Mechanical engineering and materials Books

Book SynopsisThis fully updated Second Edition provides the reader with the solid understanding of tribology which is essential to engineers involved in the design of, and ensuring the reliability of, machine parts and systems. It moves from basic theory to practice, examining tribology from the integrated viewpoint of mechanical engineering, mechanics, and materials science. It offers detailed coverage of the mechanisms of material wear, friction, and all of the major lubrication techniques - liquids, solids, and gases - and examines a wide range of both traditional and state-of-the-art applications. For this edition, the author has included updates on friction, wear and lubrication, as well as completely revised material including the latest breakthroughs in tribology at the nano- and micro- level and a revised introduction to nanotechnology. Also included is a new chapter on the emerging field of green tribology and biomimetics.Trade Review“Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates and graduate students in engineering, researchers/faculty, and professionals/practitioners.” (Choice, 1 October 2013)Table of ContentsAbout the Author xv Foreword xvii Series Preface xix Preface to Second Edition xxi Preface to First Edition xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 1 1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 3 1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 4 1.4 Organization of the Book 6 References 7 2 Structure and Properties of Solids 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Atomic Structure, Bonding and Coordination 9 2.2.1 Individual Atoms and Ions 9 2.2.2 Molecules, Bonding and Atomic Coordination 13 2.3 Crystalline Structures 33 2.3.1 Planar Structures 33 2.3.2 Nonplanar Structures 39 2.4 Disorder in Solid Structures 41 2.4.1 Point Defects 41 2.4.2 Line Defects (Dislocations) 41 2.4.3 Surfaces/Internal Boundaries 44 2.4.4 Solid Solutions 45 2.5 Atomic Vibrations and Diffusions 45 2.6 Phase Diagrams 46 2.7 Microstructures 48 2.8 Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue 49 2.8.1 Elastic Deformation 51 2.8.2 Plastic Deformation 53 2.8.3 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 56 2.8.4 Fracture 62 2.8.5 Fatigue 68 2.9 Time-Dependent Viscoelastic/Viscoplastic Deformation 74 2.9.1 Description of Time-Dependent Deformation Experiments 77 Problems 80 References 81 Further Reading 82 3 Solid Surface Characterization 83 3.1 The Nature of Surfaces 83 3.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 84 3.2.1 Deformed Layer 84 3.2.2 Chemically Reacted Layer 85 3.2.3 Physisorbed Layer 86 3.2.4 Chemisorbed Layer 87 3.2.5 Surface Tension, Surface Energy, and Wetting 87 3.2.6 Methods of Characterization of Surface Layers 90 3.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 90 3.3.1 Average Roughness Parameters 92 3.3.2 Statistical Analyses 99 3.3.3 Fractal Characterization 125 3.3.4 Practical Considerations in the Measurement of Roughness Parameters 127 3.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 131 3.4.1 Mechanical Stylus Method 133 3.4.2 Optical Methods 137 3.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Methods 155 3.4.4 Fluid Methods 163 3.4.5 Electrical Method 166 3.4.6 Electron Microscopy Methods 166 3.4.7 Analysis of Measured Height Distribution 168 3.4.8 Comparison of Measurement Methods 168 3.5 Closure 174 Problems 175 References 176 Further Reading 179 4 Contact between Solid Surfaces 181 4.1 Introduction 181 4.2 Analysis of the Contacts 182 4.2.1 Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids 182 4.2.2 Single Asperity Contact of Layered Solids in Frictionless and Frictional Contacts 199 4.2.3 Multiple Asperity Dry Contacts 209 4.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 251 4.3.1 Review of Measurement Techniques 251 4.3.2 Comparison of Different Measurement Techniques 255 4.3.3 Typical Measurements 259 4.4 Closure 262 Problems 264 References 265 Further Reading 269 5 Adhesion 271 5.1 Introduction 271 5.2 Solid–Solid Contact 272 5.2.1 Covalent Bond 276 5.2.2 Ionic or Electrostatic Bond 276 5.2.3 Metallic Bond 277 5.2.4 Hydrogen Bond 278 5.2.5 Van der Waals Bond 278 5.2.6 Free Surface Energy Theory of Adhesion 279 5.2.7 Polymer Adhesion 287 5.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 288 5.3.1 Idealized Geometries 290 5.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contacts 305 5.4 Closure 316 Problems 317 References 317 Further Reading 320 6 Friction 321 6.1 Introduction 321 6.2 Solid–Solid Contact 323 6.2.1 Rules of Sliding Friction 323 6.2.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 328 6.2.3 Other Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 349 6.2.4 Friction Transitions During Sliding 354 6.2.5 Static Friction 356 6.2.6 Stick-Slip 358 6.2.7 Rolling Friction 362 6.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 366 6.4 Friction of Materials 369 6.4.1 Friction of Metals and Alloys 371 6.4.2 Friction of Ceramics 375 6.4.3 Friction of Polymers 380 6.4.4 Friction of Solid Lubricants 383 6.5 Closure 392 Problems 396 References 397 Further Reading 400 7 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 403 7.1 Introduction 403 7.2 Thermal Analysis 404 7.2.1 Fundamental Heat Conduction Solutions 405 7.2.2 High Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa ∼ 1) (Individual Contact) 406 7.2.3 Low Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa I 1) (Multiple-Asperity Contact) 415 7.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 431 7.3.1 Thermocouple and Thin-Film Temperature Sensors 431 7.3.2 Radiation Detection Techniques 434 7.3.3 Metallographic Techniques 440 7.3.4 Liquid Crystals 441 7.4 Closure 442 Problems 444 References 444 8 Wear 447 8.1 Introduction 447 8.2 Types of Wear Mechanisms 448 8.2.1 Adhesive Wear 448 8.2.2 Abrasive Wear (by Plastic Deformation and Fracture) 459 8.2.3 Fatigue Wear 475 8.2.4 Impact Wear 484 8.2.5 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear 493 8.2.6 Electrical Arc-Induced Wear 495 8.2.7 Fretting and Fretting Corrosion 497 8.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 499 8.3.1 Plate-Shaped Particles 499 8.3.2 Ribbon-Shaped Particles 499 8.3.3 Spherical Particles 500 8.3.4 Irregularly Shaped Particles 503 8.4 Wear of Materials 503 8.4.1 Wear of Metals and Alloys 505 8.4.2 Wear of Ceramics 510 8.4.3 Wear of Polymers 517 8.5 Closure 522 Appendix 8.A Indentation Cracking in Brittle Materials 525 8.A.1 Blunt Indenter 526 8.A.2 Sharp Indenter 526 Appendix 8.B Analysis of Failure Data Using the Weibull Distribution 532 8.B.1 General Expression of the Weibull Distribution 532 8.B.2 Graphical Representation of a Weibull Distribution 534 Problems 538 References 539 Further Reading 543 9 Fluid Film Lubrication 545 9.1 Introduction 545 9.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 546 9.2.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 546 9.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 546 9.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 548 9.2.4 Mixed Lubrication 549 9.2.5 Boundary Lubrication 549 9.3 Viscous Flow and the Reynolds Equation 550 9.3.1 Viscosity and Newtonian Fluids 550 9.3.2 Fluid Flow 555 9.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 569 9.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 579 9.5.1 Thrust Bearings 581 9.5.2 Journal Bearings 594 9.5.3 Squeeze Film Bearings 613 9.5.4 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 616 9.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 632 9.6.1 Forms of Contacts 633 9.6.2 Line Contact 634 9.6.3 Point Contact 644 9.6.4 Thermal Correction 645 9.6.5 Lubricant Rheology 646 9.7 Closure 647 Problems 649 References 650 Further Reading 652 10 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 655 10.1 Introduction 655 10.2 Boundary Lubrication 656 10.2.1 Effect of Adsorbed Gases 658 10.2.2 Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers 659 10.2.3 Effect of Chemical Films 662 10.2.4 Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight) 664 10.3 Liquid Lubricants 665 10.3.1 Principal Classes of Lubricants 665 10.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants 671 10.3.3 Additives 680 10.4 Ionic Liquids 681 10.4.1 Composition of Ionic Liquids 682 10.4.2 Properties of Ionic Liquids 684 10.4.3 Lubrication Mechanisms of ILs 685 10.4.4 Issues on the Applicability of Ionic Liquids as Lubricants 685 10.5 Greases 686 10.6 Closure 686 References 687 Further Reading 688 11 Nanotribology 689 11.1 Introduction 689 11.2 SFA Studies 691 11.2.1 Description of an SFA 692 11.2.2 Static (Equilibrium), Dynamic, and Shear Properties of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films 694 11.3 AFM/FFM Studies 703 11.3.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 704 11.3.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 712 11.3.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 741 11.3.4 Indentation 752 11.3.5 Boundary Lubrication 758 11.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 773 11.4.1 Interatomic Forces and Equations of Motion 773 11.4.2 Interfacial Solid Junctions 775 11.4.3 Interfacial Liquid Junctions and Confined Films 776 11.5 Closure 778 References 781 Further Reading 788 12 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 789 12.1 Introduction 789 12.2 Design Methodology 789 12.2.1 Simulation 790 12.2.2 Acceleration 790 12.2.3 Specimen Preparation 790 12.2.4 Friction and Wear Measurements 791 12.3 Typical Test Geometries 794 12.3.1 Sliding Friction and Wear Tests 794 12.3.2 Abrasion Tests 797 12.3.3 Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests 799 12.3.4 Solid-Particle Erosion Test 799 12.3.5 Corrosion Tests 800 12.4 Closure 802 References 802 Further Reading 803 13 Bulk Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments for Tribology 805 13.1 Introduction 805 13.2 Bulk Materials 806 13.2.1 Metals and Alloys 808 13.2.2 Ceramics and Cermets 826 13.2.3 Ceramic-Metal Composites 840 13.2.4 Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids 841 13.3 Coatings and Surface Treatments 861 13.3.1 Coating Deposition Techniques 864 13.3.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 885 13.3.3 Criteria for Selecting Coating Material/Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques 890 13.4 Closure 892 References 892 Further Reading 896 14 Tribological Components and Applications 899 14.1 Introduction 899 14.2 Common Tribological Components 899 14.2.1 Sliding-Contact Bearings 899 14.2.2 Rolling-Contact Bearings 901 14.2.3 Seals 903 14.2.4 Gears 905 14.2.5 Cams and Tappets 907 14.2.6 Piston Rings 908 14.2.7 Electrical Brushes 910 14.3 MEMS/NEMS 912 14.3.1 MEMS 914 14.3.2 NEMS 921 14.3.3 BioMEMS 921 14.3.4 Microfabrication Processes 922 14.4 Material Processing 923 14.4.1 Cutting Tools 923 14.4.2 Grinding and Lapping 927 14.4.3 Forming Processes 927 14.4.4 Cutting Fluids 928 14.5 Industrial Applications 930 14.5.1 Automotive Engines 930 14.5.2 Gas Turbine Engines 932 14.5.3 Railroads 934 14.5.4 Magnetic Storage Devices 935 14.6 Closure 942 References 943 Further Reading 947 15 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 949 15.1 Introduction 949 15.2 Green Tribology 949 15.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Tribology 950 15.2.2 Areas of Green Tribology 951 15.3 Biomimetics 954 15.3.1 Lessons from Nature 955 15.3.2 Industrial Significance 958 15.4 Closure 959 References 959 Further Reading 961 Appendix A Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 963 A.1 Fundamental Constants 963 A.2 Conversion of Units 963 A.3 Useful Relations 964 Index 965

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Book SynopsisCovering fractional order theory, simulation and experiments, this book explains how fractional order modelling and fractional order controller design compares favourably with traditional velocity and position control systems. The authors systematically compare the two approaches using applied fractional calculus.Table of ContentsAcronyms xix Foreword xxiii Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxix PART I FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTIONAL CONTROLS 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Fractional Calculus 3 1.2 Fractional Order Controls 9 1.3 Fractional Order Motion Controls 20 1.4 Contributions 22 1.5 Organization 22 PART II FRACTIONAL ORDER VELOCITY SERVO 2 Fractional Order PI Controller Designs for Velocity Servo Systems 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 FOPTD Systems and Three Controllers Considered 27 2.3 Design Specifications 27 2.4 Fractional Order PI and [PI] Controller Designs 28 2.5 Simulation 38 2.6 Chapter Summary 39 3 Tuning Fractional Order PI Controllers for Fractional Order Velocity Systems with Experimental Validation 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Three Controllers to Be Designed and Tuning Specifications 42 3.3 Tuning Three Controllers for FOVS 42 3.4 Illustrative Examples and Design Procedure Summaries 43 3.5 Simulation Illustration 45 3.6 Experimental Validation 49 3.7 Chapter Summary 54 4 Relay Feedback Tuning of Robust PID Controllers 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Slope Adjustment of the Phase Bode Plot 62 4.3 The New PID Controller Design Formulae 65 4.4 Phase and Magnitude Measurement Via Relay Feedback Tests 66 4.5 Illustrative Examples 67 4.6 Chapter Summary 72 5 Auto-Tuning of Fractional Order Controllers with Iso-Damping 73 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 FOPI and FO[PI] Controllers Design Formulae 75 5.3 Measurements for Auto-Tuning 80 5.4 Simulation Illustration 80 5.5 Chapter Summary 87 PART III FRACTIONAL ORDER POSITION SERVO 6 Fractional Order PD Controller Tuning for Position Systems 91 6.1 Introduction 91 6.2 Fractional Order PD Controller Design for Position Servos 92 6.3 Design Procedures 94 6.4 Simulation Example 95 6.5 Experiments 99 6.6 Chapter Summary 101 7 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Synthesis for Position Servo Systems 105 7.1 Introduction 105 7.2 Position Control Plants and Design Specifications 106 7.3 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Design 106 7.4 Parameter Design Examples and Bode Plot Validations 108 7.5 Implementation of Two Fractional Order Operators 110 7.6 Simulation 111 7.7 Experiment 120 7.8 Chapter Summary 122 8 Time-Constant Robust Analysis and Design of Fractional Order [PD] Controller 123 8.1 Introduction 123 8.2 Problem Statement 124 8.3 FO[PD] Tuning Specifications and Rules 125 8.4 The Solution Existence Range and An Online Computation Method 127 8.5 Experiment 135 8.6 Chapter Summary 136 9 Experimental Study of Fractional OrderPDController Synthesis for Fractional Order Position Servo Systems 139 9.1 Introduction 139 9.2 Fractional Order Systems and Fractional Order Controller Considered 140 9.3 FOPD Controller Design Procedure for the Fractional Order Position Servo Systems 141 9.4 Simulation Illustration 144 9.5 Experimental Study 148 9.6 Chapter Summary 153 10 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Design and Comparison for Fractional Order Position Servo Systems 155 10.1 Introduction 155 10.2 Fractional Order Position Servo Systems and Fractional Order Controllers 156 10.3 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Design 156 10.4 Integer Order PID Controller and Fractional Order PD Controller Designs 159 10.5 Simulation Comparisons 160 10.6 Chapter Summary 162 PART IV STABILITY AND FEASIBILITY FOR FOPID DESIGN 11 Stability and Design Feasibility of Robust PID Controllers for FOPTD Systems 165 11.1 Introduction 165 11.2 Stability Region and Flat Phase Tuning Rule for the Robust PID Controller Design 168 11.3 PID Controller Design with Pre-Specifications on Ám and !c 171 11.4 Simulation Illustration 180 11.5 Chapter Summary 185 12 Stability and Design Feasibility of Robust FOPI Controllers for FOPTD Systems 187 12.1 Introduction 187 12.2 Stabilizing and Robust FOPI Controller Design for FOPTD Systems 188 12.3 Design Procedures Summary with An Illustrative Example 194 12.4 Complete Information Collection for Achievable Region of wc and Φm 197 12.5 Simulation Illustration 201 12.6 Chapter Summary 207 PART V FRACTIONAL ORDER DISTURBANCE COMPENSATORS 13 Fractional Order Disturbance Observer 211 13.1 Introduction 211 13.2 Disturbance Observer (DOB) 212 13.3 Actual Design Parameters In DOB and Their Effects 213 13.4 Loss of The Phase Margin With DOB 215 13.5 Solution One: Rule-Based Switched Low Pass Filtering With Varying Relative Degree 216 13.6 The Proposed Solution: Guaranteed Phase Margin Method Using Fractional Order Low Pass Filtering 216 13.7 Implementation Issues: Stable Minimum-Phase Frequency Domain Fitting 218 13.8 Chapter Summary 222 14 Fractional Order Adaptive Feed-forward Cancellation 223 14.1 Introduction 223 14.2 Fractional Order Adaptive Feed-forward Cancellation 225 14.3 Equivalence Between Fractional Order Internal Model Principle and Fractional Order Adaptive Feed-Forward Cancellation 229 14.4 Frequency-domain analysis of the FOAFC performance for the periodic disturbance 231 14.5 Simulation Illustration 233 14.6 Experiment Validation 237 14.7 Chapter Summary 241 15 Fractional Order Robust Control for Cogging Effect 243 15.1 Introduction 243 15.2 Fractional Order Robust Control of Cogging Effect Compensation 244 15.3 Simulation Illustration 252 15.4 Experiments on A Lab Testbed - Dynamometer 258 15.5 Chapter Summary 264 16 Fractional Order Periodic Adaptive Learning Compensation 275 16.1 Introduction 275 16.2 Fractional Order Periodic Adaptive learning Compensation for the State-dependent Periodic Disturbance 276 16.3 Simulation Illustrations 282 16.4 Experimental Validation 284 16.5 Chapter Summary 288 PART VI EFFECTS OF FRACTIONAL ORDER CONTROLS ON NONLINEARITIES 17 Fractional Order PID Control of A DC-Motor with Elastic Shaft 293 17.1 Introduction 293 17.2 The Benchmark Position Servo System 294 17.3 A Modified Approximate Realization Method 295 17.4 Comparative Simulations 297 17.5 Chapter Summary 305 18 Fractional Order Ultra Low-Speed Position Servo 313 18.1 Introduction 313 18.2 Ultra Low-Speed Position Tracking using Designed FOPD and Optimized IOPI 314 18.3 Static and Dynamic Models of Friction and DescribingFunctions for Friction Models 316 18.4 Simulation Analysis with IOPI and FOPD Controllers Using Describing Function 321 18.5 Extended Experimental Demonstration 324 18.6 Chapter Summary 325 19 Optimized Fractional Order Conditional Integrator 329 19.1 Introduction 329 19.2 Clegg Conditional Integrator 330 19.3 Intelligent Conditional Integrator 331 19.4 The Optimized Fractional Order Conditional Integrator 332 19.5 Simulation Validation 340 19.6 Chapter Summary 342 PART VII FRACTIONAL ORDER CONTROL APPLICATIONS 20 Lateral Directional Fractional Order Control of A Small Fixed-Wing UAV 345 20.1 Introduction 345 20.2 Flight Control System of Small Fixed-Wing UAV 346 20.3 Integer/Fractional Order Controller Designs 351 20.4 Modified Ziegler-Nichols PI Controller Design 352 20.5 Fractional Order (PI)¸ Controller Design 353 20.6 Fractional Order PI Controller Design 355 20.7 Integer Order PID Controller Design 356 20.8 Simulation Illustration 357 20.9 Flight Experiments 363 20.10 Chapter Summary 367 21 Fractional Order PD Controller Synthesis and Implementation for HDD Servo System 369 21.1 Introduction 369 21.2 Fractional Order Controller Design with “Flat Phase” 370 21.3 Implementation of the Fractional Order Controller 372 21.4 Readjustment for the Designed FOPD Controller 377 21.5 Experiment 380 21.6 Chapter Summary 383 References 385 Index 403

