Electronics and communications engineering Books

Book SynopsisTable of ContentsChapter 1: Electric Circuit Variables Chapter 2: Circuit Elements Chapter 3: Resistive Circuits Chapter 4: Methods of Analysis of Resistive Circuits Chapter 5: Circuit Theorems Chapter 6: The Operational Amplifier Chapter 7: Energy Storage Elements Chapter 8: The Complete Response of RL and RC Circuits Chapter 9: The Complete Response of Circuits with Two Energy Storage Elements Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis Chapter 11: AC Steady-State Power Chapter 12: Three-Phase Circuits Chapter 13: Frequency Response Chapter 14: The Laplace Transform Chapter 15: Fourier Series and Fourier Transform Chapter 16: Filter Circuits Chapter 17: Two-Port and Three-Port Networks

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Book SynopsisAdvanced level consolidation of the technology, physics and design aspects of silicon-on-insulator (SOI) lubistors No comprehensive description of the physics and possible applications of the Lubistor can be found in a single source even though the Lubistor is already being used in SOI LSIs. The book provides, for the first time, a comprehensive understanding of the physics of the Lubistor. The author argues that a clear understanding of the fundamental physics of the pn junction is essential to allowing scientists and engineers to propose new devices. Since 2001 IBM has been applying the Lubistor to commercial SOI LSIs (large scale integrated devices) used in PCs and game machines. It is a key device in that it provides electrostatic protection to the LSIs. The book explains the device modeling for such applications, and covers the recent analog circuit application of the voltage reference circuit. The author also reviews the physics and the modeling of Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv Introduction to an Exotic Device World xvii Part One BRIEF REVIEWAND MODERN APPLICATIONS OF PN-JUNCTION DEVICES 1 Concept of an Ideal pn Junction 3 References 4 2 Understanding the Non-ideal pn Junction – Theoretical Reconsideration 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Bulk pn-Junction Diode 8 2.2.1 Assumptions 8 2.2.2 Model A – Low Doping Case 9 2.2.3 Model B – High Doping Case 18 2.3 Bulk pn-Junction Diode – Reverse Bias 24 2.3.1 Model A – Low Doping Case 24 2.3.2 Model B – High Doping Case 25 2.4 The Insulated-Gate pn Junction of the SOI Lubistor – Forward Bias 32 2.4.1 The Positive Gate Voltage Condition 32 2.4.2 The Negative Gate Voltage Condition 35 2.5 The Insulated-Gate pn Junction of the SOI Lubistor – Reverse Bias 35 References 37 3 Modern Applications of the pn Junction 39 References 40 Part Two PHYSICS AND MODELING OF SOI LUBISTORS – THICK-FILM DEVICES 4 Proposal of the Lateral, Unidirectional, Bipolar-Type Insulated-Gate Transistor (Lubistor) 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Device Structure and Parameters 43 4.3 Discussion of Current–Voltage Characteristics 45 4.4 Summary 47 References 47 5 Experimental Consideration for Modeling of Lubistor Operation 49 5.1 Introduction 49 5.2 Experimental Apparatus 49 5.3 Current–Voltage Characteristics of Lubistors 52 5.4 Lubistor Potential Profiles and Features 56 5.5 Discussion 57 5.5.1 Simplified Analysis of Lubistor Operation 57 5.5.2 On the Design of Lubistors 60 5.6 Summary 61 References 61 6 Modeling of Lubistor Operation Without an EFS Layer for Circuit Simulations 63 6.1 Introduction 63 6.2 Device Structure and Measurement System 63 6.3 Equivalent Circuit Models of an SOI Lubistor 65 6.3.1 Device Simulation 65 6.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Models 68 6.4 Summary 72 References 73 7 Noise Characteristics and Modeling of Lubistor 75 7.1 Introduction 75 7.2 Experiments 75 7.2.1 Device Structure 75 7.2.2 Measurement System 77 7.3 Results and Discussion 77 7.3.1 I–V Characteristics of an SOI Lubistor and a Simple Analytical Model 77 7.3.2 Noise Spectral Density of SOI Lubistors and Their Feature 81 7.3.3 Advanced Analysis of Anode Noise Spectral Density 83 7.4 Summary 86 References 86 8 Supplementary Study on Buried Oxide Characterization 89 8.1 Introduction 89 8.2 Physical Model for the Transition Layer 90 8.3 Capacitance Simulation 93 8.3.1 A Structure to Evaluate Capacitance 93 8.3.2 Numerical Simulation Technique 94 8.4 Device Fabrication 95 8.5 Results and Discussion 96 8.5.1 Electrode-to-Electrode Capacitance Dependence on Frequency 96 8.5.2 Drain-to-Substrate Capacitance Dependence on Bias 98 8.5.3 Electrode-to-Electrode Capacitance Dependence on Transition Layer Thickness 101 8.6 Summary 101 References 102 Part Three PHYSICS AND MODELING OF SOI LUBISTORS – THIN-FILM DEVICES 9 Negative Conductance Properties in Extremely Thin SOI Lubistors 105 9.1 Introduction 105 9.2 Device Fabrication and Measurements 105 9.3 Results and Discussion 106 9.4 Summary 109 References 109 10 Two-Dimensionally Confined Injection Phenomena at Low Temperatures in Sub-10-nm-Thick SOI Lubistors 111 10.1 Introduction 111 10.2 Experiments 111 10.2.1 Anode Common Configuration 113 10.2.2 Cathode Common Configuration 113 10.3 Physical Models and Simulations 114 10.3.1 Fundamental Models 114 10.3.2 Theoretical Simulations 118 10.3.3 Influences on Characteristics of Extremely Ultra-Thin SOI MOSFET Devices 122 10.4 Summary 122 Appendix 10A: Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (niq) and the Fermi Level in 2DSS 122 Appendix 10B: Calculation of Electron and Hole Densities in 2DSS 125 References 125 11 Two-Dimensional Quantization Effect on Indirect Tunneling in SOI Lubistors with a Thin Silicon Layer 127 11.1 Introduction 127 11.2 Experimental Results 128 11.2.1 Junction Current Dependence on Anode Voltage 128 11.2.2 Junction Current Dependence on Gate Voltage 132 11.3 Theoretical Discussion 134 11.3.1 Qualitative Consideration of the Low-Dimensional Indirect Tunneling Process 134 11.3.2 Theoretical Formulations of Tunneling Current and Discussion 134 11.4 Summary 140 Appendix 11A: Wave Function Coupling Effect in the Lateral Two-Dimensional-System-to-Three-Dimensional-System (2D-to-3D) Tunneling Process 141 References 141 12 Experimental Study of Two-Dimensional Confinement Effects on Reverse-Biased Current Characteristics of Ultra-Thin SOI Lubistors 143 12.1 Introduction 143 12.2 Device Structures and Experimental Apparatus 144 12.3 Results and Discussion 145 12.3.1 I–V Characteristics under the Reverse-Biased Condition 145 12.4 Summary 151 Appendix 12A: Derivation of Equations (12.6) and (12.9) 151 References 153 13 Supplementary Consideration of I-V Characteristics of Forward-Biased Ultra-Thin Lubistors 155 13.1 Introduction 155 13.2 Device Structures and Bias Configuration 155 13.3 Results and Discussion 156 13.4 Summary 157 References 158 14 Gate-Controlled Bipolar Action in the Ultra-Thin Dynamic Threshold SOI MOSFET 159 14.1 Introduction 159 14.2 Device and Experiments 159 14.3 Results and Discussion 159 14.3.1 ID–VG and IG–VG Characteristics of the Ultra-Thin-Body DT-MOSFET 159 14.3.2 Control of Bipolar Action by the MOS Gate 162 14.4 Channel Polarity Dependence of Bipolar Action 162 14.4.1 ID–VG and gm–VG Characteristics of the Ultra-Thin-Body DT-MOSFET 162 14.4.2 Difference of Bipolar Operation between the n-Channel DT-MOS and the p-Channel DT-MOS 163 14.4.3 Impact of Body Thickness on Bipolar Operation 164 14.5 Summary 166 References 166 15 Supplementary Study on Gate-Controlled Bipolar Action in the Ultra-Thin Dynamic Threshold SOI MOSFET 167 15.1 Introduction 167 15.2 Device Structures and Parameters 167 15.3 Results and Discussion 169 15.3.1 SOI MOSFET Mode and DT-MOSFET Mode 169 15.3.2 Temperature Evolution of Transconductance (gm) Characteristics and Impact of Channel Length on gm Characteristics 170 15.3.3 Impact of SOI Layer Thickness on gm Characteristics 173 15.4 Summary 173 References 174 Part Four CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS 16 Subcircuit Models of SOI Lubistors for Electrostatic Discharge Protection Circuit Design and Their Applications 179 16.1 Introduction 179 16.2 Equivalent Circuit Models of SOI Lubistors and their Applications 180 16.2.1 Device Structure and Device Simulation 180 16.2.2 Equivalent Circuit Models 183 16.3 ESD Protection Circuit 183 16.4 Direct Current Characteristics of the ESD Protection Devices and Their SPICE Models 186 16.5 ESD Event and Performance Evaluation of an ESD Protection Circuit 189 16.6 Summary 196 References 196 17 A New Basic Element for Neural Logic Functions and Capability in Circuit Applications 199 17.1 Introduction 199 17.2 Device Structure, Model, and Proposal of a New Logic Element 199 17.2.1 Device Structure and Fundamental Characteristics 199 17.2.2 Device Model for the Lubistor 201 17.2.3 Proposal of a New Logic Element 203 17.3 Circuit Applications and Discussion 206 17.3.1 Examples of Fundamental Elements for Circuit Applications 206 17.3.2 On the Further Improvement of Functions of the Basic Logic Element 211 17.4 Summary 211 References 211 18 Sub-1-V Voltage Reference Circuit Technology as an Analog Circuit Application 213 18.1 Review of Bandgap Reference 213 18.2 Challenging Study of Sub-1-V Voltage Reference 214 References 215 19 Possible Implementation of SOI Lubistors into Conventional Logic Circuits 217 References 218 Part Five OPTICAL DEVICE APPLICATIONS OF SOI LUBISTORS 20 Potentiality of Electro-Optic Modulator Based on the SOI Waveguide 223 20.1 Introduction 223 20.2 Characterization of the Quasi-One-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Waveguide 224 20.3 Electro-Optic Modulator Based on the SOI Waveguide 230 20.4 Summary 233 References 234 Part Six SOI LUBISTOR AS A TESTING TOOL 21 Principles of Parameter Extraction 237 References 239 22 Charge Pumping Technique 241 22.1 Introduction 241 22.2 Experimental and Simulation Details 241 22.3 Results and Discussion 243 22.4 Summary 246 References 246 Part Seven FUTURE PROSPECTS 23 Overview 249 23.1 Introduction 249 23.2 i-MOS Transistor 249 23.3 Tunnel FET 251 23.4 Feedback FET 254 23.5 Potential of Offset-Gate Lubistor 256 23.6 Si Fin LED with a Multi-quantum Well 258 23.7 Future of the pn Junction 258 References 259 24 Feasibility of the Lubistor-Based Avalanche Phototransistor 261 24.1 Introduction 261 24.2 Theoretical Formulation of the Avalanche Phenomenon in Direct-Bandgap Semiconductors 261 24.3 Theoretical Formulation of the Avalanche Phenomenon in Indirect-Bandgap Semiconductors 264 24.4 Theoretical Consideration of the Avalanche Phenomenon in a One-Dimensional Wire pn Junction 265 24.5 Summary 269 References 269 Part Eight SUMMARY OF PHYSICS FOR SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND MATHEMATICS FOR DEVICE ANALYSES 25 Physics of Semiconductor Devices for Analysis 273 25.1 Free Carrier Concentration and the Fermi Level in Semiconductors 273 25.2 Impurity Doping in Semiconductors 275 25.3 Drift and Diffusion of Carriers and Current Continuity in Semiconductors 275 25.4 Stationary-State Schr€odinger Equation to Analyze Quantum-Mechanical Effects in Semiconductors 276 25.5 Time-dependent Schr€odinger Equation to Analyze Dynamics in Semiconductors 277 25.6 Quantum Size Effects in Nano-Scale Semiconductors 278 25.7 Tunneling through Energy Barriers in Semiconductors 281 25.8 Low-Dimensional Tunneling in Nano-Scale Semiconductors 282 25.9 Photon Absorption and Electronic Transitions 284 25.9.1 Fundamental Formulations 284 25.9.2 Interband Transition – Direct Bandgap 285 25.9.3 Interband Transition – Indirect Bandgap 286 References 287 26 Mathematics Applicable to the Analysis of Device Physics 289 26.1 Linear Differential Equation 289 26.2 Operator Method 290 26.3 Klein–Gordon-Type Differential Equation 291 References 292 Bibliography 293 Index 295

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Book SynopsisWith the ever increasing demand for data/Internet services, engineers and scientists need to keep up with the technology and the security issues involved. This book covers the technological development of wired/wireless internet communications in compliance with each iterative generation up to 4G systems, with emphasis on wireless security aspects.Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Author xxi Acknowledgments xxiii 1 Internetworking and Layered Models 1 1.1 Networking Technology 2 1.2 Connecting Devices 5 1.3 The OSI Model 8 1.4 TCP/IP Model 12 2 TCP/IP Suite and Internet Stack Protocols 15 2.1 Network Layer Protocols 15 2.2 Transport Layer Protocols 41 2.3 World Wide Web 47 2.4 File Transfer 49 2.5 E-Mail 50 2.6 Network Management Service 52 2.7 Converting IP Addresses 53 2.8 Routing Protocols 54 2.9 Remote System Programs 55 2.10 Social Networking Services 56 2.11 Smart IT Devices 57 2.12 Network Security Threats 58 2.13 Internet Security Threats 58 2.14 Computer Security Threats 59 3 Global Trend of Mobile Wireless Technology 63 3.1 1G Cellular Technology 63 3.2 2G Mobile Radio Technology 64 3.3 2.5G Mobile Radio Technology 67 3.4 3G Mobile Radio Technology (Situation and Status of 3G) 70 3.5 3G UMTS Security-Related Encryption Algorithm 75 4 Symmetric Block Ciphers 81 4.1 Data Encryption Standard (DES) 81 4.2 International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) 99 4.3 RC5 Algorithm 108 4.4 RC6 Algorithm 123 4.5 AES (Rijndael) Algorithm 135 5 Hash Function, Message Digest, and Message Authentication Code 161 5.1 DMDC Algorithm 161 5.2 Advanced DMDC Algorithm 171 5.3 MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm 176 5.4 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA-1) 188 5.5 Hashed Message Authentication Codes (HMAC) 195 6 Asymmetric Public-Key Cryptosystems 203 6.1 Diffie–Hellman Exponential Key Exchange 203 6.2 RSA Public-Key Cryptosystem 207 6.3 ElGamal’s Public-Key Cryptosystem 215 6.4 Schnorr’s Public-Key Cryptosystem 222 6.5 Digital Signature Algorithm 227 6.6 The Elliptic Curve Cryptosystem (ECC) 230 7 Public-Key Infrastructure 249 7.1 Internet Publications for Standards 250 7.2 Digital Signing Techniques 251 7.3 Functional Roles of PKI Entities 258 7.4 Key Elements for PKI Operations 263 7.5 X.509 Certificate Formats 271 7.6 Certificate Revocation List 282 7.7 Certification Path Validation 287 8 Network Layer Security 291 8.1 IPsec Protocol 291 8.2 IP Authentication Header 299 8.3 IP ESP 301 8.4 Key Management Protocol for IPsec 308 9 Transport Layer Security: SSLv3 and TLSv1 325 9.1 SSL Protocol 325 9.2 Cryptographic Computations 338 9.3 TLS Protocol 339 10 Electronic Mail Security: PGP, S/MIME 353 10.1 PGP 353 10.2 S/MIME 372 11 Internet Firewalls for Trusted Systems 387 11.1 Role of Firewalls 387 11.2 Firewall-Related Terminology 388 11.3 Types of Firewalls 392 11.4 Firewall Designs 398 11.5 IDS Against Cyber Attacks 401 11.6 Intrusion Detections Systems 404 12 SET for E-Commerce Transactions 415 12.1 Business Requirements for SET 415 12.2 SET System Participants 417 12.3 Cryptographic Operation Principles 418 12.4 Dual Signature and Signature Verification 420 12.5 Authentication and Message Integrity 424 12.6 Payment Processing 427 13 4G Wireless Internet Communication Technology 439 13.1 Mobile WiMAX 440 13.2 WiBro (Wireless Broadband) 448 13.3 UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) 452 13.4 LTE (Long Term Evolution) 457 Acronyms 467 Bibliography 473 Index 481

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Book SynopsisThis complete resource on the theory and applications of reliability engineering, probabilistic models and risk analysis consolidates all the latest research, presenting the most up-to-date developments in this field.Table of ContentsRemembering Boris Gnedenko xvii List of Contributors xxv Preface xxix Acknowledgements xxxv Part I DEGRADATION ANALYSIS, MULTI-STATE AND CONTINUOUS-STATE SYSTEM RELIABILITY 1 Methods of Solutions of Inhomogeneous Continuous Time Markov Chains for Degradation Process Modeling 3 Yan-Fu Li, Enrico Zio and Yan-Hui Lin 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Formalism of ICTMC 4 1.3 Numerical Solution Techniques 5 1.4 Examples 10 1.5 Comparisons of the Methods and Guidelines of Utilization 13 1.6 Conclusion 15 References 15 2 Multistate Degradation and Condition Monitoring for Devices with Multiple Independent Failure Modes 17 Ramin Moghaddass and Ming J. Zuo 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Multistate Degradation and Multiple Independent Failure Modes 19 2.3 Parameter Estimation 23 2.4 Important Reliability Measures of a Condition-Monitored Device 25 2.5 Numerical Example 27 2.6 Conclusion 28 Acknowledgements 30 References 30 3 Time Series Regression with Exponential Errors for Accelerated Testing and Degradation Tracking 32 Nozer D. Singpurwalla 3.1 Introduction 32 3.2 Preliminaries: Statement of the Problem 33 3.3 Estimation and Prediction by Least Squares 34 3.4 Estimation and Prediction by MLE 35 3.5 The Bayesian Approach: The Predictive Distribution 37 Acknowledgements 42 References 42 4 Inverse Lz-Transform for a Discrete-State Continuous-Time Markov Process and Its Application to Multi-State System Reliability Analysis 43 Anatoly Lisnianski and Yi Ding 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Inverse Lz-Transform: Definitions and Computational Procedure 44 4.3 Application of Inverse Lz-Transform to MSS Reliability Analysis 50 4.4 Numerical Example 52 4.5 Conclusion 57 References 58 5 OntheLz-Transform Application for Availability Assessment of an Aging Multi-State Water Cooling System for Medical Equipment 59 Ilia Frenkel, Anatoly Lisnianski and Lev Khvatskin 5.1 Introduction 59 5.2 Brief Description of the Lz-Transform Method 61 5.3 Multi-state Model of the Water Cooling System for the MRI Equipment 62 5.4 Availability Calculation 75 5.5 Conclusion 76 Acknowledgments 76 References 77 6 Combined Clustering and Lz-Transform Technique to Reduce the Computational Complexity of a Multi-State System Reliability Evaluation 78 Yi Ding 6.1 Introduction 78 6.2 The Lz-Transform for Dynamic Reliability Evaluation for MSS 79 6.3 Clustering Composition Operator in the Lz-Transform 81 6.4 Computational Procedures 83 6.5 Numerical Example 83 6.6 Conclusion 85 References 85 7 Sliding Window Systems with Gaps 87 Gregory Levitin 7.1 Introduction 87 7.2 The Models 89 7.3 Reliability Evaluation Technique 91 7.4 Conclusion 96 References 96 8 Development of Reliability Measures Motivated by Fuzzy Sets for Systems with Multi- or Infinite-States 98 Zhaojun (Steven) Li and Kailash C. Kapur 8.1 Introduction 98 8.2 Models for Components and Systems Using Fuzzy Sets 100 8.3 Fuzzy Reliability for Systems with Continuous or Infinite States 103 8.4 Dynamic Fuzzy Reliability 104 8.5 System Fuzzy Reliability 110 8.6 Examples and Applications 111 8.7 Conclusion 117 References 118 9 Imperatives for Performability Design in the Twenty-First Century 119 Krishna B. Misra 9.1 Introduction 119 9.2 Strategies for Sustainable Development 120 9.3 Reappraisal of the Performance of Products and Systems 124 9.4 Dependability and Environmental Risk are Interdependent 126 9.5 Performability: An Appropriate Measure of Performance 126 9.6 Towards Dependable and Sustainable Designs 129 9.7 Conclusion 130 References 130 Part II NETWORKS AND LARGE-SCALE SYSTEMS 10 Network Reliability Calculations Based on Structural Invariants 135 Ilya B. Gertsbakh and Yoseph Shpungin 10.1 First Invariant: D-Spectrum, Signature 135 10.2 Second Invariant: Importance Spectrum. Birnbaum Importance Measure (BIM) 139 10.3 Example: Reliability of a Road Network 141 10.4 Third Invariant: Border States 142 10.5 Monte Carlo to Approximate the Invariants 144 10.6 Conclusion 146 References 146 11 Performance and Availability Evaluation of IMS-Based Core Networks 148 Kishor S. Trivedi, Fabio Postiglione and Xiaoyan Yin 11.1 Introduction 148 11.2 IMS-Based Core Network Description 149 11.3 Analytic Models for Independent Software Recovery 151 11.4 Analytic Models for Recovery with Dependencies 155 11.5 Redundancy Optimization 158 11.6 Numerical Results 159 11.7 Conclusion 165 References 165 12 Reliability and Probability of First Occurred Failure for Discrete-Time Semi-Markov Systems 167 Stylianos Georgiadis, Nikolaos Limnios and Irene Votsi 12.1 Introduction 167 12.2 Discrete-Time Semi-Markov Model 168 12.3 Reliability and Probability of First Occurred Failure 170 12.4 Nonparametric Estimation of Reliability Measures 172 12.5 Numerical Application 176 12.6 Conclusion 178 References 179 13 Single-Source Epidemic Process in a System of Two Interconnected Networks 180 Ilya B. Gertsbakh and Yoseph Shpungin 13.1 Introduction 180 13.2 Failure Process and the Distribution of the Number of Failed Nodes 181 13.3 Network Failure Probabilities 184 13.4 Example 185 13.5 Conclusion 187 13.A Appendix D: Spectrum (Signature) 188 References 189 Part III MAINTENANCE MODELS 14 Comparisons of Periodic and Random Replacement Policies 193 Xufeng Zhao and Toshio Nakagawa 14.1 Introduction 193 14.2 Four Policies 195 14.3 Comparisons of Optimal Policies 197 14.4 Numerical Examples 1 199 14.5 Comparisons of Policies with Different Replacement Costs 201 14.6 Numerical Examples 2 202 14.7 Conclusion 203 Acknowledgements 204 References 204 15 Random Evolution of Degradation and Occurrences of Words in Random Sequences of Letters 205 Emilio De Santis and Fabio Spizzichino 15.1 Introduction 205 15.2 Waiting Times to Words’ Occurrences 206 15.3 Some Reliability-Maintenance Models 209 15.4 Waiting Times to Occurrences of Words and Stochastic Comparisons for Degradation 213 15.5 Conclusions 216 Acknowledgements 217 References 217 16 Occupancy Times for Markov and Semi-Markov Models in Systems Reliability 218 Alan G. Hawkes, Lirong Cui and Shijia Du 16.1 Introduction 218 16.2 Markov Models for Systems Reliability 220 16.3 Semi-Markov Models 222 16.4 Time Interval Omission 225 16.5 Numerical Examples 226 16.6 Conclusion 229 Acknowledgements 229 References 229 17 A Practice of Imperfect Maintenance Model Selection for Diesel Engines 231 Yu Liu, Hong-Zhong Huang, Shun-Peng Zhu and Yan-Feng Li 17.1 Introduction 231 17.2 Review of Imperfect Maintenance Model Selection Method 233 17.3 Application to Preventive Maintenance Scheduling of Diesel Engines 236 17.4 Conclusion 244 Acknowledgment 245 References 245 18 Reliability of Warm Standby Systems with Imperfect Fault Coverage 246 Rui Peng, Ola Tannous, Liudong Xing and Min Xie 18.1 Introduction 246 18.2 Literature Review 247 18.3 The BDD-Based Approach 250 18.4 Conclusion 253 Acknowledgments 254 References 254 Part IV STATISTICAL INFERENCE IN RELIABILITY 19 On the Validity of the Weibull-Gnedenko Model 259 Vilijandas Bagdonavi¡cius, Mikhail Nikulin and Ruta Levuliene 19.1 Introduction 259 19.2 Integrated Likelihood Ratio Test 261 19.3 Tests based on the Difference of Non-Parametric and Parametric Estimators of the Cumulative Distribution Function 264 19.4 Tests based on Spacings 266 19.5 Chi-Squared Tests 267 19.6 Correlation Test 269 19.7 Power Comparison 269 19.8 Conclusion 272 References 272 20 Statistical Inference for Heavy-Tailed Distributions in Reliability Systems 273 Ilia Vonta and Alex Karagrigoriou 20.1 Introduction 273 20.2 Heavy-Tailed Distributions 274 20.3 Examples of Heavy-Tailed Distributions 277 20.4 Divergence Measures 280 20.5 Hypothesis Testing 284 20.6 Simulations 286 20.7 Conclusion 287 References 287 21 Robust Inference based on Divergences in Reliability Systems 290 Abhik Ghosh, Avijit Maji and Ayanendranath Basu 21.1 Introduction 290 21.2 The Power Divergence (PD) Family 291 21.3 Density Power Divergence (DPD) and Parametric Inference 296 21.4 A Generalized Form: The S-Divergence 301 21.5 Applications 304 21.6 Conclusion 306 References 306 22 COM-Poisson Cure Rate Models and Associated Likelihood-based Inference with Exponential and Weibull Lifetimes 308 N. Balakrishnan and Suvra Pal 22.1 Introduction 308 22.2 Role of Cure Rate Models in Reliability 310 22.3 The COM-Poisson Cure Rate Model 310 22.4 Data and the Likelihood 311 22.5 EM Algorithm 312 22.6 Standard Errors and Asymptotic Confidence Intervals 314 22.7 Exponential Lifetime Distribution 314 22.8 Weibull Lifetime Distribution 322 22.9 Analysis of Cutaneous Melanoma Data 334 22.10 Conclusion 337 22.A1 Appendix A1: E-Step and M-Step Formulas for Exponential Lifetimes 337 22.A2 Appendix A2: E-Step and M-Step Formulas for Weibull Lifetimes 341 22.B1 Appendix B1: Observed Information Matrix for Exponential Lifetimes 344 22.B2 Appendix B2: Observed Information Matrix for Weibull Lifetimes 346 References 347 23 Exponential Expansions for Perturbed Discrete Time Renewal Equations 349 Dmitrii Silvestrov and Mikael Petersson 23.1 Introduction 349 23.2 Asymptotic Results 350 23.3 Proofs 353 23.4 Discrete Time Regenerative Processes 358 23.5 Queuing and Risk Applications 359 References 361 24 On Generalized Extreme Shock Models under Renewal Shock Processes 363 Ji Hwan Cha and Maxim Finkelstein 24.1 Introduction 363 24.2 Generalized Extreme Shock Models 364 24.3 Specific Models 367 24.4 Conclusion 373 Acknowledgements 373 References 373 Part V SYSTEMABILITY, PHYSICS-OF-FAILURE AND RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION 25 Systemability Theory and its Applications 377 Hoang Pham 25.1 Introduction 377 25.2 Systemability Measures 378 25.3 Systemability Analysis of k-out-of-n Systems 379 25.4 Systemability Function Approximation 380 25.5 Systemability with Loglog Distribution 383 25.6 Sensitivity Analysis 384 25.7 Applications: Red Light Camera Systems 385 25.8 Conclusion 387 References 387 26 Physics-of-Failure based Reliability Engineering 389 Pedro O. Quintero and Michael Pecht 26.1 Introduction 389 26.2 Physics-of-Failure-based Reliability Assessment 393 26.3 Uses of Physics-of-Failure 398 26.4 Conclusion 400 References 400 27 Accelerated Testing: Effect of Variance in Field Environmental Conditions on the Demonstrated Reliability 403 Andre Kleyner 27.1 Introduction 403 27.2 Accelerated Testing and Field Stress Variation 404 27.3 Case Study: Reliability Demonstration Using Temperature Cycling Test 405 27.4 Conclusion 408 References 408 Index 409

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Book SynopsisThe offshore wind sector's trend towards larger turbines, bigger wind farm projects and greater distance to shore has a critical impact on grid connection requirements for offshore wind power plants. This important reference sets out the fundamentals and latest innovations in electrical systems and control strategies deployed in offshore electricity grids for wind power integration. Includes: All current and emerging technologies for offshore wind integration and trends in energy storage systems, fault limiters, superconducting cables and gas-insulated transformers Protection of offshore wind farms illustrating numerous system integration and protection challenges through case studies Modelling of doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG) and full-converter wind turbines structures together with an explanation of the smart grid concept in the context of wind farms Comprehensive material on power electronic equipment employed in wind turbinTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Authors xiii Acronyms and Symbols xv 1 Offshore Wind Energy Systems 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Typical Subsystems 1 1.3 Wind Turbine Technology 4 1.3.1 Basics 4 1.3.2 Architectures 6 1.3.3 Offshore Wind Turbine Technology Status 7 1.4 Offshore Transmission Networks 8 1.5 Impact on Power System Operation 9 1.5.1 Power System Dynamics and Stability 10 1.5.2 Reactive Power and Voltage Support 10 1.5.3 Frequency Support 11 1.5.4 Wind Turbine Inertial Response 11 1.6 Grid Code Regulations for the Connection of Wind Generation 12 Acknowledgements 13 References 14 2 DFIG Wind Turbine 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.1.1 Induction Generator (IG) 15 2.1.2 Back-to-Back Converter 16 2.1.3 Gearbox 16 2.1.4 Crowbar Protection 16 2.1.5 Turbine Transformer 17 2.2 DFIG Architecture and Mathematical Modelling 17 2.2.1 IG in the abc Reference Frame 17 2.2.2 IG in the dq0 Reference Frame 23 2.2.3 Mechanical System 27 2.2.4 Crowbar Protection 29 2.2.5 Modelling of the DFIG B2B Power Converter 30 2.2.6 Average Modelling of Power Electronic Converters 33 2.2.7 The dc Circuit 35 2.3 Control of the DFIG WT 36 2.3.1 PI Control of Rotor Speed 36 2.3.2 PI Control of DFIG Reactive Power 39 2.3.3 PI Control of Rotor Currents 41 2.3.4 PI Control of dc Voltage 42 2.3.5 PI Control of Grid-side Converter Currents 45 2.4 DFIG Dynamic Performance Assessment 47 2.4.1 Three-phase Fault 47 2.4.2 Symmetrical Voltage Dips 51 2.4.3 Asymmetrical Faults 53 2.4.4 Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault 54 2.4.5 Phase-to-Phase Fault 55 2.4.6 Torque Behaviour under Symmetrical Faults 56 2.4.7 Torque Behaviour under Asymmetrical Faults 58 2.4.8 Effects of Faults in the Reactive Power Consumption of the IG 59 2.5 Fault Ride-Through Capabilities and Grid Code Compliance 60 2.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Crowbar Protection 60 2.5.2 Effects of DFIG Variables over Its Fault Ride-Through Capabilities 61 2.6 Enhanced Control Strategies to Improve DFIG Fault Ride-Through Capabilities 62 2.6.1 The Two Degrees of Freedom Internal Model Control (IMC) 62 2.6.2 IMC Controller of the Rotor Speed 65 2.6.3 IMC Controller of the Rotor Currents 66 2.6.4 IMC Controller of the dc Voltage 67 2.6.5 IMC Controller of the Grid-Side Converter Currents 69 2.6.6 DFIG IMC Controllers Tuning for Attaining Robust Control 70 2.6.7 The Robust Stability Theorem 70 References 72 3 Fully-Rated Converter Wind Turbine (FRC-WT) 73 3.1 Synchronous Machine Fundamentals 73 3.1.1 Synchronous Generator Construction 73 3.1.2 The Air-Gap Magnetic Field of the Synchronous Generator 74 3.2 Synchronous Generator Modelling in the dq Frame 79 3.2.1 Steady-State Operation 81 3.2.2 Synchronous Generator with Damper Windings 82 3.3 Control of Large Synchronous Generators 85 3.3.1 Excitation Control 86 3.3.2 Prime Mover Control 87 3.4 Fully-Rated Converter Wind Turbines 88 3.5 FRC-WT with Synchronous Generator 89 3.5.1 Permanent Magnets Synchronous Generator 90 3.5.2 FRC-WT Based on Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator 92 3.5.3 Generator-Side Converter Control 93 3.5.4 Modelling of the dc Link 96 3.5.5 Network-Side Converter Control 98 3.6 FRC-WT with Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator 100 3.6.1 Control of the FRC-IG Wind Turbine 100 3.7 FRC-WT Power System Damper 105 3.7.1 Power System Oscillations Damping Controller 105 3.7.2 Influence of Wind Generation on Network Damping 107 3.7.3 Influence of FRC-WT Damping Controller on Network Damping 108 Acknowledgements 110 References 112 4 Offshore Wind Farm Electrical Systems 113 4.1 Typical Components 113 4.2 Wind Turbines for Offshore – General Aspects 113 4.3 Electrical Collectors 115 4.3.1 Wind Farm Clusters 118 4.4 Offshore Transmission 118 4.4.1 HVAC Transmission 118 4.4.2 HVDC Transmission 120 4.4.3 CSC-HVDC Transmission 122 4.4.4 VSC-HVDC Transmission 128 4.4.5 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Networks 140 4.5 Offshore Substations 141 4.6 Reactive Power Compensation Equipment 144 4.6.1 Static Var Compensator (SVC) 144 4.6.2 Static Compensator (STATCOM) 147 4.7 Subsea Cables 150 4.7.1 Ac Subsea Cables 150 4.7.2 Dc Subsea Cables 150 4.7.3 Modelling of Underground and Subsea Cables 150 Acknowledgements 151 References 151 5 Grid Integration of Offshore Wind Farms – Case Studies 155 5.1 Background 155 5.2 Offshore Wind Farm Connection Using Point-to-Point VSC-HVDC Transmission 156 5.3 Offshore Wind Farm Connection Using HVAC Transmission 159 5.4 Offshore Wind Farm Connected Using Parallel HVAC/VSC-HVDC Transmission 161 5.5 Offshore Wind Farms Connected Using a Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC Network 164 5.6 Multi-Terminal VSC-HVDC for Connection of Inter-Regional Power Systems 168 Acknowledgements 171 References 171 6 Offshore Wind Farm Protection 173 6.1 Protection within the Wind Farm ac Network 173 6.1.1 Wind Generator Protection Zone 174 6.1.2 Feeder Protection Zone 178 6.1.3 Busbar Protection Zone 179 6.1.4 High-Voltage Transformer Protection Zone 180 6.2 Study of Faults in the ac Transmission Line of an Offshore DFIG Wind Farm 180 6.2.1 Case Study 1 181 6.2.2 Case Study 2 181 6.3 Protections for dc Connected Offshore Wind Farms 184 6.3.1 VSC-HVDC Converter Protection Scheme 184 6.3.2 Analysis of dc Transmission Line Fault 185 6.3.3 Pole-to-Pole Faults 186 6.3.4 Pole-to-Earth Fault 187 6.3.5 HVDC dc Protections: Challenges and Trends 188 6.3.6 Simulation Studies of Faults in the dc Transmission Line of an Offshore DFIG Wind Farm 188 Acknowledgements 192 References 192 7 Emerging Technologies for Offshore Wind Integration 193 7.1 Wind Turbine Advanced Control for Load Mitigation 193 7.1.1 Blade Pitch Control 193 7.1.2 Blade Twist Control 194 7.1.3 Variable Diameter Rotor 194 7.1.4 Active Flow Control 195 7.2 Converter Interface Arrangements and Collector Design 195 7.2.1 Converters on Turbine 195 7.2.2 Converters on Platform 198 7.2.3 Ac Collection Options: Fixed or Variable Frequency 200 7.2.4 Evaluation of >Higher (>33 kV) Collection Voltage 202 7.3 Dc Transmission Protection 203 7.4 Energy Storage Systems (EESs) 204 7.4.1 Batteries 205 7.4.2 Super-Capacitors 205 7.4.3 Flywheel Storage System 205 7.4.4 Pumped-Hydro Storage 206 7.4.5 Compressed-Air Storage Systems 206 7.4.6 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) 206 7.5 Fault Current Limiters (FCLs) 207 7.6 Sub-Sea Substations 207 7.7 HTSCs, GITs and GILs 208 7.7.1 HTSCs (High-Temperature Superconducting Cables) 208 7.7.2 GITs (Gas-Insulated Transformers) 208 7.7.3 GILs (Gas-Insulated Lines) 209 7.8 Developments in Condition Monitoring 209 7.8.1 Partial Discharge Monitoring in HV Cables 209 7.8.2 Transformer Condition Monitoring 210 7.8.3 Gas-Insulated Switchgear Condition Monitoring 211 7.8.4 Power Electronics Condition Monitoring 211 7.9 Smart Grids for Large-Scale Offshore Wind Integration 213 7.9.1 VPP Control Approach 216 7.9.2 Phasor Measurement Units 217 Acknowledgements 217 References 218 Appendix A Voltage Source Converter Topologies 223 A.1 Two-Level Converter 223 A.1.1 Operation 223 A.1.2 Voltage Source Converter Square-Mode Operation 224 A.1.3 Pulse Width Modulation 225 A.2 Neutral-Point Clamped Converter 240 A.2.1 Selective Harmonic Elimination 242 A.2.2 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation 244 A.3 Flying Capacitor (FC) Multilevel Converter 247 A.4 Cascaded Multilevel Converter 248 A.5 Modular Multilevel Converter 249 References 258 Appendix B Worked-out Examples 271 Index 279

