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Book SynopsisPrinciples of Electric Machines and Power Electronics, Third Edition combines the traditional areas of electric machinery with the latest in modern control and power electronics.Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1: MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 1 1.1 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS 1 1.2 HYSTERESIS 15 1.3 SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION 21 1.4 PERMANENT MAGNET 26 PROBLEMS 30 CHAPTER 2: TRANSFORMERS 40 2.1 IDEAL TRANSFORMER 42 2.2 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER 48 2.3 VOLTAGE REGULATION 55 2.4 EFFICIENCY 59 2.5 AUTOTRANSFORMER 64 2.6 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 66 2.7 HARMONICS IN THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER BANKS 76 2.8 PER-UNIT (PU) SYSTEM 79 PROBLEMS 85 CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION 93 3.1 ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS 93 3.2 FIELD ENERGY 94 3.3 MECHANICAL FORCE IN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEM 99 3.4 ROTATING MACHINES 108 3.5 CYLINDRICAL MACHINES 111 PROBLEMS 113 CHAPTER 4: DC MACHINES 119 4.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC CONVERSION 119 4.2 DC MACHINES 124 4.3 DC GENERATORS 141 4.4 DC MOTORS 161 4.5 SPEED CONTROL 180 4.6 PERMANENT MAGNET DC (PMDC) MOTORS 190 4.7 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB) MOTORS 191 PROBLEMS 192 CHAPTER 5: INDUCTION (ASYNCHRONOUS) MACHINES 200 5.1 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES 200 5.2 ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELD 202 5.3 INDUCED VOLTAGES 207 5.4 POLYPHASE INDUCTION MACHINE 209 5.5 THREE MODES OF OPERATION 212 5.6 INVERTED INDUCTION MACHINE 214 5.7 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL 214 5.8 NO-LOAD TEST, BLOCKED-ROTOR TEST, AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT PARAMETERS 221 5.9 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 225 5.10 POWER FLOW IN THREE MODES OF OPERATION 232 5.11 EFFECTS OF ROTOR RESISTANCE 240 5.12 CLASSES OF SQUIRREL-CAGE MOTORS 244 5.13 SPEED CONTROL 245 5.14 STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTORS 259 5.15 TIME AND SPACE HARMONICS 260 5.16 LINEAR INDUCTION MOTOR (LIM) 267 PROBLEMS 271 CHAPTER 6: SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 282 6.1 CONSTRUCTION OF THREE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 285 6.2 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 286 6.3 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 292 6.4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL 294 6.5 POWER AND TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS 303 6.6 CAPABILITY CURVES 312 6.7 POWER FACTOR CONTROL 313 6.8 INDEPENDENT GENERATORS 317 6.9 SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 319 6.10 SPEED CONTROL OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 330 6.11 APPLICATIONS 335 6.12 LINEAR SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR (LSM) 337 6.13 BRUSHLESS DC (BLDC) MOTORS 338 6.14 SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS (SRM) 344 6.15 SENSORLESS DRIVE SYSTEMS 351 PROBLEMS 353 CHAPTER 7: SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 362 7.1 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 362 7.2 STARTING WINDING DESIGN 381 7.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A CAPACITOR-RUN MOTOR 391 7.4 SINGLE-PHASE SERIES (UNIVERSAL) MOTORS 397 7.5 SINGLE-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 403 7.6 SPEED CONTROL 405 PROBLEMS 406 CHAPTER 8: SPECIAL MACHINES 412 8.1 SERVOMOTORS 412 8.2 SYNCHROS 421 8.3 STEPPER MOTORS 426 PROBLEMS 437 CHAPTER 9: TRANSIENTS AND DYNAMICS 441 9.1 DC MACHINES 441 9.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 452 9.3 INDUCTION MACHINES 466 9.4 TRANSFORMER; TRANSIENT INRUSH CURRENT 469 PROBLEMS 471 CHAPTER 10: POWER SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTERS 476 10.1 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 476 10.2 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS 492 10.3 AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS 511 10.4 CHOPPERS 515 10.5 INVERTERS 523 10.6 CYCLOCONVERTERS 537 10.7 NEUTRAL POINT CLAMPED (NPC) MULTILEVEL INVERTERS 540 10.8 DC POWER SUPPLY USING BUCK CONVERTER CONFIGURATION 542 10.9 POWER SUPPLY IN COMPUTERS 547 PROBLEMS 551 CHAPTER 11: WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS 560 11.1 WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS 561 11.2 REFERENCES 573 APPENDIX A: WINDINGS 575 A.1 MMF DISTRIBUTION 575 A.2 INDUCED VOLTAGES 578 A.3 WINDING ARRANGEMENT 578 A.4 SPACE HARMONICS AND WINDING FACTORS 582 A.5 TIME HARMONIC VOLTAGES 583 PROBLEMS 587 APPENDIX B: BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 589 B.1 SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS 589 B.2 BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 592 B.3 BALANCED THREE-PHASE LOAD 595 B.4 Δ−Y TRANSFORMATION OF LOAD 599 B.5 PER-PHASE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 600 B.6 THREE-PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT 600 APPENDIX C: UNITS AND CONSTANTS 605 C.1 UNITS 605 C.2 CONSTANTS 605 APPENDIX D: LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 606 APPENDIX E: ANSWERS TO SOME PROBLEMS 607 INDEX 614

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Book SynopsisAn excellent book for those who are interested in learning the current status of research and development . . . [and] who want to get a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art. E-Streams This book provides up-to-date information on research and development in the rapidly growing area of networks based on the multihop ad hoc networking paradigm. It reviews all classes of networks that have successfully adopted this paradigm, pointing out how they penetrated the mass market and sparked breakthrough research. Covering both physical issues and applications, Mobile Ad Hoc Networking: Cutting Edge Directions offers useful tools for professionals and researchers in diverse areas wishing to learn about the latest trends in sensor, actuator, and robot networking, mesh networks, delay tolerant and opportunistic networking, and vehicular networks. Chapter coverage includes: Multihop ad hoc networking Enabling Table of ContentsPREFACE xiii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv CONTRIBUTORS xvii PART I GENERAL ISSUES 1 Multihop Ad Hoc Networking: The Evolutionary Path 3 Marco Conti and Silvia Giordano 1.1 Introduction, 3 1.2 MANET Research: Major Achievements and Lessons Learned, 5 1.3 Multihop Ad Hoc Networks: From Theory to Reality, 16 1.4 Summary and Conclusions, 25 2 Enabling Technologies and Standards for Mobile Multihop Wireless Networking 34 Enzo Mingozzi and Claudio Cicconetti 2.1 Introduction, 35 2.2 Broadband Wireless Access Technologies, 37 2.3 Wireless Local Area Networks Technologies, 43 2.4 Personal Area Networks Technologies, 53 2.5 Mobility Support in Heterogeneous Scenarios, 65 2.6 Conclusions, 67 3 Application Scenarios 77 Ilias Leontiadis, Ettore Ferranti, Cecilia Mascolo, Liam McNamara, Bence Pasztor, Niki Trigoni, and Sonia Waharte 3.1 Introduction, 78 3.2 Military Applications, 79 3.3 Network Connectivity, 81 3.4 Wireless Sensor Networks, 84 3.5 Search and Rescue, 89 3.6 Vehicular Networks, 93 3.7 Personal Content Dissemination, 96 3.8 Conclusions, 98 4 Security in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 106 Roberto Di Pietro and Josep Domingo-Ferrer 4.1 Introduction, 106 4.2 Wireless Sensor Networks, 110 4.3 Unattended WSN, 125 4.4 Wireless Mesh Networks, 130 4.5 Delay-Tolerant Networks, 134 4.6 Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs), 137 4.7 Conclusions and Open Research Issues, 144 5 Architectural Solutions for End-User Mobility 154 Salvatore Vanini and Anna Forster 5.1 Introduction, 154 5.2 Mesh Networks, 155 5.3 Wireless Sensor Networks, 182 5.4 Conclusion, 188 6 ExperimentalWork Versus Simulation in the Study of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks 191 Carlo Vallati, Victor Omwando, and Prasant Mohapatra 6.1 Introduction, 191 6.2 Overview of Mobile Ad Hoc Network Simulation Tools and Experimental Platforms, 192 6.3 Gap Between Simulations and Experiments: Issues and Factors, 199 6.4 Good Simulations: Validation, Verification, and Calibration, 220 6.5 Simulators and Testbeds: Future Prospects, 226 6.6 Conclusion, 228 PART II MESH NETWORKING 7 Resource Optimization in Multiradio Multichannel Wireless Mesh Networks 241 Antonio Capone, Ilario Filippini, Stefano Gualandi, and Di Yuan 7.1 Introduction, 242 7.2 Network and Interference Models, 244 7.3 Maximum Link Activation Under the SINR Model, 245 7.4 Optimal Link Scheduling, 247 7.5 Joint Routing and Scheduling, 254 7.6 Dealing with Channel Assignment and Directional Antennas, 257 7.7 Cooperative Networking, 263 7.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Issues, 269 8 Quality of Service in Mesh Networks 275 Raffaele Bruno 8.1 Introduction, 275 8.2 QoS Definition, 277 8.3 A Taxonomy of Existing QoS Routing Approaches, 278 8.4 Routing Protocols with Optimization-Based Path Selection, 280 8.5 Routing Metrics for Minimum-Weight Path Selection, 291 8.6 Feedback-Based Path Selection, 307 8.7 Conclusions, 308 PART III OPPORTUNISTIC NETWORKING 9 Applications in Delay-Tolerant and Opportunistic Networks 317 Teemu K¨arkk¨ainen, Mikko Pitkanen, and JoergOtt 9.1 Application Scenarios, 318 9.2 Challenges for Applications Over DTN, 322 9.3 Critical Mechanisms for DTN Applications, 328 9.4 DTN Applications (Case Studies), 336 9.5 Conclusion: Rethinking Applications for DTNs, 357 10 Mobility Models in Opportunistic Networks 360 Kyunghan Lee, Pan Hui, and Song Chong 10.1 Introduction, 360 10.2 Contact-Based Measurement, Analysis, and Modeling, 361 10.3 Trajectory Models, 376 10.4 Implications for Network Protocol Design, 399 10.5 New Paradigm: Delay-Resource Tradeoffs, 406 11 Opportunistic Routing 419 Thrasyvoulos Spyropoulos and Andreea Picu 11.1 Introduction, 420 11.2 Cornerstones of Opportunistic Networks, 422 11.3 Dealing with Uncertainty: Redundancy-Based Routing, 428 11.4 Capitalizing on Structure: Utility-Based Forwarding, 435 11.5 Hybrid Solutions: Combining Redundancy and Utility, 444 11.6 Conclusion, 447 12 Data Dissemination in Opportunistic Networks 453 Chiara Boldrini and Andrea Passarella 12.1 Introduction, 454 12.2 Initial Ideas: PodNet, 456 12.3 Social-Aware Schemes, 460 12.4 Publish/Subscribe Schemes, 464 12.5 Global Optimization, 469 12.6 Infrastructure-Based Approaches, 474 12.7 Approaches Inspired by Unstructured p2p Systems, 478 12.8 Further Readings, 482 13 Task Farming in Crowd Computing 491 Derek G. Murray, Karthik Nilakant, J. Crowcroft, and E. Yoneki 13.1 Introduction, 491 13.2 Ideal Parallelism Model, 494 13.3 Task Farming, 498 13.4 Socially Aware Task Farming, 500 13.5 Related Work, 510 13.6 Conclusions and Future Work, 510 PART IV VANET 14 A Taxonomy of Data Communication Protocols for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks 517 Yousef-Awwad Daraghmi, Ivan Stojmenovic, and Chih-Wei Yi 14.1 Introduction, 517 14.2 Taxonomy of VANET Communication Protocols, 520 14.3 Reliability-Oriented Geocasting Protocols, 525 14.4 Time-Critical Geocasting Protocols, 527 14.5 Small-Scale Routing Protocols, 529 14.6 Large-Scale Routing, 534 14.7 Summary, 539 14.8 Conclusion and Future Work, 539 15 Mobility Models, Topology, and Simulations in VANET 545 Francisco J. Ros, Juan A. Martinez, and Pedro M. Ruiz 15.1 Introduction and Motivation, 545 15.2 Mobility Models, 547 15.3 Mobility Simulators, 551 15.4 Integrated Simulators, 557 15.5 Modeling Vehicular Communications, 560 15.6 Analysis of Connectivity in Highways, 565 15.7 Conclusion and Future Work, 572 16 ExperimentalWork on VANET 577 Minglu Li and Hongzi Zhu 16.1 Introduction, 577 16.2 MIT CarTel, 579 16.3 UMass DieselNet, 581 16.4 SJTU ShanghaiGrid, 584 16.5 NCTU VANET Testbed, 587 16.6 UCLA CVeT, 589 16.7 GM DSRC Fleet, 590 16.8 FleetNet Project, 591 16.9 Network on Wheels (NOW) Project, 592 16.10 Advanced Safety Vehicles (ASVs), 593 16.11 Japan Automobile Research Institute (JARI), 594 17 MAC Protocols for VANET 599 Mohammad S. Almalag, Michele C. Weigle, and Stephan Olariu 17.1 Introduction, 599 17.2 MAC Metrics, 602 17.3 IEEE Standards for MAC Protocols for VANETs, 602 17.4 Alternate MAC Protocols for VANET, 606 17.5 Conclusion, 616 18 Cognitive Radio Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks: Design, Implementation, and Future Challenges 619 Marco Di Felice, Kaushik Roy Chowdhury, and Luciano Bononi 18.1 Introduction, 620 18.2 Characteristics of Cognitive Radio Vehicular Networks, 622 18.3 Applications of Cognitive Radio Vehicular Networks, 628 18.4 CRV Network Architecture, 629 18.5 Classification and Description of Existing Works on CRV Networks, 630 18.6 Research Issues in CRVs, 636 18.7 Conclusion, 640 19 The Next Paradigm Shift: From Vehicular Networks to Vehicular Clouds 645 Stephan Olariu, Tihomir Hristov, and Gongjun Yan 19.1 By Way of Motivation, 646 19.2 The Vehicular Model, 647 19.3 Vehicular Networks, 649 19.4 Cloud Computing, 650 19.5 Vehicular Clouds, 652 19.6 How are Vehicular Clouds Different?, 654 19.7 Feasible Instances of Vehicular Clouds, 657 19.8 More Application Scenarios, 660 19.9 Security and Privacy in Vehicular Clouds, 666 19.10 Key Management, 677 19.11 Research Challenges, 680 19.12 Architectures for Vehicular Clouds, 681 19.13 Resource Aggregation in Vehicular Clouds, 683 19.14 A Simulation Study of VC, 690 19.15 Future Work, 691 19.16 Where to From Here?, 693 PART V SENSOR NETWORKING 20 Wireless Sensor Networks with Energy Harvesting 703 Stefano Basagni, M. Yousof Naderi, Chiara Petrioli, and Dora Spenza 20.1 Introduction, 703 20.2 Node Platforms, 704 20.3 Techniques of Energy Harvesting, 709 20.4 Prediction Models, 713 20.5 Protocols for EHWSNs, 717 21 Robot-AssistedWireless Sensor Networks: Recent Applications and Future Challenges 737 Rafael Falcon, Amiya Nayak, and Ivan Stojmenovic 21.1 Introduction, 737 21.2 Robot-Assisted Sensor Placement, 740 21.3 Robot-Assisted Sensor Relocation, 751 21.4 Robot-Assisted Sensor Maintenance, 762 21.5 Future Challenges, 763 22 Underwater Networks with Limited Mobility: Algorithms, Systems, and Experiments 769 Carrick Detweiler, Elizabeth Basha, Marek Doniec, and Daniela Rus 22.1 Introduction, 770 22.2 Related Work, 772 22.3 Decentralized Control Algorithm, 775 22.4 General System Architecture and Design, 779 22.5 Application-Specific Architecture and Design, 786 22.6 Experiments and Results, 789 22.7 Conclusions, 799 23 Advances in Underwater Acoustic Networking 804 Tommaso Melodia, Hovannes Kulhandjian, Li-Chung Kuo, and Emrecan Demirors 23.1 Introduction, 805 23.2 Communication Architecture, 806 23.3 Basics of Underwater Communications, 807 23.4 Physical Layer, 814 23.5 Medium Access Control Layer, 822 23.6 Network Layer, 829 23.7 Cross-Layer Design, 833 23.8 Experimental Platforms, 834 23.9 UW-Buffalo: An Underwater Acoustic Testbed at the University at Buffalo, 842 23.10 Conclusions, 842 References, 843 Index 853

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Book SynopsisAiming to foster future collaborations between researchers in algorithms, bioinformatics, and molecular biology, this book serves as an up-to-date survey of the most important recent developments and computational challenges in various application areas of next-generation sequencing technologies.Table of ContentsCONTRIBUTORS xix PREFACE xxiii ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xxv PART I COMPUTING AND EXPERIMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR NGS 1 1 Cloud Computing for Next-Generation Sequencing Data Analysis 3Xuan Guo, Ning Yu, Bing Li, and Yi Pan 2 Introduction to the Analysis of Environmental Sequence Information Using Metapathways 25Niels W. Hanson, Kishori M. Konwar, Shang-Ju Wu, and Steven J. Hallam 3 Pooling Strategy for Massive Viral Sequencing 57Pavel Skums, Alexander Artyomenko, Olga Glebova, Sumathi Ramachandran, David S. Campo, Zoya Dimitrova, Ion I. Mândoiu, Alexander Zelikovsky, and Yury Khudyakov 4 Applications of High-Fidelity Sequencing Protocol to RNA Viruses 85Serghei Mangul, Nicholas C. Wu, Ekaterina Nenastyeva, Nicholas Mancuso, Alexander Zelikovsky, Ren Sun, and Eleazar Eskin PART II GENOMICS AND EPIGENOMICS 105 5 Scaffolding Algorithms 107Igor Mandric, James Lindsay, Ion I.Mândoiu, and Alexander Zelikovsky 6 Genomic Variants Detection and Genotyping 133Jorge Duitama 7 Discovering and Genotyping Twilight Zone Deletions 149Tobias Marschall and Alexander Schönhuth 8 Computational Approaches for Finding Long Insertions and Deletions with NGS Data 175Jin Zhang, Chong Chu, and Yufeng Wu 9 Computational Approaches in Next-Generation Sequencing Data Analysis for Genome-Wide DNA Methylation Studies 197Jeong-Hyeon Choi and Huidong Shi 10 Bisulfite-Conversion-Based Methods for DNA Methylation Sequencing Data Analysis 227Elena Harris and Stefano Lonardi PART III TRANSCRIPTOMICS 245 11 Computational Methods for Transcript Assembly from RNA-SEQ Reads 247Stefan Canzar and Liliana Florea 12 An Overview And Comparison of Tools for RNA-Seq Assembly 269Rasiah Loganantharaj and Thomas A. Randall 13 Computational Approaches for Studying Alternative Splicing in Nonmodel Organisms From RNA-SEQ Data 287Sing-Hoi Sze 14 Transcriptome Quantification and Differential Expression From NGS Data 301Olga Glebova, Yvette Temate-Tiagueu, Adrian Caciula, Sahar Al Seesi, Alexander Artyomenko, Serghei Mangul, James Lindsay, Ion I. M¢andoiu, and Alexander Zelikovsky PART IV MICROBIOMICS 329 15 Error Correction of NGS Reads from Viral Populations 331Pavel Skums, Alexander Artyomenko, Olga Glebova, David S. Campo, Zoya Dimitrova, Alexander Zelikovsky, and Yury Khudyakov 16 Probabilistic Viral Quasispecies Assembly 355Armin Töpfer and Niko Beerenwinkel 17 Reconstruction of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Quasispecies from NGS Data 383Bassam Tork, Ekaterina Nenastyeva, Alexander Artyomenko, Nicholas Mancuso, Mazhar I. Khan, Rachel O’Neill, Ion I. Mândoiu, and Alexander Zelikovsky 18 Microbiome Analysis: State of the Art and Future Trends 401Mitch Fernandez, Vanessa Aguiar-Pulido, Juan Riveros, Wenrui Huang, Jonathan Segal, Erliang Zeng, Michael Campos, Kalai Mathee, and Giri Narasimhan INDEX 425

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Book SynopsisTwo events in particular occasion this volume on the philosophy of photography: the blurring of boundaries that many took to demarcate photographic technology and practices from other representational and artistic technologies and the invention of digital photography.Table of ContentsIntroduction DIARMUID COSTELLO and DOMINIC McIVER LOPES 1. Transparent Representation: Photography and the Art of Casting PETER ALWARD 2. Fiction, Non-fiction and Deceptive Photographic Representation PALOMA ATENCIA-LINARES 3. Facing the Camera: Self-Portraits of Photographers as Artists DAWN PHILLIPS 4. Photography as Performative Process RICHARD SHUSTERMAN 5. Photographic Art: An Ontology Fit to Print CHRISTY MAG UIDHIR 6. Digital Pictures, Sampling and Vagueness: The Ontology of Digital Pictures JOHN ZEIMBEKIS 7. The Macro and the Micro: Andreas Gursky’s Aesthetics BENCE NANAY 8. Artwork and Document in the Photography of Louise Lawler SHERRI IRVIN 9. The Question Concerning Photography DIARMUID COSTELLO 10. A Musical Photograph? RICHARD BEAUDOIN AND ANDREW KANIA 11. Drawings of Photographs in Comics ROY COOK 12. Photography and Knowledge SCOTT WALDEN 13. Depiction, Detection and the Epistemic Value of Photography LAURA PERINI

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Book SynopsisPresents current research into electromagnetic computation theories with particular emphasis on Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method This book is the first to consolidate current research and to examine the theories of electromagnetic computation methods in relation to lightning surge protection.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Overview of Lightning Electromagnetic-Field and Surge Computations 1 1.2 Overview of Existing Electromagnetic Computation Methods 2 1.2.1 Method of Moments 2 1.2.2 Partial-Element Equivalent-Circuit Method 4 1.2.3 Finite-Element Method 4 1.2.4 Transmission Line Modeling Method 4 1.2.5 Constrained Interpolation Profile Method 5 1.2.6 Finite-Difference Time Domain Method 6 1.3 Summary 7 References 7 2 Lightning 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Thundercloud 12 2.2.1 Formation of Thunderclouds 12 2.2.2 Mechanism of Cloud Electrification 14 2.3 Lightning Discharges 15 2.3.1 Categories of Lightning Discharges 15 2.3.2 Classification of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Discharges 15 2.3.3 Downward Negative Lightning Discharges to Ground 16 2.3.4 Positive Lightning Discharges 23 2.3.5 Upward Lightning Discharges 23 2.3.6 Rocket-Triggered Lightning Discharges 25 2.4 Lightning Electromagnetic Fields 26 2.4.1 Measured Lightning Return-Stroke Electromagnetic Fields 26 2.4.2 Mathematical Expressions for Calculating Electric and Magnetic Fields 29 2.5 Lightning Surges 31 2.5.1 Surges Due to Direct Lightning Strike 31 2.5.2 Surges Induced by a Nearby Lightning Strike 32 2.5.3 Surges Coming from Grounding Due to Its Potential Rise 33 2.6 Lightning Surge Protection 34 2.6.1 Insulation Coordination 34 2.6.2 Protection against Direct Lightning Strikes 35 2.6.3 Back-Flashover Phenomena 37 2.6.4 Lightning Surge Protection Measures 38 2.7 Summary 40 References 41 3 The Finite-Difference Time Domain Method for Solving Maxwell's Equations 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Finite-Difference Expressions of Maxwell's Equations 44 3.2.1 3D Cartesian Coordinate System 44 3.2.2 2D Cylindrical Coordinate System 49 3.3 Subgridding Technique 51 3.4 Absorbing Boundary Conditions 55 3.5 Representation of Lumped Sources and Lumped Circuit Elements 57 3.5.1 Lumped Voltage Source 57 3.5.2 Lumped Current Source 57 3.5.3 Lumped Resistance 59 3.5.4 Lumped Inductance 59 3.5.5 Lumped Capacitance 60 3.6 Representation of Thin Wire 61 3.7 Representation of Lightning Return-Stroke Channel 63 3.7.1 Lightning Return-Stroke Channel 63 3.7.2 Excitations 66 3.8 Representation of Surge Arresters 67 3.9 Summary 69 References 70 4 Applications to Lightning Surge Protection Studies 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.1.1 Overview 73 4.1.2 Lightning Electromagnetic Fields at Close and Far Distances 73 4.1.3 Lightning Surges on Overhead Power TL Conductors and Towers 75 4.1.4 Lightning Surges on Overhead Distribution and Telecommunication Lines 76 4.1.5 Lightning Electromagnetic Environment in Power Substations 77 4.1.6 Lightning Surges in Wind-Turbine-Generator Towers 77 4.1.7 Lightning Surges in Photovoltaic Arrays 78 4.1.8 Lightning Electromagnetic Environment in Electric Vehicles 78 4.1.9 Lightning Electromagnetic Environment in Airborne Vehicles 78 4.1.10 Lightning Surges and the Electromagnetic Environment in Buildings 79 4.1.11 Surges on Grounding Electrodes 79 4.2 Electromagnetic Fields at the Top of a Tall Building Associated with Nearby Lightning Return Strokes 80 4.2.1 Introduction 80 4.2.2 Methodology 81 4.2.3 Analysis and Results 85 4.2.4 Summary 96 4.2.5 Appendix: Comparison of Fields in the Absence of a Building Computed Using the FDTD Method and Thottappillil et al.'s (2001) Analytical Expressions 96 4.2.6 Appendix: Enhancement Factors Due to the Presence of Hemisphere or Rectangular Building in a Uniform Static Electric Field 97 4.3 Influence of Strike Object Grounding on Close Lightning Electric Fields 100 4.3.1 Introduction 100 4.3.2 Methodology 103 4.3.3 Analysis and Results 105 4.3.4 Discussion 122 4.3.5 Summary 128 4.3.6 Appendix: Comparison of Fields Due to a Lightning Strike to Flat Ground Calculated Using the FDTD Method in the 2D Cylindrical Coordinate System and Thottappillil et al.'s (2001) Analytical Expressions 128 4.4 Simulation of Corona at Lightning-Triggering Wire: Current, Charge Transfer, and Field Reduction Effect 129 4.4.1 Introduction 129 4.4.2 General Approach 135 4.4.3 Model 136 4.4.4 Analysis and Results 141 4.4.5 Discussion 145 4.4.6 Summary 149 4.4.7 Appendix: Geometry of a Wire Corona Sheath 149 4.5 On the Interpretation of Ground Reflections Observed in Small-Scale Experiments Simulating Lightning Strikes to Towers 151 4.5.1 Introduction 151 4.5.2 Current Pulses Propagating along a Conical Conductor Excited at Its Apex or Base 153 4.5.3 FDTD Simulation of Small-Scale Experiments 157 4.5.4 Interpretation of Ground Reflections Arriving at the Tower Top 162 4.5.5 TL Representation of a Tall Object on the Ground Plane 164 4.5.6 Summary 169 4.5.7 Appendix: FDTD Representation of Tower Models 170 4.6 On the Mechanism of Attenuation of Current Waves Propagating along a Vertical Perfectly Conducting Wire above Ground: Application to Lightning 171 4.6.1 Introduction 171 4.6.2 Incident Current (Iinc), Incident E-field (Einc): Analytical Solution 174 4.6.3 Total Current (Itot), Total E-field (Etot): Numerical Solution 176 4.6.4 Scattered Current (Iscat), Scattered E-field (Escat): Iscat = Itot − Iinc, Escat = −Einc 179 4.6.5 Dependences of Current Attenuation on the Source Length, Conductor Thickness, and Frequency 181 4.6.6 Nonuniform TL Approximation 184 4.6.7 Summary 186 4.6.8 Appendix: Incident E-field for Two Parallel Vertical Phased Current Source Arrays—Analytical Solution 187 4.6.9 Appendix: Total Current for Horizontal Configurations—Numerical Solution 188 4.6.10 Appendix: Comparison of FDTD Simulation with an Analytical Solution 190 4.6.11 Appendix: E-field Structure around a Vertical Nonzero-Thickness Perfect Conductor 191 4.6.12 Appendix: Vertical E-field Produced by an Electrically-Short Vertical Dipole 192 4.7 FDTD Simulation of Lightning Surges on Overhead Wires in the Presence of Corona Discharge 193 4.7.1 Introduction 193 4.7.2 Modeling 195 4.7.3 Results and Discussion 199 4.7.4 Summary 209 4.8 FDTD Simulation of Insulator Voltages at a Lightning-Struck Tower Considering the Ground-Wire Corona 212 4.8.1 Introduction 212 4.8.2 Methodology 212 4.8.3 Analysis and Results 215 4.8.4 Summary 224 4.9 Voltages Induced on an Overhead Wire by Lightning Strikes to a Nearby Tall Grounded Object 224 4.9.1 Introduction 224 4.9.2 Methodology 228 4.9.3 Analysis and Results 231 4.9.4 Discussion 238 4.9.5 Summary 240 4.9.6 Appendix: Testing the Validity of the FDTD Calculations against Experimental Data (Strikes to Flat Ground) 242 4.9.7 Appendix: Comparison with Rusck's Formula (Strikes to Flat Ground) 243 4.9.8 Appendix: Testing the Validity of the FDTD Calculations against Experimental Data (Strikes to a Tall Object) 245 4.10 3D-FDTD Computation of Lightning-Induced Voltages on an Overhead Two-Wire Distribution Line 247 4.10.1 Introduction 247 4.10.2 Methodology 249 4.10.3 Analysis and Results 252 4.10.4 Summary 260 4.11 FDTD Simulations of the Corona Effect on Lightning-Induced Voltages 260 4.11.1 Introduction 260 4.11.2 Methodology 261 4.11.3 Analysis and Results 263 4.11.4 Discussion 269 4.11.5 Summary 277 4.12 FDTD Simulation of Surges on Grounding Electrodes Considering Soil Ionization 277 4.12.1 Introduction 277 4.12.2 Representation of Soil Ionization and De-ionization 278 4.12.3 Analysis and Results 279 4.12.4 Conclusions 288 4.13 Summary 288 References 288 Appendix: 3D-FDTD Program in C++ 299 Index 311

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive treatment of cognitive radio networks and the specialized techniques used to improve wireless communications The human brain, as exemplified by cognitive radar, cognitive radio, and cognitive computing, inspires the field of Cognitive Dynamic Systems.Table of ContentsList of Figures xv List of Tables xxiii Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxvii Acronyms xxix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Fourth Industrial Revolution 1 1.2 Cognitive Radio 4 1.3 The Spectrum-Underutilization Problem 7 1.4 Countrywide Measurements of Spectrum Utilization 8 1.5 Why be Interested in Cognitive Radio Networks? 9 1.6 Directed Information Flow 11 1.7 Cognitive Radio Networks 14 1.8 Mathematical Toolbox 17 1.8.1 Game Theory 17 1.8.2 Control Theory 18 1.8.3 Optimization under Uncertainty 19 1.9 Dominant Sources of Uncertainty in Cognitive Radio Networks 20 1.10 Issue of Trustworthiness 22 1.11 Vision for the Book 22 2 GameTheory 25 2.1 Game Theory Terminology 25 2.1.1 Noncooperative Games versus Cooperative Games 26 2.1.2 Static Games versus Dynamic Games 26 2.1.3 One-Shot Games versus Repeated Games 26 2.1.4 Games with Complete Information versus Games with Incomplete Information 26 2.1.5 Games with Perfect Information versus Games with Imperfect Information 26 2.2 Noncooperative Games 27 2.2.1 Nash Equilibrium 28 2.2.2 Variational Inequalities 28 2.3 Cooperative Games 28 2.3.1 Nash Bargaining 29 2.4 Minority Games 29 2.5 Concluding Remarks 30 3 Cognitive Radio Transceiver 31 3.1 Spectrum Sensing 32 3.1.1 Attributes of Reliable Spectrum Sensing 33 3.1.2 The Multitaper Method 33 3.1.3 Space-Time Processing 38 3.1.4 Time-Frequency Analysis 41 3.1.5 Cyclostationarity: Fourier Perspective 50 3.1.6 Rayleigh Fading Channels 54 3.1.7 Remarks on Nonparametric Spectrum Sensing 55 3.1.8 Filter-Bank Implementation of the Multitaper Method 57 3.1.9 Cooperative Spectrum Sensing 57 3.2 Dynamic Spectrum Management 58 3.2.1 The Tsigankov–Koulakov Model 60 3.2.2 Self-Organizing Dynamic Spectrum Management 61 3.2.3 Dynamic Spectrum Management Based on Minority Games 68 3.2.4 Self-Organized Maps versus Minority Games 70 3.3 Transmit-Power Control 71 3.3.1 Waterfilling Interpretation of Information Capacity Theorem 75 3.3.2 Iterative Waterfilling Algorithm (IWFA) 77 3.3.3 IWFA as a Multistage Optimization Problem in Light of System Uncertainties 80 3.3.4 Robust IWFA 80 3.3.5 The Price of Robustness 81 3.3.6 Robust IWFA versus Classic IWFA 82 3.4 Information Value 91 3.5 Concluding Remarks 93 4 Cognitive Radio Networks 94 4.1 Cognitive Radio Networks Viewed as Spectrum-Supply Chain Networks 94 4.2 Open-access Cognitive Radio Networks 99 4.2.1 Network Dynamics 102 4.2.2 Cognitive Radio Network Viewed as a Hybrid Dynamic System 109 4.2.3 Network Stability in the Presence of Uncertainty and Time Delay 111 4.2.4 Double-layer Dynamics of Cognitive Radio Networks 115 4.3 Market-driven Cognitive Radio Networks 121 4.3.1 Legacy Owners 124 4.3.2 Spectrum Brokers 125 4.3.3 Secondary Users 126 4.3.4 Equilibrium of the Spectrum-Supply Chain Network 127 4.3.5 Network Dynamics 129 4.3.6 Network Stability 129 4.3.7 The Transportation Network Representation of the Spectrum-Supply Chain Network 129 4.4 Supply Chain Efficiency 131 4.5 Concluding Remarks 133 4.5.1 Two Regimes of Cognitive Radio Networks 133 4.5.2 Supply Chain Networks 135 4.5.3 Cognitive Radio Commercialization 136 4.5.4 The Role of Cognition in Cognitive Radio Networks 137 5 Sustainability of the Spectrum-Supply Chain Network 140 5.1 Unlicensed Bands as Public Goods 140 5.2 The Spectrum-Supply Chain Network as an Artificial Economy 142 5.3 Aiming for Lindahl Equilibria 144 5.4 Concluding Remarks 147 6 Cognitive Heterogeneous Networks 148 6.1 Heterogeneous Networks 148 6.2 Horizontal Mergers of Spectrum-Supply Chain Networks 151 6.2.1 Premerger Status 151 6.2.2 Spectrum Sharing 154 6.2.3 Infrastructure Sharing 155 6.2.4 Spectrum and Infrastructure Sharing 155 6.3 Synergy Measure for Horizontal Mergers 155 6.4 Concluding Remarks 156 Appendix A Mathematical Model for Open-Access Cognitive Radio Networks 157 Appendix B Proof of Theorems 167 References

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Book SynopsisThe Power of Design offers an introduction and a practical guide to product innovation, integrating the key topics that are necessary for the design of sustainable and energy-efficient products using sustainable energy technologies. Product innovation in sustainable energy technologies is an interdisciplinary field.Trade Review“This book, although it focuses on Sustainable Energy Technologies, brings forth a good step-by-step analysis of the design process methodology that can be applied to any area of design . . . The Power of Design is an introduction to product innovation and contains key topics necessary for the design of sustainable and energy-efficient products using sustainable energy technologies . . . Although targeted towards university undergraduates and postgrads, I find this a practical guide for designers in the field as well.” (EDN.com, 5 May 2013) “The Power of Design should have wide acceptance as the authors present images of an alternative future that is both achievable and desirable. The future maybe is already here will be a valuable addition to the libraries of medical schools that have added evolutionary biology to their curricula.” (Energy Technology, 17 July 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xiii Foreword xv Acknowledgements xvii About the Editors xix About the Contributors xxi 1 Introduction: Challenges at the Crossroads of Energy and Design 1 Ange`le Reinders and Jan Carel Diehl 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Energy Issues: A Brief Explanation 2 1.3 Sustainable Energy and Product Design 6 1.4 Industrial Design Engineering 10 1.5 Design for Sustainability (DfS) 13 1.6 Energy Challenges at the Base of the Economic Pyramid 17 1.7 Reading This Book 18 References 19 2 Innovation Methods 21 2.1 Introduction to Innovation Methods in Design Processes 21 Ange`le Reinders 2.1.1 Introduction 21 2.1.2 Platform-Driven Product Development 24 2.1.3 Delft Innovation Model 25 2.1.4 TRIZ 27 2.1.5 Technology Roadmapping 29 2.1.6 Design and Styling of Future Products 31 2.1.7 Constructive Technology Assessment 32 2.1.8 Innovation Journey 33 2.1.9 Risk-Diagnosing Methodology 34 References 36 2.2 Platform-Driven Product Development 37 Johannes Halman 2.2.1 Introduction 37 2.2.2 Definitions 37 2.2.3 The Creation of Platform-Based Product Families 39 2.2.4 The Platform-Planning Process 42 2.2.5 Modular versus Integral Product Architectures 44 2.2.6 Measuring the Performance of Product Families 47 2.2.7 Managing Risk in Platform-Based Development 49 2.2.8 Application of Platform-Driven Product Development 49 References 51 2.3 Delft Innovation Model in Use 51 Jan Buijs 2.3.1 Introduction 51 2.3.2 Stages of the Delft Innovation Model 53 2.3.3 Concluding Remarks on the Delft Innovation Model 57 2.3.4 Applying the Delft Innovation Model in Real Life 59 2.3.5 Reflections on the Delft Innovation Model in Practice 62 References 64 2.4 TRIZ: ATheory of Solving Inventive Problems 64 Valeri Souchkov 2.4.1 Introduction 64 2.4.2 Components of TRIZ 65 2.4.3 Contradiction as a Driving Force of Invention 65 2.4.4 Five Levels of Solutions 68 2.4.5 Evolution of Technical Systems 69 2.4.6 Ideality 70 2.4.7 Trends of Technical Systems Evolution 71 2.4.8 Science for Inventors 72 2.4.9 Analytical Techniques 74 2.4.10 Psychological Inertia and Creativity 76 2.4.11 Practical Value of TRIZ 76 2.4.12 Application of TRIZ 78 References 79 Further Reading 79 2.5 Technology Roadmapping 80 Valeri Souchkov 2.5.1 Introduction 80 2.5.2 Technology Roadmaps 81 2.5.3 Technology Readiness Levels 84 2.5.4 TRM Process 85 2.5.5 Benefits from TRM 87 2.5.6 Application of TRM 87 References 89 Further Reading 89 2.6 The Design and Styling of Future Things 89 Wouter Eggink 2.6.1 Introduction 89 2.6.2 Communication 91 2.6.3 Acceptance 93 2.6.4 Method 95 2.6.5 Examples 96 2.6.6 Conclusions 98 References 99 Further Reading 99 2.7 Constructive Technology Assessment 100 Stefan Kuhlmann 2.7.1 Introduction 100 2.7.2 New Attention for the Design and Governance of Science, Technology, and Innovation 101 2.7.3 Constructive Technology Assessment 102 2.7.4 Governance: CTA and Design in an Institutional Context 104 2.7.5 CTA as a Dance: Strategic Intelligence 106 2.7.6 Limits to CTA and Reflexive Governance of Technology Design 107 2.7.7 Application of CTA 108 References 110 2.8 Innovation Journey: Navigating Unknown Waters 112 Stefan Kuhlmann 2.8.1 Introduction 112 2.8.2 Method 113 2.8.3 Discussion about Innovation Journeys 114 2.8.4 Example from Practice 115 References 117 2.9 Risk-Diagnosing Methodology 117 Johannes Halman 2.9.1 Introduction 117 2.9.2 Requirements for an Effective Risk Assessment 118 2.9.3 The Risk-Diagnosing Methodology (RDM) 119 2.9.4 Added Value of RDM 125 Appendix 2.9 Reference List with Potential Risk Issues in the Innovation Process 126 References 129 2.10 A Multilevel Design Model Clarifying the Mutual Relationship between New Products and Societal Change Processes 130 Peter Joore 2.10.1 Introduction 130 2.10.2 A Multilevel Design Model 130 2.10.3 Example Based on the Development of an Electrical Transport System 133 2.10.4 Benefits for the Design Process 136 2.10.5 Conclusions 137 References 138 3 Energy Technologies 139 3.1 Introduction 139 3.2 Rechargeable Batteries for Energy Storage 140 Joop Schoonman 3.2.1 Introduction 140 3.2.2 Rechargeable Batteries 141 3.2.3 Lithium Batteries 143 3.2.4 Electric Vehicles 147 References 148 3.3 Photovoltaics and Product Integration 149 Ange`le Reinders and Wilfried van Sark 3.3.1 Introduction 149 3.3.2 PV Cells 150 3.3.3 Irradiance and PV Cell Performance 153 3.3.4 Rechargeable Batteries 156 3.3.5 System Design and Energy Balance 156 3.3.6 Design and Manufacturing of Product-Integrated PV 159 3.3.7 Conclusions 159 References 163 Further Reading 164 3.4 Fuel Cells 164 Frank de Bruijn 3.4.1 Fuel Cell Principles and Characteristics 164 3.4.2 Comparison of Fuel Cell Types 165 3.4.3 Key Characteristics of Fuel Cells 167 3.4.4 Cost 171 3.4.5 Fuel Cell Applications and Basic Requirements 173 3.4.6 Passenger Vehicles 173 3.4.7 City Buses 173 3.4.8 Materials Handling 175 3.4.9 Portable Applications 175 3.4.10 Stationary Fuel Cells: Backup Power 176 3.4.11 Stationary Fuel Cells: Base Load Power 176 3.4.12 Stationary Fuel Cells for Combined Heat and Power Generation 176 3.4.13 Conclusions 177 References 177 3.5 Small Wind Turbines 178 Paul K€uhn 3.5.1 Introduction 178 3.5.2 Turbine Size and Applications 178 3.5.3 Turbine Design and Technology 180 3.5.4 Performance 182 References 186 3.6 Human-Powered Energy Systems 186 Arjen Jansen 3.6.1 Introduction 186 3.6.2 The Human Body as a Power Source 188 3.6.3 Kinetic Energy Formulas: From General Models to Specific Models 190 3.6.4 The Design of Human-Powered Energy Systems 192 3.6.5 Environmental Aspects of Human-Powered Energy Systems 194 References 196 Further Reading 196 3.7 Energy-Saving Lighting 197 Arjan de Winter 3.7.1 Energy-Saving Lighting 197 3.7.2 Lighting Applications 198 3.7.3 Light Source Design: Efficacy 201 3.7.4 Luminaire Design: Optical and Electrical Efficiency 203 3.7.5 Application Design: Effectiveness 204 3.7.6 Conclusions and Looking Forward 206 Further Reading 206 3.8 Energy-Saving Technologies in the Built Environment 206 Bram Entrop 3.8.1 Design and Energy Use in the Built Environment 206 3.8.2 Construction Technologies 207 3.8.3 System Technologies 211 3.8.4 Transcendental Technologies 215 References 217 Further Reading 217 3.9 Piezoelectric Energy Conversions 218 Alexandre Paternoster, Pieter de Jong, Andre´ de Boer 3.9.1 Introduction 218 3.9.2 Piezoelectric Material 218 3.9.3 Power Harvesting 222 3.9.4 Conclusions 227 References 227 4 Using Energy: Beyond Individual Approaches to Influencing Energy Behavior 229 Daphne Geelen and David Keyson 4.1 Introduction 229 4.2 The Changing Roles of End Users and Residents in the Energy Provision System 230 4.3 Stimulating Energy Behavior Change in Current Design Practice 231 4.3.1 Design Strategies to Stimulate Behavior 231 4.3.2 Interaction Design 232 4.3.3 Collaborating on Energy Management 232 4.4 Toward Including Social Interaction and Community-Based Approaches 234 4.5 Approaches to Using Social Interaction in Relation to Energy-Related Behavior 235 4.5.1 Interventions Using Interactions between Participants 235 4.5.2 Games as Means for Social Interaction in a Community 237 4.5.3 Social Interaction in Interaction Design 238 4.6 Conclusions 240 References 240 Case A SolarBear: Refrigeration for the Base of the Pyramid through Adsorptive Cooling 243 Leonard Sch€urg, Jonas Martens, Roos van Genuchten and Marcel Crul A.1 Introduction 243 A.1.1 The Need for Off-Grid Refrigeration in BoP Small-Scale Businesses 243 A.1.2 Existing Cooling Solutions 244 A.2 The SolarBear Approach 244 A.2.1 Market Opportunities Research 244 A.2.2 Technical Opportunities Research and Prototyping 244 A.2.3 Market Development in India 244 A.3 Results of the First Cycle of Product Development: Proof of Concept and Market 245 A.3.1 First Prototype 246 A.3.2 Second Prototype 247 A.3.3 Product-Service System Development for SolarBear in Lakshmikantapur, India 247 A.4 Future Work: AWorking Prototype and Further Development by Enviu 250 References 252 Case B Environmental Impact of Photovoltaic Lighting 253 Bart Durlinger B.1 Introduction 253 B.2 The Lighting Systems 256 B.2.1 System 1: Angkor Light 256 B.2.2 System 2: Moonlight 256 B.2.3 System 3: Solar Home System 256 B.2.4 System 4: Light Delivered by Battery (Charged at Charging Station, Using Diesel) 257 B.2.5 System 5: CFLs and Electricity from the Grid 259 B.2.6 System 6: Kerosene Lamp 259 B.3 Environmental Impacts and Discussion 261 B.4 Conclusion 262 B.5 Acknowledgments 262 References 262 Case C Restyling Photovoltaic Modules 263 Michael Thung C.1 Introduction 263 C.2 Analysis Phase 265 C.3 Design Phase 267 C.4 The “Flower Cell” 269 C.5 Prototyping 270 C.6 Test Results 272 C.6.1 H Cell versus Flower Cell 272 C.6.2 Redesigned PV Modules 274 C.6.3 Expected Costs 274 C.7 Conclusions 274 Reference 275 Case D Selection of Power Sources for Portable Applications 277 Bas Flipsen D.1 Introduction 277 D.2 An Overview of Selection Strategies 278 D.2.1 Power Source Selection Tools 278 D.2.2 Application Selection Tools 280 D.2.3 Designing Alternative Power Sources 280 D.2.4 Optimizing Tools 282 D.2.5 Discussion 283 D.3 Power Source Selection Tool Method 283 D.3.1 First Approach 283 D.3.2 Analytical Model for Sizing an FC (Hybrid) System 285 D.3.3 Design of a DMFC Power System for an MP3 Player 286 D.3.4 Evaluation of the Model 288 D.3.5 Modification of the Model 291 D.4 Conclusion and Discussion 292 References 292 Case E Design of a Solar-PoweredWireless Computer Mouse 295 Wilfried van Sark and Nils Reich E.1 Introduction 295 E.2 Product Design Process 296 E.2.1 Focus Group Research 296 E.2.2 Energy Balance Scenarios 297 E.2.3 Design Criteria 299 E.3 Component Selection 300 E.3.1 Battery Unit 300 E.3.2 PV Cell 300 E.3.3 Encasing 301 E.3.4 Charge Controller 301 E.4 Final SPM Product 302 E.4.1 SPM Specifications 302 E.4.2 SPM User Tests 303 E.5 Conclusion 304 E.6 Acknowledgments 305 References 305 Case F Light Urban Mobility 307 Satish Kumar Beella, Sacha Silvester and Han Brezet F.1 Introduction 307 F.2 Background 308 F.3 Mobility and Design 309 F.4 Role and Importance of Energy 310 F.5 Light Urban Mobility 310 F.5.1 Urban Mobility Concept 311 F.5.2 MeeneemFiets 312 F.5.3 Bull 312 F.6 Conclusions 314 References 315 Case G From Participatory Design to Market Introduction of a Solar Light for the BoP Market 317 Jan Carel Diehl and Jeroen Verschelling G.1 Introduction 317 G.2 Methods 318 G.2.1 Project Setup 318 G.2.2 Participatory Market and Context Research 318 G.2.3 Participatory Field Research: User Needs 319 G.2.4 Technological Challenges 320 G.2.5 Co-Development 321 G.3 Results 322 G.4 Feedback from the Field 322 G.5 Market and Business Considerations 323 G.5.1 Costs 323 G.5.2 Challenges with Market Implementation 323 G.5.3 A “Rent-to-Own” Business Model 324 G.6 Discussion 325 References 326 Index 327