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Book SynopsisGiving readers the tools to understand and analyse common problems in structural engineering, foundation engineering and soil-structure interaction, this book is accompanied by Excel Spreadsheets and employs the Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) macro programming language to allow a practical understanding.Table of ContentsAbout the Author xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxv PART ONE COMPUTER SOFTWARE 1 1 Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet 3 1.1 History of Spreadsheet Development 3 1.2 Excel 2010 4 1.3 Transmitting Cell Values Not Formulas 5 1.4 Accuracy 5 1.5 Saving 6 1.6 Implementation of Excel Features 6 2 Microsoft VBA Programming Language 13 2.1 History of the BASIC Computer Language 13 2.2 Justification for Using Excel with VBA Macros 15 2.3 Difference between aWorkbook and a VBA Macro 16 2.4 VBA Macro Nomenclature 16 2.5 Generating a Procedure 17 2.6 Security Level Required to Open VBA Macros 19 2.7 VBA Code Statements that Differ from Previous BASIC Versions 19 2.8 Implementation of VBA Macro Programming 20 2.9 Inputting Data to a VBA Procedure 26 2.10 Output Data from a VBA Procedure 30 2.11 Running a Macro 32 2.12 Code Debugging 33 2.13 Charting in a Worksheet 34 2.14 Line Plots in a Worksheet 34 2.15 Macro Sub Program Showing Output toWorksheet 35 2.16 Computer Hardware/Software Requirements 36 PART TWO STRUCTURES 41 3 Finite Element Method – The Theory 43 3.1 Theory 43 3.2 Developing the Element Stiffness Matrix 44 3.3 Creating the Global Stiffness Matrix by Assembling Element Stiffnesses 47 3.4 Solving Simultaneous Equations for Displacements 47 3.5 Element Displacements and Forces 48 3.6 Flowchart of Steps 49 4 Finite Element Analysis VBA Program PFrame 51 4.1 Program PFrame – Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Beam–Bar Structural Systems 51 4.2 Creating an Input Data Worksheet 52 4.3 Input Data 52 4.4 Joint Numbering and Dimensions 56 4.5 Load Application 58 4.6 Imposed Joint Displacements 59 4.7 Unstable or Improperly Supported Configurations 60 4.8 Running Program PFrame 60 4.9 Output Data 62 4.10 Alternate Solution Approach to Macro Program PFrame 63 4.11 Significant Aspects of Excel Worksheet & VBA Macro Program Construction 63 5 Beams 65 5.1 Beam Member Types 65 5.2 Bar Members as Pinned-End Beams 65 5.3 Moment of Inertia Conversion for Different Member Axis Orientation 67 5.4 Load Application 69 6 Frames 71 6.1 Analysis of Frames 71 6.2 Rigid Joints 71 6.3 Joint Numbering 71 6.4 Pinned-End Beam 73 6.5 Supports 74 6.6 Varying EI of Members Comprising a Frame 75 6.7 Stability – The P–Delta Effect 76 6.8 Load Case Combinations of Load Groups 76 6.9 Interior Member Forces 77 6.10 Examples 77 7 Trusses 81 7.1 Theory for Bar Members 81 7.2 Analysis of Bar Assemblage 81 7.3 Load Application 82 7.4 Initial Member Length Changes 82 7.5 Support Displacements 82 8 Reinforced Concrete 83 8.1 Concrete and Reinforcing Steel Properties 83 8.2 Design Capacity and Reinforcing Requirements 84 8.3 Strength Properties for a Soil–Structure Interaction Analyses 89 8.4 Cracked-Section Concrete Properties 90 8.5 Excel Workbooks 91 8.6 Notation 92 PART THREE SOILS 95 9 Soil Classification 97 9.1 Field Geotechnical Processes 97 9.2 Soil Description 100 9.3 Field and Laboratory Tests for Soil Identification 103 9.4 Soil Classification Systems 106 9.5 Excel Workbooks and VBA Programs 108 9.6 Soil Mechanics Symbol Nomenclature 109 10 Soil Strength Properties 115 10.1 Discrete and Elastic Finite Element Models 115 10.2 General Elasticity Equations Relating Stress and Strain 115 10.3 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio 118 10.4 Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction 135 10.5 Mathematical Descriptions of Curves Using Program Curve Fit 138 11 Stresses in an Elastic Half-Space 141 11.1 Closed-Form Elasticity Solutions 141 11.2 Lateral Stresses against a Wall Restrained from Movement due to Point, Line, and Strip Loading 141 11.3 Boussinesq Equation 141 11.4 Westergaard Equation 142 11.5 Mindlin Equation 142 11.6 Chart Solutions 142 11.7 Excel Workbook – Lat&VertStress 143 11.8 VBA Program HSpace 143 11.9 Significant Programming Aspects 144 11.10 VBA Program HSpace – Program Documentation 144 12 Lateral Soil Pressures and Retaining Walls 149 12.1 Lateral Earth Pressure – Sloped Backfill Acting on Inclined Retaining Wall 149 12.2 Slope Stability 150 12.3 Stability of a Vertical Cut 150 12.4 Retaining Wall Movements 151 12.5 Retaining Walls – Factor of Safety 151 13 Shallow and Deep Foundation Vertical Bearing Capacity 153 13.1 Shallow Foundations 153 13.2 Vertical Bearing Stress Capacity 153 13.3 Soil Pressure Distribution 154 13.4 Settlement-Based Bearing Capacity 155 13.5 Excel Workbooks 156 13.6 Deep Foundations 156 13.7 Capacities Based on Displacement Limits 157 13.8 Capacities Based on Stress Limits 158 13.9 Limitations on Capacities 160 13.10 Load Testing 161 13.11 Pier Settlement 161 13.12 Excel Workbook 161 13.13 Combined Foundations – Shallow and Deep 161 14 Slope Stability 165 14.1 Workbook Program Slope – Slope Stability by Bishop’s Modified Method of Slices 165 14.2 Workbook Program STABR – Slope Stability by Bishop’s Modified Method of Slices 166 14.3 Workbook Program Slope8R – Slope Stability by Spencer’s Procedure for Non-circular Slip Surfaces 167 15 Seepage Flow through Porous Media 169 15.1 Program Flownet for Analysis of Seepage Flow through Porous Media 169 15.2 Program Input – from Data file 170 15.3 Program Output – to Data File 171 15.4 Input Data Description 172 15.5 Output Data Description 172 15.6 Example 172 15.7 Significant Aspects of Excel Workbook and VBA Macro Program Construction 174 PART FOUR SOIL–STRUCTURE INTERACTION 177 16 Beam-on-Elastic Foundation 179 16.1 Theory–Classical Differential Equation Solution 179 16.2 Beam–Bar Finite Element Model 180 16.3 Soil Strength – Coefficient of Vertical Subgrade Reaction 182 16.4 Structural Stiffness 183 16.5 Soil–Structure Interaction 183 16.6 Unbalanced Fixed-End Moment from Triangular Load Distribution 184 16.7 Pressure Distribution 184 16.8 Solution Exclusively in Excel Worksheet without VBA 185 16.9 Examples 187 17 Footings andMat Foundations 191 17.1 Mat Foundations 191 17.2 Slab Section Stiffness and Moment Capacity 192 17.3 Soil–Structure Interaction 192 17.4 Practical Considerations Regarding Slab Reinforcement 193 17.5 Case Study – House Slab Foundations in Tucson, Arizona 197 17.6 Example 17.1 House Slab 197 18 Laterally Loaded Piles 201 18.1 Theory – Classical Differential Equation Solution 201 18.2 Conventional Analysis 202 18.3 Beam–Bar Finite Element Solution 202 18.4 Structural Stiffness 207 18.5 Soil Strength 209 18.6 Soil–Structure Interaction 213 18.7 Soil Pressures on Each Side of Pier 215 18.8 Limitations of a Beam–Bar Analysis 219 18.9 Design Procedure 219 18.10 Solution Exclusively in Excel Worksheet without VBA 221 18.11 Point of Fixity 222 18.12 Pile Groups 222 18.13 Conclusions 222 18.14 Significant Aspects of Excel Worksheet and VBA Macro 223 18.15 Examples 223 19 Cantilevered and Anchored Sheet Piles 229 19.1 Cantilevered Sheet Piles 229 19.2 Beam–Bar Finite Element Model for Cantilevered Piles 229 19.3 Anchored Sheet Piles 229 19.4 Beam–Bar Finite Element Model for Anchored Sheet Piles 230 19.5 Soil Strength Representation 230 19.6 Examples 231 20 Buried Arch Culverts (Tunnels) 233 20.1 Theory: Classical Elasticity Formulation – Burns and Richard Solution 233 20.2 Soil–Structure Interaction 234 20.3 Beam–Bar Finite Element Frame Model 235 20.4 Vertical Loads 237 20.5 Distributing and Attenuating Vertical Live Loads 238 20.6 Horizontal Ko Pressure Load 240 20.7 Load Application 240 20.8 General Elasticity FEA Programs 241 20.9 SSI 242 20.10 Cracked-Section Considerations 243 20.11 Examples 244 21 The Arch Form 247 21.1 History of Arches and Vaults 247 21.2 Arch-Shaped Configurations 247 21.3 Force Determination for Various Shaped Arches 249 21.4 Arch Engineering Considerations 250 21.5 Structural and Hydraulic Efficiency 252 21.6 Soil–Structure Interaction 253 21.7 Flexible versus Rigid Structures 254 21.8 Failure Patterns and Deflections 255 21.9 Load Tests 256 21.10 Design Comments 256 21.11 Buckling of Arches 260 21.12 Seismic Design Considerations 261 PART FIVE ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 263 22 Domes 265 22.1 Geometry 265 22.2 Membrane Stresses 265 22.3 Stress Computations Using Worksheet Dome 266 23 Critical Path Method 269 23.1 Project Scheduling 269 23.2 VBA Versions 270 24 Financial Analysis 271 24.1 Equations Governing Financial Operations 271 24.2 Excel Worksheets for Financial Calculator and Formulas 272 24.3 Significant Aspects of Excel Worksheet and Macro Functions 272 25 Conversion of Units of Measurement 275 25.1 Unit Systems 275 25.2 Defined Units 276 25.3 Labeling Conventions 276 25.4 Workbook UnitCnvrsn 277 25.5 Excel Conversions 278 25.6 Example 278 Related Workbook on DVD 278 Index 279

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Book SynopsisInorganic materials are at the heart of many contemporary real-world applications, in electronic devices, drug delivery, bio-inspired materials and energy storage and transport. In order to underpin novel synthesis strategies both to facilitate these applications and to encourage new ones, a thorough review of current and emerging techniques for materials characterisation is needed. Examining important techniques that allow investigation of the structures of inorganic materials on the local atomic scale, Local Structural Characterisation discusses: Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy X-Ray Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy Neutrons and Neutron Spectroscopy EPR Spectroscopy of Inorganic Materials Analysis of Functional Materials by X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy This addition to the Inorganic Materials Series provides a detailed and thorough review of these spectroscopic techniques and emphasises the interplayTable of ContentsInorganic Materials Series Preface xi Preface xiii List of Contributors xv 1 Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1 Sharon Ashbrook, Daniel Dawson and John Griffin 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Theoretical Background 3 1.2.1 Fundamentals of NMR 3 1.2.2 Acquisition of Basic NMR Spectra 4 1.2.3 Relaxation 7 1.2.4 Interactions in NMR Spectroscopy 7 1.3 Basic Experimental Methods 15 1.3.1 Spin I = 1/2 Nuclei 15 1.3.2 Spin I > 1/2 Nuclei 24 1.3.3 Wideline NMR Spectroscopy 30 1.4 Calculation of NMR Parameters 31 1.4.1 Introduction to Density Functional Theory 31 1.4.2 Basis Sets and Periodicity 32 1.4.3 Reducing the Computational Cost of Calculations 33 1.4.4 Application of First-principles Calculations 34 1.5 Applications of Solid-state NMR Spectroscopy 36 1.5.1 Local and Long-range Structure 36 1.5.2 Measuring Internuclear Interactions 43 1.5.3 Disordered Materials 46 1.5.4 Studying Dynamics 50 1.5.5 Challenging Nuclei and Systems 54 1.5.6 Paramagnetic Materials and Metals 56 1.6 Commonly Studied Nuclei 59 1.6.1 Hydrogen 59 1.6.2 Lithium 61 1.6.3 Boron 62 1.6.4 Carbon 62 1.6.5 Oxygen 62 1.6.6 Fluorine 63 1.6.7 Sodium 63 1.6.8 Aluminium 64 1.6.9 Silicon 64 1.6.10 Phosphorus 64 1.6.11 Xenon 65 1.7 NMR of Materials 65 1.7.1 Simple Ionic Compounds and Ceramics 65 1.7.2 Microporous Materials 67 1.7.3 Minerals and Clays 74 1.7.4 Energy Materials 76 1.7.5 Glasses 78 1.7.6 Polymers 81 1.8 Conclusion 83 References 84 2 X-ray Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy 89 Pieter Glatzel and Amelie Juhin 2.1 Introduction: What is Photon Spectroscopy? 89 2.2 Electronic Structure and Spectroscopy 93 2.2.1 Total Energy Diagram 93 2.2.2 Interaction of X-rays with Matter 96 2.3 Calculation of Inner-shell Spectra 106 2.3.1 The Single-particle Extended Picture of Electronic States 107 2.3.2 The Many-body Atomic Picture of Electronic States 109 2.3.3 Comparison of Theoretical Approaches 112 2.3.4 The Many-body Extended Picture of Electronic States 113 2.3.5 Single-particle Calculation of the Absorption Cross-section 114 2.3.6 Many-body Atomic Calculation of the Cross-section 118 2.3.7 Which Approach Works Best for Inner-shell Spectroscopy? 118 2.3.8 Beyond Standard DFT Methods 119 2.4 Experimental Techniques 120 2.4.1 X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy 121 2.4.2 X-ray Raman Spectroscopy 130 2.4.3 Nonresonant X-ray Emission (X-ray Fluorescence) 131 2.4.4 Resonant Inelastic X-ray Scattering 137 2.5 Experimental Considerations 155 2.5.1 Modern Sources of X-rays 155 2.5.2 Ultrafast X-ray Spectroscopy 157 2.5.3 Measuring XAS/XES 158 2.6 Conclusion 163 Acknowledgement 164 References 164 3 Neutrons and Neutron Spectroscopy 173 A. J. Ramirez-Cuesta and Philip C. H. Mitchell 3.1 The Neutron and How it is Scattered 174 3.1.1 The Scattering Law 175 3.2 Why Neurons? 179 3.2.1 The S(Q,w) Map 180 3.2.2 Modelling of INS Spectra 181 3.2.3 Example of the Effects of Sampling of the Brillouin Zone 183 3.2.4 INS Spectrometers 184 3.2.5 Measurement Temperature 189 3.2.6 Amount of Sample Required 189 3.3 Molecular Hydrogen (Dihydrogen) in Porous Materials 190 3.3.1 The Rotational Spectrum of Dihydrogen 190 3.3.2 The Polarising Power of Cations and H2 Binding 191 3.3.3 Hydrogen in Metal Organic Frameworks 195 3.3.4 Hydrogen Trapped in Clathrates 198 3.4 Ins and Catalysis 201 3.4.1 Hydroxyl Groups on Surfaces 206 3.5 CO2 and SO2 Capture 207 3.6 What Could be Next? 211 3.6.1 How Could we Improve INS? 211 3.6.2 A Hypothetical INS Instrument for Catalysis 216 3.7 Conclusion 219 References 220 4 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Inorganic Materials 225 Piotr Pietrzyk, Tomasz Mazur and Zbigniew Sojka 4.1 Introduction 225 4.2 Electron Spin in a Magnetic Field 226 4.2.1 Electron Zeeman Effect and the Resonance Phenomenon 228 4.2.2 Spin Relaxation 230 4.2.3 Electron–Nucleus Hyperfine Interaction 233 4.2.4 EPR Spectrometers 238 4.2.5 Samples, Sample Holders and Registration of EPR Spectra 242 4.3 Spin Hamiltonian and Symmetry 244 4.3.1 The g Tensor 244 4.3.2 The Hyperfine A Tensor 250 4.3.3 The Fine Structure D Tensor 256 4.3.4 The Quadrupole Q Tensor 260 4.3.5 Electron–Electron Exchange Interactions J 261 4.3.6 The Spin Hamiltonian 264 4.4 Principal Types of EPR Spectrum and Their Characteristic Features 267 4.4.1 Single-crystal Spectra 267 4.4.2 Static and Dynamic Disorder 269 4.4.3 EPR Spectra of Powder and Nanopowder Materials 274 4.4.4 Unusual Spectral Features 278 4.4.5 Computer Simulation of Powder Spectra 280 4.5 Advanced EMR Techniques 282 4.5.1 High-field and Multifrequency EPR 282 4.5.2 Pulsed EPR Methods 285 References 296 5 Analysis of Functional Materials by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 301 Karen Wilson and Adam F. Lee 5.1 Introduction 301 5.1.1 The Basic Principles of XPS 302 5.1.2 Quantification of X-ray Photoelectron Spectra 305 5.1.3 The Origin of Surface Sensitivity 308 5.1.4 Angular Resolved XPS 309 5.1.5 Chemical Shift Information from XPS 311 5.2 Imaging XPS 315 5.3 Time-resolved High-resolution XPS 318 5.3.1 Selective Catalytic Alcohol Oxidation 319 5.3.2 Selective Oxidation of Allylic Alcohols 322 5.3.3 C–X Activation 324 5.4 High- or Ambient-pressure XPS 326 5.4.1 AP-XPS Studies of the Surface Chemistry of Oxidised Metal Surfaces 329 5.4.2 Selective Hydrogenation 333 5.4.3 HP-XPS Studies of Core–Shell Nanoparticulate Materials 335 5.5 Applications to Inorganic Materials 335 5.5.1 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 335 5.5.2 XPS Studies of Heteropolytungstate Clusters 338 5.5.3 XPS Studies of Acid–Base Sites in Oxide Catalysts 342 5.6 Conclusion 345 References 345 Index 351

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Book SynopsisRotating Thermal Flows in Natural and Industrial Processes provides the reader with a systematic description of the different types of thermal convection and flow instabilities in rotating systems, as present in materials, crystal growth, thermal engineering, meteorology, oceanography, geophysics and astrophysics.Trade Review“Given such a comprehensive review on this topic, this book can be highly recommended to crystal growth Researchers . . . It is also an ideal handbook for graduate students and researchers working in the field of fluid mechanics, geophysical and astrophysical fluid dynamics, thermal, mechanical and material science and engineering.” (Journal of Experimental and Industrial Crystallography, 1 May 2013) “It will be a useful resource for researchers in the appropriate fields of physics. An extensive, 36-page list of references supports the text. Summing Up: Recommended. Researchers and professionals.” (Choice, 1 June 2013) “As such, it should henceforth be considered as a reference work for any student, engineer and researcher in fluid mechanics, interested in either broadening their knowledge or in delving into one of the numerous subjects of interest developed here.” (The International Journal of Geophysical & Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics, 1 April 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xvii 1 Equations, General Concepts and Nondimensional Numbers 1 1.1 The Navier-Stokes and Energy Equations 1 1.1.1 The Continuity Equation 2 1.1.2 The Momentum Equation 2 1.1.3 The Total Energy Equation 2 1.1.4 The Budget of Internal Energy 3 1.1.5 Closure Models 3 1.2 Some Considerations about the Dynamics of Vorticity 5 1.2.1 Vorticity and Circulation 5 1.2.2 Vorticity in Two Dimensions 7 1.2.3 Vorticity Over a Spherical Surface 8 1.2.4 The Curl of the Momentum Equation 10 1.3 Incompressible Formulation 10 1.4 Buoyancy Convection 13 1.4.1 The Boussinesq Model 13 1.4.2 The Grashof and Rayleigh Numbers 14 1.5 Surface-Tension-Driven Flows 14 1.5.1 Stress Balance 15 1.5.2 The Reynolds and Marangoni Numbers 16 1.5.3 The Microgravity Environment 18 1.6 Rotating Systems: The Coriolis and Centrifugal Forces 19 1.6.1 Generalized Gravity 20 1.6.2 The Coriolis, Taylor and Rossby Numbers 21 1.6.3 The Geostrophic Flow Approximation 22 1.6.4 The Taylor–Proudman Theorem 23 1.6.5 Centrifugal and Stratification Effects: The Froude Number 23 1.6.6 The Rossby Deformation Radius 24 1.7 Some Elementary Effects due to Rotation 25 1.7.1 The Origin of Cyclonic and Anticyclonic flows 25 1.7.2 The Ekman Layer 26 1.7.3 Ekman Spiral 28 1.7.4 Ekman Pumping 28 1.7.5 The Stewartson Layer 30 2 Rayleigh-Benard Convection with Rotation 33 2.1 Rayleigh-Benard Convection with Rotation in Infinite Layers 34 2.1.1 Linear Stability Analysis 35 2.1.2 Asymptotic Analysis 36 2.2 The Kuppers-Lortz Instability and Domain Chaos 38 2.3 Patterns with Squares 41 2.4 Typical Phenomena for Pr= 2.4.1 Spiral Defect Chaos and Chiral Symmetry 42 2.4.2 The Interplay between the Busse Balloon and the KL Instability 45 2.5 The Low-Pr Hopf Bifurcation and Mixed States 48 2.5.1 Standing and Travelling Rolls 50 2.5.2 Patterns with the Symmetry of Square and Hexagonal Lattices 52 2.5.3 Other Asymptotic Analyses 55 2.5.4 Nature and Topology of the Bifurcation Lines in the Space of Parameters (Pr) 56 2.6 Laterally Confined Convection 58 2.6.1 The First Bifurcation and Wall Modes 60 2.6.2 The Second Bifurcation and Bulk Convection 63 2.6.3 Square Patterns Driven by Nonlinear Interactions between Bulk and Wall Modes 64 2.6.4 Square Patterns as a Nonlinear Combination of Bulk Fourier Eigenmodes 67 2.6.5 Higher-Order Bifurcations 69 2.7 Centrifugal Effects 71 2.7.1 Stably Thermally Stratified Systems 71 2.7.2 Interacting Thermogravitational and Centrifugally Driven Flows 74 2.7.3 The Effect of the Centrifugal Force on Domain Chaos 84 2.8 Turbulent Rotating RB Convection 86 2.8.1 The Origin of the Large-scale Circulation 87 2.8.2 Rotating Vortical Plumes 89 2.8.3 Classification of Flow Regimes 91 2.8.4 Suppression of Large-scale Flow and Heat Transfer Enhancement 98 2.8.5 Prandtl Number Effects 102 3 Spherical Shells, Rossby Waves and Centrifugally Driven Thermal Convection 107 3.1 The Coriolis Effect in Atmosphere Dynamics 107 3.1.1 The Origin of the Zonal Winds 107 3.1.2 The Rossby Waves 110 3.2 Self-Gravitating Rotating Spherical Shells 114 3.2.1 Columnar Convective Patterns 115 3.2.2 A Mechanism for Generating Differential Rotation 119 3.2.3 Higher-Order Modes of Convection 121 3.2.4 Equatorially Attached Modes of Convection 126 3.2.5 Polar Convection 127 3.3 Centrifugally Driven Thermal Convection 128 4 The Baroclinic Problem 135 4.1 Energetics of Convection and Heuristic Arguments 136 4.2 Linear Stability Analysis: The Classical Eady’s Model 139 4.3 Extensions of the Eady’s model 148 4.4 Fully Developed Nonlinear Waveforms 154 4.5 The Influence of the Prandtl Number 162 4.6 The Route to Chaos 166 4.7 Hybrid Baroclinic Flows 172 4.8 Elementary Application to Atmospheric Dynamics 175 4.8.1 Spiralling Eddy Structures 176 4.8.2 The Baroclinic Life-Cycle and the ‘Barotropization’ Mechanism 177 4.8.3 The Predictability of Weather and Climate Systems 179 5 The Quasi-Geostrophic Theory 183 5.1 The Potential Vorticity Perspective 183 5.1.1 The Rossby-Ertel’s Potential Vorticity 183 5.1.2 The Quasi-Geostrophic (QG) Pseudo-Potential Vorticity 184 5.2 The Perturbation Energy Equation 189 5.3 Derivation of Necessary Conditions for Instability 191 5.3.1 The Rayleigh’s Criterion 192 5.3.2 The Charney–Stern Theorem 193 5.4 A Generalization of the Potential Vorticity Concept 195 5.4.1 The Origin of the Sheets of Potential Vorticity 196 5.4.2 Gradients of Potential Vorticity in the Interior 199 5.5 The Concept of Interlevel Interaction 201 5.6 The Counter-Propagating Rossby-Wave Perspective on Baroclinic Instability 205 5.6.1 The Heuristic Interpretation 206 5.6.2 A Mathematical Framework for the ‘Action-at-a-Distance’ Dynamics 208 5.6.3 Extension and Rederivation of Earlier Results 211 5.7 Barotropic Instability 215 5.8 Extensions of the CRW Perspective 218 5.9 The Over-reflection Theory and Its Connections to Other Theoretical Models 222 5.10 Nonmodal Growth, Optimal Perturbations and Resonance 225 5.11 Limits of the CRW Theory 229 6 Planetary Patterns 231 6.1 Jet Sets 232 6.2 A Rigorous Categorization of Hypotheses and Models 236 6.3 The Weather-Layer Approach 237 6.4 The Physical Mechanism of Vortex Merging 238 6.4.1 The Critical Core Size 240 6.4.2 Metastability and the Axisymmetrization Principle 241 6.4.3 Topology of the Streamline Pattern and Its Evolution 242 6.5 Freely Decaying Turbulence 246 6.5.1 Two-dimensional Turbulence 246 6.5.2 Invariants, Inertial Range and Phenomenological Theory 247 6.5.3 The Vortex-Dominated Evolution Stage 250 6.6 Geostrophic Turbulence 254 6.6.1 Relationship with 2D Turbulence 254 6.6.2 Vortex Stretching and 3D Instabilities 256 6.7 The Reorientation of the Inverse Cascade into Zonal Modes 258 6.7.1 A Subdivision of the Spectrum: Rossby Waves and Turbulent Eddies 258 6.7.2 Anisotropic Dispersion and Weak Nonlinear Interaction 259 6.7.3 The Stability of Zonal Mean Flow 262 6.8 Baroclinic Effects, Stochasting Forcing and Barotropization 262 6.9 Hierarchy of Models and Scales 264 6.9.1 The Role of Friction 264 6.9.2 The One-Layer Perspective and the Barotropic Equation 265 6.9.3 Classification of Models 266 6.9.4 Characteristic Wavenumbers 267 6.10 One-Layer Model 268 6.10.1 Historical Background 268 6.10.2 The Wavenumber Sub-space 276 6.11 Barotropicity, Baroclinicity and Multilayer Models 278 6.11.1 Eddy Variability and Zonally Averaged Properties 279 6.11.2 Polygonal Wave Structures 283 6.12 The Ocean–Jupiter Connection 286 6.13 Wave–Mean-Flow Dynamics 287 6.13.1 The Barotropic Instability of Rossby Waves 288 6.13.2 The Transition from Inflectional to Triad Resonance Instability 291 6.13.3 Destabilization of Mixed Rossby–Gravity Waves 296 6.13.4 Relaxation of the Triad Resonance Condition 299 6.13.5 Interaction with Critical Lines 300 6.14 Solitary Vortex Dynamics 302 6.14.1 The Zoo of Vortex Instabilities on the f-Plane 302 6.14.2 Free Vortices on the β Plane 309 6.14.3 Gyres and Rossby-Wave-Induced Gradual Vortex Decay 311 6.14.4 The Influence of Zonal Flow on Vortex Stability 317 6.15 Penetrative Convection Model 323 6.15.1 Limits of the Shallow Layer Approach 323 6.15.2 Differential Rotation and Deep Geostrophic Convection 324 6.16 Extension and Unification of Existing Theories and Approaches 330 6.16.1 The Classical Bowl-Based Experiment 330 6.16.2 Models with B Sign Reversal 333 6.16.3 Models with Scaling Discontinuities 337 6.16.4 Open Points and Future Directions of Research 342 7 Surface-Tension-Driven Flows in Rotating Fluids 345 7.1 Marangoni–Benard Convection 346 7.1.1 Classical Patterns and Theories 346 7.1.2 Stationary and Oscillatory Flows with Rotation 347 7.2 The Return Flow 352 7.3 The Hydrothermal Instability 354 7.3.1 A LSA Including the Effect of Rotation 356 7.4 The Annular Pool 360 7.4.1 Liquid Metals and Semiconductor Melts 363 7.4.2 Travelling and Stationary Waves 365 7.4.3 Transparent Organic Liquids 366 7.4.4 Modification of the Fundamental Hydrothermal Mechanism 368 8 Crystal Growth from the Melt and Rotating Machinery 371 8.1 The Bridgman Method 372 8.2 The Floating Zone 382 8.2.1 The Liquid Bridge 383 8.2.2 Rotating Liquid Bridge with Infinite Axial Extent 385 8.2.3 Rotation, Standing Waves and Travelling Waves 386 8.2.4 Self-Induced Rotation and PAS 390 8.3 The Czochralski Method 394 8.3.1 Spoke and Wave Patterns 396 8.3.2 Mixed Baroclinic-Hydrothermal States 399 8.3.3 Other Effects, Cold Plumes and Oscillating Jets 406 8.3.4 Geostrophic Turbulence 411 8.4 Rotating Machinery 413 8.4.1 The Taylor–Couette Flow 413 8.4.2 Cylinders with Rotating Endwalls 422 9 Rotating Magnetic Fields 431 9.1 Physical Principles and Characteristic Numbers 432 9.1.1 The Hartmann, Reynolds and Magnetic Taylor Numbers 432 9.1.2 The Swirling Flow 434 9.2 Stabilization of Thermo-gravitational Flows 438 9.3 Stabilization of Surface-Tension-Driven Flows 442 9.4 Combining Rotation and RMF 446 10 Angular Vibrations and Rocking Motions 449 10.1 Equations and Relevant Parameters 450 10.1.1 Characteristic Numbers 453 10.1.2 The Mechanical Equilibrium 454 10.2 The Infinite Layer 454 10.2.1 The Stability of the Equilibrium State 455 10.2.2 Combined Translational-Rotational Vibrations 460 10.3 The Vertical Coaxial Gap 462 10.4 Application to Vertical Bridgman Crystal Growth 467 References 473 Index 509 509 509

