality 430 8.2.1 Mayak Production Association, 10 December 1968 (LANL 2000) 430 8.2.1.1 Safety Culture Issues 435 8.2.2 National Reactor Testing Station – January 3, 1961 (LANL 2000) 436 8.2.2.1 Safety Culture Issues 437 8.2.3 JCO Fuel Fabrication Plant – September 30, 1999 (LANL 2000) 438 8.2.3.1 Safety Culture Issues 441 8.3 Medical Misadministration of Radioisotopes Events 442 8.3.1 Loss of Iridium-192 Source at the Indiana Regional Cancer Center (IRCC) – November 1992 444 8.3.1.1 Introduction 444 8.3.1.2 Event Description 444 8.3.1.3 Patient Treatment Plan 444 8.3.2 Greater Pittsburgh Cancer Center Incident 455 8.3.3 Omnitron High Dose Rate (HDR) Remote Afterloader System 456 8.3.3.1 Description of the Afterloader System 456 8.3.3.2 High Dose Rate Afterloader 456 8.3.3.3 Main Console 461 8.3.3.4 Door Status Panel 461 8.3.3.5 Afterloader System Safety Features 462 8.3.3.6 Patient Applicators and Treatment Tubes 462 8.3.3.7 Description of the Source Wire 462 8.3.3.8 Prototype Testing Performed on Nickel–Titanium Source Wire 464 8.3.3.9 Description of the Omnitron 2000 Afterloader System Software 464 8.3.3.10 Equipment Performance 468 8.3.3.11 Failure Analysis Pertaining to the Source Wire 468 8.3.3.12 Possible Failure Areas 468 8.3.3.13 Organization of Oncology Services Corporation 469 8.3.3.14 Management Oversight 469 8.3.3.15 Safety Culture 470 8.3.3.16 Emergency Operating Procedures 474 8.3.3.17 Training 474 8.3.3.18 Radiation Safety Training at the Indiana Regional Cancer Center 475 8.3.3.19 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 476 8.4 Goiania, Brazil Teletherapy Machine Incident (IAEA 1988) 476 8.4.1 Safety Culture Summary 481 References 481 9 Other Transportation Case Studies 485 9.1 Large Marine Vessel Accidents 485 9.1.1 LNG Carrier Collision with Barge 485 9.1.1.1 Accident Description 487 9.1.1.2 Work/Rest of Ships’ Crews 499 9.1.1.3 Drug and Alcohol Testing 501 9.1.1.4 Findings 502 9.2 Navy Vessel Collisions 503 9.2.1 USS FITZGERALD Collided with the Motor Vessel ACX Crystal 503 9.2.1.1 Summary of Findings 504 9.2.1.2 Background 505 9.2.1.3 Events Leading to the Collision 506 9.2.1.4 Collision 507 9.2.1.5 Impact to Berthing 2 514 9.2.1.6 Findings 519 9.2.1.7 Training 520 9.2.1.8 Seamanship and Navigation 520 9.2.1.9 Leadership and Culture 520 9.2.1.10 Fatigue 521 9.2.1.11 Timeline of Events 521 9.2.2 Collision of USS JOHN S MCCAIN with Motor Vessel ALNIC MC 524 9.2.2.1 Introduction 524 9.2.2.2 Summary of Findings 525 9.2.2.3 Background 525 9.2.2.4 Events Leading to the Collision 527 9.2.2.5 Results of Collision 530 9.2.2.6 Impact to Berthing 5 533 9.2.2.7 Impact on Berthing 3 536 9.2.2.8 Impact on Berthings 4, 6, and 7 539 9.2.2.9 Findings 542 9.2.2.10 Training 542 9.2.2.11 Seamanship and Navigation 543 9.2.2.12 Leadership and Culture 543 9.2.2.13 Timeline of Events 544 9.2.2.14 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 548 9.3 Stretch Duck 7 July 19, 2018 548 9.3.1 Introduction 548 9.3.2 Accident Description 549 9.3.3 1999 Sinking of Miss Majestic 552 9.3.4 Types of DUKW Amphibious Vessels 553 9.3.5 NTSB Identified Safety Issue No. 1: Providing Reserve Buoyancy 556 9.3.6 Safety Issue No. 2: Removing Canopies and Side Curtains 557 9.3.7 Findings and Conclusions 560 9.3.8 Safety Culture Summary Findings 560 9.3.9 Other Events 560 9.3.9.1 Minnow, Milwaukee Harbor, Lake Michigan, September 18, 2000 560 9.3.9.2 DUKW No. 1, Lake Union, Seattle,Washington, December 8, 2001 561 9.3.9.3 DUKW 34, Delaware River, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 7, 2010 561 9.3.9.4 DUCK 6, Seattle,Washington, September 24, 2015 561 9.4 Recent Railroad Accidents 561 9.4.1 AMTRAK Passenger Train – May 12, 2015 562 9.4.1.1 Accident Scenario 562 9.4.1.2 Amtrak 565 9.4.1.3 Analysis of the Engineer’s Actions 566 9.4.1.4 Loss of Situational Awareness 569 9.4.1.5 Two-Person Crews 572 9.4.1.6 Factors Not Contributing to This Accident 572 9.4.1.7 NTSB Probable Cause 574 9.4.1.8 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 574 9.4.2 Transportation Safety Board of Canada (2013a) 574 9.4.2.1 Personnel Information 578 9.4.2.2 Train Brakes 583 9.4.2.3 Locomotives 586 9.4.2.4 Rules