Industrial chemistry and chemical engineering Books

Book SynopsisA collection of 15 papers from The American Ceramic Society's 40th International Conference on Advanced Ceramics and Composites, held in Daytona Beach, Florida, January 24-29, 2016. This issue includes papers presented in Symposia 6 - Advanced Materials and Technologies for Energy Generation, Conversion, and Rechargeable Energy Storage; Symposium 13 - Advanced Ceramics and Composites for Sustainable Nuclear Energy and Fusion Energy, and Focused Session 2 Advanced Ceramic Materials and Processing for Photonics and Energy.Table of ContentsPreface vii Introduction ix ADVANCED MATERIALS FOR SUSTAINABLE NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION ENERGY Low Temperature Air Braze Process for Joining Silicon Carbide Components Used in Heat Exchangers, Fusion and Fission Reactors, and Other Energy Production and Chemical Synthesis Systems 3 J. R. Fellows, C. A. Lewinsohn, Y. Katoh, and T. Koyanagi Composition, Structure, Manufacture, and Properties of SiC-SiC CMCs for Nuclear Applications: Informational Chapters in the ASME BPV Code Section III 17Michael G. Jenkins, Stephen T. Gonczy, and Yutai Katoh Hoop Tensile Strength of Composite Tubes for LWRS Applications Using Internal Pressurization: Two ASTM Test Methods 23Michael G. Jenkins, Jonathan A. Salem, and Janine E. Gallego Used Fuel Content Verification Using Lead Slowing Down Spectroscopy 31 Matthew G. Smith and Raghunath KanakalaApplication of Selective Area Laser Deposition to the Manufacture of SiC-SiC Composite Nuclear Fuel Cladding 37R. Neall, T. Abram, and M. Goodfellow Synthesis of High Purity Li5AlO4 Powder by Solid State Reaction Under the H2 Firing 49Seiya Ogawa, Kiyoto Shin-mura, Yu Otani, Eiki Niwa, Takuya Hashimoto, Tsuyoshi Hoshino, and Kazuya Sasakia Laser-Printed Ceramic Fiber Ribbons: Properties and Applications 61Shay Harrison, Joseph Pegna, John L. Schneiter, Kirk L Williams, and Ram K. Goduguchinta Development of Caulked Joint Between Zircaloy and SiC/SiC Composite Tubes by Using Diode Laser 73Hisashi Serizawa, Masahiro Tsukamoto, Yuuki Asakura, Joon-Soo Park, Akira Kohyama, Hirotaka Motoki, Daisuke Tanigawa, and Hirotatsu Kishimoto ADVANCED CERAMIC MATERIALS AND PROCESSING FOR PHOTONICS AND ENERGY Processing and Optical Properties of Ge-Core Fibers 85Mustafa Ordu, Jicheng Guo, Boyin Tai, James Bird, Siddharth Ramachandran, and Soumendra Basu Development of Transthickness Tension Test Method for Ceramic Matrix Composites at Elevated Temperatures 93Hisato Inoue, Masahiro Takanashi, and Takeshi Nakamura Microstructure Analysis of the Epitaxial Growth of Cu2O on Gold Nano-Islands 103E. L. Kennedy, J. B. Coulter, D. P. Birnie III, and F. Cosandey Development of Low Temperature Aluminophosphate Glass Systems for High Efficiency Lighting Devices 113J. H. Liao, Y. R. Chung, and F. B. Wu ADVANCED MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY GENERATION, CONVERSION, AND RECHARGEABLE ENERGY STORAGE Dielectric, Structural and Spectroscopic Properties of Mg-Doped CaCu3Ti4O12 Ceramics by the Solid-State Reaction Method 127E. Izci Structural and Dielectric Properties of (1−x) Li2TiO3 + xMgO Ceramics Prepared by the Solid State Reaction Method 135E. Izci Lithium Loss Indicated Formation of Microcracks in LATP Ceramics 143K. Waetzig, A. Rost, U. Langklotz, and J. SchilmAuthor Index 151

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Book SynopsisThis issue contains 27 papers from The American Ceramic Society's 40th International Conference on Advanced Ceramics and Composites, held in Daytona Beach, Florida, January 24-29, 2016. This issue includes papers presented in the following Symposia and Focused Sessions: Symposium 2 Advanced Ceramic Coatings for Structural, Environmental, and Functional Applications; Symposium 10 Virtual Materials (Computational) Design and Ceramic Genome; Symposium 11 Advanced Materials and Innovative Processing Ideas for the Industrial Root Technology; Symposium 12 Materials for Extreme Environments: Ultrahigh Temperature Ceramics; and Emerging Technologies SymposiumCarbon Nanostructures; and Focused Session 1 - Geopolymers and Chemically Bonded Ceramics.Table of ContentsPreface ix Introduction xi GEOPOLYMERS Durability Performance of Alkali-Activated Metakaolin, Slag, Fly Ash, and Hybrids 3F. Jirasit, C. H. Rüscher, L. Lohaus, and P. Chindaprasirt Mica Platelet-Reinforced Geopolymer Composites 13P. F. Keane, G. P. Kutyla, J. F. Wight, W. Rickard, and W. M. Kriven Influence of Mix Design Parameters on Geopolymer Mechanical Properties and Microstructure 21Mukund Lahoti, En-Hua Yang, and Kang Hai Tan Thermal Performance of Metakaolin-Based Geopolymers: Volume Stability and Residual Mechanical Properties 35Mukund Lahoti, En-Hua Yang, and Kang Hai Tan Effect of Phyllosilicate Type on the Microstructure and Properties of Kaolin-Based Ceramic Tapes 47Gisèle L. Lecomte-Nana , Khaoula Lebdioua,, Mylène Laffort, Nadia Houta, Nicolas Tessier-Doyen, Younès Abouliatim, and Claire Peyratout Effect of Alkali Cations on the Polycondensation Reaction 61J. Peyne, E. Joussein, J. Gautron, J. Doudeau, and S. Rossignol Development of a Mold for Thermoplastics Based on a Phosphate Cement 69J. Blom, H. Rahier, and J. Wastiels Properties of Cork Particle Reinforced Sodium Geopolymer Composites 79Daniel S. Roper, Gregory P. Kutyla, and Waltraud M. Kriven The Role of Alkaline Earth Ions in Geopolymer Binder Formation 83N. Essaidi, P. Leybros, E. Joussein, and S. Rossignol Investigations of the Thermally Induced Hydrogen Release of NaBH4, NH3BH3 and Their Geopolymer Composites 93Z. Assi, L. Schomborg, and C. H. Rüscher IR-Spectroscopic Investigation of Geopolymer and CSH-Phase Stability on Heating Temperature in Post-Fired Building Materials 109C. H. Rüscher, E. Rigo, K. Unterderweide, H.-W. Krauss, and F. Jirasit Mixed Alkali Regional Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer 123Ruy A. Sá Ribeiro, Marilene G. Sá Ribeiro, Kaushik Sankar, Gregory P. Kutyla, and Waltraud M. Kriven Bamboo-Geopolymer Composite: A Preliminary Study 135Ruy A. Sá Ribeiro, Marilene G. Sá Ribeiro, Kaushik Sankar, and Waltraud M. Kriven Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Cements from Commercial Sodium Waterglass and Sodium Waterglass from Rice Husk Ash: A Comparative Study 145Hervé K. Tchakouté and Claus H. Rüscher Recycling of Grog by Addition Into Heavy Clay Ceramic Manufacturing 159C. M. F. Vieira and L. F. Amaral VIRTUAL MATERIALS DESIGN AND CERAMIC GENOME Q-State Monte Carlo Simulations of Magnetic Anisotropy Applied to Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Materials 169J. B. Allen First Principles Study of Defect Formation in Bulk B6O 181J. S. Dunn, S. P. Coleman, and M. Tschopp Modeling of Damage in an MMC with Lamellar Microstructure 189Romana Piat, Maria Kashtalyan, and Igor Guz Micro-Computed Tomography Image Based Thermo-Elastic Properties Studies of Freeze-Cast MMC 201Yuri Sinchuk, Romana Piat, and Benoit Nait-Ali MATERIALS FOR EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS Densification and Phase Evolution of SHS Derived Ti2AlN Active Precursor Powders During Hot Pressing Processes 213L. Chlubny, J. Lis, P. Borowiak, K. Chabior, and K. Ziele ska Max Phase Materials for Nuclear Applications 223K. Lambrinou1, T. Lapauw, B. Tunca, and J. Vleugels Analysis of Dynamic Young's Modulus and Damping Behavior of ZrB2-SiC Composites by the Impulse Excitation Technique 235Akhilesh Kumar Swarnakar, Songlin Ran, and Jozef Vleugels ADVANCED CERAMIC COATINGS Study of Effect of Hafnium Addition on Oxidation Resistance of NiAl Coatings Prepared by an In-Situ Chemical Vapour Deposition Method 249A. D. Chandio and P. Xiao Mass Transfer Mechanism in Mullite Under Oxygen Potential Gradients at High Temperatures 261S. Kitaoka, T. Matsudaira, N. Kawashima, D. Yokoe, T. Kato, and M. Takata EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES—CARBON NANOSTRUCTURES SnO2-Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite for Ethanol Sensing at Room Temperature 273C. A. Zito and D. P. Volanti Author Index 281

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Book SynopsisThis proceedings volume contains a collection of 34 papers from the following symposia held during the 2015 Materials Science and Technology (MS&T ''15) meeting: Innovative Processing and Synthesis of Ceramics, Glasses and Composites Advances in Ceramic Matrix Composites Advanced Materials for Harsh Environments Advances in Dielectric Materials and Electronic Devices Controlled Synthesis, Processing, and Applications of Structure and Functional Nanomaterials Processing and Performance of Materials Using Microwaves, Electric and Magnetic Fields, Ultrasound, Lasers, and Mechanical Work, Rustum Roy Memorial Symposium Sintering and Related Powder Processing Science and Technologies Surface Protection for Enhanced Materials Performance: Science, Technology, and Application Thermal Protection Materials and Systems Ceramic Optical Materials Alumina at the Forefront of Technology Table of ContentsPreface ix CONTROLLED SYNTHESIS, PROCESSING, AND APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL NANOMATERIALS Assessing the Limits of Accuracy for the Tauc Method for Optical Band Gap Determination 3Dunbar P. Birnie, III Investigation of Pyroaurite-Type Anionic Clay-Derived Mixed Oxides with Various Compositions 17Jonathan Gabriel, Aarti Patel, Ewul Ebenezer, Andrei Jitianu, and Mihaela Jitianu Formation and Characterization of Nano-Scale Titanium Carbides in a Titanium Trialuminide Intermetallic 31Edward A. Laitila and Donald E. Mikkola Growth Kinetics of Lanthanum Phosphate Core/Shell Nanoparticles Doped with Ce-Tb and Eu 45M. C. Molina Higgins and J. V. Rojas Influence of Synthesis Parameters on Morphology, Crystalline Structure and Colloidal Stability of Core and Core-Shell LaPO4 Nanoparticles 57Miguel Toro and Jessika Rojas Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles for Space Satellite Solar Panel Protection Layer 71Phillip Clift, Jordan Wladyka, Tyler Payton, and Dale Henneke DIELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES Synthesis and Characterization of BaTiO3-Based Ceramics Doped in B Site by BaTi1-xNbxO3 81F. R. Barrientos-Hernández, M. Ortiz-Domínguez, M. Pérez-Labra, E. O. Ávila-Dávila, J. P. Hernández-Lara, and L. A. Cruz-Gutiérrez Influences of the Ceramic Matrix in the Properties of Ferroelectric Composites Based on PYDF Polymers 91Danilo Umbelino Figueiredo, Evaristo Alexandre Falcão, Eriton Rodrigo Botero, José Antonio Eiras, Fabio Luis Zabotto, and Ducinei Garcia Piezoelectric Response of Sn and Mn Modified Lead Titanate Piezoelectric Ceramics 99Deepam Maurya, Hyun-Cheol Song, Min-Gyu Kang, Yongke Yan, Robert Bodnar, Ilan Levine, Edward Behnke, Haley Borsodi, Juan I. Collar, and Shashank Priya Comparison of Grain Size Effects on Microstructure and Dielectric Properties of Y2/3Cu3Ti4-X FexO12 (X = 0.00, 0.05 and 0.15) Ceramics Synthesized by Glycine Assisted Semi Wet Route 117S. Sharma, M.M. Singh, Narsingh B. Singh, and K.D. Mandal Calcium Copper Titanate Based High Dielectric Constant Materials for Energy Storage Applications 131Disna P. Samarakoon, Nirmal Govindaraju, and Raj N. Singh SINTERING AND RELATED POWDER PROCESSING Synthesis, Characterization and Gibbs Energy of Thermoelectric Mg2Si 143Mallikharjuna R. Bogala and Ramana G. Reddy Modeling Densification during Fast Firing of Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia 153Sergio Y. Gómez, Farshad Farzan, Ricardo H. C. Castro, and Dachamir Hotza Mechanistic Studies of Compacted and Sintered Rock Salt 159Claudia H. Swanson, Susanne Böhme, and Jens Günster Sintering of Nanostructured Zirconia: A Molecular Dynamics Study 173Yi Zhang and Jing Zhang PROCESSING AND PERFORMANCE OF MATERIALS USING MICROWAVES, ELECTRIC, AND MAGNETIC FIELDS Rapid Synthesis of Nanostructured Titanium Boride (TiB) by Electric Field Activated Reaction Sintering 187K. S. Ravi Chandran, A P. Sandersand, and J. Du Verification of Effects of Alternative Electromagnetic Treatment on Control of Biofilm and Scale Formation by a New Laboratory Biofilm Reactor 199Hideyuki Kanematsu, Senshin Umeki, Nobumitsu Hirai, Yoko Miura, Noriyuki Wada, Takeshi Kougo, Kazuyuki Tohji, Hirokazu Otani, Kazuhiko Okita, and Toshifumi Ono Microwave Assisted Sintering of Cold Iso-Statically Pressed Titanium 6-4 Powder Compacts 213B. Y. Rock, M. A. Imam, and T. F. Zarah Microwave Heating of Ensembles of Spherical Metal Particles Surrounded by Insulating Layers 223K. I. Rybakov and V. E. Semenov Sintering of Oxide Ceramics under Rapid Microwave Heating 233Yu. V. Bykov, S. V. Egorov, A. G. Eremeev, V. V. Kholoptsev, I. V. Plotnikov, K. I. Rybakov, and A. A. Sorokin Roles of Electromagnetically-Enhanced Free Energy on Non-Thermal Microwave Effects in Materials Processing—A Review and Discussion 243Boon Wong Thermal Stability of Electromagnetic Compressed FL-5305 PM Parts 261Daudi R. Waryoba ADVANCES IN COMPOSITES A New Production Process for Thermal Barrier Coating Material 273Yunsheng Wang, Wenzhong Tao, Decheng Pan, and Zuxiong Chen Simultaneous Synthesis and Sintering of Dense B4C/CNF Composites using a Pulsed Electric-Current Pressure Sintering and Evaluation of Their Thermal Properties 279Naoki Goto, Mitsuhiro Shima, Xiaolei Chen, Masaki Kato, Ken Hirota, and Toshiyuki Nishimura INNOVATIVE PROCESSING Advanced Microstructural Study of Nickel-Titanium Rotary Endodontic Instrument Tips 295Rahnuma Chowdhury, Matthew R. Wheeler, William A. T. Clark, William A. Brantley, and John M. Nusstein Synthesis of TiC-TiB2 Composite Powders from Carbon Coated TiO2 Precursors 301Zhezhen Fu and Rasit Koc Nickel Nitrate and Molybdenum Oxide as a Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia Synergistic Sintering Aid 313Clay Hunt, David Driscoll, Adam Weisenstein, and Stephen Sofie SURFACE PROTECTION FOR ENHANCED PERFORMANCE Modeling and Prediction of the Effective Thermal Conductivity of Thermal Barrier Coatings using FFT and FE Approaches 327N. Ferguen, Y. Lahmar, Y. Fizi, and R. Lakhdari Material Design of Ceramic Coating for Jet Engine by Electron Beam PVD 337Hideaki Matsubara CERAMIC OPTICAL MATERIALS Novel Glass and Glass Scintillators for Gamma-Ray and Neutron Detection 343Tapan K. Gupta, William Rhodes, Matthew M. Hall, Sean Breed, Urmila Shirwadkar, Michael R. Squillante, and Kanai S. Shah Praseodymium-Doped SiAlON Red Phosphors Prepared by Polymer-Derived Method 351Hui Yu, Quan Li, Ying Zhang, Xuan Cheng, and Chaoyang Gong ALUMINA MATERIALS Alumina Insulators for High Voltage Automotive Ignition Systems 361William J. Walker, Jr. THERMAL PROTECTION MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS Photogrammetric Surface Recession Measurements on Ablative Samples of Various Shape 373Thomas Reimer, Stefan Löhle, and Rainer Öfele Author Index 387

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Book SynopsisThe authors' aim is to offer the reader the fundamentals of numerous mathematical methods with accompanying practical environmental applications. The material in this book addresses mathematical calculations common to both the environmental science and engineering professionals. It provides the reader with nearly 100 solved illustrative examples and the interrelationship between both theory and applications is emphasized in nearly all of the 35 chapters. One key feature of this book is that the solutions to the problems are presented in a stand-alone manner. Throughout the book, the illustrative examples are laid out in such a way as to develop the reader's technical understanding of the subject in question, with more difficult examples located at or near the end of each set. In presenting the text material, the authors have stressed the pragmatic approach in the application of mathematical tools to assist the reader in grasping the role of mathematical skills in environmental prTable of ContentsPreface ix Part I: Introduction 1 1 Fundamentals and Principles of Numbers 3 2 Series Analysis 21 3 Graphical Analysis 29 4 Flow Diagrams 43 5 Dimensional Analysis 53 6 Economics 73 7 Problem Solving 89 Part II: Analytical Analysis 99 8 Analytical Geometry 101 9 Differentiation 115 10 Integration 121 11 Differential Calculus 133 12 Integral Calculus 147 13 Matrix Algebra 161 14 Laplace Transforms 173 Part III: Numerical Analysis 183 15 Trial-and-Error Solutions 185 16 Nonlinear Algebraic Equations 195 17 Simultaneous Linear Algebraic Equations 209 18 Differentiation 219 19 Integration 225 20 Ordinary Differential Equations 235 21 Partial Differential Equations 247 Part IV: Statistical Analysis 259 22 Basic Probability Concepts 261 23 Estimation of Mean and Variance 275 24 Discrete Probability Distribution 287 25 Continuous Probability Distribution 307 26 Fault Tree and Event Tree Analysis 343 27 Monte Carlo Simulation 357 28 Regression Analysis 371 Part V: Optimization 385 29 Introduction to Optimization 387 30 Perturbation Techniques 395 31 Search Methods 405 32 Graphical Analysis 419 33 Analytical Analysis 435 34 Introduction to Linear Programming 449 35 Linear Programming Applications 465

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Book SynopsisThis new volume provides a timely study on the environmental challenges from a specific class of perfluorinated chemical compounds (PFCs) that are now being recognized as a worldwide health threat. Recent studies report that levels of classes of PFCs known as polyfluoroalkyl and perfluoroalkyl (PFASs) exceed federally recommended safety levels in public drinking-water supplies for 6 million people in the United States and that as many as 100 million people could be at risk from exposure to these chemicals. These chemicals occur globally in wildlife and humans. Both PFCAs and PFSAs have been produced for more than 50 years, but have only become of interest to regulators and environmentalists since the late 1990s. Recent advances in analytical methodology has enabled widespread detection in the environment and humans at trace levels. These toxic chemicals have been found in outdoor and indoor air, surface and drinking water, house dust, animal tissue, human blood serum, and humTable of ContentsPreface ix About the Author xv Abbreviations and Acronyms xvii Useful Conversion Factors xxi 1 What Fluoropolymers Are 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Evolution of Fluoropolymers and the Markets 3 1.3 PFAS Compounds 6 1.3.1 General Description 6 1.3.2 How They Are Made 10 1.3.3 The Proliferation of PFAS 15 1.4 Terminology 17 References 19 2 Definitions, Uses, and Evolution of PFCs 21 2.1 Perfluorinated Chemicals (PFCs) Of Interest 21 2.2 The PFC Family 43 2.3 PFOS 44 2.4 PFOA 49 2.5 Fluorotelomers 50 References 52 3 Fire Fighting Foams 55 3.1 What AFFFs Are 55 3.2 Environmental Impacts 58 References 62 4 Health Risk Studies 63 4.1 General 63 4.2 PFOA 65 4.3 PFOS 77 4.4 EFSA – EU Food and Safety Authority Findings 77 References 90 5 Overview of the Environmental Concerns 91 5.1 Where It All Began 91 5.2 Emerging Contaminants of Concern 93 5.3 PFOS 96 5.4 PFOA 100 References 107 6 The Supply Chain and Pathways to Contamination 109 6.1 Losses Along the Supply Chain and End of Life 109 6.2 Consumer Articles 119 6.3 Consumer Exposure to PFOS and PFOA 124 References 127 7 Standards, Advisories, and Restrictions 129 7.1 Extent of Groundwater Contamination in the United States 129 7.2 The U.S. Water Quality Standards 133 7.3 Remedial Guidelines 142 7.4 Standards in Other Countries 143 7.4.1 United Kingdom 144 7.4.2 Canada 144 7.4.3 Germany 145 7.4.4 Norway 145 7.4.5 European Union (EU) 146 7.4.6 OECD 148 7.4.7 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 149 7.4.8 United Nation’s Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) 150 References 151 8 Overview of Water Treatment Technology Options 153 8.1 Technology Options 153 8.2 Case Studies, Literature, and Technologies 156 Reference 163 9 Adsorption Technology 165 9.1 Overview 165 9.2 Activated Carbon and Other Carbonaceous Adsorbents 169 9.3 Zeolites 178 9.4 Polymeric Adsorbents 179 9.5 Oxidic Adsorbents 180 9.6 Adsorption Theory Basics and Isotherms 181 9.7 Adsorption of PFOA 186 9.8 Hardware and Operational Considerations 189 9.9 Backwashing 196 9.10 Permitting 197 9.11 Spent Carbon Management 197 9.12 Recommended References 198 References 201 10 Case Studies 203 10.1 PFOA in Southern New Hampshire 203 10.2 Former Wurtsmith Air Force Base 206 10.3 Dupont Washington Works in West Virginia 213 10.4 PFC Contamination in Minnesota 218 References 228 Index 229

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Book SynopsisThis comprehensive compilation of contemporary research initiatives in polymer science & technology details the advancement in the fields of coatings, sensors, energy harvesting and gas transport. Polymers are the most versatile material and used in all industrial sectors because of their light weight, ease of processing and manufacturing, the ability to mold into intricate shapes, and its cost-effectiveness. They can easily be filled with a range of reinforcing agents like fibers, particulates, flakes and spheres in micro/nano sizes and compete with conventional materials in terms of performance, properties and durability. Polymers continue to be discovered and the demand for them is increasing. The book comprises a series of chapters outlining recent developments in various high performance applications of Advanced Polymeric Materials. The topics covered encompass specialized applications of polymeric matrices, their blends, composites and nanocomposites pertaining to smart & hTable of ContentsPreface xv 1 Polymer Nanocomposites and Coatings: The Game Changers 1Gaurav Verma 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Polymer Nanocomposites 4 1.2.1 Types of Polymer Nanocomposites: Processing 4 1.2.1.1 Equipment and Processing 7 1.2.2 Polymer Property Enhancements 9 1.2.3 Polymer Nanocomposite Structure and Morphology 10 1.2.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 11 1.2.4.1 Morphological Testing 12 1.2.4.2 Spectral Testing 14 1.2.4.3 Testing 15 1.2.5 Applications 16 1.2.5.1 Nanocomposite Coatings: Focus PU-Clay Coatings 17 1.3 Conclusions 18 Acknowledgments 19 References 19 2 DGEBA Epoxy/CaCO3 Nanocomposites for Improved Chemical Resistance and Mechanical Properties for Coating Applications 23Manoj Kumar Shukla, Archana Mishra, Kavita Srivastava, A K Rathore and Deepak Srivastava 2.1 Introductıon 24 2.2 Experimental 26 2.2.1 Preparation of Epoxy/CaCO3 Nanocomposites 26 2.2.2 Preparation of Panels 27 2.2.3 Preparation of Reagents for Chemical Resistance 27 2.2.3.1 Artificial Seawater (ASW) 27 2.2.4 Preparation of Films 28 2.3 Characterization of Epoxy/CaCO3 Nanocomposite 28 2.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectra 28 2.3.2 Mechanical Properties 28 2.3.2.1 Impact Resistance 28 2.3.2.2 Scratch Hardness 29 2.3.2.3 Adhesion and Flexibility Test 29 2.3.2.4 Chemical Resistance Test 29 2.3.2.5 Morphological Properties 29 2.4 Results and Discussion 30 2.4.1 FTIR Spectroscopic Analysis 30 2.4.2 Studies on Mechenical Properties 32 2.4.2.1 Impact Resistance 32 2.4.2.2 Studies of Scratch Hardness 35 2.4.2.3 Adhesion and Flexibility Test (Mandrel Bend Test) 36 2.4.3 Studies on Chemical Resistance 37 2.4.4 Morphological Studies 38 2.5 Conclusıon 41 References 42 3 An Industrial Approach to FRLS (Fire Retardant Low Smoke) Compliance in Epoxy Resin-Based Polymeric Products 45Hari R and Sukumar Roy 3.1 Introduction 46 3.1.1 Incorporation of Additives 47 3.2 Experimental 49 3.3 Characterizatıon, Results and Discussion 53 3.4 Conclusion 57 Acknowledgments 58 References 58 4 Polymer-Based Organic Solar Cell: An Overview 59Neha Patni, Pranjal Sharma, Mythilypriya Suresh, Birendrakumar Tiwari and Shibu G. Pillai 4.1 Introduction 60 4.2 Polymer Solar Cells: An Insight 61 4.2.1 Why Polymer Solar Cells are Preferable 62 4.3 Layer Stack Constructıon of Polymer Solar Cells 62 4.4 Simple Working of a Polymer Solar Cell 63 4.5 Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) 63 4.6 Current Condition of Polymer Solar Cells 64 4.7 Materials Used for Developing PSC 65 4.7.1 Synthesis of Polymer Materials 65 4.7.1.1 Stille Cross-Coupling 66 4.7.1.2 Suzuki Cross-Coupling 66 4.7.1.3 Direct Arylation Polymerization 66 4.7.1.4 Polymerization Rates 67 4.7.2 Conjugated Polymers 67 4.7.3 Side-Chain Influence in Polymers 68 4.7.4 Purification 69 4.8 Degradation and Stability of a PSC 69 4.8.1 Physical Degradation 69 4.8.1.1 Morphological Stability 69 4.8.1.2 Flexibility and Delamination 70 4.8.2 Chemical Degradation 70 4.8.2.1 Polymer Instability 70 4.8.2.2 Photochemical Degradation 71 4.9 Dyes 72 4.9.1 Natural Dyes Used for Polymer Solar Cells 73 4.10 Performed Experiments 75 4.10.1 Experimental Setup 1 75 4.10.2 Experimental Setup 2 77 4.11 Summary 78 References 79 5 A Simple Route to Synthesize Nanostructures of Bismuth Oxyiodide and Bismuth Oxychloride (BiOI/BiOCl) Composite for Solar Energy Harvesting 83I. D. Sharma, Chander Kant, A. K. Sharma, Ravi Ranjan Pandey and K. K. Saini 5.1 Introduction 83 5.1.1 Bismuth Oxyhalide [BiOX (X = Cl, Br, I )]:General Remarks 87 5.1.2 Synthesis of Bismuth Oxyhalide 89 5.2 Photocatalytic Activity Measurements 91 5.3 Results and Discussion 91 5.4 Conclusion 96 Acknowledgments 97 References 98 6 Investigation of DC Conductivity, Conduction Mechanism and CH4 Gas Sensor of Chemically Synthesized Polyaniline Nanofiber Deposited on DL-PLA Substrate 101Muktikanta Panigrahi, Debabrat Pradhan, Subhasis Basu Majumdar and Basudam Adhikari 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Experimental Details 104 6.2.1 Preparation of Desired Materials 104 6.2.2 Characterization of DL-PLA Films and DL-PLA/PANI-ES Composites 105 6.3 Results and Discussion 106 6.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) Analysis 106 6.3.2 Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transformation Infrared (ATR-FTIR) Spectroscopic Analysis 107 6.3.3 Ultraviolet Visible (UV-Vis) Absorption Spectroscopic Analysis 109 6.3.4 DC Electrical Analysis 111 6.4 Conclusion 120 Acknowledgments 121 References 121 7 Electrical Properties of Conducting Polymer-MWCNT Binary and Hybrid Nanocomposites 127B.T.S. Ramanujam and S. Radhakrishnan 7.1 Introduction 128 7.1.1 Theoretical Background of Electrical Conductivity in CPCs 129 7.1.2 Factors Affecting Electrical Percolation Threshold 129 7.1.3 Processing Methods of CPCs 130 7.1.4 Conduction Mechanism in CPCs 130 7.1.5 Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube (MWCNT) – Potential Conducting Filler 131 7.1.5.1 Synthesis Methods of Carbon Nanotubes 132 7.1.6 Electrical Properties of Polymer-MWCNT Composites 134 7.2 AC/DC Properties of Polyethersulfone (PES)-MWCNT, PES-Graphite-MWCNT Nanocomposites 135 7.2.1 Material Properties 135 7.2.2 Composite Preparation 135 7.3 Discussion of Results 136 7.3.1 Electrical Behavior of Polyethersulfone (PES)-MWCNT Binary and PES-Graphite-MWCNT Hybrid Composites 136 7.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Analysis 138 7.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 139 Acknowledgment 141 References 141 8 Polyaniline-Based Sensors for Monitoring and Detection of Ammonia and Carbon Monoxide Gases 145Neha Patni, Neha Jain and Shibu G. Pillai 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Conducting Polymers 146 8.2.1 Polyaniline 147 8.2.1.1 Structure of Polyaniline 148 8.2.1.2 Properties of Polyaniline 148 8.3 Ammonia Detection 149 8.3.1 Sources of Ammonia 149 8.3.2 Experiment: Ammonia Sensor 153 8.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Detection 154 8.4.1 Common Sources of CO 154 8.4.2 Sensors Used for Detection of CO 155 8.5 Conclusion 158 References 159 9 Synthesis and Characterization of Luminescent La2Zr2O7/Sm3+ Polymer Nanocomposites 163Pramod Halappa and C. Shivakumara 9.1 Introduction 164 9.1.1 Luminescence 165 9.1.2 Photoluminescence 165 9.1.2.1 Fluorescence 165 9.1.2.2 Delayed Fluorescence or Phosphorescence 167 9.1.2.3 Jablonski Diagram 167 9.1.2.4 Phosphors 169 9.1.2.5 Photoluminescence of Samarium Ion (Sm3+) 173 9.1.3 Scope and Objectives of the Present Study 173 9.2 Experimental 175 9.2.1 Synthesis of Sm3+-Doped La2Zr2O7 175 9.2.2 Preparation of PVA Polymer Thin Films 176 9.2.3 Preparation of Sm3+-Doped La2Zr2O7 with PVA-Polymer Composite Films 177 9.2.4 Characterization 177 9.3 Results and Discussıon 178 9.3.1 Structural Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction 178 9.3.2 SEM Analysis 181 9.3.3 UV-Vis Spectroscopy 181 9.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 181 9.3.5 Photoluminescence Properties 182 9.3.6 Chromaticity Color Coordinates 184 9.4 Conclusion 186 Aknowledgment 186 References 186 10 Study of Gas Transport Phenomenon in Layered Polymer Nanocomposite Membranes 191A.K. Patel and N.K. Acharya 10.1 Introduction 192 10.1.1 Transport Phenomenon 193 10.1.2 Metal Coating 196 10.2 Experimental 196 10.2.1 Fabrication of Nanocomposite Membrane 196 10.2.2 Gas Permeability Test 197 10.3 Results and Discussion 199 10.4 Conclusion 203 Acknowledgment 203 References 204 11 Synthesis and Ion Transport Studies of K+ Ion Conducting Nanocomposite Polymer Electrolytes 207Angesh Chandra, Alok Bhatt and Archana Chandra 11.1 Introduction 208 11.2 Experimental 209 11.3 Results and Discussion 210 11.4 Conclusion 216 Acknowledgment 217 References 217 12 Recent Studies in Polyurethane-Based Drug Delivery Systems 219Archana Solanki and Sonal Thakore 12.1 Introduction 219 12.1.1 Polyurethane Chemistry: A Brief Overview 219 12.1.2 Carbohydrate Cross-Linked Polyurethanes 227 12.1.3 Biomedical Applications of PUs 229 12.2 Experimental 232 12.2.1 Impact of PU Chemistry on Drug Delivery Profiles 232 12.2.2 Drug Loading and Release Kinetics 235 12.2.3 Waterborne pH-Responsive Polyurethanes 236 12.3 Conclusion 240 References 240 13 Synthesis and Characterization of Polymeric Hydrogels for Drug Release Formulation and Its Comparative Study 245Nisarg K. Prajapati, Nirmal K. Patel and Vijay Kumar Sinha 13.1 Introduction 246 13.2 Materials and Method 246 13.2.1 Preparation of Sodium Salt of Partly Carboxylic Propyl Starch (Na-PCPS) 246 13.2.2 Preparation of 2-Hydroxy-3-((2-hydroxypropanoyl)oxy)propyl acrylate 247 13.2.3 Graft Copolymerization with PCPS-g-2-hydroxy-3-((2-hydroxypropanoyl)oxy) propyl acrylate (HPA) 247 13.2.4 Drug Loading in Polymeric Binder 248 13.2.5 Preparation of Matrix Tablets 249 13.2.6 In-Vitro Dissolution Studies of Tablet 250 13.3 Result and Discussion 250 13.3.1 13C-NMR Spectra Analysis of 2-Hydroxy-3-((2-hydroxypropanoyl)oxy) propyl acrylate 250 13.3.2 XRD Analysis of Starch, CPS, PCPS-g-2-hydroxy-3-((2-hydroxypropanoyl)oxy) propyl acrylate (HPA) 250 13.3.3 In-Vitro Study 251 13.4 Conclusion 253 Acknowledgment 253 References 253 14 Enhancement in Gas Diffusion Barrier Property of Polyethylene by Plasma Deposited SiOx Films for Food Packaging Applications 255Purvi Dave, Nisha Chandwani, S. K. Nema and S. Mukherji 255 14.1 Introduction 256 14.2 Transport of Gas Molecules Through Packaging Polymers 258 14.2.1 Packaging Polymer Struture 258 14.2.2 Transport of Gas Molecules Through Semicrystalline Polymer Films 258 14.2.3 Measurement of Gas Transmission Rate Through a Packaging Film 260 14.3 Experimental 261 14.3.1 Contact Angle Measurements to Determine Film Wetting Properties 262 14.3.2 FTIR-ATR Study to Determine Film Chemistry 262 14.3.3 Film Thickness Measurement 262 14.3.4 High Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy to Determine Film Morphology 262 14.3.5 OTR Measurement to Determine Oxygen Diffusion Barrier Property 263 14.4 Results 263 14.4.1 Observations 263 14.4.1.1 Wetting Behavior of SiOx Films 263 14.4.1.2 Chemistry of SiOx Film 264 14.4.1.3 Deposition Rate 264 14.4.1.4 High Resolution Scanning Electron Microscopy 265 14.4.1.5 Oxygen Transmission Rate 267 14.4.2 Discussion 267 14.5 Conclusion 271 References 272 15 Synthesis and Characterization of Nanostructured Olivine LiFePO4 Electrode Material for Lithium-Polymer Rechargeable Battery 275K. Rani, M. Abdul Kader and S. Palaniappan 15.1 Introduction 276 15.1.1 Energy Storage: Rechargeable Batteries 276 15.1.1.1 Lithium Battery 278 15.1.1.2 Comparison between Li-Polymer Battery and Liquid Battery 279 15.1.1.3 Commercial Production 280 15.1.1.4 Advantages of Lithium Polymer Batteries 281 15.1.1.5 Limitations of Lithium-Polymer Batteries 282 15.1.2 Cell Manufacturers Using Lithium Iron Phosphate 282 15.1.3 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) 284 15.1.3.1 Synthesis of LiFePO4 286 15.1.3.2 Structure of LiFePO4 287 15.1.3.3 Work on LiFePO4 Cell Systems 290 15.2 Experimental 292 15.2.1 Synthesis 292 15.3 Characterization 292 15.4 Results and Discussion 293 15.4.1 Morphology 293 15.4.2 E-DAX 294 15.4.3 Charge-Discharge Characteristics 294 15.4.4 XRD Studies on LiFePO4 295 15.5 Conclusion 296 Acknowledgments 297 References 298 Index 305

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Book SynopsisA fascinating and informative look at state-of-the-art nanotechnology research, worldwide, and its vast commercial potential Nanotechnology Commercialization: Manufacturing Processes and Products presents a detailed look at the state of the art in nanotechnology and explores key issues that must still be addressed in order to successfully commercialize that vital technology. Written by a team of distinguished experts in the field, it covers a range of applications notably: military, space, and commercial transport applications, as well as applications for missiles, aircraft, aerospace, and commercial transport systems. The drive to advance the frontiers of nanotechnology has become a major global initiative with profound economic, military, and environmental implications. Nanotechnology has tremendous commercial and economic implications with a projected $ 1.2 trillion-dollar global market. This book describes current research in the field and details itsTable of ContentsList of Contributors xv Preface xix Editor in Chief xxi 1 Overview: Affirmation of Nanotechnology between 2000 and 2030 1Mihail C. Roco 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Nanotechnology – A FoundationalMegatrend in Science and Engineering 2 1.3 Three Stages for Establishing the New General Purpose Technology 9 1.4 Several Challenges for Nanotechnology Development 15 1.5 About the Return on Investment 16 1.6 Closing Remarks 21 Acknowledgments 22 References 22 2 Nanocarbon Materials in Catalysis 25Xing Zhang, Xiao Zhang, and Yongye Liang 2.1 Introduction to Nanocarbon Materials 25 2.2 Synthesis and Functionalization of Nanocarbon Materials 26 2.2.1 Synthesis and Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 26 2.2.2 Synthesis and Functionalization of Graphene and Graphene Oxide 27 2.2.3 Synthesis and Functionalization of Carbon Nanodots 29 2.2.4 Synthesis and Functionalization of Mesoporous Carbon 29 2.3 Applications of Nanocarbon Materials in Electrocatalysis 31 2.3.1 Oxygen Reduction Reaction 32 2.3.2 Oxygen Evolution Reaction 36 2.3.3 Hydrogen Evolution Reaction 39 2.3.4 Roles of Nanocarbon Materials in Catalytic CO2 Reduction Reaction 43 2.4 Applications of Nanocarbon Materials in Photocatalysis 47 2.4.1 Application of Nanocarbon Materials as Photogenerated Charge Acceptors 48 2.4.2 Application of Nanocarbon Materials as Electron Shuttle Mediator 48 2.4.3 Application of Nanocarbon Materials as Cocatalyst for Photocatalysts 50 2.4.4 Application of Nanocarbon Materials as Active Photocatalyst 51 2.5 Summary 51 Acknowledgments 52 References 52 3 Controlling and Characterizing Anisotropic Nanomaterial Dispersion 65Virginia A. Davis andMicah J. Green 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 What Is Dispersion andWhy Is It Important? 66 3.2.1 Factors Affecting Dispersion 73 3.2.2 Thermodynamic Dissolution of Pristine Nanomaterials 73 3.2.3 Intermolecular Potential in Dispersions 74 3.2.4 Functionalization of Nanomaterials 75 3.2.5 Physical Mixing 77 3.2.5.1 Sonication 77 3.2.5.2 Solvent IntercalationMethods 78 3.2.5.3 Shear Mixing Methods 78 3.3 Characterizing Dispersion State in Fluids 81 3.3.1 Visualization 81 3.3.2 Spectroscopy 83 3.3.3 TEM 85 3.3.4 AFM 85 3.3.5 Light Scattering 85 3.3.6 Rheology 86 3.4 Characterization of Dispersion State in Solidified Materials 88 3.4.1 Microscopy 89 3.4.2 Electrical Percolation 89 3.4.3 Mechanical Property Enhancement 89 3.4.4 Thermal Property Changes 90 3.5 Conclusion 90 Acknowledgments 90 References 91 4 High-Throughput Nanomanufacturing via Spray Processes 101Gauri Nabar,Matthew Souva, Kil Ho Lee, Souvik De, Jodie Lutkenhaus, Barbara Wyslouzil, and Jessica O.Winter 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Flash Nanoprecipitation 104 4.2.1 Overview 104 4.2.2 Importance of Rapid Mixing 105 4.2.3 Mixers Employed in FNP 106 4.2.3.1 Confined Impinging Jet Mixers (CIJMs) 106 4.2.3.2 Multi-Inlet Vortex Mixers (MIVMs) 107 4.2.3.3 Mixer Selection 107 4.2.4 FNP Product Structure 107 4.2.5 Applications of FNP Nanocomposites 108 4.3 Electrospray 108 4.3.1 Overview 108 4.3.2 Single Nozzle Electrospray 109 4.3.2.1 Forces and Modes of Electrospray 109 4.3.2.2 Applications of Single Nozzle Electrospray 110 4.3.3 Coaxial Electrospray 111 4.3.3.1 Configuration 111 4.3.3.2 Applications 112 4.3.4 Future Directions 113 4.4 Liquid-in-Liquid Electrospray 113 4.4.1 Overview 113 4.4.2 Importance of Relative Conductivities of the Dispersed and Continuous Phases 114 4.4.3 Modified Liquid-in-Liquid Electrospray Designs 115 4.4.4 Applications and Future Directions 117 4.5 Spray-Assisted Layer-by-Layer Assembly 117 4.5.1 Overview 117 4.5.2 Influence of Processing Parameters on Film Quality 119 4.5.2.1 Effect of Concentration 120 4.5.2.2 Effect of Spraying Time 120 4.5.2.3 Effect of Spraying Distance 120 4.5.2.4 Effect of Air Pressure 121 4.5.2.5 Effect of Charge Density 121 4.5.2.6 Effect of Rinsing and Blow-Drying 122 4.5.2.7 Effect of Rinsing Solution 122 4.5.3 Applications 122 4.5.4 Future Directions 123 4.6 Conclusion and Future Directions 123 References 123 5 Overview of Nanotechnology in Military and Aerospace Applications 133Eugene Edwards, Christina Brantley, and Paul B. Ruffin 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Implications of Nanotechnology in Military and Aerospace Systems Applications 134 5.3 Nano-Based Microsensor Technology for the Detection of Chemical Agents 135 5.3.1 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy 135 5.3.1.1 Design Approach 136 5.3.1.2 Experiment 137 5.3.1.3 Results 138 5.3.2 Voltammetric Techniques 139 5.3.2.1 Design Approach 140 5.3.2.2 Experimental/Test Setup 142 5.3.2.3 Results 143 5.3.3 Functionalized Nanowires – Zinc Oxide 145 5.3.3.1 Design Approach 145 5.3.3.2 Experimental/Test Setup 146 5.3.3.3 Results 146 5.3.4 Functionalized Nanowires – Tin Oxide 147 5.3.4.1 Design Approach 148 5.3.4.2 Prototype Configuration/Testing 148 5.3.4.3 Results 148 5.4 Nanotechnology for Missile Health Monitoring 149 5.4.1 Nanoporous Membrane Sensors 150 5.4.1.1 Design Approach 150 5.4.1.2 Experimental Setup and Prototype Configuration 150 5.4.1.3 Results 152 5.4.2 Multichannel Chip with Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Sensor Arrays 154 5.4.2.1 Design Concept 154 5.4.2.2 Experimental Configuration 154 5.4.2.3 Results 155 5.4.3 Optical Spectroscopic Configured Sensing Techniques – Fiber Optics 155 5.4.3.1 Design Concept Spectroscopic Sensing 156 5.4.3.2 Experimental Approach/Aged Propellant Samples 156 5.4.3.3 Results from Absorption Measurements 157 5.5 Nanoenergetics – Missile Propellants 158 5.5.1 Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes 158 5.5.1.1 Design Approach 158 5.5.1.2 Experiment 159 5.5.1.3 Results 160 5.5.2 Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes 160 5.5.2.1 Design Approach 160 5.5.2.2 Experiment 161 5.5.2.3 Results 162 5.6 Nanocomposites for Missile Motor Casings and Structural Components 162 5.6.1 Thermal Methods 162 5.6.2 VibrationalMethods 164 5.6.2.1 Design Approach 164 5.6.2.2 Experiment 164 5.6.2.3 Results 165 5.7 Nanoplasmonics 167 5.7.1 Metallic Nanostructures 168 5.7.2 Gallium-Based UV Plasmonics 169 5.8 Nanothermal Batteries and Supercapacitors 169 5.9 Conclusion 172 References 173 6 Novel Polymer Nanocomposite Ablative Technologies for Thermal Protection of Propulsion and Reentry Systems for Space Applications 177Joseph H. Koo and Thomas O. Mensah 6.1 Introduction 177 6.2 Motor Nozzle and Insulation Materials 179 6.2.1 Behavior of Ablative Materials 182 6.3 Advanced Polymer Nanocomposite Ablatives 184 6.3.1 Polymer Nanocomposites for Motor Nozzle 185 6.3.1.1 Phenolic Nanocomposites Studies byThe University of Texas at Austin 185 6.3.1.2 Phenolic-MWNT Nanocomposites Studies by Texas State University-San Marcos 188 6.3.2 Polymer Nanocomposites for Internal Insulation 189 6.3.2.1 Thermoplastic Polyurethane Nanocomposite (TPUN) Studies by The University of Texas at Austin 190 6.4 New Sensing Technology 195 6.4.1 In situ Ablation Recession and Thermal Sensors 196 6.4.1.1 Production of the C/C Sensor Plugs 198 6.4.1.2 Ablation Test Results of Carbon/Carbon Sensors 200 6.4.1.3 Ablation Test Results of Carbon/Phenolic Carbon Sensors 209 6.4.1.4 Other Ablation Sensors Results 211 6.4.1.5 Summary and Conclusions 212 6.4.2 Char Strength Sensor 213 6.4.2.1 Setup and Calibration of Compression Sensor 214 6.4.2.2 Analysis Method 215 6.4.2.3 Char Compressive Strength Results 216 6.4.2.4 Additional Considerations on the Interpretation of the Data 223 6.4.2.5 Concluding Remarks 226 6.5 Technologies Needed to Advance Polymer Nanocomposite Ablative Research 227 6.5.1 Thermophysical Properties Characterization 227 6.5.1.1 Thermal Conductivity 227 6.5.1.2 Thermal Expansion 228 6.5.1.3 Density and Composition 228 6.5.1.4 Microstructure 229 6.5.1.5 Elemental Composition 229 6.5.1.6 Char Yield 229 6.5.1.7 Specific Heat 229 6.5.1.8 Heat of Combustion 230 6.5.1.9 Optical Properties 230 6.5.1.10 Porosity 230 6.5.1.11 Permeability 230 6.5.2 Ablation Modeling 231 6.6 Summary and Conclusion 236 Nomenclature 236 Acronyms 237 Acknowledgments 237 References 238 7 Manufacture of Multiscale Composites 245David O. Olawale,Micah C. McCrary-Dennis, and Okenwa O. Okoli 7.1 Introduction 245 7.1.1 Multifunctionality of Multiscale Composites 245 7.1.2 Nanomaterials 247 7.2 Nanoconstituents Preparation Processes 249 7.2.1 Functionalization of CNTs 249 7.2.1.1 Chemical Functionalization 249 7.2.1.2 Physical (Noncovalent) Functionalization 250 7.2.2 Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes 252 7.2.2.1 Ultrasonication 254 7.2.2.2 Calendering Process 255 7.2.2.3 Ball Milling 256 7.2.2.4 Stir and Extrusion 256 7.2.3 Alignment of CNTS 258 7.2.3.1 Ex situ Alignment 258 7.2.3.2 Force Field-Induced Alignment of CNTs 259 7.2.3.3 Magnetic Field-Induced Alignment of CNTs 259 7.2.3.4 Electrospinning-Induced Alignment of CNTs 260 7.2.3.5 Liquid Crystalline Phase-induced Alignment of CNTs 261 7.3 Liquid Composites Molding (LCM) Processes for Multiscale Composites Manufacturing 261 7.3.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) 262 7.3.2 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) 263 7.3.3 Resin Film Infusion (RFI) 265 7.3.4 The Resin Infusion under Flexible Tooling (RIFT) and Resin Infusion between Double Flexible Tooling (RIDFT) 266 7.3.5 Autoclave Manufacturing 267 7.3.6 Out-of-Autoclave Manufacturing: Quickset 268 7.3.6.1 Quickstep 268 7.4 Continuous Manufacturing Processes for Multiscale Composites 269 7.4.1 Pultrusion 269 7.4.2 FilamentWinding 270 7.5 Challenges and Advances in Multiscale Composites Manufacturing – Environmental, Health, and Safety (E, H, & S) 271 7.5.1 Nanoconstituents Processing Hazards 271 7.5.2 Composite Production and Processing 272 7.5.3 Life Cycle Assessment – Use and Disposal 273 7.6 Modeling and Simulation Tools for Multiscale Composites Manufacture 273 7.6.1 Nanoparticle Modeling 274 7.6.2 Molecular Modeling 274 7.6.3 Simulation 274 7.7 Conclusion 275 References 276 8 Bioinspired Systems 285Oluwamayowa Adigun, Alexander S. Freer, LaurieMueller, Christopher Gilpin, BryanW. Boudouris, and Michael T. Harris 8.1 Introduction and Literature Overview 285 8.2 Electrical Properties of a Single Palladium-Coated Biotemplate 289 8.3 Materials and Methods 290 8.4 Results and Discussion 293 8.5 Conclusion and Outlook 297 Acknowledgments 300 References 300 9 Prediction of Carbon Nanotube Buckypaper Mechanical Properties with Integrated Physics-Based and Statistical Models 307KanWang, Arda Vanli, Chuck Zhang, and BenWang 9.1 Introduction 307 9.2 Manufacturing Process of Buckypaper 310 9.3 Finite Element-Based ComputationalModels for Buckypaper Mechanical Property Prediction 313 9.4 Calibration and Adjustment of FE Models with Statistical Methods 322 9.5 Summary 331 References 332 10 Fabrication and Fatigue of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites – A Tool for Quality Control 335Daniel C. Davis and Thomas O. Mensah 10.1 Introduction 335 10.2 Materials 336 10.2.1 Carbon Fabric and Fiber 337 10.2.2 Glass Fabric and Fibers 337 10.2.3 Polymer Resin 337 10.2.4 Carbon Nanotubes 338 10.2.5 Carbon Nanofibers 339 10.2.6 Nanoclays 340 10.3 Composite Fabrication 341 10.3.1 Hand Layup 341 10.3.2 Resin Transfer Molding 342 10.4 Discussion – Fatigue and Fracture 344 10.4.1 Fatigue and Durability 344 10.4.2 Carbon Nanotube – Polymer Matrix Composites 347 10.4.3 Carbon Nanofiber – Polymer Matrix Composites 349 10.4.4 Nanoclay – PolymerMatrix Composites 354 10.5 Summary and Conclusion 359 Acknowledgments 360 References 360 11 Nanoclays: A Review of Their Toxicological Profiles and Risk Assessment Implementation Strategies 369Alixandra Wagner, Rakesh Gupta, and Cerasela Z. Dinu 11.1 Introduction 369 11.2 Nanoclay Structure and Resulting Applications 369 11.3 Nanoclays in Food Packaging Applications 370 11.4 Possible Toxicity upon Implementation of Nanoclay in Consumer Applications 375 11.4.1 In Vitro Studies Reveal the Potential of Nanoclay to Induce Changes in Cellular Viability 376 11.4.2 Proposed Mechanisms of Toxicity for the In Vitro Cellular Studies 380 11.4.3 In Vivo Evaluation of Nanoclay Toxicity 383 11.5 Conclusion and Outlook 385 Acknowledgments 387 References 388 12 Nanotechnology EHS: Manufacturing and Colloidal Aspects 395Geoffrey D. Bothun and Vinka Oyanedel-Craver 12.1 Introduction 395 12.1.1 Challenges 397 12.1.2 Recent Initiatives and Reviews 399 12.2 Colloidal Properties and Environmental Transformations 400 12.3 Assessing Nano EHS 402 12.3.1 Example: Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 407 12.3.2 Role of Manufacturing 407 Summary 409 Acknowledgments 409 References 409 Index 417