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Book SynopsisComprehensively covers conventional and novel drying systems and applications, while keeping a focus on the fundamentals of drying phenomena. Presents detailed thermodynamic and heat/mass transfer analyses in a reader-friendly and easy-to-follow approach Includes case studies, illustrative examples and problems Presents experimental and computational approaches Includes comprehensive information identifying the roles of flow and heat transfer mechanisms on the drying phenomena Considers industrial applications, corresponding criterion, complications, prospects, etc. Discusses novel drying technologies, the corresponding research platforms and potential solutions Table of ContentsPreface xi Nomenclature xv 1 Fundamental Aspects 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Fundamental Properties and Quantities 2 1.3 Ideal Gas and Real Gas 13 1.4 The Laws of Thermodynamics 19 1.5 Thermodynamic Analysis Through Energy and Exergy 24 1.5.1 Exergy 24 1.5.2 Balance Equations 27 1.6 Psychometrics 36 1.7 Heat Transfer 45 1.7.1 General Aspects 45 1.7.2 Heat Transfer Modes 48 1.7.3 Transient Heat Transfer 54 1.8 Mass Transfer 58 1.9 Concluding Remarks 63 1.10 Study Problems 63 References 65 2 Basics of Drying 67 2.1 Introduction 67 2.2 Drying Phases 68 2.3 Basic Heat and Moisture Transfer Analysis 69 2.4 Moist Material 76 2.5 Types of Moisture Diffusion 81 2.6 Shrinkage 82 2.7 Modeling of Packed-Bed Drying 86 2.8 Diffusion in Porous Media with Low Moisture Content 88 2.9 Modeling of Heterogeneous Diffusion in Moist Solids 90 2.10 Conclusions 97 2.11 Study Problems 97 References 98 3 Drying Processes and Systems 99 3.1 Introduction 99 3.2 Drying Systems Classification 100 3.3 Main Types of Drying Devices and Systems 105 3.3.1 Batch Tray Dryers 105 3.3.2 Batch Through-Circulation Dryers 106 3.3.3 Continuous Tunnel Dryers 108 3.3.4 Rotary Dryers 110 3.3.5 Agitated Dryers 114 3.3.6 Direct-Heat Vibrating-Conveyor Dryers 116 3.3.7 Gravity Dryers 117 3.3.8 Dispersion Dryers 119 3.3.9 Fluidized Bed Dryers 128 3.3.10 Drum Dryers 130 3.3.11 Solar Drying Systems 132 3.4 Processes in Drying Systems 137 3.4.1 Natural Drying 137 3.4.2 Forced Drying 145 3.5 Conclusions 151 3.6 Study Problems 151 References 152 4 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Drying Processes and Systems 153 4.1 Introduction 153 4.2 Balance Equations for a Drying Process 154 4.3 Performance Assessment of Drying Systems 159 4.3.1 Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 159 4.3.2 Other Assessment Parameters 161 4.4 Case Study 1: Analysis of Continuous-Flow Direct Combustion Dryers 162 4.5 Analysis of Heat Pump Dryers 169 4.6 Analysis of Fluidized Bed Dryers 178 4.6.1 Hydrodynamics of Fluidized Beds 179 4.6.2 Balance Equations 181 4.6.3 Efficiency Formulations 183 4.7 Conclusions 187 4.8 Study Problems 187 References 188 5 Heat and Moisture Transfer 189 5.1 Introduction 189 5.2 Transient Moisture Transfer During Drying of Regularly Shaped Materials 190 5.2.1 Transient Diffusion in Infinite Slab 191 5.2.2 Drying Time of an Infinite Slab Material 200 5.2.3 Transient Diffusion in an Infinite Cylinder 202 5.2.4 Transient Diffusion in Spherical-Shape Material 205 5.2.5 Compact Analytical Solution or Time-Dependent Diffusion in Basic Shapes 208 5.3 Shape Factors for Drying Time 209 5.3.1 Infinite Rectangular Rod of Size 2L × 2β1L 210 5.3.2 Rectangular Rod of Size 2L × 2β1L×2β2L 210 5.3.3 Long Cylinder of Diameter 2L and Length 2β1L 212 5.3.4 Short Cylinder of Diameter 2β1L and Length 2L 213 5.3.5 Infinite Elliptical Cylinder of Minor Axis 2L and Major Axis 2β1L 213 5.3.6 Ellipsoid Having the Axes 2L, 2β1L, and 2β2L 213 5.4 Moisture Transfer Coefficient and Diffusivity Estimation from Drying Curve 216 5.5 Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transfer 219 5.6 Models for Heat and Moisture Transfer in Drying 225 5.6.1 Theoretical Models 226 5.6.2 Semitheoretical and Empirical Models for Drying 231 5.7 Conclusions 232 5.8 Study Problems 233 References 234 6 Numerical Heat and Moisture Transfer 237 6.1 Introduction 237 6.2 Numerical Methods for PDEs 239 6.2.1 The Finite Difference Method 240 6.2.2 Weighted Residuals Methods: Finite Element, Finite Volume, Boundary Element 246 6.3 One-Dimensional Problems 249 6.3.1 Decoupled Equations with Nonuniform Initial Conditions and Variable Boundary Conditions 249 6.3.2 Partially Coupled Equations 253 6.3.3 Fully Coupled Equations 256 6.4 Two-Dimensional Problems 261 6.4.1 Cartesian Coordinates 261 6.4.2 Cylindrical Coordinates with Axial Symmetry 271 6.4.3 Polar Coordinates 276 6.4.4 Spherical Coordinates 280 6.5 Three-Dimensional Problems 284 6.6 Influence of the External Flow Field on Heat and Moisture Transfer 288 6.7 Conclusions 291 6.8 Study Problems 291 References 292 7 Drying Parameters and Correlations 295 7.1 Introduction 295 7.2 Drying Parameters 296 7.2.1 Moisture Transfer Parameters 296 7.2.2 Drying Time Parameters 299 7.3 Drying Correlations 301 7.3.1 Moisture Diffusivity Correlation with Temperature and Moisture Content 301 7.3.2 Correlation for the Shrinkage Ratio 304 7.3.3 Biot Number–Reynolds Number Correlations 305 7.3.4 Sherwood Number–Reynolds Number Correlations 307 7.3.5 Biot Number–Dincer Number Correlation 310 7.3.6 Regression Correlations for μ1 Eigenvalues versus Lag Factor 312 7.3.7 Biot Number–Drying Coefficient Correlation 313 7.3.8 Moisture Diffusivity–Drying Coefficient Correlation 315 7.3.9 Biot Number–Lag Factor Correlation 316 7.3.10 Graphical Determination of Moisture Transfer Parameters in Drying 317 7.3.11 Moisture Transfer Coefficient 318 7.4 Conclusions 320 7.5 Study Problems 320 References 321 8 Exergoeconomic and Exergoenvironmental Analyses of Drying Processes and Systems 323 8.1 Introduction 323 8.2 The Economic Value of Exergy 326 8.3 EXCEM Method 329 8.4 SPECO Method 337 8.5 Exergoenvironmental Analysis 340 8.6 Conclusions 345 8.7 Study Problems 345 References 346 9 Optimization of Drying Processes and Systems 349 9.1 Introduction 349 9.2 Objective Functions for Drying Systems Optimization 351 9.2.1 Technical Objective Functions 351 9.2.2 Environmental Objective Functions 359 9.2.3 Economic Objective Functions 362 9.3 Single-Objective Optimization 363 9.3.1 Trade-off Problems in Drying Systems 363 9.3.2 Mathematical Formulation and Optimization Methods 366 9.3.3 Parametric Single-Objective Optimization 371 9.4 Multiobjective Optimization 375 9.5 Conclusions 379 9.6 Study Problems 379 References 380 10 Sustainability and Environmental Impact Assessment of Drying Systems 381 10.1 Introduction 381 10.2 Sustainability 383 10.2.1 Sustainability Assessment Indicators 383 10.2.2 Exergy-Based Sustainability Assessment 391 10.3 Environmental Impact 397 10.3.1 Reference Environment Models 399 10.3.2 Anthropogenic Impact on the Environment 401 10.3.3 Exergy Destruction and Environmental Impact of Drying Systems 411 10.4 Case Study: Exergo-Sustainability Assessment of a Heat Pump Dryer 419 10.4.1 Reference Dryer Description 419 10.4.2 Exergo-Sustainability Assessment for the Reference Drying System 421 10.4.3 Improved Dryer Description 425 10.4.4 Exergo-Sustainability Assessment for the Improved Drying System 428 10.4.5 Concluding Remarks 430 10.5 Conclusions 430 10.6 Study Problems 430 References 431 11 Novel Drying Systems and Applications 433 11.1 Introduction 433 11.2 Drying with Superheated Steam 436 11.3 Chemical Heat Pump Dryers 438 11.4 Advances on Spray Drying Systems 441 11.4.1 Spray Drying of CuCl2(aq) 441 11.4.2 Spray Drying of Nanoparticles 445 11.4.3 Microencapsulation through Spray Drying 446 11.5 Membrane Air Drying for Enhanced Evaporative Cooling 448 11.6 Ultrasound-Assisted Drying 449 11.7 Conclusions 451 11.8 Study Problems 451 References 452 Appendix A: Conversion Factors 455 Appendix B: Thermophysical Properties of Water 457 Appendix C: Thermophysical Properties of Some Foods and Solid Materials 461 Appendix D: Psychometric Properties of Humid Air 463 Index 469

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Book SynopsisAn appealing and engaging introduction to Continuum Mechanics in Biosciences This book presents the elements of Continuum Mechanics to people interested in applications to biological systems. It is divided into two parts, the first of which introduces the basic concepts within a strictly one-dimensional spatial context.Table of ContentsDedication ix Preface xi Part One A one-dimensional context 1 1 Material bodies and kinematics 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Continuous vs. discrete 6 1.3 Configurations and deformations 9 1.4 The deformation gradient 14 1.5 Change of reference configuration 15 1.6 Strain 16 1.7 Displacement 18 1.8 Motion 19 1.9 The Lagrangian and Eulerian representations of fields 22 1.10 The material derivative 24 1.11 The rate of deformation 26 1.12 The cross section 27 2 Balance laws 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 The generic Lagrangian balance equation 30 2.2.1 Extensive properties 30 2.2.2 The balance equation 31 2.3 The generic Eulerian balance equation 35 2.4 Case study: Blood flow as a traffic problem 37 2.5 Case study: Diffusion of a pollutant 39 2.5.1 Derivation of the diffusion equation 39 2.5.2 A discrete diffusion model 41 2.6 The thermo-mechanical balance laws 42 2.6.1 Conservation of mass 42 2.6.2 Balance of (linear) momentum 43 2.6.3 The concept of stress 44 2.7 Case study: Vibration of air in the ear canal 45 2.8 Kinetic energy 50 2.9 The thermodynamical balance laws 55 2.9.1 Introduction 55 2.9.2 Balance of energy 56 2.9.3 The entropy inequality 58 2.10 Summary of balance equations 59 2.11 Case study: Bioheat transfer and malignant hyperthermia 61 3 Constitutive equations 69 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 The principle of determinism 70 3.3 The principle of equipresence 72 3.4 The principle of material frame-indifference 72 3.5 The principle of dissipation 75 3.6 Case study: Memory aspects of striated muscle 79 3.7 Case study: The thermo(visco)elastic effect in skeletal muscle 85 3.8 The theory of materials with fading memory 90 3.8.1 Groundwork 90 3.8.2 Fading memory 93 3.8.3 Stress relaxation 95 3.8.4 Finite linear viscoelasticity 96 4 Mixture theory 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 The basic tenets of mixture theory 99 4.3 Mass balance 101 4.4 Balance of linear momentum 102 4.4.1 Constituent balances 102 4.4.2 Mixture balance 103 4.5 Case study: Confined compression of articular cartilage 106 4.5.1 Introduction 106 4.5.2 Empirical facts 107 4.5.3 Field equations 108 4.5.4 Nonlinear creep 112 4.5.5 Hysteresis 115 4.5.6 The linearized theory 115 4.6 Energy balance 121 4.6.1 Constituent balances 121 4.6.2 Mixture balance 123 4.7 The entropy inequality 124 4.8 Chemical aspects 125 4.8.1 Stoichiometry 125 4.8.2 Thermodynamics of homogeneous systems 129 4.8.3 Enthalpy and heats of reaction 131 4.8.4 The meaning of the Helmholtz free energy 134 4.8.5 Homogeneous mixtures 135 4.8.6 Equilibrium and stability 137 4.8.7 The Gibbs free energy as a Legendre transformation 138 4.9 Ideal mixtures 140 4.9.1 The ideal gas paradigm 140 4.9.2 Mixtures of ideal gases 141 4.9.3 Other ideal mixtures 145 4.10 Case study: Bone as a chemically reacting mixture 145 Part Two Toward three spatial dimensions 151 5 Geometry and kinematics 153 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Vectors and tensors 153 5.2.1 Why Linear Algebra? 153 5.2.2 Vector spaces 155 5.2.3 Linear independence and dimension 156 5.2.4 Linear operators, tensors, matrices 158 5.2.5 Inner-product spaces 161 5.2.6 The reciprocal basis 162 5.3 Geometry of classical space-time 164 5.3.1 A shortcut 164 5.3.2 R3 as a vector space 165 5.3.3 E3 as an affine space 166 5.3.4 Frames 166 5.3.5 Space-time and observers 169 5.3.6 Fields and the divergence theorem 170 5.4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 176 5.4.1 General concepts 176 5.4.2 More on principal invariants 178 5.4.3 The symmetric case 180 5.4.4 Functions of symmetric matrices 182 5.5 Kinematics 183 5.5.1 Material bodies 183 5.5.2 Configurations, deformations, motions 183 5.5.3 The deformation gradient 185 5.5.4 Local configurations 187 5.5.5 A word on notation 187 5.5.6 Decomposition of the deformation gradient 188 5.5.7 Measures of strain 193 5.5.8 The displacement field and its gradient 194 5.5.9 The geometrically linearized theory 196 5.5.10 Volume and area 198 5.5.11 The material derivative 201 5.5.12 Change of reference configuration 203 5.5.13 The velocity gradient 204 6 Balance laws and constitutive equations 207 6.1 Preliminary notions 207 6.1.1 Extensive properties 207 6.1.2 Transport theorem 208 6.2 Balance equations 210 6.2.1 The general balance equation 210 6.2.2 The balance equations of Continuum Mechanics 214 6.3 Constitutive theory 223 6.3.1 Introduction and scope 223 6.3.2 The principle of material frame-indifference and its applications 224 6.3.3 The principle of thermodynamic consistency and its applications 228 6.4 Material symmetries 231 6.4.1 Symmetries and groups 231 6.4.2 The material symmetry group 232 6.5 Case study: The elasticity of soft tissue 236 6.5.1 Introduction 236 6.5.2 Elasticity and hyperelasticity 236 6.5.3 Incompressibility 238 6.5.4 Isotropy 241 6.5.5 Examples 242 6.6 Remarks on initial and boundary-value problems 248 7 Remodelling, aging, growth 255 7.1 Introduction 255 7.2 Discrete and semi-discrete models 262 7.2.1 Challenges 262 7.2.2 Cellular automata in tumour growth 264 7.2.3 A direct model of bone remodelling 266 7.3 The continuum approach 268 7.3.1 Introduction 268 7.3.2 The balance equations of volumetric growth and remodelling 269 7.4 Case study: tumour growth 273 7.5 Case study: Adaptive elasticity of bone 277 7.5.1 The isothermal quasi-static case 281 7.6 Anelasticity 282 7.6.1 Introduction 282 7.6.2 The notion of material isomorphism 283 7.6.3 Non-uniqueness of material isomorphisms 286 7.6.4 Uniformity and homogeneity 287 7.6.5 Anelastic response 289 7.6.6 Anelastic evolution 290 7.6.7 The Eshelby stress 296 7.7 Case study: Exercise and growth 301 7.7.1 Introduction 301 7.7.2 Checking the proposed evolution law 301 7.7.3 A numerical example 303 7.8 Case study: Bone remodelling and Wolff’s law 305 8 Principles of the Finite Element Method 309 8.1 Introductory remarks 309 8.2 Discretization procedures 310 8.2.1 Brief review of the method of finite differences 310 8.2.2 Non-traditional methods 313 8.3 The Calculus of Variations 313 8.3.1 Introduction 313 8.3.2 The simplest problem of the Calculus of Variations 315 8.3.3 The case of several unknown functions 321 8.3.4 Essential and natural boundary conditions 323 8.3.5 The case of higher derivatives 326 8.3.6 Variational problems with more than one independent variable 329 8.4 Rayleigh, Ritz, Galerkin 330 8.4.1 Introduction 330 8.4.2 The method of Rayleigh and Ritz 332 8.4.3 The methods of weighted residuals 334 8.4.4 Approximating differential equations by Galerkin’s method 336 8.5 The finite element idea 341 8.5.1 Introduction 341 8.5.2 A piecewise linear basis 343 8.5.3 Automating the procedure 348 8.6 The FEM in Solid Mechanics 353 8.6.1 The Principle of Virtual Work 353 8.6.2 The principle of stationary potential energy 358 8.7 Finite element implementation 359 8.7.1 General considerations 359 8.7.2 An ideal element 360 8.7.3 Meshing, insertion maps and the isoparametric idea 362 8.7.4 The contractibility condition and its consequences 363 8.7.5 The element IVW routine 366 8.7.6 The element EVW routine 368 8.7.7 Assembly and solution 369

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Book SynopsisFundamentals of Aerodynamics is meant to be read. The writing style is intentionally conversational in order to make the book easier to read. The book is designed to talk to the reader; in part to be a self-teaching instrument. Learning objectives have been added to each chapter to reflect what is believed to be the most important items to learn from that particular chapter. This edition emphasizes the rich theoretical and physical background of aerodynamics, and marbles in many historical notes to provide a background as to where the aerodynamic technology comes from. Also, new with this edition, are "Integrated Work Challenges" that pertain to the chapter as a whole, and give the reader the opportunity to integrate the material in that chapter, in order to solve a "bigger picture".McGraw-Hill's Connect, is also available as an optional, add on item. Connect is the only integrated learning system that empowers students by continuously adapting to deliver precisely what they Table of ContentsPart One - Fundamental Principles1) Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts2) Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental Principles and EquationsPart Two - Inviscid, Incompressible Flow3) Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flow4) Incompressible Flow over Airfoils5) Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings6) Three-Dimensional Incompressible FlowPart Three - Inviscid, Compressible Flow7) Compressible Flow: Some Preliminary Aspects8) Normal Shock Waves and Related Topics9) Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves10) Compressible Flow Through Nozzles, Diffusers, and Wind Tunnels11) Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils: Linear Theory12) Linearized Supersonic Flow13) Introduction to Numerical Techniques for Nonlinear Supersonic Flow14) Elements of Hypersonic FlowPart Four - Viscous Flow15) Introduction to the Fundamental Principles and Equations of Viscous Flow16) Some Special Cases; Couette and Poiseuille Flows17) Introduction to Boundary Layers18) Laminar Boundary Layers19) Turbulent Boundary Layers20) Navier-Stokes Solutions: Some ExamplesAppendix A - Isentropic FlowPropertiesAppendix B - Normal Shock PropertiesAppendix C - Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach AngleAppendix D - Standard Atmosphere, SI UnitsAppendix E - Standard Atmosphere, English Engineering Units

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Book SynopsisPublisher's Note: Products purchased from Third Party sellers are not guaranteed by the publisher for quality, authenticity, or access to any online entitlements included with the product.A single source of essential information for aerospace engineersThis fully revised resource presents theories and practices from more than 50 specialists in the many sub-disciplines of aeronautical and astronautical engineeringâall under one cover. The Standard Handbook for Aerospace Engineers, Second Edition, contains complete details on classic designs as well as the latest techniques, materials, and processes used in aviation, defense, and space systems. You will get insightful, practical coverage of the gamut of aerospace engineering technologies along with hundreds of informative diagrams, charts, and graphs.Standard Handbook for Aerospace Engineers, Second Edition covers:â

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Book SynopsisIn this book, two kinds of analysis based on acoustic emission recorded during mechanical tests are investigated. In the first, individual, analysis, acoustic signature of each damage mechanism is characterized. So with a clustering method, AE signals that have similar shapes or similar features can be group together into a cluster. Afterwards, each cluster can be linked with a main damage. The second analysis is based on a global AE analysis, on the investigation of liberated energy, with a view to identify a critical point. So beyond this characteristic point, the criticality can be modeled with a power-law in order to evaluate time to failure.Table of ContentsIntroduction ix Chapter 1 Acoustic Emission: Definition and Overview 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Acoustic waves 8 1.2.1 Infinite medium: volume waves 8 1.2.2 Semi-infinite medium: surface waves 9 1.2.3 Guided waves 9 1.2.4 Anisotropic medium and wave attenuation 10 1.3 The sensors and acquisition system 12 1.4 Location of sources 16 1.5 The extracted descriptors from the AE signal 21 1.5.1 Time domain descriptors 22 1.5.2 Frequency domain descriptors 26 1.5.3 Time–frequency analysis 30 1.6 The different analyses of AE data 32 1.6.1 Conventional analysis: qualitative analysis 32 1.6.2 Multivariable statistical analysis: application of pattern recognition techniques 42 1.7 Added value of quantitative acoustic emission 55 Chapter 2 Identification of the Acoustic Signature of Damage Mechanisms 59 2.1 Selection of signals for analysis 59 2.2 Acoustic signature of fiber rupture: model materials 63 2.2.1 Characterization of the fiber at the scale of the bundle 64 2.2.2 At the microcomposite scale 69 2.2.3 At the minicomposite scale 72 2.3 Discrimination using temporal descriptors of damage mechanisms in composites: single-descriptor analysis 75 2.4 Identification of the acoustic signature of composite damage mechanisms from a frequency descriptor 79 2.5 Identification of the acoustic signature of composite damage mechanisms using a time/frequency analysis 81 2.6 Modal acoustic emission 82 2.7 Unsupervised multivariable statistical analysis 84 2.7.1 Damage identification for organic matrix composites 85 2.7.2 Static fatigue damage sequence identification for a ceramic matrix composite 89 2.7.3 Identification of the cyclic fatigue damage sequence for a ceramic matrix composite 92 2.7.4 Validation of cluster labeling 96 2.8 Supervised multivariable statistical analysis 100 2.8.1 Library created from data based on model materials 100 2.8.2 Library created from structured data by unsupervised classification 103 2.9 The limits of multivariable statistical analysis based on pattern recognition techniques 104 2.9.1 Performance of algorithms 105 2.9.2 Influence of the acquisition conditions and the geometry of the samples 113 2.10 Contribution of modeling: towards quantitative acoustic emission 120 Chapter 3 Lifetime Estimation 123 3.1 Prognostic models: physical or data-oriented models 125 3.2 Generalities on power laws: link with seismology 128 3.3 Acoustic energy 133 3.3.1 Definition of acoustic energy 133 3.3.2 Taking into account coupling and definition of equivalent energy 134 3.4 Identification of critical times or characteristic times in long-term tests: towards lifetime prediction 136 3.4.1 The R AE emission coefficient 137 3.4.2 Optimal circle contribution: highlighting the critical region 139 3.4.3 The attenuation coefficient B 140 3.4.4 The R LU coefficient for cyclic fatigue tests 142 3.4.5 The coupling between acoustic energy and mechanical energy: the Sentry function 144 3.5 Simulation of the release of energy using a power law: prediction of the rupture time 146 Conclusion 151 Bibliography 153 Index 181