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Book SynopsisThis book addresses the need in the field for a comprehensive review of motion planning algorithms and hybrid control methodologies for complex legged robots.Table of ContentsPreface ix 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Objectives of Legged Locomotion and Challenges in Controlling Dynamic Walking and Running 1 1.2 Literature Overview 4 1.2.1 Tracking of Time Trajectories 4 1.2.2 Poincar´e Return Map and Hybrid Zero Dynamics 5 1.3 The Objective of the Book 7 1.3.1 Hybrid Zero Dynamics in Walking with Double Support Phase 7 1.3.2 Hybrid Zero Dynamics in Running with an Online Motion Planning Algorithm 8 1.3.3 Online Motion Planning Algorithms for Flight Phases of Running 9 1.3.4 Hybrid Zero Dynamics in 3D Running 10 1.3.5 Hybrid Zero Dynamics in Walking with Passive Knees 11 1.3.6 Hybrid Zero Dynamics with Continuous-Time Update Laws 12 2. Preliminaries in Hybrid Systems 13 2.1 Basic Definitions 13 2.2 Poincar´e Return Map for Hybrid Systems 16 2.3 Low-Dimensional Stability Analysis 23 2.4 Stabilization Problem 28 3. Asymptotic Stabilization of Periodic Orbits forWalking with Double Support Phase 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Mechanical Model of a Biped Walker 37 3.2.1 The Biped Robot 37 3.2.2 Dynamics of the Flight Phase 37 3.2.3 Dynamics of the Single Support Phase 39 3.2.4 Dynamics of the Double Support Phase 40 3.2.5 Impact Model 43 3.2.6 Transition from the Double Support Phase to the Single Support Phase 45 3.2.7 Hybrid Model of Walking 45 3.3 Control Laws for the Single and Double Support Phases 46 3.3.1 Single Support Phase Control Law 46 3.3.2 Double Support Phase Control Law 49 3.4 Hybrid Zero Dynamics (HZD) 54 3.4.1 Analysis of HZD in the Single Support Phase 55 3.4.2 Analysis of HZD in the Double Support Phase 57 3.4.3 Restricted Poincar´e Return Map 58 3.5 Design of an HZD Containing a Prespecified Periodic Solution 60 3.5.1 Design of the Output Functions 60 3.5.2 Design of u1d and u2d 62 3.6 Stabilization of the Periodic Orbit 67 3.7 Motion Planning Algorithm 71 3.7.1 Motion Planning Algorithm for the Single Support Phase 72 3.7.2 Motion Planning Algorithm for the Double Support Phase 73 3.7.3 Constructing a Period-One Orbit for the Open-Loop Hybrid Model of Walking 76 3.8 Numerical Example for the Motion Planning Algorithm 77 3.9 Simulation Results of the Closed-Loop Hybrid System 82 3.9.1 Effect of Double Support Phase on Angular Momentum Transfer and Stabilization 82 3.9.2 Effect of Event-Based Update Laws on Momentum Transfer and Stabilization 92 4. Asymptotic Stabilization of Periodic Orbits for Planar Monopedal Running 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Mechanical Model of a Monopedal Runner 97 4.2.1 The Monopedal Runner 97 4.2.2 Dynamics of the Flight Phase 97 4.2.3 Dynamics of the Stance Phase 98 4.2.4 Open-Loop Hybrid Model of Running 99 4.3 Reconfiguration Algorithm for the Flight Phase 99 4.3.1 Determination of the Reachable Set 103 4.4 Control Laws for Stance and Flight Phases 120 4.4.1 Stance Phase Control Law 121 4.4.2 Flight Phase Control Law 122 4.4.3 Event-Based Update Law 124 4.5 Hybrid Zero Dynamics and Stabilization 125 4.6 Numerical Results 127 5. Online Generation of Joint Motions During Flight Phases of Planar Running 137 5.1 Introduction 137 5.2 Mechanical Model of a Planar Open Kinematic Chain 138 5.3 Motion Planning Algorithm to Generate Continuous Joint Motions 140 5.3.1 Determining the Reachable Set from the Origin 143 5.3.2 Motion Planning Algorithm 150 5.4 Motion Planning Algorithm to Generate Continuously Differentiable Joint Motions 152 6. Stabilization of Periodic Orbits for 3D Monopedal Running 159 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 Open-Loop Hybrid Model of a 3D Running 160 6.2.1 Dynamics of the Flight Phase 162 6.2.2 Dynamics of the Stance Phase 163 6.2.3 Transition Maps 164 6.2.4 Hybrid Model 166 6.3 Design of a Period-One Solution for the Open-Loop Model of Running 167 6.4 Numerical Example 172 6.5 Within-Stride Controllers 175 6.5.1 Stance Phase Control Law 175 6.5.2 Flight Phase Control Law 178 6.6 Event-Based Update Laws for Hybrid Invariance 181 6.6.1 Takeoff Update Laws 184 6.6.2 Impact Update Laws 185 6.7 Stabilization Problem 186 6.8 Simulation Results 189 7. Stabilization of Periodic Orbits for Walking with Passive Knees 193 7.1 Introduction 193 7.2 Open-Loop Model of Walking 194 7.2.1 Mechanical Model of the Planar Bipedal Robot 194 7.2.2 Dynamics of the Single Support Phase 195 7.2.3 Impact Map 195 7.2.4 Open-Loop Impulsive Model of Walking 196 7.3 Motion Planning Algorithm 197 7.4 Numerical Example 200 7.5 Continuous-Times Controllers 202 7.6 Event-Based Controllers 209 7.6.1 Hybrid Invariance 209 7.6.2 Continuity of the Continuous-Time Controllers During the Within-Stride Transitions 212 7.7 Stabilization Problem 213 7.8 Simulation of the Closed-Loop Hybrid System 217 8. Continuous-Time Update Laws During Continuous Phases of Locomotion 221 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Invariance of the Exponential Stability Behavior for a Class of Impulsive Systems 222 8.3 Outline of the Proof of Theorem 8.1 224 8.4 Application to Legged Locomotion 227 A. Proofs Associated with Chapter 3 229 A.1 Proof of Lemma 3.3 229 A.2 Proof of Lemma 3.4 230 A.3 Proof of Lemma 3.7 230 B. Proofs Associated with Chapter 4 233 B.1 Proof of Lemma 4.2 233 B.2 Proof of Theorem 4.2 234 C. Proofs Associated with Chapter 6 237 C.1 Proof of Lemma 6.1 237 C.2 Proof of Lemma 6.2 238 C.3 Invertibility of the Stance Phase Decoupling Matrix on the Periodic Orbit 240 Bibliography 241 Index 249

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Book SynopsisThis book provides up to date coverage of the basics of ATM and internet protocols, and characteristics of satellite networks and internetworking between satellite and terrestrial networks Satellite Networking: Principles and Protocols, Second Edition provides up to date information of the original topics in satellite networking and protocols focusing on Internet Protocols (IP) over satellites, broadband over satellites, next generation IP (IPv6) over satellites, new generation of DVB-S/S2 and DVB-RCS next generations and new services and applications. It also includes some analytical techniques for evaluation of end to end IP performance and QoS over satellite, reflecting the recent convergence of telecommunication, Internet, broadcasting and mobile networks. Topics new to this edition: Internetworking with MANET, DVB-S/S2 and DVB-RCS/RCS2 (including TCP/IP over DVB-S/RCS), recent developments in broadband satellite systems, convergence of serviceTable of ContentsList of Figures xix List of Tables xxv About the Author xxvii Preface xxix Acknowledgements xxxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Applications and Services of Satellite Networks 1 1.1.1 Roles of Satellite Networks 2 1.1.2 Network Software and Hardware 4 1.1.3 Satellite Network Interfaces 4 1.1.4 Network Services 5 1.1.5 Applications 5 1.2 ITU-R Definitions of Satellite Services 5 1.2.1 Fixed Satellite Service (FSS) 6 1.2.2 Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) 6 1.2.3 Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS) 6 1.2.4 Other Satellite Services 6 1.3 ITU-T Definitions of Network Services 6 1.3.1 Interactive Services 7 1.3.2 Distribution Services 7 1.4 Internet Services and Applications 8 1.4.1 World Wide Web (WWW) 8 1.4.2 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 9 1.4.3 Telnet 9 1.4.4 Electronic Mail (email) 10 1.4.5 Multicast and Content Distribution 10 1.4.6 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) 10 1.4.7 Domain Name System (DNS) 11 1.5 Circuit-switching Network 11 1.5.1 Connection Set Up 12 1.5.2 Signalling 13 1.5.3 Transmission Multiplexing Hierarchy based on FDM 13 1.5.4 Transmission Multiplexing Hierarchy based on TDM 13 1.5.5 Space Switching and Time Switching 15 1.5.6 Coding Gain of Forward Error Correction (FEC) 16 1.6 Packet-switching Networks 17 1.6.1 Connection-oriented Approach 18 1.6.2 Connectionless Approach 19 1.6.3 Relationship between Circuit-switching and Packet-switching 20 1.6.4 Considerations of Packet Network Designs 20 1.6.5 Packet Header and Payload 21 1.6.6 Complexity and Heterogeneous Networks 21 1.6.7 Performance of Packet Transmissions 21 1.6.8 Impact of Bit Level Errors on Packet Level 22 1.7 OSI/ISO Reference Model 22 1.7.1 Protocol Terminology 23 1.7.2 Layering Principle 23 1.7.3 Functions of the Seven Layers 23 1.7.4 Fading of the OSI/ISO Reference Model 24 1.8 The ATM Protocol Reference Model 25 1.8.1 Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN) 25 1.8.2 Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) 25 1.8.3 ATM Technology 25 1.8.4 Reference Model 26 1.8.5 Problems: Lack of Available Services and Applications 26 1.9 Internet Protocols Reference Model 27 1.9.1 Network Layer: IP Protocol 27 1.9.2 Network Technologies 27 1.9.3 Transport Layer: TCP and UDP 28 1.9.4 Application Layer 28 1.9.5 QoS and Control on Resources 28 1.10 Satellite Network 28 1.10.1 Access Network 29 1.10.2 Transit Network 29 1.10.3 Broadcast Network 29 1.10.4 Space Segment 29 1.10.5 Ground Segment 31 1.10.6 Satellite Orbits 31 1.10.7 Satellite Transmission Frequency Bands 32 1.11 Characteristics of Satellite Networks 34 1.11.1 Propagation Delay 34 1.11.2 Propagation Loss and Power Limited 35 1.11.3 Orbit Space and Bandwidth Limited for Coverage 35 1.11.4 Operational Complexity for LEO 35 1.12 Channel Capacity of Digital Transmissions 35 1.12.1 The Nyquist Formula for Noiseless Channels 36 1.12.2 The Shannon Theorem for Noise Channels 36 1.12.3 Channel Capacity Boundary 36 1.12.4 The Shannon Power Limit (−1.6 dB) 36 1.12.5 Shannon Bandwidth Efficiency for Large Eb¨MN0 37 1.13 Internetworking with Terrestrial Networks 38 1.13.1 Repeaters at the Physical Layer 38 1.13.2 Bridges at the Link Layer 38 1.13.3 Switches at the Physical, Link and Network Layers 39 1.13.4 Routers for Interconnecting Heterogeneous Networks 39 1.13.5 Protocol Translation, Stacking and Tunnelling 39 1.13.6 Quality of Service (QoS) 40 1.13.7 End-user QoS Class and Requirements 40 1.13.8 Network Performance 41 1.13.9 QoS and NP for Satellite Networking 42 1.14 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) 43 1.14.1 The DVB Standards 44 1.14.2 Transmission System 44 1.14.3 Adaptation to Satellite Transponder Characteristics 45 1.14.4 Channel Coding 46 1.14.5 Reed–Solomon (RS) Outer Coding, Interleaving and Framing 47 1.14.6 Inner Convolutional Coding 48 1.14.7 Baseband Shaping and Modulation 49 1.14.8 Error Performance Requirements 50 1.15 DVB-S Satellite Delivery 50 1.15.1 MPEG-2 Baseband Processing 51 1.15.2 Transport Stream (TS) 52 1.15.3 Service Objectives 52 1.15.4 Satellite Channel Adaptation 52 1.15.5 DVB Return Channel over Satellite (DVB-RCS) 53 1.15.6 TCP/IP over DVB 54 1.16 DVB Satellite – Second Generation (DVB-S2) 54 1.16.1 Technology Novelty in the DVB-S2 55 1.16.2 Transmission System Architecture 56 1.16.3 Error Performance 58 1.17 DVB Satellite Services to Handheld Devices (DVB-SH) 59 1.17.1 Transmission System Architecture 60 1.17.2 Common Functions for both TDM and OFDM Modes 61 1.17.3 Functions for Single Carrier (TDM) Mode 62 1.17.4 Functions for Multi Carrier (OFDM) Mode 65 1.17.5 DVB-RCS2 69 1.18 Historical Development of Computer and Data Networks 69 1.18.1 Dawn of the Computer and Data Communications Age 70 1.18.2 Development of Local Area Networks (LANs) 70 1.18.3 Development of WANs and ISO/OSI 70 1.18.4 Birth of the Internet 70 1.18.5 Integration of Telephony and Data Networks 70 1.18.6 Development of Broadband Integrated Networks 71 1.18.7 The Killer Application WWW and Internet Evolutions 71 1.19 Historical Development of Satellite Communications 71 1.19.1 Start of Satellite and Space Eras 71 1.19.2 Early Satellite Communications: TV and Telephony 72 1.19.3 Development of Satellite Digital Transmission 72 1.19.4 Development of Direct-to-Home (DTH) Broadcast 72 1.19.5 Development of Satellite Maritime Communications 72 1.19.6 Satellite Communications in Regions and Countries 72 1.19.7 Satellite Broadband Networks and Mobile Networks 73 1.19.8 Internet over Satellite Networks 73 1.20 Convergence of Network Technologies and Protocols 73 1.20.1 Convergence of Services and Applications in User Terminals 73 1.20.2 Convergence of Network Technologies 74 1.20.3 Convergence of Network Protocols 75 1.20.4 Satellite Network Evolution 75 Further Readings 77 Exercises 78 2 Satellite Orbits and Networking Concepts 79 2.1 Laws of Physics 80 2.1.1 Kepler’s Three Laws 80 2.1.2 Newton’s Three Laws of Motion and The Universal Law of Gravity 80 2.1.3 Kepler’s First Law: Satellite Orbits 81 2.1.4 Kepler’s Second Law: Area Swept by a Satellite Vector 83 2.1.5 Kepler’s Third Law: Orbit Period 83 2.1.6 Satellite Velocity 84 2.2 Satellite Orbit Parameters 85 2.2.1 Semi-Major Axis (a) 85 2.2.2 Eccentricity (e) 85 2.2.3 Inclination of Orbit (i) 85 2.2.4 Right Ascension of the Node (Ω) and Argument of Perigee (𝜔) 86 2.3 Useful Orbits 87 2.3.1 Geosynchronous Earth Orbits 87 2.3.2 Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEOs) 87 2.3.3 High Elliptical Orbits (HEOs) 88 2.3.4 Notations of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite Constellations 88 2.3.5 Orbital Perturbations 89 2.3.6 Satellite Altitude and Coverage 89 2.3.7 Antenna Gain and Beam-width Angle 90 2.3.8 Coverage Calculations 91 2.3.9 Distance and Propagation Delay from Earth Station to Satellite 92 2.4 Satellite Link Characteristics and Modulations for Transmissions 93 2.4.1 Satellite Link Characteristics 93 2.4.2 Modulation Techniques 95 2.4.3 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Schemes for Satellite Transmissions 96 2.4.4 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) 96 2.4.5 Quadrature PSK (QPSK) 97 2.4.6 Gaussian-filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) 97 2.4.7 Bit Error Rate (BER): the Quality Parameter of Modulation Schemes 98 2.4.8 Satellite Networking in the Physical Layer 100 2.5 Forward Error Correction (FEC) 101 2.5.1 Linear Block Codes 101 2.5.2 Cyclic Codes 102 2.5.3 Trellis Coding and Convolutional Codes 102 2.5.4 Concatenated Codes 103 2.5.5 Turbo Codes 103 2.5.6 Performance of FEC 104 2.6 Multiple Access Techniques 105 2.6.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 106 2.6.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 106 2.6.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 107 2.6.4 Comparison of FDMA, TDMA and CDMA 108 2.7 Bandwidth Allocation 108 2.7.1 Fixed Assignment Access 109 2.7.2 Demand Assignment 109 2.7.3 Random Access 109 2.8 Satellite Networking Issues 110 2.8.1 Single-hop Satellite Connections 110 2.8.2 Multi-hop Satellite Connections 110 2.8.3 Inter-satellite Links (ISL) 111 2.8.4 Handovers 112 2.8.5 Satellite Intra-beam and Inter-beam Handovers 114 2.8.6 Earth Fixed Coverage versus Satellite Fixed Coverage 114 2.8.7 Routing within a Constellation of Satellite Networks 115 2.8.8 Internetworking 116 2.8.9 Satellite Availability and Diversity 116 Further Readings 118 Exercises 118 3 B-ISDN ATM and Internet Protocols 119 3.1 ATM Protocol and Fundamental Concepts 119 3.1.1 Packetisation Delay 121 3.1.2 Queuing Delay 121 3.1.3 Compromise Solution Between North America and Europe 122 3.2 ATM Layer 123 3.2.1 The GFC Field 123 3.2.2 The VPI and VCI Fields 123 3.2.3 The CLP Field 125 3.2.4 The PT Field 126 3.2.5 The HEC Field 126 3.3 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) 126 3.3.1 AAL1 for Class A 127 3.3.2 AAL2 for Class B 129 3.3.3 AAL3/4 for Classes C and D 129 3.3.4 AAL5 for Internet Protocol 130 3.4 The Physical Layer 131 3.4.1 The Physical Medium (PM) Sublayers 131 3.4.2 The Transmission Convergence (TC) Sublayer 131 3.4.3 ATM Cell Transmissions 132 3.5 ATM Interfaces and ATM Networking 134 3.5.1 User–Network Access 134 3.5.2 Network Node Interconnections 135 3.5.3 ATM DXI 136 3.5.4 B-ICI 136 3.5.5 Permanent Virtual Connections versus Switched Virtual Connections 136 3.5.6 ATM Signalling 137 3.5.7 ATM Addressing 137 3.5.8 Address Registration 139 3.6 Network Traffic, QoS and Performance Issues 139 3.6.1 Traffic Descriptors 140 3.6.2 QoS Parameters 140 3.6.3 Performance Issues 140 3.7 Network Resource Management 141 3.7.1 Connection Admission Control (CAC) 142 3.7.2 UPC and NPC 142 3.7.3 Priority Control and Congestion Control 142 3.7.4 Traffic Shaping 143 3.7.5 Generic Cell Rate Algorithm (GCRA) 143 3.7.6 Leaky Bucket Algorithm (LBA) 143 3.7.7 Virtual Scheduling Algorithm (VSA) 146 3.8 Internet Protocols 146 3.8.1 Internet Networking Basics 147 3.8.2 Protocol Hierarchies 147 3.8.3 Connectionless Network Layer 148 3.8.4 The IP Packet Format 148 3.8.5 IP Address 150 3.8.6 Mapping Between Internet and Physical Network Addresses 151 3.8.7 ARP, RARP and HDCP 152 3.9 Internet Routing Protocols 152 3.9.1 The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) 152 3.9.2 The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol (EGRP) 153 3.10 Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP 153 3.10.1 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 153 3.10.2 The TCP Segment Header Format 154 3.10.3 Connection Set Up and Data Transmission 155 3.10.4 Congestion and Flow Control 156 3.10.5 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 157 3.11 IP and ATM Internetworking 158 3.11.1 Packet Encapsulation 159 3.11.2 IP and ATM Address Resolution 160 Further Readings 161 Exercises 161 4 Satellite Internetworking with Terrestrial Networks 163 4.1 Networking Concepts 163 4.2 Networking Terminology 165 4.2.1 Private Network 165 4.2.2 Public Network 165 4.2.3 Quality Aspects of Telephony Services 166 4.2.4 IP Based Network 166 4.3 Network Elements and Connections 167 4.3.1 Network Terminals 167 4.3.2 Network Nodes 168 4.3.3 Network Connections 168 4.3.4 End-to-End Paths 169 4.3.5 Reference Configurations 169 4.4 Network Traffic and Signalling 170 4.4.1 User Traffic and Network Services 170 4.4.2 Signalling Systems and Signalling Traffic 171 4.4.3 In-band Signalling 172 4.4.4 Out-of-Band Signalling 173 4.4.5 Associated and Disassociated Channel Signalling 173 4.4.6 Network Management 174 4.4.7 Network Operation Systems and Mediation Functions 175 4.5 Access and Transit Transmission Networks 176 4.5.1 Analogue Telephony Networks 177 4.5.2 Telephony Network Traffic Engineering Concept 177 4.5.3 Access to Satellite Networks in the Frequency Domain 178 4.5.4 On-Board Circuit Switching 179 4.6 Digital Telephony Networks 180 4.6.1 Digital Multiplexing Hierarchy 180 4.6.2 Satellite Digital Transmission and On-Board Switching 181 4.6.3 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) 181 4.6.4 Limitations of PDH 181 4.7 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) 182 4.7.1 Development of SDH 183 4.7.2 The SDH Standards 183 4.7.3 Mapping from PDH to SDH 184 4.7.4 The Benefits of SDH 185 4.7.5 Synchronous Operation 185 4.7.6 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 187 4.7.7 SDH Over Satellite – The Intelsat Scenarios 188 4.8 Hypothetical References for Satellite Networks 189 4.8.1 ITU-T Hypothetical Reference Connection (HRX) 189 4.8.2 ITU-R Hypothetical Reference Digital Path (HRDP) for Satellite 190 4.8.3 Performance Objectives 191 4.9 Satellites and MANET 191 4.9.1 Networking Scenarios 193 4.10 Interworking with Heterogeneous Networks 197 4.10.1 Services 197 4.10.2 Addressing 198 4.10.3 Routing 198 4.10.4 Evolution 198 Further Readings 199 Exercises 200 5 B-ISDN ATM over Satellite Networks 201 5.1 Background 201 5.1.1 Networking Issues 202 5.1.2 Satellite Services in the B-ISDN Networking Environment 202 5.2 Design Issues of Satellite B-ISDN ATM Systems 204 5.2.1 Propagation Delay 204 5.2.2 Attenuation and Constraints 205 5.3 The GEO Satellite B-ISDN ATM Networking Architecture 206 5.3.1 Ground Segment 206 5.3.2 Space Segment 207 5.3.3 Satellite Bandwidth Resource Management 207 5.3.4 Connection Admission Control (CAC) 209 5.3.5 Network Policing Functions 209 5.3.6 Reactive Congestion Control 209 5.4 Advanced Satellite B-ISDN ATM Networks 210 5.4.1 Radio Access Layer 210 5.4.2 On-Board Processing (OBP) Characteristics 211 5.4.3 B-ISDN ATM On-Board Switch 211 5.4.4 Multibeam Satellites 214 5.4.5 LEO/MEO Satellite Constellations 215 5.4.6 Inter-Satellite Links (ISL) 215 5.4.7 Mobility Management 216 5.4.8 Use of Higher Frequency Spectrum 216 5.5 B-ISDN ATM Performance 217 5.5.1 Layered Model of Performance for B-ISDN 217 5.5.2 Network Performance Parameters 218 5.5.3 Impact of Satellite Burst Errors on the ATM Layer 220 5.5.4 Impact of Burst Errors on AAL Protocols 221 5.5.5 Error Control Mechanisms 221 5.5.6 Enhancement Techniques for Broadband Satellite Networks 222 5.6 Evolution of Broadband Satellite Systems 224 Further Readings 225 Exercises 225 6 Internet Protocol (IP) over Satellite Networks 227 6.1 Different Viewpoints of Satellite Networking 227 6.1.1 Protocol-centric Viewpoint of Satellite IP Network 228 6.1.2 Satellite-centric Viewpoint of Global Networks and the Internet 229 6.1.3 Network-centric Viewpoint of Satellite Networks 230 6.2 IP Packet Encapsulation 231 6.2.1 Basic Concepts 231 6.2.2 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) Protocol 232 6.2.3 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) 232 6.2.4 Media Access Control 233 6.2.5 IP Over Satellite 233 6.3 Satellite IP Networking 233 6.3.1 Routing On-Board Satellites 235 6.3.2 IP Mobility in Satellite Networks 235 6.3.3 Address Resolution 237 6.4 IP Multicast Over Satellite 237 6.4.1 IP Multicast Concepts 238 6.4.2 IP Multicast Addressing 239 6.4.3 Multicast Group Management 239 6.4.4 IP Multicast Routing 240 6.4.5 IP Multicast Scope 241 6.4.6 IGMP Behaviour in Satellite Environments 241 6.4.7 Multicast Routing Protocols in Satellite Environments 243 6.4.8 Reliable Multicast Protocols Over Satellites 243 6.5 Basic Network Security Mechanisms 245 6.5.1 Security Approaches 245 6.5.2 Single-direction Hashing Functions 246 6.5.3 Symmetrical Codes (With Secret Keys) 246 6.5.4 Asymmetrical Codes (With Public/Private Keys) 247 6.6 Satellite Networking Security 248 6.6.1 IP Security (IPsec) 248 6.6.2 Firewall and VPN 249 6.6.3 IP Multicast Security 250 6.7 Internet Quality of Service (IP QoS) 250 6.7.1 Layered Model of Performance for IP Service 251 6.7.2 IP Packet Transfer Performance Parameters 252 6.7.3 IP Network Performance Objectives for QoS Classes 253 6.7.4 Guidance on IP QoS Class Usage 254 6.8 Integrated Services (Intserv) Architectures for QoS 254 6.8.1 Integrated Services Architecture (ISA) Principles 255 6.8.2 Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) 256 6.8.3 Intserv Service Classes 257 6.9 Differentiated Services (Diffserv) for QoS 258 6.9.1 Diffserv Architecture 258 6.9.2 Traffic Classification 260 6.9.3 Traffic Conditioning 261 6.9.4 Diffserv Per Hop Behaviour (PHB) 261 6.9.5 Supporting Intserv Across the Satellite Network Diffserv Domain 263 6.10 DVB Over Satellite 264 6.10.1 MPEG-2 Source Coding and Multiplexing DVB-S Streams 265 6.10.2 DVB-S System 266 6.10.3 DVB Security 268 6.10.4 Conditional Access in DVB-S 268 6.10.5 DVB-RCS Interactive Service and IP over DVB 270 6.10.6 DVB-RCS Security 271 6.10.7 IP Multicast Security 271 6.11 DVB-S and DVB-RCS Network Architecture 272 6.11.1 On-Board Processor (OBP) 273 6.11.2 Management Station (MS) 274 6.11.3 Regenerative Satellite Gateway (RSGW) 274 6.11.4 Return Channel Satellite Terminal (RCST) 275 6.11.5 Network Interface 275 6.11.6 Network System Characteristics 276 6.12 Network Protocol Stack Architecture 276 6.13 The Physical Layer (PHY) 277 6.13.1 Up-link (DVB-RCS Compliant) 277 6.13.2 Time Slots 278 6.13.3 Frames 278 6.13.4 Superframes 280 6.13.5 Carrier Type and Frame Composition 280 6.13.6 Uplink MF-TDMA Channel Frequency Plan 281 6.13.7 Downlink (DVB-S Compliant) 282 6.13.8 RCS Terminal (RCST) Transmission 283 6.14 Satellite MAC (SMAC) Layer 284 6.14.1 Transport Mechanisms 284 6.14.2 MPEG-2, DVB-S and DVB-RCS Tables 285 6.15 Multi Protocol Encapsulation (MPE) 288 6.16 Satellite Link Control Layer 290 6.16.1 Session Control 290 6.16.2 Resource Control 293 6.16.3 Capacity Request Categories 294 6.16.4 Connection Control 294 6.17 Quality of Service (QoS) 297 6.17.1 Traffic Classes 297 6.17.2 Flow Classification 298 6.17.3 Link Layer Connection QoS Adaptation 298 6.18 Network Layer 299 6.18.1 IP Routing and Address Resolution 299 6.18.2 IP Multicast – Star and Mesh Configurations 301 Further Readings 303 Exercises 305 7 Impact of Satellite Networks on Transport Layer Protocols 307 7.1 Introduction 308 7.1.1 Application Characteristics 308 7.1.2 Client and Server Host Parameters 309 7.1.3 Satellite Network Configurations 309 7.1.4 TCP and Satellite Channel Characteristics 310 7.1.5 TCP Flow Control, Congestion Control and Error Recovery 311 7.2 TCP Performance Analysis 313 7.2.1 First TCP Segment Transmission 313 7.2.2 TCP Transmission in the Slow-start Stage 314 7.2.3 TCP Transmission in the Congestion Avoidance Stage 314 7.3 Slow-start Enhancement for Satellite Networks 315 7.3.1 TCP for Transactions 316 7.3.2 Slow-start and Delayed Acknowledgement (ACK) 316 7.3.3 Larger Initial Window 317 7.3.4 Terminating Slow-start 317 7.4 Loss Recovery Enhancement 318 7.4.1 Fast Retransmission and Fast Recovery 318 7.4.2 Selective Acknowledgement (SACK) 319 7.4.3 SACK Based Enhancement Mechanisms 319 7.4.4 ACK Congestion Control 320 7.4.5 ACK Filtering 320 7.4.6 Explicit Congestion Notification 321 7.4.7 Detecting Corruption Loss 322 7.4.8 Congestion Avoidance Enhancement Policy 322 7.5 Enhancements for Satellite Networks Using Interruptive Mechanisms 323 7.5.1 TCP Spoofing 323 7.5.2 Cascading TCP or Split TCP 324 7.5.3 Other Considerations for Satellite Networking 325 7.6 Impacts on Applications 325 7.6.1 Bulk Data Transfer 325 7.6.2 Interactive Applications 326 7.6.3 Distributed Caching for Internet Services and Applications 326 7.6.4 Web Caching in Satellite Networks 327 7.7 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) 328 7.7.1 Basics of RTP 328 7.7.2 RTP Control Protocol (RTCP) 331 7.7.3 Sender Report (SR) Packets 332 7.7.4 Receiver Report (RR) Packets 333 7.7.5 Source Description (SDES) RTCP Packet 333 7.7.6 SAP and SIP Protocols for Session Initiations 334 7.7.7 Session Directory Service (SDS) 336 7.8 Voice over IP 336 7.8.1 Gateway Decomposition 336 7.8.2 Protocols 336 7.8.3 Gatekeepers 337 7.8.4 Multimedia Conferencing (MMC) 337 7.8.5 Conference Control 337 Further Readings 337 Exercises 338 8 Next Generation Internet (NGI) over Satellite 341 8.1 Introduction 342 8.2 New Services and Applications 342 8.2.1 Internet Integrated Services 343 8.2.2 Elastic and Inelastic Traffic 343 8.2.3 QoS Provision and Network Performance 344 8.3 Traffic Modelling and Characterisation 344 8.3.1 Traffic Engineering Techniques 345 8.3.2 Traffic Modelling 345 8.3.3 Statistical Methods for Traffic Modelling 346 8.3.4 Renewal Models 346 8.3.5 Markov Models 346 8.3.6 Fluid Models 347 8.3.7 Auto-regressive and Moving Average Models 347 8.3.8 Self-similar Models 348 8.4 The Nature of Internet Traffic 348 8.4.1 World Wide Web (WWW) 348 8.4.2 Pareto Distribution Model for Self-similar Traffic 350 8.4.3 Fractional Brownian Motion (FBM) Process 350 8.4.4 Consideration of User Behaviour in Traffic Modelling 351 8.4.5 Voice Traffic Modelling 352 8.4.6 On-off Model for Voice Traffic 354 8.4.7 Video Traffic Modelling 355 8.4.8 Multi-layer Modelling for WWW Traffic 356 8.5 Traffic Engineering 357 8.5.1 Traffic Engineering Principles 358 8.5.2 Internet Traffic Engineering 360 8.6 Multi-protocol Label Switching (MPLS) 361 8.6.1 MPLS Forwarding Paradigm 362 8.6.2 MPLS Basic Operation 363 8.6.3 MPLS and Diffserv Interworking 366 8.6.4 MPLS and ATM Interworking 367 8.6.5 MPLS with Traffic Engineering (MPLS-TE) 368 8.7 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) 369 8.7.1 Basics of Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) 369 8.7.2 IPv6 Addressing 371 8.7.3 IPv6 Networks over Satellites 374 8.7.4 IPv6 Transitions 375 8.7.5 IPv6 Tunnelling Through Satellite Networks 375 8.7.6 The 6to4 Translation via Satellite Networks 376 8.7.7 Issues with 6to4 377 8.7.8 Future Development of Satellite Networking 378 Further Readings 380 Exercises 381 Index 383

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Book SynopsisWith the expectation of greatly enhanced user experience, 3D video is widely perceived as the next major advancement in video technology. In order to fulfil the expectation of enhanced user experience, 3D video calls for new technologies addressing efficient content creation, representation/coding, transmission and display.Table of ContentsPreface xvii List of Contributors xxi Acknowledgements xxv PART I CONTENT CREATION 1 Consumer Depth Cameras and Applications 3 Seungkyu Lee 2 SFTI: Space-from-Time Imaging 17 Ahmed Kirmani, Andrea ColaSco, and Vivek K. Goyal 3 2D-to-3D Video Conversion: Overview and Perspectives 37 Carlos Vazquez, Liang Zhang, Filippo Speranza, Nils Plath, and Sebastian Knorr 4 Spatial Plasticity: Dual-Camera Configurations and Variable Interaxial 62 Ray Zone PART II REPRESENTATION, CODING AND TRANSMISSION 5 Disparity Estimation Techniques 81 Mounir Kaaniche, Raffaele Gaetano, Marco Cagnazzo, and Beatrice Pesquet-Popescu 6 3D Video Representation and Formats 102 Marco Cagnazzo, Beatrice Pesquet-Popescu, and Frederic Dufaux 7 Depth Video Coding Technologies 121 Elie Gabriel Mora, Giuseppe Valenzise, Jo€el Jung, B_eatrice Pesquet-Popescu, Marco Cagnazzo, and Frederic Dufaux 8 Depth-Based 3D Video Formats and Coding Technology 139 Anthony Vetro and Karsten M€uller 9 Coding for Interactive Navigation in High-Dimensional Media Data 162 Ngai-Man Cheung and Gene Cheung 10 Adaptive Streaming of Multiview Video Over P2P Networks 187 C. G€oktug G€urler and A. Murat Tekalp PART III RENDERING AND SYNTHESIS 11 Image Domain Warping for Stereoscopic 3D Applications 207 Oliver Wang, Manuel Lang, Nikolce Stefanoski, Alexander Sorkine-Hornung, Olga Sorkine-Hornung, Aljoscha Smolic, and Markus Gross 12 Image-Based Rendering and the Sampling of the Plenoptic Function 231 Christopher Gilliam, Mike Brookes, and Pier Luigi Dragotti 13 A Framework for Image-Based Stereoscopic View Synthesis from Asynchronous Multiview Data 249 Felix Klose, Christian Lipski, and Marcus Magnor PART IV DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES 14 Signal Processing for 3D Displays 275 Janusz Konrad 15 3D Display Technologies 295 Thierry Borel and Didier Doyen 16 Integral Imaging 313 Jun Arai 17 3D Light-Field Display Technologies 336 Peter Tamas Kovacs and Tibor Balogh PART V HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT 18 3D Media and the Human Visual System 349 Simon J. Watt and Kevin J. MacKenzie 19 3D Video Quality Assessment 377 Philippe Hanhart, Francesca De Simone, Martin Rerabek, and Touradj Ebrahimi PART VI APPLICATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION 20 Interactive Omnidirectional Indoor Tour 395 Jean-Charles Bazin, Olivier Saurer, Friedrich Fraundorfer, and Marc Pollefeys 21 View Selection 416 Fahad Daniyal and Andrea Cavallaro 22 3D Video on Mobile Devices 432 Arnaud Bourge and Alain Bellon 23 Graphics Composition for Multiview Displays 450 Jean Le Feuvre and Yves Mathieu 24 Real-Time Disparity Estimation Engine for High-Definition 3DTV Applications 468 Yu-Cheng Tseng and Tian-Sheuan Chang References 483 Index 487

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Book SynopsisProvides an insightful and practical introduction to crowdsourcing as a means of rapidly processing speech data Intended for those who want to get started in the domain and learn how to set up a task, what interfaces are available, how to assess the work, etc. as well as for those who already have used crowdsourcing and want to create better tasks and obtain better assessments of the work of the crowd. It will include screenshots to show examples of good and poor interfaces; examples of case studies in speech processing tasks, going through the task creation process, reviewing options in the interface, in the choice of medium (MTurk or other) and explaining choices, etc. Provides an insightful and practical introduction to crowdsourcing as a means of rapidly processing speech data. Addresses important aspects of this new technique that should be mastered before attempting a crowdsourcing application. Offers speech researchers the hope thaTable of ContentsContents List of Contributors xiii Preface xv 1 An Overview 1 Maxine Eskénazi 1.1 Origins of Crowdsourcing 2 1.2 Operational Definition of Crowdsourcing 3 1.3 Functional Definition of Crowdsourcing 3 1.4 Some Issues 4 1.5 Some Terminology 6 1.6 Acknowledgments 6 References 6 2 The Basics 8 Maxine Eskénazi 2.1 An Overview of the Literature on Crowdsourcing for Speech Processing 8 2.2 Alternative Solutions 14 2.3 Some Ready-Made Platforms for Crowdsourcing 15 2.4 Making Task Creation Easier 17 2.5 Getting Down to Brass Tacks 17 2.6 Quality Control 29 2.7 Judging the Quality of the Literature 32 2.8 Some Quick Tips 33 2.9 Acknowledgments 33 References 33 Further reading 35 3 Collecting Speech from Crowds 37 Ian McGraw 3.1 A Short History of Speech Collection 38 3.2 Technology for Web-Based Audio Collection 43 3.3 Example: WAMI Recorder 49 3.4 Example: The WAMI Server 52 3.5 Example: Speech Collection on Amazon Mechanical Turk 59 3.6 Using the Platform Purely for Payment 65 3.7 Advanced Methods of Crowdsourced Audio Collection 67 3.8 Summary 69 3.9 Acknowledgments 69 References 70 4 Crowdsourcing for Speech Transcription 72 Gabriel Parent 4.1 Introduction 72 4.2 Transcribing Speech 73 4.3 Preparing the Data 80 4.4 Setting Up the Task 83 4.5 Submitting the Open Call 91 4.6 Quality Control 95 4.7 Conclusion 102 4.8 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 5 How to Control and Utilize Crowd-Collected Speech 106 Ian McGraw and Joseph Polifroni 5.1 Read Speech 107 5.2 Multimodal Dialog Interactions 111 5.3 Games for Speech Collection 120 5.4 Quizlet 121 5.5 Voice Race 123 5.6 Voice Scatter 129 5.7 Summary 135 5.8 Acknowledgments 135 References 136 6 Crowdsourcing in Speech Perception 137 Martin Cooke, Jon Barker, and Maria Luisa Garcia Lecumberri 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 Previous Use of Crowdsourcing in Speech and Hearing 138 6.3 Challenges 140 6.4 Tasks 145 6.5 BigListen: A Case Study in the Use of Crowdsourcing to Identify Words in Noise 149 6.6 Issues for Further Exploration 167 6.7 Conclusions 169 References 169 7 Crowdsourced Assessment of Speech Synthesis 173 Sabine Buchholz, Javier Latorre, and Kayoko Yanagisawa 7.1 Introduction 173 7.2 Human Assessment of TTS 174 7.3 Crowdsourcing for TTS: What Worked and What Did Not 177 7.4 Related Work: Detecting and Preventing Spamming 193 7.5 Our Experiences: Detecting and Preventing Spamming 195 7.6 Conclusions and Discussion 212 References 214 8 Crowdsourcing for Spoken Dialog System Evaluation 217 Zhaojun Yang, Gina-Anne Levow, and Helen Meng 8.1 Introduction 217 8.2 Prior Work on Crowdsourcing: Dialog and Speech Assessment 220 8.3 Prior Work in SDS Evaluation 221 8.4 Experimental Corpus and Automatic Dialog Classification 225 8.5 Collecting User Judgments on Spoken Dialogs with Crowdsourcing 226 8.6 Collected Data and Analysis 230 8.7 Conclusions and Future Work 238 8.8 Acknowledgments 238 References 239 9 Interfaces for Crowdsourcing Platforms 241 Christoph Draxler 9.1 Introduction 241 9.2 Technology 242 9.3 Crowdsourcing Platforms 253 9.4 Interfaces to Crowdsourcing Platforms 261 9.5 Summary 278 References 278 10 Crowdsourcing for Industrial Spoken Dialog Systems 280 David Suendermann and Roberto Pieraccini 10.1 Introduction 280 10.2 Architecture 283 10.3 Transcription 287 10.4 Semantic Annotation 290 10.5 Subjective Evaluation of Spoken Dialog Systems 296 10.6 Conclusion 300 References 300 11 Economic and Ethical Background of Crowdsourcing for Speech 303 Gilles Adda, Joseph J. Mariani, Laurent Besacier, and Hadrien Gelas 11.1 Introduction 303 11.2 The Crowdsourcing Fauna 304 11.3 Economic and Ethical Issues 307 11.4 Under-Resourced Languages: A Case Study 316 11.5 Toward Ethically Produced Language Resources 322 11.6 Conclusion 330 Disclaimer 331 References 331 Index 335