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Book SynopsisWith the ever-increasing amount of research being published it is a Herculean task to be fully conversant with the latest research developments in any field, and the arena of adhesion and adhesives is no exception. Thus, topical review articles provide an alternate and very efficient way to stay abreast of the state-of-the-art in may subjects representing the field of adhesion science and adheisves. Based on the success and the warm reception accorded to the premier volume in this series Progress in Adhesion and Adhesives (containing the review articles published in Volume 2 (2014) of the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives (RAA)), volume 2 comprises 14 review articles published in Volume 4 (2016) of RAA. The subjects of these 14 reviews fall into the following general areas: 1. Surface modification of polymers for a variety of purposes. 2. Adhesion aspects in reinforced composites 3. Thin films/coatings and their adhesion measurement Table of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Surface Modification of Natural Fibers for Reinforced Polymer Composites 1M. Masudul Hassan and Manfred H. Wagner 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Natural Fibers (NFs): Sources and Classification 2 1.1.2 Composition of NFs 2 1.1.3 New Trends in the Chemistry of Cellulose 3 1.1.4 Action of Reducing and Oxidizing Agents 6 1.1.5 Drawbacks of Natural Fibers 7 1.2 Modifications of Natural Fibers 9 1.2.1 Physical Modifications of Natural Fibers 9 1.2.2 Chemical Modifications of Natural Fibers 11 1.3 Composites 16 1.3.1 Hybrid Composites 17 1.3.2 Compatibilization 17 1.3.3 Effect of Radiation on Fiber Composites 19 1.3.4 Initiative in Product Development of NF Composites 20 1.4 Properties Evaluation 20 1.4.1 Lantana-Camara Fiber 20 1.4.2 Tea Dust-Polypropylene (TDPP) Composite 23 1.4.3 Water Absorption Test 27 1.4.4 Jute Fiber Reinforced Vinylester Composites 27 1.4.5 Coir Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composites 29 1.4.6 Effect of Alkali Treatment on Hemp, Sisal and Kapok for Composite Reinforcement 31 1.4.7 DSC Analysis of Mercerized Fibers 34 1.4.8 XRD Analysis of Mercerized Fibers 34 1.4.9 SEM Analysis of Alkalized Fibers 34 1.5 Conclusions 36 Acknowledgements 37 References 37 2 Factors Influencing Adhesion of Submicrometer Thin Metal Films 45A. Lahmar, A. Assaf, M.J. Durand, S. Jouanneau, G. Thouand and B. Garnier 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 Experimental Details 47 2.2.1 Film Deposition 47 2.2.2 Measurement of the Critical Load 48 2.3 Results and Discussion 50 2.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy Observations 50 2.3.2 Effects of Film Thickness and Substrate Bias on the Mean Critical Load 51 2.3.3 Effects of Ion Bombardment Etching of Substrate Surface 54 2.3.4 Effect of Ageing Treatment after Deposition 55 2.3.5 Effect of Roughness of the Substrate Surface 56 2.3.6 Dependence of Critical Load and Thermal Resistance on Deposition Conditions 58 2.3.7 Correlation Between Adhesion and Thermal Contact Resistance 60 2.4 Summary 63 References 63 3 Surface Treatments to Modulate Bioadhesion 67D.G. Waugh, C. Toccaceli, A.R. Gillett, C.H. Ng, S.D. Hodgson and J. Lawrence 3.1 Introduction 67 3.1.1 The Role of Wettability in Biological and Microbiological Adhesion 69 3.2 Various Surface Treatments 70 3.2.1 Laser Surface Treatment 70 3.2.2 Lithography 75 3.2.3 Micro/Nano Contact Printing 77 3.2.4 Plasma Surface Treatment 79 3.2.5 Radiation Grafting 81 3.2.6 Ion Beam and Electron Beam Processing 82 3.3 Prospects 85 3.4 Summary 89 References 89 4 Hot-Melt Adhesives from Renewable Resources 101P. Utekar, H. Gabale, A. Khandelwal and S.T. Mhaske 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Potential Renewable Base Polymers 103 4.3 Lactic Acid Based Polymers as Hot-Melt Adhesives 104 4.4 Soy Protein Based Polymers as Hot-Melt Adhesives 106 4.5 Bio-Based Polyamides as Hot-Melt Adhesives 107 4.6 Starch Based Polymers as Hot-Melt Adhesives 109 4.7 Summary 111 References 111 5 Relevance of Adhesion in Particulate/Fibre-Polymer Composites and Particle Coated Fibre Yarns 115V.B. Mohan, K. Jayaraman and D. Bhattacharyya 5.1 Introduction 115 5.1.1 Mechanisms of Adhesion 118 5.1.2 Tests for Interfacial Adhesion in Composites 120 5.2 Theory of Interaction 124 5.2.1 Adhesion Mechanism in Fibre Yarns and Polymer Systems 125 5.2.2 Surface Modification Techniques 126 5.2.3 Adhesion Properties of Fibres 130 5.2.4 Morphological Evaluation of Fibre Yarns Coated with Nanoparticles 131 5.2.5 Interfacial Adhesion in Particle and Polymer Blends 138 5.3 Summary 140 References 142 6 Study and Analysis of Damages in Functionally Graded Adhesively Bonded Joints of Laminated FRP Composites 147S.K. Panigrahi and Rashmi Ranjan Das 6.1 Introduction 148 6.2 Damage Analysis of Adhesively Bonded Laminated Composite Joints 149 6.2.1 Damage Analysis of Adhesively Bonded Flat FRP Composite Joints 149 6.2.2 Damage Analysis of Adhesively Bonded Tubular FRP Composite Joints 151 6.3 Effect of Adhesive Property on Damages in Adhesively Bonded Joints 152 6.4 Effect of Functionally Graded Adhesives on Damages in Adhesively Bonded Joints 153 6.5 Conclusion 156 References 156 7 Surface Modification Strategies for Fabrication of Nano-Biodevices 161Ankur Gupta, Vinay Kumar Patel, Rishi Kant and Shantanu Bhattacharya 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Interfacial Interactions for Proper Functioning of Nano-biodevices 164 7.3 Strategies for Surface Modification of Polymers in Nano-biodevices 167 7.3.1 Surface Modification of Polymers Through Plasma Treatment 168 7.3.2 Surface Modification of Surfaces Through Chemical Route 168 7.3.3 Surface Modification Through Silanization of Surfaces 169 7.3.4 Surface Modification of Polymers with SAMs by Micro-contact Printing Technique 170 7.3.5 Other Surface Modification Strategies 171 7.4 Benefits of Surface Modifications to Nano-Biodevices 176 7.5 Summary 177 References 177 8 Effects of Particulates on Contact Angles and Adhesion of a Droplet 187Youhua Jiang, Wei Xu and Chang-Hwan Choi 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Theoretical Background of Contact Angles and Adhesion of a Droplet 189 8.3 Effects of Particulates on Static Contact Angles 191 8.3.1 Deposition of Particulates on Solid-liquid Interface 192 8.3.2 Adsorption of Particulates on Liquid-Gas Interface 194 8.3.3 Adsorption of Surfactants on Solid-Gas Interface 195 8.4 Effects of Particulates on Droplet Pinning 197 8.4.1 Flows Within a Droplet 199 8.4.2 Interactions amongst Particulates, Solid Substrates, and Liquid-Gas Interfaces 201 8.4.3 Structural Disjoining Pressure 204 8.5 Effects of Particulates on Droplet Motion 205 8.5.1 Contact Line Velocity 205 8.5.2 Stick-Slip Behavior 206 8.6 Summary 210 8.7 Prospects 210 Acknowledgements 211 References 211 9 Thermal Stresses in Adhesively Bonded Joints/Patches and Their Modeling 217M. Kemal Apalak 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Thermal Stresses 219 9.2.1 Bi-material Strips 219 9.2.2 Linear Analyses 220 9.2.3 Nonlinear Analyses 225 9.3 Thermal Residual Stresses 230 9.3.1 Residual Stresses - Adhesive Curing 233 9.3.2 Residual Stresses - Hygrothermal Ageing 246 9.4 Viscoelastic Analyses 250 9.5 Fracture and Fatigue 255 9.6 Summary 263 References 264 10 Ways to Mitigate Thermal Stresses in Adhesively Bonded Joints/Patches 271M. Kemal Apalak 10.1 Introduction 271 10.2 CFRP Strengthened Beams and Plates 273 10.3 Weld-Bonded Joints, Cutting Tools 276 10.4 Adhesive Joints Under Cryogenic Temperatures 279 10.5 Low and High-Temperature Adhesives 285 10.6 Fillers and Electrically-conductive Adhesives 289 10.6.1 Adhesive Layer with Fillers or Voids 289 10.6.2 Electrically-conductive Adhesives 292 10.7 Microelectronics, Optics and Nuclear Applications 296x Contents 10.8 Dental Applications 307 10.9 Summary 312 References 314 11 Laser-Assisted Electroless Metallization of Polymer Materials 321Piotr Rytlewski, Bartomiej Jagodzi?ski and Krzysztof Moraczewski 11.1 Introduction 321 11.2 Application of Lasers in the Metallization of Polymer Materials 323 11.2.1 Modification in a Gaseous Medium 324 11.2.2 Modification in Solutions 326 11.2.3 Modification of Thin Films 327 11.2.4 Modification of Composite Materials 328 11.3 Modification of Polymer Composite Materials 328 11.3.1 Polyamide Composites 328 11.4 Summary 346 Acknowledgement 347 References 347 12 Adhesion Measurement of Coatings on Biodevices/Implants 351Wei-Sheng Lei, Kash Mittal and Zhishui Yu 12.1 Introduction 352 12.2 Mechanical Test Methods of Adhesion Measurement 354 12.2.1 Cross-Cut Test 354 12.2.2 Peel Test 355 12.2.3 Scribe (Scratch) Test 356 12.2.4 Pull-Off (Tensile) Test 360 12.2.5 Single-Lap Shear Test 363 12.2.6 Blister Test 364 12.2.7 Micro- and Nano- Indentation Tests 365 12.2.8 Small-Punch Test 369 12.2.9 Micro- and Nano- Scale Tensile Testing 369 12.2.10 Four-Point Bending Test 371 12.2.11 Other Test Methods 372 12.3 Summary and Remarks 373 References 374Contents xi 13 Cyanoacrylate Adhesives 381P. Rajesh Raja 13.1 Introduction 381 13.2 Synthesis and Processing 382 13.3 Applications 386 13.3.1 Industrial and Consumer 386 13.3.2 Medical 390 13.3.3 Forensics 393 13.3.4 Recent Advances in Cyanoacrylate Adhesives 393 13.4 Summary 394 References 394 14 Promotion of Adhesion of Green Flame Retardant Coatings onto Polyolefins by Depositing Ultra-Thin Plasma Polymer Films 399Moustapha E. Moustapha, J”rg F. Friedrich, Zeinab R. Farag, Simone Krger, Gundula Hidde and Maged M. Azzam 14.1 Introduction 400 14.2 Role of Adhesion in the Use of Thick Fire-Retardant Coatings 400 14.3 Strategies for Adhesion Promotion of Flame-Retardant Coatings 406 14.4 Plasma Polymerization 409 14.5 Adhesion Improvement by Plasma Polymer Layers 412 14.5.1 Inorganic Flame Retardant Layers (Water Glass Layers) 412 14.5.2 Coating with Prepolymer of Melamine Resin 414 14.5.3 Curing of the Melamine Prepolymer 414 14.6 Results of Adhesion Improvement Using Adhesion-Promoting Plasma Polymers 415 14.6.1 Results of Adhesion Promotion 415 14.6.2 Locus of Adhesion Failure 418 14.7 Flame Retardancy Tests 420 14.8 Thermal Behavior 421 14.9 Summary 423 Acknowledgement 424 References 424

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Book SynopsisGuides the reader through a risk assessment and shows them the proper tools to be used at the various steps in the process This brand new edition of one of the most authoritative books on risk assessment adds ten new chapters to its pages to keep readers up to date with the changes in the types of risk that individuals, businesses, and governments are being exposed to today. It leads readers through a risk assessment and shows them the proper tools to be used at various steps in the process. The book also provides readers with a toolbox of techniques that can be used to aid them in analyzing conceptual designs, completed designs, procedures, and operational risk. Risk Assessment: Tools, Techniques, and Their Applications, Second Editionincludes expanded case studies and real life examples; coverage on risk assessment software like SAPPHIRE and RAVEN; and end-of-chapter questions for students. Chapters progress from the concept of risk, through the simple Table of ContentsAcknowledgments vii About the Companion Website ix 1 Introduction to Risk Assessment 1 2 Risk Perception 11 3 Risks and Consequences 17 4 Ecological Risk Assessment 27 5 Task Analysis Techniques 53 6 Preliminary Hazard Analysis 61 7 Primer on Probability and Statistics 79 8 Mathematical Tools for Updating Probabilities 93 9 Developing Probabilities 115 10 Quantifying the Unquantifiable 133 11 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis 145 12 Human Reliability Analyses 159 13 Critical Incident Technique 175 14 Basic Fault Tree Analysis Technique 185 15 Critical Function Analysis 203 16 Event Tree and Decision Tree Analysis 223 17 Probabilistic Risk Assessment 251 18 Probabilistic Risk Assessment Software 261 19 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods Used in Risk Assessment 267 20 Risk of an Epidemic 283 21 Vulnerability Analysis Technique 293 22 Developing Risk Model for Aviation Inspection and Maintenance Tasks 317 23 Risk Assessment and Community Planning 329 24 Threat Assessment 343 25 Project Risk Management 381 26 Enterprise Risk Management Overview 409 27 Process Safety Management and Hazard and Operability Assessment 419 28 Emerging Risks 449 29 Process Plant Risk Assessment Example 461 30 Risk Assessment Framework for Detecting, Predicting, and Mitigating Aircraft Material Inspection 487 31 Traffic Risks 547 Acronyms 559 Glossary 563 Index 569

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Book SynopsisA GUIDE TO THE DESIGN, OPERATION, CONTROL, TROUBLESHOOTING, OPTIMIZATION AS WELL AS THE RECENT ADVANCES IN THE FIELD OF PETROCHEMICAL PROCESSES Efficient Petrochemical Processes: Technology, Design and Operationis a guide to the tools and methods for energy optimization and process design. Written by a panel of experts on the topic, the book highlights the application of these methods on petrochemical technology such as the aromatics process unit. The authors describe practical approaches and tools that focus on improving industrial energy efficiency, reducing capital investment, and optimizing yields through better design, operation, and optimization. The text is divided into sections that cover the range of essential topics: petrochemical technology description; process design considerations; reaction and separation design; process integration; process system optimization; types of revamps; equipment assessment; common operating issues; and troubleshootTable of ContentsPreface xix Acknowledgments xxi Part I Market, Design and Technology Overview 1 1 Overview of This Book 3 1.1 Why Petrochemical Products are Important for the Economy 3 1.2 Overall Petrochemical Configurations 8 1.3 Context of Process Designs and Operation for Petrochemical Production 11 1.4 Who is This Book Written For? 11 2 Market and Technology Overview 13 2.1 Overview of Aromatic Petrochemicals 13 2.2 Introduction and Market Information 13 2.3 Technologies in Aromatics Synthesis 21 2.4 Alternative Feeds for Aromatics 27 2.5 Technologies in Aromatic Transformation 28 2.6 Technologies in Aromatic Separations 35 2.7 Separations by Molecular Weight 39 2.8 Separations by Isomer Type: para‐Xylene 39 2.9 Separations by Isomer Type: meta‐Xylene 44 2.10 Separations by Isomer Type: ortho‐Xylene and Ethylbenzene 45 2.11 Other Related Aromatics Technologies 46 2.12 Integrated Refining and Petrochemicals 57 References 61 3 Aromatics Process Description 63 3.1 Overall Aromatics Flow Scheme 63 3.2 Adsorptive Separations for para‐Xylene 64 3.3 Technologies for Treating Feeds for Aromatics Production 68 3.4 para‐Xylene Purification and Recovery by Crystallization 68 3.5 Transalkylation Processes 71 3.6 Xylene Isomerization 72 3.7 Adsorptive Separation of Pure meta‐Xylene 76 3.8 para‐Selective Catalytic Technologies for para‐Xylene 78 References 81 Part II Process Design 83 4 Aromatics Process Unit Design 85 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Aromatics Fractionation 85 4.3 Aromatics Extraction 88 4.4 Transalkylation 96 4.5 Xylene Isomerization 101 4.6 para‐Xylene Separation 105 4.7 Process Design Considerations: Design Margin Philosophy 106 4.8 Process Design Considerations: Operational Flexibility 108 4.9 Process Design Considerations: Fractionation Optimization 109 4.10 Safety Considerations 110 4.10.1 Reducing Exposure to Hazardous Materials 110 4.10.2 Process Hazard Analysis (PHA) 110 4.10.3 Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Study 110 Further Reading 111 5 Aromatics Process Revamp Design 113 5.1 Introduction 113 5.2 Stages of Revamp Assessment and Types of Revamp Studies 113 5.3 Revamp Project Approach 115 5.4 Revamp Study Methodology and Strategies 116 5.5 Setting the Design Basis for Revamp Projects 118 5.6 Process Design for Revamp Projects 121 5.7 Revamp Impact on Utilities 123 5.8 Equipment Evaluation for Revamps 124 5.9 Economic Evaluation 147 5.10 Example Revamp Cases 152 Further Reading 154 Part III Process Equipment Assessment 155 6 Distillation Column Assessment 157 6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 Define a Base Case 157 6.3 Calculations for Missing and Incomplete Data 159 6.4 Building Process Simulation 161 6.5 Heat and Material Balance Assessment 162 6.6 Tower Efficiency Assessment 164 6.7 Operating Profile Assessment 166 6.8 Tower Rating Assessment 168 6.9 Guidelines for Existing Columns 169 Nomenclature 170 Greek Letters 170 References 170 7 Heat Exchanger Assessment 171 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Basic Calculations 171 7.3 Understand Performance Criterion: U‐Values 173 7.4 Understand Fouling 176 7.5 Understand Pressure Drop 178 7.6 Effects of Velocity on Heat Transfer, Pressure Drop, and Fouling 178 7.7 Improving Heat Exchanger Performance 185 7.A TEMA Types of Heat Exchangers 186 References 188 8 Fired Heater Assessment 189 8.1 Introduction 189 8.2 Fired Heater Design for High Reliability 189 8.3 Fired Heater Operation for High Reliability 194 8.4 Efficient Fired Heater Operation 197 8.5 Fired Heater Revamp 201 References 202 9 Compressor Assessment 203 9.1 Introduction 203 9.2 Types of Compressors 203 9.3 Impeller Configurations 205 9.4 Type of Blades 207 9.5 How a Compressor Works 207 9.6 Fundamentals of Centrifugal Compressors 208 9.7 Performance Curves 209 9.8 Partial Load Control 210 9.9 Inlet Throttle Valve 212 9.10 Process Context for a Centrifugal Compressor 212 9.11 Compressor Selection 213 References 213 10 Pump Assessment 215 10.1 Introduction 215 10.2 Understanding Pump Head 215 10.3 Define Pump Head: Bernoulli Equation 216 10.4 Calculate Pump Head 218 10.5 Total Head Calculation Examples 219 10.6 Pump System Characteristics: System Curve 221 10.7 Pump Characteristics: Pump Curve 222 10.8 Best Efficiency Point (BEP) 224 10.9 Pump Curves for Different Pump Arrangement 225 10.10 NPSH 226 10.11 Spillback 229 10.12 Reliability Operating Envelope (ROE) 230 10.13 Pump Control 230 10.14 Pump Selection and Sizing 231 Nomenclature 233 Greek Letters 233 References 233 Part IV Energy and Process Integration 235 11 Process Integration for Higher Efficiency and Low Cost 237 11.1 Introduction 237 11.2 Definition of Process Integration 237 11.3 Composite Curves and Heat Integration 238 11.4 Grand Composite Curves (GCC) 244 11.5 Appropriate Placement Principle for Process Changes 244 11.6 Systematic Approach for Process Integration 249 11.7 Applications of the Process Integration Methodology 251 References 261 12 Energy Benchmarking 263 12.1 Introduction 263 12.2 Definition of Energy Intensity for a Process 263 12.3 The Concept of Fuel Equivalent (FE) for Steam and Power 264 12.4 Calculate Energy Intensity for a Process 265 12.5 Fuel Equivalent for Steam and Power 267 12.6 Energy Performance Index (EPI) Method for Energy Benchmarking 271 12.7 Concluding Remarks 272 References 273 13 Key Indicators and Targets 275 13.1 Introduction 275 13.2 Key Indicators Represent Operation Opportunities 275 13.3 Defining Key Indicators 277 13.4 Set Up Targets for Key Indicators 280 13.5 Economic Evaluation for Key Indicators 283 13.6 Application 1: Implementing Key Indicators into an “Energy Dashboard” 285 13.7 Application 2: Implementing Key Indicators to Controllers 287 13.8 It is Worth the Effort 287 References 288 14 Distillation System Optimization 289 14.1 Introduction 289 14.2 Tower Optimization Basics 289 14.3 Energy Optimization for Distillation System 293 14.4 Overall Process Optimization 296 14.5 Concluding Remarks 302 References 302 15 Fractionation and Separation Theory and Practices 303 15.1 Introduction 303 15.2 Separation Technology Overview 303 15.3 Distillation Basics 305 15.4 Advanced Distillation Topics 311 15.5 Adsorption 316 15.6 Simulated Moving Bed (SMB) 317 15.7 Crystallization 320 15.8 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 320 15.9 Extractive Distillation 321 15.10 Membranes 322 15.11 Selecting a Separation Method 323 References 324 16 Reaction Engineering Overview 325 16.1 Introduction 325 16.2 Reaction Basics 325 16.3 Reaction Kinetic Modeling Basics 326 16.4 Rate Equation Based on Surface Kinetics 328 16.5 Limitations in Catalytic Reaction 330 16.6 Reactor Types 333 16.7 Reactor Design 335 16.8 Hybrid Reaction and Separation 340 16.9 Catalyst Deactivation Root Causes and Modeling 341 References 343 Part V Operational Guidelines and Troubleshooting 345 17 Common Operating Issues 347 17.1 Introduction 347 17.2 Start‐up Considerations 348 17.3 Methyl Group and Phenyl Ring Losses 349 17.4 Limiting Aromatics Losses 350 17.5 Fouling 356 17.6 Aromatics Extraction Unit Solvent Degradation 360 17.7 Selective Adsorption of para‐Xylene by Simulated Moving Bed 363 17.8 Common Issues with Sampling and Laboratory Analysis 371 17.9 Measures of Operating Efficiency in Aromatics Complex Process Units 374 17.10 The Future of Plant Troubleshooting and Optimization 377 References 377 18 Troubleshooting Case Studies 379 18.1 Introduction 379 18.2 Transalkylation Unit: Low Catalyst Activity During Normal Operation 379 18.3 Xylene Isomerization Unit: Low Catalyst Activity Following Start‐up 381 18.4 para‐Xylene Selective Adsorption Unit: Low Recovery After Turnaround 384 18.5 Aromatics Extraction Unit: Low Extract Purity/Recovery 385 18.6 Aromatics Complex: Low para‐Xylene Production 386 18.7 Closing Remarks 388 Reference 389 Index 391

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Book SynopsisMathematics for Enzyme Reaction Kinetics and Reactor Performance is the first set in a unique 11 volume-collection on Enzyme Reactor Engineering. This two volume-set relates specifically to the wide mathematical background required for systematic and rational simulation of both reaction kinetics and reactor performance; and to fully understand and capitalize on the modelling concepts developed. It accordingly reviews basic and useful concepts of Algebra (first volume), and Calculus and Statistics (second volume). A brief overview of such native algebraic entities as scalars, vectors, matrices and determinants constitutes the starting point of the first volume; the major features of germane functions are then addressed. Vector operations ensue, followed by calculation of determinants. Finally, exact methods for solution of selected algebraic equations including sets of linear equations, are considered, as well as numerical methods for utilization at large. The sTable of ContentsAbout the Author xv Series Preface xix Preface xxiii Volume 1 Part 1 Basic Concepts of Algebra 1 1 Scalars, Vectors, Matrices, and Determinants 3 2 Function Features 7 2.1 Series 17 2.1.1 Arithmetic Series 17 2.1.2 Geometric Series 19 2.1.3 Arithmetic/Geometric Series 22 2.2 Multiplication and Division of Polynomials 26 2.2.1 Product 27 2.2.2 Quotient 28 2.2.3 Factorization 31 2.2.4 Splitting 35 2.2.5 Power 43 2.3 Trigonometric Functions 52 2.3.1 Definition and Major Features 52 2.3.2 Angle Transformation Formulae 57 2.3.3 Fundamental Theorem of Trigonometry 73 2.3.4 Inverse Functions 79 2.4 Hyperbolic Functions 80 2.4.1 Definition and Major Features 80 2.4.2 Argument Transformation Formulae 85 2.4.3 Euler’s Form of Complex Numbers 89 2.4.4 Inverse Functions 90 3 Vector Operations 97 3.1 Addition of Vectors 99 3.2 Multiplication of Scalar by Vector 101 3.3 Scalar Multiplication of Vectors 103 3.4 Vector Multiplication of Vectors 111 4 Matrix Operations 119 4.1 Addition of Matrices 120 4.2 Multiplication of Scalar by Matrix 121 4.3 Multiplication of Matrices 124 4.4 Transposal of Matrices 131 4.5 Inversion of Matrices 133 4.5.1 Full Matrix 134 4.5.2 Block Matrix 138 4.6 Combined Features 140 4.6.1 Symmetric Matrix 141 4.6.2 Positive Semidefinite Matrix 142 5 Tensor Operations 145 6 Determinants 151 6.1 Definition 152 6.2 Calculation 157 6.2.1 Laplace’s Theorem 159 6.2.2 Major Features 161 6.2.3 Tridiagonal Matrix 177 6.2.4 Block Matrix 179 6.2.5 Matrix Inversion 181 6.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 185 6.3.1 Characteristic Polynomial 186 6.3.2 Cayley–Hamilton’s Theorem 190 7 Solution of Algebraic Equations 199 7.1 Linear Systems of Equations 199 7.1.1 Jacobi’s Method 203 7.1.2 Explicitation 212 7.1.3 Cramer’s Rule 213 7.1.4 Matrix Inversion 216 7.2 Quadratic Equation 220 7.3 Lambert’s W Function 224 7.4 Numerical Approaches 228 7.4.1 Double-initial Estimate Methods 229 7.4.1.1 Bisection 229 7.4.1.2 Linear Interpolation 232 7.4.2 Single-initial Estimate Methods 242 7.4.2.1 Newton and Raphson’s Method 242 7.4.2.2 Direct Iteration 250 Further Reading 255 Volume 2 Part 2 Basic Concepts of Calculus 259 8 Limits, Derivatives, Integrals, and Differential Equations 261 9 Limits and Continuity 263 9.1 Univariate Limit 263 9.1.1 Definition 263 9.1.2 Basic Calculation 267 9.2 Multivariate Limit 271 9.3 Basic Theorems on Limits 272 9.4 Definition of Continuity 280 9.5 Basic Theorems on Continuity 282 9.5.1 Bolzano’s Theorem 282 9.5.2 Weierstrass’ Theorem 286 10 Differentials, Derivatives, and Partial Derivatives 291 10.1 Differential 291 10.2 Derivative 294 10.2.1 Definition 294 10.2.1.1 Total Derivative 295 10.2.1.2 Partial Derivatives 300 10.2.1.3 Directional Derivatives 307 10.2.2 Rules of Differentiation of Univariate Functions 308 10.2.3 Rules of Differentiation of Multivariate Functions 325 10.2.4 Implicit Differentiation 325 10.2.5 Parametric Differentiation 327 10.2.6 Basic Theorems of Differential Calculus 331 10.2.6.1 Rolle’s Theorem 331 10.2.6.2 Lagrange’s Theorem 332 10.2.6.3 Cauchy’s Theorem 334 10.2.6.4 L’Hôpital’s Rule 337 10.2.7 Derivative of Matrix 349 10.2.8 Derivative of Determinant 356 10.3 Dependence Between Functions 358 10.4 Optimization of Univariate Continuous Functions 362 10.4.1 Constraint-free 362 10.4.2 Subjected to Constraints 364 10.5 Optimization of Multivariate Continuous Functions 367 10.5.1 Constraint-free 367 10.5.2 Subjected to Constraints 371 11 Integrals 373 11.1 Univariate Integral 374 11.1.1 Indefinite Integral 374 11.1.1.1 Definition 374 11.1.1.2 Rules of Integration 377 11.1.2 Definite Integral 386 11.1.2.1 Definition 386 11.1.2.2 Basic Theorems of Integral Calculus 393 11.1.2.3 Reduction Formulae 396 11.2 Multivariate Integral 400 11.2.1 Definition 400 11.2.1.1 Line Integral 400 11.2.1.2 Double Integral 403 11.2.2 Basic Theorems 404 11.2.2.1 Fubini’s Theorem 404 11.2.2.2 Green’s Theorem 409 11.2.3 Change of Variables 411 11.2.4 Differentiation of Integral 414 11.3 Optimization of Single Integral 416 11.4 Optimization of Set of Derivatives 424 12 Infinite Series and Integrals 429 12.1 Definition and Criteria of Convergence 429 12.1.1 Comparison Test 430 12.1.2 Ratio Test 431 12.1.3 D’Alembert’s Test 432 12.1.4 Cauchy’s Integral Test 434 12.1.5 Leibnitz’s Test 436 12.2 Taylor’s Series 437 12.2.1 Analytical Functions 451 12.2.1.1 Exponential Function 451 12.2.1.2 Hyperbolic Functions 458 12.2.1.3 Logarithmic Function 459 12.2.1.4 Trigonometric Functions 463 12.2.1.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 466 12.2.1.6 Powers of Binomials 476 12.2.2 Euler’s Infinite Product 479 12.3 Gamma Function and Factorial 488 12.3.1 Integral Definition and Major Features 489 12.3.2 Euler’s Definition 494 12.3.3 Stirling’s Approximation 499 13 Analytical Geometry 505 13.1 Straight Line 505 13.2 Simple Polygons 508 13.3 Conical Curves 510 13.4 Length of Line 516 13.5 Curvature of Line 525 13.6 Area of Plane Surface 530 13.7 Outer Area of Revolution Solid 536 13.8 Volume of Revolution Solid 552 14 Transforms 559 14.1 Laplace’s Transform 559 14.1.1 Definition 559 14.1.2 Major Features 571 14.1.3 Inversion 583 14.2 Legendre’s Transform 590 15 Solution of Differential Equations 597 15.1 Ordinary Differential Equations 597 15.1.1 First Order 598 15.1.1.1 Nonlinear 598 15.1.1.2 Linear 600 15.1.2 Second Order 602 15.1.2.1 Nonlinear 603 15.1.2.2 Linear 613 15.1.3 Linear Higher Order 650 15.2 Partial Differential Equations 660 16 Vector Calculus 667 16.1 Rectangular Coordinates 667 16.1.1 Definition and Representation 667 16.1.2 Definition of Nabla Operator, ∇ 668 16.1.3 Algebraic Properties of ∇ 673 16.1.4 Multiple Products Involving ∇ 676 16.1.4.1 Calculation of (∇.∇)ϕ 676 16.1.4.2 Calculation of (∇.∇)u 676 16.1.4.3 Calculation of ∇.(ϕu) 677 16.1.4.4 Calculation of ∇.(∇ × u) 679 16.1.4.5 Calculation of ∇.(ϕ∇ψ) 680 16.1.4.6 Calculation of ∇.(uu) 682 16.1.4.7 Calculation of ∇ × (∇ ϕ) 684 16.1.4.8 Calculation of ∇(∇.u) 685 16.1.4.9 Calculation of (u.∇)u 690 16.1.4.10 Calculation of ∇.(τ.u) 693 16.2 Cylindrical Coordinates 695 16.2.1 Definition and Representation 695 16.2.2 Redefinition of Nabla Operator, ∇ 700 16.3 Spherical Coordinates 705 16.3.1 Definition and Representation 705 16.3.2 Redefinition of Nabla Operator, ∇ 715 16.4 Curvature of Three-dimensional Surfaces 729 16.5 Three-dimensional Integration 737 17 Numerical Approaches to Integration 741 17.1 Calculation of Definite Integrals 741 17.1.1 Zeroth Order Interpolation 743 17.1.2 First- and Second-Order Interpolation 750 17.1.2.1 Trapezoidal Rule 751 17.1.2.2 Simpson’s Rule 754 17.1.2.3 Higher Order Interpolation 768 17.1.3 Composite Methods 771 17.1.4 Infinite and Multidimensional Integrals 775 17.2 Integration of Differential Equations 777 17.2.1 Single-step Methods 779 17.2.2 Multistep Methods 782 17.2.3 Multistage Methods 790 17.2.3.1 First Order 790 17.2.3.2 Second Order 790 17.2.3.3 General Order 793 17.2.4 Integral Versus Differential Equation 801 Part 3 Basic Concepts of Statistics 807 18 Continuous Probability Functions 809 18.1 Basic Statistical Descriptors 810 18.2 Normal Distribution 815 18.2.1 Derivation 816 18.2.2 Justification 821 18.2.3 Operational Features 826 18.2.4 Moment-generating Function 829 18.2.4.1 Single Variable 829 18.2.4.2 Multiple Variables 835 18.2.5 Standard Probability Density Function 842 18.2.6 Central Limit Theorem 845 18.2.7 Standard Probability Cumulative Function 855 18.3 Other Relevant Distributions 858 18.3.1 Lognormal Distribution 858 18.3.1.1 Probability Density Function 858 18.3.1.2 Mean and Variance 859 18.3.1.3 Probability Cumulative Function 862 18.3.1.4 Mode and Median 863 18.3.2 Chi-square Distribution 865 18.3.2.1 Probability Density Function 865 18.3.2.2 Mean and Variance 869 18.3.2.3 Asymptotic Behavior 870 18.3.2.4 Probability Cumulative Function 872 18.3.2.5 Mode and Median 873 18.3.2.6 Other Features 874 18.3.3 Student’s t-distribution 876 18.3.3.1 Probability Density Function 876 18.3.3.2 Mean and Variance 879 18.3.3.3 Asymptotic Behavior 883 18.3.3.4 Probability Cumulative Function 886 18.3.3.5 Mode and Median 887 18.3.4 Fisher’s F-distribution 888 18.3.4.1 Probability Density Function 888 18.3.4.2 Mean and Variance 893 18.3.4.3 Asymptotic Behavior 896 18.3.4.4 Probability Cumulative Function 899 18.3.4.5 Mode and Median 902 18.3.4.6 Other Features 903 19 Statistical Hypothesis Testing 915 20 Linear Regression 923 20.1 Parameter Fitting 924 20.2 Residual Characterization 927 20.3 Parameter Inference 931 20.3.1 Multivariate Models 931 20.3.2 Univariate Models 934 20.4 Unbiased Estimation 937 20.4.1 Multivariate Models 937 20.4.2 Univariate Models 940 20.5 Prediction Inference 949 20.6 Multivariate Correction 951 Further Reading 963

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Book SynopsisThis is the seventh volume in the series, Advances in Natural Gas Engineering, focusing on carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and sequestration, acid gas injection, and enhanced oil recovery, the three sisters of natural gas engineering. This volume includes information for both upstream and downstream operations, including chapters detailing the most cutting-edge techniques in acid gas injection, carbon capture, chemical and thermodynamic models, and much more. Written by some of the most well-known and respected chemical and process engineers working with natural gas today, the chapters in this important volume represent the most state-of-the-art processes and operations being used in the field. Not available anywhere else, this volume is a must-have for any chemical engineer, chemist, or process engineer in the industry. Advances in Natural Gas Engineering is an ongoing series of books meant to form the basis for the working library of any engineer working in naturTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Acid Gas Injection: Engineering Steady State in a Dynamic World 1Jim Maddocks 2 A History of AGIS 23Ying (Alice) Wu 3 Acid Gas Injection: Days of Future Passed 29John J Carroll 4 Calorimetric and Densimetric Data to Help the Simulation of the Impact of Annex Gases Co-Injected with CO2During Its Geological Storage 39F De los Mozos, K Ballerat-Busserolles, B Liborio, N Nénot, J-Y Coxam and Y Coulier 5 Densities and Phase Behavior Involving Dense-Phase Propane Impurities 55JA Commodore, CE Deering and RA Marriott 6 Phase Equilibrium Computation for Acid Gas Mixtures Containing H2 S Using the CPA Equation of State 63Hanmin Tu, Ping Guo, Na Jia and Zhouhua Wang 7 High Pressure H2 S Oxidation in CO2 91S Lee and RA Marriott 8 Water Content of Carbon Dioxide – A Review 97Eugene Grynia1 and Bogdan Ambro¿ek 9 Molecular Simulation of pK Values and CO2 Reactive Absorption Prediction 185Javad Noroozi and William R Smith 10 A Dynamic Simulation to Aid Design of Shell’s CCS Quest Project’s Multi-Stage Compressor Shutdown System 193William Acevedo, Chris Arthur and James van der Lee 11 Benefits of Diaphragm Pumps for the Compression of Acid Gas 219Anke-Dorothee Wöhr, Cornelia Beddies and Rüdiger Bullert 12 Dynamic Solubility of Acid Gases in a Deep Brine Aquifer 235Liaqat Ali1 and Russell E Bentley 13 Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project of Japan, CO2 Injection in Progress 255Yoshihiro Sawada, Jiro Tanaka, Chiyoko Suzuki, Daiji Tanase and Yutaka Tanaka 14 The Development Features and Cost Analysis of CCUS Industry in China 277Mingqiang Hao, Yongle Hu, Shiyu Wang and Lina Song 15 Study on Reasonable Soaking Duration of CO2 Huff-and-Puff in Tight Oil Reservoirs 295Yong Qin 16 Potential Evaluation Method of Carbon Dioxide Flooding and Sequestration 311Yongle Hu, Mingqiang Hao, Chao Wang, Xinwei Liao and Lina Song 17 Emergency Response Planning for Acid Gas Injection Wells 333Ray Mireault Index 347