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Book SynopsisThis title brings together a variety of papers presented at the 9th annual Meso meeting in 2007. The topics selected for Meso 2007 are designed to illustrate the relation of thresholds to multiscaling: Flow through capillary tubes in contrast to pipes Laminar and turbulent flow transition Heat convection of thin wires in contrast to cylinders Electrical conductance of macro- and nano-circuits Rubbery and glassy polymers Single- and poly-crystal behavior Strength of wires and round cylindrical bars Uni-axial and multi-axial material: linear and non-linear response Thin and thick plate behavior Brittle and ductile fracture Small and large crack growth behavior Low and high temperature effects Local and global material property characteristics Small and large bodies: size and time effects Specimen and structure Table of ContentsSection I: Physical Mechanisms of Multiple Damage 1 Multiple hierarchical scale-dependency on physical mechanisms of material damage: macromechanical, microstructural and nanochemical 3 G.c. Sih Surface layers and inner interfaces as functional subsystems of solid 37 V.E. Panin, S.V. Panin and A.V. Panin Microstructural evolution in dual-phase steels at high strain-rates 45 M.N. Bassim and A.G. Odeshi Plastic deformation in single cryctal Ni3Fe (thin and thick plates) 55 S.V. Starenchenko, V.A. Starenchenko and LP. Radchenko Mechanisms of physical aging in polypropylene 63 G. Guero and T. Vu-Khan Section II: Physical, Mesoscopical and Multiscale Models 73 Finite element homogeneization for the determination ofthe RYE size for elastoviscoplastic Polycrystalline Materials 75 H. Haddadi and A. Salahouelhadj An incremental energy based fatigue life calculations method for metallic structures under multiaxial amplitude loadings 83 J. Benabes, N. Saintier, T. Palin-Luc and F. Cocheteux Meso/micro fatigue crack growth involving crystal structure and crack geometry 91 C.A. Rodopoulos and G. Chliveros Development of a nonlinear homogeneization method: evaluation and application to a rubber-reinforced material 105 V. Bouchart, M. Brieu, D. Kondo and M. Nait-Abdelaziz Cavitation of rubber toughened polymer: numerical and experimental investigation 113 N. Belayachi, N. Benseddiq and M. Nail-Abdelaziz Ductile damage by interface decohesion 123 N. Bonfoh, S. Tiem and P. Lipinski A multiscale discussion of fatigue and shakedown for notched structures 131 G. Bertolino, A. Constantinescu, M. Ferjani and P. Treiber Two scale approach for the defect tolerance fatigue design of automotive components 145 H. Gadouini and Y. Nadot Section III: Film, Layer and Interface 153 Plastic deformation and fracture ofthin metallic films on annealing in terms of the multilevel model ofa deformed solid 155 A.V. Panin and A.R Shugurov Mesoscopic model for electroactive Composite Films and its applications 163 D. Roy Mahapatra and RV.N. Melnik Interfaces of one-way glass/epoxy composite in inflexion 171 A. Djebbar and L. Vincent Point defects ofthe elastic properties oflayered structured nano-materials 183 T.E. Karakasidis, CA. Charitidis and D. Skarakis DFT study of interactions of water on Kaolinte and Goethite surfaces 191 D. Tunega Nanolayered MAX phases from ab initio calculations 199 R Ahuja Section IV: Crack Models and Solutions 205 Fracture initiation at re-entrant corners: experiments and finite fracture mechanics predictions 207 A. Carpinteri, P. Cornetti, N. Pugno, A. Sapora and D. Taylor Buckling analysis of cracked columns subjected to lateral loads 217 L. Nobile Micro-cavity effect on the plastic zone size ahead ofthe crack tip in confmed plasticity 229 M. El Meguenni, B. Bachir Bouiadjra, M. Benguediab, A. Ziadi, M. Nait-Abdelaziz and F. ZaYri Effect of microcrack on plastic zone size ahead of main crack in small-scale plasticity 237 B. Bachir Bouiadjra, M. Benguediab, M. El Meguenni, M. Belhouari, B. Serier and M. Nail-Abdelaziz Stress intensity factor ofsurface and interface cracks in coating/substrate system 245 Y. Bao, G. Chai, X. Lou and W. Hao T-stress by stress difference method (SDM) 253 M. Hadj Meliani, H. Moustabchir and Z. Azari Elasto-inelastic self-consistent model of ellipsoidal inclusion 261 M. Radi and A. Abdul-Latif Crack propagation in solid oxide fuel cells 271 N. Joulaee, A. Makradi, S. Ahzi and M.A. Khaleel Elastoplastic solution for an eccentric crack loaded by two pairs of point tensile forces 279 X. Zhou and H. Yang J-integral and CMOD for cracked cylinders 289 M. Kiric Oscillating contact of isotropic elastic half-spaces 297 H.Y. Yu Section V: Nanomateria1s 305 Mechanical properties of thin pulsed laser deposited amorphous carbons and amorphous carbon/silver nanocomposites 307 C.A. Charitidis, P. Patsalas, F. Chouliaras, C. Kosmidis and G.A. Evangelakis Extension of the Hertz model for accounting to surface tension in nanoindentation tests of soft materials 315 C. Fond, o. Noel and M. Brogly Multi-scale modeling of tensile behavior of carbon nanotube-reinforced composites 323 K.I. Tserpes, P. Papanikos, G.N. Labeas and S. G. Pantelakis Mechanical, thermal and electronic properties of nanoscale materials 331 K. Masuda-Jindo, V. Van Hung and M. Menon SWNT reinforced Ni-Cu nanocomposites 341 B. Lim, B. Kim, B. Sung, J. Choi, u. Shim, S. Oh, C. Kim and S. Baik Section VI: Electronic and Composite Materials 349 A general piezoelctric interface model: coordinate-free asymptotic derivation and application to the homogenization of piezoelectric composites 351 S.-T. Gu, Q.-C. He and V. Pensee Effect of non-homogeneous strain on the band structure of semi-conductors due to the end friction under compression tests 359 X.X. Wei and K.T. Chau Composite based polypropylene 369 D. Pessey, N. Bahlouli, S. Ahzi and J.M. Hiver Deformation of reinforcement on size effects in metal/metal composite 375 S. Ataya, M. Korthauer and E. El-Magd Deformation behavior of coal as a composite material and its impacts on permeability in coalbed gas reservoir 385 G.X. Wang, Z.T. Wang, V. Rudolph and P. Massarotto Characterization of a multi-cracked composite material using ESPI and phase shifting 395 L. Farge, Z. Ayadi, J. Varna and M. Nivoit Section VII: Brittle Fracture 403 Mechanism of cleavage fracture ofHSLA steels and TiAI alloys 405 C. Jianhong Strength of brittle materials based on mixture of two Weibull distributions 415 L. Guerra Rosa and 1. Figueiredo Assessment of brittle failure processes in polyolefins 429 J.P. Dear and N.S. Mason Computational modelling of damage in glass loaded with a spherical indenter 439 J. Ismail, F. ZaYri, M. Nait-Abdelaziz and Z. Azari Section VIII: Failure, Creep and Fracture 451 New approach to predicting crack path and instability 453 D.A. Zacharopoulos A fracture analysis of short glass fibre reinforced SGFR-PA66 461 B. Mouhmid, A. Imad and N. Benseddiq Elastic and plastic creep mechanism in thin metal films using FEM method 473 Y.-X. Zheng, L.-S. Niu, T.-T. Dai et H.-J. Shi A new fracture criterion under multiaxial monotonic loading for rubbers 481 A. Hamdi, M. Nait-Abdelaziz and N. Att-Hocine Section IX: Thermal, Mechanical and Environmental Effects 489 Simulation of chemo-mechanical degradations of undergroung concrete structures 491 E. Stora, B. Bary, Q.-c. He, E. Deville and P. Montarnal The geometry influence on integrity thresholds for a cracked cylinder 501 M. Kiric and A. Sedmak Progressive fracture oflaminated fiber-reinforced composite stiffened plate under thenno-mechanicalloads 509 P.K. Gotsis, c.c. Chamis, K. David, D. Xie and F. Abdi Thermal residual streses related to the sintering process of metal matrix diamond tools 519 P.M. Amaral, C. Anjinho, B. Li, L. Reis, M. de Freias and L. Guerra Rosa Mechanical and chemical effects of solvent swelling on butyl rubber 527 C. Nohile, P.l. Dolez and T. Vu-Khanh Section X: Processing and Fabrication 535 Microstructure-based formability characterisation of multi phase steels using damage mechanics 537 V. Uthaisangsuk, U. Prahl and W. Bleck Advanced materials and processes at the nano/micro scale in covering materials of greenhouses for energy savings 545 C.A. Charitidis, S. Pantelakis, V. Bontozoglou, L. Kontonasios, A. Kavga and P. Charitidis Effect of PPS matrix evolution during processing of carbon fiber reinforced PPS on the mechanical behaviour of the composite material 553 C.V. Katsiropoulos, P. Lefebure and S.G. Pantelakis Coupling of hydration and fracture models: failure mechanisms in hydrating cement particle systems 563 L. Tan, G. Ye, E. Schlangen and K. van Breugel Micro-strain measurement in copper sheets by X-rays diffraction 573 N. Hfaiedh, M. Francois, A. Baczmanski and K. Saanouni Steady plastic flow of a polymer during ECAE process: experiments and modelling 581 F. Zaui, B. Aour, M. Nait-Abdelaziz, 1. M. Gloaguen and 1.M. Lefebvre Microscopic transformations explain the modification of the mechanical properties of TRIP steels after galvanization 593 EJ. Petit, 1. Sriti, M. Gilles, 1. Gilgert and Z. Azari Section XI: Fatigue and Crack Growth 603 Fatigue performance of2139 aluminium alloy laser beam welds following exposure to salt spray environmnent 605 S.G. Pantelakis, AT. Kermanidis, G.A. Papadimitriou, G.N. Haidemenopoulos and A.D. Zervaki A comparison of the fatigue behaviour ofFSW and MIG weldments of two aluminium alloys 613 P.M.G.P. Moreira, R.A.M. da Silva, M.A.V. de Figueiredo, F.M.F. de Oliveira and P.M.S.T. de Castro Useful life prediction of rubber materials for refrigerator component 623 C.S. Woo and H.S. Park Damage by cyclic loading of composite dental materials 631 L. Smata, S. Bouzid and Z. Azari High temperature oxidation and fatigue ofP122 alloy 641 S.Y. Bae, H. G. Kang, D.B. Lee, C.W. Kim and B.S. Lim Fatigue crack growth rate under constant amplitude loading and under tensile overloads in sheet and plate 2024 aluminium alloy 649 A.T. Kermanidis, V.K. Spiliadis and S.G. Pantelakis Residual fatigue damage on the fracture toughness properties 657 P. Cadenas, X. Decoopman, A. Amrouche and G. Mesmacque Role of stress gradient in fatigue emanating from notch roots using volumetric method 665 G. Pluvinage Section XII: Vibration, Ultrasonic and Impact 679 Lateral vibration of a cracked free-free beam 681 T.G. Chondros Ultrasonic impact related to toughness of cast aluminium alloy 691 E.S. Statnikov and V.N. Vityazev Physics and mechanics of ultrasonic impact 701 E.Statnikov Application of ultrasound to accelerate fatigue 711 E.S. Statnikov and V.Y. Korostel A comparative study of the fatigue resistance of aluminide coatings on P91 steel substrate under cyclic impact loading 721 C. David, K. Anthymidis and D.N. Tsipas Dynamic behavior ofTiNi cantilever beams with phase transformation 729 Z. Tang, J. Lu, X. Zhang Section XIII: Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics 739 Magnetic field on stress intensification in soft ferromagnetic materials 741 Y. Shindo, I. Shindo and F. Narita Pattern formation in the Taylor-Dean flow 749 A. Ait Aider, S. Skali, J.P. Brancher and A. Chahine Flow field and heat transfer in chaotic-advector fins 761 Q. Dong, K. Wang, S. Kong and Y. Wang Heat conduction properties of PTFE/graphite-based composites 769 M. Liu, Q. Dong, X. Gu and A. Sun Section XIV: Micromechanical Damage and Effects 777 A "morphological" approach for modelling the anisotropic damage behaviour of highly-filled particulate composites 779 C. Nadot, S. Dartois, D. Halm, A. Dragon and A. Fanget Determination ofthe macroscopic plastic yield behaviour of micro cracked materials 789 V. Monchiet, E. Charkaluk and D. Kondo A non-local anisotropic micromechanics based damage model applied to concrete 797 Q. Zhu and I-F. Shao Mechanical and hydraulic effective properties of an anisotropic fractured medium 805 J-F. Barthelemy Index of authors 813

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Book SynopsisFundamental elementary facts and theoretical tools for the interpretation and model development of solid-gas interactions are first presented in this work. Chemical, physical and electrochemical aspects are presented from a phenomenological, thermodynamic and kinetic point of view. The theoretical aspects of electrical properties on the surface of a solid are also covered to provide greater accessibility for those with a physico-chemical background. The second part is devoted to the development of devices for gas detection in a system approach. Methods for experimental investigations concerning solid-gas interactions are first described. Results are then presented in order to support the contribution made by large metallic elements to the electronic processes associated with solid-gas interactions.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Chapter 1. Adsorption Phenomena 1 1.1. The surface of solids: general points 1 1.2. Illustration of adsorption 2 1.2.1. The volumetric method or manometry 3 1.2.2. The gravimetric method or thermogravimetry 4 1.3. Acting forces between a gas molecule and the surface of a solid 4 1.3.1. Van der Waals forces 4 1.3.2. Expression of the potential between a molecule and a solid 6 1.3.3. Chemical forces between a gas species and the surface of a solid 7 1.3.4. Distinction between physical and chemical adsorption 8 1.4. Thermodynamic study of physical adsorption 8 1.4.1. The different models of adsorption 8 1.4.2. The Hill model 9 1.4.3. The Hill-Everett model 10 1.4.4. Thermodynamics of the adsorption equilibrium in Hill’s model 10 1.4.4.1. Formulating the equilibrium 10 1.4.4.2. Isotherm equation 11 1.4.5. Thermodynamics of adsorption equilibrium in the Hill-Everett model 12 1.5. Physical adsorption isotherms 13 1.5.1. General points 13 1.5.2. Adsorption isotherms of mobile monolayers 15 1.5.3. Adsorption isotherms of localized monolayers 15 1.5.3.1. Thermodynamic method 16 1.5.3.2. The kinetic model 17 1.5.4. Multilayer adsorption isotherms 18 1.5.4.1. Isotherm equation 18 1.6. Chemical adsorption isotherms 23 1.7. Bibliography 27 Chapter 2. Structure of Solids: Physico-chemical Aspects 29 2.1. The concept of phases 29 2.2. Solid solutions 31 2.3. Point defects in solids 33 2.4. Denotation of structural members of a crystal lattice 34 2.5. Formation of structural point defects 36 2.5.1. Formation of defects in a solid matrix 36 2.5.2. Formation of defects involving surface elements 37 2.5.3. Concept of elementary hopping step 38 2.6. Bibliography 38 Chapter 3. Gas-Solid Interactions: Electronic Aspects 39 3.1. Introduction 39 3.2. Electronic properties of gases 39 3.3. Electronic properties of solids 40 3.3.1. Introduction 40 3.3.2. Energy spectrum of a crystal lattice electron 41 3.3.2.1. Reminder about quantum mechanics principles. 41 3.3.2.2. Band diagrams of solids 45 3.3.2.3. Effective mass of an electron 52 3.4. Electrical conductivity in solids 55 3.4.1. Full bands 55 3.4.2. Partially occupied bands 56 3.5. Influence of temperature on the electric behavior of solids 57 3.5.1. Band diagram and Fermi level of conductors 57 3.5.2. Case of intrinsic semiconductors 61 3.5.3. Case of extrinsic semiconductors 62 3.5.4. Case of materials with point defects 64 3.5.4.1. Metal oxides with anion defects, denoted by MO1x 65 3.5.4.2. Metal oxides with cation vacancies, denoted by M1xO 66 3.5.4.3. Metal oxides with interstitial cations, denoted by M1+xO 67 3.5.4.4. Metal oxides with interstitial anions, denoted by MO1+x 67 3.6. Bibliography 68 Chapter 4. Interfacial Thermodynamic Equilibrium Studies 69 4.1. Introduction 69 4.2. Interfacial phenomena 70 4.3. Solid-gas equilibriums involving electron transfers or electron holes 71 4.3.1. Concept of surface states 72 4.3.2. Space-charge region (SCR) 73 4.3.3. Electronic work function 77 4.3.3.1. Case of a semiconductor in the absence of surface states 77 4.3.3.2. Case of a semiconductor in the presence of surface states 78 4.3.3.3. Physicists’ and electrochemists’ denotation systems 79 4.3.4. Influence of adsorption on the electron work functions 80 4.3.4.1. Influence of adsorption on the surface barrier VS 80 4.3.4.2. Influence of adsorption on the dipole component VD. 90 4.4. Solid-gas equilibriums involving mass and charge transfers 91 4.4.1. Solids with anion vacancies 92 4.4.2. Solids with interstitial cations 94 4.4.3. Solids with interstitial anions 94 4.4.4. Solids with cation vacancies 96 4.5. Homogenous semiconductor interfaces 97 4.5.1. The electrostatic potential is associated with the intrinsic energy level 103 4.5.2. Electrochemical aspect 104 4.5.3. Polarization of the junction. 107 4.6. Heterogenous junction of semiconductor metals 107 4.7. Bibliography 108 Chapter 5. Model Development for Interfacial Phenomena 109 5.1. General points on process kinetics 109 5.1.1. Linear chain 111 5.1.1.1. Pure kinetic case hypothesis 114 5.1.1.2. Bodenstein’s stationary state hypothesis 118 5.1.1.3. Evolution of the rate according to time and gas pressure 119 5.1.1.4. Diffusion in a homogenous solid phase 121 5.1.2. Branched processes 125 5.2. Electrochemical aspect of kinetic processes 126 5.3. Expression of mixed potential 133 5.4. Bibliography 136 Chapter 6. Apparatus for Experimental Studies: Examples of Applications 137 6.1. Introduction 137 6.2. Calorimetry 138 6.2.1. General points 138 6.2.1.1. Theoretical aspect of Tian-Calvet calorimeters 139 6.2.1.2. Seebeck effect 139 6.2.1.3. Peltier effect 140 6.2.1.4. Tian equation 140 6.2.1.5. Description of a Tian-Calvet device 142 6.2.1.6. Thermogram profile 144 6.2.1.7. Examples of applications 146 6.3. Thermodesorption 156 6.3.1. Introduction 156 6.3.2. Theoretical aspect 157 6.3.3. Display of results 161 6.3.3.1. Tin dioxide 161 6.3.3.2. Nickel oxide 163 6.4. Vibrating capacitor methods 172 6.4.1. Contact potential difference 172 6.4.2. Working principle of the vibrating capacitor method 176 6.4.2.1. Introduction 176 6.4.2.2. Theoretical study of the vibrating capacitor method 176 6.4.3. Advantages of using the vibrating capacitor technique 179 6.4.3.1. The materials studied 179 6.4.3.2. Temperature conditions 179 6.4.3.3. Pressure conditions 181 6.4.4. The constraints 181 6.4.4.1. The reference electrode 181 6.4.4.2. Capacitance modulation 182 6.4.5. Display of experimental results 182 6.4.5.1. Study of interactions between oxygen and tin dioxide 184 6.4.5.2. Study of interactions between oxygen and beta-alumina 185 6.5. Electrical interface characterization 187 6.5.1. General points 187 6.5.2. Direct-current measurement 189 6.5.3. Alternating-current measurement 191 6.5.3.1. General points 191 6.5.3.2. Principle of the impedance spectroscopy technique 191 6.5.4. Application of impedance spectroscopy – experimental results 196 6.5.4.1. Protocol 196 6.5.4.2. Experimental results: characteristics specific to each material 197 6.5.5. Evolution of electrical parameters according to temperature 202 6.5.6. Evolution of electrical parameters according to pressure 208 6.6. Bibliography 212 Chapter 7. Material Elaboration 215 7.1. Introduction 215 7.2. Tin dioxide 216 7.2.1. The compression of powders 216 7.2.1.1. Elaboration process and structural properties 216 7.2.1.2. Influence of the morphological parameters on the electric properties 217 7.2.2. Reactive evaporation 219 7.2.2.1. Experimental device 219 7.2.2.2. Measure of the source temperature 222 7.2.2.3. Thickness measure 222 7.2.2.4. Experimental process 224 7.2.2.5. Structure and properties of the films 224 7.2.3. Chemical vapor deposition: deposit contained between 50 and 300 Å 236 7.2.3.1. General points 236 7.2.3.2. Device description 238 7.2.3.3. Structural characterization of the material 242 7.2.3.4. Influence of the experimental parameters on the physico-chemical properties of the films 245 7.2.3.5. Influence of the structure parameters on the electric properties of the films 250 7.2.4. Elaboration of thick films using serigraphy 252 7.2.4.1. Method description 252 7.2.4.2. Ink elaboration 253 7.2.4.3. Structural characterization of thick films made with tin dioxide 254 7.3. Beta-alumina 255 7.3.1. General properties 255 7.3.2. Material elaboration 257 7.3.3. Material shaping 261 7.3.3.1. Mono-axial compression 261 7.3.3.2. Serigraphic process 262 7.3.4. Characterization of materials 263 7.3.4.1. Physico-chemical characterization of the sintered materials 263 7.3.4.2. Physico-chemical treatment of the thick films 266 7.3.5. Electric characterization 273 7.4. Bibliography 275 Chapter 8. Influence of the Metallic Components on the Electrical Response of the Sensors 277 8.1. Introduction 277 8.2. General points 278 8.2.1. Methods to deposit the metallic parts on the sensitive element 278 8.2.2. Role of the metallic elements on the sensors’ response 279 8.2.3. Role of the metal: catalytic aspects 282 8.2.3.1. Spill-over mechanism 283 8.2.3.2. Reverse spill-over mechanism 284 8.2.3.3. Electronic effect mechanism 284 8.2.3.4. Influence of the metal nature on the involved mechanism 286 8.3. Case study: tin dioxide 288 8.3.1. Choice of the samples 288 8.3.2. Description of the reactor 289 8.3.3. Experimental results 291 8.3.3.1. Influence of the oxygen pressure on the electric conductivity 291 8.3.3.2. Influence of the reducing gas on the electric conductions 295 8.4. Case study: beta-alumina 296 8.4.1. Device and experimental process 297 8.4.2. Influence of the nature of the electrodes on the measured voltage 298 8.4.2.1. Study of the different couples of metallic electrodes 299 8.4.2.2. Electric response to polluting gases 301 8.4.3. Influence of the electrode size 303 8.4.3.1. Description of the studied devices 303 8.4.3.2. Study of the electric response according to the experimental conditions 304 8.5. Conclusion 306 8.6. Bibliography 307 Chapter 9. Development and Use of Different Gas Sensors 309 9.1. General points on development and use 309 9.2. Examples of gas sensor development 310 9.2.1. Sensors elaborated using sintered materials 310 9.2.2. Sensors produced with serigraphed sensitive materials 312 9.3. Device designed for the laboratory assessment of sensitive elements and/or sensors to gas action 316 9.3.1. Measure cell for sensitive materials 317 9.3.2. Test bench for complete sensors 319 9.3.3. Measure of the signal 319 9.3.3.1. Measure of the electric conductance 319 9.3.3.2. Measure of the potential 322 9.4. Assessment of performance in the laboratory 322 9.4.1. Assessment of the performances of tin dioxide in the presence of gases 322 9.4.2. Assessment of beta-alumina in the presence of oxygen 327 9.4.2.1. Device and experimental process 327 9.4.2.2. Electric response to the action of oxygen 327 9.4.3. Assessment of the performances of beta-alumina in the presence of carbon monoxide 329 9.4.3.1. Measurement device 329 9.4.3.2. Electric results 329 9.5. Assessment of the sensor working for an industrial application 332 9.5.1. Detection of hydrogen leaks on a cryogenic engine 333 9.5.1.1. Context of the study 333 9.5.1.2. Study of performances in the presence of hydrogen 333 9.5.1.3. Test carried out in an industrial environment 337 9.5.2. Application of the resistant sensor to atmospheric pollutants in an urban environment 341 9.5.2.1. Measurement campaign conducted at Lyon in 1988 342 9.5.2.2. Measurement campaign conducted at Saint Etienne in 1998 345 9.5.3. Application of the potentiometric sensor to the control of car exhaust gas 347 9.5.3.1. Strategy implemented to control the emission of nitrogen oxides 347 9.5.3.2. Strategy implemented to control nitrogen oxide traps 349 9.5.3.3. Results relative to the nitrogen oxides traps 350 9.6. Amelioration of the selectivity properties 352 9.6.1. Amelioration of the selective detection properties of SnO2 sensors using metallic filters 352 9.6.1.1. Development of a sensor using a rhodium filter 352 9.6.1.2. Development of a sensor using a platinum filter 354 9.6.2. Development of mechanical filters 356 9.6.2.1. Development of a sensor detecting hydrogen 356 9.6.2.2. Development of a protective film for potentiometric sensors 356 9.7. Bibliography 359 Chapter 10. Models and Interpretation of Experimental Results 361 10.1. Introduction 361 10.2. Nickel oxide 362 10.2.1. Kinetic model 365 10.2.2. Simulation of a kinetic model using analog electric circuits 370 10.2.2.1. Simulation of the curves displaying a maximum 370 10.2.2.2. Simulation of the curves displaying a plateau 377 10.2.3. Physical significance of the measured electric conductivity 380 10.3. Beta-alumina 380 10.3.1. Physico-chemical and physical aspects of a phenomenon taking place at the electrodes 380 10.3.1.1. Oxygen species present at the surface of the device 380 10.3.1.2. Origin of the electric potential 384 10.3.2. Expression of the model 385 10.3.2.1. The electrode potential 385 10.3.2.2. Expression of the coverage degree 389 10.3.2.3. Expression of the theoretical potential difference at the poles of the device 394 10.3.3. Simulation of the results obtained with oxygen 395 10.3.3.1. Behavior as a function of temperature and pressure 395 10.3.3.2. Behavior as a function of electrode size 397 10.3.3.3. Evolution of the surface potential 399 10.3.4. Simulation of the phenomenon in the presence of CO 401 10.3.4.1. Description of the mechanisms considered 401 10.3.4.2. Oxidation mechanisms of carbon monoxide 402 10.3.4.3. Results of the simulation 405 10.4. Tin dioxide 409 10.4.1. Introduction 409 10.4.2. Proposition for a physico-chemical model 410 10.4.3. Phenomenon at the electrodes and role of the thickness of the sensitive film 415 10.4.3.1. Calculation of the conductance G as a function of the thickness of the film 416 10.4.3.2. Mathematical simulation 423 10.5. Bibliography 428 Index 431