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Book SynopsisCovering the fundamentals of enzymatic fuel cells as well as their design, optimization, integration, and future trends, Enzymatic Fuel Cells provides practical applications of enzymatic fuel cells, including their use in biomedical applications and as power supplies for small portable power devices.Table of ContentsPreface xv Contributors xvii 1 Introduction 1 Heather R. Luckarift, Plamen Atanassov, and Glenn R. Johnson List of Abbreviations, 3 2 Electrochemical Evaluation of Enzymatic Fuel Cells and Figures of Merit 4 Shelley D. Minteer, Heather R. Luckarift, and Plamen Atanassov 2.1 Introduction, 4 2.2 Electrochemical Characterization, 5 2.2.1 Open-Circuit Measurements, 5 2.2.2 Cyclic Voltammetry, 5 2.2.3 Electron Transfer, 6 2.2.4 Polarization Curves, 6 2.2.5 Power Curves, 8 2.2.6 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, 8 2.2.7 Multienzyme Cascades, 8 2.2.8 Rotating Disk Electrode Voltammetry, 9 2.3 Outlook, 9 Acknowledgment, 10 List of Abbreviations, 10 References, 10 3 Direct Bioelectrocatalysis: Oxygen Reduction for Biological Fuel Cells 12 Dmitri M. Ivnitski, Plamen Atanassov, and Heather R. Luckarift 3.1 Introduction, 12 3.2 Mechanistic Studies of Intramolecular Electron Transfer, 13 3.2.1 Determining the Redox Potential of MCO, 13 3.2.2 Effect ofpHand Inhibitors on the Electrochemistry ofMCO, 17 3.3 Achieving DET of MCO by Rational Design, 18 3.3.1 Surface Analysis of Enzyme-Modified Electrodes, 20 3.3.2 Design of MCO-Modified Biocathodes Based on Direct Bioelectrocatalysis, 21 3.3.3 Design of MCO-Modified “Air-Breathing” Biocathodes, 22 3.4 Outlook, 25 Acknowledgments, 26 List of Abbreviations, 26 References, 27 4 Anodic Catalysts for Oxidation of Carbon-Containing Fuels 33 Rosalba A. Rincón, Carolin Lau, Plamen Atanassov, and Heather R. Luckarift 4.1 Introduction, 33 4.2 Oxidases, 34 4.2.1 Electron Transfer Mechanisms of Glucose Oxidase, 34 4.3 Dehydrogenases, 35 4.3.1 The NADH Reoxidation Issue, 35 4.3.2 Mediators for Electrochemical Oxidation of NADH, 37 4.3.3 Electropolymerization of Azines, 38 4.3.4 Alcohol Dehydrogenase as a Model System, 41 4.4 PQQ-Dependent Enzymes, 42 4.5 Outlook, 44 Acknowledgment, 45 List of Abbreviations, 45 References, 45 5 Anodic Bioelectrocatalysis: From Metabolic Pathways to Metabolons 53 Shuai Xu, Lindsey N. Pelster, Michelle Rasmussen, and Shelley D. Minteer 5.1 Introduction, 53 5.2 Biological Fuels, 53 5.3 Promiscuous Enzymes Versus Multienzyme Cascades Versus Metabolons, 55 5.3.1 Promiscuous Enzymes, 55 5.3.2 Multienzyme Cascades, 56 5.3.3 Metabolons, 56 5.4 Direct and Mediated Electron Transfer, 57 5.5 Fuels, 58 5.5.1 Hydrogen, 58 5.5.2 Ethanol, 58 5.5.3 Methanol, 60 5.5.4 Methane, 61 5.5.5 Glucose, 61 5.5.6 Sucrose, 65 5.5.7 Trehalose, 65 5.5.8 Fructose, 67 5.5.9 Lactose, 68 5.5.10 Lactate, 68 5.5.11 Pyruvate, 69 5.5.12 Glycerol, 70 5.5.13 Fatty Acids, 70 5.6 Outlook, 72 Acknowledgment, 72 List of Abbreviations, 73 References, 73 6 Bioelectrocatalysis of Hydrogen Oxidation/Reduction by Hydrogenases 80 Anne K. Jones, Arnab Dutta, Patrick Kwan, Chelsea L. McIntosh, Souvik Roy, and Sijie Yang 6.1 Introduction, 80 6.2 Hydrogenases, 81 6.3 Biological Fuel Cells Using Hydrogenases: Electrocatalysis, 85 6.4 Electrocatalysis by Functional Mimics of Hydrogenases, 92 6.4.1 [FeFe]-Hydrogenase Models, 92 6.4.2 [NiFe]-Hydrogenase Models, 95 6.4.3 Incorporation of Outer Coordination Sphere Features, 97 6.5 Outlook, 97 Acknowledgments, 98 List of Abbreviations, 98 References, 99 7 Protein Engineering for Enzymatic Fuel Cells 109 Elliot Campbell and Scott Banta 7.1 Engineering Enzymes for Catalysis, 109 7.2 Engineering Other Properties of Enzymes, 112 7.2.1 Stability, 112 7.2.2 Size, 113 7.2.3 Cofactor Specificity, 113 7.3 Enzyme Immobilization and Self-Assembly, 115 7.3.1 Engineering for Supermolecular Assembly, 116 7.4 Artificial Metabolons, 117 7.4.1 DNA-Templated Metabolons, 117 7.5 Outlook, 118 List of Abbreviations, 118 References, 118 8 Purification and Characterization of Multicopper Oxidases for Enzyme Electrodes 123 D. Matthew Eby and Glenn R. Johnson 8.1 Introduction, 123 8.2 General Considerations for MCO Expression and Purification, 124 8.3 MCO Production and Expression Systems, 125 8.4 MCO Purification, 128 8.5 Copper Stability and Specific Considerations for MCO Production, 133 8.6 Spectroscopic Monitoring and Characterization of Copper Centers, 136 8.7 Outlook, 139 Acknowledgment, 140 List of Abbreviations, 140 References, 140 9 Mediated Enzyme Electrodes 146 Joshua W. Gallaway 9.1 Introduction, 146 9.2 Fundamentals, 147 9.2.1 Electron Transfer Overpotentials, 147 9.2.2 Electron Transfer Rate, 151 9.2.3 Enzyme Kinetics, 151 9.3 Types of Mediation, 152 9.3.1 Freely Diffusing Mediator in Solution, 152 9.3.2 Mediation in Cross-Linked Redox Polymers, 154 9.3.3 Further Redox Polymer Mediation, 156 9.3.4 Mediation in Other Immobilized Layers, 160 9.4 Aspects of Mediator Design I: Mediator Overpotentials, 162 9.4.1 Considering Species Potentials in a Methanol–Oxygen BFC, 162 9.4.2 The Earliest Methanol-Oxidizing BFC Anodes, 162 9.4.3 A Four-Enzyme Methanol-Oxidizing Anode, 164 9.5 Aspects of Mediator Design II: Saturated Mediator Kinetics, 165 9.5.1 An Immobilized Laccase Cathode, 166 9.5.2 Potential of the Osmium Redox Polymer, 167 9.5.3 Concentration of Redox Sites in the Mediator Film, 170 9.6 Outlook, 172 List of Abbreviations, 172 References, 172 10 Hierarchical Materials Architectures for Enzymatic Fuel Cells 181 Guinevere Strack and Glenn R. Johnson 10.1 Introduction, 181 10.2 Carbon Nanomaterials and the Construction of the Bio–Nano Interface, 184 10.2.1 Carbon Black Nanomaterials, 184 10.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes, 185 10.2.3 Graphene, 187 10.2.4 CNT-Decorated Porous Carbon Architectures, 188 10.2.5 Buckypaper, 188 10.3 Biotemplating: The Assembly of Nanostructured Biological–Inorganic Materials, 191 10.3.1 Protein-Mediated 3D Biotemplating, 192 10.4 Fabrication of Hierarchically Ordered 3D Materials for Enzyme and Microbial Electrodes, 194 10.4.1 Chitosan–CNT Conductive Porous Scaffolds, 195 10.4.2 Polymer/Carbon Architectures Fabricated Using Solid Templates, 196 10.5 Incorporating Conductive Polymers into Bioelectrodes for Fuel Cell Applications, 198 10.5.1 Conductive Polymer-Facilitated DET Between Laccase and a Conductive Surface, 198 10.5.2 Materials Design for MFC, 200 10.6 Outlook, 201 Acknowledgment, 201 List of Abbreviations, 201 References, 202 11 Enzyme Immobilization for Biological Fuel Cell Applications 208 Lorena Betancor and Heather R. Luckarift 11.1 Introduction, 208 11.2 Immobilization by Physical Methods, 209 11.2.1 Adsorption, 209 11.3 Entrapment as a Pre- and Post-Immobilization Strategy, 211 11.3.1 Stabilization via Encapsulation, 212 11.3.2 Redox Hydrogels, 212 11.4 Enzyme Immobilization via Chemical Methods, 213 11.4.1 Covalent Immobilization, 213 11.4.2 Molecular Tethering, 213 11.4.3 Self-Assembly, 215 11.5 Orientation Matters, 216 11.6 Outlook, 218 Acknowledgment, 219 List of Abbreviations, 219 References, 219 12 Interrogating Immobilized Enzymes in Hierarchical Structures 225 Michael J. Cooney and Heather R. Luckarift 12.1 Introduction, 225 12.2 Estimating the Bound Active (Redox) Enzyme, 227 12.2.1 Modeling the Performance of Immobilized Redox Enzymes in Flow-Through Mode to Estimate the Concentration of Substrate at the Enzyme Surface, 229 12.3 Probing the Distribution of Immobilized Enzyme Within Hierarchical Structures, 232 12.4 Probing the Immediate Chemical Microenvironments of Enzymes in Hierarchical Structures, 235 12.5 Enzyme Aggregation in a Hierarchical Structure, 236 12.6 Outlook, 238 Acknowledgment, 239 List of Abbreviations, 239 References, 239 13 Imaging and Characterization of the Bio–Nano Interface 242 Karen E. Farrington, Heather R. Luckarift, D. Matthew Eby, and Kateryna Artyushkova 13.1 Introduction, 242 13.2 Imaging the Bio–Nano Interface, 243 13.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy, 243 13.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy, 248 13.3 Characterizing the Bio–Nano Interface, 248 13.3.1 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, 248 13.3.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance, 256 13.4 Interrogating the Bio–Nano Interface, 256 13.4.1 Atomic Force Microscopy, 256 13.5 Outlook, 267 Acknowledgment, 267 List of Abbreviations, 267 References, 268 14 Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy for Biological Fuel Cell Characterization 273 Ramaraja P. Ramasamy 14.1 Introduction, 273 14.2 Theory and Operation, 274 14.3 Ultramicroelectrodes, 275 14.3.1 Approach Curve Method of Analysis, 276 14.4 Modes of SECM Operation, 278 14.4.1 Negative Feedback Mode, 278 14.4.2 Positive Feedback Mode, 279 14.4.3 Generation–Collection Mode, 279 14.4.4 Induced Transfer Mode, 280 14.5 SECM for BFC Anodes, 281 14.5.1 Enzyme-Mediated Feedback Imaging, 281 14.5.2 Generation–Collection Mode Imaging, 284 14.6 SECM for BFC Cathodes, 285 14.6.1 Tip Generation–Substrate Collection Mode, 286 14.6.2 Redox Competition Mode, 289 14.7 Catalyst Screening Using SECM, 290 14.8 SECM for Membranes, 291 14.9 Probing Single Enzyme Molecules Using SECM, 293 14.10 Combining SECM with Other Techniques, 293 14.10.1 Atomic Force Microscopy, 294 14.10.2 Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy, 295 14.11 Outlook, 297 List of Abbreviations, 297 References, 298 15 In Situ X-Ray Spectroscopy of Enzymatic Catalysis: Laccase-Catalyzed Oxygen Reduction 304 Sanjeev Mukerjee, Joseph Ziegelbauer, Thomas M. Arruda, Kateryna Artyushkova, and Plamen Atanassov 15.1 Introduction, 304 15.2 Defining the Enzyme/Electrode Interface, 305 15.3 Direct Electron Transfer Versus Mediated Electron Transfer, 306 15.3.1 Mediated Electron Transfer, 307 15.4 The Blue Copper Oxidases, 308 15.4.1 Laccase, 309 15.5 In Situ XAS, 310 15.5.1 Os L3-Edge, 314 15.5.2 uMET, 317 15.5.3 Mediated Electron Transfer, 319 15.5.4 FEFF8.0 Analysis, 323 15.6 Proposed ORR Mechanism, 327 15.7 Outlook, 331 Acknowledgments, 331 List of Abbreviations, 331 References, 332 16 Enzymatic Fuel Cell Design, Operation, and Application 337 Vojtech Svoboda and Plamen Atanassov 16.1 Introduction, 337 16.2 Biobatteries and EFCs, 338 16.3 Components, 339 16.3.1 Anodes, 339 16.3.2 Cathodes, 340 16.3.3 Separator and Membrane, 341 16.3.4 Reference Electrode, 342 16.3.5 Fuel and Electrolyte, 342 16.4 Single-Cell Design, 345 16.4.1 Design of Single-Cell EFC Compartment, 345 16.5 Microfluidic EFC Design, 348 16.6 Stacked Cell Design, 348 16.6.1 Series-Connected EFC Stack, 348 16.6.2 Parallel-Connected EFC Stack, 349 16.7 Bipolar Electrodes, 350 16.8 Air/Oxygen Supply, 351 16.9 Fuel Supply, 351 16.9.1 Fuel Flow-Through, 352 16.9.2 Fuel Flow-Through System, 354 16.9.3 Fuel Flow-Through Operation and Fuel Waste Management, 355 16.10 Storage and Shelf Life, 356 16.11 EFC Operation, Control, and Integration with Other Power Sources, 356 16.11.1 Activation, 356 16.12 EFC Control, 357 16.13 Power Conditioning, 357 16.14 Outlook, 358 List of Abbreviations, 359 References, 359 17 Miniature Enzymatic Fuel Cells 361 Takeo Miyake and Matsuhiko Nishizawa 17.1 Introduction, 361 17.2 Insertion MEFC, 362 17.2.1 Insertion MEFC with Needle Anode and Gas Diffusion Cathode, 363 17.2.2 Windable, Replaceable Enzyme Electrode Films, 364 17.3 Microfluidic MEFC, 366 17.3.1 Effects of Structural Design on Cell Performances, 366 17.3.2 Automatic Air Valve System, 367 17.3.3 SPG System, 369 17.4 Flexible Sheet MEFC, 370 17.5 Outlook, 371 List of Abbreviations, 372 References, 372 18 Switchable Electrodes and Biological Fuel Cells 374 Evgeny Katz, Vera Bocharova, and Jan Halámek 18.1 Introduction, 374 18.2 Switchable Electrodes for Bioelectronic Applications, 375 18.3 Light-Switchable Modified Electrodes Based on Photoisomerizable Materials, 376 18.4 Magnetoswitchable Electrochemical Reactions Controlled by Magnetic Species Associated with Electrode Interfaces, 378 18.5 Modified Electrodes Switchable by Applied Potentials Resulting in Electrochemical Transformations at Functional Interfaces, 381 18.6 Chemically/Biochemically Switchable Electrodes, 383 18.7 Coupling of Switchable Electrodes with Biomolecular Computing Systems, 389 18.8 BFCs with Switchable/Tunable Power Output, 396 18.8.1 Switchable/Tunable BFCs Controlled by Electrical Signals, 397 18.8.2 Switchable/Tunable BFCs Controlled by Magnetic Signals, 399 18.8.3 BFCs Controlled by Logically Processed Biochemical Signals, 402 18.9 Outlook, 412 Acknowledgments, 413 List of Abbreviations, 413 References, 414 19 Biological Fuel Cells for Biomedical Applications 422 Magnus Falk, Sergey Shleev, Claudia W. Narváez Villarrubia, Sofia Babanova, and Plamen Atanassov 19.1 Introduction, 422 19.2 Definition and Classification of BFCs, 424 19.2.1 Cell- and Organelle-Based Fuel Cells, 425 19.2.2 Enzymatic Fuel Cells, 426 19.3 Design Aspects of EFCs, 427 19.3.1 Electron Transfer, 427 19.3.2 Enzymes, 428 19.3.3 Electrodes and Electrode Materials, 430 19.3.4 Biodevice Design, 431 19.4 In Vitro and In Vivo BFC Studies, 433 19.4.1 In Vitro BFCs, 433 19.4.2 In Vivo Operating BFCs, 435 19.5 Outlook, 440 List of Abbreviations, 442 References, 443 20 Concluding Remarks and Outlook 451 Glenn R. Johnson, Heather R. Luckarift, and Plamen Atanassov 20.1 Introduction, 451 20.2 Primary System Engineering: Design Determinants, 453 20.3 Fundamental Advances in Bioelectrocatalysis, 454 20.4 Design Opportunities from EFC Operation, 454 20.5 Fundamental Drivers for EFC Miniaturization, 455 20.6 Commercialization of EFCs: Strategies and Opportunities, 455 Acknowledgment, 457 List of Abbreviations, 457 References, 457 Index 459

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Book SynopsisThis book covers in-depth the various polymers that are used for sensors and actuators from the vantage point of organic chemistry. Since many chemists may not be familiar with the physics and operational specifics of sensors, the book has a general chapter dealing with the overall physics and basic principles of sensors.Trade Review“It is certainly a way to learn about the vast array of materials and sensing techniques possible today.” (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 1 March 2014) Table of ContentsPreface v 1. Sensor Types and Polymers 11.1 Sensor Types 21.2 Basic Polymer Types 19 2. Methods of Fabrication 412.1 Patterning Techniques 412.2 Coating Techniques 412 3 Electrospinning 462.4 Molecular Imprinted Polymers 482.5 Sensor Arrays 502.6 Ink J et Fabrication 57 3. Processing of Data 673.1 Evaluation of Multivariate Data 673.2 Response of a Sensor Array 683.3 Least Square Method 693.4 Linear Solvation Energy Relationships 703.5 Euclidean Fuzzy Similarity 713.6 Adaptive Resonance Theory 713.7 Modelling of Sensors 723.8 Bioinspired Models for Pattern Recognition 74 4. Humidity Sensors 774.1 Calibration 784.2 Capacitive Humidity Sensors 784.3 Resistance Type Humidity Sensors 814.4 Bragg Grating Sensor 874.5 Fiber Optic Sensor 924.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Based Sensors 924.7 Microwave Oven Humidity Sensors 96 5. Biosensors 1015.1 Waveguide Sensors 1025.2 Active Elements 1045.3 Special Examples 107 6. Mechanical Sensors 1296.1 Bending Sensors 1296.2 Cantilever Type Sensors 1306.3 Micromechanical Oscillators 1306.4 Microelectromechanical Capacitor Array 1326.5 Change in Thermodynamic Properties 1326.6 Dielectric Elastomer Sensors 1326.7 Polymers for Mechanical Sensors 1336.8 Cardiac Infarction Monitoring 135 7. Optical Sensors 1397.1 Conjugated Polymers 1397.2 Amplified Fluorescent Polymers 1457.3 Nanostructured Materials 1607.4 Micelle-Induced Fluorescent Sensors 1647.5 Fiber Sensors 1647.6 Waveguides 1677.7 Chiral Sensors 1687.8 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 1687.9 Glucose Sensors 1727.10 Hydrophilic Polymer Matrices 1807.11 Special Analytes 1817.12 pH Sensors 207 8. Surface Plasmon Resonance 2258.1 Application as Sensors 2258.2 Basic Principle 2268.3 Theory 2268.4 Waveguide Surface Plasmon Resonance 2298.5 Nanoparticles 2308.6 Surface Plasmon Resonance with Fibers 2348.7 Combinations with other Principles 2358.8 Examples for Use 235 9. Test Strips 2419.1 Cations 2419.2 Anions 2439.3 Organic Analytes 2469.4 Immunochromatographic Tests 2549.5 Bacteria 260 10. Electrochemical Sensors10.1 Basic Principles 26910.2 Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistors 27610.3 Chemical Resistors 27710.4 Temperature Sensors 28210.5 Smart Textiles 28510.6 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 28710.7 Other Analytes 298 11. Piezoelectric Sensors 31711.1 Theoretical Aspects 31711.2 Automotive Applications 31811.3 Paint Sensors 31911.4 Molecular Imprinted Polymers 32011.5 Food Safety Applications 32211.6 Gases 32311.7 Tactile Sensors 325 12. Acoustic Wave Sensors 33112.1 Analytes 331 13. Electronic Nose 34313.1 Methods for Validation 34313.2 Medical Applications 34913.3 Fire Detectors 35513.4 Pipeline Inspection 35613.5 Sensing Arrays with Colloidal Particles 35713.6 Nanodisk Sensor Arrays 35813.7 Food Testing 36013.8 Soil Volatile Fingerprints 365 14. Switchable Polymers 36914.1 Shape-memory Polymers 37014.2 Chemical Switches 37114.3 pH Sensitive Switches 38414.4 Photo Responsive Switches 39014.5 Molecular Gates 39314.6 Thermofluorescence Memories 39614.7 Electric and Magnetic Switches 39814.8 Switchable Wettability 40014.9 Multiple Responsive Switches 40214.10 Environmental Uses 404 15. Actuators 41515.1 Mathematical Model 41715.2 Fields of Application and Special Designs 4195.3 Materials 42615.4 Carbon Based Conductive Materials 44715.5 Medical Applications 45215.6 Optical Applications 45415.7 Pumping Applications 456 16. Liquid Crystal Displays 46716.1 Basic Design 46716.2 Polymers 47116.3 Special Display Types 47716.4 Viewing Helps 479 References 483 Index 487 Acronyms 487 Chemicals 490 Analytes 501 General Index 504

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Book SynopsisPresenting the policy drivers, benefits and challenges for grid integration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the open electricity market environment, this book provides a comprehensive overview of existing electricity markets and demonstrates how EVs are integrated into these different markets and power systems.Table of ContentsContributors xi Preface xiii 1 Electrification of Vehicles: Policy Drivers and Impacts in Two Scenarios 1 M. Albrecht, M. Nilsson and J. Åkerman 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Policy Drivers, Policies and Targets 2 1.3 Scenarios and Environmental Impact Assessment 11 1.4 Future Policy Drivers for a BEV and PHEV Breakthrough 16 1.5 Results and Conclusion 24 Acknowledgements 25 References 25 2 EVs and the Current Nordic Electricity Market 32 C. Bang, C. Hay, M. Togeby and C. Søndergren 2.1 Chapter Overview 32 2.2 Electricity Consumption by EVs 33 2.3 Market Actors 37 2.4 Nordic Electricity Markets 39 2.5 Electricity Price 44 2.6 Electricity Sales Products for Demand Response 46 2.7 EVs in Different Markets 48 References 53 3 Electric Vehicles in Future Market Models 54 C. Søndergren, C. Bang, C. Hay and M. Togeby 3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Overview 54 3.3 Alternative Markets for Regulating Power and Reserves for EV Integration 56 3.4 Alternative Market Models for EV Integration 66 3.5 Management of Congestions in the Distribution Grid 69 References 81 4 Investments and Operation in an Integrated Power and Transport System 82 Nina Juul and Trine Krogh Boomsma 4.1 Introduction 82 4.2 The Road Transport System 83 4.3 The Energy Systems Analysis Model, Balmorel 84 4.4 Modelling of Electric Drive Vehicles 85 4.5 Case Study 96 4.6 Scenarios 101 4.7 Results 101 4.8 Results from EDVs Contributing to Capacity Credit Equation 108 4.9 Discussion and Conclusion 110 4.10 Summary 111 References 111 5 Optimal Charging of Electric Drive Vehicles: A Dynamic Programming Approach 113 Stefanos Delikaraoglou, Trine Krogh Boomsma and Nina Juul 5.1 Introduction 113 5.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 115 5.3 Optimal Charging on Market Conditions 115 5.4 Dynamic Programming 117 5.5 Fleet Operation 118 5.6 Electricity Prices 119 5.7 Driving Patterns 120 5.8 A Danish Case Study 121 5.9 Optimal Charging Patterns 122 5.10 Discussion and Conclusion 127 Acknowledgments 128 References 128 6 EV Portfolio Management 129 Lars Henrik Hansen, Jakob Munch Jensen and Andreas Bjerre 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 EV Fleet Modelling and Charging Strategies 130 6.3 Case Studies of EV Fleet Management 140 References 152 7 Analysis of Regulating Power from EVs 153 Qiuwei Wu, Arne Hejde Nielsen, Jacob Østergaard and Yi Ding 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Driving Pattern Analysis for EV Grid Integration 154 7.3 Spot-Price-Based EV Charging Schedule 158 7.4 Analysis of Regulating Power from EVs 165 7.5 Summary 176 References 176 8 Frequency-Control Reserves and Voltage Support from Electric Vehicles 178 Jayakrishnan R. Pillai and Birgitte Bak-Jensen 8.1 Introduction 178 8.2 Power System Ancillary Services 179 8.3 Electric Vehicles to Support Wind Power Integration 179 8.4 Electric Vehicles as Frequency-Control Reserves 181 8.5 Voltage Support and Electric Vehicle Integration Trends in Power Systems 189 8.6 Summary 189 Acknowledgements 190 References 190 9 Operation and Degradation Aspects of EV Batteries 192 Claus Nygaard Rasmussen, Søren Højgaard Jensen and Guang Ya Yang 9.1 Introduction 192 9.2 Battery Modelling and Validation Techniques 193 9.3 Thermal Effects and Degradation of EV Batteries 209 9.4 Electric EC Model 221 References 231 10 Day-Ahead Grid Tariffs for Congestion Management from EVs 233 Niamh O’Connell, Qiuwei Wu and Jacob Østergaard 10.1 Introduction 233 10.2 Dynamic Tariff Concept 238 10.3 Case Studies 246 10.4 Conclusions 256 References 257 11 Impact Study of EV Integration on Distribution Networks 259 Qiuwei Wu, Arne Hejde Nielsen, Jacob Østergaard and Yi Ding 11.1 Introduction 259 11.2 Impact Study Methodology and Scenarios 260 11.3 Bornholm Power System 263 11.4 Conventional Demand Profile Modeling 268 11.5 Impact Study on 0.4 kV Grid 270 11.6 Impact Study on 10 kV Grid 276 11.7 Impact Study on 60 kV Grid 280 11.8 Conclusions 284 References 285 Index

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Book SynopsisProvides a broad overview of advanced multidimensional imaging systems with contributions from leading researchers in the field Multi-dimensional Imaging takes the reader from the introductory concepts through to the latest applications of these techniques. Split into 3 parts covering 3D image capture, processing, visualization and display, using 1) a Multi-View Approach and 2.) a Holographic Approach, followed by a 3rd part addressing other 3D systems approaches, applications and signal processing for advanced 3D imaging. This book describes recent developments, as well as the prospects and challenges in advances in imaging sciences and engineering such as 3D image sensing, 3D holographic imaging, imaging applications for bio-photonics and 3D image recognition. Advanced imaging systems incorporate knowledge from various fields. It is a complex technology that combines physics, optics, signal processing, and image capture techniques. <Table of ContentsAbout the Editors xv List of Contributors xvii Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxiii Part I MULTI-DIMENSIONAL DIGITAL HOLOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 1 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 3 Yasuhiro Awatsuji 1.1 Chapter Overview 3 1.2 Introduction 3 1.3 Digital Holography and Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 4 1.4 Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 6 1.5 Experimental Demonstration of Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 8 1.6 High-Speed Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System 12 1.7 Single-Shot Femtosecond-Pulsed Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System 14 1.8 Portable Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography System 17 1.9 Functional Extension of Parallel Phase-Shifting Digital Holography 17 1.10 Prospects and Conclusion 20 2 Imaging and Display of Human Size Scenes by Long Wavelength Digital Holography 25 Massimiliano Locatelli, Eugenio Pugliese, Melania Paturzo, Vittorio Bianco, Andrea Finizio, Anna Pelagotti, Pasquale Poggi, Lisa Miccio, Riccardo Meucci and Pietro Ferraro 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Digital Holography Principles 25 2.3 Infrared Digital Holography 33 2.4 Latest Achievements in IRDH 34 2.5 Conclusion 46 3 Digital Hologram Processing in On-Axis Holography 51 Corinne Fournier, Loïc Denis, Mozhdeh Seifi and Thierry Fournel 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Model of Hologram Image Formation 52 3.3 DH Reconstruction Based on Back Propagation 56 3.4 Hologram Reconstruction Formulated as an Inverse Problem 57 3.5 Estimation of Accuracy 64 3.6 Fast Processing Algorithms 65 3.7 Conclusion 69 4 Multi-dimensional Imaging by Compressive Digital Holography 75 Yair Rivenson, Adrian Stern, Joseph Rosen, and Bahram Javidi 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Compressive Sensing Preliminaries 76 4.3 Conditions for Accurate Reconstruction of Compressive Digital Holographic Sensing 79 4.4 Applications of Compressive Digital Holographic Sensing 84 4.5 Conclusion 96 5 Dispersion Compensation in Holograms Reconstructed by Femtosecond Light Pulses 101 Omel Mendoza-Yero, Jorge Pérez-Vizcaíno, Lluís Martínez-León, Gladys Mínguez-Vega, Vicent Climent, Jesús Lancis and Pedro Andrés 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Fundamental Features of the DCM 102 5.3 Holographic Applications of the DCM with Ultrafast Light Pulses 115 5.4 Conclusion 122 Part II BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS AND MICROSCOPY 6 Advanced Digital Holographic Microscopy for Life Science Applications 129 Frank Dubois, Ahmed El Mallahi, Christophe Minetti and Catherine Yourassowsky 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 DHM Configurations 130 6.3 Automated 3D Holographic Analysis 135 6.4 Applications 139 6.5 Conclusion 148 7 Programmable Microscopy 153 Tobias Haist, Malte Hasler, Wolfang Osten and Michal Baranek 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Optical Design Considerations and Some Typical Setups 154 7.3 Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulator 158 7.4 Aberration Correction 160 7.5 Phase Contrast Imaging 163 7.6 Stereo Microscopy 168 7.7 Conclusion 169 8 Holographic Three-Dimensional Measurement of an Optically Trapped Nanoparticle 175 Yoshio Hayasaki 8.1 Introduction 175 8.2 Experimental Setup 177 8.3 Experimental Results of 3D Position Measurement of Nanoparticles 182 8.4 Twilight Field Technique for Holographic Position Detection of Nanoparticles 188 8.5 Conclusion 191 9 Digital Holographic Microscopy: A New Imaging Technique to Quantitatively Explore Cell Dynamics with Nanometer Sensitivity 197 Pierre Marquet and Christian Depeursinge 9.1 Chapter Overview 197 9.2 Introduction 198 9.3 Holographic Techniques 200 9.4 Cell Imaging with Digital Holographic Quantitative Phase Microscopy 206 9.5 Future Issues 213 10 Super Resolved Holographic Configurations 225 Amihai Meiri, Eran Gur, Javier Garcia, Vicente Micó, Bahram Javidi and Zeev Zalevsky 10.1 Introduction 225 10.2 Digital Holography 226 10.3 Metal Nanoparticles 227 10.4 Resolution Enhancement in Digital Holography 229 10.5 Field of View Enhancement in Digital Holography 231 10.6 Eliminating the DC Term and the Twin Images 233 10.7 Additional Applications 235 Part III MULTI-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING AND DISPLAY 11 Three-Dimensional Integral Imaging and Display 243 Manuel Martínez-Corral, Adrián Dorado, Anabel LLavador, Genaro Saavedra and Bahram Javidi 11.1 Introduction 243 11.2 Basic Theory 245 11.3 The Plenoptic Function 246 11.4 Methods for the Capture of the Plenoptic Field 249 11.5 Walking in Plenoptic Space 255 11.6 Reconstruction of Intensity Distribution in Different Depth Planes 257 11.7 Implementation of the Integral Imaging Display Device 261 11.8 Conclusion 262 12 Image Formats of Various 3-D Displays 267 Jung-Young Son, Chun-Hea Lee, Wook-Ho Son, Min-Chul Park and Bahram Javidi 12.1 Chapter Overview 267 12.2 Introduction 268 12.3 Multiplexing Schemes 269 12.4 Image Formats for 3-D Imaging 271 13 Ray-based and Wavefront-based 3D Representations for Holographic Displays 303 Masahiro Yamaguchi and Koki Wakunami 13.1 Introduction 303 13.2 Ray-based and Wavefront-based 3D Displays 303 13.3 Conversion between Ray-based and Wavefront 3D Representations 307 13.4 Hologram Printer Based on a Full-Parallax Holographic Stereogram 308 13.5 Computational Holography Using a Ray-Sampling Plane 310 13.6 Occlusion Culling for Computational Holography Using the Ray-Sampling Plane 313 13.7 Scanning Vertical Camera Array for Computational Holography 315 13.8 Conclusion and Future Issues 323 14 Rigorous Diffraction Theory for 360 Computer-Generated Holograms 327 Toyohiko Yatagai, Yusuke Sando and Boaz Jessie Jackin 14.1 Introduction 327 14.2 Three-Dimensional Object and Its Diffracted Wavefront 328 14.3 Point-Spread Function Approach for Spherical Holography 333 14.4 Rigorous Point-Spread Function Approach 336 14.5 Conclusion 346 Part IV SPECTRAL AND POLARIMETRIC IMAGING 15 High-Speed 3D Spectral Imaging with Stimulated Raman Scattering 351 Yasuyuki Ozeki and Kazuyoshi Itoh 15.1 Introduction 351 15.2 Principles and Advantages of SRS Microscopy 352 15.3 Spectral Imaging with SRS 358 15.4 High-Speed Spectral Imaging 360 15.5 Summary 367 16 Spectropolarimetric Imaging Techniques with Compressive Sensing 371 Fernando Soldevila, Esther Irles, Vicente Durán, Pere Clemente, Mercedes Fernández-Alonso, Enrique Tajahuerce and Jesús Lancis 16.1 Chapter Overview 371 16.2 Single-Pixel Imaging and Compressive Sensing 372 16.3 Single-Pixel Polarimetric Imaging 373 16.4 Single-Pixel Multispectral Imaging 377 16.5 Single-Pixel Spectropolarimetric Imaging 382 16.6 Conclusion 388 17 Passive Polarimetric Imaging 391 Daniel A. LeMaster and Michael T. Eismann 17.1 Introduction 391 17.2 Representations of Polarized Light 392 17.3 Polarized Reflection and Emission 397 17.4 Atmospheric Contributions to Polarimetric Signatures 404 17.5 Data Reduction Matrix Analysis of Modulated Polarimeters 411 17.6 Fourier Domain Analysis of Modulated Polarimeters 417 17.7 Radiometric and Polarimetric Calibration 421 17.8 Polarimetric Target Detection 424 Index 429

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Book SynopsisThis book, the first to describe processing techniques central to underwater OFDM, covers the characteristics of underwater acoustic channels and stresses the difference from wireless radio channels.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Acronyms xix Notation xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and Context 1 1.1.1 Early Exploration of Underwater Acoustics 1 1.1.2 Underwater Communication Media 2 1.1.3 Underwater Systems and Networks 3 1.2 UWA Channel Characteristics 3 1.2.1 Sound Velocity 3 1.2.2 Propagation Loss 5 1.2.3 Time-Varying Multipath 7 1.2.4 Acoustic Propagation Models 10 1.2.5 Ambient Noise and External Interference 11 1.3 Passband Channel Input–Output Relationship 11 1.3.1 Linear Time-Varying Channel with Path-Specific Doppler Scales 12 1.3.2 Linear Time-Varying Channels with One Common Doppler Scale 13 1.3.3 Linear Time-Invariant Channel 13 1.3.4 Linear Time-Varying Channel with Both Amplitude and Delay Variations 14 1.3.5 Linear Time-Varying Channel with Frequency-Dependent Attenuation 15 1.4 Modulation Techniques for UWA Communications 15 1.4.1 Frequency Hopped FSK 15 1.4.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 16 1.4.3 Single Carrier Modulation 17 1.4.4 Sweep-Spread Carrier (S2C) Modulation 18 1.4.5 Multicarrier Modulation 18 1.4.6 Multi-Input Multi-Output Techniques 19 1.4.7 Recent Developments on Underwater Acoustic Communications 20 1.5 Organization of the Book 20 2 OFDMBasics 23 2.1 Zero-Padded OFDM 23 2.1.1 Transmitted Signal 23 2.1.2 Receiver Processing 26 2.2 Cyclic-Prefixed OFDM 27 2.2.1 Transmitted Signal 27 2.2.2 Receiver Processing 28 2.3 OFDM Related Issues 28 2.3.1 ZP-OFDM versus CP-OFDM 28 2.3.2 Peak-to-Average-Power Ratio 29 2.3.3 Power Spectrum and Bandwidth 29 2.3.4 Subcarrier Assignment 30 2.3.5 Overall Data Rate 30 2.3.6 Design Guidelines 31 2.4 Implementation via Discrete Fourier Transform 31 2.5 Challenges and Remedies for OFDM 32 2.5.1 Benefits of Diversity Combining and Channel Coding 33 2.6 MIMO OFDM 36 2.7 Bibliographical Notes 38 3 Nonbinary LDPC Coded OFDM 39 3.1 Channel Coding for OFDM 39 3.1.1 Channel Coding 39 3.1.2 Coded Modulation 41 3.1.3 Coded OFDM 42 3.2 Nonbinary LDPC Codes 43 3.2.1 Nonbinary Regular Cycle Codes 44 3.2.2 Nonbinary Irregular LDPC Codes 45 3.3 Encoding 46 3.4 Decoding 48 3.4.1 Initialization 48 3.4.2 Variable-to-Check-Node Update 49 3.4.3 Check-to-Variable-Node Update 50 3.4.4 Tentative Decision and Decoder Outputs 51 3.5 Code Design 52 3.5.1 Design of Regular Cycle codes 53 3.5.2 Design of Irregular LDPC Codes 53 3.5.3 Quasi-Cyclic Nonbinary LDPC codes 55 3.6 Simulation Results of Coded OFDM 58 3.7 Bibliographical Notes 59 4 PAPR Control 63 4.1 PAPR Comparison 63 4.2 PAPR Reduction 65 4.2.1 Clipping 65 4.2.2 Selective Mapping 67 4.2.3 Peak Reduction Subcarriers 69 4.3 Bibliographical Notes 69 5 Receiver Overview and Preprocessing 71 5.1 OFDM Receiver Overview 72 5.2 Receiver Preprocessing 73 5.2.1 Receiver Preprocessing 73 5.2.2 Digital Implementation 74 5.2.3 Frequency-Domain Oversampling 77 5.3 Frequency-Domain Input–Output Relationship 78 5.3.1 Single-Input Single-Output Channel 78 5.3.2 Single-Input Multi-Output Channel 79 5.3.3 Multi-Input Multi-Output Channel 80 5.3.4 Channel Matrix Structure 81 5.4 OFDM Receiver Categorization 82 5.4.1 ICI-Ignorant Receiver 82 5.4.2 ICI-Aware Receiver 83 5.4.3 Block-by-Block Processing 85 5.4.4 Block-to-Block Processing 85 5.4.5 Discussion 85 5.5 Receiver Performance Bound with Simulated Channels 85 5.5.1 Simulating Underwater Acoustic Channels 86 5.5.2 ICI Effect in Time-Varying Channels 86 5.5.3 Outage Performance of SISO Channel 87 5.6 Extension to CP-OFDM 88 5.6.1 Receiver Preprocessing 88 5.6.2 Frequency-Domain Input–Output Relationship 89 5.7 Bibliographical Notes 89 6 Detection, Synchronization and Doppler Scale Estimation 91 6.1 Cross-Correlation Based Methods 92 6.1.1 Cross-Correlation Based Detection 92 6.1.2 Cross-Correlation Based Synchronization and Doppler Scale Estimation 96 6.2 Detection, Synchronization and Doppler Scale Estimation with CP-OFDM 99 6.2.1 CP-OFDM Preamble with Self-Repetition 99 6.2.2 Self-Correlation Based Detection, Synchronization and Doppler Scale Estimation 100 6.2.3 Implementation 101 6.3 Synchronization and Doppler Scale Estimation for One ZP-OFDM Block 103 6.3.1 Null-Subcarrier based Blind Estimation 103 6.3.2 Pilot-Aided Estimation 104 6.3.3 Decision-Aided Estimation 104 6.4 Simulation Results for Doppler Scale Estimation 104 6.4.1 RMSE Performance with CP-OFDM 105 6.4.2 RMSE Performance with ZP-OFDM 106 6.4.3 Comparison of Blind Methods of CP- and ZP-OFDM 107 6.5 Design Examples in Practical Systems 108 6.6 Residual Doppler Frequency Shift Estimation 110 6.6.1 System Model after Resampling 110 6.6.2 Impact of Residual Doppler Shift Compensation 111 6.6.3 Two Residual Doppler Shift Estimation Methods 112 6.6.4 Simulation Results 113 6.7 Bibliographical Notes 115 7 Channel and Noise Variance Estimation 117 7.1 Problem Formulation for ICI-Ignorant Channel Estimation 118 7.1.1 The Input–Output Relationship 118 7.1.2 Dictionary Based Formulation 118 7.2 ICI-Ignorant Sparse Channel Sensing 120 7.2.1 Dictionary Resolution versus Channel Sparsity 121 7.2.2 Sparsity Factor 122 7.2.3 Number of Pilots versus Number of Paths 123 7.3 ICI-Aware Sparse Channel Sensing 124 7.3.1 Problem Formulation 124 7.3.2 ICI-Aware Channel Sensing 124 7.3.3 Pilot Subcarrier Distribution 125 7.3.4 Influence of Data Symbols 126 7.4 Sparse Recovery Algorithms 127 7.4.1 Matching Pursuit 127 7.4.2 1-Norm Minimization 128 7.4.3 Matrix-Vector Multiplication via FFT 129 7.4.4 Computational Complexity 131 7.5 Extension to Multi-Input Channels 131 7.5.1 ICI-Ignorant Sparse Channel Sensing 131 7.5.2 ICI-Aware Sparse Channel Sensing 132 7.6 Noise Variance Estimation 134 7.7 Noise Prewhitening 134 7.7.1 Noise Spectrum Estimation 135 7.7.2 Whitening in the Frequency Domain 136 7.8 Bibliographical Notes 136 8 Data Detection 137 8.1 Symbol-by-Symbol Detection in ICI-Ignorant OFDM Systems 139 8.1.1 Single-Input Single-Output Channel 139 8.1.2 Single-Input Multi-Output Channel 140 8.2 Block-Based Data Detection in ICI-Aware OFDM Systems 141 8.2.1 MAP Equalizer 142 8.2.2 Linear MMSE Equalizer with A Priori Information 142 8.2.3 Extension to the Single-Input Multi-Output Channel 145 8.3 Data Detection for OFDM Systems with Banded ICI 145 8.3.1 BCJR Algorithm and Log-MAP Implementation 145 8.3.2 Factor-Graph Algorithm with Gaussian Message Passing 148 8.3.3 Computations related to Gaussian Messages 149 8.3.4 Extension to SIMO Channel 150 8.4 Symbol Detectors for MIMO OFDM 151 8.4.1 ICI-Ignorant MIMO OFDM 151 8.4.2 Full-ICI Equalization 152 8.4.3 Banded-ICI Equalization 152 8.5 MCMC Method for Data Detection in MIMO OFDM 153 8.5.1 MCMC Method for ICI-Ignorant MIMO Detection 153 8.5.2 MCMC Method for Banded-ICI MIMO Detection 154 8.6 Bibliographical Notes 155 9 OFDM Receivers with Block-by-Block Processing 157 9.1 Noniterative ICI-Ignorant Receiver 158 9.1.1 Noniterative ICI-Ignorant Receiver Structure 158 9.1.2 Simulation Results: ICI-Ignorant Receiver 159 9.1.3 Experimental Results: ICI-Ignorant Receiver 160 9.2 Noniterative ICI-Aware Receiver 161 9.2.1 Noniterative ICI-Aware Receiver Structure 162 9.2.2 Simulation Results: ICI-Aware Receiver 163 9.2.3 Experimental Results: ICI-Aware Receiver 164 9.3 Iterative Receiver Processing 164 9.3.1 Iterative ICI-Ignorant Receiver 165 9.3.2 Iterative ICI-Aware Receiver 165 9.4 ICI-Progressive Receiver 166 9.5 Simulation Results: ICI-Progressive Receiver 168 9.6 Experimental Results: ICI-Progressive Receiver 171 9.6.1 BLER Performance 171 9.6.2 Environmental Impact 171 9.6.3 Progressive versus Iterative ICI-Aware Receivers 174 9.7 Discussion 175 9.8 Bibliographical Notes 175 10 OFDM Receiver with Clustered Channel Adaptation 177 10.1 Illustration of Channel Dynamics 177 10.2 Modeling Cluster-Based Block-to-Block Channel Variation 178 10.3 Cluster-Adaptation Based Block-to-Block Receiver 180 10.3.1 Cluster Offset Estimation and Compensation 181 10.3.2 Cluster-Adaptation Based Sparse Channel Estimation 184 10.3.3 Channel Re-estimation and Cluster Variance Update 186 10.4 Experimental Results: MACE10 186 10.4.1 BLER Performance with an Overall Resampling 187 10.4.2 BLER Performance with Refined Resampling 188 10.5 Experimental Results: SPACE08 190 10.6 Discussion 193 10.7 Bibliographical Notes 193 11 OFDM in Deep Water Horizontal Communications 195 11.1 System Model for Deep Water Horizontal Communications 196 11.1.1 Transmitted Signal 197 11.1.2 Modeling Clustered Multipath Channel 197 11.1.3 Received Signal 198 11.2 Decision-Feedback Based Receiver Design 199 11.3 Factor-Graph Based Joint IBI/ICI Equalization 200 11.3.1 Probabilistic Problem Formulation 200 11.3.2 Factor-Graph Based Equalization 202 11.4 Iterative Block-to-Block Receiver Processing 203 11.5 Simulation Results 205 11.6 Experimental Results in the AUTEC Environment 208 11.7 Extension to Underwater Broadcasting Networks 211 11.7.1 Underwater Broadcasting Networks 211 11.7.2 Emulated Experimental Results: MACE10 211 11.8 Bibliographical Notes 214 12 OFDM Receiver with Parameterized External Interference Cancellation 215 12.1 Interference Parameterization 215 12.2 An Iterative OFDM Receiver with Interference Cancellation 217 12.2.1 Initialization 219 12.2.2 Interference Detection and Estimation 219 12.2.3 Channel Estimation, Equalization and Channel Decoding 221 12.2.4 Noise Variance Estimation 221 12.3 Simulation Results 221 12.3.1 Time-Invariant Channels 222 12.3.2 Time-Varying Channels 223 12.3.3 Performance of the Proposed Receiver with Different SIRs 224 12.3.4 Interference Detection and Estimation 225 12.4 Experimental Results: AUTEC10 225 12.5 Emulated Results: SPACE08 227 12.6 Discussion 229 12.7 Bibliographical Notes 229 13 Co-located MIMO OFDM 231 13.1 ICI-Ignorant MIMO-OFDM System Model 232 13.2 ICI-Ignorant MIMO-OFDM Receiver 233 13.2.1 Noniterative ICI-Ignorant MIMO-OFDM Receiver 233 13.2.2 Iterative ICI-Ignorant MIMO-OFDM Receiver 234 13.3 Simulation Results: ICI-Ignorant MIMO OFDM 234 13.4 SPACE08 Experimental Results: ICI-Ignorant MIMO OFDM 237 13.5 ICI-Aware MIMO-OFDM System Model 237 13.6 ICI-Progressive MIMO-OFDM Receiver 237 13.6.1 Receiver Overview 239 13.6.2 Sparse Channel Estimation and Noise Variance Estimation 240 13.6.3 Joint ICI/CCI Equalization 240 13.7 Simulation Results: ICI-Progressive MIMO OFDM 241 13.8 SPACE08 Experiment: ICI-Progressive MIMO OFDM 242 13.9 MACE10 Experiment: ICI-Progressive MIMO OFDM 244 13.9.1 BLER Performance with Two Transmitters 244 13.9.2 BLER Performance with Three and Four Transmitters 246 13.10 Initialization for the ICI-Progressive MIMO OFDM 246 13.11 Bibliographical Notes 246 14 Distributed MIMO OFDM 249 14.1 System Model 250 14.2 Multiple-Resampling Front-End Processing 251 14.3 Multiuser Detection (MUD) Based Iterative Receiver 252 14.3.1 Pre-processing with Frequency-Domain Oversampling 252 14.3.2 Joint Channel Estimation 254 14.3.3 Multiuser Data Detection and Channel Decoding 255 14.4 Single-User Detection (SUD) Based Iterative Receiver 255 14.4.1 Single-User Decoding 255 14.4.2 MUI Construction 256 14.5 An Emulated Two-User System Using MACE10 Data 257 14.5.1 MUD-Based Receiver with and without Frequency-Domain Oversampling 258 14.5.2 Performance of SUD- and MUD-Based Receivers 258 14.6 Emulated MIMO OFDM with MACE10 and SPACE08 Data 260 14.6.1 One Mobile Single-Transmitter User plus One Stationary Two-Transmitter User 261 14.6.2 One Mobile Single-Transmitter User plus One Stationary Three-Transmitter User 262 14.6.3 Two Mobile Single-Transmitter Users plus One Stationary Two-Transmitter User 263 14.7 Bibliographical Notes 263 15 Asynchronous Multiuser OFDM 265 15.1 System Model for Asynchronous Multiuser OFDM 266 15.2 Overlapped Truncation and Interference Aggregation 267 15.2.1 Overlapped Truncation 267 15.2.2 Interference Aggregation 268 15.3 An Asynchronous Multiuser OFDM Receiver 269 15.3.1 The Overall Receiver Structure 269 15.3.2 Interblock Interference Subtraction 270 15.3.3 Time-to-Frequency-Domain Conversion 271 15.3.4 Iterative Multiuser Reception and Residual Interference Cancellation 273 15.3.5 Interference Reconstruction 274 15.4 Investigation on Multiuser Asynchronism in an Example Network 275 15.5 Simulation Results 276 15.5.1 Two-User Systems with Time-Varying Channels 277 15.5.2 Multiuser Systems with Time-Invariant Channels 279 15.6 Emulated Results: MACE10 281 15.7 Bibliographical Notes 284 16 OFDM in Relay Channels 285 16.1 Dynamic Coded Cooperation in a Single-Relay Network 285 16.1.1 Relay Operations 286 16.1.2 Receiver Processing at the Destination 288 16.1.3 Discussion 289 16.2 A Design Example Based on Rate-Compatible Channel Coding 289 16.2.1 Code Design 289 16.2.2 Simulation Results 291 16.3 A Design Example Based on Layered Erasure- and Error-Correction Coding 292 16.3.1 Code Design 292 16.3.2 Implementation 293 16.3.3 An Experiment in Swimming Pool 293 16.3.4 A Sea Experiment 296 16.4 Dynamic Block Cycling over a Line Network 299 16.4.1 Hop-by-Hop Relay and Turbo Relay 299 16.4.2 Dynamic Block-Cycling Transmissions 300 16.4.3 Discussion 302 16.5 Bibliographical Notes 302 17 OFDM-Modulated Physical-Layer Network Coding 303 17.1 System Model for the OFDM-Modulated PLNC 305 17.2 Three Iterative OFDM Receivers 306 17.2.1 Iterative Separate Detection and Decoding 306 17.2.2 Iterative XOR-ed PLNC Detection and Decoding 307 17.2.3 Iterative Generalized PLNC Detection and Decoding 309 17.3 Outage Probability Bounds in Time-Invariant Channels 309 17.4 Simulation Results 310 17.4.1 The Single-Path Time-Invariant Channel 311 17.4.2 The Multipath Time-Invariant Channel 311 17.4.3 The Multipath Time-Varying Channel 313 17.5 Experimental Results: SPACE08 314 17.6 Bibliographical Notes 315 18 OFDM Modem Development 317 18.1 Components of an Acoustic Modem 317 18.2 OFDM Acoustic Modem in Air 318 18.3 OFDM Lab Modem 318 18.4 AquaSeNT OFDM Modem 320 18.5 Bibliographical Notes 321 19 Underwater Ranging and Localization 323 19.1 Ranging 324 19.1.1 One-Way Signaling 324 19.1.2 Two-Way Signaling 324 19.1.3 Challenges for High-Precision Ranging 325 19.2 Underwater GPS 325 19.2.1 System Overview 325 19.2.2 One-Way Travel Time Estimation 326 19.2.3 Localization 327 19.2.4 Tracking Algorithms 329 19.2.5 Simulation Results 334 19.2.6 Field Test in a Local Lake 335 19.3 On-Demand Asynchronous Localization 336 19.3.1 Localization Procedure 337 19.3.2 Localization Algorithm for the Initiator 338 19.3.3 Localization Algorithm for a Passive Node 340 19.3.4 Localization Performance Results in a Lake 341 19.4 Bibliographical Notes 344 Appendix A Compressive Sensing 345 A.1 Compressive Sensing 346 A.1.1 Sparse Representation 346 A.1.2 Exactly and Approximately Sparse Signals 346 A.1.3 Sensing 346 A.1.4 Signal Recovery and RIP 347 A.1.5 Sensing Matrices 348 A.2 Sparse Recovery Algorithms 348 A.2.1 Matching Pursuits 349 A.2.2 1-Norm Minimization 349 A.3 Applications of Compressive Sensing 350 A.3.1 Applications of Compressive Sensing in Communications 350 A.3.2 Compressive Sensing in Underwater Acoustic Channels 351 Appendix B Experiment Description 353 B.1 SPACE08 Experiment 353 B.2 MACE10 Experiment 354 B.2.1 Experiment Setup 355 B.2.2 Mobility Estimation 356 References 359 Index 383