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Book SynopsisPresents trends and potential future developments by leading researchers in immersive media production, delivery, rendering and interaction. This book considers the complete production, processing and distribution chain that illustrating the dependencies and the relationship between different components.Table of ContentsList of Editors and Contributors xiii List of Abbreviations xvii Notations xxiii 1 Introduction 1 Oliver Schreer, Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Omar Aziz Niamut, Javier Ruiz-Hidalgo, Ben Shirley, Georg Thallinger and Graham Thomas 2 State-of-the-Art and Challenges in Media Production, Broadcast and Delivery 5 Graham Thomas, Arvid Engstr¨om, Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Omar Aziz Niamut, Ben Shirley and Richard Salmon 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Video Fundamentals and Acquisition Technology 7 2.2.1 How Real Should Video Look? 7 2.2.2 Fundamentals of Video 9 2.2.3 Camera Technology 14 2.2.4 Production for Formats with Differing Aspect Ratios 19 2.2.5 Stereoscopic 3D Video 20 2.2.6 Challenges for the Future 21 2.3 Audio Fundamentals and Acquisition Technology 21 2.3.1 Introduction 21 2.3.2 Fundamentals of Audio 21 2.3.3 Non-Live Production 27 2.3.4 Live Production 31 2.3.5 Surround Sound 34 2.3.6 Challenges for the Future 34 2.4 Live Programme Production 34 2.4.1 The Production Area and Roles in Production 35 2.4.2 The Production Workspace 37 2.4.3 Vision Mixing: Techniques for Directing, Selecting and Mixing Camera Feeds 38 2.4.4 Audio Mixing 40 2.4.5 Replay Operation in Live Television Production 40 2.4.6 Challenges for the Future 42 2.5 Coding and Delivery 43 2.5.1 Managed Delivery Networks 43 2.5.2 Unmanaged Delivery Networks 47 2.5.3 Codecs and Transport Protocols 48 2.5.4 Challenges for the Future 50 2.6 Display Technology 50 2.6.1 Plasma Displays – Developing the Flat Panel Display Market 51 2.6.2 LCD – the Current Dominant Technology 52 2.6.3 Projection Technologies 53 2.6.4 Other Technologies 54 2.6.5 Impact on Broadcasters 55 2.6.6 Challenges for the Future 56 2.7 Audio Reproduction Technology 56 2.7.1 Stereophonic Sound Systems 57 2.7.2 Holophonic Systems 59 2.7.3 Binaural Systems 61 2.7.4 Hybrid Systems 62 2.7.5 Challenges for the Future 62 2.8 Use of Archive Material 62 2.8.1 Video Format Conversion 63 2.8.2 Audio Format Conversion 64 2.8.3 Challenges for the Future 64 2.9 Concept of Format-Agnostic Media 65 2.9.1 Limitations of Current Production and Delivery Approaches 65 2.9.2 A New Approach: Format-Agnostic Media 65 2.9.3 Metadata for Enabling Rich User Interaction 66 2.9.4 A Format-Agnostic Media Production and Delivery System 67 2.10 Conclusion 68 Notes 69 References 69 3 Video Acquisition 74 Oliver Schreer, Ingo Feldmann, Richard Salmon, Johannes Steurer and Graham Thomas 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Ultra-High Definition Panoramic Video Acquisition 75 3.2.1 History of Panoramic Imaging 75 3.2.2 The Geometry of Two Views 79 3.2.3 Fundamentals of Panoramic Video Acquisition 82 3.2.4 Geometrical Constraints for Parallax Free Stitching of Two Images 84 3.2.5 Registration of Views 88 3.2.6 Stitching, Warping and Blending of Views 91 3.3 Use of Conventional Video Content to Enhance Panoramic Video 94 3.3.1 Calibration of Camera Position and Orientation 94 3.3.2 Photometric Matching of Panoramic and Broadcast Cameras 98 3.3.3 Blending and Switching Between Camera Views 101 3.4 High Frame Rate Video 102 3.4.1 Early Work on HDTV Frame Rates 104 3.4.2 Issues with Conventional Frame Rates 104 3.4.3 Practical Investigations into the Effects of High Frame Rates 107 3.4.4 Future Frame Rates for TV Production and Distribution 111 3.4.5 Consideration of Frame Rates and Motion Portrayal in Synthetic Production 111 3.4.6 Conclusions on Frame Rates 112 3.5 High Dynamic Range Video 112 3.5.1 The Human Visual System in Natural Environments 113 3.5.2 Conventional and HDR Video Cameras 115 3.5.3 Conventional and HDR Displays 117 3.5.4 HDR Video Formats 119 3.5.5 Adaptive Tone-mapping for Format-Agnostic Video 120 3.6 Conclusion 125 Notes 126 References 126 4 Platform Independent Audio 130 Ben Shirley, Rob Oldfield, Frank Melchior and Johann-Markus Batke 4.1 Introduction 130 4.2 Terms and Definitions 132 4.2.1 Auditory Event and Sound Event 132 4.2.2 Basic Room Acoustics Theory 134 4.3 Definition of the Problem Space 135 4.3.1 Reproduction Environment 135 4.3.2 Reproduction Method 137 4.3.3 Audio-visual Coherence 141 4.3.4 User Interaction 143 4.3.5 Example Scenario 143 4.4 Scene Representation 144 4.4.1 Components of a Virtual Sound Scene 144 4.4.2 Representations of Virtual Sound Scenes 146 4.4.3 Implementation Examples 147 4.5 Scene Acquisition 149 4.5.1 Capturing Discrete Audio Objects 150 4.5.2 Capturing the Sound Field Component 152 4.5.3 Capturing the Diffuse Field 153 4.6 Scene Reproduction 153 4.6.1 Scenario: Mobile Consumption Via Headphones 153 4.6.2 Scenario: Interactive Multichannel Reproduction 154 4.6.3 Scenario: Big Screen 154 4.6.4 Scenario: Interactive and Free Viewpoint 3D 155 4.7 Existing Systems 156 4.7.1 Commercial Systems 156 4.7.2 Research Projects 157 4.7.3 Perceptive Media 160 4.8 Conclusion 161 4.8.1 Open Issues 162 References 162 5 Semi-Automatic Content Annotation 166 Werner Bailer, Marco Masetti, Goranka Zori´c, Marcus Thaler and Georg Thallinger 5.1 Introduction 166 5.1.1 Requirements on Semi-automatic Annotation Tools 167 5.1.2 Requirements on Metadata 168 5.2 Metadata Models and Analysis Architectures 170 5.2.1 Metadata Models 170 5.2.2 Architectures for Audio-visual Analysis 171 5.2.3 Storing MPEG-7 Metadata 172 5.2.4 Bulk Loading Techniques for Massive MPEG-7 Metadata Storage 175 5.2.5 An Example Architecture of a Semantic Layer Management System 175 5.3 Domain-independent Saliency 177 5.3.1 Spatio-temporal Visual Saliency 177 5.3.2 Estimating Grid-based Saliency 178 5.3.3 Salient Regions for Controlling Automated Shot Selection 179 5.4 Person Detection and Tracking 180 5.4.1 Person Detection 181 5.4.2 Person Tracking 182 5.4.3 Multicamera and Panoramic Environment 184 5.4.4 GPU Accelerated Real-time Tracking Beyond HD 187 5.5 Online Detection of Concepts and Actions 189 5.5.1 Sequence-based Kernels 190 5.5.2 Kernels for Online Detection 193 5.5.3 Performance of Online Kernels 194 5.6 Supporting Annotation for Automated Production 195 5.6.1 User Preferences and Functionality Definition 195 5.6.2 Design Overview and Principles 196 5.6.3 Preconfiguration and Predefined Workspaces 198 5.7 Conclusion 204 References 205 6 Virtual Director 209 Rene Kaiser and Wolfgang Weiss 6.1 Introduction 209 6.1.1 What is a Virtual Director? 210 6.1.2 Features Enabled by a Virtual Director 211 6.1.3 Definitions 212 6.1.4 Requirements for Virtual Director Technology 213 6.1.5 Existing Implementations and Research Activities 215 6.2 Implementation Approaches 219 6.2.1 Behaviour Implementation Approaches 220 6.2.2 Combining Rule Engines and Event Processing Technology 223 6.3 Example Architecture and Workflow 225 6.3.1 Workflow of the Production System 225 6.3.2 Workflow of the Virtual Director 226 6.3.3 Distributed Nature 228 6.3.4 Sources of Knowledge 228 6.4 Virtual Director Subprocesses 230 6.4.1 Semantic Lifting 230 6.4.2 Shot Candidate Identification 231 6.4.3 Shot Framing 233 6.4.4 Shot Prioritisation 234 6.4.5 Decision Making 235 6.5 Behaviour Engineering: Production Grammar 237 6.5.1 Production Knowledge Elicitation Process 237 6.5.2 Cinematic Techniques 238 6.5.3 Audio Scripting 241 6.5.4 Domain Model 241 6.5.5 Limitations in Rule-based Behaviour Engineering 242 6.6 Virtual Director: Example Prototype 243 6.6.1 Architecture and Software Framework 245 6.6.2 Production Scripts 246 6.6.3 Behaviour Implementation 247 6.6.4 Production Grammar Example 248 6.7 Conclusion 251 6.7.1 Summary 251 6.7.2 Limitations 251 6.7.3 Testing and Evaluation 252 6.7.4 Research Roadmap 253 6.7.5 Concluding Thoughts 255 References 256 7 Scalable Delivery of Navigable and Ultra-High Resolution Video 260 Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Patrice Rond˜ao Alface, Ray van Brandenburg, Omar Aziz Niamut, Martin Prins and Nico Verzijp 7.1 Introduction 260 7.2 Delivery of Format-Agnostic Content: Key Concepts and State-of-the-Art 262 7.2.1 Delivery Agnostic to Content Formats, Device Capabilities and Network Bandwidth 262 7.2.2 Delivery Agnostic to Video Timing – the Temporal Interactivity Case 264 7.2.3 Delivery Agnostic to Video Reframing – the Spatial Interactivity Case 266 7.3 Spatial Random Access in Video Coding 267 7.3.1 Video Compression and Random Access – A Fundamental Trade-off 268 7.3.2 Spatial Random Access by Tracking Coding Dependencies 271 7.3.3 Spatial Random Access by Frame Tiling 271 7.3.4 Multi-Resolution Tiling 273 7.3.5 Overlapping Tiling for Low-Powered Devices 274 7.4 Models for Adaptive Tile-based Representation and Delivery 276 7.4.1 Saliency-based Adaptive Coding of Tiled Content 277 7.4.2 Optimisation of Tile Selection Under Delay and Bandwidth Constraints 280 7.5 Segment-based Adaptive Transport 281 7.5.1 Video Streaming Over IP 282 7.5.2 Tiled HTTP Adaptive Streaming Over the Internet 285 7.5.3 Publish/Subscribe System for Interactive Video Streaming 289 7.6 Conclusion 294 References 294 8 Interactive Rendering 298 Javier Ruiz-Hidalgo, Malte Borsum, Axel Kochale and Goranka Zori´c 8.1 Introduction 298 8.2 Format-Agnostic Rendering 299 8.2.1 Available Rendering Solutions in End Terminals 299 8.2.2 Requirements for Format-Agnostic Video Rendering 306 8.2.3 Description of a Technical Solution 308 8.3 Device-less Interaction for Rendering Control 311 8.3.1 Sensors for Gesture Recognition 314 8.3.2 Gesture Analysis Techniques 317 8.3.3 Recognition and Classification Techniques 319 8.3.4 Remaining Challenges in Gesture Recognition Systems 321 8.3.5 Description of a Technical Solution 321 8.3.6 User Study of the Gesture Interface 327 8.4 Conclusions 331 References 332 9 Application Scenarios and Deployment Domains 337 Omar Aziz Niamut, Arvid Engstr¨om, Axel Kochale, Jean-Franc¸ois Macq, Graham Thomas and Goranka Zori´c 9.1 Introduction 337 9.2 Application Scenarios 338 9.2.1 Digital Cinema: A Totally Immersive Experience 338 9.2.2 Home Theatre: In Control 339 9.2.3 Mobile: Navigation and Magnification 339 9.3 Deployment in the Production Domain 340 9.3.1 Outlook on New Production Practices 340 9.3.2 Use of Format-Agnostic Technology to Aid Conventional Production 342 9.3.3 Production of Format-Agnostic Content to Support End User Interaction 344 9.4 Deployment in the Network Domain 347 9.4.1 Network Requirements 347 9.4.2 Impact of Application Scenarios 348 9.5 Deployment in the Device Domain 351 9.5.1 Device Capabilities 351 9.5.2 User and Producer Expectations 355 9.6 Deployment in the User Domain 356 9.7 Conclusion 357 References 357 Index 359

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Book SynopsisComprehensive coverage explaining the correlation and synergy between Next Generation Networks and the existing standardized technologies This book focuses on Next Generation Networks (NGN); in particular, on NGN architectures, protocols and services, including technologies, regulation and business aspects.Table of ContentsAbout the Author xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Traditional Telecom World 3 1.2.1 History of Telephony 4 1.3 Public Switched Telephone Networks 5 1.3.1 Pulse Code Modulation 7 1.3.2 Architecture of the Telephone Network 7 1.4 Signaling Network 9 1.4.1 SS7 Architecture 9 1.4.2 SS7 Protocol Model 11 1.5 Transmission Systems 12 1.5.1 Multiplexing of Digital Channels 13 1.5.2 Time Division Multiplexing in PSTN 14 1.6 Traditional Internet world 16 1.6.1 History of the Internet 16 1.6.2 Growth of the Internet 19 1.6.3 Internet Architecture 20 1.7 The Convergence of the Two Worlds: Next Generation Networks 23 1.7.1 NGN Perspective of Telecom Operators 24 1.7.2 When Will NGN Emerge? 25 1.8 The Structure of This Book 25 References 26 2 Internet Fundamentals by IETF 29 2.1 Internet Architecture and IETF Standardization 29 2.2 Fundamental Internet Protocols 29 2.2.1 Internet Protocol Version 4 29 2.2.2 Internet Protocol Version 6 31 2.2.3 User Datagram Protocol 33 2.2.4 Transmission Control Protocol 34 2.2.5 Stream Control Transmission Protocol 41 2.3 Addressing and Numbering 43 2.3.1 IPv4 Addressing 44 2.3.2 Network Address Translation 46 2.3.3 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol 47 2.3.4 Domain Name System 49 2.3.5 ENUM 50 2.3.6 IPv6 Addressing Architecture 51 2.4 Internet Routing 52 2.4.1 Routing Algorithms 54 2.5 Client–Server Networking 58 2.6 Peer-to-Peer Networking 59 2.7 Best-Effort Internet Services 60 2.7.1 Electronic Mail 60 2.7.2 File Transfer Protocol 61 2.7.3 World Wide Web 62 2.7.4 Peer-to-Peer Services 63 2.8 Internet Governance 65 References 66 3 NGN Standards and Architectures 69 3.1 Main Drivers to Next Generation Networks 69 3.1.1 Fixed Broadband Internet Access 70 3.1.2 Mobile Broadband Internet Access 71 3.1.3 Convergence to IP-based Networks and Services 72 3.1.4 End-User Drivers toward NGN 72 3.1.5 Operator Drivers toward NGN 73 3.2 ITU-T NGN Standards 75 3.2.1 NGN Architectures 77 3.2.2 End-to-End Quality of Service 77 3.2.3 Security 78 3.2.4 Generalized Mobility 78 3.2.5 Network Control Architectures and Protocols 78 3.2.6 Service Capabilities and Service Architectures 79 3.2.7 Interoperability of Services and Networks in NGN 79 3.2.8 Future Networks 79 3.3 Standardization Synergy of ITU, IETF, 3GPP, and IEEE 80 3.3.1 IETF Role 81 3.3.2 ETSI Role 82 3.3.3 3GPP Role 82 3.3.4 IEEE Role 82 3.4 All-IP Network Concept for NGN 83 3.5 NGN Functional Architecture 86 3.5.1 Transport Stratum Functions 89 3.5.2 Transport Control Functions 90 3.5.3 Service Stratum Functions 91 3.5.4 Management Functions 92 3.5.5 Identity Management Functions 92 3.5.6 End-User Functions 92 3.5.7 NGN Configuration and Topology 93 3.6 NGN Control Architectures and Protocols 94 3.6.1 Network Access Configuration Functional Entity 94 3.6.2 Access Management Functional Entity 95 3.6.3 Transport Location Management Functional Entity 95 3.6.4 Transport Authentication and Authorization Functional Entity 96 3.6.5 Transport User Profile Functional Entity 96 3.6.6 Home Gateway Configuration Functional Entity 96 3.6.7 Access Relay Functional Entity 96 3.7 Numbering, Naming, and Addressing in NGN 96 3.7.1 Numbering Scheme 97 3.7.2 Naming and Addressing Schemes 98 3.7.3 Numbering, Naming, and Addressing Scheme for NGN 99 3.7.4 Discussion 101 References 101 4 Broadband Internet: the Basis for NGN 103 4.1 ITU’s Work on Broadband Internet 103 4.1.1 ITU-T Work on Broadband 103 4.1.2 ITU-R Work on Broadband 104 4.1.3 ITU-D Work on Broadband 105 4.2 DSL and Cable Access Networks 105 4.2.1 ADSL Success Story 105 4.2.2 ADSL Access Architecture 106 4.2.3 ADSL Frequency Bands and Modulation 107 4.2.4 Other DSL Technologies 108 4.2.5 ADSL Network Architecture 109 4.2.6 Cable Access Network 111 4.3 FTTH Access Networks 115 4.4 Next Generation Passive and Active Optical Networks 119 4.4.1 PON Standards 119 4.4.2 Next Generation Passive Optical Networks 123 4.4.3 Next Generation Active Optical Networks 127 4.5 Metro Ethernet 128 4.5.1 Virtual LAN (IEEE 802.1Q) 130 4.5.2 Provider Bridges (IEEE 802.1ad) 130 4.5.3 Provider Backbone Bridges (IEEE 802.1ah) 130 4.5.4 Metro Ethernet for Mobile Backhaul Service 131 4.6 Regulation and Business Aspects 135 4.6.1 Regulation of Prices for Broadband Services and Markets 135 4.6.2 Regulation of Wholesale Prices 136 4.6.3 Regulation of Retail Prices 137 4.7 Discussion 138 References 138 5 Mobile Broadband: Next Generation Mobile Networks 141 5.1 ITU’s IMT-Advanced: the 4G Umbrella 141 5.2 4G Standard by 3GPP: LTE/LTE-Advanced 143 5.2.1 LTE/LTE-Advanced Standardization 144 5.2.2 System Architecture Evolution 145 5.2.3 LTE/LTE-Advanced Radio Access 152 5.3 4G Standard by IEEE: Mobile WiMAX 2.0 156 5.3.1 Mobile WiMAX Network Architecture 157 5.3.2 Quality of Service in WiMAX Networks 158 5.3.3 Mobile WiMAX 2.0 Radio Interface 158 5.4 Fixed-Mobile Convergence 160 5.5 IP Multimedia Subsystem for NGN 161 5.5.1 Proxy CSCF 164 5.5.2 Serving CSCF 164 5.5.3 Interrogating CSCF 164 5.5.4 Naming and Addressing in IMS 165 5.6 Mobility Management in NGN 165 5.6.1 Conceptual Framework for MM 167 5.6.2 Architecture for Mobility Management in Transport Stratum 168 5.6.3 Architecture for Mobility Management in Service Stratum 170 5.7 Next Generation Mobile Services 171 5.7.1 Mobile TV 172 5.7.2 Location-Based Services 174 5.8 Regulation and Business Aspects 175 5.8.1 Spectrum Management for Mobile Broadband 176 5.8.2 Business Aspects for Mobile Broadband 177 5.9 Discussion 178 References 178 6 Quality of Service and Performance 181 6.1 Quality of Service and Quality of Experience in NGN 181 6.1.1 What is QoS? 181 6.1.2 ITU-T QoS Framework 182 6.1.3 Performance Parameters for IP Services 185 6.1.4 Quality of Experience 188 6.2 Resource and Admission Control Functions 189 6.2.1 RACF Functional Architecture 190 6.2.2 RACF Deployment Architectures 192 6.2.3 RACF Communication between Different NGN Operators 195 6.2.4 Example of Admission Control with RACF 195 6.3 QoS Architecture for Ethernet-Based NGN 197 6.3.1 Reference Architecture for Ethernet-Based NGN 198 6.3.2 QoS Services in Ethernet-Based NGN 200 6.4 Flow-State-Aware Transport 203 6.4.1 Network Architecture for Flow-Aggregate Information Exchange 205 6.4.2 Protocols for FSA Transport 206 6.5 Management of Performance Measurements in NGN 211 6.6 NGN Architecture for MPLS Core Networks 213 6.6.1 Centralized RACF Architecture for MPLS Core Networks 213 6.6.2 Distributed RACF Architecture for MPLS Core Networks 215 6.7 Discussion 217 References 218 7 Service Aspects 221 7.1 Service Architecture in NGN 221 7.2 Managed Delivery Services (MDS) 224 7.2.1 Service Provisioning with MDS 225 7.2.2 MDS Functional Architecture 228 7.3 IMS-Based Real-Time Multimedia Services 229 7.3.1 Multimedia Communication Center 231 7.3.2 IMS-Based IPTV 231 7.4 Control and Signaling Protocols for NGN 233 7.4.1 Diameter 233 7.4.2 Session Initiation Protocol 240 7.5 Security Mechanisms for NGN 247 7.5.1 Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting in NGN 247 7.5.2 Transport Security in NGN 249 7.6 NGN Identity Management 250 7.7 Service Continuity 252 7.8 Next Generation Service Overlay Networks 254 7.8.1 SON Framework 255 7.8.2 SON-Based Services 256 7.9 Discussion 257 References 258 8 NGN Services 261 8.1 QoS-Enabled VoIP 261 8.1.1 Differences between VoIP and PSTN 262 8.1.2 VoIP Protocols and QoS Aspects 263 8.1.3 QoS-Enabled VoIP in NGN 266 8.2 IPTV over NGN 269 8.2.1 IPTV Functional Architecture 270 8.2.2 Multicast-Based IPTV Content Delivery 273 8.2.3 Unicast-Based IPTV Content Delivery 274 8.3 Web Services in NGN 276 8.4 Ubiquitous Sensor Network Services 280 8.4.1 USN Functional Architecture 283 8.4.2 USN Applications 285 8.5 VPN Services in NGN 285 8.6 Internet of Things and Web of Things 288 8.6.1 Internet of Things 288 8.6.2 Web of Things 290 8.7 Business and Regulation of Converged Services and Contents 293 8.7.1 Business Models for NGN Services 293 8.7.2 Regulation of NGN Services 296 8.8 Discussion 298 References 298 9 Transition to NGN and Future Evolution 301 9.1 Migration of PSTN Networks to NGN 301 9.1.1 Evolution of PSTN/ISDN to NGN 301 9.1.2 PSTN/ISDN Emulation and Simulation 304 9.2 Transition of IP Networks to NGN 306 9.3 Carrier Grade Open Environment 307 9.4 IPv6-Based NGN 310 9.4.1 Multihoming in IPv6-Based NGN 312 9.4.2 Object Mapping Using IPv6 in NGN 318 9.4.3 Migration to IPv6-Based NGN 320 9.5 Network Virtualization 321 9.6 Future Packet Based Network 324 9.6.1 Cloud Computing 324 9.6.2 Software Defined Networking 326 9.7 Business Challenges and Opportunities 327 9.8 Discussion 330 References 331 10 Conclusions 333 Index 337

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Book SynopsisA practical reference to support choosing, customising and handling the best PV simulation solution This comprehensive guide surveys all available models for simulating a photovoltaic (PV) generator at different levels of granularity, from cell to system level, in uniform as well as in mismatched conditions.Table of ContentsAcknowledgements xi Introduction xiii Tables of Symbols and Acronyms xv 1 PV Models 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Modeling: Granularity and Accuracy 1 1.3 The Double-diode Model 2 1.4 The Single-diode Model 4 1.4.1 Effect of the SDM Parameters on the I–V Curve 5 1.5 Models of PV Array for Circuit Simulator 6 1.5.1 The Single-diode Model based on the Lambert W-function 10 1.6 PV Dynamic Models 11 1.7 PV Small-signal Models and Dynamic-resistance Modelling 14 References 17 2 Single-diode Model Parameter Identification 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 PV Parameter Identification from Datasheet Information 21 2.2.1 Exact Numerical Methods 21 2.2.2 Approximate Explicit Solution for Calculating SDM Parameters 24 2.2.3 Validation of the Approximate Explicit Solution 27 2.3 Single-diode Model Simplification 30 2.3.1 Five-parameter versus Four-parameter Simplification 32 2.3.2 Explicit Equations for Calculating the Four SDM Parameters 34 2.4 Improved Models for Amorphous and Organic PV Technologies 37 2.4.1 Modified SDM for Amorphous PV Cells 37 2.4.2 Five-parameter Calculation for Amorphous Silicon PV Panels 38 2.4.3 Modified Model for Organic PV Cells 40 References 43 3 PV Simulation under Homogeneous Conditions 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Irradiance- and Temperature-dependence of the PV Model 45 3.2.1 Direct Effects of Irradiance and Temperature 45 3.2.2 Equations for “Translating” SDM Parameters 49 3.2.3 Iterative Procedure proposed by Villalva et al. 51 3.2.4 Modified PV Model proposed by Lo Brano et al. 52 3.2.5 Translating Equations proposed by Marion et al. 53 3.2.6 Modified Translational Equation proposed by Picault et al. 53 3.2.7 PV Electrical Model proposed by King et al. 56 3.2.8 Using the King Equation for Estimating the SDM Parameter Drift 59 3.3 Simplified PV Models for Long-term Simulations 61 3.3.1 King Equations for Long-term Simulations 63 3.3.2 Performance Prediction Model based on the Fill Factor 68 3.3.3 PV Modeling based on Artificial Neural Networks 69 3.4 Real-time Simulation of PV Arrays 71 3.4.1 Simplified Models including the Power Conversion Stage 72 3.5 Summary of PV Models 75 References 77 4 PV Arrays in Non-homogeneous Conditions 81 4.1 Mismatching Effects: Sources and Consequences 81 4.1.1 Manufacturing Tolerances 81 4.1.2 Aging 82 4.1.3 Soiling and Snow 83 4.1.4 Shadowing 83 4.1.5 Module Temperature 86 4.2 Bypass Diode Failure 87 4.3 Hot spots and Bypass Diodes 89 4.4 Effect of Aging Failures and Malfunctioning on the PV Energy Yield 90 References 94 5 Models of PV Arrays under Non-homogeneous Conditions 97 5.1 The use of the Lambert W-Function 98 5.2 Application Examples 102 5.2.1 The Entire I–V Curve of a Mismatched PV String 102 5.2.2 The Operating Point of a Mismatched PV String 104 5.3 Guess Solution by Inflection-point Detection 106 5.4 Real-time Simulation of Mismatched PV Arrays 108 5.5 Estimation of the Energy Production of Mismatched PV Arrays 109 References 111 6 PV array Modeling at Cell Level under Non-homogeneous Conditions 113 6.1 PV Cell Modeling at Negative Voltage Values 113 6.1.1 The Bishop Term 113 6.1.2 Silicon Cells Type and Reverse Behavior 115 6.2 Cell and Subcell Modeling: Occurrence of Hot Spots 116 6.2.1 Cell Modeling 117 6.3 Simulation Example 121 6.4 Subcell PV Model 123 6.5 Concluding Remarks on PV String Modeling 124 References 124 7 Modeling the PV Power Conversion Chain 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Review of Basic Concepts for Modeling Power Converters 129 7.2.1 Steady-state Analysis 132 7.2.1.1 Steady-state Values 133 7.2.1.2 Ripple Magnitudes 133 7.2.2 Converter Dynamics Analysis 134 7.3 Effects of the Converter in the Power Conversion Chain 136 7.3.1 Steady-state Model of the Power Conversion Chain 136 7.3.2 Analysis and Simulation using the Steady-state Model 139 7.3.3 Voltage Ripple at the Generator Terminals 143 7.3.4 I–V Curve of the Power Conversion Chain 148 7.4 Modelling the Dynamics of the Power Conversion Chain 151 7.5 Additional Examples 159 7.5.1 MIU based on a Buck Converter 159 7.5.2 MIU based on a Buck–Boost Converter 161 7.6 Summary 162 References 163 8 Control of the Power Conversion Chain 165 8.1 Introduction 165 8.2 Linear Controller 166 8.3 Sliding-mode Controller 172 8.3.1 Inductor Current Control 173 8.3.2 Capacitor Current Control 179 8.4 Summary 183 References 184 Index 000

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Book SynopsisData registration refers to a series of techniques for matching or bringing similar objects or datasets together into alignment.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The History of Image Registration 1 1.2 Definition of Registration 2 1.3 What is Motion Estimation 3 1.4 Video Quality Assessment 5 1.5 Applications 5 1.5.1 Video Processing 5 1.5.2 Medical Applications 7 1.5.3 Security Applications 8 1.5.4 Military and Satellite Applications 10 1.5.5 Reconstruction Applications 11 1.6 Organization of the Book 12 References 13 2 Registration for Video Coding 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Motion Estimation Technique 16 2.2.1 Block-Based Motion Estimation Techniques 16 2.3 Registration and Standards for Video Coding 30 2.3.1 H.264 30 2.3.2 H.265 34 2.4 Evaluation Criteria 35 2.4.1 Dataset 35 2.4.2 Motion-Compensated Prediction Error (MCPE) in dB 38 2.4.3 Entropy in bpp 39 2.4.4 Angular Error in Degrees 40 2.5 Objective Quality Assessment 41 2.5.1 Full-Reference Quality Assessment 41 2.5.2 No-Reference and Reduced-Reference Quality Metrics 44 2.5.3 Temporal Masking in Video Quality Assessment 46 2.6 Conclusion 48 2.7 Exercises 49 References 49 3 Registration for Motion Estimation and Object Tracking 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.1.1 Mathematical Notation 54 3.2 Optical Flow 55 3.2.1 Horn–Schunk Method 56 3.2.2 Lukas–Kanade Method 56 3.2.3 Applications of Optical Flow for Motion Estimation 57 3.3 Efficient Discriminative Features for Motion Estimation 61 3.3.1 Invariant Features 62 3.3.2 Optimization Stage 64 3.4 Object Tracking 64 3.4.1 KLT Tracking 64 3.4.2 Motion Filtering 66 3.4.3 Multiple Object Tracking 67 3.5 Evaluating Motion Estimation and Tracking 68 3.5.1 Metrics for Motion Detection 68 3.5.2 Metrics for Motion Tracking 69 3.5.3 Metrics for Efficiency 70 3.5.4 Datasets 70 3.6 Conclusion 70 3.7 Exercise 75 References 75 4 Face Alignment and Recognition Using Registration 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Unsupervised Alignment Methods 80 4.2.1 Natural Features: Gradient Features 81 4.2.2 Dense Grids: Non-rigid Non-affine Transformations 81 4.3 Supervised Alignment Methods 83 4.3.1 Generative Models 84 4.3.2 Discriminative Approaches 86 4.4 3D Alignment 88 4.4.1 Hausdorff Distance Matching 88 4.4.2 Iterative Closest Point (ICP) 89 4.4.3 Multistage Alignment 89 4.5 Metrics for Evaluation 90 4.5.1 Evaluating Face Recognition 90 4.5.2 Evaluating Face Alignment 90 4.5.3 Testing Protocols and Benchmarks 91 4.5.4 Datasets 92 4.6 Conclusion 94 4.7 Exercise 94 References 94 5 Remote Sensing Image Registration in the Frequency Domain 97 5.1 Introduction 97 5.2 Challenges in Remote Sensing Imaging 100 5.3 Satellite Image Registration in the Fourier Domain 102 5.3.1 Translation Estimation Using Correlation 102 5.4 Correlation Methods 103 5.5 Subpixel Shift Estimation in the Fourier Domain 107 5.6 FFT-Based Scale-Invariant Image Registration 111 5.7 Motion Estimation in the Frequency Domain for Remote Sensing Image Sequences 115 5.7.1 Quad-Tree Phase Correlation 116 5.7.2 Shape Adaptive Motion Estimation in the Frequency Domain 119 5.7.3 Optical Flow in the Fourier Domain 120 5.8 Evaluation Process and Related Datasets 122 5.8.1 Remote Sensing Image Datasets 123 5.9 Conclusion 123 5.10 Exercise – Practice 124 References 124 6 Structure from Motion 129 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 Pinhole Model 131 6.3 Camera Calibration 133 6.4 Correspondence Problem 135 6.5 Epipolar Geometry 136 6.6 Projection Matrix Recovery 140 6.6.1 Triangulation 141 6.7 Feature Detection and Registration 141 6.7.1 Auto-correlation 143 6.7.2 Harris Detector 143 6.7.3 SIFT Feature Detector 146 6.8 Reconstruction of 3D Structure and Motion 148 6.8.1 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping 149 6.8.2 Registration for Panoramic View 150 6.9 Metrics and Datasets 152 6.9.1 Datasets for Performance Evaluation 154 6.10 Conclusion 155 6.11 Exercise – Practice 155 References 155 7 Medical Image Registration Measures 162 7.1 Introduction 162 7.2 Feature-Based Registration 163 7.2.1 Generalized Iterative Closest Point Algorithm 164 7.2.2 Hierarchical Maximization 165 7.3 Intensity-Based Registration 165 7.3.1 Voxels as Features 166 7.3.2 Special Case: Spatially Determined Correspondences 168 7.3.3 Intensity Difference Measures 169 7.3.4 Correlation Coefficient 170 7.3.5 Pseudo-likelihood Measures 171 7.3.6 General Implementation Using Joint Histograms 181 7.4 Transformation Spaces and Optimization 184 7.4.1 Rigid Transformations 185 7.4.2 Similarity Transformations 186 7.4.3 Affine Transformations 186 7.4.4 Projective Transformations 187 7.4.5 Polyaffine Transformations 187 7.4.6 Free-Form Transformations: ‘Small Deformation’ Model 188 7.4.7 Free-Form Transformations: ‘Large Deformation’ Models 189 7.5 Conclusion 193 7.6 Exercise 193 7.6.1 Implementation Guidelines 195 References 196 8 Video Restoration Using Motion Information 201 8.1 Introduction 201 8.2 History of Video and Film Restoration 203 8.3 Restoration of Video Noise and Grain 206 8.4 Restoration Algorithms for Video Noise 208 8.5 Instability Correction Using Registration 211 8.6 Estimating and Removing Flickering 214 8.7 Dirt Removal in Video Sequences 217 8.8 Metrics in Video Restoration 221 8.9 Conclusions 225 8.10 Exercise – Practice 225 References 225 Index 229

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Book SynopsisThe only recent book on dependability/fault-tolerance that covers both software and hardware aspects of dependability, Dependable Computing Design and Assessment addresses the new reality of dependability.