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Book SynopsisOptoelectronic sensors combine optical and electronic systems for numerous applications including pressure sensors, security systems, atmospheric particle measurement, close tolerance measurement, quality control, and more. This title provides an examination of the latest research in photonics and electronics in the areas of sensors.Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Introduction to Semiconductor Photodetectors 1 Franck OMNES 1.1. Brief overview of semiconductor materials 1 1.2. Photodetection with semiconductors: basic phenomena 3 1.3. Semiconductor devices 4 1.4. p-n junctions and p-i-n structures 5 1.5. Avalanche effect in p-i-n structures 7 1.6. Schottky junction 8 1.7. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) structures 10 1.8. Operational parameters of photodetectors 11 Chapter 2. PIN Photodiodes for the Visible and Near-Infrared 15 Baudoin DE CREMOUX 2.1. Introduction 15 2.2. Physical processes occurring in photodiodes 17 2.3. Static characteristics of PIN photodiodes 25 2.4. Dynamic characteristics of PIN photodiodes 34 2.5. Semiconductor materials used in PIN photodiodes for the visible and near-infrared 42 2.6. New photodiode structures 49 2.7. Bibliography 55 Chapter 3. Avalanche Photodiodes 57 Gérard RIPOCHE and Joseph HARARI 3.1. Introduction 57 3.2. History 58 3.3. The avalanche effect 60 3.4. Properties of avalanche photodiodes 66 3.5. Technological considerations 76 3.6. Silicon avalanche photodiodes 80 3.7. Avalanche photodiodes based on gallium arsenide 88 3.8. Germanium avalanche photodiodes 90 3.9. Avalanche photodiodes based on indium phosphate (InP) 95 3.10. III-V low-noise avalanche photodiodes 100 3.11. Prospects 104 3.12. Conclusion 106 3.13. Bibliography 107 Chapter 4. Phototransistors 111 Carmen GONZALEZ and Antoine MARTY 4.1. Introduction 111 4.2. Phototransistors 112 4.3. The bipolar phototransistor: description and principles of operation 118 4.4. Photodetector circuits based on phototransistors 140 4.5. Applications 142 4.6. Conclusion 150 4.7. Bibliography 151 Chapter 5. Metal-Semiconductor-Metal Photodiodes 155 Joseph HARARI and Vincent MAGNIN 5.1. Introduction 155 5.2. Operation and structure 156 5.3. Static and dynamic characteristics 165 5.4. Integration possibilities and conclusion 177 5.5. Bibliography 178 Chapter 6. Ultraviolet Photodetectors 181 Franck OMNES and Eva MONROY 6.1. Introduction 181 6.2. The UV-visible contrast 189 6.3. Si and SiC photodetectors for UV photodetection 190 6.4. UV detectors based on III-V nitrides 195 6.5. Conclusion 216 6.6. Bibliography 218 Chapter 7. Noise in Photodiodes and Photoreceiver Systems 223 Robert ALABEDRA and Dominique RIGAUD 7.1. Mathematical tools for noise 224 7.2. Fundamental noise sources 227 7.3. Excess noise 232 7.4. Analysis of noise electrical circuits 235 7.5. Noise in photodetectors 239 7.6. Noise optimization of photodetectors 245 7.7. Calculation of the noise of a photoreceiver 253 7.8. Comments and conclusions 266 7.9. Bibliography 268 List of Authors 269 Index 271

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Book SynopsisSince the beginning of the century, electrical engineering technologies and applications have pervaded daily life and are present in the majority of everyday products, tools, and appliances. Increasingly these applications are becoming more prevalent in the automotive vehicle and products market. While change in this field has been relatively slow over the last ten last years, the pace of change is now beginning to accelerate and we are witnessing a wave driven by regulatory constraints and market laws which are sweeping away the last bastions of resistance. This book discusses both the historical and scientific issues surrounding the application of electrical technology in the automotive drives field, as well as potential future developments, such as hybrid vehicles and fuel cells. In the current context of energy conservation, pollution prevention, and carbon control, this book will provide an important and timely examination of a potentially enormous new market.Table of ContentsPreface ix Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Joseph BERETTA 1.1. Automotive constraints 1 1.2. Key figures from the automotive industry – data from the CCFA (association of French car manufacturers) 2 Chapter 2. Basic Definitions 5 Joseph BERETTA 2.1. Basic concepts 5 2.1.1. Basics of automotive energy. 5 2.1.2. Basics of automotive dynamics 7 2.2. The different electric drive-train systems 10 2.2.1. Basic definitions 10 2.2.2. Definitions of drive-train systems 14 2.2.3. Thermal-electric hybrid systems 19 2.2.4. Complex hybrids 22 Chapter 3. Electric-Powered Vehicles 27 Joseph BERETTA, Cyriacus BLEIJS, François BADIN and Thierry ALLEAU 3.1. History 27 3.2. Battery-powered electric vehicles 31 3.2.1. Battery sizing 31 3.2.2. Vehicle specifications 33 3.2.3. Calculating the vehicle weights 34 3.2.4. Application on a small vehicle 37 3.3. Recharging systems for electric vehicles 40 3.3.1. What is battery charging? 41 3.3.2. The various types of chargers 41 3.3.3. Recharging efficiency 49 3.3.4. Recharging in complete safety 50 3.4. Thermal/electric hybrid vehicles 53 3.4.1. Assessment of traditional motorizations 53 3.4.2. Implementation of hybrid transmissions 69 3.4.3. Context of research concerning hybrid transmission 74 3.4.4. Functionalities of hybrid architectures 82 3.4.5. Evaluation of hybrid vehicles 110 3.4.6. The first vehicles on the market 118 3.5. Fuel-cell vehicles 144 3.5.1. History, introduction 144 3.5.2. Choosing the kind of fuel cell 145 3.6. Bibliography 169 3.7. Summary table of fuel-cell (PEM) vehicle prototypes (as of February 2005) 169 Chapter 4. The Components of Electric-Powered Vehicles 173 Joseph BERETTA, Jean BONAL and Thierry ALLEAU 4.1. Electric motors 175 4.2. Electronic converters 180 4.2.1. Characteristics of electric vehicles 180 4.2.2. Components of electronic converters 181 4.3.3. Generators – receivers – sources 182 4.3.4. Rectifiers 185 4.3.5. Choppers 186 4.3.6. Inverters 202 4.3. Batteries and static storage systems 207 4.3.1. The different electrochemical couples for batteries 207 4.3.2. Positioning of Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries for different applications 213 4.3.3. Recycling processes 215 4.4. The fuel cell and on-board fuel storage 217 4.4.1. History of the fuel cell 217 4.4.2. The different fuel-cell technologies 220 4.4.3. The PEM fuel cell 223 4.4.4. Technology and cost of fuel-cell components 235 4.4.5. Peripherals of the fuel cell 241 4.4.6. Numerical modeling of the fuel cell 246 4.4.7. The fuel and its storage 249 4.4.8. Conclusions. 264 4.5. Bibliography 266 Chapter 5. Prospects and Evolutions of Electric-Powered Vehicles: What Technologies by 2015? 269 Joseph BERETTA 5.1. Mobility 269 5.2. New technologies 274 5.2.1. Electric motors 276 5.2.2. Electronic power systems 278 5.2.3. Electric energy sources 279 5.3. New cars 282 Automobile Glossary 291 Appendices 313 Appendix 1. European regulation emissions for light vehicles 313 Appendix 2.a. Example of hybrid parallel transmission with flywheel storage 314 Appendix 2.b. Example of hybrid parallel transmission with oleo-pneumatic storage 314 Appendix 3. Example of function allocation 315 Appendix 4. Toyota Prius engine 316 List of authors 317 Index 319

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Book SynopsisIn recent years, the application of composite materials has increased in various areas of science and technology due to their special properties, namely for use in the aircraft, automotive, defence, aerospace and other advanced industries. Machining composite materials is quite a complex task owing to its heterogenity, and to the fact that reinforcements are extremely abrasive. In modern engineering, high demands are placed on components made of composites in relation to their dimensional precision as well as their surface quality. Due to these potential applications, there is a great need to understand the questions associated with machining composite materials. This book aims to provide the fundamentals and the recent advances in the machining of composite materials (polymers, metals and ceramics) for modern manufacturing engineering. The three parts of the book cover the machining of polymeric, metal and ceramic matrix composites. This book can be used as a text book for the final year of an undergraduate engineering course or for those studying machining/composites at the postgraduate level. It can also serve as a useful work of reference for academics, manufacturing and materials researchers, manufacturing and mechanical engineers, and professionals in composite technology and related industries.Trade Review"This book should be very useful to anyone machining or cutting composite parts to final shape in order to avoid damaging expensive parts." (Materials World, 1 July 2011) "Focusing on polymers, metals and ceramics, this title provides background and coverage of recent advances in machining composites in modern manufacturing engineering." (Materials World, 1 January 2011).Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Mechanics and Modeling of Machining Polymer Matrix Composites Reinforced by Long Fibers 1 Liangchi ZHANG 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Orthogonal cutting 2 1.3. Cutting force modeling 13 1.4. Drilling 21 1.5. Abrasive machining 35 1.6. Concluding notes 35 1.7. References 36 Chapter 2. Machinability Aspects of Polymer Matrix Composites 39 Franck GIROT, Luis Norberto LÓPEZ DE LACALLE, Aitzol LAMIKIZ, Daniel ILIESCU and Mª Esther GUTIÉRREZ 2.1. The machining of polymer composites 40 2.2. Tools 41 2.3. Cutting mechanisms in composite materials 54 2.4. Composite material damage due to machining 65 2.5. Milling of composite materials 70 2.6. Turning of composite materials 101 2.7. Conclusions 106 2.8. Acknowledgments 107 2.9. References 107 Chapter 3. Drilling Technology 113 Alexandre M. ABRÃO, Juan C. CAMPOS RUBIO, Paulo E. FARIA and J. Paulo DAVIM 3.1. Introduction 113 3.2. Standard and special tools 117 3.3. Cutting parameters 123 3.4. Tool wear 125 3.5. Drilling forces 131 3.6. Surface integrity 140 3.7. Dimensional and geometric deviations 153 3.8. Conclusions 157 3.9. Acknowledgements 159 3.10. References 159 Chapter 4. Abrasive Water Jet Machining of Composites 167 François CÉNAC, Francis COLLOMBET, Michel DÉLÉRIS and Rédouane ZITOUNE. 4.1. Introduction 167 4.2. Brief history of AWJT 168 4.3. AWJ machining process 168 4.4. AWJ cutting process 171 4.5. Quality of the kerf 172 4.6. AWJ cutting of composite materials 173 4.7. Applications 176 4.8. Perspectives 178 4.9. AWJ milling of composite materials 178 4.10. References 180 Chapter 5. Machining Metal Matrix Composites 181 Alokesh PRAMANIK and Liangchi ZHANG 5.1. Introduction 181 5.2. Conventional machining 182 5.3. Non-conventional machining 190 5.4. Tool−workpiece interaction 195 5.5. Summary 203 5.6. References 203 Chapter 6. Machining Ceramic Matrix Composites 213 Mark J. JACKSON and Tamara NOVAKOV 6.1. Introduction 213 6.2. Electro-discharge machining of CMCs 213 6.3. Water jet machining of CMCs 226 6.4. Laser machining of CMCs 227 6.5. Ultrasonic machining of CMCs 234 6.6. Application of CMCs: cutting tool inserts 245 6.7. Review of various technologies for machining CMCs 251 6.8. References 253 List of Authors 257 Index 261

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Book SynopsisThis book presents a study of the stability of mechanical systems, i.e. their free response when they are removed from their position of equilibrium after a temporary disturbance. After reviewing the main analytical methods of the dynamical stability of systems, it highlights the fundamental difference in nature between the phenomena of forced resonance vibration of mechanical systems subjected to an imposed excitation and instabilities that characterize their free response. It specifically develops instabilities arising from the rotor–structure coupling, instability of control systems, the self-sustained instabilities associated with the presence of internal damping and instabilities related to the fluid–structure coupling for fixed and rotating structures. For an original approach following the analysis of instability phenomena, the book provides examples of solutions obtained by passive or active methods.Table of ContentsForeword ix Philippe ROESCH Preface xiii Chapter 1. Notions of Instability 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.1.1. Lyapunov’s Direct Method 3 1.1.2. Lyapunov’s Indirect Method 5 1.2. Comparison of Notions of Resonance and Instability 8 1.2.1. Notion of Resonance 8 1.2.2. Notion of Instability 22 1.3. Instability Due to Self-Sustained Excitation 23 1.3.1. Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 24 1.3.2. Single-Degree-of-Freedom System 46 1.4. Parametric Instability 54 1.4.1. General Case 54 1.4.2. Mathieu’s Equation 54 1.4.3. Typical Application 57 1.5. Summary of Methods Used to Ensure or Increase the Stability of a System 60 1.5.1. Notion of Degrees of Stability 60 1.5.2. Main Corrector Systems 67 Chapter 2. Rotor/Structure Coupling: Examples of Ground Resonance and Air Resonance 91 2.1. Introduction to Ground Resonance 91 2.2. Ground Resonance Modeling 99 2.2.1. Minimum Degree-of-Freedom Model 99 2.2.2. Stability Criteria 110 2.2.3. Energy Analysis 113 2.3. Active Control of Ground Resonance 115 2.3.1. Active Control Algorithm 115 2.3.2. Performance Indicators 135 2.3.3. Implementation of Active Control 137 2.4. Air Resonance 143 2.4.1. Phenomenon Description 143 2.4.2. Modeling and Setting Up Equations 144 2.4.3. Active Control of Air Resonance 149 Chapter 3. Torsional System: Instability of Closed-Loop Systems 153 3.1. Introduction 153 3.2. Governing Principle 153 3.2.1. History and Sizing of Flyball Governor 154 3.2.2. Simple Mathematical Sizing Criterion 155 3.2.3. Physical Analysis of Criterion and Effect of Parameters 164 3.3. Industrial Cases 168 3.3.1. Case of Airplane With Variable-Setting Angle Propeller Rotor 168 3.3.2. Case of Tiltrotor Aircraft 175 3.3.3. Case of Helicopter 176 Chapter 4. Self-Sustaining Instability for Rotating Shafts 201 4.1. Introduction to Self-Sustaining Instability 201 4.2. Modeling of Effect of Internal Damping on Rotating Systems 206 4.2.1. Instability Origins 206 4.2.2. Highlighting Instability 207 4.2.3. Stability Criterion for a Flexible Shaft 222 Chapter 5. Fluid-Structure Interaction 245 5.1. Introduction 245 5.1.1. Fluid-Structure Interaction Issues 245 5.1.2. Instability and Energy Analysis 246 5.1.3. Brief Description of Flutter 248 5.2. Flutter of an Airfoil in an Airstream 250 5.2.1. Setting Up Equations 252 5.2.2. Industrial Examples 259 5.3. Whirl Flutter 312 5.3.1. Introduction to Convertible Aircraft Case 313 5.3.2. Enhanced Convertible Aircraft Rotor Reed’s Modeling – Stability 315 5.3.3. Whirl Flutter Active Control: Case of Tilt Rotor 326 Bibliography 335 Index 339

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Book SynopsisAccording to the NACFAM (National Council for Advanced Manufacturing, USA) Sustainable Manufacturing is defined "as the creation of manufactured products that use processes that are non-polluting, conserve energy and natural resources, and are economically sound and safe for employees, communities, and consumers." The book covers Sustainable Manufacturing techniques such as materials and manufacturing for renewable energies; clean manufacturing technology; ecological manufacturing; energy-efficient manufacturing; remanufacturing; recycling of materials; environmentally conscious design and manufacturing processes; sustainable advanced manufacturing systems; manufacturability in sustainable product design; education and training for sustainable manufacturing.Table of ContentsPreface ix Chapter 1. Environmental Impact in Micro-device Manufacturing 1Jong-Leng LIOW 1.1. Introduction 2 1.2. Role of LCA 7 1.3. Energy consideration in micro-manufacturing 14 1.4. Energy consideration in micro-end-milling manufacturing 22 1.5. Conclusions 28 1.6. References 29 Chapter 2. Cutting Tool Sustainability 33Viktor P. ASTAKHOV 2.1. Introduction 33 2.2. Statistical reliability of cutting tools as quantification of their sustainability 37 2.3. Construction of the probability density function of the tool flank wear distribution with tool test results 50 2.4. Tool quality and the variance of tool life 58 2.5. The Bernstein distribution 59 2.6. Concept of physical resources of the cutting tool 67 2.7. References 76 Chapter 3. Minimum Quantity Lubrication in Machining 79Vinayak N. GAITONDE, Ramesh S. KARNIK and J. Paulo DAVIM 3.1. Introduction 79 3.2. The state-of-the-art research for MQL in machining 84 3.3. Case studies on MQL in machining 90 3.4. Summary 104 3.5. Acknowledgments 105 3.6. References 105 Chapter 4. Application of Minimum Quantity Lubrication in Grinding 111Eduardo Carlos BIANCHI, Paulo Roberto de AGUIAR, Leonardo Roberto da SILVA and Rubens Chinali CANARIM 4.1. Introduction 111 4.2. Minimum quantity lubrication 114 4.3. Results 122 4.4. Conclusions 169 4.5. Acknowledgments 170 4.6. References 170 Chapter 5. Single-Point Incremental Forming 173Maria Beatriz SILVA, Niels BAY and Paulo A.F. MARTINS 5.1. Introduction 173 5.2. Incremental sheet forming processes 174 5.3. Analytical framework 179 5.4. FE background 187 5.5. Experimental 191 5.6. Results and discussion 195 5.7. Examples of applications 203 5.8. Conclusions 206 5.9. References 206 Chapter 6. Molding of Spent Rubber from Tire Recycling 211Fabrizio QUADRINI, Alessandro GUGLIELMOTTI, Carmine LUCIGNANO and Vincenzo TAGLIAFERRI 6.1. Introduction 212 6.2. State of the art of tire recycling 215 6.3. Direct molding of rubber particles 221 6.4. Experimental results 225 6.5. Concluding remarks 233 6.6. References 234 List of Authors 241 Index 245

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Book SynopsisAn electric drive that is designed or adapted to a specific application must take into account all the elements of the chain of constituent elements in its use and deployment. In addition to the motor, the transmission, power electronics, control, sensors, and electrical protection systems must be taken into account. The motor and the transmission can be optimized and designed to obtain the best energy efficiency assessment, in particular for dynamic nodes. An inventory and a characterization of these various components is proposed as part of this book’s examination and explanation of the different technology elements, as well as a dynamic model of the system, with the whole system constituting a methodology for integrated electric drive design.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction – Electric Drive Components 1 1.1. Definition 1 1.2. Electric drive components 2 Chapter 2. Driven Bodies 5 2.1. Function of the driven body 5 2.2. Reference or rated running 5 2.3. Transient behavior 6 2.4. Specifications 7 Chapter 3. Transmission 15 3.1. Transmission types and characterization 15 3.2. Resolution 20 3.3. Speed adaptation 22 3.4. Dynamic behavior 23 3.5. Oscillatory torque 31 3.6. Position transfer 36 Chapter 4. Motors 41 4.1. Characterization 41 4.2. Rotating and linear motors 42 4.3. Induction motors 42 4.4. DC motors 54 4.5. Synchronous motors 62 4.6. Variable reluctance motors 73 4.7. Linear motors 75 4.8. Piezoelectric motors and actuators 81 4.9. Appendix – BLDC motor characteristics 85 Chapter 5. Motors: Characterization 87 5.1. Characteristics 87 5.2. Scaling laws 89 5.3. Parametric expression 96 Chapter 6. Global Design of an Electric Drive 101 6.1. Introduction 101 6.2. Dynamic equations 102 6.3. Example 107 6.4. Conclusions 117 Chapter 7. Heating and Thermal Limits 119 7.1. Heating importance 119 7.2. Thermal equations 120 7.3. Energy dissipated at start-up 126 7.4. Cooling modes 130 Chapter 8. Electrical Peripherals 137 8.1. Adaptation 137 8.2. Sources 137 8.3. Voltage adjustment 138 8.4. Current adjustment devices 143 Chapter 9. Electronic Peripherals 149 9.1. Power electronic 149 9.2. Simple switch 150 9.3. H bridge 151 9.4. Element bridge 154 Chapter 10. Sensors 159 10.1. Functions and types 159 10.2. Optical position sensors 161 10.3. Hall sensors 163 10.4. Inductive position sensors 164 10.5. Resolver-type rotating, inductive, contactless sensors 168 10.6. Other position sensors 170 10.7. The motor as a position sensor 175 10.8. Sensor position 179 10.9. Current sensors 181 10.10. Protection sensors 183 Chapter 11. Direct Drives 187 11.1. Performance limits 187 11.2. Motor with external rotor 200 11.3. Example 203 Chapter 12. Integrated Drives 207 12.1. Principle 207 12.2. Realization 208 Symbols 213 Indices 217 Bibliography 221 Index 223