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Book SynopsisConcentrator Photovoltaics (CPV) is one of the most promising technologies to produce solar electricity at competitive prices. High performing CPV systems with efficiencies well over 30% and multi-megawatt CPV plants are now a reality.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xix Preface xxiii 1 Direct Normal Radiation 1Daryl R. Myers 1.1 Concepts and Definitions 1 1.1.1 Orbital and Geometrical Considerations 1 1.1.2 The Solar Constant 2 1.1.3 Temporal Variations in Extraterrestrial Radiation (ETR) 3 1.1.4 Extraterrestrial Radiation Spectral Power Distribution 4 1.1.5 The Atmospheric Filter 6 1.2 Measuring Broadband Direct Solar Radiation 8 1.2.1 Pyrheliometers 8 1.2.2 Rotating Shadow Band Radiometers 11 1.2.3 Reference Standards, the World Radiometric Reference (WRR) 13 1.2.4 Calibration of Pyrheliometers 16 1.2.5 Accuracy and Uncertainty 17 1.2.6 Summary of Guide to Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) Approach 18 1.2.7 Measurement Data Quality 20 1.3 Modeling Broadband Direct Solar Radiation 21 1.3.1 Models for Direct Beam Irradiance 21 1.3.2 Atmospheric Component Transmittance 22 1.3.3 Estimating Direct Beam Radiation from Hemispherical Data 25 1.4 Modeling Spectral Distributions 26 1.4.1 Bird Simple Spectral Model (SPCTRL2) 27 1.4.2 Simple Model for Atmospheric Transmission of Sunshine (SMARTS) 28 1.4.3 Spectral Distributions from Broadband Data 28 1.5 Resources for Broadband Estimates of CPV Performance 29 1.5.1 Broadband Direct Beam Radiation Data Resources 29 1.5.2 Typical Meteorological Year Data for CPV Performance Estimates 31 1.5.3 CPV Spectral Performance Issues 33 1.6 Sunshape 33 1.6.1 The Solar Disk 33 1.6.2 Circumsolar Radiation 36 1.6.3 Recent Circumsolar Radiation Research 39 1.7 Direct Solar Radiation Climates 40 1.7.1 Measurement Networks and Data 41 1.7.2 Concentrating Solar Power Site Selection 41 1.7.3 Concentrating Solar Power Resource Map Examples 43 1.7.4 Solar Resource Maps and Data Internet Resources 47 1.8 Consensus Standards for Direct Solar Radiation Applications 48 1.8.1 World Radiometric Reference 48 1.8.2 Solar Radiometric Instrumentation Calibration 48 1.8.3 Spectral Calibration Standards 49 1.8.4 Standard and Reference Spectral Distributions 49 Glossary 50 List of Acronyms 50 List of Symbols 51 References 53 2 Concentrator Multijunction Solar Cells 59Ignacio Rey-Stolle, Jerry M. Olson, and Carlos Algora 2.1 Introduction 59 2.2 Fundamentals 60 2.2.1 Fundamentals of Photovoltaic Cells 60 2.2.2 Fundamentals of Multijunction Solar Cells 63 2.3 Multijunction Solar Cell Structures 67 2.3.1 Historical Development of Multijunction PV Converters 68 2.3.2 Designing Multijunction Solar Cell Structures 73 2.4 Multijunction Solar Cell Modeling 79 2.4.1 Numerical Modeling of Multijunction Solar Cell Structures 79 2.4.2 Analytical Modeling of Multijunction Solar Cells 81 2.4.3 Further Steps: Distributed Circuit-based Modeling 98 2.5 Concentrator Requirements 103 2.5.1 High Efficiency 103 2.5.2 Series Resistance. Grid Designs 107 2.5.3 Tunnel Junctions 110 2.5.4 Distributed Effects 113 2.5.5 Atmospheric Spectral Variations and Impact on Energy Yield 116 2.5.6 Temperature Effects 118 2.6 Description of Different Cell Approaches 118 2.6.1 Lattice-matched GaInP/GaAs/Ge 118 2.6.2 Metamorphic GaInP/GaInAs/Ge 119 2.6.3 Inverted Metamorphic GaInP/GaAs/GaInAs 120 2.6.4 Double Sided Epi 122 2.6.5 Lattice Matched GaInP/GaAs/GaInNAs 122 2.6.6 Quantum Dot and Quantum Well Multijunction Solar Cells 123 2.6.7 More Junctions (4, 5, 6) 123 2.6.8 Stacked Multijunction Cells 124 2.6.9 III-Vs on Silicon 124 2.6.10 Epitaxial Liftoff 126 Acknowledgements 127 Glossary 127 List of Acronyms 127 List of Symbols 127 References 129 3 Emerging High Efficiency Concepts for Concentrator Solar Cells 137Ignacio Tobías and Antonio Luque 3.1 Introduction 137 3.2 Thermodynamic Efficiency Limits 138 3.2.1 Disequilibria and Energy Conversion in Solar Cells 140 3.2.2 Thermodynamic Efficiencies 142 3.3 Detailed Balance Modeling of Solar Cells 143 3.3.1 Shockley–Queisser Model of a Solar Cell 144 3.3.2 The System with Infinite Monochromatic Solar Cells 146 3.4 Solar Cell Concepts Exceeding the Single Junction Shockley–Queisser Limit 148 3.4.1 Multijunction Solar Cells 148 3.4.2 Hot Carrier Solar Cells 149 3.4.3 Carrier Multiplication or Multi-Exciton Generation Solar Cells 152 3.4.4 Intermediate Band Solar Cells 155 3.5 Other Concepts 159 3.5.1 Light Management for High Efficiency Photovoltaics 160 3.5.2 Spectrum Conversion 161 3.6 Nanostructures in Solar Cells 162 3.6.1 Electron States in Nanostructures 162 3.6.2 Light Absorption by Nanostructures 173 3.6.3 Relaxation, Capture and Recombination in Nanostructures 176 3.6.4 Nanostructures for Multijunction Solar Cells 177 3.6.5 Fabrication Techniques 178 Glossary 179 List of Acronyms 179 References 179 4 CPV Optics 187Rubén Mohedano and Ralf Leutz 4.1 Introduction 187 4.2 Light, Optics and Concentration 188 4.2.1 Light and Optics 189 4.2.2 Optics for Concentration Photovoltaics 190 4.3 Optical Background 192 4.3.1 Basic Concepts in Geometrical Optics 192 4.3.2 Basic Concepts in Nonimaging Optics 196 4.4 Design of the Optical Train: Calculation of Surfaces 202 4.4.1 Types of Concentrators as a Function of Concentration Level 203 4.4.2 Design Examples 204 4.4.3 Secondary Optical Elements: Design Details 210 4.5 Performance Analysis and Optimization of the Optical Train 213 4.5.1 Efficiency. Sources of Losses 215 4.5.2 Ray Trace Modeling 220 4.6 Optics Manufacturing 224 4.6.1 Optical Materials for CPV 224 4.6.2 Tolerance Budget 226 4.6.3 Manufacturing of Primary Optical Elements 227 4.6.4 Manufacturing of Secondary Optic Elements 231 4.7 Impact of CPV Optics in a Nutshell 232 Glossary 233 List of Acronyms 233 List of Symbols 234 References 235 Annex 4-I: Étendue Calculation 239 Annex 4-II: 2D Treatment of Rotational and Linear 3D Optical Systems 241 Annex 4-III: Design of the XR Concentrator 242 5 Temperature Effects on CPV Solar Cells, Optics and Modules 245Iván García, Marta Victoria, and Ignacio Antón 5.1 Introduction 245 5.2 Effects of Temperature on CPV Solar Cells 246 5.2.1 Dependence of the Bandgap on Temperature 246 5.2.2 Dependence of the Solar Cell Parameters on Temperature 248 5.2.3 Influence of Concentration on the Sensitivity to Temperature 260 5.2.4 Experimental Measurements on Real Solar Cells 261 5.2.5 Summary of Temperature Effects in CPV Multijunction Solar Cells 264 5.3 Temperature Effects and Thermal Management in CPV Optics and Modules 266 5.3.1 Temperature Effects on CPV Optics and Modules 266 5.3.2 Thermal Coefficients of CPV Modules 270 5.3.3 Heat Extraction Strategies 274 Glossary 286 List of Acronyms 286 List of Symbols 286 References 287 6 CPV Tracking and Trackers 293Ignacio Luque-Heredia, Pedro Magalhães, and Matthew Muller 6.1 Introduction 293 6.2 Requirements and Specifications 294 6.3 Basic Taxonomy of CPV Trackers 297 6.4 Design of CPV Trackers – Structural Considerations 300 6.5 Sun Tracking Control 307 6.5.1 Background 307 6.5.2 The Autocalibrated Sun Tracking Control Unit 311 6.6 Sun Tracking Accuracy 315 6.6.1 The Tracking Accuracy Sensor 315 6.6.2 The Monitoring System 316 6.6.3 Accuracy Assessment: Example of the Autocalibrated Tracking Strategy 318 6.7 Designing for Optimal Manufacturing and Field Works 322 6.7.1 Manufacturing Considerations 322 6.7.2 Field Works Considerations 324 6.8 Description and Performance of Current Tracker Approaches 327 6.8.1 Parabolic Trough 327 6.8.2 Single-Pole Az.-El. Trackers 328 6.8.3 Tilt-Roll Trackers 330 6.8.4 Carrousel Trackers 331 6.8.5 Variations to Main Architectures in the Field 332 6.9 International Standards for Solar Trackers 334 References 337 7 CPV Modules 339Stephen Askins and Gabriel Sala Pano 7.1 Introduction 339 7.2 What is a CPV Module? 339 7.3 Definition, Functions, and Structure of a CPV Module 341 7.3.1 Functions of a CPV Module 342 7.3.2 General Terms and Definitions 343 7.3.3 Structure of a CPV Module 343 7.4 Design Process and Prototyping Stages 349 7.5 Concentration Ratio and Cell Size 353 7.5.1 Concentration Ratio 353 7.5.2 Cell Size Selection 353 7.5.3 Module Size and Length 356 7.5.4 Market Survey 357 7.6 Opto-Mechanics of CPV Modules 359 7.6.1 Acceptance Angle 359 7.6.2 Acceptance Angle Budget 361 7.6.3 External Tolerances 362 7.6.4 Internal Tolerances 363 7.7 Electrical Design 372 7.7.1 Module Voltages and Dielectric Strength 372 7.7.2 Series Connections and Bypass Diodes 373 7.7.3 Parallel Connections and Blocking Diodes 374 7.8 Thermal Design 375 7.8.1 Target Cell Temperature 376 7.8.2 Simplified Thermal Model 377 7.9 Venting Considerations 389 7.10 Manufacturing Processes for CPV Modules 390 7.10.1 Chassis and Backplane Fabrication 390 7.10.2 Heat Sink Fabrication 395 7.10.3 Module Assembly 398 7.11 Standards Applicable to CPV Modules 399 Glossary 401 References 403 Annex 7-I: Abengoa’s CPV Modules and Systems 406José A. Pérez, Sebastián Caparrós, Justo Albarrán, and Antonio de Dios Annex 7-II: CPV Modules and Systems from Daido Steel 413Kenji Araki Annex 7-III: Soitec CPV Modules and Systems 419Francisca Rubio, Sven T. Wanka, and Andreas Gombert Annex 7-IV: Suncore Photovoltaics’ CPV Modules 426James Foresi 8 CPV Power Plants 433María Martínez, Daniel Sánchez, Francisca Rubio, Eduardo F. Fernández, Florencia Almonacid, Norman Abela, Tobias Zech, and Tobias Gerstmaier 8.1 Introduction 433 8.2 Construction of CPV Plants 434 8.2.1 Preliminary Works 434 8.2.2 Basic Engineering Study 436 8.2.3 Detailed Engineering 437 8.2.4 Construction Phase 440 8.3 CPV Inverters: Configurations and Sizing 445 8.3.1 Types of Configurations 446 8.3.2 Sizing of the Inverter 448 8.4 Optimized Distribution of Trackers 450 8.4.1 State of the Art 451 8.4.2 Procedure for Optimizing the Distribution of Trackers 452 8.5 Considerations of Environmental Impact and Dual Use of the Land 456 8.6 CPV Plant Monitoring and Production Data Analysis 458 8.6.1 Monitoring System: Registering the Operating Parameters 459 8.6.2 Monitoring System: Controlling a CPV Plant 460 8.6.3 Analysis of Production Data 461 8.7 Operation and Maintenance 464 8.7.1 Operation 465 8.7.2 Maintenance 467 8.8 Power Rating of a CPV Plant 470 8.8.1 ISFOC Approach 470 8.8.2 International ASTM Standards 471 8.8.3 International IEC Standards 472 8.9 Modeling the Energy Production of CPV Power Plants 477 8.9.1 Basic Models 477 8.9.2 Input Data and Quality Checks 478 8.9.3 Loss Mechanisms 479 Glossary 484 List of Acronyms 484 List of Symbols 485 References 486 Annex 8-I: Software Tools for CPV Plant Design and Analysis 491 Annex 8-II: CPV Power Plants at ISFOC 501María Martínez, Daniel Sánchez, Óscar de la Rubia, and Francisca Rubio Annex 8-III: Soitec Power Plants 513Andreas Gombert, Norman Abela, Tobias Gerstmeier, Shelley Bambrook, and Francisca Rubio 9 Reliability 521Carlos Algora, Pilar Espinet-Gonzalez, Manuel Vázquez, Nick Bosco, David Miller, Sarah Kurtz, Francisca Rubio, and Robert McConnell 9.1 Introduction 521 9.2 Fundamentals of Reliability 521 9.2.1 Reliability Functions 522 9.2.2 Statistical Distribution Functions 524 9.2.3 Accelerated Life Tests 529 9.2.4 Reliability Versus Qualification 532 9.3 Reliability of Solar Cells 533 9.3.1 Issues in Accelerated Aging Tests in CPV Solar Cells 533 9.3.2 Types of Failure 538 9.3.3 Failures in Real Time Operation 539 9.3.4 Accelerated Life Tests 539 9.3.5 Reliability of Similar Devices 546 9.3.6 Links Among Degradation Studies, Reliability and Qualification Standards 548 9.4 Reliability of Modules 549 9.4.1 Introduction 549 9.4.2 Die-attach 549 9.4.3 CPV Encapsulation 552 9.4.4 CPV Optics 555 9.4.5 Other CPV Module Reliability Issues 562 9.5 Reliability of Systems and Plants 562 9.5.1 Performance Degradation in Power Plants 563 9.5.2 Failures of Components 568 9.5.3 Qualification Tests on Power Plants Components 572 9.5.4 Aging Tests 575 9.6 Standards Development for CPV 577 9.6.1 Standards as the Mark of a Mature Industry 577 9.6.2 History of CPV Standards Development 577 Acknowledgement 582 References 582 10 CPV Multijunction Solar Cell Characterization 589Carl R. Osterwald and Gerald Siefer 10.1 Introduction 589 10.2 Basic Concepts About Multijunction Solar Cells for Characterization Purposes 590 10.2.1 Review of Multijunction Solar Cell Theory 590 10.2.2 Definition of CPV Cell Efficiency 592 10.2.3 Current-Voltage as a Function of Concentration 593 10.3 Spectral Matching and Adjustment 594 10.3.1 Isotype Method 594 10.3.2 Reference Cell Method 594 10.3.3 Rij Method and Linear Equation System Method 595 10.3.4 Effects of Subcell Mismatching 597 10.4 Flash Solar Simulators: Description and Limitations 600 10.4.1 Sources and Optics 600 10.4.2 Adjusting Total Intensity 600 10.4.3 Irradiance Versus Time 600 10.4.4 Spectral Irradiance Adjustment 601 10.4.5 Spectral Irradiance Measurement 602 10.5 Concentrator Solar Cell Characterization 603 10.5.1 Overview 603 10.5.2 Area Measurement 603 10.5.3 External Quantum Efficiency 604 10.5.4 One-Sun Light I-V and One-Sun Short Circuit Current Calibration 607 10.5.5 Concentration I-V 608 10.5.6 Uncertainty Analysis 608 10.5.7 Open Challenges 610 Acknowledgments 611 Glossary 611 List of Acronyms 611 List of Symbols 611 References 612 11 Characterization of Optics for Concentrator Photovoltaics 615Maikel Hernández 11.1 Introduction 615 11.2 Geometrical Characterization 616 11.2.1 Faceted Optics 617 11.2.2 Non-faceted Optics 620 11.3 Optical Characterization 624 11.3.1 Measurement of the Optical Efficiency 624 11.3.2 POE Scattering Basic Measurements 628 11.3.3 Acceptance Angle Measurement 629 11.3.4 Spectral Irradiance Distribution Measurement at the Solar Cell Plane 633 11.3.5 Angular Power Distribution at the Solar Cell Plane 634 11.3.6 In-line Characterization of Optics in Production 634 Glossary 636 List of Acronyms 636 List of Symbols 636 References 637 12 Characterization of CPV Modules and Receivers 639César Domínguez, Rebeca Herrero, and Ignacio Antón 12.1 Introduction 639 12.2 Figures of Merit of PV Concentrators 640 12.2.1 Reporting CPV Module Performance 640 12.2.2 Performance Indicators for Concentrator Optics 642 12.3 Instruments and Methods for CPV Characterization 643 12.3.1 Indoors versus Outdoors 643 12.3.2 Operating Conditions Relevant to CPV 644 12.3.3 Tracker Requirements 650 12.3.4 Alignment Procedures 651 12.3.5 Rating CPV Module Performance 652 12.3.6 Spectral Characterization of CPV Modules and Receivers 656 12.3.7 Angular Transmission Curve 660 12.3.8 Uncertainties of Instruments and Methods for CPV Characterization 662 12.4 Indoor Measurements of CPV Modules 663 12.4.1 Solar Simulators for CPV Modules 663 12.4.2 Reference Sensor 668 12.4.3 Caveats on Indoor Measurements 672 12.4.4 Angular Transmission Curve: Direct and Inverse Methods 674 12.4.5 Uncertainties in the Indoor Measurement of I-V Curves 678 Glossary 678 List of Acronyms 678 List of Symbols 678 References 679 13 Life Cycle Analysis of CPV Systems 685Vasilis Fthenakis 13.1 Introduction 685 13.2 Case Study Description 686 13.3 Methodology 687 13.4 Life-Cycle Inventory Analysis 688 13.4.1 Production of Materials and Associated Emissions 688 13.4.2 Solar Cell Manufacturing 690 13.4.3 Primary Energy Demand 692 13.4.4 End-of-Life Processing 693 13.5 System Performance Data and Estimates 694 13.6 Energy Payback Time 695 13.7 Greenhouse and Toxic Gas Emissions 696 13.7.1 Emissions in the Life-Cycle of Amonix 7700 696 13.7.2 Reduction of Emissions from PV Replacing Electricity from the Grid 697 13.8 Land and Water Use in CPV Systems 699 13.9 Discussion and Comparison with Other CPV and PV Systems 700 13.9.1 Comparison with Other CPV Systems 700 13.9.2 Comparison with Other PV Systems 701 Glossary 702 List of Acronyms 702 List of Symbols 702 References 703 Annex 13-I: Energy Flow Diagrams for Amonix 7700 System Components 705 14 Cost Analysis 711Carlos Algora, Diego L. Talavera, and Gustavo Nofuentes 14.1 Introduction 711 14.2 Basic Concepts of Cost and Profitability Analysis 711 14.2.1 Elements of the Investment 712 14.2.2 Present and Future Worth of Sums. The Impact of Inflation 712 14.2.3 The Discount Rate 713 14.2.4 Effect of Inflation 713 14.2.5 Impact of Taxation 714 14.2.6 Financing 714 14.3 Review of Profitability Analysis 715 14.3.1 The Life Cycle Cost of a CPV System 715 14.3.2 The Present Worth of the Cash Inflows Generated by a CPV System 717 14.3.3 Assessment of the Profitability of a CPV System 718 14.3.4 Sensitivity Analysis on the Profitability of CPV Systems 720 14.4 The Cost of CPV 728 14.4.1 The Cost of CPV Systems 728 14.4.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) of CPV 735 14.4.3 Towards the CPV Grid Parity 746 Glossary 754 References 756 Index 759

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsChapter 1: Electric Circuit Variables Chapter 2: Circuit Elements Chapter 3: Resistive Circuits Chapter 4: Methods of Analysis of Resistive Circuits Chapter 5: Circuit Theorems Chapter 6: The Operational Amplifier Chapter 7: Energy Storage Elements Chapter 8: The Complete Response of RL and RC Circuits Chapter 9: The Complete Response of Circuits with Two Energy Storage Elements Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis Chapter 11: AC Steady-State Power Chapter 12: Three-Phase Circuits Chapter 13: Frequency Response Chapter 14: The Laplace Transform Chapter 15: Fourier Series and Fourier Transform Chapter 16: Filter Circuits Chapter 17: Two-Port and Three-Port Networks

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Book SynopsisAdvanced level consolidation of the technology, physics and design aspects of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) lubistors No comprehensive description of the physics and possible applications of the Lubistor can be found in a single source even though the Lubistor is already being used in SOI LSIs. The book provides, for the first time, a comprehensive understanding of the physics of the Lubistor. The author argues that a clear understanding of the fundamental physics of the pn junction is essential to allowing scientists and engineers to propose new devices. Since 2001 IBM has been applying the Lubistor to commercial SOI LSIs (large scale integrated devices) used in PCs and game machines. It is a key device in that it provides electrostatic protection to the LSIs. The book explains the device modeling for such applications, and covers the recent analog circuit application of the voltage reference circuit. The author also reviews the physics and the modeling of Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv Introduction to an Exotic Device World xvii Part One BRIEF REVIEWAND MODERN APPLICATIONS OF PN-JUNCTION DEVICES 1 Concept of an Ideal pn Junction 3 References 4 2 Understanding the Non-ideal pn Junction – Theoretical Reconsideration 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Bulk pn-Junction Diode 8 2.2.1 Assumptions 8 2.2.2 Model A – Low Doping Case 9 2.2.3 Model B – High Doping Case 18 2.3 Bulk pn-Junction Diode – Reverse Bias 24 2.3.1 Model A – Low Doping Case 24 2.3.2 Model B – High Doping Case 25 2.4 The Insulated-Gate pn Junction of the SOI Lubistor – Forward Bias 32 2.4.1 The Positive Gate Voltage Condition 32 2.4.2 The Negative Gate Voltage Condition 35 2.5 The Insulated-Gate pn Junction of the SOI Lubistor – Reverse Bias 35 References 37 3 Modern Applications of the pn Junction 39 References 40 Part Two PHYSICS AND MODELING OF SOI LUBISTORS – THICK-FILM DEVICES 4 Proposal of the Lateral, Unidirectional, Bipolar-Type Insulated-Gate Transistor (Lubistor) 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Device Structure and Parameters 43 4.3 Discussion of Current–Voltage Characteristics 45 4.4 Summary 47 References 47 5 Experimental Consideration for Modeling of Lubistor Operation 49 5.1 Introduction 49 5.2 Experimental Apparatus 49 5.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics of Lubistors 52 5.4 Lubistor Potential Profiles and Features 56 5.5 Discussion 57 5.5.1 Simplified Analysis of Lubistor Operation 57 5.5.2 On the Design of Lubistors 60 5.6 Summary 61 References 61 6 Modeling of Lubistor Operation Without an EFS Layer for Circuit Simulations 63 6.1 Introduction 63 6.2 Device Structure and Measurement System 63 6.3 Equivalent Circuit Models of an SOI Lubistor 65 6.3.1 Device Simulation 65 6.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Models 68 6.4 Summary 72 References 73 7 Noise Characteristics and Modeling of Lubistor 75 7.1 Introduction 75 7.2 Experiments 75 7.2.1 Device Structure 75 7.2.2 Measurement System 77 7.3 Results and Discussion 77 7.3.1 I–V Characteristics of an SOI Lubistor and a Simple Analytical Model 77 7.3.2 Noise Spectral Density of SOI Lubistors and Their Feature 81 7.3.3 Advanced Analysis of Anode Noise Spectral Density 83 7.4 Summary 86 References 86 8 Supplementary Study on Buried Oxide Characterization 89 8.1 Introduction 89 8.2 Physical Model for the Transition Layer 90 8.3 Capacitance Simulation 93 8.3.1 A Structure to Evaluate Capacitance 93 8.3.2 Numerical Simulation Technique 94 8.4 Device Fabrication 95 8.5 Results and Discussion 96 8.5.1 Electrode-to-Electrode Capacitance Dependence on Frequency 96 8.5.2 Drain-to-Substrate Capacitance Dependence on Bias 98 8.5.3 Electrode-to-Electrode Capacitance Dependence on Transition Layer Thickness 101 8.6 Summary 101 References 102 Part Three PHYSICS AND MODELING OF SOI LUBISTORS – THIN-FILM DEVICES 9 Negative Conductance Properties in Extremely Thin SOI Lubistors 105 9.1 Introduction 105 9.2 Device Fabrication and Measurements 105 9.3 Results and Discussion 106 9.4 Summary 109 References 109 10 Two-Dimensionally Confined Injection Phenomena at Low Temperatures in Sub-10-nm-Thick SOI Lubistors 111 10.1 Introduction 111 10.2 Experiments 111 10.2.1 Anode Common Configuration 113 10.2.2 Cathode Common Configuration 113 10.3 Physical Models and Simulations 114 10.3.1 Fundamental Models 114 10.3.2 Theoretical Simulations 118 10.3.3 Influences on Characteristics of Extremely Ultra-Thin SOI MOSFET Devices 122 10.4 Summary 122 Appendix 10A: Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (niq) and the Fermi Level in 2DSS 122 Appendix 10B: Calculation of Electron and Hole Densities in 2DSS 125 References 125 11 Two-Dimensional Quantization Effect on Indirect Tunneling in SOI Lubistors with a Thin Silicon Layer 127 11.1 Introduction 127 11.2 Experimental Results 128 11.2.1 Junction Current Dependence on Anode Voltage 128 11.2.2 Junction Current Dependence on Gate Voltage 132 11.3 Theoretical Discussion 134 11.3.1 Qualitative Consideration of the Low-Dimensional Indirect Tunneling Process 134 11.3.2 Theoretical Formulations of Tunneling Current and Discussion 134 11.4 Summary 140 Appendix 11A: Wave Function Coupling Effect in the Lateral Two-Dimensional-System-to-Three-Dimensional-System (2D-to-3D) Tunneling Process 141 References 141 12 Experimental Study of Two-Dimensional Confinement Effects on Reverse-Biased Current Characteristics of Ultra-Thin SOI Lubistors 143 12.1 Introduction 143 12.2 Device Structures and Experimental Apparatus 144 12.3 Results and Discussion 145 12.3.1 I–V Characteristics under the Reverse-Biased Condition 145 12.4 Summary 151 Appendix 12A: Derivation of Equations (12.6) and (12.9) 151 References 153 13 Supplementary Consideration of I-V Characteristics of Forward-Biased Ultra-Thin Lubistors 155 13.1 Introduction 155 13.2 Device Structures and Bias Configuration 155 13.3 Results and Discussion 156 13.4 Summary 157 References 158 14 Gate-Controlled Bipolar Action in the Ultra-Thin Dynamic Threshold SOI MOSFET 159 14.1 Introduction 159 14.2 Device and Experiments 159 14.3 Results and Discussion 159 14.3.1 ID–VG and IG–VG Characteristics of the Ultra-Thin-Body DT-MOSFET 159 14.3.2 Control of Bipolar Action by the MOS Gate 162 14.4 Channel Polarity Dependence of Bipolar Action 162 14.4.1 ID–VG and gm–VG Characteristics of the Ultra-Thin-Body DT-MOSFET 162 14.4.2 Difference of Bipolar Operation between the n-Channel DT-MOS and the p-Channel DT-MOS 163 14.4.3 Impact of Body Thickness on Bipolar Operation 164 14.5 Summary 166 References 166 15 Supplementary Study on Gate-Controlled Bipolar Action in the Ultra-Thin Dynamic Threshold SOI MOSFET 167 15.1 Introduction 167 15.2 Device Structures and Parameters 167 15.3 Results and Discussion 169 15.3.1 SOI MOSFET Mode and DT-MOSFET Mode 169 15.3.2 Temperature Evolution of Transconductance (gm) Characteristics and Impact of Channel Length on gm Characteristics 170 15.3.3 Impact of SOI Layer Thickness on gm Characteristics 173 15.4 Summary 173 References 174 Part Four CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS 16 Subcircuit Models of SOI Lubistors for Electrostatic Discharge Protection Circuit Design and Their Applications 179 16.1 Introduction 179 16.2 Equivalent Circuit Models of SOI Lubistors and their Applications 180 16.2.1 Device Structure and Device Simulation 180 16.2.2 Equivalent Circuit Models 183 16.3 ESD Protection Circuit 183 16.4 Direct Current Characteristics of the ESD Protection Devices and Their SPICE Models 186 16.5 ESD Event and Performance Evaluation of an ESD Protection Circuit 189 16.6 Summary 196 References 196 17 A New Basic Element for Neural Logic Functions and Capability in Circuit Applications 199 17.1 Introduction 199 17.2 Device Structure, Model, and Proposal of a New Logic Element 199 17.2.1 Device Structure and Fundamental Characteristics 199 17.2.2 Device Model for the Lubistor 201 17.2.3 Proposal of a New Logic Element 203 17.3 Circuit Applications and Discussion 206 17.3.1 Examples of Fundamental Elements for Circuit Applications 206 17.3.2 On the Further Improvement of Functions of the Basic Logic Element 211 17.4 Summary 211 References 211 18 Sub-1-V Voltage Reference Circuit Technology as an Analog Circuit Application 213 18.1 Review of Bandgap Reference 213 18.2 Challenging Study of Sub-1-V Voltage Reference 214 References 215 19 Possible Implementation of SOI Lubistors into Conventional Logic Circuits 217 References 218 Part Five OPTICAL DEVICE APPLICATIONS OF SOI LUBISTORS 20 Potentiality of Electro-Optic Modulator Based on the SOI Waveguide 223 20.1 Introduction 223 20.2 Characterization of the Quasi-One-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Waveguide 224 20.3 Electro-Optic Modulator Based on the SOI Waveguide 230 20.4 Summary 233 References 234 Part Six SOI LUBISTOR AS A TESTING TOOL 21 Principles of Parameter Extraction 237 References 239 22 Charge Pumping Technique 241 22.1 Introduction 241 22.2 Experimental and Simulation Details 241 22.3 Results and Discussion 243 22.4 Summary 246 References 246 Part Seven FUTURE PROSPECTS 23 Overview 249 23.1 Introduction 249 23.2 i-MOS Transistor 249 23.3 Tunnel FET 251 23.4 Feedback FET 254 23.5 Potential of Offset-Gate Lubistor 256 23.6 Si Fin LED with a Multi-quantum Well 258 23.7 Future of the pn Junction 258 References 259 24 Feasibility of the Lubistor-Based Avalanche Phototransistor 261 24.1 Introduction 261 24.2 Theoretical Formulation of the Avalanche Phenomenon in Direct-Bandgap Semiconductors 261 24.3 Theoretical Formulation of the Avalanche Phenomenon in Indirect-Bandgap Semiconductors 264 24.4 Theoretical Consideration of the Avalanche Phenomenon in a One-Dimensional Wire pn Junction 265 24.5 Summary 269 References 269 Part Eight SUMMARY OF PHYSICS FOR SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND MATHEMATICS FOR DEVICE ANALYSES 25 Physics of Semiconductor Devices for Analysis 273 25.1 Free Carrier Concentration and the Fermi Level in Semiconductors 273 25.2 Impurity Doping in Semiconductors 275 25.3 Drift and Diffusion of Carriers and Current Continuity in Semiconductors 275 25.4 Stationary-State Schr€odinger Equation to Analyze Quantum-Mechanical Effects in Semiconductors 276 25.5 Time-dependent Schr€odinger Equation to Analyze Dynamics in Semiconductors 277 25.6 Quantum Size Effects in Nano-Scale Semiconductors 278 25.7 Tunneling through Energy Barriers in Semiconductors 281 25.8 Low-Dimensional Tunneling in Nano-Scale Semiconductors 282 25.9 Photon Absorption and Electronic Transitions 284 25.9.1 Fundamental Formulations 284 25.9.2 Interband Transition – Direct Bandgap 285 25.9.3 Interband Transition – Indirect Bandgap 286 References 287 26 Mathematics Applicable to the Analysis of Device Physics 289 26.1 Linear Differential Equation 289 26.2 Operator Method 290 26.3 Klein–Gordon-Type Differential Equation 291 References 292 Bibliography 293 Index 295

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Book SynopsisWith the ever increasing demand for data/Internet services, engineers and scientists need to keep up with the technology and the security issues involved. This book covers the technological development of wired/wireless internet communications in compliance with each iterative generation up to 4G systems, with emphasis on wireless security aspects.Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Author xxi Acknowledgments xxiii 1 Internetworking and Layered Models 1 1.1 Networking Technology 2 1.2 Connecting Devices 5 1.3 The OSI Model 8 1.4 TCP/IP Model 12 2 TCP/IP Suite and Internet Stack Protocols 15 2.1 Network Layer Protocols 15 2.2 Transport Layer Protocols 41 2.3 World Wide Web 47 2.4 File Transfer 49 2.5 E-Mail 50 2.6 Network Management Service 52 2.7 Converting IP Addresses 53 2.8 Routing Protocols 54 2.9 Remote System Programs 55 2.10 Social Networking Services 56 2.11 Smart IT Devices 57 2.12 Network Security Threats 58 2.13 Internet Security Threats 58 2.14 Computer Security Threats 59 3 Global Trend of Mobile Wireless Technology 63 3.1 1G Cellular Technology 63 3.2 2G Mobile Radio Technology 64 3.3 2.5G Mobile Radio Technology 67 3.4 3G Mobile Radio Technology (Situation and Status of 3G) 70 3.5 3G UMTS Security-Related Encryption Algorithm 75 4 Symmetric Block Ciphers 81 4.1 Data Encryption Standard (DES) 81 4.2 International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) 99 4.3 RC5 Algorithm 108 4.4 RC6 Algorithm 123 4.5 AES (Rijndael) Algorithm 135 5 Hash Function, Message Digest, and Message Authentication Code 161 5.1 DMDC Algorithm 161 5.2 Advanced DMDC Algorithm 171 5.3 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm 176 5.4 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA-1) 188 5.5 Hashed Message Authentication Codes (HMAC) 195 6 Asymmetric Public-Key Cryptosystems 203 6.1 Diffie–Hellman Exponential Key Exchange 203 6.2 RSA Public-Key Cryptosystem 207 6.3 ElGamal’s Public-Key Cryptosystem 215 6.4 Schnorr’s Public-Key Cryptosystem 222 6.5 Digital Signature Algorithm 227 6.6 The Elliptic Curve Cryptosystem (ECC) 230 7 Public-Key Infrastructure 249 7.1 Internet Publications for Standards 250 7.2 Digital Signing Techniques 251 7.3 Functional Roles of PKI Entities 258 7.4 Key Elements for PKI Operations 263 7.5 X.509 Certificate Formats 271 7.6 Certificate Revocation List 282 7.7 Certification Path Validation 287 8 Network Layer Security 291 8.1 IPsec Protocol 291 8.2 IP Authentication Header 299 8.3 IP ESP 301 8.4 Key Management Protocol for IPsec 308 9 Transport Layer Security: SSLv3 and TLSv1 325 9.1 SSL Protocol 325 9.2 Cryptographic Computations 338 9.3 TLS Protocol 339 10 Electronic Mail Security: PGP, S/MIME 353 10.1 PGP 353 10.2 S/MIME 372 11 Internet Firewalls for Trusted Systems 387 11.1 Role of Firewalls 387 11.2 Firewall-Related Terminology 388 11.3 Types of Firewalls 392 11.4 Firewall Designs 398 11.5 IDS Against Cyber Attacks 401 11.6 Intrusion Detections Systems 404 12 SET for E-Commerce Transactions 415 12.1 Business Requirements for SET 415 12.2 SET System Participants 417 12.3 Cryptographic Operation Principles 418 12.4 Dual Signature and Signature Verification 420 12.5 Authentication and Message Integrity 424 12.6 Payment Processing 427 13 4G Wireless Internet Communication Technology 439 13.1 Mobile WiMAX 440 13.2 WiBro (Wireless Broadband) 448 13.3 UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) 452 13.4 LTE (Long Term Evolution) 457 Acronyms 467 Bibliography 473 Index 481