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Book SynopsisOffers a unique and highly technical approach to tidal power and how it can be harnessed efficiently and cost-effectively, with less impact on the environment than traditional power plants With the demand for energy outstripping conventional sources from fossil fuels, new sources of energy must be found. Tidal power is a potentially rich source of renewable energy. Even though power plants that run on hydropower have been around a long time, new types, such as those run without dams, have not been as heavily researched and presented to the scientific community. This book is a step in that directionsuggesting more cost-effective and less environmentally intrusive methods for creating power sources from rivers, the tides, and other sources of water. Presenting a detailed discussion of the costs, risks, and challenges of building power plants that run on hydropower, Tidal Power: Harnessing Energy From Water Currents: Covers the technical aspectsTable of ContentsPreface ix1 Marine Hydro Kinetic-MHK 12 Rivers (Channels) Power Plants without a Dam 533 Low-Speed Hydro-Kinetic Turbines 1274 Large Power Hydro Turbines 1575 Examples of Turbines Produced 1916 Water Current Power-Looking to the Future 233Subject Index 253

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Book SynopsisAn up-to-date and thorough treatment of the technologies, practical applications, and future of wind power, with the pros and cons and technical intricacies of various types of wind turbines and wind power prediction With the demand for energy outstripping availability from conventional sources such as fossil fuels, new sources of energy must be found. Wind power is the most mature of all of the renewable or alternative sources of energy being widely used today. With many old wind turbines becoming obsolete or in need of replacement, new methods and materials for building turbines are constantly being sought after, and troubleshooting, from an engineering perspective, is paramount to the operational efficiency of turbines currently in use. Wind Power: Turbine Design, Selection, and Optimization: Details the technical attributes of various types of wind turbines, including new collinear windmills, orthogonal windmills, non-vibration VAWT wind Table of ContentsPreface vii 1 Transformation of Flow Power 1 2 Collinear Wind Turbines (Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines-HAWTs) 67 3 Orthogonal Wind Units: Mathematical Models 107 4 Ordinary Orthogonal Windmills (Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines –VAWTs) 167 5 The Largest Open Wind Turbines on the Ground or Sea 227 6 The Unit Without External Rotation 263 7 High Jet Power Station 275 Conclusion 305 Author Index 307 Subject Index 309

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Book SynopsisA practical introduction to state-of-the-art freeform optics design for LED packages and applications By affording designers the freedom to create complex, aspherical optical surfaces with minimal or no aberrations, freeform design transcends the constraints imposed by hundreds of years of optics design and fabrication.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of LED Lighting 1 1.2 Development Trends of LED Packaging and Applications 5 1.3 Three Key Issues of Optical Design of LED Lighting 7 1.3.1 System Luminous Efficiency 7 1.3.2 Controllable Light Pattern 7 1.3.3 Spatial Color Uniformity 8 1.4 Introduction of Freeform Optics 10 References 12 2 Review of Main Algorithms of Freeform Optics for LED Lighting 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Tailored Design Method 16 2.3 SMS Design Method 17 2.4 Light Energy Mapping Design Method 18 2.5 Generalized Functional Design Method 19 2.6 Design Method for Uniform Illumination with Multiple Sources 22 References 22 3 Basic Algorithms of Freeform Optics for LED Lighting 25 3.1 Introduction 25 3.2 Circularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Point Source 25 3.2.1 Freeform Lens for Large Emitting Angles 26 3.2.1.1 Step 1. Establish a Light Energy Mapping Relationship between the Light Source and Target 27 3.2.1.2 Step 2. Construct a Freeform Lens 31 3.2.1.3 Step 3. Validation and Optimization 33 3.2.2 TIR-Freeform Lens for Small Emitting Angle 33 3.2.3 Circularly Symmetrical Double Surfaces Freeform Lens 39 3.3 Circularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Extended Source 42 3.3.1.1 Step 1. Construction of a Point Source Freeform Lens 45 3.3.1.2 Step 2. Calculation of Feedback Optimization Ratios 45 3.3.1.3 Step 3. Grids Redivision of the Target Plane and Light Source 46 3.3.1.4 Step 4. Rebuild the Energy Relationship between the Light Source and Target Plane 46 3.3.1.5 Step 5. Construction of a Freeform Lens for an Extended Source 47 3.3.1.6 Step 6. Ray-Tracing Simulation and Feedback Reversing Optimization 47 3.4 Noncircularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Point Source 48 3.4.1 Discontinuous Freeform Lens Algorithm 49 3.4.1.1 Step 1. Establishment of a Light Energy Mapping Relationship 49 3.4.1.2 Step 2. Construction of the Lens 52 3.4.1.3 Step 3. Validation of Lens Design 55 3.4.2 Continuous Freeform Lens Algorithm 55 3.4.2.1 Radiate Grid Light Energy Mapping 57 3.4.2.2 Rectangular Grid Light Energy Mapping 58 3.5 Noncircularly Symmetrical Freeform Lens – Extended Source 60 3.5.1.1 Step 1. Establishment of the Light Energy Mapping Relationship 61 3.5.1.2 Step 2. Construction of a Freeform Lens 61 3.5.1.3 Step 3. Validation of Lens Design 62 3.6 Reversing the Design Method for Uniform Illumination of LED Arrays 63 3.6.1 Reversing the Design Method of LIDC for Uniform Illumination 64 3.6.2 Algorithm of a Freeform Lens for the Required LIDC 66 References 68 4 Application-Specific LED Package Integrated with a Freeform Lens 71 4.1 Application-Specific LED Package (ASLP) Design Concept 71 4.2 ASLP Single Module 72 4.2.1 Design Method of a Compact Freeform Lens 72 4.2.2 Design of the ASLP Module 73 4.2.2.1 Optical Modeling 73 4.2.2.2 Design of a Compact Freeform Lens 73 4.2.2.3 ASLP Module 74 4.2.3 Numerical Analyses and Tolerance Analyses 76 4.2.3.1 Numerical Simulation and Analyses 76 4.2.3.2 Tolerance Analyses 77 4.2.3.3 Experiments 81 4.3 ASLP Array Module 85 4.4 ASLP System Integrated with Multiple Functions 87 4.4.1 Optical Design 89 4.4.1.1 Problem Statement 89 4.4.1.2 Optical Modeling 89 4.4.1.3 Design of a Freeform Lens 90 4.4.1.4 Simulation of Lighting Performance 91 4.4.2 Thermal Management 91 4.4.3 ASLP Module 94 References 96 5 Freeform Optics for LED Indoor Lighting 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 A Large-Emitting-Angle Freeform Lens with a Small LED Source 99 5.2.1 A Freeform Lens for a Philip Lumileds K2 LED 100 5.2.2 Freeform Lens for a CREE XLamp XR-E LED 103 5.3 A Large-Emitting-Angle Freeform Lens with an Extended Source 108 5.3.1 Target Plane Grids Optimization 108 5.3.2 Light Source Grids Optimization 108 5.3.3 Target Plane and Light Source Grids Coupling Optimization 109 5.4 A Small-Emitting-Angle Freeform Lens with a Small LED Source 110 5.5 A Double-Surface Freeform Lens for Uniform Illumination 113 5.5.1 Design Example 1 114 5.5.2 Design Example 2 115 5.5.3 Design Example 3 116 5.6 A Freeform Lens for Uniform Illumination of an LED High Bay Lamp Array 117 5.6.1 Design Concept 117 5.6.2 Design Case 118 5.6.2.1 Algorithms and Design Procedure 118 5.6.2.2 Optical Structures 119 5.6.2.3 Monte Carlo Optical Simulation 121 References 124 6 Freeform Optics for LED Road Lighting 125 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 The Optical Design Concept of LED Road Lighting 126 6.2.1 Illuminance 127 6.2.2 Luminance 128 6.2.3 Glare RestrictionThreshold Increment 129 6.2.4 Surrounding Ratio 130 6.3 Discontinuous Freeform Lenses (DFLs) for LED Road Lighting 131 6.3.1 Design of DFLs for Rectangular Radiation Patterns 131 6.3.1.1 Step 1. Optical Modeling for an LED 131 6.3.1.2 Step 2. Freeform Lens Design 133 6.3.2 Simulation Illumination Performance and Tolerance Analyses 134 6.3.3 Experimental Analyses 139 6.3.4 Effects of Manufacturing Defects on the Lighting Performance 139 6.3.4.1 Surface Morphology 144 6.3.4.2 Optical Performance Testing 146 6.3.4.3 Analysis and Discussion 150 6.3.5 Case Study – LED Road Lamps Based on DFLs 152 6.4 Continuous Freeform Lens (CFL) for LED Road Lighting 154 6.4.1 CFL Based on the Radiate Grid MappingMethod 154 6.4.2 CFL Based on the Rectangular Grid MappingMethod 154 6.4.3 Spatial Color Uniformity Analyses of a Continuous Freeform Lens 158 6.5 Freeform Lens for an LED Road Lamp with Uniform Luminance 164 6.5.1 Problem Statement 164 6.5.2 Combined Design Method for Uniform Luminance in Road Lighting 166 6.5.3 Freeform Lens Design Method for Uniform-Luminance Road Lighting 171 6.6 Asymmetrical CFLs with a High Light Energy Utilization Ratio 174 6.7 Modularized LED Road Lamp Based on Freeform Optics 178 References 178 7 Freeform Optics for a Direct-Lit LED Backlighting Unit 181 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 Optical Design Concept of a Direct-Lit LED BLU 183 7.3 Freeform Optics for Uniform Illumination with a Large DHR 186 7.4 Freeform Optics for Uniform Illumination with an Extended Source 191 7.4.1 Algorithm of a Freeform Lens for Uniform Illumination with an Extended Source 194 7.4.2 Design Method of a Freeform Lens for Extended Source Uniform Illumination 195 7.4.2.1 Step 1. Calculation of FORs 196 7.4.2.2 Step 2. Energy Grids Division for an Extended Source 197 7.4.2.3 Step 3. Construction of a Freeform Lens for an Extended Source 198 7.4.2.4 Step 4. Ray-Tracing Simulation and Circulation Feedback Optimization 198 7.4.3 Freeform Lenses for Direct-Lit BLUs with an Extended Source 198 7.5 Petal-Shaped Freeform Optics for High-System-Efficiency LED BLUs 203 7.5.1 Optical Co-design from the System Level of BLUs 203 7.5.2 Optimization of a High-Efficiency LIDC for BEFs 203 7.5.3 Petal-Shaped Freeform Lenses, and ASLPs for High-Efficiency BLUs 206 7.6 BEF-Adaptive Freeform Optics for High-System-Efficiency LED BLUs 210 7.6.1 Design Concept and Method 210 7.6.1.1 Step 1. Finding Out the Best Incident Angle Range 211 7.6.1.2 Step 2. Redistribution of Original Output LIDC 212 7.6.1.3 Step 3. Construction of a BEF-Adaptive Lens 213 7.6.2 BEF-Adaptive Lens Design Case 213 7.6.2.1 Basic Setup of a BLU 213 7.6.2.2 Design Results and Optical Validation 214 7.7 Freeform Optics for Uniform Illumination with Large DHR, Extended Source and Near Field 219 7.7.1 Design Method 220 7.7.1.1 IDF of Single Extended Source 220 7.7.1.2 IDF of Freeform Lens 221 7.7.1.3 Construction of Freeform Lens 222 7.7.1.4 Ray Tracing Simulation and Verification 223 7.7.2 Design Example 223 References 228 8 Freeform Optics for LED Automotive Headlamps 231 8.1 Introduction 231 8.2 Optical Regulations of Low-Beam and High-Beam Light 231 8.2.1 Low-Beam 231 8.2.2 High-Beam 232 8.2.3 Color Range 232 8.3 Application-Specific LED Packaging for Headlamps 234 8.3.1 Small Étendue 234 8.3.2 High Luminance 235 8.3.3 Strip Shape Emitter with a Sharp Cutoff 236 8.3.4 Small Thermal Resistance of Packaging 236 8.3.5 ASLP Design Case 236 8.3.6 Types of LED Packaging Modules for Headlamps 238 8.4 Freeform Lens for High-Efficiency LED Headlamps 239 8.4.1 Introduction 239 8.4.2 Freeform Lens Design Methods 239 8.4.2.1 Design of Collection Optics 240 8.4.2.2 Design of Refraction Optics 241 8.4.3 Design Case of a Freeform Lens for Low-Beam and High-Beam 243 8.4.3.1 Design of a Low-Beam Lens 244 8.4.3.2 Design of a High-Beam Lens 246 8.4.4 Design Case of a Freeform Lens for a Low-Beam Headlamp Module 249 8.5 Freeform Optics Integrated PES for an LED Headlamp 250 8.6 Freeform Optics Integrated MR for an LED Headlamp 255 8.7 LED Headlamps Based on Both PES and MR Reflectors 258 8.8 LED Module Integrated with Low-Beam and High-Beam 262 References 266 9 Freeform Optics for Emerging LED Applications 269 9.1 Introduction 269 9.2 Total Internal Reflection (TIR)-Freeform Lens for an LED Pico-Projector 269 9.2.1 Introduction 269 9.2.2 Problem Statement 271 9.2.2.1 Defect of a Refracting Freeform Surface for Illumination with a Small Output Angle 271 9.2.2.2 Problem of an Extended Light Source 272 9.2.3 Integral Freeform Illumination Lens Design Based on an LED’s Light Source 273 9.2.3.1 Freeform TIR Lens Design 273 9.2.3.2 Top Surface Design of the TIR Lens 273 9.2.4 Optimization of the Integral Freeform Illumination Lens 279 9.2.5 Tolerance analysis 280 9.2.6 LED Pico-Projector Based on the Designed Freeform Lens 281 9.3 Freeform Lens Array Optical System for an LED Stage Light 283 9.3.1 Design of a One-Dimensional Beam Expander Based on a Freeform Lens Array 285 9.3.1.1 Part 1. Gridding of the One-Dimensional Target Plane 285 9.3.1.2 Part 2. Algorithm of a One-Dimensional Freeform Microstructure 285 9.3.1.3 Part 3. Optical Simulation Results of the Optical System 287 9.3.2 Design of a Rectangular Beam Expander Based on a Freeform Lens Array 287 9.3.2.1 Part 1. Algorithm of the Rectangular Freeform Structure 288 9.3.2.2 Part 2. Optical Simulation Results of the Optical System 290 9.4 Freeform Optics for a LED Airport Taxiway Light 290 9.4.1 Introduction 290 9.4.2 Requirement Statement 291 9.4.3 Design Method of an Optical System 291 9.4.4 Simulation and Optimization 293 9.4.5 Tolerance Analysis 294 9.4.6 Design of an LED Taxiway Centerline Lamp 295 9.5 Freeform Optics for LED Searchlights 297 9.5.1 Introduction 297 9.5.2 Freeform Lens Design of a Small Divergence Angle 298 9.5.3 Improving Methods and Tolerance Analysis 301 9.5.3.1 The Design of a Freeform Lens and Parabolic Reflector 301 9.5.3.2 Tolerance Analysis 304 References 305 10 Freeform Optics for LED Lighting with High Spatial Color Uniformity 307 10.1 Introduction 307 10.2 Optical Design Concept 308 10.3 Freeform Lens Integrated LED Module with a High SCU 309 10.3.1 Optical Design, Molding, and Simulation 309 10.3.2 Tolerance Analyses 312 10.3.3 Secondary Freeform Lens for a High SCU 313 10.3.4 Experimental Analyses 314 10.4 TIR-Freeform Lens Integrated LED Module with a High SCU 323 10.4.1 Introduction 323 10.4.2 Design Principle for a High SCU 325 10.4.3 Design Method of the Modified TIR-Freeform Lens 325 10.4.4 Optimization Results and Discussions 328 References 332 Appendix: Codes of Basic Algorithms of Freeform Optics for LED Lighting 335 Index 351

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Book SynopsisThis book explains why applications running on cloud might not deliver the same service reliability, availability, latency and overall quality to end users as they do when the applications are running on traditional (non-virtualized, non-cloud) configurations, and explains what can be done to mitigate that risk.Table of ContentsFigures xv Tables and Equations xxi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Approach 1 1.2 Target Audience 3 1.3 Organization 3 I CONTEXT 7 2 APPLICATION SERVICE QUALITY 9 2.1 Simple Application Model 9 2.2 Service Boundaries 11 2.3 Key Quality and Performance Indicators 12 2.4 Key Application Characteristics 15 2.5 Application Service Quality Metrics 17 2.6 Technical Service versus Support Service 27 2.7 Security Considerations 28 3 CLOUD MODEL 29 3.1 Roles in Cloud Computing 30 3.2 Cloud Service Models 30 3.3 Cloud Essential Characteristics 31 3.4 Simplifi ed Cloud Architecture 33 3.5 Elasticity Measurements 36 3.6 Regions and Zones 44 3.7 Cloud Awareness 45 4 VIRTUALIZED INFRASTRUCTURE IMPAIRMENTS 49 4.1 Service Latency, Virtualization, and the Cloud 50 4.2 VM Failure 54 4.3 Nondelivery of Configured VM Capacity 54 4.4 Delivery of Degraded VM Capacity 57 4.5 Tail Latency 59 4.6 Clock Event Jitter 60 4.7 Clock Drift 61 4.8 Failed or Slow Allocation and Startup of VM Instance 62 4.9 Outlook for Virtualized Infrastructure Impairments 63 II ANALYSIS 65 5 APPLICATION REDUNDANCY AND CLOUD COMPUTING 67 5.1 Failures, Availability, and Simplex Architectures 68 5.2 Improving Software Repair Times via Virtualization 70 5.3 Improving Infrastructure Repair Times via Virtualization 72 5.4 Redundancy and Recoverability 75 5.5 Sequential Redundancy and Concurrent Redundancy 80 5.6 Application Service Impact of Virtualization Impairments 84 5.7 Data Redundancy 90 5.8 Discussion 92 6 LOAD DISTRIBUTION AND BALANCING 97 6.1 Load Distribution Mechanisms 97 6.2 Load Distribution Strategies 99 6.3 Proxy Load Balancers 99 6.4 Nonproxy Load Distribution 101 6.5 Hierarchy of Load Distribution 102 6.6 Cloud-Based Load Balancing Challenges 103 6.7 The Role of Load Balancing in Support of Redundancy 103 6.8 Load Balancing and Availability Zones 104 6.9 Workload Service Measurements 104 6.10 Operational Considerations 105 6.11 Load Balancing and Application Service Quality 107 7 FAILURE CONTAINMENT 111 7.1 Failure Containment 111 7.2 Points of Failure 116 7.3 Extreme Solution Coresidency 122 7.4 Multitenancy and Solution Containers 124 8 CAPACITY MANAGEMENT 127 8.1 Workload Variations 128 8.2 Traditional Capacity Management 129 8.3 Traditional Overload Control 129 8.4 Capacity Management and Virtualization 131 8.5 Capacity Management in Cloud 133 8.6 Storage Elasticity Considerations 135 8.7 Elasticity and Overload 136 8.8 Operational Considerations 137 8.9 Workload Whipsaw 138 8.10 General Elasticity Risks 140 8.11 Elasticity Failure Scenarios 141 9 RELEASE MANAGEMENT 145 9.1 Terminology 145 9.2 Traditional Software Upgrade Strategies 146 9.3 Cloud-Enabled Software Upgrade Strategies 153 9.4 Data Management 158 9.5 Role of Service Orchestration in Software Upgrade 159 9.6 Conclusion 161 10 END-TO-END CONSIDERATIONS 163 10.1 End-to-End Service Context 163 10.2 Three-Layer End-to-End Service Model 169 10.3 Distributed and Centralized Cloud Data Centers 177 10.4 Multitiered Solution Architectures 183 10.5 Disaster Recovery and Geographic Redundancy 184 III RECOMMENDATIONS 191 11 ACCOUNTABILITIES FOR SERVICE QUALITY 193 11.1 Traditional Accountability 193 11.2 The Cloud Service Delivery Path 194 11.3 Cloud Accountability 197 11.4 Accountability Case Studies 200 11.5 Service Quality Gap Model 205 11.6 Service Level Agreements 210 12 SERVICE AVAILABILITY MEASUREMENT 213 12.1 Parsimonious Service Measurements 214 12.2 Traditional Service Availability Measurement 215 12.3 Evolving Service Availability Measurements 217 12.4 Evolving Hardware Reliability Measurement 226 12.5 Evolving Elasticity Service Availability Measurements 228 12.6 Evolving Release Management Service Availability Measurement 229 12.7 Service Measurement Outlook 231 13 APPLICATION SERVICE QUALITY REQUIREMENTS 233 13.1 Service Availability Requirements 234 13.2 Service Latency Requirements 237 13.3 Service Reliability Requirements 237 13.4 Service Accessibility Requirements 238 13.5 Service Retainability Requirements 239 13.6 Service Throughput Requirements 239 13.7 Timestamp Accuracy Requirements 240 13.8 Elasticity Requirements 240 13.9 Release Management Requirements 241 13.10 Disaster Recovery Requirements 241 14 VIRTUALIZED INFRASTRUCTURE MEASUREMENT AND MANAGEMENT 243 14.1 Business Context for Infrastructure Service Quality Measurements 244 14.2 Cloud Consumer Measurement Options 245 14.3 Impairment Measurement Strategies 247 14.4 Managing Virtualized Infrastructure Impairments 252 15 ANALYSIS OF CLOUD-BASED APPLICATIONS 255 15.1 Reliability Block Diagrams and Side-by-Side Analysis 256 15.2 IaaS Impairment Effects Analysis 257 15.3 PaaS Failure Effects Analysis 259 15.4 Workload Distribution Analysis 260 15.5 Anti-Affi nity Analysis 262 15.6 Elasticity Analysis 263 15.7 Release Management Impact Effects Analysis 267 15.8 Recovery Point Objective Analysis 268 15.9 Recovery Time Objective Analysis 270 16 TESTING CONSIDERATIONS 273 16.1 Context for Testing 273 16.2 Test Strategy 274 16.3 Simulating Infrastructure Impairments 277 16.4 Test Planning 278 17 CONNECTING THE DOTS 287 17.1 The Application Service Quality Challenge 287 17.2 Redundancy and Robustness 289 17.3 Design for Scalability 292 17.4 Design for Extensibility 292 17.5 Design for Failure 293 17.6 Planning Considerations 294 17.7 Evolving Traditional Applications 296 17.8 Concluding Remarks 301 Abbreviations 303 References 307 About the Authors 311 Index 313

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses the fundamentals of RFID and the state-of-the-art research results in signal processing for RFID, including MIMO, blind source separation, anti-collision, localization, covert RFID and chipless RFID. Aimed at graduate students as well as academic and professional researchers/engineers in RFID technology, it enables readers to become conversant with the latest theory and applications of signal processing for RFID. Key Features: Provides a systematic and comprehensive insight into the application of modern signal processing techniques for RFID systemsDiscusses the operating principles, channel models of RFID, RFID protocols and analog/digital filter design for RFIDExplores RFID-oriented modulation schemes and their performanceHighlights research fields such as MIMO for RFID, blind signal processing for RFID, anti-collision of multiple RFID tags, localization with RFID, covert RFID and chipless RFIDContains tables, illustrations and design examplesTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is RFID? 1 1.2 A Brief History of RFID 2 1.3 Motivation and Scope of this Book 2 1.4 Notations 5 References 5 2 Fundamentals of RFID Systems 6 2.1 Operating Principles 6 2.2 Passive, Semi-Passive/Semi-Active and Active RFID 8 2.3 Analogue Circuits for RFID 10 2.4 Circuit Analysis for Signal Transfer in RFID 11 2.4.1 Equivalent Circuit of Antennas in Generic Communication Links 12 2.4.2 Load Modulation 13 2.4.3 Backscattering Modulation 15 2.5 Signal Analysis of RFID Systems 17 2.5.1 Qualitative Analysis 17 2.5.2 Quantitative Analysis 19 2.6 Statistical Channel Models 21 2.6.1 Backgrounds of Rayleigh, Ricean and Nakagami Fading 21 2.6.2 Statistical Channel Models of RFID Systems 26 2.6.3 Large Scale Path Loss 27 2.7 A Review of RFID Protocol 28 2.7.1 Physical Layer 29 2.7.2 MAC Layer 32 2.8 Challenges in RFID 36 2.9 Summary 36 Appendix 2.A Modified Bessel Function of the First Kind 37 References 38 3 Basic Signal Processing for RFID 40 3.1 Bandpass Filters and their Applications to RFID 40 3.1.1 Lowpass Filter Performance Specification 40 3.1.2 Lowpass Filter Design 42 3.1.3 Bandpass Filter Design 47 3.1.4 Bandpass Filters for RFID Systems 49 3.2 Matching Filters and their Applications to RFID 54 3.3 A Review of Optimal Estimation 58 3.3.1 Linear Least Square Estimation 58 3.3.2 Linear Minimum Mean Square Error Estimation 59 3.3.3 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 61 3.3.4 Comparison of the Three Estimation Algorithms 62 3.4 Summary 64 Appendix 3.A Derivation of Poles of the Chebyshev Filter 67 References 68 4 RFID-Oriented Modulation Schemes 69 4.1 A Brief Review of Analogue Modulation 69 4.2 Amplitude- and Phase-Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 72 4.2.1 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 72 4.2.2 Symbol Error Rate Analysis of M-QAM 74 4.2.3 Numerical Results for M-QAM 80 4.3 Phase-Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 81 4.4 Frequency-Shift Keying and Performance Analysis 85 4.5 Summary 90 Appendix 4.A Derivation of SER Formula (4.24) 91 Appendix 4.B Derivation of SER Formula (4.40) 93 References 94 5 MIMO for RFID 95 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 MIMO Principle 97 5.3 Channel Modelling of RFID-MIMO Wireless Systems 100 5.4 Design of Reader Transmit Signals 102 5.4.1 Signal Design 102 5.4.2 Simulation Results 103 5.5 Space-Time Coding for RFID-MIMO Systems 105 5.5.1 A Review of Real Orthogonal Design 105 5.5.2 Space-Time Coding for RFID-MIMO Systems 110 5.5.3 Two Space-Time Decoding Approaches for RFID-MIMO Systems 111 5.5.4 Simulation Results 113 5.6 Differential Space-Time Coding for RFID-MIMO Systems 122 5.6.1 A Review of Unitary DSTC 122 5.6.2 Application of Unitary DTSC to RFID 125 5.6.3 Simulation Results 126 5.7 Summary 127 Appendix 5.A Alamouti Space-Time Coding for Narrowband Systems 129 Appendix 5.B Definition of Group 133 Appendix 5.C Complex Matrix/Vector Gaussian Distribution 133 Appendix 5.D Maximum Likelihood Receiver for Unitary STC 134 References 136 6 Blind Signal Processing for RFID 138 6.1 Introduction 138 6.2 Channel Model of Multiple-Tag RFID-MIMO Systems 141 6.2.1 Channel Model of Single-Tag RFID-MIMO Systems 141 6.2.2 Channel Model of Multiple-Tag RFID-MIMO Systems 141 6.3 An Analytical Constant Modulus Algorithm 143 6.4 Application of ACMA to Multiple-Tag RFID Systems 150 6.5 Summary 160 References 164 7 Anti-Collision of Multiple-Tag RFID Systems 166 7.1 Introduction 166 7.2 Tree-Splitting Algorithms 168 7.2.1 Mean Identification Delay 171 7.2.2 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency: Approach I 173 7.2.3 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency: Approach II 175 7.2.4 Numerical Results 185 7.2.5 Variants of TS Algorithms 194 7.3 Aloha-Based Algorithm 194 7.3.1 Mean Identification Delay 195 7.3.2 Collision Analysis and Transmission Efficiency 197 7.3.3 Numerical Results 198 7.3.4 Adaptive Frame Size Aloha Algorithms 200 7.4 Summary 212 Appendix 7.A Inclusion-Exclusion Principle 213 Appendix 7.B Probability of Successful Transmissions in Some Particular Time Slots in Aloha 214 Appendix 7.C Probability of an Exact Number of Successful Transmissions in Aloha 215 References 217 8 Localization with RFID 220 8.1 Introduction 220 8.2 RFID Localization 223 8.2.1 Geometric Class 224 8.2.2 Proximity Class 228 8.3 RFID Ranging – Frequency-Domain PDoA Approach 232 8.4 RFID AoA Finding – Spatial-Domain PDoA 235 8.5 NLoS Issue 241 8.6 Summary 244 References 245 9 Some Future Perspectives for RFID 249

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a timely and comprehensive overview of the introduction of LTE technology for PPDR communications. It describes the operational scenarios and emerging multimedia and data-centric applications in demand and discusses the main techno-economic drivers that are believed to be pivotal for an efficient and cost-effective delivery of mobile broadband PPDR communications. The capabilities and features of the LTE standard for improved support of mission-critical communications (e.g., proximity services, group communications) are covered in detail. Also, different network implementation options to deliver mobile broadband PPDR communications services over dedicated or commercial LTE-based networks are discussed, including the applicability of the Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO) model and other hybrid models. Radio spectrum matters are also discussed in depth, outlining spectrum needs and providing an outlook into allocated and candidate spectrum bands for PPDR communicaTable of ContentsPreface ix List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Public Protection and Disaster Relief Communications 1 1.1 Background and Terminology 1 1.2 PPDR Functions and Organizations 3 1.3 Operational Framework and Communications Needs for PPDR 6 1.3.1 Operational Scenarios 7 1.3.2 Framework for PPDR Operations 9 1.3.3 Communications’ Reference Points in PPDR Operations 12 1.3.4 Communications Services Needed for PPDR Operations 16 1.4 Communications Systems for PPDR 19 1.4.1 General PPDR Requirements on Communications Systems 19 1.4.2 Technologies in Use for PPDR Communications 22 1.4.3 Current NB PMR Standards Used in PPDR 23 1.4.4 Main Limitations with Today’s PPDR Communications Systems 32 1.5 Regulatory and Standardization Framework 39 1.5.1 ITU Work on Emergency Communications 40 1.5.2 North and Latin America Regions 43 1.5.3 Asia and Pacific Region 44 1.5.4 Europe Region 45 References 47 2 Mobile Broadband Data Applications and Capacity Needs 49 2.1 Introduction 49 2.2 Data]Centric, Multimedia Applications for PPDR 51 2.2.1 Video Transmission 51 2.2.2 Geographic Information Systems 54 2.2.3 Location and Tracking 55 2.2.4 Electronic Conferencing and Coordination Tools for Incident Command 56 2.2.5 Remote Database Access and Information Transfer Applications 56 2.2.6 PPDR Personnel Monitoring and Biomedical Telemetry 57 2.2.7 Remote Emergency Medical Services 58 2.2.8 Sensors and Remotely Controlled Devices 58 2.2.9 Mobile Office 59 2.3 Characterization of Broadband Data Applications for PPDR 59 2.4 Assessment of the Data Capacity Needs in Various Operational Scenarios 66 2.4.1 Throughput Requirements of PPDR Applications 66 2.4.2 Day]to]Day Operations Scenarios 71 2.4.3 Large Emergency/Public Events 73 2.4.4 Disaster Scenarios 76 References 80 3 Future Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications Systems 81 3.1 Paradigm Change for the Delivery of PPDR Broadband Communications 81 3.2 Techno]economic Aspects Driving the Paradigm Change 83 3.2.1 Technology Dimension 84 3.2.2 Network Dimension 87 3.2.3 Spectrum Dimension 98 3.3 System View of Future Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications 101 3.3.1 LTE Dedicated Networks 103 3.3.2 LTE Commercial Networks 104 3.3.3 Legacy PMR/LMR Networks 104 3.3.4 Transportable Systems and Satellite Communications 105 3.3.5 IP]Based Interconnection Backbones 106 3.3.6 Applications and User Equipment 106 3.3.7 Spectrum 108 3.4 Current Initiatives 109 3.4.1 Deployment of a Nationwide Dedicated LTE Broadband Network in the United States 110 3.4.2 CEPT ECC Activities for a European]Wide Harmonization of Broadband PPDR 113 3.4.3 Hybrid Approaches Taking Off in Belgium and Some Other European Countries 114 3.4.4 LTE Emergency Services Network in the United Kingdom 118 3.4.5 TCCA 119 References 121 4 LTE Technology for PPDR Communications 125 4.1 Standardization Roadmap towards Mission]Critical LTE 125 4.2 LTE Fundamentals 129 4.2.1 Radio Interface 131 4.2.2 Service Model: PDN Connection and EPS Bearer Service 136 4.2.3 PCC Subsystem 141 4.2.4 Security 143 4.2.5 Roaming Support 149 4.2.6 Voice Services over LTE 150 4.3 Group Communications and PTT 152 4.3.1 Existing Initiatives and Solutions for PTT over LTE 153 4.3.2 3GPP Standardization Work 153 4.3.3 GCSE 155 4.3.4 MCPTT over LTE 158 4.3.5 OMA PCPS 161 4.4 Device]to]Device Communications 164 4.4.1 3GPP Standardization Work 166 4.4.2 ProSe Capabilities 167 4.4.3 ProSe Functional Architecture 172 4.5 Prioritization and QoS Control for PPDR 174 4.5.1 Access Priority 176 4.5.2 Admission Priority 179 4.5.3 Data Plane QoS Configuration 180 4.5.4 MPS 181 4.6 Isolated E]UTRAN Operation 182 4.7 High]Power UE 184 4.8 RAN Sharing Enhancements 185 References 189 5 LTE Networks for PPDR Communications 193 5.1 Introduction 193 5.1.1 Separation of Service and Network Layers in PPDR Communications Delivery 194 5.1.2 Design of a ‘Public Safety Grade’ Network 196 5.2 Delivery Options for Mobile Broadband PPDR Networks and Services 196 5.3 Dedicated Networks 201 5.3.1 Cost]Efficient Network Footprints 202 5.3.2 Expanding the User Base beyond PPDR Responders 204 5.4 Commercial Networks 208 5.4.1 Organizational and Contractual Aspects 211 5.4.2 Commercial Networks’ Readiness to Provide Mission]Critical PPDR Services 212 5.4.3 Current Support of Priority Services over Commercial Networks 216 5.5 Hybrid Solutions 220 5.5.1 National Roaming for PPDR Users 221 5.5.2 Deployment of an MVNO for PPDR 222 5.5.3 RAN Sharing with MNOs 227 5.5.4 Network Sharing of Critical and Professional Networks 231 5.6 Network Architecture Design and Implementation Aspects 232 5.6.1 Reference Model for a Critical Communications System 233 5.6.2 Interconnection to Commercial Networks 235 5.6.3 Interconnection to Legacy PMR Networks 240 5.6.4 Interconnection of Deployable Systems 241 5.6.5 Satellite Backhauling and Direct Access 243 5.6.6 Interconnection IP]Based Backbones 247 5.6.7 Network Architecture for an MVNO]Based Solution 250 References 252 6 Radio Spectrum for PPDR Communications 257 6.1 Spectrum Management: Regulatory Framework and Models 257 6.1.1 Global]Level Regulatory Framework 258 6.1.2 Regional]Level Regulatory Framework 259 6.1.3 National]Level Regulatory Framework 262 6.1.4 Spectrum Management Models 264 6.2 Internationally Harmonized Frequency Ranges for PPDR Communications 266 6.3 Spectrum Needs for Mobile Broadband PPDR Communications 270 6.3.1 Spectrum Components 270 6.3.2 Methodologies for the Computation of Spectrum Needs 271 6.3.3 Spectrum Estimates 275 6.4 Existing Spectrum Assignments for PPDR and Candidate Bands for Mobile Broadband 275 6.4.1 European Region 277 6.4.2 North America 282 6.4.3 Asia]Pacific and Latin America 283 6.5 Spectrum Sharing for PPDR Communications 285 6.5.1 Spectrum Sharing Models 287 6.5.2 Shared Use of Spectrum Based on LSA 288 6.5.3 Shared Use of Spectrum Based on Secondary Access to TVWS 299 References 311 Index 317

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Book SynopsisThe first and only up-to-date guide offering complete coverage of HetNetswritten by top researchers and engineers in the field Small Cell Networks: Deployment, Management, and Optimization addresses key problems of the cellular network evolution towards HetNets. It focuses on the latest developments in heterogeneous and small cell networks, as well as their deployment, operation, and maintenance. It also covers the full spectrum of the topic, from academic, research, and business to the practice of HetNets in a coherent manner. Additionally, it provides complete and practical guidelines to vendors and operators interested in deploying small cells. The first comprehensive book written by well-known researchers and engineers from Nokia Bell Labs, Small Cell Networks begins with an introduction to the subjectoffering chapters on capacity scaling and key requirements of future networks. It then moves on to sections on coverage and capacity optimizationTable of ContentsABOUT THE AUTHORS VII FOREWORD XI ACRONYMS XIII PART I INTRODUCTION 1 1 SMALL CELLS—THE FUTURE OF CELLULAR NETWORKS 3 2 100× CAPACITY SCALING OF CELLULAR NETWORKS 23 3 AUTOMATION OF CELLULAR NETWORKS 55 PART II COVERAGE AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION 91 4 FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENT AND ACCESS METHODS 93 5 COVERAGE AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION FOR INDOOR CELLS 117 6 COVERAGE AND CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION FOR OUTDOOR CELLS 149 PART III INTERFERENCE MANAGEMENT 187 7 FREQUENCY-DOMAIN INTER-CELL INTERFERENCE COORDINATION 189 8 TIME-DOMAIN INTER-CELL INTERFERENCE COORDINATION 223 9 THE SECTOR OFFSET CONFIGURATION 259 10 CONTROL CHANNEL INTER-CELL INTERFERENCE COORDINATION 295 11 UPLINK-ORIENTED OPTIMIZATION IN HETEROGENEOUS NETWORKS 323 PART IV MOBILITY MANAGEMENT AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY 363 12 MOBILITY MANAGEMENT 365 13 DORMANT CELLS AND IDLE MODES 393 PART V SMALL CELL DEPLOYMENT 419 14 BACKHAUL FOR SMALL CELLS 421 15 OPTIMIZATION OF SMALL CELL DEPLOYMENT 443 PART VI FUTURE TRENDS AND APPLICATIONS 467 16 ULTRA-DENSE NETWORKS 469 17 HETNET APPLICATIONS 493 A SIMULATING HETNETS 505 INDEX 549