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Book SynopsisThis handbook deals with the asynchronous machine in its close environment. It was born from a reflection on this electromagnetic converter whose integration in industrial environments takes a wide part. Previously this type of motor operated at fixed speed, from now on it has been integrated more and more in processes at variable speed. For this reason it seemed useful, or necessary, to write a handbook on the various aspects from the motor in itself, via the control and while finishing by the diagnosis aspect. Indeed, an asynchronous motor is used nowadays in industry where variation speed and reliability are necessary. We must know permanently for the sensitive systems, the state of process and to inform the operator of the appearance of any anomaly and its severity.Table of ContentsForeword xiii Introduction xvii Chapter 1. Sensors and Electrical Measurements 1 1.1. Optical encoder 2 1.2.The velocity measurement 7 1.3. The resolver 9 1.4. The isolated measurement 14 1.5. The numerical aspect 15 1.6. The analog to digital converter 16 1.7. The digital-to-analog converter 21 1.8. The digital output 22 1.9. The arithmetic logic unit 22 1.10. Real time or abuse language 23 1.11. Programming 24 Chapter 2. Analog, Numerical Control 25 2.1. Structure of a regulator 25 2.2. Stability of a system 26 2.3. Precision of systems 30 2.4. Correction of systems 31 2.5. Nonlinear control 34 2.6. Practical method of identification and control 35 2.7. The digital correctors 36 2.8. Classical controllers 45 2.9. Disadvantages of digital controller 52 Chapter 3. Models of Asynchronous Machines 59 3.1. The induction motor 59 3.2. The squirrel cage induction motor 66 3.3. The static and dynamic behavior 82 3.4. Winding and induced harmonics 99 3.5. Squirrel cage 115 3.6. Variation in air-gap permeance 118 3.7. Noise and vibrations 121 3.8. Influence of rotor frequency 125 3.9. Thermal behavior 130 Chapter 4. Speed Variation 137 4.1. Cases of multiphase machines 137 4.2. Control of asynchronous motors 164 4.3. Identification of parameter aspects 216 4.4. Voltage inverter converters 227 4.5. Rectifiers based on thePWM 268 Chapter 5. Tools of Fuzzy Logic 273 5.1. Preamble 273 5.2. Introduction 274 5.3. Fuzzy logic 275 5.4. Fuzzy logic controller 280 5.5. Fuzzy and adaptive PI 284 5.6. Conclusion 295 Chapter 6. Diagnostics and Signals Pointing to a Change 297 6.1. Signals and measurements 298 6.2. Defects 299 6.3. Analysis of signals 309 6.4. Some considerations regarding broken bar defects 317 6.5.Evaluation of the severity of broken bars 322 Exercise No. 1: Fuzzy Logic 337 1.1. Adaptive k and ki coefficients in function of the error 337 1.2. Adaptive k and ki coefficients in function of the error and its derivative 338 1.3. Answers 339 Exercise No. 2: The Stator Defect 345 2.1. Equations of the induction motor under stator defect 347 2.2.Torque ripple due to a stator defect 348 2.3. Fault current estimation 349 2.4. Schematic model of three-phase induction motor under a stator defect 350 2.5. Answers 351 Exercise No. 3: The Control of Five-Phase Induction Motors 357 3.1. The five-phase system 358 3.2. Distribution of active currents 359 3.3. A model for control 362 3.4. Answers 364 Exercise No. 4: The Control of Serial Connected Induction Motors 373 4.1. Study about the serial connection of two five-phase induction motors 374 4.2. Study on the serial connection of several seven-phase induction motors 375 4.3. Study on the serial connection of multi-phase induction motors 377 4.4. Answers 378 Exercise No. 5: Fault Detection of a Three-Phase Voltage Inverter Converter 385 5.1. A conducting fault 386 5.2. Fault detector 387 5.3. Monitoring of the DC component 389 5.4. Answers 390 Appendix. Some Mathematical Expressions 393 Bibliography 399 Index 407

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Book SynopsisThis book contains four parts. The first one is dedicated to concepts. It starts with the definitions and examples of what is piezo-pyro and ferroelectricity by considering the symmetry of the material. Thereafter, these properties are described within the framework of Thermodynamics. The second part described the way to integrate these materials in Microsystems. The third part is dedicated to characterization: composition, structure and a special focused on electrical behaviors. The last part gives a survey of state of the art applications using integrated piezo or/and ferroelectric films.Trade Review"While of course technical, the book is clearly written, well-illustrated, and includes chapter bibliographies." (Booknews, 1 June 2011) Table of ContentsPreface xiii Emmanuel DEFAŸ General Introduction xvii Chapter 1. Dielectricity, Piezoelectricity, Pyroelectricity and Ferroelectricity 1 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 1.1. Crystal structure 1 1.2. Piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity and ferroelectricity definitions 9 1.3. Simplified examples 10 1.4. Three typical structures: wurtzite, ilmenite and perovskite 16 1.5. Bibliography 23 Chapter 2. Thermodynamic Study: a Structural Approach 25 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 2.1. History 25 2.2. Revisiting statistical thermodynamics 26 2.3. State functions 41 2.4. Linear equations −?npiezoelectricity 44 2.5. Non linear equations −?nelectrostriction 47 2.6. Bibliography 48 Chapter 3. Ferroelectric-paraelectric Phase Transition Thermodynamic Modeling 49 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 3.1. Hypothesis on Gibbs’ elastic energy 49 3.2. Second-order transition 52 3.3. Effects of stresses 58 3.4. First-order transition 60 3.5. Conclusion 65 3.6. Bibliography 65 Chapter 4. Mechanical Formalism 67 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 4.1. Introduction 67 4.2. Hooke’s law 67 4.3. Definitions of local strains 69 4.4. Definition of local strains 77 4.5. Stress-strain relation 83 4.6. Elastic energy density 86 4.7. Expression of the elasticity tensor as a function of elements of symmetry 89 4.8. Bibliography 93 Chapter 5. Dielectric Formalism 95 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 5.1. Introduction 95 5.2. The dielectric effect seen by Faraday 95 5.3. Electric polarization and displacement 99 5.4. The dielectric constant 104 5.5. The local field in dielectrics: polarization catastrophe 105 5.6. Dielectric relaxation 109 5.7. Electric energy density 115 5.8. Bibliography 117 Chapter 6. Piezoelectric Formalism 119 Emmanuel DEFAŸ and Mathieu PIJOLAT 6.1. Thermodynamic equations 119 6.2. Reducing coefficients using crystal symmetry 121 6.3. One-dimensional microscopic model 126 6.4. Electromechanical coupling coefficient 130 6.5. Piezoelectric coefficients of key materials 134 6.6. Calculating coupling as a function of crystal orientation 136 6.7. Piezoelectric coefficients in the case of ferroelectric materials 138 6.8. Relation between piezoelectric formalism and matter 139 6.9. Bibliography 141 Chapter 7. Acoustic Formalism 143 Alexandre REINHARDT 7.1. Propagation of bulk waves 143 7.2. Bulk wave resonator 163 7.3. Bulk acoustic waves filter 185 7.4. Bibliography 190 Chapter 8. Electrostrictive Formalism 191 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 8.1. Foundations of electrostriction 191 8.2. Thermodynamic model of electrostriction – case of the resonator 192 8.3. The electrostriction tensor 195 8.4. Microscopic model of electrostriction 197 8.5. Electrostrictive resonator 202 8.6. Bibliography 206 Chapter 9. Electric Characterization 207 Emmanuel DEFAŸ, Gwenaël LE RHUN and Emilien BOUYSSOU 9.1. Static piezoelectric characterization of thin films 207 9.2. Piezoelectric and atomic force microscopy 215 9.3. Ferroelectric measurement 225 9.4. Dielectric measurement 232 9.5. Leakage current in metal/insulator/metal structures 236 9.6. Bibliography 245 Chapter 10. Piezoelectric Resonators and Filters 249 Alexandre REINHARDT and Christophe BILLARD 10.1. Acoustic resonators: principle and history 249 10.2. BAW technology 269 10.3. CRF technology 283 10.4. Bibliography 291 Chapter 11. High Overtone Bulk Acoustic Resonator (HBAR) 297 Mathieu PIJOLAT, Chrystel DEGUET and Sylvain BALLANDRAS 11.1. About HBAR 297 11.2. Technology 302 11.3. Examples of implementations 305 11.4. Conclusions about HBAR 312 11.5. Bibliography 313 Chapter 12. Electrostrictive Resonators 315 Alexandre VOLATIER, Brice IVIRA, Christophe ZINCK, Nizar BEN HASSINE and Emmanuel DEFAŸ 12.1. Introduction 315 12.2. State of the art 316 12.3. Experimental implementations 326 12.4. Simulation of a filter with electrostrictive resonators 341 12.5. Status of perovskite electrostrictive resonators 342 12.6. PZT-based tunable frequency ferroelectric acoustic resonator 344 12.7. Nonlinear effect in piezoelectric AlN 348 12.8. Conclusion with electrostriction 354 12.9. Bibliography 355 Chapter 13. Thin Film Piezoelectric Transducers 357 Matthieu CUEFF, Patrice REY, Fabien FILHOL and Emmanuel DEFAŸ 13.1. Introduction 357 13.2. State of the art 358 13.3. Resonant membranes 361 13.4. Resonant micromirror 366 13.5. Piezoelectric micro-switch 371 13.6. Sign of piezoelectric coefficients 391 13.7. Bibliography 394 List of Authors 397 Index 399

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Book SynopsisThis book deals with the formulation of industrial products Its field of application goes from food-processing industry to the industry of elastomers showing that the principles of development follow always the same methodology.Table of ContentsPreface xi PART ONE: GENERAL INFORMATION 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 3 André CHEYMOL 1.1. Definition 3 1.2. Historical background 3 1.3. From art to science 8 1.4. Overview of the economical impact of the aforementioned products 14 1.5. Book presentation and structure 15 1.6. Bibliography 16 Chapter 2. Formulation in Major Organic Chemistry Industries 19 André CHEYMOL 2.1. Necessity and concept 19 2.2. Factors affecting different industries 26 2.3. Outlining a methodology 27 2.4. Bibliography 30 PART TWO: CONCEPT AND APPLICATION 31 Chapter 3. Solutions 33 Anne-Marie PENSÉ-LHÉRITIER 3.1. Introduction 33 3.2. Solubilizing in water 35 3.3. Solubilizing in solvents 37 3.4. Processes to help solubilization 43 3.5. Conclusion 48 3.6. Bibliography 49 Chapter 4. Dispersions 53 Gérard HOLTZINGER 4.1. Introduction 53 4.2. Particles and their specificities 54 4.3. Various particle systems and stability issues 62 4.4. Dispersion methods and analysis techniques 89 4.5. Rheology 107 4.6. Bibliography 115 Chapter 5. Formulation of Emulsions 119 Anne-Marie PENSÉ-LHÉRITIER 5.1. General aspects of emulsions 119 5.2. Theoretical considerations on the liquid–liquid interactions 121 5.3. Developing the emulsion 125 5.4. Stabilizing an emulsion 134 5.5. Formulation of emulsions 141 5.6. Conclusion 144 5.7. Bibliography 144 Chapter 6. Suspensions 147 Gérard HOLTZINGER 6.1. Dispersion theory 148 6.2. Formulation of suspensions 155 6.3. Stability agents of suspensions 158 6.4. Specific case of the pharmaceutical realization 164 6.5. Specific case of cosmetics 164 6.6. Using dispersion 167 6.7. Bibliography 183 Chapter 7. Dispersions in High-Viscosity Mediums: Formulating Polymers 185 André CHEYMOL 7.1. Characterization of polymers 185 7.2. Formulation of polymers: general information 198 7.3. Thermal behavior 211 7.4. Heat generation and transmission 216 7.5. Main mixing tools 218 7.6. Conclusion on the polymer formulation rules 227 7.7. Bibliography 227 PART THREE: FORMULATION OF MAJOR PRODUCTS 231 Chapter 8. Dosage Form and Pharmaceutical Development 233 Vincent FAIVRE 8.1. Drugs development 233 8.2. Case study: development of a dosage form for oral administration 246 8.3. Monitoring/checking methods 249 8.4. Bibliography 252 Chapter 9. Formulation of Cosmetic Products 253 Caroline ROUSSEAU 9.1. Introduction 253 9.2. Specifications 254 9.3. Development in the laboratory 256 9.4. Industrial fabrication 265 9.5. Product launch 265 9.6. Regulations 266 9.7. Conclusion 267 Chapter 10. Formulation of Food Products 269 Christine CHÊNÉ 10.1. Specifications 269 10.2. Constraints 271 10.3. Formulation methodology 279 Chapter 11. Formulation of Elastomers 283 André CHEYMOL 11.1. Introduction 283 11.2. Choice of the elastomers 284 11.3. Adjuvants required to obtain crucial functions 290 11.4. Formulation realization: mixture 312 11.5. Conclusion 317 11.6. Bibliography 318 Conclusion 321 List of Authors 323 Index 325

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a sound basis in the challenging area of the mechanics of unsaturated geomaterials. The objective is to supply the reader with an exhaustive overview starting from the basics and covering the most recent theories and applications (i.e. natural disasters, nuclear waste disposal, oil and agriculture productions). The presentation of the fundamental concepts is based on an interdisciplinary approach, in the areas of soil, rock and cement-based material mechanics.Table of ContentsPreface xv Lyesse LALOUI PART I. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 1 Chapter 1. Basic Concepts in the Mechanics and Hydraulics of Unsaturated Geomaterials 3 Alessandro TARANTINO 1.1. Water retention mechanisms in capillary systems 4 1.2. Water retention behavior of geomaterials 9 1.3. Water retention mechanisms in geomaterials and the concept of suction 11 1.4. Water flow in capillary systems 18 1.5. Mechanical interactions at the microscale 20 1.6. Microscopic interpretation of volumetric“collapse “ and shear strength 23 1.7. Bibliography 27 Chapter 2. Mechanics of Unsaturated Soils 29 Lyesse LALOUI, Mathieu NUTH and Bertrand FRANCOIS 2.1. Introduction 29 2.2. Stress states 30 2.3. Thermo-hydro-mechanical behavior of unsaturated soils 31 2.4. Effective stress in unsaturated soils 39 2.5. A coupled THM constitutive framework for unsaturated soils 43 2.6. Conclusion 51 2.7. Bibliography 51 Chapter 3. Desiccation Cracking of Soils 55 Herve PERON, Lyesse LALOUI, Liang-Bo HU and Tomasz HUECKEL 3.1. Introduction 55 3.2. Physical processes involved in desiccation cracking of soils 56 3.3. Experimental characterization of desiccation process in soils and its controlling variables 69 3.4. Scenarios of soil desiccation crack pattern formation 74 3.5. Conclusion 79 3.6. Bibliography 80 PART II. EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION 87 Chapter 4. Experimental Techniques for Unsaturated Geomaterials 89 Pierre DELAGE 4.1. Introduction 89 4.2. Techniques for controlling suction 90 4.3. Techniques for measuring suction 94 4.4. Mechanical testing devices 97 4.5. Concluding remarks 104 4.6. Bibliography 105 Chapter 5. New Experimental Tools for the Characterization of Highly Overconsolidated Clayey Materials in Unsaturated Conditions 113 Simon SALAGER, Alessio FERRARI and Lyesse LALOUI 5.1. Introduction 113 5.2. Sorption bench 114 5.3. High pressure THM oedometric cell 118 5.4. High pressure and high temperature THM triaxial cell 122 5.5. Conclusions 126 5.6. Bibliography 126 Chapter 6. Field Measurement of Suction, Water Content and Water Permeability 129 Alessandro TARANTINO 6.1. Direct measurement of suction 129 6.2. Indirect measurement of suction 136 6.3. Measurement of water content 140 6.4. Field measurement of water permeability 150 6.5. Bibliography 151 PART III. THEORITICAL DEVELOPMENTS 155 Chapter 7. Hydromechanical Coupling Theory in Unsaturated Geomaterials and Its Numerical Integration 157 Robert CHARLIER, Jean-Pol RADU, Pierre GERARD and Frederic COLLIN 7.1. Introduction – problems to be treated 157 7.2. Numerical tools: the finite element method 163 7.3. Coupling various problems 176 7.4. Acknowledgment 182 7.5. Bibliography 182 Chapter 8. Conservation Laws for Coupled Hydro-Mechanical Processes in Unsaturated Porous Media: Theory and Implementation 185 Ronaldo I. BORJA and Joshua A. WHITE 8.1. Introduction 185 8.2. Mass and momentum conservation laws 187 8.3. Balance of energy and the effective stress 190 8.4. Formulation of boundary-value problem 193 8.5. Numerical example 198 8.6. Summary and conclusions 205 8.7. Acknowledgements 206 8.8. Bibliography 206 Chapter 9. Strain Localization Modeling in Coupled Transient Phenomena 209 Frederic COLLIN, Yannick SIEFFERT and Rene CHAMBON 9.1. Introduction 209 9.2. Experimental evidence 210 9.3. Regularization techniques 212 9.4. Numerical modeling 215 9.5. Applications 221 9.6. Conclusions 227 9.7. Acknowledgment 228 9.8. Bibliography 228 PART IV. ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 233 Chapter 10. Modeling Landslides in Partially Saturated Slopes Subjected to Rainfall Infiltration 235 John EICHENBERGER, Mathieu NUTH and Lyesse LALOUI 10.1. Introduction: the hazard of shallow landslides 235 10.2. Physical processes in unsaturated soil slopes 236 10.3. Theoretical framework for unsaturated soils 237 10.4. Numerical modeling of an unsaturated soil slope subjected to rainfall events 242 10.5. Conclusion 249 10.6. Bibliography 249 Chapter 11. Thermally Induced Moisture Transport and Pore Pressure Generation in Nearly Saturated Geomaterials 251 Antony P.S. SELVADURAI 11.1. Introduction 251 11.2. Modeling background 252 11.3. Coupled heat and moisture diffusion 253 11.4. Heat-induced moisture transport in a bentonite-sand mixture 257 11.5. Computational simulations of the behavior of bentonite-sand mixture 260 11.6. THM processes in a porous medium 263 11.7. Computational modeling of the THM processes 265 11.8. Experimental modeling of the THM processes in a cementitious block 267 11.9. Comparison of experimental results and computational estimates 270 11.10. Concluding remarks 272 11.11. Acknowledgments 273 11.12. Bibliography 274 Chapter 12. Mechanics of Unsaturated Geomaterials Applied to Nuclear Waste Storage 279 Antonio GENS 12.1. Introduction 279 12.2. THM phenomena in the near field 282 12.3. Theoretical formulation and coupled analysis 284 12.4. Coupled THM analyses of the unsaturated barrier and adjacent rock 286 12.5. Conclusions 299 12.6. Acknowledgments 300 12.7. Bibliography 300 Chapter 13. Soil–Pipeline Interaction in Unsaturated Soils 303 Dilan ROBERT and Kenichi SOGA 13.1. Introduction 303 13.2. Large-scale physical model experiments 304 13.3. Behavior of unsaturated sands 308 13.4. Numerical modeling of the behavior of unsaturated sands 314 13.5. Numerical modeling of the physical model experiments 319 13.6. Dimensionless force – H/D relationship for pipelines in unsaturated soils 321 13.7. Conclusions 323 13.8. Acknowledgments 324 13.9. Bibliography 324 Chapter 14. Coefficient B, Consolidation, and Swelling in Fine Soils Near Saturation in Engineering Practice 327 Luc BOUTONNIER 14.1. Introduction 327 14.2. Model assumptions 328 14.3. How to determine the model? 342 14.4. Why is it interesting for engineers? 345 14.5. Application to Cubzac-les-Ponts experimental embankment 346 14.6. Conclusion 348 14.7. Bibliography 349 Chapter 15. Geomechanical Analysis of River Embankments 353 Cristina JOMMI and Gabriele DELLA VECCHIA 15.1. Introduction 353 15.2. Design specifications and materials 355 15.3. Coupled hydro-mechanical modeling 361 15.4. Simulation and interpretation of experimental data 367 15.5. Final remarks 371 15.6. Bibliography 373 List of Authors 375 Index 379

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Book SynopsisThe design of mechanical structures with predictable and improved durability cannot be achieved without a thorough understanding of the mechanisms of fatigue damage and more specifically the relationships between the microstructure of materials and their fatigue properties. Written by leading researchers in the field, this book, along with the complementary books Fatigue of Materials and Structures: Fundamentals and Application to Damage and Design (both also edited by Claude Bathias and André Pineau), provides an authoritative, comprehensive and unified treatment of the mechanics and micromechanisms of fatigue in metals, polymers and composites. Each chapter is devoted to one of the major classes of materials or to different types of fatigue damage, thereby providing overall coverage of the field. This book deals with multiaxial fatigue, thermomechanical fatigue, fretting-fatigue, influence of defects on fatigue life, cumulative damage and damage tolerance, and will be an important and much used reference for students, practicing engineers and researchers studying fracture and fatigue in numerous areas of materials science and engineering, mechanical, nuclear and aerospace engineering.Table of ContentsForeword xi Stephen D. ANTOLOVICH Chapter 1. Multiaxial Fatigue 1 Marc BLETRY and Georges CAILLETAUD 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2. Experimental aspects 12 1.3. Criteria specific to the unlimited endurance domain 15 1.4. Low cycle fatigue criteria 30 1.5. Calculating methods of the lifetime under multiaxial conditions 35 1.6. Conclusion 40 1.7. Bibliography 41 Chapter 2. Cumulative Damage 47 Jean-Louis CHABOCHE 2.1. Introduction 47 2.2. Nonlinear fatigue cumulative damage 49 2.3. A nonlinear cumulative fatigue damage model 63 2.4. Damage law of incremental type 77 2.5. Cumulative damage under fatigue-creep conditions 95 2.6. Conclusion 103 2.7. Bibliography 104 Chapter 3. Damage Tolerance Design 111 Raphael CAZES 3.1. Background 112 3.2. Evolution of the design concept of “fatigue” phenomenon 112 3.3. Impact of damage tolerance on design 115 3.4. Calculation of a “stress intensity factor” 119 3.5. Performing some “damage tolerance” calculations 127 3.6. Application to the residual strength of thin sheets 131 3.7. Propagation of cracks subjected to random loading in the aeronautic industry 135 3.8. Conclusion 144 3.9. Damage tolerance within the gigacyclic domain 147 3.10. Bibliography 149 Chapter 4. Defect Influence on the Fatigue Behavior of Metallic Materials 151 Gilles BAUDRY 4.1. Introduction 151 4.2. Some facts 152 4.3. Approaches 166 4.4. A few examples 171 4.5. Prospects 180 4.6. Conclusion 185 4.7. Bibliography 186 Chapter 5. Fretting Fatigue: Modeling and Applications 195 Marie-Christine BAIETTO-DUBORG and Trevor LINDLEY 5.1 Introduction 195 5.2. Experimental methods 198 5.3. Fretting fatigue analysis 203 5.4. Applications under fretting conditions 214 5.5. Palliatives to combat fretting fatigue 224 5.6. Conclusions 225 5.7 Bibliography 226 Chapter 6. Contact Fatigue 231 Ky DANG VAN 6.1. Introduction 231 6.2. Classification of the main types of contact damage 232 6.3. A few results on contact mechanics 239 6.4. Elastic limit 248 6.5. Elastoplastic contact 249 6.6. Application to modeling of a few contact fatigue issues 254 6.7. Conclusion 268 6.8. Bibliography 269 Chapter 7?Ï?ÏThermal Fatigue 271 Eric CHARKALUK and Luc REMY 7.1. Introduction 271 7.2. Characterization tests 276 7.3. Constitutive and damage models at variable temperatures 294 7.4. Applications 314 7.5. Conclusion 325 7.6. Bibliography 326 List of Authors 339 Index 341