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisThis complete resource on the theory and applications of reliability engineering, probabilistic models and risk analysis consolidates all the latest research, presenting the most up-to-date developments in this field.Table of ContentsRemembering Boris Gnedenko xvii List of Contributors xxv Preface xxix Acknowledgements xxxv Part I DEGRADATION ANALYSIS, MULTI-STATE AND CONTINUOUS-STATE SYSTEM RELIABILITY 1 Methods of Solutions of Inhomogeneous Continuous Time Markov Chains for Degradation Process Modeling 3 Yan-Fu Li, Enrico Zio and Yan-Hui Lin 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Formalism of ICTMC 4 1.3 Numerical Solution Techniques 5 1.4 Examples 10 1.5 Comparisons of the Methods and Guidelines of Utilization 13 1.6 Conclusion 15 References 15 2 Multistate Degradation and Condition Monitoring for Devices with Multiple Independent Failure Modes 17 Ramin Moghaddass and Ming J. Zuo 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Multistate Degradation and Multiple Independent Failure Modes 19 2.3 Parameter Estimation 23 2.4 Important Reliability Measures of a Condition-Monitored Device 25 2.5 Numerical Example 27 2.6 Conclusion 28 Acknowledgements 30 References 30 3 Time Series Regression with Exponential Errors for Accelerated Testing and Degradation Tracking 32 Nozer D. Singpurwalla 3.1 Introduction 32 3.2 Preliminaries: Statement of the Problem 33 3.3 Estimation and Prediction by Least Squares 34 3.4 Estimation and Prediction by MLE 35 3.5 The Bayesian Approach: The Predictive Distribution 37 Acknowledgements 42 References 42 4 Inverse Lz-Transform for a Discrete-State Continuous-Time Markov Process and Its Application to Multi-State System Reliability Analysis 43 Anatoly Lisnianski and Yi Ding 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Inverse Lz-Transform: Definitions and Computational Procedure 44 4.3 Application of Inverse Lz-Transform to MSS Reliability Analysis 50 4.4 Numerical Example 52 4.5 Conclusion 57 References 58 5 OntheLz-Transform Application for Availability Assessment of an Aging Multi-State Water Cooling System for Medical Equipment 59 Ilia Frenkel, Anatoly Lisnianski and Lev Khvatskin 5.1 Introduction 59 5.2 Brief Description of the Lz-Transform Method 61 5.3 Multi-state Model of the Water Cooling System for the MRI Equipment 62 5.4 Availability Calculation 75 5.5 Conclusion 76 Acknowledgments 76 References 77 6 Combined Clustering and Lz-Transform Technique to Reduce the Computational Complexity of a Multi-State System Reliability Evaluation 78 Yi Ding 6.1 Introduction 78 6.2 The Lz-Transform for Dynamic Reliability Evaluation for MSS 79 6.3 Clustering Composition Operator in the Lz-Transform 81 6.4 Computational Procedures 83 6.5 Numerical Example 83 6.6 Conclusion 85 References 85 7 Sliding Window Systems with Gaps 87 Gregory Levitin 7.1 Introduction 87 7.2 The Models 89 7.3 Reliability Evaluation Technique 91 7.4 Conclusion 96 References 96 8 Development of Reliability Measures Motivated by Fuzzy Sets for Systems with Multi- or Infinite-States 98 Zhaojun (Steven) Li and Kailash C. Kapur 8.1 Introduction 98 8.2 Models for Components and Systems Using Fuzzy Sets 100 8.3 Fuzzy Reliability for Systems with Continuous or Infinite States 103 8.4 Dynamic Fuzzy Reliability 104 8.5 System Fuzzy Reliability 110 8.6 Examples and Applications 111 8.7 Conclusion 117 References 118 9 Imperatives for Performability Design in the Twenty-First Century 119 Krishna B. Misra 9.1 Introduction 119 9.2 Strategies for Sustainable Development 120 9.3 Reappraisal of the Performance of Products and Systems 124 9.4 Dependability and Environmental Risk are Interdependent 126 9.5 Performability: An Appropriate Measure of Performance 126 9.6 Towards Dependable and Sustainable Designs 129 9.7 Conclusion 130 References 130 Part II NETWORKS AND LARGE-SCALE SYSTEMS 10 Network Reliability Calculations Based on Structural Invariants 135 Ilya B. Gertsbakh and Yoseph Shpungin 10.1 First Invariant: D-Spectrum, Signature 135 10.2 Second Invariant: Importance Spectrum. Birnbaum Importance Measure (BIM) 139 10.3 Example: Reliability of a Road Network 141 10.4 Third Invariant: Border States 142 10.5 Monte Carlo to Approximate the Invariants 144 10.6 Conclusion 146 References 146 11 Performance and Availability Evaluation of IMS-Based Core Networks 148 Kishor S. Trivedi, Fabio Postiglione and Xiaoyan Yin 11.1 Introduction 148 11.2 IMS-Based Core Network Description 149 11.3 Analytic Models for Independent Software Recovery 151 11.4 Analytic Models for Recovery with Dependencies 155 11.5 Redundancy Optimization 158 11.6 Numerical Results 159 11.7 Conclusion 165 References 165 12 Reliability and Probability of First Occurred Failure for Discrete-Time Semi-Markov Systems 167 Stylianos Georgiadis, Nikolaos Limnios and Irene Votsi 12.1 Introduction 167 12.2 Discrete-Time Semi-Markov Model 168 12.3 Reliability and Probability of First Occurred Failure 170 12.4 Nonparametric Estimation of Reliability Measures 172 12.5 Numerical Application 176 12.6 Conclusion 178 References 179 13 Single-Source Epidemic Process in a System of Two Interconnected Networks 180 Ilya B. Gertsbakh and Yoseph Shpungin 13.1 Introduction 180 13.2 Failure Process and the Distribution of the Number of Failed Nodes 181 13.3 Network Failure Probabilities 184 13.4 Example 185 13.5 Conclusion 187 13.A Appendix D: Spectrum (Signature) 188 References 189 Part III MAINTENANCE MODELS 14 Comparisons of Periodic and Random Replacement Policies 193 Xufeng Zhao and Toshio Nakagawa 14.1 Introduction 193 14.2 Four Policies 195 14.3 Comparisons of Optimal Policies 197 14.4 Numerical Examples 1 199 14.5 Comparisons of Policies with Different Replacement Costs 201 14.6 Numerical Examples 2 202 14.7 Conclusion 203 Acknowledgements 204 References 204 15 Random Evolution of Degradation and Occurrences of Words in Random Sequences of Letters 205 Emilio De Santis and Fabio Spizzichino 15.1 Introduction 205 15.2 Waiting Times to Words’ Occurrences 206 15.3 Some Reliability-Maintenance Models 209 15.4 Waiting Times to Occurrences of Words and Stochastic Comparisons for Degradation 213 15.5 Conclusions 216 Acknowledgements 217 References 217 16 Occupancy Times for Markov and Semi-Markov Models in Systems Reliability 218 Alan G. Hawkes, Lirong Cui and Shijia Du 16.1 Introduction 218 16.2 Markov Models for Systems Reliability 220 16.3 Semi-Markov Models 222 16.4 Time Interval Omission 225 16.5 Numerical Examples 226 16.6 Conclusion 229 Acknowledgements 229 References 229 17 A Practice of Imperfect Maintenance Model Selection for Diesel Engines 231 Yu Liu, Hong-Zhong Huang, Shun-Peng Zhu and Yan-Feng Li 17.1 Introduction 231 17.2 Review of Imperfect Maintenance Model Selection Method 233 17.3 Application to Preventive Maintenance Scheduling of Diesel Engines 236 17.4 Conclusion 244 Acknowledgment 245 References 245 18 Reliability of Warm Standby Systems with Imperfect Fault Coverage 246 Rui Peng, Ola Tannous, Liudong Xing and Min Xie 18.1 Introduction 246 18.2 Literature Review 247 18.3 The BDD-Based Approach 250 18.4 Conclusion 253 Acknowledgments 254 References 254 Part IV STATISTICAL INFERENCE IN RELIABILITY 19 On the Validity of the Weibull-Gnedenko Model 259 Vilijandas Bagdonavi¡cius, Mikhail Nikulin and Ruta Levuliene 19.1 Introduction 259 19.2 Integrated Likelihood Ratio Test 261 19.3 Tests based on the Difference of Non-Parametric and Parametric Estimators of the Cumulative Distribution Function 264 19.4 Tests based on Spacings 266 19.5 Chi-Squared Tests 267 19.6 Correlation Test 269 19.7 Power Comparison 269 19.8 Conclusion 272 References 272 20 Statistical Inference for Heavy-Tailed Distributions in Reliability Systems 273 Ilia Vonta and Alex Karagrigoriou 20.1 Introduction 273 20.2 Heavy-Tailed Distributions 274 20.3 Examples of Heavy-Tailed Distributions 277 20.4 Divergence Measures 280 20.5 Hypothesis Testing 284 20.6 Simulations 286 20.7 Conclusion 287 References 287 21 Robust Inference based on Divergences in Reliability Systems 290 Abhik Ghosh, Avijit Maji and Ayanendranath Basu 21.1 Introduction 290 21.2 The Power Divergence (PD) Family 291 21.3 Density Power Divergence (DPD) and Parametric Inference 296 21.4 A Generalized Form: The S-Divergence 301 21.5 Applications 304 21.6 Conclusion 306 References 306 22 COM-Poisson Cure Rate Models and Associated Likelihood-based Inference with Exponential and Weibull Lifetimes 308 N. Balakrishnan and Suvra Pal 22.1 Introduction 308 22.2 Role of Cure Rate Models in Reliability 310 22.3 The COM-Poisson Cure Rate Model 310 22.4 Data and the Likelihood 311 22.5 EM Algorithm 312 22.6 Standard Errors and Asymptotic Confidence Intervals 314 22.7 Exponential Lifetime Distribution 314 22.8 Weibull Lifetime Distribution 322 22.9 Analysis of Cutaneous Melanoma Data 334 22.10 Conclusion 337 22.A1 Appendix A1: E-Step and M-Step Formulas for Exponential Lifetimes 337 22.A2 Appendix A2: E-Step and M-Step Formulas for Weibull Lifetimes 341 22.B1 Appendix B1: Observed Information Matrix for Exponential Lifetimes 344 22.B2 Appendix B2: Observed Information Matrix for Weibull Lifetimes 346 References 347 23 Exponential Expansions for Perturbed Discrete Time Renewal Equations 349 Dmitrii Silvestrov and Mikael Petersson 23.1 Introduction 349 23.2 Asymptotic Results 350 23.3 Proofs 353 23.4 Discrete Time Regenerative Processes 358 23.5 Queuing and Risk Applications 359 References 361 24 On Generalized Extreme Shock Models under Renewal Shock Processes 363 Ji Hwan Cha and Maxim Finkelstein 24.1 Introduction 363 24.2 Generalized Extreme Shock Models 364 24.3 Specific Models 367 24.4 Conclusion 373 Acknowledgements 373 References 373 Part V SYSTEMABILITY, PHYSICS-OF-FAILURE AND RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION 25 Systemability Theory and its Applications 377 Hoang Pham 25.1 Introduction 377 25.2 Systemability Measures 378 25.3 Systemability Analysis of k-out-of-n Systems 379 25.4 Systemability Function Approximation 380 25.5 Systemability with Loglog Distribution 383 25.6 Sensitivity Analysis 384 25.7 Applications: Red Light Camera Systems 385 25.8 Conclusion 387 References 387 26 Physics-of-Failure based Reliability Engineering 389 Pedro O. Quintero and Michael Pecht 26.1 Introduction 389 26.2 Physics-of-Failure-based Reliability Assessment 393 26.3 Uses of Physics-of-Failure 398 26.4 Conclusion 400 References 400 27 Accelerated Testing: Effect of Variance in Field Environmental Conditions on the Demonstrated Reliability 403 Andre Kleyner 27.1 Introduction 403 27.2 Accelerated Testing and Field Stress Variation 404 27.3 Case Study: Reliability Demonstration Using Temperature Cycling Test 405 27.4 Conclusion 408 References 408 Index 409

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Book SynopsisThe offshore wind sector's trend towards larger turbines, bigger wind farm projects and greater distance to shore has a critical impact on grid connection requirements for offshore wind power plants. This important reference sets out the fundamentals and latest innovations in electrical systems and control strategies deployed in offshore electricity grids for wind power integration. Includes: All current and emerging technologies for offshore wind integration and trends in energy storage systems, fault limiters, superconducting cables and gas-insulated transformers Protection of offshore wind farms illustrating numerous system integration and protection challenges through case studies Modelling of doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG) and full-converter wind turbines structures together with an explanation of the smart grid concept in the context of wind farms Comprehensive material on power electronic equipment employed in wind turbinTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Authors xiii Acronyms and Symbols xv 1 Offshore Wind Energy Systems 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Typical Subsystems 1 1.3 Wind Turbine Technology 4 1.3.1 Basics 4 1.3.2 Architectures 6 1.3.3 Offshore Wind Turbine Technology Status 7 1.4 Offshore Transmission Networks 8 1.5 Impact on Power System Operation 9 1.5.1 Power System Dynamics and Stability 10 1.5.2 Reactive Power and Voltage Support 10 1.5.3 Frequency Support 11 1.5.4 Wind Turbine Inertial Response 11 1.6 Grid Code Regulations for the Connection of Wind Generation 12 Acknowledgements 13 References 14 2 DFIG Wind Turbine 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.1.1 Induction Generator (IG) 15 2.1.2 Back-to-Back Converter 16 2.1.3 Gearbox 16 2.1.4 Crowbar Protection 16 2.1.5 Turbine Transformer 17 2.2 DFIG Architecture and Mathematical Modelling 17 2.2.1 IG in the abc Reference Frame 17 2.2.2 IG in the dq0 Reference Frame 23 2.2.3 Mechanical System 27 2.2.4 Crowbar Protection 29 2.2.5 Modelling of the DFIG B2B Power Converter 30 2.2.6 Average Modelling of Power Electronic Converters 33 2.2.7 The dc Circuit 35 2.3 Control of the DFIG WT 36 2.3.1 PI Control of Rotor Speed 36 2.3.2 PI Control of DFIG Reactive Power 39 2.3.3 PI Control of Rotor Currents 41 2.3.4 PI Control of dc Voltage 42 2.3.5 PI Control of Grid-side Converter Currents 45 2.4 DFIG Dynamic Performance Assessment 47 2.4.1 Three-phase Fault 47 2.4.2 Symmetrical Voltage Dips 51 2.4.3 Asymmetrical Faults 53 2.4.4 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault 54 2.4.5 Phase-to-Phase Fault 55 2.4.6 Torque Behaviour under Symmetrical Faults 56 2.4.7 Torque Behaviour under Asymmetrical Faults 58 2.4.8 Effects of Faults in the Reactive Power Consumption of the IG 59 2.5 Fault Ride-Through Capabilities and Grid Code Compliance 60 2.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Crowbar Protection 60 2.5.2 Effects of DFIG Variables over Its Fault Ride-Through Capabilities 61 2.6 Enhanced Control Strategies to Improve DFIG Fault Ride-Through Capabilities 62 2.6.1 The Two Degrees of Freedom Internal Model Control (IMC) 62 2.6.2 IMC Controller of the Rotor Speed 65 2.6.3 IMC Controller of the Rotor Currents 66 2.6.4 IMC Controller of the dc Voltage 67 2.6.5 IMC Controller of the Grid-Side Converter Currents 69 2.6.6 DFIG IMC Controllers Tuning for Attaining Robust Control 70 2.6.7 The Robust Stability Theorem 70 References 72 3 Fully-Rated Converter Wind Turbine (FRC-WT) 73 3.1 Synchronous Machine Fundamentals 73 3.1.1 Synchronous Generator Construction 73 3.1.2 The Air-Gap Magnetic Field of the Synchronous Generator 74 3.2 Synchronous Generator Modelling in the dq Frame 79 3.2.1 Steady-State Operation 81 3.2.2 Synchronous Generator with Damper Windings 82 3.3 Control of Large Synchronous Generators 85 3.3.1 Excitation Control 86 3.3.2 Prime Mover Control 87 3.4 Fully-Rated Converter Wind Turbines 88 3.5 FRC-WT with Synchronous Generator 89 3.5.1 Permanent Magnets Synchronous Generator 90 3.5.2 FRC-WT Based on Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator 92 3.5.3 Generator-Side Converter Control 93 3.5.4 Modelling of the dc Link 96 3.5.5 Network-Side Converter Control 98 3.6 FRC-WT with Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator 100 3.6.1 Control of the FRC-IG Wind Turbine 100 3.7 FRC-WT Power System Damper 105 3.7.1 Power System Oscillations Damping Controller 105 3.7.2 Influence of Wind Generation on Network Damping 107 3.7.3 Influence of FRC-WT Damping Controller on Network Damping 108 Acknowledgements 110 References 112 4 Offshore Wind Farm Electrical Systems 113 4.1 Typical Components 113 4.2 Wind Turbines for Offshore – General Aspects 113 4.3 Electrical Collectors 115 4.3.1 Wind Farm Clusters 118 4.4 Offshore Transmission 118 4.4.1 HVAC Transmission 118 4.4.2 HVDC Transmission 120 4.4.3 CSC-HVDC Transmission 122 4.4.4 VSC-HVDC Transmission 128 4.4.5 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Networks 140 4.5 Offshore Substations 141 4.6 Reactive Power Compensation Equipment 144 4.6.1 Static Var Compensator (SVC) 144 4.6.2 Static Compensator (STATCOM) 147 4.7 Subsea Cables 150 4.7.1 Ac Subsea Cables 150 4.7.2 Dc Subsea Cables 150 4.7.3 Modelling of Underground and Subsea Cables 150 Acknowledgements 151 References 151 5 Grid Integration of Offshore Wind Farms – Case Studies 155 5.1 Background 155 5.2 Offshore Wind Farm Connection Using Point-to-Point VSC-HVDC Transmission 156 5.3 Offshore Wind Farm Connection Using HVAC Transmission 159 5.4 Offshore Wind Farm Connected Using Parallel HVAC/VSC-HVDC Transmission 161 5.5 Offshore Wind Farms Connected Using a Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Network 164 5.6 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC for Connection of Inter-Regional Power Systems 168 Acknowledgements 171 References 171 6 Offshore Wind Farm Protection 173 6.1 Protection within the Wind Farm ac Network 173 6.1.1 Wind Generator Protection Zone 174 6.1.2 Feeder Protection Zone 178 6.1.3 Busbar Protection Zone 179 6.1.4 High-Voltage Transformer Protection Zone 180 6.2 Study of Faults in the ac Transmission Line of an Offshore DFIG Wind Farm 180 6.2.1 Case Study 1 181 6.2.2 Case Study 2 181 6.3 Protections for dc Connected Offshore Wind Farms 184 6.3.1 VSC-HVDC Converter Protection Scheme 184 6.3.2 Analysis of dc Transmission Line Fault 185 6.3.3 Pole-to-Pole Faults 186 6.3.4 Pole-to-Earth Fault 187 6.3.5 HVDC dc Protections: Challenges and Trends 188 6.3.6 Simulation Studies of Faults in the dc Transmission Line of an Offshore DFIG Wind Farm 188 Acknowledgements 192 References 192 7 Emerging Technologies for Offshore Wind Integration 193 7.1 Wind Turbine Advanced Control for Load Mitigation 193 7.1.1 Blade Pitch Control 193 7.1.2 Blade Twist Control 194 7.1.3 Variable Diameter Rotor 194 7.1.4 Active Flow Control 195 7.2 Converter Interface Arrangements and Collector Design 195 7.2.1 Converters on Turbine 195 7.2.2 Converters on Platform 198 7.2.3 Ac Collection Options: Fixed or Variable Frequency 200 7.2.4 Evaluation of >Higher (>33 kV) Collection Voltage 202 7.3 Dc Transmission Protection 203 7.4 Energy Storage Systems (EESs) 204 7.4.1 Batteries 205 7.4.2 Super-Capacitors 205 7.4.3 Flywheel Storage System 205 7.4.4 Pumped-Hydro Storage 206 7.4.5 Compressed-Air Storage Systems 206 7.4.6 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) 206 7.5 Fault Current Limiters (FCLs) 207 7.6 Sub-Sea Substations 207 7.7 HTSCs, GITs and GILs 208 7.7.1 HTSCs (High-Temperature Superconducting Cables) 208 7.7.2 GITs (Gas-Insulated Transformers) 208 7.7.3 GILs (Gas-Insulated Lines) 209 7.8 Developments in Condition Monitoring 209 7.8.1 Partial Discharge Monitoring in HV Cables 209 7.8.2 Transformer Condition Monitoring 210 7.8.3 Gas-Insulated Switchgear Condition Monitoring 211 7.8.4 Power Electronics Condition Monitoring 211 7.9 Smart Grids for Large-Scale Offshore Wind Integration 213 7.9.1 VPP Control Approach 216 7.9.2 Phasor Measurement Units 217 Acknowledgements 217 References 218 Appendix A Voltage Source Converter Topologies 223 A.1 Two-Level Converter 223 A.1.1 Operation 223 A.1.2 Voltage Source Converter Square-Mode Operation 224 A.1.3 Pulse Width Modulation 225 A.2 Neutral-Point Clamped Converter 240 A.2.1 Selective Harmonic Elimination 242 A.2.2 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation 244 A.3 Flying Capacitor (FC) Multilevel Converter 247 A.4 Cascaded Multilevel Converter 248 A.5 Modular Multilevel Converter 249 References 258 Appendix B Worked-out Examples 271 Index 279

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Book SynopsisPresents trends and potential future developments by leading researchers in immersive media production, delivery, rendering and interaction. This book considers the complete production, processing and distribution chain that illustrating the dependencies and the relationship between different components.Table of ContentsList of Editors and Contributors xiii List of Abbreviations xvii Notations xxiii 1 Introduction 1 Oliver Schreer, Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Omar Aziz Niamut, Javier Ruiz-Hidalgo, Ben Shirley, Georg Thallinger and Graham Thomas 2 State-of-the-Art and Challenges in Media Production, Broadcast and Delivery 5 Graham Thomas, Arvid Engstr¨om, Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Omar Aziz Niamut, Ben Shirley and Richard Salmon 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Video Fundamentals and Acquisition Technology 7 2.2.1 How Real Should Video Look? 7 2.2.2 Fundamentals of Video 9 2.2.3 Camera Technology 14 2.2.4 Production for Formats with Differing Aspect Ratios 19 2.2.5 Stereoscopic 3D Video 20 2.2.6 Challenges for the Future 21 2.3 Audio Fundamentals and Acquisition Technology 21 2.3.1 Introduction 21 2.3.2 Fundamentals of Audio 21 2.3.3 Non-Live Production 27 2.3.4 Live Production 31 2.3.5 Surround Sound 34 2.3.6 Challenges for the Future 34 2.4 Live Programme Production 34 2.4.1 The Production Area and Roles in Production 35 2.4.2 The Production Workspace 37 2.4.3 Vision Mixing: Techniques for Directing, Selecting and Mixing Camera Feeds 38 2.4.4 Audio Mixing 40 2.4.5 Replay Operation in Live Television Production 40 2.4.6 Challenges for the Future 42 2.5 Coding and Delivery 43 2.5.1 Managed Delivery Networks 43 2.5.2 Unmanaged Delivery Networks 47 2.5.3 Codecs and Transport Protocols 48 2.5.4 Challenges for the Future 50 2.6 Display Technology 50 2.6.1 Plasma Displays – Developing the Flat Panel Display Market 51 2.6.2 LCD – the Current Dominant Technology 52 2.6.3 Projection Technologies 53 2.6.4 Other Technologies 54 2.6.5 Impact on Broadcasters 55 2.6.6 Challenges for the Future 56 2.7 Audio Reproduction Technology 56 2.7.1 Stereophonic Sound Systems 57 2.7.2 Holophonic Systems 59 2.7.3 Binaural Systems 61 2.7.4 Hybrid Systems 62 2.7.5 Challenges for the Future 62 2.8 Use of Archive Material 62 2.8.1 Video Format Conversion 63 2.8.2 Audio Format Conversion 64 2.8.3 Challenges for the Future 64 2.9 Concept of Format-Agnostic Media 65 2.9.1 Limitations of Current Production and Delivery Approaches 65 2.9.2 A New Approach: Format-Agnostic Media 65 2.9.3 Metadata for Enabling Rich User Interaction 66 2.9.4 A Format-Agnostic Media Production and Delivery System 67 2.10 Conclusion 68 Notes 69 References 69 3 Video Acquisition 74 Oliver Schreer, Ingo Feldmann, Richard Salmon, Johannes Steurer and Graham Thomas 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Ultra-High Definition Panoramic Video Acquisition 75 3.2.1 History of Panoramic Imaging 75 3.2.2 The Geometry of Two Views 79 3.2.3 Fundamentals of Panoramic Video Acquisition 82 3.2.4 Geometrical Constraints for Parallax Free Stitching of Two Images 84 3.2.5 Registration of Views 88 3.2.6 Stitching, Warping and Blending of Views 91 3.3 Use of Conventional Video Content to Enhance Panoramic Video 94 3.3.1 Calibration of Camera Position and Orientation 94 3.3.2 Photometric Matching of Panoramic and Broadcast Cameras 98 3.3.3 Blending and Switching Between Camera Views 101 3.4 High Frame Rate Video 102 3.4.1 Early Work on HDTV Frame Rates 104 3.4.2 Issues with Conventional Frame Rates 104 3.4.3 Practical Investigations into the Effects of High Frame Rates 107 3.4.4 Future Frame Rates for TV Production and Distribution 111 3.4.5 Consideration of Frame Rates and Motion Portrayal in Synthetic Production 111 3.4.6 Conclusions on Frame Rates 112 3.5 High Dynamic Range Video 112 3.5.1 The Human Visual System in Natural Environments 113 3.5.2 Conventional and HDR Video Cameras 115 3.5.3 Conventional and HDR Displays 117 3.5.4 HDR Video Formats 119 3.5.5 Adaptive Tone-mapping for Format-Agnostic Video 120 3.6 Conclusion 125 Notes 126 References 126 4 Platform Independent Audio 130 Ben Shirley, Rob Oldfield, Frank Melchior and Johann-Markus Batke 4.1 Introduction 130 4.2 Terms and Definitions 132 4.2.1 Auditory Event and Sound Event 132 4.2.2 Basic Room Acoustics Theory 134 4.3 Definition of the Problem Space 135 4.3.1 Reproduction Environment 135 4.3.2 Reproduction Method 137 4.3.3 Audio-visual Coherence 141 4.3.4 User Interaction 143 4.3.5 Example Scenario 143 4.4 Scene Representation 144 4.4.1 Components of a Virtual Sound Scene 144 4.4.2 Representations of Virtual Sound Scenes 146 4.4.3 Implementation Examples 147 4.5 Scene Acquisition 149 4.5.1 Capturing Discrete Audio Objects 150 4.5.2 Capturing the Sound Field Component 152 4.5.3 Capturing the Diffuse Field 153 4.6 Scene Reproduction 153 4.6.1 Scenario: Mobile Consumption Via Headphones 153 4.6.2 Scenario: Interactive Multichannel Reproduction 154 4.6.3 Scenario: Big Screen 154 4.6.4 Scenario: Interactive and Free Viewpoint 3D 155 4.7 Existing Systems 156 4.7.1 Commercial Systems 156 4.7.2 Research Projects 157 4.7.3 Perceptive Media 160 4.8 Conclusion 161 4.8.1 Open Issues 162 References 162 5 Semi-Automatic Content Annotation 166 Werner Bailer, Marco Masetti, Goranka Zori´c, Marcus Thaler and Georg Thallinger 5.1 Introduction 166 5.1.1 Requirements on Semi-automatic Annotation Tools 167 5.1.2 Requirements on Metadata 168 5.2 Metadata Models and Analysis Architectures 170 5.2.1 Metadata Models 170 5.2.2 Architectures for Audio-visual Analysis 171 5.2.3 Storing MPEG-7 Metadata 172 5.2.4 Bulk Loading Techniques for Massive MPEG-7 Metadata Storage 175 5.2.5 An Example Architecture of a Semantic Layer Management System 175 5.3 Domain-independent Saliency 177 5.3.1 Spatio-temporal Visual Saliency 177 5.3.2 Estimating Grid-based Saliency 178 5.3.3 Salient Regions for Controlling Automated Shot Selection 179 5.4 Person Detection and Tracking 180 5.4.1 Person Detection 181 5.4.2 Person Tracking 182 5.4.3 Multicamera and Panoramic Environment 184 5.4.4 GPU Accelerated Real-time Tracking Beyond HD 187 5.5 Online Detection of Concepts and Actions 189 5.5.1 Sequence-based Kernels 190 5.5.2 Kernels for Online Detection 193 5.5.3 Performance of Online Kernels 194 5.6 Supporting Annotation for Automated Production 195 5.6.1 User Preferences and Functionality Definition 195 5.6.2 Design Overview and Principles 196 5.6.3 Preconfiguration and Predefined Workspaces 198 5.7 Conclusion 204 References 205 6 Virtual Director 209 Rene Kaiser and Wolfgang Weiss 6.1 Introduction 209 6.1.1 What is a Virtual Director? 210 6.1.2 Features Enabled by a Virtual Director 211 6.1.3 Definitions 212 6.1.4 Requirements for Virtual Director Technology 213 6.1.5 Existing Implementations and Research Activities 215 6.2 Implementation Approaches 219 6.2.1 Behaviour Implementation Approaches 220 6.2.2 Combining Rule Engines and Event Processing Technology 223 6.3 Example Architecture and Workflow 225 6.3.1 Workflow of the Production System 225 6.3.2 Workflow of the Virtual Director 226 6.3.3 Distributed Nature 228 6.3.4 Sources of Knowledge 228 6.4 Virtual Director Subprocesses 230 6.4.1 Semantic Lifting 230 6.4.2 Shot Candidate Identification 231 6.4.3 Shot Framing 233 6.4.4 Shot Prioritisation 234 6.4.5 Decision Making 235 6.5 Behaviour Engineering: Production Grammar 237 6.5.1 Production Knowledge Elicitation Process 237 6.5.2 Cinematic Techniques 238 6.5.3 Audio Scripting 241 6.5.4 Domain Model 241 6.5.5 Limitations in Rule-based Behaviour Engineering 242 6.6 Virtual Director: Example Prototype 243 6.6.1 Architecture and Software Framework 245 6.6.2 Production Scripts 246 6.6.3 Behaviour Implementation 247 6.6.4 Production Grammar Example 248 6.7 Conclusion 251 6.7.1 Summary 251 6.7.2 Limitations 251 6.7.3 Testing and Evaluation 252 6.7.4 Research Roadmap 253 6.7.5 Concluding Thoughts 255 References 256 7 Scalable Delivery of Navigable and Ultra-High Resolution Video 260 Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Patrice Rond˜ao Alface, Ray van Brandenburg, Omar Aziz Niamut, Martin Prins and Nico Verzijp 7.1 Introduction 260 7.2 Delivery of Format-Agnostic Content: Key Concepts and State-of-the-Art 262 7.2.1 Delivery Agnostic to Content Formats, Device Capabilities and Network Bandwidth 262 7.2.2 Delivery Agnostic to Video Timing – the Temporal Interactivity Case 264 7.2.3 Delivery Agnostic to Video Reframing – the Spatial Interactivity Case 266 7.3 Spatial Random Access in Video Coding 267 7.3.1 Video Compression and Random Access – A Fundamental Trade-off 268 7.3.2 Spatial Random Access by Tracking Coding Dependencies 271 7.3.3 Spatial Random Access by Frame Tiling 271 7.3.4 Multi-Resolution Tiling 273 7.3.5 Overlapping Tiling for Low-Powered Devices 274 7.4 Models for Adaptive Tile-based Representation and Delivery 276 7.4.1 Saliency-based Adaptive Coding of Tiled Content 277 7.4.2 Optimisation of Tile Selection Under Delay and Bandwidth Constraints 280 7.5 Segment-based Adaptive Transport 281 7.5.1 Video Streaming Over IP 282 7.5.2 Tiled HTTP Adaptive Streaming Over the Internet 285 7.5.3 Publish/Subscribe System for Interactive Video Streaming 289 7.6 Conclusion 294 References 294 8 Interactive Rendering 298 Javier Ruiz-Hidalgo, Malte Borsum, Axel Kochale and Goranka Zori´c 8.1 Introduction 298 8.2 Format-Agnostic Rendering 299 8.2.1 Available Rendering Solutions in End Terminals 299 8.2.2 Requirements for Format-Agnostic Video Rendering 306 8.2.3 Description of a Technical Solution 308 8.3 Device-less Interaction for Rendering Control 311 8.3.1 Sensors for Gesture Recognition 314 8.3.2 Gesture Analysis Techniques 317 8.3.3 Recognition and Classification Techniques 319 8.3.4 Remaining Challenges in Gesture Recognition Systems 321 8.3.5 Description of a Technical Solution 321 8.3.6 User Study of the Gesture Interface 327 8.4 Conclusions 331 References 332 9 Application Scenarios and Deployment Domains 337 Omar Aziz Niamut, Arvid Engstr¨om, Axel Kochale, Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Graham Thomas and Goranka Zori´c 9.1 Introduction 337 9.2 Application Scenarios 338 9.2.1 Digital Cinema: A Totally Immersive Experience 338 9.2.2 Home Theatre: In Control 339 9.2.3 Mobile: Navigation and Magnification 339 9.3 Deployment in the Production Domain 340 9.3.1 Outlook on New Production Practices 340 9.3.2 Use of Format-Agnostic Technology to Aid Conventional Production 342 9.3.3 Production of Format-Agnostic Content to Support End User Interaction 344 9.4 Deployment in the Network Domain 347 9.4.1 Network Requirements 347 9.4.2 Impact of Application Scenarios 348 9.5 Deployment in the Device Domain 351 9.5.1 Device Capabilities 351 9.5.2 User and Producer Expectations 355 9.6 Deployment in the User Domain 356 9.7 Conclusion 357 References 357 Index 359

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Book SynopsisComprehensive coverage explaining the correlation and synergy between Next Generation Networks and the existing standardized technologies This book focuses on Next Generation Networks (NGN); in particular, on NGN architectures, protocols and services, including technologies, regulation and business aspects.Table of ContentsAbout the Author xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Traditional Telecom World 3 1.2.1 History of Telephony 4 1.3 Public Switched Telephone Networks 5 1.3.1 Pulse Code Modulation 7 1.3.2 Architecture of the Telephone Network 7 1.4 Signaling Network 9 1.4.1 SS7 Architecture 9 1.4.2 SS7 Protocol Model 11 1.5 Transmission Systems 12 1.5.1 Multiplexing of Digital Channels 13 1.5.2 Time Division Multiplexing in PSTN 14 1.6 Traditional Internet world 16 1.6.1 History of the Internet 16 1.6.2 Growth of the Internet 19 1.6.3 Internet Architecture 20 1.7 The Convergence of the Two Worlds: Next Generation Networks 23 1.7.1 NGN Perspective of Telecom Operators 24 1.7.2 When Will NGN Emerge? 25 1.8 The Structure of This Book 25 References 26 2 Internet Fundamentals by IETF 29 2.1 Internet Architecture and IETF Standardization 29 2.2 Fundamental Internet Protocols 29 2.2.1 Internet Protocol Version 4 29 2.2.2 Internet Protocol Version 6 31 2.2.3 User Datagram Protocol 33 2.2.4 Transmission Control Protocol 34 2.2.5 Stream Control Transmission Protocol 41 2.3 Addressing and Numbering 43 2.3.1 IPv4 Addressing 44 2.3.2 Network Address Translation 46 2.3.3 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 47 2.3.4 Domain Name System 49 2.3.5 ENUM 50 2.3.6 IPv6 Addressing Architecture 51 2.4 Internet Routing 52 2.4.1 Routing Algorithms 54 2.5 Client–Server Networking 58 2.6 Peer-to-Peer Networking 59 2.7 Best-Effort Internet Services 60 2.7.1 Electronic Mail 60 2.7.2 File Transfer Protocol 61 2.7.3 World Wide Web 62 2.7.4 Peer-to-Peer Services 63 2.8 Internet Governance 65 References 66 3 NGN Standards and Architectures 69 3.1 Main Drivers to Next Generation Networks 69 3.1.1 Fixed Broadband Internet Access 70 3.1.2 Mobile Broadband Internet Access 71 3.1.3 Convergence to IP-based Networks and Services 72 3.1.4 End-User Drivers toward NGN 72 3.1.5 Operator Drivers toward NGN 73 3.2 ITU-T NGN Standards 75 3.2.1 NGN Architectures 77 3.2.2 End-to-End Quality of Service 77 3.2.3 Security 78 3.2.4 Generalized Mobility 78 3.2.5 Network Control Architectures and Protocols 78 3.2.6 Service Capabilities and Service Architectures 79 3.2.7 Interoperability of Services and Networks in NGN 79 3.2.8 Future Networks 79 3.3 Standardization Synergy of ITU, IETF, 3GPP, and IEEE 80 3.3.1 IETF Role 81 3.3.2 ETSI Role 82 3.3.3 3GPP Role 82 3.3.4 IEEE Role 82 3.4 All-IP Network Concept for NGN 83 3.5 NGN Functional Architecture 86 3.5.1 Transport Stratum Functions 89 3.5.2 Transport Control Functions 90 3.5.3 Service Stratum Functions 91 3.5.4 Management Functions 92 3.5.5 Identity Management Functions 92 3.5.6 End-User Functions 92 3.5.7 NGN Configuration and Topology 93 3.6 NGN Control Architectures and Protocols 94 3.6.1 Network Access Configuration Functional Entity 94 3.6.2 Access Management Functional Entity 95 3.6.3 Transport Location Management Functional Entity 95 3.6.4 Transport Authentication and Authorization Functional Entity 96 3.6.5 Transport User Profile Functional Entity 96 3.6.6 Home Gateway Configuration Functional Entity 96 3.6.7 Access Relay Functional Entity 96 3.7 Numbering, Naming, and Addressing in NGN 96 3.7.1 Numbering Scheme 97 3.7.2 Naming and Addressing Schemes 98 3.7.3 Numbering, Naming, and Addressing Scheme for NGN 99 3.7.4 Discussion 101 References 101 4 Broadband Internet: the Basis for NGN 103 4.1 ITU’s Work on Broadband Internet 103 4.1.1 ITU-T Work on Broadband 103 4.1.2 ITU-R Work on Broadband 104 4.1.3 ITU-D Work on Broadband 105 4.2 DSL and Cable Access Networks 105 4.2.1 ADSL Success Story 105 4.2.2 ADSL Access Architecture 106 4.2.3 ADSL Frequency Bands and Modulation 107 4.2.4 Other DSL Technologies 108 4.2.5 ADSL Network Architecture 109 4.2.6 Cable Access Network 111 4.3 FTTH Access Networks 115 4.4 Next Generation Passive and Active Optical Networks 119 4.4.1 PON Standards 119 4.4.2 Next Generation Passive Optical Networks 123 4.4.3 Next Generation Active Optical Networks 127 4.5 Metro Ethernet 128 4.5.1 Virtual LAN (IEEE 802.1Q) 130 4.5.2 Provider Bridges (IEEE 802.1ad) 130 4.5.3 Provider Backbone Bridges (IEEE 802.1ah) 130 4.5.4 Metro Ethernet for Mobile Backhaul Service 131 4.6 Regulation and Business Aspects 135 4.6.1 Regulation of Prices for Broadband Services and Markets 135 4.6.2 Regulation of Wholesale Prices 136 4.6.3 Regulation of Retail Prices 137 4.7 Discussion 138 References 138 5 Mobile Broadband: Next Generation Mobile Networks 141 5.1 ITU’s IMT-Advanced: the 4G Umbrella 141 5.2 4G Standard by 3GPP: LTE/LTE-Advanced 143 5.2.1 LTE/LTE-Advanced Standardization 144 5.2.2 System Architecture Evolution 145 5.2.3 LTE/LTE-Advanced Radio Access 152 5.3 4G Standard by IEEE: Mobile WiMAX 2.0 156 5.3.1 Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture 157 5.3.2 Quality of Service in WiMAX Networks 158 5.3.3 Mobile WiMAX 2.0 Radio Interface 158 5.4 Fixed-Mobile Convergence 160 5.5 IP Multimedia Subsystem for NGN 161 5.5.1 Proxy CSCF 164 5.5.2 Serving CSCF 164 5.5.3 Interrogating CSCF 164 5.5.4 Naming and Addressing in IMS 165 5.6 Mobility Management in NGN 165 5.6.1 Conceptual Framework for MM 167 5.6.2 Architecture for Mobility Management in Transport Stratum 168 5.6.3 Architecture for Mobility Management in Service Stratum 170 5.7 Next Generation Mobile Services 171 5.7.1 Mobile TV 172 5.7.2 Location-Based Services 174 5.8 Regulation and Business Aspects 175 5.8.1 Spectrum Management for Mobile Broadband 176 5.8.2 Business Aspects for Mobile Broadband 177 5.9 Discussion 178 References 178 6 Quality of Service and Performance 181 6.1 Quality of Service and Quality of Experience in NGN 181 6.1.1 What is QoS? 181 6.1.2 ITU-T QoS Framework 182 6.1.3 Performance Parameters for IP Services 185 6.1.4 Quality of Experience 188 6.2 Resource and Admission Control Functions 189 6.2.1 RACF Functional Architecture 190 6.2.2 RACF Deployment Architectures 192 6.2.3 RACF Communication between Different NGN Operators 195 6.2.4 Example of Admission Control with RACF 195 6.3 QoS Architecture for Ethernet-Based NGN 197 6.3.1 Reference Architecture for Ethernet-Based NGN 198 6.3.2 QoS Services in Ethernet-Based NGN 200 6.4 Flow-State-Aware Transport 203 6.4.1 Network Architecture for Flow-Aggregate Information Exchange 205 6.4.2 Protocols for FSA Transport 206 6.5 Management of Performance Measurements in NGN 211 6.6 NGN Architecture for MPLS Core Networks 213 6.6.1 Centralized RACF Architecture for MPLS Core Networks 213 6.6.2 Distributed RACF Architecture for MPLS Core Networks 215 6.7 Discussion 217 References 218 7 Service Aspects 221 7.1 Service Architecture in NGN 221 7.2 Managed Delivery Services (MDS) 224 7.2.1 Service Provisioning with MDS 225 7.2.2 MDS Functional Architecture 228 7.3 IMS-Based Real-Time Multimedia Services 229 7.3.1 Multimedia Communication Center 231 7.3.2 IMS-Based IPTV 231 7.4 Control and Signaling Protocols for NGN 233 7.4.1 Diameter 233 7.4.2 Session Initiation Protocol 240 7.5 Security Mechanisms for NGN 247 7.5.1 Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting in NGN 247 7.5.2 Transport Security in NGN 249 7.6 NGN Identity Management 250 7.7 Service Continuity 252 7.8 Next Generation Service Overlay Networks 254 7.8.1 SON Framework 255 7.8.2 SON-Based Services 256 7.9 Discussion 257 References 258 8 NGN Services 261 8.1 QoS-Enabled VoIP 261 8.1.1 Differences between VoIP and PSTN 262 8.1.2 VoIP Protocols and QoS Aspects 263 8.1.3 QoS-Enabled VoIP in NGN 266 8.2 IPTV over NGN 269 8.2.1 IPTV Functional Architecture 270 8.2.2 Multicast-Based IPTV Content Delivery 273 8.2.3 Unicast-Based IPTV Content Delivery 274 8.3 Web Services in NGN 276 8.4 Ubiquitous Sensor Network Services 280 8.4.1 USN Functional Architecture 283 8.4.2 USN Applications 285 8.5 VPN Services in NGN 285 8.6 Internet of Things and Web of Things 288 8.6.1 Internet of Things 288 8.6.2 Web of Things 290 8.7 Business and Regulation of Converged Services and Contents 293 8.7.1 Business Models for NGN Services 293 8.7.2 Regulation of NGN Services 296 8.8 Discussion 298 References 298 9 Transition to NGN and Future Evolution 301 9.1 Migration of PSTN Networks to NGN 301 9.1.1 Evolution of PSTN/ISDN to NGN 301 9.1.2 PSTN/ISDN Emulation and Simulation 304 9.2 Transition of IP Networks to NGN 306 9.3 Carrier Grade Open Environment 307 9.4 IPv6-Based NGN 310 9.4.1 Multihoming in IPv6-Based NGN 312 9.4.2 Object Mapping Using IPv6 in NGN 318 9.4.3 Migration to IPv6-Based NGN 320 9.5 Network Virtualization 321 9.6 Future Packet Based Network 324 9.6.1 Cloud Computing 324 9.6.2 Software Defined Networking 326 9.7 Business Challenges and Opportunities 327 9.8 Discussion 330 References 331 10 Conclusions 333 Index 337

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Book SynopsisA practical reference to support choosing, customising and handling the best PV simulation solution This comprehensive guide surveys all available models for simulating a photovoltaic (PV) generator at different levels of granularity, from cell to system level, in uniform as well as in mismatched conditions.Table of ContentsAcknowledgements xi Introduction xiii Tables of Symbols and Acronyms xv 1 PV Models 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Modeling: Granularity and Accuracy 1 1.3 The Double-diode Model 2 1.4 The Single-diode Model 4 1.4.1 Effect of the SDM Parameters on the I–V Curve 5 1.5 Models of PV Array for Circuit Simulator 6 1.5.1 The Single-diode Model based on the Lambert W-function 10 1.6 PV Dynamic Models 11 1.7 PV Small-signal Models and Dynamic-resistance Modelling 14 References 17 2 Single-diode Model Parameter Identification 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 PV Parameter Identification from Datasheet Information 21 2.2.1 Exact Numerical Methods 21 2.2.2 Approximate Explicit Solution for Calculating SDM Parameters 24 2.2.3 Validation of the Approximate Explicit Solution 27 2.3 Single-diode Model Simplification 30 2.3.1 Five-parameter versus Four-parameter Simplification 32 2.3.2 Explicit Equations for Calculating the Four SDM Parameters 34 2.4 Improved Models for Amorphous and Organic PV Technologies 37 2.4.1 Modified SDM for Amorphous PV Cells 37 2.4.2 Five-parameter Calculation for Amorphous Silicon PV Panels 38 2.4.3 Modified Model for Organic PV Cells 40 References 43 3 PV Simulation under Homogeneous Conditions 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Irradiance- and Temperature-dependence of the PV Model 45 3.2.1 Direct Effects of Irradiance and Temperature 45 3.2.2 Equations for “Translating” SDM Parameters 49 3.2.3 Iterative Procedure proposed by Villalva et al. 51 3.2.4 Modified PV Model proposed by Lo Brano et al. 52 3.2.5 Translating Equations proposed by Marion et al. 53 3.2.6 Modified Translational Equation proposed by Picault et al. 53 3.2.7 PV Electrical Model proposed by King et al. 56 3.2.8 Using the King Equation for Estimating the SDM Parameter Drift 59 3.3 Simplified PV Models for Long-term Simulations 61 3.3.1 King Equations for Long-term Simulations 63 3.3.2 Performance Prediction Model based on the Fill Factor 68 3.3.3 PV Modeling based on Artificial Neural Networks 69 3.4 Real-time Simulation of PV Arrays 71 3.4.1 Simplified Models including the Power Conversion Stage 72 3.5 Summary of PV Models 75 References 77 4 PV Arrays in Non-homogeneous Conditions 81 4.1 Mismatching Effects: Sources and Consequences 81 4.1.1 Manufacturing Tolerances 81 4.1.2 Aging 82 4.1.3 Soiling and Snow 83 4.1.4 Shadowing 83 4.1.5 Module Temperature 86 4.2 Bypass Diode Failure 87 4.3 Hot spots and Bypass Diodes 89 4.4 Effect of Aging Failures and Malfunctioning on the PV Energy Yield 90 References 94 5 Models of PV Arrays under Non-homogeneous Conditions 97 5.1 The use of the Lambert W-Function 98 5.2 Application Examples 102 5.2.1 The Entire I–V Curve of a Mismatched PV String 102 5.2.2 The Operating Point of a Mismatched PV String 104 5.3 Guess Solution by Inflection-point Detection 106 5.4 Real-time Simulation of Mismatched PV Arrays 108 5.5 Estimation of the Energy Production of Mismatched PV Arrays 109 References 111 6 PV array Modeling at Cell Level under Non-homogeneous Conditions 113 6.1 PV Cell Modeling at Negative Voltage Values 113 6.1.1 The Bishop Term 113 6.1.2 Silicon Cells Type and Reverse Behavior 115 6.2 Cell and Subcell Modeling: Occurrence of Hot Spots 116 6.2.1 Cell Modeling 117 6.3 Simulation Example 121 6.4 Subcell PV Model 123 6.5 Concluding Remarks on PV String Modeling 124 References 124 7 Modeling the PV Power Conversion Chain 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Review of Basic Concepts for Modeling Power Converters 129 7.2.1 Steady-state Analysis 132 7.2.1.1 Steady-state Values 133 7.2.1.2 Ripple Magnitudes 133 7.2.2 Converter Dynamics Analysis 134 7.3 Effects of the Converter in the Power Conversion Chain 136 7.3.1 Steady-state Model of the Power Conversion Chain 136 7.3.2 Analysis and Simulation using the Steady-state Model 139 7.3.3 Voltage Ripple at the Generator Terminals 143 7.3.4 I–V Curve of the Power Conversion Chain 148 7.4 Modelling the Dynamics of the Power Conversion Chain 151 7.5 Additional Examples 159 7.5.1 MIU based on a Buck Converter 159 7.5.2 MIU based on a Buck–Boost Converter 161 7.6 Summary 162 References 163 8 Control of the Power Conversion Chain 165 8.1 Introduction 165 8.2 Linear Controller 166 8.3 Sliding-mode Controller 172 8.3.1 Inductor Current Control 173 8.3.2 Capacitor Current Control 179 8.4 Summary 183 References 184 Index 000

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Book SynopsisData registration refers to a series of techniques for matching or bringing similar objects or datasets together into alignment.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The History of Image Registration 1 1.2 Definition of Registration 2 1.3 What is Motion Estimation 3 1.4 Video Quality Assessment 5 1.5 Applications 5 1.5.1 Video Processing 5 1.5.2 Medical Applications 7 1.5.3 Security Applications 8 1.5.4 Military and Satellite Applications 10 1.5.5 Reconstruction Applications 11 1.6 Organization of the Book 12 References 13 2 Registration for Video Coding 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Motion Estimation Technique 16 2.2.1 Block-Based Motion Estimation Techniques 16 2.3 Registration and Standards for Video Coding 30 2.3.1 H.264 30 2.3.2 H.265 34 2.4 Evaluation Criteria 35 2.4.1 Dataset 35 2.4.2 Motion-Compensated Prediction Error (MCPE) in dB 38 2.4.3 Entropy in bpp 39 2.4.4 Angular Error in Degrees 40 2.5 Objective Quality Assessment 41 2.5.1 Full-Reference Quality Assessment 41 2.5.2 No-Reference and Reduced-Reference Quality Metrics 44 2.5.3 Temporal Masking in Video Quality Assessment 46 2.6 Conclusion 48 2.7 Exercises 49 References 49 3 Registration for Motion Estimation and Object Tracking 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.1.1 Mathematical Notation 54 3.2 Optical Flow 55 3.2.1 Horn–Schunk Method 56 3.2.2 Lukas–Kanade Method 56 3.2.3 Applications of Optical Flow for Motion Estimation 57 3.3 Efficient Discriminative Features for Motion Estimation 61 3.3.1 Invariant Features 62 3.3.2 Optimization Stage 64 3.4 Object Tracking 64 3.4.1 KLT Tracking 64 3.4.2 Motion Filtering 66 3.4.3 Multiple Object Tracking 67 3.5 Evaluating Motion Estimation and Tracking 68 3.5.1 Metrics for Motion Detection 68 3.5.2 Metrics for Motion Tracking 69 3.5.3 Metrics for Efficiency 70 3.5.4 Datasets 70 3.6 Conclusion 70 3.7 Exercise 75 References 75 4 Face Alignment and Recognition Using Registration 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Unsupervised Alignment Methods 80 4.2.1 Natural Features: Gradient Features 81 4.2.2 Dense Grids: Non-rigid Non-affine Transformations 81 4.3 Supervised Alignment Methods 83 4.3.1 Generative Models 84 4.3.2 Discriminative Approaches 86 4.4 3D Alignment 88 4.4.1 Hausdorff Distance Matching 88 4.4.2 Iterative Closest Point (ICP) 89 4.4.3 Multistage Alignment 89 4.5 Metrics for Evaluation 90 4.5.1 Evaluating Face Recognition 90 4.5.2 Evaluating Face Alignment 90 4.5.3 Testing Protocols and Benchmarks 91 4.5.4 Datasets 92 4.6 Conclusion 94 4.7 Exercise 94 References 94 5 Remote Sensing Image Registration in the Frequency Domain 97 5.1 Introduction 97 5.2 Challenges in Remote Sensing Imaging 100 5.3 Satellite Image Registration in the Fourier Domain 102 5.3.1 Translation Estimation Using Correlation 102 5.4 Correlation Methods 103 5.5 Subpixel Shift Estimation in the Fourier Domain 107 5.6 FFT-Based Scale-Invariant Image Registration 111 5.7 Motion Estimation in the Frequency Domain for Remote Sensing Image Sequences 115 5.7.1 Quad-Tree Phase Correlation 116 5.7.2 Shape Adaptive Motion Estimation in the Frequency Domain 119 5.7.3 Optical Flow in the Fourier Domain 120 5.8 Evaluation Process and Related Datasets 122 5.8.1 Remote Sensing Image Datasets 123 5.9 Conclusion 123 5.10 Exercise – Practice 124 References 124 6 Structure from Motion 129 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 Pinhole Model 131 6.3 Camera Calibration 133 6.4 Correspondence Problem 135 6.5 Epipolar Geometry 136 6.6 Projection Matrix Recovery 140 6.6.1 Triangulation 141 6.7 Feature Detection and Registration 141 6.7.1 Auto-correlation 143 6.7.2 Harris Detector 143 6.7.3 SIFT Feature Detector 146 6.8 Reconstruction of 3D Structure and Motion 148 6.8.1 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping 149 6.8.2 Registration for Panoramic View 150 6.9 Metrics and Datasets 152 6.9.1 Datasets for Performance Evaluation 154 6.10 Conclusion 155 6.11 Exercise – Practice 155 References 155 7 Medical Image Registration Measures 162 7.1 Introduction 162 7.2 Feature-Based Registration 163 7.2.1 Generalized Iterative Closest Point Algorithm 164 7.2.2 Hierarchical Maximization 165 7.3 Intensity-Based Registration 165 7.3.1 Voxels as Features 166 7.3.2 Special Case: Spatially Determined Correspondences 168 7.3.3 Intensity Difference Measures 169 7.3.4 Correlation Coefficient 170 7.3.5 Pseudo-likelihood Measures 171 7.3.6 General Implementation Using Joint Histograms 181 7.4 Transformation Spaces and Optimization 184 7.4.1 Rigid Transformations 185 7.4.2 Similarity Transformations 186 7.4.3 Affine Transformations 186 7.4.4 Projective Transformations 187 7.4.5 Polyaffine Transformations 187 7.4.6 Free-Form Transformations: ‘Small Deformation’ Model 188 7.4.7 Free-Form Transformations: ‘Large Deformation’ Models 189 7.5 Conclusion 193 7.6 Exercise 193 7.6.1 Implementation Guidelines 195 References 196 8 Video Restoration Using Motion Information 201 8.1 Introduction 201 8.2 History of Video and Film Restoration 203 8.3 Restoration of Video Noise and Grain 206 8.4 Restoration Algorithms for Video Noise 208 8.5 Instability Correction Using Registration 211 8.6 Estimating and Removing Flickering 214 8.7 Dirt Removal in Video Sequences 217 8.8 Metrics in Video Restoration 221 8.9 Conclusions 225 8.10 Exercise – Practice 225 References 225 Index 229

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Book SynopsisThe only recent book on dependability/fault-tolerance that covers both software and hardware aspects of dependability, Dependable Computing Design and Assessment addresses the new reality of dependability.