and Instructions on Securing Equipment 587 9.4.2.5 Locomotive Event Recorder 590 9.4.2.6 Sense and Braking Unit 592 9.4.2.7 Mandatory Off-Duty Times for Operating Employees 592 9.4.2.8 Securement of Trains (MMA-002) at Nantes 592 9.4.2.9 Securement of Trains (MMA-001) at Vachon 593 9.4.2.10 Recent Runaway Train History at Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway and Previous TSB Investigations 593 9.4.2.11 Training and Requalification of Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway Crews in Farnham 594 9.4.2.12 Training and Requalification of the Locomotive Engineer 595 9.4.2.13 Operational Tests and Inspections at Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway 595 9.4.2.14 Implementation of Single-Person Train Operations 597 9.4.2.15 Canadian Railway Operating Rules (CROR) 599 9.4.2.16 Single-Person Train Operations at Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway 599 9.4.2.17 Review of the Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway Submission and its Relation to the Requirements of Standard CSA Q850 601 9.4.2.18 Research into Single-Person Train Operations 602 9.4.2.19 Safety Culture 603 9.4.2.20 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 604 References 604 10 Assessing Safety Culture 607 10.0 Introduction 607 10.1 Survey Research Principles 608 10.1.1 Developing the Survey Instrument 609 10.1.1.1 Developing the Questions/Statements 609 10.1.1.2 Question/Statement Development 611 10.1.1.3 Sampling 612 10.1.1.4 Demographics 612 10.1.1.5 Survey Delivery 613 10.1.1.6 Analyzing the Results and Reports 613 10.1.1.7 Final Thoughts on Developing and Delivering Surveys 614 10.1.2 Safety Culture Assessment Methods 614 10.1.2.1 DuPont (DuPont) De Nemours Sustainable Solutions (DSS) 614 10.1.2.2 Department of Energy Assessment of Safety Culture Sustainment Processes 615 10.1.2.3 Institute for Nuclear Power Operations Safety Culture Assessment 617 10.1.2.4 Developing Team Findings 619 10.1.3 United States Air Force Assessment Tool 619 10.2 Assessing Health Care Safety Culture 620 10.3 Seven Steps to Assess Safety Culture 621 10.3.1 A Framework for Assessing Safety Culture 623 10.3.2 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality 623 10.3.3 Graduate Student Safety Culture Survey 623 10.3.4 Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Survey 626 10.4 Chapter Summary 634 References 634 Index 637

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Book SynopsisApproaches computational engineering sciences from the perspective of engineering applications Uniting theory with hands-on computer practice, this book gives readers a firm appreciation of the error mechanisms and control that underlie discrete approximation implementations in the engineering sciences. Key features: Illustrative examples include heat conduction, structural mechanics, mechanical vibrations, heat transfer with convection and radiation, fluid mechanics and heat and mass transport Takes a cross-discipline continuum mechanics viewpoint Includes Matlab toolbox and .m data files on a companion website, immediately enabling hands-on computing in all covered disciplines Website also features eight topical lectures from the author's own academic courses It provides a holistic view of the topic from covering the different engineering problems that can be solved using finite element to how each pTable of ContentsPreface viii Notation xi 1 COMPUTATIONAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE 1 1.1 Engineering simulation 1 1.2 A problem solving environment 2 1.3 Problem statements in engineering 4 1.4 Decisions on forming WSN 6 1.5 Discrete approximate WSh implementation 8 1.6 Chapter summary 9 1.7 Chapter references 10 2 PROBLEM STATEMENTS 11 2.1 Engineering simulation 11 2.2 Continuum mechanics viewpoint 12 2.3 Continuum conservation law forms 12 2.4 Constitutive closure for conservation law PDEs 14 2.5 Engineering science continuum mechanics 18 2.6 Chapter references 20 3 SOME INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL 21 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Multi-dimensional PDEs, separation of variables 22 3.3 Theoretical