Electronics and communications engineering Books

Book SynopsisProvides a systematic overview of a hot research area, examining the principles and theories of energy harvesting communications This book provides a detailed and advanced level introduction to the fundamentals of energy harvesting techniques and their use in state-of-the-art communications systems. It fills the gap in the market by covering both basic techniques in energy harvesting and advanced topics in wireless communications. More importantly, it discusses the application of energy harvesting in communications systems to give readers at different levels a full understanding of these most recent advances in communications technologies. The first half of Energy Harvesting Communications: Principles and Theories focuses on the challenges brought by energy harvesting in communications. The second part of the book looks at different communications applications enhanced by energy harvesting. It offers in-depth chapters that: discuss different energy sourceTable of ContentsPreface xi Acronyms xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Relationship with Green Communications 2 1.3 Potential Applications 3 1.3.1 Energy Harvesting for 5G 3 1.4 Outline of Chapters 4 2 Energy Sources 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Types of Sources 6 2.2.1 Mechanical Energy 6 2.2.2 Solar/Light Energy 8 2.2.3 Electromagnetic Energy 9 2.3 Predictive Models of Sources 9 2.3.1 Solar Energy Modeling 10 2.3.2 Ambient RF Energy Modeling 12 2.4 Summary 16 3 Energy Harvesters 19 3.1 Introduction 19 3.2 Photovoltaic Panels 19 3.2.1 Principles 20 3.2.2 Models 22 3.3 Radio Frequency Energy Harvester 25 3.3.1 Principles 26 3.3.2 Efficiencies 28 3.4 Overall Models 31 3.5 Battery and Supercapacitor 35 3.5.1 Battery 35 3.5.2 Supercapacitor 36 3.6 Summary 36 4 Physical Layer Techniques 39 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 Effect of Energy Harvesting 40 4.2.1 Distribution of Transmission Power 41 4.2.2 Transmission Delay and Probability 43 4.2.3 Bit Error Rate 47 4.2.4 Achievable Rate 52 4.2.5 General Information Theoretic Limits 54 4.3 Energy Harvesting Detection 55 4.4 Energy Harvesting Estimation 61 4.4.1 With Relaying 62 4.4.1.1 Scheme 1 62 4.4.1.2 Scheme 2 66 4.4.1.3 Scheme 3 68 4.4.1.4 Scheme 4 70 4.4.1.5 Scheme 5 71 4.4.1.6 Scheme 6 72 4.4.2 Without Relaying 79 4.5 Energy Transmission Waveform 83 4.5.1 Scenario 84 4.5.2 Energy Waveform Optimization 85 4.5.2.1 Linear Harvester 85 4.5.2.2 Non-Linear Harvester 86 4.6 Other Issues and Techniques 88 4.6.1 Circuit Power Consumption 88 4.6.2 Physical Layer Security 89 4.6.3 Non-orthogonal Multiple Access 91 4.6.4 Joint Detection and Estimation 92 4.7 Summary 98 5 Upper Layer Techniques 101 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Media Access Control Protocols 102 5.2.1 Duty Cycling 102 5.2.1.1 Wireless Power Transfer 103 5.2.1.2 Ambient Energy Harvesting 107 5.2.2 Other Issues in MAC Protocols 110 5.3 Routing Protocols 111 5.3.1 Ambient Energy Harvesting 112 5.3.2 Wireless Power Transfer 117 5.4 Other Issues in the Upper Layers 118 5.4.1 Scheduling 118 5.4.2 Effective Capacity 121 5.5 Summary 123 6 Wireless Powered Communications 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Types of Wireless Powered Communications 126 6.3 Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer 127 6.3.1 Ideal Implementations 128 6.3.2 Practical Implementations 130 6.3.2.1 Time Switching 130 6.3.2.2 Power Splitting 132 6.3.2.3 General Scheme 134 6.4 Hybrid Access Point 135 6.4.1 Rate-Energy Tradeoff 135 6.4.2 Fairness Issue 138 6.4.3 Channel Knowledge Issue 138 6.4.3.1 Average Achievable Rate 139 6.4.3.2 Average BER 141 6.4.3.3 Numerical Examples 144 6.5 Power Beacon 150 6.5.1 System and Design Problem 150 6.5.2 More Notes 152 6.6 Other Issues 153 6.6.1 Effect of Interference onWireless Power 153 6.6.1.1 System and Assumptions 153 6.6.1.2 Performances with Interference 154 6.6.1.3 Performances without Interference 155 6.6.1.4 Numerical Examples 155 6.6.2 Effect of Interference byWireless Power 157 6.6.2.1 System and Assumptions 158 6.6.2.2 Average Interference Power 159 6.6.2.3 Rate 159 6.6.2.4 Numerical Examples 161 6.6.3 Exploitation of Interference 163 6.6.4 Multiple Antennas 169 6.7 An Example: Wireless Powered Sensor Networks 172 6.8 Summary 172 7 Energy Harvesting Cognitive Radios 175 7.1 Introduction 175 7.1.1 Cognitive Radio 175 7.1.2 Cognitive Radio Functions 177 7.1.3 Spectrum Sensing 177 7.1.4 Energy Harvesting Cognitive Radio 178 7.2 Conventional Cognitive Radio 180 7.2.1 Different Types of Cognitive Radio Systems 180 7.2.2 Spectrum Sensing Methods 182 7.2.2.1 Energy Detection 182 7.2.2.2 Feature Detection 186 7.3 Types of Energy Harvesting Cognitive Radio 189 7.3.1 Protocols 189 7.3.2 Energy Sources 190 7.4 From the Secondary Base Station 192 7.5 From the Primary User 198 7.5.1 Conventional PU 198 7.5.2 Wireless Powered PU 204 7.6 From the Ambient Environment 210 7.7 Information Energy Cooperation 215 7.8 Other Important Issues 217 7.9 Summary 218 8 Energy Harvesting Relaying 221 8.1 Introduction 221 8.1.1 Wireless Relaying 221 8.1.2 Relaying Protocols 222 8.1.3 Energy Harvesting Relaying 223 8.2 Conventional Relaying 224 8.2.1 Amplify-and-Forward Relaying 224 8.2.2 Decode-and-Forward Relaying 225 8.2.3 Performance Metrics 226 8.2.3.1 Amplify-and-Forward 226 8.2.3.2 Decode-and-Forward 227 8.2.4 Relay Selection 229 8.2.4.1 Full Selection 231 8.2.4.2 Partial Selection 231 8.2.5 Two-Way Relaying 233 8.3 Types of Energy Harvesting Relaying 235 8.4 From the Ambient Environment 237 8.5 From the Power Transmitter 241 8.5.1 One User and Single Antenna 241 8.5.2 Multiple Users and Single Antenna 242 8.5.3 One User and Multiple Antennas 244 8.6 From the Source 246 8.6.1 Amplify-and-Forward Relaying 247 8.6.2 Decode-and-Forward Relaying 250 8.6.2.1 Instantaneous Transmission 251 8.6.2.2 Delay- or Error-Constrained Transmission 253 8.6.2.3 Delay- or Error-Tolerant Transmission 254 8.6.2.4 Numerical Examples 255 8.6.3 Energy Harvesting Source 260 8.7 Other Important Issues 270 8.7.1 Interference 270 8.7.1.1 Time Switching 271 8.7.1.2 Power Splitting 273 8.7.2 Multi-Hop 275 8.7.2.1 Time Switching 276 8.7.2.2 Power Splitting 280 8.7.2.3 Numerical Examples 282 8.7.3 Others 291 8.8 Summary 292 References 293 Index 307

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Book SynopsisSATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS PAYLOAD AND SYSTEM A valuable reference on communications satellite systemsThis book presents the state of the art in commercial communications satellite systems, thoroughly and in detail not to be found in any other book. These systems provide the television and some of the telephone and Internet services in use every day. The book focuses on the satellite payload, which consists of antennas, receivers, and transmitters. The book discusses the what, the how, and the why of various choices that have been made in currently operating systems.The book is organized into three parts: In-depth description of various payload units, not requiring specialist knowledge. For each unit and the payload as a whole, the architectures, the theory of operation, analysis, performance, and specifications are presented. End-to-end system context in which the payload operates. Digital communications theory and satellite communications protocolsTable of Contents1 Introduction 2 1.1 End-to-End Satellite Communications System 2 1.2 What the Book Is About 3 1.3 Channel and Channel Sharing 3 1.4 Payload 4 1.5 Ground Transmitter and Ground Receiver 7 1.6 System 8 1.7 Conventions 8 1.8 Book Sources 9 1.9 Summary of Rest of Book 10 References 12 PART I. PAYLOAD 2 2 Payload’s On-Orbit Environment 2 2.1 What Determines Environment 2 2.2 On-Orbit Environment and Mitigation by Spacecraft Bus 8 2.3 General Effects of Mitigated Environment on Payload 19 References 24 3 Antenna Basics and Single-Beam Antenna 2 3.1 Introduction 2 3.2 Examples of Single-Beam Antenna 2 3.3 General Antenna Concepts 3 3.4 Reflector-Antenna Basics 9 3.5 Steerable Single-Beam Antennas 15 3.6 Reflector Technology for Single-Beam Antennas 16 3.7 Horn for Single-Beam Antennas 17 3.8 Other Antenna Components 20 3.9 Antenna Pointing Error 24 3.10 Antenna Autotrack 26 3.11 Reflector-Antenna Inefficiencies 28 3.12 Testing 32 References 35 4 Payload-Integration Elements 2 4.1 Introduction 2 4.2 Coaxial Cable vs. Waveguide 2 4.3 Coaxial Cable 2 4.4 Waveguide 7 4.5 Other Integration Elements 13 4.6 Redundancy Configurations 17 4.7 Impedance Mismatch and Scattering Parameters 21 References 26 5 Microwave Filter 2 5.1 Introduction 2 5.2 Basics of Analog Filters 2 5.3 Basics of Specifically Microwave Filters 7 5.4 Technology for Bandpass Filters 13 5.5 Filter Units 17 5.6 Bandpass Filter Specification 23 References 24 6 Low-Noise Amplifier and Frequency Converter 2 6.1 Introduction 2 6.2 LNAs and Frequency Converters in Payload 2 6.3 Nonlinearity of LNA and Frequency Converter 4 6.4 Noise Figure 8 6.5 Low-Noise Amplifier 8 6.6 Frequency Converter 11 6.7 Receiver 23 6.A Appendix. Formula for Integrating Phase Noise Spectrum 24 References 24 7 Preamplifier and High-Power Amplifier 2 7.1 Introduction 2 7.2 HPA Concepts and Terms 2 7.3 Traveling-Wave Tube Amplifier vs. Solid-State Power Amplifier 7 7.4 Traveling-Wave Tube Subsystem 9 7.5 Solid-State Power Amplifier 26 References 34 8 Payload’s Analog Communications Parameters 2 8.1 Introduction 2 8.2 Gain Variation with Frequency 4 8.3 Phase Variation with Frequency 7 8.4 Channel Bandwidth 9 8.5 Phase Noise 10 8.6 Frequency Stability 10 8.7 Spurious Signals from Frequency Converter 10 8.8 HPA Nonlinearity 11 8.9 Near-Carrier Spurious Signals from HPA Subsystem 12 8.10 Stability of Gain and Power-Out 13 8.11 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power 14 8.12 Figure of Merit G/Ts 15 8.13 Saturation Flux Density 17 8.14 Self-Interference 17 8.15 Passive Intermodulation Products 19 8.A Appendices 20 References 21 9 More Analyses for Payload Development 2 9.1 Introduction 2 9.2 How to Deal with Noise Figure 2 9.3 How to Make and Maintain Payload Performance Budgets 4 9.4 HPA Topics 16 9.5 What Nonlinearity Does to Modulated Signal 20 9.6 Simulating Payload Performance as a Function of Gaussian Random Variables 24 References 24 10 Processing Payload and Flexible Payload 2 10.1 Introduction 2 10.2 Processing Operations 7 10.3 Non-Regenerative Processing Payloads 13 10.4 Regenerative Payloads 16 10.5 Communications Parameters of Digital Processing Payload 20 References 20 11 Multi-Beam Antenna and Phased Array 2 11.1 Introduction 2 11.2 MBA Introduction 3 11.3 Reflector for MBA or Contoured Beam and Configuration of Feeds 6 11.4 Horn and Feed Assembly for GEO 11 11.5 Location of Radiating Elements in Offset-Fed Reflector MBA 16 11.6 Single-Feed-Per-Beam MBA 19 11.7 Phased Array Introduction 20 11.8 Radiating Element of Phased Array 23 11.9 Beam-Forming Network 27 11.10 Applications of Phased Array 30 11.11 Beam-Hopping 32 11.12 Amplification of Phased Array 33 11.13 Phased Array Pointing Error 39 11.14 Mutual Coupling in Radiating-Element Cluster 40 11.15 Testing MBA 41 References 42 PART II. END-TO-END SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 2 12 Digital Communications Theory 2 12.1 Introduction 2 12.2 Signal Representation 2 12.3 Filtering in General 7 12.4 White Gaussian Noise 8 12.5 End-to-End Communications System 9 12.6 Bit Manipulation 10 12.7 Modulation Introduction 14 12.8 Memoryless Modulation 14 12.9 Maximum-Likelihood Estimation 22 12.10 Demodulation for Memoryless Modulation 23 12.11 Modulation with Memory 32 12.12 Maximum-Likelihood Sequence Estimation 34 12.13 Demodulation for Modulation with Memory 34 12.14 Bit Recovery 35 12.15 Inter-Symbol Interference 36 12.16 SNR, Es/N0, and Eb/N0 39 12.A Appendix. Sketch of Proof That Pulse Transform and Signal Spectrum Are Related for Memoryless Modulation 41 References 42 13 Satellite Communications Standards 2 13.1 Introduction 2 13.2 Background 2 13.3 Application Examples of First-Generation Standards 6 13.4 Second-Generation DVB Communications Standards 8 13.5 Satmode Communications Standard 15 References 16 14 Communications Link 2 14.1 Introduction 2 14.2 Primary Information Sources 2 14.3 Link Availability 3 14.4 Signal Power on Link 4 14.5 Noise Level on Link 18 14.6 Interference on Link 19 14.7 End-to-End C/(N0 + I0) 29 14.8 Link Budget 30 14.9 Implementation Loss Item in Link Budget 32 References 32 15 Probabilistic Treatment of Downlink Margin for Multi-Beam Payload 2 15.1 Introduction 2 15.2 Multi-Beam-Downlink Payload Specifications 2 15.3 Analysis Method 3 15.4 Analysis Assumptions 4 15.5 Repeater-Caused Variation of C and C/Iself and Nominal Value 5 15.6 Combining Antenna-Caused Variation and Nominal Value into Repeater-Caused Variation 11 15.7 Combining Atmosphere-Caused Variation into Payload-Caused Variation 14 15.8 Optimizing Multi-Beam-Downlink Payload Specified on Link Availability 15 15.A Appendix. Iteration Details for Optimizing Multi-Beam Payload Specified on Link Availability 16 16 Model of End-to-End Communications System 2 16.1 Introduction 2 16.2 Considerations for Both Software Simulation and Hardware Emulation 2 16.3 Additional Considerations for Simulation 6 16.4 Additional Considerations for Emulation 15 References 18 PART III. SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS 2 17 Fixed and Broadcast Satellite Services 2 17.1 Introduction 2 17.2 Satellite Television 2 17.3 Regulations in General 4 17.4 Fixed Satellite Service 4 17.5 Broadcast Satellite Service 13 References 17 18 High-Throughput Satellites 2 18.1 Introduction 2 18.2 Frequency and Bandwidth 4 18.3 Residential Internet HTS 6 18.4 Commercial Communications HTS 13 References 15 19 Non-Geostationary Satellite Systems 2 19.1 Introduction 2 19.2 Iridium 3 19.3 Globalstar 9 19.5 O3b 14 19.6 OneWeb 21 19.7 Starlink 26 19.8 Telesat LEO 32 References 33 20 Mobile Satellite Systems 2 20.1 Introduction 2 20.2 Thuraya 5 20.3 Inmarsat-4 and Alphasat 12 20.4 TerreStar/EchoStar XXI 27 20.5 SkyTerra 35 20.6 Inmarsat-5 (Global Xpress) F1-F4 44 References 53

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive resource to the latest developments of system enhancement techniques of Femtocells, power management, interference mitigation and antenna design LTE Communications and Networks fills a gap in the literature to offer a comprehensive review of the most current developments of LTE Femtocells and antennas and explores their future growth. With contributions from a group of experts that represent the fields of wireless communications and mobile communications, signal processing and antenna design, this text identifies technical challenges and presents recent results related to the development, integration and enhancement of LTE systems in portable devices. The authors examine topics such as application of cognitive radio with efficient sensing mechanisms, interference mitigation and power management schemes for the LTE systems. They also provide a comprehensive account of design challenges and approaches, performance enhancement techniques and Table of ContentsList of Contributors xv Preface xvi 1 Introduction 1Ghazanfar Ali Safdar and Masood Ur Rehman 1.1 Evolution of Wireless and Cellular Communication 2 1.1.1 1 G 3 1.1.2 2 G 3 1.1.3 2.5 G 3 1.1.4 2.75 G 4 1.1.5 3 G 4 1.1.6 3.5 G 4 1.1.7 4 G/LTE 5 1.2 LTE Architecture 5 1.2.1 Communications Perspective Challenges in LTE Networks 8 1.2.1.1 Signalling System 8 1.2.1.2 Backward Compatibility 9 1.2.1.3 BS Efficiency 9 1.2.2 LTE Radio Frame 10 1.3 LTE Antennas 11 1.4 LTE Applications 11 1.4.1 Communications 11 1.4.2 Public Safety 12 1.4.3 Device]to]Device Communications 12 1.4.4 Video Streaming 12 1.4.5 Voice over LTE (VoLTE) 12 1.4.6 Internet of Things 13 1.4.7 Wearable Systems 13 1.4.8 Cloud Computing 13 1.5 Book Organization 14 References 16 Part I LTE Femtocells 19 2 LTE Femtocells 21Ghazanfar Ali Safdar 2.1 Introduction 21 2.1.1 Cross]Tier Interference 22 2.1.2 Co]Tier Interference 24 2.1.3 Downlink Interference Modelling 24 2.1.4 Uplink Interference Modelling 25 2.2 Platform for Femtocell Deployment 26 2.3 LTE Architecture Overview 26 2.3.1 LTE Downlink Transmission 27 2.3.2 LTE Uplink Transmission 27 2.4 LTE Femtocell Interference Analysis 28 2.4.1 Scenario 1: Cross]Tier Interference Analysis 28 2.4.2 Scenario 2: Effects of Femtocell Access Mode Deployment 28 2.4.3 Scenario 3: Co]Tier Interference Analysis 29 2.4.4 Scenario 4: Effects of Varying FAP Transmit Power Levels on MUEs 29 2.5 Interference Mitigation: Current State of the Art 31 2.5.1 Spectrum Access/Frequency Assignment 31 2.5.2 Power Control 32 2.5.3 Antenna Schemes 33 2.6 Cognitive Femtocells: A Smart Solution to a Complex Problem 33 2.7 Summary 35 References 36 3 Interference Mitigation in Cognitive Radio]Based LTE Femtocells 38Ghazanfar Ali Safdar 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Femtocells 41 3.2.1 Femtocells – Interference versus Deployment 43 3.2.2 Femtocells – Typical Interference Mitigation Techniques 46 3.2.2.1 Spectrum Access/Frequency Assignment Schemes 46 3.2.2.2 Power Control (PC) Schemes 46 3.2.2.3 Antenna Schemes 48 3.3 Interference Mitigation in Femtocells using Cognitive Radio 49 3.3.1 Cognitive Interference Mitigation 51 3.3.1.1 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – PC 52 3.3.1.2 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – Spectrum Access 54 3.3.1.3 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – Antenna Schemes 64 3.3.1.4 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – Joint Schemes 66 3.3.2 Cognitive Interference Mitigation versus Conventional Interference Mitigation 70 3.4 Summary 74 References 75 4 Coverage Area]Based Power Control for Interference Management in LTE Femtocells 84Ghazanfar Ali Safdar 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Coverage Radius Based Power Control Scheme (PS) 88 4.2.1 Radius Limit Setting 89 4.2.2 Initial Coverage Radius 89 4.2.3 Self]Update 89 4.2.4 Final Radius 89 4.3 System Model 90 4.4 Performance Analysis 92 4.4.1 Results and Discussion 93 4.4.1.1 SINR Cross]Tier (Single Cell) 93 4.4.1.2 SINR Co]Tier (Single Cell) 94 4.4.1.3 Downlink Throughput (Single Cell) 95 4.4.1.4 Co] and Cross]Tier SINR (Single Cell versus Multicell) 96 4.4.1.5 Droppage in SINR (Single Cell versus Multicell) 97 4.4.1.6 Coverage Area Bounds and Impact on SINR (Single Cell versus Multicell) 99 4.5 Summary 100 References 101 5 Energy Management in LTE Femtocells 104Kapil Kanwal, Ghazanfar Ali Safdar, Masood Ur Rehman and Xiaodong Yang 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Architecture of LTE Networks 105 5.2.1 Communications Perspective Challenges in LTE Networks 106 5.2.1.1 Signalling System 106 5.2.1.2 Backward Compatibility 107 5.2.1.3 BS Efficiency 107 5.2.2 Importance of Energy Management in LTE Networks 108 5.3 Classification of ES Schemes 108 5.3.1 Static Power Consumption 109 5.3.2 Dynamic Power Consumption 109 5.4 Energy Efficient Resource Allocation 113 5.4.1 Hybrid FBS and MBS Based Schemes 113 5.4.2 Link Adaptation Schemes 114 5.4.3 Cross Layer Resource Allocation Schemes 115 5.4.4 MBSFN Resource Allocation Scheme 115 5.5 Bandwidth Expansion Schemes 117 5.5.1 CoMP Based Coverage Expansion 117 5.5.2 Time Compression (TCoM) Scheme 118 5.5.3 Bandwidth Expansion Mode (BEM) Scheme 119 5.5.4 Component Carrier Based Schemes 121 5.5.5 Scheduling Based Schemes 122 5.6 Load Balancing Schemes 123 5.6.1 Distance Aware Schemes 123 5.6.2 Coverage Expansion Based Schemes 125 5.6.3 Distributed Schemes 125 5.6.4 Shared Relay Based Schemes 127 5.6.5 CRN Adopted Switching Off of a BS 128 5.6.6 Reduced Early Handover (REHO) Scheme 129 5.7 Comparative Analysis 130 5.8 Open Research Issues 135 5.9 Summary 139 References 140 6 Spectrum Sensing Mechanisms in Cognitive Radio Based LTE Femtocells 150Tazeen S. Syed and Ghazanfar Ali Safdar 6.1 Fundamentals of Signal Processing 151 6.1.1 Channel Model 151 6.1.1.1 Additive Gaussian Noise Channel 151 6.1.1.2 Linear Filter Channel 152 6.1.1.3 Band Limited Channel 153 6.1.2 Modulation Technique 153 6.1.3 Error Probability 154 6.2 Spectrum Sensing Techniques 155 6.2.1 Primary Transmitter Detection 155 6.2.1.1 Energy Detector 156 6.2.1.2 Matched Filter Detection 158 6.2.1.3 Cyclostationary Feature Detection 159 6.2.1.4 Waveform Detection 160 6.2.1.5 Wavelet Detection 161 6.2.1.6 Hybrid Sensing 162 6.2.1.7 Multi]Taper Spectrum Sensing 163 6.2.2 Collaborative/Cooperative Detection 163 6.2.3 Interference Temperature Detection 166 6.2.4 Primary Receiver Detection 166 6.3 History Assisted Spectrum Sensing 166 6.4 Model]and Statistics]Based Spectrum Sensing Classification 167 6.5 Challenges and Issues 172 6.6 Summary 176 References 177 Part II Antennas for LTE Femtocells 185 7 Antenna Consideration for LTE Femtocells 187Masood Ur Rehman 7.1 Antenna Fundamentals 187 7.1.1 Input Impedance and Matching 188 7.1.2 Bandwidth 189 7.1.3 Radiation Pattern 190 7.1.4 Directivity and Gain 191 7.1.5 Efficiency 193 7.1.6 Polarization 193 7.2 Antenna Requirements for LTE Femtocells 196 7.2.1 Frequency Bands 197 7.2.2 Form Factor and Size Limitation 201 7.2.3 Impedance Matching, Directivity, Gain and Efficiency 201 7.2.4 Directionality 202 7.2.5 Polarization 203 7.2.6 Human Body Effects and Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) 204 7.2.7 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) 205 References 206 8 Multiband Antennas for LTE Femtocells 209Masood Ur Rehman and Xiaodong Yang 8.1 Fundamentals of Multiband Antennas 209 8.1.1 Multiband Techniques 210 8.1.1.1 Higher Order Resonances 210 8.1.1.2 Multiple Resonant Structures 211 8.2 Types of Multiband Antennas 211 8.3 Multiband Antenna Design: Case Studies 214 8.3.1 Multi]Slot Antenna 215 8.3.1.1 Antenna Geometry 215 8.3.1.2 Antenna Performance Evaluation 215 8.3.2 Patch]Loop Combination Antenna 220 8.3.2.1 Antenna Configuration 220 8.3.2.2 Antenna Performance 220 8.4 Open Research Issues 227 References 227 9 Reconfigurable Antennas for LTE Femtocells 230Masood Ur Rehman and Waqas Farooq 9.1 Fundamentals of Reconfigurable Antennas 230 9.1.1 Types of Reconfigurable Antennas 231 9.1.1.1 Use of Switches 232 9.1.1.2 Structural and Mechanical Changes 232 9.1.1.3 Material Changes 234 9.2 Realization of Reconfigurable Antennas 234 9.3 Rectangular Patch Reconfigurable LTE Femtocell Antenna 237 9.3.1 Design Conception 237 9.3.2 Frequency Reconfiguration Mode 239 9.3.3 Antenna Performance Evaluation 240 9.4 Circular Patch Reconfigurable LTE Femtocell Antenna 246 9.4.1 Frequency Reconfiguration Mode 248 9.4.2 Antenna Performance Evaluation 248 9.5 Open Research Issues 253 References 254 10 Multimode Antennas for LTE Femtocells 259Oluyemi Peter Falade, Xiaodong Chen and Masood Ur Rehman 10.1 Multimode Antennas: Fundamentals and Types 260 10.2 Design of a Compact Multimode LTE Femtocell Antenna for Handheld Devices 261 10.2.1 Numerical Analysis 263 10.2.2 Experimental Investigation 266 10.3 Design of a Multifunctional Compact Antenna for LTE Femtocells and GNSS Systems 268 10.3.1 Numerical Analysis 273 10.3.2 Experimental Investigation 279 10.4 Summary 284 10.5 Open Challenges and Issues 284 References 284 11 Human Body Effects on LTE Femtocell Antennas 289Masood Ur Rehman and Qammer Hussain Abbasi 11.1 Interaction of the Human Body with Antennas 290 11.2 Numerical Modelling of the Human Body 291 11.2.1 Evaluation and Comparison of Numerical Models of Human Body 294 11.2.1.1 On]Body Transmission 294 11.2.1.2 Effects on Antenna Radiation Pattern 297 11.2.1.3 Electric Field Distribution 299 11.2.1.4 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) 300 11.3 Evaluation of Human Body Effects on LTE Femtocell Antennas 305 11.3.1 On]Body Antenna Placement 308 11.3.2 Antenna]Body Separation 310 11.3.3 On]Body LTE Channel Characterization 312 11.3.4 On]Off Body LTE Channel Characterization 313 11.3.5 Body]to]Body LTE Channel Characterization 315 11.4 Open Research Issues 316 References 317 12 The Road Ahead for LTE Femtocells 322Masood Ur Rehman and Ghazanfar Ali Safdar 12.1 Future Prospects and Challenges 323 12.1.1 Spectrum Sharing 324 12.1.2 Intelligent/Efficient Spectrum Sensing Schemes 324 12.1.3 Primary/Secondary User Issue 325 12.1.4 Energy Saving 325 12.1.5 Security 326 12.1.6 Pilot Power/Coverage Radius Issue 326 12.1.7 Signalling Overhead 326 12.1.8 Proximity Services 326 12.1.9 The Internet]of]Things (IoT) 327 12.1.10 The Age of Big Data 328 12.1.11 5G and Femtocells 328 12.1.12 Antenna Design and Channel Modelling 328 References 330 Index 332

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Book SynopsisAllows the reader to deepen their understanding of various technologies for both fixed power supply installations of railway systems and for railway rolling stock This book explores the electric railway systems that play a crucial role in the mitigation of congestion and pollution caused by road traffic. It is divided into two parts: the first covering fixed power supply systems, and the second concerning the systems for railway rolling stock. In particular, after a historical introduction to the framework of technological solutions in current use, the authors investigate electrification systems for the power supply of rail vehicles, trams, and subways. Electrical Railway Transportation Systems explores the direct current systems used throughout the world for urban and suburban transport, which are also used in various countries for regional transport. It provides a study of alternating current systems, whether for power supply frequency or for special railway frequency, that are usTable of ContentsForeword xiii Acknowledgments xv 1. Introduction to Railway Systems 1 1.1 Traction Electrification Systems 1 1.1.1 DC Electrification 5 1.1.2 Single-Phase Electrification at Railway Frequency 7 1.1.3 Single-Phase Electrification at Mains Frequency 8 1.1.4 Three-Phase Electrification at Railway Frequency 9 1.2 Types of Electric Power Supply in Railway Lines 12 1.3 Track and Train Wheel 13 2. Basic Notions for the Study of Electric Traction Systems 17 2.1 The Park Transform 17 2.1.1 The Stationary Reference Frame Park Transform 18 2.1.2 Representation of Space Vectors 19 2.1.3 The Park Transform and Symmetrical Components 28 2.1.4 Powers in the Park Variables 31 2.1.5 Stationary Reference Frame Three-Phase Components 33 2.1.6 Rotary Reference Frame Rotating Park Transform 33 2.1.7 Final Considerations Regarding the Park Transform 39 2.2 Graetz Diode Bridge Rectifiers 42 2.2.1 Six-Pulse Rectifier 42 2.2.2 Twelve-Pulse Rectifiers 47 2.3 Thyristor Rectifiers 50 2.3.1 Phase Control 51 2.3.2 Noninstantaneous Switching 53 2.4 Forced Switching Converters 57 2.4.1 Sinusoidal PWM Modulation 57 2.4.2 Complete Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter 60 2.4.3 The Three-Phase Inverter 63 2.4.4 Converters Operating as Rectifiers 68 2.4.5 PWM Rectifier with Unitary Power Factor 70 2.4.6 Control Techniques for PWM Rectifiers 74 2.4.7 Multilevel Converters 82 3. DC Railway Electrification Systems 99 3.1 Connection of Electrical Substations 100 3.2 Structure of Traction Power Substation 103 3.2.1 Diagram of a Conversion Substation 104 3.3 Braking Energy Recovery Systems for DC Railway Applications 133 3.3.1 Braking Energy Recovery Systems in Subway Lines 134 3.4 Contact Lines 139 3.4.1 Constructive Aspects of the Line 142 3.4.2 Catenary Suspension 142 3.4.3 Counterweight and Automatic Regulation 144 3.4.4 Electrical Calculations of the Traction Lines 146 3.4.5 Voltage Drops 148 3.4.6 Short Circuit and Contact Line Protection 162 3.5 Probabilistic Methods for Rating the TPSS 166 3.5.1 The Probabilistic Method: General Information and Conditions 167 3.5.2 Representation of Absorption in a Train 167 3.5.3 Supply of a Substation 169 3.5.4 Power Supply by a Single Substation 173 3.5.5 Form Factor for Substation 174 3.5.6 Power Supply with Several Substations 174 4. AC Systems at Mains Frequency 177 4.1 Configuration of the Power Supply System 178 4.1.1 Substations with Transformers in Parallel 180 4.1.2 The Scott Diagram 180 4.1.3 The V Diagram 182 4.1.4 Order Sequence 6 183 4.1.5 Evolution of Solutions 183 4.2 Substation Diagram 185 4.3 25 kV Contact Line Power Supply 186 4.3.1 Line Circuit 186 4.4 2 × 25 kV–50 Hz Systems 188 4.4.1 Transformer 188 4.4.2 Autotransformer 196 4.4.3 Overhead Power Lines 198 4.4.4 Feeder 204 4.4.5 Track 205 4.4.6 The Ideal Functioning of the Autotransformer System 208 4.5 Mathematical–Physical Study of the Functioning 209 4.5.1 Circuit Equations of the 2 × 25 kV–50 Hz System 209 4.5.2 Calculation of the Line Inductance 216 4.6 Creating Autotransformer Systems 224 4.6.1 Primary Power Supply 224 4.6.2 Traction Power Substations (TPSS) 228 4.6.3 Auxiliary Points 231 4.6.4 Service Point 242 4.6.5 Overhead Lines and Grounding Circuits 243 4.6.6 Auxiliary Services’ Power Supply and Line Users 246 4.6.7 Ups 247 4.6.8 Pole Transformation Points 252 4.6.9 LV Section 253 5. Single-Phase Networks at Railway Frequency 255 5.1 Centralized Distribution 255 5.1.1 Contact Line Power Supply 258 5.2 The Distributed Conversion System 258 5.2.1 Electronic Converters 260 6. Electromagnetic Compatibility 263 6.1 Interference Phenomena 265 6.1.1 Conducted Interference Phenomena 265 6.1.2 Induced Type Interference Phenomena 274 6.1.3 Capacitive Interference Phenomena 284 6.1.4 Radiated Interference Phenomena 285 6.1.5 Electromagnetic Fields Inside the Train 286 6.2 Stray Currents 287 6.2.1 Origin of Stray Currents 288 6.2.2 Implications for the Transport System Infrastructure 290 6.2.3 Implications on Underground Structures Located Near the Transport System 294 7. Elements of Transport Technology 297 7.1 Introduction 297 7.2 The Mechanical Aspects of Electric Traction Vehicles 297 7.3 Rail Vehicles with Bogie Structures 299 7.4 Rolling Stock Wheel Arrangements 301 7.5 Classification of Rolling Stock 302 7.6 The Wheel–Ground Kinematic Pair 306 7.7 Vehicular Motion 307 7.8 The Adhesion Factor 308 7.9 The Adhesion Conditions of Individual Railcars and Trains 310 7.10 The Adhesion Coefficient 312 7.11 Practical Values for the Adhesion Coefficient 313 7.12 Resistance to Motion 314 7.13 Air Resistance 317 7.14 Resistance to Forward Motion 318 7.15 Incidental Resistances 321 7.16 Overall Resistances 324 7.17 Tractive Effort Diagram of Traction Vehicles 324 7.18 Determining the Mechanical Characteristic 327 7.19 Variations in Wheelset Load 330 7.20 The Traction Diagram 333 7.21 Start-up 335 7.22 The Deceleration and Braking Phase 338 7.23 Average and Commercial Speeds 339 7.24 Braking Systems 341 7.25 Operational Speed Limits 343 7.26 Motion Transmission 348 7.27 Performance Required from a Traction Drive 350 7.28 Introduction to Traction Drives 354 8. DC Motor Drives 359 8.1 Construction Features 359 8.2 Nominal Data 360 8.3 Motor Schematics 361 8.4 Magnetic Circuit 362 8.5 No-Load Operation 364 8.6 No-Load Losses 365 8.6.1 Mechanical Losses 365 8.6.2 Rotor Core Losses 366 8.6.3 No-Load Test 367 8.7 Load Operation 368 8.7.1 Armature Core or Stack Reaction 368 8.7.2 Load Magnetization Characteristic 370 8.7.3 Interpoles 370 8.7.4 Compensator Winding Effect 371 8.8 Voltage Drops and Starting Conditions 372 8.8.1 Voltage Drops 372 8.8.2 Starting Conditions 372 8.9 Speed Characteristic 373 8.9.1 Air Gap Torque 374 8.10 Power Losses and Efficiency 374 8.11 Tractive Effort Diagram 376 8.12 Speed Regulation 378 8.12.1 Traditional Drives 379 8.12.2 Electronic Drives 379 8.13 Voltage Regulation 379 8.14 Field Regulation 381 8.14.1 Dynamic Behavior of Inductive Shunt Field Regulation 382 8.14.2 Power Losses and Efficiency 386 8.14.3 Torque and Tractive Effort Diagram 386 8.14.4 Coefficient of Elasticity 386 8.15 Forward/Reverse Drive 387 8.15.1 Direct Command Forward/Reverse Drives 388 8.15.2 Indirect Command Forward/Reverse Drives 389 8.15.3 Separate Field Motors 389 8.16 Speed Control 390 8.17 Rheostatic Regulation 391 8.17.1 Rheostat Sections 393 8.17.2 Approaching Positions 395 8.18 Automatic Starting Conditions 396 8.19 Series–Parallel Connection of the Motors 396 8.20 Series–Parallel Transition 398 8.20.1 Short Circuit Transition 398 8.20.2 Bridge Transition 401 8.20.3 Comparison of the Two Systems 402 8.21 Energy Loss in the Starting Rheostat 402 8.21.1 Parallel Motors 404 8.21.2 Series–Parallel Starting Conditions 404 8.21.3 Comparison 405 8.22 Electronic DC Motor Drives 405 8.22.1 Chopper Description 406 8.22.2 Operating Principle of an Ideal Chopper 409 8.22.3 Real Chopper Operation 413 8.22.4 Chopper Regulation During Vehicle Operation Phases 416 8.22.5 Harmonic Currents Generated by the Chopper 419 9. AC Motor Drives 423 9.1 Drives with Induction Motors 423 9.1.1 The Advantages of Induction Machines 424 9.1.2 Operating Principle of an Induction Motor 425 9.1.3 Tractive Effort Diagram of the Motor 427 9.1.4 Operation of the Induction Motor at Variable Speeds 429 9.1.5 Generation of the Ideal Tractive Effort Diagram 431 9.1.6 Torque and Speed Control in an Induction Machine 434 9.1.7 Speed Reverse 452 9.2 Drives with Permanent Magnet Motors 453 9.2.1 Use of Permanent Magnets 453 9.2.2 Main Properties of a Magnet 454 9.2.3 Magnet Stability 457 9.2.4 Reluctance Variations and Demagnetizing Fields 459 9.2.5 Use of Permanent Magnets in Electrical Machines 459 9.2.6 Model of a Synchronous Machine with Permanent Magnets 466 9.2.7 Control Techniques for PM Synchronous Machines 479 9.2.8 Use of PMSMS in Electric Traction 491 9.2.9 Design Criteria for Limiting Fault Conditions 495 10. Current Collecting Systems, Protection Systems, and Auxiliary Services onboard Vehicles 505 10.1 Current Collecting System 505 10.1.1 Pantograph 506 10.1.2 Current Collecting Quality 507 10.1.3 Third Rail 512 10.2 Onboard Protection Systems 514 10.3 Electrical Power Systems Auxiliary Services 515 10.4 Batteries 517 10.4.1 Electrochemical Batteries 518 10.4.2 Batteries for Railway Applications 521 10.4.3 Battery Variables and Parameters 523 10.4.4 Battery Sizing 526 10.5 Compressed Air Production 526 10.6 The Braking System 527 10.6.1 Westinghouse System (Compressed Air Brake) 528 10.6.2 Electropneumatic System (EP Brake) 528 10.6.3 Electrodynamic Brake (ED Brake) 529 10.6.4 The Electrohydraulic Brake 529 10.6.5 Eddy Current Brake 530 10.6.6 Electromagnetic Runner Brakes 532 10.6.7 Brake Control Unit (BCU) 532 10.6.8 Vehicle Air Conditioning: the HVAC System 534 10.6.9 Passengers Information System (PIS) 537 11. Multisystem Rolling Stocks 539 11.1 Transformer 540 11.1.1 Multivoltage and Multifrequency Transformer Operation 540 11.1.2 Power Electronic Traction Transformer (PETT) 541 11.1.3 Operation as an Inductor 543 11.2 Four-Quadrant Converter 544 11.2.1 Stability Analysis of the 4Q Converter 549 11.2.2 Interleaving of Multiple 4Q Converters 559 11.3 Reconfiguration of the Traction Circuit During the Power Supply Systems Changeover 564 11.3.1 Example of Transition between 25 kV AC and 3 kV DC 564 11.3.2 Example of a Transformer in Multisystem Vehicles 567 12. Self-Propelled Vehicles 571 12.1 Diesel–Electric Traction 571 12.1.1 Characteristics of the Diesel Engine 573 12.1.2 Diesel Engine and Transmission Regulation 576 12.1.3 Electric Transmission 576 12.1.4 Multiengine Systems 583 12.1.5 Dual-Power Vehicles 584 12.2 Fuel Cell Trains 585 12.2.1 Fuel Cell Vehicle 588 Index 591

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Book SynopsisA complete guide to the state of the art theoretical and manufacturing developments of body sensor network, design, and algorithms In Body Sensor Networking, Design, and Algorithms, professionals in the field of Biomedical Engineering and e-health get an in-depth look at advancements, changes, and developments. When it comes to advances in the industry, the text looks at cooperative networks, noninvasive and implantable sensor microelectronics, wireless sensor networks, platforms, and optimizationto name a few. Each chapter provides essential information needed to understand the current landscape of technology and mechanical developments. It covers subjects including Physiological Sensors, Sleep Stage Classification, Contactless Monitoring, and much more. Among the many topics covered, the text also includes additions such as: Over 120 figures, charts, and tables to assist with the understanding of complex topicsDesign examples and detailed experimental worksA companion website fTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 History of Wearable Technology 1 1.2 Introduction to BSN Technology 2 1.3 BSN Architecture 7 1.4 Layout of the Book 10 References 11 2 Physical, Physiological, Biological, and Behavioural States of the Human Body 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Physical State of the Human Body 17 2.3 Physiological State of Human Body 19 2.4 Biological State of Human Body 23 2.5 Psychological and Behavioural State of the Human Body 24 2.6 Summary and Conclusions 30 References 31 3 Physical, Physiological, and Biological Measurements 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Wearable Technology for Gait Monitoring 35 3.2.1 Accelerometer and Its Application to Gait Monitoring 36 3.2.1.1 How Accelerometers Operate 37 3.2.1.2 Accelerometers in Practice 39 3.2.2 Gyroscope and IMU 40 3.2.3 Force Plates 41 3.2.4 Goniometer 41 3.2.5 Electromyography 41 3.2.6 Sensing Fabric 42 3.3 Physiological Sensors 42 3.3.1 Multichannel Measurement of the Nerves Electric Potentials 42 3.3.2 Other Sensors 45 3.4 Biological Sensors 48 3.4.1 The Structures of Biological Sensors – The Principles 48 3.4.2 Emerging Biosensor Technologies 51 3.5 Conclusions 51 References 53 4 Ambulatory and Popular Sensor Measurements 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Heart Rate 59 4.2.1 HR During Physical Exercise 60 4.3 Respiration 62 4.4 Blood Oxygen Saturation Level 67 4.5 Blood Pressure 70 4.5.1 Cuffless Blood Pressure Measurement 71 4.6 Blood Glucose 72 4.7 Body Temperature 73 4.8 Commercial Sensors 74 4.9 Conclusions 75 References 76 5 Polysomnography and Sleep Analysis 83 5.1 Introduction 83 5.2 Polysomnography 84 5.3 Sleep Stage Classification 85 5.3.1 Sleep Stages 85 5.3.2 EEG-Based Classification of Sleep Stages 86 5.3.2.1 Time Domain Features 86 5.3.2.2 Frequency Domain Features 87 5.3.2.3 Time-frequency Domain Features 87 5.3.2.4 Short-time Fourier Transform 88 5.3.2.5 Wavelet Transform 88 5.3.2.6 Matching Pursuit 88 5.3.2.7 Empirical Mode Decomposition 89 5.3.2.8 Nonlinear Features 89 5.3.3 Classification Techniques 90 5.3.3.1 Using Neural Networks 90 5.3.3.2 Application of CNNs 92 5.3.4 Sleep Stage Scoring Using CNN 94 5.4 Monitoring Movements and Body Position During Sleep 96 5.5 Conclusions 99 References 100 6 Noninvasive, Intrusive, and Nonintrusive Measurements 107 6.1 Introduction 107 6.2 Noninvasive Monitoring 107 6.3 Contactless Monitoring 109 6.3.1 Remote Photoplethysmography 109 6.3.1.1 Derivation of Remote PPG 110 6.3.2 Spectral Analysis Using Autoregressive Modelling 111 6.3.3 Estimation of Physiological Parameters Using Remote PPG 114 6.3.3.1 Heart Rate Estimation 114 6.3.3.2 Respiratory Rate Estimation 116 6.3.3.3 Blood Oxygen Saturation Level Estimation 117 6.3.3.4 Pulse Transmit Time Estimation 118 6.3.3.5 Video Pre-processing 119 6.3.3.6 Selection of Regions of Interest 120 6.3.3.7 Derivation of the rPPG Signal 120 6.3.3.8 Processing rPPG Signals 120 6.3.3.9 Calculation of rPTT/dPTT 121 6.4 Implantable Sensor Systems 122 6.5 Conclusions 123 References 124 7 Single and Multiple Sensor Networking for Gait Analysis 129 7.1 Introduction 129 7.2 Gait Events and Parameters 129 7.2.1 Gait Events 129 7.2.2 Gait Parameters 130 7.2.2.1 Temporal Gait Parameters 130 7.2.2.2 Spatial Gait Parameters 132 7.2.2.3 Kinetic Gait Parameters 133 7.2.2.4 Kinematic Gait Parameters 133 7.3 Standard Gait Measurement Systems 135 7.3.1 Foot Plantar Pressure System 135 7.3.2 Force-plate Measurement System 135 7.3.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems 137 7.3.4 Microsoft Kinect Image and Depth Sensors 138 7.4 Wearable Sensors for Gait Analysis 140 7.4.1 Single Sensor Platforms 140 7.4.2 Multiple Sensor Platforms 141 7.5 Gait Analysis Algorithms Based on Accelerometer/Gyroscope 143 7.5.1 Estimation of Gait Events 143 7.5.2 Estimation of Gait Parameters 144 7.5.2.1 Estimation of Orientation 144 7.5.2.2 Estimating Angles Using Accelerometers 146 7.5.2.3 Estimating Angles Using Gyroscopes 147 7.5.2.4 Fusing Accelerometer and Gyroscope Data 148 7.5.2.5 Quaternion Based Estimation of Orientation 148 7.5.2.6 Step Length Estimation 150 7.6 Conclusions 152 References 152 8 Popular Health Monitoring Systems 157 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Technology for Data Acquisition 157 8.3 Physiological Health Monitoring Technologies 158 8.3.1 Predicting Patient Deterioration 158 8.3.2 Ambient Assisted Living: Monitoring Daily Living Activities 163 8.3.3 Monitoring Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Patients 164 8.3.4 Movement Tracking and Fall Detection/Prevention 165 8.3.5 Monitoring Patients with Dementia 166 8.3.6 Monitoring Patients with Parkinson’s Disease 168 8.3.7 Odour Sensitivity Measurement 172 8.4 Conclusions 174 References 174 9 Machine Learning for Sensor Networks 183 9.1 Introduction 183 9.2 Clustering Approaches 187 9.2.1 k-means Clustering Algorithm 187 9.2.2 Iterative Self-organising Data Analysis Technique 188 9.2.3 Gap Statistics 188 9.2.4 Density-based Clustering 189 9.2.5 Affinity-based Clustering 190 9.2.6 Deep Clustering 190 9.2.7 Semi-supervised Clustering 191 9.2.7.1 Basic Semi-supervised Techniques 191 9.2.7.2 Deep Semi-supervised Techniques 191 9.2.8 Fuzzy Clustering 192 9.3 Classification Algorithms 193 9.3.1 Decision Trees 193 9.3.2 Random Forest 194 9.3.3 Linear Discriminant Analysis 194 9.3.4 Support Vector Machines 195 9.3.5 k-nearest Neighbour 201 9.3.6 Gaussian Mixture Model 201 9.3.7 Logistic Regression 202 9.3.8 Reinforcement Learning 202 9.3.9 Artificial Neural Networks 203 9.3.9.1 Deep Neural Networks 204 9.3.9.2 Convolutional Neural Networks 205 9.3.9.3 Recent DNN Approaches 207 9.3.10 Gaussian Processes 208 9.3.11 Neural Processes 208 9.3.12 Graph Convolutional Networks 209 9.3.13 Naïve Bayes Classifier 209 9.3.14 Hidden Markov Model 210 9.3.14.1 Forward Algorithm 212 9.3.14.2 Backward Algorithm 212 9.3.14.3 HMM Design 212 9.4 Common Spatial Patterns 213 9.5 Applications of Machine Learning in BSNs and WSNs 216 9.5.1 Human Activity Detection 216 9.5.2 Scoring Sleep Stages 217 9.5.3 Fault Detection 218 9.5.4 Gas Pipeline Leakage Detection 218 9.5.5 Measuring Pollution Level 218 9.5.6 Fatigue-tracking and Classification System 218 9.5.7 Eye-blink Artefact Removal from EEG Signals 219 9.5.8 Seizure Detection 219 9.5.9 BCI Applications 219 9.6 Conclusions 219 References 220 10 Signal Processing for Sensor Networks 229 10.1 Introduction 229 10.2 Signal Processing Problems for Sensor Networks 230 10.3 Fundamental Concepts in Signal Processing 231 10.3.1 Nonlinearity of the Medium 231 10.3.2 Nonstationarity 232 10.3.3 Signal Segmentation 233 10.3.4 Signal Filtering 236 10.4 Mathematical Data Models 237 10.4.1 Linear Models 237 10.4.1.1 Prediction Method 237 10.4.1.2 Prony’s Method 238 10.4.1.3 Singular Spectrum Analysis 240 10.4.2 Nonlinear Modelling 242 10.4.3 Gaussian Mixture Model 243 10.5 Transform Domain Signal Analysis 245 10.6 Time-frequency Domain Transforms 245 10.6.1 Short-time Fourier Transform 245 10.6.2 Wavelet Transform 246 10.6.2.1 Continuous Wavelet Transform 246 10.6.2.2 Examples of Continuous Wavelets 247 10.6.2.3 Discrete Time Wavelet Transform 247 10.6.3 Multiresolution Analysis 248 10.6.4 Synchro-squeezing Wavelet Transform 249 10.7 Adaptive Filtering 250 10.8 Cooperative Adaptive Filtering 251 10.8.1 Diffusion Adaptation 252 10.9 Multichannel Signal Processing 254 10.9.1 Instantaneous and Convolutive BSS Problems 255 10.9.2 Array Processing 257 10.10 Signal Processing Platforms for BANs 258 10.11 Conclusions 259 References 260 11 Communication Systems for Body Area Networks 267 11.1 Introduction 267 11.2 Short-range Communication Systems 271 11.2.1 Bluetooth 271 11.2.2 Wi-Fi 272 11.2.3 ZigBee 272 11.2.4 Radio Frequency Identification Devices 273 11.2.5 Ultrawideband 273 11.2.6 Other Short-range Communication Methods 274 11.2.7 RF Modules Available in Market 275 11.3 Limitations, Interferences, Noise, and Artefacts 275 11.4 Channel Modelling 276 11.4.1 BAN Propagation Scenarios 276 11.4.1.1 On-body Channel 276 11.4.1.2 In-body Channel 277 11.4.1.3 Off-body Channel 277 11.4.1.4 Body-to-body (or Interference) Channel 278 11.4.2 Recent Approaches to BAN Channel Modelling 278 11.4.3 Propagation Models 279 11.4.4 Standards and Guidelines 283 11.5 BAN-WSN Communications 284 11.6 Routing in WBAN 285 11.6.1 Posture-based Routing 285 11.6.2 Temperature-based Routing 286 11.6.3 Cross-layer Routing 287 11.6.4 Cluster-based Routing 288 11.6.5 QoS-based Routing 289 11.7 BAN-building Network Integration 290 11.8 Cooperative BANs 290 11.9 BAN Security 291 11.10 Conclusions 292 References 292 12 Energy Harvesting Enabled Body Sensor Networks 301 12.1 Introduction 301 12.2 Energy Conservation 302 12.3 Network Capacity 302 12.4 Energy Harvesting 303 12.5 Challenges in Energy Harvesting 304 12.6 Types of Energy Harvesting 307 12.6.1 Harvesting Energy from Kinetic Sources 308 12.6.2 Energy Sources from Radiant Sources 312 12.6.3 Energy Harvesting from Thermal Sources 312 12.6.4 Energy Harvesting from Biochemical and Chemical Sources 313 12.7 Topology Control 315 12.8 Typical Energy Harvesters for BSNs 317 12.9 Predicting Availability of Energy 318 12.10 Reliability of Energy Storage 319 12.11 Conclusions 320 References 321 13 Quality of Service, Security, and Privacy for Wearable Sensor Data 325 13.1 Introduction 325 13.2 Threats to a BAN 326 13.2.1 Denial-of-service 326 13.2.2 Man-in-the-middle Attack 327 13.2.3 Phishing and Spear Phishing Attacks 327 13.2.4 Drive-by Attack 327 13.2.5 Password Attack 328 13.2.6 SQL Injection Attack 328 13.2.7 Cross-site Scripting Attack 328 13.2.8 Eavesdropping 328 13.2.9 Birthday Attack 329 13.2.10 Malware Attack 329 13.3 Data Security and Most Common Encryption Methods 330 13.3.1 Data Encryption Standard (DES) 331 13.3.2 Triple DES 331 13.3.3 Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA) 331 13.3.4 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) 332 13.3.5 Twofish 334 13.4 Quality of Service (QoS) 334 13.4.1 Quantification of QoS 335 13.4.1.1 Data Quality Metrics 335 13.4.1.2 Network Quality Related Metrics 335 13.5 System Security 337 13.6 Privacy 339 13.7 Conclusions 339 References 340 14 Existing Projects and Platforms 345 14.1 Introduction 345 14.2 Existing Wearable Devices 347 14.3 BAN Programming Framework 348 14.4 Commercial Sensor Node Hardware Platforms 348 14.4.1 Mica2/MicaZ Motes 348 14.4.2 TelosB Mote 349 14.4.3 Indriya-Zigbee Based Platform 350 14.4.4 IRIS 350 14.4.5 iSense Core Wireless Module 351 14.4.6 Preon32 Wireless Module 351 14.4.7 Wasp Mote 352 14.4.8 WiSense Mote 352 14.4.9 panStamp NRG Mote 354 14.4.10 Jennic JN5139 354 14.5 BAN Software Platforms 355 14.5.1 Titan 355 14.5.2 CodeBlue 355 14.5.3 RehabSPOT 356 14.5.4 SPINE and SPINE2 356 14.5.5 C-SPINE 356 14.5.6 MAPS 356 14.5.7 DexterNet 356 14.6 Popular BAN Application Domains 356 14.7 Conclusions 359 References 359 15 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research 363 15.1 Summary 363 15.2 Future Directions in BSN Research 363 15.2.1 Smart Sensors: Intelligent, Biocompatible, and Wearable 364 15.2.2 Big Data Problem 366 15.2.3 Data Processing and Machine Learning 366 15.2.4 Decentralised and Cooperative Networks 367 15.2.5 Personalised Medicine Through Personalised Technology 367 15.2.6 Fitting BSN to 4G and 5G Communication Systems 367 15.2.7 Emerging Assistive Technology Applications 368 15.2.8 Solving Problems with Energy Harvesting 368 15.2.9 Virtual World 368 15.3 Conclusions 369 References 369 Index 373