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Book SynopsisOffers a unique and highly technical approach to tidal power and how it can be harnessed efficiently and cost-effectively, with less impact on the environment than traditional power plants With the demand for energy outstripping conventional sources from fossil fuels, new sources of energy must be found. Tidal power is a potentially rich source of renewable energy. Even though power plants that run on hydropower have been around a long time, new types, such as those run without dams, have not been as heavily researched and presented to the scientific community. This book is a step in that directionsuggesting more cost-effective and less environmentally intrusive methods for creating power sources from rivers, the tides, and other sources of water. Presenting a detailed discussion of the costs, risks, and challenges of building power plants that run on hydropower, Tidal Power: Harnessing Energy From Water Currents: Covers the technical aspectsTable of ContentsPreface ix1 Marine Hydro Kinetic-MHK 12 Rivers (Channels) Power Plants without a Dam 533 Low-Speed Hydro-Kinetic Turbines 1274 Large Power Hydro Turbines 1575 Examples of Turbines Produced 1916 Water Current Power-Looking to the Future 233Subject Index 253

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Book SynopsisAn up-to-date and thorough treatment of the technologies, practical applications, and future of wind power, with the pros and cons and technical intricacies of various types of wind turbines and wind power prediction With the demand for energy outstripping availability from conventional sources such as fossil fuels, new sources of energy must be found. Wind power is the most mature of all of the renewable or alternative sources of energy being widely used today. With many old wind turbines becoming obsolete or in need of replacement, new methods and materials for building turbines are constantly being sought after, and troubleshooting, from an engineering perspective, is paramount to the operational efficiency of turbines currently in use. Wind Power: Turbine Design, Selection, and Optimization: Details the technical attributes of various types of wind turbines, including new collinear windmills, orthogonal windmills, non-vibration VAWT wind Table of ContentsPreface vii 1 Transformation of Flow Power 1 2 Collinear Wind Turbines (Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines-HAWTs) 67 3 Orthogonal Wind Units: Mathematical Models 107 4 Ordinary Orthogonal Windmills (Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines –VAWTs) 167 5 The Largest Open Wind Turbines on the Ground or Sea 227 6 The Unit Without External Rotation 263 7 High Jet Power Station 275 Conclusion 305 Author Index 307 Subject Index 309

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Book SynopsisA practical introduction to state-of-the-art freeform optics design for LED packages and applications By affording designers the freedom to create complex, aspherical optical surfaces with minimal or no aberrations, freeform design transcends the constraints imposed by hundreds of years of optics design and fabrication.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of LED Lighting 1 1.2 Development Trends of LED Packaging and Applications 5 1.3 Three Key Issues of Optical Design of LED Lighting 7 1.3.1 System Luminous Efficiency 7 1.3.2 Controllable Light Pattern 7 1.3.3 Spatial Color Uniformity 8 1.4 Introduction of Freeform Optics 10 References 12 2 Review of Main Algorithms of Freeform Optics for LED Lighting 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Tailored Design Method 16 2.3 SMS Design Method 17 2.4 Light Energy Mapping Design Method 18 2.5 Generalized Functional Design Method 19 2.6 Design Method for Uniform Illumination with Multiple Sources 22 References 22 3 Basic Algorithms of Freeform Optics for LED Lighting 25 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Circularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Point Source 25 3.2.1 Freeform Lens for Large Emitting Angles 26 3.2.1.1 Step 1. Establish a Light Energy Mapping Relationship between the Light Source and Target 27 3.2.1.2 Step 2. Construct a Freeform Lens 31 3.2.1.3 Step 3. Validation and Optimization 33 3.2.2 TIR-Freeform Lens for Small Emitting Angle 33 3.2.3 Circularly Symmetrical Double Surfaces Freeform Lens 39 3.3 Circularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Extended Source 42 3.3.1.1 Step 1. Construction of a Point Source Freeform Lens 45 3.3.1.2 Step 2. Calculation of Feedback Optimization Ratios 45 3.3.1.3 Step 3. Grids Redivision of the Target Plane and Light Source 46 3.3.1.4 Step 4. Rebuild the Energy Relationship between the Light Source and Target Plane 46 3.3.1.5 Step 5. Construction of a Freeform Lens for an Extended Source 47 3.3.1.6 Step 6. Ray-Tracing Simulation and Feedback Reversing Optimization 47 3.4 Noncircularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Point Source 48 3.4.1 Discontinuous Freeform Lens Algorithm 49 3.4.1.1 Step 1. Establishment of a Light Energy Mapping Relationship 49 3.4.1.2 Step 2. Construction of the Lens 52 3.4.1.3 Step 3. Validation of Lens Design 55 3.4.2 Continuous Freeform Lens Algorithm 55 3.4.2.1 Radiate Grid Light Energy Mapping 57 3.4.2.2 Rectangular Grid Light Energy Mapping 58 3.5 Noncircularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Extended Source 60 3.5.1.1 Step 1. Establishment of the Light Energy Mapping Relationship 61 3.5.1.2 Step 2. Construction of a Freeform Lens 61 3.5.1.3 Step 3. Validation of Lens Design 62 3.6 Reversing the Design Method for Uniform Illumination of LED Arrays 63 3.6.1 Reversing the Design Method of LIDC for Uniform Illumination 64 3.6.2 Algorithm of a Freeform Lens for the Required LIDC 66 References 68 4 Application-Specific LED Package Integrated with a Freeform Lens 71 4.1 Application-Specific LED Package (ASLP) Design Concept 71 4.2 ASLP Single Module 72 4.2.1 Design Method of a Compact Freeform Lens 72 4.2.2 Design of the ASLP Module 73 4.2.2.1 Optical Modeling 73 4.2.2.2 Design of a Compact Freeform Lens 73 4.2.2.3 ASLP Module 74 4.2.3 Numerical Analyses and Tolerance Analyses 76 4.2.3.1 Numerical Simulation and Analyses 76 4.2.3.2 Tolerance Analyses 77 4.2.3.3 Experiments 81 4.3 ASLP Array Module 85 4.4 ASLP System Integrated with Multiple Functions 87 4.4.1 Optical Design 89 4.4.1.1 Problem Statement 89 4.4.1.2 Optical Modeling 89 4.4.1.3 Design of a Freeform Lens 90 4.4.1.4 Simulation of Lighting Performance 91 4.4.2 Thermal Management 91 4.4.3 ASLP Module 94 References 96 5 Freeform Optics for LED Indoor Lighting 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 A Large-Emitting-Angle Freeform Lens with a Small LED Source 99 5.2.1 A Freeform Lens for a Philip Lumileds K2 LED 100 5.2.2 Freeform Lens for a CREE XLamp XR-E LED 103 5.3 A Large-Emitting-Angle Freeform Lens with an Extended Source 108 5.3.1 Target Plane Grids Optimization 108 5.3.2 Light Source Grids Optimization 108 5.3.3 Target Plane and Light Source Grids Coupling Optimization 109 5.4 A Small-Emitting-Angle Freeform Lens with a Small LED Source 110 5.5 A Double-Surface Freeform Lens for Uniform Illumination 113 5.5.1 Design Example 1 114 5.5.2 Design Example 2 115 5.5.3 Design Example 3 116 5.6 A Freeform Lens for Uniform Illumination of an LED High Bay Lamp Array 117 5.6.1 Design Concept 117 5.6.2 Design Case 118 5.6.2.1 Algorithms and Design Procedure 118 5.6.2.2 Optical Structures 119 5.6.2.3 Monte Carlo Optical Simulation 121 References 124 6 Freeform Optics for LED Road Lighting 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 The Optical Design Concept of LED Road Lighting 126 6.2.1 Illuminance 127 6.2.2 Luminance 128 6.2.3 Glare RestrictionThreshold Increment 129 6.2.4 Surrounding Ratio 130 6.3 Discontinuous Freeform Lenses (DFLs) for LED Road Lighting 131 6.3.1 Design of DFLs for Rectangular Radiation Patterns 131 6.3.1.1 Step 1. Optical Modeling for an LED 131 6.3.1.2 Step 2. Freeform Lens Design 133 6.3.2 Simulation Illumination Performance and Tolerance Analyses 134 6.3.3 Experimental Analyses 139 6.3.4 Effects of Manufacturing Defects on the Lighting Performance 139 6.3.4.1 Surface Morphology 144 6.3.4.2 Optical Performance Testing 146 6.3.4.3 Analysis and Discussion 150 6.3.5 Case Study – LED Road Lamps Based on DFLs 152 6.4 Continuous Freeform Lens (CFL) for LED Road Lighting 154 6.4.1 CFL Based on the Radiate Grid MappingMethod 154 6.4.2 CFL Based on the Rectangular Grid MappingMethod 154 6.4.3 Spatial Color Uniformity Analyses of a Continuous Freeform Lens 158 6.5 Freeform Lens for an LED Road Lamp with Uniform Luminance 164 6.5.1 Problem Statement 164 6.5.2 Combined Design Method for Uniform Luminance in Road Lighting 166 6.5.3 Freeform Lens Design Method for Uniform-Luminance Road Lighting 171 6.6 Asymmetrical CFLs with a High Light Energy Utilization Ratio 174 6.7 Modularized LED Road Lamp Based on Freeform Optics 178 References 178 7 Freeform Optics for a Direct-Lit LED Backlighting Unit 181 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 Optical Design Concept of a Direct-Lit LED BLU 183 7.3 Freeform Optics for Uniform Illumination with a Large DHR 186 7.4 Freeform Optics for Uniform Illumination with an Extended Source 191 7.4.1 Algorithm of a Freeform Lens for Uniform Illumination with an Extended Source 194 7.4.2 Design Method of a Freeform Lens for Extended Source Uniform Illumination 195 7.4.2.1 Step 1. Calculation of FORs 196 7.4.2.2 Step 2. Energy Grids Division for an Extended Source 197 7.4.2.3 Step 3. Construction of a Freeform Lens for an Extended Source 198 7.4.2.4 Step 4. Ray-Tracing Simulation and Circulation Feedback Optimization 198 7.4.3 Freeform Lenses for Direct-Lit BLUs with an Extended Source 198 7.5 Petal-Shaped Freeform Optics for High-System-Efficiency LED BLUs 203 7.5.1 Optical Co-design from the System Level of BLUs 203 7.5.2 Optimization of a High-Efficiency LIDC for BEFs 203 7.5.3 Petal-Shaped Freeform Lenses, and ASLPs for High-Efficiency BLUs 206 7.6 BEF-Adaptive Freeform Optics for High-System-Efficiency LED BLUs 210 7.6.1 Design Concept and Method 210 7.6.1.1 Step 1. Finding Out the Best Incident Angle Range 211 7.6.1.2 Step 2. Redistribution of Original Output LIDC 212 7.6.1.3 Step 3. Construction of a BEF-Adaptive Lens 213 7.6.2 BEF-Adaptive Lens Design Case 213 7.6.2.1 Basic Setup of a BLU 213 7.6.2.2 Design Results and Optical Validation 214 7.7 Freeform Optics for Uniform Illumination with Large DHR, Extended Source and Near Field 219 7.7.1 Design Method 220 7.7.1.1 IDF of Single Extended Source 220 7.7.1.2 IDF of Freeform Lens 221 7.7.1.3 Construction of Freeform Lens 222 7.7.1.4 Ray Tracing Simulation and Verification 223 7.7.2 Design Example 223 References 228 8 Freeform Optics for LED Automotive Headlamps 231 8.1 Introduction 231 8.2 Optical Regulations of Low-Beam and High-Beam Light 231 8.2.1 Low-Beam 231 8.2.2 High-Beam 232 8.2.3 Color Range 232 8.3 Application-Specific LED Packaging for Headlamps 234 8.3.1 Small Étendue 234 8.3.2 High Luminance 235 8.3.3 Strip Shape Emitter with a Sharp Cutoff 236 8.3.4 Small Thermal Resistance of Packaging 236 8.3.5 ASLP Design Case 236 8.3.6 Types of LED Packaging Modules for Headlamps 238 8.4 Freeform Lens for High-Efficiency LED Headlamps 239 8.4.1 Introduction 239 8.4.2 Freeform Lens Design Methods 239 8.4.2.1 Design of Collection Optics 240 8.4.2.2 Design of Refraction Optics 241 8.4.3 Design Case of a Freeform Lens for Low-Beam and High-Beam 243 8.4.3.1 Design of a Low-Beam Lens 244 8.4.3.2 Design of a High-Beam Lens 246 8.4.4 Design Case of a Freeform Lens for a Low-Beam Headlamp Module 249 8.5 Freeform Optics Integrated PES for an LED Headlamp 250 8.6 Freeform Optics Integrated MR for an LED Headlamp 255 8.7 LED Headlamps Based on Both PES and MR Reflectors 258 8.8 LED Module Integrated with Low-Beam and High-Beam 262 References 266 9 Freeform Optics for Emerging LED Applications 269 9.1 Introduction 269 9.2 Total Internal Reflection (TIR)-Freeform Lens for an LED Pico-Projector 269 9.2.1 Introduction 269 9.2.2 Problem Statement 271 9.2.2.1 Defect of a Refracting Freeform Surface for Illumination with a Small Output Angle 271 9.2.2.2 Problem of an Extended Light Source 272 9.2.3 Integral Freeform Illumination Lens Design Based on an LED’s Light Source 273 9.2.3.1 Freeform TIR Lens Design 273 9.2.3.2 Top Surface Design of the TIR Lens 273 9.2.4 Optimization of the Integral Freeform Illumination Lens 279 9.2.5 Tolerance analysis 280 9.2.6 LED Pico-Projector Based on the Designed Freeform Lens 281 9.3 Freeform Lens Array Optical System for an LED Stage Light 283 9.3.1 Design of a One-Dimensional Beam Expander Based on a Freeform Lens Array 285 9.3.1.1 Part 1. Gridding of the One-Dimensional Target Plane 285 9.3.1.2 Part 2. Algorithm of a One-Dimensional Freeform Microstructure 285 9.3.1.3 Part 3. Optical Simulation Results of the Optical System 287 9.3.2 Design of a Rectangular Beam Expander Based on a Freeform Lens Array 287 9.3.2.1 Part 1. Algorithm of the Rectangular Freeform Structure 288 9.3.2.2 Part 2. Optical Simulation Results of the Optical System 290 9.4 Freeform Optics for a LED Airport Taxiway Light 290 9.4.1 Introduction 290 9.4.2 Requirement Statement 291 9.4.3 Design Method of an Optical System 291 9.4.4 Simulation and Optimization 293 9.4.5 Tolerance Analysis 294 9.4.6 Design of an LED Taxiway Centerline Lamp 295 9.5 Freeform Optics for LED Searchlights 297 9.5.1 Introduction 297 9.5.2 Freeform Lens Design of a Small Divergence Angle 298 9.5.3 Improving Methods and Tolerance Analysis 301 9.5.3.1 The Design of a Freeform Lens and Parabolic Reflector 301 9.5.3.2 Tolerance Analysis 304 References 305 10 Freeform Optics for LED Lighting with High Spatial Color Uniformity 307 10.1 Introduction 307 10.2 Optical Design Concept 308 10.3 Freeform Lens Integrated LED Module with a High SCU 309 10.3.1 Optical Design, Molding, and Simulation 309 10.3.2 Tolerance Analyses 312 10.3.3 Secondary Freeform Lens for a High SCU 313 10.3.4 Experimental Analyses 314 10.4 TIR-Freeform Lens Integrated LED Module with a High SCU 323 10.4.1 Introduction 323 10.4.2 Design Principle for a High SCU 325 10.4.3 Design Method of the Modified TIR-Freeform Lens 325 10.4.4 Optimization Results and Discussions 328 References 332 Appendix: Codes of Basic Algorithms of Freeform Optics for LED Lighting 335 Index 351

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Book SynopsisThis book explains why applications running on cloud might not deliver the same service reliability, availability, latency and overall quality to end users as they do when the applications are running on traditional (non-virtualized, non-cloud) configurations, and explains what can be done to mitigate that risk.Table of ContentsFigures xv Tables and Equations xxi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Approach 1 1.2 Target Audience 3 1.3 Organization 3 I CONTEXT 7 2 APPLICATION SERVICE QUALITY 9 2.1 Simple Application Model 9 2.2 Service Boundaries 11 2.3 Key Quality and Performance Indicators 12 2.4 Key Application Characteristics 15 2.5 Application Service Quality Metrics 17 2.6 Technical Service versus Support Service 27 2.7 Security Considerations 28 3 CLOUD MODEL 29 3.1 Roles in Cloud Computing 30 3.2 Cloud Service Models 30 3.3 Cloud Essential Characteristics 31 3.4 Simplifi ed Cloud Architecture 33 3.5 Elasticity Measurements 36 3.6 Regions and Zones 44 3.7 Cloud Awareness 45 4 VIRTUALIZED INFRASTRUCTURE IMPAIRMENTS 49 4.1 Service Latency, Virtualization, and the Cloud 50 4.2 VM Failure 54 4.3 Nondelivery of Configured VM Capacity 54 4.4 Delivery of Degraded VM Capacity 57 4.5 Tail Latency 59 4.6 Clock Event Jitter 60 4.7 Clock Drift 61 4.8 Failed or Slow Allocation and Startup of VM Instance 62 4.9 Outlook for Virtualized Infrastructure Impairments 63 II ANALYSIS 65 5 APPLICATION REDUNDANCY AND CLOUD COMPUTING 67 5.1 Failures, Availability, and Simplex Architectures 68 5.2 Improving Software Repair Times via Virtualization 70 5.3 Improving Infrastructure Repair Times via Virtualization 72 5.4 Redundancy and Recoverability 75 5.5 Sequential Redundancy and Concurrent Redundancy 80 5.6 Application Service Impact of Virtualization Impairments 84 5.7 Data Redundancy 90 5.8 Discussion 92 6 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND BALANCING 97 6.1 Load Distribution Mechanisms 97 6.2 Load Distribution Strategies 99 6.3 Proxy Load Balancers 99 6.4 Nonproxy Load Distribution 101 6.5 Hierarchy of Load Distribution 102 6.6 Cloud-Based Load Balancing Challenges 103 6.7 The Role of Load Balancing in Support of Redundancy 103 6.8 Load Balancing and Availability Zones 104 6.9 Workload Service Measurements 104 6.10 Operational Considerations 105 6.11 Load Balancing and Application Service Quality 107 7 FAILURE CONTAINMENT 111 7.1 Failure Containment 111 7.2 Points of Failure 116 7.3 Extreme Solution Coresidency 122 7.4 Multitenancy and Solution Containers 124 8 CAPACITY MANAGEMENT 127 8.1 Workload Variations 128 8.2 Traditional Capacity Management 129 8.3 Traditional Overload Control 129 8.4 Capacity Management and Virtualization 131 8.5 Capacity Management in Cloud 133 8.6 Storage Elasticity Considerations 135 8.7 Elasticity and Overload 136 8.8 Operational Considerations 137 8.9 Workload Whipsaw 138 8.10 General Elasticity Risks 140 8.11 Elasticity Failure Scenarios 141 9 RELEASE MANAGEMENT 145 9.1 Terminology 145 9.2 Traditional Software Upgrade Strategies 146 9.3 Cloud-Enabled Software Upgrade Strategies 153 9.4 Data Management 158 9.5 Role of Service Orchestration in Software Upgrade 159 9.6 Conclusion 161 10 END-TO-END CONSIDERATIONS 163 10.1 End-to-End Service Context 163 10.2 Three-Layer End-to-End Service Model 169 10.3 Distributed and Centralized Cloud Data Centers 177 10.4 Multitiered Solution Architectures 183 10.5 Disaster Recovery and Geographic Redundancy 184 III RECOMMENDATIONS 191 11 ACCOUNTABILITIES FOR SERVICE QUALITY 193 11.1 Traditional Accountability 193 11.2 The Cloud Service Delivery Path 194 11.3 Cloud Accountability 197 11.4 Accountability Case Studies 200 11.5 Service Quality Gap Model 205 11.6 Service Level Agreements 210 12 SERVICE AVAILABILITY MEASUREMENT 213 12.1 Parsimonious Service Measurements 214 12.2 Traditional Service Availability Measurement 215 12.3 Evolving Service Availability Measurements 217 12.4 Evolving Hardware Reliability Measurement 226 12.5 Evolving Elasticity Service Availability Measurements 228 12.6 Evolving Release Management Service Availability Measurement 229 12.7 Service Measurement Outlook 231 13 APPLICATION SERVICE QUALITY REQUIREMENTS 233 13.1 Service Availability Requirements 234 13.2 Service Latency Requirements 237 13.3 Service Reliability Requirements 237 13.4 Service Accessibility Requirements 238 13.5 Service Retainability Requirements 239 13.6 Service Throughput Requirements 239 13.7 Timestamp Accuracy Requirements 240 13.8 Elasticity Requirements 240 13.9 Release Management Requirements 241 13.10 Disaster Recovery Requirements 241 14 VIRTUALIZED INFRASTRUCTURE MEASUREMENT AND MANAGEMENT 243 14.1 Business Context for Infrastructure Service Quality Measurements 244 14.2 Cloud Consumer Measurement Options 245 14.3 Impairment Measurement Strategies 247 14.4 Managing Virtualized Infrastructure Impairments 252 15 ANALYSIS OF CLOUD-BASED APPLICATIONS 255 15.1 Reliability Block Diagrams and Side-by-Side Analysis 256 15.2 IaaS Impairment Effects Analysis 257 15.3 PaaS Failure Effects Analysis 259 15.4 Workload Distribution Analysis 260 15.5 Anti-Affi nity Analysis 262 15.6 Elasticity Analysis 263 15.7 Release Management Impact Effects Analysis 267 15.8 Recovery Point Objective Analysis 268 15.9 Recovery Time Objective Analysis 270 16 TESTING CONSIDERATIONS 273 16.1 Context for Testing 273 16.2 Test Strategy 274 16.3 Simulating Infrastructure Impairments 277 16.4 Test Planning 278 17 CONNECTING THE DOTS 287 17.1 The Application Service Quality Challenge 287 17.2 Redundancy and Robustness 289 17.3 Design for Scalability 292 17.4 Design for Extensibility 292 17.5 Design for Failure 293 17.6 Planning Considerations 294 17.7 Evolving Traditional Applications 296 17.8 Concluding Remarks 301 Abbreviations 303 References 307 About the Authors 311 Index 313

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses the fundamentals of RFID and the state-of-the-art research results in signal processing for RFID, including MIMO, blind source separation, anti-collision, localization, covert RFID and chipless RFID. Aimed at graduate students as well as academic and professional researchers/engineers in RFID technology, it enables readers to become conversant with the latest theory and applications of signal processing for RFID. Key Features: Provides a systematic and comprehensive insight into the application of modern signal processing techniques for RFID systemsDiscusses the operating principles, channel models of RFID, RFID protocols and analog/digital filter design for RFIDExplores RFID-oriented modulation schemes and their performanceHighlights research fields such as MIMO for RFID, blind signal processing for RFID, anti-collision of multiple RFID tags, localization with RFID, covert RFID and chipless RFIDContains tables, illustrations and design examplesTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is RFID? 1 1.2 A Brief History of RFID 2 1.3 Motivation and Scope of this Book 2 1.4 Notations 5 References 5 2 Fundamentals of RFID Systems 6 2.1 Operating Principles 6 2.2 Passive, Semi-Passive/Semi-Active and Active RFID 8 2.3 Analogue Circuits for RFID 10 2.4 Circuit Analysis for Signal Transfer in RFID 11 2.4.1 Equivalent Circuit of Antennas in Generic Communication Links 12 2.4.2 Load Modulation 13 2.4.3 Backscattering Modulation 15 2.5 Signal Analysis of RFID Systems 17 2.5.1 Qualitative Analysis 17 2.5.2 Quantitative Analysis 19 2.6 Statistical Channel Models 21 2.6.1 Backgrounds of Rayleigh, Ricean and Nakagami Fading 21 2.6.2 Statistical Channel Models of RFID Systems 26 2.6.3 Large Scale Path Loss 27 2.7 A Review of RFID Protocol 28 2.7.1 Physical Layer 29 2.7.2 MAC Layer 32 2.8 Challenges in RFID 36 2.9 Summary 36 Appendix 2.A Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind 37 References 38 3 Basic Signal Processing for RFID 40 3.1 Bandpass Filters and their Applications to RFID 40 3.1.1 Lowpass Filter Performance Specification 40 3.1.2 Lowpass Filter Design 42 3.1.3 Bandpass Filter Design 47 3.1.4 Bandpass Filters for RFID Systems 49 3.2 Matching Filters and their Applications to RFID 54 3.3 A Review of Optimal Estimation 58 3.3.1 Linear Least Square Estimation 58 3.3.2 Linear Minimum Mean Square Error Estimation 59 3.3.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 61 3.3.4 Comparison of the Three Estimation Algorithms 62 3.4 Summary 64 Appendix 3.A Derivation of Poles of the Chebyshev Filter 67 References 68 4 RFID-Oriented Modulation Schemes 69 4.1 A Brief Review of Analogue Modulation 69 4.2 Amplitude- and Phase-Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 72 4.2.1 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 72 4.2.2 Symbol Error Rate Analysis of M-QAM 74 4.2.3 Numerical Results for M-QAM 80 4.3 Phase-Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 81 4.4 Frequency-Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 85 4.5 Summary 90 Appendix 4.A Derivation of SER Formula (4.24) 91 Appendix 4.B Derivation of SER Formula (4.40) 93 References 94 5 MIMO for RFID 95 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 MIMO Principle 97 5.3 Channel Modelling of RFID-MIMO Wireless Systems 100 5.4 Design of Reader Transmit Signals 102 5.4.1 Signal Design 102 5.4.2 Simulation Results 103 5.5 Space-Time Coding for RFID-MIMO Systems 105 5.5.1 A Review of Real Orthogonal Design 105 5.5.2 Space-Time Coding for RFID-MIMO Systems 110 5.5.3 Two Space-Time Decoding Approaches for RFID-MIMO Systems 111 5.5.4 Simulation Results 113 5.6 Differential Space-Time Coding for RFID-MIMO Systems 122 5.6.1 A Review of Unitary DSTC 122 5.6.2 Application of Unitary DTSC to RFID 125 5.6.3 Simulation Results 126 5.7 Summary 127 Appendix 5.A Alamouti Space-Time Coding for Narrowband Systems 129 Appendix 5.B Definition of Group 133 Appendix 5.C Complex Matrix/Vector Gaussian Distribution 133 Appendix 5.D Maximum Likelihood Receiver for Unitary STC 134 References 136 6 Blind Signal Processing for RFID 138 6.1 Introduction 138 6.2 Channel Model of Multiple-Tag RFID-MIMO Systems 141 6.2.1 Channel Model of Single-Tag RFID-MIMO Systems 141 6.2.2 Channel Model of Multiple-Tag RFID-MIMO Systems 141 6.3 An Analytical Constant Modulus Algorithm 143 6.4 Application of ACMA to Multiple-Tag RFID Systems 150 6.5 Summary 160 References 164 7 Anti-Collision of Multiple-Tag RFID Systems 166 7.1 Introduction 166 7.2 Tree-Splitting Algorithms 168 7.2.1 Mean Identification Delay 171 7.2.2 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency: Approach I 173 7.2.3 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency: Approach II 175 7.2.4 Numerical Results 185 7.2.5 Variants of TS Algorithms 194 7.3 Aloha-Based Algorithm 194 7.3.1 Mean Identification Delay 195 7.3.2 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency 197 7.3.3 Numerical Results 198 7.3.4 Adaptive Frame Size Aloha Algorithms 200 7.4 Summary 212 Appendix 7.A Inclusion-Exclusion Principle 213 Appendix 7.B Probability of Successful Transmissions in Some Particular Time Slots in Aloha 214 Appendix 7.C Probability of an Exact Number of Successful Transmissions in Aloha 215 References 217 8 Localization with RFID 220 8.1 Introduction 220 8.2 RFID Localization 223 8.2.1 Geometric Class 224 8.2.2 Proximity Class 228 8.3 RFID Ranging – Frequency-Domain PDoA Approach 232 8.4 RFID AoA Finding – Spatial-Domain PDoA 235 8.5 NLoS Issue 241 8.6 Summary 244 References 245 9 Some Future Perspectives for RFID 249

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a timely and comprehensive overview of the introduction of LTE technology for PPDR communications. It describes the operational scenarios and emerging multimedia and data-centric applications in demand and discusses the main techno-economic drivers that are believed to be pivotal for an efficient and cost-effective delivery of mobile broadband PPDR communications. The capabilities and features of the LTE standard for improved support of mission-critical communications (e.g., proximity services, group communications) are covered in detail. Also, different network implementation options to deliver mobile broadband PPDR communications services over dedicated or commercial LTE-based networks are discussed, including the applicability of the Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO) model and other hybrid models. Radio spectrum matters are also discussed in depth, outlining spectrum needs and providing an outlook into allocated and candidate spectrum bands for PPDR communicaTable of ContentsPreface ix List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Public Protection and Disaster Relief Communications 1 1.1 Background and Terminology 1 1.2 PPDR Functions and Organizations 3 1.3 Operational Framework and Communications Needs for PPDR 6 1.3.1 Operational Scenarios 7 1.3.2 Framework for PPDR Operations 9 1.3.3 Communications’ Reference Points in PPDR Operations 12 1.3.4 Communications Services Needed for PPDR Operations 16 1.4 Communications Systems for PPDR 19 1.4.1 General PPDR Requirements on Communications Systems 19 1.4.2 Technologies in Use for PPDR Communications 22 1.4.3 Current NB PMR Standards Used in PPDR 23 1.4.4 Main Limitations with Today’s PPDR Communications Systems 32 1.5 Regulatory and Standardization Framework 39 1.5.1 ITU Work on Emergency Communications 40 1.5.2 North and Latin America Regions 43 1.5.3 Asia and Pacific Region 44 1.5.4 Europe Region 45 References 47 2 Mobile Broadband Data Applications and Capacity Needs 49 2.1 Introduction 49 2.2 Data]Centric, Multimedia Applications for PPDR 51 2.2.1 Video Transmission 51 2.2.2 Geographic Information Systems 54 2.2.3 Location and Tracking 55 2.2.4 Electronic Conferencing and Coordination Tools for Incident Command 56 2.2.5 Remote Database Access and Information Transfer Applications 56 2.2.6 PPDR Personnel Monitoring and Biomedical Telemetry 57 2.2.7 Remote Emergency Medical Services 58 2.2.8 Sensors and Remotely Controlled Devices 58 2.2.9 Mobile Office 59 2.3 Characterization of Broadband Data Applications for PPDR 59 2.4 Assessment of the Data Capacity Needs in Various Operational Scenarios 66 2.4.1 Throughput Requirements of PPDR Applications 66 2.4.2 Day]to]Day Operations Scenarios 71 2.4.3 Large Emergency/Public Events 73 2.4.4 Disaster Scenarios 76 References 80 3 Future Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications Systems 81 3.1 Paradigm Change for the Delivery of PPDR Broadband Communications 81 3.2 Techno]economic Aspects Driving the Paradigm Change 83 3.2.1 Technology Dimension 84 3.2.2 Network Dimension 87 3.2.3 Spectrum Dimension 98 3.3 System View of Future Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications 101 3.3.1 LTE Dedicated Networks 103 3.3.2 LTE Commercial Networks 104 3.3.3 Legacy PMR/LMR Networks 104 3.3.4 Transportable Systems and Satellite Communications 105 3.3.5 IP]Based Interconnection Backbones 106 3.3.6 Applications and User Equipment 106 3.3.7 Spectrum 108 3.4 Current Initiatives 109 3.4.1 Deployment of a Nationwide Dedicated LTE Broadband Network in the United States 110 3.4.2 CEPT ECC Activities for a European]Wide Harmonization of Broadband PPDR 113 3.4.3 Hybrid Approaches Taking Off in Belgium and Some Other European Countries 114 3.4.4 LTE Emergency Services Network in the United Kingdom 118 3.4.5 TCCA 119 References 121 4 LTE Technology for PPDR Communications 125 4.1 Standardization Roadmap towards Mission]Critical LTE 125 4.2 LTE Fundamentals 129 4.2.1 Radio Interface 131 4.2.2 Service Model: PDN Connection and EPS Bearer Service 136 4.2.3 PCC Subsystem 141 4.2.4 Security 143 4.2.5 Roaming Support 149 4.2.6 Voice Services over LTE 150 4.3 Group Communications and PTT 152 4.3.1 Existing Initiatives and Solutions for PTT over LTE 153 4.3.2 3GPP Standardization Work 153 4.3.3 GCSE 155 4.3.4 MCPTT over LTE 158 4.3.5 OMA PCPS 161 4.4 Device]to]Device Communications 164 4.4.1 3GPP Standardization Work 166 4.4.2 ProSe Capabilities 167 4.4.3 ProSe Functional Architecture 172 4.5 Prioritization and QoS Control for PPDR 174 4.5.1 Access Priority 176 4.5.2 Admission Priority 179 4.5.3 Data Plane QoS Configuration 180 4.5.4 MPS 181 4.6 Isolated E]UTRAN Operation 182 4.7 High]Power UE 184 4.8 RAN Sharing Enhancements 185 References 189 5 LTE Networks for PPDR Communications 193 5.1 Introduction 193 5.1.1 Separation of Service and Network Layers in PPDR Communications Delivery 194 5.1.2 Design of a ‘Public Safety Grade’ Network 196 5.2 Delivery Options for Mobile Broadband PPDR Networks and Services 196 5.3 Dedicated Networks 201 5.3.1 Cost]Efficient Network Footprints 202 5.3.2 Expanding the User Base beyond PPDR Responders 204 5.4 Commercial Networks 208 5.4.1 Organizational and Contractual Aspects 211 5.4.2 Commercial Networks’ Readiness to Provide Mission]Critical PPDR Services 212 5.4.3 Current Support of Priority Services over Commercial Networks 216 5.5 Hybrid Solutions 220 5.5.1 National Roaming for PPDR Users 221 5.5.2 Deployment of an MVNO for PPDR 222 5.5.3 RAN Sharing with MNOs 227 5.5.4 Network Sharing of Critical and Professional Networks 231 5.6 Network Architecture Design and Implementation Aspects 232 5.6.1 Reference Model for a Critical Communications System 233 5.6.2 Interconnection to Commercial Networks 235 5.6.3 Interconnection to Legacy PMR Networks 240 5.6.4 Interconnection of Deployable Systems 241 5.6.5 Satellite Backhauling and Direct Access 243 5.6.6 Interconnection IP]Based Backbones 247 5.6.7 Network Architecture for an MVNO]Based Solution 250 References 252 6 Radio Spectrum for PPDR Communications 257 6.1 Spectrum Management: Regulatory Framework and Models 257 6.1.1 Global]Level Regulatory Framework 258 6.1.2 Regional]Level Regulatory Framework 259 6.1.3 National]Level Regulatory Framework 262 6.1.4 Spectrum Management Models 264 6.2 Internationally Harmonized Frequency Ranges for PPDR Communications 266 6.3 Spectrum Needs for Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications 270 6.3.1 Spectrum Components 270 6.3.2 Methodologies for the Computation of Spectrum Needs 271 6.3.3 Spectrum Estimates 275 6.4 Existing Spectrum Assignments for PPDR and Candidate Bands for Mobile Broadband 275 6.4.1 European Region 277 6.4.2 North America 282 6.4.3 Asia]Pacific and Latin America 283 6.5 Spectrum Sharing for PPDR Communications 285 6.5.1 Spectrum Sharing Models 287 6.5.2 Shared Use of Spectrum Based on LSA 288 6.5.3 Shared Use of Spectrum Based on Secondary Access to TVWS 299 References 311 Index 317

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Book SynopsisThe first and only up-to-date guide offering complete coverage of HetNetswritten by top researchers and engineers in the field Small Cell Networks: Deployment, Management, and Optimization addresses key problems of the cellular network evolution towards HetNets. It focuses on the latest developments in heterogeneous and small cell networks, as well as their deployment, operation, and maintenance. It also covers the full spectrum of the topic, from academic, research, and business to the practice of HetNets in a coherent manner. Additionally, it provides complete and practical guidelines to vendors and operators interested in deploying small cells. The first comprehensive book written by well-known researchers and engineers from Nokia Bell Labs, Small Cell Networks begins with an introduction to the subjectoffering chapters on capacity scaling and key requirements of future networks. It then moves on to sections on coverage and capacity optimizationTable of ContentsABOUT THE AUTHORS VII FOREWORD XI ACRONYMS XIII PART I INTRODUCTION 1 1 SMALL CELLS—THE FUTURE OF CELLULAR NETWORKS 3 2 100× CAPACITY SCALING OF CELLULAR NETWORKS 23 3 AUTOMATION OF CELLULAR NETWORKS 55 PART II COVERAGE AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION 91 4 FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENT AND ACCESS METHODS 93 5 COVERAGE AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION FOR INDOOR CELLS 117 6 COVERAGE AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION FOR OUTDOOR CELLS 149 PART III INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT 187 7 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN INTER-CELL INTERFERENCE COORDINATION 189 8 TIME-DOMAIN INTER-CELL INTERFERENCE COORDINATION 223 9 THE SECTOR OFFSET CONFIGURATION 259 10 CONTROL CHANNEL INTER-CELL INTERFERENCE COORDINATION 295 11 UPLINK-ORIENTED OPTIMIZATION IN HETEROGENEOUS NETWORKS 323 PART IV MOBILITY MANAGEMENT AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY 363 12 MOBILITY MANAGEMENT 365 13 DORMANT CELLS AND IDLE MODES 393 PART V SMALL CELL DEPLOYMENT 419 14 BACKHAUL FOR SMALL CELLS 421 15 OPTIMIZATION OF SMALL CELL DEPLOYMENT 443 PART VI FUTURE TRENDS AND APPLICATIONS 467 16 ULTRA-DENSE NETWORKS 469 17 HETNET APPLICATIONS 493 A SIMULATING HETNETS 505 INDEX 549