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Book SynopsisNanomagnetic and spintronic computing devices are strong contenders for future replacements of CMOS. This is an important and rapidly evolving area with the semiconductor industry investing significantly in the study of nanomagnetic phenomena and in developing strategies to pinpoint and regulate nanomagnetic reliably with a high degree of energy efficiency. This timely book explores the recent and on-going research into nanomagnetic-based technology. Key features: Detailed background material and comprehensive descriptions of the current state-of-the-art research on each topic. Focuses on direct applications to devices that have potential to replace CMOS devices for computing applications such as memory, logic and higher order information processing. Discusses spin-based devices where the spin degree of freedom of charge carriers are exploited for device operation and ultimately information processing. Describes magnet switching methodoTable of ContentsAbout the Editors and Acknowledgments xi List of Contributors xiii Foreword xvii Preface xix 1 Introduction to Spintronic and Nanomagnetic Computing Devices 1Jayasimha Atulasimha and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay 1.1 Spintronic Devices 1 1.2 Nanomagnetic Devices 3 1.2.1 Use of Spin Torque to Switch Nanomagnets 6 1.2.2 Other Methodologies for Switching Nanomagnets 6 1.3 Thinking beyond Traditional Boolean Logic 7 References 7 2 Potential Applications of all Electric Spin Valves Made of Asymmetrically Biased Quantum Point Contacts 9Nikhil Bhandari, Maitreya Dutta, James Charles, Junjun Wan, Marc Cahay, and S.T Herbert 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Quantum Point Contacts 11 2.3 Spin Orbit Coupling 14 2.3.1 Rashba SOC (RSOC) 15 2.3.2 Dresselhaus SOC (DSOC) 15 2.3.3 Lateral Spin-Orbit Coupling (LSOC) 16 2.4 Importance of Spin Relaxation in 1D Channels 18 2.5 Observation of a 0.5 Conductance Plateau in Asymmetrically Biased QPCs in the Presence of LSOC 20 2.5.1 Early Experimental Results Using InAs QPCs 20 2.5.2 NEGF Conductance Calculations 20 2.5.3 Spin Texture Associated with Conductance Anomalies in QPCs 23 2.5.4 Prospect for Generation of Spin Polarized Current at Higher Temperature 25 2.5.5 Observation of Other Anomalous Conductance Plateaus in an Asymmetrically Biased InAs/In0.52 Al0.48 as QPCs 26 2.6 Intrinsic Bistability near Conductance Anomalies 27 2.6.1 Experimental Results 28 2.6.2 NEGF Simulations 30 2.7 QPC Structures with Four In-plane SGs: Toward an All Electrical Spin Valve 43 2.7.1 Preliminary Results on Four-gate QPCs 43 2.7.2 Experiments 46 2.7.3 Onset of Hysteresis and Negative Resistance Region 50 2.8 Future Work 56 2.9 Summary 58 Acknowledgments 60 References 60 3 Spin-Transistor Technology for Spintronics/CMOS Hybrid Logic Circuits and Systems 65Satoshi Sugahara, Yusuke Shuto, and Shuu’ichirou Yamamoto 3.1 Spin-Transistor and Pseudo-Spin-Transistor 65 3.1.1 Spin – MOSFET 66 3.1.2 Pseudo-Spin-MOSFET 69 3.2 Energy-Efficient Logic Applications of Spin-Transistors 72 3.2.1 Power Gating with Nonvolatile Retention 73 3.2.2 Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits 75 3.2.3 Break-even Time 76 3.3 Nonvolatile SRAM Technology 78 3.3.1 Static Noise Margin of Nonvolatile SRAM 79 3.3.2 Energy Performance of NV-SRAM 81 3.4 Application of Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits for Memory Systems 86 References 88 4 Spin Transfer Torque: A Multiscale Picture 91Yunkun Xie, Ivan Rungger, Kamaram Munira, Maria Stamenova, Stefano Sanvito, and Avik W. Ghosh 4.1 Introduction 91 4.1.1 Background 91 4.1.2 STT Modeling: An Integrated Approach 93 4.2 The Physics of Spin Transfer Torque 94 4.2.1 Free-Electron Model for Magnetic Tunnel Junction 96 4.3 First Principles Evaluation of TMR and STT 102 4.3.1 The TMR Effect in the MgO Barrier 104 4.3.2 Currents and Torques in NEGF 114 4.3.3 First Principles Results on Spin Transfer Torque 116 4.4 Magnetization Dynamics 119 4.4.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation 119 4.4.2 Spin Torque Switching in Presence of Thermal Fluctuations 121 4.4.3 Including Thermal Fluctuations: Stochastic LLG vs Fokker Planck 122 4.5 Summary: Multiscaling from Atomic Structure to Error Rate 125 Acknowledgments 129 References 129 5 Magnetic Tunnel Junction Based Integrated Logics and Computational Circuits 133Jian-Ping Wang, Mahdi Jamali, Angeline Klemm Smith, and Zhengyang Zhao 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 GMR Based Field Programmable Devices 134 5.3 MTJ Based Field Programmable Devices 136 5.3.1 MTJ Structure and TMR Ratio 136 5.3.2 MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 137 5.3.3 Utilization of STT in MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 144 5.4 Information Transformation between Gates 145 5.4.1 Direct Communication Using Charge Current 146 5.4.2 Magnetic Domain Walls for Information Transferring 148 5.5 MTJ Based Logic-in-Memory Devices 148 5.6 Magnetic Quantum Cellular Automata 149 5.6.1 Introduction and Background 149 5.6.2 Experimental Demonstrations 150 5.7 All-Spin Based Magnetic Logic 155 5.7.1 Nonlocal Lateral Spin Valve Background 155 5.7.2 Critical Parameters for Operation 155 5.7.3 Selected Review of Experimental Demonstrations 156 5.7.4 Applications to All-Spin Logic Devices 158 5.8 Summary 161 Acknowledgment 161 References 162 6 Magnetization Switching and Domain Wall Motion Due to Spin Orbit Torque 165Debanjan Bhowmik, OukJae Lee, Long You, and Sayeef Salahuddin 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Theory 166 6.2.1 Rashba Effect 168 6.2.2 Spin Hall Effect 169 6.3 Magnetic Switching Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 171 6.4 Domain Wall Motion Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 176 6.5 Applications of Spin Orbit Torque 184 6.6 Conclusion 186 References 186 7 Magnonic Logic Devices 189Alexander Khitun and Alexander Kozhanov 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Magnonic Logic Devices 197 7.3 Spin Wave-Based Logic Gates and Architectures 206 7.4 Discussion and Summary 212 References 216 8 Strain Mediated Magnetoelectric Memory 221N. Tiercelin, Y. Dusch, S. Giordano, A. Klimov, V. Preobrazhensky, and P. Pernod 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Concept of Unequivocal Strain- or Stress-Switched Nanomagnetic Memory 223 8.2.1 Magnetic Configuration and Equilibrium Positions 223 8.2.2 Quasi-Static Stress-Mediated Switching 225 8.3 LLG Simulations – Macrospin Model 226 8.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation and Effective Magnetic Field 226 8.3.2 Memory Parameters 227 8.3.3 Results of the Macrospin Model 228 8.4 LLG Simulations – Eshelby Approach 231 8.4.1 Geometry of the Memory Element 232 8.4.2 Coupling with the External Magnetic Field 233 8.4.3 Coupling with the External Electric Field and Elastic Stress 234 8.4.4 Static Behavior of the System 234 8.4.5 Dynamic Behavior of the System 235 8.5 Stochastic Error Analysis 238 8.5.1 Statistical Mechanics of Magnetization in a Single-Domain Particle 238 8.5.2 Switching Process within the Magnetoelectric Memory 243 8.6 Preliminary Experimental Results 248 8.6.1 Piezoelectric Actuator with in-Plane Polarization 248 8.6.2 Ferroelectric Relaxors with out-of-Plane Polarization 249 8.6.3 Magnetoelastic Switching in a Magneto-Resistive Structure 250 8.7 Conclusions 250 Acknowledgments 252 References 253 9 Hybrid Spintronics-Strainronics 259Ayan K. Biswas, Noel D’Souza, Supriyo Bandyopadhyay, and Jayasimha Atulasimha 9.1 Introduction 259 9.1.1 Nanomagnetic Memory and Logic Devices: The Problem of Energy Dissipation in the Clocking Circuit 260 9.1.2 Switching Nanomagnets with Strain Could Drastically Reduce Energy Dissipation: Hybrid Spintronics-Straintronics Overview 261 9.1.3 Landau Lifshitz Gilbert (LLG) Equation 263 9.2 Nanomagnetic Memory Switched with Strain 265 9.2.1 Complete Magnetization Reversal (180◦ Switching): Complex out-of-Plane Dynamics 265 9.2.2 Switching the Magnetization between Two Mutually Perpendicular Stable Orientations and Extension to Stable Orientations with Angular Separation >90◦ 268 9.2.3 Complete 180◦ Switching with Stress Alone 269 9.2.4 Mixed Mode Switching of Magnetization by 180◦: Acoustically Assisted Spin Transfer Torque (STT) Switching for Nonvolatile Memory 273 9.3 Straintronic Clocking of Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.1 Two-State Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.2 Four-state Multiferroic Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 279 9.3.3 Switching Error in Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 283 9.3.4 Straintronic Nanomagnetic Logic Devices (NML) 284 9.4 Summary and Conclusions 286 References 286 10 Unconventional Nanocomputing with Physical Wave Interference Functions 291Santosh Khasanvis, Mostafizur Rahman, Prasad Shabadi, and Csaba Andras Moritz 10.1 Overview 291 10.2 Spin Waves Physical Layer for WIF Implementation 293 10.2.1 Physical Fabric Components 295 10.3 Elementary WIF Operators for Logic 298 10.4 Binary WIF Logic Design 303 10.4.1 Binary WIF Full Adder 303 10.4.2 Parallel Counters 306 10.4.3 Benchmarking Binary WIF Circuits vs. CMOS 309 10.4.4 WIF Topology Exploration 310 10.5 Multivalued WIF Logic Design 311 10.5.1 Multivalued Operators and Implementation Using WIF 312 10.5.2 Multivalued Arithmetic Circuit Example: Quaternary Full Adder 316 10.5.3 Benchmarking of WIF Multivalued Circuits vs. Conventional CMOS 318 10.5.4 Input/Output Logic for Data Conversion between Binary and Radix-r Domains 319 10.6 Microprocessors with WIF: Opportunities and Challenges 320 10.7 Summary and Future Work 326 References 326 Index 329 A color plate section falls between pages 44 and 45

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Book SynopsisA comprehensively updated and reorganized new edition. The updates include comparative methods for improving reliability; methods for optimal allocation of limited resources to achieve a maximum risk reduction; methods for improving reliability at no extra cost and building reliability networks for engineering systems. Includes: A unique set of 46 generic principles for reducing technical risk Monte Carlo simulation algorithms for improving reliability and reducing risk Methods for setting reliability requirements based on the cost of failure New reliability measures based on a minimal separation of random events on a time interval Overstress reliability integral for determining the time to failure caused by overstress failure modes A powerful equation for determining the probability of failure controlled by defects in loaded componentswith complex shape Comparative methods for improving reliability which do not requTable of ContentsSeries Preface xvii Preface xix 1 Failure Modes: Building Reliability Networks 1 1.1 Failure Modes 1 1.2 Series and Parallel Arrangement of the Components in a Reliability Network 5 1.3 Building Reliability Networks: Difference between a Physical and Logical Arrangement 6 1.4 Complex Reliability Networks Which Cannot Be Presented as a Combination of Series and Parallel Arrangements 10 1.5 Drawbacks of the Traditional Representation of the Reliability Block Diagrams 11 1.5.1 Reliability Networks Which Require More Than a Single Terminal Node 11 1.5.2 Reliability Networks Which Require the Use of Undirected Edges Only, Directed Edges Only or a Mixture of Undirected and Directed Edges 13 1.5.3 Reliability Networks Which Require Different Edges Referring to the Same Component 16 1.5.4 Reliability Networks Which Require Negative‐State Components 17 2 Basic Concepts 21 2.1 Reliability (Survival) Function, Cumulative Distribution and Probability Density Function of the Times to Failure 21 2.2 Random Events in Reliability and Risk Modelling 23 2.2.1 Reliability and Risk Modelling Using Intersection of Statistically Independent Random Events 23 2.2.2 Reliability and Risk Modelling Using a Union of Mutually Exclusive Random Events 25 2.2.3 Reliability of a System with Components Logically Arranged in Series 27 2.2.4 Reliability of a System with Components Logically Arranged in Parallel 29 2.2.5 Reliability of a System with Components Logically Arranged in Series and Parallel 31 2.2.6 Using Finite Sets to Infer Component Reliability 32 2.3 Statistically Dependent Events and Conditional Probability in Reliability and Risk Modelling 33 2.4 Total Probability Theorem in Reliability and Risk Modelling. Reliability of Systems with Complex Reliability Networks 36 2.5 Reliability and Risk Modelling Using Bayesian Transform and Bayesian Updating 43 2.5.1 Bayesian Transform 43 2.5.2 Bayesian Updating 44 3 Common Reliability and Risk Models and Their Applications 47 3.1 General Framework for Reliability and Risk Analysis Based on Controlling Random Variables 47 3.2 Binomial Model 48 3.2.1 Application: A Voting System 52 3.3 Homogeneous Poisson Process and Poisson Distribution 53 3.4 Negative Exponential Distribution 56 3.4.1 Memoryless Property of the Negative Exponential Distribution 57 3.5 Hazard Rate 58 3.5.1 Difference between Failure Density and Hazard Rate 60 3.5.2 Reliability of a Series Arrangement Including Components with Constant Hazard Rates 61 3.6 Mean Time to Failure 61 3.7 Gamma Distribution 63 3.8 Uncertainty Associated with the MTTF 65 3.9 Mean Time between Failures 67 3.10 Problems with the MTTF and MTBF Reliability Measures 67 3.11 BX% Life 68 3.12 Minimum Failure‐Free Operation Period 69 3.13 Availability 70 3.13.1 Availability on Demand 70 3.13.2 Production Availability 71 3.14 Uniform Distribution Model 72 3.15 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution Model 73 3.16 Log‐Normal Distribution Model 77 3.17 Weibull Distribution Model of the Time to Failure 79 3.18 Extreme Value Distribution Model 81 3.19 Reliability Bathtub Curve 82 4 Reliability and Risk Models Based on Distribution Mixtures 87 4.1 Distribution of a Property from Multiple Sources 87 4.2 Variance of a Property from Multiple Sources 89 4.3 Variance Upper Bound Theorem 91 4.3.1 Determining the Source Whose Removal Results in the Largest Decrease of the Variance Upper Bound 92 4.4 Applications of the Variance Upper Bound Theorem 93 4.4.1 Using the Variance Upper Bound Theorem for Increasing the Robustness of Products and Processes 93 4.4.2 Using the Variance Upper Bound Theorem for Developing Six‐Sigma Products and Processes 97 Appendix 4.1: Derivation of the Variance Upper Bound Theorem 99 Appendix 4.2: An Algorithm for Determining the Upper Bound of the Variance of Properties from Sampling Multiple Sources 101 5 Building Reliability and Risk Models 103 5.1 General Rules for Reliability Data Analysis 103 5.2 Probability Plotting 107 5.2.1 Testing for Consistency with the Uniform Distribution Model 109 5.2.2 Testing for Consistency with the Exponential Model 109 5.2.3 Testing for Consistency with the Weibull Distribution 110 5.2.4 Testing for Consistency with the Type I Extreme Value Distribution 111 5.2.5 Testing for Consistency with the Normal Distribution 111 5.3 Estimating Model Parameters Using the Method of Maximum Likelihood 113 5.4 Estimating the Parameters of a Three‐Parameter Power Law 114 5.4.1 Some Applications of the Three‐Parameter Power Law 116 6 Load–Strength (Demand‐Capacity) Models 119 6.1 A General Reliability Model 119 6.2 The Load–Strength Interference Model 120 6.3 Load–Strength (Demand‐Capacity) Integrals 122 6.4 Evaluating the Load–Strength Integral Using Numerical Methods 124 6.5 Normally Distributed and Statistically Independent Load and Strength 125 6.6 Reliability and Risk Analysis Based on the Load–Strength Interference Approach 130 6.6.1 Influence of Strength Variability on Reliability 130 6.6.2 Critical Weaknesses of the Traditional Reliability Measures ‘Safety Margin’ and ‘Loading Roughness’ 134 6.6.3 Interaction between the Upper Tail of the Load Distribution and the Lower Tail of the Strength Distribution 136 7 Overstress Reliability Integral and Damage Factorisation Law 139 7.1 Reliability Associated with Overstress Failure Mechanisms 139 7.1.1 The Link between the Negative Exponential Distribution and the Overstress Reliability Integral 141 7.2 Damage Factorisation Law 143 8 Solving Reliability and Risk Models Using a Monte Carlo Simulation 147 8.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Algorithms 147 8.1.1 Monte Carlo Simulation and the Weak Law of Large Numbers 147 8.1.2 Monte Carlo Simulation and the Central Limit Theorem 149 8.1.3 Adopted Conventions in Describing the Monte Carlo Simulation Algorithms 149 8.2 Simulation of Random Variables 151 8.2.1 Simulation of a Uniformly Distributed Random Variable 151 8.2.2 Generation of a Random Subset 152 8.2.3 Inverse Transformation Method for Simulation of Continuous Random Variables 153 8.2.4 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Negative Exponential Distribution 154 8.2.5 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Gamma Distribution 154 8.2.6 Simulation of a Random Variable following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Interval 155 8.2.7 Simulation of a Discrete Random Variable with a Specified Distribution 156 8.2.8 Selection of a Point at Random in the N‐Dimensional Space Region 157 8.2.9 Simulation of Random Locations following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Domain 158 8.2.10 Simulation of a Random Direction in Space 158 8.2.11 Generating Random Points on a Disc and in a Sphere 160 8.2.12 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Three‐Parameter Weibull Distribution 162 8.2.13 Simulation of a Random Variable following the Maximum Extreme Value Distribution 162 8.2.14 Simulation of a Gaussian Random Variable 162 8.2.15 Simulation of a Log‐Normal Random Variable 163 8.2.16 Conditional Probability Technique for Bivariate Sampling 164 8.2.17 Von Neumann’s Method for Sampling Continuous Random Variables 165 8.2.18 Sampling from a Mixture Distribution 166 Appendix 8.1 166 9 Evaluating Reliability and Probability of a Faulty Assembly Using Monte Carlo Simulation 169 9.1 A General Algorithm for Determining Reliability Controlled by Statistically Independent Random Variables 169 9.2 Evaluation of the Reliability Controlled by a Load–Strength Interference 170 9.2.1 Evaluation of the Reliability on Demand, with No Time Included 170 9.2.2 Evaluation of the Reliability Controlled by Random Shocks on a Time Interval 171 9.3 A Virtual Testing Method for Determining the Probability of Faulty Assembly 173 9.4 Optimal Replacement to Minimise the Probability of a System Failure 177 10 Evaluating the Reliability of Complex Systems and Virtual Accelerated Life Testing Using Monte Carlo Simulation 181 10.1 Evaluating the Reliability of Complex Systems 181 10.2 Virtual Accelerated Life Testing of Complex Systems 183 10.2.1 Acceleration Stresses and Their Impact on the Time to Failure of Components 183 10.2.2 Arrhenius Stress–Life Relationship and Arrhenius‐Type Acceleration Life Models 185 10.2.3 Inverse Power Law Relationship and Inverse Power Law‐Type Acceleration Life Models 185 10.2.4 Eyring Stress–Life Relationship and Eyring‐Type Acceleration Life Models 185 11 Generic Principles for Reducing Technical Risk 189 11.1 Preventive Principles: Reducing Mainly the Likelihood of Failure 191 11.1.1 Building in High Reliability in Processes, Components and Systems with Large Failure Consequences 191 11.1.2 Simplifying at a System and Component Level 192 11.1.2.1 Reducing the Number of Moving Parts 193 11.1.3 Root Cause Failure Analysis 193 11.1.4 Identifying and Removing Potential Failure Modes 194 11.1.5 Mitigating the Harmful Effect of the Environment 194 11.1.6 Building in Redundancy 195 11.1.7 Reliability and Risk Modelling and Optimisation 197 11.1.7.1 Building and Analysing Comparative Reliability Models 197 11.1.7.2 Building and Analysing Physics of Failure Models 198 11.1.7.3 Minimising Technical Risk through Optimisation and Optimal Replacement 199 11.1.7.4 Maximising System Reliability and Availability by Appropriate Permutations of Interchangeable Components 199 11.1.7.5 Maximising the Availability and Throughput Flow Reliability by Altering the Network Topology 199 11.1.8 Reducing Variability of Risk-Critical Parameters and Preventing them from Reaching Dangerous Values 199 11.1.9 Altering the Component Geometry 200 11.1.10 Strengthening or Eliminating Weak Links 201 11.1.11 Eliminating Factors Promoting Human Errors 202 11.1.12 Reducing Risk by Introducing Inverse States 203 11.1.12.1 Inverse States Cancelling the Anticipated State with a Negative Impact 203 11.1.12.2 Inverse States Buffering the Anticipated State with a Negative Impact 203 11.1.12.3 Inverting the Relative Position of Objects and the Direction of Flows 204 11.1.12.4 Inverse State as a Counterbalancing Force 205 11.1.13 Failure Prevention Interlocks 206 11.1.14 Reducing the Number of Latent Faults 206 11.1.15 Increasing the Level of Balancing 208 11.1.16 Reducing the Negative Impact of Temperature by Thermal Design 209 11.1.17 Self‐Stability 211 11.1.18 Maintaining the Continuity of a Working State 212 11.1.19 Substituting Mechanical Assemblies with Electrical, Optical or Acoustic Assemblies and Software 212 11.1.20 Improving the Load Distribution 212 11.1.21 Reducing the Sensitivity of Designs to the Variation of Design Parameters 212 11.1.22 Vibration Control 216 11.1.23 Built‐In Prevention 216 11.2 Dual Principles: Reduce Both the Likelihood of Failure and the Magnitude of Consequences 217 11.2.1 Separating Critical Properties, Functions and Factors 217 11.2.2 Reducing the Likelihood of Unfavourable Combinations of Risk‐Critical Random Variables 218 11.2.3 Condition Monitoring 219 11.2.4 Reducing the Time of Exposure or the Space of Exposure 219 11.2.4.1 Time of Exposure 219 11.2.4.2 Length of Exposure and Space of Exposure 220 11.2.5 Discovering and Eliminating a Common Cause: Diversity in Design 220 11.2.6 Eliminating Vulnerabilities 222 11.2.7 Self‐Reinforcement 223 11.2.8 Using Available Local Resources 223 11.2.9 Derating 224 11.2.10 Selecting Appropriate Materials and Microstructures 225 11.2.11 Segmentation 225 11.2.11.1 Segmentation Improves the Load Distribution 225 11.2.11.2 Segmentation Reduces the Vulnerability to a Single Failure 225 11.2.11.3 Segmentation Reduces the Damage Escalation 226 11.2.11.4 Segmentation Limits the Hazard Potential 226 11.2.12 Reducing the Vulnerability of Targets 226 11.2.13 Making Zones Experiencing High Damage/Failure Rates Replaceable 227 11.2.14 Reducing the Hazard Potential 227 11.2.15 Integrated Risk Management 227 11.3 Protective Principles: Minimise the Consequences of Failure 229 11.3.1 Fault‐Tolerant System Design 229 11.3.2 Preventing Damage Escalation and Reducing the Rate of Deterioration 229 11.3.3 Using Fail‐Safe Designs 230 11.3.4 Deliberately Designed Weak Links 231 11.3.5 Built‐In Protection 231 11.3.6 Troubleshooting Procedures and Systems 232 11.3.7 Simulation of the Consequences from Failure 232 11.3.8 Risk Planning and Training 233 12 Physics of Failure Models 235 12.1 Fast Fracture 235 12.1.1 Fast Fracture: Driving Forces behind Fast Fracture 235 12.1.2 Reducing the Likelihood of Fast Fracture 241 12.1.2.1 Basic Ways of Reducing the Likelihood of Fast Fracture 242 12.1.2.2 Avoidance of Stress Raisers or Mitigating Their Harmful Effect 244 12.1.2.3 Selecting Materials Which Fail in a Ductile Fashion 245 12.1.3 Reducing the Consequences of Fast Fracture 247 12.1.3.1 By Using Fail-Safe Designs 247 12.1.3.2 By Using Crack Arrestors 250 12.2 Fatigue Fracture 251 12.2.1 Reducing the Risk of Fatigue Fracture 257 12.2.1.1 Reducing the Size of the Flaws 257 12.2.1.2 Increasing the Final Fatigue Crack Length by Selecting Material with a Higher Fracture Toughness 257 12.2.1.3 Reducing the Stress Range by an Appropriate Design 257 12.2.1.4 Reducing the Stress Range by Restricting the Springback of Elastic Components 258 12.2.1.5 Reducing the Stress Range by Reducing the Magnitude of Thermal Stresses 259 12.2.1.6 Reducing the Stress Range by Introducing Compressive Residual Stresses at the Surface 261 12.2.1.7 Reducing the Stress Range by Avoiding Excessive Bending 262 12.2.1.8 Reducing the Stress Range by Avoiding Stress Concentrators 263 12.2.1.9 Improving the Condition of the Surface and Eliminating Low-Strength Surfaces 263 12.2.1.10 Increasing the Fatigue Life of Automotive Suspension Springs 264 12.3 Early‐Life Failures 265 12.3.1 Influence of the Design on Early‐Life Failures 265 12.3.2 Influence of the Variability of Critical Design Parameters on Early‐Life Failures 266 13 Probability of Failure Initiated by Flaws 269 13.1 Distribution of the Minimum Fracture Stress and a Mathematical Formulation of the Weakest‐Link Concept 269 13.2 The Stress Hazard Density as an Alternative of the Weibull Distribution 274 13.3 General Equation Related to the Probability of Failure of a Stressed Component with Complex Shape 276 13.4 Link between the Stress Hazard Density and the Conditional Individual Probability of Initiating Failure 278 13.5 Probability of Failure Initiated by Defects in Components with Complex Shape 279 13.6 Limiting the Vulnerability of Designs to Failure Caused by Flaws 280 14 A Comparative Method for Improving the Reliability and Availability of Components and Systems 283 14.1 Advantages of the Comparative Method to Traditional Methods 283 14.2 A Comparative Method for Improving the Reliability of Components Whose Failure is Initiated by Flaws 285 14.3 A Comparative Method for Improving System Reliability 289 14.4 A Comparative Method for Improving the Availability of Flow Networks 290 15 Reliability Governed by the Relative Locations of Random Variables in a Finite Domain 293 15.1 Reliability Dependent on the Relative Configurations of Random Variables 293 15.2 A Generic Equation Related to Reliability Dependent on the Relative Locations of a Fixed Number of Random Variables 293 15.3 A Given Number of Uniformly Distributed Random Variables in a Finite Interval (Conditional Case) 297 15.4 Probability of Clustering of a Fixed Number Uniformly Distributed Random Events 298 15.5 Probability of Unsatisfied Demand in the Case of One Available Source and Many Consumers 302 15.6 Reliability Governed by the Relative Locations of Random Variables following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Domain 304 Appendix 15.1 305 16 Reliability and Risk Dependent on the Existence of Minimum Separation Intervals between the Locations of Random Variables on a Finite Interval 307 16.1 Applications Requiring Minimum Separation Intervals and Minimum Failure‐Free Operating Periods 307 16.2 Minimum Separation Intervals and Rolling MFFOP Reliability Measures 309 16.3 General Equations Related to Random Variables following a Homogeneous Poisson Process in a Finite Interval 310 16.4 Application Examples 312 16.4.1 Setting Reliability Requirements to Guarantee a Specified MFFOP 312 16.4.2 Reliability Assurance That a Specified MFFOP Has Been Met 312 0002547085.indd 13 8/18/2015 6:29:01 PM xiv Contents 16.4.3 Specifying a Number Density Envelope to Guarantee Probability of Unsatisfied Random Demand below a Maximum Acceptable Level 314 16.4.4 Insensitivity of the Probability of Unsatisfied Demand to the Variance of the Demand Time 315 16.5 Setting Reliability Requirements to Guarantee a Rolling MFFOP Followed by a Downtime 317 16.6 Setting Reliability Requirements to Guarantee an Availability Target 320 16.7 Closed-Form Expression for the Expected Fraction of the Time of Unsatisfied Demand 323 17 Reliability Analysis and Setting Reliability Requirements Based on the Cost of Failure 327 17.1 The Need for a Cost‐of‐Failure‐Based Approach 327 17.2 Risk of Failure 328 17.3 Setting Reliability Requirements Based on a Constant Cost of Failure 330 17.4 Drawbacks of the Expected Loss as a Measure of the Potential Loss from Failure 332 17.5 Potential Loss, Conditional Loss and Risk of Failure 333 17.6 Risk Associated with Multiple Failure Modes 336 17.6.1 An Important Special Case 337 17.7 Expected Potential Loss Associated with Repairable Systems Whose Component Failures Follow a Homogeneous Poisson Process 338 17.8 A Counterexample Related to Repairable Systems 341 17.9 Guaranteeing Multiple Reliability Requirements for Systems with Components Logically Arranged in Series 342 18 Potential Loss, Potential Profit and Risk 345 18.1 Deficiencies of the Maximum Expected Profit Criterion in Selecting a Risky Prospect 345 18.2 Risk of a Net Loss and Expected Potential Reward Associated with a Limited Number of Statistically Independent Risk–Reward Bets in a Risky Prospect 346 18.3 Probability and Risk of a Net Loss Associated with a Small Number of Opportunity Bets 348 18.4 Samuelson’s Sequence of Good Bets Revisited 351 18.5 Variation of the Risk of a Net Loss Associated with a Small Number of Opportunity Bets 352 18.6 Distribution of the Potential Profit from a Limited Number of Risk–Reward Activities 353 19 Optimal Allocation of Limited Resources among Discrete Risk Reduction Options 357 19.1 Statement of the Problem 357 19.2 Weaknesses of the Standard (0‐1) Knapsack Dynamic Programming Approach 359 19.2.1 A Counterexample 359 19.2.2 The New Formulation of the Optimal Safety Budget Allocation Problem 360 19.2.3 Dependence of the Removed System Risk on the Appropriate Selection of Combinations of Risk Reduction Options 361 19.2.4 A Dynamic Algorithm for Solving the Optimal Safety Budget Allocation Problem 365 19.3 Validation of the Model by a Recursive Backtracking 369 Appendix A 373 A.1 Random Events 373 A.2 Union of Events 375 A.3 Intersection of Events 376 A.4 Probability 378 A.5 Probability of a Union and Intersection of Mutually Exclusive Events 379 A.6 Conditional Probability 380 A.7 Probability of a Union of Non‐disjoint Events 383 A.8 Statistically Dependent Events 384 A.9 Statistically Independent Events 384 A.10 Probability of a Union of Independent Events 385 A.11 Boolean Variables and Boolean Algebra 385 Appendix B 391 B.1 Random Variables: Basic Properties 391 B.2 Boolean Random Variables 392 B.3 Continuous Random Variables 392 B.4 Probability Density Function 392 B.5 Cumulative Distribution Function 393 B.6 Joint Distribution of Continuous Random Variables 393 B.7 Correlated Random Variables 394 B.8 Statistically Independent Random Variables 395 B.9 Properties of the Expectations and Variances of Random Variables 396 B.10 Important Theoretical Results Regarding the Sample Mean 397 Appendix C: Cumulative Distribution Function of the Standard Normal Distribution 399 Appendix D: χ2‐Distribution 401 References 407 Index 413

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Book SynopsisPresents the principles, design, development and applications of the Diameter protocol suite The Diameter protocol was born in the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and designed to be a general-purpose Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) protocol applicable to many network environments. This book is for everyone who wants to understand the Diameter protocol and its applications. This book explains the place Diameter holds in global telecommunication networks and teaches system architects and designers how to incorporate Diameter into their network environments. Diameter: New Generation AAA Protocol - Design, Practice and Applications begins by describing the foundation of Diameter step-by-step, starting with building blocks of the protocol, and progressing from a simple two-party exchange to a multi-party exchange involving complex routing. It discusses the motivation for using Diameter, talks about its predecessor, RADIUS, and introduces thTable of ContentsDisclaimer xiii About the Authors xv Foreword xvii Preface xix Acknowledgements xxiii List of Abbreviations xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is AAA? 1 1.2 Open Standards and the IETF 2 1.3 What is Diameter? 3 1.3.1 Diameter versus RADIUS 4 1.3.2 Diameter Improvements 5 1.4 What is freeDiameter? 6 References 6 2 Fundamental Diameter Concepts and Building Blocks 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Diameter Nodes 9 2.3 Diameter Protocol Structure 10 2.4 Diameter Applications 10 2.5 Connections 11 2.5.1 Transport Layer 11 2.5.2 Peer-to-Peer Messaging Layer 12 2.5.3 Setting up a Connection between freeDiameter Peers 12 2.6 Diameter Message Overview 12 2.6.1 The Command Code Format 13 2.6.2 Message Structure 15 2.6.3 Attribute–Value Pairs 16 2.6.3.1 Format 16 2.6.4 Derived AVP Data Formats 20 2.7 Diameter Sessions 20 2.8 Transaction Results 21 2.8.1 Successful Transactions 21 2.8.2 Protocol Errors 21 2.8.3 Transient Failures 22 2.8.4 Permanent Failures 23 2.9 Diameter Agents 25 2.9.1 Saving State 25 2.9.2 Redirect Agents 25 2.9.3 Relay Agents 25 2.9.4 Proxy Agents 27 2.9.5 Translation Agents 27 References 27 3 Communication between Neighboring Peers 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Peer Connections and Diameter Sessions 29 3.3 The DiameterIdentity 29 3.4 Peer Discovery 31 3.4.1 Static Discovery 31 3.4.1.1 Static Discovery in freeDiameter 31 3.4.2 Dynamic Discovery 32 3.4.2.1 Dynamic Discovery and DiameterURI 35 3.4.2.2 DNS Further Reading 36 3.5 Connection Establishment 36 3.5.1 The Election Process: Handling Simultaneous Connection Attempts 37 3.6 Capabilities Exchange 37 3.6.1 freeDiameter example 38 3.6.2 The Capabilities Exchange Request 39 3.6.3 Capabilities Exchange Answer 40 3.6.4 Hop-by-Hop Identifiers 41 3.7 The Peer Table 42 3.8 Peer Connection Maintenance 43 3.8.1 Transport Failure, Failover, and Failback Procedures 45 3.8.2 Peer State Machine 49 3.9 Advanced Transport and Peer Topics 49 3.9.1 TCP Multi-homing 50 3.9.2 SCTP Multi-homing 51 3.9.2.1 Multi-homing in freeDiameter 53 3.9.3 Avoiding Head-of-Line Blocking 56 3.9.4 Multiple Connection Instances 56 References 59 4 Diameter End-to-End Communication 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 The Routing Table 61 4.3 Diameter Request Routing 63 4.3.1 AVPs to Route Request Messages 64 4.3.1.1 Destination-Realm AVP 64 4.3.1.2 Destination-Host AVP 64 4.3.1.3 Auth-Application-Id and Acct-Application-Id AVPs 64 4.3.1.4 User-Name AVP 65 4.3.2 Routing AVPs 66 4.3.2.1 Route-Record AVP 66 4.3.2.2 Proxy-Info AVP 66 4.4 Request Routing Error Handling 67 4.4.1 Detecting Duplicated Messages 67 4.4.2 Error Codes 67 4.5 Answer Message Routing 68 4.5.1 Relaying and Proxying Answer Messages 69 4.6 Intra-Realm versus Inter-Realm Communication 69 4.7 Diameter Routing and Inter-Connection Networks 70 4.7.1 Inter-Connection Approaches 70 4.7.2 Dynamic Diameter Node Discovery 72 4.7.2.1 Alternative 1 73 4.7.2.2 Alternative 2 73 4.7.2.3 Alternative 3 73 4.8 Diameter Overload Control 75 4.8.1 Overload Reports 77 4.8.2 Overload Control State 77 4.8.3 Overload Abatement Considerations 79 References 79 5 Diameter Security 81 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Background 82 5.2.1 Unkeyed Primitives 83 5.2.2 Symmetric Key Primitives 84 5.2.3 Asymmetric Key Primitives 84 5.2.4 Key Length Recommendations 86 5.3 Security Threats 87 5.4 Security Services 90 5.4.1 Diameter Security Model 90 5.4.1.1 Secure Transports 91 5.4.1.2 Authorization 92 5.4.2 Relation to Threats 93 5.4.3 Mitigating Other Threats 93 5.5 PKI Example Configuration in freeDiameter 94 5.5.1 The Configuration File 94 5.5.2 The Certificate 96 5.5.3 Protecting Exchanges via TLS 97 5.5.3.1 Common Name and Hostname Mismatch 98 5.5.3.2 Unprotected Exchanges 99 5.5.3.3 Certificate Revocation 100 5.6 Security Evolution 102 References 102 6 Diameter Applications 105 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 Base Accounting 105 6.2.1 Actors 106 6.2.2 Accounting Application Setup 106 6.2.3 Accounting Services 107 6.2.4 Accounting Records 109 6.2.5 Correlation of Accounting Records 109 6.2.6 Sending Accounting Information 110 6.2.7 Accounting AVPs 110 6.2.8 freeDiameter Example 112 6.2.9 Fault Resilience 113 6.2.10 Example: 3GPP Rf Interface for Mobile Offline Charging 113 6.2.10.1 Rf Interface Commands 114 6.3 Credit Control 115 6.3.1 Credit-Control-Request Command 116 6.3.2 Credit-Control-Answer Command 118 6.3.3 Failure Handling 120 6.3.4 Extensibility 121 6.3.5 Example: 3GPP Ro Interface for Online Charging 121 6.4 Quality of Service 122 6.4.1 Actors 122 6.4.2 Modes of Operation 123 6.4.2.1 Push Mode 123 6.4.2.2 Pull Mode 123 6.4.3 Authorization 124 6.4.3.1 Push Mode Authorization Schemes 124 6.4.3.2 Pull Mode Authorization 124 6.4.4 Establishing and Managing a QoS Application Session 126 6.4.4.1 Establishing a Session 126 6.4.5 Re-Authorizing a Session 129 6.4.5.1 Re-Authorization Initiated by the NE 129 6.4.5.2 Re-Authorization Initiated by the Authorizing Elements 129 6.4.6 Terminating a Session 129 6.4.6.1 Session Terminated by the NE 129 6.4.6.2 Session Terminated by the AE 129 6.5 Interworking RADIUS and Diameter 130 6.6 S6a Interface 137 6.6.1 Evolved Packet Core 137 6.6.2 S6a Overview 138 6.6.2.1 Common AVPs for S6a Commands 139 6.6.3 Authentication 140 6.6.3.1 Authentication-Information-Request Command 140 6.6.3.2 Authentication-Information-Answer Command 141 6.6.4 Location Management 142 6.6.4.1 Update-Location-Request Command 142 6.6.4.2 Cancel-Location-Request Command 144 6.6.4.3 Cancel-Location-Answer Command 145 6.6.4.4 Update-Location-Answer Command 145 6.6.5 Subscriber Data Handling 146 6.6.5.1 Insert-Subscriber-Data-Request Command 146 6.6.5.2 Insert-Subscriber-Data-Answer Command 147 6.6.5.3 Delete-Subscriber-Data-Request Command 149 6.6.5.4 Delete-Subscriber-Data-Answer Message 150 6.6.6 Fault Recovery 150 6.6.6.1 Reset-Request Command 150 6.6.6.2 Reset-Answer Command 151 6.6.7 Notifications 152 6.6.7.1 Notify-Request Command 152 6.6.7.2 Notify-Answer Command 154 6.6.8 Ending Subscriber Sessions 154 6.6.8.1 Purge-UE-Request AVPs 154 6.6.8.2 Purge-UE-Answer Command 155 6.6.9 Extensibility 156 References 156 7 Guidelines for Extending Diameter 159 7.1 Introduction 159 7.2 Registration Policies 160 7.3 Overview of Extension Strategies 161 7.4 Extending Attribute–Value Pairs 162 7.4.1 Extending Existing AVPs 162 7.4.1.1 Creating New AVP Flags 162 7.4.1.2 Adding AVP Extension Points 162 7.4.1.3 Adding New AVP Values 162 7.5 Extending Commands 163 7.5.1 Allocating New Command Flags 163 7.5.2 Adding New AVPs 163 7.5.2.1 Adding New AVPs to Base Commands 165 7.5.3 Creating New Commands 165 7.5.3.1 Routing AVPs 165 7.6 Creating New Applications 166 7.6.1 The Application-Id 166 7.7 Lessons Learned 167 7.8 Vendor-specific Extensions 169 7.8.1 AVPs 169 7.8.2 Command Codes 170 7.8.3 Diameter Applications 170 7.9 Prototyping with freeDiameter 170 References 170 Appendix A freeDiameter Tutorial 173 A.1 Introduction to Virtual Machines 173 A.2 Installing the Virtualization Software 174 A.3 Creating Your Own Environment 174 A.4 Downloading the VM Image 174 A.5 Installing and Starting the Master VM freeDiameter 174 A.6 Creating a Connection Between Two Diameter Peers 175 A.6.1 Building client.example.net 176 A.6.2 Building server.example.net 177 A.6.3 Creating the Diameter Connection 178 Appendix B freeDiameter from Sources 183 B.1 Introduction 183 B.2 Tools and Dependencies 183 B.2.1 Runtime Dependencies 184 B.2.1.1 SCTP 184 B.2.1.2 TLS 184 B.2.1.3 Internationalized Domain Names 185 B.3 Obtaining freeDiameter Source Code 185 B.4 Configuring the Build 186 B.5 Compiling freeDiameter 188 B.6 Installing freeDiameter 189 B.7 freeDiameter Configuration File 189 B.8 Running and Debugging freeDiameter 190 B.9 Extensions for Debug Support 192 B.9.1 Extended Trace 192 B.9.2 Logging Diameter Messages: dbg_msg_dumps.fdx 193 B.9.3 Measuring Processing Time: dbg_msg_timings.fdx 195 B.9.4 Viewing Queue Statistics: dbg_monitor.fdx 196 B.9.5 Understanding Routing Decisions: dbg_rt.fdx 197 B.9.6 The Interactive Python Shell Extension: dbg_interactive.fdx 198 B.10 Further Reading 199 Reference 199 Appendix C The freeDiameter Framework 201 C.1 Introduction 201 C.2 Framework Modules 201 C.3 freeDiameter API Overview 202 C.3.1 libfdproto.h 203 C.3.2 libfdcore.h 205 C.3.3 extension.h 207 C.4 freeDiameter Architectures 207 Reference 208 Glossary 209 Index 213