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Book SynopsisAn important resource that examines the physical aspects of wireless communications based on mathematical and physical evidence The Physics and Mathematics of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Cellular Wireless Communicationdescribes the electromagnetic principles for designing a cellular wireless system and includes the subtle electromagnetic principles that are often overlooked in designing such a system. This important text explores both the physics and mathematical concepts used in deploying antennas for transmission and reception of electromagnetic signals and examines how to select the proper methodology from a wide range of scenarios. In this much-needed guide, the authorsnoted experts in the fieldexplore the principle of electromagnetics as developed through the Maxwellian principles and describe the properties of an antenna in the frequency domain. The text also includes a review of the characterization of propagation path loss in a cellular wireless environment and examiTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xvii 1 The Mystery of Wave Propagation and Radiation from an Antenna 1 Summary 1 1.1 Historical Overview of Maxwell’s Equations 3 1.2 Review of Maxwell–Hertz–Heaviside Equations 5 1.2.1 Faraday’s Law 5 1.2.2 Generalized Ampere’s Law 8 1.2.3 Gauss’s Law of Electrostatics 9 1.2.4 Gauss’s Law of Magnetostatics 10 1.2.5 Equation of Continuity 11 1.3 Development of Wave Equations 12 1.4 Methodologies for the Solution of the Wave Equations 16 1.5 General Solution of Maxwell’s Equations 19 1.6 Power (Correlation) Versus Reciprocity (Convolution) 24 1.7 Radiation and Reception Properties of a Point Source Antenna in Frequency and in Time Domain 28 1.7.1 Radiation of Fields from Point Sources 28 1.7.1.1 Far Field in Frequency Domain of a Point Radiator 29 1.7.1.2 Far Field in Time Domain of a Point Radiator 30 1.7.2 Reception Properties of a Point Receiver 31 1.8 Radiation and Reception Properties of Finite‐Sized Dipole‐Like Structures in Frequency and in Time 33 1.8.1 Radiation Fields from Wire‐Like Structures in the Frequency Domain 33 1.8.2 Radiation Fields from Wire‐Like Structures in the Time Domain 34 1.8.3 Induced Voltage on a Finite‐Sized Receive Wire‐Like Structure Due to a Transient Incident Field 34 1.8.4 Radiation Fields from Electrically Small Wire‐Like Structures in the Time Domain 35 1.9 An Expose on Channel Capacity 44 1.9.1 Shannon Channel Capacity 47 1.9.2 Gabor Channel Capacity 51 1.9.3 Hartley‐Nyquist‐Tuller Channel Capacity 53 1.10 Conclusion 56 References 57 2 Characterization of Radiating Elements Using Electromagnetic Principles in the Frequency Domain 61 Summary 61 2.1 Field Produced by a Hertzian Dipole 62 2.2 Concept of Near and Far Fields 65 2.3 Field Radiated by a Small Circular Loop 68 2.4 Field Produced by a Finite‐Sized Dipole 70 2.5 Radiation Field from a Finite‐Sized Dipole Antenna 72 2.6 Maximum Power Transfer and Efficiency 74 2.6.1 Maximum Power Transfer 75 2.6.2 Analysis Using Simple Circuits 77 2.6.3 Computed Results Using Realistic Antennas 81 2.6.4 Use/Misuse of the S‐Parameters 84 2.7 Radiation Efficiency of Electrically Small Versus Electrically Large Antenna 85 2.7.1 What is an Electrically Small Antenna (ESA)? 86 2.7.2 Performance of Electrically Small Antenna Versus Large Resonant Antennas 86 2.8 Challenges in Designing a Matched ESA 90 2.9 Near‐ and Far‐Field Properties of Antennas Deployed Over Earth 94 2.10 Use of Spatial Antenna Diversity 100 2.11 Performance of Antennas Operating Over Ground 104 2.12 Fields Inside a Dielectric Room and a Conducting Box 107 2.13 The Mathematics and Physics of an Antenna Array 120 2.14 Does Use of Multiple Antennas Makes Sense? 123 2.14.1 Is MIMO Really Better than SISO? 132 2.15 Signal Enhancement Methodology Through Adaptivity on Transmit Instead of MIMO 138 2.16 Conclusion 148 Appendix 2A Where Does the Far Field of an Antenna Really Starts Under Different Environments? 149 Summary 149 2A.1 Introduction 150 2A.2 Derivation of the Formula 2D2/λ 153 2A.3 Dipole Antennas Operating in Free Space 157 2A.4 Dipole Antennas Radiating Over an Imperfect Ground 162 2A.5 Epilogue 164 References 167 3 Mechanism of Wireless Propagation: Physics, Mathematics, and Realization 171 Summary 171 3.1 Introduction 172 3.2 Description and Analysis of Measured Data on Propagation Available in the Literature 173 3.3 Electromagnetic Analysis of Propagation Path Loss Using a Macro Model 184 3.4 Accurate Numerical Evaluation of the Fields Near an Earth–Air Interface 190 3.5 Use of the Numerically Accurate Macro Model for Analysis of Okumura et al.’s Measurement Data 192 3.6 Visualization of the Propagation Mechanism 199 3.7 A Note on the Conventional Propagation Models 203 3.8 Refinement of the Macro Model to Take Transmitting Antenna’s Electronic and Mechanical Tilt into Account 207 3.9 Refinement of the Data Collection Mechanism and its Interpretation Through the Definition of the Proper Route 210 3.10 Lessons Learnt: Possible Elimination of Slow Fading and a Better Way to Deploy Base Station Antennas 217 3.10.1 Experimental Measurement Setup 224 3.11 Cellular Wireless Propagation Occurs Through the Zenneck Wave and not Surface Waves 227 3.12 Conclusion 233 Appendix 3A Sommerfeld Formulation for a Vertical Electric Dipole Radiating Over an Imperfect Ground Plane 234 Appendix 3B Asymptotic Evaluation of the Integrals by the Method of Steepest Descent 247 Appendix 3C Asymptotic Evaluation of the Integrals When there Exists a Pole Near the Saddle Point 252 Appendix 3D Evaluation of Fields Near the Interface 254 Appendix 3E Properties of a Zenneck Wave 258 Appendix 3F Properties of a Surface Wave 259 References 261 4 Methodologies for Ultrawideband Distortionless Transmission/ Reception of Power and Information 265 Summary 265 4.1 Introduction 266 4.2 Transient Responses from Differently Sized Dipoles 268 4.3 A Travelling Wave Antenna 276 4.4 UWB Input Pulse Exciting a Dipole of Different Lengths 279 4.5 Time Domain Responses of Some Special Antennas 281 4.5.1 Dipole Antennas 281 4.5.2 Biconical Antennas 292 4.5.3 TEM Horn Antenna 299 4.6 Two Ultrawideband Antennas of Century Bandwidth 305 4.6.1 A Century Bandwidth Bi‐Blade Antenna 306 4.6.2 Cone‐Blade Antenna 310 4.6.3 Impulse Radiating Antenna (IRA) 313 4.7 Experimental Verification of Distortionless Transmission of Ultrawideband Signals 315 4.8 Distortionless Transmission and Reception of Ultrawideband Signals Fitting the FCC Mask 327 4.8.1 Design of a T‐pulse 329 4.8.2 Synthesis of a T‐pulse Fitting the FCC Mask 331 4.8.3 Distortionless Transmission and Reception of a UWB Pulse Fitting the FCC Mask 332 4.9 Simultaneous Transmission of Information and Power in Wireless Antennas 338 4.9.1 Introduction 338 4.9.2 Formulation and Optimization of the Various Channel Capacities 342 4.9.2.1 Optimization for the Shannon Channel Capacity 342 4.9.2.2 Optimization for the Gabor Channel Capacity 344 4.9.2.3 Optimization for the Hartley‐Nyquist‐Tuller Channel Capacity 345 4.9.3 Channel Capacity Simulation of a Frequency Selective Channel Using a Pair of Transmitting and Receiving Antennas 347 4.9.4 Optimization of Each Channel Capacity Formulation 353 4.10 Effect of Broadband Matching in Simultaneous Information and Power Transfer 355 4.10.1 Problem Description 357 4.10.1.1 Total Channel Capacity 358 4.10.1.2 Power Delivery 361 4.10.1.3 Limitation on VSWR 361 4.10.2 Design of Matching Networks 362 4.10.2.1 Simplified Real Frequency Technique (SRFT) 362 4.10.2.2 Use of Non‐Foster Matching Networks 366 4.10.3 Performance Gain When Using a Matching Network 367 4.10.3.1 Constraints of VSWR < 2 367 4.10.3.2 Constraints of VSWR < 3 369 4.10.3.3 Without VSWR Constraint 371 4.10.3.4 Discussions 372 4.10.4 PCB (Printed Circuit Board) Implementation of a Broadband‐ Matched Dipole 373 4.11 Conclusion 376 References 377 Index 383

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Book SynopsisAn in-depth description of the state-of-the-art of 3D shape analysis techniques and their applications This book discusses the different topics that come under the title of 3D shape analysis. It covers the theoretical foundations and the major solutions that have been presented in the literature. It also establishes links between solutions proposed by different communities that studied 3D shape, such as mathematics and statistics, medical imaging, computer vision, and computer graphics. The first part of 3D Shape Analysis: Fundamentals, Theory, and Applications provides a review of the background concepts such as methods for the acquisition and representation of 3D geometries, and the fundamentals of geometry and topology. It specifically covers stereo matching, structured light, and intrinsic vs. extrinsic properties of shape. Parts 2 and 3 present a range of mathematical and algorithmic tools (which are used for e.g., global descriptors, keypoint detectTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation 1 1.2 The 3D Shape Analysis Problem 2 1.3 About This Book 5 1.4 Notation 9 Part I Foundations 11 2 Basic Elements of 3D Geometry and Topology 13 2.1 Elements of Differential Geometry 13 2.1.1 Parametric Curves 13 2.1.2 Continuous Surfaces 15 2.1.2.1 Differential Properties of Surfaces 17 2.1.2.1.1 First Fundamental Form 17 2.1.2.1.2 Second Fundamental Form and Shape Operator 18 2.1.2.2 Curvatures 19 2.1.2.3 Laplace and Laplace–Beltrami Operators 21 2.1.3 Manifolds, Metrics, and Geodesics 22 2.1.4 Discrete Surfaces 24 2.1.4.1 Representations of Discrete Surfaces 24 2.1.4.2 Mesh Data Structures 28 2.1.4.3 Discretization of the Differential Properties of Surfaces 29 2.2 Shape, Shape Transformations, and Deformations 30 2.2.1 Shape-Preserving Transformations 31 2.2.1.1 Normalization for Translation 32 2.2.1.2 Normalization for Scale 32 2.2.1.3 Normalization for Rotation 32 2.2.1.3.1 Rotation Normalization Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 33 2.2.1.3.2 Rotation Normalization Using Planar Reflection Symmetry Analysis 34 2.2.2 Shape Deformations 35 2.2.3 Bending 35 2.2.4 Stretching 37 2.3 Summary and Further Reading 38 3 3D Acquisition and Preprocessing 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 3D Acquisition 41 3.2.1 Contact 3D Acquisition 43 3.2.1.1 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) 43 3.2.1.2 Arm-Based 3D Scanner 44 3.2.2 Noncontact 3D Acquisition 44 3.2.2.1 Time-of-Flight 44 3.2.2.1.1 Pulse-Based TOF 44 3.2.2.1.2 Phase Shift-Based TOF 45 3.2.2.2 Triangulation 45 3.2.2.3 Stereo 47 3.2.2.4 Structured Light 50 3.2.2.4.1 Temporal Coded Patterns 51 3.2.2.4.2 Spatial Coded Patterns 52 3.2.2.4.3 Direct Coded Patterns 55 3.2.2.5 Shape from X 55 3.3 Preprocessing 3D Models 56 3.3.1 Surface Smoothing and Fairing 57 3.3.1.1 Laplacian Smoothing 57 3.3.1.2 Taubin Smoothing 58 3.3.1.3 Curvature Flow Smoothing 58 3.3.2 Spherical Parameterization of 3D Surfaces 58 3.4 Summary and Further Reading 62 Part II 3D Shape Descriptors 65 4 Global Shape Descriptors 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Distribution-Based Descriptors 69 4.2.1 Point Sampling 69 4.2.2 Geometric Features 70 4.2.2.1 Geometric Attributes 70 4.2.2.2 Differential Attributes 71 4.2.3 Signature Construction and Comparison 72 4.3 View-Based 3D Shape Descriptors 73 4.3.1 The Light Field Descriptors (LFD) 74 4.3.2 Feature Extraction 75 4.3.3 Properties 76 4.4 Spherical Function-Based Descriptors 77 4.4.1 Spherical Shape Functions 78 4.4.2 Comparing Spherical Functions 80 4.4.2.1 Spherical Harmonic Descriptors 80 4.4.2.2 SphericalWavelet Transforms 81 4.4.2.2.1 Wavelet Coefficients as a Shape Descriptor 82 4.4.2.2.2 SphericalWavelet Energy Signatures 82 4.5 Deep Neural Network-Based 3D Descriptors 83 4.5.1 CNN-Based Image Descriptors 84 4.5.2 Multiview CNN for 3D Shapes 85 4.5.2.1 Network Architecture 86 4.5.2.2 View Aggregation using CNN 86 4.5.3 Volumetric CNN 87 4.6 Summary and Further Reading 89 5 Local Shape Descriptors 93 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Challenges and Criteria 94 5.2.1 Challenges 94 5.2.2 Criteria for 3D Keypoint Detection 95 5.2.3 Criteria for Local Feature Description 96 5.3 3D Keypoint Detection 96 5.3.1 Fixed-Scale Keypoint Detection 97 5.3.1.1 Curvature-Based Methods 97 5.3.1.1.1 Local Surface Patch (LSP) 98 5.3.1.2 Other Surface Variation-Based Methods 98 5.3.1.2.1 Matei’s Method 99 5.3.1.2.2 Intrinsic Shape Signatures (ISS) 99 5.3.1.2.3 Harris 3D 99 5.3.2 Adaptive-Scale Keypoint Detection 101 5.3.2.1 Extrinsic Scale-Space Based Methods 101 5.3.2.1.1 3D Shape Filtering 101 5.3.2.1.2 Multiscale Surface Variation 104 5.3.2.2 Intrinsic Scale-Space Based Methods 106 5.3.2.2.1 Scale-Space on 2D Parameterized Images 106 5.3.2.2.2 Scale-Space on 3D Shapes 109 5.3.2.2.3 Scale-Space on Transformed Domains 112 5.4 Local Feature Description 113 5.4.1 Signature-Based Methods 114 5.4.1.1 Splash 114 5.4.1.2 Point Signature 115 5.4.2 Histogram Based Methods 115 5.4.2.1 Histogram of Spatial Distributions 115 5.4.2.1.1 Spin Images 116 5.4.2.1.2 3D Shape Context 117 5.4.2.1.3 Intrinsic Shape Signature (ISS) 118 5.4.2.1.4 Rotational Projection Statistics (RoPS) 118 5.4.2.2 Histogram of Geometric Attributes 122 5.4.2.2.1 Point Feature Histograms (PFH) 122 5.4.2.2.2 Fast Point Feature Histograms (FPFH) 123 5.4.2.2.3 Signature of Histograms of Orientations (SHOT) 123 5.4.2.3 Histogram of Oriented Gradients 124 5.4.3 Covariance-Based Methods 124 5.5 Feature Aggregation Using Bag of Feature Techniques 126 5.5.1 Dictionary Construction 127 5.5.1.1 Feature Extraction 127 5.5.1.2 Codebook Construction 127 5.5.2 Coding and Pooling Schemes 128 5.5.2.1 Sparse Coding 128 5.5.2.2 Fisher Vectors 129 5.5.3 Vector of Locally Aggregated Descriptors (VLAD) 129 5.5.4 Vector of Locally Aggregated Tensors (VLAT) 130 5.6 Summary and Further Reading 131 5.6.1 Summary of 3D Keypoint Detection 131 5.6.2 Summary of Local Feature Description 132 5.6.3 Summary of Feature Aggregation 133 Part III 3D Correspondence and Registration 135 6 Rigid Registration 137 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 Coarse Registration 138 6.2.1 Point Correspondence-Based Registration 138 6.2.1.1 The Typical Pipeline 139 6.2.1.2 Transformation Estimation from a Group of Correspondences 139 6.2.1.3 Transformation Estimation fromThree Correspondences 140 6.2.1.4 Transformation Estimation from Two Correspondences 141 6.2.1.5 Transformation Estimation from One Correspondence 142 6.2.2 Line-Based Registration 143 6.2.2.1 Line Matching Method 143 6.2.2.2 Line Clustering Method 144 6.2.2.2.1 Rotation Estimation 145 6.2.2.2.2 Translation Estimation 146 6.2.3 Surface-Based Registration 146 6.2.3.1 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 146 6.2.3.2 RANSAC-Based DARCES 147 6.2.3.3 Four-Points Congruent Sets (4PCS) 149 6.2.3.3.1 Affine Invariants of 4-Points Set 149 6.2.3.3.2 Congruent 4-Points Extraction 151 6.2.3.3.3 The 4PCS Algorithm 151 6.3 Fine Registration 152 6.3.1 Iterative Closest Point (ICP) 153 6.3.1.1 Closest Point Search 153 6.3.1.2 Transformation Estimation 153 6.3.1.3 Summary of the ICP Method 154 6.3.2 ICP Variants 155 6.3.2.1 Point Selection 155 6.3.2.2 Point Matching 156 6.3.2.3 Point PairWeighting 156 6.3.2.4 Point Pair Rejection 156 6.3.2.5 Error Metrics 157 6.3.3 Coherent Point Drift 157 6.4 Summary and Further Reading 160 7 Nonrigid Registration 161 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Problem Formulation 162 7.3 Mathematical Tools 165 7.3.1 The Space of Diffeomorphisms 165 7.3.2 Parameterizing Spaces 166 7.4 Isometric Correspondence and Registration 168 7.4.1 Möbius Voting 168 7.4.2 Examples 170 7.5 Nonisometric (Elastic) Correspondence and Registration 171 7.5.1 Surface Deformation Models 171 7.5.1.1 Linear Deformation Model 171 7.5.1.2 Elastic Deformation Models 172 7.5.2 Square-Root Normal Fields (SRNF) Representation 173 7.5.3 Numerical Inversion of SRNF Maps 174 7.5.3.1 SRNF Inversion Algorithm 176 7.5.4 Correspondence 177 7.5.4.1 Optimization Over SO(3) 178 7.5.4.2 Optimization Over Γ 178 7.5.4.3 Differential of 𝜙 [184] 179 7.5.4.4 Initialization of the Gradient [184] 179 7.5.5 Elastic Registration and Geodesics 181 7.5.6 Coregistration 181 7.6 Summary and Further Reading 184 8 Semantic Correspondences 187 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Mathematical Formulation 188 8.3 Graph Representation 191 8.3.1 Characterizing the Local Geometry and the Spatial Relations 191 8.3.1.1 Unary Descriptors 192 8.3.1.2 Binary Descriptors 192 8.3.2 Cross Mesh Pairing of Patches 192 8.4 Energy Functions for Semantic Labeling 194 8.4.1 The Data Term 194 8.4.2 Smoothness Terms 194 8.4.2.1 Smoothness Constraints 194 8.4.2.2 Geometric Compatibility 195 8.4.2.3 Label Compatibility 196 8.4.3 The Intermesh Term 196 8.5 Semantic Labeling 196 8.5.1 Unsupervised Clustering 197 8.5.2 Learning the Labeling Likelihood 199 8.5.2.1 GentleBoost Classifier 199 8.5.2.2 Training GentleBoost Classifiers 200 8.5.3 Learning the Remaining Parameters 201 8.5.4 Optimization Using Graph Cuts 202 8.6 Examples 202 8.7 Summary and Further Reading 204 Part IV Applications 207 9 Examples of 3D Semantic Applications 209 9.1 Introduction 209 9.2 Semantics: Shape or Status 209 9.3 Semantics: Class or Identity 212 9.4 Semantics: Behavior 216 9.5 Semantics: Position 219 9.6 Summary and Further Reading 221 10 3D Face Recognition 223 10.1 Introduction 223 10.2 3D Face Recognition Tasks, Challenges and Datasets 224 10.2.1 3D Face Verification 224 10.2.2 3D Face Identification 225 10.2.3 3D Face Recognition Challenges 225 10.2.3.1 Intrinsic Transformations 225 10.2.3.2 Acquisition Conditions 226 10.2.3.3 Data Acquisition 226 10.2.3.4 Computation Time 227 10.2.4 3D Face Datasets 227 10.3 3D Face Recognition Methods 228 10.3.1 Holistic Approaches 232 10.3.1.1 Eigenfaces and Fisherfaces 232 10.3.1.1.1 Eigenfaces 232 10.3.1.1.2 Fisherfaces 233 10.3.1.2 Iterative Closest Point 234 10.3.1.3 Hausdorff Distance 234 10.3.1.4 Canonical Form 234 10.3.2 Local Feature-Based Matching 235 10.3.2.1 Keypoint-Based Methods 235 10.3.2.1.1 Landmark-Based Methods 235 10.3.2.1.2 SIFT-Like Keypoints 236 10.3.2.2 Curve-Based Features 237 10.3.2.3 Patch-Based Features 238 10.3.2.4 Other Features 239 10.4 Summary 239 11 Object Recognition in 3D Scenes 241 11.1 Introduction 241 11.2 Surface Registration-Based Object Recognition Methods 241 11.2.1 Feature Matching 242 11.2.2 Hypothesis Generation 242 11.2.2.1 Geometric Consistency-Based Hypothesis Generation 243 11.2.2.2 Pose Clustering-Based Hypothesis Generation 244 11.2.2.3 Constrained Interpretation Tree-Based Hypothesis Generation 244 11.2.2.4 RANdom SAmple Consensus-Based Hypothesis Generation 245 11.2.2.5 GameTheory-Based Hypothesis Generation 246 11.2.2.5.1 Preliminary on Game Theory 246 11.2.2.5.2 Matching Game for Transformation Hypothesis Generation 247 11.2.2.6 Generalized Hough Transform-Based Hypothesis Generation 248 11.2.3 Hypothesis Verification 249 11.2.3.1 Individual Verification 249 11.2.3.2 Global Verification 251 11.3 Machine Learning-Based Object Recognition Methods 255 11.3.1 Hough Forest-Based 3D Object Detection 255 11.3.1.1 3D Local Patch Extraction 255 11.3.1.2 3D Local Patch Representation 256 11.3.1.3 Hough Forest Training and Testing 256 11.3.1.3.1 Offline Training 256 11.3.1.3.2 Online detection 258 11.3.2 Deep Learning-Based 3D Object Recognition 260 11.3.2.1 Hand-crafted Feature-Based Methods 262 11.3.2.2 2D View-Based Methods 262 11.3.2.3 3D Voxel-Based Methods 263 11.3.2.4 3D Point Cloud-Based Methods 265 11.4 Summary and Further Reading 265 12 3D Shape Retrieval 267 12.1 Introduction 267 12.2 Benchmarks and Evaluation Criteria 270 12.2.1 3D Datasets and Benchmarks 270 12.2.2 Performance Evaluation Metrics 271 12.2.2.1 Precision 272 12.2.2.2 Recall 272 12.2.2.3 Precision-Recall Curves 273 12.2.2.4 F- and E-Measures 273 12.2.2.5 Area under Curve (AUC) or Average Precision (AP) 273 12.2.2.6 Mean Average Precision (mAP) 274 12.2.2.7 Cumulated Gain-Based Measure 274 12.2.2.8 Nearest Neighbor (NN), First-Tier (FT), and Second-Tier (ST) 275 12.3 Similarity Measures 275 12.3.1 Dissimilarity Measures 275 12.3.2 Hashing and Hamming Distance 277 12.3.3 Manifold Ranking 278 12.4 3D Shape Retrieval Algorithms 280 12.4.1 Using Handcrafted Features 280 12.4.2 Deep Learning-Based Methods 282 12.5 Summary and Further Reading 284 13 Cross-domain Retrieval 285 13.1 Introduction 285 13.2 Challenges and Datasets 287 13.2.1 Datasets 288 13.2.2 Training Data Synthesis 289 13.2.2.1 Photo Synthesis from 3D Models 289 13.2.2.2 2D Sketch Synthesis from 3D Models 290 13.3 Siamese Network for Cross-domain Retrieval 290 13.4 3D Shape-centric Deep CNN 292 13.4.1 Embedding Space Construction 293 13.4.1.1 Principal Component Analysis 295 13.4.1.2 Multi-dimensional Scaling 296 13.4.1.3 Kernel-Based Analysis 296 13.4.2 Learning Shapes from Synthesized Data 298 13.4.3 Image and Sketch Projection 298 13.5 Summary and Further Reading 300 14 Conclusions and Perspectives 301 References 303 Index 337

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Book SynopsisYour guide to advanced thermoelectric materials Written by a distinguished group of contributors, this book provides comprehensive coverage of the most up-to-date information on all aspects of advanced thermoelectric materials ranging from system biology, diagnostics, imaging, image-guided therapy, therapeutics, biosensors, and translational medicine and personalized medicine, as well as the much broader task of covering most topics of biomedical research.

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Book SynopsisRadome Electromagnetic Theory and Design explores the theoretical tools and methods required to design radomes that are fully transparent to the electromagnetic energy transmitted or received by the enclosed antenna. A radome is a weatherproof and camouflaged enclosure that protects the enclosed radar or communication antenna, and are typically used on a fixed or moving platform such as an aircraft, ship or missile. The author a noted expert in the field examines the theoretical methods that apply to all type of radomes: planar, conformal, airborne and ground based. The text offers a description of the various measurement methods that characterise the electrical parameters of a radome, and discusses their merits in terms of accuracy. This groundbreaking book brings together in one volume all the necessary theoretical tools to design radomesTrade ReviewI have been active in the areas of radome design and analysis, as a quick search of my Google scholar list of articles on Frequency Selective surfaces (FSSs) will readily show. In my opinion, this book is simply only one-of-its-kind on the subject of radomes. It is well organized, thorough, and it is easy to follow. It is useful both for practicing engineers designing radomes, graduate students learning about radomes and how to design them, and for researchers wanting to improve the existing designs. The book is an interesting mix of both the theoretical and practical aspects of analysis and design and is very well suited for use as supporting material for a Short Course on radomes. All in all, I have a very high opinion of this book, and I recommend it strongly to anyone who is either active in the field of radome, or wants to get into it in the future. I am very confident in saying that you couldn’t find a better reference on the subject, not only from an academic point of view, but also as an excellent source of information useful for designing radomes. Raj Mittra, IEEETable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 History of Radome Development 4 1.2 Types of Radomes 6 1.2.1 Solid Laminate 6 1.2.2 Inflatable 7 1.2.3 Sandwich 8 1.2.4 Metal Space Frame 8 1.2.5 Dielectric Space Frame 10 1.3 Organization of the Book 10 References 12 2 Sandwich Radomes 15 2.1 Transmission Line Analogy 16 2.2 Multilayer Analysis 17 2.3 Single Layer 22 2.4 A-Sandwich 28 2.5 B-Sandwich 31 2.6 C-Sandwich 33 References 37 Problems 37 3 Frequency Selective Surfaces (FSS) Radomes 39 3.1 Scattering Analysis of Planar FSS 40 3.2 Scattering Analysis of Multilayer FSS Structures 62 3.3 Metamaterial Radomes 72 References 86 Problems 87 4 Airborne Radomes 89 4.1 Plane Wave Spectrum Combined with Surface Integration Technique 91 4.1.1 Multilevel Algorithm for Radiation Pattern Computation 103 4.2 Surface Integration Technique Based on Equivalence Principle 109 4.3 Volume Integration Formulation Methods 123 4.3.1 Solution Using Fast Multipole Method 126 4.4 Differential Equation Formulation Methods 132 References 138 Problems 141 5 Scattering from Infinite Cylinders 145 5.1 Heterogeneous Beams—Volume Integral Equation Formulation 147 5.2 Homogeneous Beams—Surface Integral Equation Formulation 160 5.3 Conductive Beams—Surface Integral Equation Formulation 166 5.4 Tuned Beams—Surface Integral Equation Formulation 176 5.5 Scattering from Infinite Cylinders—Differential Equation Formulation 185 References 194 Problems 195 6 Ground-BasedRadomes 201 6.1 Scattering from an Individual Beam 203 6.2 Scattering Analysis of the Beams Assembly 206 6.2.1 Transmission Loss 211 6.2.2 Sidelobe Level Increment 211 6.2.3 Null Depth Increment 212 6.2.4 Beamwidth Change 212 6.2.5 Boresight Error 212 6.2.6 Boresight-Error Slope 213 6.2.7 Cross-Polarization Ratio 213 6.2.8 Antenna Noise Temperature 213 6.3 Geometry Optimization 215 6.4 Intermodulation Distortion in MSF Radomes 217 6.4.1 The IMP Effect in MSF Radomes 218 References 220 Problems 222 7 Measurement Methods 225 7.1 Panel Measurements 226 7.2 Characterization of Forward-Scattering Parameters 227 7.2.1 Far-Field Probing 228 7.2.2 Near-Field Probing 234 7.2.3 Focused-Beam System 240 References 252 Problems 254 Appendices 255 A Vector Analysis 255 A. 1 Coordinate Transformations 255 A.1. 1 Azimuth over Elevation Positioner 256 A.1. 2 Elevation over Azimuth Positioner 257 A. 2 Vector Differential Operators 258 B Dielectric Constants and Loss Tangent for Some Radome Materials 261 C Basic Antenna Theory 263 C.1 Vector Potentials 263 C.2 Far-Field Approximation 267 C.3 Directivity and Gain 269 C.4 Antenna Noise Temperature 269 C.5 Basic Array Theory 270 D Conjugate Gradient Algorithm 273 References 274 Index 275

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Book SynopsisThis textbook reviews the methodologies of reliability prediction as currently used inindustries such as electronics, automotive, aircraft, aerospace, off-highway, farm machinery, and others. It then discusses why these are not successful; and, presents methods developed by the authors for obtaining accurate information for successful prediction. The approach is founded on approaches that accurately duplicate the real world use of the product. Their approach is based on two fundamental components needed for successful reliability prediction; first, the methodology necessary; and, second, use of accelerated reliability and durability testing as a source of the necessary data. Applicable to all areas of engineering, this textbook details the newest techniques and tools to achieve successful reliabilityprediction and testing. It demonstrates practical examples of the implementation of the approaches described. This book is atool for engineers, managers, researchers, in industry, teacheTable of ContentsPreface xiLevM. Klyatis and Edward L. Anderson About the Authors xix Introduction xxiiiLevM. Klyatis 1 Analysis of Current Practices in Reliability Prediction 1LevM. Klyatis 1.1 Overview of Current Situation in Methodological Aspects of Reliability Prediction 1 1.1.1 What is a Potential Failure Mode? 5 1.1.2 General Model 6 1.1.3 Classical Test Theory 6 1.1.4 Estimation 7 1.1.5 Reliability Prediction for Mean Time Between Failures 9 1.1.6 About Reliability Software 9 1.1.6.1 MIL-HDBK-217 Predictive Method 10 1.1.6.2 Bellcore/Telcordia Predictive Method 11 1.1.6.3 Discussion of Empirical Methods 11 1.1.7 Physics of Failure Methods 12 1.1.7.1 Arrhenius’s Law 12 1.1.7.2 Eyring and Other Models 12 1.1.7.3 Hot Carrier Injection Model 13 1.1.7.4 Black Model for Electromigration 14 1.1.7.5 Discussion of Physics of Failure Methods 14 1.1.8 Life Testing Method 15 1.1.8.1 Conclusions 15 1.1.8.2 Failure of the Old Methods 17 1.1.9 Section Summary 23 1.2 Current Situation in Practical Reliability Prediction 24 1.3 From History of Reliability Prediction Development 27 1.4 Why Reliability Prediction is Not Effectively Utilized in Industry 30 References 35 Exercises 40 2 Successful Reliability Prediction for Industry 43LevM. Klyatis 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 Step-by-Step Solution for Practical Successful Reliability Prediction 46 2.3 Successful Reliability Prediction Strategy 48 2.4 The Role of Accurate Definitions in Successful Reliability Prediction: Basic Definitions 49 2.5 Successful Reliability Prediction Methodology 53 2.5.1 Criteria of Successful Reliability Prediction Using Results of Accelerated Reliability Testing 53 2.5.2 Development of Techniques for Product Reliability Prediction Using Accelerated Reliability Testing Results 63 2.5.2.1 Basic Concepts of Reliability Prediction 63 2.5.2.2 Prediction of the Reliability Function without Finding the Accurate Analytical or Graphical Form of the Failures’ Distribution Law 64 2.5.2.3 Prediction Using Mathematical Models Without Indication of the Dependence Between Product Reliability and Different Factors of Manufacturing and Field Usage 65 2.5.2.4 Practical Example 68 References 70 Exercises 71 3 Testing as a Source of Initial Information for Successful Practical Reliability Prediction 75LevM. Klyatis 3.1 How the Testing Strategy Impacts the Level of Reliability Prediction 75 3.2 The Role of Field Influences on Accurate Simulation 80 3.3 Basic Concepts of Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing Technology 83 3.4 Why Separate Simulation of Input Influences is not Effective in Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing 88 References 96 Exercises 97 4 Implementation of Successful Reliability Testing and Prediction 101LevM. Klyatis 4.1 Direct Implementation: Financial Results 102 4.1.1 Cost-Effective Test Subject Development and Improvement 107 4.1.1.1 Example 1 108 4.1.1.2 Example 2 109 4.2 Standardization as a Factor in the Implementation of Reliability Testing and Prediction 110 4.2.1 Implementation of Reliability Testing and Successful Reliability Prediction through the Application of Standard EP-456 “Test and Reliability Guidelines” for Farm Machinery 110 4.2.2 How the Work in SAE G-11 Division, Reliability Committee Assisted in Implementing Accelerated Reliability Testing as a Component of Successful Reliability Prediction 111 4.2.3 Development and Implementation of Reliability Testing during the Work for the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), USA Representative for International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Reliability and Risk (IEC/ISO Joint Study Group) 149 4.3 Implementing Reliability Testing and Prediction through Presentations, Publications, Networking as Chat with the Experts, Boards, Seminars,Workshops/Symposiums Over the World 155 4.4 Implementation of Reliability Prediction and Testing through Citations and Book Reviews of Lev Klyatis’s Work Around the World 183 4.5 Why Successful Product Prediction Reliability has not been Widely Embraced by Industry 193 References 194 Exercises 195 5 Reliability and Maintainability Issues with Low-Volume, Custom, and Special-Purpose Vehicles and Equipment 197Edward L. Anderson 5.1 Introduction 197 5.2 Characteristics of Low-Volume, Custom, and Special-Purpose Vehicles and Equipment 200 5.2.1 Product Research 202 5.2.2 Vendor Strength 203 5.2.3 Select a Mature Product 203 5.2.4 Develop a Strong Purchase Contract 203 5.2.5 Establish a Symbiotic Relationship 204 5.2.6 Utilize Consensus Standards 204 5.2.7 User Groups/Professional Societies 205 5.2.8 Prerequisites 205 5.2.9 Extended Warranties 206 5.2.10 Defect/Failure Definitions/Remedies 206 5.2.11 Pre-Award and/or Preproduction Meetings 207 5.2.12 Variation 208 5.2.13 Factory Inspections 209 5.2.14 Prototype Functional or Performance Testing 210 5.2.15 Acceptance Testing 210 5.2.16 “Lead the Fleet” Utilization 211 5.2.17 Reserves 212 5.2.18 Problem Log 213 5.2.19 Self-Help 213 References 214 Exercises 214 6 Exemplary Models of Programs and Illustrations for Professional Learning in Reliability Prediction and Accelerated Reliability Testing 217LevM. Klyatis 6.1 Examples of the Program 217 6.1.1 Example 1. Several Days’ Course: “Successful Prediction of Product Reliability and Necessary Testing” 217 6.1.2 Example 2. One-Day Course “Methodology of Reliability Prediction” 218 6.1.3 Example 3. One–Two Days’ Course (or tutorial) “Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing Technology as Source of Obtaining Information for Successful Reliability Prediction” 219 6.1.4 Example 4. One–Two Days’ Seminar “Foundation for Designing Successful Accelerated Testing” 219 6.2 Illustrations for these and Other Programs in Reliability Prediction and Testing 220 6.2.1 Examples: Text for the Slides 220 6.2.2 Examples of Figures 228 Index 243

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Book SynopsisMust-have reference on electronic packaging technology! The electronics industry is shifting towards system packaging technology due to the need for higher chip circuit density without increasing production costs. Electronic packaging, or circuit integration, is seen as a necessary strategy to achieve a performance growth of electronic circuitry in next-generation electronics. With the implementation of novel materials with specific and tunable electrical and magnetic properties, electronic packaging is highly attractive as a solution to achieve denser levels of circuit integration. The first part of the book gives an overview of electronic packaging and provides the reader with the fundamentals of the most important packaging techniques such as wire bonding, tap automatic bonding, flip chip solder joint bonding, microbump bonding, and low temperature direct Cu-to-Cu bonding. Part two consists of concepts of electronic circuit design and its role in low power devices, biomedical devTable of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Impact of Moore’s Law on Si Technology 3 1.3 5G Technology and AI Applications 4 1.4 3D IC Packaging Technology 7 1.5 Reliability Science and Engineering 11 1.6 The Future of Electronic Packaging Technology 13 1.7 Outline of the Book 14 References 15 Part I 17 2 Cu-to-Cu and Other Bonding Technologies in Electronic Packaging 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Wire Bonding 20 2.3 Tape-Automated Bonding 23 2.4 Flip-Chip Solder Joint Bonding 26 2.5 Micro-Bump Bonding 32 2.6 Cu-to-Cu Direct Bonding 35 2.6.1 Critical Factors for Cu-to-Cu Bonding 36 2.6.2 Analysis of Cu-to-Cu Bonding Mechanism 39 2.6.3 Microstructures at the Cu-to-Cu Bonding Interface 46 2.7 Hybrid Bonding 51 2.8 Reliability – Electromigration and Temperature Cycling Tests 54 Problems 56 References 57 3 Randomly-Oriented and (111) Uni-directionally-Oriented Nanotwin Copper 61 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Formation Mechanism of Nanotwin Cu 63 3.3 In Situ Measurement of Stress Evolution During Nanotwin Deposition 67 3.4 Electrodeposition of Randomly Oriented Nanotwinned Copper 69 3.5 Formation of Unidirectionally (111)-oriented Nanotwin Copper 71 3.6 Grain Growth in [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 75 3.7 Uni-directional Growth of η-Cu 6 Sn 5 in Microbumps on (111) Oriented nt-Cu 77 3.8 Low Thermal-Budget Cu-to-Cu Bonding Using [111]-Oriented nt-Cu 78 3.9 Nanotwin Cu RDL for Fanout Package and 3D IC Integration 83 Problems 86 References 87 4 Solid–Liquid Interfacial Diffusion Reaction (SLID) Between Copper and Solder 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Kinetics of Scallop-Type IMC Growth in SLID 93 4.3 A Simple Model for the Growth of Mono-Size Hemispheres 95 4.4 Theory of Flux-Driven Ripening 97 4.5 Measurement of the Nano-channel Width Between Two Scallops 100 4.6 Extremely Rapid Grain Growth in Scallop-Type Cu6Sn5 in Slid 100 Problems 102 References 103 5 Solid-State Reactions Between Copper and Solder 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Layer-Type Growth of IMC in Solid-State Reactions 106 5.3 Wagner Diffusivity 111 5.4 Kirkendall Void Formation in Cu 3 Sn 113 5.5 Sidewall Reaction to Form Porous Cu 3 Sn in μ-Bumps 114 5.6 Effect of Surface Diffusion on IMC Formation in Pillar-Type μ-Bumps 120 Problems 124 References 125 Part II 127 6 Essence of Integrated Circuits and Packaging Design 129 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 Transistor and Interconnect Scaling 131 6.3 Circuit Design and LSI 133 6.4 System-on-Chip (SoC) and Multicore Architectures 139 6.5 System-in-Package (SiP) and Package Technology Evolution 140 6.6 3D IC Integration and 3D Silicon Integration 144 6.7 Heterogeneous Integration: An Introduction 145 Problems 146 References 146 7 Performance, Power, Thermal, and Reliability 149 7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Field-Effect Transistor and Memory Basics 151 7.3 Performance: A Race in Early IC Design 155 7.4 Trend in Low Power 157 7.5 Trade-off between Performance and Power 159 7.6 Power Delivery and Clock Distribution Networks 160 7.7 Low-Power Design Architectures 163 7.8 Thermal Problems in IC and Package 166 7.9 Signal Integrity and Power Integrity (SI/PI) 168 7.10 Robustness: Reliability and Variability 169 Problems 171 References 172 8 2.5D/3D System-in-Packaging Integration 173 8.1 Introduction 173 8.2 2.5D IC: Redistribution Layer (RDL) and TSV-Interposer 174 8.3 2.5D IC: Silicon, Glass, and Organic Substrates 176 8.4 2.5D IC: HBM on Silicon Interposer 177 8.5 3D IC: Memory Bandwidth Challenge for High-Performance Computing 178 8.6 3D IC: Electrical and Thermal TSVs 180 8.7 3D IC: 3D-Stacked Memory and Integrated Memory Controller 182 8.8 Innovative Packaging for Modern Chips/Chiplets 183 8.9 Power Distribution for 3D IC Integration 186 8.10 Challenge and Trend 187 Problems 188 References 188 Part III 191 9 Irreversible Processes in Electronic Packaging Technology 193 9.1 Introduction 193 9.2 Flow in Open Systems 196 9.3 Entropy Production 198 9.3.1 Electrical Conduction 199 9.3.1.1 Joule Heating 201 9.3.2 Atomic Diffusion 203 9.3.3 Heat Conduction 203 9.3.4 Conjugate Forces When Temperature Is a Variable 205 9.4 Cross-Effects in Irreversible Processes 206 9.5 Cross-Effect Between Atomic Diffusion and Electrical Conduction 207 9.5.1 Electromigration and Stress-Migration in Al Strips 209 9.6 Irreversible Processes in Thermomigration 211 9.6.1 Thermomigration in Unpowered Composite Solder Joints 212 9.7 Cross-Effect Between Heat Conduction and Electrical Conduction 215 9.7.1 Seebeck Effect 216 9.7.2 Peltier Effect 218 Problems 219 References 219 10 Electromigration 221 10.1 Introduction 221 10.2 To Compare the Parameters in Atomic Diffusion and Electric Conduction 222 10.3 Basic of Electromigration 224 10.3.1 Electron Wind Force 225 10.3.2 Calculation of the Effective Charge Number 227 10.3.3 Atomic Flux Divergence Induced Electromigration Damage 228 10.3.4 Back Stress in Electromigration 230 10.4 Current Crowding and Electromigration in 3-Dimensional Circuits 231 10.4.1 Void Formation in the Low Current Density Region 234 10.4.2 Current Density Gradient Force in Electromigration 238 10.4.3 Current Crowding Induced Pancake-Type Void Formation in Flip-Chip Solder Joints 242 10.5 Joule Heating and Heat Dissipation 243 10.5.1 Joule Heating and Electromigration 244 10.5.2 Joule Heating on Mean-Time-to-Failure in Electromigration 245 Problems 245 References 246 11 Thermomigration 249 11.1 Introduction 249 11.2 Driving Force of Thermomigration 249 11.3 Analysis of Heat of Transport, Q* 250 11.4 Thermomigration Due to Heat Transfer Between Neighboring Pairs of Poweredand Unpowered Solder Joints 253 Problems 255 References 255 12 Stress-Migration 257 12.1 Introduction 257 12.2 Chemical Potential in a Stressed Solid 258 12.3 Stoney’s Equation of Biaxial Stress in Thin Films 260 12.4 Diffusional Creep 264 12.5 Spontaneous Sn Whisker Growth at Room Temperature 267 12.5.1 Morphology 267 12.5.2 Measurement of the Driving Force to Grow a Sn Whisker 271 12.5.3 Kinetics of Sn Whisker Growth 272 12.5.4 Electromigration-Induced Sn Whisker Growth in Solder Joints 275 12.6 Comparison of Driving Forces Among Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 277 12.6.1 Products of Force 278 Problems 279 References 280 13 Failure Analysis 281 13.1 Introduction 281 13.2 Microstructure Change with or Without Lattice Shift 285 13.3 Statistical Analysis of Failure 287 13.3.1 Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 287 13.3.2 Weibull Distribution Function and JMA Theory of Phase Transformations 289 13.4 A Unified Model of MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 290 13.4.1 Revisit Black’s Equation of MTTF for Electromigration 290 13.4.2 MTTF for Thermomigration 292 13.4.3 MTTF for Stress-Migration 292 13.4.4 The Link Among MTTF for Electromigration, Thermomigration, and Stress-Migration 293 13.4.5 MTTF Equations for Other Irreversible Processes in Open Systems 293 13.5 Failure Analysis in Mobile Technology 293 13.5.1 Joule Heating Enhanced Electromigration Failure of Weak-Link in 2.5D IC Technology 294 13.5.2 Joule Heating Induced Thermomigration Failure Due to Thermal Crosstalk in 2.5D IC Technology 298 Problems 301 References 302 14 Artificial Intelligence in Electronic Packaging Reliability 303 14.1 Introduction 303 14.2 To Change Time-Dependent Event to Time-Independent Event 304 14.3 To Deduce MTTF from Mean Microstructure Change to Failure 305 14.4 Summary 306 Index 307

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Book SynopsisRESILIENCY OF POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS A revolutionary book covering the relevant concepts for resiliency-focused advancements of the distribution power grid Most resiliency and security guidelines for the power industry are focused on power transmission systems. As renewable energy and energy storage increasingly replace fossil-fuel-based power generation over the coming years, geospatially neighboring distributed energy resources will supply a majority of consumers and provide clean power through long transmission lines. These electric power distribution systemsthe final stage in the delivery of electric powercarry electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. New distributed devices will be essential to the grid to manage this variable power generation and enhance reliability and resilience while keeping electricity affordable as the world seeks solutions to climate change and threats from extreme events. In Resiliency of Power Distribution Systems, readers aTable of ContentsAbout the Editors xv List of Contributors xvii Foreword xxi Part I Foundation 1 1 Concepts of Resiliency 3Sayonsom Chanda, Anurag K. Srivastava, and Chen-Ching Liu 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Resilience of Complex Systems 4 1.3 Related Terms and Definitions for Power System 7 1.4 Need for Grid Resiliency 10 1.5 Resiliency of Power Distribution Systems 12 1.6 Taxonomy of Resiliency 16 1.7 Tools for Enabling Resiliency 23 1.8 Summary 28 2 Measuring Resiliency Using Integrated Decision-Making Approach 35Sayonsom Chanda, Prabodh Bajpai, and Anurag K. Srivastava 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Feature to Measure Resiliency of Power Distribution System 37 2.3 Integrated Decision-Making Approach 40 2.4 Algorithm to Enable Resilient Power Distribution System 42 2.5 Case Study 45 2.6 Conclusion 57 3 Resilience Indices Using Markov Modeling and Monte Carlo Simulation 61Mohammad Shahidehpour and Zhiyi Li 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Cyber-Physical Interdependencies in Power Distribution Systems 62 3.3 Resilience of Power Distribution Systems 66 3.4 Mathematical Model for Resilience Analysis 71 3.5 Simulation Results 86 3.6 Conclusions 96 4 Measuring and Enabling Resiliency for Microgrid Systems Against Cyber-attacks 101Venkatesh Venkataramanan, Adam Hahn, and Anurag K. Srivastava 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Testbed Description for Validating Resilience Tools 102 4.3 Test System for Validating Cyber-Physical Resiliency 102 4.4 Dependencies Between Cyber and Physical Systems 106 4.5 Cyber-Attack Implementations 106 4.6 Cyber-Physical Resiliency Metrics and Tools – CyPhyR and CP-SAM 107 4.7 Case Studies for Cyber-Physical Resiliency Analysis 117 4.8 Summary 121 5 Resilience Indicators for Electric Power Distribution Systems 125Julia Phillips and Frédéric Petit 5.1 Introduction 125 5.2 Motivations for Resilience Indicators 126 5.3 Decision Analysis Methodologies for Resilience Indicators 128 5.4 An Application to Electric Power Distribution Systems 134 5.5 FutureWork 138 5.6 Conclusion 138 6 Quantitative Model and Metrics for Distribution System Resiliency 143Alexis Kwasinski 6.1 Power Grids Performance in Recent Natural Disasters 143 6.2 Resilience Modeling Framework 149 6.3 Quantitative Resilience Metrics for Electric Power Distribution Grids 154 7 Frameworks for Analyzing Resilience 163Ted Brekken 7.1 Metrics 163 7.2 Risk Analysis Modeling 171 7.3 Power System Monte Carlo Analysis 180 7.4 Summary 181 Part II Enabling Resiliency 183 8 Resiliency-Driven Distribution Network Automation and Restoration 185Yin Xu, Chen-Ching Liu, and Ying Wang 8.1 Optimal Placement of Remote-Controlled Switches for Restoration Capability Enhancement 185 8.2 Resiliency-Driven Distribution System Restoration Using Microgrids 188 8.3 Service Restoration Using DGs in a Secondary Network 196 8.4 Summary 205 9 Improving the Electricity Network Resilience by Optimizing the Power Grid 207EngTseng Lau, Sandford Bessler, KokKeong Chai, Yue Chen, and Oliver Jung 9.1 Introduction 207 9.2 Microgrid Evaluation Tool 208 9.3 Overall Grid Modeling Tool 216 9.4 Conclusions 226 10 Robust Cyber Infrastructure for Cyber Attack Enabling Resilient Distribution System 231Hyung-Seung Kim, Junho Hong, and Seung-Jae Lee 10.1 Introduction 231 10.2 Cyber Security Analysis of Distribution System 232 10.3 Cyber Attack Scenarios for Distribution System 234 10.4 Designing Cyber Attack Resilient Distribution System 238 10.5 Mitigation Methods Against Cyber Attacks 252 10.6 Summary 257 11 A Hierarchical Control Architecture for Resilient Operation of Distribution Grids 261Ahmad R. Malekpour, Anuradha M. Annaswamy, and Jalpa Shah 11.1 Resilient Control Theory 261 11.2 A Hierarchical Control Strategy 264 11.3 Resilient Operation Using the Hierarchical Architecture 270 11.4 Conclusions 274 Part III Real-World Case Studies 279 12 A Resilience Framework Against Wildfire 281Dimitris Trakas, Nikos Hatziargyriou, Mathaios Panteli, and Pierluigi Mancarella 12.1 Introduction 281 12.2 The Hazard of Wildfires 282 12.3 Modeling and Quantifying the Resilience of Distribution Networks to Wildfires 284 12.4 Case Study Application 291 12.5 Summary 301 13 Super Microgrid in Inner Mongolia 309Jian Xu, Siyang Liao, and Yuanzhang Sun 13.1 Definition and Significance of the Super Microgrid 309 13.2 Applying Load Control Technology to the Super Microgrid 312 13.3 Research on Load–Frequency Control Methods for the Super Microgrid 317 13.4 Implementation of the Load–Frequency Control Method for the Super Microgrid 323 13.5 Operation of the Super Microgrid 325 13.6 Summary 326 14 Technology and Policy Requirements to Deliver Resiliency to Power System Networks 329Mani Vadari, Gerald Stokes, and John (JD) Hammerly 14.1 Introduction 329 14.2 A Broad Perspective on the Need to Apply Technology 332 14.3 Use of Microgrids to Improve Resiliency Response 336 14.4 Use of Drones to Perform Advanced Damage Assessment 339 14.5 Case Study: Lessons Learned and Forgotten. The North American Hurricane Experience 342 14.6 Bringing it All Together – Policy and Practice 344 14.7 Conclusions 346 References 347 Index 351

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive introduction to the fundamentals of design and applications of wireless communications Wireless Communications Systems starts by explaining the fundamentals needed to understand, design, and deploy wireless communications systems. The author, a noted expert on the topic, explores the basic concepts of signals, modulation, antennas, and propagation with a MATLAB emphasis. The book emphasizes practical applications and concepts needed by wireless engineers. The author introduces applications of wireless communications and includes information on satellite communications, radio frequency identification, and offers an overview with practical insights into the topic of multiple input multiple output (MIMO). The book also explains the security and health effects of wireless systems concerns on users and designers. Designed as a practical resource, the text contains a range of examples and pictures that illustrate many different aspects ofTable of ContentsPreface xiii Symbols and Acronyms xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Development of Wireless Communications 1 1.2 Information 4 1.3 Wired Communications 7 1.4 Spectrum 9 1.5 Communication System 12 Problems 13 References 15 2 Signals and Bits 17 2.1 Analog Baseband Signals 17 2.2 Digital Baseband Signals 21 2.3 Source Coding 22 2.4 Line Coding 26 2.5 Bandwidth 27 2.6 Signal Level 28 2.7 Noise and Interference 29 2.8 Converting Analog to Digital 36 2.9 Channel Coding 39 2.10 Repetition 40 2.11 Parity Bits 40 2.12 Redundancy Checking 42 2.13 Error Correcting Codes (ECC) 45 2.13.1 Block Codes 45 2.13.2 Convolutional Codes 47 2.14 Interleaving 48 2.15 Eye Diagram 50 2.16 Intersymbol Interference 51 2.17 Raised-Cosine Filter 54 2.18 Equalization 57 Problems 62 References 67 3 Passband Signals 71 3.1 Carrier 71 3.2 Amplitude-Modulated Signals 72 3.3 Frequency-Modulated Signals 80 3.4 Phase-Modulated Signals 84 3.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 90 3.6 Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals 92 3.7 BER of Digital Signals 94 3.8 Multiplexing in Time and Frequency 94 3.8.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing 95 3.8.2 Time Division Multiplexing 96 3.8.3 Multiple Access 97 3.9 Spread Spectrum 100 3.9.1 Interference 101 3.9.2 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum 101 3.9.3 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum 103 3.9.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 104 Problems 106 References 109 4 Antennas 111 4.1 Signal Properties that Influence Antenna Design 111 4.1.1 Impedance 111 4.1.2 Gain 112 4.1.3 Polarization 113 4.1.4 Bandwidth 115 4.2 Common Antennas 116 4.2.1 Point Sources 116 4.2.2 Wire Antennas 117 4.2.3 Aperture Antennas 125 4.2.4 Microstrip Antennas 128 4.3 Antenna Arrays 130 4.3.1 Element Placement 131 4.3.1.1 Linear Array 131 4.3.1.2 Arbitrary Array Layouts 134 4.4 Electronic Beam Steering 136 4.5 Element Pattern 137 4.6 Low Sidelobes 138 4.7 Moving a Null to Reject Interference 140 4.8 Null Filling 142 4.9 Multiple Beams 144 4.10 Antennas for Wireless Applications 146 4.10.1 Handset Antennas 146 4.10.2 Cellular Base Station Antennas 151 4.10.3 Reflector Antennas 156 4.10.4 Antennas for Microwave Links 159 4.11 Diversity 162 4.11.1 Spatial Diversity 162 4.11.2 Frequency Diversity 165 4.11.3 Polarization Diversity 165 4.11.4 Time Diversity 166 Problems 166 References 170 5 Propagation in the Channel 173 5.1 Free Space Propagation 174 5.2 Reflection and Refraction 175 5.3 Multipath 179 5.4 Antennas over the Earth 181 5.5 Earth Surface 186 5.6 Diffraction 190 5.6.1 Fresnel Diffraction 190 5.6.2 Diffraction from Multiple Obstacles 194 5.6.3 Geometrical Theory of Diffraction 198 5.7 Signal Fading 202 5.7.1 Small-Scale Fading Models 205 5.7.1.1 Rayleigh Fading 205 5.7.1.2 Rician Fading 209 5.7.2 Approximate Channel Models 212 5.7.3 Large-Scale Fading 214 5.7.4 Channel Ray-Tracing Models 217 5.8 Doppler Effects 219 5.9 Fade Margin 223 5.10 Atmospheric Propagation 224 Problems 234 References 238 6 Satellite Communications 241 6.1 Early Development of Satellite Communications 241 6.2 Satellite Orbits 245 6.3 Satellite Link Budget 254 6.4 Bent Pipe Architecture 259 6.5 Multiple Beams 259 6.6 Stabilization 261 Problems 262 References 263 7 RFID 267 7.1 Historical Development 267 7.2 RFID System Overview 270 7.3 Tag Data 273 7.4 Tag Classes 274 7.4.1 Passive Tags 274 7.4.2 Tags with Batteries or Supercapacitors 277 7.4.2.1 Semi-Passive Tags 277 7.4.2.2 Active Tags 278 7.5 Data Encoding and Modulation 279 7.6 Reader-Tag Communication 281 7.6.1 Near Field 281 7.6.2 Far Field 285 7.6.2.1 Multiple Readers in an Interrogation Zone 285 7.6.2.2 Backscatter Communication 288 7.6.2.3 Chipless Tags 293 Problems 295 References 296 8 Direction Finding 301 8.1 Direction Finding with a Main Beam 301 8.1.1 Array Output Power 302 8.1.2 Periodogram 304 8.1.3 Wullenweber Array 305 8.2 Direction Finding with a Null 307 8.3 Adcock Arrays 308 8.4 Eigenbeams 310 8.5 Direction Finding Algorithms 313 8.5.1 Capon’s Minimum Variance 313 8.5.2 Pisarenko Harmonic Decomposition 315 8.5.3 MUSIC Algorithm 316 8.5.4 Root MUSIC 317 8.5.5 Maximum Entropy Method 318 8.5.6 ESPRIT 319 8.5.7 Estimating and Finding Sources 321 Problems 322 References 322 9 Adaptive Arrays 325 9.1 The Need for Adaptive Nulling 325 9.2 Beam Cancellation 327 9.3 Optimum Weights 328 9.4 Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm 329 9.5 Sample Matrix Inversion Algorithm 332 9.6 Adaptive Algorithms Based on Power Minimization 334 9.6.1 Random Search Algorithms 335 9.6.2 Output Power Minimization Algorithms 338 9.6.3 Beam Switching 340 9.6.4 Reconfigurable Antennas 340 Problems 342 References 342 10 MIMO 345 10.1 Types of MIMO 345 10.2 The Channel Matrix 349 10.3 Recovering the Transmitted Signal Using the Channel Matrix 352 10.3.1 CSIR and CSIT 352 10.3.2 Waterfilling Algorithm 356 10.3.3 CSIR and No CSIT 360 Problems 361 References 362 11 Security 365 11.1 Wireless Networks 365 11.1.1 Addresses on a Network 365 11.1.2 Types of Wireless Local Area Networks 367 11.1.3 WLAN Examples 370 11.2 Threats 373 11.3 Securing Data 376 11.3.1 Cryptography 376 11.3.2 Secret Key Cryptography 379 11.3.3 Public Key Cryptography 379 11.3.4 Hashing 380 11.4 Defenses 381 Problems 384 References 385 12 Biological Effects of RF Fields 389 12.1 RF Heating 389 12.2 RF Dosimetry 393 12.3 RF Radiation Hazards 396 12.3.1 Base Stations 397 12.3.2 Cell Phones 397 12.3.3 Medical Tests 397 12.4 Modeling RF Interactions with Humans 398 12.5 Harmful Effects of RF Radiation 400 Problems 400 References 401 Appendix A MATLAB Tips 405 A.1 Introduction 405 A.2 Plotting Hint 406 Appendix B OSI Layers 407 B.1 Layer 1: Physical 407 B.2 Layer 2: Data Link 407 B.3 Layer 3: Network 407 B.4 Layer 4: Transport 408 B.5 Layer 5: Session 408 B.6 Layer 6: Presentation 408 B.7 Layer 7: Application 409 Appendix C Cellular Generations 411 References 412 Appendix D Bluetooth 413 References 414 Appendix E Wi-Fi 415 References 416 Appendix F Software-Defined Radios 419 F.1 SDR Basics 419 F.2 SDR Hardware 421 F.3 SDR Software 422 F.4 Cognitive Radio 423 References 423 Index 425