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Book SynopsisA newly updated and expanded edition that combines theory and applications of turbomachinery while covering several different types of turbomachinery In mechanical engineering, turbomachinery describes machines that transfer energy between a rotor and a fluid, including turbines, compressors, and pumps. Aiming for a unified treatment of the subject matter, with consistent notation and concepts, this new edition of a highly popular book provides all new information on turbomachinery, and includes 50% more exercises than the previous edition. It allows readers to easily move from a study of the most successful textbooks on thermodynamics and fluid dynamics to the subject of turbomachinery. The book also builds concepts systematically as progress is made through each chapter so that the user can progress at their own pace. Principles of Turbomachinery, 2nd Edition provides comprehensive coverage of everything readers need to know, including chapters on: therTable of ContentsForeword xv Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Energy and Fluid Machines 1 1.1.1 Energy conversion of fossil fuels 1 1.1.2 Steam turbines 2 1.1.3 Gas turbines 3 1.1.4 Hydraulic turbines 4 1.1.5 Wind turbines 5 1.1.6 Compressors 5 1.1.7 Pumps and blowers 5 1.1.8 Other uses and issues 6 1.2 Historical Survey 7 1.2.1 Water power 7 1.2.2 Wind turbines 8 1.2.3 Steam turbines 9 1.2.4 Jet propulsion 10 1.2.5 Industrial turbines 11 1.2.6 Pumps and compressors 11 1.2.7 Note on units 12 2 Principles of Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow 15 2.1 Mass Conservation Principle 15 2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics 17 2.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics 19 2.3.1 Tds-equations 19 2.4 Equations of State 20 2.4.1 Properties of steam 21 2.4.2 Ideal gases 27 2.4.3 Air tables and isentropic relations 29 2.4.4 Ideal gas mixtures 32 2.4.5 Incompressibility 36 2.4.6 Stagnation state 37 2.5 Efficiency 37 2.5.1 Efficiency measures 37 2.5.2 Thermodynamic losses 43 2.5.3 Incompressible fluid 45 2.5.4 Compressible flows 46 2.6 Momentum Balance 48 Exercises 56 3 Compressible Flow 63 3.1 Mach Number and The Speed of Sound 63 3.1.1 Mach number relations 65 3.2 Isentropic Flow with Area Change 67 3.2.1 Converging nozzle 71 3.3 Influence of Friction on Flow Through Nozzles 73 3.3.1 Polytropic efficiency 73 3.3.2 Loss coefficients 77 3.3.3 Nozzle efficiency 81 3.3.4 Combined Fanno flow and area change 82 3.4 Supersonic Nozzle 87 3.5 Normal Shocks 90 3.5.1 Rankine–Hugoniot relations 95 3.6 Moving Shocks 98 3.7 Oblique shocks and Expansion Fans 100 3.7.1 Mach waves 100 3.7.2 Oblique shocks 101 3.7.3 Supersonic flow over a rounded concave corner 107 3.7.4 Reflected shocks and shock interactions 108 3.7.5 Mach reflection 110 3.7.6 Detached oblique shocks 110 3.7.7 Prandtl–Meyer theory 112 Exercises 124 4 Gas Dynamics of Wet Steam 131 4.1 Compressible Flow of Wet Steam 132 4.1.1 Clausius–Clapeyron equation 132 4.1.2 Adiabatic exponent 133 4.2 Conservation Equations for Wet Steam 137 4.2.1 Relaxation times 139 4.2.2 Conservation equations in their working form 144 4.2.3 Sound speeds 146 4.3 Relaxation Zones 149 4.3.1 Type I wave 149 4.3.2 Type II wave 154 4.3.3 Type III wave 157 4.3.4 Combined relaxation 157 4.3.5 Flow in a variable area nozzle 159 4.4 Shocks in Wet Steam 161 4.4.1 Evaporation in the flow after the shock 164 4.5 Condensation Shocks 167 4.5.1 Jump conditions across a condensation shock 169 Exercises 174 5 Principles of Turbomachine Analysis 177 5.1 Velocity Triangles 178 5.2 Moment of Momentum Balance 181 5.3 Energy Transfer in Turbomachines 182 5.3.1 Trothalpy and specific work in terms of velocities 186 5.3.2 Degree of reaction 189 5.4 Utilization 191 5.5 Scaling and Similitude 198 5.5.1 Similitude 198 5.5.2 Incompressible flow 199 5.5.3 Shape parameter or specific speed and specific diameter 202 5.5.4 Compressible flow analysis 206 5.6 Performance Characteristics 208 5.6.1 Compressor performance map 208 5.6.2 Turbine performance map 209 Exercises 210 6 Steam Turbines 215 6.1 Introduction 215 6.2 Impulse Turbines 217 6.2.1 Single-stage impulse turbine 217 6.2.2 Pressure compounding 226 6.2.3 Blade shapes 230 6.2.4 Velocity compounding 233 6.3 Stage with Zero Reaction 238 6.4 Loss Coefficients 241 Exercises 243 7 Axial Turbines 247 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Turbine Stage Analysis 249 7.3 Flow and Loading Coefficients and Reaction Ratio 253 7.3.1 Fifty percent (50%) stage 258 7.3.2 Zero percent (0%) reaction stage 262 7.3.3 Off-design operation 263 7.3.4 Variable axial velocity 265 7.4 Three-Dimensional Flow and Radial Equilibrium 267 7.4.1 Free vortex flow 269 7.4.2 Fixed blade angle 273 7.4.3 Constant mass flux 273 7.5 Turbine Efficiency and Losses 276 7.5.1 Soderberg loss coefficients 276 7.5.2 Stage efficiency 277 7.5.3 Stagnation pressure losses 279 7.5.4 Performance charts 285 7.5.5 Zweifel correlation 290 7.5.6 Further discussion of losses 291 7.5.7 Ainley–Mathieson correlation 293 7.5.8 Secondary loss 296 7.6 Multistage Turbine 302 7.6.1 Reheat factor in a multistage turbine 302 7.6.2 Polytropic or small-stage efficiency 304 Exercises 305 8 Axial Compressors 311 8.1 Compressor Stage Analysis 312 8.1.1 Stage temperature and pressure rise 313 8.1.2 Analysis of a repeating stage 315 8.2 Design Deflection 321 8.2.1 Compressor performance map 324 8.3 Radial Equilibrium 326 8.3.1 Modified free vortex velocity distribution 327 8.3.2 Velocity distribution with zero-power exponent 330 8.3.3 Velocity distribution with first-power exponent 331 8.4 Diffusion Factor 333 8.4.1 Momentum thickness of a boundary layer 335 8.5 Efficiency and Losses 339 8.5.1 Efficiency 339 8.5.2 Parametric calculations 342 8.6 Cascade Aerodynamics 343 8.6.1 Blade shapes and terms 344 8.6.2 Blade forces 345 8.6.3 Other losses 347 8.6.4 Diffuser performance 348 8.6.5 Flow deviation and incidence 349 8.6.6 Multi-stage compressor 351 8.6.7 Compressibility effects 352 8.6.8 Design of a compressor 353 Exercises 359 9 Centrifugal Compressors and Pumps 363 9.1 Compressor Analysis 364 9.1.1 Slip factor 365 9.1.2 Pressure ratio 367 9.2 Inlet Design 374 9.2.1 Choking of the inducer 379 9.3 Exit Design 381 9.3.1 Performance characteristics 381 9.3.2 Diffusion ratio 384 9.3.3 Blade height 385 9.4 Vaneless Diffuser 387 9.5 Centrifugal Pumps 391 9.5.1 Specific speed and specific diameter 395 9.6 Fans 403 9.7 Cavitation 404 9.8 Diffuser and Volute Design 406 9.8.1 Vaneless diffuser 406 9.8.2 Volute design 407 Exercises 411 10 Radial Inflow Turbines 415 10.1 Turbine Analysis 416 10.2 Efficiency 421 10.3 Specific Speed and Specific Diameter 425 10.4 Stator Flow 431 10.4.1 Loss coefficients for stator flow 436 10.5 Design of the Inlet of a Radial Inflow Turbine 440 10.5.1 Minimum inlet Mach number 441 10.5.2 Blade stagnation Mach number 447 10.5.3 Inlet relative Mach number 449 10.6 Design of the Exit 450 10.6.1 Minimum exit Mach number 450 10.6.2 Radius ratio r3s/r2 453 10.6.3 Blade height-to-radius ratio b2/r2 454 10.6.4 Optimum incidence angle and the number of blades 455 Exercises 460 11 Hydraulic Turbines 463 11.1 Hydroelectric Power Plants 463 11.2 Hydraulic Turbines and their Specific Speed 465 11.3 Pelton Wheel 467 11.4 Francis Turbine 475 11.5 Kaplan Turbine 483 11.6 Cavitation 486 Exercises 488 12 Hydraulic Transmission of Power 491 12.1 Fluid Couplings 491 12.1.1 Fundamental relations 492 12.1.2 Flow rate and hydrodynamic losses 494 12.1.3 Partially filled coupling 496 12.2 Torque Converters 497 12.2.1 Fundamental relations 497 12.2.2 Performance 500 Exercises 504 13 Wind Turbines 507 13.1 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbine 508 13.2 Momentum Theory of Wind Turbines 509 13.2.1 Axial momentum 509 13.2.2 Ducted wind turbine 514 13.2.3 Wake rotation 516 13.2.4 Irrotational wake 518 13.3 Blade Element Theory 522 13.3.1 Nonrotating wake 522 13.3.2 Wake with rotation 525 13.3.3 Ideal wind turbine 530 13.3.4 Prandtl’s tip correction 532 13.4 Turbomachinery and Future Prospects for Energy 535 Exercises 536 Appendix A: Streamline Curvature and Radial Equilibrium 539 A.1 Streamline Curvature Method 539 A.1.1 Fundamental equations 539 A.1.2 Formal solution 543 Appendix B: Thermodynamic Tables 545 References 559 Index 565

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Book SynopsisDescribes in one volume the data received during experiments on detonation in high explosive charges This book brings together, in one volume, information normally covered in a series of journal articles on high explosive detonation tests, so that developers can create new explosive technologies. It focuses on the charges that contain inert elements made of materials in which a sound velocity is significantly higher than a detonation velocity. It also summarizes the results of experimental, numerical, and theoretical investigations of explosion systems, which contain high modulus ceramic components. The phenomena occurring in such systems are described in detail: desensitization of high explosives, nonstationary detonation processes, energy focusing, and Mach stems formation. Formation of hypersonic flows of ceramic particles arising due to explosive collapse of ceramic tubes is another example of the issues discussed. Explosion Systems with Inert HighTable of ContentsPreface vii 1 Examples of Nonstationary Propagation of Detonation in Real Processes 1 1.1 Channel Effect 1 1.2 Detonation of Elongated High Explosive Charges with Cavities 4 1.3 The Effects of Wall and Shell Material, Having Sound Velocity Greater Than Detonation Velocity, on the Detonation Process 9 1.4 Summary 14 References 15 2 Phenomena in High Explosive Charges Containing Rod‐Shaped Inert Elements 17 2.1 “Smoothing” of Shock Waves in Silicon Carbide Rods 17 2.1.1 Experiments with Ceramic Rods 17 2.1.2 Numerical Simulation of Shock Wave Propagation in Silicon Carbide Rods 22 2.2 Desensitization of Heterogeneous High Explosives after Loading by Advanced Waves Passing Through Silicon Carbide Elements 26 2.2.1 The Experiments on Detonation Transmission 28 2.2.2 Modeling of the Detonation Transmission Process under Initiating Through Inert Inserts 33 2.3 The Phenomenon of Energy Focusing in Passive High Explosive Charges 37 2.3.1 Characterization of Steel Specimens Deformed in Experiments on Energy Focusing 39 2.3.2 Optical Recording in Streak Mode 43 2.3.3 Optical Recording in Frame Mode 46 2.3.4 Numerical Modeling of the Energy Focusing Phenomenon 51 2.4 Summary 52 References 54 3 Nonstationary Detonation Processes at the Interface between High Explosive and Inert Wall 59 3.1 Measurements with Manganin Gauges 60 3.2 Optical Recording in Streak Mode 64 3.3 Modeling of Detonation in High Explosive Charges Contacting with Ceramic Plates 68 3.4 Summary 76 References 77 4 Peculiar Properties of the Processes in High Explosive Charges with Cylindrical Shells 79 4.1 Nonstationary Detonation Processes in High Explosive Charges with Silicon Carbide Shells 79 4.2 Numerical Analysis of the Influence of Shells on the Detonation Process 93 4.3 Summary 101 References 106 5 Hypervelocity of Shaped Charge Jets 109 5.1 Experimental Investigation of Ceramic Tube Collapse by Detonation Products 110 5.2 Modeling of Jet Formation Process 115 5.3 The Effect of Hypervelocity Jet Impact against a Steel Target 123 5.4 Modeling of Fast Jet Formation under Explosion Collision of Two‐Layer Alumina/Copper Tubes 129 5.5 Summary 136 References 140 6 Protective Structures Based on Ceramic Materials 143 6.1 Detonation Transmission through Dispersed Ceramic Media 143 6.2 Applications of the Protective Properties of Ceramic Materials 149 6.3 Summary 151 References 151 7 Structure of the Materials Loaded Using Explosion Systems with High‐Modulus Components 155 7.1 Materials Behavior at High Strain Rate Loading 155 7.2 Postmortem Investigation of Materials Structure for Indirect Evaluation of Explosive Loading 164 7.3 Structure of Materials Loaded Under Conditions of Energy Focusing 169 7.4 Effect of High‐Velocity Cumulative Jets on Structure of Metallic Substrates 178 7.5 Summary 183 References 183 Conclusions 187 Appendix A Dynamic Properties of High‐Modulus Materials 193 Appendix B Methods Used to Investigate Explosion Systems Containing High‐Modulus Inert Materials 205 Index 211

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Book SynopsisWritten by a group of world-renowned experts, the second volume in this groundbreaking set continues where the first volume left off, focusing on fermentation products that contribute to human welfare across a variety of industries. Green technologies are no longer the future of science, but the present. With more and more mature industries, such as the process industries, making large strides seemingly every single day, and more consumers demanding products created from green technologies, it is essential for any business in any industry to be familiar with the latest processes and technologies. It is all part of a global effort to go greener, and this is nowhere more apparent than in fermentation technology. This second volume in the groundbreaking new set, High Value Fermentation Products, focuses on industries that a concerned with human welfare, including the leather industry, textiles, pharmaceutical and medical, food processing, and others. Coverin

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Book SynopsisThe perfect primer for anyone responsible for operating or maintaining process gas compressors. Gas compressors tend to be the largest, most costly, and most critical machines employed in chemical and gas transfer processes. Since they tend to have the greatest effect on the reliability of processes they power, compressors typically receive the most scrutiny of all the machinery among the general population of processing equipment. To prevent unwanted compressor failures from occurring, operators must be taught how their equipment should operate and how each installation is different from one another. The ultimate purpose of this book is to teach those who work in process settings more about gas compressors, so they can start up and operate them correctly and monitor their condition with more confidence. Some may regard compressor technology as too broad and complex a topic for operating personnel to fully understand, but the author has distilled this vast body Table of ContentsPreface xv 1 Introduction to Gases 1 1.1 Ideal Gases 4 1.2 Properties of Gases 5 1.3 Temperature 5 1.4 Pressure 6 1.5 Gas Laws 7 1.6 Gas Mixtures 10 1.6.1 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 10 1.7 Molecular Weight of a Gas Mixture 11 1.8 Gas Density 13 1.9 Density of Mixtures 14 1.10 Heat of Compression 15 2 Commonly Used Compressor Flow Terms 19 2.1 Ideal Gas Law 20 2.1.1 Example of How to Convert from SCFM to ACFM 22 2.2 Visualizing Gas Flow 23 2.3 Compressibility Factor (Z) 25 2.4 Sizing Compressors 27 3 Compression Processes 31 3.1 Adiabatic Compression 33 3.2 Polytropic Compression 37 3.2.1 Polytropic Example #1 40 3.2.2 Polytropic Example 2 40 4 What Role the Compression Ratio Plays in Compressor Design and Selection 43 4.1 Compression Ratio versus Discharge Temperature 44 4.2 Design Temperature Margin 46 4.2.1 Design Trade-Offs 49 5 An Introduction to Compressor Operations 53 5.1 Compression Basics 53 5.2 Defining Gas Flow 55 5.3 Compressor Types 56 5.4 Multistaging 59 5.5 Key Reliability Indicators 60 6 Centrifugal Compressors 63 6.1 Centrifugal Compressor Piping Arrangements 66 6.2 Start-Up Configuration 68 6.3 Centrifugal Compressor Horsepower 68 6.4 Troubleshooting Tips 70 6.5 Centrifugal Compressor Start-Ups 71 6.6 Centrifugal Compressor Checklist 72 7 How Process Changes Affect Centrifugal Compressor Performance 75 7.1 Baseball Pitcher Analogy 75 7.2 How Gas Density Affects Horsepower 78 7.3 Theory versus Practice 80 8 How to Read a Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map 83 8.1 The Anatomy of a Compressor Map 85 8.1.1 Flow Axis (See Figures 8.2 and 8.3) 85 8.1.2 Head or Pressure Ratio Axis (See Figures 8.2 and 8.3) 86 8.1.3 Predicted Surge Line (See Figures 8.2 and 8.3) 86 8.1.4 Predicted Capacity Limit (Figures 8.2 and 8.3) 86 8.1.5 Surge Margin (See Figure 8.2) 87 8.1.6 Speed Lines (See Figures 8.2 and 8.3) 88 8.2 Design Conditions 88 9 Keeping Your Centrifugal Compressor Out of Harm’s Way 91 9.1 Compressor Operating Limits 93 9.2 Compressor Flow Limits 93 9.3 Critical Speeds 95 9.4 Horsepower Limits 96 9.5 Temperatures 97 10 Troubleshooting Centrifugal Compressors in Process Services 101 10.1 The Field Troubleshooting Process—Step by Step 105 10.1.1 Step 1: Define the Problem 105 10.1.2 Step 2: Collect All Pertinent Data 105 10.1.3 Step 3: Analyze the Body of Data as a Whole 106 10.1.4 Step 4: Act and Confirm 106 10.2 The “Hourglass” Approach to Troubleshooting 108 10.3 Thinking and Acting Globally 109 10.4 Troubleshooting Matrix and Table 110 10.5 Centrifugal Compressor Troubleshooting Example 110 11 Reciprocating Compressors 117 11.1 Reciprocating Compressor Installations 124 11.1.1 How Process Conditions Affect Reciprocating Compressor Performance 126 11.2 Reciprocating Compressor Start-Ups 128 11.3 Reciprocating Compressor Checklist 129 11.4 Criticality 131 12 Troubleshooting Reciprocating Compressors in Process Services 133 12.1 The Field Troubleshooting Process—Step by Step 137 12.1.1 Step 1: Define the Problem 137 12.1.2 Step 2: Collect All Pertinent Data 137 12.1.3 Step 3: Analyze the Body of Data as a Whole 138 12.1.4 Step 4: Act and Confirm 138 12.1.5 Troubleshooting Matrix and Table 140 12.1.6 Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Example 140 13 Screw Compressors 147 13.1 Oil Injected Screw Compressors 150 13.2 Screw Compressor Modulation 151 13.3 Pressure Pulsation Issues 152 13.3.1 Absorptive Type Dampeners 154 13.3.2 Reactive Type Dampeners 154 13.3.3 Combination Type (Reactive and Absorptive) 154 13.3.4 Oil Contamination 155 13.3.5 How Process Conditions Affect Screw Compressor Performance 156 13.4 Troubleshooting Screw Compressors 156 14 Compressor Start-Up Procedures 159 14.1 Compressor Start-Up Risks 160 14.2 Generic Start-Up Procedure 162 14.3 Centrifugal Compressor Start-Ups 165 14.4 Reciprocating Compressor Start-Ups 167 14.5 Screw Compressor Start-Ups 170 15 Compressor Trains: Drivers, Speed Modifiers, and Driven Machines 173 15.1 Driven Process Machines 174 15.1.1 Drivers 175 15.1.1.1 AC Electric Motors 176 15.1.2 Steam Turbines 177 15.2 Gas Turbines 178 15.2.1 Natural Gas Engines 179 15.2.2 Speed Modifiers 180 15.2.2.1 Gear Boxes 180 15.3 Useful Gearbox Facts 182 15.4 Combination Machines 182 15.4.1 Turboexpanders 182 16 Compressor Components 185 16.1 Bearing Types 185 16.2 Rolling Element Bearings 187 16.3 Plain Bearings 188 16.4 Compressor Bearings 189 16.5 Modeling Fluid Film Bearings 190 16.6 Thrust Loads 192 16.7 Kingsbury Thrust Bearing 193 16.8 Compressor Seals 194 16.8.1 Labyrinth Seals 194 16.8.2 Oil Film Seal 194 16.8.3 Face Contact Wet Seals 196 16.9 Seal Oil System 197 16.10 Dry Gas Seals 197 16.11 Seal Gas Quality and Control 198 16.12 Reciprocating Compressors – Packing 199 17 The Importance of Lubrication 201 17.1 Lubrication Regimes 203 17.2 Lubricating Oils 206 17.3 Compressor Lubricating Oil Systems 206 17.3.1 Lubrication Monitoring 209 17.4 Oil Foaming 210 17.4.1 Excessive Foam 211 18 Inspection Ideas for Operators and Field Personnel 213 18.1 Equipment Field Inspections 213 18.1.1 Audible Inspections 215 18.1.2 Visual Inspections 216 18.1.3 Tactile Inspections 217 18.1.4 Smell 219 18.2 Tools Available to Quantify What You Have Detected 220 18.2.1 Audible Inspection Methods 220 18.2.1.1 Ultrasonic Gun 220 18.2.1.2 Stethoscope 220 18.2.1.3 Metal Rod 220 18.3 Visual Inspection Methods 221 18.3.1 Infrared or IR Gun 221 18.4 IR Camera 222 18.4.1 Strobe Light 223 18.5 Inspection Methods Using Vibration and Temperature Measurement Equipment 224 18.5.1 Vibration Meter with Accelerometer 224 18.5.2 Temperature Measurement Equipment 226 18.6 Generic Monitoring Guidelines 227 19 Addressing Reciprocating Compressor Piping Vibration Problems: Design Ideas, Field Audit Tips, and Proven Solutions 229 19.1 Piping Restraints 232 19.2 Pipe Clamping Systems 233 19.3 Guidelines 233 19.4 Piping Assessment Steps 235 19.4.1 First, Perform the Following Pre-Field Analysis Steps 235 19.4.2 Next 235 19.4.3 Problem Locations 236 19.5 Attaching Pipe Clamps to Structural Members 237 19.5.1 Installation Examples 240 19.5.2 Here Are a Few More Pipe Clamp Tips 240 20 Collecting and Assessing Piping Vibration 243 20.1 Piping Analysis Steps 245 20.2 Piping Vibration Examples 246 Appendix A: Practice Problems Related to Chapters 1 Through 4 Topics 249 Appendix B: Glossary of Compressor Technology Terms 261 Index 273

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Book SynopsisThis book combines emulsion knowledge into a single, comprehensive volume, ideal for professionals and students involved in the areas of pharmaceutical science who are looking to learn about this emergent research concept. Compiles the step-by-step investigations made concerning the potential of nanosized emulsions on both drug delivery and drug targeting areas by different group of scientists in various laboratories across the world Inverts the common nano-emulsions coverage trend of focusing on focused on the particulate system itself, instead exploring the way to turn nanosized emulsions as biomedical tool, as well as, treating the in vitro and in vivo aspects after administration Provides an overview of the current state-of-the art regarding the development of tocol emulsions, emulsion adjuvants in immunization research, oxygen-carrying emulsions (called as fluorocarbon emulsion) and emulsions for delivering drugs to nasal and topical (ocular Table of ContentsList of Contributors ix Foreword xi Preface xiii 1. Introduction: An Overview of Nanosized Emulsions 1 2. Formulation Development of Oil-In-Water Nanosized Emulsions 19 3. Characterization and Safety Assessment F Oil-In-Water Nanosized Emulsions 69 4. Manufacturing and Positioning (Generations) of Oil-In-Water Nanosized Emulsions 169 5. Biofate of Nanosized Emulsions 225 6. Medical or Therapeutical Applications of Oil-In-Water Nanosized Emulsions 259 Part I: Overview of Tocol-Based Emulsions, Oxygen-Carrying Emulsions, Emulsions With Double or Triple Cargos and Emulsion-Like Dispersions 287 7. Overview of Tocol‐Based Emulsions, Oxygen‐Carrying Emulsions, Emulsions With Double or Triple Cargos and Emulsion‐Like Dispersions 289 7.1. Tocol-Based Nanosized Emulsions 291 7.2. Oxygen-Carrying Emulsions 301 7.3. Nanosized Emulsions For Multiple Medicament Loadings, Imaging, and Theranostic Purposes 321 7.4. Emulsion-Like Dispersions 347 Part II: Selected Case Studies 369 8. Selected Case Studies 371 8.1. Case Study 1 - Cationic Nanosized Emulsions: Narration of Commercial Success 373 8.2. Case Study 2 - Fish Oil-Based Nanosized Emulsions 389 Index 423

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Book SynopsisThis book covers almost all of the diverse aspects of utilizing lignocellulosic biomass for valuable biorefinery product development of chemicals, alternative fuels and energy. The world has shifted towards sustainable development for the generation of energy and industrially valuable chemicals. Biorefinery plays an important role in the integration of conversion process with high-end equipment facilities for the generation of energy, fuels and chemicals. The book is divided into four parts. The first part, Basic Principles of Biorefinery, covers the concept of biorefinery, its application in industrial bioprocessing, the utilization of biomass for biorefinery application, and its future prospects and economic performance. The second part, Biorefinery for Production of Chemicals, covers the production of bioactive compounds, gallic acid, C4, C5, and C6 compounds, etc., from a variety of substrates. The third part, Biorefinery for Production of Alternative Fuel and Energy, covers Table of ContentsPreface xv Part 1: Biorefinery Basic Principles 1 1 Principles of Sustainable Biorefinery 3Samakshi Verma and Arindam Kuila 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Biorefinery 5 1.3 Conversion Technologies of Biorefineries 6 1.4 Some Outlooks Toward Biorefinery Technologies 7 1.5 Principles of Sustainable Biorefineries 9 1.6 Advantages of Biorefineries 10 1.7 Classification of Biorefineries 10 1.8 Conclusion 12 References 12 2 Sustainable Biorefinery Concept for Industrial Bioprocessing 15Mohd Asyraf Kassim, Tan Kean Meng, Noor Aziah Serri, Siti Baidurah Yusoff, Nur Artikah Muhammad Shahrin, Khok Yong Seng, Mohamad Hafizi Abu Bakar and Lee Chee Keong 2.1 Sustainable Industrial Bioprocess 15 2.2 Biorefinery 16 2.2.1 Starch Biorefinery 18 2.2.2 Lignocellulosic Biorefinery 19 2.3 Microalgal Biorefinery 22 2.3.1 Upstream Processing 23 2.3.2 Downstream Processing 24 2.3.2.1 Lipid-Extracted Microalgae 24 2.4 Value Added Products 27 2.4.1 Biofuel 27 2.4.1.1 Bioethanol 30 2.4.1.2 Biobutanol 31 2.4.1.3 Biodiesel 34 2.4.1.4 Short Alkane 36 2.4.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 36 2.4.3 Bioactive Compounds From Food Waste Residues 39 2.5 Novel Immobilize Carrier From Biowaste 42 2.5.1 Waste Cassava Tuber Fiber 42 2.5.2 Corn Silk 43 2.5.3 Sweet Sorghum Bagasse 43 2.5.4 Coconut Shell Activated Carbon 44 2.5.5 Sugar Beet Pulp 44 2.5.6 Eggshells 45 2.6 Conclusion 45 References 46 3 Biomass Resources for Biorefinery Application 55Varsha Upadhayay, Ritika Joshi and Arindam Kuila 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Concept of Biorefinery 56 3.3 Biomass Feedstocks 57 3.3.1 Types of Biomass Feedstocks 57 3.3.1.1 Biomass of Sugar Industry 57 3.3.1.2 Biomass Waste 58 3.3.1.3 Sugar and Starch Biomass 59 3.3.1.4 Algal Biomass 59 3.3.1.5 Lignocelluloses Feedstock 59 3.3.1.6 Oil Crops for Biodiesel 60 3.4 Processes 60 3.4.1 Thermo Chemical Processes 62 3.4.2 Biochemical Processes 63 3.4.3 Biobased Products and the Biorefinery Concept 64 3.5 Conclusions 64 References 65 4 Evaluation of the Refinery Efficiency and Indicators for Sustainability and Economic Performance 67Rituparna Saha and Mainak Mukhopadhyay 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Biofuels and Biorefineries: Sustainability Development and Economic Performance 69 4.3 Future Developments Required for Building a Sustainable Biorefinery System 72 4.4 Conclusion 72 References 73 5 Biorefinery: A Future Key of Potential Energy 77Anirudha Paul, Sampad Ghosh, Saptarshi Konar and Anirban Ray 5.1 Introduction 77 5.2 Biorefinery: Definitions and Descriptions 78 5.3 Modus Operandi of Different Biorefineries 79 5.3.1 Thermochemical Processing 79 5.3.2 Mechanical Processing 79 5.3.3 Biochemical Processing 79 5.3.4 Chemical Processing 79 5.4 Types of Biorefineries 80 5.4.1 Lignocellulose Feedstock Biorefinery 80 5.4.2 Syngas Platform Biorefinery 81 5.4.3 Marine Biorefinery 81 5.4.4 Oleochemical Biorefinery 81 5.4.5 Green Biorefinery 81 5.4.6 Whole Crop Biorefinery 82 5.5 Some Biorefinery Industries 82 5.5.1 European Biorefinery Companies 82 5.5.2 Biorefinery Companies in USA 82 5.5.3 Biorefinery Companies in Asia 83 5.6 Conclusion and Future of Biorefinery 83 References 84 Part 2: Biorefinery for Production of Chemicals 89 6 Biorefinery for Innovative Production of Bioactive Compounds from Vegetable Biomass 91Massimo Lucarini, Alessandra Durazzo, Ginevra Lombardi-Boccia, Annalisa Romani, Gianni Sagratini, Noemi Bevilacqua, Francesca Ieri, Pamela Vignolini, Margherita Campo and Francesca Cecchini 6.1 Introduction 91 6.2 Waste From Grape and During Vinification: Bioactive Compounds and Innovative Production 92 6.2.1 Grape 92 6.2.2 Polyphenols 92 6.2.3 Antioxidant Activity and Health Properties of Grape 94 6.2.4 Winemaking Technologies 96 6.2.5 Winemaking By-Products 96 6.2.6 Extraction Technologies 97 6.3 Waste from Olive and During Oil Production: Bioactive Compounds and Innovative Process 99 6.3.1 Olive Oil Quality, its Components, and Beneficial Properties 100 6.3.2 Olive Oil By-Products 108 6.3.3 Olive Oil, Tradition, Biodiversity, Territory, and Sustainability 113 6.4 Bioactive Compounds in Legume Residues 115 6.4.1 Polyphenols 116 6.4.2 Phytosterols and Squalene 116 6.4.3 Dietary Fiber and Resistant Starch 117 6.4.4 Soyasaponins 117 6.4.5 Bioactive Peptides 118 References 120 7 Prospects of Bacterial Tannase Catalyzed Biotransformation of Agro and Industrial Tannin Waste to High Value Gallic Acid 129Sunny Dhiman and Gunjan Mukherjee 7.1 Introduction 129 7.2 Bacterial Tannase Producers 131 7.3 Bacterial Tannase Production 131 7.4 Hydrolyzable Tannins: A Substrate for Gallic Acid Production 133 7.5 Tannins as Waste 133 7.5.1 Agro-Waste 133 7.5.2 Industrial Waste 134 7.6 Bacterial Biotransformation of Tannins 134 7.7 Applications of Gallic Acid 136 7.7.1 Therapeutic Applications 136 7.7.2 Industrial Applications 137 7.8 Conclusions 138 References 138 8 Biorefinery Approach for Production of Industrially Important C4, C5, and C6 Chemicals 145Shritoma Sengupta and Aparna Sen 8.1 Introduction 145 8.2 Role of Biorefinery in Industrially Important Chemical Production 147 8.3 Production of C4 Chemicals 149 8.4 Production of C5 Chemicals 152 8.5 Production of C6 Chemicals 155 8.6 Concluding Remarks 157 References 158 9 Value-Added Products from Guava Waste by Biorefinery Approach 163Pranav D. Pathak, Sachin A. Mandavgane and Bhaskar D. Kulkarni 9.1 Introduction 163 9.2 Physicochemical Characterization 164 9.3 Valorization of GW 165 9.3.1 Medicinal Uses 165 9.3.1.1 GL, GB, and GF in Medicines 166 9.3.1.2 GP in Medicines 169 9.3.2 Extraction of Chemicals 171 9.3.2.1 Extraction from GL 171 9.3.2.2 Extraction from GP 176 9.3.2.3 Extraction from GS 176 9.3.3 Food Supplements 177 9.3.4 Extraction of Pectin 178 9.3.5 Animal Feed 178 9.3.6 As Insecticide 179 9.3.7 Synthesis of Nanomaterials 180 9.3.8 In Fermentations 180 9.3.9 As a Water Treatment Agent 181 9.3.10 Production of Enzymes 181 9.4 Sustainability of Value-Added Products From GW 181 9.5 Conclusion 189 References 189 10 Case-Studies Towards Sustainable Production of Value-Added Compounds in Agro-Industrial Wastes 197Massimo Lucarini, Alessandra Durazzo, Ginevra Lombardi-Boccia, Annalisa Romani, Gianni Sagratini, Noemi Bevilacqua, Francesca Ieri, Pamela Vignolini, Margherita Campo and Francesca Cecchini 10.1 Introduction 197 10.2 Experimental Pilot Plant 199 10.2.1 Chestnut 199 10.2.2 Soy 204 10.2.3 Olive Oil By-Products Case Studies 213 10.2.3.1 Olive Oil Wastewater 213 10.2.3.2 Olea europaea L. leaves 214 References 216 11 Biorefining of Lignocellulosics for Production of Industrial Excipients of Varied Functionalities 221UpadrastaLakshmishri Roy, DebabrataBera, Sreemoyee Chakraborty and Ronit Saha 11.1 Introduction 221 11.2 Structure and Composition 222 11.3 Lignocellulosic Residues: A Bioreserve for Fermentable Sugars and Polyphenols 222 11.3.1 Biorefining of Lignocellulosic Residues 223 11.4 Pre-Treatment of Lignocellulosics 224 11.4.1 Physico-Chemical Process 224 11.4.1.1 Acid Refining 224 11.4.1.2 Alcohol Refining 225 11.4.1.3 Alkali Refining 225 11.4.2 Thermo-Physical Process 226 11.4.2.1 Steam Explosion Process 226 11.4.2.2 Supercritical and Subcritical Water Treatment 226 11.4.2.3 Hot-Compressed Water Treatment 227 11.4.3 Biological Process 227 11.4.3.1 Lignin Degrading Enzymes 227 11.4.3.2 Cellulose Degrading Enzymes 229 11.4.3.3 Hemicellulose Degrading Enzymes 229 11.4.4 Phenols as By-Products of Lignocellulosic Pre-Treatment Process 230 11.5 Methods of Extraction of Polyphenols From Lignocellulosic Biomass 231 11.5.1 Solvent Affiliated Extraction 231 11.5.2 Enzyme Affiliated Extraction 231 11.5.3 Advanced Technological Methods Adopted for Recovery of Phenolics: (Pulsed-Electric-Field Pre-Treatment) 232 11.5.4 Catalytic Microwave Pyrolysis 233 11.5.5 Multifaceted Applications of Phenolics 233 11.6 Conclusion 235 References 235 12 Bioactive Compounds Production from Vegetable Biomass: A Biorefinery Approach 241Shritoma Sengupta, Debalina Bhattacharya and Mainak Mukhopadhyay 12.1 Introduction 241 12.2 Production of Bioactive Compounds 243 12.3 Bioactive Compounds From Vegetable Biomass 246 12.4 Role of Biorefinery in Production of Bioactive Compounds 248 12.5 Concluding Remarks 252 References 253 Part 3: Biorefinery for Production of Alternative Fuel and Energy 259 13 Potential Raw Materials and Production Technologies for Biorefineries 261Shilpi Bansal, Lokesh Kumar Narnoliya and Ankit Sonthalia 13.1 Introduction 261 13.2 Bioresources 264 13.2.1 First-Generation Feedstock 264 13.2.2 Second-Generation Feedstock 264 13.2.3 Third-Generation Feedstock 270 13.3 Chemicals Produced from Biomass 270 13.3.1 Ethylene 270 13.3.2 Propylene 273 13.3.3 Propylene Glycol 273 13.3.4 Butadiene 274 13.3.5 2,3-Butanediol and 2-Butanone Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) 274 13.3.6 Acrylic Acid 274 13.3.7 Aromatic Compounds 275 13.4 Production Technologies 275 13.4.1 Pre-Treatment 275 13.4.2 Hydrolysis 276 13.4.3 Fermentation 277 13.4.4 Pyrolysis 278 13.4.5 Gasification 278 13.4.6 Supercritical Water 279 13.4.7 Algae Biomass 280 13.5 Conclusion 280 References 281 14 Sustainable Production of Biofuels Through Synthetic Biology Approach 289Dulam Sandhya, Phanikanth Jogam, Lokesh Kumar Narnoliya, Archana Srivastava and Jyoti Singh Jadaun 14.1 Introduction 289 14.2 Types of Biofuel 291 14.2.1 First-Generation Biofuels (Conventional Biofuels) 291 14.2.1.1 Biogas 291 14.2.1.2 Biodiesel and Bioethanol 291 14.2.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 292 14.2.2.1 Cellulosic Ethanol 293 14.2.2.2 Biomethanol 293 14.2.2.3 Dimethylformamide 293 14.2.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 293 14.2.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuels 293 14.2.5 Advantages of Biofuels 294 14.2.6 Disadvantages of Biofuels 294 14.3 Sources of Biofuel 294 14.3.1 Bacterial Source 294 14.3.2 Algal Source 296 14.3.3 Fungal Source 296 14.3.4 Plant Source 297 14.3.4.1 Plant Materials Utilized for the Production of Biofuels 298 14.3.5 Animal Source 299 14.4 Possible Routes of Biofuel Production Through Synthetic Biology 299 14.4.1 Metabolic Engineering 299 14.4.2 Tissue Culture/Genetic Engineering 300 14.4.3 CRISPR-Cas 300 14.5 Synthetic Biology and Its Application for Biofuels Production 301 14.5.1 Case Study 1: Production of Isobutanol by Engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae 301 14.5.2 Case Study 2: Generation of Biofuel From Ionic Liquid Pretreated Plant Biomass Using Engineered E. coli 302 14.5.3 Case Study 3: CRISPRi-Mediated Metabolic Pathway Modulation for Isopentenol Production in E. coli 302 14.6 Current Status of Biofuel 302 14.7 Future Aspects 303 14.8 Conclusion 304 References 304 15 Biorefinery Approach for Bioethanol Production 313Rituparna Saha, Debalina Bhattacharya and Mainak Mukhopadhyay 15.1 Introduction 313 15.2 Bioethanol 315 15.3 Classification of Biorefineries 315 15.3.1 Agricultural Biorefinery 316 15.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biorefinery 317 15.4 Types of Pre-Treatments 318 15.4.1 Physical Pre-Treatments 318 15.4.2 Chemical Pre-Treatments 319 15.4.3 Physico-Chemical Pre-Treatments 320 15.4.4 Biological Pre-Treatments 321 15.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Biomass 323 15.6 Fermentation 324 15.7 Future Prospects for the Production of Bioethanol Through Biorefineries 325 15.8 Conclusion 326 References 326 16 Biorefinery Approach for Production of Biofuel From Algal Biomass 335Bhasati Uzir and Amrita Saha 16.1 Introduction 335 16.2 Algal Biomass: The Third-Generation Biofuel 336 16.2.1 Algae as a Raw Material for Biofuels Production 338 16.2.2 Algae as Best Feedstock for Biorefinery 339 16.3 Microalgal Biomass Cultivation/Production 340 16.3.1 Open Pond Production 341 16.3.2 Closed Bioreactors/Enclosed PBRs 341 16.3.3 Hybrid Systems 341 16.4 Strain Selection and Microalgae Genetic Engineering Method Strain Selection Process for Biorefining of Microalgae 342 16.5 Harvesting Methods 343 16.6 Cellular Disruption 343 16.7 Extraction 344 16.8 Conclusion 344 References 344 17 Biogas Production and Uses 347Anirudha Paul, Saptarshi Konar, Sampad Ghosh and Anirban Ray 17.1 Introduction 347 17.2 Potential Use of Biogas 348 17.2.1 Anarobic Digestion 348 17.2.2 Biogas from Energy Crops and Straw 349 17.2.3 Biogas from Fish Waste 349 17.2.4 Biogas from Food Waste 349 17.2.5 Biogas from Sewage Sludge 350 17.2.6 Biogas from Algae 350 17.2.7 Some Biogas Biorefinery 350 17.3 Pre-Treatment 350 17.3.1 Physical Pre-Treatment 350 17.3.2 Physiochemical Pre-Treatment 351 17.3.3 Chemical Pre-Treatment 351 17.3.4 Biological Pre-Treatment 351 17.4 Process and Technology 351 17.5 Biogas Purification and Upgradation 352 17.5.1 Removal of CO2 352 17.5.2 Removal of H2S 353 17.5.3 Removal of Water 353 17.6 Conclusion 353 References 353 18 Use of Different Enzymes in Biorefinery Systems 357A.N. Anoopkumar, Sharrel Rebello, Embalil Mathachan Aneesh, Raveendran Sindhu, Parameswaran Binod, Ashok Pandey and Edgard Gnansounou 18.1 Introduction 357 18.2 Perspectives of the Biorefinery Concept 360 18.3 Starch Degradation 361 18.4 Biodegradation and Modification of Lignocellulose and Hemicellulose 361 18.5 Conversion of Pectins 363 18.6 Microbial Fermentation and Biofuel and Biodiesel Aimed Biorefinery 363 18.7 Conclusion 365 Acknowledgement 365 References 365 Part 4: Conclusion 369 19 Wheat Straw Valorization: Material Balance and Biorefinery Approach 371Sachin A. Mandavgane and Bhaskar D. Kulkarni 19.1 Introduction 371 19.2 Wax Extraction Process 372 19.3 Combustion Process 373 19.4 Mass Balance for Combustion 375 19.5 Pyrolysis of Wheat Straw 376 19.6 Mass Balance of Pyrolysis 377 19.7 Separation of Valuable Chemicals From Bio-Oil 377 19.8 Production of Biodeisel From Wheat Straw 378 19.9 Conclusion 380 Acknowledgment 381 References 381 Index 383

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Book SynopsisREVIEWS IN COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY THE LATEST VOLUME IN THE REVIEWS IN COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY SERIES, THE INVALUABLE REFERENCE TO METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY Reviews in Computational Chemistry reference texts assist researchers in selecting and applying new computational chemistry methods to their own research. Bringing together writings from leading experts in various fields of computational chemistry, Volume 32 covers topics including global structure optimization, time-dependent density functional tight binding calculations, non-equilibrium self-assembly, cluster prediction, and molecular simulations of microphase formers and deep eutectic solvents. In keeping with previous books in the series, Volume 32 uses a non-mathematical style and tutorial-based approach that provides students and researchers with easy access to computational methods outside their area of expertise. The chapters comprising Volume 32 are connected by two themes: methods that can be broTable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xi Contributors to Previous Volumes xv 1 Non-Deterministic Global Structure Optimization: An Introductory Tutorial 1Bernd Hartke List of abbreviations 1 Introduction 2 The Need for Structural Optimization 2 Search Space is Vast 3 Deterministic vs Non-Deterministic Search 5 Fundamental Take-Home Lessons 8 A Closer Look at Some NDGO Background Details 8 Too Inspired by Nature 8 No Free Lunch 11 NDGO Algorithm Comparisons 14 Barrier Crossing 15 Old vs New Machine Learning 19 Take-Home Lessons for NDGO Background Details 20 General Guidelines for NDGO Applications 21 Brief Summary of Some Fundamental NDGO Algorithm Ideas 21 NDGO Method Design Choices 22 NDGO Tips for Absolute Beginners 28 Things to Do, and Pitfalls to Avoid 31 Recent Highlights 32 References 34 2 Density Functional Tight Binding Calculations for Probing Electronic-Excited States of Large Systems 45Sharma S.R.K.C. Yamijala, Ma. Belén Oviedo, and Bryan M. Wong Introduction 45 Real-Time Time-Dependent DFTB (RT-TDDFTB) 46 Theory and Methodology 46 Tutorial on RT-TDDFTB Electron Dynamics for a Naphthalene Molecule 49 Absorption Spectrum for Naphthalene 49 Electron Dynamics of Naphthalene with a Laser-Type Perturbation 51 RT-TDDFTB Electron Dynamics of a Realistic Large Systems 51 DFTB-Based Nonadiabatic Electron Dynamics 59 Adiabatic vs Nonadiabatic Dynamics 59 Equations Governing Nonadiabatic Electron Dynamics 61 The Classical Path Approximation 62 Surface Hopping and Fewest Switches Criterion 63 Implementation Details of CPA-FSSH-DFTB 65 Post-processing Tools 67 Computational Details 67 An Example on Charge Transfer Dynamics in Organic Photovoltaics 68 Conclusion and Outlook 72 Acknowledgments 72 References 73 3 Advances in the Molecular Simulation of Microphase Formers 81Patrick Charbonneau and Kai Zhang Introduction 81 Block Copolymers 83 Surfactants and Microemulsions 84 Lattice Spin Systems 87 Colloidal Suspensions 87 Other Examples 90 Field Theory of Microphase Formation 90 Molecular Simulations and Challenges 91 Simulating Periodic Microphases 93 Expanded Thermodynamics 94 Thermodynamic Integration for Microphases 95 Ghost Particle/Cluster Switching Method 100 Cluster Volume Moves 103 Determining Phase Transitions 105 Simulations of Disordered Microphases 106 Wolff-Like Cluster Algorithms 106 Virtual Cluster Moves 107 Aggregation Volume Biased (AVB) Moves 109 Morphological Crossovers in the Disordered Regime 110 Microphase Formers Solved by Molecular Simulations 112 One-Dimensional Models 112 Lattice Spin Models 113 Colloidal Models 117 Conclusion 118 Free Energy of an Ideal Gas in a Field 119 Constant pressure Simulations of Particles in A Field 120 Virial Coefficients of Particles in a Field 120 Acknowledgments 122 References 122 4 Molecular Simulations of Deep Eutectic Solvents: A Perspective on Structure, Dynamics, and Physical Properties 135Shalini J. Rukmani, Brian W. Doherty, Orlando Acevedo, and Coray M. Colina Introduction 135 Deep Eutectic Solvents 137 Definition of Deep Eutectic Solvents 137 DES as Ionic Liquid Analogues 137 Molecular Structure of DESs and Type of Interactions 140 Types of DES 142 Molecular Simulation Methods 143 An Overview of Ab Initio Methods 145 Classical Molecular Dynamics at the Atomic Level 149 Nonpolarizable Force Fields used for DES Simulations 153 Physical Properties 159 Liquid Density 159 Volume Expansivity 162 Surface Tension 162 Thermodynamic Properties 164 Heat Capacity 164 Heats of Vaporization 168 Isothermal Compressibility 169 Transport Properties 170 Viscosity 170 Diffusion Coefficients 178 Deep Eutectic Solvent Structure 183 Radial Distribution Functions 183 Hydrogen Bond Analysis 189 Spatial Distribution Functions 196 Application of DES Through Simulation 196 Gas Sorption Studies on DES 196 DES Interactions at Metal Surfaces 198 Proteins in DES 199 Summary 200 Acknowledgments 201 References 201 Index 217