foundations, GWSh 27 3.4 A legacy FD construction 28 3.5 An FD approximate solution 30 3.6 Lagrange interpolation polynomials 31 3.7 Chapter summary 32 3.8 Exercises 34 3.9 Chapter references 34 4 HEAT CONDUCTION35 4.1 A steady heat conduction example 35 4.2 Weak form approximation, error minimization 37 4.3 GWSN discrete implementation, FE basis38 4.4 Finite element matrix statement 41 4.5 Assembly of {WS}e to form algebraic GWSh 43 4.6 Solution accuracy, error distribution 45 4.7 Convergence, boundary heat flux 47 4.8 Chapter summary 47 4.9 Exercises 48 4.10 Chapter reference 48 5 STEADY HEAT TRANSFER, n =149 5.1 Introduction 49 5.2 Steady heat transfer, n = 1 50 5.3 FE k = 1 trial space basis matrix library 52 5.4 Object-oriented GWSh programming 55 5.5 Higher completeness degree trial space bases58 5.6 Global theory, asymptotic error estimate 62 5.7 Non-smooth data, theory generalization 66 5.8 Temperature dependent conductivity, non-linearity 69 5.9 Static condensation, p-elements 72 5.10 Chapter summary 75 5.11 Exercises 76 5.12 Computer labs 77 5.13 Chapter references 78 6 ENGINEERING SCIENCES, n =1 79 6.1 Introduction 79 6.2 The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation 80 6.3 Euler-Bernoulli beam theory GWSh reformulation 85 6.4 The Timoshenko beam theory 92 6.5 Mechanical vibrations of a beam 99 6.6 Fluid mechanics, potential flow 106 6.7 Electromagnetic plane wave propagation110 6.8 Convective-radiative finned cylinder heat transfer 112 6.9 Chapter summary 120 6.10 Exercises122 6.10 Computer labs 123 6.11 Chapter references 124 7 STEADY HEAT TRANSFER, n > 1 125 7.1 Introduction 125 7.2 Multi-dimensional FE bases and DOF 126 7.3 Multi-dimensional FE operations 129 7.4 The NC k = 1,2 basis FE matrix library 132 7.5 NC basis {WS}e template, accuracy, convergence 136 7.6 The tensor product basis element family 139 7.7 Gauss numerical quadrature, k = 1 TP basis library 141 7.8 Convection-radiation BC GWSh implementation 146 7.9 Linear basis GWSh template unification 150 7.10 Accuracy, convergence revisited 152 7.11 Chapter summary 153 7.12 Exercises155 7.13 Computer labs 155 7.14 Chapter references 156 8 FINITE DIFFERENCES OF OPINION 159 8.1 The FD-FE correlation159 8.2 The FV-FE correlation162 8.3 Chapter summary 167 8.4 Exercises168 9 CONVECTION-DIFFUSION, n = 1 169 9.1 Introduction169 9.2 The Galerkin weak statement 170 9.3 GWSh completion for time dependence172 9.4 GWSh + qTS algorithm templates 173 9.5 GWSh + qTS algorithm asymptotic error estimates 175 9.6 Performance verification test cases 177 9.7 Dispersive error characterization 180 9.8 A modified Galerkin weak statement 184 9.9 Verification problem statements revisited 187 9.10 Unsteady heat conduction 190 9.11 Chapter summary 193 9.12 Exercises 193 9.13 Computer labs 194 9.14 Chapter references 195 10 CONVECTION-DIFFUSION, n > 1 197 10.1 The problem statement 197 10.2 GWSh + qTS formulation reprise 198 10.3 Matrix library additions, templates 200 10.4 mPDE Galerkin weak forms, theoretical analyses 202 10.5 Verification, benchmarking and validation 207 10.6 Mass transport, the rotating cone verification 208 10.7 The gaussian plume benchmark 211 10.8 The steady n-D Peclet problem verification 213 10.9 Mass transport, a validated n = 3 experiment 215 10.10 Numerical linear algebra, matrix iteration 222 10.11 Newton and AF TP jacobian templates 227 10.12 Chapter summary 229 10.13 Exercises231 10.14 Computer labs 231 10.15 Chapter references232 11 ENGINEERING SCIENCES, n > 1 235 11.1 Introduction 235 11.2 Structural mechanics236 11.3 Structural mechanics, virtual work FE form 240 11.4 Plane stress/strain, GWSh implementation 242 11.5 Elasticity computer lab 246 11.6 Fluid mechanics, incompressible-thermal flow 251 11.7 Vorticity-streamfunction GWSh + qTS algorithm 254 11.8 An isothermal INS validation experiment 258 11.9 Multi-mode convection heat transfer262 11.10 Mechanical vibrations, normal mode GWSh 267 11.11 Normal modes of a vibrating membrane270 11.12 Multi-physics solid-fluid mass transport 276 11.13 Chapter summary 280 11.14 Exercises 282 11.15 Computer labs283 11.14 Chapter references 284 12 CONCLUSION 287 Index 289