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Book SynopsisProvides technical and scientific descriptions of potential approaches used to achieve indoor positioning, ranging from sensor networks to more advanced radio-based systems This book presents a large technical overview of various approaches to achieve indoor positioning. These approaches cover those based on sensors, cameras, satellites, and other radio-based methods. The book also discusses the simplification of certain implementations, describing ways for the reader to design solutions that respect specifications and follow established techniques. Descriptions of the main techniques used for positioning, including angle measurement, distance measurements, Doppler measurements, and inertial measurements are also given. Indoor Positioning: Technologies and Performance starts with overviews of the first age of navigation, the link between time and space, the radio age, the first terrestrial positioning systems, and the era of artificial satellites. It thenTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii Introduction xv 1 A Little Piece of History… 1 1.1 The First Age of Navigation 1 1.2 Longitude Problem and Importance of Time 2 1.3 Link Between Time and Space 4 1.3.1 A Brief History of the Evolution of the Perception of Time 4 1.3.2 Comparison with the Possible Change in Our Perception of Space 6 1.4 The Radio Age 8 1.5 First Terrestrial Positioning Systems 9 1.6 The Era of Artificial Satellites 11 1.6.1 GPS System 13 1.7 New Problem: Availability and Accuracy of Positioning Systems 14 Bibliography 15 2 What Exactly Is the Indoor Positioning Problem? 17 2.1 General Introduction to Indoor Positioning 18 2.1.1 Basic Problem: Example of the Navigation Application 19 2.1.2 The “Perceived” Needs 20 2.1.3 Wide Range of Possible Technologies 22 2.1.4 Comments on the “Best” Solution 25 2.1.4.1 Local or Global Coverage 26 2.1.4.2 With orWithout Local Infrastructure 27 2.2 Is Indoor Positioning the Next “Longitude Problem”? 27 2.3 Quick Summary of the Indoor Problem 30 Bibliography 31 3 General Introduction to Positioning Techniques and Their Associated Difficulties 33 3.1 Angle-Based Positioning Technique 33 3.1.1 Pure Angle-Based Positioning Technique 33 3.1.2 Triangulation-Based Positioning Technique 34 3.2 Distance-Based Positioning Technique 35 3.2.1 Distances to Known Environment-Based Positioning Technique 35 3.2.2 Radar Method 36 3.2.3 Hyperbolic Method 38 3.2.4 Mobile Telecommunication Networks 38 3.3 Doppler-Based Positioning Approach 40 3.3.1 Doppler Radar Method 40 3.3.2 Doppler Positioning Approach 41 3.4 Physical Quantity-Based Positioning Approaches 42 3.4.1 Luminosity Measurements 42 3.4.2 Local Networks 42 3.4.3 Attitude and Heading Reference System 45 3.4.3.1 Accelerometers 46 3.4.3.2 Gyrometers 47 3.4.3.3 Odometers 47 3.4.3.4 Magnetometers 48 3.5 Image-Based Positioning Approach 49 3.6 ILS, MLS, VOR, and DME 49 3.7 Summary 51 Bibliography 52 4 Various Possible Classifications of Indoor Technologies 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Parameters to Be Considered 56 4.3 Discussion About These Parameters 57 4.3.1 Parameters Related to the Hardware of the System 57 4.3.2 Parameters Related to the Type and Performances of the System 58 4.3.3 Parameters Related to the Real Implementation of the System 59 4.3.4 Parameters Related to the Physical Aspects of the System 60 4.4 Technologies Considered 63 4.5 Complete Tables 71 4.6 Playing with the Complete Table 79 4.7 Selected Approach for the Rest of the Book 88 Bibliography 99 5 Proximity Technologies: Approaches, Performance, and Limitations 103 5.1 Bar Codes 103 5.2 Contactless Cards and Credit Cards 107 5.3 Image Recognition 109 5.4 Near-Field Communication – NFC 112 5.5 QR Codes 114 5.6 Discussion of Other Technologies 117 Bibliography 118 6 Room-Restricted Technologies: Challenges and Reliability 121 6.1 Image Markers 121 6.2 Infrared Sensors 129 6.3 Laser 130 6.4 Lidar 133 6.5 Sonar 136 6.6 Ultrasound Sensors 138 Bibliography 140 7 “Set of Rooms” Technologies 145 7.1 Radar 145 7.2 RFID 149 7.3 UWB 152 Bibliography 156 8 Building Range Technologies 159 8.1 Accelerometer 159 8.2 Bluetooth and Bluetooth Low Energy 163 8.3 Gyrometer 167 8.4 Image-Relative Displacement 169 8.5 Image SLAM 171 8.6 LiFi 171 8.7 Light Opportunity 174 8.8 Sound 176 8.9 Theodolite 177 8.10 WiFi 180 8.11 Symbolic WiFi 182 Bibliography 187 9 Building Range Technologies: The Specific Case of Indoor GNSS 191 9.1 Introduction 191 9.2 Concept of Local Transmitters 193 9.3 Pseudolites 194 9.4 Repeaters 198 9.4.1 Clock Bias Approach 199 9.4.2 Pseudo Ranges Approach 202 9.4.2.1 Theoretical Aspects 202 9.5 Repealites 206 9.5.1 Proposed System Architecture 206 9.5.2 Advantages 208 9.5.3 Limitations 209 9.6 Grin-Locs 209 9.6.1 Double Antenna 210 9.6.1.1 Angle Approach 210 9.6.1.2 Quadrics Approach 211 9.6.2 Resolution in Case of Several Double Antennas 213 9.6.2.1 Positioning with the Angle Approach 213 9.6.2.2 Positioning with the Quadric Approach 214 Bibliography 216 10 Wide Area Indoor Positioning: Block, City, and County Approaches 223 10.1 Introduction 223 10.2 Amateur Radio 225 10.3 ISM Radio Bands (433/868/…MHz) 226 10.4 Mobile Networks 227 10.4.1 First Networks (GSM) 227 10.4.2 Modern Networks (3G, 4G, and 5G) 232 10.5 LoRa and SigFox 234 10.6 AM/FM Radio 236 10.7 TV 237 Bibliography 239 11 Worldwide Indoor Positioning Technologies: Achievable Performance 241 11.1 Argos and COSPAS-SARSAT Systems 241 11.1.1 Argos System 241 11.1.2 COSPAS-SARSAT System 244 11.2 GNSS 246 11.3 High-Accuracy GNSS 248 11.3.1 HS-GNSS 249 11.3.2 A-GNSS 251 11.4 Magnetometer 253 11.5 Pressure Sensor 256 11.6 Radio Signals of Opportunity 258 11.7 Wired Networks 259 Bibliography 261 12 Combining Techniques and Technologies 267 12.1 Introduction 267 12.2 Fusion and Hybridization 269 12.2.1 Strategies for Combining Technologies 269 12.2.2 Strategies for Choosing the Optimal Data 270 12.2.2.1 Least Squares Method 273 12.2.3 Classification and Estimators 274 12.2.4 Filtering 275 12.3 Collaborative Approaches 276 12.3.1 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Velocities 276 12.3.2 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements in Case Some Nodes Are Fixed 280 12.3.3 Approach Using DopplerMeasurements to Estimate Angles 282 12.3.4 Approach Using Distance Measurements 285 12.3.5 Approach Analyzing the Deformation of the Network 287 12.3.6 Comments 288 12.4 General Discussion 290 Bibliography 291 13 Maps 295 13.1 Map: Not Just an Image 296 13.2 Indoor Poses Specific Problems 297 13.3 Map Representations 298 13.4 Recording Tools 301 13.5 Some Examples of the Use of Indoor Mapping 304 13.5.1 Some Guiding Applications 305 13.5.2 Some Services Associated with Mapping 306 13.6 Synthesis 308 Bibliography 308 14 Synthesis and Possible Forthcoming “Evolution” 311 14.1 Indoor Positioning: Signals of Opportunity or Local Infrastructure? 312 14.1.1 A Few Constrained Selections 312 14.1.2 Comparison of Three Approaches and Discussion 315 14.1.2.1 Inverted GNSS Radar 315 14.1.2.2 NFC-Distributed System and Its Map 316 14.1.2.3 Cooperative Approach Between Communicating Terminals 317 14.2 Discussion 319 14.3 Possible Evolution of Everybody’s Daily Life 321 14.3.1 Student’s Day 321 14.3.1.1 Morning Session at the University 322 14.3.2 Improving an Outpatient’s Visit to Hospital 323 14.3.2.1 Preparation of the “Journeys” 323 14.3.2.2 Displacements of Patients and Automatic Rescheduling 323 14.3.2.3 Reports – Analytics 323 14.3.3 Flow of People in Public Places 325 14.4 Internet of Things and Internet of Everything 326 14.5 Possible Future Approaches 327 14.6 Conclusion 330 Bibliography 331 Index 333

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Book SynopsisSMART GRID AND ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES Discover foundational topics in smart grid technology as well as an exploration of the current and future state of the industry As the relationship between fossil fuel use and climate change becomes ever clearer, the search is on for reliable, renewable and less harmful sources of energy. Sometimes called the electronet or the energy Internet, smart grids promise to integrate renewable energy, information, and communication technologies with the existing electrical grid and deliver electricity more efficiently and reliably. Smart Grid and Enabling Technologies delivers a complete vision of smart grid technology and applications, including foundational and fundamental technologies, the technology that enables smart grids, the current state of the industry, and future trends in smart energy. The book offers readers thorough discussions of modern smart grid technology, including advanced metering infrastructure, net zero energy buildings, and communicTable of ContentsAbout the Authors Acknowledgements Preface List of Abbreviations 1. Smart Grid Architectural Overview 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Fundamentals of Electric Power system 1.2.1 Electrical Power Generation 1.2.2 Electric Power Transmission 1.2.3 Electric Power Distribution 1.3 More limitations of the traditional power grid 1.3.1 Lack of circuit capacity and aging assets 1.3.2 Operation Constrains 1.3.3 Security of Supply 1.3.4 Respond to national initiatives 1.4 Smart Grid Definition 1.5 Smart Grid Characteristics 1.5.1 Achieve flexibility in the network topology 1.5.2 Improved efficiency 1.5.3 Transportation Electrification 1.5.4 Demand response support 1.5.5 Improvement in Reliability and Power Quality 1.5.6 Market-enabling 1.6 Moving towards Future grid 1.6.1 Electrification 1.6.2 Decentralization 1.6.3 Digitalization 1.7 The transformation from the traditional grid to smart grid 1.8 Smart Grid Enabling Technologies 1.9 Smart Grid Architecture 1.9.1 Distributed Generation 1.9.2 Energy Storage 1.9.3 Demand Response 1.9.4 Integrated communications 1.9.4.1 Communication Networks 1.9.4.2 Power Line Communication (PLC) 1.9.4.3 Standardization 1.9.5 Customer Engagement 1.9.6 Sensors and PMU Units 1.9.7 Smart Meters 1.10Classification of Smart Grid Control 1.11Smart Grid Challenges 1.11.1 Accessibility and acceptability 1.11.2 Accountability 1.11.3 Controllability 1.11.4 Interoperability 1.11.5 Interchangeability 1.11.6 Maintainability 1.11.7 Optimality 1.11.8 Security 1.11.9 Upgradability 1.12Organization of the Book 2. Renewable Energy: Overview, Opportunities and Challenges 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Description of Renewable Energy Sources 2.2.1 Bioenergy Energy 2.2.2 Geothermal Energy 2.2.3 Hydropower Energy 2.2.4 Marine Energy 2.2.5 Solar Energy 2.2.5.1 Photovoltaic 2.2.5.2 Concentrated Solar Power 2.2.5.3 Solar Thermal Heating and Cooling 2.2.6 Wind Energy 2.3 Renewable Energy: Growth, Investment, Benefits and Deployment 2.4 Smart Grid Enable Renewables 2.5 Conclusion 2.6 References 3. Power Electronics Converters for Distributed Generation 3.1 An overview of distributed generation systems with power electronics 3.1.1 Photovoltaic technology 3.1.2 Wind power technology 3.1.3 Energy storage systems 3.2 Power electronics for grid-connected AC smart grid 3.2.1 Voltage-source converters 3.2.2 Multilevel power converters 3.3 Power electronics enabled autonomous AC power systems 3.3.1 Converter level controls in microgrids 3.3.2 System level coordination control 3.4 Power electronics enabled autonomous DC power systems 3.4.1 Converter level controls 3.4.2 System level coordination control 3.5 Conclusion 3.6 References 4. Energy Storage Systems as an Enabling Technology for the Smart Grid 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Structure of Energy Storage System 4.3 Energy Storage Systems Classification and Description 4.4 Current State of Energy Storage Technologies 4.5 Techno-Economic Characteristics of Energy Storage Systems 4.6 Selection of Energy Storage Technology for Certain Application 4.7 Energy Storage Applications 4.8 Barriers to the Deployment of Energy Storage 4.9 Energy Storage Roadmap 4.10Conclusion 4.11References 5. Microgrids: State of the Art and Future Challenges 5.1 Introduction 5.2 DC Versus AC Microgrid 5.2.1 LVAC and LVDC Networks 5.2.2 AC Microgrid 5.2.3 DC Microgrid 5.3 Microgrid Design 5.3.1 Methodology for the Microgrid Design 5.3.2 Design Considerations 5.4 Microgrid Control 5.4.1 Primary Control Level 5.4.2 Secondary Control Level 5.4.3 Tertiary Control Level 5.5 Microgrid Economics 5.5.1 Capacity Planning 5.5.2 Operations Modeling 5.5.3 Financial Modeling 5.5.4 Barriers to Realizing Microgrids 5.6 Operation of Multi-Microgrids 5.7 Microgrid Benefits 5.7.1 Economic Benefits 5.7.2 Technical Benefits 5.7.3 Environmental Benefits 5.8 Challenges 5.9 Conclusion 5.10References 6. Smart Transportation 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Electric Vehicle Topologies 6.2.1 Battery Electric Vehicles 6.2.2 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles 6.2.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 6.2.4 Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles 6.2.5 Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles 6.3 Powertrain Architectures 6.3.1 Series HEV Architecture 6.3.2 Parallel HEV Architecture 6.3.3 Series-Parallel HEV Architecture 6.4 Battery Technology 6.4.1 Battery Parameters 6.4.2 Common Battery Chemistries 6.5 Battery Charger Technology 6.5.1 Charging Rates and Options 6.5.2 Wireless Charging 6.6 Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Concept 6.6.1 Unidirectional V2G 6.6.2 Bidirectional V2G 6.7 Barriers to EV Adoption 6.7.1 Technological Problems 6.7.2 Social Problems 6.7.3 Economic Problems 6.8 Trends and Future Developments 6.9 Conclusion 6.10References 7. Net Zero Energy Buildings 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Net Zero Energy Building Definition 7.3 Net Zero Energy Building Design 7.4 Net Zero Energy Building: Modelling, Controlling and Optimization 7.5 Net Zero Energy Community 7.6 Net Zero Energy Building: Trends, Benefits, Barriers and Efficiency Investments 7.7 Conclusion 7.8 Reference 8. Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Advanced Metering Infrastructure 8.3 Smart Grid Communications 8.3.1 Challenges of SG Communications 8.3.2 Requirements of SG Communications 8.3.3 Architecture of SG Communication 8.3.4 SG Communication technologies 8.4 Conclusion 8.5 References 9. Smart Grid Information Security 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Smart Grid Layers 9.2.1 The power system layer 9.2.2 The information layer 9.2.3 The communication layer 9.3 Attacking Smart Grid Network Communication 9.3.1 Physical Layer Attacks. 9.3.2 Data Injection and Replay Attacks. 9.3.3 Network-Based Attacks 9.4 Physical Layer Attacks. 9.4.1 Resilient Industrial Control Systems 9.4.2 Areas of Resilience 9.4.2.1 Human systems 9.4.2.2 Cyber security 9.4.2.3 Complex networks and networked control systems 9.5 Cyber Security Challenges in Smart Grid 9.6 Adopting a Smart Grid Security Architecture Methodology 9.6.1 Smart Grid Security Objectives. 9.6.2 Cyber Security Requirements 9.6.2.1 Attack detection and resilience operations. 9.6.2.2 Identification, and access control. 9.6.2.3 Secure and efficient communication protocols. 9.7 Validating Your Smart Grid 9.8 Threats and Impacts: Consumers and Utility Companies 9.9 Governmental Effort to Secure Smart Grids 9.10Conclusion 9.11References 10. Data Management in Smart Grid 10.1Introduction 10.2 Sources of Data in Smart Grid 10.3Big Data Era 10.4Tools to Manage Big Data 10.4.1 Apache Hadoop 10.4.2 Not Only SQL (NoSQL) 10.4.3 Microsoft HDInsight 10.4.4 Hadoop MapReduce 10.4.5 Cassandra 10.4.6 Storm 10.4.7 Hive 10.4.8 Plotly 10.4.9 Talend 10.4.10 Bokeh 10.4.11 Cloudera 10.5Big Data Integration, Frameworks, and Data Bases 10.6Building the Foundation for Big Data Processing 10.6.1 Big Data Management Platform 10.6.1.1 Acquisition and Recording. 10.6.1.2 Extraction, Cleaning, and Prediction. 10.6.1.3 Big Data Integration 10.6.2 Big Data Analytics Platform 10.6.2.1 Modeling and Analysis 10.6.2.2 Interpretation 10.7Transforming Big Data for High Value Action 10.7.1 Decide what to produce 10.7.2 Source the raw materials 10.7.3 Produce insights with speed 10.7.4 Deliver the goods and act 10.8Privacy Information Impacts on Smart Grid. 10.9Meter Data Management for Smart Grid 10.10 Summary 10.11 References 11. Demand-Management 11.1 Introduction 11.2Demand Response 11.3Demand Response Programs 11.3.1 Load-Response Programs 11.3.2 Price Response Programs 11.4 End User Engagement 11.5Challenges of Demand Response within Smart Grid 11.6Demand-Side Management (DSM) 11.7Demand Side Management Techniques 11.8Demand-Side Management Evaluation 11.9Demand Response Applications 11.10 Summary 11.11 References 12. Business Models for the Smart Grid 12.1The Business Model Concept 12.2The Electricity Value Chain 12.3Electricity Markets 12.4Review of the Previous Proposed Smart Grid Business Models 12.4.1 Timing-Based Business Model 12.4.2 Business Intelligence Model 12.4.3 Business Models for Renewable Energy 12.4.4 Service-oriented Business Models 12.4.5 Prosumer Business Models 12.4.6 Integrated Energy Services Business Model 12.4.7 Future Business Model Levers 12.5Blockchain Based Electricity Market 12.6Conclusion 12.7References 13. Smart Grid Customers’ Acceptance and Engagement 13.1Introduction 13.2Customer as one of the Smart Grid Domains 13.3Understanding the Smart Grid Customer 13.4Smart Grid Customer Acceptance 13.5Customer Engagement in the Smart Grid 13.6Challenges for Consumer Engagement, Policy Recommendation and Research Agenda 13.7Conclusion 14. Cloud Computing for Smart Grid 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Overview of Cloud Computing for Smart Grid 14.3 Cloud Computing 14.4 Cloud computing Architecture 14.4.1 1Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) 14.4.2 2Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) 14.4.3 Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) 14.5Cloud Computing Applications 14.6Cloud Applications for Smart Grid performance 14.7Cloud Applications for Energy Management 14.8Cloud computing-based power dispatching in smart grid 14.9Cloud computing characteristics in improving SG 14.10 Opportunities and challenges of Cloud Computing in Smart grid 14.11 Multiple perspectives for cloud implementation 14.12 Conclusion 15. On the Pivotal Role of Artificial Intelligence Towards the Evolution of Smart Grids: Advanced Methodologies and Applications 15.1Introduction 15.2Century-old grid and SG transition 15.3AI techniques in smart grid 15.3.1 AI commonly deployed techniques 15.3.1.1 Artificial Neural Networks-based 15.3.1.2 Fuzzy logic-based 15.3.1.3 Ensemble methods-based 15.3.1.4 Genetic algorithms-based 15.3.1.5 Expert Systems-based 15.3.1.6 Support Vector Machines-based 15.3.1.7 Hybrid models-based 15.3.2 Machine Learning Model Evaluation 15.4Major applications of AI in SG 15.4.1 Load forecasting 15.4.2 Alternative energy forecasting 15.4.3 Photovoltaic energy 15.4.4 Wind power 15.4.5 MPPT-based AI 15.4.6 Fault diagnosis-based AI 15.4.7 AI and Cyber smart grid security 15.4.8 Electricity price forecasting 15.5Challenges and future scope 15.6Conclusion 16. Smart Grid Simulation Tools 16.1Introduction 16.2Simulation Approaches 16.2.1 Multi-Domain Simulation 16.2.2 Co-Simulation 16.2.3 Real-Time Simulation and Hardware-in-the-Loop 16.3Review of Smart Grid Planning and Analysis Tools 16.3.1 PSCAD 16.3.2 PowerWorld Simulator 16.3.3 ETAP 16.3.4 DIgSILENT PowerFactory 16.3.5 OpenDSS 16.3.6 GridLab-D 16.3.7 Conclusions 17. Smart Grid Standards and Interoperability 17.1Introduction 17.2Organizations for Smart Grid Standardization 17.2.1 IEC Strategic Group on Smart Grid 17.2.2 Technical Communities and their Subcommittees of IEEE Power and Energy Society (PES) 17.2.3 National Institute of Standards and Technology 17.2.4 National Standard of P.R.C. for Smart Grid 17.3Smart Grid Policies for Standard Developments 17.3.1 United States 17.3.2 Germany 17.3.3 Europe 17.3.4 South Korea 17.3.5 Australia 17.3.6 Canada 17.3.7 Japan 17.3.8 China 17.4Smart Grid Standards 17.4.1 Revenue Metering Information Model 17.4.2 Building Automation 17.4.3 Substation Automation 17.4.4 Powerline Networking 17.4.5 Energy Management Systems 17.4.6 Interoperability Center Communications 17.4.7 Cyber Security 17.4.8 Electric Vehicles 17.5Conclusion 17.6References 18. Smart Grid Challenges and Barriers, Critical Success Factors and Future Vision 18.1Introduction 18.2Structure of modern smart-grids 18.3Concept of reliability in power systems 18.4Smart-grid challenges and barriers 18.4.1 Low inertia issues – Frequency support 18.4.2 Moving towards full/more renewable energies 18.4.3 Protection issues 18.4.4 Control dynamic interactions. 18.4.5 Reliability issues 18.4.6 Marketing 18.5New reliability paradigm in smart-grids 18.5.1 Adequacy 18.5.2 Security 18.5.3 Static security 18.5.4 Dynamic/transient security 18.5.5 Cyber-security 18.6Summary 18.7References Index [not supplied to follow later

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Book SynopsisA systems-level approach to reducing liability through process improvement Forensic Systems Analysis: Evaluating Operations by Discovery presents a systematic framework for uncovering and resolving problematic process failures. Carefully building the causal relationship from process to product, the discussion lays out in significant detail the appropriate and tactical approaches necessary to the pursuit of litigation with respect to corporate operations. Systemic process failures are addressed by flipping process improvement models to study both improvement and failure, resulting in arguments and methodologies relevant to any product or service industry. Guidance on risk analysis of operations combines evaluation of process control, stability, capability, verification, validation, specification, product reliability, serial dependence, and more, providing a robust framework with which to target large-scale nonconforming products and services. RelevaTable of ContentsPreface xix 1 What Is Forensic Systems Engineering? 1 1.1 Systems and Systems Engineering 1 1.2 Forensic Systems Engineering 2 References 4 2 Contracts, Specifications, and Standards 7 2.1 General 7 2.2 The Contract 9 2.2.1 Considerations 9 2.2.2 Contract Review 10 2.3 Specifications 12 2.4 Standards 14 Credits 16 References 16 3 Management Systems 17 3.1 Management Standards 18 3.1.1 Operations and Good Business Practices 18 3.1.2 Attributes of Management Standards 18 3.2 Effective Management Systems 19 3.2.1 Malcolm Baldrige 19 3.2.2 Total Quality Management 20 3.2.3 Six Sigma 20 3.2.4 Lean 21 3.2.5 Production Part Approval Process 22 3.3 Performance and Performance 23 3.4 Addendum 23 Credits 24 References 24 4 Performance Management: ISO 9001 25 4.1 Background of ISO 9000 26 4.1.1 ISO 9001 in the United States 27 4.1.2 Structure of ISO 9000: 2005 27 4.1.3 The Process Approach 28 4.2 Form and Substance 32 4.2.1 Reference Performance Standards 33 4.2.2 Forensics and the Paper Trail 34 Credits 35 References 35 5 The Materiality of Operations 37 5.1 Rationale for Financial Metrics 38 5.1.1 Sarbanes–Oxley 38 5.1.1.1 Title III: Corporate Responsibility 38 5.1.1.2 Title IV: Enhanced Financial Disclosures 39 5.1.2 Internal Control 39 5.1.3 The Materiality of Quality 41 5.2 Mapping Operations to Finance 41 5.2.1 The Liability of Quality 43 5.2.2 The Forensic View 44 Credits 44 References 44 6 Process Liability 47 6.1 Theory of Process Liability 48 6.1.1 Operations and Process Liability 50 6.1.2 Process Liability and Misfeasance 51 6.2 Process Liability and the Law 52 Credits 52 References 52 7 Forensic Analysis of Process Liability 55 7.1 Improper Manufacturing Operations 57 7.1.1 Verification and Validation 57 7.1.1.1 Nonstandard Design Procedures 57 7.1.1.2 Unverified or Unvalidated Design 58 7.1.1.3 Tests Waived by Management 58 7.1.1.4 Altered Test Procedures and Results 58 7.1.2 Resource Management 59 7.1.2.1 Unmonitored Outsourcing 59 7.1.2.2 Substandard Purchased Parts 60 7.1.2.3 Ghost Inventory 60 7.1.2.4 Ineffective Flow Down 61 7.1.3 Process Management 61 7.1.3.1 Forced Production 61 7.1.3.2 Abuse and Threats by Management 62 7.2 Management Responsibility 62 7.2.1 Effective Internal Controls 62 7.2.2 Business Standards of Care 63 7.2.3 Liability Risk Management 64 7.2.4 Employee Empowerment 65 7.2.5 Effective Management Review 65 7.2.6 Closed]Loop Processes 66 References 67 8 Legal Trends to Process Liability 71 8.1 An Idea Whose Time Has Come 71 8.2 Some Court Actions Thus Far 72 8.2.1 QMS Certified Organizations 73 8.2.2 QMS Noncertified Organizations 74 References 75 9 Process Stability and Capability 77 9.1 Process Stability 77 9.1.1 Stability and Stationarity 78 9.1.2 Stability Conditions 79 9.1.3 Stable Processes 80 9.1.4 Measuring Process Stability 82 9.2 Process Capability 83 9.2.1 Measuring Capability 83 9.2.2 A Limit of Process Capability 85 9.3 The Rare Event 85 9.3.1 Instability and the Rare Event 85 9.3.2 Identifying the Rare Event 86 9.4 Attribute Testing 87 References 88 10 Forensic Issues in Product Reliability 91 10.1 Background in Product Reliability 91 10.2 Legal Issues in the Design of Reliability 94 10.2.1 Good Design Practices 95 10.2.2 Design Is Intrinsic to Manufacturing and Service 95 10.2.3 Intended Use 95 10.2.4 Paper Trail of Evidence 96 10.2.5 Reliability Is an Implied Design Requirement 97 10.3 Legal Issues in Measuring Reliability 97 10.3.1 Failure Modes 97 10.3.2 Estimation of MTTF 98 10.3.3 The More Failure Data the Better 99 10.3.4 The Paper Trail of Reliability Measurement 99 10.4 Legal Issues in Testing for Reliability 100 10.4.1 Defined and Documented Life Test Procedures 100 10.4.2 Life Test Records and Reports 101 10.4.3 Test Procedures 101 10.5 When Product Reliability Is not in the Contract 102 10.5.1 Product Liability 102 10.5.2 ISO 9001 and FAR 103 10.6 Warranty and Reliability 104 References 105 11 Forensic View of Internal Control 107 11.1 Internal Controls 108 11.1.1 Purpose of Control 108 11.1.2 Control Defined 109 11.1.3 Control Elements in Operations 109 11.2 Control Stability 110 11.2.1 Model of a Continuous System 111 11.2.2 Transfer Functions 112 11.3 Implementing Controls 115 11.4 Control of Operations 117 11.4.1 Proportional (Gain) Control 118 11.4.2 Controlling the Effect of Change 119 11.4.2.1 Integral Control 120 11.4.2.2 Derivative (Rate) Control 121 11.4.3 Responsibility, Authority, and Accountability 121 References 123 12 Case Study: Madelena Airframes Corporation 125 12.1 Background of the Case 126 12.2 Problem Description 127 12.2.1 MAC Policies and Procedures (Missile Production) 127 12.2.2 Missile Test 127 12.3 Examining the Evidence 128 12.3.1 Evidence: The Players 129 12.3.2 Evidence: E]mails 129 12.4 Depositions 132 12.4.1 Deposition of the General Manager 132 12.4.2 Deposition of the Senior Test Engineer 132 12.4.3 Deposition of the Production Manager 132 12.4.4 Deposition of the Chief Design Engineer 133 12.4.5 Deposition of the Test Programs Manager 133 12.5 Problem Analysis 133 12.5.1 Review of the Evidence 133 12.5.2 Nonconformities 134 12.5.2.1 Clause 7.3.1(b) Design and Development Planning 134 12.5.2.2 Clause 7.3.5 Design and Development Verification 135 12.5.2.3 Clause 7.3.6 Design and Development Validation 135 12.5.2.4 Clause 8.1 General Test Requirements 135 12.5.2.5 Clause 8.2.4 Monitoring and Measurement of Product 135 12.5.2.6 Clause 4.1 General QMS Requirements 135 12.5.2.7 Clause 5.6.1 General Management Review Requirements 135 12.6 Arriving at the Truth 136 12.7 Damages 137 12.7.1 Synthesis of Damages 137 12.7.2 Costs of Correction 137 References 138 13 Examining Serially Dependent Processes 139 13.1 Serial Dependence: Causal Correlation 140 13.2 Properties of Serial Dependence 142 13.2.1 Work Station Definition 142 13.2.2 Assumptions 142 13.2.2.1 Assumption 1 143 13.2.2.2 Assumption 2 143 13.2.2.3 Assumption 3 143 13.2.3 Development of the Conditional Distribution 144 13.2.4 Process Stability 145 13.3 Serial Dependence: Noncausal Correlation 147 13.4 Forensic Systems Analysis 147 Credits 148 References 148 14 Measuring Operations 149 14.1 ISO 9000 as Internal Controls 151 14.2 QMS Characteristics 152 14.3 The QMS Forensic Model 154 14.3.1 Estimating Control Risk 155 14.3.2 Cost of Liability 156 14.4 The Forensic Lab and Operations 157 14.5 Conclusions 158 Credits 159 References 159 15 Stability Analysis of Dysfunctional Processes 161 15.1 Special Terms 162 15.1.1 Dysfunction 162 15.1.2 Common and Special Causes 163 15.1.3 Disturbances and Interventions 163 15.1.4 Cause and Effect 163 15.2 Literature Review 165 15.3 Question Before the Law 168 15.4 Process Stability 169 15.4.1 Internal Control 170 15.4.2 Mathematical Model for Correlation 170 15.5 Conclusions 173 Credits 174 References 174 16 Verification and Validation 179 16.1 Cause and Effect 180 16.1.1 An Historical View 180 16.1.2 Productivity versus Quality 182 16.2 What Is in a Name? 185 16.2.1 Verification and Validation Defined 186 16.2.2 Inspection and Test 187 16.2.3 Monitor and Measure 188 16.2.4 Subtle Transitions 189 16.3 The Forensic View of Measurement 190 16.3.1 Machine Tools and Tooling 190 16.3.2 Measurement 191 16.3.3 Control Charting 192 16.3.4 First Pass Yield 192 16.3.5 First Article Inspection 193 16.3.6 Tool Try 194 References 194 17 Forensic Sampling of Internal Controls 197 17.1 Populations 198 17.1.1 Sample Population 199 17.1.2 Homogeneity 199 17.1.3 Population Size 200 17.1.4 One Hundred Percent Inspection 201 17.2 Sampling Plan 201 17.2.1 Objectives 201 17.2.2 Statistical and Nonstatistical Sampling 202 17.2.3 Fixed Size and Stop]or]Go 203 17.2.4 Sample Selection and Size 204 17.3 Attribute Sampling 204 17.3.1 Internal Control Sampling 204 17.3.2 Deviation Rates 206 17.3.2.1 Acceptable Deviation Rate 206 17.3.2.2 System Deviation Rate 207 17.3.3 Sampling Risks 207 17.3.3.1 Control Risk 207 17.3.3.2 Alpha and Beta Risks 208 17.3.4 Confidence Level 208 17.3.5 Evaluation 209 17.4 Forensic System Caveats 209 References 210 18 Forensic Analysis of Supplier Control 211 18.1 Outsourcing 213 18.2 Supply Chain Management 215 18.3 Forensic Analysis of Supply Systems 216 18.3.1 Basic Principles of Supplier Control 216 18.3.2 The Forensic Challenge 216 18.3.2.1 Ensure that Purchased Units Conform to Contracted Specifications 217 18.3.2.2 Assessment of the Supplier Process 218 18.3.2.3 Tracking 218 18.3.2.4 Customer Relations 219 18.3.2.5 Verification and Storage of Supplies 221 18.3.2.6 Identification and Traceability 222 18.4 Supplier Verification: A Case Study 223 18.4.1 Manufacture 224 18.4.2 V50 Testing 224 18.4.3 V50 Test Results 226 18.5 Malfeasant Supply Systems 226 References 227 19 Discovering System Nonconformity 229 19.1 Identifying Nonconformities 231 19.1.1 Reporting Nonconformities 232 19.1.2 Disputes 233 19.2 The Elements of Assessment 234 19.2.1 Measures of Performance 234 19.2.2 Considerations in Forensic Analysis of Systems 235 19.3 Forming Decisions 236 19.4 Describing Nonconformities 238 19.5 A Forensic View of Documented Information 240 19.5.1 Requirements in Documented Information 241 19.5.2 The Quality Manual 241 19.5.3 Documented Information Control 243 19.5.4 Records 244 Acknowledgment 246 References 246 Appendix A The Engineering Design Process: A Descriptive View 247 A.1 Design and Development 248 A.1.1 The Design Process 248 A.1.2 Customer Requirements 249 A.1.3 Interactive Design 249 A.1.4 Intermediate Testing 249 A.1.5 Final Iteration 251 A.2 Forensic Analysis of the Design Process 252 References 253 Appendix B Introduction to Product Reliability 255 B.1 Reliability Characteristics 256 B.1.1 Reliability Metrics 256 B.1.2 Visual Life Cycle 257 B.2 Weibull Analysis 259 B.2.1 Distributions 259 B.2.2 Shape and Scale 260 B.2.2.1 Shape 260 B.2.2.2 Scale 262 B.2.3 The B]Percentile 262 B.3 Design for Reliability 263 B.4 Measuring Reliability 265 B.4.1 On Reliability Metrics 265 B.4.2 Graphing Failure Data 266 B.5 Testing for Reliability 269 References 271 Appendix C Brief Review of Probability and Statistics 273 C.1 Measures of Location 274 C.1.1 Average: The Mean Value 274 C.1.2 Average: The Median 275 C.1.3 Average: The Mode 275 C.2 Measures of Dispersion 276 C.2.1 Variance 276 C.2.2 Range 276 C.3 Distributions 277 C.3.1 Continuous Distributions 277 C.3.2 Discrete Distributions 279 C.4 Tests of Hypotheses 281 C.4.1 Estimating Parametric Change 281 C.4.2 Confidence Level 284 C.5 Ordered Statistics 284 References 285 Appendix D Sampling of Internal Control Systems 287 D.1 Populations 288 D.1.1 Sample Populations 289 D.1.2 Population Size 290 D.1.3 Homogeneity 290 D.2 Attribute Sampling 291 D.2.1 Acceptable Deviation Rate 292 D.2.2 System Deviation Rate 293 D.2.3 Controls 293 D.3 Sampling Risks 294 D.3.1 Control Risk 294 D.3.2 Consumer and Producer Risks 294 D.3.3 Alpha and Beta Errors 295 D.4 Sampling Analysis 297 D.4.1 Statistical Inference 297 D.4.2 Sample Distributions 298 D.4.3 Sample Size 299 D.4.4 Estimating the SDR 299 D.4.5 Confidence Interval 300 References 302 Appendix E Statistical Sampling Plans 305 E.1 Fixed]Size Attribute Sampling Plan 306 E.1.1 Determine the Objectives 306 E.1.2 Define Attribute and Deviation Conditions 306 E.1.2.1 Acceptable Deviation Rate 306 E.1.2.2 System Deviation Rate 307 E.1.3 Define the Population 307 E.1.4 Determine the Method of Sample Selection 307 E.1.5 Determine the Sample Size 308 E.1.6 Perform the Sampling Plan 312 E.1.7 Evaluate Sample Results 312 E.2 Stop]or]Go Sampling 313 E.2.1 Acceptable Deviation Rate 313 E.2.2 Sample Size 314 E.2.3 Evaluation 316 E.3 One Hundred Percent Inspection 316 E.4 Application: An Attribute Sampling Plan 317 References 318 Appendix F Nonstatistical Sampling Plans 321 F.1 Sampling Format 322 F.1.1 Frame of the Sampling Plan 322 F.1.2 Attribute and Deviation Conditions 323 F.1.3 The Population 323 F.1.4 Nonstatistical Sample Selection 324 F.1.5 Sample Size 325 F.1.6 The Effect of Sample Size on Beta Error 326 F.1.7 Evaluating Sample Results 327 F.2 Nonstatistical Estimations 327 References 328 Index

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Book SynopsisAn authoritative guide to the latest developments for the design of low-cost smart antennas Traditional smart antenna systems are costly, consume great amounts of power and are bulky size. Low-cost Smart Antennas offers a guide to designing smart antenna systems that are low cost, low power, and compact in size and can be applied to satellite communications, radar and mobile communications. The authors noted experts on the topic provide introductions to the fundamental concepts of antennas, array antennas and smart antennas. The book fills a gap in the literature by presenting the design techniques of low-cost radio frequency (RF) smart antennas as well as approaches for implementing the hardware of the antenna and the beamforming network (BFN). A comprehensive and accessible book, Low-cost Smart Antennas not only presents an up-to-date review of the topic but includes illustrative case studies that contain in-depth explorations of the theory andTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgement xi List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Introduction to Smart Antennas 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Antenna Fundamentals 2 1.2.1 Antenna Impedance and Bandwidth 2 1.2.2 Radiation Patterns and Efficiency 4 1.2.3 Polarisations 8 1.3 Antenna Array Fundamentals 9 1.3.1 Array Performance Analysis 12 1.3.2 Active Reflection Coefficient and Mutual Coupling 12 1.3.3 Directivity and Beamwidth 14 1.3.4 Grating Lobe 15 1.3.5 Scan Blindness 16 1.4 Smart Antenna Architecture and Hardware Implementation 17 1.4.1 ADC and DAC 20 1.4.2 Digital Down-Converter (DDC) 20 1.4.3 Digital Signal Processor 20 1.4.4 Field-programmable Gate Array 21 1.5 Overview of the Book 22 References 23 2 Beamforming Algorithms for Smart Antennas 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Basic Concepts for Beamforming 27 2.3 Fixed Beamformer Design 30 2.3.1 FIR Filter Based Design 30 2.3.2 Least Squares Based Design 32 2.3.3 Beam Steering 33 2.4 Adaptive Beamforming Algorithms 36 2.4.1 Reference Signal Based Beamformer 36 2.4.2 The Capon Beamformer 38 2.5 Blind Beamforming Algorithms 40 2.5.1 The Power Minimisation Algorithm 40 2.5.2 The Constant Modulus Algorithm 42 2.6 Low-cost Adaptive Beamforming 43 2.6.1 Analogue and Digital Hybrid Beamforming 43 2.6.2 Robust Adaptive Beamforming 45 2.7 Summary of the Chapter 50 References 50 3 Electronically Steerable Parasitic Array 59 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Theory and Operation Principle 59 3.3 Low-cost Folded-monopole ESPAR 63 3.4 ESPAR Antenna with Low Control Voltage 70 3.4.1 FM-ESPAR using PIN diodes 70 3.4.2 Link Quality Test 72 3.5 Planar ESPAR Antennas 75 3.6 Case Studies 86 3.6.1 ESPAR using Monopole 86 3.6.2 Planar Ultra-thin ESPAR 90 3.7 Summary of the Chapter 98 References 99 4 Beam-Reconfigurable Antennas Using Active Frequency Selective Surfaces 103 4.1 Introduction 103 4.2 FSS Fundamentals and Active FSSs 104 4.2.1 FSS Elements 104 4.2.2 Dielectric Loading Effects 105 4.2.3 FSS Analysis Techniques 106 4.2.4 Active Metal Strip FSS 107 4.2.5 Active Slot FSS 111 4.2.6 Active FSS Biasing Techniques 113 4.3 Monopole-fed Beam-switching Antenna using AFSS 114 4.4 Dual-Band Beam-Switching Antenna using AFSS 120 4.5 3D Beam Coverage of Electronic Beam-Switching Antenna using FSS 125 4.6 Frequency-agile Beam-switchable Antenna 138 4.7 Continuous Beam-steering Antennas using FSSs 145 4.8 Case Study 153 4.9 Summary of the Chapter 159 References 160 5 Beam Reconfigurable Reflectarrays and Transmitarrays 165 5.1 Introduction 165 5.2 Reflectarray and Transmitarray Design Fundamentals 166 5.2.1 Reflectarrays 166 5.2.2 Transmitarrays 169 5.3 Beam Reconfigurable Reflectarrays 171 5.3.1 Multi-feed Reflectarray 171 5.3.2 Reflectarray with RF Switches 174 5.3.3 Reflectarray with Tunable Components 177 5.4 Beam Reconfigurable Transmitarray 181 5.5 Circularly Polarised Beam-steerable Reflectarrays and Transmitarrays 185 5.6 Case Study 189 5.7 Summary of the Chapter 195 References 196 6 Compact MIMO Antenna Systems 199 6.1 Introduction 199 6.2 MIMO Antennas 199 6.2.1 Isolation 200 6.2.2 Envelope Correlation Coefficient 201 6.2.3 Total Active Reflection Coefficient 202 6.3 Compact MIMO Antenna with High Isolation 203 6.3.1 Neutralisation Technique 203 6.3.2 Metamaterial 205 6.3.3 Decoupling Network 209 6.4 Compact MIMO Antenna with Adaptive Radiation Patterns 215 6.5 Case Studies 218 6.5.1 Increase the Physical Separation 220 6.5.2 Change the Antenna Orientation 220 6.5.3 Modify the Ground Plane 222 6.5.4 Summary 224 6.6 Summary of the Chapter 225 References 225 7 Other Types of Low-cost Smart Antennas 229 7.1 Introduction 229 7.2 Lens Antennas 229 7.2.1 Lens Antenna Basics 229 7.2.2 Millimetre-wave Lens Antenna Design 231 7.3 Retrodirective Array Antenna 236 7.3.1 Van Altta Array 237 7.3.2 Phase Conjugating Array 239 7.4 Fabry–Perot Resonator Antennas 243 7.5 Array-fed Reflector 246 7.5.1 Operation Principle 246 7.5.2 Beam-switching Performance 251 7.6 Multibeam Antennas based on BFN 253 7.6.1 Butler Matrix 253 7.6.2 Rotman Lens 257 7.6.3 Blass and Nolen matrices 259 7.7 Summary of the Chapter 261 References 262 Index 267

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsContributor List xvii Foreword 1 xxiii Foreword 2 xxv Acknowledgments xxvii List of Abbreviations xxix Part 1 Introduction and Basics 1 1 Introduction and Motivation 3Patrick Marsch, Ömer Bulakçı, Olav Queseth and Mauro Boldi 1.1 5th Generation Mobile and Wireless Communications 3 1.2 Timing of this Book and Global 5G Developments 5 1.3 Scope of the 5G System Described in this Book 8 1.4 Approach and Structure of this Book 10 References 12 2 Use Cases, Scenarios, and their Impact on the Mobile Network Ecosystem 15Salah Eddine Elayoubi, Michał Maternia, Jose F. Monserrat, Frederic Pujol, Panagiotis Spapis, Valerio Frascolla and Davide Sorbara 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Main Service Types Considered for 5G 16 2.3 5G Service Requirements 17 2.4 Use Cases Considered in NGMN and 5G PPP Projects 18 2.5 Typical Use Cases Considered in this Book 25 2.6 Envisioned Mobile Network Ecosystem Evolution 28 2.7 Summary and Outlook 33 References 34 3 Spectrum Usage and Management 35Thomas Rosowski, Rauno Ruismaki, Luis M. Campoy, Giovanna D’Aria, Du Ho Kang and Adrian Kliks 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Spectrum Authorization and Usage Scenarios 36 3.3 Spectrum Bandwidth Demand Determination 39 3.4 Frequency Bands for 5G 41 3.5 Spectrum Usage Aspects at High Frequencies 44 3.6 Spectrum Management 49 3.7 Summary and Outlook 53 References 54 4 Channel Modeling 57Shangbin Wu, Sinh L. H. Nguyen and Raffaele D’Errico 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Core Features of New Channel Models 59 4.3 Additional Features of New Channel Models 65 4.4 Summary and Outlook 74 References 75 Part 2 5G System Architecture and E2E Enablers 79 5 E2E Architecture 81Marco Gramaglia, Alexandros Kaloxylos, Panagiotis Spapis, Xavier Costa, Luis Miguel Contreras, Riccardo Trivisonno, Gerd Zimmermann, Antonio de la Oliva, Peter Rost and Patrick Marsch 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Enablers and Design Principles 82 5.3 E2E Architecture Overview 88 5.4 Novel Concepts and Architectural Extensions 97 5.5 Internetworking, Migration and Network Evolution 104 5.6 Summary and Outlook 112 References 112 6 RAN Architecture 115Patrick Marsch, Navid Nikaein, Mark Doll, Tao Chen and Emmanouil Pateromichelakis 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Related Work 116 6.3 RAN Architecture Requirements 118 6.4 Protocol Stack Architecture and Network Functions 119 6.5 Multi‐Connectivity 129 6.6 RAN Function Splits and Resulting Logical Network Entities 133 6.7 Deployment Scenarios and Related Physical RAN Architectures 141 6.8 RAN Programmability and Control 144 6.9 Summary and Outlook 147 References 148 7 Transport Network Architecture 151Anna Tzanakaki, Markos Anastasopoulos, Nathan Gomes, Philippos Assimakopoulos, Josep M. Fàbrega, Michela Svaluto Moreolo, Laia Nadal, Jesús Gutiérrez, Vladica Sark, Eckhard Grass, Daniel Camps‐Mur, Antonio de la Oliva, Nuria Molner, Xavier Costa Perez, Josep Mangues, Ali Yaver, Paris Flegkas, Nikos Makris, Thanasis Korakis and Dimitra Simeonidou 7.1 Introduction 151 7.2 Architecture Definition 153 7.3 Technology Options and Protocols 158 7.4 Self‐Backhauling 165 7.5 Technology Integration and Interfacing 168 7.6 Transport Network Optimization and Performance Evaluation 170 7.7 Summary 178 References 178 8 Network Slicing 181Alexandros Kaloxylos, Christian Mannweiler, Gerd Zimmermann, Marco Di Girolamo, Patrick Marsch, Jakob Belschner, Anna Tzanakaki, Riccardo Trivisonno, Ömer Bulakçı, Panagiotis Spapis, Peter Rost, Paul Arnold and Navid Nikaein 8.1 Introduction 181 8.2 Slice Realization in the Different Network Domains 183 8.3 Operational Aspects 196 8.4 Summary and Outlook 202 References 204 9 Security 207Carolina Canales‐Valenzuela, Madalina Baltatu, Luciana Costa, Kai Habel, Volker Jungnickel, Geza Koczian, Felix Ngobigha, Michael C. Parker, Muhammad Shuaib Siddiqui, Eleni Trouva and Stuart D. Walker 9.1 Introduction 207 9.2 Threat Landscape 208 9.3 5G Security Requirements 209 9.4 5G Security Architecture 211 9.5 Summary 224 References 224 10 Network Management and Orchestration 227Luis M. Contreras, Víctor López, Ricard Vilalta, Ramon Casellas, Raúl Muñoz, Wei Jiang, Hans Schotten, Jose Alcaraz‐Calero, Qi Wang, Balázs Sonkoly and László Toka 10.1 Introduction 227 10.2 Network Management and Orchestration Through SDN and NFV 228 10.3 Enablers of Management and Orchestration 233 10.4 Orchestration in Multi‐Domain and Multi‐Technology Scenarios 238 10.5 Software‐Defined Networking for 5G 245 10.6 Network Function Virtualization in 5G Environments 251 10.7 Autonomic Network Management in 5G 252 10.8 Summary 258 References 259 Part 3 5G Functional Design 263 11 Antenna, PHY and MAC Design 265Frank Schaich, Catherine Douillard, Charbel Abdel Nour, Malte Schellmann, Tommy Svensson, Hao Lin, Honglei Miao, Hua Wang, Jian Luo, Milos Tesanovic, Nuno Pratas, Sandra Roger and Thorsten Wild 11.1 Introduction 265 11.2 PHY and MAC Design Criteria and Harmonization 267 11.3 Waveform Design 269 11.4 Coding Approaches and HARQ 283 11.5 Antenna Design, Analog, Digital and Hybrid Beamforming 293 11.6 PHY/MAC Design for Multi‐Service Support 300 11.7 Summary and Outlook 310 References 311 12 Traffic Steering and Resource Management 315Ömer Bulakçı, Klaus Pedersen, David Gutierrez Estevez, Athul Prasad, Fernando Sanchez Moya, Jan Christoffersson, Yang Yang, Emmanouil Pateromichelakis, Paul Arnold, Tommy Svensson, Tao Chen, Honglei Miao, Martin Kurras, Samer Bazzi, Stavroula Vassaki, Evangelos Kosmatos, Kwang Taik Kim, Giorgio Calochira, Jakob Belschner, Sergio Barberis and Taylan Şahin 12.1 Motivation and Role of Resource Management in 5G 315 12.2 Service Classification: A First Step Towards Efficient RM 317 12.3 Dynamic Multi‐Service Scheduling 321 12.4 Fast‐Timescale Dynamic Traffic Steering 328 12.5 Network‐based Interference Management 335 12.6 Multi‐Slice RM 350 12.7 Energy‐efficient RAN Moderation 354 12.8 UE Context Management 359 12.9 Summary and Outlook 360 References 361 13 Initial Access, RRC and Mobility 367Mårten Ericson, Panagiotis Spapis, Mikko Säily, Klaus Pedersen, Yinan Qi, Nicolas Barati, Tommy Svensson, Mehrdad Shariat, Marco Giordani, Marco Mezzavilla, Mark Doll, Honglei Miao and Chan Zhou 13.1 Introduction 367 13.2 Initial Access 369 13.3 States and State Handling 381 13.4 Mobility 391 13.5 Summary and Outlook 404 References 404 14 D2D and V2X Communications 409Shubhranshu Singh, Ji Lianghai, Daniel Calabuig, David Garcia‐Roger, Nurul H. Mahmood, Nuno Pratas, Tomasz Mach and Maria Carmela De Gennaro 14.1 Introduction 409 14.2 Technical Status and Standardization Overview 412 14.3 5G Air Interface Candidate Waveforms for Sidelink Support 418 14.4 Device Discovery on the Sidelink 424 14.5 Sidelink Mobility Management 427 14.6 V2X Communications for Road Safety Applications 430 14.7 Industrial Implementation of V2X in the Automotive Domain 434 14.8 Further Evolution of D2D Communications 438 14.9 Summary and Outlook 445 References 446 Part 4 Performance Evaluation and Implementation 451 15 Performance, Energy Efficiency and Techno‐Economic Assessment 453Michał Maternia, Jose F. Monserrat, David Martín‐Sacristán, Yong Wu, Changqing Yang, Mauro Boldi, Yu Bao, Frederic Pujol, Giuseppe Piro, Gennaro Boggia, Alessandro Grassi, Hans‐Otto Scheck, Ioannis‐Prodromos Belikaidis, Andreas Georgakopoulos, Katerina Demesticha and Panagiotis Demestichas 15.1 Introduction 453 15.2 Performance Evaluation Framework 454 15.3 Network Energy Efficiency 467 15.4 Techno‐Economic Evaluation and Analysis of 5G Deployment 473 15.5 Summary 478 References 479 16 Implementation of Hardware and Software Platforms 483Chia‐Yu Chang, Dario Sabella, David García‐Roger, Dieter Ferling, Fredrik Tillman, Gian Michele Dell’Aera, Leonardo Gomes Baltar, Michael Färber, Miquel Payaró, Navid Nikaein, Pablo Serrano,Raymond Knopp, Sandra Roger, Sylvie Mayrargue and Tapio Rautio 16.1 Introduction 483 16.2 Solutions for Radio Frontend Implementation 484 16.3 Solutions for Digital HW Implementation 492 16.4 Flexible HW/SW Partitioning Solutions for 5G 502 16.5 Implementation of SW Platforms 504 16.6 Implementation Example: vRAN/C‐RAN Architecture in OAI 506 16.7 Summary 516 References 517 17 Standardization, Trials, and Early Commercialization 521Terje Tjelta, Olav Queseth, Didier Bourse, Yves Bellego, Raffaele de Peppe, Hisham Elshaer, Frederic Pujol, Chris Pearson, Chen Xiaobei, Takehiro Nakamura, Akira Matsunaga, Hitoshi Yoshino, Yukihiko Okumura, Dong Ku Kim, Jinhyo Park and Hong Beom Jeon 17.1 Introduction 521 17.2 Standardization Roadmap 522 17.3 Early Deployments 526 17.4 Summary 547 References 547 Index 551