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Book SynopsisPhotocatalysts in Advanced Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatment comprehensively covers a range of topics aiming to promote the implementation of photocatalysis at large scale through provision of facile and green methods for catalysts synthesis and elucidation of pollutants degradation mechanisms. This book is divided into two main parts namely Synthesis of effective photocatalysts (Part I) and Mechanisms of the photocatalytic degradation of various pollutants (Part II). The first part focuses on the exploration of various strategies to synthesize sustainable and effective photocatalysts. The second part of the book provides an insights into the photocatalytic degradation mechanisms and pathways under ultraviolet and visible light irradiation, as well as the challenges faced by this technology and its future prospects.Table of ContentsPreface xi Part 1: Synthesis of Effective Photocatalysts 1 1 Biogenic Synthesis of Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Semiconductors for Wastewater Treatment 3Nkgaestsi M. Ngoepe, Mpitloane J. Hato, Kwena D. Modibane and Nomso C. Hintsho-Mbita 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Classifications of Semiconductor Nanostructured Materials 6 1.2.1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Nanostructures 6 1.2.2 Titanium Dioxide Nanostructures 7 1.3 Biological Synthesis of ZnO and TiO2 Nanostructures 9 1.3.1 Synthesis of ZnO and TiO2 Using Bacteria 10 1.3.2 Preparation of ZnO and TiO2 from Plants 13 1.4 Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes 17 1.5 Challenges of Photocatalysis 22 1.6 Conclusions: Future and Scope 23 Acknowledgments 24 References 24 2 Wastewater Treatment: Synthesis of Effective Photocatalysts Through Novel Approaches 33Tahira Qureshi, Monireh Bakhshpour, Kemal Çetin, Aykut Arif Topçu and Adil Denizli List of Abbreviations 34 2.1 Introduction 35 2.1.1 Miscellaneous Methods in Wastewater Treatment 36 2.1.2 Homogeneous Photo-Fenton for Wastewater Treatment 38 2.1.3 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis Processes for Wastewater Treatment 42 2.2 Synthesis of Photocatalytic Materials 44 2.2.1 Sol–Gel Synthesis 44 2.2.2 Hydrothermal Synthesis Process 46 2.2.3 Solvothermal Synthesis Process 47 2.2.4 Direct Oxidation Synthesis 48 2.2.5 Sonochemical Synthesis Method 48 2.2.6 Chemical Vapor Deposition Synthesis Method 49 2.2.7 Physical Vapor Deposition 50 2.2.8 Microwave Synthesis Process 51 2.2.9 Electrochemical Deposition Synthesis Process 52 2.3 Support Materials for Photocatalysis 53 2.3.1 Zeolites 53 2.3.2 Clays 54 2.3.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 54 2.3.4 Additional Supports 55 2.4 Life Cycle Assessment of Photocatalytic Water Treatment Processes 56 2.5 Summary 57 References 58 3 Metal–Organic Frameworks as Possible Candidates for Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes in Wastewater 65Thabiso C. Maponya, Mpitloane J. Hato, Kwena D. Modibane and Katlego Makgopa 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Wastewater Treatment Methods 67 3.3 Photocatalysis 69 3.3.1 Background 69 3.3.2 Photocatalysts for Wastewater Treatment 69 3.4 Metal–Organic Frameworks 71 3.4.1 History and Discovery of MOFs 72 3.4.2 Structure of Metal–Organic Frameworks 72 3.4.3 Preparation of Metal–Organic Frameworks 75 3.4.3.1 Hydro/Solvothermal Synthesis 75 3.4.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis 76 3.4.3.3 Mechanochemical Process 77 3.4.3.4 Post Synthesis 78 3.4.5 Applications 79 3.4.6 MOFs for Photocatalytic Degradation 79 3.5 Conclusions 83 Acknowledgments 83 References 84 Part 2: Mechanisms of the Photocatalytic Degradation of Various Pollutants 93 4 Photocatalytic Degradation of Toxic Pesticides: Mechanistic Insights 95Akeem Adeyemi Oladipo, Mustafa Gazi, Ayodeji Olugbenga Ifebajo, Adewale Sulaiman Oladipo and Edith Odinaka Ahaka 4.1 Introduction 96 4.1.1 Global Production, Consumption, and Distribution of Pesticides 97 4.1.2 Pesticide Remediation Technologies 98 4.2 Advanced Oxidation Processes 99 4.2.1 Heterogeneous Advanced Oxidation Processes 101 4.2.2 Homogeneous Advanced Oxidation Processes 102 4.3 Photobased Treatment Approaches for Pesticides 103 4.3.1 Photolytic Degradation of Pesticides 104 4.3.2 Photolytic Degradation of Pesticides Combined With Oxidants 106 4.4 Photocatalytic Degradation of Pesticides 106 4.4.1 Metal Oxide Semiconductors for Photocatalytic Degradation of Pesticides 114 4.4.2 Photocatalytic Degradation of Pesticides by Metal–Organic Frameworks 124 4.5 Mechanistic Insights Into Photocatalytic Degradation of Pesticides 128 4.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 131 References 132 5 Sustainable Photo- and Bio-Catalysts for Wastewater Treatment 139Nour Sh. El-Gendy and Hussein N. Nassar 5.1 Introduction 139 5.2 Natural Apatite and Its Applications 141 5.3 Natural Apatite as a Photo-Bio-Catalyst for Wastewater Treatment 141 5.3.1 Photodegradation by Pure Apatite 142 5.3.2 Photodegradation by Titania/Apatite Nanocomposite 143 5.3.3 Photodegradation by Zinicate/Apatite Nanocomposite 147 5.3.4 Photodegradation by Other Metal/Apatite Nanocomposite 152 5.4 Photodegradation of Pharmaceutical Pollutants 157 5.5 Challenges and Opportunities 159 References 160 6 Recent Advancement in Visible-Light-Responsive Photocatalysts in Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Water Treatment Technology 167Sadanand Pandey, Kotesh Kumar Mandari, Joonwoo Kim, Misook Kang and Elvis Fosso-Kankeu 6.1 Introduction 168 6.1.1 Technologies for Dye Removal From Contaminated Water 170 6.1.2 Photocatalysis 171 6.1.3 General Mechanism of Photocatalysis 172 6.1.4 Parameters Affecting the Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes 177 6.1.4.1 Influence of pH on Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes in Wastewaters 177 6.1.4.2 Crystal Composition and Catalyst Type 181 6.1.4.3 Pollutant Type and Concentration 183 6.1.4.4 Influence of Catalyst Loading 184 6.2 Conclusion and Future Research 186 Funding 187 Acknowledgments 187 References 187 7 Degradation Mechanism of Organic Dyes by Effective Transition Metal Oxide 197Barkha Rani, G Thamizharasan, Arpan Kumar Nayak and Niroj Kumar Sahu 7.1 Introduction 198 7.2 Types of Dyes and Their Sources 198 7.3 Environmental Hazards 199 7.4 Conventional Dye Degradation Process 200 7.4.1 Coagulation/Flocculation Process 201 7.4.2 Membrane Separation Process 201 7.4.3 Ion Exchange Process 202 7.4.4 Adsorption on Activated Carbon 202 7.4.5 Advance Oxidation Process 202 7.5 Mechanism of Photocatalytic Dye Degradation 202 7.5.1 Adsorption Process 203 7.5.1.1 Langmuir Isotherm 203 7.5.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm 204 7.5.1.3 Temkin Isotherm 204 7.5.1.4 Dubinin Radushkevich Isotherm 205 7.5.2 Photocatalytic Dye Degradation 206 7.6 Nanomaterial Aspect for Dye Degradation Process 207 7.7 Transition Metal Oxide-Based Nanomaterials for Dye Degradation 208 7.7.1 Co-Precipitation Process 210 7.7.2 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Technique 211 7.7.3 Thermal Decomposition Process 211 7.8 Challenges and Future Scope 219 7.9 Conclusions 220 References 221 8 Factors Influencing the Photocatalytic Activity of Photocatalysts in Wastewater Treatment 229Rashi Gusain, Neeraj Kumar and Suprakas Sinha Ray 8.1 Introduction 230 8.2 Photocatalysis in Water Treatment 232 8.3 General Mechanism of Photocatalysis 233 8.4 Parameters Influencing Photocatalysis 235 8.4.1 Amount of Catalyst 235 8.4.2 Amount of Pollutant 235 8.4.3 Effect of pH 236 8.4.4 Effect of Oxidants 237 8.4.4.1 Effect of H2O2 239 8.4.4.2 Effect of KBrO3 240 8.4.4.3 Effect of (NH4)2S2O8 and K2S2O8 240 8.4.5 Effect of Temperature 241 8.4.6 Effect of Reaction Light Intensity 244 8.4.7 Effect of Doping 245 8.4.7.1 Noble Metal Doping 247 8.4.7.2 Metal Doping 248 8.4.7.3 Rare Earth Metal Doping 250 8.4.7.4 Non-Metallic Doping 251 8.4.7.5 Co-Doping 253 8.4.7.6 Self-Doping 253 8.4.8 Effect of Inorganic Ions 254 8.4.9 Effect of Size, Morphology, and Surface Area 255 8.5 Summary 257 Acknowledgment 258 References 258 9 Removal of Free Cyanide by a Green Photocatalyst ZnO Nanoparticle Synthesized via Eucalyptus globulus Leaves 271L.C. Razanamahandry, J. Sackey, C.M. Furqan, S.K.O. Ntwampe, E. Fosso-Kankeu, E. Manikandan and M. Maaza List of Abbreviations 272 9.1 Introduction 272 9.2 Materials and Methods 274 9.2.1 Eucalyptus globulus Leaves Extract Preparation 274 9.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle Synthesis 274 9.2.3 Zinc Oxide Characterizations 274 9.2.4 Free Cyanide Removal 275 9.3 Results and Discussion 276 9.3.1 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle Characteristics 276 9.3.2 Free Cyanide Adsorption 281 9.4 Conclusion 284 References 285 Index 289

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Contributors xii Preface xvii 1 Introduction to Biosurfactants 1José Vázquez Tato, Julio A. Seijas, M. Pilar Vázquez-Tato, Francisco Meijide,Santiago de Frutos, Aida Jover, Francisco Fraga, and Victor H. Soto 1.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 1 1.2 Micelle Formation 5 1.3 Average Aggregation Numbers 14 1.4 Packing Properties of Amphiphiles 18 1.5 Biosurfactants 20 1.6 Sophorolipids 25 1.7 Surfactin 28 1.8 Final Comments 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32 2 Metagenomics Approach for Selection of Biosurfactant Producing Bacteria from Oil Contaminated Soil: An Insight Into Its Technology 43Nazim F. Islam and Hemen Sarma 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 Metagenomics Application: A State-of-the-Art Technique 44 2.3 Hydrocarbon-Degrading Bacteria and Genes 46 2.4 Metagenomic Approaches in the Selection of Biosurfactant-Producing Microbes 47 2.5 Metagenomics with Stable Isotope Probe (SIP) Techniques 48 2.6 Screening Methods to Identify Features of Biosurfactants 50 2.7 Functional Metagenomics: Challenge and Opportunities 52 2.8 Conclusion 53 Acknowledgements 54 References 54 3 Biosurfactant Production Using Bioreactors from Industrial Byproducts 59Arun Karnwal 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Significance of the Production of Biosurfactants from Industrial Products 60 3.3 Factors Affect Biosurfactant Production in Bioreactor 61 3.4 Microorganisms 61 3.5 Bacterial Growth Conditions 63 3.6 Substrate for Biosurfactant Production 65 3.7 Conclusions 71 Acknowledgement 71 References 72 4 Biosurfactants for Heavy Metal Remediation and Bioeconomics 79Shalini Srivastava, Monoj Kumar Mondal, and Shashi Bhushan Agrawal 4.1 Introduction 80 4.2 Concept of Surfactant and Biosurfactant for Heavy Metal Remediation 81 4.3 Mechanisms of Biosurfactant–Metal Interactions 82 4.4 Substrates Used for Biosurfactant Production 82 4.5 Classification of Biosurfactants 85 4.6 Types of Biosurfactants 85 4.7 Factors Influencing Biosurfactants Production 88 4.8 Strategies for Commercial Biosurfactant Production 89 4.9 Application of Biosurfactant for Heavy Metal Remediation 90 4.10 Bioeconomics of Metal Remediation Using Biosurfactants 93 4.11 Conclusion 94 References 94 5 Application of Biosurfactants for Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) 99Jéssica Correia, Lígia R. Rodrigues, José A. Teixeira, and Eduardo J. Gudiña 5.1 Energy Demand and Fossil Fuels 99 5.2 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR) 101 5.3 Mechanisms of Surfactant Flooding 102 5.4 Biosurfactants: An Alternative to Chemical Surfactants to Increase Oil Recovery 103 5.5 Biosurfactant MEOR: Laboratory Studies 104 5.6 Field Assays 112 5.7 Current State of Knowledge, Technological Advances, and Future Perspectives 113 Acknowledgements 114 References 114 6 Biosurfactant Enhanced Sustainable Remediation of Petroleum Contaminated Soil 119Pooja Singh, Selvan Ravindran, and Yogesh Patil 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Microbial-Assisted Bioremediation of Petroleum Contaminated Soil 121 6.3 Hydrocarbon Degradation and Biosurfactants 122 6.4 Soil Washing Using Biosurfactants 124 6.5 Combination Strategies for Efficient Bioremediation 126 6.6 Biosurfactant Mediated Field Trials 129 6.7 Limitations, Strategies, and Considerations of Biosurfactant-Mediated Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation 130 6.8 Conclusion 132 References 133 7 Microbial Surfactants are Next-Generation Biomolecules for Sustainable Remediation of Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons 139Punniyakotti Parthipan, Liang Cheng, Aruliah Rajasekar, and Subramania Angaiah 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Biosurfactant-Enhanced Bioremediation of PAHs 144 7.3 Microorganism’s Adaptations to Enhance Bioavailability 151 7.4 Influences of Micellization on Hydrocarbons Access 151 7.5 Accession of PAHs in Soil Texture 152 7.6 The Negative Impact of Surfactant on PAH Degradations 152 7.7 Conclusion and Future Directions 153 References 153 8 Biosurfactants for Enhanced Bioavailability of Micronutrients in Soil: A Sustainable Approach 159Siddhartha Narayan Borah, Suparna Sen, and Kannan Pakshirajan 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 Micronutrient Deficiency in Soil 161 8.3 Factors Affecting the Bioavailability of Micronutrients 161 8.4 Effect of Micronutrient Deficiency on the Biota 163 8.5 The Role of Surfactants in the Facilitation of Micronutrient Biosorption 166 8.6 Surfactants 166 8.7 Conclusion 173 References 174 9 Biosurfactants: Production and Role in Synthesis of Nanoparticles for Environmental Applications 183Ashwini N. Rane, S.J. Geetha, and Sanket J. Joshi 9.1 Nanoparticles 183 9.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 184 9.3 Biosurfactants 187 9.4 Biosurfactant Mediated Nanoparticles Synthesis 191 9.5 Challenges in Environmental Applications of Nanoparticles and Future Perspectives 196 Acknowledgements 197 References 197 10 Green Surfactants: Production, Properties, and Application in Advanced Medical Technologies 207Ana María Marqués, Lourdes Pérez, Maribel Farfán, and Aurora Pinazo 10.1 Environmental Pollution and World Health 207 10.2 Amino Acid-Derived Surfactants 208 10.3 Biosurfactants 213 10.4 Antimicrobial Resistance 219 10.5 Catanionic Vesicles 223 10.6 Biosurfactant Functionalization: A Strategy to Develop Active Antimicrobial Compounds 234 10.7 Conclusions 235 References 235 11 Antiviral, Antimicrobial, and Antibiofilm Properties of Biosurfactants: Sustainable Use in Food and Pharmaceuticals 245Kenia Barrantes, Juan José Araya, Luz Chacón, Rolando Procupez-Schtirbu, Fernanda Lugo, Gabriel Ibarra, and Víctor H. Soto 11.1 Introduction 245 11.2 Antimicrobial Properties 246 11.3 Biofilms 252 11.4 Antiviral Properties 255 11.5 Therapeutic and Pharmaceutical Applications of Biosurfactants 256 11.6 Biosurfactants in the Food Industry: Quality of the Food 258 11.7 Conclusions 260 Acknowledgements 261 References 261 12 Biosurfactant-Based Antibiofilm Nano Materials 269Sonam Gupta 12.1 Introduction 269 12.2 Emerging Biofilm Infections 270 12.3 Challenges and Recent Advancement in Antibiofilm Agent Development 272 12.4 Impact of Extracellular Matrix and Their Virulence Attributes 273 12.5 Role of Indwelling Devices in Emerging Drug Resistance 274 12.6 Role of Physiological Factors (Growth Rate, Biofilm Age, Starvation) 274 12.7 Impact of Efflux Pump in Antibiotic Resistance Development 275 12.8 Nanotechnology-Based Approaches to Combat Biofilm 276 12.9 Biosurfactants: A Promising Candidate to Synthesize Nanomedicines 277 12.10 Synthesis of Nanomaterials 278 12.11 Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SNEDDs) 282 12.12 Biosurfactant-Based Antibiofilm Nanomaterials 283 12.13 Conclusions and Future Prospects 283 Acknowledgement 285 References 285 13 Biosurfactants from Bacteria and Fungi: Perspectives on Advanced Biomedical Applications 293Rashmi Rekha Saikia, Suresh Deka, and Hemen Sarma 13.1 Introduction 293 13.2 Biomedical Applications of Biosurfactants: Recent Developments 295 13.3 Conclusion 307 Acknowledgements 307 References 307 14 Biosurfactant-Inspired Control of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) 317Amy R. Nava 14.1 Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, and Multidrug Resistance 317 14.2 Biosurfactant Types Commonly Utilized Against S. aureus and Other Pathogens 318 14.3 Properties of Efficient Biosurfactants Against MRSA and Bacterial Pathogens 319 14.4 Uses for Biosurfactants 320 14.5 Biosurfactants Illustrating Antiadhesive Properties against MRSA Biofilms 320 14.6 Biosurfactants with Antibiofilm and Antimicrobial Properties 322 14.7 Media, Microbial Source, and Culture Conditions for Antibiofilm and Antimicrobial Properties 323 14.8 Novel Synergistic Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Strategies Against MRSA and S. aureus 326 14.9 Novel Potential Mechanisms of Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Properties 328 14.10 Conclusion 330 References 332 15 Exploiting the Significance of Biosurfactant for the Treatment of Multidrug-Resistant Pathogenic Infections 339Sonam Gupta and Vikas Pruthi 15.1 Introduction 339 15.2 Microbial Pathogenesis and Biosurfactants 340 15.3 Bio-Removal of Antibiotics Using Probiotics and Biosurfactants Bacteria 342 15.4 Antiproliferative, Antioxidant, and Antibiofilm Potential of Biosurfactant 343 15.5 Wound Healing Potential of Biosurfactants 344 15.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 345 References 346 16 Biosurfactants Against Drug-Resistant Human and Plant Pathogens: Recent Advances 353Chandana Malakar and Suresh Deka 16.1 Introduction 353 16.2 Environmental Impact of Antibiotics 354 16.3 Pathogenicity of Antibiotic-Resistant Microbes on Human and Plant Health 356 16.4 Role of Biosurfactants in Combating Antibiotic Resistance: Challenges and Prospects 360 16.5 Conclusion 364 Acknowledgements 365 References 365 17 Surfactant- and Biosurfactant-Based Therapeutics: Structure, Properties, and Recent Developments in Drug Delivery and Therapeutic Applications 373Anand K. Kondapi 17.1 Introduction 374 17.2 Determinants and Forms of Surfactants 374 17.3 Structural Forms of Surfactants 377 17.4 Drug Delivery Systems 381 17.5 Different Types of Biosurfactants Used for Drug Delivery 384 17.6 Conclusions 391 References 392 18 The Potential Use of Biosurfactants in Cosmetics and Dermatological Products: Current Trends and Future Prospects 397Zarith Asyikin Abdul Aziz, Siti Hamidah Mohd Setapar, Asma Khatoon, and Akil Ahmad 18.1 Introduction 397 18.2 Properties of Biosurfactants 399 18.3 Biosurfactant Classifications and Potential Use in Cosmetic Applications 401 18.4 Dermatological Approach of Biosurfactants 406 18.5 Cosmetic Formulation with Biosurfactant 409 18.6 Safety Measurement Taken for Biosurfactant Applications in Dermatology and Cosmetics 412 18.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective 415 Acknowledgement 415 References 415 19 Cosmeceutical Applications of Biosurfactants: Challenges and Prospects 423Káren Gercyane Oliveira Bezerra and Leonie Asfora Sarubbo 19.1 Introduction 423 19.2 Cosmeceutical Properties of Biosurfactants 424 19.3 Other Activities 429 19.4 Application Prospects 432 19.5 Biosurfactants in the Market 433 19.6 Challenges and Conclusion 434 References 436 20 Biotechnologically Derived Bioactive Molecules for Skin and Hair-Care Application 443Suparna Sen, Siddhartha Narayan Borah, and Suresh Deka 20.1 Introduction 443 20.2 Surfactants in Cosmetic Formulation 445 20.3 Biosurfactants in Cosmetic Formulations 445 20.4 Conclusion 457 References 457 21 Biosurfactants as Biocontrol Agents Against Mycotoxigenic Fungi 465Ana I. Rodrigues, Eduardo J. Gudiña, José A. Teixeira, and Lígia R. Rodrigues 21.1 Mycotoxins 465 21.2 Aflatoxins 466 21.3 Deoxynivalenol 467 21.4 Fumonisins 468 21.5 Ochratoxin A 468 21.6 Patulin 470 21.7 Zearalenone 470 21.8 Prevention and Control of Mycotoxins 471 21.9 Biosurfactants 472 21.10 Glycolipids 473 21.11 Lipopeptides 474 21.12 Antifungal Activity of Glycolipid Biosurfactants 474 21.13 Antifungal and Antimycotoxigenic Activity of Lipopeptide Biosurfactants 475 21.14 Opportunities and Perspectives 482 Acknowledgements 483 References 483 22 Biosurfactant-Mediated Biocontrol of Pathogenic Microbes of Crop Plants 491Madhurankhi Goswami and Suresh Deka 22.1 Introduction 491 22.2 Biosurfactant: Properties and Types 492 22.3 Biosurfactant in Agrochemical Formulations for Sustainable Agriculture 502 22.4 Biosurfactants for a Greener and Safer Environment 503 22.5 Conclusion 503 References 504 Index 510

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Book SynopsisFUEL ADDITIVES Explore a complete and insightful review of fuel additives In Fuel Additives: Chemistry and Technology, petroleum industry chemist R. D. Tack delivers a comprehensive and practical exploration of various types of fuel additives, the problems they're meant to address, what they do, their chemistries and preparations, and a discussion of how they work. The book introduces and summarizes refinery operations to an extent that discussions of fuels in the following chapters become easier to understand. Then follow detailed descriptions of problems that occur for reasons of the ways in which liquid petroleum fuels are transported, stored, and used. In these discussions, their applications to jet fuel, heating oils, gasoline, diesel fuels, and bunker fuels are covered. Fuel Additives: Chemistry and Technology also includes: A thorough overview of fuels, including discussions of refinery operations and processes and the applicationTable of ContentsAcknowledgements xi Preface xii Abbreviations xv 1 Fuels and Fuel Additives – Overview 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Refinery Operations and Processes 2 1.2.1 Distillation 2 1.2.2 Balancing Production to the Demand Barrel 5 1.2.3 Catalytic Conversions 11 1.2.4 Alkylation 11 1.2.5 Coking 12 1.3 Finished Fuels 12 1.3.1 Gasoline 13 1.3.2 Middle Distillates 16 1.3.2.1 Jet Fuel 17 1.3.2.2 Diesel Fuel 18 1.3.2.3 Heating Oils 20 1.3.2.4 Marine Diesel Fuels and Power Generation 20 1.3.4 Coal, Gas or Biomass to Liquids 22 1.3.5 Biofuels 22 1.4 Fuel Additives – Value and Need 23 1.4.1 Value 23 1.4.2 Need 24 1.5 The Application of Fuel Additives 26 1.6 Fuel Quality, Taxation, Dyes and Markers 30 1.6.1 The Need for Quality and Brand Recognition 30 1.6.2 The Introduction and Growth of Fuel Taxation 30 1.6.3 The Use and Chemistries of Fuel Dyes 33 1.6.4 Invisible Fuel Markers 36 1.7 Future Need for Fuel Additives 39 2 Fuel Stabilisers: Antioxidants and Metal Deactivators 51 2.1 Introduction 51 2.2 Detailed Problems 52 2.2.1 Oxidative Stability of Jet Fuels 52 2.2.2 Oxidative Stability of Gasoline 54 2.2.3 Oxidative Stability of Diesel Fuel 54 2.3 Tests of Oxidative Stability 55 2.3.1 Jet Fuel Stability Tests 55 2.3.2 Gasoline Stability Tests 56 2.3.3 Diesel Fuel Stability Tests 57 2.4 Stability Additives: Antioxidants and Metal Deactivators 58 2.4.1 Antioxidants 58 2.4.2 Metal Deactivators (Mdas) 61 2.4.3 Thermal Stability Additives 61 2.5 Mechanisms 62 2.5.1 Hydrogen Atom Abstraction from Hydrocarbon Molecules 62 2.5.2 Initiation 65 2.5.3 Propagation 65 2.5.4 Termination 67 2.5.5 Formation of Difunctional Molecules during Autoxidation 68 2.5.6 Mechanisms of Antioxidant Action 68 3 Fuel Detergents 77 3.1 Introduction 77 3.2 Detailed Problems 78 3.2.1 Gasoline Engines 78 3.2.2 Fuel Injector Deposits in Diesel Engines 80 3.2.3 Heating Oils 82 3.2.4 Jet Engines 82 3.3 What Detergents Do 83 3.4 The Chemistries of Fuel Detergents 86 3.4.1 General Background 86 3.4.2 Detail 90 3.4.2a Poly-IsoButylene, PIB 90 3.4.2b PIBSA 91 3.4.2c PIBSA-PAM 92 3.4.2d PIB-Amine 96 3.4.2e Mannich Detergent 99 3.4.2f Imidazoline 100 3.4.2g PIBSA/Polyols 101 3.4.2h Polyether Amines 101 3.4.2i Quaternised Detergents 102 3.4.2j Carrier Fluid 104 3.4.2k Jet Fuel Detergent 105 3.5 Mechanism of Detergency Action 106 3.5.1 Chemical Identities of Deposits 106 3.5.1a Oxygenated Hydrocarbons 106 3.5.1b Zinc Deposits 110 3.5.2 The Action of Detergents 111 3.5.3 Stabilisation of Dispersed Deposit or Particulate Material by Fuel Detergents in Gasoline and Middle Distillates 114 3.5.4 Chemical Reactions of Dispersants with Deposits 116 4 Cold Flow Improvers 129 4.1 Introduction 129 4.2 Detailed Problems and What Cold Flow Improvers Do 131 4.2.1 Diesel Vehicle Fuel Systems and Operability 132 4.2.2 Cloud Point Limitation 133 4.2.3 Pour Point Limitation 134 4.2.4 Diesel Vehicle Operability and the Cold Filter Plugging Point 135 4.2.5 Cold Flow Improvement and Fuel Variations 138 4.2.6 Cloud Point Depression 144 4.2.7 Wax Anti-Settling 145 4.3 The Organic Chemistry of Wax Crystal Modifying Cold Flow Improvers 149 4.3.1 Linear Ethylene Copolymers 152 4.3.2 The Free Radical Polymerisation Process 154 4.3.3 Comb Polymers 159 4.3.3a Free Radical Comb Polymers 159 4.3.3b Poly-1-Alkenes 161 4.3.4 Polar Nitrogen Compounds – Long Chain Alkyl-Amine Derivatives 162 4.3.5 Nucleators 164 4.3.6 Alkylphenol-Formaldehyde Condensates (Apfcs) 168 4.4 Mechanism of Wax Crystallization and Modification 170 4.4.1 Wax Crystal Compositions and Structures 170 4.4.1a Compositions 170 4.4.1b Structures 173 4.4.2 The Crystallisation Process 175 4.4.3 n-Alkane-Wax Nucleation 175 4.4.4 Effects of Additives on Nucleation 177 4.4.4a EVAC Nucleator 177 4.4.4b Nucleator Additives with Crystallinity, PEG Esters and PEPEP 179 4.4.5 n-Alkane-Wax Crystal Growth 181 4.4.5a Comparison of Untreated and WCM Treated Wax Crystals 181 4.4.5b Mechanism of Crystal Growth 182 4.4.5c Effects of Additives on Crystal Growth 184 4.4.5d Very Small Wax Crystals and Wax Anti-Settling 188 4.4.5e Cloud Point Depression 190 4.4.5f Rapid Growth of Wax Crystals in Narrow Boiling Distillates 191 4.6 Cold Flow Tests 193 5 Protection of Metal Surfaces in Fuel Systems: Lubricity Improvers and Corrosion Inhibitors 209 5.1 Lubricity: Introduction 209 5.2 Detailed Lubricity Problems 211 5.2.1 Jet Fuel 211 5.2.2 Gasoline 212 5.2.3 Diesel 214 5.3 Chemistries of Lubricity Improvers 216 5.3.1 Carboxylic Acids as Lubricity Improvers 216 5.3.2 Carboxylic Esters and Amides as Lubricity Improvers 218 5.4 Understanding of Boundary Friction and Lubricity 220 5.5 Introduction: Corrosion in Fuel Systems 224 5.6 Corrosion Issues in Various Fuels 226 5.6.1 Automotive Gasoline and Diesel Fuels 226 5.6.2 Jet Fuels 227 5.6.3 Heating Oils 228 5.6.4 Distillate Marine Fuels and Off-Road Fuels 229 5.6.5 Heavy (Residual) Fuels 229 5.7 Chemistries of Fuel Corrosion Inhibitors 230 5.7.1 Corrosion by Water/Oxygen and by Carboxylic Acids 231 5.7.2 Corrosion by Sulphur 235 5.7.3 Corrosion by Vanadium Pentoxide 240 5.8 Mechanisms of Corrosion and Its Inhibition 241 5.8.1 Corrosion by Water/Oxygen and by Carboxylic Acids 241 5.8.2 Corrosion by Sulphur 244 5.8.3 Corrosion by Vanadium Pentoxide 245 6 Combustion Improvers 261 6.1 The Need for Combustion Improvers 261 6.2 Combustion Improver Specific Problems 262 6.2.1 Gasoline Engine Knock and Octane Boosters 262 6.2.2 Diesel Knock and Cetane Improvers 265 6.2.3 Combustion Improvers for Heating Oils and Heavy Fuels 269 6.2.4 Combustion Improvers for Particulates in Diesel Engine Exhausts 270 6.3 Mechanisms of Soot Formation and Its Removal 275 6.3.1 The Formation of Soot 275 7 Additives to Treat Problems during the Movement and Storage of Fuels 287 7.1 Introduction 287 7.2 Drag Reducing Agents 288 7.2.1 The Pipeline Problem 288 7.2.2 Chemistries of DRAs 289 7.2.3 The Process of Drag Reduction 291 7.3 Static Dissipaters 291 7.3.1 The Problem of Static Electricity in Fuels 291 7.3.2 Chemistries of Static Dissipaters 294 7.3.3 Understanding Static Dissipaters 299 7.4 Antifoam Additives 302 7.4.1 The Problem of Foaming 302 7.4.2 What Antifoams Do and Their Chemistries 303 7.4.3 Syntheses of Silicone Antifoams 304 7.4.4 How Antifoam Additives Work 306 7.5 Demulsifiers and Dehazers 307 7.5.1 The Problem of Water-in-Fuel Emulsions or Haze 307 7.5.2 The Chemistry of Demulsifiers 308 7.5.3 The Process of Demulsification 313 7.6 Anti-Icing 315 7.6.1 The Problem of Icing 315 7.6.2 The Gasoline Icing Problem 316 7.6.3 The Jet Fuel Icing Problem 317 7.6.4 Jet Fuel Anti-Icing Additives 319 7.7 Biocides 320 7.7.1 Problems 320 7.7.2 Chemistries of Biocides Used in Fuels 321 Index 335

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Book SynopsisThe focus of this book is the chemistry of environmental engineering and its applications, with a special emphasis on the use of polymers in this field. It explores the creation and use of polymers with special properties such as viscoelasticity and interpenetrating networks; examples of which include the creation of polymer-modified asphalt as well as polymers with bacterial adhesion properties. The text contains the issues of polymerization methods, recycling methods, wastewater treatment, types of contaminants, such as microplastics, organic dyes, and pharmaceutical residues. After a detailed overview of polymers in Chapter 1, their special properties are discussed in the following chapter. Among the topics is the importance of polymers to water purification procedures, since their use in the formation of reverse osmosis membranes do not show biofouling. Chapter 3 details special processing methods, such as atom transfer radical polymerization, enzymatic polymerization, plasma trTable of ContentsPreface xi 1 Special Polymers 1 1.1 Poly(ethylene) 1 1.1.1 Metallocene Poly(ethylene) 1 1.1.2 Geomembranes 6 1.2 Poly(styrene) 7 1.2.1 Syndiotactic Poly(styrene) 7 1.3 Poly(ethylene terephthalate) 11 1.3.1 Blends of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) and Poly(phenylene sulfide) 11 1.4 Silicones 12 1.4.1 Silicon Nanocrystals and Silicon-Polymer Hybrids 12 1.4.2 Surfactants 13 1.5 Self-healing Polymers 25 1.5.1 Multiphasic Copolymer 26 1.5.2 Hydrophobic Coatings 28 1.5.3 Microcapsule Based Self-Healing 28 1.5.4 Tunable Mechanical Strengths 29 1.5.5 Bioinspired Pathways 30 1.6 Fibers and Smart Polymers 32 1.6.1 Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 32 1.6.2 Shape Memory Systems 35 1.6.3 Smart Polymers 41 1.7 Porous Materials 42 1.7.1 Preparation Methods 42 1.7.2 Polymer Foams 48 1.7.3 Porous Polymer Monoliths 50 1.7.4 Concrete 51 References 54 2 Special Properties of Polymers 63 2.1 Viscoelasticity 63 2.2 Impact response of Hybrid Carbon/Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 63 2.3 Mechanical Properties 64 2.3.1 Real Elastic Network Theory 64 2.3.2 Interpenetrating Polymer Network Hydrogels 65 2.3.3 Flax Fabric Reinforced Polymer 66 2.3.4 Asphalt 66 2.4 Bacterial Adhesion 70 2.4.1 Influence of Stiffness 72 2.4.2 Bioactive Sulfone Polymers 74 2.4.3 Functionalized Dopamine 82 2.4.4 Sub-micrometer Structures 83 2.4.5 Mechanically Modulated Microgel Coatings 85 2.4.6 Conductive Polymers 86 2.4.7 Reverse Osmosis Membranes 87 References 94 3 Processing Methods 99 3.1 Radiation Processing 99 3.2 Additive Manufacturing 99 3.3 Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization 101 3.3.1 Vinyl Macromonomers of Poly(styrene) 101 3.3.2 Ultrasound Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization 102 3.3.3 Near-Infrared Sensitized Photoinduced Atom-Transfer Radical Polymerization 103 3.4 Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization 105 3.5 Enzymatic Polymerization 108 3.6 Surface Patterning 111 3.6.1 Nonthermal Plasma Technology 111 3.7 Friction Welding 113 3.7.1 ABS and Poly(amide)s 114 3.8 Interfacial Engineering 117 3.9 Plasma Treatment 118 3.9.1 Mineralization of Plasma Treated Polymer Surfaces 118 3.9.2 Wetting Properties 119 3.9.3 Vapor Phase Graft Polymerization 121 3.9.4 Effect of Plasma Treatment Frequency 123 3.9.5 Plasma Treatment in Textile Industry 124 3.9.6 Antimicrobial Surfaces 126 3.9.7 Non-Thermal Plasma Treatment of Agricultural Seeds 130 3.9.8 Special Materials 132 References 136 4 Recycling 143 4.1 Recycling Methods 143 4.1.1 Primary Recycling 143 4.1.2 Secondary Recycling 143 4.1.3 Tertiary Recycling 144 4.1.4 Quaternary Recycling 144 4.1.5 Melt Filtration 145 4.1.6 Hydrothermal Recycling 148 4.1.7 Quality of Postconsumer Plastics 149 4.2 Materials 151 4.2.1 Poly(propylene) Waste 151 4.2.2 PET Bottles 152 4.2.3 Engineering Epoxy Resin 156 4.2.4 Carbon Nanotube-Filled Polycarbonate 157 4.2.5 Asphalt Compositions 158 4.2.6 Tire Rubbers 160 References 161 5 Wastewater Treatment 165 5.1 Properties and Contaminants 165 5.1.1 Microplastics 167 5.1.2 Organic Dyes 168 5.1.3 Pharmaceutical Residues in Wastewater 169 5.1.4 Passively Aerated Biological Filter 171 5.2 Adsorbents 173 5.2.1 Activated Carbon 173 5.2.2 Adsorbent Regeneration 176 5.2.3 Ultrasound-assisted treatment 177 5.2.4 Praseodymium Molybdate 178 5.2. Biosorbents 179 References 181 6 Pesticides 183 6.1 Pesticide Carriers 183 6.2 PCL Nanocapsules 184 6.3 Self-Decontamination Mechanisms 185 6.4 Controlled Release of Pesticides 186 6.4.1 PVA-Starch Composite Films 187 6.4.2 PLA Nanofibers 188 6.4.3 PBSU and PLA Nanofibers 188 6.4.4 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) 189 6.5 Sensors 190 6.5.1 Biosensor for Dichlorvos 190 6.5.2 Biosensor for Carbaryl 192 6.5.3 Voltammetric Method for Ethyl Paraoxon 192 6.5.4 Nitrogen Doped Graphene Electrode 193 6.5.5 Molecularly Imprinted Sensor 194 6.5.6 Ecotoxicity Evaluation 195 References 197 7 Electrical Uses 199 7.1 Photovoltaic Materials 199 7.2 Solar Cells 200 7.3 Energy Storage and Dielectric Applications 200 7.3.1 Polymer Nanocomposites 201 7.3.2 Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes 207 7.3.3 High-Temperature Dielectric Materials 208 7.4 Light Emitting Polymers 208 7.4.1 Circularly Polarized Light 208 7.4.2 Polymer Types 210 7.4.3 Color Management 213 7.4.4 Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells 222 7.5 Fast Charging Batteries 228 7.5.1 Charging Stages 230 7.5.2 Increasing the Cycling Lifetime 232 7.5.3 Lithium-Ion Batteries 232 7.6 Electrical Power Cable Engineering 234 7.6.1 Carbon Nanotube Cables 235 7.6.2 High Voltage Alternating Current Cables for Subsea Transmission 235 7.6.3 Biodegradable Polymer Cables 238 References 238 8 Food Engineering 245 8.1 Software 245 8.1.1 GUI Software Packages 245 8.1.2 Food Ingredient Tracing 246 8.1.3 Microbial Growth 246 8.2 Materials 247 8.2.1 Microbial Biopolymers 247 8.2.2 Marine Polysaccharides 247 8.3 Protein Engineering 249 8.4 Instrumentation and Sensors 250 8.4.1 Biosensors 250 8.4.2 Electronic Tongues 253 8.4.3 Microwave Methods 254 8.4.4 Optoelectronic Sensor 256 8.4.5 Digital Image Analysis 257 8.5 Ultrasonic Methods 258 8.5.1 Special Applications 259 8.5.2 Composition of Meat 259 8.5.3 Flour Quality 261 8.5.4 Porosity of Bread 262 8.5.5 Dairy Products 263 References 265 9 Medical Uses 269 9.1 Drug Delivery 269 9.2 Porous Bioresorbable Polymers 269 9.3 Tissue Engineering 274 9.3.1 Biomedical Materials 274 9.3.2 Electrically Conducting Polymer 279 9.3.3 Bioactive Glass 280 9.3.4 Glass-based Coatings 287 9.3.5 Hard Tissue Implants 290 9.3.6 Membranes 294 9.3.7 Textile-based Technologies 295 9.3.8 Improvement of Cell Adhesion 296 9.3.9 Solvent Free Fabrication 297 9.3.10 Stereolithographic 3D Printing 298 9.3.11 Extrusion-Based 3D Printing 299 References 302 Index 307 Acronyms 307 Chemicals 311 General Index 315

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Book SynopsisFUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL REACTOR ENGINEERING A comprehensive introduction to chemical reactor engineering from an industrial perspective In Fundamentals of Chemical Reactor Engineering: A Multi-Scale Approach, a distinguished team of academics delivers a thorough introduction to foundational concepts in chemical reactor engineering. It offers readers the tools they need to develop a firm grasp of the kinetics and thermodynamics of reactions, hydrodynamics, transport processes, and heat and mass transfer resistances in a chemical reactor. This textbook describes the interaction of reacting molecules on the molecular scale and uses real-world examples to illustrate the principles of chemical reactor analysis and heterogeneous catalysis at every scale. It includes a strong focus on new approaches to process intensification, the modeling of multifunctional reactors, structured reactor types, and the importance of hydrodynamics and transport processes in a chemTable of ContentsPreface xiii Foreword by Marc-Olivier Coppens xv Foreword by Umit S. Ozkan xvii About the Authors and Acknowledgments xix List of Symbols xxi About the Companion Website xxvii 1 Rate Concept and Species Conservation Equations in Reactors 1 1.1 Reaction Rates of Species in Chemical Conversions 1 1.2 Rate of a Chemical Change 3 1.3 Chemical Reactors and Conservation of Species 6 1.4 Flow Reactors and the Reaction Rate Relations 8 1.5 Comparison of Perfectly Mixed Flow and Batch Reactors 9 1.6 Ideal Tubular Flow Reactor 10 1.7 Stoichiometric Relations Between Reacting Species 13 1.7.1 Batch Reactor Analysis 13 1.7.2 Steady-Flow Analysis for a CSTR 13 1.7.3 Unsteady Perfectly Mixed-Flow Reactor Analysis 14 Problems and Questions 15 References 18 2 Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium 19 2.1 Equilibrium and Reaction Rate Relations 19 2.2 Thermodynamics of Chemical Reactions 21 2.3 Different Forms of Equilibrium Constant 23 2.4 Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constant and Equilibrium Calculations 25 Problems and Questions 33 References 34 3 Chemical Kinetics and Analysis of Batch Reactors 35 3.1 Kinetics and Mechanisms of Homogeneous Reactions 35 3.2 Batch Reactor Data Analysis 39 3.2.1 Integral Method of Analysis 41 3.2.1.1 First-Order Reaction 41 3.2.1.2 nth-Order Reaction and Method of Half-Lives 43 3.2.1.3 Overall Second-Order Reaction Between Reactants A and B 44 3.2.1.4 Second-Order Autocatalytic Reactions 48 3.2.1.5 Zeroth-Order Dependence of Reaction Rate on Concentrations 50 3.2.1.6 Data Analysis for a Reversible Reaction 51 3.2.2 Differential Method of Data Analysis 52 3.3 Changes in Total Pressure or Volume in Gas-Phase Reactions 54 Problems and Questions 56 References 61 4 Ideal-Flow Reactors: CSTR and Plug-Flow Reactor Models 63 4.1 CSTR Model 63 4.1.1 CSTR Data Analysis 67 4.2 Analysis of Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor 69 4.3 Comparison of Performances of CSTR and Ideal Plug-Flow Reactors 71 4.4 Equilibrium and Rate Limitations in Ideal-Flow Reactors 72 4.5 Unsteady Operation of Reactors 76 4.5.1 Unsteady Operation of a Constant Volume Stirred-Tank Reactor 76 4.5.2 Semi-batch Reactors 77 4.6 Analysis of a CSTR with a Complex Rate Expression 79 Problems and Questions 81 References 85 5 Multiple Reactor Systems 87 5.1 Multiple CSTRs Operating in Series 87 5.1.1 Graphical Method for Multiple CSTRs 91 5.2 Multiple Plug-Flow Reactors Operating in Series 93 5.3 CSTR and Plug-Flow Reactor Combinations 94 Problems and Questions 96 References 98 6 Multiple Reaction Systems 99 6.1 Selectivity and Yield Definitions 100 6.2 Selectivity Relations for Ideal Flow Reactors 101 6.3 Design of Ideal Reactors and Product Distributions for Multiple Reaction Systems 104 6.3.1 Parallel Reactions 104 6.3.2 Consecutive Reactions 110 Problems and Questions 113 References 116 7 Heat Effects and Non-isothermal Reactor Design 117 7.1 Heat Effects in a Stirred-Tank Reactor 118 7.2 Steady-State Multiplicity in a CSTR 121 7.3 One-Dimensional Energy Balance for a Tubular Reactor 126 7.4 Heat Effects in Multiple Reaction Systems 131 7.4.1 Heat Effects in a CSTR with Parallel Reactions 131 7.4.2 Heat Effects in a CSTR with Consecutive Reactions 132 7.4.3 Energy Balance for a Plug-Flow Reactor with Multiple Reactions 133 7.5 Heat Effects in Multiple Reactors and Reversible Reactions 133 7.5.1 Temperature Selection and Multiple Reactor Combinations 133 7.5.1.1 Endothermic-Reversible Reactions in a Multi-stage Reactor System 141 7.5.2 Cold Injection Between Reactors 147 7.5.3 Heat-Exchanger Reactors 149 Problems and Questions 150 Case Studies 154 References 160 8 Deviations from Ideal Reactor Performance 161 8.1 Residence Time Distributions in Flow Reactors 161 8.2 General Species Conservation Equation in a Reactor 163 8.3 Laminar Flow Reactor Model 166 8.4 Dispersion Model for a Tubular Reactor 168 8.5 Prediction of Axial Dispersion Coefficient 172 8.6 Evaluation of Dispersion Coefficient by Moment Analysis 174 8.7 Radial Temperature Variations in Tubular Reactors 175 8.8 A Criterion for the Negligible Effect of Radial Temperature Variations on the Reaction Rate 177 8.9 Effect of L/dt Ratio on the Performance of a Tubular Reactor and Pressure Drop 179 Problems and Questions 180 Exercises 181 References 182 9 Fixed-Bed Reactors and Interphase Transport Effects 185 9.1 Solid-Catalyzed Reactions and Transport Effects within Reactors 185 9.2 Observed Reaction Rate and Fixed-Bed Reactors 187 9.3 Significance of Film Mass Transfer Resistance in Catalytic Reactions 189 9.4 Tubular Reactors with Catalytic Walls 191 9.4.1 One-Dimensional Model 192 9.4.2 Two-Dimensional Model 193 9.5 Modeling of a Non-isothermal Fixed-Bed Reactor 194 9.6 Steady-State Multiplicity on the Surface of a Catalyst Pellet 196 Exercises 197 References 198 10 Transport Effects and Effectiveness Factor for Reactions in Porous Catalysts 199 10.1 Effectiveness Factor Expressions in an Isothermal Catalyst Pellet 199 10.2 Observed Activation Energy and Observed Reaction Order 205 10.3 Effectiveness Factor in the Presence of Pore-Diffusion and Film Mass Transfer Resistances 208 10.4 Thermal Effects in Porous Catalyst Pellets 210 10.5 Interphase and Intrapellet Temperature Gradients for Catalyst Pellets 215 10.6 Pore Structure Optimization and Effectiveness Factor Analysis for Catalysts with Bi-modal Pore-Size Distributions 217 10.7 Criteria for Negligible Transport Effects in Catalytic Reactions 221 10.7.1 Criteria for Negligible Diffusion and Heat Effects on the Observed Rate of Solid-Catalyzed Reactions 221 10.7.2 Relative Importance of Concentration and Temperature Gradients in Catalyst Pellets 222 10.7.3 Intrapellet and External Film Transport Limitations 225 10.7.4 A Criterion for Negligible Diffusion Resistance in Bidisperse Catalyst Pellets 225 10.8 Transport Effects on Product Selectivities in Catalytic Reactions 226 10.8.1 Film Mass Transfer Effect 226 10.8.2 Pore-Diffusion Effect 227 Problems and Questions 228 Exercises 229 References 233 11 Introduction to Catalysis and Catalytic Reaction Mechanisms 235 11.1 Basic Concepts in Heterogeneous Catalysis 235 11.2 Surface Reaction Mechanisms 237 11.3 Adsorption Isotherms 241 11.4 Deactivation of Solid Catalysts 244 Exercises 246 References 246 12 Diffusion in Porous Catalysts 247 12.1 Diffusion in a Capillary 247 12.2 Effective Diffusivities in Porous Solids 251 12.3 Surface Diffusion 252 12.4 Models for the Prediction of Effective Diffusivities 253 12.4.1 Random Pore Model 253 12.4.2 Grain Model 254 12.5 Diffusion and Flow in Porous Solids 254 12.6 Experimental Methods for the Evaluation of Effective Diffusion Coefficients 255 12.6.1 Steady-State Methods 255 12.6.2 Dynamic Methods 256 12.6.3 Single-Pellet Moment Method 257 Exercises 259 References 259 13 Process Intensification and Multifunctional Reactors 261 13.1 Membrane Reactors 262 13.1.1 Modeling of a Membrane Reactor 263 13.1.2 General Conservation Equations and Heat Effects in a Membrane Reactor 265 13.2 Reactive Distillation 266 13.2.1 Equilibrium-Stage Model 267 13.2.2 A Rate-Based Model for a Continuous Reactive Distillation Column 269 13.3 Sorption-Enhanced Reaction Process 270 13.4 Monolithic and Microchannel Reactors 275 13.4.1 Microchannel Reactors 278 13.5 Chromatographic Reactors 279 13.6 Alternative Energy Sources for Chemical Processing 279 13.6.1 Microwave-Assisted Chemical Conversions 280 13.6.2 Ultrasound Reactors 282 13.6.3 Solar Energy for Chemical Conversion 282 References 283 14 Multiphase Reactors 285 14.1 Slurry Reactors 285 14.2 Trickle-Bed Reactors 289 14.3 Fluidized-Bed Reactors 290 References 294 15 Kinetics and Modeling of Non-catalytic Gas–Solid Reactions 295 15.1 Unreacted-Core Model 296 15.2 Deactivation and Structural Models for Gas–Solid Reactions 299 15.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition Reactors 302 Exercises 305 References 307 Appendix A Some Constants of Nature 309 Appendix B Conversion Factors 311 Appendix C Dimensionless Groups and Parameters 313 Index 315

