Description
Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface v
1 Basic Concepts of measurement methods 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 General Measurement System 2
Sensor and Transducer 2
Signal-Conditioning Stage 3
Output Stage 4
General Template for a Measurement System 4
1.3 Experimental Test Plan 5
Variables 6
Noise and Interference 8
Randomization 9
Replication and Repetition 13
Concomitant Methods 14
1.4 Calibration 14
Static Calibration 14
Dynamic Calibration 14
Static Sensitivity 15
Range and Span 15
Resolution 16
Accuracy and Error 16
Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty 16
Sequential Test 19
Hysteresis 19
Random Test 19
Linearity Error 19
Sensitivity and Zero Errors 21
Instrument Repeatability 21
Reproducibility 21
Instrument Precision 21
Overall Instrument Error and Instrument Uncertainty 22
Verification and Validation 22
1.5 Standards 22
Primary Unit Standards 22
Base Dimensions and Their Units 23
Derived Units 25
Hierarchy of Standards 28
Test Standards and Codes 29
1.6 Presenting Data 30
Rectangular Coordinate Format 30
Semilog Coordinate Format 30
Full-Log Coordinate Format 30
Significant Digits 30
Summary 33
Nomenclature 34
References 34
2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics Of Signals 35
2.1 Introduction 35
2.2 Input/Output Signal Concepts 35
Generalized Behavior 36
Classification of Waveforms 36
Signal Waveforms 38
2.3 Signal Analysis 39
Signal Root-Mean-Square Value 40
Discrete Time or Digital Signals 40
Direct Current Offset 41
2.4 Signal Amplitude and Frequency 42
Periodic Signals 43
Frequency Analysis 45
Fourier Series and Coefficients 48
Fourier Coefficients 48
Special Case: Functions with T = 2π 49
Even and Odd Functions 49
2.5 Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum 55
Discrete Fourier Transform 56
Analysis of Signals in Frequency Space 60
Summary 62
References 63
Suggested Reading 63
Nomenclature 63
3 Measurement System Behavior 64
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 General Model for a Measurement System 64
Dynamic Measurements 65
Measurement System Model 66
3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model 68
Zero-Order Systems 68
First-Order Systems 69
Second-Order Systems 79
3.4 Transfer Functions 88
3.5 Phase Linearity 90
3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs 91
3.7 Coupled Systems 93
3.8 Summary 95
References 95
Nomenclature 96
Subscripts 96
4 Probability and Statistics 97
4.1 Introduction 97
4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory 98
Probability Density Functions 98
4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population 103
4.4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets 107
Standard Deviation of the Means 110
Repeated Tests and Pooled Data 113
4.5 Hypothesis Testing 114
4.6 Chi-Squared Distribution 117
Precision Interval in a Sample Variance 118
Goodness-of-Fit Test 119
4.7 Regression Analysis 121
Least-Squares Regression Analysis 121
Linear Polynomials 124
4.8 Data Outlier Detection 126
4.9 Number of Measurements Required 127
4.10 Monte Carlo Simulations 129
Summary 131
References 132
Nomenclature 132
5 Uncertainty Analysis 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 Measurement Errors 134
5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis 136
Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method 137
Design-Stage Uncertainty 137
5.4 Identifying Error Sources 140
Calibration Errors 141
Data-Acquisition Errors 141
Data-Reduction Errors 142
5.5 Systematic and Random Errors and Standard Uncertainties 142
Systematic Error 142
Random Error 143
Other Ways Used to Classify Error and Uncertainty 144
5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Multi-Variable Error Propagation 144
Propagation of Error 145
Approximating a Sensitivity Index 146
Sequential Perturbation 149
Monte Carlo Method 151
5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis 151
Zero-Order Uncertainty 152
Higher-Order Uncertainty 152
Nth-Order Uncertainty 152
5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis 157
Propagation of Elemental Errors 157
Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result 163
5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors 168
5.10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval 170
Summary 172
References 172
Nomenclature 172
6 Analog Electrical Devices and measurements 174
6.1 Introduction 174
6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements 174
Direct Current 174
Alternating Current 178
6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements 179
Analog Voltage Meters 179
Oscilloscope 179
Potentiometer 181
6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements 182
Ohmmeter Circuits 182
Bridge Circuits 182
Null Method 184
Deflection Method 185
6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching 188
Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit 189
Interstage Loading Errors 190
6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers 193
6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits 196
Analog Voltage Comparator 196
Sample-and-Hold Circuit 197
Charge Amplifier 197
4–20 mA Current Loop 199
Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits 199
6.8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters 201
Butterworth Filter Design 202
Improved Butterworth Filter Designs 203
Bessel Filter Design 208
Active Filters 209
6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires 211
Ground and Ground Loops 211
Shields 212
Connecting Wires 213
Summary 213
References 214
Nomenclature 214
7 Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition 215
7.1 Introduction 215
7.2 Sampling Concepts 216
Sample Rate 216
Alias Frequencies 218
Amplitude Ambiguity 221
Leakage 221
Waveform Fidelity 223
7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words 223
7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals 226