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Book SynopsisExplores key challenges and solutions to assured cloud computing today and provides a provocative look at the face of cloud computing tomorrow This book offers readers a comprehensive suite of solutions for resolving many of the key challenges to achieving high levels of assurance in cloud computing. The distillation of critical research findings generated by the Assured Cloud Computing Center of Excellence (ACC-UCoE) of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, it provides unique insights into the current and future shape of robust, dependable, and secure cloud-based computing and data cyberinfrastructures. A survivable and distributed cloud-computing-based infrastructure can enable the configuration of any dynamic systems-of-systems that contain both trusted and partially trusted resources and services sourced from multiple organizations. To assure mission-critical computations and workflows that rely on such systems-of-systems it is necessary to ensure that a given configuratTable of ContentsPreface xiii Editors’ Biographies xvii List of Contributors xix 1 Introduction 1Roy H. Campbell 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Mission-Critical Cloud Solutions for the Military 2 1.2 Overview of the Book 3 2 Survivability: Design, Formal Modeling, and Validation of Cloud Storage Systems Using Maude 10Rakesh Bobba, Jon Grov, Indranil Gupta, Si Liu, José Meseguer,Peter Csaba Ölveczky, and Stephen Skeirik 2.1 Introduction 10 2.1.1 State of the Art 11 2.1.2 Vision: Formal Methods for Cloud Storage Systems 12 2.1.3 The Rewriting Logic Framework 13 2.1.4 Summary: Using Formal Methods on Cloud Storage Systems 15 2.2 Apache Cassandra 17 2.3 Formalizing, Analyzing, and Extending Google’s Megastore 23 2.3.1 Specifying Megastore 23 2.3.2 Analyzing Megastore 25 2.3.2.1 Megastore-CGC 29 2.4 RAMP Transaction Systems 30 2.5 Group Key Management via ZooKeeper 31 2.5.1 ZooKeeper Background 32 2.5.2 System Design 33 2.5.3 Maude Model 34 2.5.4 Analysis and Discussion 35 2.6 How Amazon Web Services Uses Formal Methods 37 2.6.1 Use of Formal Methods 37 2.6.2 Outcomes and Experiences 38 2.6.3 Limitations 39 2.7 Related Work 40 2.8 Concluding Remarks 42 2.8.1 The Future 43 3 Risks and Benefits: Game-Theoretical Analysis and Algorithm for Virtual Machine Security Management in the Cloud 49Luke Kwiat, Charles A. Kamhoua, Kevin A. Kwiat, and Jian Tang 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Vision: Using Cloud Technology in Missions 51 3.3 State of the Art 54 3.4 System Model 57 3.5 Game Model 59 3.6 Game Analysis 61 3.7 Model Extension and Discussion 67 3.8 Numerical Results and Analysis 71 3.8.1 Changes in User 2’s Payoff with Respect to L2 71 3.8.2 Changes in User 2’s Payoff with Respect to e 72 3.8.3 Changes in User 2’s Payoff with Respect to π 73 3.8.4 Changes in User 2’s Payoff with Respect to qI 74 3.8.5 Model Extension to n = 10 Users 75 3.9 The Future 78 4 Detection and Security: Achieving Resiliency by Dynamic and Passive System Monitoring and Smart Access Control 81Zbigniew Kalbarczyk 4.1 Introduction 82 4.2 Vision: Using Cloud Technology in Missions 83 4.3 State of the Art 84 4.4 Dynamic VM Monitoring Using Hypervisor Probes 85 4.4.1 Design 86 4.4.2 Prototype Implementation 88 4.4.3 Example Detectors 90 4.4.3.1 Emergency Exploit Detector 90 4.4.3.2 Application Heartbeat Detector 91 4.4.4 Performance 93 4.4.4.1 Microbenchmarks 93 4.4.4.2 Detector Performance 94 4.4.5 Summary 95 4.5 Hypervisor Introspection: A Technique for Evading Passive Virtual Machine Monitoring 96 4.5.1 Hypervisor Introspection 97 4.5.1.1 VMI Monitor 97 4.5.1.2 VM Suspend Side-Channel 97 4.5.1.3 Limitations of Hypervisor Introspection 98 4.5.2 Evading VMI with Hypervisor Introspection 98 4.5.2.1 Insider Attack Model and Assumptions 98 4.5.2.2 Large File Transfer 99 4.5.3 Defenses against Hypervisor Introspection 101 4.5.3.1 Introducing Noise to VM Clocks 101 4.5.3.2 Scheduler-Based Defenses 101 4.5.3.3 Randomized Monitoring Interval 102 4.5.4 Summary 103 4.6 Identifying Compromised Users in Shared Computing Infrastructures 103 4.6.1 Target System and Security Data 104 4.6.1.1 Data and Alerts 105 4.6.1.2 Automating the Analysis of Alerts 106 4.6.2 Overview of the Data 107 4.6.3 Approach 109 4.6.3.1 The Model: Bayesian Network 109 4.6.3.2 Training of the Bayesian Network 110 4.6.4 Analysis of the Incidents 112 4.6.4.1 Sample Incident 112 4.6.4.2 Discussion 113 4.6.5 Supporting Decisions with the Bayesian Network Approach 114 4.6.5.1 Analysis of the Incidents 114 4.6.5.2 Analysis of the Borderline Cases 116 4.6.6 Conclusion 118 4.7 Integrating Attribute-Based Policies into Role-Based Access Control 118 4.7.1 Framework Description 119 4.7.2 Aboveground Level: Tables 119 4.7.2.1 Environment 120 4.7.2.2 User-Role Assignments 120 4.7.2.3 Role-Permission Assignments 121 4.7.3 Underground Level: Policies 121 4.7.3.1 Role-Permission Assignment Policy 122 4.7.3.2 User-Role Assignment Policy 123 4.7.4 Case Study: Large-Scale ICS 123 4.7.4.1 RBAC Model-Building Process 124 4.7.4.2 Discussion of Case Study 127 4.7.5 Concluding Remarks 128 4.8 The Future 128 5 Scalability, Workloads, and Performance: Replication, Popularity, Modeling, and Geo-Distributed File Stores 133Roy H. Campbell, Shadi A. Noghabi, and Cristina L. Abad 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Vision: Using Cloud Technology in Missions 134 5.3 State of the Art 136 5.4 Data Replication in a Cloud File System 137 5.4.1 MapReduce Clusters 138 5.4.1.1 File Popularity, Temporal Locality, and Arrival Patterns 142 5.4.1.2 Synthetic Workloads for Big Data 144 5.4.2 Related Work 147 5.4.3 Contribution from Our Approach to Generating Big Data Request Streams Using Clustered Renewal Processes 149 5.4.3.1 Scalable Geo-Distributed Storage 149 5.4.4 Related Work 151 5.4.5 Summary of Ambry 152 5.5 Summary 153 5.6 The Future 153 6 Resource Management: Performance Assuredness in Distributed Cloud Computing via Online Reconfigurations 160Mainak Ghosh, Le Xu, and Indranil Gupta 6.1 Introduction 161 6.2 Vision: Using Cloud Technology in Missions 163 6.3 State of the Art 164 6.3.1 State of the Art: Reconfigurations in Sharded Databases/Storage 164 6.3.1.1 Database Reconfigurations 164 6.3.1.2 Live Migration 164 6.3.1.3 Network Flow Scheduling 164 6.3.2 State of the Art: Scale-Out/Scale-In in Distributed Stream Processing Systems 165 6.3.2.1 Real-Time Reconfigurations 165 6.3.2.2 Live Migration 165 6.3.2.3 Real-Time Elasticity 165 6.3.3 State of the Art: Scale-Out/Scale-In in Distributed Graph Processing Systems 166 6.3.3.1 Data Centers 166 6.3.3.2 Cloud and Storage Systems 166 6.3.3.3 Data Processing Frameworks 166 6.3.3.4 Partitioning in Graph Processing 166 6.3.3.5 Dynamic Repartitioning in Graph Processing 167 6.3.4 State of the Art: Priorities and Deadlines in Batch Processing Systems 167 6.3.4.1 OS Mechanisms 167 6.3.4.2 Preemption 167 6.3.4.3 Real-Time Scheduling 168 6.3.4.4 Fairness 168 6.3.4.5 Cluster Management with SLOs 168 6.4 Reconfigurations in NoSQL and Key-Value Storage/Databases 169 6.4.1 Motivation 169 6.4.2 Morphus: Reconfigurations in Sharded Databases/Storage 170 6.4.2.1 Assumptions 170 6.4.2.2 MongoDB System Model 170 6.4.2.3 Reconfiguration Phases in Morphus 171 6.4.2.4 Algorithms for Efficient Shard Key Reconfigurations 172 6.4.2.5 Network Awareness 175 6.4.2.6 Evaluation 175 6.4.3 Parqua: Reconfigurations in Distributed Key-Value Stores 179 6.4.3.1 System Model 180 6.4.3.2 System Design and Implementation 181 6.4.3.3 Experimental Evaluation 183 6.5 Scale-Out and Scale-In Operations 185 6.5.1 Stela: Scale-Out/Scale-In in Distributed Stream Processing Systems 186 6.5.1.1 Motivation 186 6.5.1.2 Data Stream Processing Model and Assumptions 187 6.5.1.3 Stela: Scale-Out Overview 187 6.5.1.4 Effective Throughput Percentage (ETP) 188 6.5.1.5 Iterative Assignment and Intuition 190 6.5.1.6 Stela: Scale-In 191 6.5.1.7 Core Architecture 191 6.5.1.8 Evaluation 193 6.5.1.9 Experimental Setup 193 6.5.1.10 Yahoo! Storm Topologies and Network Monitoring Topology 193 6.5.1.11 Convergence Time 195 6.5.1.12 Scale-In Experiments 196 6.5.2 Scale-Out/Scale-In in Distributed Graph Processing Systems 197 6.5.2.1 Motivation 197 6.5.2.2 What to Migrate, and How? 199 6.5.2.3 When to Migrate? 201 6.5.2.4 Evaluation 203 6.6 Priorities and Deadlines in Batch Processing Systems 204 6.6.1 Natjam: Supporting Priorities and Deadlines in Hadoop 204 6.6.1.1 Motivation 204 6.6.1.2 Eviction Policies for a Dual-Priority Setting 206 6.6.1.3 Natjam Architecture 209 6.6.1.4 Natjam-R: Deadline-Based Eviction 215 6.6.1.5 Microbenchmarks 216 6.6.1.6 Natjam-R Evaluation 221 6.7 Summary 223 6.8 The Future 224 7 Theoretical Considerations: Inferring and Enforcing Use Patterns for Mobile Cloud Assurance 237Gul Agha, Minas Charalambides, Kirill Mechitov, Karl Palmskog,Atul Sandur, and Reza Shiftehfar 7.1 Introduction 237 7.2 Vision 239 7.3 State of the Art 240 7.3.1 Code Offloading 241 7.3.2 Coordination Constraints 241 7.3.3 Session Types 242 7.4 Code Offloading and the IMCM Framework 243 7.4.1 IMCM Framework: Overview 244 7.4.2 Cloud Application and Infrastructure Models 244 7.4.3 Cloud Application Model 245 7.4.4 Defining Privacy for Mobile Hybrid Cloud Applications 247 7.4.5 A Face Recognition Application 247 7.4.6 The Design of an Authorization System 249 7.4.7 Mobile Hybrid Cloud Authorization Language 250 7.4.7.1 Grouping, Selection, and Binding 252 7.4.7.2 Policy Description 252 7.4.7.3 Policy Evaluation 253 7.4.8 Performance- and Energy-Usage-Based Code Offloading 254 7.4.8.1 Offloading for Sequential Execution on a Single Server 254 7.4.8.2 Offloading for Parallel Execution on Hybrid Clouds 255 7.4.8.3 Maximizing Performance 255 7.4.8.4 Minimizing Energy Consumption 256 7.4.8.5 Energy Monitoring 257 7.4.8.6 Security Policies and Energy Monitoring 258 7.5 Coordinating Actors 259 7.5.1 Expressing Coordination 259 7.5.1.1 Synchronizers 260 7.5.1.2 Security Issues in Synchronizers 260 7.6 Session Types 264 7.6.1 Session Types for Actors 265 7.6.1.1 Example: Sliding Window Protocol 265 7.6.2 Global Types 266 7.6.3 Programming Language 268 7.6.4 Local Types and Type Checking 269 7.6.5 Realization of Global Types 270 7.7 The Future 271 Acknowledgments 272 8 Certifications Past and Future: A Future Model for Assigning Certifications that Incorporate Lessons Learned from Past Practices 277Masooda Bashir, Carlo Di Giulio, and Charles A. Kamhoua 8.1 Introduction 277 8.1.1 What Is a Standard? 279 8.1.2 Standards and Cloud Computing 281 8.2 Vision: Using Cloud Technology in Missions 283 8.3 State of the Art 284 8.3.1 The Federal Risk Authorization Management Program 286 8.3.2 SOC Reports and TSPC 288 8.3.3 ISO/IEC 27001 291 8.3.4 Main Differences among the Standards 292 8.3.5 Other Existing Frameworks 293 8.3.5.1 PCI-DSS 293 8.3.5.2 C5 294 8.3.5.3 STAR 294 8.3.6 What Protections Do Standards Offer against Vulnerabilities in the Cloud? 294 8.4 Comparison among Standards 296 8.4.1 Strategy for Comparing Standards 298 8.4.2 Patterns, Anomalies, and Discoveries 299 8.5 The Future 302 8.5.1 Current Challenges 304 8.5.2 Opportunities 305 9 Summary and Future Work 312Roy H. Campbell 9.1 Survivability 312 9.2 Risks and Benefits 313 9.3 Detection and Security 314 9.4 Scalability, Workloads, and Performance 316 9.5 Resource Management 319 9.6 Theoretical Considerations: Inferring and Enforcing Use Patterns for Mobile Cloud Assurance 321 9.7 Certifications 322 Index 327

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Book SynopsisA detailed account of various applications and uses of transparent ceramics and the future of the industry In Transparent Ceramics: Materials, Engineering, and Applications, readers will discover the necessary foundation for understanding transparent ceramics (TCs) and the technical and economic factors that determine the overall worth of TCs. This book provides readers with a thorough history of TCs, as well as a detailed account of the materials, engineering and applications of TC in its various forms; fabrication and characterization specifics are also described. With this book, researchers, engineers, and students find a definitive guide to past and present use cases, and a glimpse into the future of TC materials. The book covers a variety of TC topics, including: ? The methods employed for materials produced in a transparent state ? Detailed applications of TCs for use in lasers, IR domes, armor-windows, and various medical prosthetics<Trade Review"... this work can be unreservedly recommended to anyone who works or wants to become active in the field of transparent ceramics. Due to its autonomy in the relevant literature - in relation to both physics and materials science - it should definitely be purchased by libraries and companies in the field of technical ceramics. With its value as a source for facts, background information, connections and data, anyone doing research in this area will hardly be able to put this book down and should, thus, purchase it personally."—Prof. Rainer Telle, RWTH Aachen, cfi Ceramic Forum International / Ber. DKG 98 (2021) 4, D8-D9 (translated from the original article in German)Table of ContentsForeword xiii Acknowledgments xv General Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Importance of Transparent Ceramics: The Book’s Rationale Topic and Aims 1 1.2 Factors Determining the Overall Worth of Transparent Ceramics 2 1.2.1 Technical Characteristics 2 1.2.2 Fabrication and Characterization Costs 3 1.2.3 Overview of Worth 3 1.3 Spectral Domain for Ceramics High Transmission Targeted in This Book 3 1.3.1 High Transmission Spectral Domain 3 1.3.2 Electromagnetic Radiation/Solid Interaction in the Vicinity of the Transparency Domain 4 1.4 Definition of Transparency Levels 4 1.5 Evolution of Transmissive Ability Along the Ceramics Development History 6 1.5.1 Ceramics with Transparency Conferred by Glassy Phases 6 1.5.2 The First Fully Crystalline Transparent Ceramic 7 1.5.3 A Brief Progress History of All-Crystalline Transparent Ceramics 8 2 Electromagnetic Radiation: Interaction with Matter 11 2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation: Phenomenology and Characterizing Parameters 11 2.2 Interference and Polarization 13 2.3 Main Processes which Disturb Electromagnetic Radiation After Incidence on a Solid 13 2.3.1 Refraction 14 2.3.2 Reflection 17 2.3.3 Birefringence 20 2.3.4 Scattering 22 2.3.4.1 Scattering by Pores 22 2.3.4.2 Scattering Owed to Birefringence 24 2.3.5 Absorption 27 2.3.5.1 Transition Metal and Rare-Earth Cations in Transparent Ceramic Hosts 27 2.3.5.2 Absorption Spectra of Metal and Rare-Earth Cations Located in TC Hosts 28 2.3.5.2.1 Transition Metal and Rare-Earth Cations’ Electronic Spectra: Theoretical Basis 29 2.3.5.2.1.1 Electronic States of a Cation in Free Space 29 2.3.5.2.2 Absorption Spectra of Transition Metal and Rare-Earth Cations: Examples 50 2.3.5.2.2.1 The Considered Solid Hosts 50 2.4 Physical Processes Controlling Light Absorption in the Optical Window Vicinity 54 2.4.1 High Photon Energy Window Cutoff: Ultraviolet Light Absorption in Solids 54 2.4.2 Low Photon Energy Window Cutoff: Infrared Light Absorption in Solids 58 2.4.2.1 Molecular Vibrations 58 2.4.2.2 Solid Vibrations 59 2.4.2.3 Acoustic Modes 61 2.4.2.4 Optical Modes 62 2.5 Thermal Emissivity 66 2.6 Color of Solids 67 2.6.1 Quantitative Specification of Color 67 2.6.2 Coloration Mechanisms: Coloration Based on Conductive Colloids 71 3 Ceramics Engineering: Aspects Specific to Those Transparent 73 3.1 Processing 73 3.1.1 List of Main Processing Approaches 73 3.1.2 Powder Compacts Sintering 73 3.1.2.1 Configuration Requirements for High Green Body Sinterability: Factors of Influence 73 3.1.2.2 Powder Processing and Green-Body Forming 77 3.1.2.2.1 Agglomerates 77 3.1.2.2.2 Powder Processing 80 3.1.2.2.3 Forming Techniques 81 3.1.2.2.3.1 Press Forming 81 3.1.2.2.3.2 Liquid-Suspensions Based Forming 84 3.1.2.2.3.3 Slip-Casting Under Strong Magnetic Fields 86 3.1.2.2.3.4 Gravitational Deposition, Centrifugal-Casting, and Filter-Pressing 88 3.1.2.3 Sintering 89 3.1.2.3.1 Low Relevancy of Average Pore Size 89 3.1.2.3.2 Pore Size Distribution Dynamics During Sintering 89 3.1.2.3.3 Grain Growth 93 3.1.2.3.4 Methods for Pores Closure Rate Increase 93 3.1.2.3.4.1 Liquid Assisted Sintering 94 3.1.2.3.4.2 Pressure Assisted Sintering 94 3.1.2.3.4.3 Sintering Under Electromagnetic Radiation 96 3.1.2.3.4.4 Sintering Slip-Cast Specimens Under Magnetic Field 97 3.1.2.3.4.5 Reaction-Preceded Sintering 97 3.1.2.3.4.6 Use of Sintering Aids 98 3.1.3 Bulk Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 98 3.1.4 Glass-Ceramics Fabrication by Controlled Glass Crystallization 98 3.1.4.1 Introduction 98 3.1.4.2 Glass Crystallization: Basic Theory 100 3.1.4.2.1 Nucleation 100 3.1.4.2.2 Crystal Growth 102 3.1.4.2.3 Phase Separation in Glass 102 3.1.4.2.4 Crystal Morphologies 103 3.1.4.3 Requirements for the Obtainment of Performant Glass-Ceramics 103 3.1.4.3.1 Nucleators 103 3.1.4.4 Influence of Controlled Glass Crystallization on Optical Transmission 104 3.1.4.4.1 Full Crystallization 105 3.1.5 Bulk Sol–Gel 105 3.1.6 Polycrystalline to Single Crystal Conversion via Solid-State Processes 107 3.1.7 Transparency Conferred to Non-cubic Materials by Limited Lattice Disordering 109 3.1.8 Transparent Non-cubic Nanoceramics 109 3.1.9 Grinding and Polishing 109 3.2 Characterization 111 3.2.1 Characterization of Particles, Slurries, Granules, and Green Bodies Relevant in Some Transparent Ceramics Fabrication 111 3.2.1.1 Powder Characterization 112 3.2.1.2 Granules Measurement and Slurry Characterization 113 3.2.1.3 Green-Body Characterization 114 3.2.2 Scatters Topology Illustration 115 3.2.2.1 Laser-Scattering Tomography (LST) 116 3.2.3 Discrimination Between Translucency and High Transmission Level 116 3.2.4 Bulk Density Determination from Optical Transmission Data 117 3.2.5 Lattice Irregularities: Grain Boundaries, Cations Segregation, Inversion 118 3.2.6 Parasitic Radiation Absorbers’ Identification and Spectral Characterization 123 3.2.6.1 Absorption by Native Defects of Transparent Hosts 123 3.2.7 Detection of ppm Impurity Concentration Levels 124 3.2.8 Mechanical Issues for Windows and Optical Components 126 4 Materials and Their Processing 131 4.1 Introduction 131 4.1.1 General 131 4.1.2 List of Materials and Their Properties 131 4.2 Principal Materials Description 131 4.2.1 Mg and Zn Spinels 131 4.2.1.1 Mg-Spinel 131 4.2.1.1.1 Structure 131 4.2.1.1.2 Fabrication 136 4.2.1.1.3 Properties of Spinel 146 4.2.1.2 Zn-Spinel 152 4.2.2 γ-Al-oxynitride 152 4.2.2.1 Composition and Structure 152 4.2.2.2 Processing 154 4.2.2.2.1 Fabrication Approaches 154 4.2.2.2.2 Powder Synthesis 155 4.2.2.2.3 Green Parts Forming. Sintering 155 4.2.2.3 Characteristics of Densified Parts 156 4.2.3 Transparent and Translucent Alumina 157 4.2.3.1 Structure 158 4.2.3.1.1 Utility of T-PCA 158 4.2.3.2 Processing of Transparent Ceramic Alumina 159 4.2.3.2.1 Raw Materials 159 4.2.3.2.2 Processing 159 4.2.3.3 Properties of Transparent Alumina 163 4.2.4 Transparent Magnesia and Calcia 163 4.2.4.1 Structure 164 4.2.4.2 Raw Materials and Processing 165 4.2.4.3 Properties 167 4.2.4.4 Transparent Calcium Oxide 169 4.2.5 Transparent YAG and Other Garnets 169 4.2.5.1 Structure, Processing, and Properties of YAG 170 4.2.5.1.1 Processing 170 4.2.5.1.2 Properties of YAG 174 4.2.5.2 LuAG 177 4.2.5.3 Garnets Based on Tb 178 4.2.5.4 Garnets Based on Ga 179 4.2.5.5 Other Materials Usable for Magneto-Optical Components 179 4.2.6 Transparent Yttria and Other Sesquioxides 180 4.2.6.1 Structure of Y2O3 180 4.2.6.2 Processing of Y2O3 181 4.2.6.2.1 Y2O3 Powders 181 4.2.6.2.2 Processing Approaches 181 4.2.6.2.3 Discussion of Processing 185 4.2.6.3 Properties of Y2O3 187 4.2.6.4 Other Sesquioxides with Bixbyite Lattice 187 4.2.6.4.1 Sc2O3 188 4.2.6.4.2 Lu2O3 189 4.2.7 Transparent Zirconia 190 4.2.7.1 Structure: Polymorphism, Effect of Alloying 190 4.2.7.2 Processing–Transparency Correlation in Cubic Zirconia Fabrication 192 4.2.7.2.1 Zirconia Powders 192 4.2.7.2.2 Forming and Sintering 193 4.2.7.3 Properties 194 4.2.7.3.1 Density of Zirconias 194 4.2.7.4 Types of Transparent Zirconia 195 4.2.7.4.1 TZPs 195 4.2.7.4.2 Cubic ZrO2 195 4.2.7.4.3 Monoclinic Zirconia 196 4.2.7.4.4 Electronic Absorption 197 4.2.8 Transparent Metal Fluoride Ceramics 198 4.2.8.1 Crystallographic Structure 199 4.2.8.2 Processing of Transparent-Calcium Fluoride 199 4.2.8.3 Properties 200 4.2.9 Transparent Chalcogenides 201 4.2.9.1 Composition and Structure 201 4.2.9.2 Processing 201 4.2.9.3 Properties 203 4.2.10 Ferroelectrics 203 4.2.10.1 Ferroelectrics with Perovskite-Type Lattice 203 4.2.10.2 PLZTs: Fabrication and Properties 204 4.2.10.2.1 Electro-optic Properties of PLZTs 207 4.2.10.3 Other Perovskites Including Pb 207 4.2.10.4 Perovskites Free of Pb 208 4.2.10.4.1 Ba Metatitanate 208 4.2.10.4.2 Materials Based on the Potassium Niobate-sodium Niobate System 209 4.2.11 Transparent Glass-Ceramics 210 4.2.11.1 Transparent Glass Ceramics Based on Stuffed β-Quartz Solid Solutions 210 4.2.11.2 Transparent Glass Ceramics Based on Crystals Having a Spinel-Type Lattice 212 4.2.11.3 Mullite-Based Transparent Glass-Ceramics 213 4.2.11.4 Other Transparent Glass-Ceramics Derived from Polinary Oxide Systems 214 4.2.11.5 Oxyfluoride Matrix Transparent Glass-Ceramics 214 4.2.11.6 Transparent Glass-Ceramics Including Very High Crystalline Phase Concentration 216 4.2.11.6.1 Materials of Extreme Hardness (Al2O3–La2O3, ZrO2) 216 4.2.11.6.2 TGCs of High Crystallinity Including Na3Ca Silicates 216 4.2.11.6.3 Materials for Scintillators 217 4.2.11.7 Pyroelectric and Ferroelectric Transparent Glass-Ceramics 217 4.2.12 Cubic Boron Nitride 222 4.2.13 Ultrahard Transparent Polycrystalline Diamond Parts 222 4.2.13.1 Structure 222 4.2.13.2 Fabrication 224 4.2.13.3 Properties 225 4.2.14 Galium Phosphide (GaP) 225 4.2.15 Transparent Silicon Carbide and Nitride and Aluminium Oxynitride 226 5 TC Applications 227 5.1 General Aspects 227 5.2 Brief Description of Main Applications 227 5.2.1 Envelopes for Lighting Devices 227 5.2.2 Transparent Armor Including Ceramic Layers 229 5.2.2.1 Armor: General Aspects 229 5.2.2.1.1 The Threats Armor Has to Defeat (Projectiles) 229 5.2.2.1.2 The Role of Armor 230 5.2.2.1.3 Processes Generated by the Impact of a Projectile on a Ceramic Strike-Face (Small Arm Launchers) 231 5.2.2.1.4 Final State of the Projectile/Armor Impact Event Participants 234 5.2.2.1.4.1 Armor Performance Descriptors 235 5.2.2.1.5 Characteristics which Influence Armor Performance 236 5.2.2.1.6 Ceramic Armor Study and Design 236 5.2.2.2 Specifics of the Transparent-Ceramic Based Armor 239 5.2.2.3 Materials for Transparent Armor 243 5.2.2.3.1 Ceramics 243 5.2.2.3.2 Single Crystals 245 5.2.2.3.3 Glass-Ceramics 246 5.2.2.3.4 Glasses 248 5.2.2.4 Examples of Transparent Ceramics Armor Applications 248 5.2.3 Infrared Windows 249 5.2.3.1 The Infrared Region 249 5.2.3.2 Background Regarding Heavy Duty Windows 249 5.2.3.2.1 Threats to Missile IR Domes: Material Characteristics Relevant for Their Protection 249 5.2.3.2.1.1 Impact of Particulates (Erosion) 249 5.2.3.2.1.2 Thermal Shock 250 5.2.3.3 Applications of infrared transparent ceramics 251 5.2.3.3.1 Missile Domes and Windows for Aircraft-Sensor Protection 251 5.2.3.3.2 Laser Windows: Igniters, Cutting Tools, LIDARs 251 5.2.3.3.2.1 Igniters 251 5.2.3.3.2.2 LIDAR-Windows 252 5.2.3.3.3 Windows for Vacuum Systems 252 5.2.3.4 Ceramic Materials Optimal for the Various IR Windows Applications 252 5.2.3.4.1 Competitor Materials: Glasses and Single Crystals 253 5.2.3.4.2 Glasses 253 5.2.3.4.3 Single Crystals 253 5.2.3.4.4 Sapphire 254 5.2.3.4.5 Crystals for the 8–12 μm Window 254 5.2.3.5 Radomes 254 5.2.4 Transparent Ceramics for Design, Decorative Use, and Jewelry 254 5.2.5 Components of Imaging Optic Devices (LENSES) 258 5.2.6 Dental Ceramics 260 5.2.7 Applications of Transparent Ferroelectric and Pyroelectric Ceramics 262 5.2.7.1 Flash Goggles 263 5.2.7.2 Color Filter 263 5.2.7.3 Stereo Viewing Device 264 5.2.7.4 Applications of Second-Generation (Non-PLZT) Ferroelectric Ceramics 265 5.2.8 Applications of Ceramics with Magnetic Properties 265 5.2.9 Products Based on Ceramic Doped with Transition and/or Rare-Earth Cations 267 5.2.9.1 Gain Media for Solid-State Lasers 267 5.2.9.1.1 Lasers: Definition and Functioning Mechanisms 267 5.2.9.1.1.1 Lasing Mechanisms 267 5.2.9.1.2 Laser Systems Efficiency: Characterizing Parameters 277 5.2.9.1.3 Laser Oscillators and Amplifiers 277 5.2.9.1.4 Device Operation Related Improvements Allowing Increase of Ceramic Lasers Performance 278 5.2.9.1.4.1 Diode Lasers as Pumping Sources 278 5.2.9.1.4.2 Cryogenic Operation 278 5.2.9.1.4.3 Cavity-Loss Control 279 5.2.9.1.4.4 Laser Output Signal Manipulation 280 5.2.9.1.4.5 Lasing Device Configuration Optimization 281 5.2.9.1.4.6 ThinZag Configuration 281 5.2.9.1.4.7 Virtual Point Source Pumping 282 5.2.9.1.5 Ceramic Gain Media (Host+Lasant Ion) Improvements 283 5.2.9.1.5.1 The Hosts 283 5.2.9.1.5.2 Principal Lasing Cations Operating in Ceramic Hosts 289 5.2.9.1.6 Applications of Ceramic Lasers 299 5.2.9.1.6.1 Materials Working 299 5.2.9.1.6.2 Laser Weapons 300 5.2.9.1.6.3 Combustion Ignitors: Cars and Guns 300 5.2.9.1.6.4 Other Applications 300 5.2.9.2 Q-switches 303 5.2.9.2.1 General 303 5.2.9.2.2 Transition Metal Cations Usable for Switching 304 5.2.9.2.2.1 Co2+ 304 5.2.9.2.2.2 Cr4+,5+ 306 5.2.9.2.2.3 V3+ 308 5.2.9.2.2.4 Cr2+ (d4), Fe2+ (d6) 309 5.2.9.3 Ceramic Phosphors for Solid State Lighting Systems 309 5.2.9.3.1 Artificial Light Sources: General Considerations 309 5.2.9.3.1.1 Conventional Light Sources Powered by Electricity 310 5.2.9.3.1.2 Incandescent Lamps 311 5.2.9.3.1.3 Discharge Lamps 311 5.2.9.3.1.4 Fluorescent Lamps 313 5.2.9.3.1.5 Solid-State Lighting Sources 313 5.2.9.3.2 Transparent Bulk Ceramics Based Phosphors for Light Sources Based on LEDs 314 5.2.9.3.2.1 Ce3+:YAG and Ce3+, RE3+:YAG Phosphors 314 5.2.9.3.2.2 Bathochrome Moving (Redshifting) of Ce3+ Emission by YAG Lattice Straining 318 5.2.9.3.2.3 Summary of SSLSs 321 5.2.9.4 Scintillators 321 6 Future Developments 325 7 Conclusions 327 References 329 Index 357

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Book SynopsisA guide to the fundamental chemistry and recent advances of battery materials In one comprehensive volume, Inorganic Battery Materials explores the basic chemistry principles, recent advances, and the challenges and opportunities of the current and emerging technologies of battery materials. With contributions from an international panel of experts, this authoritative resource contains information on the fundamental features of battery materials, discussions on material synthesis, structural characterizations and electrochemical reactions. The book explores a wide range of topics including the state-of-the-art lithium ion battery chemistry to more energy-aggressive chemistries involving lithium metal. The authors also include a review of sulfur and oxygen, aqueous battery chemistry, redox flow battery chemistry, solid state battery chemistry and environmentally beneficial carbon dioxide battery chemistry. In the context of renewable energy utilization and transportation electrificatTable of ContentsContributors ix Series Preface xiii Volume Preface xv Part 1: Chemistry of Li-Ion Battery Materials 1 Silicon-Based Anodes for Advanced Lithium-Ion Batteries 3Junhua Song, Xiaolin Li and Ji-Guang Zhang Surface Chemistry of Alkali-Ion Battery Cathode Materials 15Muhammad M. Rahman and Feng Lin Part 2: Lithium Metal Battery Materials 39 Li–CO2 Batteries 41Zhaojun Xie and Zhen Zhou S Electrode Materials 59Feng Li Lithium Metal Anode 75Siyuan Li, Jixiang Yang and Yingying Lu Lithium Oxygen Battery 97Raymond A. Wong, Hye Ryung Byon, Morgan L. Thomas, Kaoru Dokko and Masayoshi Watanabe Structural Engineering of Cathode Materials for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries 121Ligui Li, Jingping Yu, Nan Wang, Jun Zhao, Bin Fan, Shuaibo Zeng and Shaowei Chen Part 3: Materials and Chemistry of Non-Lithium Batteries 151 How to Maximize the Potential of Zn–Air Battery: Toward Acceptable Rechargeable Technology with or without Electricity 153Joohyuk Park, Jang-Soo Lee and Jaephil Cho Solid State and Materials Chemistry for Sodium-Ion Batteries 161Divya Sehrawat, Neeraj Sharma and Jennifer H. Stansby Multivalent Metallic Anodes for Rechargeable Batteries 197Jennifer L. Schaefer and Laura C. Merrill Redox-Active Inorganic Materials for Redox Flow Batteries 211Bo Hu, Jian Luo, Camden DeBruler, Maowei Hu, Wenda Wu and T. Leo Liu Electrode and Electrolyte Interaction in Aqueous Electrochemical Energy Storage 237Xiaowei Teng Na-Ion Batteries: Positive Electrode Materials 253Elizabeth H. Driscoll, Laura L. Driscoll and Peter R. Slater Part 4: Electrolyte Chemistry for Rechargeable Batteries 267 Solid-State Electrolyte 269Wei Luo, Chuang Yu and Liangbing Hu Chemistry of Soft Matter Battery Electrolytes 279Jelena Popovic Modeling Solid State Batteries 291Ting Hei Wan, Ziheng Lu and Francesco Ciucci Part 5: Advanced Characterizations of Inorganic Battery Materials 309 TEM Studies on Electrode Materials for Secondary Ion Batteries 311Sooyeon Hwang and Dong Su Synchrotron-Based Soft X-Ray Spectroscopy for Battery Material Studies 339Wanli Yang Solid Electrolyte Interphase in Lithium-Based Batteries 359Feifei Shi and Philip N. Ross Application of In Situ Electrochemical-Cell Transmission Electron Microscopy for the Study of Rechargeable Batteries 377Wentao Yao and Reza Shahbazian-Yassar Index 387

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Book SynopsisAn important contribution to the literature that introduces powerful new methods for modeling and simulating radio wave propagation A thorough understanding of electromagnetic wave propagation is fundamental to the development of sophisticated communication and detection technologies. The powerful numerical methods described in this book represent a major step forward in our ability to accurately model electromagnetic wave propagation in order to establish and maintain reliable communication links, to detect targets in radar systems, and to maintain robust mobile phone and broadcasting networks. The first new book on guided wave propagation modeling and simulation to appear in nearly two decades, Radio Wave Propagation and Parabolic Equation Modeling addresses the fundamentals of electromagnetic wave propagation generally, with a specific focus on radio wave propagation through various media. The authors explore an array of new applications, and detail various virtual electromagnetic tTable of ContentsPreface ix Acronyms xi Matlab Codes xiii Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Electromagnetic Problems and Classification 1 1.2 Maxwell Equations 3 1.3 Guided Waves and Transverse/Longitudinal Decomposition 4 1.4 Two Dimensional Helmholtz's Equation 5 1.5 Validation, Verification, and Calibration Procedure 6 1.6 Fourier Transform, DFT and FFT 7 Chapter 2: WAVE PROPAGATION OVER FLAT EARTH 15 2.1 Flat Earth and GO Two-Ray Model 15 2.2 Single Knife Edge Problem and Four-Ray Model 16 2.3 Vertical Linear Refractivity Profile and Mode Summation 19 Chapter 3: PARABOLIC EQUATION MODELING 23 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Parabolic Wave Equation Form 24 3.3 Dirichlet, Neumann, and Cauchy Boundary Conditions 27 3.4 Antenna/Source Injection 28 3.5 Split-Step Parabolic Equation (SSPE) Model 29 3.5.1 Narrow-Angle and Wide-Angle SSPE 30 3.5.2 A MATLAB-Based Simple SSPE Code 30 3.6 FEM-Based Parabolic Equation Model 32 3.7 Atmospheric Refractivity Effects 40 Chapter 4: WAVE PROPAGATION AT SHORT RANGES 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Accurate Source Modeling 44 4.3 Wave Propagators in Two Dimensions 47 4.3.1 Flat Earth and Two-Ray Model 47 4.3.2 FEM-Based PE Wave Propagator 49 4.3.3 SSPE-Based PE Wave Propagator 49 4.3.4 Method of Moments Modeling 49 4.4 Knife Edge and Four Ray Model 49 4.5 Canonical Tests and Calibration 50 Chapter 5: PE AND TERRAIN MODELING 53 5.1 Irregular PEC Terrain 53 5.2 PE and Impedance Boundary Modeling 54 5.2.1 Discrete Mixed Fourier Transform (DMFT) 56 5.3 Numerical Results and Comparison 57 Chapter 6: ANALYTICAL EXACT AND APPROXIMATE MODELS 65 6.1 Wave Propagation in a Parallel Plate Waveguide 65 6.2 Green's Function in Terms of Mode Summation 68 6.3 Mode Summation for a Tilted Gaussian Source 70 6.4 A Hybrid Ray + Image Method 71 6.5 Numerical Models 73 6.5.1 Parabolic Equation Models: SSPE and FEMPE 73 6.5.2 Method of Moments 75 Chapter 7: WAVE PROPAGATION INSIDE THREE-DIMENSIONAL RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE 79 7.1 Introduction 79 7.2 Three-Dimensional Rectangular Waveguide Model 80 7.3 Three-Dimensional Parabolic Equation Models 81 7.3.1 SSPE Model 81 7.3.2 FEMPE Model 82 7.3.3 ADIPE Model 82 7.4 Tests and Calibration 83 Chapter 8: TWO WAY PE MODELS 89 8.1 Formulation of Two Way FEMPE Method 89 8.2 Formulation of Two Way SSPE Method 91 8.3 Flat Earth with Infinite Wall 91 8.4 Flat Earth with Single and Double Knife Edges 91 8.5 Two Way Propagation Modeling in Waveguides 96 8.6 Three-Dimensional Split-Step- and Finite-Element-Based Parabolic Equation Models 96 8.7 Tests and Calibration 97 Chapter 9: PETOOL VIRTUAL PROPAGATION PACKAGE 101 9.1 Introduction 101 9.2 PETOOL Software 103 9.3 Characteristic Examples 107 Chapter 10: FEMIX VIRTUAL PROPAGATION PACKAGE 113 10.1 Introduction 113 10.2 Analytical Surface-Wave Model 115 10.2.1 Path Loss 115 10.2.2 Norton's Model 115 10.2.3 Wait's Model 116 10.2.4 Millington's Curve Fitting Approach 117 10.3 Numerical Surface-Wave Model 118 10.4 FEMIX Package 119 10.5 Characteristic Examples 122 References 127 Index 135

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Book SynopsisThe third edition of the landmark book on power system stability and control, revised and updated with new material The revised third edition of Power System Control and Stability continues to offer a comprehensive text on the fundamental principles and concepts of power system stability and control as well as new material on the latest developments in the field. The third edition offers a revised overview of power system stability and a section that explores the industry convention of q axis leading d axis in modeling of synchronous machines. In addition, the third edition focuses on simulations that utilize digital computers and commercial simulation tools, it offers an introduction to the concepts of the stability analysis of linear systems together with a detailed formulation of the system state matrix. The authors also include a revised chapter that explores both implicit and explicit integration methods for transient stability. PoweTable of ContentsForeword xiii Preface xv About the Authors xvii Part I Introduction Chapter 1 Power System Stability 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Requirements of a Reliable Electrical Power Service 4 1.3 Statement of the Problem 5 1.3.1 Definition of Stability 5 1.3.2 Classification of Stability Problems 6 1.3.3 Description of Stability Phenomenon 6 1.4 Effect of Impact on System Components 7 1.4.1 Loss of Synchronism 8 1.4.2 Synchronous Machine During a Transient 8 1.5 Methods of Simulation 10 1.5.1 Linearized System Equations 10 1.5.2 Large System with Nonlinear Equations 11 1.6 Planning and Operating Standards 11 Chapter 2 The Elementary Mathematical Model 19 2.1 Swing Equation 19 2.2 Units 21 2.3 Mechanical Torque 22 2.3.1 Unregulated Machines 22 2.3.2 Regulated Machines 24 2.4 Electrical Torque 26 2.4.1 Synchronous Torque 26 2.4.2 Other Electrical Torques 27 2.5 Power-Angle Curve of a Synchronous Machine 27 2.5.1 Classical Representation of a Synchronous Machine in Stability Studies 28 2.5.2 Synchronizing Power Coefficients 29 2.6 Natural Frequencies of Oscillation of a Synchronous Machine 30 2.7 System of One Machine Against an Infinite Bus: The Classical Model 31 2.8 Equal Area Criterion 37 2.8.1 Critical Clearing Angle 38 2.8.2 Application to a One-Machine System 39 2.8.3 Equal Area Criterion for a Two-Machine System 39 2.9 Classical Model of a Multimachine System 40 2.10 Classical Stability Study of a Nine-Bus System 42 2.10.1 Data Preparation 43 2.10.2 Preliminary Calculations 45 2.11 Shortcomings of the Classical Model 51 2.12 Block Diagram of One Machine 53 Chapter 3 System Response to Small Disturbances 61 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Types of Problems Studied 62 3.2.1 System Response to Small Impacts 62 3.2.2 Distribution of Power Impacts 62 3.3 The Unregulated Synchronous Machine 63 3.3.1 Demagnetizing Effect of Armature Reaction 64 3.3.2 Effect of Small Changes of Speed 65 3.4 Modes of Oscillation of an Unregulated Multimachine System 66 3.5 Regulated Synchronous Machine 73 3.5.1 Voltage Regulator with One Time Lag 73 3.5.2 Governor with One Time Lag 75 3.6 Distribution of Power Impacts 76 3.6.1 Linearization 77 3.6.2 A Special Case: t = 0+ 78 3.6.3 Average Behavior Prior to Governor Action (t = t1) 79 Part II Electrical and Electromagnetic Dynamic Performance Chapter 4 The Synchronous Machine 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Park’s Transformation 91 4.3 Flux Linkage Equations 94 4.3.1 Stator Self-Inductances 94 4.3.2 Rotor Self-Inductances 95 4.3.3 Stator Mutual Inductances 95 4.3.4 Rotor Mutual Inductances 95 4.3.5 Stator-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances 95 4.3.6 Transformation of Inductances 96 4.4 Voltage Equations 97 4.5 Formulation of State-Space Equations 99 4.6 Current Formulation 100 4.7 Per-Unit Conversion 101 4.7.1 Choosing a Base for Stator Quantities 102 4.7.2 Choosing a Base for Rotor Quantities 103 4.7.3 Comparison with Other Per-Unit Systems 104 4.7.4 The Correspondence of Per-Unit Stator EMF to Rotor Quantities 107 4.8 Normalizing the Voltage Equations 108 4.9 Normalizing the Torque Equations 113 4.9.1 The Normalized Swing Equation 114 4.9.2 Forms of the Swing Equation 114 4.10 Torque and Power 115 4.11 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Machine 117 4.12 The Flux Linkage State-Space Model 119 4.12.1 The Voltage Equations 120 4.12.2 The Torque Equation 120 4.12.3 Machine Equations with Saturation Neglected 121 4.12.4 Treatment of Saturation 123 4.13 Load Equations 124 4.13.1 Synchronous Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus 124 4.13.2 Current Model 126 4.13.3 The Flux Linkage Model 127 4.14 Subtransient and Transient Inductances and Time Constants 131 4.14.1 Time Constants 133 4.15 Simplified Models of the Synchronous Machine 136 4.15.1 Neglecting Damper Windings: The E’q (One-Axis) Model 137 4.15.2 Voltage Behind Subtransient Reactance: The E” Model 142 4.15.3 Neglecting λd and λq for a Cylindrical Rotor Machine: The Two-Axis Model 150 4.15.4 Neglecting Amortisseur Effects and λd and λq Terms: The One-Axis Model 153 4.15.5 Assuming Constant Flux Linkage in the Main Field Winding 154 4.16 Parameter Determination for Generator Dynamic Models 155 Chapter 5 The Simulation of Synchronous Machines 165 5.1 Introduction 165 5.2 Steady-State Equations and Phasor Diagrams 165 5.3 Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus Through a Transmission Line 168 5.4 Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus with Local Load at Machine Terminal 169 5.4.1 Special Case: The Resistive Load, ZL = RL + j0 170 5.4.2 General Case: ZL Arbitrary 171 5.5 Determining Steady-State Conditions 172 5.5.1 Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus with Local Load 173 5.6 Examples 174 5.7 Initial Conditions for a Multimachine System 182 5.8 Determination of Machine Parameters from Manufacturers’ Data 183 5.9 Digital Simulation of Synchronous Machines 188 5.9.1 Digital Computation of Saturation 189 5.9.2 Updating λAD 192 Chapter 6 Load Modeling 199 6.1 Introduction 199 6.2 Static Load Models 200 6.3 Induction Motor Loads 203 6.3.1 Model Development of a Three-Phase Induction Machine 203 6.3.2 Representing Induction Machines in Stability Simulations 213 6.3.3 Stalled Motor Operation 215 6.4 Single-Phase Motors 216 6.4.1 Scroll Compressors 218 6.4.2 Point-on-Wave Effects 219 6.4.3 Dynamic Phasors 219 6.5 Power Electronic Loads 221 6.6 Self-Restoring Loads 224 6.7 Distributed Energy Resources 225 6.8 Composite Load Models 227 6.9 Data Development 229 6.9.1 Component Based 230 6.9.2 Measurement Based 232 Chapter 7 Simulation of Multimachine Systems 239 7.1 Introduction 239 7.2 Statement of the Problem 239 7.3 Matrix Representation of a Passive Network 240 7.3.1 Network in the Transient State 242 7.3.2 Converting to a Common Reference Frame 243 7.4 Converting Machine Coordinates to System Reference 244 7.5 Relation Between Machine Currents and Voltages 245 7.6 System Order 249 7.7 Machines Represented by Classical Methods 249 7.8 Linearized Model for the Network 252 7.9 Hybrid Formulation 258 7.10 Network Equations with Flux Linkage Model 260 7.11 Total System Equations 262 7.12 Alternating Solution Method 264 7.12.1 Nonlinear Loads 265 7.12.2 Network–Machine Interface 268 7.13 Simultaneous Solution Method 275 7.14 Design of Numerical Solvers 277 Chapter 8 Small-Signal Stability Analysis 281 8.1 Introduction 281 8.2 Fundamentals of Linear System Stability 282 8.3 Linearization of the Generator State-Space Current Model 284 8.4 Linearization of the Load Equation for the One-Machine Problem 288 8.5 Linearization of the Flux Linkage Model 293 8.6 State Matrix for Multimachine Systems 298 8.6.1 Formulation of the State Matrix 298 8.6.2 Representation of Static Loads in the State Matrix 300 8.7 Simplified Linear Model 312 8.7.1 The E' Equation 312 8.7.2 Electrical Torque Equation 313 8.7.3 Terminal Voltage Equation 314 8.7.4 Summary of Equations 315 8.7.5 Effect of Loading 318 8.7.6 Comparison with Classical Model 320 8.8 Block Diagrams 321 8.9 State-Space Representation of Simplified Model 322 Chapter 9 Excitation Systems 325 9.1 Simplified View of Excitation Control 325 9.2 Control Configurations 327 9.3 Typical Excitation Configurations 328 9.3.1 Primitive Systems 328 9.3.2 Type DC Excitation Control Systems with DC Generator-Commutator Exciters 332 9.3.3 Type AC Excitation Control Systems with Alternator-Rectifier Exciters 332 9.3.4 Type AC Excitation Control Systems with Alternator-SCR Exciter Systems 334 9.3.5 Type ST Excitation Control Systems with Compound-Rectifier Exciter Systems 335 9.3.6 Type ST Excitation Control System with Compound-Rectifier Exciter Plus Potential-Source-Rectifier Exciter 336 9.3.7 Type ST Excitation Control Systems with Potential-Source-Rectifier Exciter 336 9.4 Excitation Control System Definitions 337 9.4.1 Voltage Response Ratio 339 9.4.2 Exciter Voltage Ratings 341 9.4.3 Other Specifications 342 9.5 Voltage Regulator 344 9.5.1 Electromechanical Regulators 344 9.5.2 Early Electronic Regulators 345 9.5.3 Rotating Amplifier Regulators 345 9.5.4 Magnetic Amplifier Regulators 346 9.5.5 Digital Excitation Systems 348 9.6 Exciter Buildup 348 9.6.1 The DC Generator Exciter 348 9.6.2 Linear Approximations for DC Generator Exciters 356 9.6.3 The AC Generator Exciters 358 9.6.4 Solid-State Exciters 359 9.6.5 Buildup of a Loaded DC Exciter 360 9.6.6 Normalization of Exciter Equations 360 9.7 Limiting and Protection for Excitation Control Systems 361 9.7.1 Modeling Amplifier Limits 361 9.7.2 Control Limiters and Associated Protection 362 9.7.3 Volts per Hertz Protection 365 9.8 Excitation System Response 365 9.8.1 Noncontinuously Regulated Systems 365 9.8.2 Continuously Regulated Systems 369 9.9 State-Space Description of the Excitation System 379 9.9.1 Simplified Linear Model 381 9.9.2 Complete Linear Model 382 9.10 Computer Representation of Excitation Systems 389 9.10.1 Type DC1: DC Commutator Exciter 390 9.10.2 Type AC Systems: Alternator Supplied Rectifier Excitation Systems 393 9.10.3 Type AC1 System: Field-Controlled Alternator-Rectifier Excitation System 394 9.10.4 Type ST1 System: Controlled Rectifier System with Terminal Potential Supply Only 395 9.10.5 Type ST2 System: Static with Terminal Potential and Current Supplies 397 9.10.6 Type DC3 System: Noncontinuous Acting 399 9.11 Typical System Constants 400 9.12 The Effect of Excitation on Generator Performance 400 Chapter 10 The Effect of Excitation on Stability 409 10.1 Introduction 409 10.1.1 Transient Stability and Small-Signal Stability Considerations 410 10.2 Effect of Excitation on Generator Power Limits 411 10.3 Effect of the Excitation System on Transient Stability 415 10.3.1 The Role of the Excitation System in Classical Model Studies 415 10.3.2 Increased Reliance on Excitation Control to Improve Stability 417 10.3.3 Parametric Study 419 10.3.4 Reactive Power Demand During System Emergencies 421 10.4 Effect of Excitation on Small-Signal Stability 421 10.4.1 Examination of Small-Signal Stability by Routh’s Criterion 421 10.4.2 Further Considerations of the Regulator Gain and Time Constant 424 10.4.3 Effect on the Electrical Torque 425 10.5 Root-Locus Analysis of a Regulated Machine Connected to an Infinite Bus 426 10.6 Approximate System Representation 432 10.6.1 Approximate Excitation System Representation 432 10.6.2 Estimate of Gx(s) 433 10.6.3 The Inertial Transfer Function 437 10.7 Supplementary Stabilizing Signals 439 10.7.1 Block Diagram of the Linear System 439 10.7.2 Approximate Model of the Complete Exciter-Generator System 440 10.7.3 Lead Compensation 442 10.8 Linear Analysis of the Stabilized Generator 446 10.9 PSS Tuning in Multimachine Power Systems 448 10.10 Alternate Types of PSS 449 10.11 Digital Computer Transient Stability Studies 450 10.11.1 Effect of Fault Duration 452 10.11.2 Effect of the Power System Stabilizer 457 10.12 Some General Comments on the Effect of Excitation on Stability 459 Chapter 11 Dynamic Modeling and Representation of Renewable Energy Resources 463 11.1 Wind Turbine Generators 463 11.1.1 Type 1 WTGs 465 11.1.2 Type 2 WTGs 466 11.1.3 Type 3 WTGs 467 11.1.4 Type 4 WTGs 479 11.2 Photovoltaic Solar Plant Modeling 480 11.2.1 Generic Model of PV Solar Plant 480 11.2.2 Modified Generic Model of PV Solar Plant 481 Chapter 12 Voltage Stability 487 12.1 Modeling Requirements for Voltage Instability Analysis 487 12.2 Voltage Instability Analysis Using Time Domain Simulation 489 12.3 Dynamic VAr Planning and Optimization 493 12.3.1 Trajectory Sensitivity Analysis 493 12.3.2 Formulation of the VAr Optimization Problem 495 12.3.3 Implementation of the Dynamic VAr Optimization Approach 497 12.3.4 Application of Dynamic VAr Optimization Approach 499 Chapter 13 Dynamic Performance and Modeling of Flexible AC Transmission System(Facts) Components 503 13.1 Introduction 503 13.2 Static VAr System 503 13.2.1 Stability Characteristics of an SVS 506 13.2.2 Positive-Sequence Transient Stability Model for SVS 509 13.3 Thyristor-Controlled Series Compensation 511 13.3.1 Operating Modes of a TCSC 512 13.3.2 Equipment Characteristics and Limiting Conditions 513 13.3.3 TCSC Model for Transient Stability Studies 515 13.4 Static Synchronous Compensator 517 13.4.1 Statcom Model for Transient Stability Studies 519 13.5 High Voltage DC Transmission 519 Chapter 14 Power System Protection and Monitoring Associated With Power System Stability 525 14.1 Introduction 525 14.2 Power System Protection Functions Associated with Transient Stability Analysis 527 14.2.1 Bulk Transmission Line Out-of-Step Protection 527 14.2.2 Generator Out-of-Step Protection 533 14.2.3 Undervoltage Load Shedding 533 14.2.4 Underfrequency Load Shedding 534 14.3 Special Protection Schemes 535 14.3.1 Generation Rejection and Load Shedding 535 14.3.2 Controlled Islanding and Load Shedding 535 14.4 Synchrophasor-Based Monitoring of Power System Stability 537 14.4.1 Online Dynamic Security Assessment Using Synchrophasor Measurements and Decision Trees 537 14.4.2 Island Formation Prediction Scheme Supported by PMU Measurements 539 14.4.3 Real-Time Voltage Security and Oscillation Monitoring Using PMU Measurements 540 Part III Mechanical Dynamic Performance Chapter 15 Speed Governing 545 15.1 The Flyball Governor 546 15.2 The Isochronous Governor 551 15.3 Incremental Equations of the Turbine 553 15.4 The Speed Droop Governor 556 15.5 The Floating Lever Speed Droop Governor 561 15.6 The Compensated Governor 564 15.7 Electronic Governors 570 15.8 Governor Models for Transient Stability Simulations 571 Chapter 16 Steam Turbine Prime Movers 577 16.1 Introduction 577 16.2 Power Plant Control Modes 579 16.2.1 The Turbine-Following Control Mode 579 16.2.2 The Boiler-Following Control Mode 579 16.2.3 The Coordinated Control Mode 580 16.3 Thermal Generation 581 16.4 A Steam Power Plant Model 582 16.5 Steam Turbines 583 16.6 Steam Turbine Control Operations 590 16.7 Steam Turbine Control Functions 592 16.8 Steam Generator Control 604 16.9 Fossil-Fueled Boilers 605 16.9.1 Drum-Type Boilers 606 16.9.2 Once-Through Boilers 613 16.9.3 Computer Models of Fossil-Fueled Boilers 617 16.10 Nuclear Steam Supply Systems 620 16.10.1 Boiling Water Reactors 620 16.10.2 Pressurized Water Reactors 620 Chapter 17 Hydraulic Turbine Prime Movers 627 17.1 Introduction 627 17.2 The Impulse Turbine 627 17.3 The Reaction Turbine 629 17.4 Propeller-Type Turbines 631 17.5 The Deriaz Turbine 632 17.6 Conduits, Surge Tanks, and Penstocks 633 17.7 Hydraulic System Equations 639 17.8 Hydraulic System Transfer Function 644 17.9 Simplifying Assumptions 647 17.10 Block Diagram for a Hydro System 649 17.11 Pumped-Storage Hydro Systems 650 17.12 Representation of Hydro Turbines and Governors in Stability Studies 651 Chapter 18 Combustion Turbine and Combined-Cycle Power Plants 655 18.1 Introduction 655 18.2 The Combustion Turbine Prime Mover 655 18.2.1 Combustion Turbine Control 657 18.2.2 Off-Nominal Frequency and Voltage Effects 658 18.2.3 Nonlinear Governor Droop Characteristic 659 18.2.4 Recent Advances in Modeling Gas Turbines 660 18.3 The Combined-Cycle Prime Mover 663 18.3.1 Fuel and Air Controls 664 18.3.2 The Gas Turbine Power Generation 668 18.3.3 The Steam Turbine Power Generation 669 18.3.4 Recent Development in Modeling Combined-Cycle Plants 671 Appendix A 673 Appendix B 675 Appendix C 685 Appendix D 695 Appendix E 727 Appendix F 737 Appendix G 759 Appendix H 767 Appendix I 775 Appendix J 783 Index 793