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Book SynopsisAn incisive discussion of biofuel production from an economically informed technical perspective that addresses sustainability and commercialization together In Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts and Technologies, renowned chemists Drs Rokhum, Halder, Ngaosuwan and Assabumrungrat present an up-to-date account of the most recent developments, challenges, and trends in biodiesel production. The book addresses select feedstocks, including edible and non-edible oils, waste cooking oil, microalgae, and animal fats, and highlights their advantages and disadvantages from a variety of perspectives. It also discusses several catalysts used in each of their methods of preparation, as well as their synthesis, reactivity, recycling techniques, and stability. The contributions explore recently developed technologies for sustainable production of biodiesel and provides robust treatments of their sustainability, commercialization, and their prospects for future biodiesTable of ContentsPreface xv List of Contributors xvii An Overview of Biodiesel Production xxi Part 1 Biodiesel Feedstocks 1 1 Advances in Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 3 Umer Rashid and Balkis Hazmi 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 History of the Use of Vegetable Oil in Biodiesel 6 1.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 6 1.3.1 Generations of Biodiesel 7 1.3.2 First-Generation Biodiesel 7 1.3.3 Second-Generation Biodiesel 8 1.3.4 Third-Generation Biodiesel 8 1.4 Basics of the Transesterification Reaction 8 1.5 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction 10 1.6 Alkaline-Catalyzed Transesterification 10 1.7 Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification 15 1.8 Enzymatic-Catalyzed Transesterification 16 1.9 Fuel Properties and Quality Specifications for Biodiesel 19 1.10 Conclusion 20 References 21 2 Green Technologies in Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel 33 Bisheswar Karmakar and Gopinath Halder 2.1 Introduction 33 2.1.1 The Necessity for Biodiesel 33 2.1.2 Sourcing the Correct Precursor 33 2.2 Importance of Valorization 35 2.3 Purification and Characterization 35 2.4 Transesterification: A Comprehensive Look 36 2.5 Conversion Techniques 37 2.5.1 Traditional Conversion Approaches 38 2.5.1.1 Acid Catalysis 38 2.5.1.2 Alkali Catalysis 38 2.5.1.3 Enzyme Catalysis 40 2.5.1.4 Other Novel Heterogeneous Catalysts 40 2.5.1.5 Two-Step Catalyzed Process 41 2.5.2 Modern Conversion Approaches 41 2.5.2.1 Supercritical Fluids 41 2.5.2.2 Microwave Irradiation 43 2.5.2.3 Ultrasonication 43 2.6 Economics and Environmental Impact 44 2.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 45 References 45 3 Non-edible Oils for Biodiesel Production: State of the Art and Future Perspectives 49 Valeria D’Ambrosio, Enrico Scelsi, and Carlo Pastore 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Vegetable Non-edible Oils 50 3.2.1 General Cultivation Data 50 3.2.2 Composition and Chemical–Physical Properties of Biodiesel Obtained from Non-edible Vegetable Oils 50 3.2.3 Biodiesel Production from Non-edible Vegetable Oil 54 3.2.3.1 Extraction Methods 54 3.2.3.2 Biodiesel Production 57 3.2.4 Criticisms Related to Non-edible Oils 57 3.3 Future Perspectives of Non-edible Oils: Oils from Waste 58 3.4 Conclusion 60 Acknowledgments 61 References 61 4 Algal Oil as a Low-Cost Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 67 Michael Van Lal Chhandama, Kumudini Belur Satyan, and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum 4.1 Introduction 67 4.1.1 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 68 4.2 Lipid and Biosynthesis of Lipid in Microalgae 70 4.2.1 Lipid Biosynthesis 71 4.2.2 Lipid Extraction 72 4.3 Optimization of Lipid Production in Microalgae 73 4.3.1 Nitrogen Stress 73 4.3.2 Phosphorous Stress 73 4.3.3 pH Stress 74 4.3.4 Temperature Stress 74 4.3.5 Light 75 4.4 Conclusion 75 References 76 Part 2 Different Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production 83 5 Homogeneous Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production 85 Bidangshri Basumatary, Biswajit Nath, and Sanjay Basumatary 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Transesterification in Biodiesel Synthesis 86 5.3 Homogeneous Catalyst in Biodiesel Synthesis 88 5.3.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst 88 5.3.2 Homogeneous Base Catalyst 90 5.4 Properties of Biodiesel Produced by Homogeneous Acid and Base-Catalyzed Reactions 93 5.5 Relevance of Homogeneous Acid and Base Catalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis 96 5.6 Conclusion 96 References 97 6 Application of Metal Oxides Catalyst in Production of Biodiesel 103 Hui li 6.1 Basic Metal Oxide 103 6.1.1 Monobasic Metal Oxide 103 6.1.1.1 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxide 103 6.1.1.2 Transition Metal Oxide 105 6.1.2 Multibasic Metal Oxide 105 6.1.2.1 Supported on Metal Oxide 106 6.1.2.2 Supported on Activated Carbon 106 6.1.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework 107 6.1.3 Active Site-Doped Basic Metal Oxide 107 6.1.3.1 Alkali Metal Doped 107 6.1.3.2 Active Metal Oxide Doped 107 6.1.4 Mechanism of Transesterification Catalyzed by Basic Metal Oxide 108 6.2 Acid Metal Oxide 108 6.2.1 Monoacid Metal Oxide 109 6.2.2 Multiacid Metal Oxide 109 6.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework 112 6.2.4 Mechanism of Transesterification/Esterification Catalyzed by Acid Metal Oxide 112 6.3 Deactivation of Metal Oxide 113 References 114 7 Supported Metal/Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 119 Pratibha Agrawal and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum 7.1 Introduction 119 7.2 Supported Catalyst 120 7.3 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Alumina 120 7.4 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Zeolite 123 7.5 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on ZnO 125 7.6 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Silica 127 7.7 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Biochar 128 7.7.1 Solid Acid Catalysts 129 7.7.2 Solid Alkali Catalysts 129 7.8 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Metal Organic Frameworks 131 7.9 Metal/Metal Oxide Supported on Magnetic Nanoparticles 134 7.10 Summary 135 References 136 8 Mixed Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 143 Brandon Lowe, Jabbar Gardy, Kejun Wu, and Ali Hassanpour 8.1 Introduction 143 8.2 Previous Research 144 8.3 State of the Art 150 8.3.1 Solid Acid MMO Catalysts 150 8.3.2 Solid Base MMO Catalysts 150 8.3.3 Solid Bifunctional MMO Catalysts 156 8.4 Discussion 157 8.5 Conclusion 161 8.6 Symbols and Nomenclature 162 References 162 9 Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production 167 Avinash P. Ingle, Rahul Bhagat, Mangesh P. Moharil, Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum, Shreshtha Saxena, and S. R. Kalbande 9.1 Introduction 167 9.2 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils 169 9.3 Conventional Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production: Advantages and Limitations 171 9.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 171 9.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 172 9.3.3 Biocatalysts 173 9.4 Role of Nanotechnology in Biodiesel Production 173 9.5 Different Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production 173 9.5.1 Metal-Based Nanocatalysts 174 9.5.2 Carbon-Based Nanocatalysts 175 9.5.3 Zeolites/Nanozeolites 180 9.5.4 Magnetic Nanocatalysts 182 9.5.5 Nanoclays 184 9.5.6 Other Nanocatalysts 184 9.6 Conclusion 185 Acknowledgment 185 References 185 10 Sustainable Production of Biodiesel Using Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 193 Naomi Shibasaki-Kitakawa and Kousuke Hiromori 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Features of Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 194 10.3 Cation-Exchange Resin Catalyst 194 10.3.1 Notes of Caution When Comparing the Activity of Resins with Different Properties 194 10.3.2 Reversible Reduction of Resin Catalytic Activity by Water 196 10.3.3 Search for Operating Conditions for Maximum Productivity Rather than Maximum Catalytic Activity 198 10.3.4 Challenges Regarding One-Step Reaction with Simultaneous Esterification and Transesterification Catalyzed by Cation-Exchange Resin 198 10.4 Anion-Exchange Resin Catalysts 199 10.4.1 Requirements for High Catalytic Activity in the Transesterification of Triglycerides 199 10.4.2 Analysis of Previous Studies 201 10.4.3 Decreased Catalytic Activity and Regeneration Method 203 10.4.4 Additional Functions Unique to Anion-Exchange Resins 204 10.5 Summary 204 References 205 11 Advances in Bifunctional Solid Catalysts for Biodiesel Production 209 Bishwajit Changmai, Michael Van Lal Chhandama, Chhangte Vanlalveni, Andrew E.H. Wheatley, and Samuel Lalthazuala Rokhum 11.1 Introduction 209 11.2 Application of Solid Bifunctional Catalyst in Biodiesel Production 210 11.2.1 Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts 210 11.2.1.1 Oxides of Acid–Base 211 11.2.1.2 Acid–Base Hydrides 213 11.2.2 Bifunctional Acid Catalyst 217 11.2.2.1 Bifunctional Brønsted–Lewis Acid Oxides 217 11.2.2.2 Heteropolyacid-Based Bifunctional Catalyst 220 11.2.3 Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Catalyst 222 11.3 Summary and Concluding Remarks 224 Acknowledgment 225 References 225 12 Application of Catalysts Derived from Renewable Resources in Production of Biodiesel 229 Kanokwan Ngaosuwan, Apiluck Eiad-ua, Atthapon Srifa, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Weerinda Appamana, Doonyapong Wongsawaeng, Armando T. Quitain, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat 12.1 Introduction 229 12.2 Potential Renewable Resources for Production of Biodiesel Catalysts 230 12.2.1 Animal Resources 230 12.2.1.1 Eggshells (Chicken and Ostrich) 231 12.2.1.2 Seashells (Snail, Mussel, Oyster, and Capiz) 231 12.2.1.3 Bones 233 12.2.2 Plant Resources 233 12.2.2.1 Carbon-Supported Catalysts 233 12.2.2.2 Silica-Supported Catalysts 236 12.2.2.3 Other Potential Elements from Plant Residues 236 12.2.3 Natural Resources 236 12.2.3.1 Dolomitic Rock (Calcined Dolomite and Modified Dolomite) 236 12.2.3.2 Lime 237 12.2.3.3 Natural Clays 237 12.2.3.4 Zeolites 238 12.2.4 Industrial Waste Resources 240 12.2.4.1 Food Industry Wastes 240 12.2.4.2 Mining Industry Wastes 240 12.3 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Challenges of These Types of Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 242 Acknowledgment 243 References 243 13 Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid-Based Catalysts 249 B. Sangeetha and G. Baskar 13.1 Introduction 249 13.2 Mechanism of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 250 13.3 Acidic and Basic Ionic Liquids (AILs/BILs) as Catalyst in Biodiesel Production 250 13.4 Supported Ionic Liquids in Biodiesel Production 251 13.5 IL Lipase Cocatalysts 255 13.6 Optimization and Novel Biodiesel Production Technologies Using ILs 257 13.7 Recyclability of the Ionic Liquids on Biodiesel Production 259 13.7.1 Recovery of ILs 259 13.7.2 Reuse of Ionic Liquids 260 13.8 Kinetics of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production 260 13.9 Techno-Economic Analysis and Environmental Impact Analysisof Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid as Catalyst 261 13.10 Conclusion 262 References 263 14 Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) as Versatile Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis 269 Vasudeva Rao Bakuru, Marilyn Esclance DMello, and Suresh Babu Kalidindi 14.1 Introduction 269 14.1.1 Metal-Containing Secondary Building Units 271 14.1.2 Organic Linker 272 14.1.3 Pore Volume 272 14.2 Biodiesel Synthesis Over MOF Catalysts 273 14.2.1 Transesterification Reaction 274 14.2.1.1 Transesterification at SBUs of MOFs 274 14.2.1.2 Transesterification at Linker Active Sites 276 14.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids 277 14.2.2.1 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids at SBUs of MOFs 277 14.2.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids at Linker Active Sites 279 14.2.2.3 Esterification at Pore Volume (Guest Incorporation) 280 14.3 Conclusion 281 References 281 Part 3 Technologies, By-product Valorization and Prospects of Biodiesel Production 285 15 Upstream Strategies (Waste Oil Feedstocks, Nonedible Oils, and Unicellular Oil Feedstocks like Microalgae) 287 Aleksandra Sander and Ana Petračić 15.1 Introduction 287 15.1.1 Classification of Biodiesel 287 15.1.2 Commercial Production of Biodiesel 288 15.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks 290 15.2.1 Edible Oils as Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 291 15.2.2 Nonedible Oils as Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 292 15.2.3 Waste Feedstocks (Waste Cooking Oils, Waste Animal Fats, Waste Coffee Ground Oil, Olive Pomace) 292 15.2.4 Unicellular Oil Feedstocks (Microalgae, Yeasts, Cyanobacteria) 293 15.3 Composition of Oils and Fats 293 15.4 Methods for Oil Extraction 294 15.4.1 Mechanical Extraction 294 15.4.2 Solvent Extraction 295 15.4.3 Enzymatic Extraction 296 15.5 Purification of Oils and Fats 297 15.5.1 Deacidification 297 15.5.2 Winterization 298 15.5.3 Demetallization 298 15.5.4 Degumming 298 15.6 Production of Biodiesel 299 15.6.1 Catalysts for Biodiesel Production 300 15.6.2 Homogeneous Catalysts 300 15.6.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts 301 15.7 Future Prospects 302 References 302 16 Mainstream Strategies for Biodiesel Production 311 Narita Chanthon, Nattawat Petchsoongsakul, Kanokwan Ngaosuwan, Worapon Kiatkittipong, Doonyapong Wongsawaeng, Weerinda Appamana, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat 16.1 Introduction 311 16.2 Mainstream Strategies and Technology for Biodiesel Production 312 16.2.1 Current Mainstream Operation 312 16.2.1.1 Batch Mode 312 16.2.1.2 Continuous Mode 312 16.2.2 Process Mainstream for Biodiesel Production Based on the Reactor Types 313 16.2.2.1 Rotating Reactor 313 16.2.2.2 Tubular Flow Reactor 315 16.2.2.3 Cavitational Reactor 317 16.2.2.4 Microwave Reactor 318 16.2.2.5 Multifunctional Reactor (Reactive Distillation, Membrane, Centrifugal Reactors) 319 16.2.2.6 Other Process Intensification 322 16.3 Future Prospects and Challenges 323 Acknowledgment 327 References 327 17 Downstream Strategies for Separation, Washing, Purification, and Alcohol Recovery in Biodiesel Production 331 Ramón Piloto-Rodríguez and Yosvany Díaz-Domínguez 17.1 Introduction 331 17.1.1 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Yield 332 17.1.2 Transesterification Reaction Conditions 332 17.1.3 Separation After FAME Conversion 332 17.1.4 Washing 334 17.2 Glycerol Separation and Refining 336 17.3 Membrane Reactors 337 17.4 Methanol Recovery 339 17.5 Additization 339 17.6 Conclusion 342 References 343 18 Heterogeneous Catalytic Routes for Bio-glycerol-Based Acrylic Acid Synthesis 345 Nittan Singh, Pavan Narayan Kalbande, and Putla Sudarsanam 18.1 Introduction 345 18.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Propylene 346 18.3 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol 346 18.3.1 Glycerol Dehydration to Acrolein 347 18.3.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol 349 18.4 Conclusion 351 Acknowledgments 353 References 353 19 Sustainability, Commercialization, and Future Prospects of Biodiesel Production 355 Pothiappan Vairaprakash, and Arumugam Arumugam 19.1 Introduction 355 19.2 Biodiesel as a Promising Renewable Energy Carrier 356 19.3 Overview of the Biodiesel Production Process 358 19.4 Evolution in the Feedstocks Used for the Sustainable Production of Biodiesel 359 19.5 First-Generation Biodiesel and the Challenges in Its Sustainability 359 19.6 Development of Second-Generation Biodiesel to Address the Sustainability 361 19.7 Algae-Based Biodiesel 362 19.8 Waste Oils, Grease, and Animal Fats in Biodiesel Production 363 19.9 Technical Impact by the Biodiesel Usage 363 19.10 Socioeconomic Impacts 364 19.11 Toxicological Impact 364 19.12 Sustainability Challenges in the Biodiesel Production and Use 365 19.13 Concluding Remarks 366 References 366 20 Advanced Practices in Biodiesel Production 377 Trinath Biswal, Krushna Prasad Shadangi, and Rupam Kataki 20.1 Introduction 377 20.2 Mechanism of Transesterification 378 20.3 Advanced Biodiesel Production Technologies 379 20.3.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Membrane Reactor 379 20.3.1.1 Principle 379 20.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Transesterification Technology 381 20.3.2.1 Principle 381 20.3.3 Ultrasonic-Assisted Transesterification Techniques 382 20.3.4 Production of Biodiesel Using Cosolvent Method 385 20.3.4.1 Principle 385 20.3.5 In Situ Biodiesel Production Technology 385 20.3.5.1 Principle 385 20.3.6 Production of Biodiesel Through Reactive Distillation Process 387 20.3.6.1 Principle 387 20.4 Conclusion 389 20.5 Future Perspectives 390 References 390 Index 397

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Book SynopsisDelivering Safety Excellence Discover how to overcome a culture of inadequately addressing risk and thereby achieve safe working practices from a leader in the fieldDelivering Safety Excellence: Engagement Culture At Every Level provides an in-depth and practical overview of how to energize frontline employees, supervisors, managers, and leaders to overcome and solve regularly occurring safety concerns. The book teaches readers how to resolve dysfunctional safety cultures by engaging employees at all levels. This cross functional engagement culture regularly builds safe and effective working practices that eliminate regulatory, financial, and personal risk shortfalls while encouraging profitability and efficiency.The distinguished author shows how culture improvement processes and models can be utilized to improve the performance all across an organization. The material is presented in dialogue format using case studies to highlight the relationship betweeTable of ContentsAcknowledgements xi Author Biography xiii List of Figures xv Preface xix Prologue xxi Introduction xxv Part I 1 1 The Funeral 3 Notes 10 2 No Support for Safety 11 3 The Tyranny of the Urgent 15 4 No Pay for Safety 21 Note 24 5 Weak Culture Miseries 25 6 Injury Plateau 27 Limitations of Safety Observation Sampling 28 Note 29 7 A Brief Safety History 31 8 Beyond Accident Reaction 39 Note 44 Part II 45 9 Safety Culture Beginnings 47 Notes 54 10 More Safety Culture 55 10.1 Background for Culture Improvement 61 10.2 Human Interaction Realities 63 11 Active Resistance 69 12 Zero Injuries 75 13 How Long? 85 13.1 POP Statement 89 13.2 Action Item Matrix (AIM) 91 13.3 Workers’ Compensation Carrier Claim Processing Procedure 92 14 World-Class Safety 97 Note 101 15 Watch Out 103 15.1 Setting Priorities 103 15.2 Management Reluctance to Be Involved 104 15.3 Regulatory Audits 105 15.4 Team Inclusiveness 105 15.5 The Importance of Good Data and a Solid Improvement Process 106 15.6 The Need for a Challenging Time Line 107 15.7 Urgency Followed by Complacency 108 15.8 Series or Parallel Problem Attack Process 109 15.9 The Importance of Viable Metrics 111 Note 112 Part III 113 16 Moving Forward to Safety Culture Excellence 115 Note 120 17 The Critical Safety Steering Team 121 18 The RIW Process 133 18.1 Rapid Improvement Workshop Teams 135 18.2 Delivering a Better Safety Performance 139 19 Fundamentals That Are a Result of Developing a Culture of Safety Excellence 141 Note 146 20 Communication and Recognition 147 20.1 Encouraging Positive Behavior 149 Notes 151 21 Hazard Recognition Is Different than Hazard Control 153 21.1 The Common Threads 154 21.2 Overestimating Personal Capabilities 155 21.3 Complacency – Familiarity with the Task 157 21.4 SafetyWarnings – the Severity of the Outcome 157 21.5 Voluntary Actions and Being in Control of Them 159 21.6 Personal Experience with an Outcome 160 21.7 Cost of Noncompliance 161 21.8 Overconfidence in the Equipment 161 21.9 Overconfidence in Protection and Rescue 163 21.10 Potential Profit and Gain from Action 164 21.11 Role Models Accepting Risk 165 22 The Trap of Complacency 169 Epilogue 173 A The History of the Continuous Excellence Performance (CEP)/Zero Incident Performance (ZIP) Process 177 B The Railroad Study by Petersen and Bailey 181 Using Behavioral Techniques to Improve Safety Program Effectiveness 181 B.1 MR Study of Safety Program Effectiveness 182 B.1.1 Phase I – 1979–1983 182 B.1.2 PHASE II – 1985–1988 183 B.1.2.1 Study Overview 183 B.1.2.2 Participants in Study 184 B.1.2.3 History – Need for Study 185 B.1.2.4 Three Management Approaches to Safety Programming 187 B.1.2.5 Philosophies Underlying Three Approaches to Safety Programming 187 B.1.2.6 Development of the Study Format 188 B.1.2.7 Assumptions to be Tested 194 B.1.2.8 Safety Program Activities Survey 194 B.1.2.9 Involvement of Top Railroad Safety Officers 195 B.1.2.10 Pilot Survey – Railroads I and II 195 B.1.2.11 AAR Study Group Analysis 197 B.1.2.12 Aberdeen Study Group Analysis 198 B.1.2.13 Further Refinement of the Survey Process 199 B.1.2.14 Survey Verification Study – Railroads III and IV 200 B.1.2.15 Description of Analysis Program 201 B.1.2.16 Analysis and Use of Survey Data by Managements 202 B.1.2.17 Testing a Human Behavioral Factors Approach 204 B.1.2.18 Technique to Measure the Effects of the Experimental Program 204 B.1.2.19 Training Format – Railroads I and II 205 B.1.2.20 Results of Positive Reinforcement – Railroads I and II 206 B.1.2.21 Verification of Results on Railroads III and IV 207 B.1.2.22 Reductions in Unsafe Behaviors 208 B.1.2.23 Summary of Positive Reinforcement Experimental Results 208 Impact of Study – Four Railroads 209 B.2 Railroad I 209 B.2.1 Background 209 B.2.2 Impact of Study 210 B.3 Railroad II 210 B.3.1 Background 210 B.3.2 Impact of Study 210 B.4 Railroad III 211 B.4.1 Background 211 B.4.2 Impact of Study 211 B.5 Railroad IV 211 B.5.1 Background 211 B.5.2 Impact of Study 212 B.5.2.1 Longer Term Use of Positive Reinforcement 212 B.5.2.2 Study Conclusions and Outcomes 213 B.5.2.3 A FinalWord 214 Appendix 1: Sample – Chart Used for Analysis on One of the Study Railroads 214 Appendix 2: Sample – Chart Used for Analysis on One of the Study Railroads 216 Appendix 3: Sample – Chart Used for Analysis on One of the Study Railroads 217 Appendix 4: Sample – Chart Used for Analysis on One of the Study Railroads 218 Appendix 5: Sample – Chart Used for Analysis on One of the Study Railroads 219 Appendix 6: Total Response – 20 Categories – 4 Railroads 220 Appendix 7: Comparison of Positive Responses by Category – 4 Railroads 221 Appendix 8: Comparison of Training Results – 4 Railroads 222 Appendix 9: Positive Recognition Training Outline 223 Appendix 10: Assessment Questions Used by Supervisors 224 Appendix 11: Analysis of Responses to Pilot Survey Questionnaires for Railroads I and II. Source: Based on American association of railroads 225 C The Charter Document 227 C.1 Process and Objectives (Outcomes) 228 C.2 Scope and Authority 228 C.3 Roles and Responsibilities 229 C.4 Team Member Representation 229 C.5 Team Safety Department Representative 229 C.6 Voting and Quorum 229 C.7 Team Member Service 229 C.8 Team Leader Service 230 C.9 Selection of Team Leader 230 C.10 Meeting Frequency 230 C.11 Recordkeeping 230 C.12 Communication 231 C.13 Team Learning Plan 231 C.14 Annual Review of POP Statement (Purpose Outcomes Process) and Team Charter 231 C.15 Measurables 232 C.16 Effective Team Norms 232 C.17 Steering Team Member Training 232 C.17.1 CIT Facilitator 232 C.18 Continuous Improvement Team Management 233 C.19 Continuous Improvement Topics 233 C.19.1 Continuous Improvement Process Implementation and Sustainability 233 Index 235

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Novel Thermal Technologies: Trends and Prospects 1Amrita Preetam, Vipasha, Sushree Titikshya, Vivek Kumar, K.K Pant and S N Naik 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status and Trends 3 1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies 6 1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing 8 1.2.3 Preservation Process 9 1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies 11 1.3.1 Infrared Heating 12 1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism 12 1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating 13 1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating 14 1.3.2 Microwave Heating 14 1.3.2.1 Principal and Mechanism 14 1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry 17 1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing Technologies 19 1.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating 24 1.3.3.1 Principal and Mechanism 24 1.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 26 1.3.3.3 Applications 27 1.3.4 Ohmic Heating 28 1.3.4.1 Principal and Mechanism 28 1.3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 31 1.3.4.3 Applications 33 1.4 Future Perspective of Novel Thermal Technologies 36 1.5 Conclusion 36 References 37 2 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45Sushree Titikshya, Monalisa Sahoo, Vivek Kumar and S.N Naik 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Innovate Thermal Techniques for Food Reservation 47 2.3 Inactivation Mechanism of Targeted Microorganism 48 2.3.1 Action Approach and Inactivation Targets 49 2.4 Environmental Stress Adaption 50 2.4.1 Sublethal Injury 50 2.5 Resistance of Stress 51 2.5.1 Oxidative Stress 51 2.5.2 Osmotic Stress 52 2.5.3 Pressure 52 2.6 Various Techniques for Thermal Inactivation 52 2.6.1 Infrared Heating 52 2.6.1.1 Principle and Mechanism 52 2.6.1.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 53 2.6.2 Microwave Heating 57 2.6.2.1 Principle and Mechanism 57 2.6.2.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 58 2.6.3 Radiofrequency Heating 59 2.6.3.1 Principle and Mechanism 59 2.6.3.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 60 2.6.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology (DIC) 60 2.6.4.1 Principle and Mechanism 60 2.6.4.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 61 2.6.5 Ohmic Heating 62 2.6.5.1 Principle and Mechanism 62 2.6.5.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 63 2.7 Forthcoming Movements of Thermal Practices in Food Industry 64 2.8 Conclusion 65 References 66 3 Blanching, Pasteurization and Sterilization: Principles and Applications 75Monalisa Sahoo, Sushree Titikshya, Pramod Aradwad, Vivek Kumar and S N Naik 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Blanching: Principles & Mechanism 76 3.2.1 Types of Blanching 76 3.2.1.1 Hot Water Blanching 76 3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 80 3.2.1.3 High Humidity Hot Air Impingement Blanching (HHAIB) 81 3.2.1.4 Microwave Blanching 81 3.2.1.5 Ohmic Blanching 85 3.2.1.6 Infrared Blanching 86 3.2.2 Application of Blanching 89 3.2.2.1 Inactivation of Enzymes 89 3.2.2.2 Enhancement of Product Quality and Dehydration 90 3.2.2.3 Toxic and Pesticides Residues Removal 90 3.2.2.4 Decreasing Microbial Load 90 3.2.2.5 Reducing Non-Enzymatic Browning Reaction 91 3.2.2.6 Peeling 91 3.2.2.7 Entrapped Air Removal 91 3.2.2.8 Enhancing Bioactive Extraction Efficiency 91 3.2.2.9 Other Applications 92 3.3 Pasteurization: Principles & Mechanism 92 3.3.1 Thermal Pasteurization 92 3.3.2 Traditional Thermal Pasteurization 93 3.3.3 Microwave and Radiofrequency Pasteurization 93 3.3.4 Ohmic Heating Pasteurization 94 3.3.5 Application of Pasteurization 98 3.4 Sterilization: Principles, Mechanism and Types of Sterilization 98 3.4.1 Conventional Sterilization Methods 99 3.4.2 Advanced Retorting 100 3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 101 3.4.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 103 3.5 Conclusions 104 References 104 4 Aseptic Processing 117Malathi Nanjegowda, Bhaveshkumar Jani and Bansee Devani 4.1 Introduction 118 4.2 Aseptic Processing 118 4.3 Principle of Thermal Sterilization 121 4.3.1 Effect of Thermal Treatment on Enzymes 123 4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients and Quality 123 4.3.3 Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Cooking Index (C0) 124 4.3.4 Effect of Heat Treatments on Chemical Reactions in Food 124 4.4 Components of Aseptic Processing 124 4.4.1 Equipment Used in Aseptic/UHT Processing 124 4.4.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchanger 125 4.4.1.2 Direct Heat Exchanger 126 4.4.1.3 Ohmic Heating (OH) 126 4.5 Aseptic Packaging 127 4.5.1 Types of Packaging Materials Used in Aseptic Processing 127 4.5.2 Methods and Requirements of Decontamination of Packaging Materials 128 4.6 Applications of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 128 4.6.1 Milk Processing 133 4.6.2 Non-Milk Products Processing 135 4.7 Advantages of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 136 4.8 Challenges of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 137 4.9 Conclusion 137 References 138 5 Spray Drying: Principles and Applications 141Sukirti Joshi, Asutosh Mohapatra, Lavika Singh and Jatindra K Sahu 5.1 Introduction 142 5.2 Concentration of Feed Solution 142 5.3 Atomization of Concentrated Feed 143 5.3.1 Principle of Atomization 143 5.3.2 Classification of Atomizers 143 5.3.2.1 Rotary Atomizers 144 5.3.2.2 Pressure Nozzle/Hydraulic Atomizer 144 5.3.2.3 Two‐Fluid Nozzle Atomizer 145 5.4 Droplet‐Hot Air Contact 145 5.5 Drying of Droplets 146 5.6 Particle Separation 148 5.7 Effect of Process Parameters on Product Quality 148 5.7.1 Process Parameters of Atomization 150 5.7.2 Parameters of Spray‐Air Contact and Evaporation 151 5.7.2.1 Spray Angle 151 5.7.2.2 Aspirator Flow Rate 151 5.7.2.3 Inlet Air Temperature 151 5.7.2.4 Outlet Air Temperature 152 5.7.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature 152 5.7.2.6 Residence Time 153 5.8 Classification of Spray Dryer 153 5.8.1 Open-Cycle Spray Dryer 153 5.8.2 Closed-Cycle Spray Dryer 154 5.8.3 Semi‐Closed Cycle Spray Dryer 154 5.8.4 Single‐Stage Spray Dryer 154 5.8.5 Two‐Stage Spray Dryer 154 5.8.6 Short‐Form Spray Dryer 154 5.8.7 Tall‐Form Spray Dryer 154 5.9 Morphological Characterization of Spray-Dried Particles 155 5.10 Application of Spray Drying for Foods 156 5.11 Wall Materials 157 5.11.1 Carbohydrate-Based Wall Materials 158 5.11.1.1 Starch 158 5.11.1.2 Modified Starch 158 5.11.1.3 Maltodextrins 158 5.11.2 Cyclodextrins 159 5.11.3 Gum Arabic 159 5.11.4 Inulin 159 5.11.5 Pectin 160 5.11.6 Chitin and Chitosan 160 5.11.7 Protein-Based Wall Materials 160 5.11.7.1 Whey Protein Isolate 161 5.11.7.2 Skim Milk Powder 161 5.11.7.3 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) 161 5.12 Encapsulation of Probiotics 162 5.12.1 Choice of Bacterial Strain 162 5.12.2 Response to Cellular Stresses 163 5.12.3 Growth Conditions 164 5.12.4 Effect of pH 164 5.12.5 Harvesting Technique 165 5.12.6 Total Solid Content of the Feed Concentrate 165 5.13 Encapsulation of Vitamins 165 5.14 Encapsulation of Flavours and Volatile Compounds 166 5.14.1 Selective Diffusion Theory 166 5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170 References 170 6 Solar Drying: Principles and Applications 179Baher M A Amer 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Principle of Solar Drying 180 6.3 Construction of Solar Dryer 181 6.4 Historical Classification of Solar Energy Drying Systems 182 6.5 Storing Solar Energy for Drying 185 6.6 Hybrid/Mixed Solar Drying System 186 6.7 Solar Greenhouse Dryer 188 6.8 Solar Drying Economy 188 6.9 New Applications Related to Solar Drying 190 References 192 7 Fluidized Bed Drying: Recent Developments and Applications 197Praveen Saini, Nitin Kumar, Sunil Kumar and Anil Panghal 7.1 Introduction 197 7.2 Principle and Design Considerations of Fluidized Bed Dryer 198 7.2.1 Spouted Bed Dryer 201 7.2.2 Spout Fluidized Bed Dryer 202 7.2.3 Hybrid Drying Techniques 205 7.2.3.1 Microwave-Assisted FBD 205 7.2.3.2 FIR-Assisted FBD 206 7.2.3.3 Heat Pump–Assisted FBD 207 7.2.3.4 Solar-Assisted FBD 207 7.3 Design Alterations for Improved Fluidization Capacity 208 7.3.1 Vibrated Fluidized Bed 208 7.3.2 Agitated Fluidized Bed 209 7.3.3 Centrifugal Fluidized Bed 210 7.4 Energy Consumption in Fluidized Bed Drying 211 7.5 Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Quality 212 7.6 Applications of Fluidized Bed Drying 215 7.7 Concluding Remarks 215 References 215 8 Dehumidifier Assisted Drying: Recent Developments 221Vaishali Wankhade, Vaishali Pande, Monalisa Sahoo and Chirasmita Panigrahi 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Absorbent Air Dryer 222 8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 223 8.2.2 Design Considerations and Components of the Absorbent Air Drier 223 8.2.2.1 Desiccant Drying System 223 8.2.3 Performance Indicators of Desiccant Air Dryer System 226 8.2.3.1 Low Temperature Drying With No Temperature Control and Air Circulation System 227 8.2.3.2 Low Temperature Drying With Air Circulation and Temperature Control 228 8.3 Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 228 8.3.1 Working Principles of a Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 229 8.3.2 Performance Indicators of Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 231 8.4 Applications of Dehumidifier-Assisted Dryers in Agriculture and Food Processing 233 8.5 Concluding Remarks 234 References 234 9 Refractance Window Drying: Principles and Applications 237Peter Waboi Mwaurah, Modiri Dirisca Setlhoka and Tanu Malik 9.1 Introduction 238 9.2 Refractance Window Drying System 239 9.2.1 History and Origin 239 9.2.2 Components and Working of the Dryer 240 9.2.3 Principle of Operation 242 9.3 Heat Transfer and Drying Kinetics 244 9.3.1 Drying Rate and Moisture Reduction Rate 245 9.4 Effect of Process Parameters on Drying 245 9.4.1 Effect of Temperature of the Hot Circulating Water 245 9.4.2 Effect of Product Inlet Temperature and Thickness 246 9.4.3 Effect of Residence Time 247 9.4.4 Effect of Ambient Air Temperature (Air Convection) 247 9.5 Comparison of Refractance Window Dryer with Other Types of Dryers 247 9.6 Effect of Refractance Window Drying on Quality of Food Products 248 9.6.1 Effects on Food Color 249 9.6.2 Effects on Bioactive Compounds 250 9.6.2.1 Carotene Retention 251 9.6.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Retention 252 9.6.2.3 Anthocyanin Retention 252 9.7 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Food and Agriculture 253 9.7.1 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Preservation of Heat-Sensitive and Bioactive Compounds 253 9.7.2 Applications of Refractance Window Drying on Food Safety 254 9.8 Advantages and Limitations of Refractance Window Dryer 255 9.9 Recent Developments in Refractance Window Drying 255 9.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 256 References 257 10 Ohmic Heating: Principles and Applications 261Sourav Misra, Shubham Mandliya and Chirasmita Panigrahi 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 Basic Principles 263 10.3 Process Parameters 265 10.3.1 Electrical Conductivity 265 10.3.2 Electrical Field Strength 266 10.3.3 Frequency and Waveform 267 10.3.4 Product Size, Viscosity, and Heat Capacity 267 10.3.5 Particle Concentration 267 10.3.6 Ionic Concentration 267 10.3.7 Electrodes 268 10.4 Equipment Design 268 10.5 Application 270 10.5.1 Blanching 276 10.5.2 Pasteurisation/Sterilization 276 10.5.3 Extraction 277 10.5.4 Dehydration 278 10.5.5 Fermentation 279 10.5.6 Ohmic Thawing 280 10.6 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality Characteristics of Food Products 280 10.6.1 Starch and Flours 280 10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI) and Water Solubility Index (WSI) 280 10.6.1.2 Pasting Properties 280 10.6.1.3 Thermal Properties 281 10.6.2 Meat Products 282 10.6.3 Fruits and Vegetable Products 282 10.6.3.1 Electrical Properties 282 10.6.3.2 Soluble Solids Content and Acidity 282 10.6.3.3 Vitamins 283 10.6.3.4 Flavor Compounds 284 10.6.3.5 Phenolic Compounds 284 10.6.3.6 Colour Properties 284 10.6.3.7 Change in Chlorophyll Content 285 10.6.3.8 Textural Properties 285 10.6.3.9 Sensory Properties 286 10.6.4 Dairy Products 286 10.6.5 Seafoods 290 10.7 Advantages of Ohmic Heating 290 10.8 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating 291 10.9 Conclusions 291 References 292 11 Microwave Food Processing: Principles and Applications 301Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha 11.1 Introduction 301 11.2 Principles of Microwave Heating 302 11.2.1 Nature of Microwaves 302 11.2.1.1 Propagation of EM Waves in Free Space 302 11.2.1.2 Propagation of EM Waves in Matter 306 11.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating 309 11.2.2.1 Dielectric Characteristic of a Material 309 11.2.2.2 Waves-Product Interactions 312 11.2.3 Transmission and Absorption of a Wave in a Material 316 11.2.3.1 Expression of Transmitted Power 316 11.2.3.2 Penetration Depths 317 11.2.3.3 Power Dissipation 319 11.3 Applications 320 11.3.1 Microwave Baking 320 11.3.2 Microwave Blanching 323 11.3.3 Microwave Tempering and Thawing 326 11.3.4 Microwave Drying 328 11.3.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying 329 11.3.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying 330 11.3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Freeze-Drying 330 11.3.5 Microwave Pasteurization and Sterilization 331 References 334 12 Infrared Radiation: Principles and Applications in Food Processing 349Puneet Kumar, Subir Kumar Chakraborty and Lalita 12.1 Introduction 350 12.2 Mechanism of Heat Transfer 351 12.2.1 Principles of IR Heating 351 12.2.1.1 Planck’s Law 352 12.2.1.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 352 12.2.1.3 Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law 352 12.2.2 Source of IR Radiations 353 12.2.2.1 Natural Source 354 12.2.2.2 Artificial Sources 354 12.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption of Energy 356 12.3.1 Characteristics of Food Materials 357 12.3.1.1 Composition 357 12.3.1.2 Layer Thickness 357 12.3.2 IR Parameters 357 12.3.2.1 Wavelength of IR Rays 358 12.3.2.2 IR Intensity 358 12.3.2.3 Depth of Penetration 358 12.3.3 Advantages of IR Heating Over Conventional Heating Methods 359 12.4 Applications of IR in Food Processing 359 12.4.1 Drying 360 12.4.2 Peeling 361 12.4.3 Blanching 363 12.4.4 Microbial Decontamination 364 12.5 IR-Assisted Hybrid Drying Technologies 366 12.5.1 IR-Freeze-Drying 366 12.5.2 Hot Air-Assisted IR Heating 367 12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 368 12.6 Conclusion 368 References 369 13 Radiofrequency Heating 375Chirasmita Panigrahi, Monalisha Sahoo, Vaishali Wankhade and Siddharth Vishwakarma 13.1 Introduction 376 13.2 History of RF Heating 377 13.3 Principles and Equipment 378 13.3.1 Basic Mechanism of Dielectric Heating 378 13.3.1.1 Basic Mechanism and Working of Radiofrequency Heating 379 13.3.1.2 Basic Mechanism and Working of Microwave Heating 380 13.3.2 Factors of Food Affecting the Performance of RF Processing 380 13.3.2.1 Permittivity and Loss Factor 380 13.3.2.2 Power Density and Penetration Depth 381 13.3.2.3 Wave Impedance and Power Reflection 382 13.3.3 Comparison of RF Heating With Other Methods 383 13.3.4 Lab Scale and Commercial Scale of RF Equipment 385 13.3.4.1 Radiofrequency Processing of Food at Lab Scale 386 13.3.4.2 Radiofrequency Processing of Food at Industrial Scale 387 13.4 Applications in Food Processing 388 13.4.1 Drying 388 13.4.2 Thawing 393 13.4.3 Roasting 394 13.4.4 Baking 394 13.4.5 Disinfestation 395 13.4.6 Blanching 395 13.4.7 Pasteurization/Sterilization 396 13.5 Technological Constraints, Health Hazards, and Safety Aspects 399 13.6 Commercialization Aspects and Future Trends 402 13.7 Conclusions 404 References 404 14 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415Nartaj Singh and Prashant Bagade 14.1 Introduction 416 14.1.1 Food Quality 417 14.1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Food Processing 419 14.1.1.2 Historical Trends in Food Quality 421 14.1.1.3 Food Quality Standards and its Requirements 423 14.1.1.4 Role of Technology in Building Food Quality Within the Industry 440 14.1.1.5 Regulations and their Requirements 444 14.1.2 Food Safety 445 14.1.2.1 Primary and Secondary Food Production 445 14.1.2.2 Historical Trends in Food Safety 446 14.1.2.3 Food Safety Standards and its Requirements 447 14.1.2.4 Role of Technology in Building Food Safety Within Industry 450 14.2 Future Trends in Quality and Food Safety 451 14.3 Conclusion 453 References 453 Index 455