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Book SynopsisAn introduction to the interdisciplinary subject of molecular electronics, revised and updated The revised second edition of Organic and Molecular Electronics offers a guide to the fabrication and application of a wide range of electronic devices based around organic materials and low-cost technologies. Since the publication of the first edition, organic electronics has greatly progressed, as evidenced by the myriad companies that have been established to explore the new possibilities. The text contains an introduction into the physics and chemistry of organic materials, and includes a discussion of the means to process the materials into a form (in most cases, a thin film) where they can be exploited in electronic and optoelectronic devices. The text covers the areas of application and potential application that range from chemical and biochemical sensors to plastic light emitting displays. The updated second edition reflects the recent progress in both Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgements xvii Symbols and Abbreviations xix About the Companion Website xxv 1 Scope of Organic and Molecular Electronics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Organic Materials for Electronics 2 1.3 Molecular Electronics 4 1.4 The Biological World 12 1.5 Future Opportunities 13 1.6 Conclusions 15 Problems 15 References 16 Further Reading 17 2 Materials’ Foundations 19 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Electronic Structure 20 2.3 Chemical Bonding 27 2.4 Bonding in Organic Compounds 35 2.5 Crystalline and Non crystalline Materials 43 2.6 Polymers 53 2.7 Soft Matter: Emulsions, Foams, and Gels 58 2.8 Diffusion 59 Problems 60 Reference 60 Further Reading 60 3 Electrical Conductivity 63 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Classical Theory 64 3.3 Energy Bands in Solids 71 3.4 Organic Compounds 91 3.5 Low‐Frequency Conductivity 105 3.6 Conductivity at High Frequencies 113 Problems 118 References 118 Further Reading 120 4 Optical Phenomena 121 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 122 4.3 Refractive Index 123 4.4 Interaction of EM Waves with Organic Molecules 127 4.5 Transmission and Reflection from Interfaces 140 4.6 Wave guiding 145 4.7 Surface Plasmons 146 4.8 Photonic Crystals 151 Problems 155 References 155 Further Reading 156 5 Electroactive Organic Compounds 157 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2 Selected Topics in Chemistry 158 5.3 Conductive Polymers 166 5.4 Charge‐Transfer Complexes 170 5.5 Graphene, Fullerenes, and Nanotubes 173 5.6 Piezoelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Ferroelectricity 180 5.7 Magnetic Materials 185 Problems 194 References 194 Further Reading 196 6 Tools for Molecular Electronics 197 6.1 Introduction 197 6.2 Direct Imaging 198 6.3 X‐Ray Reflection 202 6.4 Neutron Reflection 206 6.5 Electron Diffraction 206 6.6 Infrared Spectroscopy 208 6.7 Surface Analytical Techniques 213 6.8 Scanning Probe Microscopies 214 6.9 Film Thickness Measurements 217 Problems 218 References 219 Further Reading 220 7 Thin Film Processing and Device Fabrication 221 7.1 Introduction 221 7.2 Established Deposition Methods 222 7.3 Molecular Architectures 239 7.4 Micro‐and Nanofabrication 253 Problems 260 References 260 Further Reading 263 8 Liquid Crystals and Devices 265 8.1 Introduction 265 8.2 Liquid Crystal Phases 266 8.3 Liquid Crystal Polymers 271 8.4 Display Devices 273 8.5 Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals 279 8.6 Polymer‐dispersed Liquid Crystals 281 8.7 Liquid Crystal Lenses 282 8.8 Other Application Areas 283 Problems 284 References 285 Further Reading 286 9 Plastic Electronics 287 9.1 Introduction 288 9.2 Organic Diodes 288 9.3 Metal–Insulator–Semiconductor Structures 292 9.4 Organic Field Effect Transistors 295 9.5 Organic Integrated Circuits 301 9.6 Transparent Conducting Films 303 9.7 Organic Light‐emitting Devices 304 9.8 Organic Photovoltaic Devices 321 9.9 Other Application Areas 328 Problems 331 References 332 Further Reading 336 10 Chemical Sensors and Physical Actuators 337 10.1 Introduction 337 10.2 Sensing Systems 338 10.3 Definitions 339 10.4 Chemical Sensors 341 10.5 Biological Olfaction 360 10.6 Electronic Noses 362 10.7 Physical Sensors and Actuators 363 10.8 Wearable Electronics 369 Problems 369 References 370 Further Reading 371 11 Molecular and Nanoscale Electronics 373 11.1 Introduction 374 11.2 Nano systems 374 11.3 Engineering Materials at the Molecular Level 376 11.4 Molecular Device Architectures 381 11.5 Molecular Rectification 385 11.6 Electronic Switching and Memory Phenomena 387 11.7 Single‐electron Devices 395 11.8 Optical and Chemical Switches 397 11.9 Nanomagnetics 402 11.10 Nanotube and Graphene Electronics 404 11.11 Molecular Actuation 407 11.12 Molecular Logic Circuits 410 11.13 Computing Architectures 412 11.14 Quantum Computing 414 11.15 Evolvable Electronics 415 Problems 416 References 416 Further Reading 420 12 Bioelectronics 421 12.1 Introduction 422 12.2 Biological Building Blocks 422 12.3 Nucleotides 429 12.4 Cells 433 12.5 Genetic Coding 434 12.6 The Biological Membrane 438 12.7 Neurons 443 12.8 Biosensors 445 12.9 DNA Electronics 449 12.10 Photobiology 450 12.11 Molecular Motors 458 Problems 461 References 461 Further Reading 463 Appendix 465 Index 469

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses the fundamental aspects of multiple-source Optical Wireless Applications, including Visible Light Communications (VLC). Moreover, the authors explore VLC performance in several conventional household layouts and investigate the impact of these layouts on VLC. Multiple sources increase multipath distortion. Multi-input- Multi-Output (MIMO) techniques will be included as they provide either reliability improvement or bandwidth efficiency increase. Based on these topics, the book further explores VLC performance in real applications, such as aircraft cabin wireless communications. In addition, the authors describe the Lambertian emitting pattern of LEDs and the diffused features in indoor environments. Based on the theory, they trace light pulses to establish a MIMO indoor wireless channel model on specific sources layout. Next, they generate test data to simulate BER distribution in a room and calculate the outage. Furthermore, addresses the performance imprTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation 1 1.1.1 Spectrum Scarcity Issues and Optical Wireless Communications as a Solution 3 1.2 Organization 8 References 9 2 Fundamentals of Optical Wireless Communications 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Communications Blocks in an OWC System 12 2.3 Intensity Modulation/Direct Detection (IM/DD) 14 2.4 Optical Transmitters 15 2.5 Optical Receivers 16 2.6 Optical Wireless Channel Propagation Characteristics 20 2.7 Conclusions 24 References 25 3 Indoor Optical Wireless Channel Modeling Methods 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Source and Receiver Configurations 27 3.3 Steps for Modeling of Indoor OWC Environment 31 3.4 Models of the Room and Other Reflecting Surfaces 32 3.5 Radiation Patterns 32 3.5.1 Radiation Patterns of Point Sources 33 3.5.2 Radiation Patterns of Reflections 34 3.6 Received Power from LOS Links 37 3.7 Received Power from NLOS Links 39 3.7.1 Barry’s Algorithm 39 3.7.2 MIMO Modeling Method 41 3.7.3 Modified Monte Carlo Algorithm and Variations 44 3.7.4 Combined Deterministic and MMC Algorithm 45 3.7.5 Other Approaches for Impulse Response Calculation 63 3.8 Conclusions 63 References 64 4 Analyses of Indoor Optical Wireless Channels Based on Channel Impulse Responses 67 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Analyses of Optical Wireless Channel Impulse Responses 67 4.2.1 Non]Directed LOS Links 70 4.2.2 Non]Directed NLOS Links 82 4.3 Effects of Furniture on Root]Mean]Square Delay Spread 89 4.4 SNR Calculations and BER Performance 93 4.5 Impact of Higher Order Reflections 96 4.6 Conclusions 107 References 109 5 Bit]Error]Rate Distribution and Outage of Indoor Optical Wireless Communications Systems 111 5.1 Introduction 111 5.2 Simulation Parameters 111 5.3 Optimal Detection and BER Outage Analysis 113 5.3.1 Optimal Detection 113 5.3.2 BER Analysis 115 5.4 Simulation Results (Receiver FOV = 60°) 117 5.4.1 BER Distribution and Outage 118 5.4.2 Impulse Response Distortion 121 5.5 Simulation Results (Receiver FOV = 30°) 123 5.6 Analytical Results and Comparisons 126 5.7 Conclusions 126 References 130 6 Orthogonal Frequency]Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for Indoor Optical Wireless Communications 131 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 OFDM Overview 132 6.2.1 Basic OFDM System 132 6.2.2 System Operation 132 6.2.3 Discrete Time Implementation of OFDM 134 6.2.4 Drawbacks of OFDM 134 6.3 OFDM]Based OW Systems 136 6.3.1 ACO]OFDM 137 6.3.2 PAM]DMT 137 6.3.3 DHT]OFDM 139 6.4 Precoding and PAPR Reduction in AC OFDM OW Systems 140 6.4.1 Precoding]Based Optical OFDM System Model 140 6.4.2 Precoding Schemes 143 6.4.3 Simulation Results and Discussions 144 6.5 Performance of AC OFDM Systems in AWGN and Multipath Channel 149 6.5.1 Precoding]Based OW OFDM System Model with AWGN 149 6.5.2 Multipath Indoor Channel 150 6.5.3 Frequency]Domain Equalization (FDE) 151 6.5.4 Analytical BER Performance Results 152 6.5.5 Electrical and Optical Performance Metrics 154 6.5.6 Clipping and PAPR Reduction 154 6.5.7 Simulation Results 155 6.6 Conclusions 164 References 167 7 MIMO Technology for Optical Wireless Communications using LED Arrays and Fly]Eye Receivers 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 MIMO Configurations 169 7.2.1 MIMO System Model 169 7.2.2 Spatial Diversity 170 7.3 Angle]Diversity Receivers 171 7.3.1 Angle]Diversity Receiver Overview 171 7.3.2 Fly]Eye Receiver Design 171 7.4 Simulation Results and Discussions 173 7.4.1 Simulation Parameters 173 7.4.2 BER Spatial Distributions for MIMO OWC Systems 174 7.4.3 Impact of Ambient Noise 182 7.5 Conclusions 189 References 190 8 Wireless Solutions for Aircrafts Based on Optical Wireless Communications and Power Line Communications 193 8.1 Introduction 193 8.2 Powerline Communications Channel Model 195 8.3 Optical Wireless Communications 196 8.3.1 Simulation Configurations 196 8.3.2 Illuminance Distribution Results 197 8.3.3 Delay Spread Distribution Results 199 8.3.4 Bit]Error]Rate Distribution and Outage Probability 200 8.4 Wireless Applications for Commercial Airplanes 204 8.4.1 Reading Light Passenger Service Units 204 8.4.2 Passenger Infotainment 205 8.4.3 Cabin Interphones 205 8.4.4 Interconnection of Line]Replaceable]Units Over Environmental Barrier 205 8.5 Conclusions 205 References 205 9 Multispot Diffusing Transmitters Using Holographic Diffusers for Infrared Beams and Receivers Using Holographic Mirrors 207 9.1 Introduction 207 9.2 CGH for Intensity]Weighted Spot Arrays 208 9.3 Communication Cells for Multispot Diffusing Configuration 211 9.4 Receiver Optical Front]End 214 9.4.1 Holographic Mirrors 215 9.4.2 Signal Effective Area 215 9.4.3 Figure]of]Merit 216 9.5 Wave Propagation through Materials and Metamaterials and Relation with Holography 218 9.6 Conclusions 222 References 222 10 Indoor Positioning Methods Using VLC LEDs 225 10.1 Motivation 225 10.2 Positioning Algorithms and Solutions 228 10.2.1 Triangulation 228 10.2.2 Scene Analysis 234 10.2.3 Proximity 234 10.2.4 Comparison of Positioning Techniques 235 10.3 An Asynchronous Indoor Positioning System based on VLC LED 237 10.3.1 Basic Framed Slotted ALOHA Protocol 237 10.3.2 System Design and DC Channel Gain 243 10.3.3 Positioning Algorithm 244 10.3.4 Signal]to]Noise Ratio Analysis 250 10.3.5 Results and Discussions 252 10.3.6 Extended Simulation and Results 256 10.4 Conclusions 260 References 260 Index

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive exposition of the theory and techniques of fault identification and decision theory when applied to complex systems shows how modern computer analysis and diagnostic methods might be applied to launch vehicle design, checkout, and launch the space checkout system is a specialized area which is rarely explored in terms of the intelligent techniques and approaches involved an original view combining modern theory with well-established research material, inviting a contemporary approach to launch dynamics highlights the advanced research works in the field of testing, control and decision-making for space launch presented in a very well organized way and the technical level is very high Trade Review"A comprehensive exposition of the theory and techniques of fault identification and decision theory when applied to complex systems." (Zentralblatt MATH 2016)Table of ContentsIntroductionChapter 1 Overview of Testing and Control for Space LaunchChapter 2 Networks of Testing and Control for Space LaunchChapter 3 Intelligent Analysis and Processing for Testing DataChapter 4 Intelligent Fault Diagnosis for Space Launch and TestingChapter 5 Safety Control of Space Launch and Flight: Modeling and Intelligence DecisionChapter 6 Development Tendency of Space Launch Test and ControlReferencesIndex

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Book SynopsisThis book covers important and timely issues in Reverberation Chambers (RCs) and their applications to EMC and Antenna measurements. Developed specifically for university students, researchers, practicing industrial engineers and designers who work with antennas in radio frequency (RF) engineering, EMC, radar, and radio communications. This book will provide the reader with a firm theoretical and practical understanding of the RCs operation, allowing them to undertake practical antenna and EMC measurement work with confidence and accuracy. The book is built on many years of research by the authors that encompass many of the new advances in antenna design.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors viii Acknowledgements x 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 This Book 3 References 5 2 Reverberation Chamber Cavity Theory 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Cavity Modes and Electromagnetic Fields 8 2.3 Mode Stirring Techniques 17 2.4 Plane Wave Angle of Arrival 21 2.5 Average Mode Bandwidths 24 2.6 Chamber Quality (Q) Factor 26 2.7 Statistical Forms 30 2.8 Line of Sight Elements 44 2.9 Reverberation Chamber as a Radio Propagation Channel 52 References 56 3 Mechanical Stirrer Designs and Chamber Performance Evaluation 58 3.1 Introduction 58 3.2 Paddle Design Methodology 61 3.3 Numerical Analysis 63 3.4 Comments on Practical Validation 78 3.5 Measurement Parameters for Validation 80 3.6 Measurement Results 81 3.7 Summary 92 References 92 4 EMC Measurements inside Reverberation Chambers 94 4.1 Introduction to EMC 95 4.2 EMC Standards 98 4.3 EMC Measurements and Tests 101 4.4 EMC Measurements Inside Reverberation Chambers 103 4.5 Comparison of Reverberation Chamber and Other Measurement Facilities for EMC Measurements 123 4.6 Conclusions 127 Acknowledgements 127 References 127 5 Single Port Antenna Measurements 129 5.1 Introduction 130 5.2 Definitions and Proof: Antenna Efficiency 131 5.3 Definitions: Textile Antennas 134 5.4 Measurement Procedures 134 5.5 Free Space Measurement Investigation 138 5.6 On‐Body Antenna Measurements 145 5.7 Theoretical and Simulated Evidence 161 5.8 Measurement Uncertainty 163 5.9 Summary 166 References 167 6 Multiport and Array Antennas 169 6.1 Introduction 169 6.2 Multi‐port Antennas for MIMO Applications 171 6.3 Measurement Parameters 174 6.4 Diversity Gain from Cumulative Distribution Functions (CDF) 175 6.5 Diversity from Correlation 180 6.6 Channel Capacity 185 6.7 Embedded Element Efficiency 186 6.8 Definitions: Conventional Array Antenna Measurements 191 6.9 Measurement Parameters 192 6.10 Deduction of Characterisation Equation 194 6.11 Measurement Results 196 6.12 Measurement Uncertainty 200 6.13 Summary 200 References 201 7 Further Applications and Developments 203 7.1 Shielding Effectiveness Measurements 203 7.2 Antenna Radiation Efficiency Measurements without a Reference Antenna 209 7.3 Antenna Diversity Gain Measurements without a Reference Antenna 213 7.4 Wireless Device and System Evaluation 214 7.5 Other Reverberation Chambers and the Future 216 7.6 Summary 218 References 218 Appendix A: Deduction of Independent Samples 220 Appendix B: Multivariate Normality Test for SIMO Channels 225 Appendix C: Surface Current Nature 230 Appendix D: BS EN 61000‐4‐21 Standard Deviation Results 235 Index 240

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Book SynopsisClustering techniques are increasingly being put to use in the analysis of high-throughput biological datasets. Novel computational techniques to analyse high throughput data in the form of sequences, gene and protein expressions, pathways, and images are becoming vital for understanding diseases and future drug discovery.Table of ContentsPreface xix List of Symbols xxi About the Authors xxiii Part One Introduction 1 1 Introduction to Bioinformatics 3 2 Computational Methods in Bioinformatics 9 Part Two Introduction to Molecular Biology 19 3 The Living Cell 21 4 Central Dogma of Molecular Biology 33 Part Three Data Acquisition and Pre-processing 53 5 High-throughput Technologies 55 6 Databases, Standards and Annotation 67 7 Normalisation 87 8 Feature Selection 109 9 Differential Expression 119 Part Four Clustering Methods 133 10 Clustering Forms 135 11 Partitional Clustering 143 12 Hierarchical Clustering 157 13 Fuzzy Clustering 167 14 Neural Network-based Clustering 181 15 Mixture Model Clustering 197 16 Graph Clustering 227 17 Consensus Clustering 247 18 Biclustering 265 19 Clustering Methods Discussion 283 Part Five Validation and Visualisation 303 20 Numerical Validation 305 21 Biological Validation 323 22 Visualisations and Presentations 339 Part Six New Clustering Frameworks Designed for Bioinformatics 363 23 Splitting-Merging Awareness Tactics (SMART) 365 24 Tightness-tunable Clustering (UNCLES) 385 Appendix 395 Index 409

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Book SynopsisKey advances in Semiconductor Terahertz (THz) Technology now promises important new applications enabling scientists and engineers to overcome the challenges of accessing the so-called terahertz gap. This pioneering reference explains the fundamental methods and surveys innovative techniques in the generation, detection and processing of THz waves with solid-state devices, as well as illustrating their potential applications in security and telecommunications, among other fields. With contributions from leading experts, Semiconductor Terahertz Technology: Devices and Systems at Room Temperature Operation comprehensively and systematically covers semiconductor-based room temperature operating sources such as photomixers, THz antennas, radiation concepts and THz propagation as well as room-temperature operating THz detectors. The second part of the book focuses on applications such as the latest photonic and electronic THz systems as well as emerging THz technologies incTable of ContentsAcknowledgments xi Preface xiii Foreword xvii List of Contributors xix 1 General Introduction 1Hans Hartnagel, Antti V. Räisänen, and Magdalena Salazar-Palma 2 Principles of THz Generation 3Sascha Preu, Gottfried H. Döhler, Stefan Malzer, Andreas Stöhr, Vitaly Rymanov, Thorsten Göbel, Elliott R. Brown, Michael Feiginov, Ramón Gonzalo, Miguel Beruete, and Miguel Navarro-Cya 2.1 Overview 3 2.2 THz Generation by Photomixers and Photoconductors 5 2.2.1 Principle of Operation 5 2.2.2 Basic Concepts and Design Rules 7 2.2.3 Thermal Constraints 21 2.2.4 Electrical Constraints 23 2.2.5 Device Layouts of Photoconductive Devices 35 2.2.6 Device Layouts of p-i-n Diode-Based Emitters 47 2.3 Principles of Electronic THz Generation 53 2.3.1 Oscillators with Negative Differential Conductance 54 2.3.2 Multipliers (Schottky Diodes, Hetero-Barrier Varactors) 56 2.3.3 Plasmonic Sources 58 References 61 3 Principles of Emission of THzWaves 69Luis Enrique Garcya Munoz, Sascha Preu, Stefan Malzer, Gottfried H. Döhler, Javier Montero-de-Paz, Ramón Gonzalo, David González-Ovejero, Daniel Segovia-Vargas, Dmitri Lioubtchenko, and Antti V. Räisänen 3.1 Fundamental Parameters of Antennas 69 3.1.1 Radiation Pattern 69 3.1.2 Directivity 71 3.1.3 Gain and Radiation Efficiency 71 3.1.4 Effective Aperture Area and Aperture Efficiency 72 3.1.5 Phase Pattern and Phase Center 72 3.1.6 Polarization 72 3.1.7 Input Impedance and Radiation Resistance 72 3.1.8 Bandwidth 73 3.2 Outcoupling Issues of THz Waves 73 3.2.1 Radiation Pattern of a Dipole over a Semi-Infinite Substrate 75 3.2.2 Radiation Pattern of a Dipole in a Multilayered Medium 79 3.2.3 Anomalies in the Radiation Pattern 82 3.3 THz Antenna Topologies 84 3.3.1 Resonant Antennas 85 3.3.2 Self-Complementary Antennas 87 3.4 Lenses 90 3.4.1 Lens Design 90 3.5 Techniques for Improving the Performance of THz Antennas 93 3.5.1 Conjugate Matching Technique 93 3.5.2 Tapered Slot Antenna on Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures 99 3.6 Arrays 107 3.6.1 General Overview and Spectral Features of Arrays 107 3.6.2 Large Area Emitters 113 References 157 4 Propagation at THz Frequencies 160Antti V. Räisänen, Dmitri Lioubtchenko, Andrey Generalov, J. Anthony Murphy, Créidhe O’Sullivan, Marcin L. Gradziel, Neil Trappe, Luis Enrique Garcia Munoz, Alejandro Garcia-Lamperez, and Javier Montero-de-Paz 4.1 Helmholtz Equation and Electromagnetic Modes of Propagation 160 4.2 THz Waveguides 167 4.2.1 Waveguides with a Single Conductor: TE and TM Modes 168 4.2.2 Waveguides with Two or More Conductors: TEM and Quasi-TEM Modes 173 4.2.3 Waveguides with No Conductor: Hybrid Modes 177 4.3 Beam Waveguides 183 4.3.1 Gaussian Beam 183 4.3.2 Launching and Focusing Components: Horns, Lenses, and Mirrors 187 4.3.3 Other Components Needed in Beam Waveguides 193 4.3.4 Absorbers 195 4.3.5 Modeling Horns Using Mode Matching 195 4.3.6 Multimode Systems and Partially Coherent Propagation 199 4.3.7 Modeling Techniques for THz Propagation in THz Systems 201 4.4 High Frequency Electric Characterization of Materials 202 4.4.1 Drude Model 203 4.4.2 Lorentz–Drude Model 204 4.4.3 Brendel–Bormann Model 205 4.5 Propagation in Free Space 205 4.5.1 Link Budget 205 4.5.2 Atmospheric Attenuation 206 References 207 5 Principles of THz Direct Detection 212Elliott R. Brown, and Daniel Segovia-Vargas 5.1 Detection Mechanisms 212 5.1.1 E-Field Rectification 213 5.1.2 Thermal Detection 215 5.1.3 Plasma-Wave, HEMT, and MOS-Based Detection 220 5.2 Noise Mechanisms 223 5.2.1 Noise from Electronic Devices 223 5.2.2 Phonon Noise 225 5.2.3 Photon Noise with Direct Detection 227 5.3 THz Coupling 230 5.3.1 THz Impedance Matching 230 5.3.2 Planar-Antenna Coupling 231 5.3.3 Exemplary THz Coupling Structures 232 5.3.4 Output-Circuit Coupling 235 5.4 External Responsivity Examples 235 5.4.1 Rectifiers 235 5.4.2 Micro-Bolometers 236 5.5 System Metrics 239 5.5.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 239 5.5.2 Sensitivity Metrics 240 5.6 Effect of Amplifier Noise 243 5.7 A Survey of Experimental THz Detector Performance 244 5.7.1 Rectifiers 246 5.7.2 Thermal Detectors 247 5.7.3 CMOS-Based and Plasma-Wave Detectors 249 References 250 6 THz Electronics 254Michael Feiginov, Ramón Gonzalo, Itziar Maestrojuán, Oleg Cojocari, Matthias Hoefle, and Ernesto Limiti 6.1 Resonant-Tunneling Diodes 254 6.1.1 Historic Introduction 254 6.1.2 Operating Principles of RTDs 255 6.1.3 Charge-Relaxation Processes in RTDs 256 6.1.4 High-Frequency RTD Conductance 259 6.1.5 Operating Principles of RTD Oscillators 260 6.1.6 Limitations of RTD Oscillators 261 6.1.7 Overview of the State of the Art Results 264 6.1.8 RTD Oscillators versus Other Types of THz Sources 265 6.1.9 Future Perspectives 265 6.2 Schottky Diode Mixers: Fundamental and Harmonic Approaches 265 6.2.1 Sub-Harmonic Mixers 267 6.2.2 Circuit Fabrication Technologies 270 6.2.3 Characterization Technologies 272 6.2.4 Advanced Configuration Approach 276 6.2.5 Imaging Applications of Schottky Mixers 277 6.3 Solid-State THz Low Noise Amplifiers 278 6.3.1 Solid-State Active Devices and Technologies for Low Noise Amplification 280 6.3.2 Circuit and Propagation Issues for TMIC 282 6.3.3 Low Noise Amplifier Design and Realizations 284 6.3.4 Perspectives 287 6.4 Square-Law Detectors 288 6.4.1 Characterization and Modeling of Low-Barrier Schottky Diodes 289 6.4.2 Design of Millimeter-Wave Square-Law Detectors 291 6.5 Fabrication Technologies 292 6.5.1 Overview of Fabrication Approaches of Schottky Structures for Millimeter-Wave Applications 293 6.5.2 Film-Diode Process 296 References 299 7 Selected Photonic THz Technologies 304Cyril C. Renaud, Andreas Stöhr, Thorsten Goebel, Frédéric Van Dijk, and Guillermo Carpintero 7.1 Photonic Techniques for THz Emission and Detection 304 7.1.1 Overall Photonic System 304 7.1.2 Basic Components Description 306 7.1.3 Systems Parameters, Pulsed versus CW 307 7.2 Laser Sources for THz Generation 309 7.2.1 Pulsed Laser Sources 309 7.2.2 Continous Wave (CW) Sources 312 7.2.3 Noise Reduction Techniques 314 7.2.4 Photonic Integrated Laser Sources 315 7.3 Photodiode for THz Emission 320 7.3.1 PD Limitations and Key Parameters 320 7.3.2 Traveling Wave UTC-PD Solution 322 7.4 Photonically Enabled THz Detection 324 7.4.1 Pulsed Terahertz Systems 325 7.4.2 Optically Pumped Mixers 328 7.5 Photonic Integration for THz Systems 331 7.5.1 Hybrid or Monolithic Integrations 332 7.5.2 Monolithic Integration of Subsystems 333 7.5.3 Foundry Model for Integrated Systems 334 References 335 8 Selected Emerging THz Technologies 340Christian Damm, Harald G. L. Schwefel, Florian Sedlmeir, Hans Hartnagel, Sascha Preu, and Christian Weickhmann 8.1 THz Resonators 340 8.1.1 Principles of Resonators 341 8.1.2 Introduction to WGM Resonators 343 8.1.3 Evanescent Waveguide Coupling to WGMs 345 8.1.4 Resonant Scattering in WGM Resonators 346 8.1.5 Nonlinear Interactions in WGM 349 8.2 Liquid Crystals 350 8.2.1 Introduction 350 8.2.2 Characterization 357 8.2.3 Applications 365 8.3 Graphene for THz Frequencies 367 8.3.1 Theory and Material Properties 367 8.3.2 Applications 373 References 377 Index 383

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Book SynopsisThe aim of this book is to enable network planners to realize and maintain cost efficient LTE backhaul networks, which meet the necessary performance requirements. Through an introduction to the technology background, the economical modelling, the dimensioning theory, planning and optimization processes and relevant network management aspects, the reader shall obtain all relevant information to achieve good backhaul results in their own network environment. It is aimed at network planners and other experts with responsibilities for LTE IP network dimensioning, LTE network planning, providing and managing leased lines, business management, LTE IP network operation and optimization. Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Foreword xiii Acknowledgments xv List of Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 Esa Markus Metsälä and Juha T.T. Salmelin 1.1 To the reader 1 1.2 Content 2 1.3 Scope 2 Reference 2 2 LTE Backhaul 3 Gerald Bedürftig, Jouko Kapanen, Esa Markus Metsälä and Juha T.T. Salmelin 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 LTE Backhaul Planes 5 2.2.1 3GPP Planes and Protocol Stacks 5 2.2.2 Synchronization Plane 7 2.2.3 Management Plane 9 2.2.4 Active Monitoring Plane 9 2.2.5 Security Control Plane 10 2.2.6 Control and User Plane of Additional Proprietary Applications 10 2.3 Radio Features of LTE and LTE‐A 11 2.3.1 LTE 11 2.3.2 LTE‐A 12 2.4 R equirements for LTE Backhaul (SLAs) 17 2.4.1 Capacity 17 2.4.2 Latency and Loss 18 2.4.3 QoS Capabilities 21 2.4.4 Synchronization 21 2.4.5 Availability 22 2.4.6 Security 22 2.4.7 Examples 23 2.5 Transport Services 26 2.6 Planning Problems 27 2.7 LTE Backhaul Technologies 29 2.7.1 Access 30 2.7.2 Aggregation and Backbone Network 34 2.8 Small Cell Backhaul 34 2.9 Future Radio Features Affecting Backhaul 35 2.9.1 Inter NodeB CoMP (eCoMP) 35 2.9.2 Dual Connectivity 36 2.9.3 Dynamic eICIC 38 2.10 R elated Standards and Industry Forums 39 2.10.1 3GPP 39 2.10.2 ITU‐T SG15 40 2.10.3 IEEE 802 40 2.10.4 IETF 40 2.10.5 MEF 40 2.10.6 NGMN 41 2.10.7 BBF 41 2.10.8 SCF 41 2.11 Operator Example 42 References 42 3 Economic Modeling and Strategic Input for Lte Backhaul 45 Gabriel Waller and Esa Markus Metsälä 3.1 Introduction 45 3.1.1 Role of Backhaul Within Lte 46 3.1.2 Why and What to Model 48 3.2 Strategic Input for Planning 49 3.2.1 Physical infrastructure 49 3.2.2 Transmission media 50 3.2.3 Capacity and interfaces 50 3.2.4 Network technologies 51 3.2.5 Network topology 51 3.2.6 Make or buy 51 3.2.7 Backhaul security aspects 52 3.3 Quantifying benefits 53 3.3.1 Revenue from LTE backhaul 53 3.3.2 Contribution to mobile service revenue 54 3.3.3 Cost savings 54 3.4 Quantifying costs 55 3.4.1 Equipment purchases 55 3.4.2 Economic lifetime 55 3.4.3 Operational costs 56 3.4.4 Other costs 57 3.5 Case router 58 3.5.1 Cash Flow 58 3.5.2 Payback Period 59 3.5.3 Net Present Value (NPV) 61 3.5.4 Selection of the Interest Rate 63 3.5.5 Internal Rate of Return 64 3.5.6 Return on Investment and Further Metrics 64 3.6 Wireless Backhaul Case Study 66 3.6.1 Case Definition 66 3.6.2 Payback Period 68 3.6.3 NPV 69 References 70 Further Reading 71 4 Dimensioning Aspects and Analytical Models of LTE MBH Networks 73 Csaba Vulkán and Juha T.T. Salmelin 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Dimensioning Paradigm 76 4.3 Applications and QoE: Considerations 78 4.3.1 Transmission Control Protocol 79 4.3.2 Web Browsing 83 4.3.3 Video Download 85 4.4 Dimensioning Requirements 87 4.5 Traffic Models 88 4.5.1 Peak Load or Busy Hour Load 92 4.5.2 Geographic Diversity and Daily Load Profile/Distribution 93 4.5.3 Session Level User Behavior 95 4.5.4 Burst Level User Behavior 99 4.5.5 Packet Level Behavior 102 4.5.6 Transmission Control Protocol Models 106 4.6 Network models 112 4.6.1 Queuing methods 113 4.6.2 Fluid Network Models 117 4.6.3 Network model 118 4.6.4 Routing and Requirement Allocations 119 4.7 Dimensioning 122 4.7.1 QoS‐driven dimensioning 122 4.7.2 Reliability Requirement Based Dimensioning 124 References 127 5 Planning and Optimizing Mobile Backhaul for LTE 129 Raija Lilius, Jari Salo, José Manuel Tapia Pérez and Esa Markus Metsälä 5.1 Introduction 129 5.1.1 Planning and Optimization Process 130 5.1.2 High‐Level Design Overview 131 5.2 Backhaul Network Deployment Scenarios 132 5.2.1 Connectivity Requirements 132 5.2.2 Differences Between Ethernet and IP Connectivity 133 5.2.3 Implications to Backhaul Scenarios 134 5.2.4 Ethernet Services 134 5.2.5 L3 VPN Service 136 5.2.6 Scenario 1: IP Access 137 5.2.7 Scenario 2: Ethernet Service in the Access 137 5.3 Network Topology and Transport Media 138 5.3.1 Access Network Topologies and Media 138 5.3.2 Aggregation Network Topologies 139 5.4 Availability and Resiliency Schemes 139 5.4.1 Availability Calculation 140 5.4.2 Link Resiliency and its Impact on Availability 141 5.4.3 Routing Gateway Redundancy 144 5.4.4 Ethernet Ring Protection (ERP) 147 5.4.5 IP and MPLS Rerouting 148 5.4.6 SCTP Multi‐Homing 149 5.4.7 Connectivity Toward Multiple S‐GWs and MMEs 149 5.4.8 Synchronization Protection 150 5.4.9 OSS Resiliency 150 5.4.10 End‐to‐End Performance of Multilayer Redundancy 151 5.5 QoS Planning 152 5.5.1 QoS in an Access Transport Node 152 5.5.2 Packet Classification 153 5.5.3 Scheduling 156 5.5.4 Traffic Shaping 158 5.5.5 Active Queue Management and Bufferbloat 160 5.5.6 Connection Admission Control 161 5.6 Link Bandwidth Dimensioning 163 5.6.1 Obtaining Input Parameters for User Plane Bandwidth Dimensioning 164 5.6.2 Obtaining Input Parameters for Control Plane Bandwidth Dimensioning 169 5.6.3 Link Bandwidth Dimensioning: Single Queue 172 5.6.4 Link Bandwidth Dimensioning: Multiple Queues 180 5.6.5 Combining Signaling, Voice and Data Traffic 183 5.6.6 Comparison of Bandwidth Dimensioning Formulas 186 5.7 Dimensioning Other Traffic Types 187 5.7.1 Management Traffic 187 5.7.2 Synchronization Traffic 187 5.7.3 Other Traffic Types 188 5.8 Base Station Site Solutions 188 5.9 Security Solutions 189 5.9.1 Network Element Hardening 190 5.9.2 Network Security High‐Level Architecture 190 5.9.3 Security Gateway High Availability 192 5.9.4 IPsec Parameter Planning 196 5.9.5 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) 201 5.9.6 Self‐Organizing Networks (SONs) and Security 203 5.10 IP Planning 203 5.10.1 IP Addressing Alternatives for eNB 204 5.10.2 VLAN Planning 206 5.10.3 IP Addressing 208 5.10.4 Dynamic Versus Static Routing 211 5.10.5 Examples 211 5.11 Synchronization Planning 214 5.11.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 215 5.11.2 Synchronous Ethernet (SyncE) 215 5.11.3 IEEE1588 (2008) Frequency Synchronization 218 5.11.4 IEEE1588 (2008) Phase Synchronization 222 5.12 Self‐Organizing Networks (SON) and Management System Connectivity 226 5.12.1 Planning for SON 226 5.12.2 Data Communications Network (DCN) Planning for Transport Network and the Base Stations 227 5.13 LTE Backhaul Optimization 227 5.13.1 Introduction to LTE Backhaul Optimization 227 5.13.2 Proactive Methods 228 5.13.3 Reactive Methods 231 5.13.4 Active vs. Passive Methods 232 References 236 6 Design Examples 239 Jari Salo and Esa Markus Metsälä 6.1 Introduction 239 6.2 Scenario #1: Microwave 239 6.2.1 Synchronization 240 6.2.2 IP Planning 242 6.2.3 Availability 245 6.3 Scenario #2: Leased Line 254 6.3.1 Assumptions for the Use Case 254 6.3.2 Comparing Transport Providers 254 6.3.3 The Solution Summary 258 Reference 258 7 Network Management 259 Raimo Kangas and Esa Markus Metsälä 7.1 Introduction 259 7.2 NMS Architecture 260 7.3 Fault Management 262 7.4 Performance Management 263 7.5 Configuration Management (CM) 263 7.5.1 Maintaining an Up‐to‐Date Picture of the Network 264 7.5.2 Configuration History 264 7.5.3 Configuring Network 265 7.5.4 Policy‐Based Configuration Management 265 7.5.5 Planning Interfaces 266 7.5.6 Network Configuration Discovery 267 7.5.7 Configuration Management of Backhaul Network 267 7.6 Optimization 268 7.7 Self‐Organizing Network (SON) 270 7.8 O&M Protocols 272 7.8.1 SNMP 273 7.8.2 NETCONF 275 7.9 Planning of Network Management System 275 7.9.1 Strategic Planning 276 7.9.2 Analysis 276 7.9.3 Design 277 7.9.4 Implementation 278 7.9.5 Maintenance 278 References 278 8 Summary 279 Esa Markus Metsälä and Juha T.T. Salmelin Index 281