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Book SynopsisAn important text that offers an in-depth guide to how information theory sets the boundaries for data communication In an accessible and practical style, Information and Communication Theory explores the topic of information theory and includes concrete tools that are appropriate for real-life communication systems.The text investigates the connection between theoretical and practical applications through a wide-variety of topics including an introduction to the basics of probability theory, information, (lossless) source coding, typical sequences as a central concept, channel coding, continuous random variables, Gaussian channels, discrete input continuous channels, and a brief look at rate distortion theory. The author explains the fundamental theory together with typical compression algorithms and how they are used in reality. He moves on to review source coding and how much a source can be compressed, and also explains algorithms such as the LZ family with applications to e.g. Table of ContentsPreface ix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Probability Theory 5 2.1 Probabilities 5 2.2 Random Variable 7 2.3 Expectation and Variance 9 2.4 The Law of Large Numbers 17 2.5 Jensen’s Inequality 21 2.6 Random Processes 25 2.7 Markov Process 28 Problems 33 Chapter 3 Information Measures 37 3.1 Information 37 3.2 Entropy 41 3.3 Mutual Information 48 3.4 Entropy of Sequences 58 Problems 63 Chapter 4 Optimal Source Coding 69 4.1 Source Coding 69 4.2 Kraft Inequality 71 4.3 Optimal Codeword Length 80 4.4 Huffman Coding 84 4.5 Arithmetic Coding 95 Problems 101 Chapter 5 Adaptive Source Coding 105 5.1 The Problem with Unknown Source Statistics 105 5.2 Adaptive Huffman Coding 106 5.3 The Lempel–Ziv Algorithms 112 5.4 Applications of Source Coding 125 Problems 129 Chapter 6 Asymptotic Equipartition Property and Channel Capacity 133 6.1 Asymptotic Equipartition Property 133 6.2 Source Coding Theorem 138 6.3 Channel Coding 141 6.4 Channel Coding Theorem 144 6.5 Derivation of Channel Capacity for DMC 155 Problems 164 Chapter 7 Channel Coding 169 7.1 Error-Correcting Block Codes 170 7.2 Convolutional Code 188 7.3 Error-Detecting Codes 203 Problems 210 Chapter 8 Information Measures For Continuous Variables 213 8.1 Differential Entropy and Mutual Information 213 8.2 Gaussian Distribution 224 Problems 232 Chapter 9 Gaussian Channel 237 9.1 Gaussian Channel 237 9.2 Parallel Gaussian Channels 244 9.3 Fundamental Shannon Limit 256 Problems 260 Chapter 10 Discrete Input Gaussian Channel 265 10.1 M-PAM Signaling 265 10.2 A Note on Dimensionality 271 10.3 Shaping Gain 276 10.4 SNR Gap 281 Problems 285 Chapter 11 Information Theory and Distortion 289 11.1 Rate-Distortion Function 289 11.2 Limit For Fix Pb 300 11.3 Quantization 302 11.4 Transform Coding 306 Problems 319 Appendix A Probability Distributions 323 A.1 Discrete Distributions 323 A.2 Continuous Distributions 327 Appendix B Sampling Theorem 337 B.1 The Sampling Theorem 337 Bibliography 343 Index 347

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Book SynopsisIntroduces readers to micro and local power markets and their use for local initiatives, grid integration, and future applications This book provides the basis for understanding micro power markets, emphasizing its application for local initiatives, the grid integration of renewable-based generation, and facilitating the decarbonization of the future electrical networks. It gives readers a comprehensive overview of the market operation, and highlights the basis of the design of local and micro markets. Micro and Local Power Markets starts by covering the economics and basic principle of power markets, including the fundamentals of the power trading (for both wholesale and local markets). Following a definition of both micro and local (technical and economic aspects) power markets, the book then looks at the organization of such markets. It describes the design of those power markets, isolated from the wholesale markets, and examines the methodologies of the interaction between theseTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Foreword xiii Preface xv 1 Power Market Fundamentals 1Íngrid Munné-Collado, Pol Olivella-Rosell and Andreas Sumper 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Basic Design of Power Markets 5 1.2.1 Organization 5 1.2.1.1 Monopoly 5 1.2.1.2 Purchasing Agency 5 1.2.1.3 Wholesale Market 5 1.2.1.4 Retail Competition 7 1.2.2 Bilateral Contracts and Auctions 7 1.2.3 Clearing 10 1.2.4 Settlement or Pricing 10 1.2.5 Example 11 1.3 Mechanism for Auctions 13 1.3.1 Why Auctions in Energy Markets? 13 1.3.2 Auction Basics 13 1.3.2.1 The Revenue Equivalence Theorem 14 1.3.3 Types of Auctions 15 1.3.3.1 The English or Ascending-Bid Auction 15 1.3.3.2 The Dutch or Descending-Bid Auction 15 1.3.3.3 The First-Price Sealed-Bid Auction 15 1.3.3.4 The Second-Price Sealed-Bid Auction 16 1.3.4 Auction Mechanisms Applied to Electricity Products 16 1.3.4.1 Sealed-Bid Auctions 16 1.3.4.2 Descending Clock Auction 17 1.3.4.3 Hybrid Auctions 18 1.3.4.4 Combinatorial Auctions 19 1.3.4.5 Two-Sided Auction Mechanisms 19 1.3.5 Auction Characteristics in Power Markets 19 1.3.6 Auction Design 20 1.3.6.1 Objectives Establishment 20 1.3.6.2 Object Identification 20 1.3.6.3 Participation Encouragement 21 1.3.6.4 Vulnerabilities in the Auction Mechanism 21 1.3.7 Example 23 1.4 Markets for Futures, Energy, and Balancing 27 1.4.1 Forward and Futures Markets 27 1.4.2 Spot Markets 28 1.4.3 Day-Ahead Markets 29 1.4.4 Intraday Markets 30 1.4.5 Balancing Markets 32 1.5 Conclusions and Further Reading 33 References 34 2 Local and Micro Power Markets 37Íngrid Munné-Collado, Eduard Bullich-Massagué, Mònica Aragüés-Peñalba and Pol Olivella-Rosell 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Why Local and Micro? 38 2.3 The Evolution of Power Systems 40 2.4 Introduction to Microgrids 41 2.4.1 Microgrid Definition 41 2.4.2 Microgrid Components 43 2.4.3 Microgrid Operation Modes 45 2.4.3.1 Microgrid Connected to an External Distribution Grid 45 2.4.3.2 Microgrid Connected to Another Microgrid 46 2.4.3.3 Isolated Microgrid 48 2.5 Local and Micro Power Market Concepts 49 2.5.1 Local and Micro Power Market Definitions 49 2.5.2 Comparative Analysis 52 2.6 Local Market Design 59 2.6.1 Involved Agents and Stakeholders 60 2.6.2 Approach 63 2.6.2.1 Centralized (Pool-based) Approach 64 2.6.2.2 Peer-To-Peer 66 2.6.3 Services 68 2.6.3.1 Energy 68 2.6.3.2 Flexibility 70 2.6.4 Local Market Services and Approach Review 77 2.6.5 Local Market Interaction 81 2.7 Conclusions and Discussion 84 References 85 3 Micro Markets in Microgrids 97Bernt Bremdal and Iliana Ilieva 3.1 Introduction 97 3.2 Basic Definitions of Micro Market Functions in Microgrids 99 3.2.1 Island Mode Versus Connected Mode 99 3.2.2 Market Approach for Resource Allocations 101 3.2.3 The Importance of Ownership, Business Focus, and Responsibilities 102 3.2.4 Capacity Design and Physical Laws 105 3.2.5 Resource Efficiency 105 3.2.6 Prerequisites for a Liberal Market 108 3.2.7 Basic Organizational Structures 109 3.2.8 Single Seller–Single Buyer 110 3.2.9 Multiple Sellers–Single Buyer 110 3.2.10 Single Seller–Multiple Buyers 112 3.2.11 Multiple Sellers–Multiple Buyers 112 3.3 Operational Characteristics of Microgrid-based Micro Markets 113 3.3.1 Types of Microgrid 114 3.3.2 Degree of Connectivity to Main Supply 114 3.3.3 Geography 119 3.3.4 Ownership 120 3.3.5 Business Models 120 3.3.6 Physical Control and Communication System 121 3.3.7 Management of the Microgrid 122 3.3.8 Number of Independent Buyers and Sellers 123 3.3.9 Type of Supply 123 3.3.10 Type of Loads 124 3.3.11 Storage Capacity and Reserve Power 124 3.3.12 Exchange and Trade Concepts 125 3.3.13 Pricing and Settlement 126 3.3.14 Contract Types 127 3.3.15 Market Efficiency and Economic Welfare Considerations 129 3.3.16 The Role of ICT 129 3.4 Market Models 130 3.4.1 Introduction 130 3.4.2 Model 1: Central Control and Optimization 130 3.4.3 Model 2: Central Control – Distributed Decision Making 132 3.4.4 Model 3: Central Market Management and Double Auction 136 3.4.5 Model 4: Distributed Control – Peer-to-Peer Trade 142 3.4.6 Model 5: Non-competitive Allocation of Energy 150 3.5 Conclusions 158 References 160 4 Coupled Local Power Markets 165Pol Olivella-Rosell, Shahab Shariat Torbaghan and Madeleine Gibescu 4.1 Introduction 165 4.2 Local and Wholesale Market Coupling 167 4.2.1 Flexibility Definition 169 4.2.2 Services and Products Traded 171 4.2.3 Market Participants 172 4.2.3.1 The Local Market Operator 173 4.2.3.2 BRP and Local Markets 175 4.2.3.3 DSO and Local Markets 176 4.2.3.4 Prosumers and Local Markets 176 4.2.4 LFM Interaction Timeline 177 4.3 Local Market Clearing Mechanism in Coupled Markets 178 4.3.1 Day-ahead Scheduling 180 4.3.2 Intraday Scheduling 183 4.3.3 Quarterly Scheduling 186 4.4 Conclusions and Discussion 186 References 188 5 Digital Business Models for Local and Micro Power Markets 193Emmanuelle Reuter, Moritz Loock and Julia Cousse 5.1 What are Digital Business Models? 193 5.1.1 Digital Technology Enables Value and Money Flow to be Decoupled 194 5.1.2 Prosumption as Co-creation 194 5.2 Local Power Markets and Digital Business Models 196 5.2.1 Decentralization and Local Power Markets 196 5.2.2 Digitalization and the Rise of Platform Business Models 199 5.2.3 Case Examples of Platform Business Models 201 5.2.3.1 Case Example 1: Next Kraftwerke 202 5.2.3.2 Case Example 2: LichtBlick 202 5.2.3.3 Case Example 3: Piclo 202 5.2.3.4 Case Example 4: Change38 203 5.3 The EMPOWER Platform and Business Models 204 5.4 Social Acceptance of Local Power Markets 206 5.4.1 Citizen-level Acceptance 207 5.4.1.1 Key Drivers for Participation 208 5.4.1.2 Key Means for Participation 209 5.4.1.3 Key Barriers for Participation 212 5.4.2 Utility-Level Acceptance 213 5.4.3 Cooperative-Level Acceptance 215 5.5 Conclusion 219 References 220 6 Regulation of Micro and Local Power Markets 223Dirk Kuiken 6.1 Power Market Regulation 223 6.1.1 Definition: What and Why 224 6.1.2 Development 225 6.1.3 Regulators 227 6.1.4 Forms, Instruments, and Types 228 6.2 Common Power Market Regulation 230 6.2.1 Generation (Production) 231 6.2.2 Networks (Transportation and Distribution) 232 6.2.3 Trade 233 6.2.4 Consumption 234 6.3 Regulation of Micro and Local Power Markets 235 6.3.1 Definition 237 6.3.2 Isolated vs Interconnected Markets 238 6.3.2.1 Isolated Markets 239 6.3.2.2 Interconnected Markets 241 6.3.3 General Requirements 242 6.3.4 Existing Legal Frameworks 243 6.4 Trade Settings 245 6.4.1 Bilateral Agreements 245 6.4.1.1 Parties 245 6.4.1.2 Services 246 6.4.1.3 Terms and Conditions 247 6.4.2 Market Platforms 249 6.4.2.1 Market Operator 249 6.4.2.2 Market Rules 249 6.5 Further Discussion 253 Acknowledgements 254 References 255 Index 261

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Book SynopsisWhat every electrical engineering student and technical professional needs to know about data exchange across networks While most electrical engineering students learn how the individual components that make up data communication technologies work, they rarely learn how the parts work together in complete data communication networks. In part, this is due to the fact that until now there have been no texts on data communication networking written for undergraduate electrical engineering students. Based on the author's years of classroom experience, Fundamentals of Data Communication Networks fills that gap in the pedagogical literature, providing readers with a much-needed overview of all relevant aspects of data communication networking, addressed from the perspective of the various technologies involved. The demand for information exchange in networks continues to grow at a staggering rate, and that demand will continue to mount exponentially as the number of interconnected IoT-enaTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xix 1 Overview of Data Communication Networks 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Data Communication Network Model 1 1.3 Classification of Data Communication Networks 3 1.3.1 Transmission Method 3 1.3.2 Data Flow Direction 3 1.3.3 Network Topology 4 1.3.4 Geographical Coverage 7 1.3.5 Transmission Medium 8 1.3.6 Data Transfer Technique 8 1.3.7 Network Access Technique 9 1.3.8 Media Sharing Technique 9 1.4 Data Network Architecture 11 1.4.1 The OSI Protocol Reference Model 11 1.4.2 The Internet Architecture 12 1.5 Summary 14 2 Physical Layer 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Classification of Signals 17 2.3 Periodic Signals 18 2.4 Fourier Analysis of Periodic Signals 18 2.4.1 Reconstructing a Function from its Fourier Series 20 2.4.2 Fourier Analysis of Even and Odd Functions 21 2.4.3 Parseval’sTheorem 22 2.4.4 Complex Form of Fourier Series 23 2.5 Fourier Transform of Nonperiodic Signals 23 2.6 Filters 24 2.7 Line Coding 26 2.8 Modulation 28 2.8.1 Trigonometric Refresher Course 30 2.8.2 Amplitude Modulation 31 2.8.2.1 Overmodulation and Distortion 34 2.8.2.2 Single-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier Amplitude Modulation 34 2.8.3 Frequency Modulation 36 2.8.4 Phase Modulation 38 2.9 SamplingTheorem 38 2.9.1 Analyzing Impulse Train Sampling 39 2.9.2 Reconstruction of the Continuous-Time Signal 40 2.9.3 Statement of the SamplingTheorem 42 2.9.4 Proof of the SamplingTheorem 42 2.10 Analog-to-Digital Conversion: From PAM to PCM 44 2.10.1 Pulse Code Modulation 44 2.10.2 Quantization Noise 45 2.11 Basic DigitalModulation Schemes 46 2.11.1 Amplitude-Shift Keying 46 2.11.2 Frequency-Shift Keying 47 2.11.3 Phase-Shift Keying 48 2.12 Media Sharing Schemes 50 2.12.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing 50 2.12.1.1 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 52 2.12.2 Time Division Multiplexing 52 2.12.2.1 Synchronous Versus Asynchronous TDM 52 2.13 Modems 54 2.14 Transmission Media 54 2.14.1 Twisted Pair 55 2.14.2 Coaxial Cable 55 2.14.3 Optical Fiber 56 2.14.3.1 Fiber Modes 58 2.14.4 Wireless Medium 59 2.15 Channel Impairments 61 2.15.1 Attenuation 61 2.15.2 Noise 61 2.15.2.1 Concept of Decibel 63 2.15.2.2 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 64 2.15.3 Distortion 65 2.15.4 Equalization 66 2.16 Summary 68 3 Data Link Layer Protocols 73 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Framing 73 3.3 Bit Stuffing 74 3.4 Flow Control 74 3.4.1 The Stop-and-Wait Protocol 75 3.4.2 The SlidingWindow Flow Control 75 3.5 Error Detection 76 3.5.1 Parity Checking 76 3.5.2 Two-Dimensional Parity 77 3.5.3 Cyclic Redundancy Checking 78 3.6 Error Control Protocols 80 3.6.1 Stop-and-Wait ARQ 81 3.6.2 Go-Back-N ARQ 81 3.6.3 Selective Repeat ARQ 82 3.7 Data Link Control Protocols 82 3.7.1 High-level Data Link Control 83 3.7.1.1 HDLC Frame Format 84 3.7.1.2 Control Field Format 85 3.7.2 Point-to-Point Protocol 86 3.7.2.1 PPP Components 87 3.7.2.2 PPP Frame Format 87 3.7.2.3 PPP Link Control 88 3.8 Summary 89 4 Multiple Access Schemes 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Multiplexing Schemes Revisited 92 4.2.1 FDM 93 4.2.2 TDM 93 4.2.3 CDM 93 4.3 Orthogonal Access Schemes 93 4.3.1 FDMA 94 4.3.2 TDMA 94 4.3.3 CDMA 95 4.4 Controlled Access Schemes 96 4.4.1 Centralized Polling 96 4.4.2 Token Passing 96 4.4.3 Service Policies 96 4.5 Random Access Schemes 97 4.5.1 Aloha System 97 4.5.2 Slotted Aloha 98 4.5.3 CSMA 98 4.5.4 CSMA/CD 99 4.5.4.1 Why Listen While Transmitting in CSMA/CD 100 4.5.5 CSMA/CA 102 4.6 Summary 102 5 Local Area Networks 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Ethernet 105 5.2.1 Ethernet Frame Structure 106 5.2.2 IEEE 802.3 LAN Types 107 5.2.3 Ethernet Topologies 108 5.2.4 LAN Switching 110 5.2.5 Classification of Ethernet Switching 111 5.2.6 Frame Forwarding Methods 112 5.2.6.1 Store-and-Forward Switching 112 5.2.6.2 Cut-Through Switching 113 5.2.6.3 Fragment-Free Switching 113 5.2.7 Highest Layer used for Forwarding 113 5.2.7.1 Layer 2 Switching 114 5.2.7.2 Layer 3 Switching 114 5.2.7.3 Layer 4 Switching 115 5.3 Virtual LANs 115 5.3.1 Advantages of VLANs 115 5.3.2 Types of VLANs 117 5.3.2.1 Port-Based VLAN 117 5.3.2.2 MAC Address-Based VLAN 118 5.3.2.3 Protocol-Based VLANs 119 5.3.3 VLAN Tagging 120 5.3.4 Comments 121 5.4 Gigabit Ethernet 122 5.4.1 Frame Bursting 123 5.5 Wireless LANs 123 5.5.1 IEEE 802.11bWLAN 125 5.5.2 IEEE 802.11aWLAN 125 5.5.3 IEEE 802.11gWLAN 125 5.5.4 Architecture of the IEEE 802.11WLAN 126 5.5.5 Ad Hoc Mode Deployment 126 5.5.6 Infrastructure Mode Deployment 126 5.5.7 IEEE 802.11WLAN Timers 127 5.5.8 IEEE 802.11WLAN Operation 127 5.5.9 DCF Mechanism 128 5.5.10 PCF Mechanism 128 5.5.11 Range and Data Rate Comparison in the PCF Environment 129 5.6 Token Ring Network 129 5.6.1 Token Frame Fields 130 5.6.2 Token-Passing Access Method 130 5.6.3 Data/Command Frame Fields 131 5.6.4 Token Access Priority 132 5.6.5 Logical and Physical Implementation 133 5.7 Summary 134 6 Network Layer Part I – IP Addressing 137 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 IP Address 137 6.3 Maximum Transmission Unit 139 6.4 IP Version 4 Addressing 140 6.4.1 Class A IPv4 Addresses 141 6.4.2 Class B IPv4 Addresses 141 6.4.3 Class C IPv4 Addresses 142 6.4.4 Class D IPv4 Addresses 142 6.4.5 Class E IPv4 Addresses 142 6.5 IP Subnetting 143 6.6 Variable Length Subnet Mask Networks 145 6.7 IP Quality of Service 147 6.8 Operation of the Explicit Congestion Notification 149 6.9 Address Resolution Protocol 149 6.9.1 Source and Sink in Same LAN 150 6.9.2 Source and Sink in Different LANs: Proxy ARP 150 6.9.3 Source and Sink in Different Remote LANs 151 6.10 Dealing with Shortage of IPv4 Addresses 152 6.10.1 Private Internets 152 6.10.2 Network Address Translation 153 6.10.3 Classless Inter-Domain Routing 153 6.11 IPv6 154 6.11.1 IPv6 Header 156 6.11.2 Concept of Flexible Addressing in IPv6 157 6.12 Summary 157 7 Network Layer Part II – Routing 159 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Routing Principle 159 7.3 Routing Algorithms 159 7.4 Static Versus Dynamic Routing 160 7.5 Link-State Versus Distance–Vector Routing 160 7.6 Flat Versus Hierarchical Routing 161 7.7 Host-Based Versus Router-Intelligent Routing 161 7.8 Centralized Versus Distributed Routing 162 7.9 Routing Metrics 162 7.9.1 Path Length 163 7.9.2 Reliability 163 7.9.3 Delay 163 7.9.4 Bandwidth 163 7.9.5 Load 164 7.9.6 Communication Cost 164 7.10 Flooding Algorithm 164 7.11 Distance–Vector Routing Algorithms 164 7.12 Link-State Routing Algorithms 165 7.13 Routing Protocols 166 7.14 Routing Information Protocol 168 7.15 Routing Information Protocol Version 2 168 7.16 Open Shortest Path First Protocol 169 7.16.1 OSPF Routing Hierarchy 169 7.16.2 OSPF Routers 169 7.16.3 OSPF Routing 170 7.16.4 Maintaining the Topological Database 171 7.17 Advantages of OSPF Over RIP 172 7.18 The Dijkstra’s Algorithm 172 7.19 Multicast Routing 176 7.20 Types of Multicast Systems 177 7.21 Host-Router Signaling 177 7.22 Multicast Routing Protocols 178 7.22.1 Opt-In Protocols 179 7.22.2 Opt-Out Protocols 180 7.22.3 Source-Based Tree Protocols 180 7.22.4 Shared Tree Protocols 180 7.23 Multicast Forwarding 181 7.24 Summary 183 8 Transport Layer – TCP and UDP 187 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 TCP Basics 189 8.2.1 TCP Ports 189 8.2.2 TCP Sockets 190 8.2.3 TCP Segment Format 191 8.3 How TCPWorks 193 8.3.1 TCP Connection Establishment 193 8.3.2 TCP Connection Release 194 8.3.3 TCP Connection Management 195 8.4 TCP Flow Control 196 8.4.1 Slow Start 198 8.4.2 Congestion Avoidance 200 8.4.3 Fast Retransmit 201 8.4.4 Fast Recovery 202 8.5 TCP and Explicit Congestion Notification 203 8.6 The SYN Flood DoS Attach 205 8.7 UDP 206 8.8 Summary 208 9 Transport Layer – SCTP and DCCP 209 9.1 Introduction 209 9.2 Stream Control Transmission Protocol 209 9.2.1 Motivation for a New Transport Protocol 210 9.2.2 Illustration of the HOL Blocking 211 9.2.3 Summary of Features of SCTP 211 9.2.4 SCTP Packet 212 9.2.5 SCTP Header 212 9.2.6 Association Establishment 213 9.2.7 Four-Way Handshake and the SYN Flood DoS Attach 214 9.2.8 Multihoming 214 9.2.9 Multistreaming 216 9.2.10 SCTP Graceful Shutdown Feature 217 9.2.11 Selective Acknowledgments 218 9.3 Datagram Congestion Control Protocol 218 9.3.1 DCCP Packet Structure 219 9.3.2 DCCP Connection 221 9.3.3 DCCP Congestion Management 223 9.3.3.1 CCID 2–TCP-Like Congestion Control 224 9.3.3.2 CCID 3–TCP Friendly Rate Control 224 9.4 Summary 225 10 Application Layer Services 229 10.1 Introduction 229 10.2 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 230 10.2.1 DHCP Basics 230 10.2.2 Discovery Phase 231 10.2.3 Offer Phase 231 10.2.4 Request Phase 231 10.2.5 Acknowledgment Phase 232 10.2.6 Example of Configuration Process Timeline 232 10.2.7 Address Lease Time 232 10.2.8 Static Addresses 233 10.3 Domain Name System 233 10.3.1 Structure of the DNS 234 10.3.2 DNS Queries 236 10.3.3 Name-to-Address Resolution Process 237 10.3.4 DNS Zones 238 10.3.5 DNS Zone Updates 239 10.3.5.1 Full Zone Transfer 239 10.3.5.2 Incremental Zone Transfer 239 10.3.5.3 Notify 240 10.3.6 Dynamic Update 240 10.3.7 Root Servers 241 10.4 Summary 241 11 Introduction to Mobile Communication Networks 243 11.1 Introduction 243 11.2 Radio Communication Basics 243 11.3 Model of Radio Communication System 244 11.4 RadioWave Propagation 246 11.4.1 Free-Space Propagation 246 11.4.2 Reflection 247 11.4.3 Diffraction 248 11.4.4 Scattering 249 11.5 Multipath Fading 250 11.6 Introduction to Cellular Communication 252 11.6.1 Frequency Reuse 252 11.6.2 Cellular System Architecture 253 11.7 Clusters and Frequency Reuse 256 11.8 Co-Channel Interference 258 11.9 Cell Splitting 258 11.10 Introduction to Mobile Cellular Networks 258 11.11 Mobile Cellular Network Architecture 259 11.12 Mobility Management: Handoff 260 11.12.1 Handoff Schemes 261 11.12.2 Hard Handoff versus Soft Handoff 261 11.13 Generations of Mobile Communication Networks 261 11.13.1 First-Generation Networks 262 11.13.2 Second-Generation Networks 262 11.13.3 Introduction to the GSM Network 263 11.13.4 GSM Channels 265 11.13.5 Power Control 266 11.13.6 Overview of IS-136 TDMA Networks 266 11.13.7 Overview of IS-95 CDMA Networks 266 11.13.8 Third-Generation Networks 269 11.13.9 Fourth-Generation Networks 270 11.13.10 Fifth-Generation Networks 271 11.14 A Note on Internet-of-Things 274 11.15 Summary 274 12 Introduction to Network Security 277 12.1 Introduction 277 12.2 Types of Network Attacks 277 12.3 Security Services 280 12.4 Data Encryption Terminology 281 12.5 Cryptographic Systems 281 12.5.1 Symmetric Cryptosystems 281 12.5.2 Public-Key Cryptosystems 281 12.5.3 Comparing Symmetric and Public-Key Cryptosystems 282 12.5.4 A Hybrid Encryption Scheme 283 12.6 Technical Summary of Public-Key Cryptography 283 12.6.1 Introduction to NumberTheory 283 12.6.2 Congruences 284 12.6.3 The Square and Multiply Algorithm 284 12.6.4 Euclid’s Algorithm 285 12.6.5 Extended Euclid’s Algorithm 286 12.6.6 Euler’s Phi Function (Euler’s Totient Function) 287 12.6.7 The RSA Algorithm 287 12.7 Digital Signatures 289 12.7.1 Generating a Digital Signature 289 12.7.2 Verifying a Digital Signature 290 12.8 IP Security Protocols 291 12.8.1 IPSec Modes 291 12.8.2 Security Association 292 12.8.3 Authentication Header 292 12.8.4 Encapsulating Security Payload 292 12.8.5 Key Distribution 293 12.9 Summary 294 Bibliography 295 Index 297

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Book SynopsisA guide to intelligent decision and pervasive computing paradigms for healthcare analytics systems with a focus on the use of bio-sensors Intelligent Pervasive Computing Systems for Smarter Healthcare describes the innovations in healthcare made possible by computing through bio-sensors. The pervasive computing paradigm offers tremendous advantages in diversified areas of healthcare research and technology.The authorsnoted experts in the fieldprovide the state-of-the-art intelligence paradigm that enables optimization of medical assessment for a healthy, authentic, safer, and more productive environment. Today's computers are integrated through bio-sensors and generate a huge amount of information that can enhance our ability to process enormous bio-informatics data that can be transformed into meaningful medical knowledge and help with diagnosis, monitoring and tracking health issues, clinical decision making, early detection of infectious disease prevention, and rapid analysis of Table of ContentsList of Contributors xvii 1 Intelligent Sensing and Ubiquitous Systems (ISUS) for Smarter and Safer Home Healthcare 1 Rui Silva Moreira, José Torres, Pedro Sobral, and Christophe Soares 1.1 Introduction to Ubicomp for Home Healthcare 1 1.2 Processing and Sensing Issues 3 1.2.1 Remote Patient Monitoring in Home Environments 4 1.2.1.1 Hardware Device 5 1.2.1.2 Sensed Data Processing and Analysis 6 1.2.2 Indoor Location Using Bluetooth Low Energy Beacons 8 1.2.2.1 Bluetooth Low Energy 9 1.2.2.2 Distance Estimation 9 1.3 Integration and Management Issues 14 1.3.1 Cloud-Based Integration of Personal Healthcare Systems 15 1.3.2 SNMP-Based Integration and Interference Free Approach to Personal Healthcare 17 1.4 Communication and Networking Issues 19 1.4.1 Wireless Sensor Network for Home Healthcare 21 1.4.1.1 Home Healthcare System Architecture 21 1.4.1.2 Wireless Sensor Network Evaluation 25 1.5 Intelligence and Reasoning Issues 26 1.5.1 Intelligent Monitoring and Automation in Home Healthcare 26 1.5.2 Personal Activity Detection During Daily Living 30 1.6 Conclusion 32 Bibliography 33 2 PeMo-EC: An Intelligent, Pervasive and Mobile Platform for ECG Signal Acquisition, Processing, and Pre-Diagnostic Extraction 37 Angelo Brayner, José Maria Monteiro, and João Paulo Madeiro 2.1 Electrical System of the Heart 37 2.2 The Electrocardiogram Signal: A Gold Standard for Monitoring People Suffering from Heart Diseases 38 2.3 Pervasive and Mobile Computing: Basic Concepts 40 2.4 Ubiquitous Computing and Healthcare Applications: State of the Art 42 2.5 PeMo-EC: Description of the Proposed Framework 44 2.5.1 Acquisition Module: Biosensors and ECG Data Conditioning 44 2.5.2 Patient’s Smartphone Application: ECG Signal Processing Module 49 2.5.3 Physician’s Smartphone Application: Query/Alarm Module 54 2.5.4 The Collaborative Database: Data Integration Module 55 2.5.4.1 Motivation 55 2.5.4.2 The Design of the Collaborative Database 57 2.5.4.3 Data Mining and Pattern Recognition 59 2.6 Conclusions 61 Acknowledgements 61 Bibliography 62 3 The Impact of Implantable Sensors in Biomedical Technology on the Future of Healthcare Systems 67 Ashraf Darwish, Gehad Ismail Sayed, and Aboul Ella Hassanien 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Related Work 71 3.3 Motivation and Contribution 74 3.4 Fundamentals of IBANs for Healthcare Monitoring 75 3.4.1 ISs in Biomedical Systems 75 3.4.2 Applications of ISs in Biomedical Systems 78 3.4.2.1 Brain Stimulator 78 3.4.2.2 Heart Failure Monitoring 78 3.4.2.3 Blood Glucose Level 80 3.4.3 Security in Implantable Biomedical Systems 80 3.5 Challenges and Future Trends 82 3.6 Conclusion and Recommendation 85 Bibliography 86 4 Social Network’s Security Related to Healthcare 91 Fatna Elmendili, Habiba Chaoui, and Younés El Bouzekri El Idrissi 4.1 The Use of Social Networks in Healthcare 91 4.2 The Social Media Respond to a Primary Need of Security 92 4.3 The Type of Medical Data 95 4.3.1 Security of Medical Data 96 4.4 Problematic 97 4.5 Presentation of the Honeypots 98 4.5.1 Principle of Honeypots 98 4.6 Proposal System for Detecting Malicious Profiles on the Health Sector 99 4.6.1 Proposed Solution 100 4.6.1.1 Deployment of Social Honeypots 100 4.6.1.2 Data Collection 103 4.6.1.3 Classification of Users 104 4.7 Results and Discussion 108 4.8 Conclusion 111 Bibliography 111 5 Multi-Sensor Fusion for Context-Aware Applications 115 Veeramuthu Venkatesh, Ponnuraman Balakrishnan, and Pethru Raj 5.1 Introduction 115 5.1.1 What Is an Intelligent Pervasive System? 115 5.1.2 The Significance of Context Awareness for Next-Generation Smarter Environments 117 5.1.2.1 Context-Aware Characteristics 118 5.1.2.2 Context Types and Categorization Schemes 119 5.1.2.3 Context Awareness Management Design Principles 121 5.1.2.4 Context Life Cycle 122 5.1.2.5 Interval (Called Occasionally) 124 5.1.3 Pervasive Healthcare-Enabling Technologies 125 5.1.3.1 Bio-Signal Acquisition 126 5.1.3.2 Communication Technologies 126 5.1.3.3 Data Classification 128 5.1.3.4 Intelligent Agents 128 5.1.3.5 Location-Based Technologies 128 5.1.4 Pervasive Healthcare Challenges 128 5.2 Ambient Methods Used for E-Health 130 5.2.1 Body Area Networks (BANs) 130 5.2.2 Home M2M Sensor Networks 131 5.2.3 Microelectromechanical System (MEMS) 132 5.2.4 Cloud-Based Intelligent Healthcare 132 5.3 Algorithms and Methods 133 5.3.1 Behavioral Pattern Discovery 133 5.3.2 Decision Support System 134 5.4 Intelligent Pervasive Healthcare Applications 134 5.4.1 Health Information Management 134 5.4.2 Location and Context-Aware Services 136 5.4.3 Remote Patient Monitoring 136 5.4.4 Waze: Community-Based Navigation App 138 5.5 Conclusion 138 Bibliography 139 6 IoT-Based Noninvasive Wearable and Remote Intelligent Pervasive Healthcare Monitoring Systems for the Elderly People 141 Stela Vitorino Sampaio 6.1 Introduction 141 6.2 Internet of Things (IoT) and Remote Health Monitoring 141 6.3 Wearable Health Monitoring 143 6.3.1 Wearable Sensors 143 6.4 Related Work 145 6.4.1 Existing Status 146 6.5 Architectural Prototype 147 6.5.1 Data Acquisition and Processing 150 6.5.2 Pervasive and Intelligence Monitoring 151 6.5.3 Communication 153 6.5.4 Predictive Analytics 153 6.5.5 Edge Analytics 154 6.5.6 Ambient Intelligence 155 6.5.7 Privacy and Security 155 6.6 Summary 156 Bibliography 156 7 Pervasive Healthcare System Based on Environmental Monitoring 159 Sangeetha Archunan and Amudha Thangavel 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Intelligent Pervasive Computing System 160 7.2.1 Applications of Pervasive Computing 163 7.3 Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring 163 7.3.1 Environmental Monitoring 165 7.3.1.1 Influence of Environmental Factors on Health 167 7.4 IPCS for Healthcare 167 7.4.1 Healthcare System Architecture Based on Environmental Monitoring 171 7.5 Conclusion 174 Bibliography 174 8 Secure Pervasive Healthcare System and Diabetes Prediction Using Heuristic Algorithm 179 Patitha Parameswaran and Rajalakshmi Shenbaga Moorthy 8.1 Introduction 179 8.2 Related Work 181 8.3 System Design 182 8.3.1 Data Collector 183 8.3.2 Security Manager 183 8.3.2.1 Proxy Re-encryption Algorithm 183 8.3.2.2 Key Generator 184 8.3.2.3 Patient 185 8.3.2.4 Proxy Server 185 8.3.2.5 Healthcare Professional 185 8.3.3 Clusterer 186 8.3.3.1 Hybrid Particle Swarm Optimization K-Means (HPSO-K) Algorithm 186 8.3.4 Predictor 191 8.3.4.1 Hidden Markov Model-Based Viterbi Algorithm (HMM-VA) 191 8.4 Implementation 193 8.5 Results and Discussions 196 8.5.1 Analyzing the Performance of PRA 196 8.5.1.1 Time Taken for Encryption 196 8.5.1.2 Storage Space for Re-encrypted Data 196 8.5.1.3 Time Take for Decryption 196 8.5.2 Analyzing the Performance of HPSO-K Algorithm 197 8.5.2.1 Number of Iterations (Generations) to Cluster Patients 198 8.5.2.2 Comparison of Intra-cluster Distance 198 8.5.2.3 Comparison of Inter-cluster Distance 199 8.5.2.4 Number of Patients in Cluster 200 8.5.2.5 Comparison of Time Complexity 201 8.5.3 Analyzing the Performance of HMM-VA 201 8.5.3.1 Forecasting Diabetes 201 8.5.3.2 Comparison of Error Rate 203 8.6 Conclusion 203 Nomenclatures Used 203 Bibliography 204 9 Threshold-Based Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol for Critical Data Transmission to Increase Lifetime in Heterogeneous Wireless Body Area Sensor Network 207 Deepalakshmi Perumalsamy and Navya Venkatamari 9.1 Introduction 207 9.2 Related Works 209 9.3 Proposed Protocol: Threshold-Based Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol for Critical Data Transmission (EERPCDT) 213 9.3.1 Background and Motivation 213 9.3.2 Basic Communication Radio Model 214 9.4 System Model 215 9.4.1 Initialization Phase 216 9.4.2 Routing Phase Selection of Forwarder Node 217 9.4.3 Scheduling Phase 217 9.4.4 Data Transmission Phase 218 9.5 Analysis of Energy Consumption 218 9.6 Simulation Results and Discussions 219 9.6.1 Network Lifetime and Stability Period 219 9.6.2 Residual Energy 220 9.6.3 Throughput 221 9.7 Conclusion and Future Work 222 Bibliography 223 10 Privacy and Security Issues on Wireless Body Area and IoT for Remote Healthcare Monitoring 227 Prabha Selvaraj and Sumathi Doraikannan 10.1 Introduction 227 10.2 Healthcare Monitoring System 227 10.2.1 Evolution of Healthcare Monitoring System 227 10.3 Healthcare Monitoring System 228 10.3.1 Sensor Network 230 10.3.2 Wireless Sensor Network 230 10.3.3 Wireless Body Area Network 230 10.4 Privacy and Security 233 10.4.1 Privacy and Security Issues in Wireless Body Area Network 234 10.5 Attacks and Measures 237 10.5.1 Security Models for Various Levels 241 10.5.1.1 Security Models for Data Collection Level 241 10.5.1.2 Security Models for Data Transmission Level 242 10.5.1.3 Security Models for Data Storage and Access Level 242 10.5.2 Privacy and Security Issues Pertained to Healthcare Applications 243 10.5.3 Issues Related to Health Information Held by an Individual Organization 243 10.5.4 Categorization of Organizational Threats 244 10.6 Internet of Things 248 10.6.1 WBAN Using IoT 248 10.7 Projects and Related Works in Healthcare Monitoring System 249 10.8 Summary 251 Bibliography 251 11 Remote Patient Monitoring: A Key Management and Authentication Framework for Wireless Body Area Networks 255 Padma Theagarajan and Jayashree Nair 11.1 Introduction 255 11.2 RelatedWork 256 11.3 Proposed Framework for Secure Remote Patient Monitoring 258 11.3.1 Proposed Security Framework 259 11.3.2 Key Generation Algorithm: PQSG 260 11.3.3 Key Establishment in NetAMS: KEAMS 262 11.3.3.1 Initiation of Communication by HPA 262 11.3.3.2 Establishment of Key by HMS 263 11.3.3.3 Authentication of HMS 263 11.3.4 Key Establishment in NetSHA: KESHA 265 11.3.4.1 Initiation of Communication by WSH 265 11.3.4.2 Establishment of Key by the HPA 266 11.3.4.3 Acknowledgment by HPA 266 11.4 Performance Analysis 267 11.4.1 Randomness 267 11.4.2 Distinctiveness 268 11.4.3 Complexity 269 11.5 Discussion 271 11.6 Conclusion 272 Bibliography 273 12 Image Analysis Using Smartphones for Medical Applications: A Survey 275 Rajeswari Rajendran and Jothilakshmi Rajendiran 12.1 Introduction 275 12.2 Pervasive Healthcare Using Image-Based Smartphone Applications 276 12.3 Smartphone-Based Image Diagnosis 277 12.3.1 Diagnosis Using Built-In Camera 278 12.3.2 Diagnosis Using External Sensors/Devices 280 12.4 Libraries and Tools for Smartphone-Based Image Analysis 284 12.4.1 Open-Source Libraries for Image Analysis in Smartphones 284 12.4.2 Tools for Cross-Platform Smartphone Application Development 286 12.5 Challenges and Future Perspectives 286 12.6 Conclusion 288 Bibliography 288 13 Bounds of Spreading Rate of Virus for a Network Through an Intuitionistic Fuzzy Graph 291 Deepa Ganesan, Praba Bashyam, Chandrasekaran Vellankoil Marappan, Rajakumar Krishnan, and Krishnamoorthy Venkatesan 13.1 Intuitionistic Fuzzy Matrices Using Incoming and Outgoing Links 292 13.2 Virus Spreading Rate Between Outgoing and Incoming Links 302 13.3 Numerical Examples 305 Bibliography 310 14 Data Mining Techniques for the Detection of the Risk in Cardiovascular Diseases 313 Dinakaran Karunakaran, Vishnu Priya, and Valarmathie Palanisamy 14.1 Introduction 313 14.2 PPG Signal Analysis 315 14.2.1 Pulse Width 315 14.2.2 Pulse Area 315 14.2.3 Peak-to-Peak Interval 316 14.2.4 Pulse Interval 316 14.2.5 Augmentation Index 317 14.2.6 Large Artery Stiffness Index 317 14.2.7 Types of Photoplethysmography 319 14.3 Related Works 319 14.4 Methodology 322 14.4.1 PPG Design and Recording Setup 322 14.5 Preprocessing in PPG Signal 323 14.6 Results and Discussion 325 14.7 Conclusion 327 Bibliography 328 15 Smart Sensing System for Cardio Pulmonary Sound Signals 331 Nersisson Ruban and A.Mary Mekala 15.1 Introduction 331 15.2 Background Theory 332 15.2.1 Human Heart 333 15.2.2 Heart Sounds 334 15.2.3 Origin of Sounds 334 15.2.4 Significance of Detection 334 15.3 Heart Sound Detection 335 15.3.1 Stethoscope 335 15.4 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) 336 15.4.1 Properties of PVDF 337 15.4.2 PVDF as Thin Film Piezoelectric Sensor 337 15.4.3 Placement of the Sensor 338 15.4.4 Development of PVDF Sensor 339 15.4.4.1 Steps Involved in the Development of Sensor 340 15.5 Hardware Implementation 341 15.5.1 Charge Amplifier 341 15.5.2 Signal Conditioning Circuits for PVDF Sensor 342 15.5.3 Hardware Circuits 343 15.5.3.1 Design of Charge Amplifier 343 15.5.3.2 Filter Design 344 15.6 LabVIEW Design 346 15.6.1 Signal Acquisition 346 15.6.1.1 Data Acquisition with LabVIEW 347 15.6.2 Fixing of the Threshold Value 348 15.6.3 Fixing the Threshold for Real-Time Signal 349 15.6.4 Fixing the Threshold in Time Scale 350 15.6.5 Separation of Peaks from Resultant Signal (Sample 1) 351 15.6.6 Separation of Peaks from Resultant Signal (Sample 2) 351 15.7 Heart Sound Segmentation 353 15.7.1 Algorithm for Signal Separation 354 15.7.1.1 Case Structure Algorithm 354 15.7.2 Segmented S1 and S2 Sounds 354 15.8 Conclusion 356 Bibliography 357 16 Anomaly Detection and Pattern Matching Algorithm for Healthcare Application: Identifying Ambulance Siren in Traffic 361 Gowthambabu Karthikeyan, Sasikala Ramasamy, and Suresh Kumar Nagarajan 16.1 Introduction 361 16.2 Related Work 364 16.2.1 Role of Sound Detection in Existing Systems 366 16.2.2 Input and Output Parameters 367 16.2.3 Features of Pattern Matching 367 16.3 Pattern Matching Algorithm for Ambulance Siren Detection 368 16.3.1 Sensors 368 16.3.2 Sensor Deviations 368 16.3.3 Traffic Signal 369 16.3.3.1 How Do Traffic Signals Work? 369 16.3.3.2 Traffic Signal 370 16.3.3.3 Sound-Detecting Sensor 370 16.3.4 Pattern Matching Algorithm: Anomaly Detection 372 16.3.4.1 Algorithm and Implementation 374 16.3.4.2 Sound Detection Module 375 16.4 Results and Conclusion 375 Bibliography 376 17 Detecting Diabetic Retinopathy from Retinal Images Using CUDA Deep Neural Network 379 Ricky Parmar, Ramanathan Lakshmanan, Swarnalatha Purushotham, and Rajkumar Soundrapandiyan 17.1 Introduction 379 17.2 Proposed Method 381 17.2.1 Preprocessing 382 17.2.2 Architecture 383 17.2.3 Digital Artifacts 386 17.2.4 Pseudo-classification 387 17.3 Experimental Results 387 17.3.1 Dataset 387 17.3.2 Performance Evaluation Measures 388 17.3.3 Validation of Datasets Using Exponential Power Distribution 388 17.3.4 Ensemble 390 17.3.5 Accuracy and Stats 390 17.4 Conclusion and Future Work 393 Bibliography 394 18 An Energy-Efficient Wireless Body Area Network Design in Health Monitoring Scenarios 397Kannan Shanmugam and Karthik Subburathinam 18.1 Wireless Body Area Network 397 18.1.1 Overview 397 18.1.2 Architectures of Wireless Body Area Network 398 18.1.2.1 Tier 1: Intra-WBAN Communication 398 18.1.2.2 Tier 2: Inter-WBAN Communication 398 18.1.2.3 Tier 3: Beyond-WBAN Communication 399 18.1.3 Challenges Faced in System Design 399 18.1.3.1 Energy Constraint 401 18.1.3.2 Interference in Communication 401 18.1.3.3 Security 401 18.1.4 Research Problems 401 18.2 Proposed Opportunistic Scheduling 402 18.2.1 Introduction 402 18.2.2 System Model and Problem Formulation 403 18.2.2.1 System Model 403 18.2.2.2 Problem Formulation 404 18.2.3 Heuristic Scheduling 404 18.2.4 Dynamic Super-Frame Length Adjustment 407 18.2.4.1 Problem Formulation 407 18.3 Performance Analysis Environment and Metrics 408 18.3.1 Heuristic Scheduling with Fixed Super-Frame Length 409 18.3.2 Heuristic Scheduling with Dynamic Super-Frame Length 410 18.4 Summary 410 Bibliography 411 Index 413

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Book SynopsisPresents the mathematical framework, technical language, and control systems know-how needed to design, develop, and instrument micro-scale whole-angle gyroscopes This comprehensive reference covers the technical fundamentals, mathematical framework, and common control strategies for degenerate mode gyroscopes, which are used in high-precision navigation applications. It explores various energy loss mechanisms and the effect of structural imperfections, along with requirements for continuous rate integrating gyroscope operation. It also provides information on the fabrication of MEMS whole-angle gyroscopes and the best methods of sustaining oscillations. Whole-Angle Gyroscopes: Challenges and Opportunities begins with a brief overview of the two main types of Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscopes (CVGs): non-degenerate mode gyroscopes and degenerate mode gyroscopes. It then introduces readers to the Foucault Pendulum analogy and a review of MEMS whole angle mode gyroscopTable of ContentsList of Abbreviations ix Preface xi About the Authors xiii Part I Fundamentals of Whole-Angle Gyroscopes 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Types of Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscopes 3 1.1.1 Nondegenerate Mode Gyroscopes 4 1.1.2 Degenerate Mode Gyroscopes 5 1.2 Generalized CVG Errors 5 1.2.1 Scale Factor Errors 7 1.2.2 Bias Errors 7 1.2.3 Noise Processes 7 1.2.3.1 Allan Variance 7 1.3 Overview 9 2 Dynamics 11 2.1 Introduction to Whole-Angle Gyroscopes 11 2.2 Foucault Pendulum Analogy 11 2.2.1 Damping and Q-factor 12 2.2.1.1 Viscous Damping 13 2.2.1.2 Anchor Losses 14 2.2.1.3 Material Losses 15 2.2.1.4 Surface Losses 16 2.2.1.5 Mode Coupling Losses 16 2.2.1.6 Additional Dissipation Mechanisms 16 2.2.2 Principal Axes of Elasticity and Damping 16 2.3 Canonical Variables 18 2.4 Effect of Structural Imperfections 18 2.5 Challenges of Whole-Angle Gyroscopes 20 3 Control Strategies 23 3.1 Quadrature and Coriolis Duality 23 3.2 Rate Gyroscope Mechanization 24 3.2.1 Open-loop Mechanization 24 3.2.1.1 Drive Mode Oscillator 24 3.2.1.2 Amplitude Gain Control 26 3.2.1.3 Phase Locked Loop/Demodulation 26 3.2.1.4 Quadrature Cancellation 26 3.2.2 Force-to-rebalance Mechanization 27 3.2.2.1 Force-to-rebalance Loop 27 3.2.2.2 Quadrature Null Loop 29 3.3 Whole-Angle Mechanization 29 3.3.1 Control System Overview 30 3.3.2 Amplitude Gain Control 32 3.3.2.1 Vector Drive 32 3.3.2.2 Parametric Drive 33 3.3.3 Quadrature Null Loop 34 3.3.3.1 AC Quadrature Null 34 3.3.3.2 DC Quadrature Null 34 3.3.4 Force-to-rebalance and Virtual Carouseling 35 3.4 Conclusions 35 Part II 2-D Micro-Machined Whole-Angle Gyroscope Architectures 37 4 Overview of 2-D Micro-Machined Whole-Angle Gyroscopes 39 4.1 2-D Micro-Machined Whole-Angle Gyroscope Architectures 39 4.1.1 Lumped Mass Systems 39 4.1.2 Ring/Disk Systems 40 4.1.2.1 Ring Gyroscopes 40 4.1.2.2 Concentric Ring Systems 41 4.1.2.3 Disk Gyroscopes 42 4.2 2-D Micro-Machining Processes 42 4.2.1 Traditional Silicon MEMS Process 43 4.2.2 Integrated MEMS/CMOS Fabrication Process 43 4.2.3 Epitaxial Silicon Encapsulation Process 44 5 Example 2-D Micro-Machined Whole-Angle Gyroscopes 47 5.1 A Distributed Mass MEMS Gyroscope – Toroidal Ring Gyroscope 47 5.1.1 Architecture 48 5.1.1.1 Electrode Architecture 49 5.1.2 Experimental Demonstration of the Concept 49 5.1.2.1 Fabrication 49 5.1.2.2 Experimental Setup 50 5.1.2.3 Mechanical Characterization 51 5.1.2.4 Rate Gyroscope Operation 52 5.1.2.5 Comparison of Vector Drive and Parametric Drive 53 5.2 A Lumped Mass MEMS Gyroscope – Dual Foucault Pendulum Gyroscope 54 5.2.1 Architecture 56 5.2.1.1 Electrode Architecture 57 5.2.2 Experimental Demonstration of the Concept 57 5.2.2.1 Fabrication 57 5.2.2.2 Experimental Setup 58 5.2.2.3 Mechanical Characterization 60 5.2.2.4 Rate Gyroscope Operation 60 5.2.2.5 Parameter Identification 60 Part III 3-D Micro-Machined Whole-Angle Gyroscope Architectures 65 6 Overview of 3-D Shell Implementations 67 6.1 Macro-scale Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscopes 67 6.2 3-D Micro-Shell Fabrication Processes 69 6.2.1 Bulk Micro-Machining Processes 69 6.2.2 Surface-Micro-Machined Micro-Shell Resonators 74 6.3 Transduction of 3-D Micro-Shell Resonators 79 6.3.1 Electromagnetic Excitation 79 6.3.2 Optomechanical Detection 80 6.3.3 Electrostatic Transduction 81 7 Design and Fabrication of Micro-glassblown Wineglass Resonators 87 7.1 Design of Micro-Glassblown Wineglass Resonators 88 7.1.1 Design of Micro-Wineglass Geometry 90 7.1.1.1 Analytical Solution 90 7.1.1.2 Finite Element Analysis 92 7.1.1.3 Effect of Stem Geometry on Anchor Loss 94 7.1.2 Design for High Frequency Symmetry 96 7.1.2.1 Frequency Symmetry Scaling Laws 97 7.1.2.2 Stability of Micro-Glassblown Structures 101 7.2 An Example Fabrication Process for Micro-glassblown Wineglass Resonators 102 7.2.1 Substrate Preparation 103 7.2.2 Wafer Bonding 103 7.2.3 Micro-Glassblowing 104 7.2.4 Wineglass Release 105 7.3 Characterization of Micro-Glassblown Shells 106 7.3.1 Surface Roughness 107 7.3.2 Material Composition 108 8 Transduction of Micro-Glassblown Wineglass Resonators 111 8.1 Assembled Electrodes 111 8.1.1 Design 111 8.1.2 Fabrication 112 8.1.2.1 Experimental Characterization 113 8.2 In-plane Electrodes 115 8.3 Fabrication 115 8.4 Experimental Characterization 118 8.5 Out-of-plane Electrodes 123 8.6 Design 123 8.7 Fabrication 126 8.8 Experimental Characterization 129 9 Conclusions and Future Trends 133 9.1 Mechanical Trimming of Structural Imperfections 133 9.2 Self-calibration 134 9.3 Integration and Packaging 135 References 137 Index 149

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Book SynopsisORGANIC REACTIONS CYCLIZATION REACTIONS OF NITROGEN-CENTERED RADICALS Stuart W. McCombie, Béatrice Quiclet-Sire, and Samir Z. Zard TRANSITION-METAL-CATALYZED AMINOOXYGENATION OF ALKENES Sherry R. Chemler, Dake Chen, Shuklendu D. Karyakarte, Jonathan M. Shikora, and Tomasz WdowikTable of ContentsAuthor Biography xix Preface xxi 1 PWM Dc-to-Dc Power Conversion 1 Part I Dc-to-Dc Power Converter Circuits 13 2 Buck Converter 15 3 Dc-to-Dc Power Converter Circuits 63 Part II Modeling and Dynamics of PWM Converters 127 4 Modeling PWM Dc-to-Dc Converters 129 5 Power Stage Transfer Functions 187 6 Dynamic Performance of PWM Dc-to-Dc Converters 241 Part III Control Schemes and Converter Performance 287 7 Feedback Compensation and Closed-Loop Performance – Voltage Mode Control 289 8 Current Mode Control 357 Part IV Dc Power Distribution Systems 465 9 Uncoupled Converter and Extra Element Theorem 467 10 Load-Coupled Converters and Loading Effects 509 11 Source-Coupled Converters and Input Filter Interaction 551 12 Design of Dc Power Distribution Systems 591 Appendix A Answers to End-of-Chapter Problems 665 Index 683