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Book SynopsisExtractive metallurgy is the art and science of extracting metals from their ores and refining them. The production of metals and alloys from these source materials is still one of the most important and fundamental industries in both developed and developing economies around the world. The outputs and products are essential resources for the metallic, mechanical, electromagnetic, electrical and electronics industries (silicon is treated as a metal for these purposes). This series is devoted to the extraction of metals from ores, concentrates (enriched ores), scraps, and other sources and their refining to the state of either liquid metal before casting or to solid metals. The extraction and refining operations that are required may be carried out by various metallurgical reaction processes. Extractive Metallurgy 1 deals with the fundamentals of thermodynamics and kinetics of the reaction processes. Extractive Metallurgy 2 focuses on pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, halide and electro-metallurgical (conversion) processes. Extractive Metallurgy 3 deals with the industrial processing operations, technologies, and process routes, in other words the sequence of steps or operations used to convert the ore to metal. Processes and operations are studied using the methodology of “chemical reaction engineering”. As the fundamentals of the art and science of Extractive Metallurgy are infrequently taught as dedicated university or engineering schools courses, this series is intended both for students in the fields of Metallurgy and Mechanical Engineering who want to acquire this knowledge, and also for engineers put in charge of the operation of an industrial production unit or the development of a new process, who will need the basic knowledge of the corresponding technology.Trade Review"The books are addressed to students in the field of metallurgy and to engineers facing the problem of metal and alloy development." (World of Metallurgy, 2011) Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Physical Extraction Operations 1 1.1. Solid-solid and solid-fluid separation operations 1 1.2. Separation operations of the components of a fluid phase 5 1.3. Bibliography 12 Chapter 2. Hydrometallurgical Operations 15 2.1. Leaching and precipitation operations 15 2.2. Reactor models based on particle residence time distribution functions 24 2.3. Reactor models based on the population balance equation model 30 2.4. Solvent extraction operations 34 2.5. Bibliography 43 Chapter 3. Gas-solid and Solid-solid Reactors and Particle Conversion Operations 45 3.1. Overall presentation of gas-solid and solid-solid reactors 45 3.2. Gas-solid reactor hydrodynamic behavior and heat transfer between phases 47 3.3. The performance equations of gas-solid packed-bed reactors 55 3.4. The performance equations of fluidized-bed reactors 65 3.5. Solid-solid reactors 73 3.6. Bibliography 77 Chapter 4. Blast Furnaces 79 4.1. Overview of blast furnaces 79 4.2. Iron blast furnace 81 4.3. Ferromanganese blast furnace 109 4.4. Zinc blast furnace: the Imperial smelting furnace 114 4.5. Lead blast furnace 120 4.6. Bibliography 122 Chapter 5. Smelting Reduction Operations 125 5.1. Overview of smelting reduction operations 125 5.2. Production of (iron) “hot metal” by carbothermic smelting reduction 126 5.3. Tin and zinc smelting reduction operations 139 5.4. Magnetherm process 146 5.5. Bibliography 148 Chapter 6. Steelmaking Operations 151 6.1. Overview of steelmaking operations 151 6.2. Hot metal pretreatment operations 153 6.3. The hot metal converting operation 154 6.4. Stainless steelmaking operations 174 6.5. Ultra-low carbon steel-making operation 179 6.6. Bibliography 183 Chapter 7. Sulfide and Matte Smelting and Converting Operations 185 7.1. Overview of the operations and processes 185 7.2. Flash-smelting operations and processes 188 7.3. In-bath smelting and converting operations in bottom-blown converters 195 7.4. In-bath smelting and converting operations in top-blown converters 203 7.5. Top-submerged lance (TSL) blown converters: Ausmelt/Isasmelt process 208 7.6. Bibliography 213 Chapter 8. Electric Melting and Smelting Furnaces 217 8.1. Introduction 217 8.2. Performance of electric furnaces 220 8.3. Electric arc melting furnaces 235 8.4. Electric smelting reduction furnaces 240 8.5. Consumable-electrode remelting furnaces 257 8.6. Bibliography 261 Chapter 9. Molten Salt Electrolysis Operations 265 9.1. Overview of molten salt electrolysis operations 265 9.2. Chloride electrolysis 266 9.3. Reduction of alumina by electrolysis 271 9.4. Electro-reduction of metal oxides and deoxidation of metals by molten salt electrolysis 286 9.5. Bibliography 289 Chapter 10. Extractive Processing Routes 293 10.1. Features of extractive processing routes 293 10.2. Hot metal, steel and ferroalloys 296 10.3. Aluminum (gallium) 298 10.4. Copper and other valuable metals 300 10.5. Nickel (cobalt) 304 10.6. Zinc (cadmium, indium, germanium, gallium) 311 10.7. Lead (silver, gold, bismuth) 314 10.8. Tin 316 10.9. Magnesium 318 10.10. Titanium, zirconium and hafnium 318 10.11. Chromium 321 10.12. Molybdenum and tungsten 321 10.13. Niobium and tantalum 322 10.14. Gold 323 10.15. Metals belonging to the PGM 324 10.16. Silicon 324 10.17. Bibliography 325 List of Symbols 329 Index 341 Summaries of Other Volumes 353

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Book SynopsisThe main properties that make carbon nanotubes (CNTs) a promising technology for many future applications are: extremely high strength, low mass density, linear elastic behavior, almost perfect geometrical structure, and nanometer scale structure. Also, CNTs can conduct electricity better than copper and transmit heat better than diamonds. Therefore, they are bound to find a wide, and possibly revolutionary use in all fields of engineering.The interest in CNTs and their potential use in a wide range of commercial applications; such as nanoelectronics, quantum wire interconnects, field emission devices, composites, chemical sensors, biosensors, detectors, etc.; have rapidly increased in the last two decades. However, the performance of any CNT-based nanostructure is dependent on the mechanical properties of constituent CNTs. Therefore, it is crucial to know the mechanical behavior of individual CNTs such as their vibration frequencies, buckling loads, and deformations under different loadings.This title is dedicated to the vibration, buckling and impact behavior of CNTs, along with theory for carbon nanosensors, like the Bubnov-Galerkin and the Petrov-Galerkin methods, the Bresse-Timoshenko and the Donnell shell theory.Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1. The need of determining the natural frequencies and buckling loads of CNTs 8 1.2. Determination of natural frequencies of SWCNT as a uniform beam model and MWCNT during coaxial deflection 8 1.3. Beam model of MWCNT 9 1.4. CNTs embedded in an elastic medium 10 Chapter 2. Fundamental Natural Frequencies of Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 13 2.1. Background 13 2.2. Analysis 15 2.3. Simply supported DWCNT: exact solution 15 2.4. Simply supported DWCNT: Bubnov–Galerkin method 18 2.5. Simply supported DWCNT: Petrov–Galerkin method 20 2.6. Clamped-clamped DWCNT: Bubnov–Galerkin method 23 2.7. Clamped-clamped DWCNT: Petrov–Galerkin method 25 2.8. Simply supported-clamped DWCNT 27 2.9. Clamped-free DWCNT 30 2.10. Comparison with results of Natsuki et al. [NAT 08a] 33 2.11. On closing the gap on carbon nanotubes 34 2.12. Discussion 45 Chapter 3. Free Vibrations of the Triple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 47 3.1. Background 47 3.2. Analysis 48 3.3. Simply supported TWCNT: exact solution 49 3.4. Simply supported TWCNT: approximate solutions 51 3.5. Clamped-clamped TWCNT: approximate solutions 54 3.6. Simply supported-clamped TWCNT: approximate solutions 57 3.7. Clamped-free TWCNT: approximate solutions 60 3.8. Summary 63 Chapter 4. Exact Solution for Natural Frequencies of Clamped-Clamped Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 65 4.1. Background 65 4.2. Analysis 67 4.3. Analytical exact solution 72 4.4. Numerical results and discussion 77 4.5. Discussion 82 4.6. Summary 83 Chapter 5. Natural Frequencies of Carbon Nanotubes Based on a Consistent Version of Bresse–Timoshenko Theory 85 5.1. Background 85 5.2. Bresse–Timoshenko equations for homogeneous beams 86 5.3. DWCNT modeled on the basis of consistent Bresse–Timoshenko equations 88 5.4. Numerical results and discussion 91 Chapter 6. Natural Frequencies of Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Based on Donnell Shell Theory 97 6.1. Background 97 6.2. Donnell shell theory for the vibration of MWCNTs 99 6.3. Donnell shell theory for the vibration of a simply supported DWCNT 100 6.4. DWCNT modeled on the basis of simplified Donnell shell theory 103 6.5. Further simplifications of the Donnell shell theory 105 6.6. Summary 107 Chapter 7. Buckling of a Double-Walled Carbon Nanotube 109 7.1. Background 109 7.2. Analysis 111 7.3. Simply supported DWCNT: exact solution 112 7.4. Simply supported DWCNT: Bubnov–Galerkin method 114 7.5. Simply supported DWCNTs: Petrov–Galerkin method 116 7.6. Clamped-clamped DWCNT 117 7.7. Simply supported-clamped DWCNT 119 7.8. Buckling of a clamped-free DWCNT by finite difference method 121 7.9. Buckling of a clamped-free DWCNT by Bubnov–Galerkin method 131 7.10. Summary 137 Chapter 8. Ballistic Impact on a Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube 139 8.1. Background 139 8.2. Analysis 140 8.3. Numerical results and discussion 144 Chapter 9. Clamped-Free Double-Walled Carbon Nanotube-Based Mass Sensor 149 9.1. Introduction 149 9.2. Basic equations 150 9.3. Vibration frequencies of DWCNT with light bacterium at the end of outer nanotube 152 9.4. Vibration frequencies of DWCNT with heavy bacterium at the end of outer nanotube 159 9.5. Vibration frequencies of DWCNT with light bacterium at the end of inner nanotube 165 9.6. Vibration frequencies of DWCNT with heavy bacterium at the end of inner nanotube 170 9.7. Numerical results 176 9.8. Effective stiffness and effective mass of the double-walled carbon nanotube sensor 178 9.9. Virus sensor based on single-walled carbon nanotube treated as Bresse–Timoshenko beam 190 9.10. Conclusion 201 Chapter 10. Some Fundamental Aspects of Non-local Beam Mechanics for Nanostructures Applications 203 10.1. Background on the need of non-locality 204 10.2. Non-local beam models 209 10.3. The cantilever case: a structural paradigm 218 10.4. Euler–Bernoulli beam: Eringen’s based model 231 10.5. Euler–Bernoulli beam: gradient elasticity model 234 10.6. Euler–Bernoulli beam: hybrid non-local elasticity model 236 10.7. Timoshenko beam: Eringen’s based model 238 10.8. Timoshenko beam: gradient elasticity model 244 10.9. Timoshenko beam, hybrid non-local elasticity model 251 10.10. Higher order shear beam: Eringen’s based model 254 10.11. Higher order shear beam, gradient elasticity model 259 10.12. Validity of the results for double-nanobeam systems 262 Chapter 11. Surface Effects on the Natural Frequencies of Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes 269 11.1. Background 269 11.2. Analysis 271 11.3. Results and discussion 279 11.4. Surface effects on buckling of nanotubes 286 11.5. Summary 289 Chapter 12. Summary and Directions for Future Research 291 Appendix A. Elements of the Matrix A 297 Appendix B. Elements of the Matrix B 299 Appendix C. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [7.116] 301 Appendix D. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [9.25] 303 Appendix E. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [9.35] 305 Appendix F. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [9.40] 307 Appendix G. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [9.54] 311 Appendix H. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [9.63] 313 Appendix I. Coefficients of the Polynomial Equation [9.67] 315 Appendix J. An Equation Both More Consistent and Simpler than the Bresse–Timoshenko Equation 319 Bibliography 325 Author Index 399 Subject Index 415

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Book SynopsisAlthough formal analysis programming techniques may be quite old, the introduction of formal methods only dates from the 1980s. These techniques enable us to analyze the behavior of a software application, described in a programming language. It took until the end of the 1990s before formal methods or the B method could be implemented in industrial applications or be usable in an industrial setting. Current literature only gives students and researchers very general overviews of formal methods. The purpose of this book is to present feedback from experience on the use of “formal methods” (such as proof and model-checking) in industrial examples within the transportation domain. This book is based on the experience of people who are currently involved in the creation and evaluation of safety critical system software. The involvement of people from within the industry allows us to avoid the usual problems of confidentiality which could arise and thus enables us to supply new useful information (photos, architecture plans, real examples, etc.). Topics covered by the chapters of this book include SAET-METEOR, the B method and B tools, model-based design using Simulink, the Simulink design verifier proof tool, the implementation and applications of SCADE (Safety Critical Application Development Environment), GATeL: A V&V Platform for SCADE models and ControlBuild. Contents 1. From Classic Languages to Formal Methods, Jean-Louis Boulanger. 2. Formal Method in the Railway Sector 
the First Complex Application: SAET-METEOR, Jean-Louis Boulanger. 3. The B Method and B Tools, Jean-Louis Boulanger. 4. Model-Based Design Using Simulink – Modeling, Code Generation, Verification, and Validation, Mirko Conrad and Pieter J. Mosterman. 5. Proving Global Properties with the Aid of the SIMULINK DESIGN VERIFIER Proof Tool, Véronique Delebarre and Jean-Frédéric Etienne. 6. SCADE: Implementation and Applications, Jean-Louis Camus. 7. GATeL: A V&V Platform for SCADE Models, Bruno Marre, Benjamin Bianc, Patricia Mouy and Christophe Junke. 8. ControlBuild, a Development Framework 
for Control Engineering, Franck Corbier. 9. Conclusion, Jean-Louis Boulanger.Table of ContentsChapter 1. From Classic Languages to Formal Methods 1 Jean-Louis BOULANGER 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Classic development 2 1.3. Structured, semi-formal and/or formal methods 33 1.4. Formal methods 39 1.5. Conclusion 45 1.6. Bibliography 49 Chapter 2. Formal Method in the Railway Sector the First Complex Application: SAET-METEOR 55 Jean-Louis BOULANGER 2.1. Introduction 55 2.2. About SAET-METEOR 56 2.3. The supplier realization process 62 2.4. Process of verification and validation set up by RATP 78 2.5. Assessment of the global approach 114 2.6. Conclusion 115 2.7. Appendix 116 2.8. Bibliography 122 Chapter 3. The B Method and B Tools 127 Jean-Louis BOULANGER 3.1. Introduction 127 3.2. The B method 128 3.3. Verification and validation (V&V) 137 3.4. B tools 141 3.5. Methodology 146 3.6. Feedback 150 3.7. Conclusion 155 3.8. Bibliography 155 Chapter 4. Model-Based Design Using Simulink – Modeling, Code Generation, Verification, and Validation 159 Mirko CONRAD and Pieter J. MOSTERMAN 4.1. Introduction 159 4.2. Embedded software development using Model-Based Design 162 4.3. Case study – an electronic throttle control system 164 4.4. Verification and validation of models and generated code 173 4.5. Compliance with safety standards 177 4.6. Conclusion 178 4.7. Bibliography 178 Chapter 5. Proving Global Properties with the Aid of the SIMULINK DESIGN VERIFIER Proof Tool 183 Véronique DELEBARRE and Jean-Frédéric ETIENNE 5.1. Introduction 183 5.2. Formal proof or verification method 184 5.3. Implementation of the SIMULINK DESIGN VERIFIER tool 193 5.4. Experience feedback and methodological aspects 211 5.5. Study case feedback and conclusions 218 5.6. Contributions of the methodology compared with the EN50128 normative referential 220 5.7. Bibliography 222 Chapter 6. SCADE: Implementation and Applications 225 Jean-Louis CAMUS 6.1. Introduction 225 6.2. Issues of embedded safety-critical software 225 6.3. Origins of SCADE 228 6.4. The SCADE data-flow language 231 6.5. Conclusion: extensions of languages for controllers and iterative processing 240 6.6. The SCADE system 246 6.7. Application of SCADE in the aeronautical industry 256 6.8 Application of SCADE in the rail industry 261 6.9. Application of SCADE in the nuclear and other industries 265 6.10. Conclusion 269 6.11. Bibliography 270 Chapter 7. GATeL: A V&V Platform for SCADE Models 273 Bruno MARRE, Benjamin BIANC, Patricia MOUY and Christophe JUNKE 7.1. Introduction 273 7.2. SCADE language 275 7.3. GATeL prerequisites 276 7.4. Assistance in the design of test selection strategies 279 7.5. Performances 283 7.6. Conclusion 284 7.7. Bibliography 285 Chapter 8. ControlBuild, a Development Framework for Control Engineering 287 Franck CORBIER 8.1. Introduction 287 8.2. Development of the control system 289 8.3. Formalisms used 300 8.4. Safety arrangements 311 8.5. Examples of railway use cases 318 8.6. Conclusion 323 8.7. Bibliography 323 Chapter 9. Conclusion 325 Jean-Louis BOULANGER 9.1. Introduction 325 9.2. Problems 326 9.3. Summary 327 9.4. Implementing formal methods 332 9.5. Realization of a software application 337 9.6. Conclusion 339 9.7. Bibliography 340 Glossary 345 List of Authors 351 Index 353

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Book SynopsisNonlinear models of elastic and visco-elastic onedimensional continuous structures (beams and cables) are formulated by the authors of this title. Several models of increasing complexity are presented: straight/curved, planar/non-planar, extensible/inextensible, shearable/unshearable, warpingunsensitive/ sensitive, prestressed/unprestressed beams, both in statics and dynamics. Typical engineering problems are solved via perturbation and/or numerical approaches, such as bifurcation and stability under potential and/or tangential loads, parametric excitation, nonlinear dynamics and aeroelasticity. Contents 1. A One-Dimensional Beam Metamodel.2. Straight Beams.3. Curved Beams.4. Internally Constrained Beams.5. Flexible Cables.6. Stiff Cables.7. Locally-Deformable Thin-Walled Beams.8. Distortion-Constrained Thin-Walled Beams.Table of ContentsPreface xi Introduction xiii List of Main Symbols xxiii Chapter 1. A One-Dimensional Beam Metamodel 1 1.1. Models and metamodel 2 1.2. Internally unconstrained beams 3 1.3. Internally constrained beams 12 1.4. Internally unconstrained prestressed beams 24 1.5. Internally constrained prestressed beams 29 1.6. The variational formulation 33 1.7. Example: the linear Timoshenko beam 44 1.8. Summary 47 Chapter 2. Straight Beams 55 2.1. Kinematics 55 2.2. Dynamics 82 2.3. Constitutive law 102 2.4. The Fundamental Problem 114 2.5. The planar beam 122 2.6. Summary 129 Chapter 3. Curved Beams 133 3.1. The reference configuration and the initial curvature 133 3.2. The beam model in the 3D-space 137 3.3. The planar curved beam 152 3.4. Summary 160 Chapter 4. Internally Constrained Beams 163 4.1. Stiff beams and internal constraints 163 4.2. The general approach 166 4.3. The unshearable straight beam in 3D 168 4.4. The unshearable straight planar beam 177 4.5. The inextensible and unshearable straight beam in 3D 180 4.6. The inextensible and unshearable straight planar beam 183 4.7. The inextensible, unshearable and untwistable straight beam 190 4.8. The foil-beam 192 4.9. The shear–shear–torsional beam 193 4.10. The planar unshearable and inextensible curved beam 197 4.11. Summary 201 Chapter 5. Flexible Cables 205 5.1. Flexible cables as a limit of slender beams 205 5.2. Unprestressed cables 207 5.3. Prestressed cables 220 5.4. Shallow cables 230 5.5. Inextensible cables 235 5.6. Summary 240 Chapter 6. Stiff Cables 243 6.1. Motivations 243 6.2. Unprestressed stiff cables 246 6.3. Prestressed stiff cables 252 6.4. Reduced models 261 6.5. Inextensible stiff cables 264 6.6. Summary 269 Chapter 7. Locally-Deformable Thin-Walled Beams 271 7.1. Motivations 271 7.2. A one-dimensional direct model for double-symmetric TWB 273 7.3. A one-dimensional direct model for non-symmetric TWB 277 7.4. Identification strategy from 3D-models of TWB 284 7.5. A fiber-model of TWB 285 7.6. Warpable, cross-undeformable TWB 289 7.7. Unwarpable, cross-deformable, planar TWB 299 7.8. Summary 308 Chapter 8. Distortion-Constrained Thin-Walled Beams 311 8.1. Introduction 311 8.2. Internal constraints 312 8.3. The non-uniform torsion problem for bi-symmetric cross-sections 317 8.4. The general problem for warpable TWB 324 8.5. Cross-deformable planar TWB 328 8.6. Summary 332 Bibliography 335 Index 345

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Book SynopsisThe loop-shaping approach consists of obtaining a specification in relation to the open loop of the control from specifications regarding various closed loop transfers, because it is easier to work on a single transfer (in addition to the open loop) than on a multitude of transfers (various loopings such as set point/error, disturbance/error, disturbance/control, etc.). The simplicity and flexibility of the approach make it very well adapted to the industrial context. This book presents the loop-shaping approach in its entirety, starting with the declension of high-level specifications into a loop-shaping specification. It then shows how it is possible to fully integrate this approach for the calculation of robust and efficient correctors with the help of existing techniques, which have already been industrially tried and tested, such as H-infinity synthesis. The concept of a gap metric (or distance between models) is also presented along with its connection with the prime factors of a set of systems shaping a ball of models, as well as its connections with robust synthesis by loop-shaping, in order to calculate efficient and robust correctors. As H-infinity loop-shaping is often demanding in terms of the order of correctors, the author also looks at loop-shaping synthesis under an ordering constraint. Two further promising lines of research are presented, one using stochastic optimization, and the other non-smooth optimization. Finally, the book introduces the concept of correction with two degrees of freedom via the formalism of prime factorization. Avenues for future work are also opened up by the author as he discusses the main drawbacks to loop-shaping synthesis, and how these issues can be solved using modern optimization techniques in an increasingly competitive industrial context, in accordance with ever more complex sets of functional specifications, associated with increasingly broad conditions of usage. Contents Introduction 1. The Loop-shaping Approach 2. Loop-shaping H-infinity Synthesis 3. Two Degrees-of-Freedom Controllers 4. Extensions and Optimizations Appendix 1. Demonstrative Elements on the Optimization of Robust Stabilization with Order Constraint Appendix 2. Establishment of Real LMIs for the Quasi-Convex Problem of Optimization of the Weighting Functions About the Authors Philippe Feyel is an R&D Engineer for the high-tech company Sagem Défense Sécurité, part of the defence and security business of the SAFRAN group, in Paris, France.Table of ContentsIntroduction ix Chapter 1 The Loop-shaping Approach 1 1.1 Principle of the method 1 1.2 Generalized phase and gain margins 14 1.3 Limitations inherent to bandwidth 17 1.4 Examples 18 1.5 Conclusion 30 Chapter 2 Loop-shaping H∞ Synthesis 33 2.1 The formalism of coprime factorizations 33 2.2 Robustness of normalized coprime factor plant descriptions 42 2.3 Explicit solution of the problem of robust stabilization of coprime factor plant descriptions 54 2.4 Robustness and υ-gap 77 2.5 Loop-shaping synthesis approach 82 2.6 Discrete approach 120 Chapter 3 Two Degrees-of-Freedom Controllers 135 31 Principle 135 3.2 Two-step approach 143 3.3 One-step approach 156 3.4 Comparison of the two approaches 165 3.5 Example 166 3.6 Compensation for a measurable disturbance at the model’s output 174 Chapter 4 Extensions and Optimizations 187 4.1 Introduction 187 4.2 Fixed-order synthesis 188 4.4 Towards a new approach to loop-shaping fixed-order controller synthesis, etc 242 APPENDICES 245 Appendix 1 247 Appendix 2 251 Bibliography 255 Index 259