7.5 Voltage Measurements 227
Digital-to-Analog Converter 227
Analog-to-Digital Converter 228
Successive Approximation Converters 232
7.6 Data Acquisition Systems 237
7.7 Data Acquisition System Components 238
Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification 238
Components for Acquiring Data 241
7.8 Analog Input–Output Communication 242
Data Acquisition Modules 242
7.9 Digital Input–Output Communication 246
Data Transmission 247
Universal Serial Bus 248
Bluetooth Communications 248
Other Serial Communications: RS-232C 249
Parallel Communications 249
7.10 Digital Image Acquisition and Processing 252
Image Acquisition 252
Image Processing 253
Summary 256
References 256
Nomenclature 256
8 Temperature measurements 258
8.1 Introduction 258
Historical Background 258
8.2 Temperature Standards and Definition 259
Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation 259
Temperature Scales and Standards 260
8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion 261
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 262
Bimetallic Thermometers 262
8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry 263
Resistance Temperature Detectors 264
Thermistors 271
8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement 276
Seebeck Effect 276
Peltier Effect 277
Thomson Effect 277
Fundamental Thermocouple Laws 278
Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples 279
Thermocouple Standards 280
Thermocouple Voltage Measurement 287
Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits 289
Applications for Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement: Heat Flux 291
Data Acquisition Considerations 294
8.6 Radiative Temperature Measurements 297
Radiation Fundamentals 297
Radiation Detectors 299
Radiometer 299
Pyrometry 300
Optical Fiber Thermometers 301
Narrow-Band Infrared Temperature Measurement 302
Fundamental Principles 302
Two-Color Thermometry 303
Full-Field IR Imaging 303
8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement 304
Insertion Errors 305
Conduction Errors 306
Radiation Errors 308
Radiation Shielding 310
Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement 311
Summary 313
References 313
Suggested Reading 313
Nomenclature 314
9 Pressure and Velocity measurements 315
9.1 Introduction 315
9.2 Pressure Concepts 315
9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments 318
McLeod Gauge 318
Barometer 319
Manometer 320
Deadweight Testers 324
9.4 Pressure Transducers 325
Bourdon Tube 326
Bellows and Capsule Elements 326
Diaphragms 327
Piezoelectric Crystal Elements 330
9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration 331
Static Calibration 331
Dynamic Calibration 331
9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids 333
Total Pressure Measurement 334
Static Pressure Measurement 335
9.7 Modeling Pressure–Fluid Systems 336
9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects 337
Liquids 338
Gases 339
Heavily Damped Systems 340
9.9 Acoustical Measurements 341
Signal Weighting 341
Microphones 342
9.10 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems 345
Pitot–Static Pressure Probe 346
Thermal Anemometry 348
Doppler Anemometry 350
Particle Image Velocimetry 352
Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods 353
Summary 354
References 354
Nomenclature 355
10 Flow measurements 357
10.1 Introduction 357
10.2 Historical Background 357
10.3 Flow Rate Concepts 358
10.4 Volume Flow Rate through Velocity Determination 359
10.5 Pressure Differential Meters 361
Obstruction Meters 361
Orifice Meter 364
Venturi Meter 366
Flow Nozzles 368
Sonic Nozzles 373
Obstruction Meter Selection 374
Laminar Flow Elements 376
10.6 Insertion Volume Flow Meters 377
Electromagnetic Flow Meters 377
Vortex Shedding Meters 379
Rotameters 381
Turbine Meters 382
Transit Time and Doppler (Ultrasonic) Flow Meters 383
Positive Displacement Meters 384
10.7 Mass Flow Meters 386
Thermal Flow Meter 386
Coriolis Flow Meter 387
10.8 Flow Meter Calibration and Standards 391
10.9 Estimating Standard Flow Rate 392
Summary 393
References 393
Nomenclature 393
11 Strain measurement 395
11.1 Introduction 395
11.2 Stress and Strain 395
Lateral Strains 397
11.3 Resistance Strain Gauges 398
Metallic Gauges 398
Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding 400
Semiconductor Strain Gauges 403
11.4 Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits 404
11.5 Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement 407
The Multiple Gauge Bridge 407
Bridge Constant 408
11.6 Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation 409
Temperature Compensation 410
Bridge Static Sensitivity 412
Practical Considerations 413
Analysis of Strain Gauge Data 413
Signal Conditioning 416
11.7 Optical Strain Measuring Techniques 418
Basic Characteristics of Light 418
Photoelastic Measurement 419
Moiré Methods 421
Fiber Bragg Strain Measurement 422
Summary 424
References 424
Nomenclature 424
12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls 426
12.1 Introduction 426
12.2 Sensors 426
Displacement Sensors 426
Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration 430
Velocity Measurements 437
Angular Velocity Measurements 441
Force Measurement 444
Torque Measurements 447
Mechanical Power Measurements 448
12.3 Actuators 450
Linear Actuators 450
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators 452
Rotary Actuators 455
Flow-Control Valves 455
12.4 Controls 457
Dynamic Response 460
Laplace Transforms 460
Block Diagrams 463
Model for Oven Control 464
Proportional–Integral (PI) Control 468
Proportional–Integral–Derivative Control of a Second-Order System 469
Summary 474
References 474
Nomenclature 474
Chapter Homework Problems P-1
A Property Data and Conversion Factors A-1
B Laplace Transform Basics A-8
B.1 Final Value Theorem A-9
B.2 Laplace Transform Pairs A-9
Reference A-9
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