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive overview of the Internet of Things' core concepts, technologies, and applications Internet of Things A to Z offers a holistic approach to the Internet of Things (IoT) model. The Internet of Things refers to uniquely identifiable objects and their virtual representations in an Internet-like structure. Recently, there has been a rapid growth in research on IoT communications and networks, that confirms the scalability and broad reach of the core concepts. With contributions from a panel of international experts, the text offers insight into the ideas, technologies, and applications of this subject. The authors discuss recent developments in the field and the most current and emerging trends in IoT. In addition, the text is filled with examples of innovative applications and real-world case studies. Internet of Things A to Z fills the need for an up-to-date volume on the topic. This important book: Covers in great detail tTable of ContentsPreface xix Acknowledgments xxv Contributors xxvii Part I Concepts and Perspectives 1 1 Introduction to the Internet of Things 3Detlef Schoder 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Internet of Things Concepts 7 1.3 Who Works on the Internet of Things? 11 1.4 Internet of Things Framework 12 1.5 Information and Communication Technology Infrastructure 14 1.6 Derived Qualities of Modern ICT 31 1.7 Potential for Product, Process, and Business Model Innovations 34 1.8 Implications and Challenges 38 1.9 Conclusion 44 2 Environment, People, and Time as Factors in the Internet of Things Technical Revolution 51Jan Sliwa 2.1 Introduction 51 2.2 Technical Revolutions 52 2.3 Cyber–Physical–Social Systems 54 2.4 Environment 56 2.5 Time 58 2.6 People 63 2.7 Cybersecurity 67 2.8 Reasoning from Data 69 2.9 Adaptable Self-Organizing Systems 70 2.10 Moral Things 72 2.11 Conclusion 74 Part II Enablers 77 3 An Overview of Enabling Technologies for the Internet of Things 79Faisal Alsubaei, Abdullah Abuhussein, and Sajjan Shiva 3.1 Introduction 79 3.2 Overview of IoT Architecture 80 3.3 Enabling Technologies 81 3.4 IoT Platforms and Operating Systems 105 3.5 Conclusion 108 4 Cloud and Fog Computing in the Internet of Things 113Daniel Happ 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 IoT System Requirements 114 4.3 Cloud Computing in IoT 116 4.4 Fog Computing in IoT 122 4.5 Conclusion 131 5 RFID in the Internet of Things 135Akaa Agbaeze Eteng, Sharul Kamal Abdul Rahim, and Chee Yen Leow 5.1 Introduction 135 5.2 Historical Perspective 135 5.3 RFID and the Internet of Things 137 5.4 Emergent Issues 144 5.5 Conclusion 146 6 A Tutorial Introduction to IoT Design and Prototyping with Examples 153Manuel Meruje, Musa Gwani Samaila, Virginia N. L. Franqueira, Mário Marques Freire, and Pedro Ricardo Morais Inácio 6.1 Introduction 153 6.2 Main Features of IoT Hardware Development Platforms 154 6.3 Design and Prototyping of IoT Applications 169 6.4 Projects on IoT Applications 173 6.5 Conclusion 184 7 On Standardizing the Internet of Things and Its Applications 191Kai Jakobs 7.1 Introduction 191 7.2 Current Status 193 7.3 The Standardization Environment 199 7.4 Standardization in Selected Application Areas 201 7.5 Discussion and Some Speculation 210 7.6 Conclusion 213 Part III Security Issues and Solutions 219 8 Security Mechanisms and Technologies for Constrained IoT Devices 221Marco Tiloca and Shahid Raza 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Security in IoT Protocols and Technologies 222 8.3 Security Issues and Solutions 234 8.4 Conclusion 247 9 Blockchain-Based Security Solutions for IoT Systems 255Göran Pulkkis, Jonny Karlsson, and Magnus Westerlund 9.1 Introduction 255 9.2 Regulatory Requirements 256 9.3 Blockchain Technology 259 9.4 Blockchains and IoT Systems 261 9.5 Examples of Blockchain-Based Security Solutions for IoT Systems 262 9.6 Challenges and Future Research 270 9.7 Conclusions 270 10 The Internet of Things and IT Auditing 275John Shu, Jason M. Rosenberg, Shambhu Upadhyaya, and Hejamadi Raghav Rao 10.1 Introduction 275 10.2 Risks Associated with IoT 276 10.3 IT Auditing 279 10.4 Use Cases of IoT in IT Auditing 286 10.5 Protecting the Business Network 287 10.6 Conclusion 289 Part IV Application Domains 293 11 The Industrial Internet of Things 295Alexander Willner 11.1 Introduction 295 11.2 Market Overview 296 11.3 Interoperability and Technologies 303 11.4 Alliances 309 11.5 Conclusions 314 12 Internet of Things Applications for Smart Cities 319Daniel Minoli and Benedict Occhiogrosso 12.1 Introduction 319 12.2 IoT Applications for Smart Cities 321 12.3 Specific Smart City Applications 330 12.4 Optimal Enablement of Video and Multimedia Capabilities in IOT 338 12.5 Key Underlying Technologies for Smart Cities IOT Applications 340 12.6 Challenges and Future Research 349 12.7 Conclusion 350 13 Smart Connected Homes 359Joseph Bugeja, Andreas Jacobsson, and Paul Davidsson 13.1 Introduction 359 13.2 The Smart Connected Home Domain 360 13.3 Smart Connected Home Systems 364 13.4 The Smart Connected Home Technologies 367 13.5 Smart Connected Home Architectures 375 13.6 Smart Connected Home Challenges and Research Directions 376 13.7 Conclusions 381 14 The Emerging “Energy Internet of Things” 385Daniel Minoli and Benedict Occhiogrosso 14.1 Introduction 385 14.2 Power Management Trends and EIoT Support 390 14.3 Real-Life Power Management Optimization Approaches 410 14.4 Challenges and Future Directions 415 14.5 Conclusion 417 15 Implementing the Internet of Things for Renewable Energy 425Lucas Finco and Daniel Minoli 15.1 Introduction 425 15.2 Managing the Impact of Sustainable Energy 426 15.3 EIoT Deployment 432 15.4 Industry Standards for EIoT 439 15.5 Security Considerations in EIoT and Clean Energy Environments 441 15.6 Conclusion 442 16 The Internet of Things and People in Health Care 447Nancy L. Russo and Jeanette Eriksson 16.1 Introduction 447 16.2 The Smart Health Care Ecosystem 448 16.3 Dimensions of Internet of Things Applications in Health Care 453 16.4 Examples of IoT-Related Health Care Applications and Their Dimensions 458 16.5 Challenges 469 16.6 Conclusion 471 17 Internet of Things in Smart Ambulance and Emergency Medicine 475Bernard Fong, A. C. M. Fong, and C. K. Li 17.1 Introduction 475 17.2 IoT in Emergency Medicine 477 17.3 Integration and Compatibility 486 17.4 Case Study: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 492 17.5 Smart Ambulance Challenges 498 17.6 Conclusions 500 18 Internet of Things Applications for Agriculture 507Lei Zhang, Ibibia K. Dabipi, and Willie L. Brown Jr. 18.1 Introduction 507 18.2 Internet of Things-Based Precision Agriculture 510 18.3 IoT Application in Agriculture Irrigation 512 18.4 IoT Application in Agriculture Fertilization 516 18.5 IoT Application in Crop Disease and Pest Management 518 18.6 IoT Application in Precision Livestock Farming 519 18.7 Conclusion 522 19 The Internet of Flying Things 529Daniel Fernando Pigatto, Mariana Rodrigues, João Vitor de Carvalho Fontes, Alex Sandro Roschildt Pinto, James Smith, and Kalinka Regina Lucas Jaquie Castelo Branco 19.1 Introduction 529 19.2 Flying Things 530 19.3 The Internet of Flying Things 533 19.4 Challenges 542 19.5 Case Studies 549 19.6 Conclusions 557 Part V Relevant Sample Applications 563 20 An Internet of Things Approach to “Read” the Emotion of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder 565Tiffany Y. Tang and Pinata Winoto 20.1 Introduction 565 20.2 Background 567 20.3 Related Work 568 20.4 The Internet of Things Environment for Emotion Recognition 571 20.5 The Study and Discussions 580 20.6 Conclusions 586 21 A Low-Cost IoT Framework for Landslide Prediction and Risk Communication 593Pratik Chaturvedi, Kamal Kishore Thakur, Naresh Mali, Venkata Uday Kala, Sudhakar Kumar, Srishti Yadav, and Varun Dutt 21.1 Introduction 593 21.2 Background 594 21.3 System Design and Implementation 595 21.4 Testing the IoT Framework 596 21.5 Results 603 21.6 Conclusions 605 Glossary 611 Author’s Biography 625 Index 645

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Book SynopsisCovers the latest developments in PNT technologies, including integrated satellite navigation, sensor systems, and civil applications Featuring sixty-four chapters that are divided into six parts, this two-volume work provides comprehensive coverage of the state-of-the-art in satellite-based position, navigation, and timing (PNT) technologies and civilian applications. It also examines alternative navigation technologies based on other signals-of-opportunity and sensors and offers a comprehensive treatment on integrated PNT systems for consumer and commercial applications. Volume 1 of Position, Navigation, and Timing Technologies in the 21st Century: Integrated Satellite Navigation, Sensor Systems, and Civil Applications contains three parts and focuses on the satellite navigation systems, technologies, and engineering and scientific applications. It starts with a historical perspective of GPS development and other related PNT development. Current global Table of ContentsPart D: Position, Navigation, and Timing Using Radio Signals-of-Opportunity 35. Overview of Volume 2: Integrated PNT Technologies and ApplicationsJohn F. Raquet, Air Force Institute of Technology, US 36. Non-Linear Recursive Estimation for Integrated Navigation SystemsMichael J. Veth, Veth Research Associates, US 37. Overview of Indoor Navigation TechniquesSudeep Pasricha, Colorado State University, US 38. Navigation with Cellular Signals-of-OpportunityZak Kassas, University of California Irvine, US 39. Navigation with Dedicated Metropolitan Beacon SystemsSubbu Meiyappan, NextNav LLC, USArun Raghupathy, NextNav LLC, USGanesh Pattabiraman, NextNav LLC, US 40. Navigation with Terrestrial Digital Broadcast SignalsChun Yang, SigTem Technology Inc., US 41. Navigation with Low Frequency Radio SignalsWouter Pelgrum, Blue Origin, USCharles Schue, III, Ursa Nav., US 42. Adaptive Radar Navigation SystemKyle Kauffman, Air Force Institute of Technology, US 43. Navigation from Low Earth OrbitTyler G. R. Reid, Stanford University., USTodd Walter, Stanford University, USPer Enge, Stanford University, USDavid Lawrence, Satelles, USH. Stewart Cobb, Satelles, USGreg Gutt, Satelles, USMichael O’Conner, Satelles, USDavid Whelan, University of California San Diego, US Part E: Position, Navigation, and Timing Using Non-Radio Signals-of-Opportunity 44. Inertial Navigation SensorsStephen Smith, Draper Laboratory, US 45. MEMS Inertial SensorsAlissa M. Fitzgerald, A.M. Fitzgerald & Associates, LLC, US 46. GNSS-INS IntegrationAndrey Soloviev, QuNav, USJames L. Farrell, Vigil Inc., USMaarten Uijt de Haag, Ohio University, US 47. Atomic Clock for GNSSLeo Hollberg, Stanford University, US 48. Positioning Using Magnetic FieldsAaron Canciani, Air Force Institute of Technology, USJohn F. Raquet, Air Force Institute of Technology, US 49. Laser-Based NavigationMaarten Uijt de Haag, Ohio UniversityZhen Zhu, East Carolina University, USJacob Campbell, Air Force Research Laboratory, US 50. Image-Aided Navigation - Concept and ApplicationsMichael J. Veth, Veth Research Associates, USJohn F. Raquet, Air Force Institute of Technology, US 51. Digital PhotogrammetryCharles Toth, the Ohio State University, USZoltan Koppanyi, the Ohio State University, US 52. Navigation Using Pulsars and Other Variable Celestial SourcesSuneel Sheikh, ASTER Labs, Inc., US 53. Neuroscience of NavigationMeredith E. Minear, University of Wyoming, USTes K. Sensibaugh, University of Wyoming, US 54. Orientation and Navigation in the Animal WorldGillian Durieux, Max Plank Institute for Evolutionary Biology, GermanyMiriam Liedvogel, Max Plank Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Germany Part F: Position, Navigation, and Timing for Consumer and Commercial Applications 55. GNSS Applications in Surveying and Mobile MappingNaser El-Sheimy, University of Calgary, CanadaZahra Lari, University of Calgary, Canada 56. Precision AgricultureArthur F. Lange, Trimble Navigation, USJohn Peake, Trimble Navigation, US 57. WearablesMark Gretton, TomTom, USPeter Franks Pauwels, TomTom, US 58. Navigation in Advanced Driver-Assisted Systems and Automated DrivingDavid Bevly, Auburn University, USScott Martin, Auburn University, US 59. Train Control and Rail Traffic Management SystemsAlessandro Neri, University of Roma TRE, Italy 60. Commercial Unmanned Aircraft SystemsMaarten Uijt de Haag, Ohio University, USEvan Dill, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USSteven D. Young, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USMathieu Joerger, Virginia Tech, US 61. Navigation for AviationSherman Lo, Stanford University, US 62. Orbit Determination with GNSSYoaz Bar-Sever, Jet Propulsion Lab, US 63. Satellite Formation Flying and RendezvousSimone D’Amico, Stanford University, USJ. Russell Carpenter, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, US 64. Navigation in the ArcticTyler G. R. Reid, Stanford University, USTodd Walter, Stanford University, USRobert Guinness, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, FinlandSarang Thombre, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, FinlandHeidi Kuusniemi, Finnish Geospatial Research Institute, FinlandNorvald Kjerstad, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

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Book SynopsisProvides practical guidance on the latest quality assurance and accelerated stress test methods for improved long-term performance prediction of PV modules This book has been written from a historical perspective to guide readers through how the PV industry learned what the failure and degradation modes of PV modules were, how accelerated tests were developed to cause the same failures and degradations in the laboratory, and then how these tests were used as tools to guide the design and fabrication of reliable and long-life modules. Photovoltaic Module Reliability starts with a brief history of photovoltaics, discussing some of the different types of materials and devices used for commercial solar cells. It then goes on to offer chapters on: Module Failure Modes; Development of Accelerated Stress Tests; Qualification Testing; and Failure Analysis Tools. Next, it examines the use of quality management systems to manufacture PV modules. Subsequent chapters cover the PVQAT Effort; theTable of ContentsAcknowledgments xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Brief History of PVs 2 1.2 Types of PV Cells 4 1.3 Module Packaging – Purpose and Types 8 1.4 What Does Reliability Mean for PV Modules? 12 1.5 Preview of the Book 13 References 15 2 Module Failure Modes 17 2.1 Broken Interconnects 17 2.2 Broken/Cracked Cells and Snail Trails 21 2.3 Delamination 24 2.4 Corrosion of Cell Metallization 26 2.5 Encapsulant Discoloration 28 2.6 Failure of Electrical Bonds Particularly Solder Bonds 31 2.7 Glass Breakage 33 2.8 Junction Box Problems 35 2.9 Loss of Elastomeric Properties of Back Sheets 36 2.10 Reverse Bias Hot Spots 37 2.11 By-Pass Diodes 39 2.12 Structural Failures 41 2.13 Ground Faults and Open Circuits Leading to Arcing 43 2.14 Potential Induced Degradation 46 2.15 Thin-Film Specific Defects 48 2.15.1 Light-Induced Degradation 48 2.15.2 Inadequate Edge Deletion 49 2.15.3 Shunts at Laser Scribes and Impurities in Thin Film 49 2.15.4 Failure of Edge Seals 50 References 51 3 Development of Accelerated Stress Tests 55 3.1 Thermal Cycling or Change in Temperature 57 3.2 Damp Heat 58 3.3 Humidity Freeze 59 3.4 Ultraviolet (UV) Light Exposure 60 3.5 Static Mechanical Load 61 3.6 Cyclic (Dynamic) Mechanical Load 62 3.7 Reverse Bias Hot Spot Test 63 3.8 Bypass Diode Thermal Test 63 3.9 Hail Test 64 References 65 4 Qualification Testing 67 4.1 JPL Block Buy Program 68 4.2 Evolution of IEC 61215 Qualification Test Sequence 75 4.3 IEC 61215 Test Protocol 80 4.3.1 MQT 01 – Visual Inspection 82 4.3.2 MQT 02 – Maximum Power Determination 82 4.3.3 MQT 03 – Insulation Test 82 4.3.4 MQT 04 – Measurement of Temperature Coefficients 83 4.3.5 MQT 05 – Measurement of NMOT 83 4.3.6 MQT 06 – Performance at STC and NMOT 84 4.3.7 MQT 07 – Performance at Low Irradiance 84 4.3.8 MQT 08 – Outdoor Exposure Test 85 4.3.9 MQT 09 – Hot Spot Endurance Test 85 4.3.10 MQT 10 – UV Preconditioning Test 88 4.3.11 MQT 11 – Thermal Cycling Test 88 4.3.12 MQT 12 – Humidity-Freeze Test 89 4.3.13 MQT 13 – Damp-Heat Test 89 4.3.14 MQT 14 – Robustness of Termination 90 4.3.15 MQT 15 – Wet Leakage Current Test 91 4.3.16 MQT 16 – Static Mechanical Load Test 91 4.3.17 MQT 17 – Hail Test 92 4.3.18 MQT 18 – Bypass Diode Test 92 4.3.19 MQT 19 – Stabilization 94 4.4 How Qualification Tests have been Critical to Improving the Reliability and Durability of PV Modules 95 4.5 Limitations of the Qualification Tests 97 4.6 PV Module Safety Certification 98 4.6.1 Construction Requirements: IEC 61730-1 99 4.6.1.1 Components 99 4.6.1.2 Mechanical and Electromechanical Connections 101 4.6.1.3 Materials 103 4.6.1.4 Protection Against Electric Shock 105 4.6.2 Requirements of Testing IEC 61730-2 110 4.6.2.1 MST 01 – Visual Inspection 113 4.6.2.2 MST 02 – Performance at STC 113 4.6.2.3 MST 03 – Maximum Power Determination 114 4.6.2.4 MST 04 – Insulation Thickness Test 114 4.6.2.5 MST 05 – Durability of Markings Test 114 4.6.2.6 MST 06 – Sharp Edge Test 114 4.6.2.7 MST 07 – Bypass Diode Functionality Test 114 4.6.2.8 MST 11 – Accessibility Test 114 4.6.2.9 MST 12 – Cut Susceptibility Test 115 4.6.2.10 MST 13 – Continuity Test of Equipotential Bonding 115 4.6.2.11 MST 14 – Impulse Voltage Test 115 4.6.2.12 MST 16 – Insulation Test 116 4.6.2.13 MST 17 – Wet Leakage Current Test 116 4.6.2.14 MST 21 – Temperature Test 116 4.6.2.15 MST 22 – Hot Spot Endurance Test 117 4.6.2.16 MST 24 – Ignitability Test 117 4.6.2.17 MST 25 – Bypass Diode Thermal Test 117 4.6.2.18 MST 26 – Reverse Current Overload Test 117 4.6.2.19 MST 32 – Mechanical Breakage Test 118 4.6.2.20 MST 33 – Screw Connections Test – Test for General Screw Connections MST 33a 118 4.6.2.21 MST 33 – Screw Connections Test – Test for Locking Screws MST 33b 119 4.6.2.22 MST 34 – Static Mechanical Load Test 119 4.6.2.23 MST 35 – Peel Test 119 4.6.2.24 MST 36 – Lap Shear Strength Test 120 4.6.2.25 MST 37 – Materials Creep Test 121 4.6.2.26 MST 42 – Robustness of Termination Test 121 4.6.2.27 MST 51 – Thermal Cycling Test 121 4.6.2.28 MST 52 – Humidity Freeze Test 121 4.6.2.29 MST 53 – Damp Heat Test 121 4.6.2.30 MST 54 – UV Test 122 4.6.2.31 MST 55 – Cold Conditioning 122 4.6.2.32 MST 56 – Dry Heat Conditioning 122 4.6.2.33 Recommendations for Testing of PV Modules from Production 122 References 123 5 Failure Analysis Tools 127 5.1 PV Performance – Analysis of Light I–V Curves 127 5.2 Performance as a Function of Irradiance 132 5.3 Dark I–V Curves 136 5.4 Visual Inspection 137 5.5 Infrared (IR) Inspection 143 5.6 Electroluminescence (EL) 145 5.7 Adhesion of Layers, Boxes, Frames, etc. 149 References 149 6 Using Quality Management Systems to Manufacture PV Modules 151 6.1 Quality Management Systems 151 6.2 Using ISO 9000 and IEC 61215 153 6.3 Why just Using IEC 61215 and ISO 9000 is No Longer Considered Adequate? 154 6.4 Customer Defined “Do It Yourself” Quality Management and Qualification Systems (IEC 61215 on Steroids) 156 6.5 Problems with the “Do It Yourself” System 157 References 163 7 The PVQAT Effort 165 7.1 Task Group 1: PV QA Guidelines for Module Manufacturing 167 7.2 Task Group 2: Testing for Thermal and Mechanical Fatigue 169 7.3 Task Group 3: Testing for Humidity, Temperature and Voltage 175 7.3.1 Corrosion 176 7.3.2 Delamination 177 7.3.3 PID 179 7.3.4 Delamination Due to Voltage Stress 181 7.4 Task Group 4: Testing for Diodes, Shading and Reverse Bias 182 7.5 Task Group 5: Testing for UV, Temperature and Humidity 186 7.6 Task Group 6: Communications of Rating Information 189 7.7 Task Group 7: Testing for Snow and Wind Load 189 7.8 Task Group 8: Testing for Thin-Film Modules 190 7.9 Task Group 9: Testing for Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) 190 7.10 Task Group 10: Testing for Connectors 190 7.11 Task Group 11: QA for PV Systems 191 7.12 Task Group 12: Soiling and Dust 191 7.13 Task Group 13: Cells 192 References 192 8 Conformity Assessment and IECRE 195 8.1 Module Conformity Assessment – PowerMark, IECQ, PVGAP, and IECEE 195 8.1.1 PV-1: “Criteria for a Model Quality System for Laboratories Engaged in Testing PV Modules” 196 8.1.2 PV-2: Model for a Third-Party Certification and Labeling Program for PV Modules 197 8.1.3 PV-3: Testing Requirements for a Certification and Labeling Program for PV Modules 197 8.1.4 PV-4: Operational Procedures Manual for the Certification Body of the PV Module Certification Program 197 8.1.5 PV-5: Application and Certification Procedures for the PV Module Certification Program 198 8.2 IECRE – Conformity Assessment for PV Systems 201 References 206 9 Predicting PV Module Service Life 209 9.1 Determining Acceleration Factors 210 9.1.1 Thermal Cycling 212 9.1.2 Discoloration of the Encapsulant 213 9.1.3 PET Hydrolysis 213 9.2 Impact of Design and Manufacturing on Failure or Degradation Rates for PV Modules 215 9.3 Impact of Location and Type of Mounting on Failure or Degradation Rates for PV Modules 216 9.4 Extended Stress Testing of PV Modules 221 9.5 Setting Up a True Service Life Prediction Program 226 References 227 10 What does the Future Hold for PV and a Brief Summary 229 10.1 Current Work on Updating Standards 229 10.1.1 Second Edition of IEC 61215 Series 229 10.1.2 Amendment 1 to Second Edition of IEC 61730-1 and IEC 61730-1 234 10.1.3 IEC TS 63126 – Guidelines for Qualifying PV Modules, Components and Materials for Operation at High Temperatures 234 10.2 Looking to the Future 237 10.2.1 Degradation Rates 237 10.2.2 Module Lifetime 238 10.3 Brief Summary 239 10.3.1 Personal Reflections 240 References 240 Index 243

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Book SynopsisHydrogen storage is considered a key technology for stationary and portable power generation especially for transportation. This volume covers the novel technologies to efficiently store and distribute hydrogen and discusses the underlying basics as well as the advanced details in hydrogen storage technologies. The book has two major parts: Chemical and electrochemical hydrogen storage and Carbon-based materials for hydrogen storage. The following subjects are detailed in Part I: Multi stage compression system based on metal hydridesMetal-N-H systems and their physico-chemical propertiesMg-based nano materials with enhanced sorption kineticsGaseous and electrochemical hydrogen storage in the Ti-Z-NiElectrochemical methods for hydrogenation/dehydrogenation of metal hydrides In Part II the following subjects are addressed: Activated carbon for hydrogen storage obtained from agro-industrial wasteHydrogen storage using carbonaceous materialsHydrogen storage performance of composite mateTable of ContentsPreface xiii Part I: Chemical and Electrochemical Hydrogen Storage 1 1 Metal Hydride Hydrogen Compression Systems – Materials, Applications and Numerical Analysis 3 Evangelos I. Gkanas and Martin Khzouz 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Adoption of a Hydrogen-Based Economy 4 1.2.1 Climate Change and Pollution 4 1.2.2 Toward a Hydrogen-Based Future 4 1.2.3 Hydrogen Storage 5 1.2.3.1 Compressed Hydrogen Storage 5 1.2.3.2 Hydrogen Storage in Liquid Form 5 1.2.3.3 Solid-State Hydrogen Storage 6 1.3 Hydrogen Compression Technologies 6 1.3.1 Reciprocating Piston Compressor 7 1.3.2 Ionic Liquid Piston Compressor 8 1.3.3 Piston-Metal Diaphragm Compressor 9 1.3.4 Electrochemical Hydrogen Compressor 9 1.4 Metal Hydride Hydrogen Compressors (MHHC) 11 1.4.1 Operation of a Two-Stage MHHC 11 1.4.2 Metal Hydrides 14 1.4.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Metal Hydride Formation 14 1.4.3.1 Pressure-Composition-Temperature (P-c-T) Properties 14 1.4.3.2 Slope and Hysteresis 16 1.4.4 Material Challenges for MHHCs 17 1.4.4.1 AB5 Intermetallics 18 1.4.4.2 AB2 Intermetallics 19 1.4.4.3 TiFe-Based AB-Type Intermetallics 19 1.4.4.4 Vanadium-Based BCC Solid Solution Alloys 19 1.5 Numerical Analysis of a Multistage MHHC System 20 1.5.1 Assumptions 20 1.5.2 Physical Model and Geometries 21 1.5.3 Heat Equation 22 1.5.4 Hydrogen Mass Balance 22 1.5.5 Momentum Equation 23 1.5.6 Kinetic Expressions for the Hydrogenation and Dehydrogenation 23 1.5.7 Equilibrium Pressure 24 1.5.8 Coupled Mass and Energy Balance 24 1.5.9 Validation of the Numerical Model 25 1.5.10 Material Selection for a Three-Stage MHHC 26 1.5.11 Temperature Evolution of the Complete Three-Stage Compression Cycle 27 1.5.12 Pressure and Storage Capacity Evolution During the Complete Three-Stage Compression Cycle 29 1.5.13 Importance of the Number of Stages and Proper Selection 31 1.6 Conclusions 32 Acknowledgments 32 Nomenclature 32 References 33 2 Nitrogen-Based Hydrogen Storage Systems: A Detailed Overview 39 Ankur Jain, Takayuki Ichikawa and Shivani Agarwal 2.1 Introduction 40 2.2 Amide/Imide Systems 41 2.2.1 Single-Cation Amide/Imide Systems 41 2.2.1.1 Lithium Amide/Imide 41 2.2.1.2 Sodium Amide/Imide 44 2.2.1.3 Magnesium Amide/Imide 47 2.2.1.4 Calcium Amide/Imide 49 2.2.2 Double-Cation Amide/Imide Systems 51 2.2.2.1 Li-Na-N-H 52 2.2.2.2 Li-Mg-N-H 54 2.2.2.3 Other Double-Cation Amides/Imides 58 2.3 Ammonia (NH3) as Hydrogen Storage Media 62 2.3.1 NH3 Synthesis 63 2.3.1.1 Catalytic NH3 Synthesis Using Haber-Bosch Process 63 2.3.1.2 Alternative Routes for NH3 Synthesis 68 2.3.2 NH3 Solid-State Storage 69 2.3.2.1 Metal Ammine Salts 69 2.3.2.2 Ammine Metal Borohydride 70 2.3.3 NH3 Decomposition 71 2.3.4 Application of NH3 to Fuel Cell 73 2.4 Future Prospects 74 References 75 3 Nanostructured Mg-Based Hydrogen Storage Materials: Synthesis and Properties 89 Huaiyu Shao, Xiubo Xie, Jianding Li, Bo Li, Tong Liu and Xingguo Li 3.1 Introduction 90 3.2 Experimental Details 92 3.2.1 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 92 3.2.2 Formation of the Nanostructured Hydrides and Alloys 93 3.2.3 Characterization and Measurements 93 3.3 Synthesis Results of the Nanostructured Samples 94 3.4 Hydrogen Absorption Kinetics 98 3.5 Hydrogen Storage Thermodynamics 99 3.6 Novel Mg-TM (TM=V, Zn, Al) Nanocomposites 103 3.6.1 Introduction 103 3.6.2 Structure and Morphology of Mg-TM Nanocomposites 105 3.6.3 Hydrogen Absorption Kinetics 107 3.6.4 Phase Evolution During Hydrogenation/Dehydrogenation 108 3.6.5 Summary 109 3.7 Summary and Prospects 110 Acknowledgments 111 References 111 4 Hydrogen Storage in Ti/Zr-Based Amorphous and Quasicrystal Alloys 117 Akito Takasaki, Łukasz Gondek, Joanna Czub, Alicja Klimkowicz, Antoni Żywczak and Konrad Świerczek 4.1 Introduction 118 4.2 Production of Ti/Zr-Based Amorphous and Quasicrystals Alloys 119 4.3 Hydrogen Storage in T-Zr-Based Amorphous Alloys 124 4.3.1 Gaseous Hydrogenation 124 4.3.2 Electrochemical Hydrogenation 129 4.4 Hydrogen Storage in the Ti/Zr-Based Quasicrystal Alloys 130 4.4.1 Gaseous Hydrogenation 131 4.4.2 Electrochemical Hydrogenation 133 4.5 Comparison of Amorphous and Quasicrystal Phases on the Hydrogen Properties 140 4.6 Conclusions 141 References 142 5 Electrochemical Method of Hydrogenation/Dehydrogenation of Metal Hydrides 147 N.E. Galushkin, N.N. Yazvinskaya and D.N. Galushkin 5.1 Introduction 148 5.2 Electrochemical Method of Hydrogenation of Metal Hydrides 151 5.2.1 Hydrogen Accumulation in Electrodes of Cadmium-Nickel Batteries Based on Electrochemical Method 151 5.2.2 Hydrogen Accumulation in Sintered Nickel Matrix of Oxide-Nickel Electrode 155 5.2.2.1 Active Substance of Oxide-Nickel Electrodes 155 5.2.2.2 Sintered Nickel Matrices of Oxide-Nickel Electrodes 157 5.3 Electrochemical Method of Dehydrogenation of Metal Hydrides 161 5.3.1 Introduction 161 5.3.2 Thermal Runaway as the New Method of Hydrogen Desorption from Hydrides 164 5.3.2.1 Thermo-Chemical Method of Hydrogen Desorption 164 5.3.2.2 Thermal Runaway: A New Method of Hydrogen Desorption from Metal Hydrides 164 5.4 Discussion 166 5.5 Conclusions 172 References 173 Part II: Carbon-Based Materials for Hydrogen Storage 177 6 Activated Carbon for Hydrogen Storage Obtained from Agro-Industrial Waste 179 Yesid Murillo-Acevedo, Paola Rodríguez-Estupiñán, Liliana Giraldo Gutiérrez and Juan Carlos Moreno-Piraján 6.1 Introduction 180 6.2 Experimental 182 6.3 Results and Discussion 183 6.4 Conclusions 192 Acknowledgments 193 References 193 7 Carbonaceous Materials in Hydrogen Storage 197 R. Pedicini, I. Gatto, M. F. Gatto and E. Passalacqua 7.1 Introduction 198 7.2 Materials Consisting of Only Carbon Atoms 199 7.2.1 Graphite 199 7.2.2 Carbon Nanofibers 200 7.2.3 Carbon Nanostructures 202 7.2.4 Graphene 203 7.2.5 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and Carbon Multi-Walled Nanotubes (MWCNTs) 203 7.3 Materials Containing Carbon and Other Light Elements 205 7.3.1 Polyaniline (PANI), Polypyrrole (PPy) and Polythiophene (PTh) 206 7.3.2 Hyperbranched Polyurea (P-Urea) and Poly(Amide-Amine) (PAMAM) 207 7.3.3 Microporous Polymers (PIMs) 207 7.3.4 Conjugated Microporous Polymers (CMPs) 208 7.3.5 Hyper-Cross-Linked Polymers (HCPs) 209 7.3.6 Porous Aromatic Frameworks (PAFs) 209 7.4 Composite Materials Made by Polymeric Matrix 210 7.4.1 Composite Poly(Amide-Amine) (PAMAM) 211 7.4.2 Polymer-Dispersed Metal Hydrides (PDMHs) 211 7.4.3 Mn Oxide Anchored to a Polymeric Matrix 212 7.5 Waste and Natural Materials 217 7.6 Conclusions 220 References 223 8 Beneficial Effects of Graphene on Hydrogen Uptake and Release from Light Hydrogen Storage Materials 229 Rohit R Shahi 8.1 Introduction 230 8.2 General Aspects of Graphene 232 8.2.1 Synthesis of Graphene 233 8.2.1.1 Mechanical Cleavage of Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite 233 8.2.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition 233 8.2.1.3 Chemical and Thermal Exfoliation of Graphite Oxide 234 8.2.1.4 Arc Discharge Method 234 8.2.2 Graphene as a Beneficial Additive for HS Materials 234 8.3 Beneficial Effect of Graphene: Key Results with Light Metal Hydrides (e.g., LiBH4, NaAlH4, MgH2) 236 8.3.1 Borohydrides (Tetrahydroborate) as HS Material 236 8.3.1.1 Effect of Graphene on Desorption Properties of LiBH4 237 8.4 Alanates as HS Materials 239 8.4.1 Effect of Graphene on Sorption Behavior of NaAlH4 240 8.4.2 Carbon Nanomaterial-Assisted Morphological Tuning of NaAlH4 to Improve Thermodynamics and Kinetics 242 8.5 Magnesium Hydride as HS Material 243 8.5.1 Catalytic Effect of Graphene on Sorption Behavior of Mg/MgH2 244 8.5.2 Nanoparticles Templated Graphene as an Additive for MgH2 246 8.6 Summary and Future Prospects 253 Acknowledgment 254 References 254 9 Hydrogen Adsorption on Nanotextured Carbon Materials 263 G. Sdanghi, G. Maranzana, A. Celzard and V. Fierro 9.1 Introduction 264 9.1.1 Essential Features of Hydrogen Adsorption on Porous Carbon Materials 264 9.1.2 Measurement of the Hydrogen Storage Capacity 267 9.1.3 Excess, Absolute and Total Hydrogen Adsorption 268 9.2 Hydrogen Storage in Carbon Materials 270 9.2.1 Activated Carbons 270 9.2.2 Carbon Nanomaterials 273 9.2.2.1 Graphene 273 9.2.2.2 Fullerenes 276 9.2.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 276 9.2.2.4 Carbon Nanofibers 279 9.2.3 Templated Carbons 282 9.2.3.1 Zeolite- and Silica-Derived Carbons 282 9.2.3.2 MOFs-Derived Carbons 284 9.2.4 Other Carbon Materials 289 9.2.4.1 Carbide-Derived Carbons 289 9.2.4.2 Hybrid Carbon-MOF Materials 289 9.2.4.3 Hyper-Cross-Linked Polymers–Derived Carbons 291 9.2.4.4 Carbon Nanorods, Nanohorns and Nanospheres 291 9.2.4.5 Carbon Nitrides 293 9.2.4.6 Carbon Aerogels 293 9.2.4.7 Other Exotic Carbon Materials 294 9.3 Conclusion 295 Acknowledgments 297 References 297 Appendix 310 Index 321

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a broad overall view of the photoelectrochemical systems for solar hydrogen generation, and new and novel materials for photoelectrochemical solar cell applications. Hydrogen has a huge potential as a safe and efficient energy carrier, which can be used directly in fuel cells to obtain electricity, or it can be used in the chemical industry, fossil fuel processing or ammonia production. However, hydrogen is not freely available in nature and it needs to be produced. Photoelectrochemical solar cells produce hydrogen from water using sunlight and specialized semiconductors, which use solar energy to directly dissociate water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Hence, these systems reduce fossil fuels dependency and curb carbon dioxide emissions. Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells compiles the objectives related to the new semiconductor materials and manufacturing techniques for solar hydrogen generation. The chapters are written by distinguTable of ContentsPreface xi Part I: General Concepts and Photoelectrochemical Systems 1 1 Photoelectrochemical Reaction Engineering for Solar Fuels Production 3Isaac Holmes-Gentle, Faye Alhersh, Franky Bedoya and Klaus Hellgardt 1.1 Introduction 3 1.1.1 Undeveloped Power of Renewables 4 1.1.2 Comparison Solar Hydrogen from Different Sources 5 1.1.3 Economic Targets for Hydrogen Production and PEC Systems 6 1.1.4 Goals of Using Hydrogen 8 1.2 Theory and Classification of PEC Systems 9 1.2.1 Classification Framework for PEC Cell Conceptual Design 10 1.2.2 Classification Framework for Design of PEC Devices 13 1.2.3 Integrated Device vs PV + Electrolysis 19 1.3 Scaling Up of PEC Reactors 19 1.4 Reactor Designs 20 1.5 Systems-Level Design 28 1.6 Outlook 30 1.6.1 Future Reactor Designs 30 1.6.1.1 Perforated Designs 30 1.6.1.2 Membrane-less and Microfluidic Designs 31 1.6.1.3 Redox-Mediated Systems 31 1.6.2 Avenues for Future Research 33 1.6.2.1 Intensification and Waste Heat Utilization 33 1.6.2.2 Usefulness of Oxidation and Coupled Process with Hydrogen Generation 33 1.7 Summary and Conclusions 34 References 35 2 The Measurements and Efficiency Definition Protocols in Photoelectrochemical Solar Hydrogen Generation 43Jingwei Huang and Qizhao Wang 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 PEC Measurement 44 2.2.1 Measurements of Optical Properties 44 2.2.2 Polarization Curve Measurements 45 2.2.3 Photocurrent Transients Measurements 46 2.2.4 IPCE and APCE Measurements 47 2.2.5 Mott–Schottky Measurements 48 2.2.6 Measurement (Calculation) of Charge Separation Efficiency 50 2.2.7 Measurements of Charge Injection Efficiency 51 2.8 Gas Evolution Measurements 52 2.3 The Efficiency Definition Protocols in PEC Water Splitting 53 2.3.1 Solar-to-Hydrogen Conversion Efficiency 53 2.3.2 Applied Bias Photon-to-Current Efficiency 54 2.3.3 IPCE and APCE 55 2.4 Summary 56 References 56 3 Photoelectrochemical Cell: A Versatile Device for Sustainable Hydrogen Production 59Mohit Prasad, Vidhika Sharma, Avinash Rokade and Sandesh Jadkar 3.1 Introduction 60 3.2 Photoelctrochemical (PEC) Cells 61 3.2.1 Solar-to-Hydrogen (STH) Conversion Efficiency 65 3.2.2 Applied Bias Photon-to-Current Efficiency (ABPE) 65 3.2.3 External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) or Incident Photon-to-Current Efficiency (IPCE) 65 3.2.4 Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE) or Absorbed Photon-to-Current Efficiency (APCE) 66 3.3 Monometal Oxide Systems for PEC H2 Generation 66 3.3.1 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) 67 3.3.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 68 3.3.3 Tungsten Oxide (WO3) 70 3.3.4 Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 75 3.3.5 Bismuth Vandate (BiVO4) 76 3.4 Complex Nanostructures for PEC Splitting of Water 77 3.4.1 Plasmonic Metal Semiconductor Composite Photoelectrodes 77 3.4.2 Semiconductor Heterojunctions 80 3.4.3 Quantum Dots Sensitized Semiconductor Photoelectrodes 82 3.4.4 Synergistic Effect in Semiconductor Photoelectrodes 83 3.4.5 Biosensitized Semiconductor Photoelectrodes 85 3.4.6 Tandem Stand-alone PEC Water-Splitting Device 92 3.5 Conclusion and Outlook 98 Acknowledgments 101 References 101 4 Hydrogen Generation from Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 121Yanqi Xu, Qian Zhao, Cui Du, Chen Zhou, Huaiguo Xue and Shengyang Yang 4.1 Introduction 122 4.2 Principle of Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Hydrogen Generation 122 4.3 Photoeletrode Materials 125 4.3.1 Photoanode Materials 125 4.3.1.1 TiO2-Based Photoelectrode 125 4.3.1.2 BiVO4-Based Photoelectrode 126 4.3.1.3 α-Fe2O3-Based Photoelectrode 129 4.3.2 Photocathode Materials 129 4.3.2.1 Copper-Based Chalcogenides-Based Photoelectrode 129 4.3.2.2 Silicon-Based Photoelectrode 130 4.3.2.3 Cu2O-Based Photoelectrode 131 4.3.2.4 III-V Group Materials 132 4.3.2.5 CdS-Based Photoelectrode 134 4.4 Advances in Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Hydrogen Generation 135 4.4.1 Monocomponent Catalyst 135 4.4.2 Functional Cocatalyst 137 4.4.3 Z-scheme Catalyst 139 4.5 Pros and cons of photoelectrodes and photocatalysts 142 4.6 Conclusion and Outlook 144 Acknowledgments 145 References 145 Part II: Photoactive Materials for Solar Hydrogen Generation 159 5 Hematite Materials for Solar-Driven Photoelectrochemical Cells 161Tianyu Liu, Martina Morelli and Yat Li 5.1 Introduction 161 5.2 Physical Properties of Hematite 163 5.2.1 Crystal Structure 163 5.2.2 Optical Properties 164 5.2.3 Electronic Properties 165 5.2.4 Band Structure 166 5.2.5 Overview of Hematite Bottlenecks and Corresponding Strategies 167 5.2.5.1 Addressing Poor Light Absorption Efficiency 168 5.2.5.2 Addressing Fast Charge Carrier Recombination 169 5.2.5.3 Addressing Sluggish Water Oxidation 5.3 Kinetics 169 5.3 Experimental Strategies to Enhance the Photoactivity of Hematite 170 5.3.1 Nanostructuring 170 5.3.1.1 Direct Synthesis 170 5.3.1.3 In Situ Structural Transformation 172 5.3.1.4 “Locking” Nanostructures 173 5.3.2 Doping 175 5.3.2.1 Oxygen Vacancies 175 5.3.2.2 Foreign Ion Doping 177 5.3.3 Construction of Heterojunctions 180 5.3.3.1 Semiconducting Overlayers 180 5.3.3.2 Sensitization and Tandem Cells 181 5.3.3.3 OER Catalysts 182 5.3.3.4 Engineering of Current Collectors 184 5.4 Fundamental Characteristics of the PEC Behaviors of Hematite 185 5.4.1 Transient Absorption Spectroscopy 185 5.4.2 Effects of Morphology 196 5.4.3 Effect of Doping 198 5.4.3.1 Oxygen (O) Vacancies 198 5.4.3.2 n-type Dopants 199 5.4.3.3 p-type Dopants 201 5.4.3.4 Isovalent Dopants 201 5.4.3.5 Multiple Dopants 201 5.4.4 Effect of Water Oxidation Catalysts 202 5.4.4.1 Mechanism of Uncatalyzed Water Oxidation 202 5.4.4.2 Mechanism of Catalyzed Water Oxidation 203 5.4.5 Effect of Heterojunctions 204 5.4.5.1 Facilitating Charge Separation and Transfer 204 5.4.5.2 Surface Passivation 206 5.4.5.3 Back-contact Engineering 207 5.5 Summary 208 References 209 6 Design of Bismuth Vanadate-Based Materials: New Advanced Photoanodes for Solar Hydrogen Generation 219Olivier Monfort, Panagiotis Lianos and Gustav Plesch 6.1 Introduction 220 6.2 Photoanodes in Photoelectrochemical Processes 220 6.3 Bismuth Vanadate (BiVO4) 224 6.3.1 Structure and Properties of BiVO4 225 6.3.2 Synthesis of BiVO4 226 6.3.3 Applications of BiVO4 Materials 227 6.4 BiVO4 as Photoanode for Solar Hydrogen Generation 228 6.4.1 Optimization of the Photoanode 228 6.4.1.1 Photoanode Preparation 228 6.4.1.2 Choice of the Electrolyte 231 6.4.2 Solar Hydrogen Generation by Water Splitting 233 6.5 Modified BiVO4 Photoanodes 236 6.5.1 Transition Metal-Modified BiVO4 237 6.5.1.1 Generalities 237 6.5.1.2 Nb-modified BiVO4 238 6.5.2 BiVO4 Composites 240 6.5.2.1 Generalities 240 6.5.2.2 BiVO4/TiO2 Composite 242 6.6 Conclusion 245 6.7 Acknowledgments 246 References 246 7 Copper-Based Chalcopyrite and Kesterite Materials for Solar Hydrogen Generation 251Cigdem Tuc Altaf, Nazrin Abdullayeva and Nurdan Demirci Sankir 7.1 Introduction 252 7.2 Chalcopyrite I-III-VI2 Semiconductors 253 7.2.1 Material Properties 253 7.2.2 Synthesis Techniques of Chalcopyrite CuInS/Se2 Nanocrystals 255 7.2.2.1 Hot-Injection Method 258 7.2.2.2 Heat-Up (Noninjection) Method 258 7.2.2.3 Thermal Decomposition Method 258 7.2.2.4 Solvothermal Method 259 7.2.2.5 Microwave Treatment Method 260 7.2.3 Chalcopyrite CuInS/Se2 Thin-Film Fabrication Methods 260 7.2.3.1 Vacuum-Based Techniques 262 7.2.3.2 Nonvacuum Techniques 263 7.2.4 Applications in Photoelectrochemical Cells 266 7.3 Cu-Based Kesterite (I2-II-IV-VI4) Semiconductors 269 7.3.1 Material Properties 269 7.3.2 Synthesis Techniques of Kesterite Cu2ZnSnS/Se4 Nanocrystals 272 7.3.2.1 Hot-Injection Method 272 7.3.2.2 Solvothermal/Hydrothermal Method 274 7.3.2.3 Microwave-Assisted Chemical Synthesis 275 7.3.2.4 Additional Novel Approaches to CZTS Nanocrystal Syntheses 275 7.3.3 Kesterite Cu2ZnSnS4 Thin-Film Fabrication Methods 277 7.3.3.1 Vacuum-based Techniques 277 7.3.3.2 Nonvacuum Techniques 280 7.3.4 Applications in Photoelectrochemical Cells 284 7.4 Concluding Remarks 284 References 287 8 Eutectic Composites for Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells (PSCs) 297J. Sar, K. Kolodziejak, K. Wysmulek, K. Orlinski, A. Kusior, M. Radecka, A. Trenczek-Zajac, K. Zakrzewska and D.A. Pawlak 8.1 Introduction 297 8.2 The Photoelectrolysis of Water as a Source of Hydrogen 298 8.3 Experimental Methods for Studying Photoactive Materials Such as Electrochemical (Mott–Schottky Plots) and Photoelectrochemical Determination of the Flat-Band Potential, Impedance Spectroscopy, and Bandgap by Optical Spectroscopy 302 8.4 Eutectic Composites 318 8.5 Methods of Obtaining Eutectic Composites 322 8.6 Eutectic Composites used for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting 324 8.7 Other Potential Eutectic Composites 328 8.8 Modification of the Properties of Eutectic Composites 329 8.9 Conclusions 331 References 332 Part III: Photoelectrochemical Related Systems 341 9 Implementation of Multijunction Solar Cells in Integrated Devices for the Generation of Solar Fuels 343V. Smirnov, K. Welter, F. Finger, F. Urbain, J.R. Morante, B. Kaiser and W. Jaegermann 9.1 Introduction 344 9.2 Multijunction Solar Cells as Photoelectrodes 349 9.3 PV-EC Devices Based on Multijunction Solar Cells 355 9.4 Promising Device Designs, Future Prospects 362 9.5 Summary and Conclusions 367 References 370 10 Photoelectrochemical Cells: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 375Go Kawamura, Pascal Nbelayim, Wai Kian Tan and Atsunori Matsuda 10.1 Introduction 376 10.2 Brief History of Solar Cells to DSSCs 377 10.3 Structure, Components, and Working Principle of the DSSC 377 10.3.1 The Transparent Conducting Oxide (TCO) Substrate 379 10.3.2 The Hole Blocking Layer (HBL) 379 10.3.3 The Photoanode 379 10.3.4 The Sensitizer/Dye 383 10.3.5 The HTM/Electrolyte 385 10.3.6 The CE 385 10.3.7 Electron Kinetics in an Active DSSC 386 10.4 Characterization Techniques for DSSCs 387 10.4.1 Computational Modeling 387 10.4.2 Morphological and Structural Studies 387 10.4.2.1 Electron Microscopy 387 10.4.2.2 X-Ray Diffraction 388 10.4.3 Dye Adsorption. 389 10.4.4 Spectroscopic Techniques 389 10.4.4.1 Optical (UV–Vis) Spectroscopy 389 10.4.4.2 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 390 10.4.4.3 FTIR Spectroscopy 390 10.4.4.4 Raman Spectroscopy 390 10.4.4.5 Material Composition 391 10.4.5 Electromagnetic Measurements 391 10.4.5.1 Hall Effect Measurement 391 10.4.5.2 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Analysis 391 10.4.6 (Photo-)Electrochemical Measurements 391 10.4.6.1 Photovoltaic Properties 392 10.4.6.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 392 10.4.6.3 Electron Transport 392 10.4.6.4 Electron Lifetime 393 10.4.6.5 Electron Concentration 394 10.4.6.6 Flat-band Potential 394 10.4.6.7 Charge Collection Efficiency 394 10.5 Plasmonic DSSCs 395 10.6 Dye-Sensitized Solar Hydrogen Production 398 10.7 Applications and Future Outlook of DSSC 403 10.8 Academic 404 References 405 11 Photocatalytic Formation of Composite Electrodes for Semiconductor-Sensitized Solar Cells 415Oleksandr Stroyuk, Andriy Kozytskiy and Stepan Kuchmiy 11.1 Introduction 416 11.2 Photocatalytic Deposition of Metal Sulfide Nanoparticles on the Surface of Wide-Bandgap Semiconductors 417 11.2.1 Photodeposition of Cadmium Sulfide NPs 420 11.2.2 Photocatalytic Deposition of Lead Sulfide 430 11.2.3 Photocatalytic Deposition of Silver Sulfide 431 11.2.4 Photodeposition of Antimony Sulfide 431 11.2.5 Photocatalytic Deposition of Molybdenum and Tungsten Sulfides 433 11.2.6 Photocatalytic Deposition of Copper Sulfide 434 11.3 Photocatalytic Deposition of Metal Selenides 435 11.4 Conclusion and Outlook 442 References 443 Index 449