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Book SynopsisThis book contains theoretical and application-oriented methods to treat models of dynamical systems involving non-smooth nonlinearities. The theoretical approach that has been retained and underlined in this work is associated with differential inclusions of mainly finite dimensional dynamical systems and the introduction of maximal monotone operators (graphs) in order to describe models of impact or friction. The authors of this book master the mathematical, numerical and modeling tools in a particular way so that they can propose all aspects of the approach, in both a deterministic and stochastic context, in order to describe real stresses exerted on physical systems. Such tools are very powerful for providing reference numerical approximations of the models. Such an approach is still not very popular nevertheless, even though it could be very useful for many models of numerous fields (e.g. mechanics, vibrations, etc.). This book is especially suited for people both in research and industry interested in the modeling and numerical simulation of discrete mechanical systems with friction or impact phenomena occurring in the presence of classical (linear elastic) or non-classical constitutive laws (delay, memory effects, etc.). It aims to close the gap between highly specialized mathematical literature and engineering applications, as well as to also give tools in the framework of non-smooth stochastic differential systems: thus, applications involving stochastic excitations (earthquakes, road surfaces, wind models etc.) are considered. Contents 1. Some Simple Examples. 2. Theoretical Deterministic Context. 3. Stochastic Theoretical Context. 4. Riemannian Theoretical Context. 5. Systems with Friction. 6. Impact Systems. 7. Applications–Extensions. About the Authors Jérôme Bastien is Assistant Professor at the University Lyon 1 (Centre de recherche et d'Innovation sur le sport) in France. Frédéric Bernardin is a Research Engineer at Département Laboratoire de Clermont-Ferrand (DLCF), Centre d'Etudes Techniques de l'Equipement (CETE), Lyon, France. Claude-Henri Lamarque is Head of Laboratoire Géomatériaux et Génie Civil (LGCB) and Professor at Ecole des Travaux Publics de l'Etat (ENTPE), Vaulx-en-Velin, France.Table of ContentsIntroduction xi Chapter 1. Some Simple Examples 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Frictions 1 1.2.1. Coulomb’s law 1 1.2.2. Differential equation with univalued operator and usual sign 3 1.2.3. Differential equation with multivalued term: differential inclusion 11 1.2.4. Other friction laws 12 1.3. Impact 16 1.3.1. Difficulties with writing the differential equation 16 1.3.2. Ill-posed problems 19 1.4. Probabilistic context 22 Chapter 2. Theoretical Deterministic Context 27 2.1. Introduction 27 2.2. Maximal monotone operators and first result on differential inclusions (in R) 27 2.2.1. Graphs (operators) definitions 28 2.2.2. Maximal monotone operators 29 2.2.3. Convex function, subdifferentials and operators 33 2.2.4. Resolvent and regularization 38 2.2.5. Taking the limit 40 2.2.6. First result of existence and uniqueness for a differential inclusion 40 2.3. Extension to any Hilbert space 45 2.4. Existence and uniqueness results in Hilbert space 57 2.5. Numerical scheme in a Hilbert space 59 2.5.1. The numerical scheme 59 2.5.2. State of the art summary and results shown in this publication 60 2.5.3. Convergence (general results and order 1/2) 61 2.5.4. Convergence (order one) 67 2.5.5. Change of scalar product 72 2.5.6. Resolvent calculation 74 2.5.7. More regular schemes 76 Chapter 3. Stochastic Theoretical Context 79 3.1. Introduction 79 3.2. Stochastic integral 79 3.2.1. The stochastic processes background 80 3.2.2. Stochastic integral 84 3.3. Stochastic differential equations 90 3.3.1. Existence and uniqueness of strong solution 91 3.3.2. Existence and uniqueness of weak solution 92 3.3.3. Kolmogorov and Fokker–Planck equations 95 3.4. Multivalued stochastic differential equations 101 3.4.1. Problem statement 101 3.4.2. Uniqueness and existence results 103 3.5. Numerical scheme 104 3.5.1. Which convergence: weak or strong? 106 3.5.2. Strong convergence results 108 3.5.3. Weak convergence results 122 Chapter 4. Riemannian Theoretical Context 129 4.1. Introduction 129 4.2. First or second order 129 4.3. Differential geometry 131 4.3.1. Sphere case 131 4.3.2. General case 132 4.4. Dynamics of the mechanical systems 139 4.4.1. Definition of mechanical system 139 4.4.2. Equation of the dynamics 141 4.5. Connection, covariant derivative, geodesics and parallel transport 144 4.6. Maximal monotone term 148 4.7. Stochastic term 149 4.8. Results on the existence and uniqueness of a solution 151 Chapter 5. Systems with Friction 155 5.1. Introduction 155 5.2. Examples of frictional systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom 155 5.2.1. General framework 155 5.2.2. Two elementary models 156 5.2.3. Assembly and results in finite dimensions 165 5.2.4. Conclusion 193 5.2.5. Examples of numerical simulation 194 5.2.6. Identification of the generalized Prandtl model (principles and simulation) 205 5.3. Another example: the case of a pendulum with friction 215 5.3.1. Formulation of the problem, existence and uniqueness 215 5.3.2. Numerical scheme 218 5.3.3. Numerical estimation of the order 219 5.3.4. Example of numerical simulations 221 5.3.5. Free oscillations 221 5.3.6. Forced oscillations 221 5.3.7. Transition matrix and calculation of the Lyapunov exponents 222 5.3.8. Melnikov’s method, transitory chaos and Lyapunov exponents 230 5.4. Elastoplastic oscillator under a stochastic forcing 231 5.4.1. Introduction 231 5.4.2. Modeling 232 5.4.3. Numerical scheme 236 5.4.4. Numerical results 238 5.5. Spherical pendulum under a stochastic external force 243 5.5.1. Establishment of the model 243 5.5.2. Numerical aspects 248 5.6. Gephyroidal model 255 5.6.1. Introduction 255 5.6.2. Description and transformation of the model 256 5.6.3. Quasi-static problems 263 5.6.4. Numerical simulations 265 5.6.5. Conclusion 267 5.7. Chain 268 5.7.1. Introduction 268 5.7.2. Description of the model 270 5.7.3. Transformation of the equations 271 5.7.4. Conclusion 283 5.8. An infinity of internal variables: continuous generalized Prandtl model 283 5.8.1. Introduction 283 5.8.2. Description of the continuous model 284 5.8.3. Existence, uniqueness and regularity results 287 5.8.4. Application to the discrete case, and convergence of the discrete model to the continuous model 289 5.8.5. Numerical scheme 291 5.8.6. Study of hysteresis loops 293 5.8.7. Numerical simulations 301 5.9. Locally Lipschitz continuous spring 301 5.9.1. Introduction 301 5.9.2. The studied model 301 5.9.3. Results for the existence and uniqueness of the solutions 303 5.9.4. Convergence results for the numerical schemes 311 5.9.5. The locally Lipschitz continuous case 313 5.9.6. Identification of the parameters from the hysteresis loops 314 5.9.7. Numerical simulations 320 Chapter 6. Impact Systems 325 6.1. Existence and uniqueness for simple problems (one degree of freedom) 326 6.1.1. The work of Schatzman–Paoli 326 6.1.2. Simple case with one degree of freedom, forcing and impact: piecewise analytical solutions 327 6.1.3. Adaptation of some classical methods 329 6.1.4. Movement with the accumulation of impacts and a sticking phase 333 6.1.5. Behavior of the numerical methods 337 6.1.6. Convergence and order of one-step numerical methods applied to non-smooth differential systems 338 6.1.7. Results of numerical experiments 343 6.2. A particular behavior: grazing bifurcation 348 6.2.1. Approximation of the map in the general case 349 6.2.2. Particular case 350 6.2.3. Stability of the non-differentiable fixed point 351 6.2.4. Numerical example 353 Chapter 7. Applications–Extensions 355 7.1. Oscillators with piecewise linear coupling and passive control 355 7.1.1. Description of the model 356 7.1.2. Free oscillations of the system 356 7.1.3. Order 1 362 7.1.4. Case of periodic forcing 366 7.1.5. Conclusion 377 7.2. Friction and passive control 378 7.2.1. Introduction 378 7.2.2. Introduction to the models: smooth and non-smooth systems 379 7.3. The billiard ball 386 7.3.1. Maximal monotone framework 386 7.3.2. More realistic but non-maximal monotone framework 389 7.4. An industrial application: the case of a belt tensioner 390 7.4.1. The theory 390 7.4.2. The tensioner used 392 7.4.3. Identification of the parameters 392 7.4.4. Validation 393 7.5. Problems with delay and memory 396 7.5.1. Theory 396 7.5.2. Applications 399 7.6. Other friction forces 400 7.6.1. More general forms (variable dynamical coefficient) 401 7.6.2. With a variable static coefficient 419 7.6.3. With variable static and dynamical coefficients 421 7.7. With the viscous dissipation term 423 7.8. Ill-posed problems 424 7.8.1. First model: limit of a well-posed friction law 426 7.8.2. Second model: a differential inclusion without uniqueness 427 7.8.3. Conclusion 429 Appendix 1. Mathematical Reminders 431 A1.1. Two Gronwall’s lemmas 431 A1.2. Norms, scalar products, normed vector space, Banach and Hilbert space 432 A1.2.1. Scalar products, norms 432 A1.2.2. Banach and Hilbert space, separable space 433 A1.3. Symmetric positive definite matrices 435 A1.4. Differentiable function 435 A1.5. Weak limit 436 A1.6. Continuous function spaces 436 A1.7. Lp space of integrable functions 437 A1.7.1. Lp(Ω) space 437 A1.7.2. Lp(Ω, Rq ) space 438 A1.7.3. Lp(Ω; H) spaces 438 A1.8. Distributions 439 A1.8.1. Real values distributions 439 A1.8.2. Distributions with values in Rq 440 A1.8.3. Distributions with values in Hilbert space 440 A1.9. Sobolev space definition 441 A1.9.1. Functions with real values 441 A1.9.2. Functions with values in Hilbert space 441 Appendix 2. Convex Functions 443 A2.1. Functions defined on R 443 A2.2. Functions defined on Hilbert space 446 A2.2.1. Any Hilbert space 446 A2.2.2. Particular case of the finite dimension 446 Appendix 3. Proof of Theorem 2.20 447 Appendix 4. Proof of Theorem 3.18 455 Appendix 5. Research of Convex Potential 467 A5.1. Method used 467 A5.2. Lemma 5.1 468 A5.3. Lemma 5.4 473 A5.4. Lemma 7.1 476 Bibliography 477 Index 495

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Book SynopsisControl theory is the main subject of this title, in particular analysis and control design for hybrid dynamic systems. The notion of hybrid systems offers a strong theoretical and unified framework to cope with the modeling, analysis and control design of systems where both continuous and discrete dynamics interact. The theory of hybrid systems has been the subject of intensive research over the last decade and a large number of diverse and challenging problems have been investigated. Nevertheless, many important mathematical problems remain open. This book is dedicated mainly to hybrid systems with constraints; taking constraints into account in a dynamic system description has always been a critical issue in control. New tools are provided here for stability analysis and control design for hybrid systems with operating constraints and performance specifications. Contents 1. Positive Systems: Discretization with Positivity and Constraints, Patrizio Colaneri, Marcello Farina, Stephen Kirkland, Riccardo Scattolini and Robert Shorten. 2. Advanced Lyapunov Functions for Lur’e Systems, Carlos A. Gonzaga, Marc Jungers and Jamal Daafouz. 3. Stability of Switched DAEs, Stephan Trenn. 4. Stabilization of Persistently Excited Linear Systems, Yacine Chitour, Guilherme Mazanti and Mario Sigalotti. 5. Hybrid Coordination of Flow Networks, Claudio De Persis, Paolo Frasca. 6. Control of Hybrid Systems: An Overview of Recent Advances, Ricardo G. Sanfelice. 7. Exponential Stability for Hybrid Systems with Saturations, Mirko Fiacchini, Sophie Tarbouriech, Christophe Prieur. 8. Reference Mirroring for Control with Impacts, Fulvio Forni, Andrew R. Teel, Luca Zaccarian. About the Authors Jamal Daafouz is an expert in the area of switched and polytopic systems and has published several major results in leading journals (IEEE TAC, Automatica, Systems and Control Letters, etc.). He serves as an Associate Editor for the key journal IEEE TAC and is a member of the Editorial Board of the IEEE CSS society. Sophie Tarbouriech is an expert in the area of nonlinear systems with constraints and has published several major results in leading journals (IEEE TAC, Automatica, Systems and Control Letters, etc.) and books. She is a member of the Editorial Board of the IEEE CSS society and has also served as an Associate Editor for the key journal IEEE TAC. Mario Sigalotti is an expert in applied mathematics and switched systems and has published several results in leading journals (IEEE TAC, Automatica, Systems and Control Letters, etc.). He heads the INRIA team GECO and is a member of the IFAC Technical Committee on Distributed Parameter Systems.Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Positive Systems: Discretization with Positivity and Constraints 1 Patrizio COLANERI, Marcello FARINA, Stephen KIRKLAND, Riccardo SCATTOLINI and Robert SHORTEN 1.1. Introduction and statement of the problem 1 1.2. Discretization of switched positive systems via Padé transformations 4 1.2.1. Preservation of copositive Lyapunov functions 4 1.2.2. Non-negativity of the diagonal Padé approximation 7 1.2.3. An alternative approximation to the exponential matrix 9 1.3. Discretization of positive switched systems with sparsity constraints 10 1.3.1. Forward Euler discretization 10 1.3.2. The mixed Euler-ZOH discretization 11 1.3.3. The mixed Euler-ZOH discretization for switched systems 14 1.4. Conclusions 18 1.5. Bibliography 18 Chapter 2. Advanced Lyapunov Functions for Lur’e Systems 21 Carlos A. GONZAGA, Marc JUNGERS and Jamal DAAFOUZ 2.1. Introduction 21 2.2. Motivating example 24 2.3. A new Lyapunov Lur’e-type function for discrete-time Lur’e systems 26 2.3.1. Definition of discrete-time Lur’e systems 26 2.3.2. Introduction of a new discrete-time Lyapunov Lur’e-type function 26 2.3.3. Global stability analysis 29 2.3.4. Local stability analysis 30 2.4. Switched discrete-time Lur’e system with arbitrary switching law 37 2.4.1. Definition of the switched discrete-time Lur’e system 37 2.4.2. Switched discrete-time Lyapunov Lur’e-type function 38 2.4.3. Global stability analysis 38 2.4.4. Local stability analysis 40 2.5. Switched discrete-time Lur’e system controlled by the switching law 46 2.5.1. Global stabilization 46 2.5.2. Local stabilization 48 2.6. Conclusion 51 2.7. Bibliography 52 Chapter 3. Stability of Switched DAEs 57 Stephan TRENN 3.1. Introduction 57 3.1.1. Systems class: definition and motivation 57 3.1.2. Examples 59 3.2. Preliminaries 62 3.2.1. Non-switched DAEs: solutions and consistency projector 62 3.2.2. Lyapunov functions for non-switched DAEs 66 3.2.3. Classical distribution theory 67 3.2.4. Piecewise-smooth distributions and solvability of [3.1] 69 3.3. Stability results 71 3.3.1. Stability under arbitrary switching 72 3.3.2. Slow switching 74 3.3.3. Commutativity and stability 75 3.3.4. Lyapunov exponent and converse Lyapunov theorem 77 3.4. Conclusion 81 3.5. Acknowledgments 81 3.6. Bibliography 81 Chapter 4. Stabilization of Persistently Excited Linear Systems 85 Yacine CHITOUR, Guilherme MAZANTI and Mario SIGALOTTI 4.1. Introduction 86 4.2. Finite-dimensional systems 89 4.2.1. The neutrally stable case 90 4.2.2. Spectra with non-positive real part 91 4.2.3. Arbitrary rate of convergence 97 4.3. Infinite-dimensional systems 101 4.3.1. Exponential stability under persistent excitation 103 4.3.2. Weak stability under persistent excitation 105 4.3.3. Other conditions of excitation 106 4.4. Further discussion and open problems 110 4.4.1. Lyapunov-based arguments for the existing results 111 4.4.2. Generalization of theorem 4.5 to higher dimensions 111 4.4.3. Generalizations of theorem 4.8 112 4.4.4. Properties of ρ(A, T ) 116 4.4.5. Stabilizability at an arbitrary rate for systems with several inputs 117 4.4.6. Infinite-dimensional systems 118 4.5. Bibliography 118 Chapter 5. Hybrid Coordination of Flow Networks 121 Claudio De PERSIS, Paolo FRASCA 5.1. Introduction 121 5.2. Flow network model and problem statement 123 5.2.1. Load balancing 124 5.3. Self-triggered gossiping control of flow networks 125 5.4. Practical load balancing 127 5.5. Load balancing with delayed actuation and skewed clocks 132 5.6. Asymptotical load balancing 136 5.7. Conclusions 141 5.8. Acknowledgments 141 5.9. Bibliography 141 Chapter 6. Control of Hybrid Systems: An Overview of Recent Advances 145 Ricardo G. SANFELICE 6.1. Introduction 145 6.2. Preliminaries 149 6.2.1. Notation 149 6.2.2. Notion of solution for hybrid systems 150 6.3. Stabilization of hybrid systems 151 6.4. Static state feedback stabilizers 155 6.4.1. Existence of continuous static stabilizers 157 6.5. Passivity-based control 159 6.5.1. Passivity 160 6.5.2. Linking passivity to asymptotic stability 164 6.5.3. A construction of passivity-based controllers 167 6.6. Tracking control 169 6.7. Conclusions 176 6.8. Acknowledgments 176 6.9. Bibliography 177 Chapter 7. Exponential Stability for Hybrid Systems with Saturations 179 Mirko FIACCHINI, Sophie TARBOURIECH, Christophe PRIEUR 7.1. Introduction 179 7.2. Problem statement 181 7.2.1. Saturated reset systems 182 7.3. Set theory and invariance for nonlinear systems: brief overview 185 7.3.1. Invariance for convex difference inclusions 186 7.4. Quadratic stability for saturated hybrid systems 190 7.4.1. Set-valued extensions of saturated functions 190 7.4.2. Continuous-time quadratic stability 192 7.4.3. Discrete-time quadratic stability 194 7.4.4. Exponential stability for saturated hybrid systems 195 7.4.5. Exponential Lyapunov functions for saturated hybrid systems 198 7.5. Computational issues 203 7.6. Numerical examples 205 7.7. Conclusions 207 7.8. Bibliography 208 Chapter 8. Reference Mirroring for Control with Impacts 213 Fulvio FORNI, Andrew R. TEEL, Luca ZACCARIAN 8.1. Introduction 213 8.2. Hammering a surface 216 8.2.1. The reference hammer dynamics 216 8.2.2. Using dwell-time logic to avoid Zeno solutions 218 8.2.3. The controlled hammer dynamics 219 8.2.4. Instability with standard feedback tracking 220 8.2.5. Using a mirrored reference to design a hybrid stabilizer 221 8.3. Global tracking of a Newton’s cradle 224 8.3.1. The reference cradle 224 8.3.2. The controlled cradle 225 8.3.3. Using a mirrored reference to design a hybrid stabilizer 226 8.3.4. Simulations 229 8.4. Global tracking in planar triangles 230 8.4.1. The reference mass 231 8.4.2. The controlled mass 233 8.4.3. Using a family of mirrored references to design a hybrid stabilizer 233 8.4.4. Simulations 239 8.5. Global state estimation on n-dimensional convex polyhedra 240 8.5.1. The reference dynamics 241 8.5.2. The observer dynamics 243 8.5.3. Estimation by hybrid reformulation of the observer dynamics 244 8.5.4. Simulations 246 8.6. Proof of the main theorems 247 8.6.1. A useful Lyapunov result 247 8.6.2. Proofs of theorems 8.1–8.4 248 8.7. Conclusions 251 8.8. Acknowledgments 252 8.9. Bibliography 252 List of Authors 257 Index 261

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Book SynopsisScience is a quest for certainty, but lack of certainty is the driving force behind all of its endeavors. This book, specifically, examines the uncertainty of technological and industrial science. Uncertainty and Mechanics studies the concepts of mechanical design in an uncertain setting and explains engineering techniques for inventing cost-effective products. Though it references practical applications, this is a book about ideas and potential advances in mechanical science.Table of ContentsForeword vii Preface xi Introduction xv Chapter 1. Understanding Uncertainty 1 1.1. Uncertainty and reality 1 1.1.1. Awareness of uncertainty 1 1.1.2. Territories of uncertainty 4 1.1.3. Conclusion 8 1.2. Robustness and reliability 9 1.2.1. Robustness 9 1.2.2. Reliability 13 1.2.3. Relationship between robustness and reliability 16 1.2.4. Optimizing robustness and reliability 19 1.2.5. Conclusion 21 1.3. Designing for robust production 22 1.3.1. Robustness and lifecycles 22 1.3.2. Description of the V cycle 23 1.3.3. Uncertainty in the V cycle 25 1.3.4. Uncertainty linked to a step in the V cycle 29 1.3.5. Robustness and uncertainty 33 1.3.6. Conclusion 38 Chapter 2. Modeling Uncertainty 41 2.1. Random uncertainty 41 2.1.1. Modeling uncertainty 41 2.1.2. Exploration of Mediocristan 42 2.1.3. From statistics to probabilities 47 2.1.4. Polynomial chaos 50 2.1.5. Exploration of Extremistan 52 2.1.6. Conclusion 55 2.2. Uncertainty in behavior models 55 2.2.1. Uncertainty and input data 56 2.2.2. Uncertainty in behavior models 61 2.3. Uncertainty propagation 70 2.3.1. The problem of uncertainty propagation 70 2.3.2. Analyzing sensitivity to uncertainty 71 2.3.3. Reliability analysis – classification methods 82 2.3.4. Model reductions 92 2.3.5. Quantifying uncertainty 98 2.3.6. Conclusion 100 Chapter 3. Decision Support under Uncertainty 101 3.1. Decision support in design 101 3.1.1. Decision support 101 3.1.2. Modeling decision support 103 3.1.3. Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) 106 3.1.4. Conclusion 109 3.2. Summary and conclusion 110 3.2.1. Three perspectives 110 3.2.2. Challenges in engineering science 119 3.2.3. Industrial issues 123 Bibliography 125 Index 145

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Book SynopsisMaterials and Structures under Shock and Impact In risk studies, engineers often have to consider the consequences of an accident leading to a shock on a construction. This can concern the impact of a ground vehicle or aircraft, or the effects of an explosion on an industrial site. This book presents a didactic approach starting with the theoretical elements of the mechanics of materials and structures, in order to develop their applications in the cases of shocks and impacts. The latter are studied on a local scale at first. They lead to stresses and strains in the form of waves propagating through the material, this movement then extending to the whole of the structure. The first part of the book is devoted to the study of solid dynamics where nonlinear behaviors come into play. The second part covers structural dynamics and the evaluation of the transient response introduced at the global scale of a construction. Practical methods, simplified methods and methods that are in current use by engineers are also proposed throughout the book.Table of ContentsIntroduction xi PART 1. DYNAMICS OF SOLIDS 1 Chapter 1. Motion within Solids 3 1.1. Representation of the medium 3 1.2. Elastodynamic equations 8 1.3. One-dimensional waves 12 1.4. Harmonic waves 16 1.5. Viscoelasticity 23 Chapter 2. Shocks in Solids 37 2.1. Discontinuity of stress and velocity 37 2.2. Wave course 42 2.3. Shocks of solids 50 2.4. Shocks on viscoelastic solids 59 Chapter 3. Waves and Shocks in a Nonlinear Medium 67 3.1. Irreversible phenomena 67 3.2. Adiabatic shear 76 3.3. Propagation in uniaxial stress state 80 3.4. Uniaxial strain state 88 3.5. Shock waves 95 Chapter 4. Dynamic Materials Testing 103 4.1. Dynamic testing 103 4.2. Hopkinson pressure bars 106 4.3. Testing by direct impact 112 4.4. Taylor impact test 113 4.5. Plate impact 115 PART 2. DYNAMIC OF STRUCTURES 117 Chapter 5. Impact on a Simple Structure 119 5.1. Basic structure119 5.2. Shock response spectrum 124 5.3. Iso-damage curves 135 5.4. Modeling a real structure 138 Chapter 6. Collisions of Structures 153 6.1. Shocks on elastic structures 153 6.2. Shock with crushing 159 6.3. Classification of shocks 168 Chapter 7. Explosions and Blasts 173 7.1. Accidental explosions 173 7.2. Pressure waves 179 7.3. Action of an explosion on a structure 188 7.4. Blast-structure coupling 194 Chapter 8. Mechanical Response of Beams 203 8.1. Dynamic beam models 203 8.2. Impacts on beams 211 8.3. Calculation by modal superposition 226 8.4. Dynamic buckling 239 Chapter 9. Responses of Multiple Degree of Freedom Structures 245 9.1. Modeling through a discrete system 245 9.2. Resolution by modal superposition 249 9.3. Fluid–structure coupling 255 Chapter 10. Response of a Nonlinear Structure 267 10.1. Nonlinear behavior of structures 267 10.2. Nonlinear system with one degree of freedom 281 10.3. The case of elastoplastic behavior 284 10.4. Approach of response to a violent impact 292 Bibliography 299 Index 309

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