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Book SynopsisPrinciples and Applications of Mass Transfer Core textbook teaching mass transfer fundamentals and applications for the design of separation processes in chemical, biochemical, and environmental engineering Principles and Applications of Mass Transfer teaches the subject of mass transfer fundamentals and their applications to the design of separation processes with enough depth of coverage to guarantee that students using the book will, at the end of the course, be able to specify preliminary designs of the most common separation process equipment. Reflecting the growth of biochemical applications in the field of chemical engineering, the fourth edition expands biochemical coverage, including transient diffusion, environmental applications, electrophoresis, and bioseparations. Also new to the fourth edition is the integration of Python programs, which complement the Mathcad programs of the previous edition. On the accompanying instructor's website, theTable of ContentsPreface to the Fourth Edition xvii Preface to the Third Edition xix Preface to the Second Edition xxi Preface to the First Edition xxiii Nomenclature xxv 1. Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Molecular Mass Transfer 3 1.2.1 Concentrations 4 1.2.2 Velocities and Fluxes 10 1.2.3 The Maxwell–Stefan Relations 12 1.2.4 Fick’s First Law for Binary Mixtures 15 1.3 The Diffusion Coefficient 16 1.3.1 Diffusion Coefficients for Binary Ideal Gas Systems 17 1.3.2 Diffusion Coefficients for Dilute Liquids 22 1.3.3 Diffusion Coefficients for Concentrated Liquids 26 1.3.4 Effective Diffusivities in Multi component Mixtures 28 1.4 Steady-state Molecular Diffusion in Fluids 34 1.4.1 Molar Flux and the Equation of Continuity 34 1.4.2 Steady-State Molecular Diffusion in Gases 35 1.4.3 Steady-State Molecular Diffusion in Liquids 47 1.5 Steady-state Diffusion in Solids 50 1.5.1Steady-State Binary Molecular Diffusion in Porous Solids 51 1.5.2 Knudsen Diffusion in Porous Solids 52 1.5.3 Hydrodynamic Flow of Gases in Porous Solids 55 1.5.4“DustyGas”Model for Multi component Diffusion 57 1.6 Transient Molecular Diffusion in Solids 58 1.7 Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reaction 62 1.8 Analogies Among Molecular Transfer Phenomena 66 Problems 68 References 83 Appendix 1.1 84 Appendix 1.2 85 Appendix 1.3 86 Appendix 1.4 89 2. Convective Mass Transfer 91 2.1 Introduction 91 2.2 Mass-transfer Coefficients 92 2.2.1 Diffusion of A Through Stagnant B (NB=0,ΨA=1) 92 2.2.2 Equimolar Counter diffusion (NB=–NA,ΨA=undefined) 95 2.3 Dimensional Analysis 96 2.3.1 The Buckingham Method 97 2.4 Flow Past Flat Plate in Laminar Flow; Boundary Layer Theory 101 2.5 Mass- and Heat-transfer Analogies 108 2.6 Convective Mass-transfer Correlations 116 2.6.1 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Flat Plates 116 2.6.2 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for a Single Sphere 118 2.6.3 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Single Cylinders 122 2.6.4 Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes 122 2.6.5 Mass Transfer in Packed and Fluidized Beds 128 2.6.6 Mass Transfer in Hollow-Fiber Membrane Modules130 2.7Multi component Mass-transfer Coefficients 133 Problems 135 References 149 Appendix 2.1 152 Appendix 2.2 153 3. Interphase Mass Transfer 155 3.1Introduction 155 3.2 Equilibrium Considerations in Chemical and Biochemical Systems 155 3.2.1 Chemical Phase Equilibria 156 3.2.2 Biochemical Equilibrium Concepts (Seaderetal.,2011) 160 3.3 Diffusion Between Phases 166 3.3.1 Two-Resistance Theory 166 3.3.2 Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients 168 3.3.3 Local Mass-Transfer Coefficients: General Case 172 3.4 Material Balances 180 3.4.1 Counter current Flow 180 3.4.2 Co current Flow 194 3.4.3 Batch Processes 195 3.5 Equilibrium-stage Operations 196 Problems 204 References 216 Appendix 3.1 217 Appendix 3.2 218 Appendix 3.3 219 Appendix 3.4 220 Appendix 3.5 221 4. Equipment for Gas–liquid Mass-transfer Operations 225 4.1 Introduction 225 4.2 Gas–liquid Operations :Liquid Dispersed 225 4.2.1 Types of Packing 226 4.2.2 Liquid Distribution 229 4.2.3 Liquid Holdup 230 4.2.4 Pressure Drop 237 4.2.5 Mass-Transfer Coefficients 239 4.3 Gas–liquid Operations : Gas Dispersed 243 4.3.1 Sparged Vessels (Bubble Columns) 244 4.3.2 Tray Towers 249 4.3.3 Tray Diameter 252 4.3.4 Tray Gas-Pressure Drop 255 4.3.5 Weeping and Entrainment 257 4.3.6 Tray Efficiency 258 Problems 264 References 274 5. Absorption and Stripping 277 5.1 Introduction 277 5.2 Counter current Multi stage Equipment 278 5.2.1 Graphical Determination of the Number of IdealTrays 278 5.2.2 Tray Efficiencies and Real Traysby Graphical Methods 279 5.2.3 Dilute Mixtures279 5.3 Counter current Continuous-contact Equipment285 5.3.1 Dilute Solutions; Henry’s Law290 5.4 Thermal Effects During Absorption and Stripping 292 5.4.1 Adiabatic Operation of a Packed-Bed Absorber 296 Problems 300 References 311 Appendix 5.1 312 6. Distillation 315 6.1Introduction 315 6.2 Single-stage Operation—flash Vaporization 316 6.3 DifferentialDistillation320 6.4ContinuousRectification—binarySystems322 6.5 Mc CABE–Thiele method for trayed towers324 6.5.1 Rectifying Section 325 6.5.2 Stripping Section 326 6.5.3 Feed Stage 328 6.5.4 Number of Equilibrium Stages and Feed-Stage Location 330 6.5.5 Limiting Conditions 332 6.5.6 Optimum Reflux Ratio 333 6.5.7 Large Number of Stages 339 6.5.8 Use of Open Steam 342 6.5.9 Tray Efficiencies 343 6.6 Binary Distillation in Packed Towers350 6.7 Multi component Distillation 354 6.8 Fenske–underwood–Gillil and Method 357 6.8.1 Total Reflux : Fenske Equation 357 6.8.2 Minimum Reflux : Underwood Equations 361 6.8.3 Gillil and Correlation for Number of Stages at Finite Reflux 366 6.9 Rigorous Calculation Procedures for Multi component Distillation 368 6.9.1 Equilibrium Stage Model368 6.9.2 Non equilibrium, Rate-Based Model 370 6.10 Batch Distillation 371 6.10.1 Binary Batch Distillation with Constant Reflux 372 6.10.2 Batch Distillation with Constant Distillate Composition 375 6.10.3 Multicomponent Batch Distillation 377 Problems 378 References 389 Appendix 6.1 390 Appendix 6.2 391 Appendix 6.3 392 7. Liquid–liquid Extraction 393 7.1 Introduction 393 7.2 Liquid Equilibria 394 7.3 Stage wise Liquid–liquid Extraction 399 7.3.1 Single-Stage Extraction 400 7.3.2 Multistage Crosscurrent Extraction 403 7.3.3 Counter current Extraction Cascades4 04 7.3.4 Insoluble Liquids 409 7.3.5 Continuous Countercurrent Extraction with Reflux 412 7.4 Equipment for Liquid–liquid Extraction 419 7.4.1Mixer-Settler Cascades 419 7.4.2 Multi compartment Columns 428 7. Liquid–liquid Extraction of Bio products 430 Problems 437 References 446 8. Humidification Operations447 8.1 Introduction 447 8.2 Equilibrium Considerations 448 8.2.1 Saturated Gas–Vapor Mixtures 448 8.2.2 Unsaturated Gas–Vapor Mixtures 451 8.2.3 Adiabatic-Saturation Curves 452 8.2.4 Wet-Bulb Temperature 454 8.3 Adiabatic Gas–liquid Contact Operations 457 8.3.1 Fundamental Relationships 458 8.3.2 Water Cooling with Air 460 8.3.3 Dehumidification of Air–Water Vapor 466 Problems 468 References 472 Appendix 8.1 473 Appendix 8.2 474 9. Membranes and other Solid: Sorption Agents 477 9.1 Introduction 477 9.2 Mass Transfer in Membranes 478 9.2.1 Solution-Diffusion for Liquid Mixtures479 9.2.2 Solution-Diffusionfor Gas Mixtures 481 9.2.3 Module Flow Patterns 484 9.3 Equilibrium Considerations in Porous Sorbents 489 9.3.1 Adsorption and Chromatography Equilibria 489 9.3.2 Ion-Exchange Equilibria 494 9.4 Mass Transfer in Fixed Beds of Porous Sorbents 497 9.4.1 Basic Equations for Adsorption 499 9.4.2 Linear Isotherm 500 9.4.3 Langmuir Isotherm 501 9.4.4 Length of Unused Bed 505 9.4.5 Mass-Transfer Rates in Ion Exchangers506 9.4.6 Mass-Transfer Rates in Chromatographic Separations507 9.4.7 Electrophoresis 510 9.5 Applications of Membrane-separation Processes512 9.5.1 Dialysis 513 9.5.2 Reverse Osmosis 515 9.5.3 Gas Permeation 518 9.5.4 Ultrafiltration and Microfiltration 518 9.5.5 Bio separations 522 9.6 Applications of Sorption-separation Processes524 Problems 529 References 535 Appendix9.1 536 Appendix 9.2 538 Appendix 9.3 540 Appendix 9.4 542 Appendix 9.5 544 Appendix 9.6 546 Appendix 9.7 548 Appendix A Binary Diffusion Coefficients 551 Appendix B Lennard-Jones Constants 555 Appendix C-1 Maxwell-Stefan Equations (Mathcad) 557 Appendix C-2 Maxwell-Stefan Equations (Python) 559 Appendix D-1 Packed-Column Design (Mathcad) 563 Appendix D-2 Packed-Column Design (Python) 569 Appendix E-1 Sieve-Tray Design (Mathcad) 573 Appendix E-2 Sieve-Tray Design (Python) 579 Appendix F-1 McCabe-Thiele Method : Saturated Liquid Feed(Mathcad) 583 Appendix F-2 McCabe-Thiele Method : SaturatedLiquid Feed(Python) 587 Appendix G-1 Single-Stage Extraction (Mathcad) 591 Appendix G-2 Single-Stage Extraction (Python) 593 Appendix G-3 Multi stage Crosscurrent Extraction (Mathcad) 595 Appendix G-4 Multi stage Crosscurrent Extraction (Python) 598 Appendix H Constants and Unit Conversions 601 Index 603

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Book SynopsisRENEWABLE ENERGY INNOVATIONS This critical text, designed for microbiologists, biotechnologists, entrepreneurs, process engineers, chemical engineers, electrical engineers, physicists, and environmentalists, assesses the current knowledge about lab-scale and large-scale production of renewable and sustainable fuels, chemicals, and materials. Global warming is having a huge impact on the world's ecosystem. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up early, and plant and animal ranges have relocated. On a worldwide scale, the threat posed by climate change and pollution is obvious. A green and sustainable future necessitates using renewable resources to produce fuels, chemicals, and materials. This book investigates diverse bioprocesses that are crucial to everyday life, including the key concerns regarding the generation of biofuels, energy, and food securities, along with waste management. Commercial interest in biotechnological processes has risen to prodTable of Contents1 Microbial Fuel Cells -- A Sustainable Approach to Utilize Industrial Effluents for Electricity Generation 1Manisha Verma and Vishal Mishra Abbreviation 2 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 History of Microbial Fuel Cell 3 1.3 Principle of Microbial Fuel Cell 4 1.4 Material Used in MFC System 5 1.5 Electrogenic Microorganisms 14 1.6 Electron Transport Mechanism in MFCs 16 1.7 Configuration of MFC 17 1.8 Applications of Microbial Fuel Cell 21 1.9 Future Perspectives 27 1.10 Conclusion 27 2 Nanotechnologies in the Renewable Energy Sector 41Yogesh Kumar Sharma, Yogesh Kumar, Sweta Sharma and Meenal Gupta 2.1 Introduction 42 2.2 Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Sources 44 2.3 Storage of Energy in Electrical Devices 52 2.4 Nanotechnology in Energy Storage Devices 56 2.5 Nanomaterials for Rechargeable Batteries 65 2.6 Nanomaterials in Fuel Cells 69 2.7 Conclusion 76 2.8 Future Scope 76 3 Sustainable Approach in Utilizing Bioenergy Commonly for Industrial Zones by Limiting Overall Emission Footprint 83Prashanth Kumar S, Mainak Mukherjee, Rhea Puri and Shrey Singhal 3.1 Introduction 84 3.2 Co-Firing Plants in Small- and Medium-Scale Industries 85 3.3 Impact of Usage of Biogas for Steam Generation 87 3.4 Case Scenarios for Promoting Industrial Uptake 91 3.5 Conclusion 93 4 Recycling of Plastic Waste into Transportation Fuels and Value-Added Products 97Shashank Pal and Shyam Pandey 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 Plastic Waste: A Global Challenge 99 4.3 Future Projection of the Waste Plastic 100 4.4 Plastic Waste Effect on Environment and Ecology 101 4.5 Plastic Waste Management 103 4.6 Parameters Affect the Pyrolysis Process 108 4.7 Value-Added Products from Plastic Waste Pyrolysis 112 4.8 Application in Transportation Sector 114 4.9 Conclusion 115 5 An Outlook on Oxygenated Fuel for Transportation 123Shashank Pal, Shyam Pandey, Ram Kunwar and P.S. Ranjit 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Oxygenated Fuel 127 6 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions and Its Mitigation Technology in Transportation Sector 159Swapnil Bhurat, Manas Jaiswal, P. S. Ranjit, Ram Kunwer, S. K. Gugolothu and Khushboo Bhurat 6.1 Introduction 160 6.2 Mitigation Technologies 163 6.3 Conclusion 176 7 Advanced Techniques for Bio-Methanol Production 181Cecil Antony, Praveen Kumar Ghodke, Saravanakumar Thiyagarajan, Dinesh Mohanakrishnan and Amit Kumar Sharma 7.1 Introduction 182 7.2 Scope of Biofuel 183 7.3 Types of Biofuels 183 7.4 Why Biomethanol 184 7.5 Methanol Properties 184 7.6 Source of Bio-Methanol 184 7.7 Production of Methanol 185 7.8 Gasification 186 7.9 Pyrolysis 186 7.10 Liquefaction 187 7.11 Syngas to Methanol 188 7.12 Biomethanol from MSW 188 7.13 Energy Efficiency of a Process 192 7.14 Biological Conversion of Methanol 193 7.15 Anaerobic Digestion 193 7.16 Methanotrophic Bacteria 193 7.17 Production of Methanol from Methanotrophic Bacteria (Methanotrophs) 194 7.18 Large-Scale Production of Methanol from Waste Biomass 195 7.19 Challenges Associated with Methanol Production Using Methanotrophic Bacteria at the Industrial Level 197 7.20 Role of Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria (AOB) 197 7.21 Future Prospective and Conclusion 198 8 Biodiesel Production: Advance Techniques and Future Prospective 205Satyajit Chowdhury, Romsha Singh, Saket Kumar Shrivastava and Jitendra S. Sangwai 8.1 Introduction 206 8.2 Biodiesel and Its Properties 208 8.3 Synthesis of Biodiesel 209 8.4 Modern Methods for the Development of Prospects 221 8.5 Future Prospects and Policies 225 8.6 Conclusions 227 9 Biomass to Biofuel: Biomass Sources, Pretreatment Methods and Production Strategies 233Margavelu Gopinath, Chandrasekaran Muthukumaran, Madhusudhanan Manisha, Murugesan Nivedha and Krishnamurti Tamilarasan 9.1 Introduction 234 9.2 Biomass Sources in India 234 9.3 Lignocellulosic Biomass 239 9.4 Biomass Pretreatment Methods 240 9.5 Biomass to Biofuel Conversion Technologies 248 9.6 Types of Biofuel 254 9.7 Conclusion 258 10 Opportunity and Challenges in Biofuel Productions through Solar Thermal Technologies 267Praveen Kumar Ghodke, Cecil Antony and Amit Kumar Sharma 10.1 Introduction 267 10.2 Solar Pyrolysis of Biomass Feedstocks 269 10.3 Production of Bio-Oil by Solar Pyrolysis 271 10.4 Conclusions 282 11 Algae Biofuels: A Promising Fuel of the Transport Sector 289P.S. Ranjit, S. S. Bhurat, Sukanchan Palit, M. Sreenivasa Reddy, Shyam Pandey and Shashank Pal 11.1 Introduction 289 11.2 Biofuels in the Transport Sector 291 11.3 Modes of Biofuels in Practice 294 11.4 Algae Biofuel -- A Promising Energy Source 297 11.5 Microalgae Growth Conditions 307 11.6 Harvesting of Algae 309 11.7 Biofuel Extraction Techniques from Microalgae 311 11.8 Algae Biofuel as a Transport Fuel 313 11.9 Conclusion 318 12 A Review of Chemical and Physical Parameters of Biodiesel vs. Diesel: Their Environmental and Economic Impact 329Pradeep Kumar, Kalpna, Hariom Sharma, Mukesh Chand and Hament Panwar 12.1 Introduction 329 12.2 Historical Background 331 12.3 Current Status of Biodiesel 333 12.4 Sources of Biodiesel 334 12.5 Advantages of Biodiesel Over Diesel 335 12.6 Biodiesel as Safer and Cleaner Fuel 336 12.7 Major Negative Aspects to Use of Biodiesel 338 12.8 Chemical and Physical Properties of Biodiesel 338 12.9 Biodiesel Applications 340 12.10 Conclusion and Future Prospective 341 13 An Indian Viewpoint on Promoting Hydrogen-Powered Vehicles: Focussing on the Scope of Fuel Cells 345Mainak Mukherjee, Jaideep Saraswat and Amit Kumar Sharma 13.1 Introduction 346 13.2 Can Hydrogen Be the Way Forward? 348 13.3 The Inception of Fuel Cells (FCs) and PEMFCs in Particular 349 13.4 FCEVs v/s Existing Automobile Infrastructure in India 350 13.5 The Green Policy Push for Hydrogen and Associated Technologies in India 353 13.6 Pervasive Challenges of PEMFC Technology 353 13.7 Conclusion and Recommendations 357 14 Microalgae as Source of Bioenergy 361Dimitra Karageorgou and Petros Katapodis 14.1 Introduction 361 14.2 Microalgae Bioenergy Production Options 363 14.3 Conclusions 374 15 Hazards and Environmental Issues in Biodiesel Industry 383Tattaiyya Bhattacharjee, Paulami Ghosh and Surajit Mondal 15.1 Introduction 384 15.2 Life Cycle Analysis of Biodiesel 391 15.3 Causes of Occurrence 392 15.4 Future Risk and Opportunities 396 15.5 Lessons Learnt for Prevention of Hazards 398 15.6 Conclusion 399 References 400 Index 403

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface ix Abbreviations and Symbols xi 1 Fundamental Concepts 1 1.1 Why Electroanalysis? 1 1.2 Faradaic Processes 2 1.2.1 Mass-Transport-Controlled Reactions 4 1.2.1.1 Potential-Step Experiment 6 1.2.1.2 Potential Sweep Experiments 7 1.2.2 Reactions Controlled by the Rate of Electron Transfer 9 1.2.2.1 Activated Complex Theory 12 1.3 Electrical Double Layer 14 1.4 Electrocapillary Effect 18 1.5 Supplementary Reading 19 References 20 Questions 21 2 Study of Electrode Reactions and Interfacial Properties 22 2.1 Cyclic Voltammetry 22 2.1.1 Data Interpretation 24 2.1.1.1 Reversible Systems 24 2.1.1.2 Irreversible and Quasi-reversible Systems 25 2.1.2 Study of Reaction Mechanisms 26 2.1.3 Study of Adsorption Processes 29 2.1.4 Quantitative Applications – Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry 30 2.2 Spectroelectrochemistry 32 2.2.1 Experimental Arrangement 32 2.2.2 Principles and Applications 33 2.2.3 Electrochemiluminescence 35 2.2.4 Optical Probing of Electrode/Solution Interfaces 36 2.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 37 2.3.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 37 2.3.2 Atomic Force Microscopy 38 2.3.3 Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy 40 2.4 Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance 43 2.5 Impedance Spectroscopy 45 References 47 Examples 50 Questions 52 3 Controlled-Potential Techniques 54 3.1 Chronoamperometry 54 3.2 Polarography 56 3.3 Pulse Voltammetry 59 3.3.1 Normal-Pulse Voltammetry 59 3.3.2 Differential-Pulse Voltammetry 60 3.3.3 Square-Wave Voltammetry 62 3.3.4 Staircase Voltammetry 65 3.4 AC Voltammetry 66 3.5 Stripping Analysis 67 3.5.1 Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 68 3.5.2 Potentiometric Stripping Analysis 71 3.5.3 Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry and Potentiometry 72 3.5.4 Cathodic Stripping Voltammetry 74 3.5.5 Abrasive Stripping Voltammetry 75 3.5.6 Applications 75 3.6 Flow Analysis 75 3.6.1 Principles 77 3.6.2 Cell Design 79 3.6.3 Mass Transport and Current Response 81 3.6.4 Detection Modes 83 References 85 Examples 88 Questions 90 4 Practical Considerations 93 4.1 Electrochemical Cells 93 4.2 Solvents and Supporting Electrolytes 95 4.3 Oxygen Removal 95 4.4 Instrumentation 96 4.5 Working Electrodes 101 4.5.1 Mercury Electrodes 102 4.5.2 Solid Electrodes 103 4.5.2.1 Rotating Disk and Ring-Disk Electrodes 104 4.5.2.2 Carbon Electrodes 106 4.5.2.3 Metal Electrodes 109 4.5.3 Printed Electrodes and Devices 110 4.5.3.1 Planar Screen-Printed Electrodes 110 4.5.3.2 3D-Printed Electrochemical Cells and Electrodes 112 4.5.4 Chemically Modified Electrodes 113 4.5.4.1 Self-Assembled Monolayers 114 4.5.4.2 Carbon-Nanotube-Modified Electrodes 115 4.5.4.3 Graphene-Based Electrodes 116 4.5.4.4 Sol–Gel Encapsulation of Reactive Species 117 4.5.4.5 Electrocatalytic Modified Electrodes 117 4.5.4.6 Preconcentrating Electrodes 118 4.5.4.7 Permselective Coatings 119 4.5.4.8 Conducting Polymers 122 4.5.5 Microscale and Nanoscale Electrodes 124 4.5.5.1 Diffusion at Microelectrodes 126 4.5.5.2 Configurations of Microelectrodes 126 4.5.5.3 Composite Electrodes 128 4.5.6 Microneedle Electrodes and Arrays 130 References 132 Examples 137 Questions 137 5 Potentiometry 139 5.1 Principles of Potentiometric Measurements 139 5.2 Ion-Selective Electrodes 145 5.2.1 Glass Electrodes 145 5.2.1.1 pH Electrodes 145 5.2.1.2 Glass Electrodes for Other Cations 148 5.2.2 Liquid Membrane Electrodes 148 5.2.2.1 Ion-Exchanger Electrodes 150 5.2.2.2 Neutral Carrier Electrodes 151 5.2.3 Solid-State Electrodes 154 5.2.4 Solid-Contact ISE: Eliminating the Internal Filling Solution 157 5.3 On-line, On-site, In Situ, and In Vivo Potentiometric Measurements 160 References 164 Examples 167 Questions 168 6 Electrochemical Sensors 170 6.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 171 6.1.1 Enzyme‐Based Electrodes 171 6.1.1.1 Practical and Theoretical Considerations 171 6.1.1.2 Enzyme Electrodes of Analytical Significance 175 6.1.2 Affinity Biosensors 182 6.1.2.1 Immunosensors 182 6.1.2.2 Aptamer‐Based Electrochemical Biosensors 185 6.1.2.3 DNA Hybridization Biosensors 186 6.1.2.4 Electrochemical Sensors Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 189 6.2 Gas Sensors 189 6.2.1 Carbon Dioxide Sensors 190 6.2.2 Oxygen Electrodes 191 6.3 Solid-State Devices 192 6.3.1 Ion‐Selective Field Effect Transistors 192 6.3.2 Microfabrication of Solid‐State Sensor Assemblies 194 6.3.3 Photolithographic Sensor Fabrication Techniques 194 6.3.4 Micromachined Analytical Microsystems 195 6.3.5 Paper‐Based Electroanalytical Devices 196 6.4 Sensor Arrays 197 6.5 Wearable Electrochemical Sensors 200 References 203 Examples 210 Questions 211 Index 213

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Book SynopsisPETROLEUM REFINING The third volume of a multi-volume set of the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the advances of petroleum refining designs and applications, written by one of the world's most well-known process engineers, this is a must-have for any chemical, process, or petroleum engineer. This volume continues the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. This book provides the design of process equipment, such as vessels for the separation of two-phase and three-phase fluids, using Excel spreadsheets, and extensive process safety investigations of refinery incidents, distillation, distillation sequencing, and dividing wall columns. It also covers multicomponent distillation, packed towers, liquid-liquid extraction using UniSim design software, and process safety incidents involving these equipment items and pertinent industrial case studies. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world's foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area. This groundbreaking new volume: Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and select mechanical specifications Provides improved design manuals to methods and proven fundamentals of process design with related data and charts Covers a complete range of basic daytoday petroleum refining operations topics with new materials on significant industry changes Includes extensive Excel spreadsheets for the design of process vessels for mechanical separation of two-phase and three-phase fluids Provides UniSim -based case studies for enabling simulation of key processes outlined in the book Helps achieve optimum operations and process conditions and shows how to translate design fundamentals into mechanical equipment specifications Has a related website that includes computer applications along with spreadsheets and concise applied process design flow charts and process data sheets Provides various case studies of process safety incidents in refineries and means of mitigating these from investigations by the US Chemical Safety Board Includes a vast Glossary of Petroleum and Technical TerminologyTable of ContentsPreface xxii Acknowledgments xxiv 18 Mechanical Separations 1 18.1 Particle Size 1 18.2 Preliminary Separator Selection 6 18.3 Gravity Settlers 16 18.4 Terminal Velocity 19 18.5 Alternate Terminal Velocity Calculation 24 18.6 American Petroleum Institute’s Oil Field Separators 28 18.7 Liquid/Liquid, Liquid/Solid Gravity Separations, Decanters, and Sedimentation Equipment 28 18.8 Horizontal Gravity Settlers or Decanters, Liquid/Liquid 29 18.9 Modified Method of Happel and Jordan 33 18.10 Decanter 36 18.11 Impingement Separators 42 18.12 Centrifugal Separators 68 References 246 19 Distillation 249 19.1 Distillation Process Performance 249 19.2 Equilibrium Basic Considerations 252 19.3 Vapor–Liquid Equilibria 253 19.4 Activity Coefficients 262 19.5 Excess Gibbs Energy—GE 263 19.6 K-Value 264 19.7 Ideal Systems 266 19.8 Henry’s Law 268 19.9 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts 269 19.10 Non-Ideal Systems 277 19.11 Thermodynamic Simulation Software Programs 280 19.12 Vapor Pressure 283 19.13 Azeotropic Mixtures 296 19.14 Bubble Point of Liquid Mixture 311 19.15 Equilibrium Flash Computations 316 19.16 Degrees of Freedom 325 19.17 UniSim (Honeywell) Software 326 19.18 Binary System Material Balance: Constant Molal Overflow Tray to Tray 333 19.19 Determination of Distillation Operating Pressures 343 19.20 Condenser Types From a Distillation Column 344 19.21 Effect of Thermal Condition of Feed 348 19.22 Effect of Total Reflux, Minimum Number of Plates in a Distillation Column 352 19.23 Relative Volatility α Separating Factor in a Vapor–Liquid System 355 19.24 Rapid Estimation of Relative Volatility 366 19.25 Estimation of Relative Volatilities Under 1.25 (α < 125) by Ryan 367 19.26 Estimation of Minimum Reflux Ratio: Infinite Plates 368 19.27 Calculation of Number of Theoretical Trays at Actual Reflux 370 19.28 Identification of “Pinch Conditions” on an x-y Diagram at High Pressure 373 19.29 Distillation Column Design 376 19.30 Simulation of a Fractionating Column 378 19.31 Determination of Number of Theoretical Plates in Fractionating Columns by the Smoker Equations at Constant Relative Volatility (α = constant) 396 19.32 The Jafarey, Douglas, and McAvoy Equation: Design and Control 401 19.33 Number of Theoretical Trays at Actual Reflux 411 19.34 Estimating Tray Efficiency in a Distillation Column 413 19.35 Steam Distillation 422 19.36 Distillation with Heat Balance of Component Mixture 432 19.37 Multicomponent Distillation 453 19.38 Scheibel–Montross Empirical: Adjacent Key Systems: Constant or Variable Volatility 494 19.39 Minimum Number of Trays: Total Reflux−Constant Volatility 497 19.40 Smith–Brinkley (SB) Method 512 19.41 Retrofit Design of Distillation Columns 514 19.42 Tray-by-Tray for Multicomponent Mixtures 517 19.43 Tray-by-Tray Calculation of a Multicomponent Mixture Using a Digital Computer 531 19.44 Thermal Condition of Feed 532 19.45 Minimum Reflux-Underwood Method, Determination of αAvg for Multicomponent Mixture 533 19.46 Heat Balance-Adjacent Key Systems with Sharp Separations, Constant Molal Overflow 539 19.47 Stripping Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC) from Water with Air 542 19.48 Rigorous Plate-to-Plate Calculation (Sorel Method) 547 19.49 Multiple Feeds and Side Streams for a Binary Mixture 551 19.50 Chou and Yaws Method 558 19.51 Optimum Reflux Ratio and Optimum Number of Trays Calculations 561 19.52 Tower Sizing for Valve Trays 574 19.53 Troubleshooting, Predictive Maintenance, and Controls for Distillation Columns 589 19.54 Distillation Sequencing with Columns Having More than Two Products 622 19.55 Heat Integration of Distillation Columns 630 19.56 Capital Cost Considerations for Distillation Columns 634 19.57 The Pinch Design Approach to Inventing a Network 644 19.58 Appropriate Placement and Integration of Distillation Columns 644 19.59 Heat Integration of Distillation Columns: Summary 645 19.60 Common Installation Errors in Distillation Columns 645 References 693 Bibliography 699 20 Packed Towers and Liquid–Liquid Extraction 703 20.1 Shell 707 20.2 Random Packing 708 20.3 Packing Supports 709 20.4 Liquid Distribution 734 20.5 Packing Installation 739 20.6 Contacting Efficiency, Expressed as Kga, HTU, HETP 755 20.7 Packing Size 756 20.8 Pressure Drop 757 20.9 Materials of Construction 759 20.10 Particle versus Compact Preformed Structured Packings 759 20.11 Minimum Liquid Wetting Rates 760 20.12 Loading Point Loading Region 761 20.13 Flooding Point 772 20.14 Foaming Liquid Systems 773 20.15 Surface Tension Effects 773 20.16 Packing Factors 773 20.17 Recommended Design Capacity and Pressure Drop 776 20.18 Pressure Drop Design Criteria and Guide: Random Packings Only 778 20.19 Effects of Physical Properties 781 20.20 Performance Comparisons 784 20.21 Capacity Basis for Design 784 20.22 Proprietary Random Packing Design Guides 796 20.23 Liquid Hold-Up 822 20.24 Packing Wetted Area 824 20.25 Effective Interfacial Area 826 20.26 Entrainment from Packing Surface 827 20.27 Structured Packing 830 20.28 Structured Packing: Technical Performance Features 849 20.29 New Generalized Pressure Drop Correlation Charts 855 20.30 Mass and Heat Transfer in Packed Tower 855 20.31 Number of Transfer Units, NOG, NOL 856 20.32 Gas and Liquid-Phase Coefficients, kG and kL 868 20.33 Height of a Transfer Unit, HOG, HOL, HTU 869 20.34 Distillation in Packed Towers 874 20.35 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 893 20.36 Process Parameters 908 20.37 Solvents Selection for the Extraction Unit 911 20.38 Phenol Extraction Process of Lubes 913 20.39 Furfural Extraction Process 914 20.40 Dispersed-Phase Droplet Size 916 20.41 Theory 920 20.42 Nernst’s Distribution Law 921 20.43 Tie Lines 921 20.44 Phase Diagrams 929 20.45 Countercurrent Extractors 931 20.46 Extraction Equipment 935 References 956 Glossary 961 Appendix D 1087 Appendix F 1163 About the Author 1179 Index 1181

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION PART 1 INTRODUCTION 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF SAFETY AND HEALTH 2 SAFETY AND HEALTH PROFESSIONS 3 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND TERMS PART 2 LEGAL ASPECTS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH 4 UNITED STATES LAWS, REGULATIONS, STANDARDS AND FEDERAL AGENCIES 5 LOCAL, INTERNATIONAL AND VOLUNTARY LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS 6 WORKERS’ COMPENSATION 7 PRODUCTS LIABILITY 8 RECORD KEEPING AND REPORTING PART 3 HAZARDS AND THEIR CONTROL 9 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HAZARD CONTROL 10 MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES 11 WALKING AND WORKING SRUFACES 12 ELECTRICAL SAFETY 13 TOOLS AND MACHINES 14 TRANSPORTATION 15 MATERIALS HANDLING 16 FIRE PROTECTION AND PREVENTION 17 EXPLOSIONS AND EXPLOSIVES 18 HEAT AND COLD 19 PRESSURE 20 VISUAL ENVIRONMENT 21 NON-IONIZING RADIATION 22 IONIZING RADIATION 23 NOISE AND VIBRATION 24 CHEMICALS 25 VENTILATION 26 BIOHAZARDS 27 HAZARDOUS WASTE 28 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 29 EMERGENCIES AND SECURITY 30 FACILITY PLANNING, DESIGN AND MAINTENANCE PART 4 THE HUMAN ELEMENT 31 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE IN SAFETY AND HEALTH 32 PROCEDURES, RULES, AND TRAINING 33 ERGONOMICS PART 5 MANAGING SAFETY AND HEALTH 34 RISK, RISK ASSESSMENT AND RISK MANAGEMENT 35 SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT 36 SYSTEM SAFETY 37 SAFETY AND HEALTH DATA, ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION 38 SAFEY AND HEALTH PLANS AND PROGRAMS INDEX

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Book SynopsisLEVULINIC ACID An essential overview of this renewable platform chemical with growing commercial applications Use of fossil fuels and their derivatives has been one of the major drivers of climate change. This ongoing crisis has driven a global search for biofuels and biomass-derived chemicals which can serve as the basis for sustainable and renewable industry. One such platform molecule' is levulinic acid, whose derivatives are increasingly replacing traditional fossil-derived chemicals. The importance of levulinic acid for renewable industry is therefore only growing. Levulinic Acid: A Sustainable Platform Chemical for Value-Added Products provides a book-length introduction to this chemical and its derivatives, like the levulinates, for which applications include fuel additives, food and cosmetic preservatives, flavors, solvents, and more. The book surveys the production routes and necessary technologies involved in the production of levulinic acid, as Table of ContentsAbout the Authors ix Preface xi 1 Levulinic Acid – History, Properties, Global Market, Direct Uses, Safety 1 1.1 History and Properties 1 1.2 Global Market 8 1.3 Direct Uses 10 1.4 Toxicity of Levulinic Acid and Inorganic Levulinates 12 1.5 Concluding Remarks 13 References 15 2 Production and Technological Routes 19 2.1 Production and Technological Routes from Biomass 19 2.2 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 23 2.2.1 Physical Pretreatment 23 2.2.1.1 Mechanical 24 2.2.1.2 Microwave 25 2.2.1.3 Ultrasound 25 2.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment 25 2.2.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis 25 2.2.2.2 Alkaline Hydrolysis 26 2.2.2.3 Ionic Liquids 27 2.2.2.4 Organosolv 27 2.2.3 Physicochemical Pretreatment 28 2.2.3.1 Steam Explosion (SE) 29 2.2.3.2 Liquid Hot Water (LHW) 29 2.2.3.3 Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX) 30 2.2.3.4 Supercritical CO 2 Explosion 30 2.2.4 Biological Pretreatment 31 2.3 Production of Levulinic Acid from Lignocellulosic Biomass 32 2.3.1 Processes for LA Production: Homogeneous Catalysts 35 2.3.2 Processes for LA Production: Heterogeneous Catalysts 38 2.3.3 Processes for LA Production: Biphasic Systems 40 2.3.4 The Biofine Process of LA Production 41 2.3.5 Downstream Process of LA Recovery 42 2.4 Commercial Plants for the Production of LA 44 2.5 Conclusion 47 References 47 3 Levulinate Derivatives – Main Production Routes and Uses of Organic and Inorganic Levulinates Derivatives 65 3.1 Main Production Routes 65 3.1.1 Esterification of Levulinic Acid 65 3.1.2 Direct Production from the Alcoholysis of Polyschacarides 71 3.1.3 Alcoholysis of Furfural 76 3.1.4 Alcoholysis of 5-Hydroxymethyl Furfural 82 3.1.5 Production of Levulinate Inorganic Salts 86 3.2 Importance and Market of the Levulinate Derivatives 87 3.3 Uses of Organic Levulinate Derivatives 88 3.3.1 Food and Cosmetic 88 3.3.2 Fuel Additives 89 3.3.3 Plasticizers 90 3.3.4 Solvents 91 3.4 Uses of Inorganic Levulinate Derivatives 93 3.4.1 Antifreeze Additive 93 3.4.2 Cosmetic, Pharmaceutical, and Food 93 3.4.3 Miscellaneous Applications 94 3.5 Conclusion 95 References 96 4 Levulinic Acid Hydrogenation 107 4.1 Levulinic Acid Hydrogenation Products 107 4.1.1 γ-Valerolactone (GVL) 107 4.1.1.1 GVL Versus Ethanol 111 4.1.1.2 2-Methyl-tetrahydrofuran (2-MTHF) 111 4.1.1.3 1,4-Pentanediol (1,4-PDO) 112 4.1.1.4 Alkyl Valerates 113 4.2 Performance of GVL as Fuel Additive 113 4.3 Levulinic Acid to γ-Valerolactone 114 4.3.1 Conversion of GVL into 1,4-PDO and 2-MTHF 115 4.3.2 GVL to Butenes and Hydrocarbons 117 4.4 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts for the Efficient Conversion of LA to GVL 121 4.4.1 Precious Metal Catalysts 121 4.4.2 Nonprecious Metal Catalyst 125 4.4.2.1 Copper-Based Catalysts 125 4.4.2.2 Nickel-Based Catalysts 127 4.4.2.3 Zirconium-Based Catalysts 130 4.4.2.4 Iron-Based Catalysts 130 4.5 Heterogeneous Catalysts for the Conversion of LA and GVL to 1,4-PDO and 2-MTHF 132 4.6 Types of Hydrogenating Agents 135 4.7 Patent Search of LA Hydrogenation 137 4.8 Conclusion 138 References 138 5 Carbonyl Reactions of Levulinic Acid – Ketals and Other Derivatives Formed Upon Reaction with the Carbonyl Group of Levulinic Acid. Production Routes, Technologies, and Main Uses 149 5.1 Levulinc Acid Ester Ketals Main Routes 150 5.1.1 Levulinic Acid Ester Ketals Main Uses 153 5.2 Succinic Acid 158 5.2.1 Petrochemical and Biotechnological Routes 158 5.2.2 Levulinic to Succinic Acid 163 5.2.3 Succinic Acid Main Uses 164 5.3 δ-Aminolevulinic Acid (DALA) Main Routes 167 5.3.1 δ-Aminolevulinic Acid Main Uses 169 5.4 5-Methyl-N-Alkyl-2-Pyrrolidone Main Routes 171 5.4.1 5-Methyl-N-Alkyl-2-Pyrrolidone Main Uses 177 5.5 Diphenolic Acid Main Routes 179 5.5.1 Diphenolic Levulinic Acid Main Uses 181 5.6 Conclusion 185 References 185 6 Levulinic Acid in the Context of a Biorefinery 197 6.1 Biorefinery 197 6.2 Sugar-Based Biorefinery 198 6.3 Levulinc Acid and Levulinates from a Sugar Cane Biorefinery 200 6.4 Production of γ-Valerolactone in a Sugar Cane Biorefinery 201 6.5 LA in the Context of a Biodiesel Plant 204 6.6 Conclusions 206 References 207 Index 209

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Book SynopsisA practical introduction to microwave plasma for processing applications at a variety of pressures In Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology, the authors deliver a comprehensive introduction to microwaves and microwave-generated plasmas. Ideal for anyone interested in non-thermal gas discharge plasmas and their applications, the book includes detailed descriptions, explanations, and practical guidance for the study and use of microwave power, microwave components, plasma, and plasma generation. This reference includes over 130 full-color diagrams to illustrate the concepts discussed within. The distinguished authors discuss the plasmas generated at different levels of power, as well as their applications at reduced, atmospheric and higher pressures. They also describe plasmas inside liquids and plasma interactions with combustion flames. Microwave Plasma Sources and Methods in Processing Technology concludes with an inTable of ContentsForeword from the Authors ix 1 Basic Principles and Components in the Microwave Techniques and Power Systems 1 1.1 History in Brief – From Alternating Current to Electromagnetic Waves and to Microwaves 1 1.2 Microwave Generators 3 1.3 Waveguides and Electromagnetic Modes in Wave Propagation 5 1.3.1 The Cut-off Frequency and the Wavelength in Waveguides 7 1.3.2 Waveguides Filled by Dielectrics 9 1.3.3 Wave Impedance and Standing Waves in Waveguides 10 1.3.4 Coaxial Transmission Lines 12 1.3.5 Microwave Resonators 14 1.4 Waveguide Power Lines 14 1.4.1 Magnetron Tube Microwave Generator 16 1.4.2 Microwave Insulators 16 1.4.3 Impedance Tuners 17 1.4.4 Directional Couplers 19 1.4.5 Passive Waveguide Components – Bends, Flanges, Vacuum Windows 20 1.4.6 Tapered Waveguides and Waveguide Transformers 22 1.4.7 Power Loads and Load Tuners 23 1.4.8 Waveguide Phase Shifters 25 1.4.9 Waveguide Shorting Plungers 25 1.4.10 Coupling from Rectangular to Circular Waveguide: Resonant Cavities for Generation of Plasma 26 1.5 Microwave Oven – A Most Common Microwave Power Device 28 References 33 2 Gas Discharge Plasmas 37 2.1 Basic Understanding of the Gas Discharge Plasmas 37 2.2 Generation of the Plasma, Townsend Coefficients, Paschen Curve 40 2.3 Generation of the Plasma by AC Power, Plasma Frequency, Cut-off Density 43 2.4 Space-charge Sheaths at Different Frequencies of the Incident Power 50 2.5 Classification of Gas Discharge Plasmas, Effects of Gas Pressure, Microwave Generation of Plasmas 55 2.5.1 Classification of Gas Discharge Plasmas 55 2.5.2 Effects of the Gas Pressure on Particle Collisions in the Plasma 58 2.5.3 Microwave Generation of Plasmas 61 References 64 3 Interactions of Plasmas with Solids and Gases 67 3.1 Plasma Processing, PVD, and PE CVD 67 3.2 Sputtering, Evaporation, Dry Etching, Cleaning, and Oxidation of Surfaces 72 3.3 Particle Transport in Plasma Processing and Effects of Gas Pressure 75 3.3.1 Movements of Neutral Particles 76 3.3.2 Movements of Charged Particles 77 3.3 Effect of the Gas Pressure on the Plasma Processing 79 3.4 Afterglow and Decaying Plasma Processing 81 References 83 4 Microwave Plasma Systems for Plasma Processing at Reduced Pressures 85 4.1 Waveguide-Generated Isotropic and Magnetoactive Microwave Plasmas 85 4.1.1 Waveguide-Generated Isotropic Microwave Oxygen Plasma for Silicon Oxidation 87 4.1.2 ECR and Higher Induction Magnetized Plasma Systems for Silicon Oxidation 93 4.2 PE CVD of Silicon Nitride Films in the Far Afterglow 105 4.3 Microwave Plasma Jets for PE CVD of Films 111 4.3.1 Deposition of Carbon Nitride Films 115 4.3.2 Surfajet Plasma Parameters and an Arrangement for Expanding the Plasma Diameter 119 4.4 Hybrid Microwave Plasma System with Magnetized Hollow Cathode 122 References 129 5 Microwave Plasma Systems at Atmospheric and Higher Pressures 135 5.1 Features of the Atmospheric Plasma and Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) Sources 136 5.2 Atmospheric Microwave Plasma Sources Assisted by Hollow Cathodes 140 5.2.1 Applications of the H-HEAD Plasma Source in Surface Treatments 144 5.3 Microwave Treatment of Diesel Exhaust 151 5.4 Microwave Plasma in Liquids 154 5.5 Microwave Plasma Interactions with Flames 157 5.6 Microwave Plasmas at Very High Pressures 161 References 162 6 New Applications and Trends in the Microwave Plasmas 169 References 176 7 Appendices 181 7.1 List of Symbols and Abbreviations 181 7.2 Constants and Numbers 188 Index 189