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Book SynopsisAn authoritative and comprehensive guide to the devices and applications of Terahertz technology Terahertz (THz) technology relates to applications that span in frequency from a few hundred GHz to more than 1000 GHz. Fundamentals of Terahertz Devices and Applications offers a comprehensive review of the devices and applications of Terahertz technology. With contributions from a range of experts on the topic, this book contains in a single volume an inclusive review of THz devices for signal generation, detection and treatment. Fundamentals of Terahertz Devices and Applications offers an exploration and addresses key categories and aspects of Terahertz Technology such as: sources, detectors, transmission, electronic considerations and applications, optical (photonic) considerations and applications. Worked examples?based on the contributors? extensive experience? highlight the chapter material presented. The text is designed for use by novices and professionals who want a better unTable of ContentsAbout the Editor xvii List of Contributors xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Introduction to THz Technologies 1 Dimitris Pavlidis 2 Integrated Silicon Lens Antennas at Submillimeter-wave Frequencies 5 Maria Alonso-delPino, Darwin Blanco and Nuria Llombart Juan 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Elliptical Lens Antennas 7 2.2.1 Elliptical Lens Synthesis 8 2.2.2 Radiation of Elliptical Lenses 10 2.2.2.1 Transmission Function T(Q) 12 2.2.2.2 Spreading Factor S(Q) 14 2.2.2.3 Equivalent Current Distribution and Far-field Calculation 16 2.2.2.4 Lens Reflection Efficiency 17 2.3 Extended Semi-hemispherical Lens Antennas 19 2.3.1 Radiation of Extended Semi-hemispherical Lenses 20 2.4 Shallow Lenses Excited by Leaky Wave/Fabry–Perot Feeds 22 2.4.1 Analysis of the Leaky-wave Propagation Constant 24 2.4.2 Primary Fields Radiated by a Leaky-wave Antenna Feed on an Infinite Medium 25 2.4.3 Shallow-lens Geometry Optimization 27 2.5 Fly-eye Antenna Array 29 2.5.1 Silicon DRIE Micromachining Process at Submillimeter-wave Frequencies 31 2.5.1.1 Fabrication of Silicon Lenses Using DRIE 32 2.5.1.2 Surface Accuracy 33 2.5.2 Examples of Fabricated Antennas 35 Exercises 36 Exercise 1: Derivation of the Transmission Coefficients and Lens Critical Angle 36 Exercise 2 37 Exercise 3 38 References 39 3 Photoconductive THz Sources Driven at 1550 nm 43 Elliott R. Brown, Björn Globisch, Guillermo Carpintero, Alejandro Rivera, Daniel Segovia-Vargas and Andreas Steiger 3.1 Introduction 43 3.1.1 Overview of THz Photoconductive Sources 43 3.1.2 Lasers and Fiber Optics 45 3.2 1550-nm THz Photoconductive Sources 47 3.2.1 Epitaxial Materials 47 3.2.1.1 Bandgap Engineering 47 3.2.1.2 Low-Temperature Growth 50 3.2.2 Device Types and Modes of Operation 52 3.2.3 Analysis of THz Photoconductive Sources 53 3.2.3.1 PC-Switch Analysis 54 3.2.3.2 Photomixer Analysis 56 3.2.4 Practical Issues 61 3.2.4.1 Contact Effects 62 3.2.4.2 Thermal Effects 63 3.2.4.3 Circuit Limitations 68 3.3 THz Metrology 71 3.3.1 Power Measurements 71 3.3.1.1 A Traceable Power Sensor 71 3.3.1.2 Exemplary THz Power Measurement Exercise 74 3.3.1.3 Other Sources of Error 77 3.3.2 Frequency Metrology 78 3.4 THz Antenna Coupling 79 3.4.1 Fundamental Principles 79 3.4.2 Planar Antennas on Dielectric Substrates 80 3.4.2.1 Input Impedance 81 3.4.2.2 ΔEIRP (Increase in the EIRP of the Transmitting Antenna) 82 3.4.2.3 G/T or Aeff /T 83 3.4.3 Estimation of Power Coupling Factor 83 3.4.4 Exemplary THz Planar Antennas 84 3.4.4.1 Resonant Antennas 84 3.4.4.2 Quick Survey of Self-complementary Antennas 85 3.5 State of the Art in 1550-nm Photoconductive Sources 87 3.5.1 1550-nm MSM Photoconductive Switches 87 3.5.1.1 Material and Device Design 87 3.5.1.2 THz Performance 88 3.5.2 1550-nm Photodiode CW (Photomixer) Sources 90 3.5.2.1 Material and Device Design 90 3.5.2.2 THz Performance 92 3.6 Alternative 1550-nm THz Photoconductive Sources 92 3.6.1 Fe-Doped InGaAs 94 3.6.2 ErAs Nanoparticles in GaAs: Extrinsic Photoconductivity 94 3.7 System Applications 97 3.7.1 Comparison Between Pulsed and CW THz Systems 97 3.7.1.1 Device Aspects 97 3.7.1.2 Systems Aspects 98 3.7.2 Wireless Communications 100 3.7.3 THz Spectroscopy 106 3.7.3.1 Time vs Frequency Domain Systems 106 3.7.3.2 Analysis of Frequency Domain Systems: Amplitude and Phase Modulation 109 Exercises (1–4) 115 Exercises (5–8) THz Interaction with Matter 116 Exercises (9–12) Antennas, Links, and Beams 118 Exercises (13–15) Planar Antennas 120 Exercises (16–19) Device Noise, System Noise, and Dynamic Range 124 Exercises (20–22) Ultrafast Photoconductivity and Photodiodes 125 Explanatory Notes (see superscripts in text) 127 References 128 4 THz Photomixers 137 Emilien Peytavit, Guillaume Ducournau and Jean-François Lampin 4.1 Introduction 137 4.2 Photomixing Basics 137 4.2.1 Photomixing Principle 137 4.2.2 Historical Background 138 4.3 Modeling THz Photomixers 139 4.3.1 Photoconductors 140 4.3.1.1 Photocurrent Generation 140 4.3.1.2 Electrical Model 142 4.3.1.3 Efficiency and Maximum Power 145 4.3.2 Photodiode 146 4.3.2.1 PIN photodiodes 146 4.3.2.2 Uni-Traveling-Carrier Photodiodes 147 4.3.2.3 Photocurrent Generation 148 4.3.2.4 Electrical Model and Output Power 150 4.3.3 Frequency Down-conversion Using Photomixers 151 4.3.3.1 Electrical Model: Conversion Loss 152 4.4 Standard Photomixing Devices 153 4.4.1 Planar Photoconductors 153 4.4.1.1 Intrinsic Limitation 154 4.4.2 UTC Photodiodes 156 4.4.2.1 Backside Illuminated UTC Photodiodes 156 4.4.2.2 Waveguide-fed UTC Photodiodes 156 4.5 Optical Cavity Based Photomixers 158 4.5.1 LT-GaAs Photoconductors 158 4.5.1.1 Optical Modeling 158 4.5.1.2 Experimental Validation 160 4.5.2 UTC Photodiodes 167 4.5.2.1 Nano Grid Top Contact Electrodes 167 4.5.2.2 UTC Photodiodes Using Nano-Grid Top Contact Electrodes 167 4.5.2.3 Photoresponse Measurement 168 4.5.2.4 THz Power Generation by Photomixing 169 4.6 THz Antennas 170 4.6.1 Planar Antennas 171 4.6.2 Micromachined Antennas 173 4.7 Characterization of Photomixing Devices 175 4.7.1 On Wafer Characterization 175 4.7.2 Free Space Characterization 178 Exercises 180 Exercise A. Photodetector Theory 180 Exercise B. Photomixing Model 180 1. Ultrafast Photoconductor 180 2. UTC Photodiode 181 Exercise C. Antennas 181 References 181 5 Plasmonics-enhanced Photoconductive Terahertz Devices 187 Ping-Keng Lu and Mona Jarrahi 5.1 Introduction 187 5.2 Photoconductive Antennas 187 5.2.1 Photoconductors for THz Operation 187 5.2.2 Photoconductive THz Emitters 190 5.2.2.1 Pulsed THz Emitters 191 5.2.2.2 Continuous-wave THz Emitters 192 5.2.3 Photoconductive THz Detectors 193 5.2.4 Common Photoconductors and Antennas for Photoconductive THz Devices 194 5.2.4.1 Choice of Photoconductor 194 5.2.4.2 Choice of Antenna 195 5.3 Plasmonics-enhanced Photoconductive Antennas 196 5.3.1 Fundamentals of Plasmonics 196 5.3.2 Plasmonics for Enhancing Performance of Photoconductive THz Devices 197 5.3.2.1 Principles of Plasmonic Enhancement 197 5.3.2.2 Design Considerations for Plasmonic Nanostructures 203 5.3.3 State-of-the-art Plasmonics-enhanced Photoconductive THz Devices 203 5.3.3.1 Photoconductive THz Devices with Plasmonic Light Concentrators 203 5.3.3.2 Photoconductive THz Devices with Plasmonic Contact Electrodes 205 5.3.3.3 Large Area Plasmonic Photoconductive Nanoantenna Arrays 207 5.3.3.4 Plasmonic Photoconductive THz Devices with Optical Nanocavities 210 5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 212 Exercises 212 References 213 6 Terahertz Quantum Cascade Lasers 221 Roberto Paiella 6.1 Introduction 221 6.2 Fundamentals of Intersubband Transitions 223 6.3 Active Material Design 225 6.4 Optical Waveguides and Cavities 229 6.5 State-of-the-Art Performance and Limitations 232 6.6 Novel Materials Systems 236 6.6.1 III-Nitride Quantum Wells 236 6.6.2 SiGe Quantum Wells 239 6.7 Conclusion 242 Acknowledgments 243 Exercises 243 References 244 7 Advanced Devices Using Two-Dimensional Layer Technology 251 Berardi Sensale-Rodriguez 7.1 Graphene-Based THz Devices 251 7.1.1 THz Properties of Graphene 251 7.1.2 How to Simulate and Model Graphene? 253 7.1.3 Terahertz Device Applications of Graphene 254 7.1.3.1 Modulators 254 7.1.3.2 Active Filters 265 7.1.3.3 Phase Modulation in Graphene-Based Metamaterials 268 7.2 TMD Based THz Devices 270 7.3 Applications 274 Exercises 279 Exercise 1 Computation of the Optical Conductivity of Graphene 279 Exercise 2 Terahertz Transmission Through a 2D Material Layer Placed at an Optical Interface 280 Exercise 3 Transfer Matrix Approach for Multi-layer Transmission Problems 280 Exercise 4 A Condition for Perfect Absorption 280 Exercise 5 Terahertz Plasmon Resonances in Periodically Patterned Graphene Disk Arrays 280 Exercise 6 Electron Plasma Waves in Gated Graphene 280 Exercise 7 Equivalent Circuit Modeling of 2D Material-Loaded Frequency Selective Surfaces 281 Exercise 8 Maximum Terahertz Absorption in 2D Material-Loaded Frequency Selective Surfaces 281 References 281 8 THz Plasma Field Effect Transistor Detectors 285 Naznin Akter, Nezih Pala, Wojciech Knap and Michael Shur 8.1 Introduction 285 8.2 Field Effect Transistors (FETs) and THz Plasma Oscillations 286 8.2.1 Dispersion of Plasma Waves in FETs 287 8.2.2 THz Detection by an FET 289 8.2.2.1 Resonant Detection 293 8.2.2.2 Broadband Detection 294 8.2.2.3 Enhancement by DC Drain Current 295 8.3 THz Detectors Based on Silicon FETs 296 8.4 Terahertz Detection by Graphene Plasmonic FETs 301 8.5 Terahertz Detection in Black-Phosphorus Nano-Transistors 306 8.6 Diamond Plasmonic THz Detectors 310 8.7 Conclusion 312 Exercises 314 Exercises 1–2 314 Exercises 3–10 315 Exercises 11–13 316 References 316 9 Signal Generation by Diode Frequency Multiplication 323 Alain Maestrini and Jose V. Siles 9.1 Introduction 323 9.2 Bridging the Microwave to Photonics Gap with Terahertz Frequency Multipliers 324 9.3 A Practical Approach to the Design of Frequency Multipliers 326 9.3.1 Frequency Multiplier Versus Comb Generator 326 9.3.2 Frequency Multiplier Ideal Matching Network and Ideal Device Performance 326 9.3.3 Symmetry at Device Level Versus Symmetry at Circuit Level 328 9.3.4 Classic Balanced Frequency Doublers 328 9.3.4.1 General Circuit Description 328 9.3.4.2 Necessary Condition to Balance the Circuit 329 9.3.5 Balanced Frequency Triplers with an Anti-Parallel Pair of Diodes 332 9.3.6 Multi-Anode Frequency Triplers in a Virtual Loop Configuration 332 9.3.6.1 General Circuit Description 333 9.3.6.2 Necessary Condition to Balance the Circuit 335 9.3.7 Multiplier Design Optimization 337 9.3.7.1 General Design Methodology 337 9.3.7.2 Nonlinear Modeling of the Schottky Diode Barrier 347 9.3.7.3 3D Modeling of the Extrinsic Structure of the Diodes 348 9.3.7.4 Modeling and Optimization of the Diode Cell 349 9.3.7.5 Input and Output Matching Circuits 351 9.4 Technology of THz Diode Frequency Multipliers 351 9.4.1 From Whisker-Contacted Diodes to Planar Discrete Diodes 351 9.4.2 Semi-Monolithic Frequency Multipliers at THz Frequencies 352 9.4.3 THz Local Oscillators for the Heterodyne Instrument of Herschel Space Observatory 354 9.4.4 First 2.7 THz Multiplier Chain with More Than 10 μW of Power at Room Temperature 356 9.4.5 High Power 1.6 THz Frequency Multiplied Source for Future 4.75 THz Local Oscillator 358 9.5 Power-Combining at Sub-Millimeter Wavelength 361 9.5.1 In-Phase Power Combining 362 9.5.1.1 First In-Phase Power-Combined Submillimeter-Wave Frequency Multiplier 362 9.5.1.2 In-Phase Power Combining at 900 GHz 364 9.5.1.3 In-Phase Power-Combined Balanced Doublers 364 9.5.2 In-Channel Power Combining 365 9.5.3 Advanced on-Chip Power Combining 367 9.5.3.1 High Power 490–560 GHz Frequency Tripler 369 9.5.3.2 Dual-Output 550 GHz Frequency Tripler 369 9.5.3.3 High-Power Quad-channel 165–195 GHz Frequency Doubler 370 9.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 372 Exercises 373 Exercise 1 373 Exercises 2–5 374 Explanatory Notes (see superscripts in text) 374 References 375 10 GaN Multipliers 383 Chong Jin and Dimitris Pavlidis 10.1 Introduction 383 10.1.1 Frequency Multipliers 383 10.1.2 Properties of Nitride Materials 384 10.1.3 Motivation and Challenges 385 10.2 Theoretical Considerations of GaN Schottky Diode Design 386 10.2.1 Analysis by Analytical Equations 386 10.2.1.1 Nonlinearity and Harmonic Generation 386 10.2.1.2 Nonlinearity of Ideal Schottky Diode 388 10.2.1.3 Series Resistance 391 10.2.2 Analysis by Numeric Simulation 394 10.2.2.1 Introduction of Semiconductor Device Numerical Simulation 394 10.2.2.2 Parameters for GaN-Based Device Simulation 395 10.2.2.3 Simulation Results 398 10.2.3 Conclusions on Theoretical Considerations of GaN Schottky Diode Design 407 10.3 Fabrication Process of GaN Schottky Diodes 407 10.3.1 Fabrication Process 407 10.3.2 Etching 409 10.3.3 Metallization 410 10.3.3.1 Ohmic Contacts on GaN 410 10.3.3.2 Schottky Contacts on GaN 410 10.3.4 Bridge Interconnects 413 10.3.4.1 Dielectric Bridge 413 10.3.4.2 Optical Air-bridge 413 10.3.4.3 E-beam Air-bridge 414 10.3.5 Conclusion on Fabrication Process of GaN Schottky Diodes 414 10.4 Small-signal High-frequency Characterization of GaN Schottky Diodes 414 10.4.1 Current-voltage Characteristics 414 10.4.2 Small-signal Characterization and Equivalent Circuit Modeling 415 10.4.2.1 Step 1. Parasitic Elements 417 10.4.2.2 Step 2. Junction Capacitance 419 10.4.2.3 Step 3. Optimization 419 10.4.2.4 Summary 420 10.4.3 Results 422 10.4.4 Conclusion 423 10.5 Large-signal On-wafer Characterization 423 10.5.1 Characterization Approach 423 10.5.2 Large Signal Measurements of GaN Schottky Diodes 424 10.5.2.1 LSNA With 50 Ω Load 424 10.5.2.2 Time Domain Waveforms 425 10.5.2.3 Instant C–V Under Large-signal Driven Conditions 426 10.5.2.4 Power Handling Characteristics 427 10.5.3 LSNA With Harmonic Load-pull 427 10.5.4 Conclusion 428 10.6 GaN Diode Implementation for Signal Generation 428 10.6.1 Large-signal Modeling of GaN Schottky Diodes 428 10.6.2 Frequency Doubler 430 10.7 Multiplier Considerations for Optimum Performance 434 Exercises 440 References 442 11 THz Resonant Tunneling Devices 447 Masahiro Asada and Safumi Suzuki 11.1 Introduction 447 11.2 Principle of RTD Oscillators 449 11.2.1 Basic Operation of RTD 449 11.2.2 Principle of Oscillation 451 11.2.3 Effect of Electron Delay Time 452 11.2.3.1 Degradation of NDC at High Frequency 452 11.2.3.2 Generation of Reactance at High Frequency 453 11.3 Structure and Oscillation Characteristics of Fabricated RTD Oscillators 454 11.3.1 Actual Structure of RTD Oscillators 454 11.3.2 High-frequency Oscillation 456 11.3.3 High-output Power Oscillation 460 11.4 Control of Oscillation Spectrum and Frequency 463 11.4.1 Oscillation Spectrum and Phase-Locked Loop 463 11.4.2 Frequency-tunable Oscillators 465 11.5 Targeted Applications 467 11.5.1 High-speed Wireless Communications 467 11.5.2 Spectroscopy 469 11.5.3 Other Applications and Expected Future Development 470 Exercises 471 Exercise 1–6 471 Exercise 7–8 472 References 472 12 Wireless Communications in the THz Range 479 Guillaume Ducournau and Tadao Nagatsuma 12.1 Introduction 479 12.2 Evolution of Telecoms Toward THz 479 12.2.1 Brief Historic 479 12.2.2 Data Rate Evolution 480 12.2.3 THz Waves: Propagation, Advantages, and Disadvantages 480 12.2.4 Frequency Bands 482 12.2.5 Potential Scenarios 483 12.2.6 Comparison Between FSO and THz 484 12.3 THz Technologies: Transmitters, Receivers, and Basic Architecture 485 12.3.1 THz Sources 485 12.3.2 THz Receivers 486 12.3.3 Basic Architecture of the Transmission System 486 12.4 Devices/Function Examples for T-Ray CMOS 488 12.4.1 Photomixing Techniques for THz CMOS 488 12.4.2 THz Modulated Signals Enabled by Photomixing 489 12.4.3 Other Techniques for the Generation of Modulated THz Signals 492 12.4.4 Integration, Interconnections, and Antennas 492 12.4.4.1 Integration 492 12.4.4.2 Antennas 493 12.5 THz Links 493 12.5.1 Modulations and Key Indicators of a THz Communication Link 493 12.5.2 State-of-the-Art of THz Links 494 12.5.2.1 First Systems 494 12.5.2.2 Photonics-Based Demos 495 12.5.2.3 Electronic-Based Demos 496 12.5.2.4 Beyond 100 GHz High Power Amplification 497 12.5.2.5 Table of Reported Systems 498 12.6 Toward Normalization of 100G Links in the THz Range 498 12.7 Conclusion 502 12.8 Acronyms 502 Exercise: Link Budget of a THz Link 503 References 504 13 THz Applications: Devices to Space System 511 Imran Mehdi 13.1 Introduction 511 13.1.1 Why Is THz Technology Important for Space Science? 512 13.1.2 Fundamentals of THz Spectroscopy 516 13.1.3 THz Technology for Space Exploration 517 13.2 THz Heterodyne Receivers 518 13.2.1 Local Oscillators 521 13.2.1.1 Frequency Multiplied Chains 523 13.2.2 Mixers 524 13.2.2.1 Room Temperature Schottky Diode Mixers 524 13.2.2.2 SIS Mixer Technology 526 13.2.2.3 Hot Electron Bolometric (HEB) Mixers 527 13.2.2.4 State-of-the-Art Receiver Sensitivities 529 13.3 THz Space Applications 530 13.3.1 Planetary Science: The Case for Miniaturization 530 13.3.2 Astrophysics: The Case for THz Array Receivers 533 13.3.3 Earth Science: The Case for Active THz Systems 535 13.4 Summary and Future Trends 538 Acknowledgment 539 Exercises 539 Exercise 1–3 539 Exercise 4 540 References 540 Index 547

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Book SynopsisExplore a thorough treatment of the foundations of smart grid sensing, communication, computation, and control As electric power systems undergo a transformative upgrade with the integration of advanced technologies to enable the smarter electric grid, professionals who work in the area require a new understanding of the evolving complexity of the grid. Cyber Infrastructure for the Smart Electric Grid delivers a comprehensive overview of the fundamental principles of smart grid operation and control, smart grid technologies, including sensors, communication networks, computation, data management, and cyber security, and the interdependencies between the component technologies on which a smart grid's security depends. The book offers readers the opportunity to critically analyze the smart grid infrastructure needed to sense, communicate, compute, and control in a secure way. Readers of the book will be able to apply the interdisciplinary principles they've learned in the book to dTable of Contents1 Introduction to the Smart Grid 1 1.1 Overview of the electric power grid 1 1.2 What can go wrong in power grid operation 12 1.3 Learning from past events 14 1.4 Towards a smarter electric grid 18 1.5 Summary 20 1.6 Problems 20 1.7 Questions 22 2 Sense, communicate, compute and control in secure way 23 2.1 Sensing in smart grid 25 2.2 Communication infrastructure in smart grid 37 2.3 Computational infrastructure and control requirements in smart grid 38 2.4 Cyber security in smart grid 43 2.5 Summary 45 2.6 Problems 45 2.7 Questions 47 3 Smart Grid Operational Structure and Standards 49 3.1 Organization to ensure system reliability 53 3.2 Smart grid standards and interoperability 56 3.3 Operational structure in the rest of the world 58 3.4 Summary 58 3.5 Problems 59 3.6 Questions 60 4 Communication performance and factors that Affect it 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Propagation Delay 66 4.3 Transmission Delay 67 4.4 Queuing Delay and Jitter 69 4.5 Processing Delay 73 4.6 Delay in Multi-hop networks 73 4.7 Data Loss and Corruption 74 4.8 Summary 76 4.9 Exercises 76 5 Layered communication model 81 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Physical layer 86 5.3 Link layer: service models 87 5.4 Network layer: addressing and routing 92 5.5 Transport layer: datagram and stream protocols 100 5.6 Application layer 107 5.7 Glue protocols: ARP, DNS 109 5.8 Comparison between OST and TCP/IP models 112 5.9 Summary 113 5.10 Problems 113 5.11 Questions 115 6 Power system application-layer protocols 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 SCADA protocols 118 6.3 ICCP 125 6.4 C37.118 127 6.5 Smart metering and distributed energy resources 129 6.6 Time synchronization 132 6.7 Summary 134 6.8 Problems 134 6.9 Questions 136 7 Utility IT infrastructures for control center and Fault-tolerant computing 137 7.1 Conventional control centers 137 7.2 Modern Control Centers 141 7.3 Future Control Centers 143 7.4 UML, XML, RDF,and CIM 145 7.5 Basics of Fault-tolerant computing 154 7.6 Cloud computing 157 7.7 Summary 159 7.8 Problems 160 7.9 Questions 161 8 Basic security concepts, cryptographic protocols, and access control 163 8.1 Introduction 163 8.2 Basic Cybersecurity Concepts and Threats to Power systems 164 8.3 The CIA Triad and Other Core Security Properties 168 8.4 Introduction to Encryption and Authentication 178 8.5 Cryptography in power systems 182 8.6 Access control 187 8.7 Summary 189 8.8 Problems 190 8.9 Questions 191 9 Network attacks and protection 193 9.1 Attacks to network communications 193 9.2 Mitigation mechanisms against network attacks 202 9.3 Network protection through rewalls 208 9.4 Intrusion detection 210 9.5 Summary 214 9.6 Problems 214 9.7 Questions 216 10 Vulnerabilities, and Risk Management 217 10.1 System vulnerabilities 217 10.2 Security mechanisms: Access control and Malware Detection 229 10.3 Assurance and Evaluation 233 10.4 Compliance: Industrial practice to implement NERC CIP 241 10.5 Summary 242 10.6 Problems 243 10.7 Questions 244 11 Smart grid case studies 245 11.1 Smart Grid Demonstration Projects 245 11.2 Smart grid metrics 249 11.3 Smart Grid Challenges: Attack case-studies 250 11.4 Mitigation using NIST Cybersecurity Framework 257 11.5 Summary 259 11.6 Problems 259 11.7 Questions 261 Index

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Book SynopsisProvides a self-contained account on applications of electromagnetic reciprocity theorems to multiport antenna systems The reciprocity theorem is among the most intriguing concepts in wave field theory and has become an integral part of almost all standard textbooks on electromagnetic (EM) theory. This book makes use of the theorem to quantitatively describe EM interactions concerning general multiport antenna systems. It covers a general reciprocity-based description of antenna systems, their EM scattering properties, and further related aspects. Beginning with an introduction to the subject, Electromagnetic Reciprocity in Antenna Theory provides readers first with the basic prerequisites before offering coverage of the equivalent multiport circuit antenna representations, EM coupling between multiport antenna systems and their EM interactions with scatterers, accompanied with the corresponding EM compensation theorems. In addition, the text: Presents basic prerequisites includiTable of ContentsIntroduction xi 1 Basic Prerequisites 1 1.1 Laplace Transformation 3 1.2 Time Convolution 4 1.3 Time Correlation 5 1.4 EMReciprocity Theorems 6 1.4.1 Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Convolution Type 8 1.4.2 Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Correlation Type 9 1.4.3 Application of the Reciprocity Theorems to an Unbounded Domain 11 1.5 Description of the Antenna Configuration 13 1.5.1 Antenna Power Conservation 14 1.5.2 Antenna Interface Relations 16 2 Antenna Uniqueness Theorem 19 2.1 Problem Description 19 2.2 Problem Solution 19 3 Forward-Scattering Theorem in Antenna Theory 23 3.1 Problem Description 23 3.2 Problem Solution 23 4 Antenna Matching Theorems 31 4.1 Reciprocity Analysis of the Time-Correlation Type 31 4.1.1 Transmitting State 31 4.1.2 Receiving State 34 4.1.3 EquivalentMatching Condition 35 5 Equivalent Kirchhoff Network Representations of a Receiving Antenna System 41 5.1 Reciprocity Analysis of the Time-Convolution Type 41 5.1.1 Equivalent Circuits for Plane-Wave Incidence 41 5.1.2 Equivalent Circuits for a Known Volume-Current Distribution 45 6 The Antenna Systemin the Presence of a Scatterer 51 6.1 Receiving Antenna in the Presence of a Scatterer 51 6.2 Transmitting Antenna in the Presence of a Scatterer 56 6.2.1 Analysis Based on the Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Convolution Type 57 6.2.2 Analysis Based on the Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Correlation Type 59 7 EMCoupling Between Two Multiport Antenna Systems 65 7.1 Description of the Problem Configuration 65 7.2 Analysis Based on the Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Convolution Type 68 7.3 Analysis Based on the Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Correlation Type 71 8 Compensation Theorems for the EMCoupling Between Two Multiport Antennas 77 8.1 Description of the Problem Configuration 77 8.2 Analysis Based on the Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Convolution Type 79 8.2.1 The Change in Scenario (BA) 79 8.2.2 The Change in Scenario (AB) 82 8.3 Analysis Based on the Reciprocity Theorem of the Time-Correlation Type 85 8.3.1 The Change in Scenario (BA) 85 8.3.2 The Change in Scenario (AB) 88 9 Compensation Theorems for the EMScattering of an Antenna System 95 9.1 Description of the Problem Configuration 95 9.2 Reciprocity Analysis 96 9.2.1 Compensation Theorems in Terms of Electric Current-excited Sensing EM Fields 99 9.2.2 Compensation Theorems in Terms of Voltage-Excited Sensing EM Fields 100 9.2.3 Power Reciprocity Expressions 101 AppendixA Lerch’s Uniqueness Theorem 107 A.1 Problem ofMoments 107 A.2 Proof of Lerch’s Theorem 108 References 111 Index 115

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Book SynopsisCovers PID control systems from the very basics to the advanced topics This book covers the design, implementation and automatic tuning of PID control systems with operational constraints. It provides students, researchers, and industrial practitioners with everything they need to know about PID control systemsfrom classical tuning rules and model-based design to constraints, automatic tuning, cascade control, and gain scheduled control. PID Control System Design and Automatic Tuning using MATLAB/Simulink introduces PID control system structures, sensitivity analysis, PID control design, implementation with constraints, disturbance observer-based PID control, gain scheduled PID control systems, cascade PID control systems, PID control design for complex systems, automatic tuning and applications of PID control to unmanned aerial vehicles. It also presents resonant control systems relevant to many engineering applications. The implementation of PID control and resonant control highlightTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgment xvii List of Symbols and Acronyms xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Basics of PID Control 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 PID Controller Structure 1 1.2.1 Proportional Controller 1 1.2.2 Proportional Plus Derivative Controller 3 1.2.3 Proportional Plus Integral Controller 5 1.2.4 PID Controllers 9 1.2.5 The Commercial PID Controller Structure 12 1.2.6 Food for Thought 13 1.3 Classical Tuning Rules for PID Controllers 13 1.3.1 Ziegler–Nichols Oscillation Based Tuning Rules 13 1.3.2 Tuning Rules based on the First Order Plus Delay Model 15 1.3.3 Food for Thought 17 1.4 Model Based PID Controller Tuning Rules 18 1.4.1 IMC-PID Controller Tuning Rules 18 1.4.2 Padula and Visioli Tuning Rules 19 1.4.3 Wang and Cluett Tuning Rules 20 1.4.4 Food for Thought 21 1.5 Examples for Evaluations of the Tuning Rules 21 1.5.1 Examples for Evaluating the Tuning Rules 21 1.5.2 Fired Heater Control Example 25 1.6 Summary 27 1.7 Further Reading 28 Problems 28 2 Closed-loop Performance and Stability 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion 31 2.2.1 Determining Closed-loop Poles 32 2.2.2 Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion 33 2.2.3 Food for Thought 36 2.3 Nyquist Stability Criterion 36 2.3.1 Nyquist Diagram 36 2.3.1.1 Gain Margin 38 2.3.1.2 Phase Margin 38 2.3.1.3 Delay Margin 38 2.3.2 Rework of Tuning Rules based PID Controllers 40 2.3.3 Food for Thought 42 2.4 Control System Structures and Sensitivity Functions 42 2.4.1 One Degree of Freedom Control System Structure 43 2.4.2 Two Degrees of Freedom Design 44 2.4.2.1 Two degrees of freedom implementation of PI controllers 45 2.4.3 Sensitivity Functions in Feedback Control 45 2.4.4 Food for Thought 47 2.5 Reference Following and Disturbance Rejection 47 2.5.1 Closed-loop Bandwidth 47 2.5.2 Reference Following and Disturbance Rejection with PID Controllers 50 2.5.3 Reference Following and Disturbance Rejection with Resonant Controllers 53 2.5.4 Food for Thought 54 2.6 Disturbance Rejection and Noise Attenuation 54 2.6.1 Conflict between Disturbance Rejection and Noise Attenuation 54 2.6.2 PID Controller for Disturbance Rejection and Noise Attenuation 55 2.6.3 Food for Thought 58 2.7 Robust Stability and Robust Performance 59 2.7.1 Modeling Errors 59 2.7.2 Robust Stability 60 2.7.3 Case Study: Robust Control of Polymer Reactor 62 2.7.4 Food for Thought 65 2.8 Summary 65 2.9 Further Reading 67 Problems 67 3 Model-Based PID and Resonant Controller Design 71 3.1 Introduction 71 3.2 PI Controller Design 71 3.2.1 Desired Closed-loop Performance Specification 71 3.2.2 Model and Controller Structures 72 3.2.3 Closed-loop Transfer Functions for Different Configurations 75 3.2.4 Food for Thought 77 3.3 Model Based Design for PID Controllers 78 3.3.1 PD Controller Design 78 3.3.2 Analytical Examples for Ideal PID with Pole-zero Cancellation 81 3.3.3 Analytical Examples for PID Controllers with Filters 84 3.3.4 PID Controller Design without Pole–Zero Cancellation 92 3.3.5 MATLAB Tutorial on Solution of a PID Controller with Filter 94 3.3.6 Food for Thought 95 3.4 Resonant Controller Design 96 3.4.1 Resonant Controller Design 96 3.4.2 Steady-state Error Analysis 97 3.4.3 Pole–Zero Cancellation in the Design of a Resonant Controller 99 3.4.4 Food for Thought 101 3.5 Feedforward Control 102 3.5.1 Basic Ideas about Feedforward Control 102 3.5.2 Three Springs and Double Mass System 103 3.5.3 Food for Thought 108 3.6 Summary 108 3.7 Further Reading 108 Problems 109 4 Implementation of PID Controllers 113 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 Scenario of a PID Controller at work 113 4.3 PID Controller Implementation using the Position Form 114 4.3.1 The Steady-state Information Needed 114 4.3.2 Discretization of a PID Controller 115 4.3.3 Food for Thought 116 4.4 PID Controller Implementation using the Velocity Form 117 4.4.1 Discretization of a PI Controller 117 4.4.2 Discretization of a PID Controller using the Velocity Form 119 4.4.3 Improving Accuracy in a Slower Sampling Environment 120 4.4.4 Food for Thought 122 4.5 Anti-windup Implementation using the Position Form 122 4.5.1 Integrator Windup Scenario 122 4.5.2 Anti-windup Mechanisms in the Position Form of PI Controllers 124 4.5.3 Food for Thought 125 4.6 Anti-windup Mechanisms in the Velocity Form 126 4.6.1 Anti-windup Mechanism on the Amplitude of the Control Signal 126 4.6.2 Limits on the Rate of Change of the Control Signal 129 4.6.3 Food for Thought 129 4.7 Tutorial on PID Anti-windup Implementation 130 4.8 Dealing with Other Implementation Issues 133 4.8.1 Plant Start-up 134 4.8.2 Dealing with Quantization Errors in PID Controller Implementation 135 4.9 Summary 136 4.10 Further Reading 137 Problems 137 5 Disturbance Observer- Based PID and Resonant Controller 139 5.1 Introduction 139 5.2 Disturbance observer-Based PI Controller 139 5.2.1 Estimation of Disturbance with Control 139 5.2.1.1 Choice of Proportional Controller K1 140 5.2.1.2 Compensation of Steady-state Error 140 5.2.1.3 The closed-loop poles 141 5.2.1.4 Implementation procedure 142 5.2.2 Equivalence to PI controller 143 5.2.3 MATLAB Tutorial for Implementation of a PI Controller via Estimation 144 5.2.4 Examples for Estimator based PI Controllers 145 5.2.5 Food for Thought 148 5.3 Disturbance observer-Based PID Controller 149 5.3.1 Proportional Plus Derivative Control 149 5.3.2 Adding Integral Action 150 5.3.3 Equivalence to a PID Controller 151 5.3.4 MATLAB Tutorial on the Implementation of a disturbance observer-based PID Controller 153 5.3.5 Examples for Disturbance observer-based PID Controller 155 5.3.6 Food for Thought 156 5.4 Disturbance observer-Based Resonant Controller 156 5.4.1 Resonant Controller Design 156 5.4.2 Resonant Controller Implementation 158 5.4.3 Equivalence to a Resonant Controller 159 5.4.4 MATLAB Tutorial on Disturbance observer-Based Resonant Controller Implementation 160 5.4.5 Examples for Disturbance observer-Based Resonant Controllers 162 5.4.6 Food for Thought 167 5.5 Multi-frequency Resonant Controller 167 5.5.1 Adding Integral Action to the Resonant Controller 168 5.5.2 Adding More Periodic Components 170 5.5.3 Food for Thought 171 5.6 Summary 172 5.7 Further Reading 172 Problems 173 6 PID Control of Nonlinear Systems 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Linearization of the Nonlinear Model 179 6.2.1 Approximation of a Nonlinear Function 179 6.2.2 Linearization of nonlinear differential equations 181 6.2.3 Case Study: Linearization of the Coupled Tank Model 181 6.2.4 Case Study: Linearization of the Induction Motor Model 184 6.2.5 Food for Thought 186 6.3 Case Study: Ball and Plate Balancing System 187 6.3.1 Dynamics of the Ball and Plate Balancing System 187 6.3.2 Linearization of the Nonlinear Model 188 6.3.3 PID Controller Design 189 6.3.4 Implementation and Experimental Results 190 6.3.4.1 Disturbance Rejection 191 6.3.4.2 Making a Square Movement 192 6.3.4.3 Making a Circle Movement 192 6.3.4.4 Making more Complicated Movements 194 6.3.5 Food for Thought 194 6.4 Gain Scheduled PID Control Systems 194 6.4.1 TheWeighting Parameters 194 6.4.2 Gain Scheduled Implementation using PID Velocity Form 196 6.4.3 Gain Scheduled Implementation using an Estimator Based PID Controller 197 6.4.4 Food for Thought 199 6.5 Summary 199 6.6 Further Reading 199 Problems 200 7 Cascade PID Control Systems 203 7.1 Introduction 203 7.2 Design of a Cascade PID Control System 203 7.2.1 Design Steps for a Cascade Control System 203 7.2.2 Simple Design Examples 204 7.2.3 Achieving Closed-loop Performance Invariance (Approximate) in a Cascade Structure 208 7.2.4 Food for Thought 209 7.3 Cascade Control System for Input Disturbance Rejection 209 7.3.1 Frequency Characteristics for Disturbance Rejection 210 7.3.2 Simulation Studies 211 7.3.3 Food for Thought 213 7.4 Cascade Control System for Actuator Nonlinearities 214 7.4.1 Cascade Control for Actuator with a Deadzone 214 7.4.2 Cascade Control for Actuators with Quantization Errors 218 7.4.3 Cascade Control for Actuators with Backlash Nonlinearity 221 7.4.4 Food for Thought 227 7.5 Summary 230 7.6 Further Reading 230 Problems 231 8 PID Controller Design for Complex Systems 233 8.1 Introduction 233 8.2 PI Controller Design via Gain and Phase Margins 233 8.2.1 PI Controller Design Using Gain Margin and Phase Margin Specifications 233 8.2.2 Design Examples 234 8.2.3 Food for Thought 238 8.3 PID Controller Design using Two Frequency Points 238 8.3.1 Finding the PID Controller Parameters 238 8.3.2 Desired Closed-loop Performance Specification using Two Frequency Points 240 8.3.3 Design Examples 242 8.3.4 MATLAB Tutorial on PID Controller Design Using two Frequency Points 243 8.3.5 PID Controller Design for Beer Filtration Process 245 8.3.6 Food for Thought 248 8.4 PID Controller Design for Integrating Systems 249 8.4.1 The Approximate Model 249 8.4.2 Selection of Desired Closed-loop Performance 250 8.4.3 Normalization of the Parameters and Empirical Rules 251 8.4.4 Gain and Phase Margins 253 8.4.5 Simulation Examples 253 8.4.6 Food for Thought 256 8.5 Summary 256 8.6 Further Reading 257 Problems 257 9 Automatic Tuning of PID Controllers 259 9.1 Introduction 259 9.2 Relay Feedback Control 259 9.2.1 Relay Control with Hysteresis 259 9.2.2 Relay Control with Integrator 263 9.2.3 Food for Thought 267 9.3 Estimation of Frequency Response using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 267 9.3.1 FFT Estimation 268 9.3.2 MATLAB Tutorial using the FFT for Estimation 269 9.3.3 Monte-Carlo Simulation Studies 270 9.3.4 Food for Thought 272 9.4 Estimation of Frequency Response Using the frequency sampling filter (FSF) 273 9.4.1 Frequency Sampling FilterModel 273 9.4.2 MATLAB Tutorial on Estimation Using the FSF Model 276 9.4.3 Monte-Carlo Simulation using the FSF Estimation 278 9.4.4 Food for Thought 279 9.5 Monte-Carlo Simulation Studies 279 9.5.1 Effect of Unknown Constant Disturbance 279 9.5.2 Effect of Unknown Low Frequency Disturbance 280 9.5.3 Estimation of the Steady-state Value 282 9.5.4 Food for Thought 283 9.6 Auto-tuner Design for Stable Plant 283 9.6.1 MATLAB Tutorial on Auto-tuner for Stable Plant 284 9.6.2 Evaluation of the Auto-tuner for a Stable Plant 286 9.6.2.1 PID Controller Parameters 287 9.6.2.2 Nyquist Plots 287 9.6.2.3 Closed-loop Simulation Results 288 9.6.3 Comparative Studies 289 9.6.4 Food for Thought 290 9.7 Auto-tuner Design for a Plant with an Integrator 291 9.7.1 Estimation of an Integrating Plus Delay Model 291 9.7.2 Auto-tuner for Integrating Systems 292 9.7.3 Auto-tuning of Cascade Control Systems 297 9.7.4 Food for Thought 300 9.8 Summary 300 9.9 Further Reading 301 Problems 302 10 PID Control of Multi-rotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicles 305 10.1 Introduction 305 10.2 Multi-rotor Dynamics 305 10.2.1 Dynamic Models for Attitude Control 305 10.2.2 Actuator Dynamics for Quadrotor UAVs 307 10.2.3 Actuator Dynamics of Hexacopters 309 10.2.4 Food for Thought 311 10.3 Cascade Attitude Control of Multi-rotor UAVs 311 10.3.1 Linearized Model for the Secondary Plant 312 10.3.2 Linearized Model for the Primary Plant 313 10.3.3 Food for Thought 313 10.4 Automatic Tuning of Attitude Control Systems 313 10.4.1 Test Rigs for Auto-tuning Cascade PI Controllers of Multi-rotor UAVs 314 10.4.2 Experimental Results for Quadrotor UAV 314 10.4.3 Experimental Results for Hexacopter 320 10.4.4 Food for Thought 324 10.5 Summary 324 10.6 Further Reading 325 Problems 325 Suggestions to Food for Thought Questions 327 Bibliography 331 Index 341

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Book SynopsisProvides extensive coverage of standardized QoS technologies for fixed and mobile ultra-broadband networks and servicesbringing together technical, regulation, and business aspects The Quality of Service (QoS) has been mandatory for traditional telecommunication services such as telephony (voice) and television (TV) since the first half of the past century, however, with the convergence of telecommunication networks and services onto Internet technologies, the QoS provision remains a big challenge for all ICT services, not only for traditional ones. This book covers the standardized QoS technologies for fixed and mobile ultra-broadband networks and services, including the business aspects and QoS regulation framework, which all will have high impact on the ICTs in the current and the following decade. QoS for Fixed and Mobile Ultra-Broadband starts by introducing readers to the telecommunications field and the technology, and the many aspects of both QoS Table of Contents1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Telecommunications/ICT Sector in the Twenty-First Century 2 1.2 Convergence of the Telecom and Internet Worlds and QoS 4 1.3 Introduction to QoS, QoE, and Network Performance 9 1.3.1 Quality of Service (QoS) Definition 10 1.3.2 Quality of Experience (QoE) 11 1.3.3 Network Performance (NP) 12 1.3.4 QoS, QoE, and NP Relations 13 1.4 ITU’s QoS Framework 14 1.4.1 Universal Model 14 1.4.2 Performance Model 15 1.4.3 Four-Market Model 17 1.5 QoE Concepts and Standards 18 1.5.1 QoE and QoS Comparison 18 1.5.2 QoS and QoE Standards 19 1.6 General QoS Terminology 20 1.7 Discussion 21 References 23 2 Internet QoS 25 2.1 Overview of Internet Technology Protocols 25 2.1.1 Internet Network Layer Protocols: IPv4 and IPv6 26 2.1.2 Main Internet Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP 28 2.1.3 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol – DHCP 32 2.1.4 Domain Name System – DNS 32 2.1.5 Internet Fundamental Applications 34 2.1.5.1 Web Technology 34 2.1.5.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 34 2.1.5.3 Email Protocols 35 2.2 Fundamental Internet Network Architectures 35 2.2.1 Client-Server Internet Networking 35 2.2.2 Peer-to-Peer Internet Networking 36 2.2.3 Basic Internet Network Architectures 36 2.2.4 Autonomous Systems on the Internet 38 2.3 Internet Traffic Characterization 39 2.3.1 Audio Traffic Characterization 40 2.3.2 Video Traffic Characterization 40 2.3.3 Non-Real-Time Traffic Characterization 42 2.4 QoS on Different Protocols Layers 44 2.5 Traffic Management Techniques 45 2.5.1 Classification of IP Packets 46 2.5.2 Packet Classification From the Technical Side 46 2.5.3 Packet Scheduling 47 2.5.4 Admission Control 47 2.5.5 Traffic Management Versus Network Capacity 49 2.6 Internet QoS Frameworks: the IETF and the ITU 50 2.7 Integrated Services (IntServ) and Differentiated Services (DiffServ) 51 2.8 QoS with Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) 54 2.9 Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) 55 2.10 Basic Inter-Provider QoS Model 57 2.10.1 Basic DiffServ Model for a Single Provider 58 2.10.2 Basic DiffServ Inter-Provider Model 58 2.11 IP Network Architectures for End-to-End QoS 59 2.12 Discussion 61 References 62 3 QoS in NGN and Future Networks 65 3.1 ITU’s Next Generation Networks 65 3.2 Transport and Service Stratum of NGNs 67 3.3 Service Architecture in NGN 69 3.3.1 IMS Architecture 70 3.3.2 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) 73 3.3.3 Diameter 75 3.4 QoS Architectures for NGN 78 3.4.1 Resource and Admission Control Function 78 3.4.2 Ethernet QoS for NGN 79 3.4.2.1 QoS Services in Ethernet-based NGN 81 3.4.3 Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) 83 3.5 Management of Performance Measurements in NGN 84 3.6 DPI Performance Models and Metrics 86 3.7 QoS in Future Networks 89 3.7.1 Network Virtualization and QoS 90 3.7.2 Software-Defined Networking and QoS 93 3.8 Business and Regulatory Aspects 95 3.8.1 NGN Policies 95 3.8.2 NGN Regulation Aspects 96 3.8.3 NGN Business Aspects 97 References 99 4 QoS for Fixed Ultra-Broadband 101 4.1 Ultra-broadband DSL and Cable Access 103 4.1.1 DSL Ultra-Broadband Access 103 4.1.1.1 ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) 103 4.1.2 Cable Ultra-Broadband Access 105 4.2 Ultra-Broadband Optical Access 107 4.3 QoS for Fixed Ultra-Broadband Access 110 4.3.1 QoS for DSL Access 110 4.3.2 QoS for Cable Access 112 4.3.3 QoS for PON Access 114 4.4 QoS in Ethernet and Metro Ethernet 117 4.4.1 Class of Service for the Carrier Ethernet 120 4.5 End-to-End QoS Network Design 123 4.5.1 End-to-End Network Performance Parameters for IP-based Services 124 4.5.2 QoS Classes by the ITU 126 4.5.3 End-to-End QoS Considerations for Network Design 128 4.6 Strategic Aspects for Ultra-Broadband 130 References 133 5 QoS for Mobile Ultra-Broadband 137 5.1 Mobile Ultra-Broadband Network Architectures 138 5.1.1 3G Network Architecture 139 5.1.2 4G Network Architecture 140 5.1.3 5G Network Architecture 145 5.2 QoS in 3G Broadband Mobile Networks 147 5.3 QoS in 4G Ultra-Broadband: LTE-Advanced-Pro 150 5.4 QoS and Giga Speed WiFi 154 5.5 WiFi vs. LTE/LTE-Advanced in Unlicensed Bands: The QoS Viewpoint 160 5.6 The ITU’s IMT-2020 162 5.7 QoS in 5G Mobile Ultra-Broadband 165 5.7.1 5G QoS Control and Rules 168 5.7.2 5G QoS Flow Mapping 168 5.8 Mobile Broadband Spectrum Management and QoS 170 5.9 Very Small Cell Deployments and Impact on QoS 172 5.10 Business and Regulation Aspects for Mobile Ultra-Broadband 174 5.10.1 Business Aspects 174 5.10.2 Regulation Aspects 176 References 177 6 Services in Fixed and Mobile Ultra-Broadband 179 6.1 QoS-enabled VoIP Services 179 6.1.1 NGN Provision of VoIP Services 180 6.1.2 Discussion on Telecom Operator vs. OTT Voice Service Quality 182 6.2 QoS-enabled Video and IPTV Services 183 6.2.1 IPTV and QoS 184 6.3 QoE for VoIP and IPTV 188 6.3.1 QoE for VoIP 188 6.3.2 QoE for IPTV 190 6.4 QoS for Popular Internet Services 192 6.5 QoS for Business Users (VPN Services) 196 6.6 QoS for Internet Access Service and Over-the-Top Data Services 198 6.6.1 Traffic Management for OTT Services 200 6.6.2 Traffic Management Approaches 200 6.6.3 Traffic Management Influence on QoE for OTT Services 204 6.7 Internet of Things (IoT) Services 205 6.7.1 Mobile Cellular Internet of Things 206 6.7.2 IoT Big Data and Artificial Intelligence 209 6.8 Cloud Computing Services 210 6.8.1 QoS Metrics for Cloud Services 212 6.9 Business and Regulatory Challenges for Services Over Ultra-Broadband 214 6.9.1 Business Aspects for Broadband Services 214 6.9.2 Regulatory Challenges for Broadband Services 216 References 218 7 Broadband QoS Parameters, KPIs, and Measurements 221 7.1 QoS, QoE, and Application Needs 221 7.2 Generic and Specific QoS Parameters 224 7.2.1 Comparable Performance Indicators 225 7.2.2 Standardized QoS Parameters 225 7.3 Interconnection and QoS 227 7.3.1 QoS Aspects for TDM Interconnection 228 7.3.2 Internet Traffic Interconnection 230 7.3.3 End-to-End QoS and IP Networks Interconnection 231 7.4 KPIs for Real-Time Services 233 7.4.1 KPIs for Voice Over LTE Services 235 7.4.2 KPIs for IPTV and Video Services 236 7.5 KPIs for Data Services and VPNs 237 7.5.1 KPIs for Data Services 237 7.5.2 KPIs for VPN Services 240 7.5.3 KPIs for Mobile Services 241 7.6 KPIs for Smart Sustainable Cities 244 7.7 QoS and QoE Assessment Methodologies 246 7.7.1 QoS/QoE Measurement Systems 246 7.7.2 Basic Network Model for Measurements 248 7.7.3 Quality Assessment Methodologies 249 7.8 Broadband QoS Measurements 251 7.8.1 Framework for QoS Measurements of IP Network Services 251 7.8.2 QoS Evaluation Scenarios 253 7.8.3 Discussion About the Sampling Methodology 254 7.9 Quality Measurement Tools and Platforms 255 7.10 Discussion 257 References 258 8 Network Neutrality 261 8.1 Introduction to Network Neutrality 261 8.2 Degradations of Internet Access Service 262 8.3 Main Regulatory Goals on Network Neutrality 266 8.4 Network Neutrality Business Aspects 268 8.5 Role of NRAs in Regulation of Network Neutrality 270 8.6 Network Neutrality Approaches 272 8.6.1 Network Neutrality Approach in Europe 272 8.6.2 Network Neutrality Approach in the United States 274 8.7 Challenges Regarding QoS and Network Neutrality 276 8.8 Network Neutrality Enforcement 278 8.9 Discussion 279 References 281 9 QoS Regulatory Framework 283 9.1 Scope of QoS Regulation 283 9.2 Fundamentals of QoS Regulation 285 9.3 QoS Regulation Guidelines by the ITU 287 9.4 SLA and QoS Regulation 288 9.4.1 QoS Agreement 289 9.4.2 SLA and QoS Regulation 290 9.5 Specifying Parameters, Levels, and Measurement Methods 291 9.5.1 Defining QoS Parameters 292 9.5.2 Setting Target Levels and Making Measurements 293 9.6 KPIs and Measurement Methods for Fixed and Mobile Services 294 9.6.1 Audit of QoS and Publishing the Measurements 295 9.6.2 KPI Measurements in Mobile Networks 295 9.6.3 KPI Measurements in Fixed Broadband Networks 298 9.7 QoS and Pricing 299 9.8 QoS Enforcement 302 9.9 Discussion 305 References 306 10 Conclusions 307 Index 313

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Book SynopsisDiscover the basic telecommunications systems principles in an accessible learn-by-doing format Communication Systems Principles Using MATLAB covers a variety of systems principles in telecommunications in an accessible format without the need to master a large body of theory. The text puts the focus on topics such as radio and wireless modulation, reception and transmission, wired networks and fiber optic communications. The book also explores packet networks and TCP/IP as well as digital source and channel coding, and the fundamentals of data encryption. Since MATLAB is widely used by telecommunications engineers, it was chosen as the vehicle to demonstrate many of the basic ideas, with code examples presented in every chapter. The text addresses digital communications with coverage of packet-switched networks. Many fundamental concepts such as routing via shortest-path are introduced with simple and concrete examples. The treatment of advanced telecommunications topics extends toTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xv Introduction xvii About the CompanionWebsite xxi 1 Signals and Systems 1 1.1 Chapter Objectives 1 1.2 Introduction 1 1.3 Signals and Phase Shift 2 1.4 System Building Blocks 3 1.4.1 Basic Building Blocks 3 1.4.2 Phase Shifting Blocks 4 1.4.3 Linear and Nonlinear Blocks 5 1.4.4 Filtering Blocks 8 1.5 Integration and Differentiation of aWaveform 10 1.6 Generating Signals 16 1.7 Measuring and Transferring Power 19 1.7.1 Root Mean Square 19 1.7.2 The Decibel 23 1.7.3 Maximum Power Transfer 25 1.8 System Noise 29 1.9 Chapter Summary 32 Problems 32 2 Wired,Wireless, and Optical Systems 37 2.1 Chapter Objectives 37 2.2 Introduction 37 2.3 Useful Preliminaries 38 2.3.1 Frequency Components When a SignalWaveform Is Known 38 2.3.2 Frequency SpectrumWhen a Signal Is Measured 42 2.3.3 Measuring the Frequency Spectrum in Practice 44 2.4 Wired Communications 50 2.4.1 Cabling Considerations 50 2.4.2 Pulse Shaping 52 2.4.3 Line Codes and Synchronization 62 2.4.4 Scrambling and Synchronization 66 2.4.5 Pulse Reflection 73 2.4.6 Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line 80 2.4.7 Wave Equation for a Transmission Line 83 2.4.8 StandingWaves 84 2.5 Radio andWireless 92 2.5.1 Radio-frequency Spectrum 92 2.5.2 Radio Propagation 92 2.5.3 Line-of-sight Considerations 96 2.5.4 Radio Reflection 97 2.5.5 RadioWave Diffraction 99 2.5.6 RadioWaves with a Moving Sender or Receiver 103 2.5.7 Sending and Capturing a Radio Signal 105 2.5.8 Processing aWireless Signal 119 2.5.9 Intermodulation 128 2.5.10 External Noise 131 2.6 Optical Transmission 132 2.6.1 Principles of Optical Transmission 132 2.6.2 Optical Sources 134 2.6.3 Optical Fiber 139 2.6.4 Optical Fiber Losses 145 2.6.5 Optical Transmission Measurements 147 2.7 Chapter Summary 150 Problems 151 3 Modulation and Demodulation 155 3.1 Chapter Objectives 155 3.2 Introduction 155 3.3 Useful Preliminaries 156 3.3.1 Trigonometry 157 3.3.2 Complex Numbers 159 3.4 The Need for Modulation 162 3.5 Amplitude Modulation 164 3.5.1 Frequency Components 167 3.5.2 Power Analysis 170 3.5.3 AM Demodulation 171 3.5.4 Variations on AM 173 3.6 Frequency and Phase Modulation 180 3.6.1 FM and PM Concepts 181 3.6.2 FM and PM Analysis 183 3.6.3 Generation of FM and PM Signals 185 3.6.4 The Spectrum of Frequency Modulation 186 3.6.5 Why Do the Bessel Coefficients Give the Spectrum of FM? 195 3.6.6 FM Demodulation 200 3.7 Phase Tracking and Synchronization 204 3.8 Demodulation Using IQ Methods 215 3.8.1 Demodulation of AM Using IQ Signals 216 3.8.2 Demodulation of PM Using IQ Signals 219 3.8.3 Demodulation of FM Using IQ Signals 222 3.9 Modulation for Digital Transmission 225 3.9.1 Digital Modulation 226 3.9.2 Recovering Digital Signals 228 3.9.3 Orthogonal Signals 237 3.9.4 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 239 3.9.5 Frequency Division Multiplexing 242 3.9.6 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 244 3.9.7 Implementing OFDM: The FFT 247 3.9.8 Spread Spectrum 254 3.10 Chapter Summary 261 Problems 261 4 Internet Protocols and Packet Delivery Algorithms 269 4.1 Chapter Objectives 269 4.2 Introduction 269 4.3 Useful Preliminaries 270 4.3.1 Packet Switching 270 4.3.2 Binary Operations 272 4.3.3 Data Structures and Dereferencing Data 272 4.4 Packets, Protocol Layers, and the Protocol Stack 277 4.5 Local Area Networks 281 4.5.1 Wired LANs 282 4.5.2 Wireless LANs 284 4.6 Device Packet Delivery: Internet Protocol 286 4.6.1 The Original IPv4 286 4.6.2 Extension to IPv6 286 4.6.3 IP Checksum 290 4.6.4 IP Addressing 294 4.6.5 Subnetworks 296 4.6.6 Network Address Translation 298 4.7 Network Access Configuration 300 4.7.1 Mapping MAC to IP: ARP 301 4.7.2 IP Configuration: DHCP 302 4.7.3 Domain Name System (DNS) 302 4.8 Application Packet Delivery: TCP and UDP 303 4.9 TCP: Reliable Delivery and Network Fairness 309 4.9.1 Connection Establishment and Teardown 311 4.9.2 Congestion Control 311 4.9.3 TCP Timeouts 319 4.10 Packet Routing 321 4.10.1 Routing Example 322 4.10.2 Mechanics of Packet Forwarding 323 4.10.3 Routing Tasks 325 4.10.4 Forwarding Table Using Supernetting 326 4.10.5 Route Path Lookup 330 4.10.6 Routing Tables Based on Neighbor Discovery: Distance Vector 343 4.10.7 Routing Tables Based on Network Topology: Link State 348 4.11 Chapter Summary 359 Problems 359 5 Quantization and Coding 363 5.1 Chapter Objectives 363 5.2 Introduction 363 5.3 Useful Preliminaries 364 5.3.1 Probability Functions 364 5.3.2 Difference Equations and the z Transform 366 5.4 Digital Channel Capacity 369 5.5 Quantization 372 5.5.1 Scalar Quantization 373 5.5.2 Companding 379 5.5.3 Unequal Step Size Quantization 382 5.5.4 Adaptive Scalar Quantization 383 5.5.5 Vector Quantization 385 5.6 Source Coding 389 5.6.1 Lossless Codes 390 5.6.1.1 Entropy and Codewords 390 5.6.1.2 The Huffman Code 392 5.6.1.3 Adapting the Probability Table 404 5.6.2 Block-based Lossless Encoders 405 5.6.2.1 Sliding-Window Lossless Encoders 405 5.6.2.2 Dictionary-based Lossless Encoders 407 5.6.3 Differential PCM 409 5.6.3.1 Sample-by-sample Prediction 410 5.6.3.2 Adaptive Prediction 417 5.7 Image Coding 420 5.7.1 Block Truncation Algorithm 422 5.7.2 Discrete Cosine Transform 425 5.7.3 Quadtree Decomposition 430 5.7.4 Color Representation 431 5.8 Speech and Audio Coding 433 5.8.1 Linear Prediction for Speech Coding 434 5.8.2 Analysis by Synthesis 439 5.8.3 Spectral Response and NoiseWeighting 440 5.8.4 Audio Coding 442 5.9 Chapter Summary 447 Problems 447 6 Data Transmission and Integrity 453 6.1 Chapter Objectives 453 6.2 Introduction 453 6.3 Useful Preliminaries 454 6.3.1 Probability Error Functions 454 6.3.2 Integer Arithmetic 458 6.4 Bit Errors in Digital Systems 461 6.4.1 Basic Concepts 461 6.4.2 Analyzing Bit Errors 463 6.5 Approaches to Block Error Detection 470 6.5.1 Hamming Codes 472 6.5.2 Checksums 478 6.5.3 Cyclic Redundancy Checks 482 6.5.4 Convolutional Coding for Error Correction 489 6.6 Encryption and Security 507 6.6.1 Cipher Algorithms 508 6.6.2 Simple Encipherment Systems 509 6.6.3 Key Exchange 512 6.6.4 Digital Signatures and Hash Functions 519 6.6.5 Public-key Encryption 520 6.6.6 Public-key Authentication 522 6.6.7 Mathematics Underpinning Public-key Encryption 522 6.7 Chapter Summary 526 Problems 526 References 531 Index 541