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Book SynopsisEndohedral Metallofullerenes: Fullerenes with Metal Inside presents a comprehensive survey of the current state of knowledge on endohedral metallofullerenes, from preparation to functionalization, reactivity and applications. Following a brief historical overview, the book describes methods for synthesis, extraction, separation and purification, and provides an insight into the molecular and crystal structures. Subsequent chapters discuss various categories of endohedral metallofullerenes based on the encapsulated species, including carbides, nitrides, sulphides, oxides, non-metal and non-IPR endohedral metallofullerenes, followed by scanning tunneling microscopy studies and the examination of electronic, vibrational, magnetic and optical properties. The book concludes with chapters addressing the chemical functionalization of endohedral metallofullerenes, and applications ranging from solar cells to biomedicine.Table of ContentsForeword ix Preface xi Personal Reflection – Nori Shinohara xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The First Experimental Evidence of Metallofullerenes 1 1.2 Early Years of Metallofullerene Research 3 1.3 Conventional and IUPAC Nomenclature for Metallofullerenes 5 References 6 2 Synthesis, Extraction, and Purification 9 2.1 Synthesis of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 9 2.2 Solvent Extraction of Metallofullerenes from Primary Soot 14 2.3 Purification and Isolation by HPLC 15 2.4 Fast Separation and Purification with Lewis Acids 18 References 19 3 Molecular and Crystal Structures 23 3.1 Endohedral or Exohedral? A Big Controversy 23 3.2 Structural Analyses 25 References 37 4 Electronic States and Structures 43 4.1 Electron Transfer in Metallofullerenes 43 4.2 ESR Evidence on the Existence of Structural Isomers 45 4.3 Electrochemistry of Metallofullerenes 48 4.4 Similarity in the UV]Vis]NIR Absorption Spectra 51 4.5 Fermi Levels and the Electronic Structures 57 4.6 Metal–Cage Vibration within Metallofullerenes 59 References 63 5 Carbide and Nitride Metallofullerenes 69 5.1 Discovery of Carbide Metallofullerenes 69 5.2 Fullerene Quantum Gyroscope: An Ideal Molecular Rotor 75 5.3 Nitride Metallofullerenes 77 References 81 6 Non]Isolated Pentagon Rule Metallofullerenes 85 6.1 Isolated Pentagon Rule 85 6.2 Non]IPR Metallofullerenes 86 References 89 7 Oxide and Sulfide Metallofullerenes 91 7.1 O xide Metallofullerenes 91 7.2 Sulfide Metallofullerenes 95 References 100 8 Non]metal Endohedral Fullerenes 103 8.1 Nitrogen]Containing N@C60 103 8.2 Phosphorus]Containing P@C60 111 8.3 Inert Gas Endohedral Fullerenes He@C60, Ne@C60, Ar@C60, Kr@C60, and Xe@C60 112 8.4 Hydrogen]Containing H2@C60 120 8.5 Water]Containing H2O@C60 125 References 128 9 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Studies of Metallofullerenes 133 9.1 STM Studies of Metallofullerenes on Clean Surfaces 133 9.2 Metallofullerenes as Superatom 135 9.3 STM/STS Studies on Metallofullerene Layers 137 9.4 STM/STS Studies on a Single Metallofullerene Molecule 139 References 141 10 Magnetic Properties of Metallofullerenes 145 10.1 Magnetism of Mono]metallofullerenes 145 10.2 SXAS and SXMCD Studies of Metallofullerenes 149 References 154 11 Organic Chemistry of Metallofullerenes 157 11.1 Cycloaddition Reactions 157 11.2 Radical Addition Reactions 178 11.3 Miscellaneous Reactions 180 11.4 Donor–Acceptor Dyads 185 11.5 Bis]adduct Formation 194 11.6 Supramolecular Functionalization 195 11.7 Purification of Metallofullerenes by Chemical Methods 198 References 200 12 Applications with Metallofullerenes 209 12.1 Solar Cells 209 12.2 Biomedical Aspects of Water]Soluble Metallofullerenes 221 References 226 13 Growth Mechanism 229 13.1 Carbon Clusters: A Road to Fullerene Growth 229 13.2 Roles Played by Metal Atoms in the Fullerene Growth 233 13.3 Top]Down or Bottom]Up Growth? 237 References 251 14 M@C60: A Big Mystery and a Big Challenge 255 14.1 What Happens to M@C60? 255 14.2 A Big Challenge: Superconductive Metallofullerenes 259 14.3 Future Prospects 261 References 262 Index 265

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