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Book SynopsisSolar PV is now the third most important renewable energy source, after hydro and wind power, in terms of global installed capacity.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xxvii Foreword xxxii Acknowledgments xxxiv About the Companion Website xxxv Part One INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 1 1.1 Introduction 3 Angèle Reinders, Wilfried van Sark, and Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 11 Constants 11 List of Acronyms 11 References 11 Part Two BASIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 2.1 Semiconductor Materials and their Properties 15 Angèle Reinders List of Symbols 19 List of Acronyms 19 References 20 2.2 Doping, Diffusion, and Defects in Solar Cells 21 Pierre J. Verlinden List of Symbols 31 List of Acronyms 31 References 31 2.3 Absorption and Generation 32 Seth Hubbard References 38 2.4 Recombination 39 Seth Hubbard References 46 2.5 Carrier Transport 47 Seth Hubbard References 53 2.6 PN Junctions and the Diode Equation 54 Seth Hubbard Acknowledgments 63 List of Symbols 63 List of Acronyms 65 References 66 Part Three CRYSTALLINE SILICON TECHNOLOGIES 67 3.1 Silicon Materials: Electrical and Optical Properties 69 Andreas Fell List of Symbols 77 List of Acronyms 77 References 78 3.2 Silicon Solar Cell Device Structures 80 Andrew Blakers and Ngwe Zin References 90 3.3 Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells 92 Pierre Verlinden 3.4 Heterojunction Silicon Solar Cells 104 Wilfried van Sark List of Symbols 110 List of Acronyms 111 References 112 3.5 Surface Passivation and Emitter Recombination Parameters 114 Bram Hoex List of Symbols 121 List of Acronyms 122 References 122 3.6 Passivated Contacts 125 Martin Hermle List of Symbols 133 List of Acronyms 133 References 134 3.7 Light Management in Silicon Solar Cells 136 Zachary Holman and Mathieu Boccard List of Symbols 147 List of Acronyms 148 References 149 3.8 Numerical Simulation of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 150 Pietro Altermatt References 158 3.9 Advanced Concepts 160 Martin Green List of Acronyms 166 References 166 Part Four CHALCOGENIDE THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS 167 4.1 Basics of Chalcogenide Thin Film Solar Cells 169 Susanne Siebentritt List of Symbols 176 List of Acronyms 176 References 176 4.2 Cu(In,Ga)Se2 and CdTe Absorber Materials and their Properties 179 Sylvain Marsillac List of Symbols 187 List of Acronyms 187 References 188 4.3 Contacts, Buffers, Substrates, and Interfaces 190 Negar Naghavi List of Acronyms 200 References 200 4.4 CIGS Module Design and Manufacturing 204 William Shafarman List of Acronyms 211 References 211 Part Five THIN FILM SILICON‐BASED PV TECHNOLOGIES 213 5.1 Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 215 Etienne Moulin, Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 223 References 224 5.2 Thin Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells on Glass 226 Onno Gabriel, Daniel Amkreutz, Jan Haschke, Bernd Rech, and Rutger Schlatmann Acknowledgments 235 List of Symbols and Acronyms 235 References 236 5.3 Light Management in Crystalline and Thin Film Silicon Solar Cells 238 Franz Haug List of Symbols 244 List of Acronyms 245 References 245 5.4 New Future Concepts 248 Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, Etienne Moulin, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 253 References 253 Part Six ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS 255 6.1 Solid‐State Organic Photovoltaics 257 Bernard Kippelen Acknowledgments 265 Acronyms 265 References 265 6.2 Hybrid and Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells 267 Woojun Yoon References 275 6.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 277 Samuel D. Stranks and Henry J. Snaith References 289 6.4 Organic PV Module Design and Manufacturing 292 Veronique S. Gevaerts List of Acronyms 301 References 302 Part Seven CHARACTERIZATION AND MEASUREMENTS METHODS 303 7.1 Methods and Instruments for the Characterization of Solar Cells 305 Halden Field List of Symbols 320 List of Acronyms 320 References 320 7.2 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Characterization in Silicon Photovoltaics 322 Thorsten Trupke Acknowledgments 334 List of Symbols 334 List of Acronyms 335 References 335 7.3 Measurement of Carrier Lifetime, Surface Recombination Velocity , and Emitter Recombination Parameters 339 Henner Kampwerth List of Symbols 347 List of Acronyms 348 References 348 7.4 In‐situ Measurements, Process Control, and Defect Monitoring 350 Angus Rockett List of Acronyms 360 References 360 7.5 PV Module Performance Testing and Standards 362 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Symbols 368 List of Acronyms 368 References 369 Part Eight III‐Vs AND PV CONCENTRATOR TECHNOLOGIES 371 8.1 III‐V Solar Cells – Materials, Multi‐Junction Cells – Cell Design and Performance 373 Frank Dimroth Acknowledgments 380 List of Acronyms 380 References 380 8.2 New and Future III‐V Cells and Concepts 383 Simon Fafard List of Acronyms and Symbols 393 References 393 8.3 High Concentration PV Systems 396 Karin Hinzer, Christopher E. Valdivia, and John P.D. Cook List of Acronyms 408 References 409 8.4 Operation of CPV Power Plants: Energy Prediction 411 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Acronyms 418 References 418 8.5 The Luminescent Solar Concentrator (LSC) 420 Michael Debije List of Symbols 428 List of Acronyms 428 References 429 Part Nine SPACE TECHNOLOGIES 431 9.1 Materials, Cell Structures, and Radiation Effects 433 Rob Walters List of Symbols and Units 442 References 442 9.2 Space PV Systems and Flight Demonstrations 444 Phillip Jenkins Acknowledgments 453 List of Acronyms 453 References 454 9.3 A Vision on Future Developments in Space Photovoltaics 455 David Wilt List of Symbols 461 List of Acronyms 461 References 462 Part Ten PV MODULES AND MANUFACTURING 463 10.1 Manufacturing of Various PV Technologies 465 Alison Lennon and Rhett Evans Acknowledgements 474 List of Abbreviations 474 References 474 10.2 Encapsulant Materials for PV Modules 478 Michael Kempe Acknowledgments 488 List of Symbols 488 List of Acronyms 488 References 489 10.3 Reliability and Durability of PV Modules 491 Sarah Kurtz Acknowledgments 500 References 501 10.4 Advanced Module Concepts 502 Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 508 List of Acronyms 508 References 509 Part Eleven PV SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS 511 11.1 Grid-Connected PV Systems 513 Greg J. Ball Acknowledgments 527 List of Acronyms 528 References 529 11.2 Inverters, Power Optimizers, and Microinverters 530 Chris Deline List of Symbols 537 List of Acronyms 537 References 538 11.3 Stand-Alone and Hybrid PV Systems 539 Matthias Vetter and Georg Bopp References 552 11.4 PV System Monitoring and Characterization 553 Wilfried van Sark, Atse Louwen, Odysseas Tsafarakis, and Panos Moraitis Acknowledgments 561 List of Symbols 561 List of Acronyms 562 References 562 11.5 Energy Prediction and System Modeling 564 Joshua S. Stein List of Symbols and Acronyms 575 References 577 11.6 Building Integrated Photovoltaics 579 Michiel Ritzen, Zeger Vroon, and Chris Geurts List of Acronyms 588 References 588 11.7 Product Integrated Photovoltaics 590 Angèle Reinders and Georgia Apostolou List of Acronym 598 References 598 Part Twelve PV DEPLOYMENT IN DISTRIBUTION GRIDS 601 12.1 PV Systems in Smart Energy Homes: PowerMatching City 603 Albert van den Noort List of Acronyms 610 References 611 12.2 New Future Solutions: Best Practices from European PV Smart Grid Projects 612 Gianluca Fulli and Flavia Gangale List of Acronyms 619 References 619 Part Thirteen SUPPORTING METHODS AND TOOLS 621 13.1 The Economics of PV Systems 623 Matthew Campbell List of Acronyms 633 References 633 13.2 People’s Involvement in Residential PV and their Experiences 634 Barbara van Mierlo References 644 13.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics 646 Vasilis Fthenakis References 656 13.4 List of International Standards Related to PV 658 Pierre Verlinden and Wilfried van Sark Acknowledgements 671 References 671 Index 672

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Book SynopsisThe increasing deployment of bioenergy frequently raises issues regarding the use of land and raw materials, infrastructure and logistics. In light of these sometimes conflicting interests Advances in Bioenergy provides an objective and wide-ranging overview of the technology, economics and policy of bioenergy. Offering an authoritative multidisciplinary summary of the opportunities and challenges associated with bioenergy utilization, with international researchers give up-to-date anddetailed informationon key issues for biomass production and conversion to energy. Key features: *Discusses different bioenergy uses such as transportation fuels, electricity and heat production. *Assesses emerging fields such as bio-based chemicals and bio-refineries. *Debates conditions for the mobilization of sustainable bioenergy supply chains and outlines governance systems to support this mobilization. * Dedicated chapters to sustainabilitygovernanTable of ContentsAbout the Editors ix Preface xi PART I: PROMISING INNOVATION IN BIOMASS CONVERSION 1 Metabolic Engineering: Enabling Technology for Biofuels Production 3Mitchell Tai and Gregory N. Stephanopoulos 2 Hydrolysis and Fermentation for Cellulosic Ethanol Production 11Charilaos Xiros, Evangelos Topakas and Paul Christakopoulos 3 Lipid-Based Liquid Biofuels from Autotrophic Microalgae: Energetic and Environmental Performance 33Lucas Reijnders 4 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Biomass for Transportation Fuels 45Angelos A. Lappas, Kostas G. Kalogiannis, Eleni F. Iliopoulou, Kostas S. Triantafyllidis and Stylianos D. Stefanidis 5 Integrated Biomass Hydropyrolysis and Hydrotreating: A Brief Review 57Martin Linck, Larry Felix, Terry Marker and Michael Roberts 6 Transportation Fuels from Biomass via Fast Pyrolysis and Hydroprocessing 65Douglas C. Elliott 7 Biomass Gasification for Synthesis Gas Production and Applications of the Syngas 73Reinhard Rauch, Jitka Hrbek and Hermann Hofbauer 8 Hydrogen Generation from Biomass Materials: Challenges and Opportunities 93Pravakar Mohanty, Kamal K. Pant and Ritesh Mittal 9 Production of Renewable Hydrogen by Reformation of Biofuels 109Paraskevi Panagiotopoulou, Christina Papadopoulou, Haris Matralis and Xenophon Verykios 10 Fischer–Tropsch Conversion of Biomass-Derived Synthetic Gas to Liquid Fuels 131Andreas Helland Lillebø, Anders Holmen, Bjørn Christian Enger and Edd Anders Blekkan 11 Critical Factors for High Temperature Processing of Biomass from Agriculture and Energy Crops to Biofuels and Bioenergy 149Stelios Arvelakis and Emmanuel G. Koukios 12 Second-Generation Biofuels:Why They are Taking so Long 163Daniel J. M. Hayes 13 Separation Technologies for Current and Future Biorefineries—Status and Potential of Membrane-Based Separation 193Lan Ying Jiang and Jia Ming Zhu 14 Catalysis at Room Temperature: Perspectives for Future Green Chemical Processes 209Frank Leung-Yuk Lam, Michael C. L. Li, Rock S. L. Chau, Rick A. D. Arancon, Xijun Hu and Rafael Luque 15 Co-Firing of Biomass with Coal in Thermal Power Plants: Technology Schemes, Impacts, and Future Perspectives 233Emmanouil Karampinis, Panagiotis Grammelis, Michalis Agraniotis, Ioannis Violidakis and Emmanuel Kakaras PART II: CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS FOR BIOMASS SUPPLY 16 Bioenergy and Land Use Change—State of the Art 251G¨oran Berndes, Serina Ahlgren, P¢ªal B¨orjesson, and Annette L. Cowie 17 Forest Energy Procurement: State of the Art in Finland and Sweden 273Johanna Routa, Antti Asikainen, Rolf Bj¨orheden, Juha Laitila and Dominik R¨oser 18 Options for Increasing Biomass Output from Long-Rotation Forestry 285Gustaf Egnell and Rolf Bj¨orheden 19 Recovery Rate of Harvest Residues for Bioenergy in Boreal and Temperate Forests: A Review 293Evelyne Thiffault, Ariane B´echard, David Par´e and Darren Allen 20 Forest Bioenergy Feedstock Harvesting Effects on Water Supply 317Daniel G. Neary and Karen A. Koestner 21 Best Management Practices for Forest Bioenergy Programs 333Daniel G. Neary 22 Principles of Nutrient Management for Sustainable Forest Bioenergy Production 351Donald Mead and Charles Smith 23 Crop Coefficients of Jatropha (Jatropha Curcas) and Pongamia (Pongamia Pinnata) UsingWater Balance Approach 363Kaushal K. Garg, Suhas P. Wani and A. V. R. Kesava Rao 24 Brazilian Sugarcane Ethanol: Developments so far and Challenges for the Future 373Arnaldo Walter, Marcelo Valadares Galdos, Fabio Vale Scarpare, Manoel Regis Lima Verde Leal, Joaquim Eugˆenio Abel Seabra, Marcelo Pereira da Cunha, Michelle Cristina Araujo Picoli and Camila Ortolan Fernandes de Oliveira 25 The Climate Benefit of Swedish Ethanol: Present and Prospective Performance 395P¢ªal B¨orjesson, Serina Ahlgren and G¨oran Berndes 26 Performance of Small-Scale Straw-to-Heat Supply Chains in Norway 411Helmer Belbo and Bruce Talbot 27 Transport Sector in Ireland: Can 2020 National Policy Targets Drive Indigenous Biofuel Production to Success? 419Egle Gusciute, Ger Devlin, Fionnuala Murphy and Kevin McDonnell 28 Prospects for Domestic Biofuels for Transport in Sweden 2030 Based on Current Production and Future Plans 431Maria Grahn and Julia Hansson 29 Land and the Food–Fuel Competition: Insights from Modeling 447Sylvia Prieler, G¨unther Fischer and Harrij van Velthuizen 30 The Impact of Biofuel Demand on Agricultural Commodity Prices: A Systematic Review 465U. Martin Persson 31 How do Sustainability Standards Consider Biodiversity? 483Oskar Englund and G¨oran Berndes 32 A Global Survey of Stakeholder Views and Experiences for Systems Needed to Effectively and Efficiently Govern Sustainability of Bioenergy 507Inge Stupak, Jamie Joudrey, C. Tattersall Smith, Luc Pelkmans, Helena Chum, Annette Cowie, Oskar Englund, Chun Sheng Goh and Martin Junginger Index 535

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Book SynopsisComputer Vision and Imaging in Intelligent Transportation Systems Robert P.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi About the Companion Website xxiii 1 Introduction 1 Raja Bala and Robert P. Loce 1.1 Law Enforcement and Security 1 1.2 Efficiency 4 1.3 Driver Safety and Comfort 5 1.4 A Computer Vision Framework for Transportation Applications 7 1.4.1 Image and Video Capture 8 1.4.2 Data Preprocessing 8 1.4.3 Feature Extraction 9 1.4.4 Inference Engine 10 1.4.5 Data Presentation and Feedback 11 Part I Imaging from the Roadway Infrastructure 15 2 Automated License Plate Recognition 17 Aaron Burry and Vladimir Kozitsky 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Core ALPR Technologies 18 2.2.1 License Plate Localization 19 2.2.2 Character Segmentation 24 2.2.3 Character Recognition 28 2.2.4 State Identification 38 3 Vehicle Classification 47 Shashank Deshpande, Wiktor Muron and Yang Cai 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Overview of the Algorithms 48 3.3 Existing AVC Methods 48 3.4 LiDAR Imaging-Based 49 3.4.1 LiDAR Sensors 49 3.4.2 Fusion of LiDAR and Vision Sensors 50 3.5 Thermal Imaging-Based 53 3.5.1 Thermal Signatures 53 3.5.2 Intensity Shape-Based 56 3.6 Shape- and Profile-Based 58 3.6.1 Silhouette Measurements 60 3.6.2 Edge-Based Classification 65 3.6.3 Histogram of Oriented Gradients 67 3.6.4 Haar Features 68 3.6.5 Principal Component Analysis 69 3.7 Intrinsic Proportion Model 72 3.8 3D Model-Based Classification 74 3.9 SIFT-Based Classification 74 3.10 Summary 75 4 Detection of Passenger Compartment Violations 81 Orhan Bulan, Beilei Xu, Robert P. Loce and Peter Paul 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Sensing within the Passenger Compartment 82 4.2.1 Seat Belt Usage Detection 82 4.2.2 Cell Phone Usage Detection 83 4.2.3 Occupancy Detection 83 4.3 Roadside Imaging 84 4.3.1 Image Acquisition Setup 84 4.3.2 Image Classification Methods 85 4.3.3 Detection-Based Methods 94 5 Detection of Moving Violations 101 Wencheng Wu, Orhan Bulan, Edgar A. Bernal and Robert P. Loce 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Detection of Speed Violations 101 5.2.1 Speed Estimation from Monocular Cameras 102 5.2.2 Speed Estimation from Stereo Cameras 108 5.2.3 Discussion 115 5.3 Stop Violations 115 5.3.1 Red Light Cameras 115 5.4 Other Violations 125 5.4.1 Wrong-Way Driver Detection 125 5.4.2 Crossing Solid Lines 126 6 Traffic Flow Analysis 131 Rodrigo Fernandez, Muhammad Haroon Yousaf, Timothy J. Ellis, Zezhi Chen and Sergio A. Velastin 6.1 What is Traffic Flow Analysis? 131 6.1.1 Traffic Conflicts and Traffic Analysis 131 6.1.2 Time Observation 132 6.1.3 Space Observation 133 6.1.4 The Fundamental Equation 133 6.1.5 The Fundamental Diagram 133 6.1.6 Measuring Traffic Variables 134 6.1.7 Road Counts 135 6.1.8 Junction Counts 135 6.1.9 Passenger Counts 136 6.1.10 Pedestrian Counts 136 6.1.11 Speed Measurement 136 6.2 The Use of Video Analysis in Intelligent Transportation Systems 137 6.2.1 Introduction 137 6.2.2 General Framework for Traffic Flow Analysis 137 6.2.3 Application Domains 143 6.3 Measuring Traffic Flow from Roadside CCTV Video 144 6.3.1 Video Analysis Framework 144 6.3.2 Vehicle Detection 146 6.3.3 Background Model 146 6.3.4 Counting Vehicles 149 6.3.5 Tracking 150 6.3.6 Camera Calibration 150 6.3.7 Feature Extraction and Vehicle Classification 152 6.3.8 Lane Detection 153 6.3.9 Results 155 6.4 Some Challenges 156 7 Intersection Monitoring Using Computer Vision Techniques for Capacity, Delay, and Safety Analysis 163 Brendan Tran Morris and Mohammad Shokrolah Shirazi 7.1 Vision-Based Intersection Analysis: Capacity, Delay, and Safety 163 7.1.1 Intersection Monitoring 163 7.1.2 Computer Vision Application 164 7.2 System Overview 165 7.2.1 Tracking Road Users 166 7.2.2 Camera Calibration 169 7.3 Count Analysis 171 7.3.1 Vehicular Counts 171 7.3.2 Nonvehicular Counts 173 7.4 Queue Length Estimation 173 7.4.1 Detection-Based Methods 174 7.4.2 Tracking-Based Methods 175 7.5 Safety Analysis 177 7.5.1 Behaviors 178 7.5.2 Accidents 182 7.5.3 Conflicts 185 7.6 Challenging Problems and Perspectives 187 7.6.1 Robust Detection and Tracking 187 7.6.2 Validity of Prediction Models for Conflict and Collisions 188 7.6.3 Cooperating Sensing Modalities 189 7.6.4 Networked Traffic Monitoring Systems 189 7.7 Conclusion 189 8 Video-Based Parking Management 195 Oliver Sidla and Yuriy Lipetski 8.1 Introduction 195 8.2 Overview of Parking Sensors 197 8.3 Introduction to Vehicle Occupancy Detection Methods 200 8.4 Monocular Vehicle Detection 200 8.4.1 Advantages of Simple 2D Vehicle Detection 200 8.4.2 Background Model–Based Approaches 200 8.4.3 Vehicle Detection Using Local Feature Descriptors 202 8.4.4 Appearance-Based Vehicle Detection 203 8.4.5 Histograms of Oriented Gradients 204 8.4.6 LBP Features and LBP Histograms 207 8.4.7 Combining Detectors into Cascades and Complex Descriptors 208 8.4.8 Case Study: Parking Space Monitoring Using a Combined Feature Detector 208 8.4.9 Detection Using Artificial Neural Networks 211 8.5 Introduction to Vehicle Detection with 3D Methods 213 8.6 Stereo Vision Methods 215 8.6.1 Introduction to Stereo Methods 215 8.6.2 Limits on the Accuracy of Stereo Reconstruction 216 8.6.3 Computing the Stereo Correspondence 217 8.6.4 Simple Stereo for Volume Occupation Measurement 218 8.6.5 A Practical System for Parking Space Monitoring Using a Stereo System 218 8.6.6 Detection Methods Using Sparse 3D Reconstruction 220 9 Video Anomaly Detection 227 Raja Bala and Vishal Monga 9.1 Introduction 227 9.2 Event Encoding 228 9.2.1 Trajectory Descriptors 229 9.2.2 Spatiotemporal Descriptors 231 9.3 Anomaly Detection Models 233 9.3.1 Classification Methods 233 9.3.2 Hidden Markov Models 234 9.3.3 Contextual Methods 234 9.4 Sparse Representation Methods for Robust Video Anomaly Detection 236 9.4.1 Structured Anomaly Detection 237 9.4.2 Unstructured Video Anomaly Detection 243 9.4.3 Experimental Setup and Results 245 9.5 Conclusion and Future Research 253 Part II Imaging from and within the Vehicle 257 10 Pedestrian Detection 259 Shashank Deshpande and Yang Cai 10.1 Introduction 259 10.2 Overview of the Algorithms 259 10.3 Thermal Imaging 260 10.4 Background Subtraction Methods 261 10.4.1 Frame Subtraction 261 10.4.2 Approximate Median 262 10.4.3 Gaussian Mixture Model 263 10.5 Polar Coordinate Profile 263 10.6 Image-Based Features 265 10.6.1 Histogram of Oriented Gradients 265 10.6.2 Deformable Parts Model 266 10.6.3 LiDAR and Camera Fusion–Based Detection 266 10.7 LiDAR Features 268 10.7.1 Preprocessing Module 268 10.7.2 Feature Extraction Module 268 10.7.3 Fusion Module 268 10.7.4 LIPD Dataset 270 10.7.5 Overview of the Algorithm 270 10.7.6 LiDAR Module 272 10.7.7 Vision Module 275 10.7.8 Results and Discussion 276 10.7.8.1 LiDAR Module 276 10.7.8.2 Vision Module 276 10.8 Summary 280 11 Lane Detection and Tracking Problems in Lane Departure Warning Systems 283 Gianni Cario, Alessandro Casavola and Marco Lupia 11.1 Introduction 283 11.2 LD: Algorithms for a Single Frame 285 11.2.1 Image Preprocessing 285 11.2.2 Edge Extraction 287 11.2.3 Stripe Identification 291 11.2.4 Line Fitting 294 11.3 LT Algorithms 297 11.3.1 Recursive Filters on Subsequent N frames 298 11.3.2 Kalman Filter 298 11.4 Implementation of an LD and LT Algorithm 299 11.4.1 Simulations 300 11.4.2 Test Driving Scenario 300 11.4.3 Driving Scenario: Lane Departures at Increasing Longitudinal Speed 300 11.4.4 The Proposed Algorithm 302 11.4.5 Conclusions 303 12 Vision-Based Integrated Techniques for Collision Avoidance Systems 305 Ravi Satzoda and Mohan Trivedi 12.1 Introduction 305 12.2 Related Work 307 12.3 Context Definition for Integrated Approach 307 12.4 ELVIS: Proposed Integrated Approach 308 12.4.1 Vehicle Detection Using Lane Information 309 12.4.2 Improving Lane Detection using On-Road Vehicle Information 312 12.5 Performance Evaluation 313 12.5.1 Vehicle Detection in ELVIS 313 12.5.2 Lane Detection in ELVIS 316 12.6 Concluding Remarks 319 13 Driver Monitoring 321 Raja Bala and Edgar A. Bernal 13.1 Introduction 321 13.2 Video Acquisition 322 13.3 Face Detection and Alignment 323 13.4 Eye Detection and Analysis 325 13.5 Head Pose and Gaze Estimation 326 13.5.1 Head Pose Estimation 326 13.5.2 Gaze Estimation 328 13.6 Facial Expression Analysis 332 13.7 Multimodal Sensing and Fusion 334 13.8 Conclusions and Future Directions 336 14 Traffic Sign Detection and Recognition 343 Hasan Fleyeh 14.1 Introduction 343 14.2 Traffic Signs 344 14.2.1 The European Road and Traffic Signs 344 14.2.2 The American Road and Traffic Signs 347 14.3 Traffic Sign Recognition 347 14.4 Traffic Sign Recognition Applications 348 14.5 Potential Challenges 349 14.6 Traffic Sign Recognition System Design 349 14.6.1 Traffic Signs Datasets 352 14.6.2 Colour Segmentation 354 14.6.3 Traffic Sign's Rim Analysis 359 14.6.4 Pictogram Extraction 364 14.6.5 Pictogram Classification Using Features 365 14.7 Working Systems 369 15 Road Condition Monitoring 375 Matti Kutila, Pasi Pyykonen, Johan Casselgren and Patrik Jonsson 15.1 Introduction 375 15.2 Measurement Principles 376 15.3 Sensor Solutions 377 15.3.1 Camera-Based Friction Estimation Systems 377 15.3.2 Pavement Sensors 379 15.3.3 Spectroscopy 380 15.3.4 Roadside Fog Sensing 382 15.3.5 In-Vehicle Sensors 383 15.4 Classification and Sensor Fusion 386 15.5 Field Studies 390 15.6 Cooperative Road Weather Services 394 15.7 Discussion and Future Work 395 Index 399

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Book SynopsisUniquely reflects an engineering view to social systems in a wide variety of contexts of application Social Systems Engineering: The Design of Complexity brings together a wide variety of application approaches to social systems from an engineering viewpoint. The book defines a social system as any complex system formed by human beings. Focus is given to the importance of systems intervention design for specific and singular settings, the possibilities of engineering thinking and methods, the use of computational models in particular contexts, and the development of portfolios of solutions. Furthermore, this book considers both technical, human and social perspectives, which are crucial to solving complex problems. Social Systems Engineering: The Design of Complexity provides modelling examples to explore the design aspect of social systems. Various applications are explored in a variety of areas, such as urban systems, health care systems, socio-eTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xiii Introduction: The Why, What and How of Social Systems Engineering 1César García-Díaz and Camilo Olaya Part I SOCIAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING: THE VERY IDEA 11 1 Compromised Exactness and the Rationality of Engineering 13Steven L. Goldman 1.1 Introduction 13 1.2 The Historical Context 14 1.3 Science and Engineering: Distinctive Rationalities 20 1.4 ‘Compromised Exactness’: Design in Engineering 23 1.5 Engineering Social Systems? 26 References 29 2 Uncertainty in the Design and Maintenance of Social Systems 31William M. Bulleit 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Uncertainties in Simple and Complicated Engineered Systems 33 2.3 Control Volume and Uncertainty 35 2.4 Engineering Analysis and Uncertainty in Complex Systems 37 2.5 Uncertainty in Social Systems Engineering 39 2.6 Conclusions 42 References 42 3 System Farming 45Bruce Edmonds 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Uncertainty, Complexity and Emergence 46 3.2.1 The Double Complexity of CSS 48 3.3 Science and Engineering Approaches 49 3.3.1 The Impossibility of a Purely Design-Based Engineering Approach to CSS 51 3.3.2 Design vs. Adaptation 52 3.3.3 The Necessity of Strongly Validated Foundations for Design-Based Approaches 53 3.4 Responses to CSS Complexity 54 3.4.1 Formal Methods 54 3.4.2 Statistical Approaches 55 3.4.3 Self-adaptive and Adaptive Systems 57 3.4.4 Participatory Approaches and Rapid Prototyping 57 3.5 Towards Farming Systems 58 3.5.1 Reliability from Experience Rather Than Control of Construction 58 3.5.2 Post-Construction Care Rather Than Prior Effort 58 3.5.3 Continual Tinkering Rather Than One-Off Effort 59 3.5.4 Multiple Fallible Mechanisms Rather Than One Reliable Mechanism 59 3.5.5 Monitoring Rather Than Prediction 59 3.5.6 Disaster Aversion Rather Than Optimizing Performance 59 3.5.7 Partial Rather Than Full Understanding 59 3.5.8 Specific Rather Than Abstract Modelling 60 3.5.9 Many Models Rather Than One 60 3.5.10 A Community Rather Than Individual Effort 60 3.6 Conclusion 60 References 61 4 Policy between Evolution and Engineering 65Martin F.G. Schaffernicht 4.1 Introduction: Individual and Social System 65 4.2 Policy – Concept and Process 67 4.3 Human Actors: Perception, Policy and Action 70 4.4 Artefacts 73 4.5 Engineering and Evolution: From External to Internal Selection 76 4.6 Policy between Cultural Evolution and Engineering 79 4.7 Conclusions and Outlook 82 Appendix: Brief Overview of the Policy Literature 83 References 86 5 ‘Friend’ versus ‘Electronic Friend’ 91Joseph C. Pitt References 99 Part II METHODOLOGIES AND TOOLS 101 6 Interactive Visualizations for Supporting Decision-Making in Complex Socio-technical Systems 103Zhongyuan Yu, Mehrnoosh Oghbaie, Chen Liu, William B. Rouse and Michael J. Pennock 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 Policy Flight Simulators 104 6.2.1 Background 104 6.2.2 Multi-level Modelling 105 6.2.3 People’s Use of Simulators 106 6.3 Application 1 – Hospital Consolidation 108 6.3.1 Model Overview 110 6.3.2 Results and Conclusions 117 6.4 Application 2 – Enterprise Diagnostics 118 6.4.1 Automobile Industry Application 119 6.4.2 Interactive Visualization 122 6.4.3 Experimental Evaluation 125 6.4.4 Results and Discussion 125 6.4.5 Implications 128 6.5 Conclusions 128 References 129 7 Developing Agent-Based Simulation Models for Social Systems Engineering Studies: A Novel Framework and its Application to Modelling Peacebuilding Activities 133Peer-Olaf Siebers, Grazziela P. Figueredo, Miwa Hirono and Anya Skatova 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 Background 134 7.2.1 Simulation 134 7.2.2 Peacebuilding 135 7.3 Framework 137 7.3.1 Toolkit Design 138 7.3.2 Application Design 142 7.4 Illustrative Example of Applying the Framework 143 7.4.1 Peacebuilding Toolkit Design 143 7.4.2 Peacebuilding Application Design 149 7.4.3 Engineering Actions and Interventions in a Peacebuilding Context 153 7.5 Conclusions 155 References 155 8 Using Actor-Network Theory in Agent-Based Modelling 157Sandra Méndez-Fajardo, Rafael A. Gonzalez and Ricardo A. Barros-Castro 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Agent-Based Modelling 158 8.2.1 ABM Approaches 159 8.2.2 Agent Interactions 160 8.3 Actor-Network Theory 160 8.4 Towards an ANT-Based Approach to ABM 162 8.4.1 ANT Concepts Related to ABM 162 8.5 Design Guidelines 163 8.6 The Case of WEEE Management 166 8.6.1 Contextualizing the Case Study 167 8.6.2 ANT Applied to WEEE Management in Colombia 168 8.6.3 ANT–ABM Translation Based on the Case Study 172 8.6.4 Open Issues and Reflections 173 8.7 Conclusions 174 References 175 9 Engineering the Process of Institutional Innovation in Contested Territory 179Russell C. Thomas and John S. Gero 9.1 Introduction 179 9.2 Can Cyber Security and Risk be Quantified? 181 9.2.1 Schools of Thought 181 9.3 Social Processes of Innovation in Pre-paradigmatic Fields 183 9.3.1 Epistemic and Ontological Rivalry 183 9.3.2 Knowledge Artefacts 184 9.3.3 Implications of Theory 184 9.4 A Computational Model of Innovation 186 9.4.1 Base Model: Innovation as Percolation 186 9.4.2 Full Model: Innovation with Knowledge Artefacts 190 9.4.3 Experiment 190 9.5 Discussion 194 Acknowledgements 194 References 195 Part III CASES AND APPLICATIONS 197 10 Agent-Based Explorations of Environmental Consumption in Segregated Networks 199Adam Douglas Henry and Heike I. Brugger 10.1 Introduction 199 10.1.1 Micro-drivers of Technology Adoption 201 10.1.2 The Problem of Network Segregation 202 10.2 Model Overview 203 10.2.1 Synopsis of Model Parameters 204 10.2.2 Agent Selection by Firms 205 10.2.3 Agent Adoption Decisions 206 10.3 Results 206 10.3.1 Influence of Firm Strategy on Saturation Times 207 10.3.2 Characterizing Adoption Dynamics 208 10.3.3 Incentivizing Different Strategies 210 10.4 Conclusion 212 Acknowledgements 212 References 213 11 Modelling in the ‘Muddled Middle’: A Case Study of Water Service Delivery in Post-Apartheid South Africa 215Jai K. Clifford-Holmes, Jill H. Slinger, Chris de Wet and Carolyn G. Palmer 11.1 Introduction 215 11.2 The Case Study 216 11.3 Contextualizing Modelling in the ‘Muddled Middle’ in the Water Sector 217 11.4 Methods 219 11.5 Results 220 11.6 Discussion 228 Acknowledgements 230 References 231 12 Holistic System Design: The Oncology Carinthia Study 235Markus Schwaninger and Johann Klocker 12.1 The Challenge: Holistic System Design 235 12.2 Methodology 236 12.3 Introduction to the Case Study: Oncology Carinthia 238 12.3.1 Setting the Stage 238 12.3.2 Framing: Purpose and Overall Goals (F) 239 12.3.3 Mapping the System at the Outset (M) 240 12.3.4 A First Model (M) and Assessment (A) 242 12.3.5 The Challenge Ahead 245 12.3.6 A First Take on Design (D): Ascertaining Levers 246 12.3.7 From Design (D) to Change (C) 248 12.3.8 Progress in Organizational Design (D) 249 12.3.9 The Evolution of Oncology Carinthia (C) 258 12.3.10 Results 259 12.4 Insights, Teachings and Implications 261 Acknowledgements 263 Appendix: Mathematical Representations for Figures 12.5, 12.6 and 12.7 263 A1: VSM, for any System-in-Focus (one level of recursion; ref. Figure 12.5) 263 A2: Recursive Structure of the VSM (ref. Figure 12.6) 264 A3: Virtual Teams (ref. Figure 12.7) 264 References 265 13 Reinforcing the Social in Social Systems Engineering – Lessons Learnt from Smart City Projects in the United Kingdom 267Jenny O’Connor, Zeynep Gurguc and Koen H. van Dam 13.1 Introduction 267 13.1.1 Cities as Testbeds 268 13.1.2 Smart Cities as Artificial Systems 268 13.1.3 Chapter Structure 269 13.2 Methodology 270 13.3 Case Studies 271 13.3.1 Glasgow 271 13.3.2 London 274 13.3.3 Bristol 277 13.3.4 Peterborough 279 13.4 Discussion 283 13.4.1 Push/Pull Adoption Model 283 13.4.2 Civic Engagement 284 13.4.3 Solutions and Problems 285 13.4.4 Metrics, Quantification and Optimization 285 13.4.5 Project Scope and Lifecycles 286 13.4.6 Collaboration and Multidisciplinarity 286 13.4.7 Knowledge-Sharing 287 13.5 Conclusion 287 References 288 Index 291