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Book SynopsisFIELDS AND WAVES IN ELECTROMAGNETIC COMMUNICATIONS A vital resource that comprehensively covers advanced topics in applied electromagnetics for the professional Electromagnetism (EM) is a highly abstract and complex subject that examines how exerting a force on charged particles is affected by the presence and motion of adjacent particles. The interdependence of the time varying electric and magnetic fieldsone producing the other, and vice versahas allowed researchers to consider them as a single coherent entity: the electromagnetic field. Under this umbrella, students can learn about numerous and varied topics, such as wireless propagation, satellite communications, microwave technology, EM techniques, antennas, and optics, among many others. Fields and Waves in Electromagnetic Communications covers advanced topics in applied electromagnetics for the professional by offering a comprehensive textbook that covers the basics of EM to the most advanced topics such as the classical electrTable of ContentsPreface xii Acknowledgments xiv About the Companion Website xvi 1 Uniform Plane Wave 1 1.1 Introduction to Uniform Plane Wave 1 1.2 Fundamental Concept of Wave Propagation 4 1.3 Plane Wave Concept 7 1.4 One Dimensional Wave Equation Concept 14 1.5 Wave Motion and Wave Front 17 1.6 Phase Velocity of UPW 19 1.7 Wave Impedance 23 1.8 Time Harmonic Field Wave Equations 25 1.8.1 Summary of Propagation Constant 29 1.9 Refractive Index of Medium and Dispersion 30 1.9.1 Summary of Wave Propagation in Lossless Medium 32 1.10 Time Harmonic Wave Solution 33 1.11 Poynting Theorem 35 1.12 Static Poynting Theorem 40 1.12.1 Poynting Theorem for a Wire 40 1.13 Energy Balance Equation in the Presence of a Generator: In-Flux and Out-Flow of Power 41 1.14 Time Harmonic Poynting Vector 43 1.15 Problems 48 2 Wave Propagation in Homogeneous, Nondispersive Lossy Media 55 2.1 Introduction 55 2.2 Wave Propagation in Lossy Media 57 2.3 Good Dielectric Medium 60 2.3.1 Wave Impedance of Good Dielectric 61 2.4 Low-Loss Dielectric Medium 62 2.4.1 Measurement Procedure of Relative Permittivity and Loss Tangent 65 2.4.2 Summary of Lossy Dielectric Materials 65 2.5 Wave Propagation in Good Conducting Medium 66 2.6 Wave Impedance in Good Conductors 70 2.6.1 Practical Applications: Geophysics 72 2.7 Current Wave Equation in High Conductivity Materials 73 2.7.1 Current in a Conducting Sheet 74 2.7.2 Skin Effect and Internal Impedance 76 2.7.3 Sheet Resistance 79 2.7.4 High Frequency Effect 80 2.8 Sheet Resistance of a Wire and a Coaxial Line 84 2.9 Current Distribution on a Wire 85 2.9.1 Rayleigh Approximation of Finite Conductor Thickness 86 2.9.2 Internal Impedance of a Round Wire 87 2.10 Low Frequency Approximation 89 2.11 Skin-Effect Resistance and Inductance Ratios 90 2.12 Impedance of a Circular Tube and Coaxial Cable 91 2.13 Impedance of a Coaxial Cable 96 2.14 Impedance of Metallic-Coated Conductors and Laminates 98 2.15 1D Current Wave Equation in Multilayered Media 100 2.16 Boundary Conditions and Exact Solution of Surface Current of a Multilayered Medium 101 2.17 Design of Multi-Bit Chipless RFID Tags 103 2.18 Power Loss in Good Conductor 104 2.19 Practical Measurement of Sheet Resistance 106 2.19.1 Measurement of Sheet Resistance 109 2.19.1.1 Sheet Resistance Meter 110 2.20 Summary of Propagation in Conducting Media 112 2.21 Chapter Remarks 112 2.22 Problems 113 3 Uniform Plane Wave in Dispersive Media 117 3.1 Introduction 117 3.2 One-Dimensional Wave Equation 118 3.2.1 Field Solutions in Different Forms 122 3.2.2 Wave Motion 124 3.2.3 Phase Velocity 127 3.3 Dispersion of Media and Group Velocity 127 3.4 Dispersion in Digital Signal Processing and Information Theory 137 3.4.1 Group Velocity in Information Theory 137 3.4.2 Pulse Broadening in Dispersive Medium 139 3.5 Wave Impedance of Uniform Plane Wave 143 3.6 Polarization of Wave Fields 144 3.6.1 Linearly Polarized Waves 148 3.6.2 Circularly Polarized Waves 154 3.6.2.1 Practical Design of Circularly Polarized Wave 158 3.6.2.2 Applications of CP Waves 159 3.6.3 Elliptical Polarization 160 3.6.4 Polarization Loss Factor and Polarization Efficiency 166 3.6.4.1 Polarization Loss Factor 166 3.6.4.2 Polarization Efficiency 170 3.7 Specific Topics on Polarizations of Uniform Plane Wave 170 3.7.1 Magnetic Field in Plane Wave with Generic Polarization 171 3.7.2 Poynting Vector Calculation in Different Polarizations of Electromagnetic Fields 172 3.7.3 Elliptically Polarized Wave from Two Unequal Cross-Polar Circularly Polarized Wave 174 3.7.4 Effect of Medium Characteristics on Polarization-Anisotropic Medium 174 3.8 Chapter Remarks 177 3.9 Problems 178 4 Wave Propagation in Dispersive Media 181 4.1 Introduction 181 4.2 Dispersion in Materials 182 4.3 Classical Electron Theory and Dispersion in Material Media 184 4.4 Discrete Charged Particles in Static Electromagnetic Fields 185 4.5 Classical Mechanics Model of Matters 192 4.6 Motion of Charged Particle in Steady Electric and Magnetic Fields 195 4.7 Theory of Cyclotron 198 4.8 Analysis of Charged Particle in Time Harmonic Electric Field and Uniform Magnetic Field 200 4.9 Dispersion in Gaseous Media 203 4.10 Dispersion in Liquid and Solid Media 208 4.11 Ionic Dispersion in Liquid and Solid Media 210 4.12 Dispersion in Metals 214 4.12.1 Significance of Dispersion in Metals in Mixed Signal Electronics? 214 4.12.2 What Are Metals Made of: The Classical Electron Theory and Electromagnetic Wave Interaction? 216 4.13 Waves Propagation in Plasma 223 4.13.1 Electromagnetic Wave Interaction with Plasma 226 4.14 Wave Propagation in Plasma and Satellite Communications 235 4.14.1 Refractive Indices and Phase Velocities for RHCP and LHCP Cases 239 4.15 Waves in Dielectric Media 244 4.15.1 Classical Electron Theory of Dielectric 246 4.15.2 Macroscopic View of Dielectric 249 4.16 Microscopic View of Dielectric 252 4.16.1 Waves in Anisotropic Dielectric Medium 255 4.17 Problems 259 5 Reflection and Transmission of Uniform Plane Wave 263 5.1 Introduction 263 5.2 Electromagnetic Waves Analysis in the Context of Boundary Value Problems 267 5.3 Reflection and Refraction at Plane Surface 271 5.4 Normal Incidence on a Perfect Conductor 272 5.5 Circularly Polarized Wave Incidence on a Conducting Surface 284 5.6 Normal Incidence at Dielectric Boundary 287 5.6.1 Calculation of Reflection and Transmission Coefficients 291 5.6.2 Calculation of Electromagnetic Power Density 293 5.7 Concept of Standing Waves 300 5.7.1 Trigonometric Analysis of Standing Wave 303 5.7.2 Time Domain Analysis of Standing Wave 307 5.7.3 Phasor Vector Analysis of Standing Wave 311 5.7.4 Transmission Line Analogy of Normal Incidence 317 5.8 Reflection from Multiple Layers 320 5.8.1 Effective Transmission and Reflection Analysis of Multilayered Dielectric Media Using Steady-State Boundary Conditions 322 5.8.2 Successive Transmission and Reflection Analysis of Multilayered Dielectric Media 327 5.8.3 Successive Transmission and Reflection Analysis Via λ/4-Thick Dielectric Medium 329 5.8.4 Effective Transmission and Reflection Coefficients of Multilayered Dielectric Media 332 5.8.5 Reflection for a Large Number of Multiple Dielectric Media 336 5.9 Special Cases of Reflection from Multiple Layers 340 5.9.1 Reflection from a Dielectric Coated Good Conductor 341 5.9.2 λ/2-Dielectric Window for Zero Reflection 343 5.9.3 Electrically Thin Dielectric Window 347 5.9.4 λ/4-Dielectric Transformer Window 349 5.9.5 Reflection for 2-Ply Dielectric Window 354 5.9.6 Electromagnetic Absorber Design with a Thin Dielectric Window Placed (3λ 0)/4 Distance from a Perfect Electric Conductor 356 5.9.7 Absorbers in Anechoic Chamber: Antenna Measurement 358 5.10 Final Remarks 359 5.11 Problems 360 6 Oblique Incidence of Uniform Plane Wave 371 6.1 Introduction 371 6.2 Methodologies Used in Oblique Incidence Theory 376 6.3 Coordinate System for Oblique Incidence Cases 378 6.4 Oblique Incidence on Conducting Boundary 387 6.5 TE Polarization on Conducting Boundary 390 6.5.1 Poynting Vector in TE Polarization 393 6.5.2 Phase Velocity Calculation 394 6.5.3 Waveguide Concept 396 6.5.4 Surface Current Calculation on Metallic Boundary 399 6.6 Parallel (TM) Polarization on Conducting Boundary 403 6.6.1 Surface Current and Induced Electric Charge Calculations on Metallic Boundary 407 6.7 Characteristic Wave Impedances 410 6.8 Oblique Incidence on Dielectric Boundary 410 6.8.1 Ray Trace Model of Generalized Oblique Incidence Field 411 6.9 Total Internal Reflection 413 6.9.1 Wave Phenomenon for Θ I > Θ c 415 6.10 TE Polarization of Oblique Incidence on Dielectric Boundary 421 6.10.1 Applications of Boundary Conditions at z = 0 426 6.10.2 Total Internal Reflection and Critical Angle θ c 428 6.10.3 Calculations of Γ TE and τ TE 430 6.10.4 Effective Impedance Concept of TE Polarized Oblique Incidence 433 6.10.5 Total Internal Reflection in the Light of Impedance Concept 434 6.10.6 Special Cases of Γ TE 435 6.10.6.1 Reflection Coefficient Γ TE for Perfect Conductor 435 6.10.6.2 Both Medium Lossless and Non-magnetic Media 436 6.10.6.3 Critical Angle and Submarine Communications 436 6.10.6.4 TE Oblique Incidence on Multiple Dielectric Layers 437 6.10.7 Power Balance in TE Oblique Incidence 439 6.10.8 Equivalent Impedance Concept in Power Balance Equation 443 6.10.9 Summary of TE Polarized Oblique Incidence Case 444 6.11 TM Polarization Oblique Incidence 445 6.11.1 Field Analysis of TM Polarization Oblique Incidence 446 6.11.2 Applications of Boundary Conditions at z = 0 451 6.11.3 Calculations of Γ TM and τ TM 453 6.11.4 Total Transmission and Brewster Angle θ B 456 6.11.5 Total Transmission for Arbitrary Polarized Signal at Plane Interface Between Dissimilar Perfect Dielectric 457 6.11.6 Brewster Angle and Wireless Communications 459 6.11.7 Chipless RFID Polarizer Exploits Brewster Angle 460 6.11.8 Effective Impedance Concept of TM Polarized Oblique Incidence 461 6.11.9 Total Transmission in the Light of Impedance Concept 462 6.11.10 Special Cases of Γ TM 464 6.11.10.1 Reflection Coefficient Γ TM for Perfect Conductor 464 6.11.10.2 Both Medium Lossless and Non-magnetic Media 464 6.11.10.3 Brewster Angle and Laser Beam with TM Polarization 464 6.11.10.4 Calculations of Γ eff for TM and TE Oblique Incidence on Multiple Dielectric Layer 465 6.11.11 Power Balance in TM Oblique Incidence 471 6.11.12 Equivalent Impedance Concept in Power Balance Equation 473 6.11.13 Summary of TM Polarized Oblique Incidence Cases 474 6.12 Problems 475 References 480 7 Incidence of Uniform Plane Wave in Lossy Media 481 7.1 Introduction 481 7.2 Applications 483 7.3 Normal Incidence on Imperfect Media 485 7.3.1 Normal Incidence on Imperfect Dielectric Boundary 493 7.3.1.1 Time Average Power Loss in Lossy Dielectric Medium 494 7.4 Applications of Normal Incidences on Lossy Dielectric Boundary 495 7.4.1 Microwave Biomedical Engineering 495 7.4.2 RF/Microwave Shielding for EMC Measures 497 7.5 Oblique Incidence in Lossy Medium 502 7.5.1 General Theory of Oblique Incidence from Air to Lossy Medium 502 7.5.2 Oblique Incidence and Propagation in Good Conductor 506 7.5.3 Oblique Incidence and Reflection from Lossy Medium 509 7.5.4 Oblique Incidence: Reflection from Good Conductor 510 7.5.5 Good Conductor to Good Conductor Interface 512 7.5.6 Oblique Incidence at the Interface of Two Lossy Medium with Real Θ I 512 7.5.7 Refraction for Two Conductive Media 515 7.6 Emerging Applications: Precision Agriculture 519 7.6.1 Wireless Sensor 521 7.6.2 Soil Models 522 7.6.3 TDR Technique in Soil Moisture Measurements 522 7.6.4 Sensor Design 524 7.6.5 Soil Moisture Remote Sensing Radiometer 524 7.6.6 Test Set Up 529 7.7 Chapter Summary 531 7.8 Problems 531 Acknowledgments 534 References 534 Appendix A Useful Electromagnetic Data 537 Index 542

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Book SynopsisSolid-State Sensors A thorough and up-to-date introduction to solid-state sensors, materials, fabrication processes, and applications Solid-State Sensors provides a comprehensive introduction to the field, covering fundamental principles, underlying theories, sensor materials, fabrication technologies, current and possible future applications, and more. Presented in a clear and accessible format, this reader-friendly textbook describes the fundamentals and classification of all major types of solid-state sensors, including piezoresistive, capacitive, thermometric, optical bio-chemical, magnetic, and acoustic-based sensors. Throughout the text, the authors offer insight into how different solid-state methods complement each other as well as their respective advantages and disadvantages in relation to specific devices and a variety of state-of-the-art applications. Detailed yet concise chapters include numerous visual illustrations and comparative tables oTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xv Preface xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.1.1 Growth in Solid-State Sensor Market 2 1.1.2 Solid-State Sensors: A Recipe for Smart Sensing Systems 5 1.2 Evolution of Solid-State Sensors 6 1.2.1 Origin and Early Developments in Detection Devices 6 1.2.2 Solid-State Electronics: Post Transistor Era 9 1.2.3 Emergence of New Technologies 12 1.2.3.1 Thin-Film Technology 14 1.2.3.2 Advancements in Micro- and Nanofabrication 14 1.2.3.3 Emergence of Nanotechnology 16 1.2.3.4 Printed Electronics on Flexible Substrates 17 1.2.3.5 Smart Devices with Artificial Intelligence 20 1.2.3.6 IoT-Enabled Sensors 21 1.2.4 Paradigm Shift in Solid-State Sensor Research 22 1.2.4.1 Organic Devices 23 1.2.4.2 Wearable Devices 24 1.2.4.3 Implantable Sensors 25 1.3 Outline 27 References 28 2 Classification and Terminology 35 2.1 Sensor Components 35 2.2 Classification of Solid-State Sensors 36 2.3 Sensor Terminology 40 2.3.1 Accuracy 40 2.3.2 Precision 41 2.3.3 Calibration Curve 41 2.3.4 Sensitivity 41 2.3.5 Threshold/Minimum Detectable Limit 42 2.3.6 Null Offset 42 2.3.7 Dynamic Range 42 2.3.8 Nonlinearity 42 2.3.9 Hysteresis 43 2.3.10 Selectivity 43 2.3.11 Repeatability 43 2.3.12 Reproducibility 43 2.3.13 Resolution 43 2.3.14 Stability 43 2.3.15 Noise 44 2.3.16 Response and Recovery Time 44 2.3.17 Drift 45 2.4 Conclusion 45 References 45 3 Fabrication Technologies 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Deposition 48 3.2.1 Physical Vapor Deposition 49 3.2.1.1 Thermal Evaporation 50 3.2.1.2 Sputter Deposition 52 3.2.1.3 Electron-Beam PVD 55 3.2.1.4 Laser Ablation 58 3.2.2 Electroplating 59 3.2.3 Thermal Oxidation 61 3.2.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 62 3.2.4.1 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 62 3.2.4.2 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 63 3.2.4.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 63 3.3 Exposure-Based Lithography Techniques 64 3.3.1 UV Lithography 65 3.3.1.1 Exposure Tool 65 3.3.1.2 Mask 66 3.3.1.3 Photoresist 67 3.3.2 Electron-Beam Lithography 68 3.3.3 X-Ray Lithography 71 3.3.4 Ion-Beam Lithography 71 3.4 Soft Lithography Techniques 72 3.4.1 Particle Replication in Nonwetting Templates 74 3.4.2 Microcontact Printing 75 3.4.3 Microfluidic Patterning 77 3.4.4 Laminar Flow Patterning 79 3.4.5 Step and Flash Imprint Lithography 80 3.4.6 Hydrogel Template 82 3.5 Etching 83 3.5.1 Wet Etching 85 3.5.2 Dry Etching 89 3.6 Doping 90 3.6.1 Diffusion 92 3.6.2 Ion Implantation 94 3.7 Solution Processed Methods 95 3.7.1 Inkjet Printing 95 3.7.2 Drop Dispensing 98 3.7.3 Spray Deposition 100 3.7.4 Screen Printing 101 3.7.5 Tape Casting 103 3.8 Conclusions 105 References 106 4 Piezoelectric Sensors 113 4.1 Overview 113 4.2 Theory of Piezoelectricity 115 4.2.1 Direct Piezoelectric Effect 115 4.2.2 Poling 116 4.2.3 Static Piezoelectricity 118 4.2.4 Anisotropic Crystals 118 4.3 Basic Mathematical Formulation 119 4.3.1 Contribution of Piezoelectric Effect to Elastic constant C 120 4.3.2 Contribution of Piezoelectric Effect to Dielectric Constant ε 121 4.4 Constitutive Equations 122 4.4.1 Piezoelectric 122 4.4.2 Sensor Equations for Electrical Circuits 124 4.4.3 Piezoelectric Constants for a Material 126 4.4.3.1 Piezoelectric Strain Constant d 127 4.4.3.2 Piezoelectric Voltage Coefficient g 127 4.4.3.3 Piezoelectric Coupling Coefficients k 128 4.4.3.4 Mechanical Quality Factor QM 128 4.4.3.5 Acoustic Impedance 129 4.4.3.6 Aging Rate 129 4.4.3.7 Dielectric Constants KTij 129 4.5 Piezoelectric Materials 130 4.5.1 Natural Piezoelectric Materials 131 4.5.1.1 Piezoelectric Single Crystals 131 4.5.1.2 Organic Materials 133 4.5.1.3 Biopiezoelectric Materials 138 4.5.2 Man-made/Synthetic Piezoelectric Material 141 4.5.2.1 Polymers 141 4.5.2.2 Ceramics 143 4.5.2.3 Piezoelectric Composites 146 4.5.2.4 Thin Film 150 4.5.2.5 Choice of Piezoelectric Material for Desired Applications 151 4.6 Uses of Piezoelectric Materials 151 4.6.1 Piezoelectric Transducer 152 4.6.2 Piezoelectric Actuator 153 4.6.3 Piezoelectric Generator 155 4.7 Piezoelectric Transducers as Sensors 157 4.7.1 Pressure Sensor 157 4.7.2 Accelerometer 158 4.7.3 Acoustic Sensor 159 4.8 Design of Piezoelectric Devices 163 4.8.1 Orientation of Piezo Crystals 163 4.8.2 Piezo Stacks 164 4.8.3 Bimorph Architecture 166 4.9 Application of Piezoelectric Sensors 167 4.9.1 Industrial Applications 167 4.9.1.1 Engine Knock Sensors 167 4.9.1.2 Tactile Sensors 168 4.9.1.3 Piezoelectric Motors 169 4.9.1.4 Sonar 171 4.9.2 Consumer Electronics 172 4.9.2.1 Piezoelectric Igniters 172 4.9.2.2 Drop on Demand Piezoelectric Printers 172 4.9.2.3 Speakers 173 4.9.2.4 Other Daily Use Products 173 4.9.3 Medical Applications 174 4.9.3.1 Ultrasound Imaging 174 4.9.3.2 Surgery and Ultrasound Procedures 175 4.9.3.3 Wound and Bone Fracture Healing 175 4.9.4 Defense Applications 176 4.9.4.1 Micro Robotics 176 4.9.4.2 Laser-Guided Bullets and Missiles 178 4.9.5 Musical Applications 179 4.9.5.1 Piezoelectric Pickups for Instruments 179 4.9.5.2 Microphones and Ear Pieces 179 4.9.6 Other Applications 180 4.9.6.1 Energy Harvesters 180 4.9.6.2 Sports-Tennis Racquets 184 4.10 Conclusions 184 References 188 5 Capacitive Sensors 193 5.1 Overview 193 5.1.1 A Capacitor 194 5.1.2 Capacitance of a Capacitor 195 5.2 Sensor Construction 196 5.2.1 Overlapping Electrode Area A 196 5.2.2 Dielectric Thickness d 197 5.2.3 Dielectric Material 199 5.2.4 Parallel Fingers and Fringing Fields 201 5.3 Sensor Architecture 203 5.3.1 Mixed Dielectrics 203 5.3.2 Multielectrode Capacitor 207 5.3.3 Geometry 209 5.4 Classifications of Capacitive Sensors 211 5.4.1 Displacement Capacitive Sensor 211 5.4.2 Overlapping Area Variation Based Capacitive Sensor 213 5.4.3 Effective Dielectric Permittivity Variation Based Capacitive Sensor 214 5.4.4 Fringing Field Capacitive Sensor 218 5.5 Flexible Capacitive Sensors 219 5.6 Applications 221 5.6.1 Motion Detection 221 5.6.1.1 Displacement Motion (z-Direction) 221 5.6.1.2 Shear Motion (x Direction) 221 5.6.1.3 Tilt Sensor 221 5.6.1.4 Rotary Motion Sensor 222 5.6.1.5 Finger Position (2D, x–y Direction) 222 5.6.2 Pressure 222 5.6.3 Liquid Level 223 5.6.4 Spacing 223 5.6.5 Scanned Multiplate Sensor 223 5.6.6 Thickness Measurement 223 5.6.7 Ice Detector 223 5.6.8 Shaft Angle or Linear Position 223 5.6.9 Lamp Dimmer Switch 223 5.6.10 Key Switch 223 5.6.11 Limit Switch 224 5.6.12 Accelerometers 224 5.6.13 Soil Moisture Measurement 224 5.7 Prospects and Limitations 224 5.7.1 Prospects 224 5.7.2 Limitations 224 References 226 6 Chemical Sensors 233 6.1 Introduction 233 6.1.1 Overview 233 6.1.2 Global Limelight 237 6.1.3 Evolution of Chemical Sensors 237 6.1.4 Requirements for Chemical Sensors 240 6.1.4.1 Selectivity 240 6.1.4.2 Stability 240 6.1.4.3 Sensitivity 241 6.1.4.4 Response Time 241 6.1.4.5 Limit of Detection 241 6.2 Materials for Chemical Sensing 241 6.2.1 Metal Oxides 241 6.2.1.1 Types of Metal Oxides 242 6.2.1.2 Chemical Sensing Mechanism 243 6.2.1.3 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Films as Sensor Materials 244 6.2.2 Honeycomb Structured Materials 245 6.2.2.1 Graphene 246 6.2.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 248 6.2.2.3 Other 2D Materials 250 6.2.3 Biopolymers 251 6.2.3.1 On the Basis of Type 252 6.2.3.2 On the Basis of Origin 255 6.2.3.3 On the Basis of Monomeric Units 261 6.2.4 Functionalization 265 6.2.4.1 Covalent Functionalization 266 6.2.4.2 Noncovalent Functionalization 268 6.2.5 Biocomposites 270 6.3 Architectures in Chemical Sensors 272 6.3.1 Chemiresistors 272 6.3.2 ChemFET 275 6.4 Applications 277 6.4.1 Gas Sensors 277 6.4.2 Environmental Sensors 278 6.4.2.1 Pollutants/Aerosols Sensors 279 6.4.2.2 Water Quality Monitoring Sensors 281 6.4.2.3 Humidity Detectors 282 6.4.2.4 UV Radiation Exposure Monitoring 283 6.4.3 Biomolecule Sensors 284 6.4.4 Food Quality Monitoring 284 6.4.4.1 Relative Humidity Monitoring 284 6.4.4.2 Gas Monitoring 285 6.4.4.3 Temperature Monitoring 285 6.4.4.4 Presence of Toxic Metals 286 6.4.5 Water Quality Management in Public Pools 286 6.4.6 Health Monitoring 287 6.4.7 Defense and Security 288 6.5 Conclusions 290 References 293 7 Optical Sensors 309 7.1 Introduction 309 7.2 Classifications of Optical Properties 311 7.2.1 Absorbance 311 7.2.2 Reflectance 312 7.2.3 Light Scattering 312 7.2.4 Luminescence 314 7.2.5 Fluorescence 314 7.2.6 Circular Dichroism 315 7.2.7 Z-Scan Technique 317 7.2.8 Förster Resonance Energy Transfer 317 7.3 Materials for Optical Sensing 319 7.3.1 Metal Oxide Materials 319 7.3.2 Polymer Materials 319 7.3.3 Carbon Materials 320 7.4 Optical Techniques for Sensing 320 7.4.1 SPR-Based Detection 321 7.4.2 Nanostructure Aggregation-Mediated Detection 323 7.4.3 Micro/Nanofiber-Based Detection 323 7.4.4 Colorimetric Sensing 324 7.4.5 Spectroscopy Techniques Associated with Sensing 325 7.4.5.1 Raman Spectroscopy 326 7.4.5.2 Luminescence Spectroscopy 326 7.4.5.3 Absorption Spectroscopy 326 7.5 Fabrication Technique of Optical Sensors 327 7.5.1 Solution Process 327 7.5.2 Inkjet Printing 328 7.5.3 Screen Printing 328 7.6 Applications of Optical Sensing 328 7.6.1 Environment Monitoring and Gas Sensing 328 7.6.2 Health Monitoring 332 7.6.3 Fingerprint Detection 332 7.6.4 Defense and Security 333 7.6.5 Motion Detection 334 7.6.6 Water Quality Monitoring 334 7.6.7 e-Waste and Detection of Toxic Materials 335 7.6.8 Detection of Microorganisms 337 7.7 Prospects and Limitations 337 References 339 8 Magnetic Sensors 341 8.1 Introduction 341 8.2 Materials’ Magnetic Properties 342 8.2.1 Diamagnetism 343 8.2.2 Paramagnetism 343 8.2.3 Ferromagnetism and Antiferromagnetism 344 8.3 Nanomagnetism 347 8.3.1 Magnetic Anisotropy 347 8.3.2 Interlayer Exchange Coupling 347 8.3.3 Exchange Bias 347 8.3.4 Spin-Polarized Transport 347 8.4 Magnetic Sensing Techniques 349 8.4.1 Hall Effect Sensors 349 8.4.2 Magnetoresistive Sensors 354 8.4.2.1 Ordinary Magnetoresistance 354 8.4.2.2 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance 356 8.4.2.3 Giant Magnetoresistance 357 8.4.2.4 Tunnel Magnetoresistance 358 8.4.2.5 Colossal Magnetoresistance 360 8.5 Fabrication and Characterization Technologies 360 8.5.1 Conventional Fabrication 361 8.5.2 Solution Process 361 8.5.3 Printing Technologies 361 8.6 Magnetic Sensor Applications 361 8.6.1 Biosensors 361 8.6.2 Magnetic Storage and Read Heads 362 8.6.3 Current Sensing 362 8.6.4 Position and Angle Sensors 364 8.7 Prospects and Limitations 365 References 365 9 Interface Circuits 369 9.1 Introduction 369 9.1.1 Functions of Interface 369 9.1.2 Types of Sensor Interfacing Circuits 370 9.1.3 Battery 372 9.1.4 Battery Characteristics in System Analysis 373 9.1.5 Applications of an I/O Interface Device 376 9.1.6 Importance of Input Impedance 377 9.2 Amplifier Circuits 378 9.2.1 Ideal Operational Amplifier (Op-amp) 378 9.2.2 Inverting and Noninverting Op-amps 379 9.2.3 Voltage Follower 380 9.2.4 Instrumentation Amplifier 381 9.2.5 Charge Amplifiers 382 9.2.6 Applications of Amplifiers 382 9.3 Excitation Circuits 383 9.3.1 Current Generators 383 9.3.2 Voltage Reference 383 9.3.3 Oscillators 385 9.3.4 Drivers 386 9.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters 386 9.4.1 Basic Concepts of ADC 386 9.4.2 V/F Converter 387 9.4.3 Dual-Slope Converter 389 9.4.4 Successive Approximation Converter 390 9.4.5 Resolution Extension 391 9.5 Noise in Sensors and Circuits 391 9.5.1 Inherent Noise 392 9.5.2 Electric Shielding 393 9.5.3 Bypass Capacitor 394 9.5.4 Magnetic Shielding 394 9.5.5 Ground Planes 395 9.5.6 Ground Loops and Ground Isolation 396 9.6 Batteries for Low-Power Sensors and Wireless Systems 398 9.6.1 Primary Cells 400 9.6.2 Secondary Cells 401 9.6.3 Energy Harvesting for WSN 401 References 403 Index 409

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Book SynopsisOffers comprehensive insight into the theory, models, and techniques of ultra-dense networks and applications in 5G and other emerging wireless networks The need for speedand powerin wireless communications is growing exponentially. Data rates are projected to increase by a factor of ten every five yearsand with the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) predicted to wirelessly connect trillions of devices across the globe, future mobile networks (5G) will grind to a halt unless more capacity is created. This book presents new research related to the theory and practice of all aspects of ultra-dense networks, covering recent advances in ultra-dense networks for 5G networks and beyond, including cognitive radio networks, massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), device-to-device (D2D) communications, millimeter-wave communications, and energy harvesting communications. Clear and concise throughout, Ultra-Dense Networks for 5G and Beyond - Modelling, Analysis, Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xv Part I Fundamentals of Ultra-dense Networks 1 1 Fundamental Limits of Ultra-dense Networks 3Marios Kountouris and Van Minh Nguyen 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 System Model 6 1.2.1 Network Topology 6 1.2.2 Wireless Propagation Model 6 1.2.3 User Association 8 1.2.4 Performance Metrics 8 1.3 The Quest for Exact Analytical Expressions 9 1.3.1 Coverage Probability 10 1.3.2 The Effect of LOS Fading 16 1.3.3 The Effect of BS Height 19 1.4 The Quest for Scaling Laws 25 1.4.1 User Performance 26 1.4.2 Network Performance 33 1.4.3 Network Ordering and Design Guidelines 35 1.5 Conclusions and Future Challenges 36 Bibliography 37 2 Performance Analysis of Dense Small Cell Networks with Line of Sight and Non-Line of Sight Transmissions under Rician Fading 41Amir Hossein Jafari,Ming Ding and David López-Pérez 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 System Model 42 2.2.1 BS Distribution 42 2.2.2 User Distribution 42 2.2.3 Path Loss 43 2.2.4 User Association Strategy (UAS) 44 2.2.5 Antenna Radiation Pattern 44 2.2.6 Multi-path Fading 44 2.3 Coverage Probability Analysis Based on the Piecewise Path Loss Model 44 2.4 Study of a 3GPP Special Case 46 2.4.1 The Computation of T1L 47 2.4.2 The Computation of T1NL 48 2.4.3 The Computation of T2 L 51 2.4.4 The Computation of T2 NL 51 2.4.5 The Results of pcov(𝜆, 𝛾) and AASE(𝜆, 𝛾0) 52 2.5 Simulation and Discussion 52 2.5.1 Validation of the Analytical Results of pcov(𝜆, 𝛾) for the 3GPP Case 52 2.5.2 Discussion on the Analytical Results of AASE(𝜆, 𝛾0) for the 3GPP Case 54 2.6 Conclusion 55 Appendix A: Proof ofTheorem 1.1 55 Appendix B: Proof of Lemma 2.2 60 Appendix C: Proof of Lemma 2.3 61 Appendix D: Proof of Lemma 2.4 62 Bibliography 62 3 Mean Field Games for 5G Ultra-dense Networks: A Resource Management Perspective 65Mbazingwa E.Mkiramweni, Chungang Yang and Zhu Han 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Literature Review 67 3.2.1 5G Ultra-dense Networks 67 3.2.2 Resource Management Challenges in 5G 71 3.2.3 Game Theory for Resource Management in 5G 71 3.3 Basics of Mean field game 71 3.3.1 Background 72 3.3.2 Mean Field Games 73 3.4 MFGs for D2D Communications in 5G 76 3.4.1 Applications of MFGs in 5G Ultra-dense D2D Networks 76 3.4.2 An Example of MFGs for Interference Management in UDN 77 3.5 MFGs for Radio Access Network in 5G 78 3.5.1 Application of MFGs for Radio Access Network in 5G 79 3.5.2 Energy Harvesting 81 3.5.3 An Example of MFGs for Radio Access Network in 5G 81 3.6 MFGs in 5G Edge Computing 84 3.6.1 MFG Applications in Edge Cloud Communication 85 3.7 Conclusion 85 Bibliography 85 Part II Ultra-dense Networks with Emerging 5G Technologies 91 4 Inband Full-duplex Self-backhauling in Ultra-dense Networks 93Dani Korpi, Taneli Riihonen and Mikko Valkama 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Self-backhauling in Existing Literature 94 4.3 Self-backhauling Strategies 95 4.3.1 Half-duplex Base Station without Access Nodes 97 4.3.2 Half-duplex Base Station with Half-duplex Access Nodes 97 4.3.3 Full-Duplex Base Station with Half-Duplex Access Nodes 98 4.3.4 Half-duplex Base Station with Full-duplex Access Nodes 99 4.4 Transmit Power Optimization under QoS Requirements 99 4.5 Performance Analysis 101 4.5.1 Simulation Setup 101 4.5.2 Numerical Results 103 4.6 Summary 109 Bibliography 110 5 The Role of Massive MIMO and Small Cells in Ultra-dense Networks 113Qi Zhang, Howard H. Yang and Tony Q. S. Quek 5.1 Introduction 113 5.2 System Model 115 5.2.1 Network Topology 115 5.2.2 Propagation Environment 116 5.2.3 User Association Policy 117 5.3 Average Downlink Rate 117 5.3.1 Association Probabilities 117 5.3.2 Uplink Training 119 5.3.3 Downlink Data Transmission 120 5.3.4 Approximation of Average Downlink Rate 121 5.4 Numerical Results 123 5.4.1 Validation of Analytical Results 123 5.4.2 Comparison between Massive MIMO and Small Cells 124 5.4.3 Optimal Network Configuration 126 5.5 Conclusion 127 Appendix 128 A.1 Proof of Theorem 5.1 128 A.2 Proof of Corollary 5.1 129 A.3 Proof of Theorem 5.2 129 A.4 Proof of Theorem 5.3 130 A.5 Proof of Proposition 5.1 130 A.6 Proof of Proposition 5.2 130 Bibliography 131 6 Security for Cell-free Massive MIMO Networks 135Tiep M. Hoang, Hien Quoc Ngo, Trung Q. Duong and Hoang D. Tuan 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Cell-free Massive MIMO System Model 136 6.3 Cell-free System Model in the presence of an active eavesdropper 139 6.4 On Dealing with Eavesdropper 143 6.4.1 Case 1: Power Coefficients Are Different 143 6.4.2 Case 2: Power Coefficients Are the Same 145 6.5 Numerical Results 146 6.6 Conclusion 148 Appendix 149 Bibliography 150 7 Massive MIMO for High-performance Ultra-dense Networks in the Unlicensed Spectrum 151Adrian Garcia-Rodriguez, Giovanni Geraci, Lorenzo Galati-Giordano and David López-Pérez 7.1 Introduction 151 7.2 System Model 152 7.3 Fundamentals of Massive MIMO Unlicensed (mMIMO-U) 154 7.3.1 Channel Covariance Estimation 154 7.3.2 Enhanced Listen Before Talk (eLBT) 155 7.3.3 Neighboring-Node-Aware Scheduling 157 7.3.4 Acquisition of Channel State Information 159 7.3.5 Beamforming with Radiation Nulls 160 7.4 Performance Evaluation 160 7.4.1 Outdoor Deployments 160 7.4.1.1 Cellular/Wi-Fi Coexistence 161 7.4.1.2 Achievable Cellular Data Rates 162 7.4.2 Indoor Deployments 165 7.4.2.1 Channel Access Success Rate 166 7.4.2.2 Downlink User SINR 166 7.4.2.3 Downlink Sum Throughput 169 7.5 Challenges 170 7.5.1 Wi-Fi Channel Subspace Estimation 170 7.5.2 Uplink Transmission 170 7.5.3 Hidden Terminals 171 7.6 Conclusion 172 Bibliography 172 8 Energy Efficiency Optimization for Dense Networks 175Quang-Doanh Vu, Markku Juntti, Een-Kee Hong and Le-Nam Tran 8.1 Introduction 175 8.2 Energy Efficiency Optimization Tools 176 8.2.1 Fractional Programming 176 8.2.2 Concave Fractional Programs 177 8.2.2.1 Parameterized Approach 177 8.2.2.2 Parameter-free Approach 178 8.2.3 Max–Min Fractional Programs 179 8.2.4 Generalized Non-convex Fractional Programs 179 8.2.5 Alternating Direction Method of Multipliers for Distributed Implementation 180 8.3 Energy Efficiency Optimization for Dense Networks: Case Studies 181 8.3.1 Multiple Radio Access Technologies 181 8.3.1.1 System Model and Energy Efficiency Maximization Problem 182 8.3.1.2 Solution via Parameterized Approach 184 8.3.1.3 Solution via Parameter-free Approach 184 8.3.1.4 Distributed Implementation 185 8.3.1.5 Numerical Examples 189 8.3.2 Dense Small Cell Networks 191 8.3.2.1 System Model 191 8.3.2.2 Centralized Solution via Successive Convex Approximation 193 8.3.2.3 Distributed Implementation 195 8.3.2.4 Numerical Examples 198 8.4 Conclusion 200 Bibliography 200 Part III Applications of Ultra-dense Networks 203 9 Big Data Methods for Ultra-dense Network Deployment 205Weisi Guo,Maria Liakata, GuillemMosquera,Weijie Qi, Jie Deng and Jie Zhang 9.1 Introduction 205 9.1.1 The Economic Case for Big Data in UDNs 205 9.1.2 Chapter Organization 207 9.2 Structured Data Analytics for Traffic Hotspot Characterization 207 9.2.1 Social Media Mapping of Hotspots 207 9.2.2 Community and Cluster Detection 211 9.2.3 Machine Learning for Clustering in Heterogeneous UDNs 213 9.3 Unstructured Data Analytics for Quality-of-Experience Mapping 219 9.3.1 Topic Identification 220 9.3.2 Sentiment 221 9.3.3 Data-Aware Wireless Network (DAWN) 222 9.4 Conclusion 226 Bibliography 227 10 Physical Layer Security for Ultra-dense Networks under Unreliable Backhaul Connection 231Huy T. Nguyen, Nam-Phong Nguyen, Trung Q. Duong andWon-Joo Hwang 10.1 Backhaul Reliability Level and Performance Limitation 232 10.1.1 Outage Probability Analysis under Backhaul Reliability Impacts 233 10.1.2 Performance Limitation 234 10.1.3 Numerical Results 234 10.2 Unreliable Backhaul Impacts with Physical Layer Security 235 10.2.1 The Two-Phase Transmitter/Relay Selection Scheme 237 10.2.2 Secrecy Outage Probability with Backhaul Reliability Impact 240 10.2.3 Secrecy Performance Limitation under Backhaul Reliability Impact 240 10.2.4 Numerical Results 241 Appendix A 242 Appendix B 243 Appendix C 244 Bibliography 245 11 SimultaneousWireless Information and Power Transfer in UDNs with Caching Architecture 247Sumit Gautam, Thang X. Vu, Symeon Chatzinotas and Björn Ottersten 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 System Model 249 11.2.1 Signal Model 250 11.2.2 Caching Model 251 11.2.3 Power Assumption at the Relay 252 11.3 Maximization of the serving information rate 252 11.3.1 Optimization of TS Factors and the Relay Transmit Power 253 11.3.2 Relay Selection 255 11.4 Maximization of the Energy Stored at the Relay 255 11.4.1 Optimization of TS Factors and the Relay Transmit Power 256 11.4.2 Relay Selection 259 11.5 Numerical Results 260 11.6 Conclusion 263 Acknowledgment 265 Bibliography 265 12 Cooperative Video Streaming in Ultra-dense Networks with D2D Caching 267Nguyen-Son Vo and Trung Q. Duong 12.1 Introduction 267 12.2 5G Network with Dense D2D Caching for Video Streaming 268 12.2.1 System Model and Assumptions 269 12.2.2 Cooperative Transmission Strategy 270 12.2.3 Source Video Packetization Model 271 12.3 Problem Formulation and Solution 273 12.3.1 System Parameters Formulation 273 12.3.1.1 Average Reconstructed Distortion 273 12.3.1.2 Energy Consumption Guarantee 274 12.3.1.3 Co-channel Interference Guarantee 275 12.3.2 RDO Problem 275 12.3.3 GAs Solution 276 12.4 Performance Evaluation 276 12.4.1 D2D Caching 276 12.4.2 RDO 277 12.4.2.1 Simulation Setup 277 12.4.2.2 Performance Metrics 280 12.4.2.3 Discussions 285 12.5 Conclusion 285 Bibliography 285 Index 289

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Book SynopsisEngineered to Speak: Helping You Create and Deliver Engaging Technical Presentations Technical expertise alone is not enough to ensure professional success. Twenty-first century engineers and technical professionals must master making the complex simple and the simple interesting. This book helps engineers do what they love most: take a complicated system and create a stronger solution. You will learn tips and strategies that help you answer one essential question, How can I get better at sharing my ideas with a variety of audiences? In Engineered to Speak, Alexa Chilcutt and Adam Brooks combine their expertise in messaging and public speaking with research that illustrates how effective communication contributes to career advancement. Each chapter contains inspiring stories from practicing engineers around the world as well as useful examples, exercises and repeatable processes for creating compelling messages. This book helps technical talent becTable of ContentsA Note From Series Editor xi About the Authors xiii Acknowledgments xv PART I: RECOGNIZE COMMUNICATION OPPORTUNITIES 1 WHY THIS BOOK? 3 1.1 Why Now? 5 1.2 Managers 6 1.3 Engineers and Technical Professionals 6 1.4 Students 7 1.5 Embracing Your Power as a Presenter 7 1.6 How to Use this Book 8 1.7 Calls to Action 9 2 DEMYSTIFYING COMMUNICATION AND ENGINEERING 11 2.1 The Place to Start 12 2.2 Rejecting Stereotypes 13 2.3 Debunking the Myths 14 2.3.1 Myth 1: Good Communicators Are Not Anxious 14 2.3.2 Myth 2: Some People Are Naturally Great Speakers 15 2.3.3 Myth 3: Winging it Works 16 2.3.4 Myth 4: Need to Be the "Sage on Stage" 16 2.3.5 Myth 5: Data Is Supreme 17 2.3.6 Myth 6: Time - I Must Fill It 17 2.3.7 Myth 7: Extroverts Make Better Speakers 18 2.4 Calls to Action 18 2.4.1 Communication Assessment Questions 18 2.4.2 Level of Anxiety in Public Speaking Situations 19 2.4.3 Putting Knowledge into Practice 20 3 RECOGNIZING COMMUNICATION OPPORTUNITIES 23 3.1 The Sphere of Influence Model 24 3.1.1 Internal Interactions Quadrant 25 3.1.2 Leadership Interactions Quadrant 26 3.1.3 External Interactions Quadrant 27 3.1.4 Personal Interactions Quadrant 28 3.2 Communicating to Connect 28 3.3 Listening Hang]Ups 29 3.4 Active Listening Tactics 31 3.4.1 Paraphrasing 31 3.4.2 Priming 31 3.4.3 Expressing Understanding 31 3.4.4 Use of Nonverbal Body Language 32 3.5 Putting it into Practice 32 3.6 Calls to Action 34 4 ASKING THE QUESTIONS 37 4.1 Asking the Questions 38 4.1.1 Who Am I Speaking to? 39 4.1.2 What Is the Purpose of My Presentation? 39 4.1.3 What Is the Desired Outcome? 39 4.1.4 What Information Matters Most? 40 4.1.5 Why Should they Care? 40 4.1.6 When Am I Speaking? 41 4.1.7 Where Am I Speaking? 41 4.1.8 How Should I Present? 41 4.2 Analyzing your Audience 42 4.2.1 Captive Verses Voluntary Audiences 42 4.2.2 Knowledge 43 4.2.3 Technical and Nontechnical Audiences 43 4.2.4 The Jargon Barrier 44 4.3 Competing for Attention 45 4.4 Opposing Viewpoints 46 4.5 Calls to Action 47 PART II: APPLY THE PROCESS 5 ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING YOUR PRESENTATION 51 5.1 Benefits of Organization – Decreasing Uncertainty 52 5.2 Engineering the Outline 52 5.2.1 Informational Organizational Pattern 53 5.2.2 Put it into Practice 54 5.2.3 Persuasive Organizational Patterns 56 5.2.4 Transitions 57 5.3 How to Begin your Presentation 57 5.4 How to Close your Presentation 59 5.5 Preparation Outline 60 5.6 Calls to Action 60 6 PERFECTING YOUR PITCH 63 6.1 Lead with Meaning 64 6.2 Start with an Essential Truth 64 6.3 Use Evidence to Tell your Story 65 6.3.1 Building Compelling Narratives 66 6.3.2 Applying the STAR Method 66 6.4 End with the Call to Action 68 6.5 Calls to Action 69 7 VISUALIZING YOUR MESSAGE 71 7.1 Understanding why Visuals Work 73 7.2 Designing your Slides 75 7.2.1 Storyboard Design 76 7.2.2 Keep it Simple 77 7.3 Handling Handouts 79 7.4 Physical Objects/Demonstrations 81 7.5 Real]time Writing and Drawing 82 7.5.1 The White Board 82 7.5.2 The Flip Chart 83 7.6 Calls to Action 85 8 CREATING CHARISMA 87 8.1 Dynamic Delivery 88 8.2 The Voice 88 8.2.1 Tone 89 8.2.2 Volume 90 8.2.3 Rate 91 8.2.4 Pausing 91 8.2.5 Articulation 92 8.3 Body Language 94 8.3.1 Eye Contact 94 8.3.2 Gestures 95 8.3.3 Stance 96 8.3.4 Using the Space 97 8.4 Calls to Action 98 PART III: COMMIT TO IMPROVEMENT 9 PRACTICE, FEEDBACK, AND ANXIETY REDUCTION TECHNIQUES 103 9.1 Practice Makes Better, not Perfect 104 9.2 Giving and Receiving Feedback 107 9.2.1 Requesting Real Feedback 108 9.2.2 Providing Feedback to Others 110 9.3 Managing Anxiety Through Uncertainty Reduction Tactics 112 9.3.1 Get Outside of Yourself 112 9.3.2 The Audience Is There for You 113 9.4 Fielding Questions 114 9.4.1 Addressing Opposing Viewpoints 115 9.4.2 Stumped? 115 9.5 Calls to Action 116 10 PROFESSIONALLY SPEAKING 119 10.1 Embracing your Influence 120 10.2 Taking the Lead 121 10.3 Being Part of the Strategy 122 10.4 Breaking out of Bad 123 10.5 Reading the Signs 124 10.6 Listening 126 10.7 Finishing Strong 127 APPENDICES 129 Appendix A: Self-Assessments from Chapter 1 130 Appendix B: Sphere of Influence/Active listening from Chapter 3 132 Appendix C: Asking the Questions from Chapter 4 135 Appendix D: Organizing and Outline Your Presentation from Chapter 5 136 Appendix E: Perfecting Your Pitch from Chapter 6 141 Appendix F: Visualizing Your Message from Chapter 7 144 Appendix G: Creating Charisma from Chapter 8 147 Appendix H: Practice, Feedback, and Anxiety Reduction Techniques from Chapter 9 150 Appendix I: Ten Session Communication Curriculum 153 Index 169

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Book SynopsisThe must-have resource for media selling in today's technology-driven environment The revised and updated fifth edition of Media Selling is an essential guide to our technology-driven, programmatic, micro-targeted, mobile, multi-channel media ecosystem. Today, digital advertising has surpassed television as the number-one ad investment platform, and Google and Facebook dominate the digital advertising marketplace. The authors highlight the new sales processes and approaches that will give media salespeople a leg up on the competition in our post-Internet media era. The book explores the automated programmatic buying and selling of digital ad inventory that is disrupting both media buyers and media salespeople. In addition to information on disruptive technologies in media sales, the book explores sales ethics, communication theory and listening, emotional intelligence, creating value, the principles of persuasion, sales stage management guides, and sampleTable of ContentsAbout the Authors ix Acknowledgments xi Preface xiii 1 The Marketing/Media Ecology 1Charles Warner 2 Selling in the Digital Era 15Charles Warner 3 Sales Ethics and Transparency 47Charles Warner 4 The AESKOPP Approach, Attitude, and Goal Setting 61Charles Warner 5 Emotional Intelligence 81Charles Warner 6 Effective Communication, Effective Listening, and Understanding People 91Charles Warner 7 Influence and Creating Value 111Charles Warner 8 The New Buying and Selling Process 139Charles Warner 9 Prospecting and Qualifying 155Charles Warner 10 Researching Insights and Solutions 187Brian Moroz 11 Educating 207Charles Warner 12 Proposing 235Charles Warner 13 Negotiating and Closing 245Charles Warner 14 Customer Success 293Charles Warner 15 Marketing 305Charles Warner 16 Advertising 327Charles Warner 17 Programmatic Marketing and Advertising 353William A. Lederer 18 Measuring Advertising 375William A. Lederer 19 Selling Digital and Cross‐Platform Advertising 391Charles Warner 20 Google and Search 415Brian Moroz 21 Facebook and Social Media 425Charles Warner 22 Television 457Charles Warner 23 Print and Out of Home 475Charles Warner 24 Audio 495Charles Warner 25 Time Management 513Charles Warner Appendix: Digital Advertising Glossary 523 Index 535

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Book SynopsisA much-needed, up-to-date guide on conventional and alternative power generation This book goes beyond the traditional methods of power generation. It introduces the many recent innovations on the production of electricity and the way they play a major role in combating global warming and improving the efficiency of generation. It contains a strong analytical approach to underpin the theory of power plantsfor those using conventional fuels, as well as those using renewable fuelsand looks at the problems from a unique environmental engineering perspective. The book also includes numerous worked examples and case studies to demonstrate the working principles of these systems. Conventional and Alternative Power Generation: Thermodynamics, Mitigation and Sustainability is divided into 8 chapters that comprehensively cover: thermodynamic systems; vapor power cycles, gas power cycles, combustion; control of particulates; carbon capture and storage; air pollutioTable of ContentsPreface xi Structure of the Book xiii Notation xvii 1 Thermodynamic Systems 1 1.1 Overview 1 Learning Outcomes 1 1.2 Thermodynamic System Definitions 1 1.3 Thermodynamic Properties 1 1.4 Thermodynamic Processes 3 1.5 Formation of Steam and the State Diagrams 4 1.5.1 Property Tables and Charts for Vapours 6 1.6 Ideal Gas Behaviour in Closed and Open Systems and Processes 7 1.7 First Law ofThermodynamics 9 1.7.1 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Open Systems 10 1.7.2 First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to Closed Systems 10 1.8 Worked Examples 11 1.9 Tutorial Problems 17 2 Vapour Power Cycles 19 2.1 Overview 19 Learning Outcomes 19 2.2 Steam Power Plants 19 2.3 Vapour Power Cycles 20 2.3.1 The Carnot Cycle 21 2.3.2 The Simple Rankine Cycle 22 2.3.3 The Rankine Superheat Cycle 22 2.3.4 The Rankine Reheat Cycle 23 2.3.4.1 Analysis of the Rankine Reheat Cycle 24 2.3.5 Real Steam Processes 25 2.3.6 Regenerative Cycles 25 2.3.6.1 Single Feed Heater 26 2.3.6.2 Multiple Feed Heaters 27 2.3.7 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORc) 29 2.3.7.1 Choice of theWorking Fluid for ORc 29 2.4 Combined Heat and Power 30 2.4.1 Scenario One: Power Only 30 2.4.2 Scenario Two: Heat Only 31 2.4.3 ScenarioThree: Heat and Power 32 2.4.4 Cogeneration, Trigeneration and Quad Generation 33 2.5 Steam Generation Hardware 33 2.5.1 Steam Boiler Components 34 2.5.2 Types of Boiler 35 2.5.3 Fuel Preparation System 35 2.5.4 Methods of Superheat Control 36 2.5.5 Performance of Steam Boilers 36 2.5.5.1 Boiler Efficiency 36 2.5.5.2 Boiler Rating 37 2.5.5.3 Equivalent Evaporation 38 2.5.6 Steam Condensers 38 2.5.6.1 Condenser Calculations 38 2.5.7 Cooling Towers 39 2.5.8 Power-station Pumps 39 2.5.8.1 Pump Applications 39 2.5.9 Steam Turbines 41 2.6 Worked Examples 41 2.7 Tutorial Problems 54 3 Gas Power Cycles 57 3.1 Overview 57 Learning Outcomes 57 3.2 Introduction to Gas Turbines 57 3.3 Gas Turbine Cycle 57 3.3.1 Irreversibilities in Gas Turbine Processes 58 3.3.2 The Compressor Unit 58 3.3.3 The Combustion Chamber 59 3.3.4 The Turbine Unit 60 3.3.5 Overall Performance of Gas Turbine Plants 60 3.4 Modifications to the Simple Gas Turbine Cycle 61 3.4.1 Heat Exchanger 61 3.4.2 Intercooling 61 3.4.3 Reheating 62 3.4.4 Compound System 63 3.4.5 Combined Gas Turbine/Steam Turbine Cycle 65 3.5 Gas Engines 68 3.5.1 Internal Combustion Engines 68 3.5.2 The Otto Cycle 68 3.5.2.1 Analysis of the Otto Cycle 69 3.5.3 The Diesel Cycle 69 3.5.3.1 Analysis of the Diesel Cycle 70 3.5.4 The Dual Combustion Cycle 71 3.5.4.1 Analysis of the Dual Cycle 72 3.5.5 Diesel Engine Power Plants 72 3.5.6 External Combustion Engines –The Stirling Engine 72 3.6 Worked Examples 75 3.7 Tutorial Problems 84 4 Combustion 87 4.1 Overview 87 Learning Outcomes 87 4.2 Mass and Matter 87 4.2.1 Chemical Quantities 88 4.2.2 Chemical Reactions 88 4.2.3 Physical Quantities 88 4.3 Balancing Chemical Equations 89 4.3.1 Combustion Equations 90 4.4 Combustion Terminology 90 4.4.1 Oxidizer Provision 90 4.4.2 Combustion Product Analyses 91 4.4.3 Fuel mixtures 92 4.5 Energy Changes During Combustion 92 4.6 First Law ofThermodynamics Applied to Combustion 93 4.6.1 Steady-flow Systems (SFEE) [Applicable to Boilers, Furnaces] 93 4.6.2 Closed Systems (NFEE) [Applicable to Engines] 93 4.6.3 Flame Temperature 94 4.7 Oxidation of Nitrogen and Sulphur 94 4.7.1 Nitrogen and Sulphur 95 4.7.2 Formation of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 95 4.7.3 NOx Control 97 4.7.3.1 Modify the Combustion Process 97 4.7.3.2 Post-flame Treatment 97 4.7.4 Formation of Sulphur Oxides (SOx) 98 4.7.5 SOx Control 98 4.7.5.1 Flue Gas Sulphur Compounds from Fossil-fuel Consumption 98 4.7.5.2 Sulphur Compounds from Petroleum and Natural Gas Streams 100 4.7.6 Acid Rain 100 4.8 Worked Examples 101 4.9 Tutorial Problems 111 5 Control of Particulates 115 5.1 Overview 115 Learning Outcomes 115 5.2 Some Particle Dynamics 115 5.2.1 Nature of Particulates 115 5.2.2 Stokes’s Law and Terminal Velocity 116 5.3 Principles of Collection 119 5.3.1 Collection Surfaces 119 5.3.2 Collection Devices 119 5.3.3 Fractional Collection Efficiency 121 5.4 Control Technologies 121 5.4.1 Gravity Settlers 121 5.4.1.1 Model 1: Unmixed Flow Model 122 5.4.1.2 Model 2:Well-mixed Flow Model 123 5.4.2 Centrifugal Separators or Cyclones 124 5.4.3 Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) 128 5.4.4 Fabric Filters 132 5.4.5 Spray Chambers and Scrubbers 135 5.5 Worked Examples 137 5.6 Tutorial Problems 140 6 Carbon Capture and Storage 145 6.1 Overview 145 Learning Outcomes 145 6.2 Thermodynamic Properties of CO2 146 6.2.1 General Properties 146 6.2.2 Equations of State 148 6.2.2.1 The Ideal or Perfect Gas Law 148 6.2.2.2 The Compressibility Factor 148 6.2.2.3 Van derWaal Equation of State 148 6.2.2.4 Beattie–Bridgeman Equation (1928) 149 6.2.2.5 Benedict–Webb–Rubin Equation (1940) 150 6.2.2.6 Peng–Robinson Equation of State (1976) 150 6.3 Gas Mixtures 150 6.3.1 Fundamental Mixture Laws 151 6.3.2 PVT Behaviour of Gas Mixtures 151 6.3.2.1 Dalton’s Law 152 6.3.2.2 Amagat’s Law 152 6.3.3 Thermodynamic Properties of Gas Mixtures 153 6.3.4 Thermodynamics of Mixture Separation 155 6.3.4.1 Minimum SeparationWork 155 6.3.4.2 Separation of a Two-component Mixture 156 6.4 Gas SeparationMethods 157 6.4.1 Chemical Absorption by Liquids 157 6.4.1.1 Aqueous Carbon Dioxide and Alkanolamine Chemistry 158 6.4.1.2 Alternative Absorber Solutions 159 6.4.2 Physical Absorption by Liquids 160 6.4.3 Oxyfuel, Cryogenics and Chemical Looping 161 6.4.4 Gas Membranes 162 6.4.4.1 Membrane Flux 163 6.4.4.2 Maximizing Flux 163 6.4.4.3 Membrane Types 163 6.5 Aspects of CO2 Conditioning and Transport 164 6.5.1 Multi-stage Compression 165 6.5.2 Pipework Design 167 6.5.2.1 Pressure Drop 167 6.5.2.2 Materials 167 6.5.2.3 Maintenance and Control 167 6.5.3 Carbon Dioxide Hazards 168 6.5.3.1 Respiration 168 6.5.3.2 Temperature 168 6.5.3.3 Ventilation 168 6.6 Aspects of CO2 Storage 169 6.6.1 Biological Sequestration 169 6.6.2 Mineral Carbonation 171 6.6.3 Geological Storage Media 172 6.6.4 Oceanic Storage 174 6.7 Worked Examples 176 6.8 Tutorial Problems 182 7 Pollution Dispersal 185 7.1 Overview 185 Learning Outcomes 185 7.2 Atmospheric Behaviour 186 7.2.1 The Atmosphere 186 7.2.2 Atmospheric Vertical Temperature Variation and Air Motion 187 7.3 Atmospheric Stability 189 7.3.1 Stability Classifications 190 7.3.2 Stability and Stack Dispersal 191 7.3.2.1 Non-inversion Conditions 191 7.3.2.2 Inversion Conditions 192 7.3.3 Variation inWind Velocity with Elevation 192 7.4 Dispersion Modelling 193 7.4.1 Point Source Modelling 193 7.4.2 Plume Rise 198 7.4.3 Effect of Non-uniform Terrain on Dispersal 199 7.5 Alternative Expressions of Concentration 200 7.6 Worked Examples 200 7.7 Tutorial Problems 203 8 Alternative Energy and Power Plants 207 8.1 Overview 207 Learning Outcomes 207 8.2 Nuclear Power Plants 208 8.2.1 Components of a Typical Nuclear Reactor 208 8.2.2 Types of Nuclear Reactor 209 8.2.3 Environmental Impact of Nuclear Reactors 209 8.3 Solar Power Plants 210 8.3.1 Photovoltaic Power Plants 211 8.3.2 Solar Thermal Power Plants 215 8.4 Biomass Power Plants 216 8.4.1 Forestry, Agricultural and Municipal Biomass for Direct Combustion 217 8.4.1.1 Bulk Density (kg/m3) 217 8.4.1.2 Moisture Content (% by Mass) 217 8.4.1.3 Ash Content (% by Mass) 218 8.4.1.4 Calorific Value (kJ/kg) and Combustion 218 8.4.2 Anaerobic Digestion 220 8.4.3 Biofuels 222 8.4.3.1 Biodiesel 222 8.4.3.2 Bioethanol 222 8.4.4 Gasification and Pyrolysis of Biomass 223 8.5 Geothermal Power Plants 224 8.6 Wind Energy 226 8.6.1 Theory ofWind Energy 227 8.6.1.1 Actual Power Output of the Turbine 229 8.6.2 Wind Turbine Types and Components 230 8.7 Hydropower 230 8.7.1 Types of Hydraulic Power Plant 231 8.7.1.1 Run-of-river Hydropower 231 8.7.1.2 Storage Hydropower 232 8.7.2 Estimation of Hydropower 233 8.7.3 Types of Hydraulic Turbine 233 8.8 Wave and Tidal (or Marine) Power 233 8.8.1 Characteristics ofWaves 234 8.8.2 Estimation ofWave Energy 235 8.8.3 Types ofWave Power Device 235 8.8.4 Tidal Power 237 8.8.4.1 Tidal Barrage Energy 238 8.8.4.2 Tidal Stream Energy 239 8.9 Thermoelectric Energy 239 8.9.1 DirectThermal Energy to Electrical Energy Conversion 240 8.9.2 Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) 241 8.10 Fuel Cells 242 8.10.1 Principles of Simple Fuel Cell Operation 243 8.10.2 Fuel Cell Efficiency 243 8.10.3 Fuel Cell Types 244 8.11 Energy Storage Technologies 244 8.11.1 Energy Storage Characteristics 246 8.11.2 Energy Storage Technologies 246 8.11.2.1 Hydraulic Energy 246 8.11.2.2 Pneumatic Energy 247 8.11.2.3 Ionic Energy 247 8.11.2.4 Rotational Energy 248 8.11.2.5 Electrostatic Energy 249 8.11.2.6 Magnetic Energy 249 8.12 Worked Examples 250 8.13 Tutorial Problems 255 A Properties ofWater and Steam 257 B Thermodynamic Properties of Fuels and Combustion Products 263 Bibliography 265 Index 267

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