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Book SynopsisBIOFUEL EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES The energy industry and new energy sources and innovations are rapidly changing and evolving. This new volume addresses the current state-of-the-art concepts and technologies associated with biofuel extraction technologies. Biofuels are a viable alternative to petroleum-based fuel because they are produced from organic materials such as plants and their wastes, agricultural crops, and by-products. The development of cutting-edge technology has increased the need for energy significantly, which has resulted in an overreliance on fossil fuels. Renewable fuels are an important subject of research because of their biodegradability, eco-friendliness, decrease in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and favorable socioeconomic consequences to counteract imitations of fossil fuels. Different extraction techniques are used for the production of biofuel from renewable feedstocks. A good example is biodiesel, a promising biofuel which is produced bTable of ContentsPreface xix 1 Plant Seed Oils and Their Potential for Biofuel Production in India 1L. C. Meher and S. N. Naik 2 Processing of Feedstock in Context of Biodiesel Production 25Durgawati and Rama Chandra Pradhan 3 Extraction Techniques for Biodiesel Production 51Soumya Parida and Subhalaxmi Pradhan 4 Role of Additives on Anaerobic Digestion, Biomethane Generation, and Stabilization of Process Parameters 101Adya Isha, Bhaskar Jha, Tinku Casper D'Silva, Subodh Kumar, Sameer Ahmed Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay 5 An Overview on Established and Emerging Biogas Upgradation Systems for Improving Biomethane Quality 125Tinku Casper D'Silva, Adya Isha, Subodh Kumar, Sameer Ahmad Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay 6 Renewable Feedstocks for Biofuels 151Monika Chauhan, Vanshika, Ajay Kumar, Diwakar Chauhan and Arvind Kumar Jain 7 Extraction Techniques of Gas-to-Liquids (GtL) Fuels 177Sonali Kesarwani, Divya Bajpai Tripathy and Pooja Bhadana 8 Second Generation Biofuels and Extraction Techniques 207Prashant Kumar, Praveen Kumar Sharma, Shreya Tripathi, Deepak Kumar, Ashween Deepak Nannaware, Shivani Chaturvedi and Prasant Kumar Rout 9 Bio-Alcohol: Production, Purification, and Analysis Using Analytical Techniques 257Smrita Singh, Susanta Roy, Lalit Prasad and Ashutosh Singh Chauhan 10 Studies on Extraction Techniques of Bio-Hydrogen 291C. S. Madankar, Priti Borde and P. D. Meshram 11 Valorization of By-Products Produced During the Extraction and Purification of Biofuels 307Subodh Kumar, Tinku Casper D'Silva, Dushyant Kumar, Adya Isha, Sameer Ahmad Khan, Ram Chandra, Anushree Malik and Virendra Kumar Vijay 12 Valorization of Byproducts Produced During Extraction and Purification of Biodiesel: A Promising Biofuel 333Gunjan, Radhika Singh and Subhalaxmi Pradhan 13 Biofuel Applications: Quality Control and Assurance, Techno-Economics and Environmental Sustainability 367Sameer Ahmad Khan, Dushyant Kumar, Subodh Kumar, Adya Isha, Tinku Casper D'Silva, Ram Chandra and Virendra Kumar Vijay 14 Role of CO2 Triggered Switchable Polarity Solvents and Supercritical Solvents During Biofuel Extraction 421Anupama Sharma, Pinki Chakraborty, Karthikay Sankhyadhar, Sandeep Kumar and Monisha Singh 15 Efficiency of Catalysts During Biofuel Extraction 441Gajanan Sahu, Sudipta Datta, Sujan Saha, Prakash D. Chavan, Deshal Yadav and Vishal Chauhan 16 Microorganisms as Effective CO2 Assimilator for Biofuel Production 495Chandreyee Saha and Subhalaxmi Pradhan 17 Global Aspects of Biofuel Extraction 523Shilpi Bhatnagar and Shilpi Khurana 18 New Advancements of Biofuel Extractions and Future Trends 543Rita Sharma, Kuldip Dwivedi, Bhavna Sharma and Shashank Sharma References 556 About the Editors 559 Index 561

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Book SynopsisProcess Steam Systems A comprehensive and accessible handbook for process steam systems The revised second edition of Process Steam Systems: A Practical Guide for Operators, Maintainers, Designers, and Educators delivers a practical guide to ensuring steam systems are properly and efficiently designed, operated, and maintained. The book provides comprehensive information designed to improve process steam system knowledge, reliability, and integration into current manufacturing processes. The most up-to-date version of this volume includes brand-new coverage of current codes, sustainability measures, and updated applications. Heat transfer theory and thermodynamics are tied into practical applications with new practice problems ideal for both professionals seeking to improve their skills and engineers-in training. Readers will also find: Thorough design criteria for process steam systems, complete with detailed illustrations for piping and contrTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii List of Examples xv List of Tables xvii 1 Steam: a Heat Transfer Fluid 1 Why Steam? 1 Steam Is Safe and Flexible 2 Steam Is Easy to Control 2 The Concept of Steam Formation: Boiling 3 Pressure and Boiling 4 The Ideal Gas Law 6 2 The Development of Boiler Safety 9 How It All Began 9 The Consequences of Development 10 Development of Asme Code 12 Future of Steam 13 3 Understanding Heat Transfer 15 Radiation-Type Heat Transfer 15 Conduction-Type Heat Transfer 18 Convection-Type Heat Transfer 21 The Heat Transfer Equations 23 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) 23 mean Temperature Difference (ΔT M) 25 ΔT m for a Steam Boiler 26 ΔT m for a Steam to Process Fluid Heat Exchanger 27 Surface Area (m) 27 Heat Flux 30 4 Steam Formation, Accumulation, and Condensation 31 The Boiling Process 31 Steaming 32 Latent and Sensible Heat Versus Pressure 34 Condensation of Steam 34 The Formation of Flash Steam 36 Steam Accumulation and Storage 38 5 Steam Quality: It Matters 41 Why Steam Quality Is Important 42 Poor Steam Quality Causes and Cures 42 Steam Classifications 45 Measuring Steam Quality 47 Superheated Steam 48 6 The Steam System Design 53 Steam System Types 53 The Process Steam System: An Overview 55 7 The Steam Generator 59 The Ideal Steam Generator 60 Steam Generator Types 62 Fossil Fuel-Fired Boilers 62 Solid Fuel-Fired Boilers 68 Electric Boilers 70 Unfired Steam Generators 73 Heat Recovery Steam Generators 74 8 Boiler Operation and Trim 75 The Packaged Boiler Concept 76 Fuel Delivery and Combustion Systems 83 Low Emissions 91 Multiple Boiler Sequencing 94 9 The Steam Delivery System 97 Steam Flow 97 Steam Distribution Piping 98 Control Valves 111 Steam Accumulation 116 Steam Filtration 120 Sensors and Meters 122 Steam Metering 123 Stop and Safety Valves 123 10 The Condensate Recovery System 129 Condensate Line Sizing 131 Steam Trap Applications 134 Thermostatic Group 134 Mechanical Group 134 Thermodynamic Group 134 Thermostatic Steam Trap Group 134 Mechanical Group 136 Thermodynamic Group 139 Flash Steam Utilization 142 How to Size Flash Tanks and Vent Lines 143 Condensate Collection 146 Electric Condensate Return System 146 Pressure Motive Condensate Pump 148 Pressure Motive Pump Installation Requirements 148 Pumped Condensate Return Line Installation 151 Surge Tank Application 152 11 The Feed Water System 153 Feed Water Deaeration 153 The Elimination of Dissolved Gases 154 Feed Water Tanks 156 Feed Water Tank Sizing 158 Feed Water Pumps 160 Feed Water Pump Sizing 164 Feed Water Piping 166 Feed Water-Surge Tank Controls 168 12 Steam System Chemistry Control 169 Basic Water Chemistry 169 Scale Control 171 Fouling Control 174 Corrosion Control 175 Boiler Blowdown 178 Best Operating Practices for Boiler Blowdown 179 Automatic Versus Manual Blowdown Controls 179 Determining Blowdown Rate 180 Chemical Feed Systems 181 Chemistry Limits 183 Steam System Metallurgy 183 13 Mechanical Room Considerations 187 Codes and Standards 187 Steam Load Profile 190 Steam System Performance Considerations 192 Environmental Considerations 194 Boiler Room Utilities 200 14 Steam System Applications 207 Low-Pressure Steam with High Condensate Returns 209 High-Pressure Steam with High Condensate Returns 210 High- or Low-Pressure Steam with Little or No Returns 212 High-Pressure or Superheated Steam with Condensate Returns 214 Multiple Boiler Installations 215 Steam for Hot Water Generation 217 Other Miscellaneous Steam-Use Application Designs 219 15 Specialized Steam Equipment 223 Back Pressure Turbine 223 Steam Hydro Heater 225 Steam Superheaters 226 Steam Dump Mufflers 229 Jacketed Kettles 230 Sterilizers 230 Reboilers 231 16 Steam System Efficiency/Sustainability 233 The System Heat Balance 233 Boiler Heat Balance 234 Boiler Efficiency 234 Steam System Efficiency 239 Boiler Internal Cleanliness 244 Steam Delivery System Efficiency 245 Condensate and Feed Water System Efficiency 246 Biomass Fuel Water Content Reduction 248 17 Shutdown, Startup, Inspection, and Maintenance 249 Shutdown and Startup Practices 249 Boiler Safety Checks 251 Maintenance and Inspection Practices 253 Inspections 255 Boil Out and Layup Practices 257 18 Troubleshooting and Commissioning Basics 261 Startup Versus Commissioning 261 Approach to Troubleshooting 262 Don’t Play the Blame Game 262 Precommissioning 263 19 Commissioning and Troubleshooting the Steam Generator 265 Determining Boiler Input, Output, and Efficiency 265 Boiler Performance Test 267 Commissioning the Boiler Burner Controls 269 Commissioning the Boiler Pressure Control System 269 Commissioning the Boiler Level Control System 270 Commissioning the Boiler Blowdown Controls 270 Steam Boiler Troubleshooting 270 20 Commissioning and Troubleshooting the Steam Delivery System 279 Steam Distribution Piping 279 Control Valves 280 Steam Piping Venting 281 Condensate Trapping/Draining 281 Troubleshooting the Steam Delivery System 281 21 Commissioning and Troubleshooting the Condensate and Feed Water System 283 Condensate Collection 283 Feed Water System 285 Troubleshooting the Condensate and Feed Water Systems 285 22 Commissioning and Troubleshooting the Water Treatment Equipment 289 Setting Up the Water Treatment Systems 289 Troubleshooting Water Treatment System Problems 290 23 Sample Problem Sets 293 Appendix A References and Reference Information 297 Appendix B Operations, Maintenance, and Inspection Guidance 313 Appendix C Steam System Design and Commissioning Guidance 323 Appendix D Problem Set Answers 331 Index341

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Book SynopsisDestruction of Hazardous Chemicals in the Laboratory Single volume reference providing procedural information for the destruction of a wide variety of hazardous chemicals Destruction of Hazardous Chemicals in the Laboratory is a practical reference that describes procedures for the destruction of a comprehensive list of hazardous chemicals and provides general methods for the destruction of hazardous chemicals in the laboratory without the need for exotic reagents and equipment. Unlike most other sources on this subject, detailed reaction parameters are provided to readers. These details will help the reader decide if a procedure will be appropriate. To further aid in reader comprehension, numerous tables throughout the book allow for ready comparison of procedures. Destruction of Hazardous Chemicals in the Laboratory also describes the critical aspects of various protocols (e.g., UV lamp type and rate of ozone flow). The updated fourth editTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii Introduction 1 Safety considerations 9 Nitrosamine Formation 12 Sodium Hypochlorite 15 Nickel–Aluminum Alloy 18 Potassium Permanganate 19 Specific Methods for the Destruction of Hazardous Chemicals in the Laboratory 25 Acetonitrile 27 Acid Halides and Anhydrides 31 Aflatoxins 35 Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals 43 Alkali Metal Alkoxides 47 Anatoxin-A 49 Aromatic Amines 53 Arsenic 61 Azides 65 Azo and Azoxy Compounds and Tetrazenes 73 Boron Trifluoride and Inorganic Fluorides 79 Botulinum Toxins 83 Brevetoxins 87 Butyllithium 91 Calcium Carbide 95 Carbamic Acid Esters 97 Carbofuran 101 Chloromethylsilanes and Silicon Tetrachloride 103 N-Chlorosuccinimide and Chloramine-T 105 Chlorosulfonic Acid 107 Chromium(VI) 109 Citrinin 115 Complex Metal Hydrides 123 Cyanides and Cyanogen Bromide 129 Cylindrospermopsin 137 Diisopropyl Fluorophosphate 141 Dimethyl Sulfate and Related Compounds 149 Dyes and Biological Stains 161 Ethidium Bromide 195 Haloethers 203 Halogenated Compounds 207 Halogens 223 Heavy Metals 227 Hexamethylphosphoramide 233 Hydrazines 235 Hypochlorites 247 Mercury 251 2-Methylaziridine 257 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) 261 Microcystins 265 4-Nitrobiphenyl 275 3-Nitrofluoranthene and 3-Aminofluoranthene 277 Nitrogen Tetroxide 281 N-Nitroso Compounds: Nitrosamides 283 N-Nitroso Compounds: Nitrosamines 295 Ochratoxin A 307 Okadaic Acid 315 Organic nitriles 319 Osmium tetroxide 321 Palytoxin 323 Patulin 327 Peracids 333 Perchlorates 335 Peroxides and Hydroperoxides 339 Phenol 343 Phosgene 347 Phosphorus and Phosphorus Pentoxide 351 Picric Acid 355 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 357 Polycyclic Heterocyclic Hydrocarbons 367 Potassium Permanganate 381 β-Propiolactone 383 Protease Inhibitors 385 Ricin 389 Saxitoxin 393 Selenium Compounds 397 Sodium Amide 399 Sterigmatocystin 401 Sulfonyl Fluoride Enzyme Inhibitors 407 Sulfur-Containing Compounds 413 T-2 Toxin and Other Tricothecenes 419 Tetrodotoxin 425 Triacetone Triperoxide 429 Uranyl Compounds 433 Destruction of Pharmaceuticals 437 General Considerations 439 Potassium Permanganate 451 Nickel–Aluminum Alloy Reduction 467 Fenton Reaction 473 Hydrogen Peroxide 479 Ozone 481 Ferrate 497 Persulfate 505 Hydrogen Peroxide and Horseradish Peroxidase 513 Specific Degradation Procedures for ß-Lactams 515 Decontamination of Aqueous Solutions 517 Miscellaneous Chemical Degradation Procedures 523 General Considerations for Photolytic Procedures 535 Photolysis Without Added Reactants (UV Only) 537 Photolysis with Hydrogen Peroxide (UV/H2O2) 555 Photo-Fenton Reaction 573 Photolysis with Titanium Dioxide (UV/TiO2) 589 Photolysis with Zinc Oxide (UV/ZnO) 605 Photolysis with Ozone (UV/O3) 609 Photolysis with Persulfate (UV/Persulfate) 615 Photolysis with Chlorine (UV/Cl2) 631 Miscellaneous Photolytic Procedures (UV/Miscellaneous) 643 Procedures Classified by Method 649 General Considerations 651 Potassium Permanganate 655 Fenton Reaction 659 Ozone 667 Persulfate 677 Miscellaneous Procedures 683 Photolysis Without Added Reactants (UV only) 691 Photolysis with Hydrogen Peroxide (UV/H2O2) 697 Photo-Fenton Reaction 707 Photolysis with Titanium Dioxide (UV/TiO2) 715 Photolysis with Zinc Oxide (UV/ZnO) 727 Photolysis with Ozone (UV/O3) 735 Photolysis with Persulfate (UV/Persulfate) 741 Photolysis with Chlorine (UV/Cl2) 747 Biologicals 751 Appendixes 777 Appendix I: Procedures for Drying Organic Solvents 779 Appendix II: Safety Considerations With Potassium Permanganate 783 Cross-Index of Names for Dyes and Biological Stains 791 Cross-Index of Methods Used for Specific Dyes and Biological Stains 813 Cross-Index of Methods Used for Pharmaceuticals 817 Name Index 837

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Book SynopsisGenomics Approach to Bioremediation Provides insights into the various aspects of microbial genomics and biotechnology for environmental cleanup In recent years, the application of genomics to biodegradation and bioremediation research has led to a better understanding of the metabolic capabilities of microorganisms, their interactions with hazardous and toxic chemical compounds, and their adaptability to changing environmental conditions. Genomics Approach to Bioremediation: Principles, Tools, and Emerging Technologies provides comprehensive and up-to-date information on cutting-edge technologies and approaches in bioremediation and biodegradation of environmental pollutants. Edited by prominent researchers in the field, this authoritative reference examines advanced genomics technologies, next-generation sequencing (NGS), and state-of-the-art bioinformatics tools while offering valuable insights into the unique functional attributes of different microbiTable of ContentsAbout the Editors xxiii List of Contributors xxv Preface xxxiii Acknowledgements xxxix Part 1 Fundamentals of Metagenomics and Bioremediation 1 1 Application of Bioremediation for Environmental Clean-Up: Issues, Recent Developments, and the Way Forward 3 Sneha Bandyopadhyay, Vivek Rana, and Subodh Kumar Maiti 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Bioremediation: A Sustainable Approach 4 1.3 Importance of Vegetation for Bioremediation 8 1.4 Application of Bioremediation to Clean Up Environmental Pollutants 8 1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioremediation Technology 9 1.6 Recent Advancements in Bioremediation Technology 10 1.7 Conclusion 12 References 12 2 Omics in Biomethanation and Environmental Remediation 17 Manan Kaur Ghai, Indu Shekhar Thakur, and Shaili Srivastava 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Feedstocks Used 18 2.3 Microbiology and Biochemical Reactions in Anaerobic Digestions 21 2.4 Omics in Biomethanation and Bioremediation 23 2.5 Role of Factors in Anaerobic Digestions in Biomethanation 26 2.6 Inhibitory Substances for Anaerobic Digestion 28 2.7 Degradation and Bioremediation of Toxic Compounds for Enhanced Production of Biomethanation 29 2.8 Circular Economy Perspective in Biogas Production 30 2.9 Conclusion 32 References 32 3 Enzyme Immobilization: An Effective Platform to Improve the Reusability and Catalytic Efficiency of Enzymes 35 Nisha Bhardwaj, Komal Agrawal, and Pradeep Verma 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Immobilization of Enzymes 36 3.3 Aspects Affecting the Performance of Immobilized Enzyme 37 3.4 Factors Contributing Toward the Immobilized Enzyme Activity Enhancement 40 3.5 Immobilized Enzyme Applications 44 3.6 Conclusion 44 References 46 4 Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation: Case Studies 53 Ana Maria Queijeiro López and Amanda Lys dos Santos Silva 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Biostimulation 54 4.3 Bioagumentation 57 4.4 Commercially Available Bioremediation Agents 63 4.5 Conclusions 65 References 65 5 Plant Microbe Synergism for Arsenic Stress Amelioration in Crop Plants 69 Vandana Anand, Jasvinder Kaur, Sonal Srivastava, Varsha Dharmesh, Vidisha Bist, Akshita Maheshwari, Sumit Yadav, and Suchi Srivastava 5.1 Introduction 69 5.2 Distribution of Arsenic in Soil and Water 70 5.3 Methods of Arsenic Remediation 71 5.4 Arsenic-Induced Toxicity in Crop Plants 73 5.5 Arsenic Remediation Through Mineral Fertilization 74 5.6 Bioremediation 76 5.7 Plant–Microbe Interaction and Their Role in Reducing As Toxicity in Crop Plants 80 5.8 Plant–Microbe Interaction as a Boon for Arsenic Remediation 82 5.9 Microbial Methylation of Arsenic in Soil and its Reduced Uptake in Plants 83 5.10 Conclusion 85 References 85 6 Metagenomic Characterization and Applications of Microbial Surfactants in Remediation of Potentially Toxic Heavy Metals for Environmental Safety: Recent Advances and Challenges 89 Geetansh Sharma, Kirti Shyam, Saurabh Thakur, Manu Yadav, Saransh Nair, Navneet Kumar, Himani Chandel, and Gaurav Saxena 6.1 Introduction 89 6.2 Biosurfactants’ Characteristics 90 6.3 Classification of Biosurfactants 91 6.4 Screening of Microorganisms for Biosurfactants Production 96 6.5 Metagenomic Characterization of Biosurfactant-Producing Microorganisms 99 6.6 Biosynthesis of Biosurfactants 100 6.7 Characterization of Biosurfactants 101 6.8 Factors Influencing Biosurfactants Production 104 6.9 Applications of Biosurfactants in Heavy Metals Environmental Remediation 105 6.10 Challenges in Cost-Effective Production of Biosurfactants 107 6.11 Future Research Needs 110 6.12 Conclusions 110 References 111 Part 2 Metagenomics in Environmental Cleanup 125 7 Metagenomic Approaches Applied to Bioremediation of Xenobiotics 127 Júlia Ronzella Ottoni, Márcio Thomaz dos Santos Varjão, Aline Cavalcanti de Queiroz, Alysson Wagner Fernandes Duarte, and Michel Rodrigo Zambrano Passarini 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Metagenomic Approaches in Bioremediation Processes 129 7.3 Metagenomics in the Hydrocarbon Degradation 131 7.4 Metagenomic Approaches in the Drugs Degradation 133 7.5 Metagenomic Approaches in the Dye Degradation 134 7.6 Metagenomic Approaches in the Pesticides Degradation 135 7.7 Metagenomics in Heavy Metal Biorremediation 136 References 137 8 Omics Approaches for Microalgal Applications in Wastewater Treatment 143 Banani Ray Chowdhury, Sudip Das, Shreyan Bardhan, and Dibyajit Lahiri 8.1 Introduction 143 8.2 Concept on Microalgal Biofilms 144 8.3 Factors Influencing Nutrient Extraction and Microalgal Growth 148 8.4 Mechanism of Microalgal Remediation 148 8.5 Multi-Omics Approach 150 8.6 Conclusion 153 References 153 9 Microbial Community Profiling in Wastewater of Effluent Treatment Plant 157 Hansa Mathur, Navneet Joshi, and Sarita Khaturia 9.1 Source of Wastewater 157 9.2 Wastewater Treatment Plant 158 9.3 Wastewater Treatment Facilities Have a Wide Range of Microbial Diversity 159 9.4 Microbial Composition in WWTPs 161 9.5 Screening, Selection, and Identification of Microbial Communities 165 9.6 Health Problem for Wastewater Treatment Employees 172 9.7 Conclusion 174 9.8 Future Prospective 174 References 175 10 Mining of Novel Microbial Enzymes Using Metagenomics Approach for Efficient Bioremediation: An Overview 183 Shruti Dwivedi, Supriya Gupta, Aiman Tanveer, Gautam Anand, Sangeeta Yadav, and Dinesh Yadav 10.1 Introduction 183 10.2 Omics for Microbial Enzymes in Bioremediation 184 10.3 Implementing Metagenomics for Énvironmental Remediations 186 10.4 Metagenomics, Microbial Enzymes, and Bioremediation 189 10.5 Meta –Omics Advances for Bioremediation 192 10.6 Conclusion 194 References 195 11 Bioremediation Approaches for Genomic Microalgal Applications in Wastewater Treatment 199 N. Nirmala, S.S. Dawn, and J. Arun 11.1 Introduction 199 11.2 Implantation of Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment 200 11.3 Strategies to Enhance the Removal of Nutrients 201 11.4 Mechanism of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal from Wastewater 202 11.5 Biofuel Production with Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment 203 11.6 Genetic Engineering and Bioremediation Approaches 204 11.7 Bioremediation Approaches in Value-Added Products Formation 205 11.8 Economic Feasibility of Nutrient Removal Methods 206 11.9 Conclusion 206 References 207 12 Application of Microbial Enzymes in Wastewater Treatment 209 Saloni Sahal, Sarita Khaturia, and Navneet Joshi 12.1 Introduction 209 12.2 Types and Functions of Microbial Enzymes 211 12.3 Major Contaminants in Waste Water 212 12.4 Technologies Used for Enzymatic Treatment of Waste Water 216 12.5 Enzymatic Treatment Benefits 220 12.6 Conclusion 221 12.7 Future Perspectives 222 References 222 13 Microbial Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons: Progress, Prospects, and Challenges 229 Kuruvalli Gouthami, A.M.M. Mallikarjunaswamy, Ram Naresh Bhargava, Luiz Fernando Romanholo Ferreira, Abbas Rahdar, Ganesh Dattatraya Saratale, Paul Olusegun Bankole, and Sikandar I. Mulla 13.1 Introduction 229 13.2 Pollution and Toxic Effect of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 232 13.3 Taxonomic Relationships of Hydrocarbon-Utilizing Microorganisms 234 13.4 Biotransformation 235 13.5 Microbial-Mediated Remediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 235 13.6 Metagenomics Approaches 243 13.7 Current and Future Prospective 244 Acknowledgments 245 References 245 14 Sewage Treatment System: Recent Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities 249 Teow Yeit Haan, Ho Kah Chun, and Chien Hwa Chong 14.1 Introduction 249 14.2 Important Monitoring and Water Quality Parameters in Biological Sewage Treatment Systems 251 14.3 Biological Treatment Option for Sewage Treatment Systems 253 14.4 Challenges and Opportunities with Current Biological Sewage Treatment Processes 262 14.5 Conclusion 264 Acknowledgments 264 Abbreviation 265 References 265 15 Omics Approach in Nano-Bioremediation of Persistent Organic Pollutants 271 Jyoti, Nikita Yadav, Indu Shekhar, and Shaili Srivastava 15.1 Introduction 271 15.2 POP Into the Environment 272 15.3 Nano-bioremediation of POPs 273 15.4 Types of POPs and Their Degradation Pathways in the Environment 274 15.5 Nanomaterial Used in Thermal Degradation of Persistent Organic Pollutants 283 15.6 Conclusion 289 References 290 16 Application of Genetically Modified Microorganisms for Bioremediation of Heavy Metals from Wastewater 295 Ankita Bhatt, Jugnu Shandilya, S.K. Singal, and Sanjeev Kumar Prajapati 16.1 Introduction 295 16.2 Bioremediation 296 16.3 Genetically Modified Microorganisms (GMMs) for Bioremediation 302 16.4 GMMs for Bioremediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Wastewater 303 16.5 Case Studies 305 16.6 Conclusions 312 Acknowledgments 313 References 313 17 Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons: From Microbial Growth to Genomics 321 Isabela Karina Della-Flora, Vanessa Kristine de Oliveira Schmidt, Karina Cesca, Maikon Kelbert, Débora de Oliveira, and Cristiano José de Andrade 17.1 Introduction 321 17.2 Impact of Petroleum Hydrocarbons on Microbial Diversity 322 17.3 Genomic Approaches 323 17.4 Soil Bioremediation 328 17.5 Groundwater and Surface Water Bioremediation 332 17.6 Organic and Inorganic Amendments to Biostimulation 335 17.7 Conclusion 338 References 338 18 Omics Approach in Bioremediation of Heavy Metals (HMs) in Industrial Wastewater 343 Nikita Yadav, Jyoti, Indu Shekhar, and Shaili Srivastava 18.1 Introduction 343 18.2 Nomenclature Used 344 18.3 Heavy Metals as Pollutant Into the Water Environment: Sources and Pathways 344 18.4 Toxicity and Physio-Biochemical Effects of Heavy Metals 348 18.5 Existing Technologies for the Removal of Heavy Metals from the Environmental Matrices 350 18.6 Omics Approach in the Bioremediation of Heavy Metals 353 18.7 Nano-Bioremediation of Heavy Metals: An Emerging Approach 356 18.8 Recent Advancement and Development of Nano-Bioremediation of HMs 356 18.9 Conclusion 358 References 358 Part 3 Recent Trends and Future Outlook in Metagenomics to Bioremediation 363 19 CRISPR/Cas Editing in Relation to Phytoremediation: Progress and Prospects 365 Satarupa Dey, Uttpal Anand, Devendra Kumar Pandey, Mimosa Ghorai, Mahipal S.Shekhawat, Muddasarul Hoda, Potshangbam Nongdam, and Abhijit Dey 19.1 Introduction 365 19.2 Conventional Molecular Tools for Creating Genetically Modified Plants 366 19.3 CRISPR-Mediated Gene Editing Technique 367 19.4 Target Genes of CRISPR-Mediated Genetic Modification 368 19.5 CRISPR-Mediated Strategies for Phytoremediation 370 19.6 Role CRISPR-Mediated Strategies in Generating Stress Tolerant Plants 371 19.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 372 References 372 20 Biosensors as a Principal Tool for Bioremediation Monitoring 379 Simranjeet Singh, Monika Thakur, Daljeet Singh Dhanjal, Ruby Angurana, Dhriti Kapoor, Vaidehi Katoch, Tunisha Verma, Joginder Singh, and Praveen C. Ramamurthy 20.1 Introduction 379 20.2 Types of Biosensors 380 20.3 Biochemical Potential and Working of Different Biosensors 383 20.4 Analysis Systems of Biosensors for Bioremediation Detection 384 20.5 Using Biosensors to Detect Biochemical Potentials 384 20.6 Biosensors 386 20.7 Molecular-Based Methods 386 20.8 Biosensors Based on Enzymes 387 20.9 Bioaffinity-Based Biosensors 387 20.10 Monitoring Bioremediation 387 20.11 Parameters Monitored During Bioremediation 388 20.12 Chemical Parameters 388 20.13 Biological Parameters 388 20.14 Toxicity Assessment 389 20.15 Online Monitoring of Bioremediation 389 20.16 Conclusion 389 Acknowledgment 390 References 390 21 Integration of Pathway Analysis as a Powerful Tool for Microbial Remediation of Pollutants 397 Parul Johri, Aditi Singh, Mala Trivedi, and Sachidanand Singh 21.1 Introduction 397 21.2 Microbial Approaches for Remediation of Pollutants 398 21.3 Integration of Genetic and Metabolic Engineering in Remediation Process 399 21.4 Alternative Strategies for Microbial Remediation of Pollutants via Synthetic Biology 403 21.5 Using Bacteria as Whole Cell Bacterial Catalysis 407 21.6 Ecological Safety and Risk Assessment 409 21.7 Future Perspective and Challenges 410 21.8 Conclusion 411 References 412 22 Oxidative Catalytic Potential of Lignin-Modifying Enzymes in the Treatment of Emerging Contaminants 417 Sthefany Araujo Bomfim, Gabriela Pereira Barros, Ram Naresh Bharagava, Vineet Kumar, Katlin Ivon Barrios Eguiluz, and Luiz Fernando Romanholo Ferreira 22.1 Introduction 417 22.2 Ligninolytic Enzymes 418 22.3 Conclusion and Perspectives 425 References 425 23 Omics Technologies in Environmental Microbiology and Microbial Ecology: Insightful Applications in Bioremediation Research 433 Kirti Shyam, Navneet Kumar, Himani Chandel, Abhinav Singh Dogra, Geetansh Sharma, and Gaurav Saxena 23.1 Introduction 433 23.2 Basics of Bioremediation 434 23.3 Limitations of Conventional Molecular Sequencing Technologies 437 23.4 Omics Technologies: An Overview 437 23.5 Applications of Omics in Bioremediation Research 440 23.6 Computational, Bioinformatics, and Biostatistics Tools in Omics Approaches 444 23.7 Challenges and Opportunities 448 23.8 Conclusions 449 References 449 24 Bioinformatics and Its Contribution to Bioremediation and Genomics: Recent Trends and Advancement 455 Sonal Nigam and Surbhi Sinha 24.1 Introduction 455 24.2 Bioinformatics Tools for Bioremediation 456 24.3 Application of Omics Technology in Bioremediation 462 24.4 Conclusion 464 References 464 25 Genetically Modified Bacteria for Arsenic Bioremediation 467 Sougata Ghosh and Bishwarup Sarkar 25.1 Introduction 467 25.2 Genetically Modified Bacteria for Arsenic Bioremediation 468 25.3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 481 References 481 26 Proteomics and Bioremediation Using Prokaryotes 485 Ana Maria Queijeiro López and Amanda Lys dos Santos Silva 26.1 Introduction 485 26.2 Prokaryotic Membranes, Proteins, and Adaptation to Biodegradation Dynamics 486 26.3 Stimuli to Biodegradation 488 26.4 Protein Contribution of Subcellular Components to Biodegradation 489 26.5 Expression of Proteins and Proteomic Steps 491 26.6 Strategies for Identifying and Quantifying Proteins by Mass Spectrometry (MS) 493 26.7 Posttranslational Modifications of Proteins 495 26.8 Improvements Required to Proteomic Techniques 497 26.9 Conclusions 499 References 499 Index 503

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Book SynopsisBiosurfactants and Sustainability A timely and authoritative collection of resources on the sustainable production of biosurfactants In Biosurfactants and Sustainability, a team of distinguished researchers presents emerging themes in the rapidly evolving field of biosurfactants. The editors have chosen work that focuses on biosurfactants as eco-friendly and versatile compounds of interest in societies seeking sustainable forms of development. The book examines biosurfactants in the context of biorefineries and in the exploration of extremophilic microorganisms for biosurfactant production. The included works discuss biosurfactant production from different lignocellulosic and amylaceous raw materials, as well as oilseeds and other agro-industrial byproducts. Readers will also find: A thorough introduction to microorganisms producing biosurfactants, as well as sustainable biosurfactant production in biorefineries Comprehensive explorations Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Foreword xv Introduction 1 Paulo Ricardo Franco Marcelino, Carlos Augusto Ramos, Guilherme de Oliveira Silva, Ramiro Reyes Guzman, Silvio Silverio da Silva, and Antonio Ortiz Lopez Biosurfactants: Concept, Biological Functions, Classification, General Properties and Applications 1 1 Microorganisms Producing Biosurfactants in the Current Scenario 11 Fernanda Palladino, Rita C.L.B. Rodrigues, Yasmim Senden dos Santos, and Carlos A. Rosa 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 Microbial Biosurfactants 12 1.2.1 Structure and Classification of Biosurfactants 12 1.2.2 Biosurfactants Producing Yeasts 14 1.2.3 Biosurfactants Produced by Extremophile Microorganisms 17 1.3 Industrial Applications of Biosurfactants 18 References 20 2 Selection of Biosurfactant-Producing Microorganisms 29 Julio Bonilla Jaime, Luis Galarza Romero, and Jonathan Coronel León 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 Traditional Methods of Detection 30 2.2.1 Direct Measure of Surface/interfacial Activity 31 2.2.2 Indirect Measure of Surface/interfacial Activity 32 2.2.3 EffectsofCultureMediaBasedonAgro-industrialBy-productsonProperties of BS 34 2.3 High-throughputAnalysisMethodfortheScreeningofPotentialBiosurfactants Producers 35 2.4 Screening of Microorganisms Biosurfactants and Lipases Producers 40 2.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 45 References 46 3 Metabolic Engineering as a Tool for Biosurfactant Production by Microorganisms 61 Roberta Barros Lovaglio, Vinícius Luiz da Silva, and Jonas Contiero 3.1 Metabolic Engineering and Biosurfactants 61 3.2 Regulation and Heterologous Production of Biosurfactants 63 3.3 Extension of Substrate Range for Biosurfactant Production 67 3.4 Improvement of Overall Cellular Physiology 68 3.5 Elimination or Reduction of By-product 69 3.6 Future Perspectives 69 3.7 Conclusions 70 References 71 4 Biosurfactant Production in the Context of Biorefineries 77 Paulo Ricardo Franco Marcelino, Carlos Augusto Ramos, Maria Teresa Ramos, Renan Murbach Pereira, Rafael Rodrigues Philippini, Emily Emy Matsumura, and Silvio Silvério da Silva 4.1 Biorefineries in Contemporary Society 77 4.2 Biomass and Biorefineries: Industrial By-products as Raw Materials for Biorefineries 78 4.3 Biosurfactant Production in the Context of Lignocellulosic Biorefineries 80 4.4 Biosurfactant Production in the Context of Oleaginous Biorefineries 85 4.5 Biosurfactant Production in the Context of Starchy and Biodiesel Biorefineries 87 4.6 Conclusion 88 References 88 5 Biosurfactant Production by Solid-state Fermentation in Biorefineries 95 Daylin Rubio-Ribeaux, Rogger Alessandro Mata da Costa, Dayana Montero Rodríguez, Nathália Sá Alencar do Amaral Marques, Gilda Mariano Silva, and Silvio Silvério da Silva 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Advantages of Biosurfactant Production by Solid-State Fermentation 96 5.3 Suitable Biomasses for Biosurfactant Production in Biorefineries 96 5.4 Microorganisms Used in Biosurfactant Production by Solid-state Fermentation 98 5.5 Raw Materials Used in Solid-state Fermentation for Biosurfactant Production 99 5.6 Pretreatment of Raw Materials for the Production of Biosurfactants in Solid-state Fermentation 101 5.7 Physicochemical Factors of Solid-state Fermentation 103 5.8 Strategies for Scaling-up of Solid-state Fermentation for Biosurfactant Production 105 5.9 Conclusion 108 References 108 6 An Overview of Developments and Challenges in the Production of Biosurfactant by Fermentation Processes 117 F.G. Barbosa, M.J. Castro-Alonso, T.M. Rocha, S. Sánchez-Muñoz, G.L. de Arruda, M.C.A. Viana, C.A. Prado, P.R.F. Marcelino, J.C. Santos, and Silvio S. Da Silva 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Current Market and Potential Applications of Biosurfactants 118 6.3 Biosurfactant as a Sustainable Alternative: Factors Influencing its Production 118 6.3.1 Factors Involved in the Biosurfactant Production 119 6.4 Strategies and Main Challenges for Biosurfactant Production 122 6.4.1 Process Configurations as Strategies for Biosurfactant Production 123 6.4.2 Bioreactors Used in the Biosurfactants Production: Types, Advantages, and Disadvantages 125 6.4.3 Biosurfactant Separation Processes 128 6.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusion 132 References 132 7 Enzymatic Production of Biosurfactants 143 Ana Karine F. de Carvalho, Heitor B.S. Bento, Felipe R. Carlos, Vitor B. Hidalgo, Cintia M. Romero, Bruno C. Gambarato, and Patrícia C.M. Da Rós 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 What are the Biosurfactants Produced Enzymatically? Esterification Reactions of Sugars and Fatty Acids Catalyzed by Enzymes 144 7.2.1 Esterification Reactions of Sugars and Fatty Acids Catalyzed by Enzymes 144 7.3 Enzymes and Methods for Biosurfactant Production: Bioreactors and Ways of Conducting Enzymatic Processes 145 7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Enzymatic Biosurfactant Production 148 7.5 Potential Use of Enzymes for the Production of Biosurfactants 149 7.6 Production of Biosurfactants by the Enzymatic Route in Biorefineries: Demand for More Modern Production Processes 150 7.7 Conclusion 153 References 153 8 Co-production of Biosurfactants and Other Bioproducts in Biorefineries 157 Martha Inés Vélez-Mercado, Carlos Antonio Espinosa-Lavenant, Juan Gerardo Flores-Iga, Fernando Hernández Teran, María de Lourdes Froto Madariaga, and Nagamani Balagurusamy 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Microbial Surfactant Production 158 8.3 Co-production of Biosurfactants in a Biorefinery 160 8.3.1 Co-production of Biosurfactants and Polyhydroxyalkanoates 161 8.3.2 Co-production of Biosurfactants and Enzymes 162 8.3.3 Co-production of Biosurfactants and Lipids 164 8.3.4 Co-production of Biosurfactants and Ethanol 165 8.4 Conclusions 166 References 166 9 Biosurfactants in Nanotechnology: Recent Advances and Applications 173 Avinash P. Ingle, Shreshtha Saxena, Mangesh Moharil, Mahendra Rai, and Silvio S. Da Silva 9.1 Introduction 173 9.2 Biosurfactants and their Types 174 9.2.1 Glycolipid Biosurfactants 174 9.2.2 Rhamnolipids 174 9.2.3 Trehalolipids 175 9.2.4 Sophorolipids 175 9.2.5 Mannosylerythritol Lipids 175 9.2.6 Lipopeptide Biosurfactants 175 9.2.7 Phospholipid Biosurfactants 176 9.2.8 Polymeric Biosurfactants 176 9.3 Properties of Biosurfactants 178 9.3.1 Surface and Interface Activity 178 9.3.2 Efficiency 179 9.3.3 Foaming Capacity 179 9.3.4 Emulsification/Emulsion Forming and Emulsion Breaking 179 9.3.5 Tolerance for Temperature and pH Tolerance 180 9.3.6 Low Toxicity 180 9.3.7 Biodegradability 180 9.4 Conventional Methods for Biosurfactant Production 180 9.5 Commercial Applications of Biosurfactants 182 9.5.1 Application of Biosurfactants in Agriculture 182 9.5.2 Application of Biosurfactants in Nanotechnology 183 9.5.3 Applications of Biosurfactants in Commercial Laundry Detergents 184 9.5.4 Application of Biosurfactants in Medicine 184 9.5.5 Application of Biosurfactants in the Food Processing Industry 185 9.5.6 Application of Biosurfactants in the Cosmetic Industry 185 9.5.7 Application of Biosurfactants in Petroleum 185 9.5.8 Application of Biosurfactant in Microbial-enhanced Oil Recovery 186 9.6 Biosurfactants in Nanotechnology (Biosurfactant Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles) 186 9.6.1 Glycolipids Biosurfactants Produced Nanoparticles 186 9.6.2 Lipopeptides Biosurfactants Produced Nanoparticles 187 9.7 Conclusions 188 References 188 10 Interaction of Glycolipid Biosurfactants with Model Membranes and Proteins 195 Francisco J. Aranda, Antonio Ortiz, and José A. Teruel 10.1 Introduction 195 10.2 Interaction of Glycolipid Biosurfactants with Model Membranes 196 10.2.1 Rhamnolipids 197 10.2.2 Trehalose Lipids 206 10.2.3 Other Glycolipids 209 10.3 Interaction of Glycolipid Biosurfactants with Proteins 211 10.3.1 Rhamnolipids 211 10.3.2 Trehalose Lipids 211 10.3.3 Mannosylerythritol Lipids 212 10.4 Conclusions 212 References 213 11 Biosurfactants: Properties and Current Therapeutic Applications 221 Cristiani Baldo, Maria Ines Rezende, and Fabiana Guillen Moreira Gasparin 11.1 Production of Microbial Biosurfactants 221 11.2 Anti-tumoral Activity of Biosurfactants 223 11.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity of Biosurfactants 226 11.4 Anti-microbial Activity of Biosurfactant 228 11.4.1 Biosurfactants as Anti-bacterial Agents 229 11.4.2 Biosurfactants as Anti-viral Agents 231 11.4.3 Biosurfactants as Anti-fungal Agents 232 11.5 Other Therapeutic Applications of Biosurfactants 233 11.6 Concluding Remarks 234 References 234 12 Fungal Biosurfactants: Applications in Agriculture and Environmental Bioremediation Processes 243 Láuren Machado Drumond de Souza, Débora Luiza Costa Barreto, Lívia da Costa Coelho, Elisa Amorim Amâncio Teixeira, Vívian Nicolau Gonçalves, Júlia de Paula Muzetti Ribeiro, Natana Gontijo Rabelo, Stephanie Evelinde Oliveira Alves, Mayanne Karla da Silva, Laura Beatriz Miranda Martins, Charles Lowell Cantrell, Stephen Oscar Duke, and Luiz Henrique Rosa 12.1 Biosurfactants as Agrochemicals 243 12.1.1 Biosurfactants as Herbicide Adjuvants 244 12.1.2 Biosurfactants and Antifungal Activity 245 12.1.3 Biosurfactants as Insecticidal Adjuvants 246 12.2 Insecticidal Biosurfactants for Use against Disease Vector Insects 246 12.3 Fungal Biosurfactants in Bioremediation Processes 248 References 249 13 New Formulations Based on Biosurfactants and Their Potential Applications 255 Maria Jose Castro-Alonso, Fernanda G. Barbosa, Thiago A. Vieira, Diana A. Sanchez, Monica C. Santos, Thércia R. Balbino, Salvador S. Muñoz, and Talita M. Lacerda 13.1 Introduction 255 13.2 General Chemical and Biochemical Aspects 258 13.3 Downstream Processing 259 13.4 Biosurfactants in Cosmetics and Personal Care 259 13.5 Biosurfactants in Medicine and Pharmaceutics 261 13.6 Biosurfactants in Food and Feed 262 13.7 Biosurfactants in Pesticides, Insecticides, and Herbicide Formulations 264 13.8 Biosurfactants in Civil Engineering 265 13.9 Miscellaneous 266 13.9.1 Detergent Formulations 266 13.9.2 Bioremediation Purposes 267 13.9.3 Nanoparticle Synthesis 267 13.9.4 Polymer Synthesis 268 13.10 Overview of the Biosurfactant Market 268 13.11 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 270 References 270 14 Techno-economic-environmental Analysis of the Production of Biosurfactants in the Context of Biorefineries 281 Andreza Aparecida Longati, Andrew Milli Elias, Felipe Fernando, Furlan Everson Alves Miranda, and Roberto de Campos Giordano 14.1 Introduction 281 14.1.1 Background 281 14.1.2 Surfactant Versus Biosurfactant 282 14.1.3 Biosurfactant Market, Producers, and Patents 282 14.1.4 Biosurfactant Production Routes 283 14.2 Economic Aspects of the BS Production 286 14.3 Environmental Aspects 288 14.4 Biosurfactant Production Synergies in the Brazilian Biorefineries Context 290 14.5 Conclusion 293 References 294 Index 301