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Book SynopsisNanomagnetic and spintronic computing devices are strong contenders for future replacements of CMOS. This is an important and rapidly evolving area with the semiconductor industry investing significantly in the study of nanomagnetic phenomena and in developing strategies to pinpoint and regulate nanomagnetic reliably with a high degree of energy efficiency. This timely book explores the recent and on-going research into nanomagnetic-based technology. Key features: Detailed background material and comprehensive descriptions of the current state-of-the-art research on each topic. Focuses on direct applications to devices that have potential to replace CMOS devices for computing applications such as memory, logic and higher order information processing. Discusses spin-based devices where the spin degree of freedom of charge carriers are exploited for device operation and ultimately information processing. Describes magnet switching methodoTable of ContentsAbout the Editors and Acknowledgments xi List of Contributors xiii Foreword xvii Preface xix 1 Introduction to Spintronic and Nanomagnetic Computing Devices 1Jayasimha Atulasimha and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay 1.1 Spintronic Devices 1 1.2 Nanomagnetic Devices 3 1.2.1 Use of Spin Torque to Switch Nanomagnets 6 1.2.2 Other Methodologies for Switching Nanomagnets 6 1.3 Thinking beyond Traditional Boolean Logic 7 References 7 2 Potential Applications of all Electric Spin Valves Made of Asymmetrically Biased Quantum Point Contacts 9Nikhil Bhandari, Maitreya Dutta, James Charles, Junjun Wan, Marc Cahay, and S.T Herbert 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Quantum Point Contacts 11 2.3 Spin Orbit Coupling 14 2.3.1 Rashba SOC (RSOC) 15 2.3.2 Dresselhaus SOC (DSOC) 15 2.3.3 Lateral Spin-Orbit Coupling (LSOC) 16 2.4 Importance of Spin Relaxation in 1D Channels 18 2.5 Observation of a 0.5 Conductance Plateau in Asymmetrically Biased QPCs in the Presence of LSOC 20 2.5.1 Early Experimental Results Using InAs QPCs 20 2.5.2 NEGF Conductance Calculations 20 2.5.3 Spin Texture Associated with Conductance Anomalies in QPCs 23 2.5.4 Prospect for Generation of Spin Polarized Current at Higher Temperature 25 2.5.5 Observation of Other Anomalous Conductance Plateaus in an Asymmetrically Biased InAs/In0.52 Al0.48 as QPCs 26 2.6 Intrinsic Bistability near Conductance Anomalies 27 2.6.1 Experimental Results 28 2.6.2 NEGF Simulations 30 2.7 QPC Structures with Four In-plane SGs: Toward an All Electrical Spin Valve 43 2.7.1 Preliminary Results on Four-gate QPCs 43 2.7.2 Experiments 46 2.7.3 Onset of Hysteresis and Negative Resistance Region 50 2.8 Future Work 56 2.9 Summary 58 Acknowledgments 60 References 60 3 Spin-Transistor Technology for Spintronics/CMOS Hybrid Logic Circuits and Systems 65Satoshi Sugahara, Yusuke Shuto, and Shuu’ichirou Yamamoto 3.1 Spin-Transistor and Pseudo-Spin-Transistor 65 3.1.1 Spin – MOSFET 66 3.1.2 Pseudo-Spin-MOSFET 69 3.2 Energy-Efficient Logic Applications of Spin-Transistors 72 3.2.1 Power Gating with Nonvolatile Retention 73 3.2.2 Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits 75 3.2.3 Break-even Time 76 3.3 Nonvolatile SRAM Technology 78 3.3.1 Static Noise Margin of Nonvolatile SRAM 79 3.3.2 Energy Performance of NV-SRAM 81 3.4 Application of Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits for Memory Systems 86 References 88 4 Spin Transfer Torque: A Multiscale Picture 91Yunkun Xie, Ivan Rungger, Kamaram Munira, Maria Stamenova, Stefano Sanvito, and Avik W. Ghosh 4.1 Introduction 91 4.1.1 Background 91 4.1.2 STT Modeling: An Integrated Approach 93 4.2 The Physics of Spin Transfer Torque 94 4.2.1 Free-Electron Model for Magnetic Tunnel Junction 96 4.3 First Principles Evaluation of TMR and STT 102 4.3.1 The TMR Effect in the MgO Barrier 104 4.3.2 Currents and Torques in NEGF 114 4.3.3 First Principles Results on Spin Transfer Torque 116 4.4 Magnetization Dynamics 119 4.4.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation 119 4.4.2 Spin Torque Switching in Presence of Thermal Fluctuations 121 4.4.3 Including Thermal Fluctuations: Stochastic LLG vs Fokker Planck 122 4.5 Summary: Multiscaling from Atomic Structure to Error Rate 125 Acknowledgments 129 References 129 5 Magnetic Tunnel Junction Based Integrated Logics and Computational Circuits 133Jian-Ping Wang, Mahdi Jamali, Angeline Klemm Smith, and Zhengyang Zhao 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 GMR Based Field Programmable Devices 134 5.3 MTJ Based Field Programmable Devices 136 5.3.1 MTJ Structure and TMR Ratio 136 5.3.2 MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 137 5.3.3 Utilization of STT in MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 144 5.4 Information Transformation between Gates 145 5.4.1 Direct Communication Using Charge Current 146 5.4.2 Magnetic Domain Walls for Information Transferring 148 5.5 MTJ Based Logic-in-Memory Devices 148 5.6 Magnetic Quantum Cellular Automata 149 5.6.1 Introduction and Background 149 5.6.2 Experimental Demonstrations 150 5.7 All-Spin Based Magnetic Logic 155 5.7.1 Nonlocal Lateral Spin Valve Background 155 5.7.2 Critical Parameters for Operation 155 5.7.3 Selected Review of Experimental Demonstrations 156 5.7.4 Applications to All-Spin Logic Devices 158 5.8 Summary 161 Acknowledgment 161 References 162 6 Magnetization Switching and Domain Wall Motion Due to Spin Orbit Torque 165Debanjan Bhowmik, OukJae Lee, Long You, and Sayeef Salahuddin 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Theory 166 6.2.1 Rashba Effect 168 6.2.2 Spin Hall Effect 169 6.3 Magnetic Switching Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 171 6.4 Domain Wall Motion Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 176 6.5 Applications of Spin Orbit Torque 184 6.6 Conclusion 186 References 186 7 Magnonic Logic Devices 189Alexander Khitun and Alexander Kozhanov 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Magnonic Logic Devices 197 7.3 Spin Wave-Based Logic Gates and Architectures 206 7.4 Discussion and Summary 212 References 216 8 Strain Mediated Magnetoelectric Memory 221N. Tiercelin, Y. Dusch, S. Giordano, A. Klimov, V. Preobrazhensky, and P. Pernod 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Concept of Unequivocal Strain- or Stress-Switched Nanomagnetic Memory 223 8.2.1 Magnetic Configuration and Equilibrium Positions 223 8.2.2 Quasi-Static Stress-Mediated Switching 225 8.3 LLG Simulations – Macrospin Model 226 8.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation and Effective Magnetic Field 226 8.3.2 Memory Parameters 227 8.3.3 Results of the Macrospin Model 228 8.4 LLG Simulations – Eshelby Approach 231 8.4.1 Geometry of the Memory Element 232 8.4.2 Coupling with the External Magnetic Field 233 8.4.3 Coupling with the External Electric Field and Elastic Stress 234 8.4.4 Static Behavior of the System 234 8.4.5 Dynamic Behavior of the System 235 8.5 Stochastic Error Analysis 238 8.5.1 Statistical Mechanics of Magnetization in a Single-Domain Particle 238 8.5.2 Switching Process within the Magnetoelectric Memory 243 8.6 Preliminary Experimental Results 248 8.6.1 Piezoelectric Actuator with in-Plane Polarization 248 8.6.2 Ferroelectric Relaxors with out-of-Plane Polarization 249 8.6.3 Magnetoelastic Switching in a Magneto-Resistive Structure 250 8.7 Conclusions 250 Acknowledgments 252 References 253 9 Hybrid Spintronics-Strainronics 259Ayan K. Biswas, Noel D’Souza, Supriyo Bandyopadhyay, and Jayasimha Atulasimha 9.1 Introduction 259 9.1.1 Nanomagnetic Memory and Logic Devices: The Problem of Energy Dissipation in the Clocking Circuit 260 9.1.2 Switching Nanomagnets with Strain Could Drastically Reduce Energy Dissipation: Hybrid Spintronics-Straintronics Overview 261 9.1.3 Landau Lifshitz Gilbert (LLG) Equation 263 9.2 Nanomagnetic Memory Switched with Strain 265 9.2.1 Complete Magnetization Reversal (180◦ Switching): Complex out-of-Plane Dynamics 265 9.2.2 Switching the Magnetization between Two Mutually Perpendicular Stable Orientations and Extension to Stable Orientations with Angular Separation >90◦ 268 9.2.3 Complete 180◦ Switching with Stress Alone 269 9.2.4 Mixed Mode Switching of Magnetization by 180◦: Acoustically Assisted Spin Transfer Torque (STT) Switching for Nonvolatile Memory 273 9.3 Straintronic Clocking of Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.1 Two-State Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.2 Four-state Multiferroic Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 279 9.3.3 Switching Error in Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 283 9.3.4 Straintronic Nanomagnetic Logic Devices (NML) 284 9.4 Summary and Conclusions 286 References 286 10 Unconventional Nanocomputing with Physical Wave Interference Functions 291Santosh Khasanvis, Mostafizur Rahman, Prasad Shabadi, and Csaba Andras Moritz 10.1 Overview 291 10.2 Spin Waves Physical Layer for WIF Implementation 293 10.2.1 Physical Fabric Components 295 10.3 Elementary WIF Operators for Logic 298 10.4 Binary WIF Logic Design 303 10.4.1 Binary WIF Full Adder 303 10.4.2 Parallel Counters 306 10.4.3 Benchmarking Binary WIF Circuits vs. CMOS 309 10.4.4 WIF Topology Exploration 310 10.5 Multivalued WIF Logic Design 311 10.5.1 Multivalued Operators and Implementation Using WIF 312 10.5.2 Multivalued Arithmetic Circuit Example: Quaternary Full Adder 316 10.5.3 Benchmarking of WIF Multivalued Circuits vs. Conventional CMOS 318 10.5.4 Input/Output Logic for Data Conversion between Binary and Radix-r Domains 319 10.6 Microprocessors with WIF: Opportunities and Challenges 320 10.7 Summary and Future Work 326 References 326 Index 329 A color plate section falls between pages 44 and 45

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Book SynopsisA comprehensively updated and reorganized new edition. The updates include comparative methods for improving reliability; methods for optimal allocation of limited resources to achieve a maximum risk reduction; methods for improving reliability at no extra cost and building reliability networks for engineering systems. Includes: A unique set of 46 generic principles for reducing technical risk Monte Carlo simulation algorithms for improving reliability and reducing risk Methods for setting reliability requirements based on the cost of failure New reliability measures based on a minimal separation of random events on a time interval Overstress reliability integral for determining the time to failure caused by overstress failure modes A powerful equation for determining the probability of failure controlled by defects in loaded componentswith complex shape Comparative methods for improving reliability which do not requTable of ContentsSeries Preface xvii Preface xix 1 Failure Modes: Building Reliability Networks 1 1.1 Failure Modes 1 1.2 Series and Parallel Arrangement of the Components in a Reliability Network 5 1.3 Building Reliability Networks: Difference between a Physical and Logical Arrangement 6 1.4 Complex Reliability Networks Which Cannot Be Presented as a Combination of Series and Parallel Arrangements 10 1.5 Drawbacks of the Traditional Representation of the Reliability Block Diagrams 11 1.5.1 Reliability Networks Which Require More Than a Single Terminal Node 11 1.5.2 Reliability Networks Which Require the Use of Undirected Edges Only, Directed Edges Only or a Mixture of Undirected and Directed Edges 13 1.5.3 Reliability Networks Which Require Different Edges Referring to the Same Component 16 1.5.4 Reliability Networks Which Require Negative‐State Components 17 2 Basic Concepts 21 2.1 Reliability (Survival) Function, Cumulative Distribution and Probability Density Function of the Times to Failure 21 2.2 Random Events in Reliability and Risk Modelling 23 2.2.1 Reliability and Risk Modelling Using Intersection of Statistically Independent Random Events 23 2.2.2 Reliability and Risk Modelling Using a Union of Mutually Exclusive Random Events 25 2.2.3 Reliability of a System with Components Logically Arranged in Series 27 2.2.4 Reliability of a System with Components Logically Arranged in Parallel 29 2.2.5 Reliability of a System with Components Logically Arranged in Series and Parallel 31 2.2.6 Using Finite Sets to Infer Component Reliability 32 2.3 Statistically Dependent Events and Conditional Probability in Reliability and Risk Modelling 33 2.4 Total Probability Theorem in Reliability and Risk Modelling. Reliability of Systems with Complex Reliability Networks 36 2.5 Reliability and Risk Modelling Using Bayesian Transform and Bayesian Updating 43 2.5.1 Bayesian Transform 43 2.5.2 Bayesian Updating 44 3 Common Reliability and Risk Models and Their Applications 47 3.1 General Framework for Reliability and Risk Analysis Based on Controlling Random Variables 47 3.2 Binomial Model 48 3.2.1 Application: A Voting System 52 3.3 Homogeneous Poisson Process and Poisson Distribution 53 3.4 Negative Exponential Distribution 56 3.4.1 Memoryless Property of the Negative Exponential Distribution 57 3.5 Hazard Rate 58 3.5.1 Difference between Failure Density and Hazard Rate 60 3.5.2 Reliability of a Series Arrangement Including Components with Constant Hazard Rates 61 3.6 Mean Time to Failure 61 3.7 Gamma Distribution 63 3.8 Uncertainty Associated with the MTTF 65 3.9 Mean Time between Failures 67 3.10 Problems with the MTTF and MTBF Reliability Measures 67 3.11 BX% Life 68 3.12 Minimum Failure‐Free Operation Period 69 3.13 Availability 70 3.13.1 Availability on Demand 70 3.13.2 Production Availability 71 3.14 Uniform Distribution Model 72 3.15 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution Model 73 3.16 Log‐Normal Distribution Model 77 3.17 Weibull Distribution Model of the Time to Failure 79 3.18 Extreme Value Distribution Model 81 3.19 Reliability Bathtub Curve 82 4 Reliability and Risk Models Based on Distribution Mixtures 87 4.1 Distribution of a Property from Multiple Sources 87 4.2 Variance of a Property from Multiple Sources 89 4.3 Variance Upper Bound Theorem 91 4.3.1 Determining the Source Whose Removal Results in the Largest Decrease of the Variance Upper Bound 92 4.4 Applications of the Variance Upper Bound Theorem 93 4.4.1 Using the Variance Upper Bound Theorem for Increasing the Robustness of Products and Processes 93 4.4.2 Using the Variance Upper Bound Theorem for Developing Six‐Sigma Products and Processes 97 Appendix 4.1: Derivation of the Variance Upper Bound Theorem 99 Appendix 4.2: An Algorithm for Determining the Upper Bound of the Variance of Properties from Sampling Multiple Sources 101 5 Building Reliability and Risk Models 103 5.1 General Rules for Reliability Data Analysis 103 5.2 Probability Plotting 107 5.2.1 Testing for Consistency with the Uniform Distribution Model 109 5.2.2 Testing for Consistency with the Exponential Model 109 5.2.3 Testing for Consistency with the Weibull Distribution 110 5.2.4 Testing for Consistency with the Type I Extreme Value Distribution 111 5.2.5 Testing for Consistency with the Normal Distribution 111 5.3 Estimating Model Parameters Using the Method of Maximum Likelihood 113 5.4 Estimating the Parameters of a Three‐Parameter Power Law 114 5.4.1 Some Applications of the Three‐Parameter Power Law 116 6 Load–Strength (Demand‐Capacity) Models 119 6.1 A General Reliability Model 119 6.2 The Load–Strength Interference Model 120 6.3 Load–Strength (Demand‐Capacity) Integrals 122 6.4 Evaluating the Load–Strength Integral Using Numerical Methods 124 6.5 Normally Distributed and Statistically Independent Load and Strength 125 6.6 Reliability and Risk Analysis Based on the Load–Strength Interference Approach 130 6.6.1 Influence of Strength Variability on Reliability 130 6.6.2 Critical Weaknesses of the Traditional Reliability Measures ‘Safety Margin’ and ‘Loading Roughness’ 134 6.6.3 Interaction between the Upper Tail of the Load Distribution and the Lower Tail of the Strength Distribution 136 7 Overstress Reliability Integral and Damage Factorisation Law 139 7.1 Reliability Associated with Overstress Failure Mechanisms 139 7.1.1 The Link between the Negative Exponential Distribution and the Overstress Reliability Integral 141 7.2 Damage Factorisation Law 143 8 Solving Reliability and Risk Models Using a Monte Carlo Simulation 147 8.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Algorithms 147 8.1.1 Monte Carlo Simulation and the Weak Law of Large Numbers 147 8.1.2 Monte Carlo Simulation and the Central Limit Theorem 149 8.1.3 Adopted Conventions in Describing the Monte Carlo Simulation Algorithms 149 8.2 Simulation of Random Variables 151 8.2.1 Simulation of a Uniformly Distributed Random Variable 151 8.2.2 Generation of a Random Subset 152 8.2.3 Inverse Transformation Method for Simulation of Continuous Random Variables 153 8.2.4 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Negative Exponential Distribution 154 8.2.5 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Gamma Distribution 154 8.2.6 Simulation of a Random Variable following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Interval 155 8.2.7 Simulation of a Discrete Random Variable with a Specified Distribution 156 8.2.8 Selection of a Point at Random in the N‐Dimensional Space Region 157 8.2.9 Simulation of Random Locations following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Domain 158 8.2.10 Simulation of a Random Direction in Space 158 8.2.11 Generating Random Points on a Disc and in a Sphere 160 8.2.12 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Three‐Parameter Weibull Distribution 162 8.2.13 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Maximum Extreme Value Distribution 162 8.2.14 Simulation of a Gaussian Random Variable 162 8.2.15 Simulation of a Log‐Normal Random Variable 163 8.2.16 Conditional Probability Technique for Bivariate Sampling 164 8.2.17 Von Neumann’s Method for Sampling Continuous Random Variables 165 8.2.18 Sampling from a Mixture Distribution 166 Appendix 8.1 166 9 Evaluating Reliability and Probability of a Faulty Assembly Using Monte Carlo Simulation 169 9.1 A General Algorithm for Determining Reliability Controlled by Statistically Independent Random Variables 169 9.2 Evaluation of the Reliability Controlled by a Load–Strength Interference 170 9.2.1 Evaluation of the Reliability on Demand, with No Time Included 170 9.2.2 Evaluation of the Reliability Controlled by Random Shocks on a Time Interval 171 9.3 A Virtual Testing Method for Determining the Probability of Faulty Assembly 173 9.4 Optimal Replacement to Minimise the Probability of a System Failure 177 10 Evaluating the Reliability of Complex Systems and Virtual Accelerated Life Testing Using Monte Carlo Simulation 181 10.1 Evaluating the Reliability of Complex Systems 181 10.2 Virtual Accelerated Life Testing of Complex Systems 183 10.2.1 Acceleration Stresses and Their Impact on the Time to Failure of Components 183 10.2.2 Arrhenius Stress–Life Relationship and Arrhenius‐Type Acceleration Life Models 185 10.2.3 Inverse Power Law Relationship and Inverse Power Law‐Type Acceleration Life Models 185 10.2.4 Eyring Stress–Life Relationship and Eyring‐Type Acceleration Life Models 185 11 Generic Principles for Reducing Technical Risk 189 11.1 Preventive Principles: Reducing Mainly the Likelihood of Failure 191 11.1.1 Building in High Reliability in Processes, Components and Systems with Large Failure Consequences 191 11.1.2 Simplifying at a System and Component Level 192 11.1.2.1 Reducing the Number of Moving Parts 193 11.1.3 Root Cause Failure Analysis 193 11.1.4 Identifying and Removing Potential Failure Modes 194 11.1.5 Mitigating the Harmful Effect of the Environment 194 11.1.6 Building in Redundancy 195 11.1.7 Reliability and Risk Modelling and Optimisation 197 11.1.7.1 Building and Analysing Comparative Reliability Models 197 11.1.7.2 Building and Analysing Physics of Failure Models 198 11.1.7.3 Minimising Technical Risk through Optimisation and Optimal Replacement 199 11.1.7.4 Maximising System Reliability and Availability by Appropriate Permutations of Interchangeable Components 199 11.1.7.5 Maximising the Availability and Throughput Flow Reliability by Altering the Network Topology 199 11.1.8 Reducing Variability of Risk-Critical Parameters and Preventing them from Reaching Dangerous Values 199 11.1.9 Altering the Component Geometry 200 11.1.10 Strengthening or Eliminating Weak Links 201 11.1.11 Eliminating Factors Promoting Human Errors 202 11.1.12 Reducing Risk by Introducing Inverse States 203 11.1.12.1 Inverse States Cancelling the Anticipated State with a Negative Impact 203 11.1.12.2 Inverse States Buffering the Anticipated State with a Negative Impact 203 11.1.12.3 Inverting the Relative Position of Objects and the Direction of Flows 204 11.1.12.4 Inverse State as a Counterbalancing Force 205 11.1.13 Failure Prevention Interlocks 206 11.1.14 Reducing the Number of Latent Faults 206 11.1.15 Increasing the Level of Balancing 208 11.1.16 Reducing the Negative Impact of Temperature by Thermal Design 209 11.1.17 Self‐Stability 211 11.1.18 Maintaining the Continuity of a Working State 212 11.1.19 Substituting Mechanical Assemblies with Electrical, Optical or Acoustic Assemblies and Software 212 11.1.20 Improving the Load Distribution 212 11.1.21 Reducing the Sensitivity of Designs to the Variation of Design Parameters 212 11.1.22 Vibration Control 216 11.1.23 Built‐In Prevention 216 11.2 Dual Principles: Reduce Both the Likelihood of Failure and the Magnitude of Consequences 217 11.2.1 Separating Critical Properties, Functions and Factors 217 11.2.2 Reducing the Likelihood of Unfavourable Combinations of Risk‐Critical Random Variables 218 11.2.3 Condition Monitoring 219 11.2.4 Reducing the Time of Exposure or the Space of Exposure 219 11.2.4.1 Time of Exposure 219 11.2.4.2 Length of Exposure and Space of Exposure 220 11.2.5 Discovering and Eliminating a Common Cause: Diversity in Design 220 11.2.6 Eliminating Vulnerabilities 222 11.2.7 Self‐Reinforcement 223 11.2.8 Using Available Local Resources 223 11.2.9 Derating 224 11.2.10 Selecting Appropriate Materials and Microstructures 225 11.2.11 Segmentation 225 11.2.11.1 Segmentation Improves the Load Distribution 225 11.2.11.2 Segmentation Reduces the Vulnerability to a Single Failure 225 11.2.11.3 Segmentation Reduces the Damage Escalation 226 11.2.11.4 Segmentation Limits the Hazard Potential 226 11.2.12 Reducing the Vulnerability of Targets 226 11.2.13 Making Zones Experiencing High Damage/Failure Rates Replaceable 227 11.2.14 Reducing the Hazard Potential 227 11.2.15 Integrated Risk Management 227 11.3 Protective Principles: Minimise the Consequences of Failure 229 11.3.1 Fault‐Tolerant System Design 229 11.3.2 Preventing Damage Escalation and Reducing the Rate of Deterioration 229 11.3.3 Using Fail‐Safe Designs 230 11.3.4 Deliberately Designed Weak Links 231 11.3.5 Built‐In Protection 231 11.3.6 Troubleshooting Procedures and Systems 232 11.3.7 Simulation of the Consequences from Failure 232 11.3.8 Risk Planning and Training 233 12 Physics of Failure Models 235 12.1 Fast Fracture 235 12.1.1 Fast Fracture: Driving Forces behind Fast Fracture 235 12.1.2 Reducing the Likelihood of Fast Fracture 241 12.1.2.1 Basic Ways of Reducing the Likelihood of Fast Fracture 242 12.1.2.2 Avoidance of Stress Raisers or Mitigating Their Harmful Effect 244 12.1.2.3 Selecting Materials Which Fail in a Ductile Fashion 245 12.1.3 Reducing the Consequences of Fast Fracture 247 12.1.3.1 By Using Fail-Safe Designs 247 12.1.3.2 By Using Crack Arrestors 250 12.2 Fatigue Fracture 251 12.2.1 Reducing the Risk of Fatigue Fracture 257 12.2.1.1 Reducing the Size of the Flaws 257 12.2.1.2 Increasing the Final Fatigue Crack Length by Selecting Material with a Higher Fracture Toughness 257 12.2.1.3 Reducing the Stress Range by an Appropriate Design 257 12.2.1.4 Reducing the Stress Range by Restricting the Springback of Elastic Components 258 12.2.1.5 Reducing the Stress Range by Reducing the Magnitude of Thermal Stresses 259 12.2.1.6 Reducing the Stress Range by Introducing Compressive Residual Stresses at the Surface 261 12.2.1.7 Reducing the Stress Range by Avoiding Excessive Bending 262 12.2.1.8 Reducing the Stress Range by Avoiding Stress Concentrators 263 12.2.1.9 Improving the Condition of the Surface and Eliminating Low-Strength Surfaces 263 12.2.1.10 Increasing the Fatigue Life of Automotive Suspension Springs 264 12.3 Early‐Life Failures 265 12.3.1 Influence of the Design on Early‐Life Failures 265 12.3.2 Influence of the Variability of Critical Design Parameters on Early‐Life Failures 266 13 Probability of Failure Initiated by Flaws 269 13.1 Distribution of the Minimum Fracture Stress and a Mathematical Formulation of the Weakest‐Link Concept 269 13.2 The Stress Hazard Density as an Alternative of the Weibull Distribution 274 13.3 General Equation Related to the Probability of Failure of a Stressed Component with Complex Shape 276 13.4 Link between the Stress Hazard Density and the Conditional Individual Probability of Initiating Failure 278 13.5 Probability of Failure Initiated by Defects in Components with Complex Shape 279 13.6 Limiting the Vulnerability of Designs to Failure Caused by Flaws 280 14 A Comparative Method for Improving the Reliability and Availability of Components and Systems 283 14.1 Advantages of the Comparative Method to Traditional Methods 283 14.2 A Comparative Method for Improving the Reliability of Components Whose Failure is Initiated by Flaws 285 14.3 A Comparative Method for Improving System Reliability 289 14.4 A Comparative Method for Improving the Availability of Flow Networks 290 15 Reliability Governed by the Relative Locations of Random Variables in a Finite Domain 293 15.1 Reliability Dependent on the Relative Configurations of Random Variables 293 15.2 A Generic Equation Related to Reliability Dependent on the Relative Locations of a Fixed Number of Random Variables 293 15.3 A Given Number of Uniformly Distributed Random Variables in a Finite Interval (Conditional Case) 297 15.4 Probability of Clustering of a Fixed Number Uniformly Distributed Random Events 298 15.5 Probability of Unsatisfied Demand in the Case of One Available Source and Many Consumers 302 15.6 Reliability Governed by the Relative Locations of Random Variables following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Domain 304 Appendix 15.1 305 16 Reliability and Risk Dependent on the Existence of Minimum Separation Intervals between the Locations of Random Variables on a Finite Interval 307 16.1 Applications Requiring Minimum Separation Intervals and Minimum Failure‐Free Operating Periods 307 16.2 Minimum Separation Intervals and Rolling MFFOP Reliability Measures 309 16.3 General Equations Related to Random Variables following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Interval 310 16.4 Application Examples 312 16.4.1 Setting Reliability Requirements to Guarantee a Specified MFFOP 312 16.4.2 Reliability Assurance That a Specified MFFOP Has Been Met 312 0002547085.indd 13 8/18/2015 6:29:01 PM xiv Contents 16.4.3 Specifying a Number Density Envelope to Guarantee Probability of Unsatisfied Random Demand below a Maximum Acceptable Level 314 16.4.4 Insensitivity of the Probability of Unsatisfied Demand to the Variance of the Demand Time 315 16.5 Setting Reliability Requirements to Guarantee a Rolling MFFOP Followed by a Downtime 317 16.6 Setting Reliability Requirements to Guarantee an Availability Target 320 16.7 Closed-Form Expression for the Expected Fraction of the Time of Unsatisfied Demand 323 17 Reliability Analysis and Setting Reliability Requirements Based on the Cost of Failure 327 17.1 The Need for a Cost‐of‐Failure‐Based Approach 327 17.2 Risk of Failure 328 17.3 Setting Reliability Requirements Based on a Constant Cost of Failure 330 17.4 Drawbacks of the Expected Loss as a Measure of the Potential Loss from Failure 332 17.5 Potential Loss, Conditional Loss and Risk of Failure 333 17.6 Risk Associated with Multiple Failure Modes 336 17.6.1 An Important Special Case 337 17.7 Expected Potential Loss Associated with Repairable Systems Whose Component Failures Follow a Homogeneous Poisson Process 338 17.8 A Counterexample Related to Repairable Systems 341 17.9 Guaranteeing Multiple Reliability Requirements for Systems with Components Logically Arranged in Series 342 18 Potential Loss, Potential Profit and Risk 345 18.1 Deficiencies of the Maximum Expected Profit Criterion in Selecting a Risky Prospect 345 18.2 Risk of a Net Loss and Expected Potential Reward Associated with a Limited Number of Statistically Independent Risk–Reward Bets in a Risky Prospect 346 18.3 Probability and Risk of a Net Loss Associated with a Small Number of Opportunity Bets 348 18.4 Samuelson’s Sequence of Good Bets Revisited 351 18.5 Variation of the Risk of a Net Loss Associated with a Small Number of Opportunity Bets 352 18.6 Distribution of the Potential Profit from a Limited Number of Risk–Reward Activities 353 19 Optimal Allocation of Limited Resources among Discrete Risk Reduction Options 357 19.1 Statement of the Problem 357 19.2 Weaknesses of the Standard (0‐1) Knapsack Dynamic Programming Approach 359 19.2.1 A Counterexample 359 19.2.2 The New Formulation of the Optimal Safety Budget Allocation Problem 360 19.2.3 Dependence of the Removed System Risk on the Appropriate Selection of Combinations of Risk Reduction Options 361 19.2.4 A Dynamic Algorithm for Solving the Optimal Safety Budget Allocation Problem 365 19.3 Validation of the Model by a Recursive Backtracking 369 Appendix A 373 A.1 Random Events 373 A.2 Union of Events 375 A.3 Intersection of Events 376 A.4 Probability 378 A.5 Probability of a Union and Intersection of Mutually Exclusive Events 379 A.6 Conditional Probability 380 A.7 Probability of a Union of Non‐disjoint Events 383 A.8 Statistically Dependent Events 384 A.9 Statistically Independent Events 384 A.10 Probability of a Union of Independent Events 385 A.11 Boolean Variables and Boolean Algebra 385 Appendix B 391 B.1 Random Variables: Basic Properties 391 B.2 Boolean Random Variables 392 B.3 Continuous Random Variables 392 B.4 Probability Density Function 392 B.5 Cumulative Distribution Function 393 B.6 Joint Distribution of Continuous Random Variables 393 B.7 Correlated Random Variables 394 B.8 Statistically Independent Random Variables 395 B.9 Properties of the Expectations and Variances of Random Variables 396 B.10 Important Theoretical Results Regarding the Sample Mean 397 Appendix C: Cumulative Distribution Function of the Standard Normal Distribution 399 Appendix D: χ2‐Distribution 401 References 407 Index 413

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Book SynopsisPresents the principles, design, development and applications of the Diameter protocol suite The Diameter protocol was born in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and designed to be a general-purpose Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) protocol applicable to many network environments. This book is for everyone who wants to understand the Diameter protocol and its applications. This book explains the place Diameter holds in global telecommunication networks and teaches system architects and designers how to incorporate Diameter into their network environments. Diameter: New Generation AAA Protocol - Design, Practice and Applications begins by describing the foundation of Diameter step-by-step, starting with building blocks of the protocol, and progressing from a simple two-party exchange to a multi-party exchange involving complex routing. It discusses the motivation for using Diameter, talks about its predecessor, RADIUS, and introduces thTable of ContentsDisclaimer xiii About the Authors xv Foreword xvii Preface xix Acknowledgements xxiii List of Abbreviations xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is AAA? 1 1.2 Open Standards and the IETF 2 1.3 What is Diameter? 3 1.3.1 Diameter versus RADIUS 4 1.3.2 Diameter Improvements 5 1.4 What is freeDiameter? 6 References 6 2 Fundamental Diameter Concepts and Building Blocks 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Diameter Nodes 9 2.3 Diameter Protocol Structure 10 2.4 Diameter Applications 10 2.5 Connections 11 2.5.1 Transport Layer 11 2.5.2 Peer-to-Peer Messaging Layer 12 2.5.3 Setting up a Connection between freeDiameter Peers 12 2.6 Diameter Message Overview 12 2.6.1 The Command Code Format 13 2.6.2 Message Structure 15 2.6.3 Attribute–Value Pairs 16 2.6.3.1 Format 16 2.6.4 Derived AVP Data Formats 20 2.7 Diameter Sessions 20 2.8 Transaction Results 21 2.8.1 Successful Transactions 21 2.8.2 Protocol Errors 21 2.8.3 Transient Failures 22 2.8.4 Permanent Failures 23 2.9 Diameter Agents 25 2.9.1 Saving State 25 2.9.2 Redirect Agents 25 2.9.3 Relay Agents 25 2.9.4 Proxy Agents 27 2.9.5 Translation Agents 27 References 27 3 Communication between Neighboring Peers 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Peer Connections and Diameter Sessions 29 3.3 The DiameterIdentity 29 3.4 Peer Discovery 31 3.4.1 Static Discovery 31 3.4.1.1 Static Discovery in freeDiameter 31 3.4.2 Dynamic Discovery 32 3.4.2.1 Dynamic Discovery and DiameterURI 35 3.4.2.2 DNS Further Reading 36 3.5 Connection Establishment 36 3.5.1 The Election Process: Handling Simultaneous Connection Attempts 37 3.6 Capabilities Exchange 37 3.6.1 freeDiameter example 38 3.6.2 The Capabilities Exchange Request 39 3.6.3 Capabilities Exchange Answer 40 3.6.4 Hop-by-Hop Identifiers 41 3.7 The Peer Table 42 3.8 Peer Connection Maintenance 43 3.8.1 Transport Failure, Failover, and Failback Procedures 45 3.8.2 Peer State Machine 49 3.9 Advanced Transport and Peer Topics 49 3.9.1 TCP Multi-homing 50 3.9.2 SCTP Multi-homing 51 3.9.2.1 Multi-homing in freeDiameter 53 3.9.3 Avoiding Head-of-Line Blocking 56 3.9.4 Multiple Connection Instances 56 References 59 4 Diameter End-to-End Communication 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 The Routing Table 61 4.3 Diameter Request Routing 63 4.3.1 AVPs to Route Request Messages 64 4.3.1.1 Destination-Realm AVP 64 4.3.1.2 Destination-Host AVP 64 4.3.1.3 Auth-Application-Id and Acct-Application-Id AVPs 64 4.3.1.4 User-Name AVP 65 4.3.2 Routing AVPs 66 4.3.2.1 Route-Record AVP 66 4.3.2.2 Proxy-Info AVP 66 4.4 Request Routing Error Handling 67 4.4.1 Detecting Duplicated Messages 67 4.4.2 Error Codes 67 4.5 Answer Message Routing 68 4.5.1 Relaying and Proxying Answer Messages 69 4.6 Intra-Realm versus Inter-Realm Communication 69 4.7 Diameter Routing and Inter-Connection Networks 70 4.7.1 Inter-Connection Approaches 70 4.7.2 Dynamic Diameter Node Discovery 72 4.7.2.1 Alternative 1 73 4.7.2.2 Alternative 2 73 4.7.2.3 Alternative 3 73 4.8 Diameter Overload Control 75 4.8.1 Overload Reports 77 4.8.2 Overload Control State 77 4.8.3 Overload Abatement Considerations 79 References 79 5 Diameter Security 81 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Background 82 5.2.1 Unkeyed Primitives 83 5.2.2 Symmetric Key Primitives 84 5.2.3 Asymmetric Key Primitives 84 5.2.4 Key Length Recommendations 86 5.3 Security Threats 87 5.4 Security Services 90 5.4.1 Diameter Security Model 90 5.4.1.1 Secure Transports 91 5.4.1.2 Authorization 92 5.4.2 Relation to Threats 93 5.4.3 Mitigating Other Threats 93 5.5 PKI Example Configuration in freeDiameter 94 5.5.1 The Configuration File 94 5.5.2 The Certificate 96 5.5.3 Protecting Exchanges via TLS 97 5.5.3.1 Common Name and Hostname Mismatch 98 5.5.3.2 Unprotected Exchanges 99 5.5.3.3 Certificate Revocation 100 5.6 Security Evolution 102 References 102 6 Diameter Applications 105 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 Base Accounting 105 6.2.1 Actors 106 6.2.2 Accounting Application Setup 106 6.2.3 Accounting Services 107 6.2.4 Accounting Records 109 6.2.5 Correlation of Accounting Records 109 6.2.6 Sending Accounting Information 110 6.2.7 Accounting AVPs 110 6.2.8 freeDiameter Example 112 6.2.9 Fault Resilience 113 6.2.10 Example: 3GPP Rf Interface for Mobile Offline Charging 113 6.2.10.1 Rf Interface Commands 114 6.3 Credit Control 115 6.3.1 Credit-Control-Request Command 116 6.3.2 Credit-Control-Answer Command 118 6.3.3 Failure Handling 120 6.3.4 Extensibility 121 6.3.5 Example: 3GPP Ro Interface for Online Charging 121 6.4 Quality of Service 122 6.4.1 Actors 122 6.4.2 Modes of Operation 123 6.4.2.1 Push Mode 123 6.4.2.2 Pull Mode 123 6.4.3 Authorization 124 6.4.3.1 Push Mode Authorization Schemes 124 6.4.3.2 Pull Mode Authorization 124 6.4.4 Establishing and Managing a QoS Application Session 126 6.4.4.1 Establishing a Session 126 6.4.5 Re-Authorizing a Session 129 6.4.5.1 Re-Authorization Initiated by the NE 129 6.4.5.2 Re-Authorization Initiated by the Authorizing Elements 129 6.4.6 Terminating a Session 129 6.4.6.1 Session Terminated by the NE 129 6.4.6.2 Session Terminated by the AE 129 6.5 Interworking RADIUS and Diameter 130 6.6 S6a Interface 137 6.6.1 Evolved Packet Core 137 6.6.2 S6a Overview 138 6.6.2.1 Common AVPs for S6a Commands 139 6.6.3 Authentication 140 6.6.3.1 Authentication-Information-Request Command 140 6.6.3.2 Authentication-Information-Answer Command 141 6.6.4 Location Management 142 6.6.4.1 Update-Location-Request Command 142 6.6.4.2 Cancel-Location-Request Command 144 6.6.4.3 Cancel-Location-Answer Command 145 6.6.4.4 Update-Location-Answer Command 145 6.6.5 Subscriber Data Handling 146 6.6.5.1 Insert-Subscriber-Data-Request Command 146 6.6.5.2 Insert-Subscriber-Data-Answer Command 147 6.6.5.3 Delete-Subscriber-Data-Request Command 149 6.6.5.4 Delete-Subscriber-Data-Answer Message 150 6.6.6 Fault Recovery 150 6.6.6.1 Reset-Request Command 150 6.6.6.2 Reset-Answer Command 151 6.6.7 Notifications 152 6.6.7.1 Notify-Request Command 152 6.6.7.2 Notify-Answer Command 154 6.6.8 Ending Subscriber Sessions 154 6.6.8.1 Purge-UE-Request AVPs 154 6.6.8.2 Purge-UE-Answer Command 155 6.6.9 Extensibility 156 References 156 7 Guidelines for Extending Diameter 159 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Registration Policies 160 7.3 Overview of Extension Strategies 161 7.4 Extending Attribute–Value Pairs 162 7.4.1 Extending Existing AVPs 162 7.4.1.1 Creating New AVP Flags 162 7.4.1.2 Adding AVP Extension Points 162 7.4.1.3 Adding New AVP Values 162 7.5 Extending Commands 163 7.5.1 Allocating New Command Flags 163 7.5.2 Adding New AVPs 163 7.5.2.1 Adding New AVPs to Base Commands 165 7.5.3 Creating New Commands 165 7.5.3.1 Routing AVPs 165 7.6 Creating New Applications 166 7.6.1 The Application-Id 166 7.7 Lessons Learned 167 7.8 Vendor-specific Extensions 169 7.8.1 AVPs 169 7.8.2 Command Codes 170 7.8.3 Diameter Applications 170 7.9 Prototyping with freeDiameter 170 References 170 Appendix A freeDiameter Tutorial 173 A.1 Introduction to Virtual Machines 173 A.2 Installing the Virtualization Software 174 A.3 Creating Your Own Environment 174 A.4 Downloading the VM Image 174 A.5 Installing and Starting the Master VM freeDiameter 174 A.6 Creating a Connection Between Two Diameter Peers 175 A.6.1 Building client.example.net 176 A.6.2 Building server.example.net 177 A.6.3 Creating the Diameter Connection 178 Appendix B freeDiameter from Sources 183 B.1 Introduction 183 B.2 Tools and Dependencies 183 B.2.1 Runtime Dependencies 184 B.2.1.1 SCTP 184 B.2.1.2 TLS 184 B.2.1.3 Internationalized Domain Names 185 B.3 Obtaining freeDiameter Source Code 185 B.4 Configuring the Build 186 B.5 Compiling freeDiameter 188 B.6 Installing freeDiameter 189 B.7 freeDiameter Configuration File 189 B.8 Running and Debugging freeDiameter 190 B.9 Extensions for Debug Support 192 B.9.1 Extended Trace 192 B.9.2 Logging Diameter Messages: dbg_msg_dumps.fdx 193 B.9.3 Measuring Processing Time: dbg_msg_timings.fdx 195 B.9.4 Viewing Queue Statistics: dbg_monitor.fdx 196 B.9.5 Understanding Routing Decisions: dbg_rt.fdx 197 B.9.6 The Interactive Python Shell Extension: dbg_interactive.fdx 198 B.10 Further Reading 199 Reference 199 Appendix C The freeDiameter Framework 201 C.1 Introduction 201 C.2 Framework Modules 201 C.3 freeDiameter API Overview 202 C.3.1 libfdproto.h 203 C.3.2 libfdcore.h 205 C.3.3 extension.h 207 C.4 freeDiameter Architectures 207 Reference 208 Glossary 209 Index 213

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Book SynopsisAn introduction to the interdisciplinary subject of molecular electronics, revised and updated The revised second edition of Organic and Molecular Electronics offers a guide to the fabrication and application of a wide range of electronic devices based around organic materials and low-cost technologies. Since the publication of the first edition, organic electronics has greatly progressed, as evidenced by the myriad companies that have been established to explore the new possibilities. The text contains an introduction into the physics and chemistry of organic materials, and includes a discussion of the means to process the materials into a form (in most cases, a thin film) where they can be exploited in electronic and optoelectronic devices. The text covers the areas of application and potential application that range from chemical and biochemical sensors to plastic light emitting displays. The updated second edition reflects the recent progress in both Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgements xvii Symbols and Abbreviations xix About the Companion Website xxv 1 Scope of Organic and Molecular Electronics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Organic Materials for Electronics 2 1.3 Molecular Electronics 4 1.4 The Biological World 12 1.5 Future Opportunities 13 1.6 Conclusions 15 Problems 15 References 16 Further Reading 17 2 Materials’ Foundations 19 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Electronic Structure 20 2.3 Chemical Bonding 27 2.4 Bonding in Organic Compounds 35 2.5 Crystalline and Non crystalline Materials 43 2.6 Polymers 53 2.7 Soft Matter: Emulsions, Foams, and Gels 58 2.8 Diffusion 59 Problems 60 Reference 60 Further Reading 60 3 Electrical Conductivity 63 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Classical Theory 64 3.3 Energy Bands in Solids 71 3.4 Organic Compounds 91 3.5 Low‐Frequency Conductivity 105 3.6 Conductivity at High Frequencies 113 Problems 118 References 118 Further Reading 120 4 Optical Phenomena 121 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 122 4.3 Refractive Index 123 4.4 Interaction of EM Waves with Organic Molecules 127 4.5 Transmission and Reflection from Interfaces 140 4.6 Wave guiding 145 4.7 Surface Plasmons 146 4.8 Photonic Crystals 151 Problems 155 References 155 Further Reading 156 5 Electroactive Organic Compounds 157 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2 Selected Topics in Chemistry 158 5.3 Conductive Polymers 166 5.4 Charge‐Transfer Complexes 170 5.5 Graphene, Fullerenes, and Nanotubes 173 5.6 Piezoelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Ferroelectricity 180 5.7 Magnetic Materials 185 Problems 194 References 194 Further Reading 196 6 Tools for Molecular Electronics 197 6.1 Introduction 197 6.2 Direct Imaging 198 6.3 X‐Ray Reflection 202 6.4 Neutron Reflection 206 6.5 Electron Diffraction 206 6.6 Infrared Spectroscopy 208 6.7 Surface Analytical Techniques 213 6.8 Scanning Probe Microscopies 214 6.9 Film Thickness Measurements 217 Problems 218 References 219 Further Reading 220 7 Thin Film Processing and Device Fabrication 221 7.1 Introduction 221 7.2 Established Deposition Methods 222 7.3 Molecular Architectures 239 7.4 Micro‐and Nanofabrication 253 Problems 260 References 260 Further Reading 263 8 Liquid Crystals and Devices 265 8.1 Introduction 265 8.2 Liquid Crystal Phases 266 8.3 Liquid Crystal Polymers 271 8.4 Display Devices 273 8.5 Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals 279 8.6 Polymer‐dispersed Liquid Crystals 281 8.7 Liquid Crystal Lenses 282 8.8 Other Application Areas 283 Problems 284 References 285 Further Reading 286 9 Plastic Electronics 287 9.1 Introduction 288 9.2 Organic Diodes 288 9.3 Metal–Insulator–Semiconductor Structures 292 9.4 Organic Field Effect Transistors 295 9.5 Organic Integrated Circuits 301 9.6 Transparent Conducting Films 303 9.7 Organic Light‐emitting Devices 304 9.8 Organic Photovoltaic Devices 321 9.9 Other Application Areas 328 Problems 331 References 332 Further Reading 336 10 Chemical Sensors and Physical Actuators 337 10.1 Introduction 337 10.2 Sensing Systems 338 10.3 Definitions 339 10.4 Chemical Sensors 341 10.5 Biological Olfaction 360 10.6 Electronic Noses 362 10.7 Physical Sensors and Actuators 363 10.8 Wearable Electronics 369 Problems 369 References 370 Further Reading 371 11 Molecular and Nanoscale Electronics 373 11.1 Introduction 374 11.2 Nano systems 374 11.3 Engineering Materials at the Molecular Level 376 11.4 Molecular Device Architectures 381 11.5 Molecular Rectification 385 11.6 Electronic Switching and Memory Phenomena 387 11.7 Single‐electron Devices 395 11.8 Optical and Chemical Switches 397 11.9 Nanomagnetics 402 11.10 Nanotube and Graphene Electronics 404 11.11 Molecular Actuation 407 11.12 Molecular Logic Circuits 410 11.13 Computing Architectures 412 11.14 Quantum Computing 414 11.15 Evolvable Electronics 415 Problems 416 References 416 Further Reading 420 12 Bioelectronics 421 12.1 Introduction 422 12.2 Biological Building Blocks 422 12.3 Nucleotides 429 12.4 Cells 433 12.5 Genetic Coding 434 12.6 The Biological Membrane 438 12.7 Neurons 443 12.8 Biosensors 445 12.9 DNA Electronics 449 12.10 Photobiology 450 12.11 Molecular Motors 458 Problems 461 References 461 Further Reading 463 Appendix 465 Index 469