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Book SynopsisAn Essential Guide to Electronic Material Surfaces and Interfaces is a streamlined yet comprehensive introduction that covers the basic physical properties of electronic materials, the experimental techniques used to measure them, and the theoretical methods used to understand, predict, and design them. Starting with the fundamental electronic properties of semiconductors and electrical measurements of semiconductor interfaces, this text introduces students to the importance of characterizing and controlling macroscopic electrical properties by atomic-scale techniques. The chapters that follow present the full range of surface and interface techniques now being used to characterize electronic, optical, chemical, and structural properties of electronic materials, including semiconductors, insulators, nanostructures, and organics. The essential physics and chemistry underlying each technique is described in sufficient depth for students to master the fundamental principlTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Websites xv 1. Why Surfaces and Interfaces of Electronic Materials 1 1.1 The Impact of Electronic Materials 1 1.2 Surface and Interface Importance as Electronics Shrink 1 1.3 Historical Background 5 1.4 Next Generation Electronics 10 1.5 Problems 10 References 11 Further Reading 13 2. Semiconductor Electronic and Optical Properties 14 2.1 The Semiconductor Band Gap 14 2.2 The Fermi Level and Energy Band Parameters 15 2.3 Band Bending at Semiconductor Surfaces and Interfaces 17 2.4 Surfaces and Interfaces in Electronic Devices 17 2.5 Effects of Localized States: Traps, Dipoles, and Barriers 19 2.6 Summary 19 2.7 Problems 20 References 20 Further Reading 21 3. Electrical Measurements of Surfaces and Interfaces 22 3.1 Sheet Resistance and Contact Resistivity 22 3.2 Contact Measurements: Schottky Barrier Overview 23 3.3 Heterojunction Band Offsets: Electrical Measurements 35 3.4 Summary 38 3.5 Problems 38 References 39 Further Reading 41 4. Localized States at Surfaces and Interfaces 42 4.1 Interface State Models 42 4.2 Intrinsic Surface States 43 4.3 Extrinsic Surface States 49 4.4 The Solid State Interface: Changing Perspectives 52 4.5 Problems 52 References 53 Further Reading 54 5. Ultrahigh Vacuum Technology 55 5.1 Ultrahigh Vacuum Chambers 55 5.2 Pumps 57 5.3 Manipulators 61 5.4 Gauges 61 5.5 Residual Gas Analysis 62 5.6 Deposition Sources 62 5.7 Deposition Monitors 64 5.8 Summary 65 5.9 Problems 65 References 65 Further Reading 66 6. Surface and Interface Analysis 67 6.1 Surface and Interface Techniques 67 6.2 Excited Electron Spectroscopies 70 6.3 Principles of Surface Sensitivity 72 6.4 Multi-technique UHV Chambers 73 6.5 Summary 75 6.6 Problems 75 References 75 Further Reading 75 7. Surface and Interface Spectroscopies 76 7.1 Photoemission Spectroscopy 76 7.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 89 7.3 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 98 7.4 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 104 7.5 Surface and Interface Technique Summary 112 7.6 Problems 113 References 116 Further Reading 117 8. Dynamical Depth-Dependent Analysis and Imaging 118 8.1 Ion Beam-Induced Surface Ablation 118 8.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 119 8.3 X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy 121 8.4 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry 122 8.5 Spectroscopic Imaging 128 8.6 Depth-Resolved and Imaging Summary 129 8.7 Problems 129 References 130 Further Reading 130 9. Electron Beam Diffraction and Microscopy of Atomic-Scale Geometrical Structure 131 9.1 Low Energy Electron Diffraction – Principles 131 9.2 Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction 141 9.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy 144 9.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy 145 9.5 Electron Beam Diffraction and Microscopy Summary 148 9.6 Problems 149 References 150 Further Reading 151 10. Scanning Probe Techniques 152 10.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 152 10.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 155 10.3 Ballistic Electron Energy Microscopy 162 10.4 Atomic Positioning 163 10.5 Summary 164 10.6 Problems 164 References 165 Further Reading 165 11. Optical Spectroscopies 166 11.1 Overview 166 11.2 Optical Absorption 166 11.3 Modulation Techniques 168 11.4 Multiple Surface Interaction Techniques 169 11.5 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 171 11.6 Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy 171 11.7 Surface Photoconductivity 174 11.8 Surface Photovoltage Spectroscopy 175 11.9 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy 180 11.10 Cathodoluminescence Spectroscopy 181 11.11 Summary 190 11.12 Problems 191 References 192 Further Reading 192 12. Electronic Material Surfaces 193 12.1 Geometric Structure 193 12.2 Chemical Structure 196 12.3 Electronic Structure 203 12.4 Summary 209 12.5 Problems 210 References 211 Further Reading 212 13. Surface Electronic Applications 213 13.1 Charge Transfer and Band Bending 213 13.2 Oxide Gas Sensors 216 13.3 Granular Gas Sensors 217 13.4 Nanowire Sensors 217 13.5 Chemical and Biosensors 217 13.6 Surface Electronic Temperature, Pressure, and Mass Sensors 220 13.7 Summary 220 13.8 Problems 221 References 222 Further Reading 222 14. Semiconductor Heterojunctions 223 14.1 Geometrical Structure 223 14.2 Chemical Structure 230 14.3 Electronic Structure 232 14.4 Conclusions 245 14.5 Problems 246 References 247 Further Reading 248 15. Metal–Semiconductor Interfaces 249 15.1 Overview 249 15.2 Metal–Semiconductor Interface Dipoles 249 15.3 Interface States 251 15.4 Self-Consistent Electrostatic Calculations 258 15.5 Experimental Schottky Barriers 259 15.6 Interface Barrier Height Engineering 264 15.7 Atomic-Scale Control 266 15.8 Summary 272 15.9 Problems 272 References 273 Further Reading 275 16. Next Generation Surfaces and Interfaces 276 16.1 Current Status 276 16.2 Current Device Challenges 278 16.3 Emerging Directions 279 16.4 The Essential Guide Conclusions 282 Appendices Appendix A: Glossary of Commonly Used Symbols 283 Appendix B: Table of Acronyms 286 Appendix C: Table of Physical Constants and Conversion Factors 290 Appendix D: Semiconductor Properties 291 Index 293

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive guide to the modelling and design of solid oxide fuel cell hybrid power plants This book explores all technical aspects of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) hybrid systems and proposes solutions to a range of technical problems that can arise from component integration. Following a general introduction to the state-of-the-art in SOFC hybrid systems, the authors focus on fuel cell technology, including the components required to operate with standard fuels. Micro-gas turbine (mGT) technology for hybrid systems is discussed, with special attention given to issues related to the coupling of SOFCs with mGTs. Throughout the book emphasis is placed on dynamic issues, including control systems used to avoid risk conditions. With an eye to mitigating the high costs and risks incurred with the building and use of prototype hybrid systems, the authors demonstrate a proven, economically feasible approach to obtaining important experimental results using simplifiTrade ReviewIn summary, this book provides comprehensive information and guidelines on the design and modeling of hybrid SOFC and gas turbine systems. Researchers, scientists, and engineers who are interested in developing such a hybrid system or carrying out new research in the area of integrated fuel cell systems will definitely get valuable information from this book. This book could also be effectively used as a reference book in some graduate level courses in energy conversion and fuel cell technology. There are also very interesting questions and exercises found at the end of the chapters, which could be given as assignments to students. In conclusion, I recommend this book as a unique source of information on the hybrid SOFC and gas turbine systems. -Dr. Can Ozgur Colpan, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, TurkeyTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 World Population Growth, Energy Demand and its Future 1 1.2 World Energy Future 3 1.3 Introduction to Fuel Cells and Associated Terms 6 1.3.1 Background for Fuel Cells and Thermodynamic Principles 6 1.3.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 11 1.3.3 Fuel Cell Reactions 15 1.3.4 Fuel Cell Performance 15 1.3.5 Pressure and Concentration Effects 18 1.3.6 Irreversibilities in Fuel Cells 19 1.3.7 Fuel Cell Applications 23 1.4 Gas Turbines 24 1.4.1 Background of Gas Turbines 24 1.5 Coupling of Microturbines with Fuel Cells to Obtain ‘Hybrid Systems’ 25 1.5.1 Active Hybrid Systems Research Groups 29 1.6 Conclusions 29 References 29 2 SOFC Technology 33 2.1 Basic Aspects of Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 33 2.2 SOFC Types 35 2.2.1 High-temperature SOFCs 35 2.2.2 Intermediate/Low-temperature SOFCs 35 2.3 Materials for SOFCs 36 2.4 Different SOFC Geometries 38 2.4.1 Tubular SOFCs 39 2.4.2 Planar SOFCs 41 2.5 SOFC Stacks 43 2.6 Effect of Pressurization for SOFCs 44 2.7 Fuel Processing for SOFCs 45 2.7.1 Processing for Gas and Liquid Fuels 46 2.7.2 Processing for Solid Fuels 48 2.8 SOFC Applications in Hybrid Systems 49 2.8.1 Atmospheric SOFC Hybrid Systems 50 2.8.2 Pressurized SOFC Hybrid Systems 51 2.9 Aspects Related to SOFC Reliability, Degradation and Costs 52 2.10 Conclusions 54 2.11 Questions 54 References 55 3 Micro Gas Turbine Technology 59 3.1 Fundamentals of the Brayton Cycle 59 3.1.1 The Simple Cycle 59 3.1.2 The Simple Recuperative Cycle 68 3.1.3 The Intercooled and Reheat Brayton Cycles 74 3.1.4 The Intercooled and Reheat, Recuperative Brayton Cycle 79 3.1.5 Cycle Layouts used by Contemporary Micro Gas Turbines 84 3.2 Turbomachinery 85 3.2.1 General Considerations on the Selection of Turbomachinery for Micro Gas Turbines 85 3.2.2 Fundamentals of Radial Compressor Design and Performance 89 3.2.3 Some Notes on Compressor Surge 101 3.2.4 Fundamentals of Radial Turbine Design and Performance 105 3.2.5 Scaling of Radial Turbomachinery 113 3.3 Recuperative Heat Exchanger 115 3.4 Bearings 124 3.5 Conclusions: Commercial Status and Areas of Research 131 3.6 Questions and Exercises 134 References 135 4 SOFC/mGT Coupling 141 4.1 Basic Aspects of SOFC Hybridization 141 4.2 SOFC Coupling with Traditional Power Plants 143 4.2.1 Coupling with Steam Power Plants 143 4.2.2 Coupling with Gas Turbines 144 4.2.3 Coupling with Combined Cycle-based Plants 146 4.3 Beneficial Attributes Related to SOFC/mGT Coupling 147 4.4 Constraints Related to SOFC/mGT Coupling 150 4.4.1 Turbine System Constraints 152 4.4.2 SOFC System Constraints 156 4.4.3 Control System Constraints 158 4.5 Design and Off-design Aspects 159 4.5.1 Design Aspects 159 4.5.2 Off-design Aspects 161 4.6 Issues Related to Dynamic Aspects 163 4.7 Main Prototypes Developed for SOFC Hybrid Systems 166 4.7.1 Prototype by Siemens-Westinghouse 167 4.7.2 Prototype by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries 169 4.7.3 Prototype by Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell Systems 170 4.8 Conclusions 171 4.9 Questions and Exercises 173 References 174 5 Computational Models for Hybrid Systems 183 5.1 Introduction 183 5.2 Steady-state Models for Hybrid Systems 185 5.3 Computational Models for Hybrid Systems: Modelling Steps 186 5.3.1 Computational Models for Hybrid Systems at the Component Level 190 5.3.2 Prediction of Performance of Gas Turbines 191 5.3.3 Off-design Operation of the Single-shaft Gas Turbine 192 5.3.4 Off-design Calculation with ‘Complex’ Layout Turbines 196 5.4 System Modelling 200 5.4.1 Reformer 201 5.4.2 SOFC Module 205 5.4.3 Overpotentials 207 5.4.4 Fuel and Air Supply Calculations 208 5.4.5 Combustor 209 5.4.6 Turbine 210 5.5 Compressor 211 5.5.1 Recuperator 211 5.6 Results and Discussion 212 5.7 Dynamic Models 213 5.8 Model Validation 216 5.9 Conclusion 217 5.10 Questions and Exercises 218 References 218 6 Experimental Emulation Facilities 225 6.1 Experimental Emulation Facilities 225 6.2 Reduced-scale Test Facilities 226 6.2.1 Anodic Recirculation Test Rig 227 6.2.2 Cathodic Loop Test Rig 229 6.3 Actual-scale Test Facilities 232 6.3.1 Low-temperature Rigs 233 6.3.2 High-temperature Rigs 236 6.4 Conclusions 247 6.5 Questions and Exercises 247 References 249 7 Problems and Solutions for Future Hybrid Systems 255 7.1 The Future of Micro Power Generation Systems 256 7.2 The Future of Hybrid Systems: Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 258 7.2.1 Hydro-methane and Hydrogen-rich Fuel Mixtures 259 7.3 Future Hybrid Systems: Design, Optimization and Sizing 260 7.3.1 Hybrid Systems Sizing Techniques 261 7.3.2 Hybrid System Sizing Simulation Tools 262 7.4 Cost Analysis of Hybrid Systems for Power Generation Applications 264 7.5 Performance Degradation Problems in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 268 7.6 Turbomachinery Problems 269 7.7 Dynamic and Control System Aspects 271 7.8 CO2 Separation Technologies for SOFC Hybrid Plants 272 7.9 Coal and Biofuel for Hybrid Systems 273 7.10 Conclusions 275 References 275 Glossary 285 Index 307

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Book SynopsisExplains the fundamentals and practical applications of flat and flexible OLEDs for displays and lighting Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) have emerged as the leading technology for the new display and lighting market.Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 History of OLEDs 1 References 10 2 Fundamentals of OLEDs 12 2.1 Principle of the OLED 12 2.2 Fundamental Structure of the OLED 14 2.3 Features of the OLED 15 3 Light Emission Mechanism 17 3.1 Fluorescent OLEDs 17 3.2 Phosphorescent OLEDs 19 3.3 Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescent OLEDs 21 3.4 Energy Diagram 21 3.5 Light Emission Efficiency 23 References 24 4 OLED Materials 25 4.1 Types of OLED Materials 26 4.2 Anode Materials 27 4.3 Evaporated Organic Materials (Small Molecular Materials) 29 4.3.1 Hole Injection Materials 29 4.3.2 Hole Transport Materials 32 4.3.3 Emitting Materials and Host Materials in Fluorescent Emission Layer 33 4.3.4 Emitting Materials and Host Materials in Phosphorescent Emission Layer 34 4.3.5 Emitting Materials and Host Materials in TADF Emission Layers 42 4.3.6 Electron Transport Materials 43 4.3.7 Electron Injection Materials and Cathodes 45 4.3.8 Charge-Carrier and Exciton Blocking Materials 46 4.3.9 N-Dope and P-Dope Materials 49 4.4 Solution Materials 50 4.4.1 Polymer Materials 50 4.4.2 Dendrimers 61 4.4.3 Small Molecules 69 4.5 Molecular Orientation of Organic Materials 70 References 71 5 OLED Devices 75 5.1 Bottom Emission, Top Emission, and Transparent Types 75 5.2 Normal and Inverted Structures 79 5.3 White OLEDs 81 5.4 Full-Color Technology 84 5.4.1 RGB-Side-by-Side 87 5.4.2 White + CF 87 5.4.3 Blue Emission with Color Changing Medium (CCM) 88 5.5 Micro-Cavity Structure 89 5.6 Multi-Photon OLED 91 5.7 Encapsulation 94 5.7.1 Thin Film Encapsulation 99 5.7.2 Desiccant Technologies 100 References 100 6 OLED Fabrication Process 103 6.1 Vacuum Evaporation Process 103 6.1.1 Mask Deposition 104 6.1.2 Three Types of Evaporation Methods 104 6.1.3 Ultra-High Vacuum 105 6.2 Wet Processes 107 6.3 Laser Processes 114 References 115 7 Performance of OLEDs 117 7.1 Characteristics of OLEDs 117 7.2 Lifetime 120 7.2.1 Storage Lifetime 121 7.2.2 Driving Lifetime 121 7.3 Temperature Measurement of OLED Devices 124 References 126 8 OLED Display 127 8.1 Features of OLED Displays 128 8.2 Types of OLED Displays 128 8.3 Passive-Matrix OLED Display 130 8.4 Active-Matrix OLED Display 132 8.4.1 TFT Circuit Technologies 133 8.4.2 TFT Device Technologies 137 8.4.3 Commercialized and Prototype AM-OLED Displays 139 References 144 9 OLED Lighting 147 9.1 Appearance of OLED Lighting 147 9.2 Features of OLED Lighting 148 9.3 Fundamental Technologies of OLED Lighting 152 9.4 Light Extraction Enhancement Technologies 154 9.5 Performance of OLED Lighting 159 9.6 Color Tunable OLED Lighting 159 9.7 Application of OLED Lighting – Products and Prototypes 161 References 164 10 Flexible OLEDs 166 10.1 Early Studies of Flexible OLEDs 166 10.2 Flexible Substrates 167 10.2.1 Ultra-Thin Glass 168 10.2.2 Stainless Steel Foil 171 10.2.3 Plastic Films 172 10.3 Flexible OLED Displays 174 10.3.1 Flexible OLED Displays on Ultra-Thin Glass 176 10.3.2 Flexible OLED Displays on Stainless Steel Foil 176 10.3.3 Flexible OLED Displays on Plastic Film 177 10.4 Flexible OLED Lighting 181 10.4.1 Flexible OLED Lighting on Ultra-Thin Glass 182 10.4.2 Flexible OLED Lighting on Stainless Steel Foil 184 10.4.3 Flexible OLED Lighting on Plastic Films 184 10.5 Toward the Flexible 186 References 186 11 New Technologies 189 11.1 Non-ITO Transparent Electrodes 189 11.1.1 Conducting Polymer 190 11.1.2 Stacked Layer Using Ag 194 11.1.3 Silver Nanowire (AgNW) 195 11.1.4 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) 196 11.2 Organic TFT 197 11.3 Wet-Processed TFT 198 11.4 Novel Wet-Processed or Printed OLED 201 11.5 Roll-to-Roll Equipment Technologies 203 11.6 Quantum Dot 204 References 206 Index 209

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Book SynopsisMechanics of Microsystems Alberto Corigliano, Raffaele Ardito, Claudia Comi, Attilio Frangi, Aldo Ghisi and Stefano Mariani, Politecnico di Milano, Italy A mechanical approach to microsystems, covering fundamental concepts including MEMS design, modelling and reliability Mechanics of Microsystems takes a mechanical approach to microsystems and covers fundamental concepts including MEMS design, modelling and reliability. The book examines the mechanical behaviour of microsystems from a design for reliability' point of view and includes examples of applications in industry. Mechanics of Microsystems is divided into two main parts. The first part recalls basic knowledge related to the microsystems behaviour and offers an overview on microsystems and fundamental design and modelling tools from a mechanical point of view, together with many practical examples of real microsystems. The second part covers the mechanical characterization of materials at the micro-scale and considers the mTable of ContentsSeries Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii Notation xix About the Companion Website xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Microsystems 1 1.2 Microsystems Fabrication 3 1.3 Mechanics in Microsystems 5 1.4 Book Contents 6 References 7 Part I Fundamentals 9 2 Fundamentals of Mechanics and Coupled Problems 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Kinematics and Dynamics of Material Points and Rigid Bodies 12 2.2.1 Basic Notions of Kinematics and Motion Composition 12 2.2.2 Basic Notions of Dynamics and Relative Dynamics 15 2.2.3 One-Degree-of-Freedom Oscillator 17 2.2.4 Rigid-Body Kinematics and Dynamics 22 2.3 Solid Mechanics 25 2.3.1 Linear Elastic Problem for Deformable Solids 26 2.3.2 Linear Elastic Problem for Beams 35 2.4 Fluid Mechanics 43 2.4.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 43 2.4.2 Fluid–Structure Interaction 48 2.5 Electrostatics and Electromechanics 49 2.5.1 Basic Notions of Electrostatics 49 2.5.2 Simple Electromechanical Problem 54 2.5.3 General Electromechanical Coupled Problem 58 2.6 Piezoelectric Materials in Microsystems 60 2.6.1 Piezoelectric Materials 60 2.6.2 PiezoelectricModelling 62 2.7 Heat Conduction and Thermomechanics 64 2.7.1 Heat Problem 64 2.7.2 Thermomechanical Coupled Problem 67 References 70 3 Modelling of Linear and NonlinearMechanical Response 73 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Fundamental Principles 74 3.2.1 Principle of Virtual Power 74 3.2.2 Total Potential Energy Principle 74 3.2.3 Hamilton’s Principle 75 3.2.4 Specialization of the Principle of Virtual Powers to Beams 76 3.3 Approximation Techniques andWeighted Residuals Approach 76 3.4 Exact and Approximate Solutions for Dynamic Problems 79 3.4.1 Free Flexural Linear Vibrations of a Single-span Beam 79 3.4.2 Nonlinear Vibration of an Axially Loaded Beam 80 3.5 Example of Application: Bistable Elements 84 References 90 Part II Devices 91 4 Accelerometers 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 94 4.2.1 In-Plane Sensing 94 4.2.2 Out-of-Plane Sensing 96 4.3 Resonant Accelerometers 98 4.3.1 Resonating Proof Mass 98 4.3.2 Resonating Elements Coupled to the Proof Mass 99 4.4 Examples 101 4.4.1 Three-Axis Capacitive Accelerometer 101 4.4.2 Out-of-Plane Resonant Accelerometer 104 4.4.3 In-Plane Resonant Accelerometer 105 4.5 Design Problems and Reliability Issues 107 References 107 5 Coriolis-Based Gyroscopes 109 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 BasicWorking Principle 109 5.2.1 Sensitivity of Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscopes 112 5.3 Lumped-Mass Gyroscopes 113 5.3.1 Symmetric and Decoupled Gyroscope 113 5.3.2 Tuning-Fork Gyroscope 114 5.3.3 Three-Axis Gyroscope 115 5.3.4 Gyroscopes with Resonant Sensing 115 5.4 Disc and Ring Gyroscopes 118 5.5 Design Problems and Reliability Issues 118 References 119 6 Resonators 121 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Electrostatically Actuated Resonators 123 6.3 Piezoelectric Resonators 125 6.4 Nonlinearity Issues 126 References 128 7 Micromirrors and Parametric Resonance 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Electrostatic Resonant Micromirror 132 7.2.1 Numerical Simulations with a Continuation Approach 136 7.2.2 Experimental Set-Up 140 References 145 8 Vibrating Lorentz Force Magnetometers 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Vibrating Lorentz Force Magnetometers 148 8.2.1 Classical Devices 148 8.2.2 Improved Design 151 8.2.3 Further Improvements 155 8.3 Topology or Geometry Optimization 156 References 159 9 Mechanical Energy Harvesters 161 9.1 Introduction 161 9.2 Inertial Energy Harvesters 162 9.2.1 Classification of Resonant Energy Harvesters 162 9.2.2 Mechanical Model of a Simple Piezoelectric Harvester 165 9.3 Frequency Upconversion and Bistability 174 9.4 Fluid–Structure Interaction Energy Harvesters 176 9.4.1 Synopsis of Aeroelastic Phenomena 177 9.4.2 Energy Harvesting through Vortex-Induced Vibration 179 9.4.3 Energy Harvesting through Flutter Instability 180 References 181 10 Micropumps 185 10.1 Introduction 185 10.2 Modelling Issues for Diaphragm Micropumps 186 10.3 Modelling of Electrostatic Actuator 188 10.3.1 Simplified Electromechanical Model 188 10.3.2 Reliability Issues 192 10.4 MultiphysicsModel of an Electrostatic Micropump 196 10.5 Piezoelectric Micropumps 198 10.5.1 Modelling of the Actuator 198 10.5.2 Complete Multiphysics Model 201 References 202 Part III Reliability and Dissipative Phenomena 205 11 Mechanical Characterization at theMicroscale 207 11.1 Introduction 207 11.2 Mechanical Characterization of Polysilicon as a Structural Material for Microsystems 209 11.2.1 Polysilicon as a Structural Material for Microsystems 209 11.2.2 TestingMethodologies 210 11.2.3 Quasi-Static Testing 211 11.2.4 High-Frequency Testing 214 11.3 Weibull Approach 215 11.4 On-Chip TestingMethodology for Experimental Determination of Elastic Stiffness and Nominal Strength 219 11.4.1 On-Chip Bending Test through a Comb-Finger Rotational Electrostatic Actuator 220 11.4.2 On-Chip Bending Test through a Parallel-Plate Electrostatic Actuator 225 11.4.3 On-Chip Tensile Test through an Electrothermomechanical Actuator 229 11.4.4 On-Chip Test forThick Polysilicon Films 233 References 240 12 Fracture and Fatigue in Microsystems 245 12.1 Introduction 245 12.2 Fracture Mechanics: An Overview 245 12.3 MEMS Failure Modes due to Cracking 249 12.3.1 Cracking and Delamination at Package Level 249 12.3.2 Cracking at Silicon Film Level 250 12.4 Fatigue in Microsystems 256 12.4.1 An Introduction to Fatigue in Mechanics 256 12.4.2 Polysilicon Fatigue 259 12.4.3 Fatigue in Metals at the Microscale 261 12.4.4 Fatigue Testing at the Microscale 263 References 266 13 Accidental Drop Impact 271 13.1 Introduction 271 13.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Response to Drops 272 13.3 Estimation of the Acceleration Peak Induced by an Accidental Drop 276 13.4 A Multiscale Approach to Drop Impact Events 277 13.4.1 Macroscale Level 277 13.4.2 Mesoscale Level 279 13.4.3 Microscale Level 279 13.5 Results: Drop-Induced Failure of Inertial MEMS 280 References 287 14 Fabrication-Induced Residual Stresses and Relevant Failures 291 14.1 Main Sources of Residual Stresses in Microsystems 291 14.2 The Stoney Formula and its Modifications 292 14.3 ExperimentalMethods for the Evaluation of Residual Stresses 299 14.4 Delamination, Buckling and Cracks inThin Films due to Residual Stresses 304 References 310 15 Damping in Microsystems 313 15.1 Introduction 313 15.2 Gas Damping in the Continuum Regime with Slip Boundary Conditions 314 15.2.1 Experimental Validation at Ambient Pressure 317 15.2.2 Effects of DecreasingWorking Pressure 318 15.3 Gas Damping in the Rarefied Regime 320 15.3.1 Evaluation of Damping at Low Pressure using KineticModels 321 15.3.2 Linearization of the BGK Model 323 15.3.3 Numerical Implementation 324 15.3.4 Application to MEMS 325 15.4 Gas Damping in the Free-Molecule Regime 328 15.4.1 Boundary Integral Equation Approach 328 15.4.2 Experimental Validations 330 15.5 Solid Damping: Thermoelasticity 335 15.6 Solid Damping: Anchor Losses 338 15.6.1 Analytical Estimation of Dissipation 339 15.6.2 Numerical Estimation of Anchor Losses 342 15.7 Solid Damping: Additional unknown Sources – Surface Losses 346 15.7.1 Solid Damping: Deviations from Thermoelasticity 346 15.7.2 Solid Damping: Losses in Piezoresonators 346 References 348 16 Surface Interactions 351 16.1 Introduction 351 16.2 Spontaneous Adhesion or Stiction 352 16.3 Adhesion Sources 353 16.3.1 Capillary Attraction 353 16.3.2 Van derWaals Interactions 356 16.3.3 Casimir Forces 358 16.3.4 Hydrogen Bonds 359 16.3.5 Electrostatic Forces 360 16.4 Experimental Characterization 361 16.4.1 Experiments by Mastrangelo and Hsu 361 16.4.2 Experiments by the Sandia Group 362 16.4.3 Experiments by the Virginia Group 365 16.4.4 Peel Experiments 367 16.4.5 Pull-in Experiments 368 16.4.6 Tests for Sidewall Adhesion 372 16.5 Modelling and Simulation 374 16.5.1 Lennard-Jones Potential 374 16.5.2 Tribological Models: Hertz, JKR, DMT 375 16.5.3 Computation of Adhesion Energy 377 16.6 Recent Advances 380 16.6.1 Finite Element Analysis of Adhesion between Rough Surfaces 380 16.6.2 Accelerated Numerical Techniques 383 References 387 Index 393

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Book SynopsisThe continued advancement of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) complexity, performance, commercial exploitation and market size requires an ever-expanding graduate population with state-of-the-art expertise. Understanding MEMS: Principles and Applications provides a comprehensive introduction to this complex and multidisciplinary technology that is accessible to senior undergraduate and graduate students from a range of engineering and physical sciences backgrounds. Fully self-contained, this textbook is designed to help students grasp the key principles and operation of MEMS devices and to inspire advanced study or a career in this field. Moreover, with the increasing application areas, product categories and functionality of MEMS, industry professionals will also benefit from this consolidated overview, source of relevant equations and extensive solutions to problems. Key features: Details the fundamentals of MEMS, enablTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Scaling of Forces 1 1.1 Scaling of Forces Model 1 1.2 Weight 2 1.2.1 Example: MEMS Accelerometer 2 1.3 Elastic Force 3 1.3.1 Example: AFM Cantilever 4 1.4 Electrostatic Force 4 1.4.1 Example: MEMS RF Switch 6 1.5 Capillary Force 6 1.5.1 Example: Wet Etching Force 8 1.6 Piezoelectric Force 8 1.6.1 Example: Force in Film Embossing 9 1.7 Magnetic Force 10 1.7.1 Example: Compass Magnetometer 10 1.8 Dielectrophoretic Force 11 1.8.1 Example: Nanoparticle in a Spherical Symmetry Electric Field 12 1.9 Summary 13 Problems 13 2 Elasticity 15 2.1 Stress 15 2.2 Strain 18 2.3 Stress–strain Relationship 20 2.3.1 Example: Plane Stress 21 2.4 Strain–stress Relationship in Anisotropic Materials 22 2.5 Miller Indices 23 2.5.1 Example: Miller Indices of Typical Planes 24 2.6 Angles of Crystallographic Planes 25 2.6.1 Example 25 2.7 Compliance and Stiffness Matrices for Single-Crystal Silicon 26 2.7.1 Example: Young’s Modulus and Poisson Ratio for (100) Silicon 27 2.8 Orthogonal Transformation 29 2.9 Transformation of the Stress State 31 2.9.1 Example: Rotation of the Stress State 31 2.9.2 Example: Matrix Notation for the Rotation of the Stress State 32 2.10 Orthogonal Transformation of the Stiffness Matrix 32 2.10.1 Example: C11 Coefficient in Rotated Axes 33 2.10.2 Example: Young’s Modulus and Poisson Ratio in the (111) Direction 34 2.11 Elastic Properties of Selected MEMS Materials 36 Problems 36 3 Bending of Microstructures 37 3.1 Static Equilibrium 37 3.2 Free Body Diagram 38 3.3 Neutral Plane and Curvature 39 3.4 Pure Bending 40 3.4.1 Example: Neutral Plane for a Rectangular Cross-section 41 3.4.2 Example: Cantilever with Point Force at the Tip 42 3.5 Moment of Inertia and Bending Moment 43 3.5.1 Example: Moment of Inertia of a Rectangular Cross-section 43 3.6 Beam Equation 44 3.7 End-loaded Cantilever 45 3.8 Equivalent Stiffness 47 3.9 Beam Equation for Point Load and Distributed Load 48 3.10 Castigliano’s Second Theorem 48 3.10.1 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body Subject to Pure Bending 50 3.11 Flexures 51 3.11.1 Fixed–fixed Flexure 51 3.11.2 Example: Comparison of Stiffness Constants 53 3.11.3 Example: Folded Flexure 53 3.12 Rectangular Membrane 54 3.13 Simplified Model for a Rectangular Membrane Under Pressure 55 3.13.1 Example: Thin Membrane Subject to Pressure 57 3.14 Edge-clamped Circular Membrane 58 Problems 60 4 Piezoresistance and Piezoelectricity 65 4.1 Electrical Resistance 65 4.1.1 Example: Resistance Value 66 4.2 One-dimensional Piezoresistance Model 67 4.2.1 Example: Gauge Factors 68 4.3 Piezoresistance in Anisotropic Materials 69 4.4 Orthogonal Transformation of Ohm’s Law 70 4.5 Piezoresistance Coefficients Transformation 71 4.5.1 Example: Calculation of Rotated Piezoresistive Components 𝜋′ 11, 𝜋′ 12 and 𝜋′ 16 for unit axes X′ [110], Y′ [ ̄110] and Z′ [001] 72 4.5.2 Analytical Expressions for Some Rotated Piezoresistive Components 74 4.6 Two-dimensional Piezoresistors 74 4.6.1 Example: Accelerometer with Cantilever and Piezoresistive Sensing 76 4.7 Pressure Sensing with Rectangular Membranes 79 4.7.1 Example: Single-resistor Pressure Sensor 82 4.7.2 Example: Pressure Sensors Comparison 85 4.8 Piezoelectricity 86 4.8.1 Relevant Data for Some Piezoelectric Materials 88 4.8.2 Example: Piezoelectric Generator 89 Problems 91 5 Electrostatic Driving and Sensing 93 5.1 Energy and Co-energy 93 5.2 Voltage Drive 97 5.3 Pull-in Voltage 97 5.3.1 Example: Forces in a Parallel-plate Actuator 99 5.4 Electrostatic Pressure 101 5.5 Contact Resistance in Parallel-plate Switches 101 5.6 Hold-down Voltage 101 5.6.1 Example: Calculation of Hold-down Voltage 102 5.7 Dynamic Response of Pull-in-based Actuators 102 5.7.1 Example: Switching Transient 103 5.8 Charge Drive 105 5.9 Extending the Stable Range 105 5.10 Lateral Electrostatic Force 106 5.11 Comb Actuators 106 5.12 Capacitive Accelerometer 108 5.13 Differential Capacitive Sensing 108 5.14 Torsional Actuator 110 Problems 111 6 Resonators 115 6.1 Free Vibration: Lumped-element Model 115 6.2 Damped Vibration 116 6.3 Forced Vibration 117 6.3.1 Example: Vibration Amplitude as a Function of the Damping Factor 120 6.4 Small Signal Equivalent Circuit of Resonators 121 6.4.1 Example: Series and Parallel Resonances 125 6.4.2 Example: Spring Softening 125 6.5 Rayleigh–Ritz Method 126 6.5.1 Example: Vibration of a Cantilever 128 6.5.2 Example: Gravimetric Chemical Sensor 129 6.6 Resonant Gyroscope 130 6.7 Tuning Fork Gyroscope 133 6.7.1 Example: Calculation of Sensitivity in a Tuning Fork Gyroscope 134 Problems 135 7 Microfluidics and Electrokinetics 137 7.1 Viscous Flow 137 7.2 Flow in a Cylindrical Pipe 140 7.2.1 Example: Pressure Gradient Required to Sustain a Flow 141 7.3 Electrical Double Layer 142 7.3.1 Example: Debye Length and Surface Charge 144 7.4 Electro-osmotic Flow 144 7.5 Electrowetting 146 7.5.1 Example: Droplet Change by Electrowetting 148 7.5.2 Example: Full Substrate Contacts 149 7.6 Electrowetting Dynamics 151 7.6.1 Example: Contact-angle Dynamics 153 7.7 Dielectrophoresis 153 7.7.1 Electric Potential Created by a Constant Electric Field 154 7.7.2 Potential Created by an Electrical Dipole 155 7.7.3 Superposition 156 Problems 157 8 Thermal Devices 159 8.1 Steady-state Heat Equation 159 8.2 Thermal Resistance 161 8.2.1 Example: Temperature Profile in a Heated Wire 162 8.2.2 Example: Resistor Suspended in a Bridge 165 8.3 Platinum Resistors 166 8.4 Flow Measurement Based on Thermal Sensors 166 8.4.1 Example: Micromachined Flow Sensor 169 8.5 Dynamic Thermal Equivalent Circuit 171 8.6 Thermally Actuated Bimorph 172 8.6.1 Example: Bimorph Actuator 174 8.7 Thermocouples and Thermopiles 175 8.7.1 Example: IR Detector 175 Problems 176 9 Fabrication 181 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Photolithography 182 9.3 Patterning 183 9.4 Lift-off 184 9.5 Bulk Micromachining 184 9.5.1 Example: Angle of Walls in Silicon (100) Etching 185 9.6 Silicon Etch Stop When Using Alkaline Solutions 186 9.6.1 Example: Boron drive-in at 1050◦C 186 9.7 Surface Micromachining 186 9.7.1 Example: Cantilever Fabrication by Surface Micromachining 187 9.8 Dry Etching 188 9.9 CMOS-compatible MEMS Processing 188 9.9.1 Example: Bimorph Actuator Compatible with CMOS Process 189 9.10 Wafer Bonding 190 9.11 PolyMUMPs Foundry Process 190 9.11.1 Example: PolyMUMPs Cantilever for a Fabry–Perot Pressure Sensor 191 Problems 192 APPENDICES 195 A Chapter 1 Solutions 197 B Chapter 2 Solutions 207 C Chapter 3 Solutions 221 D Chapter 4 Solutions 239 E Chapter 5 Solutions 249 F Chapter 6 Solutions 267 G Chapter 7 Solutions 277 H Chapter 8 Solutions 285 I Chapter 9 Solutions 299 References 307 Index 311