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Book SynopsisCONTACT LENSES The book focuses on the chemistry and properties of contact lenses and their fabrication methods. With research & development continuing in the field, this comprehensive book takes a look at the last 10 years in terms of new materials, chemistry methods, applications, and fabrication techniques. New applications include drug delivery, lenses for augmented reality, electronic contact lenses, and wearable smart contact lenses. In addition, the book discusses simulation methods for contact lenses, such as ocular topography parameters, gas permeable lenses, and computerized videokeratography. On the fabrication front, several common fabrication methods for contact lenses are detailed, including the computer-aided contact lens design, methods for the fabrication of colored contact lenses, and the fabrication of decentered contact lenses. Special processes are reviewed, including, mold processes, reactive ion etching, electrospinning, and Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Types of Lenses 1 1.1 History of Contact Lenses 1 1.2 Materials 3 1.3 Monomers 3 1.3.1 Monomers for Block Copolymers 3 1.3.2 Silicone Acrylamides 7 1.4 Soft Lenses 13 1.4.1 Hydrogels 13 1.4.2 PVA Hydrogel 48 1.4.3 Clear Contact Lenses 48 1.5 Water Absorbable Formulations 49 1.6 Bandage Contact Lenses 53 1.6.1 Antimicrobial Bandage Contact Lens 53 1.7 Functional Contact Lenses 56 1.7.1 Remote Health Monitoring 56 1.7.2 Graphene Oxide Nanocolloids 60 1.7.3 Diabetic Diagnosis 61 1.7.4 Target Analyte Sensing 66 1.7.5 Adaptive Tuning 71 1.7.6 Wireless Communication 72 1.7.7 Glucose Biosensors 76 1.7.8 Cancer Detection 78 1.8 Scleral Contact Lenses 78 1.8.1 Fabrication of Scleral Lenses 79 1.8.2 Scleral Lens Fitting 82 1.8.3 Ocular Drug Delivery Systems 83 1.9 Multifocal Contact Lenses 83 1.9.1 Bifocal Contact Lenses 83 1.9.2 Silicone Hydrogels 85 1.9.3 Non-Silicone Hydrogels 89 1.9.4 Tilted-Wear Type Contact Lenses 93 1.9.5 Neutral Density Filters 94 1.10 Augmented Reality Contact Lens Systems 95 1.10.1 Electronic Contact Lenses 96 1.10.2 Smart Contact Lenses 96 1.10.3 Wearable Smart Contact Lenses 97 1.10.4 Collimated Light-Emitting Diodes 98 1.11 Siloxane Macromers 99 1.11.1 Silicone Urethane Polymers 102 1.12 Oxygen-Permeable Lenses 107 1.12.1 Extended Wear Lenses 107 1.12.2 Structures for Thick Payloads 115 1.13 Natural Protein Polymer Contact Lenses 118 1.14 Ultrathin Coating 119 1.15 Anti-Biofouling Contact Lenses 121 1.15.1 Phosphorylcholine 121 1.15.2 2-Hydroxyethyl methacrylate 125 1.15.3 Chitosan 127 1.16 Drug Delivery via Hydrogel Contact Lenses 129 1.16.1 Hydrogels with Phosphate Groups 129 1.16.2 Ophthalmic Drug Delivery 131 1.17 Simulation Methods 133 1.17.1 Ocular Topography Parameters 133 1.17.2 Rigid Gas-Permeable Lenses 134 1.17.3 Computerized Videokeratography 134 References 135 2 Fabrication Methods 149 2.1 Computer-Aided Contact Lens Design and Fabrication 149 2.1.1 Spline-Based Mathematical Surfaces 149 2.1.2 Corneal Refractive Therapy Program 152 2.2 Contact Lenses with Selective Spectral Blocking 154 2.3 Colored Contact Lenses 156 2.3.1 Hard Colored Contact Lenses 157 2.4 Decentered Contact Lenses 161 2.5 Stabilized Contact Lenses 162 2.6 Additive Manufacturing 163 2.7 Mold Process 164 2.7.1 Injection Molding 164 2.7.2 Cast Molding 166 2.7.3 Two-Part Mold Assembly 168 2.8 Reactive Ion Etching 170 2.9 Electrospinning 172 2.9.1 Creating Electrospun Contact Lens Structures 172 2.9.2 Electrospinning Controlled Polymer Fibril Matrices 174 2.9.3 Electrospinning of a Prepolymer Solution 175 2.10 Rigid Plastic Lenses 183 2.10.1 Rigid Gas-Permeable Contact Lenses 183 2.11 Soft Plastic Lenses 184 2.11.1 Layer-by-Layer Deposition 184 2.11.2 Electron-Beam Irradiation Polymerization 191 2.11.3 Shaping and Cutting 192 2.12 Coating Methods 195 2.12.1 Zwitterionic Coating 195 2.12.2 Antibacterial Nanocoating 196 2.13 Disinfection of Contact Lenses 196 2.13.1 Hydrogen Peroxide and Fibrous Catalyst 197 2.13.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Metal Catalyst 197 2.13.3 Removing Hydrogen Peroxide 199 2.14 Integrated Microtubes 201 2.15. Injection Molding 201 2.15.1 Aspheric Contact Lenses 201 2.16 Handling Tools 202 2.16.1 Insertion Tool 202 2.16.2 Insertion Tool 205 References 205 3 Properties 211 3.1 Ophthalmic Compatibility Requirements 211 3.2 Standards 212 3.2.1 Tensile Properties of Plastics 212 3.2.2 Tear-Propagation Resistance 215 3.2.3 Oxygen Gas Transmission Rate 215 3.2.4 Biomaterials 215 3.2.5 Eye Protectors 216 3.3 Eye Model with Blink Mechanism 217 3.4 Assessment of Cytotoxic Effects 219 3.4.1 Draize Eye Irritation Test 219 3.4.2 Acute Eye Irritation Testing 220 3.4.3 Benzalkonium Chlorides 220 3.4.4 Residual Monomer Content 221 3.5 Special Functions 223 3.5.1 Intraocular Pressure 224 3.5.2 Coating Thickness 229 3.6 Cleaning of Contact Lenses 229 3.7 Biofouling 234 3.8 Wettability 234 3.8.1 Blister Pack Solutions 236 3.8.2 Captive Bubble Method 237 3.8.3 Tethered Hyaluronic Acid-Based Coatings 239 3.9 Material Properties and Antimicrobial Efficacy 240 3.10 Microscopic Examination 242 3.10.1 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 243 3.10.2 Atomic Force Spectroscopy 244 3.10.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 246 3.10.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy 247 3.11 Schirmer Tear Test 248 3.12 Ocular Surface Disease Index Test 248 3.13 Corneal Fluorescein Staining Test 249 3.14 Ion Permeability 250 3.14.1 Ionoflux Technique 250 3.14.2 Ionoton Measurement Technique 252 3.15 Hydrodell Water Permeability Technique 253 3.16 Oxygen Permeability and Transmissibility 253 3.16.1 Contact Lens Solutions 254 3.17 Optical Biometer 255 3.17.1 Ophthalmologic Apparatus 255 3.17.2 Ophthalmologic Information Processing 259 3.17.3 Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography 259 References 260 4 Drug Delivery 271 4.1 Basic Issues 272 4.2 Methodologies for the Design of Therapeutic Contact Lenses 273 4.2.1 Soaking Method 273 4.2.2 pH-Sensitive Lenses 273 4.2.3 Magnetic Micropump 275 4.2.4 Molecular Imprinting 275 4.2.5 Colloidal Nanoparticles 276 4.2.6 Polymeric Nanoparticles 276 4.2.7 Cyclodextrins 277 4.2.8 Liposomes 277 4.2.9 Microemulsion and Micelles 278 4.2.10 Vitamin E 278 4.2.11 Supercritical Fluid Technology 278 4.2.12 Hydrophobic Drug Loading 279 4.2.13 Cationic Drugs 279 4.3 Hydrogels 281 4.3.1 Salt-Induced Modulation 283 4.3.2 Polymeric Hydrogels 284 4.3.3 Colloid-Laden Hydrogels 285 4.3.4 Ligand-Containing Hydrogels 285 4.3.5 Amphiphilic Polymers 286 4.3.6 Silicone Hydrogel Contact Lenses 289 4.3.7 Zwitterionic Hydrogels 290 4.3.8 Surface-Modified Hydrogels 291 4.3.9 Cyclodextrin-Hyaluronan Hydrogels 293 4.3.10 Bioinspired Hydrogels 293 4.3.11 Tobramycin Release 294 4.4 Contact Lens Gels 297 4.5 Molecularly Imprinted Contact Lenses 298 4.5.1 Molecular Imprinting Technology 298 4.5.2 Molecularly Imprinted Contact Lenses 299 4.5.3 Hydrogels 301 4.5.4 Supercritical Fluid-Assisted Preparation 302 4.6 Special Drugs 303 4.6.1 Timolol 303 4.6.2 Dexamethasone 308 4.6.3 Ketotifen Fumarate 312 4.6.4 Ciprofloxacin 315 4.6.5 Ofloxacin 318 4.6.6 Polymyxin B and Vancomycin 321 4.6.7 Epinastine 323 4.6.8 Lactoferrin 323 4.6.9 Bimatoprost 324 4.6.10 Dipicolylamine 325 4.6.11 Gatifloxacin 326 4.6.12 Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose 328 4.6.13 Dorzolamide 328 4.6.14 Ethoxzolamide 329 4.6.15 Hyaluronic Acid 331 4.6.16 Lifitegrast 335 4.6.17 Diclofenac Sodium 336 4.6.18 Moxifloxacin 339 4.6.19 Norfloxacin 340 4.6.20 Sparfloxacin 341 4.6.21 Latanoprost 342 4.6.22 Loteprednol 343 4.6.23 Release of Multiple Therapeutics 344 References 347 5 Medical Problems 363 5.1 Eye Diseases 363 5.2 Corneal Edema 363 5.2.1 PMMA Lenses 365 5.2.2 Thickness Changes 365 5.2.3 Corneal Swelling 366 5.2.4 Acanthamoeba Keratitis 367 5.3 Presbyopia and Myopia Control 368 5.4 Toxic Soft Lenses 369 5.4.1 Allergic and Toxic Reactions 370 5.5 Disinfection Agents 374 5.5.1 Polymeric Biguanide and Vinylimidazole 375 5.5.2 Saccharides 376 5.5.3 Amphipathic Peptides 381 5.5.4 Antibacterial Properties 384 5.6 Silicone Hydrogels 385 5.7 Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency 385 5.8 Computer Vision Syndrome 387 5.8.1 Tests and Analysis 388 5.8.2 Pathophysiology 388 5.8.3 Problems for Radiologists 389 5.9 Dry Eye Problems 390 5.9.1 Ions in Tears 390 5.9.2 Treatment Methods 392 5.9.3 Comparative Study of the Reasons for Dry Eyes 394 5.10 Orthokeratology 395 5.10.1 Myopia 398 References 401 Index 413 Acronyms 413 Chemicals 416 General Index 429

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive overview of the synthesis of high-quality MXenes In Transition Metal Carbides and Nitrides (MXenes) Handbook: Synthesis, Processing, Properties and Applications, a team of esteemed researchers provides an expert review encompassing the fundamentals of precursor selection, MXene synthesis, characterizations, properties, processing, and applications. You'll find detailed discussions of the selection of MXene members for specific applications, as along with summaries of the physical and chemical properties of MXenes, including electrical, mechanical, optical, electromechanical, electrochemical, and electromagnetic properties. The authors delve into both successful and unsuccessful synthesis examples, offering detailed explanations of various failures to facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the reasons behind unsuccessful syntheses. Additionally, they provide detailed examinations on the characterizations of MXenes, empowering readers to develop a sophisticated unde

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Book SynopsisInterdisciplinary approach to sustainability, illustrating current catalytic approaches in applied chemistry, chemical engineering, and materials science Catalysis for a Sustainable Environment covers the use of catalysis in its various approaches, including homogeneous, supported, and heterogeneous catalysis, and photo- and electrocatalysis, towards sustainable environmental benefits. The text fosters interdisciplinarity in sustainability by illustrating modern perspectives in catalysis, from fields including inorganic, organic, organometallic, bioinorganic, pharmacological, and analytical chemistry, along with chemical engineering and materials science. The chapters are grouped in seven sections on (i) Carbon Dioxide Utilization, (ii) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Transformation, (iii) Carbon-based Catalysis, (iv) Coordination, Inorganic, and Bioinspired Catalysis, (v) Organocatalysis, (vi) Catalysis for Water and Liquid Fuels Purification, and (vii) HydrogTable of ContentsAbout the Editors xiii Preface xv Volume 1 1 Introduction 1 Armando J.L. Pombeiro, Manas Sutradhar, and Elisabete C.B.A. Alegria Structure of the Book 2 Final Remarks 4 Part I Carbon Dioxide Utilization 5 2 Transition from Fossil-C to Renewable-C (Biomass and CO2) Driven by Hybrid Catalysis 7 Michele Aresta and Angela Dibenedetto 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 The Dimension of the Problem 8 2.3 Substitutes for Fossil-C 8 2.4 Hybrid Catalysis: A New World 11 2.5 Hybrid Catalysis and Biomass Valorization 13 2.6 Hybrid Catalysis and CO2 Conversion 16 2.6.1 CO2 as Building Block 16 2.6.2 CO2 Conversion to Value-added Chemical and Fuels via Hybrid Systems 17 2.7 Conclusions 21 References 21 3 Synthesis of Acetic Acid Using Carbon Dioxide 25 Philippe Kalck 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Synthesis of Methanol from CO2 and H2 26 3.3 Carbonylation of Methanol Using CO2 28 3.4 Carbonylation of Methane Using CO2 31 3.5 Miscellaneous Reactions, Particularly Biocatalysis 31 3.6 Conclusions 32 References 32 4 New Sustainable Chemicals and Materials Derived from CO2 and Bio-based Resources: A New Catalytic Challenge 35 Ana B. Paninho, Malgorzata E. Zakrzewska, Leticia R.C. Correa, Fátima Guedes da Silva, Luís C. Branco, and Ana V.M. Nunes 4.1 Introduction 35 4.2 Cyclic Carbonates from Bio-based Epoxides 37 4.2.1 Bio-based Epoxides Derived from Terpenes 39 4.2.2 Bio-based Vinylcyclohexene Oxide Derived from Butanediol 41 4.2.3 Bio-based Epichlorohydrin Derived from Glycerol 42 4.2.4 Epoxidized Vegetable Oils and Fatty Acids 42 4.3 Cyclic Carbonates Derived from Carbohydrates 44 4.4 Cyclic Carbonates Derived from Bio-based Diols 46 4.5 Conclusions 50 Acknowledgements 50 References 50 5 Sustainable Technologies in CO 2 Utilization: The Production of Synthetic Natural Gas 55 M. Carmen Bacariza, José M. Lopes, and Carlos Henriques 5.1 CO 2 Valorization Strategies 55 5.1.1 CO 2 to CO via Reverse Water-Gas Shift (RWGS) Reaction 56 5.1.2 CO2 to CH 4 56 5.1.3 Co2 to C X H Y 57 5.1.4 CO2 to CH 3 OH 58 5.1.5 CO2 to CH 3 OCH 3 58 5.1.6 CO2 to R-OH 59 5.1.7 CO2 to HCOOH, R-COOH, and R-CONH 2 60 5.1.8 Target Products Analysis Based on Thermodynamics 60 5.2 Power-to-Gas: Sabatier Reaction Suitability for Renewable Energy Storage 61 5.3 CO 2 Methanation Catalysts 63 5.4 Zeolites: Suitable Supports with Tunable Properties to Assess Catalysts’s Performance 64 5.5 Final Remarks 68 References 69 6 Catalysis for Sustainable Aviation Fuels: Focus on Fischer-Tropsch Catalysis 73 Denzil Moodley, Thys Botha, Renier Crous, Jana Potgieter, Jacobus Visagie, Ryan Walmsley, and Cathy Dwyer 6.1 Introduction 73 6.1.1 Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) via Fischer-Tropsch-based Routes 73 6.1.2 Introduction to FT Chemistry 75 6.1.3 FT Catalysts for SAF Production 79 6.1.4 Reactor Technology for SAF Production Using FTS 81 6.2 State-of-the-art Cobalt Catalysts 82 6.2.1 Catalyst Preparation Routes for Cobalt-based Catalysts 85 6.2.1.1 Precipitation Methodology – a Short Summary 85 6.2.1.2 Preparation Methods Using Pre-shaped Supports 85 6.2.1.2.1 Support Modification 85 6.2.1.2.2 Cobalt Impregnation 85 6.2.1.2.3 Calcination 86 6.2.1.2.4 Reduction 88 6.2.2 Challenges for Catalysts Operating with High Carbon Efficiency: Water Tolerance 88 6.2.3 Strategies to Increase Water Tolerance and Selectivity for Cobalt Catalysts 90 6.2.3.1 Optimizing Physico-chemical Support Properties for Stability at High Water Partial Pressure 90 6.2.3.2 Stabilizing the Support by Surface Coating 91 6.2.3.3 Impact of Crystallite Size on Selectivity 91 6.2.3.4 Metal Support Interactions with Cobalt Crystallites of Varying Size 92 6.2.3.5 The Role of Reduction Promoters and Support Promoters in Optimizing Selectivity 94 6.2.3.6 Role of Pore Diameter in Selectivity 96 6.2.3.7 Effect of Activation Conditions on Selectivity 98 6.2.4 Regeneration of Cobalt PtL Catalysts- Moving Toward Materials Circularity 100 6.3 An Overview of Fe Catalysts: Direct Route for CO 2 Conversion 101 6.3.1 Introduction 101 6.3.2 Effect of Temperature 102 6.3.3 Effect of Pressure 103 6.3.4 Effect of H 2 :CO Ratio 104 6.3.5 Catalyst Development 104 6.3.6 Stability to Oxidation by Water 104 6.3.7 Sufficient Surface Area 105 6.3.8 Availability of Two Distinct Catalytically Active Sites/phases 105 6.3.9 Sufficient Alkalinity for Adsorption and Chain Growth 106 6.4 Future Perspectives 106 References 108 7 Sustainable Catalytic Conversion of CO 2 into Urea and Its Derivatives 117 Maurizio Peruzzini, Fabrizio Mani, and Francesco Barzagli 7.1 Introduction 117 7.2 Catalytic Synthesis of Urea 119 7.2.1 Urea from CO 2 Reductive Processes 120 7.2.1.1 Electrocatalysis 120 7.2.1.2 Photocatalysis 122 7.2.1.3 Magneto-catalysis 123 7.2.2 Urea from Ammonium Carbamate 124 7.3 Catalytic Synthesis of Urea Derivatives 127 7.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 133 Part II Transformation of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 139 8 Catalysis Abatement of No X /vocs Assisted by Ozone 141 Zhihua Wang and Fawei Lin 8.1 No X /voc Emission and Treatment Technologies 141 8.1.1 No X /voc Emissions 141 8.1.2 No X Treatment Technologies 142 8.1.2.1 Sncr 142 8.1.2.2 Scr 142 8.1.2.3 SCR Catalysts 142 8.1.2.4 Ozone-assisted Oxidation Technology 142 8.1.3 VOC Treatment Technologies 143 8.1.3.1 Adsorption 143 8.1.3.2 Regenerative Combustion 143 8.1.3.3 Catalytic Oxidation 144 8.1.3.4 Photocatalytic Oxidation 144 8.1.3.5 Plasma-assisted Catalytic Oxidation 144 8.2 NO Oxidation by Ozone 144 8.2.1 NO Homogeneous Oxidation by Ozone 145 8.2.1.1 Effect of O 3 /NO Ratio 145 8.2.1.2 Effect of Temperature 145 8.2.1.3 Effect of Residence Time 145 8.2.1.4 Process Parameter Optimization 146 8.2.2 Heterogeneous Catalytic Deep Oxidation 146 8.2.2.1 Catalytic NO Deep Oxidation by O 3 Alone 146 8.2.2.2 Catalytic NO Deep Oxidation by Combination of O 3 and H 2 O 148 8.3 Oxidation of VOCs by Ozone 150 8.3.1 Aromatics 150 8.3.1.1 Toluene 150 8.3.1.2 Benzene 153 8.3.2 Oxygenated VOCs 154 8.3.2.1 Formaldehyde 154 8.3.2.2 Acetone 154 8.3.2.3 Alcohols 155 8.3.3 Chlorinated VOCs 155 8.3.3.1 Chlorobenzene 155 8.3.3.2 Dichloromethane 155 8.3.3.3 Dioxins and Furans 156 8.3.4 Sulfur-containing VOCs 157 8.4 Conclusions 157 References 157 9 Catalytic Oxidation of VOCs to Value-added Compounds Under Mild Conditions 161 Elisabete C.B.A. Alegria, Manas Sutradhar, and Tannistha R. Barman 9.1 Introduction 161 9.2 Benzene 162 9.3 Toluene 167 9.4 Ethylbenzene 171 9.5 Xylene 172 9.6 Final Remarks 175 Acknowledgments 176 References 176 10 Catalytic Cyclohexane Oxyfunctionalization 181 Manas Sutradhar, Elisabete C.B.A. Alegria, M. Fátima C. Guedes da Silva, and Armando J.L. Pombeiro 10.1 Introduction 181 10.2 Transition Metal Catalysts for Cyclohexane Oxidation 182 10.2.1 Vanadium Catalysts 182 10.2.2 Iron Catalysts 186 10.2.3 Cobalt Catalysts 189 10.2.4 Copper Catalysts 191 10.2.5 Molybdenum Catalysts 198 10.2.6 Rhenium Catalysts 199 10.2.7 Gold Catalysts 200 10.3 Mechanisms 201 10.4 Final Comments 202 Acknowledgments 203 References 203 Part III Carbon-based Catalysis 207 11 Carbon-based Catalysts for Sustainable Chemical Processes 209 Katarzyna Morawa Eblagon, Raquel P. Rocha, M. Fernando R. Pereira, and José Luís Figueiredo 11.1 Introduction 209 11.1.1 Nanostructured Carbon Materials 209 11.1.2 Carbon Surface Chemistry 210 11.2 Metal-free Carbon Catalysts for Environmental Applications 212 11.2.1 Wet Air Oxidation and Ozonation with Carbon Catalysts 212 11.3 Carbon-based Catalysts for Sustainable Production of Chemicals and Fuels from Biomass 214 11.3.1 Carbon Materials as Catalysts and Supports 214 11.3.2 Cascade Valorization of Biomass with Multifunctional Catalysts 216 11.3.3 Carbon Catalysts Produced from Biomass 219 11.4 Summary and Outlook 220 Acknowledgments 221 References 221 12 Carbon-based Catalysts as a Sustainable and Metal-free Tool for Gas-phase Industrial Oxidation Processes 225 Giulia Tuci, Andrea Rossin, Matteo Pugliesi, Housseinou Ba, Cuong Duong-Viet, Yuefeng Liu, Cuong Pham-Huu, and Giuliano Giambastiani 12.1 Introduction 225 12.2 The H 2 S Selective Oxidation to Elemental Sulfur 226 12.3 Alkane Dehydrogenation 231 12.3.1 Alkane Dehydrogenation under Oxidative Environment: The ODH Process 231 12.3.2 Alkane Dehydrogenation under Steam- and Oxygen-free Conditions: The DDH Reaction 237 12.4 Conclusions 240 Acknowledgments 241 References 241 13 Hybrid Carbon-Metal Oxide Catalysts for Electrocatalysis, Biomass Valorization and, Wastewater Treatment: Cutting-Edge Solutions for a Sustainable World 247 Clara Pereira, Diana M. Fernandes, Andreia F. Peixoto, Marta Nunes, Bruno Jarrais, Iwona Kuźniarska-Biernacka, and Cristina Freire 13.1 Introduction 247 13.2 Hybrid Carbon-metal Oxide Electrocatalysts for Energy-related Applications 249 13.2.1 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 249 13.2.2 Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER) 254 13.2.3 Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) 257 13.2.4 CO 2 Reduction Reaction (CO 2 RR) 259 13.3 Biomass Valorization over Hybrid Carbon-metal Oxide Based (Nano)catalysts 261 13.4 Advanced (Photo)catalytic Oxidation Processes for Wastewater Treatment 266 13.4.1 Heterogeneous Fenton Process 266 13.4.2 Heterogeneous photo-Fenton Process 271 13.4.3 Heterogeneous electro-Fenton Process 277 13.4.4 Photocatalytic Oxidation 281 13.5 Advanced Catalytic Reduction Processes for Wastewater Treatment 288 13.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 291 Acknowledgments 292 References 292 Volume 2 About the Editors xiii Preface xv Part IV Coordination, Inorganic, and Bioinspired Catalysis 299 14 Hydroformylation Catalysts for the Synthesis of Fine Chemicals 301 Mariette M. Pereira, Rui M.B. Carrilho, Fábio M.S. Rodrigues, Lucas D. Dias, and Mário J.F. Calvete 15 Synthesis of New Polyolefins by Incorporation of New Comonomers 323 Kotohiro Nomura and Suphitchaya Kitphaitun 16 Catalytic Depolymerization of Plastic Waste 339 Noel Angel Espinosa-Jalapa and Amit Kumar 17 Bioinspired Selective Catalytic C-H Oxygenation, Halogenation, and Azidation of Steroids 369 Konstantin P. Bryliakov 18 Catalysis by Pincer Compounds and Their Contribution to Environmental and Sustainable Processes 389 Hugo Valdés and David Morales-Morales 19 Heterometallic Complexes: Novel Catalysts for Sophisticated Chemical Synthesis 409 Franco Scalambra, Ismael Francisco Díaz-Ortega, and Antonio Romerosa 20 Metal-Organic Frameworks in Tandem Catalysis 429 Anirban Karmakar and Armando J.L. Pombeiro 21 (Tetracarboxylate)bridged-di-transition Metal Complexes and Factors Impacting Their Carbene Transfer Reactivity 445 LiPing Xu, Adrian Varela-Alvarez, and Djamaladdin G. Musaev 22 Sustainable Cu-based Methods for Valuable Organic Scaffolds 461 Argyro Dolla, Dimitrios Andreou, Ethan Essenfeld, Jonathan Farhi, Ioannis N. Lykakis, and George E. Kostakis 23 Environmental Catalysis by Gold Nanoparticles 481 Sónia Alexandra Correia Carabineiro 24 Platinum Complexes for Selective Oxidations in Water 515 Alessandro Scarso, Paolo Sgarbossa, Roberta Bertani, and Giorgio Strukul 25 The Role of Water in Reactions Catalyzed by Transition Metals 537 A.W. Augustyniak and A.M. Trzeciak 26 Using Speciation to Gain Insight into Sustainable Coupling Reactions and Their Catalysts 559 Skyler Markham, Debbie C. Crans, and Bruce Atwater 27 Hierarchical Zeolites for Environmentally Friendly Friedel Crafts Acylation Reactions 577 Ana P. Carvalho, Angela Martins, Filomena Martins, Nelson Nunes, and Rúben Elvas-Leitão Volume 3 About the Editors xiii Preface xv Part V Organocatalysis 609 28 Sustainable Drug Substance Processes Enabled by Catalysis: Case Studies from the Roche Pipeline 611 Kurt Püntener, Stefan Hildbrand, Helmut Stahr, Andreas Schuster, Hans Iding and Stephan Bachmann 29 Supported Chiral Organocatalysts for Accessing Fine Chemicals 639 Ana C. Amorim and Anthony J. Burke 30 Synthesis of Bio-based Aliphatic Polyesters from Plant Oils by Efficient Molecular Catalysis 659 Kotohiro Nomura and Nor Wahida Binti Awang 31 Modern Strategies for Electron Injection by Means of Organic Photocatalysts: Beyond Metallic Reagents 675 Takashi Koike 32 Visible Light as an Alternative Energy Source in Enantioselective Catalysis 687 Ana Maria Faisca Phillips and Armando J.L. Pombeiro Part VI Catalysis for the Purification of Water and Liquid Fuels 717 33 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis for Wastewater Treatment: A Major Step Towards Environmental Sustainability 719 Shima Rahim Pouran and Aziz Habibi-Yangjeh 34 Sustainable Homogeneous Catalytic Oxidative Processes for the Desulfurization of Fuels 743 Federica Sabuzi, Giuseppe Pomarico, Pierluca Galloni, and Valeria Conte 35 Heterogeneous Catalytic Desulfurization of Liquid Fuels: The Present and the Future 757 Rui G. Faria, Alexandre Viana, Carlos M. Granadeiro, Luís Cunha-Silva, and Salete S. Balula Part VII Hydrogen Formation, Storage, and Utilization 783 36 Paraformaldehyde: Opportunities as a C1-Building Block and H 2 Source for Sustainable Organic Synthesis 785 Ana Maria Faísca Phillips, Maximilian N. Kopylovich, Leandro Helgueira de Andrade, and Martin H.G. Prechtl 37 Hydrogen Storage and Recovery with the Use of Chemical Batteries 819 Henrietta Horváth, Gábor Papp, Ágnes Kathó, and Ferenc Joó 38 Low-cost Co and Ni MOFs/CPs as Electrocatalysts for Water Splitting Toward Clean Energy-Technology 847 Anup Paul, Biljana Šljukić, and Armando J.L. Pombeiro Index 871

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Book SynopsisCatalytic In-Situ Upgrading of Heavy and Extra-Heavy Crude Oils A comprehensive guide to a cutting-edge and cost-effective refinement process for heavy oil Oil sufficiently viscous that it cannot flow normally from production wells is called heavy oil and constitutes as much as 70% of global oil reserves. Extracting and refining this oil can pose significant challenges, including very high transportation costs. As a result, processes which produce and partially refine heavy oil in situ, known as catalytic upgrading, are an increasingly important part of the heavy oil extraction process, and the reduced carbon footprint associated with these methods promises to make them even more significant in the coming years. Catalytic In-Situ Upgrading of Heavy and Extra-Heavy Crude Oils provides a comprehensive introduction to these processes. It introduces the properties and characteristics of heavy and extra-heavy oil before discussing different catalysts and catalTable of ContentsList of Contributors xv About the Editors xix Preface xxi 1 Properties of Heavy and Extra-Heavy Crude Oils 1 Alexis Tirado, Guillermo Félix, Fernando Trejo, Mikhail A. Varfolomeev, Chengdong Yuan, Danis K. Nurgaliev, Vicente Sámano, and Jorge Ancheyta 2 Advanced Characterization of Heavy Crude Oils and their Fractions 39 3 Applications of Enhanced Oil Recovery Techniques of Heavy Crudes 153 Chengdong Yuan, Mikhail A. Varfolomeev, Mustafa V. Kok, Danis K. Nurgaliev, and Airat H. Gabbasov 4 Fundamentals of In Situ Upgrading 168 Alexey Vakhin, Firdavs Aliev, Galina Kaukova, Ameen A. Al-Muntaser, Muneer A. Suwaid, Chengdong Yuan, Jorge Ancheyta, and Mikhail A. Varfolomeev 5 Catalyst for In Situ Upgrading of Heavy Oils 237 Persi Schacht, Pablo Torres-Mancera, and Jorge Ancheyta 6 Nanoparticles for Heavy Oil In Situ Upgrading 263 Muneer A. Suwaid, Sergey A. Sitnov, Ameen Al-Muntaser, Chengdong Yuan, Alexey Vakhin, Jorge Ancheyta, and Mikhail A. Varfolomeev 7 Catalytic Mechanism and Kinetics 309 Guillermo Félix, Alexis Tirado, Ameen Al-Muntaser, Mikhail A. Varfolomeev, Chengdong Yuan, and Jorge Ancheyta 8 Application of Quantum Chemical Calculations for Studying Thermochemistry, Kinetics, and Catalytic Mechanisms of In Situ Upgrading 382 Nail Khafizov, Vadim Neklyudov, Anastasiya Mikhailova, and Oleg Kadkin 9 Behavior of Catalyst in Porous Media 435 Timur R. Zakirov, Rail I. Kadyrov, Chengdong Yuan, and Mikhail A. Varfolomeev 10 Numerical Simulation of Catalytic In Situ Oil Upgrading Process 453Allan Rojas, Denis Shevchenko, Vladislav Sudakov, Sergey Usmanov, and Michael Kwofie 11 Novel Technologies for Upgrading Heavy and Extra-Heavy Oil 489 Khusain Kadiev, Anton L. Maximov, and Jorge Ancheyta Index 521

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Book SynopsisCrystallization of Organic Compounds Practical resource covering applications of crystallization principles with methodologies, case studies, and numerous industrial examples for emphasis Based on the authors' hands-on experiences as process engineers, through the use of case studies and examples of crystallization processes, ranging from laboratory development through manufacturing scale-up, Crystallization of Organic Compounds guides readers through the practical applications of crystallization and emphasizes strategies that have proven to be successful, enabling readers to avoid common pitfalls that can render standard procedures unsuccessful. Most chapters feature multiple examples that guide readers, step by step, through the crystallization of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), including an analysis of the major methods of carrying out crystallization operations, their strengths and potential issues, as well as numerous examples of crystallizTable of ContentsPreface ix 1. Introduction to Crystallization 1 1.1 Crystal Properties and Polymorphs (Chapters 2 and 3) 3 1.2 Nucleation and Growth Kinetics (chapter 4) 4 1.3 Mixing and Scale- Up (Chapter 5) 4 1.4 Critical Issues and Quality by Design (Chapter 6) 5 1.5 Crystallization Process Options (Chapters 7–10) 6 1.6 Downstream Operations (Chapters 11 And 12) 12 1.7 Special Applications (chapter 13) 13 2. Properties 15 2.1 Solubility 15 2.2 Supersaturation, Metastable Zone, and Induction Time 26 2.3 Oil, Amorphous, and Crystalline States 30 2.4 Polymorphism 36 2.5 Solvate 40 2.6 Solid Compound, Solid Solution, and Solid Mixture 42 2.7 Inclusion and Occlusion 45 2.8 Adsorption, Hygroscopicity, and Deliquesce 47 2.9 Crystal Morphology 50 2.10 Partical Size Distribution and Surface Area 53 3. Polymorphism 57 3.1 Phase Rule 57 3.2 Phase Transition 58 3.3 Prediction of Crystal Structure and its Formation 60 3.4 Selection and Screening of Crystal Forms 66 3.5 Examples 75 Example 3.1 Indomethacin 76 Example 3.2 Sulindac 77 Example 3.3 Losartan 79 Example 3.4 Finasteride 81 Example 3.5 Ibuprofen Lysinate 83 Example 3.6 HCl Salt of a Drug Candidate 84 Example 3.7 Second HCl Salt of a Drug Candidate 87 Example 3.8 Prednisolone t- Butylacetate 91 Example 3.9 Phthalylsulfathiazole 93 4. Kinetics 95 4.1 Supersaturation and Rate Processes 96 4.2 Nucleation 97 4.3 Crystal Growth and Agglomeration 105 4.4 Nucleate/Seed Aging and Ostwald Ripening 116 4.5 Delivered Product: Purity, Cystal Form, Size and Morphology, and Chemical and Physical Stability 119 4.6 Design of Experiment (DOE)— Model- Based Approach 119 4.7 Model- Free Feedback Control 123 5. Mixing and Crystallization 125 5.1 Introduction 125 5.2 Mixing Considerations and Factors 126 5.3 Mixing Effects on Nucleation 130 5.4 Mixing Effects on Crystal Growth 135 5.5 Mixing Distribution and Scale- Up 139 5.6 Crystallization Equipment 141 5.7 Process Design and Examples 150 Example 5.1 Mixing Impact on Crystallization Kinetics 150 Example 5.2 Mixing Scale- Up Impact on Particle Size 151 6. Critical Issues and Quality by Design 155 6.1 Quality By Design 155 6.2 Basic Properties 156 6.3 Seed 158 6.4 Supersaturation 162 6.5 Mixing and Scale— Selection of Equipment and Operating Procedures 172 6.6 Strategic Considerations for Crystallization Process Development 174 6.7 Summary of Critical Issues 176 7. Cooling Crystallization 177 7.1 Batch Operation 177 7.2 Continuous Operations 183 7.3 Process Design— Examples 187 Example 7.1 Intermediate in a Multistep Synthesis 187 Example 7.2 Pure Crystallization of an API 191 Example 7.3 Crystallization Using the Heel from the Previous Batch as Seed 194 Example 7.4 Resolution of Ibuprofen Via Stereospecific Crystallization 195 Example 7.5 Crystallization of Pure Bulk with Polymorphism 199 Example 7.6 Continuous Separation of Stereoisomers 201 8. Evaporative Crystallization 207 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Solubility Diagrams 207 8.3 Factors Affecting Nucleation and Growth 210 8.4 Scale- Up 211 8.5 Equipment 212 8.6 Process Design and Examples 215 Example 8.1 Crystallization of a Pharmaceutical Intermediate Salt 215 Example 8.2 Crystallization of the Sodium Salt of a Drug Candidate 217 Example 8.3 API Hydrate with Low Water Solubility 219 9. Anti- solvent Crystallization 223 9.1 Operation 223 9.2 In- Line Mixing Crystallization 228 9.3 Process Design and Examples 229 Example 9.1 Crystallization of an Intermediate 229 Example 9.2 Rejection of Isomeric Impurities of Final Bulk Active Product 231 Example 9.3 Crystallization of a Pharmaceutical Product with Strong Nucleation and Poor Growth Characteristics 234 Example 9.4 Impact of Solvent and Supersaturation on Particle Size and Crystal Form 238 Example 9.5 Crystallization of an API Using Impinging Jets 241 Example 9.6 Crystallization of a Pharmaceutical Product Candidate Using an Impinging Jet with Recycle 245 Example 9.7 In Situ Wet Seed and Particle Generation Using In- line Mixer 249 10. Reactive Crystallization 253 10.1 Introduction 253 10.2 Control of Particle Size 255 10.3 Key Issues in Organic Reactive Crystallization 256 10.4 Creation of Fine Particles— In- Line Reactive Crystallization 264 10.5 Process Design and Scale- Up 267 Example 10.1 Reactive Crystallization of an API 267 Example 10.2 Reactive Crystallization of an Intermediate 270 Example 10.3 Reactive Crystallization of a Sodium Salt of an API 272 Example 10.4 Reactive Crystallization of an API 275 11. Filtration 277 11.1 Introduction 277 11.2 Basic Properties 278 11.3 Kinetics 280 11.4 Process Design and Scale- Up 290 Example 11.1 Design of Cake Wash Composition and Wash Mode 293 12. Drying 297 12.1 Introduction 297 12.2 Basic Properties 298 12.3 Kinetics 305 12.4 Process Design and Scale- Up 309 Example 12.1 Scale- Up— Residual Solvent 311 Example 12.2 Scale- Up— Particle Agglomeration and Fracturing 314 13. Special Applications 317 13.1 Introduction 317 13.2 Crystallization with Supercritical Fluids 318 13.3 Resolution of Stereo- Isomers 319 13.4 Wet Mills in Crystallization 320 13.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics in Crystallization 321 13.6 Solid Dispersion— Crystalline and/or Amorphous Drugs 321 13.7 Process Design and Examples 322 Example 13.1 Sterile Crystallization of Imipenem 322 Example 13.2 Enhanced Selectivity of a Consecutive–Competitive Reaction by Crystallization of the Desired Product During the Reaction 327 Example 13.3 Applying Solubility to Improve Reaction Selectivity 330 Example 13.4 Melt Crystallization of Dimethyl Sulfoxide 335 Example 13.5 Freeze Crystallization of Imipenem 338 Example 13.6 Continuous Separation of Stereoisomers 342 Example 13.7 Hybrid Solid Dispersion 349 References 355 Index 363

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses polymeric and composite materials for aerospace industries and discusses some general qualities of aviation materials, e.g., strength, density, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, brittleness, fusibility, conductivity, and thermal expansion. Metals and alloys have so far been best able to utilize their qualities almost to the maximum. The latest advancements in polymers and composites have opened up a new area of conjecture about how to modify airplanes and shuttles to be more polymeric and less metallic. Polymeric materials have been the focus of exploration due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, low cost, and a greater degree of freedom in strengthening the needed qualities. Strength, density, malleability, ductility, elasticity, toughness, brittleness, fusibility, conductivity, and thermal expansion are some of the general qualities of aviation materials that are taken into account. Aerospace Polymeric Materials discusses a wide range of methods Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Tuning Aerogel Properties for Aerospace Applications 1Catherine Tom, Shubham Sinha, Nidhi Joshi and Ravi Kumar Pujala 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Synthesis 3 1.3 Aerospace Missions 6 1.3.1 Stardust Mission 6 1.3.2 MARS Pathfinder Mission 7 1.3.3 Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator 7 1.3.4 Mars Science Laboratory 7 1.3.5 Cryogenic Fluid Containment 8 1.4 Property Tuning of Aerogels 8 1.4.1 During Synthesis 9 1.4.2 Post-Synthesis 12 1.4.3 Aerogel Composites 13 1.5 Tuning Properties for Aerospace Applications 15 1.5.1 Thermal Conductivity 15 1.5.1.1 Minimizing Solid Conductivity 16 1.5.1.2 Modification of IR Absorption Properties 16 1.5.1.3 Minimizing Gaseous Conductivity 16 1.5.2 Mechanical Property 17 1.5.3 Optical Transmittance 18 1.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 18 Acknowledgments 20 References 20 2 Welding of Polymeric Materials in Aircraft 29İdris Karagöz 2.1 Introduction 30 2.2 Major Polymer Welding Methods Applied in Aviation 32 2.2.1 Hot Gas Welding 34 2.2.2 Hot Plate Welding 36 2.2.3 Extrusion Welding 38 2.2.4 Infrared Welding 39 2.2.5 Laser Welding 41 2.2.6 Vibration Welding 44 2.2.7 Friction Welding 45 2.2.8 Friction Stir Welding 46 2.2.9 Friction Stir Spot Welding 47 2.2.10 Ultrasonic Welding 48 2.2.11 Resistance Implant Welding 50 2.2.12 Induction Welding 51 2.2.13 Dielectric Welding 51 2.2.14 Microwave Welding 54 2.3 Conclusion 55 References 55 3 Carbon Nanostructures for Reinforcement of Polymers in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering 61Mahdi ShayanMehr 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Common Carbon Nanoparticles 63 3.2.1 Graphene 63 3.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 63 3.2.3 Fullerenes 64 3.3 Modeling and Mechanical Properties of Carbon Nanoparticles 64 3.4 Modeling of Carbon Nanoparticles Reinforced Polymers 65 3.5 Preparation of Carbon Nanoparticles Reinforced Polymers 69 3.6 Mechanical Properties of Carbon Nanoparticles Reinforced Polymers 70 3.6.1 Graphene Family/Polymer 72 3.6.1.1 Graphite Nanosheets/Polymer 73 3.6.1.2 Graphene and Graphene Oxide/Polymer 75 3.6.2 CNT/Polymer 75 3.6.3 Fullerene/Polymer 76 3.7 Application of Carbon Nanoparticles Reinforced Polymers in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering 78 3.8 Conclusions 80 References 81 4 Self-Healing Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymers for Aerospace Applications 85Surawut Chuangchote and Methawee Nukunudompanich 4.1 General Principle of Self-Healing Composites 86 4.1.1 Extrinsic Healing 86 4.1.2 Intrinsic Self-Healing 88 4.2 Self-Healing Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymers 90 4.2.1 Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) 90 4.2.2 Healing Efficiency 94 4.3 Manufacturing Techniques 95 4.4 Recent Development of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers in Aerospace Applications 99 4.4.1 Engines 101 4.4.2 Fuselage 102 4.4.3 Aerostructure 104 4.4.4 Coating 106 4.4.5 Other Application 108 4.5 Disposal and Recycling of Self-Healing Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Polymers 108 4.6 Conclusion and Future Challenges 111 References 112 5 Advanced Polymeric Materials for Aerospace Applications 117Anupama Rajput, Upma, Sudheesh K. Shukla, Nitika Thakur, Anamika Debnath and Bindu Mangla 5.1 Introduction 118 5.2 Types of Advanced Polymers 119 5.2.1 Copolymers 121 5.2.2 Polymer Matrix Composite 121 5.2.3 Properties of Reinforced Materials 122 5.3 Thermoplastics 125 5.4 Thermosetting 126 5.5 Polymeric Nanocomposites 126 5.6 Glass Fiber 130 5.7 Polycarbonates 131 5.8 Applications 131 5.9 Conclusion 133 References 133 6 Self-Healing Composite Materials 137Hüsnügül Yilmaz Atay 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 Self-Healing Mechanism 140 6.3 Types of Self-Healing Coatings 142 6.3.1 Passive Self-Healing for External Techniques 142 6.3.1.1 Microencapsulation 142 6.3.1.2 Hollow-Fiber Approach 143 6.3.1.3 Microvascular Network 143 6.3.2 Active Self-Healing Methodology Based on Intrinsic 144 6.3.2.1 Shape Memory Polymers (SMPs) 144 6.3.2.2 Reversible Polymers 144 6.4 Research Areas of Self-Healing Materials 145 6.5 Aerospace Applications of Polymer Composite Self-Healing Materials 146 6.5.1 Aircraft Fuselage and Structure 146 6.5.2 Coatings 148 6.6 Conclusion 150 References 151 7 Conducting Polymer Composites for Antistatic Application in Aerospace 155Sonali Priyadarsini Pradhan, Lipsa Shubhadarshinee, Pooja Mohapatra, Patitapaban Mohanty, Bigyan Ranjan Jali, Priyaranjan Mohapatra and Aruna Kumar Barick 7.1 Introduction 156 7.2 Conducting Polymer Composites (CPCs) for Antistatic Application in Aerospace 158 7.3 Conducting Polymer Nanocomposites (CPNCs) for Antistatic Application in Aerospace 165 7.4 Conclusions 178 References 179 8 Electroactive Polymeric Shape Memory Composites for Aerospace Application 189Mamata Singh, Taha Gulamabbas, Benjamin Ahumuza, N.P. Singh and Vivek Mishra 8.1 Introduction 190 8.1.1 Electroactive Polymer 191 8.1.1.1 Electronic EAPs 192 8.1.1.2 Dielectric Elastomer Actuators (DEAs) 193 8.1.1.3 Piezoelectric Polymer 193 8.1.1.4 Ferroelectric EAPs 194 8.1.2 Ionic Polymers 194 8.1.2.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Actuators 194 8.1.2.2 Ionic Polymer Metal Composites 194 8.1.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 195 8.1.2.4 Ionic Polymer Gels 195 8.2 Shape-Memory Polymers (SMPs) 195 8.2.1 Properties of Shape Memory Polymers 196 8.2.1.1 Classification of SMPs by Stimulus Response 197 8.2.2 Shape Memory Polymer Composites 200 8.2.3 Electroactive Shape Memory Polymers 201 8.2.4 Applications of Electroactive Shape Memory Polymer Composites in Aerospace 201 8.2.5 Hybrid Electroactive Morphing Wings 201 8.2.6 Paper-Thin CNT 202 8.2.7 SMPC Hinges 202 8.2.8 SMPC Booms 202 8.2.9 Foldable SMPC Truss Booms 202 8.2.9.1 Coilable SMPC Truss Booms 203 8.2.9.2 SMPC STEM Booms 203 8.2.10 SMPC Reflector Antennas 203 8.2.11 Expandable Lunar Habitat 204 8.2.12 Super Wire 204 References 204 9 Polymer Nanocomposite Dielectrics for High-Temperature Applications 211Dipika Meghnani and Rajendra Kumar Singh 9.1 Introduction 211 9.1.1 Polymer Nanocomposite Dielectrics (PNCD) 214 9.2 Crucial Factor in Framing the High-Temperature Polymer Nanocomposite Dielectric Materials 215 9.2.1 Dielectric Permittivity 215 9.2.2 Thermal Stability 216 9.3 Application of Polymer Nanocomposite Dielectric at Elevated Temperature and Their Progress 223 9.4 Conclusion 225 References 225 10 Self-Healable Conductive and Polymeric Composite Materials 231M. Ramesh, V. Bhuvaneswari, D. Balaji and L. Rajeshkumar 10.1 Introduction 231 10.2 Self-Healing Materials 235 10.2.1 Self-Healing Polymers 237 10.2.2 Self-Healing Polymer Composite Materials 237 10.3 Mechanically Induced Self-Healing Materials 239 10.3.1 Self-Healing Induction Grounded on Gel 240 10.3.2 Self-Healing Induction Based on Crystals 242 10.3.3 Self-Healing Induction Based on Corrosion Inhibitors 244 10.4 Self-Healing Elastomers and Reversible Materials 245 10.5 Self-Healing Conductive Materials 247 10.5.1 Self-Healing Conductive Polymers 247 10.5.2 Self-Healing Conductive Capsules 248 10.5.3 Self-Healing Conductive Liquids 249 10.5.4 Self-Healing Conductive Composites 249 10.5.5 Self-Healing Conductive Coating 250 10.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 251 References 252 Index 259

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