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses the fundamental aspects of multiple-source Optical Wireless Applications, including Visible Light Communications (VLC). Moreover, the authors explore VLC performance in several conventional household layouts and investigate the impact of these layouts on VLC. Multiple sources increase multipath distortion. Multi-input- Multi-Output (MIMO) techniques will be included as they provide either reliability improvement or bandwidth efficiency increase. Based on these topics, the book further explores VLC performance in real applications, such as aircraft cabin wireless communications. In addition, the authors describe the Lambertian emitting pattern of LEDs and the diffused features in indoor environments. Based on the theory, they trace light pulses to establish a MIMO indoor wireless channel model on specific sources layout. Next, they generate test data to simulate BER distribution in a room and calculate the outage. Furthermore, addresses the performance imprTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation 1 1.1.1 Spectrum Scarcity Issues and Optical Wireless Communications as a Solution 3 1.2 Organization 8 References 9 2 Fundamentals of Optical Wireless Communications 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Communications Blocks in an OWC System 12 2.3 Intensity Modulation/Direct Detection (IM/DD) 14 2.4 Optical Transmitters 15 2.5 Optical Receivers 16 2.6 Optical Wireless Channel Propagation Characteristics 20 2.7 Conclusions 24 References 25 3 Indoor Optical Wireless Channel Modeling Methods 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Source and Receiver Configurations 27 3.3 Steps for Modeling of Indoor OWC Environment 31 3.4 Models of the Room and Other Reflecting Surfaces 32 3.5 Radiation Patterns 32 3.5.1 Radiation Patterns of Point Sources 33 3.5.2 Radiation Patterns of Reflections 34 3.6 Received Power from LOS Links 37 3.7 Received Power from NLOS Links 39 3.7.1 Barry’s Algorithm 39 3.7.2 MIMO Modeling Method 41 3.7.3 Modified Monte Carlo Algorithm and Variations 44 3.7.4 Combined Deterministic and MMC Algorithm 45 3.7.5 Other Approaches for Impulse Response Calculation 63 3.8 Conclusions 63 References 64 4 Analyses of Indoor Optical Wireless Channels Based on Channel Impulse Responses 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Analyses of Optical Wireless Channel Impulse Responses 67 4.2.1 Non]Directed LOS Links 70 4.2.2 Non]Directed NLOS Links 82 4.3 Effects of Furniture on Root]Mean]Square Delay Spread 89 4.4 SNR Calculations and BER Performance 93 4.5 Impact of Higher Order Reflections 96 4.6 Conclusions 107 References 109 5 Bit]Error]Rate Distribution and Outage of Indoor Optical Wireless Communications Systems 111 5.1 Introduction 111 5.2 Simulation Parameters 111 5.3 Optimal Detection and BER Outage Analysis 113 5.3.1 Optimal Detection 113 5.3.2 BER Analysis 115 5.4 Simulation Results (Receiver FOV = 60°) 117 5.4.1 BER Distribution and Outage 118 5.4.2 Impulse Response Distortion 121 5.5 Simulation Results (Receiver FOV = 30°) 123 5.6 Analytical Results and Comparisons 126 5.7 Conclusions 126 References 130 6 Orthogonal Frequency]Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for Indoor Optical Wireless Communications 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 OFDM Overview 132 6.2.1 Basic OFDM System 132 6.2.2 System Operation 132 6.2.3 Discrete Time Implementation of OFDM 134 6.2.4 Drawbacks of OFDM 134 6.3 OFDM]Based OW Systems 136 6.3.1 ACO]OFDM 137 6.3.2 PAM]DMT 137 6.3.3 DHT]OFDM 139 6.4 Precoding and PAPR Reduction in AC OFDM OW Systems 140 6.4.1 Precoding]Based Optical OFDM System Model 140 6.4.2 Precoding Schemes 143 6.4.3 Simulation Results and Discussions 144 6.5 Performance of AC OFDM Systems in AWGN and Multipath Channel 149 6.5.1 Precoding]Based OW OFDM System Model with AWGN 149 6.5.2 Multipath Indoor Channel 150 6.5.3 Frequency]Domain Equalization (FDE) 151 6.5.4 Analytical BER Performance Results 152 6.5.5 Electrical and Optical Performance Metrics 154 6.5.6 Clipping and PAPR Reduction 154 6.5.7 Simulation Results 155 6.6 Conclusions 164 References 167 7 MIMO Technology for Optical Wireless Communications using LED Arrays and Fly]Eye Receivers 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 MIMO Configurations 169 7.2.1 MIMO System Model 169 7.2.2 Spatial Diversity 170 7.3 Angle]Diversity Receivers 171 7.3.1 Angle]Diversity Receiver Overview 171 7.3.2 Fly]Eye Receiver Design 171 7.4 Simulation Results and Discussions 173 7.4.1 Simulation Parameters 173 7.4.2 BER Spatial Distributions for MIMO OWC Systems 174 7.4.3 Impact of Ambient Noise 182 7.5 Conclusions 189 References 190 8 Wireless Solutions for Aircrafts Based on Optical Wireless Communications and Power Line Communications 193 8.1 Introduction 193 8.2 Powerline Communications Channel Model 195 8.3 Optical Wireless Communications 196 8.3.1 Simulation Configurations 196 8.3.2 Illuminance Distribution Results 197 8.3.3 Delay Spread Distribution Results 199 8.3.4 Bit]Error]Rate Distribution and Outage Probability 200 8.4 Wireless Applications for Commercial Airplanes 204 8.4.1 Reading Light Passenger Service Units 204 8.4.2 Passenger Infotainment 205 8.4.3 Cabin Interphones 205 8.4.4 Interconnection of Line]Replaceable]Units Over Environmental Barrier 205 8.5 Conclusions 205 References 205 9 Multispot Diffusing Transmitters Using Holographic Diffusers for Infrared Beams and Receivers Using Holographic Mirrors 207 9.1 Introduction 207 9.2 CGH for Intensity]Weighted Spot Arrays 208 9.3 Communication Cells for Multispot Diffusing Configuration 211 9.4 Receiver Optical Front]End 214 9.4.1 Holographic Mirrors 215 9.4.2 Signal Effective Area 215 9.4.3 Figure]of]Merit 216 9.5 Wave Propagation through Materials and Metamaterials and Relation with Holography 218 9.6 Conclusions 222 References 222 10 Indoor Positioning Methods Using VLC LEDs 225 10.1 Motivation 225 10.2 Positioning Algorithms and Solutions 228 10.2.1 Triangulation 228 10.2.2 Scene Analysis 234 10.2.3 Proximity 234 10.2.4 Comparison of Positioning Techniques 235 10.3 An Asynchronous Indoor Positioning System based on VLC LED 237 10.3.1 Basic Framed Slotted ALOHA Protocol 237 10.3.2 System Design and DC Channel Gain 243 10.3.3 Positioning Algorithm 244 10.3.4 Signal]to]Noise Ratio Analysis 250 10.3.5 Results and Discussions 252 10.3.6 Extended Simulation and Results 256 10.4 Conclusions 260 References 260 Index

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive exposition of the theory and techniques of fault identification and decision theory when applied to complex systems shows how modern computer analysis and diagnostic methods might be applied to launch vehicle design, checkout, and launch the space checkout system is a specialized area which is rarely explored in terms of the intelligent techniques and approaches involved an original view combining modern theory with well-established research material, inviting a contemporary approach to launch dynamics highlights the advanced research works in the field of testing, control and decision-making for space launch presented in a very well organized way and the technical level is very high Trade Review"A comprehensive exposition of the theory and techniques of fault identification and decision theory when applied to complex systems." (Zentralblatt MATH 2016)Table of ContentsIntroductionChapter 1 Overview of Testing and Control for Space LaunchChapter 2 Networks of Testing and Control for Space LaunchChapter 3 Intelligent Analysis and Processing for Testing DataChapter 4 Intelligent Fault Diagnosis for Space Launch and TestingChapter 5 Safety Control of Space Launch and Flight: Modeling and Intelligence DecisionChapter 6 Development Tendency of Space Launch Test and ControlReferencesIndex

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Book SynopsisThis book covers important and timely issues in Reverberation Chambers (RCs) and their applications to EMC and Antenna measurements. Developed specifically for university students, researchers, practicing industrial engineers and designers who work with antennas in radio frequency (RF) engineering, EMC, radar, and radio communications. This book will provide the reader with a firm theoretical and practical understanding of the RCs operation, allowing them to undertake practical antenna and EMC measurement work with confidence and accuracy. The book is built on many years of research by the authors that encompass many of the new advances in antenna design.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors viii Acknowledgements x 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 This Book 3 References 5 2 Reverberation Chamber Cavity Theory 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Cavity Modes and Electromagnetic Fields 8 2.3 Mode Stirring Techniques 17 2.4 Plane Wave Angle of Arrival 21 2.5 Average Mode Bandwidths 24 2.6 Chamber Quality (Q) Factor 26 2.7 Statistical Forms 30 2.8 Line of Sight Elements 44 2.9 Reverberation Chamber as a Radio Propagation Channel 52 References 56 3 Mechanical Stirrer Designs and Chamber Performance Evaluation 58 3.1 Introduction 58 3.2 Paddle Design Methodology 61 3.3 Numerical Analysis 63 3.4 Comments on Practical Validation 78 3.5 Measurement Parameters for Validation 80 3.6 Measurement Results 81 3.7 Summary 92 References 92 4 EMC Measurements inside Reverberation Chambers 94 4.1 Introduction to EMC 95 4.2 EMC Standards 98 4.3 EMC Measurements and Tests 101 4.4 EMC Measurements Inside Reverberation Chambers 103 4.5 Comparison of Reverberation Chamber and Other Measurement Facilities for EMC Measurements 123 4.6 Conclusions 127 Acknowledgements 127 References 127 5 Single Port Antenna Measurements 129 5.1 Introduction 130 5.2 Definitions and Proof: Antenna Efficiency 131 5.3 Definitions: Textile Antennas 134 5.4 Measurement Procedures 134 5.5 Free Space Measurement Investigation 138 5.6 On‐Body Antenna Measurements 145 5.7 Theoretical and Simulated Evidence 161 5.8 Measurement Uncertainty 163 5.9 Summary 166 References 167 6 Multiport and Array Antennas 169 6.1 Introduction 169 6.2 Multi‐port Antennas for MIMO Applications 171 6.3 Measurement Parameters 174 6.4 Diversity Gain from Cumulative Distribution Functions (CDF) 175 6.5 Diversity from Correlation 180 6.6 Channel Capacity 185 6.7 Embedded Element Efficiency 186 6.8 Definitions: Conventional Array Antenna Measurements 191 6.9 Measurement Parameters 192 6.10 Deduction of Characterisation Equation 194 6.11 Measurement Results 196 6.12 Measurement Uncertainty 200 6.13 Summary 200 References 201 7 Further Applications and Developments 203 7.1 Shielding Effectiveness Measurements 203 7.2 Antenna Radiation Efficiency Measurements without a Reference Antenna 209 7.3 Antenna Diversity Gain Measurements without a Reference Antenna 213 7.4 Wireless Device and System Evaluation 214 7.5 Other Reverberation Chambers and the Future 216 7.6 Summary 218 References 218 Appendix A: Deduction of Independent Samples 220 Appendix B: Multivariate Normality Test for SIMO Channels 225 Appendix C: Surface Current Nature 230 Appendix D: BS EN 61000‐4‐21 Standard Deviation Results 235 Index 240

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Book SynopsisClustering techniques are increasingly being put to use in the analysis of high-throughput biological datasets. Novel computational techniques to analyse high throughput data in the form of sequences, gene and protein expressions, pathways, and images are becoming vital for understanding diseases and future drug discovery.Table of ContentsPreface xix List of Symbols xxi About the Authors xxiii Part One Introduction 1 1 Introduction to Bioinformatics 3 2 Computational Methods in Bioinformatics 9 Part Two Introduction to Molecular Biology 19 3 The Living Cell 21 4 Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 33 Part Three Data Acquisition and Pre-processing 53 5 High-throughput Technologies 55 6 Databases, Standards and Annotation 67 7 Normalisation 87 8 Feature Selection 109 9 Differential Expression 119 Part Four Clustering Methods 133 10 Clustering Forms 135 11 Partitional Clustering 143 12 Hierarchical Clustering 157 13 Fuzzy Clustering 167 14 Neural Network-based Clustering 181 15 Mixture Model Clustering 197 16 Graph Clustering 227 17 Consensus Clustering 247 18 Biclustering 265 19 Clustering Methods Discussion 283 Part Five Validation and Visualisation 303 20 Numerical Validation 305 21 Biological Validation 323 22 Visualisations and Presentations 339 Part Six New Clustering Frameworks Designed for Bioinformatics 363 23 Splitting-Merging Awareness Tactics (SMART) 365 24 Tightness-tunable Clustering (UNCLES) 385 Appendix 395 Index 409

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Book SynopsisKey advances in Semiconductor Terahertz (THz) Technology now promises important new applications enabling scientists and engineers to overcome the challenges of accessing the so-called terahertz gap. This pioneering reference explains the fundamental methods and surveys innovative techniques in the generation, detection and processing of THz waves with solid-state devices, as well as illustrating their potential applications in security and telecommunications, among other fields. With contributions from leading experts, Semiconductor Terahertz Technology: Devices and Systems at Room Temperature Operation comprehensively and systematically covers semiconductor-based room temperature operating sources such as photomixers, THz antennas, radiation concepts and THz propagation as well as room-temperature operating THz detectors. The second part of the book focuses on applications such as the latest photonic and electronic THz systems as well as emerging THz technologies incTable of ContentsAcknowledgments xi Preface xiii Foreword xvii List of Contributors xix 1 General Introduction 1Hans Hartnagel, Antti V. Räisänen, and Magdalena Salazar-Palma 2 Principles of THz Generation 3Sascha Preu, Gottfried H. Döhler, Stefan Malzer, Andreas Stöhr, Vitaly Rymanov, Thorsten Göbel, Elliott R. Brown, Michael Feiginov, Ramón Gonzalo, Miguel Beruete, and Miguel Navarro-Cya 2.1 Overview 3 2.2 THz Generation by Photomixers and Photoconductors 5 2.2.1 Principle of Operation 5 2.2.2 Basic Concepts and Design Rules 7 2.2.3 Thermal Constraints 21 2.2.4 Electrical Constraints 23 2.2.5 Device Layouts of Photoconductive Devices 35 2.2.6 Device Layouts of p-i-n Diode-Based Emitters 47 2.3 Principles of Electronic THz Generation 53 2.3.1 Oscillators with Negative Differential Conductance 54 2.3.2 Multipliers (Schottky Diodes, Hetero-Barrier Varactors) 56 2.3.3 Plasmonic Sources 58 References 61 3 Principles of Emission of THzWaves 69Luis Enrique Garcya Munoz, Sascha Preu, Stefan Malzer, Gottfried H. Döhler, Javier Montero-de-Paz, Ramón Gonzalo, David González-Ovejero, Daniel Segovia-Vargas, Dmitri Lioubtchenko, and Antti V. Räisänen 3.1 Fundamental Parameters of Antennas 69 3.1.1 Radiation Pattern 69 3.1.2 Directivity 71 3.1.3 Gain and Radiation Efficiency 71 3.1.4 Effective Aperture Area and Aperture Efficiency 72 3.1.5 Phase Pattern and Phase Center 72 3.1.6 Polarization 72 3.1.7 Input Impedance and Radiation Resistance 72 3.1.8 Bandwidth 73 3.2 Outcoupling Issues of THz Waves 73 3.2.1 Radiation Pattern of a Dipole over a Semi-Infinite Substrate 75 3.2.2 Radiation Pattern of a Dipole in a Multilayered Medium 79 3.2.3 Anomalies in the Radiation Pattern 82 3.3 THz Antenna Topologies 84 3.3.1 Resonant Antennas 85 3.3.2 Self-Complementary Antennas 87 3.4 Lenses 90 3.4.1 Lens Design 90 3.5 Techniques for Improving the Performance of THz Antennas 93 3.5.1 Conjugate Matching Technique 93 3.5.2 Tapered Slot Antenna on Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures 99 3.6 Arrays 107 3.6.1 General Overview and Spectral Features of Arrays 107 3.6.2 Large Area Emitters 113 References 157 4 Propagation at THz Frequencies 160Antti V. Räisänen, Dmitri Lioubtchenko, Andrey Generalov, J. Anthony Murphy, Créidhe O’Sullivan, Marcin L. Gradziel, Neil Trappe, Luis Enrique Garcia Munoz, Alejandro Garcia-Lamperez, and Javier Montero-de-Paz 4.1 Helmholtz Equation and Electromagnetic Modes of Propagation 160 4.2 THz Waveguides 167 4.2.1 Waveguides with a Single Conductor: TE and TM Modes 168 4.2.2 Waveguides with Two or More Conductors: TEM and Quasi-TEM Modes 173 4.2.3 Waveguides with No Conductor: Hybrid Modes 177 4.3 Beam Waveguides 183 4.3.1 Gaussian Beam 183 4.3.2 Launching and Focusing Components: Horns, Lenses, and Mirrors 187 4.3.3 Other Components Needed in Beam Waveguides 193 4.3.4 Absorbers 195 4.3.5 Modeling Horns Using Mode Matching 195 4.3.6 Multimode Systems and Partially Coherent Propagation 199 4.3.7 Modeling Techniques for THz Propagation in THz Systems 201 4.4 High Frequency Electric Characterization of Materials 202 4.4.1 Drude Model 203 4.4.2 Lorentz–Drude Model 204 4.4.3 Brendel–Bormann Model 205 4.5 Propagation in Free Space 205 4.5.1 Link Budget 205 4.5.2 Atmospheric Attenuation 206 References 207 5 Principles of THz Direct Detection 212Elliott R. Brown, and Daniel Segovia-Vargas 5.1 Detection Mechanisms 212 5.1.1 E-Field Rectification 213 5.1.2 Thermal Detection 215 5.1.3 Plasma-Wave, HEMT, and MOS-Based Detection 220 5.2 Noise Mechanisms 223 5.2.1 Noise from Electronic Devices 223 5.2.2 Phonon Noise 225 5.2.3 Photon Noise with Direct Detection 227 5.3 THz Coupling 230 5.3.1 THz Impedance Matching 230 5.3.2 Planar-Antenna Coupling 231 5.3.3 Exemplary THz Coupling Structures 232 5.3.4 Output-Circuit Coupling 235 5.4 External Responsivity Examples 235 5.4.1 Rectifiers 235 5.4.2 Micro-Bolometers 236 5.5 System Metrics 239 5.5.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 239 5.5.2 Sensitivity Metrics 240 5.6 Effect of Amplifier Noise 243 5.7 A Survey of Experimental THz Detector Performance 244 5.7.1 Rectifiers 246 5.7.2 Thermal Detectors 247 5.7.3 CMOS-Based and Plasma-Wave Detectors 249 References 250 6 THz Electronics 254Michael Feiginov, Ramón Gonzalo, Itziar Maestrojuán, Oleg Cojocari, Matthias Hoefle, and Ernesto Limiti 6.1 Resonant-Tunneling Diodes 254 6.1.1 Historic Introduction 254 6.1.2 Operating Principles of RTDs 255 6.1.3 Charge-Relaxation Processes in RTDs 256 6.1.4 High-Frequency RTD Conductance 259 6.1.5 Operating Principles of RTD Oscillators 260 6.1.6 Limitations of RTD Oscillators 261 6.1.7 Overview of the State of the Art Results 264 6.1.8 RTD Oscillators versus Other Types of THz Sources 265 6.1.9 Future Perspectives 265 6.2 Schottky Diode Mixers: Fundamental and Harmonic Approaches 265 6.2.1 Sub-Harmonic Mixers 267 6.2.2 Circuit Fabrication Technologies 270 6.2.3 Characterization Technologies 272 6.2.4 Advanced Configuration Approach 276 6.2.5 Imaging Applications of Schottky Mixers 277 6.3 Solid-State THz Low Noise Amplifiers 278 6.3.1 Solid-State Active Devices and Technologies for Low Noise Amplification 280 6.3.2 Circuit and Propagation Issues for TMIC 282 6.3.3 Low Noise Amplifier Design and Realizations 284 6.3.4 Perspectives 287 6.4 Square-Law Detectors 288 6.4.1 Characterization and Modeling of Low-Barrier Schottky Diodes 289 6.4.2 Design of Millimeter-Wave Square-Law Detectors 291 6.5 Fabrication Technologies 292 6.5.1 Overview of Fabrication Approaches of Schottky Structures for Millimeter-Wave Applications 293 6.5.2 Film-Diode Process 296 References 299 7 Selected Photonic THz Technologies 304Cyril C. Renaud, Andreas Stöhr, Thorsten Goebel, Frédéric Van Dijk, and Guillermo Carpintero 7.1 Photonic Techniques for THz Emission and Detection 304 7.1.1 Overall Photonic System 304 7.1.2 Basic Components Description 306 7.1.3 Systems Parameters, Pulsed versus CW 307 7.2 Laser Sources for THz Generation 309 7.2.1 Pulsed Laser Sources 309 7.2.2 Continous Wave (CW) Sources 312 7.2.3 Noise Reduction Techniques 314 7.2.4 Photonic Integrated Laser Sources 315 7.3 Photodiode for THz Emission 320 7.3.1 PD Limitations and Key Parameters 320 7.3.2 Traveling Wave UTC-PD Solution 322 7.4 Photonically Enabled THz Detection 324 7.4.1 Pulsed Terahertz Systems 325 7.4.2 Optically Pumped Mixers 328 7.5 Photonic Integration for THz Systems 331 7.5.1 Hybrid or Monolithic Integrations 332 7.5.2 Monolithic Integration of Subsystems 333 7.5.3 Foundry Model for Integrated Systems 334 References 335 8 Selected Emerging THz Technologies 340Christian Damm, Harald G. L. Schwefel, Florian Sedlmeir, Hans Hartnagel, Sascha Preu, and Christian Weickhmann 8.1 THz Resonators 340 8.1.1 Principles of Resonators 341 8.1.2 Introduction to WGM Resonators 343 8.1.3 Evanescent Waveguide Coupling to WGMs 345 8.1.4 Resonant Scattering in WGM Resonators 346 8.1.5 Nonlinear Interactions in WGM 349 8.2 Liquid Crystals 350 8.2.1 Introduction 350 8.2.2 Characterization 357 8.2.3 Applications 365 8.3 Graphene for THz Frequencies 367 8.3.1 Theory and Material Properties 367 8.3.2 Applications 373 References 377 Index 383

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Book SynopsisThe aim of this book is to enable network planners to realize and maintain cost efficient LTE backhaul networks, which meet the necessary performance requirements. Through an introduction to the technology background, the economical modelling, the dimensioning theory, planning and optimization processes and relevant network management aspects, the reader shall obtain all relevant information to achieve good backhaul results in their own network environment. It is aimed at network planners and other experts with responsibilities for LTE IP network dimensioning, LTE network planning, providing and managing leased lines, business management, LTE IP network operation and optimization. Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Foreword xiii Acknowledgments xv List of Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 Esa Markus Metsälä and Juha T.T. Salmelin 1.1 To the reader 1 1.2 Content 2 1.3 Scope 2 Reference 2 2 LTE Backhaul 3 Gerald Bedürftig, Jouko Kapanen, Esa Markus Metsälä and Juha T.T. Salmelin 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 LTE Backhaul Planes 5 2.2.1 3GPP Planes and Protocol Stacks 5 2.2.2 Synchronization Plane 7 2.2.3 Management Plane 9 2.2.4 Active Monitoring Plane 9 2.2.5 Security Control Plane 10 2.2.6 Control and User Plane of Additional Proprietary Applications 10 2.3 Radio Features of LTE and LTE‐A 11 2.3.1 LTE 11 2.3.2 LTE‐A 12 2.4 R equirements for LTE Backhaul (SLAs) 17 2.4.1 Capacity 17 2.4.2 Latency and Loss 18 2.4.3 QoS Capabilities 21 2.4.4 Synchronization 21 2.4.5 Availability 22 2.4.6 Security 22 2.4.7 Examples 23 2.5 Transport Services 26 2.6 Planning Problems 27 2.7 LTE Backhaul Technologies 29 2.7.1 Access 30 2.7.2 Aggregation and Backbone Network 34 2.8 Small Cell Backhaul 34 2.9 Future Radio Features Affecting Backhaul 35 2.9.1 Inter NodeB CoMP (eCoMP) 35 2.9.2 Dual Connectivity 36 2.9.3 Dynamic eICIC 38 2.10 R elated Standards and Industry Forums 39 2.10.1 3GPP 39 2.10.2 ITU‐T SG15 40 2.10.3 IEEE 802 40 2.10.4 IETF 40 2.10.5 MEF 40 2.10.6 NGMN 41 2.10.7 BBF 41 2.10.8 SCF 41 2.11 Operator Example 42 References 42 3 Economic Modeling and Strategic Input for Lte Backhaul 45 Gabriel Waller and Esa Markus Metsälä 3.1 Introduction 45 3.1.1 Role of Backhaul Within Lte 46 3.1.2 Why and What to Model 48 3.2 Strategic Input for Planning 49 3.2.1 Physical infrastructure 49 3.2.2 Transmission media 50 3.2.3 Capacity and interfaces 50 3.2.4 Network technologies 51 3.2.5 Network topology 51 3.2.6 Make or buy 51 3.2.7 Backhaul security aspects 52 3.3 Quantifying benefits 53 3.3.1 Revenue from LTE backhaul 53 3.3.2 Contribution to mobile service revenue 54 3.3.3 Cost savings 54 3.4 Quantifying costs 55 3.4.1 Equipment purchases 55 3.4.2 Economic lifetime 55 3.4.3 Operational costs 56 3.4.4 Other costs 57 3.5 Case router 58 3.5.1 Cash Flow 58 3.5.2 Payback Period 59 3.5.3 Net Present Value (NPV) 61 3.5.4 Selection of the Interest Rate 63 3.5.5 Internal Rate of Return 64 3.5.6 Return on Investment and Further Metrics 64 3.6 Wireless Backhaul Case Study 66 3.6.1 Case Definition 66 3.6.2 Payback Period 68 3.6.3 NPV 69 References 70 Further Reading 71 4 Dimensioning Aspects and Analytical Models of LTE MBH Networks 73 Csaba Vulkán and Juha T.T. Salmelin 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Dimensioning Paradigm 76 4.3 Applications and QoE: Considerations 78 4.3.1 Transmission Control Protocol 79 4.3.2 Web Browsing 83 4.3.3 Video Download 85 4.4 Dimensioning Requirements 87 4.5 Traffic Models 88 4.5.1 Peak Load or Busy Hour Load 92 4.5.2 Geographic Diversity and Daily Load Profile/Distribution 93 4.5.3 Session Level User Behavior 95 4.5.4 Burst Level User Behavior 99 4.5.5 Packet Level Behavior 102 4.5.6 Transmission Control Protocol Models 106 4.6 Network models 112 4.6.1 Queuing methods 113 4.6.2 Fluid Network Models 117 4.6.3 Network model 118 4.6.4 Routing and Requirement Allocations 119 4.7 Dimensioning 122 4.7.1 QoS‐driven dimensioning 122 4.7.2 Reliability Requirement Based Dimensioning 124 References 127 5 Planning and Optimizing Mobile Backhaul for LTE 129 Raija Lilius, Jari Salo, José Manuel Tapia Pérez and Esa Markus Metsälä 5.1 Introduction 129 5.1.1 Planning and Optimization Process 130 5.1.2 High‐Level Design Overview 131 5.2 Backhaul Network Deployment Scenarios 132 5.2.1 Connectivity Requirements 132 5.2.2 Differences Between Ethernet and IP Connectivity 133 5.2.3 Implications to Backhaul Scenarios 134 5.2.4 Ethernet Services 134 5.2.5 L3 VPN Service 136 5.2.6 Scenario 1: IP Access 137 5.2.7 Scenario 2: Ethernet Service in the Access 137 5.3 Network Topology and Transport Media 138 5.3.1 Access Network Topologies and Media 138 5.3.2 Aggregation Network Topologies 139 5.4 Availability and Resiliency Schemes 139 5.4.1 Availability Calculation 140 5.4.2 Link Resiliency and its Impact on Availability 141 5.4.3 Routing Gateway Redundancy 144 5.4.4 Ethernet Ring Protection (ERP) 147 5.4.5 IP and MPLS Rerouting 148 5.4.6 SCTP Multi‐Homing 149 5.4.7 Connectivity Toward Multiple S‐GWs and MMEs 149 5.4.8 Synchronization Protection 150 5.4.9 OSS Resiliency 150 5.4.10 End‐to‐End Performance of Multilayer Redundancy 151 5.5 QoS Planning 152 5.5.1 QoS in an Access Transport Node 152 5.5.2 Packet Classification 153 5.5.3 Scheduling 156 5.5.4 Traffic Shaping 158 5.5.5 Active Queue Management and Bufferbloat 160 5.5.6 Connection Admission Control 161 5.6 Link Bandwidth Dimensioning 163 5.6.1 Obtaining Input Parameters for User Plane Bandwidth Dimensioning 164 5.6.2 Obtaining Input Parameters for Control Plane Bandwidth Dimensioning 169 5.6.3 Link Bandwidth Dimensioning: Single Queue 172 5.6.4 Link Bandwidth Dimensioning: Multiple Queues 180 5.6.5 Combining Signaling, Voice and Data Traffic 183 5.6.6 Comparison of Bandwidth Dimensioning Formulas 186 5.7 Dimensioning Other Traffic Types 187 5.7.1 Management Traffic 187 5.7.2 Synchronization Traffic 187 5.7.3 Other Traffic Types 188 5.8 Base Station Site Solutions 188 5.9 Security Solutions 189 5.9.1 Network Element Hardening 190 5.9.2 Network Security High‐Level Architecture 190 5.9.3 Security Gateway High Availability 192 5.9.4 IPsec Parameter Planning 196 5.9.5 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) 201 5.9.6 Self‐Organizing Networks (SONs) and Security 203 5.10 IP Planning 203 5.10.1 IP Addressing Alternatives for eNB 204 5.10.2 VLAN Planning 206 5.10.3 IP Addressing 208 5.10.4 Dynamic Versus Static Routing 211 5.10.5 Examples 211 5.11 Synchronization Planning 214 5.11.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 215 5.11.2 Synchronous Ethernet (SyncE) 215 5.11.3 IEEE1588 (2008) Frequency Synchronization 218 5.11.4 IEEE1588 (2008) Phase Synchronization 222 5.12 Self‐Organizing Networks (SON) and Management System Connectivity 226 5.12.1 Planning for SON 226 5.12.2 Data Communications Network (DCN) Planning for Transport Network and the Base Stations 227 5.13 LTE Backhaul Optimization 227 5.13.1 Introduction to LTE Backhaul Optimization 227 5.13.2 Proactive Methods 228 5.13.3 Reactive Methods 231 5.13.4 Active vs. Passive Methods 232 References 236 6 Design Examples 239 Jari Salo and Esa Markus Metsälä 6.1 Introduction 239 6.2 Scenario #1: Microwave 239 6.2.1 Synchronization 240 6.2.2 IP Planning 242 6.2.3 Availability 245 6.3 Scenario #2: Leased Line 254 6.3.1 Assumptions for the Use Case 254 6.3.2 Comparing Transport Providers 254 6.3.3 The Solution Summary 258 Reference 258 7 Network Management 259 Raimo Kangas and Esa Markus Metsälä 7.1 Introduction 259 7.2 NMS Architecture 260 7.3 Fault Management 262 7.4 Performance Management 263 7.5 Configuration Management (CM) 263 7.5.1 Maintaining an Up‐to‐Date Picture of the Network 264 7.5.2 Configuration History 264 7.5.3 Configuring Network 265 7.5.4 Policy‐Based Configuration Management 265 7.5.5 Planning Interfaces 266 7.5.6 Network Configuration Discovery 267 7.5.7 Configuration Management of Backhaul Network 267 7.6 Optimization 268 7.7 Self‐Organizing Network (SON) 270 7.8 O&M Protocols 272 7.8.1 SNMP 273 7.8.2 NETCONF 275 7.9 Planning of Network Management System 275 7.9.1 Strategic Planning 276 7.9.2 Analysis 276 7.9.3 Design 277 7.9.4 Implementation 278 7.9.5 Maintenance 278 References 278 8 Summary 279 Esa Markus Metsälä and Juha T.T. Salmelin Index 281

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Book SynopsisSolar PV is now the third most important renewable energy source, after hydro and wind power, in terms of global installed capacity.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xxvii Foreword xxxii Acknowledgments xxxiv About the Companion Website xxxv Part One INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 1 1.1 Introduction 3 Angèle Reinders, Wilfried van Sark, and Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 11 Constants 11 List of Acronyms 11 References 11 Part Two BASIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 2.1 Semiconductor Materials and their Properties 15 Angèle Reinders List of Symbols 19 List of Acronyms 19 References 20 2.2 Doping, Diffusion, and Defects in Solar Cells 21 Pierre J. Verlinden List of Symbols 31 List of Acronyms 31 References 31 2.3 Absorption and Generation 32 Seth Hubbard References 38 2.4 Recombination 39 Seth Hubbard References 46 2.5 Carrier Transport 47 Seth Hubbard References 53 2.6 PN Junctions and the Diode Equation 54 Seth Hubbard Acknowledgments 63 List of Symbols 63 List of Acronyms 65 References 66 Part Three CRYSTALLINE SILICON TECHNOLOGIES 67 3.1 Silicon Materials: Electrical and Optical Properties 69 Andreas Fell List of Symbols 77 List of Acronyms 77 References 78 3.2 Silicon Solar Cell Device Structures 80 Andrew Blakers and Ngwe Zin References 90 3.3 Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells 92 Pierre Verlinden 3.4 Heterojunction Silicon Solar Cells 104 Wilfried van Sark List of Symbols 110 List of Acronyms 111 References 112 3.5 Surface Passivation and Emitter Recombination Parameters 114 Bram Hoex List of Symbols 121 List of Acronyms 122 References 122 3.6 Passivated Contacts 125 Martin Hermle List of Symbols 133 List of Acronyms 133 References 134 3.7 Light Management in Silicon Solar Cells 136 Zachary Holman and Mathieu Boccard List of Symbols 147 List of Acronyms 148 References 149 3.8 Numerical Simulation of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 150 Pietro Altermatt References 158 3.9 Advanced Concepts 160 Martin Green List of Acronyms 166 References 166 Part Four CHALCOGENIDE THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS 167 4.1 Basics of Chalcogenide Thin Film Solar Cells 169 Susanne Siebentritt List of Symbols 176 List of Acronyms 176 References 176 4.2 Cu(In,Ga)Se2 and CdTe Absorber Materials and their Properties 179 Sylvain Marsillac List of Symbols 187 List of Acronyms 187 References 188 4.3 Contacts, Buffers, Substrates, and Interfaces 190 Negar Naghavi List of Acronyms 200 References 200 4.4 CIGS Module Design and Manufacturing 204 William Shafarman List of Acronyms 211 References 211 Part Five THIN FILM SILICON‐BASED PV TECHNOLOGIES 213 5.1 Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 215 Etienne Moulin, Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 223 References 224 5.2 Thin Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells on Glass 226 Onno Gabriel, Daniel Amkreutz, Jan Haschke, Bernd Rech, and Rutger Schlatmann Acknowledgments 235 List of Symbols and Acronyms 235 References 236 5.3 Light Management in Crystalline and Thin Film Silicon Solar Cells 238 Franz Haug List of Symbols 244 List of Acronyms 245 References 245 5.4 New Future Concepts 248 Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, Etienne Moulin, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 253 References 253 Part Six ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS 255 6.1 Solid‐State Organic Photovoltaics 257 Bernard Kippelen Acknowledgments 265 Acronyms 265 References 265 6.2 Hybrid and Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells 267 Woojun Yoon References 275 6.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 277 Samuel D. Stranks and Henry J. Snaith References 289 6.4 Organic PV Module Design and Manufacturing 292 Veronique S. Gevaerts List of Acronyms 301 References 302 Part Seven CHARACTERIZATION AND MEASUREMENTS METHODS 303 7.1 Methods and Instruments for the Characterization of Solar Cells 305 Halden Field List of Symbols 320 List of Acronyms 320 References 320 7.2 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Characterization in Silicon Photovoltaics 322 Thorsten Trupke Acknowledgments 334 List of Symbols 334 List of Acronyms 335 References 335 7.3 Measurement of Carrier Lifetime, Surface Recombination Velocity , and Emitter Recombination Parameters 339 Henner Kampwerth List of Symbols 347 List of Acronyms 348 References 348 7.4 In‐situ Measurements, Process Control, and Defect Monitoring 350 Angus Rockett List of Acronyms 360 References 360 7.5 PV Module Performance Testing and Standards 362 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Symbols 368 List of Acronyms 368 References 369 Part Eight III‐Vs AND PV CONCENTRATOR TECHNOLOGIES 371 8.1 III‐V Solar Cells – Materials, Multi‐Junction Cells – Cell Design and Performance 373 Frank Dimroth Acknowledgments 380 List of Acronyms 380 References 380 8.2 New and Future III‐V Cells and Concepts 383 Simon Fafard List of Acronyms and Symbols 393 References 393 8.3 High Concentration PV Systems 396 Karin Hinzer, Christopher E. Valdivia, and John P.D. Cook List of Acronyms 408 References 409 8.4 Operation of CPV Power Plants: Energy Prediction 411 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Acronyms 418 References 418 8.5 The Luminescent Solar Concentrator (LSC) 420 Michael Debije List of Symbols 428 List of Acronyms 428 References 429 Part Nine SPACE TECHNOLOGIES 431 9.1 Materials, Cell Structures, and Radiation Effects 433 Rob Walters List of Symbols and Units 442 References 442 9.2 Space PV Systems and Flight Demonstrations 444 Phillip Jenkins Acknowledgments 453 List of Acronyms 453 References 454 9.3 A Vision on Future Developments in Space Photovoltaics 455 David Wilt List of Symbols 461 List of Acronyms 461 References 462 Part Ten PV MODULES AND MANUFACTURING 463 10.1 Manufacturing of Various PV Technologies 465 Alison Lennon and Rhett Evans Acknowledgements 474 List of Abbreviations 474 References 474 10.2 Encapsulant Materials for PV Modules 478 Michael Kempe Acknowledgments 488 List of Symbols 488 List of Acronyms 488 References 489 10.3 Reliability and Durability of PV Modules 491 Sarah Kurtz Acknowledgments 500 References 501 10.4 Advanced Module Concepts 502 Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 508 List of Acronyms 508 References 509 Part Eleven PV SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS 511 11.1 Grid-Connected PV Systems 513 Greg J. Ball Acknowledgments 527 List of Acronyms 528 References 529 11.2 Inverters, Power Optimizers, and Microinverters 530 Chris Deline List of Symbols 537 List of Acronyms 537 References 538 11.3 Stand-Alone and Hybrid PV Systems 539 Matthias Vetter and Georg Bopp References 552 11.4 PV System Monitoring and Characterization 553 Wilfried van Sark, Atse Louwen, Odysseas Tsafarakis, and Panos Moraitis Acknowledgments 561 List of Symbols 561 List of Acronyms 562 References 562 11.5 Energy Prediction and System Modeling 564 Joshua S. Stein List of Symbols and Acronyms 575 References 577 11.6 Building Integrated Photovoltaics 579 Michiel Ritzen, Zeger Vroon, and Chris Geurts List of Acronyms 588 References 588 11.7 Product Integrated Photovoltaics 590 Angèle Reinders and Georgia Apostolou List of Acronym 598 References 598 Part Twelve PV DEPLOYMENT IN DISTRIBUTION GRIDS 601 12.1 PV Systems in Smart Energy Homes: PowerMatching City 603 Albert van den Noort List of Acronyms 610 References 611 12.2 New Future Solutions: Best Practices from European PV Smart Grid Projects 612 Gianluca Fulli and Flavia Gangale List of Acronyms 619 References 619 Part Thirteen SUPPORTING METHODS AND TOOLS 621 13.1 The Economics of PV Systems 623 Matthew Campbell List of Acronyms 633 References 633 13.2 People’s Involvement in Residential PV and their Experiences 634 Barbara van Mierlo References 644 13.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics 646 Vasilis Fthenakis References 656 13.4 List of International Standards Related to PV 658 Pierre Verlinden and Wilfried van Sark Acknowledgements 671 References 671 Index 672

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Book SynopsisThe increasing deployment of bioenergy frequently raises issues regarding the use of land and raw materials, infrastructure and logistics. In light of these sometimes conflicting interests Advances in Bioenergy provides an objective and wide-ranging overview of the technology, economics and policy of bioenergy. Offering an authoritative multidisciplinary summary of the opportunities and challenges associated with bioenergy utilization, with international researchers give up-to-date anddetailed informationon key issues for biomass production and conversion to energy. Key features: *Discusses different bioenergy uses such as transportation fuels, electricity and heat production. *Assesses emerging fields such as bio-based chemicals and bio-refineries. *Debates conditions for the mobilization of sustainable bioenergy supply chains and outlines governance systems to support this mobilization. * Dedicated chapters to sustainabilitygovernanTable of ContentsAbout the Editors ix Preface xi PART I: PROMISING INNOVATION IN BIOMASS CONVERSION 1 Metabolic Engineering: Enabling Technology for Biofuels Production 3Mitchell Tai and Gregory N. Stephanopoulos 2 Hydrolysis and Fermentation for Cellulosic Ethanol Production 11Charilaos Xiros, Evangelos Topakas and Paul Christakopoulos 3 Lipid-Based Liquid Biofuels from Autotrophic Microalgae: Energetic and Environmental Performance 33Lucas Reijnders 4 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Biomass for Transportation Fuels 45Angelos A. Lappas, Kostas G. Kalogiannis, Eleni F. Iliopoulou, Kostas S. Triantafyllidis and Stylianos D. Stefanidis 5 Integrated Biomass Hydropyrolysis and Hydrotreating: A Brief Review 57Martin Linck, Larry Felix, Terry Marker and Michael Roberts 6 Transportation Fuels from Biomass via Fast Pyrolysis and Hydroprocessing 65Douglas C. Elliott 7 Biomass Gasification for Synthesis Gas Production and Applications of the Syngas 73Reinhard Rauch, Jitka Hrbek and Hermann Hofbauer 8 Hydrogen Generation from Biomass Materials: Challenges and Opportunities 93Pravakar Mohanty, Kamal K. Pant and Ritesh Mittal 9 Production of Renewable Hydrogen by Reformation of Biofuels 109Paraskevi Panagiotopoulou, Christina Papadopoulou, Haris Matralis and Xenophon Verykios 10 Fischer–Tropsch Conversion of Biomass-Derived Synthetic Gas to Liquid Fuels 131Andreas Helland Lillebø, Anders Holmen, Bjørn Christian Enger and Edd Anders Blekkan 11 Critical Factors for High Temperature Processing of Biomass from Agriculture and Energy Crops to Biofuels and Bioenergy 149Stelios Arvelakis and Emmanuel G. Koukios 12 Second-Generation Biofuels:Why They are Taking so Long 163Daniel J. M. Hayes 13 Separation Technologies for Current and Future Biorefineries—Status and Potential of Membrane-Based Separation 193Lan Ying Jiang and Jia Ming Zhu 14 Catalysis at Room Temperature: Perspectives for Future Green Chemical Processes 209Frank Leung-Yuk Lam, Michael C. L. Li, Rock S. L. Chau, Rick A. D. Arancon, Xijun Hu and Rafael Luque 15 Co-Firing of Biomass with Coal in Thermal Power Plants: Technology Schemes, Impacts, and Future Perspectives 233Emmanouil Karampinis, Panagiotis Grammelis, Michalis Agraniotis, Ioannis Violidakis and Emmanuel Kakaras PART II: CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS FOR BIOMASS SUPPLY 16 Bioenergy and Land Use Change—State of the Art 251G¨oran Berndes, Serina Ahlgren, P¢ªal B¨orjesson, and Annette L. Cowie 17 Forest Energy Procurement: State of the Art in Finland and Sweden 273Johanna Routa, Antti Asikainen, Rolf Bj¨orheden, Juha Laitila and Dominik R¨oser 18 Options for Increasing Biomass Output from Long-Rotation Forestry 285Gustaf Egnell and Rolf Bj¨orheden 19 Recovery Rate of Harvest Residues for Bioenergy in Boreal and Temperate Forests: A Review 293Evelyne Thiffault, Ariane B´echard, David Par´e and Darren Allen 20 Forest Bioenergy Feedstock Harvesting Effects on Water Supply 317Daniel G. Neary and Karen A. Koestner 21 Best Management Practices for Forest Bioenergy Programs 333Daniel G. Neary 22 Principles of Nutrient Management for Sustainable Forest Bioenergy Production 351Donald Mead and Charles Smith 23 Crop Coefficients of Jatropha (Jatropha Curcas) and Pongamia (Pongamia Pinnata) UsingWater Balance Approach 363Kaushal K. Garg, Suhas P. Wani and A. V. R. Kesava Rao 24 Brazilian Sugarcane Ethanol: Developments so far and Challenges for the Future 373Arnaldo Walter, Marcelo Valadares Galdos, Fabio Vale Scarpare, Manoel Regis Lima Verde Leal, Joaquim Eugˆenio Abel Seabra, Marcelo Pereira da Cunha, Michelle Cristina Araujo Picoli and Camila Ortolan Fernandes de Oliveira 25 The Climate Benefit of Swedish Ethanol: Present and Prospective Performance 395P¢ªal B¨orjesson, Serina Ahlgren and G¨oran Berndes 26 Performance of Small-Scale Straw-to-Heat Supply Chains in Norway 411Helmer Belbo and Bruce Talbot 27 Transport Sector in Ireland: Can 2020 National Policy Targets Drive Indigenous Biofuel Production to Success? 419Egle Gusciute, Ger Devlin, Fionnuala Murphy and Kevin McDonnell 28 Prospects for Domestic Biofuels for Transport in Sweden 2030 Based on Current Production and Future Plans 431Maria Grahn and Julia Hansson 29 Land and the Food–Fuel Competition: Insights from Modeling 447Sylvia Prieler, G¨unther Fischer and Harrij van Velthuizen 30 The Impact of Biofuel Demand on Agricultural Commodity Prices: A Systematic Review 465U. Martin Persson 31 How do Sustainability Standards Consider Biodiversity? 483Oskar Englund and G¨oran Berndes 32 A Global Survey of Stakeholder Views and Experiences for Systems Needed to Effectively and Efficiently Govern Sustainability of Bioenergy 507Inge Stupak, Jamie Joudrey, C. Tattersall Smith, Luc Pelkmans, Helena Chum, Annette Cowie, Oskar Englund, Chun Sheng Goh and Martin Junginger Index 535

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