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Book SynopsisDiscusses the application of mathematical and engineering tools for modeling, simulation and control oriented for energy systems, power electronics and renewable energy This book builds on the background knowledge of electrical circuits, control of dc/dc converters and inverters, energy conversion and power electronics. The book shows readers how to apply computational methods for multi-domain simulation of energy systems and power electronics engineering problems. Each chapter has a brief introduction on the theoretical background, a description of the problems to be solved, and objectives to be achieved. Block diagrams, electrical circuits, mathematical analysis or computer code are covered. Each chapter concludes with discussions on what should be learned, suggestions for further studies and even some experimental work. Discusses the mathematical formulation of system equations for energy systems and power electronics aiming state-space and circuit oriented simulationsStudies theTable of ContentsForeword xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction to Electrical Engineering Simulation 1 1.1 Fundamentals of State-Space-Based Modeling 4 1.2 Example of Modeling an Electrical Network 6 1.3 Transfer Function 9 1.3.1 State Space to Transfer Function Conversion 10 1.4 Modeling and Simulation of Energy Systems and Power Electronics 12 1.5 Suggested Problems 18 Further Reading 25 2 Analysis of Electrical Circuits with Mesh and Nodal Analysis 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Solution of Matrix Equations 28 2.3 Laboratory Project : Mesh and Nodal Analysis of Electrical Circuits with Superposition Theorem 29 2.4 Suggested Problems 37 References 40 Further Reading 40 3 Modeling and Analysis of Electrical Circuits with Block Diagrams 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Laboratory Project: Transient Response Study and Laplace Transform-Based Analysis Block Diagram Simulation 45 3.3 Comparison with Phasor-Based Steady-State Analysis 52 3.4 Finding the Equivalent Thèvenin 54 3.5 Suggested Problems 56 Further Reading 58 4 Power Electronics: Electrical Circuit-Oriented Simulation 61 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Case Study: Half-Wave Rectifier 67 4.3 Laboratory Project: Electrical Circuit Simulation Using PSIM and Simscape Power Systems MATLAB Analysis 72 4.4 Suggested Problems 79 Further Reading 81 5 Designing Power Electronic Control Systems 83 5.1 Introduction 83 5.1.1 Control System Design 85 5.1.2 Proportional–Integral Closed-Loop Control 86 5.2 Laboratory Project: Design of a DC/DC Boost Converter Control 89 5.2.1 Ideal Boost Converter 89 5.2.2 Small Signal Model and Deriving the Transfer Function of Boost Converter 90 5.2.3 Control Block Diagram and Transfer Function 93 5.3 Design of a Type III Compensated Error Amplifier 95 5.3.1 K Method 95 5.3.2 Poles and Zeros Placement in the Type III Amplifier 96 5.4 Controller Design 97 5.5 PSIM Simulation Studies for the DC/DC Boost Converter 99 5.6 Boost Converter: Average Model 99 5.7 Full Circuit for the DC/DC Boost Converter 103 5.8 Laboratory Project: Design of a Discrete Control in MATLAB Corunning with a DC Motor Model in Simulink 107 5.9 Suggested Problems 112 References 116 Further Reading 116 6 Instrumentation and Control Interfaces for Energy Systems and Power Electronics 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.1.1 Sensors and Transducers for Power Systems Data Acquisition 118 6.2 Passive Electrical Sensors 119 6.2.1 Resistive Sensors 119 6.2.2 Capacitive Sensors 121 6.2.3 Inductive Sensors 123 6.3 Electronic Interface for Computational Data in Power Systems and Instrumentation 125 6.3.1 O perational Amplifiers 125 6.4 Analog Amplifiers for Data Acquisition and Power System Driving 125 6.4.1 Level Detector or Comparator 126 6.4.2 Standard Differential Amplifier for Instrumentation and Control 127 6.4.3 O ptically Isolated Amplifier 128 6.4.4 The V–I Converter of a Single Input and Floating Load 130 6.4.5 Schmitt Trigger Comparator 131 6.4.6 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) 131 6.4.7 Phase Shifting 131 6.4.8 Precision Diode, Precision Rectifier, and the Absolute Value Amplifier 134 6.4.9 High-Gain Amplifier with Low-Value Resistors 136 6.4.10 Class B Feedback Push–Pull Amplifiers 137 6.4.11 Triangular Waveform Generator 137 6.4.12 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 138 6.5 Laboratory Project: Design a PWM Controller with Error Amplifier 140 6.6 Suggested Problems 140 References 145 7 Modeling Electrical Machines 147 7.1 Introduction to Modeling Electrical Machines 147 7.2 Equivalent Circuit of a Linear Induction Machine Connected to the Network 148 7.3 PSIM Block of a Linear IM Connected to the Distribution Network 150 7.4 PSIM Saturated IM Model Connected to the Distribution Network 152 7.5 Doubly Fed Induction Machine Connected to the Distribution Network 154 7.6 DC Motor Powering the Shaft of a Self-Excited Induction Generator 156 7.7 Modeling a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSM) 158 7.8 Modeling a Saturated Transformer 158 7.9 Laboratory Project: Transient Response of a Single-Phase Nonideal Transformer for Three Types of Power Supply—Sinusoidal, Square Wave, and SPWM 158 7.10 Suggested Problems 169 References 175 Further Reading 175 8 Stand-Alone and Grid-Connected Inverters 177 8.1 Introduction 177 8.2 Constant Current Control 181 8.3 Constant P–Q Control 182 8.4 Constant P–V Control 183 8.5 IEEE 1547 and Associated Controls 184 8.6 P+Resonant Stationary Frame Control 187 8.7 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) for Grid Synchronization 188 8.8 Laboratory Project: Simulation of a Grid-Connected/Stand-Alone Inverter 190 8.9 Suggested Problems 197 References 199 Further Reading 201 9 Modeling Alternative Sources of Energy 203 9.1 Electrical Modeling of Alternative Power Plants 203 9.2 Modeling a Photovoltaic Power Plant 204 9.3 Modeling an Induction Generator (IG) 205 9.4 Modeling a SEIG Wind Power Plant 207 9.5 Modeling a DFIG Wind Power Plant 208 9.6 Modeling a PMSG Wind Power Plant 208 9.7 Modeling a Fuel Cell Stack 211 9.8 Modeling a Lead Acid Battery Bank 215 9.9 Modeling an Integrated Power Plant 219 9.10 Suggested Problems 224 References 225 10 Power Quality Analysis 227 10.1 Introduction 227 10.2 Fourier Series 231 10.3 Discrete Fourier Transform for Harmonic Evaluation of Electrical Signals 237 10.3.1 Practical Implementation Issues of DFT Using FFT 237 10.4 Electrical Power and Power Factor Computation for Distorted Conditions 239 10.5 Laboratory Project: Design of a DFT-Based Electrical Power Evaluation Function in MATLAB 242 10.6 Suggested Problems 250 References 253 Further Reading 253 11 From PSIM Simulation to Hardware Implementation in DSP 255Hua Jin 11.1 Introduction 255 11.2 PSIM Overview 255 11.3 From Analog Control to Digital Control 257 11.4 Automatic Code Generation in PSIM 264 11.4.1 TI F28335 DSP Peripheral Blocks 265 11.4.2 Adding DSP Peripheral Blocks 266 11.4.3 Defining SCI Blocks for Real-Time Monitoring and Debugging 271 11.5 PIL Simulation with PSIM 272 11.6 Conclusion 275 References 278 Further Reading 278 12 Digital Processing Techniques applied to Power Electronics 279Danilo Iglesias Brandão and Fernando Pinhabel Marafão 12.1 Introduction 279 12.2 Basic Digital Processing Techniques 280 12.2.1 Instantaneous and Discrete Signal Calculations 280 12.2.2 Derivative and Integral Value Calculation 280 12.2.3 Moving Average Filter 282 12.2.4 Laboratory Project: Active Current Calculation 286 12.3 Fundamental Component Identification 287 12.3.1 IIR Filter 288 12.3.2 FIR Filter 290 12.3.3 Laboratory Project: THD Calculation 291 12.4 Fortescue’s Sequence Components Identification 293 12.4.1 Sequence Component Identification Using IIR Filter 296 12.4.2 Sequence Component Identification Using DCT Filter 297 12.4.3 Laboratory Project: Calculation of Negative- and Zero-Sequence Factors 298 12.5 Natural Reference Frame PLLs 300 12.5.1 Single-Phase PLL 301 12.5.2 Three-Phase PLL 302 12.5.3 Laboratory Project: Single-Phase PLL Implementation 303 12.5.4 Laboratory Project: Fundamental Wave Detector Based on PLL 306 12.6 MPPT Techniques 307 12.6.1 Perturb and Observe 310 12.6.2 Incremental Conductance 310 12.6.3 Beta Technique 312 12.6.4 Laboratory Project: Implementing the IC Technique 312 12.7 Islanding Detection 314 12.7.1 Laboratory Project: Passive Islanding Detection Based on IEEE Std. 1547 315 12.8 Suggested Problems 317 References 319 Index 321

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Book SynopsisEssential reference providing best practice of LTE-A, VoLTE, and IoT Design/deployment/Performance and evolution towards 5G This book is a practical guide to the design, deployment, and performance of LTE-A, VoLTE/IMS and IoT. A comprehensive practical performance analysis for VoLTE is conducted based on field measurement results from live LTE networks. Also, it provides a comprehensive introduction to IoT and 5G evolutions. Practical aspects and best practice of LTE-A/IMS/VoLTE/IoT are presented. Practical aspects of LTE-Advanced features are presented. In addition, LTE/LTE-A network capacity dimensioning and analysis are demonstrated based on live LTE/LTE-A networks KPIs. A comprehensive foundation for 5G technologies is provided including massive MIMO, eMBB, URLLC, mMTC, NGCN and network slicing, cloudification, virtualization and SDN. Practical Guide to LTE-A, VoLTE and IoT: Paving the Way Towards 5G can be used as a practical comprehensive guide forTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xvii Preface xix Acknowledgments xxi 1 LTE and LTE-A Overview 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Link Spectrum Efficiency 3 1.3 LTE-Advanced and Beyond 4 1.4 Evolved Packet System (EPS) Overview 9 1.5 Network Architecture Evolution 11 1.6 LTE UE Description 14 1.7 EPS Bearer Procedures 15 1.8 Access and Non-access Stratum Procedures 20 1.9 LTE Air Interface 26 1.10 OFDM Signal Generation 32 1.11 LTE Channels and Procedures 34 1.12 Uplink Physical Channels 43 1.13 Physical Layer Procedures 45 1.14 RRC Layer and Mobility Procedures 51 1.15 LTE Idle Mode Mobility Procedures 60 1.16 LTE Connected Mode Mobility Procedures 68 1.17 Interworking with Other 3GPP Radio Access 76 References 86 2 Introduction to the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) 87 2.1 Introduction 87 2.2 IMS Network Description 91 2.3 IMS Identities and Subscription 131 2.4 IMS Architecture and Interfaces 134 2.5 MMTel (Multimedia Telephony) Services 136 2.6 Service Centralization and Continuity AS (SCC AS) 141 2.7 Operator X IMS–VoLTE Architecture 145 3 VoLTE/CSFB Call Setup Delay and Handover Analysis 158 3.1 Overview 158 3.2 Introduction 158 3.3 CSFB Call Flow and Relevant KPIs 160 3.4 VoLTE Call Flow and Relevant KPIs 162 3.5 VoLTE Handover and Data Interruption Time 166 3.6 Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC) 169 3.7 Performance Analysis 171 3.8 Latency Reduction During Handover 182 3.9 Practical Use Cases and Recommendations 187 3.10 Conclusions 190 References 195 4 Comprehensive Performance Evaluation of VoLTE 197 4.1 Overview 197 4.2 Introduction 197 4.3 VoLTE Principles 198 4.4 Main VoLTE Features 200 4.5 Testing Environment and Main VoLTE KPIs 203 4.6 VoLTE Performance Evaluation 204 4.7 EVS Coding and Voice Evolution 214 4.8 TTI Bundling Performance Evaluation 219 4.9 BLER Impact on Voice Quality 220 4.10 Scheduler Performance 220 4.11 VoLTE KPI Evaluation 221 4.12 Use Cases and Recommendations 223 4.13 Conclusions 226 References 228 5 Evaluation of LTE-Advanced Features 230 5.1 Introduction to LTE-Advanced Features 230 5.2 Carrier Aggregation in LTE-A and LTE-A Pro 231 5.3 Higher-order Modulation (HOM) for Uplink and Downlink 242 5.4 LTE-A Feature Dependencies 247 5.5 Other Enhancements Towards Advanced LTE Deployments 252 References 263 6 LTE Network Capacity Analysis 264 6.1 Overview 264 6.2 Introduction 264 6.3 Users and Traffic Utilization 266 6.4 Downlink Analysis 270 6.5 DL KPI Analysis 274 6.6 UL KPI Analysis 289 6.7 Data Connection Performance 302 6.8 Link Reliability Analysis 305 6.9 Main KPI Comparison for Different Operators 307 References 309 7 IoT Evolution Towards a Super-connected World 310 7.1 Overview 310 7.2 Introduction to the IoT 310 7.3 IoT Standards 312 7.4 IoT Platform 314 7.5 IoT Gateways, Devices, and “Things” Management 318 7.6 Edge and Fog Computing 319 7.7 IoT Sensors 322 7.8 IoT Protocols 323 7.9 IoT Networks 327 7.10 3GPP Standards for IoT 337 7.11 3GPP NB-IoT 341 7.12 NB-IoT DL Specifications 343 7.13 NB-IoT UL Specifications 352 7.14 Release 13 Machine-type Communications Overview 358 7.15 Link Budget Analysis 359 7.16 NB-IoT Network Topology 364 7.17 Architecture Enhancement for CIoT 367 7.18 Sample IoT Use Cases 374 References 380 8 5G Evolution Towards a Super-connected World 382 8.1 Overview 382 8.2 Introduction 382 8.3 5G New Radio (NR) and Air Interface 385 8.4 What is Next for LTE-A Pro Evolution? 386 8.5 5G Spectrum View 387 8.6 5G Design Considerations 390 8.7 5G Deployment Scenarios for Mobile Applications 400 8.8 Air-to-Ground and Satellite Scenarios 401 8.9 5G Evaluation KPIs 405 8.10 Next-generation Radio Access Requirements 407 8.11 5G NextGen Core Network Architecture 416 8.12 5G Waveform and Multiple Access Design 423 8.13 NFV and SDN 433 8.14 Conclusion 440 References 441 Index 445

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Book SynopsisThis book introduces the state-of-the-art in research in parallel and distributed embedded systems, which have been enabled by developments in silicon technology, micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), wireless communications, computer networking, and digital electronics.Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgment xxi Part I OVERVIEW 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Embedded Systems Applications 6 1.1.1 Cyber-Physical Systems 6 1.1.2 Space 6 1.1.3 Medical 7 1.1.4 Automotive 8 1.2 Characteristics of Embedded Systems Applications 9 1.2.1 Throughput-Intensive 9 1.2.2 Thermal-Constrained 9 1.2.3 Reliability-Constrained 10 1.2.4 Real-Time 10 1.2.5 Parallel and Distributed 10 1.3 Embedded Systems—Hardware and Software 11 1.3.1 Embedded Systems Hardware 11 1.3.2 Embedded Systems Software 14 1.4 Modeling—An Integral Part of the Embedded Systems Design Flow 15 1.4.1 Modeling Objectives 16 1.4.2 Modeling Paradigms 18 1.4.3 Strategies for Integration of Modeling Paradigms 20 1.5 Optimization in Embedded Systems 21 1.5.1 Optimization of Embedded Systems Design Metrics 23 1.5.2 Multiobjective Optimization 26 1.6 Chapter Summary 27 2 Multicore-Based EWSNs—An Example of Parallel and Distributed Embedded Systems 29 2.1 Multicore Embedded Wireless Sensor Network Architecture 31 2.2 Multicore Embedded Sensor Node Architecture 33 2.2.1 Sensing Unit 34 2.2.2 Processing Unit 34 2.2.3 Storage Unit 34 2.2.4 Communication Unit 35 2.2.5 Power Unit 35 2.2.6 Actuator Unit 35 2.2.7 Location Finding Unit 36 2.3 Compute-Intensive Tasks Motivating the Emergence of MCEWSNs 36 2.3.1 Information Fusion 36 2.3.2 Encryption 38 2.3.3 Network Coding 38 2.3.4 Software-Defined Radio (SDR) 38 2.4 MCEWSN Application Domains 38 2.4.1 Wireless Video Sensor Networks (WVSNs) 39 2.4.2 Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) 39 2.4.3 Satellite-Based Wireless Sensor Networks (SBWSN) 40 2.4.4 Space Shuttle Sensor Networks (3SN) 41 2.4.5 Aerial–Terrestrial Hybrid Sensor Networks (ATHSNs) 42 2.4.6 Fault-Tolerant (FT) Sensor Networks 43 2.5 Multicore Embedded Sensor Nodes 43 2.5.1 InstraNode 43 2.5.2 Mars Rover Prototype Mote 43 2.5.3 Satellite-Based Sensor Node (SBSN) 44 2.5.4 Multi-CPU-Based Sensor Node Prototype 44 2.5.5 Smart Camera Mote 44 2.6 Research Challenges and Future Research Directions 45 2.7 Chapter Summary 47 Part II MODELING 3 An Application Metrics Estimation Model for Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 51 3.1 Application Metrics Estimation Model 52 3.1.1 Lifetime Estimation 53 3.1.2 Throughput Estimation 56 3.1.3 Reliability Estimation 57 3.1.4 Models Validation 57 3.2 Experimental Results 58 3.2.1 Experimental Setup 58 3.2.2 Results 59 3.3 Chapter Summary 61 4 Modeling and Analysis of Fault Detection and Fault Tolerance in Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 63 4.1 Related Work 67 4.1.1 Fault Detection 67 4.1.2 Fault Tolerance 68 4.1.3 WSN Reliability Modeling 69 4.2 Fault Diagnosis in WSNs 70 4.2.1 Sensor Faults 70 4.2.2 Taxonomy for Fault Diagnosis Techniques 72 4.3 Distributed Fault Detection Algorithms 74 4.3.1 Fault Detection Algorithm 1: The Chen Algorithm 74 4.3.2 Fault Detection Algorithm 2: The Ding Algorithm 76 4.4 Fault-Tolerant Markov Models 77 4.4.1 Fault-Tolerance Parameters 77 4.4.2 Fault-Tolerant Sensor Node Model 79 4.4.3 Fault-Tolerant WSN Cluster Model 81 4.4.4 Fault-Tolerant WSN Model 83 4.5 Simulation of Distributed Fault Detection Algorithms 85 4.5.1 Using ns−2 to Simulate Faulty Sensors 85 4.5.2 Experimental Setup for Simulated Data 86 4.5.3 Experiments Using Real-World Data 86 4.6 Numerical Results 91 4.6.1 Experimental Setup 91 4.6.2 Reliability and MTTF for an NFT and an FT Sensor Node 91 4.6.3 Reliability and MTTF for an NFT and an FT WSN Cluster 95 4.6.4 Reliability and MTTF for an NFT and an FT WSN 98 4.7 Research Challenges and Future Research Directions 101 4.7.1 Accurate Fault Detection 101 4.7.2 Benchmarks for Comparing Fault Detection Algorithms 101 4.7.3 Energy-Efficient Fault Detection and Tolerance 101 4.7.4 Machine-Learning-Inspired Fault Detection 102 4.7.5 FT in Multimedia Sensor Networks 102 4.7.6 Security 102 4.7.7 WSN Design and Tuning for Reliability 104 4.7.8 Novel WSN Architectures 104 4.8 Chapter Summary 105 5 A Queueing Theoretic Approach for Performance Evaluation of Low-Power Multicore-Based Parallel Embedded Systems 107 5.1 Related Work 110 5.2 Queueing Network Modeling of Multicore Embedded Architectures 112 5.2.1 Queueing Network Terminology 112 5.2.2 Modeling Approach 113 5.2.3 Assumptions 119 5.3 Queueing Network Model Validation 120 5.3.1 Theoretical Validation 120 5.3.2 Validation with a Multicore Simulator 120 5.3.3 Speedup 124 5.4 Queueing Theoretic Model Insights 125 5.4.1 Model Setup 125 5.4.2 The Effects of Cache Miss Rates on Performance 129 5.4.3 The Effects of Workloads on Performance 132 5.4.4 Performance per Watt and Performance per Unit Area Computations 135 5.5 Chapter Summary 139 Part III OPTIMIZATION 6 Optimization Approaches in Distributed Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 143 6.1 Architecture-Level Optimizations 144 6.2 Sensor Node Component-Level Optimizations 146 6.2.1 Sensing Unit 146 6.2.2 Processing Unit 148 6.2.3 Transceiver Unit 148 6.2.4 Storage Unit 148 6.2.5 Actuator Unit 148 6.2.6 Location Finding Unit 149 6.2.7 Power Unit 149 6.3 Data Link-Level Medium Access Control Optimizations 149 6.3.1 Load Balancing and Throughput Optimizations 149 6.3.2 Power/Energy Optimizations 150 6.4 Network-Level Data Dissemination and Routing Protocol Optimizations 152 6.4.1 Query Dissemination Optimizations 152 6.4.2 Real-Time Constrained Optimizations 154 6.4.3 Network Topology Optimizations 154 6.4.4 Resource-Adaptive Optimizations 154 6.5 Operating System-Level Optimizations 155 6.5.1 Event-Driven Optimizations 155 6.5.2 Dynamic Power Management 155 6.5.3 Fault Tolerance 155 6.6 Dynamic Optimizations 156 6.6.1 Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling 156 6.6.2 Software-Based Dynamic Optimizations 156 6.6.3 Dynamic Network Reprogramming 157 6.7 Chapter Summary 157 7 High-Performance Energy-Efficient Multicore-Based Parallel Embedded Computing 159 7.1 Characteristics of Embedded Systems Applications 163 7.1.1 Throughput-Intensive 163 7.1.2 Thermal-Constrained 165 7.1.3 Reliability-Constrained 165 7.1.4 Real-Time 165 7.1.5 Parallel and Distributed 165 7.2 Architectural Approaches 166 7.2.1 Core Layout 166 7.2.2 Memory Design 168 7.2.3 Interconnection Network 170 7.2.4 Reduction Techniques 172 7.3 Hardware-Assisted Middleware Approaches 173 7.3.1 Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling 174 7.3.2 Advanced Configuration and Power Interface 174 7.3.3 Gating Techniques 175 7.3.4 Threading Techniques 176 7.3.5 Energy Monitoring and Management 177 7.3.6 Dynamic Thermal Management 178 7.3.7 Dependable Techniques 179 7.4 Software Approaches 180 7.4.1 Data Forwarding 180 7.4.2 Load Distribution 180 7.5 High-Performance Energy-Efficient Multicore Processors 182 7.5.1 ARM11 MPCore 183 7.5.2 ARM Cortex A-9 MPCore 184 7.5.3 MPC8572E PowerQUICC III 184 7.5.4 Tilera TILEPro64 and TILE-Gx 184 7.5.5 AMD Opteron Processor 185 7.5.6 Intel Xeon Processor 185 7.5.7 Intel Sandy Bridge Processor 185 7.5.8 Graphics Processing Units 186 7.6 Challenges and Future Research Directions 186 7.7 Chapter Summary 189 8 An MDP-Based Dynamic Optimization Methodology for Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 191 8.1 Related Work 193 8.2 MDP-Based Tuning Overview 195 8.2.1 MDP-Based Tuning Methodology for Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 195 8.2.2 MDP Overview with Respect to Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 197 8.3 Application-Specific Embedded Sensor Node Tuning Formulation as an MDP 200 8.3.1 State Space 200 8.3.2 Decision Epochs and Actions 200 8.3.3 State Dynamics 201 8.3.4 Policy and Performance Criterion 201 8.3.5 Reward Function 202 8.3.6 Optimality Equation 204 8.3.7 Policy Iteration Algorithm 205 8.4 Implementation Guidelines and Complexity 205 8.4.1 Implementation Guidelines 205 8.4.2 Computational Complexity 206 8.4.3 Data Memory Analysis 207 8.5 Model Extensions 207 8.6 Numerical Results 210 8.6.1 Fixed Heuristic Policies for Performance Comparisons 210 8.6.2 MDP Specifications 210 8.6.3 Results for a Security/Defense System Application 213 8.6.4 Results for a Healthcare Application 216 8.6.5 Results for an Ambient Conditions Monitoring Application 220 8.6.6 Sensitivity Analysis 222 8.6.7 Number of Iterations for Convergence 223 8.7 Chapter Summary 223 9 Online Algorithms for Dynamic Optimization of Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 225 9.1 Related Work 227 9.2 Dynamic Optimization Methodology 228 9.2.1 Methodology Overview 228 9.2.2 State Space 229 9.2.3 Objective Function 229 9.2.4 Online Optimization Algorithms 230 9.3 Experimental Results 233 9.3.1 Experimental Setup 233 9.3.2 Results 235 9.4 Chapter Summary 239 10 A Lightweight Dynamic Optimization Methodology for Embedded Wireless Sensor Networks 241 10.1 Related Work 243 10.2 Dynamic Optimization Methodology 244 10.2.1 Overview 244 10.2.2 State Space 246 10.2.3 Optimization Objection Function 246 10.3 Algorithms for Dynamic Optimization Methodology 248 10.3.1 Initial Tunable Parameter Value Settings and Exploration Order 248 10.3.2 Parameter Arrangement 249 10.3.3 Online Optimization Algorithm 251 10.3.4 Computational Complexity 252 10.4 Experimental Results 252 10.4.1 Experimental Setup 253 10.4.2 Results 255 10.5 Chapter Summary 266 11 Parallelized Benchmark-Driven Performance Evaluation of Symmetric Multiprocessors and Tiled Multicore Architectures for Parallel Embedded Systems 269 11.1 Related Work 271 11.2 Multicore Architectures and Benchmarks 272 11.2.1 Multicore Architectures 272 11.2.2 Benchmark Applications and Kernels 273 11.3 Parallel Computing Device Metrics 275 11.4 Results 277 11.4.1 Quantitative Comparison of SMPs and TMAs 277 11.4.2 Benchmark-Driven Results for SMPs 278 11.4.3 Benchmark-Driven Results for TMAs 280 11.4.4 Comparison of SMPs and TMAs 282 11.5 Chapter Summary 285 12 High-Performance Optimizations on Tiled Manycore Embedded Systems: A Matrix Multiplication Case Study 287 12.1 Related Work 290 12.1.1 Performance Analysis and Optimization 290 12.1.2 Parallelized MM Algorithms 290 12.1.3 Cache Blocking 291 12.1.4 Tiled Manycore Architectures 292 12.2 Tiled Manycore Architecture (TMA) Overview 293 12.2.1 Intel’s TeraFLOPS Research Chip 294 12.2.2 IBM’s Cyclops-64 (C64) 296 12.2.3 Tilera’s TILEPro64 297 12.2.4 Tilera’s TILE64 300 12.3 Parallel Computing Metrics and Matrix Multiplication (MM) Case Study 301 12.3.1 Parallel Computing Metrics for TMAs 301 12.3.2 Matrix Multiplication (MM) Case Study 302 12.4 Matrix Multiplication Algorithms’ Code Snippets for Tilera’s TILEPro64 303 12.4.1 Serial Non-blocked Matrix Multiplication Algorithm 303 12.4.2 Serial Blocked Matrix Multiplication Algorithm 304 12.4.3 Parallel Blocked Matrix Multiplication Algorithm 307 12.4.4 Parallel Blocked Cannon’s Algorithm for Matrix Multiplication 309 12.5 Performance Optimization on a Manycore Architecture 314 12.5.1 Performance Optimization on a Single Tile 314 12.5.2 Parallel Performance Optimizations 315 12.5.3 Compiler-Based Optimizations 319 12.6 Results 323 12.6.1 Data Allocation, Data Decomposition, Data Layout, and Communication 324 12.6.2 Performance Optimizations on a Single Tile 327 12.6.3 Parallel Performance Optimizations 332 12.7 Chapter Summary 339 13 Conclusions 343 References 349 Index 369

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Book SynopsisThis book focuses on the emerging research topic green (energy efficient) wireless networks which has drawn huge attention recently from both academia and industry. This topic is highly motivated due to important environmental, financial, and quality-of-experience (QoE) considerations.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii Dedication xv Part I INTRODUCTION TO GREEN NETWORKS 1 Green Network Fundamentals 3 1.1 Introduction: Need for Green Networks 3 1.2 Traffic Models 5 1.2.1 Traffic Spatial Fluctuation Modelling 6 1.2.2 Traffic Temporal Fluctuation Modelling 8 1.3 Energy Efficiency and Consumption Models in Wireless Networks 9 1.3.1 Throughput Models 9 1.3.2 Power Consumption Models 10 1.3.3 Energy Efficiency and Consumption Models 19 1.4 Performance Trade-Offs 23 1.4.1 Network-side Trade-Offs 24 1.4.2 Mobile User Trade-Offs 26 1.5 Summary 28 2 Green Network Solutions 29 2.1 Green Solutions and Analytical Models at Low and/or Bursty Call Traffic Loads 29 2.1.1 Dynamic Planning 29 2.1.2 MT Radio Interface Sleep Scheduling 34 2.1.3 Discussion 37 2.2 Green Solutions and Analytical Models at High and/or Continuous Call Traffic Loads 38 2.2.1 Scheduling for Single-Network Access 38 2.2.2 Scheduling for Multi-Homing Access 41 2.2.3 Scheduling with Small-Cells 41 2.2.4 Relaying and Device-to-Device Communications 42 2.2.5 Scheduling with Multiple Energy Sources 45 2.2.6 Discussion 47 2.3 Green Projects and Standards 48 2.4 Road Ahead 49 2.5 Summary 52 Part II MULTI-HOMING RESOURCE ALLOCATION 3 Green Multi-homing Approach 55 3.1 Heterogeneous Wireless Medium 55 3.1.1 Wireless Networks 56 3.1.2 Mobile Terminals 57 3.1.3 Radio Resources and Propagation Attenuation 57 3.2 Green Multi-homing Resource Allocation 58 3.3 Challenging Issues 60 3.3.1 Single-User versus Multiuser System 60 3.3.2 Single-Operator versus Multioperator System 60 3.3.3 Fairness 61 3.3.4 Centralized versus Decentralized Implementation 61 3.3.5 In-device Coexistence Interference 62 3.3.6 Computational Complexity 66 3.3.7 Number of MT Radio Interfaces versus Number of Available Networks 67 3.4 Summary 69 4 Multi-homing for a Green Downlink 70 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Win–Win Cooperative Green Resource Allocation 72 4.2.1 Non-cooperative Single-Network Solution 73 4.2.2 Win–Win Cooperative Solution 75 4.2.3 Benchmark: Sum Minimization Solution 81 4.2.4 Performance Evaluation 81 4.3 IDC Interference-Aware Green Resource Allocation 86 4.3.1 IDC Interference-Aware Resource Allocation Design 87 4.3.2 Performance Evaluation 90 4.4 Summary 93 5 Multi-homing for a Green Uplink 94 5.1 Introduction 94 5.2 Green Multi-homing Uplink Resource Allocation for Data Calls 95 5.2.1 Optimal Green Uplink Radio Resource Allocation with QoS Guarantee 97 5.2.2 Suboptimal Uplink Energy-Efficient Radio Resource Allocation 102 5.2.3 Performance Evaluation 104 5.3 Green Multi-homing Uplink Resource Allocation for Video Calls 107 5.3.1 Energy Management Sub-system Design 109 5.3.2 Performance Evaluation 114 5.4 Summary 117 6 Radio Frequency and Visible Light Communication Internetworking 119 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 VLC Fundamentals 120 6.2.1 VLC Transceivers 120 6.2.2 VLC Channel 122 6.2.3 Interference Issues in VLC 124 6.2.4 VLC–RF Internetworking 126 6.3 Green RF–VLC Internetworking 128 6.3.1 Energy Efficiency Maximization 129 6.3.2 Performance Evaluation 133 6.3.3 Green VLC–RF Internetworking Challenging Issues 137 6.4 Summary 138 Part III NETWORK MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS 7 Dynamic Planning in Green Networks 141 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Dynamic Planning with Dense Small-Cell Deployment 142 7.2.1 Energy-Efficient and QoS-Aware Cell Zooming 144 7.2.2 Performance Evaluation 145 7.3 Dynamic Planning with Cooperative Networking 148 7.3.1 Optimal Resource On–Off Switching Framework 150 7.3.2 Performance Evaluation 152 7.4 Balanced Dynamic Planning Approach 154 7.4.1 Two-Timescale Approach 157 7.4.2 Performance Evaluation 162 7.5 Summary 164 8 Greening the Cell Edges 166 8.1 Introduction 166 8.1.1 Why Cell-on-Edge Deployment? 167 8.1.2 Background Work 168 8.2 Two-Tier Small-Cell-on-Edge Deployment 169 8.2.1 Network Layout 169 8.2.2 Bandwidth Partition and Channel Allocation 170 8.2.3 Mobile User Distribution 171 8.3 Energy-Aware Transmission Design 171 8.3.1 Path-Loss Model for Strong LOS Conditions 171 8.3.2 Composite Fading Channel for Strong LOS Conditions 172 8.4 Area Spectral Efficiency of HetNets 173 8.5 Analytical Bounds on ASE of HetNets 176 8.5.1 Mean Achievable Capacity Based on MGF Approach 176 8.5.2 Assumptions to Derive Upper and Lower Bounds 177 8.5.3 Analytical Bounds on the Capacity of Macro-cell Network 179 8.5.4 Analytical Bounds on the Capacity of Small-Cell Networks 180 8.6 Analytical Bounds on ASE over Generalized-K Fading Channel 181 8.7 Energy Analysis of HetNets 183 8.7.1 Energy Consumption of Two-Tier HetNets 184 8.7.2 Energy Savings of Two-Tier HetNets 184 8.8 Ecology and Economics of HetNets 185 8.8.1 CO2e Emissions and Reduction in CO2e Emissions 186 8.8.2 Daily CO2e Emissions Profile 186 8.8.3 Low-Carbon Economy 186 8.9 Summary 188 Appendix A - Simulation Parameters 189 Appendix B - Proof of (8.38) 189 9 D2D Communications in Hierarchical HetNets 191 9.1 Introduction 191 9.2 Modelling Hierarchical Heterogeneous Networks 192 9.2.1 Network Architecture 193 9.2.2 D2D User Density in Hierarchical HetNets 194 9.2.3 Spectrum Partitioning in Hierarchical HetNets 196 9.2.4 Power Control over D2D Links 196 9.3 Spectral Efficiency Analysis 197 9.3.1 Traditional HetNet 197 9.3.2 Hierarchical HetNet 198 9.4 Average User Transmission Power Analysis 200 9.4.1 Discussion on Transmission Power Analysis of D2D Users 202 9.5 Backhaul Energy Analysis 204 9.5.1 Backhaul Power Consumption 204 9.5.2 Backhaul Energy Efficiency 205 9.5.3 Considerations on Backhaul Energy Efficiency of Hierarchical HetNet 206 9.6 Summary 208 Appendix A 209 Appendix B - Simulation Parameters 210 10 Emerging Device-Centric Communications 211 10.1 Introduction 211 10.2 Emerging Device-Centric Paradigms 212 10.2.1 Device-to-Device Communication Management 213 10.2.2 Device-to-Device Communication Architecture 213 10.2.3 Device-to-Device Communication Challenges 214 10.3 Devices-to-Device Communications 214 10.3.1 System Model 214 10.4 Optimal Selection of Source Devices and Radio Interfaces 216 10.4.1 Device Selection Criteria 217 10.4.2 Ascending Proxy Auction for Device Selection 218 10.4.3 Discussions on Device and Radio Interface Selection 219 10.5 Optimal Packet Split among Devices 221 10.6 Green Analysis of Mobile Devices 224 10.6.1 Energy Consumption of Mobile Devices 225 10.6.2 Electricity Cost for Mobile Charging 226 10.6.3 Battery Life of Mobile Devices 227 10.7 Some Challenges and Future Directions 228 10.7.1 Centralized Ds2D Set-up 228 10.7.2 Decentralized Ds2D Set-up 228 10.8 Summary 229 References 230 Index 245

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Book SynopsisThe third edition of this popular reference covers enabling technologies for building up 5G wireless networks. Due to extensive research and complexity of the incoming solutions for the next generation of wireless networks it is anticipated that the industry will select a subset of these results and leave some advanced technologies to be implemented later,. This new edition presents a carefully chosen combination of the candidate network architectures and the required tools for their analysis. Due to the complexity of the technology, the discussion on 5G will be extensive and it will be difficult to reach consensus on the new global standard. The discussion will have to include the vendors, operators, regulators as well as the research and academic community in the field. Having a comprehensive book will help many participants to join actively the discussion and make meaningful contribution to shaping the new standard.Table of ContentsPreface xv 1 Introduction: Generalized Model of Advanced Wireless Networks 1 1.1 Network Model 3 1.2 Network Connectivity 5 1.3 Wireless Network Design with Small World Properties 7 1.4 Frequency Channels Backup 11 1.5 Generalized Network Model 13 1.6 Routing Protocols Over s-Lattice Network 14 1.7 Network Performance 16 1.8 Node, Route, Topology, and Network Robustness 19 1.9 Power Consumption 20 1.10 Protocol Complexity 20 1.11 Performance Evaluation 21 1.12 Book Layout 27 Appendix A.1 33 References 34 2 Adaptive Network Layer 35 2.1 Graphs and Routing Protocols 35 2.2 Graph Theory 54 2.3 Routing with Topology Aggregation 56 References 60 3 Mobility Management 65 3.1 Cellular Networks 65 3.2 Cellular Systems with Prioritized Handoff 89 3.3 Cell Residing Time Distribution 100 3.4 Mobility Prediction in Pico- and Micro-Cellular Networks 105 Appendix A.3 Distance Calculation in an Intermediate Cell 116 References 122 4 Ad Hoc Networks 126 4.1 Routing Protocols 126 4.2 Hybrid Routing Protocol 146 4.3 Scalable Routing Strategies 152 4.4 Multipath Routing 160 4.5 Clustering Protocols 162 4.6 Cashing Schemes for Routing 175 4.7 Distributed QoS Routing 181 References 190 5 Sensor Networks 194 5.1 Introduction 194 5.2 Sensor Network Parameters 196 5.3 Sensor Network Architecture 199 5.4 Mobile Sensor Network Deployment 209 5.5 Directed Diffusion 212 5.6 Aggregation in Wireless Sensor Networks 216 5.7 Boundary Estimation 220 5.8 Optimal Transmission Radius in Sensor Networks 227 5.9 Data Funneling 233 5.10 Equivalent Transport Control Protocol in Sensor Networks 236 References 237 6 Security 244 6.1 Authentication 244 6.2 Security Architecture 253 6.3 Key Management 257 6.4 Security in Ad Hoc Networks 261 6.5 Security in Sensor Networks 268 References 269 7 Network Economics 272 7.1 Fundamentals of Network Economics 272 7.2 Wireless Network Microeconomics: Data Sponsoring 286 7.3 Spectrum Pricing for Market Equilibrium 291 7.4 Sequential Spectrum Sharing 300 7.5 Data Plan Trading 308 References 315 8 Multi-Hop Cellular Networks 318 8.1 Modeling Multi-Hop Multi-Operator Multi-Technology Wireless Networks 318 8.2 Technology Background 319 8.3 System Model and Notation 321 8.4 m3 Route Discovery Protocols 323 8.5 Performance of m3 Route Discovery Protocols 327 8.6 Protocol Complexity 329 8.7 Traffic Offloading Incentives 330 8.8 Performance Illustrations 335 References 344 9 Cognitive Networks 346 9.1 Technology Background 346 9.2 Spectrum Auctions for Multi-hop Cognitive Networks 350 9.3 Compound Auctioning in Multi-hop Cognitive Cellular Networks 363 References 388 10 Stochastic Geometry 391 10.1 Background Theory 391 References 398 11 Heterogeneous Networks 402 11.1 Preliminaries 402 11.2 Self-Organized Small Cell Networks 404 11.3 Dynamic Network Architecture 411 11.4 Economics of Heterogeneous Networks 434 References 443 12 Access Point Selection 446 12.1 Background Technology 446 12.2 Network Selection Game 449 12.3 Joint Access Point Selection and Power Allocation 453 12.4 Joint AP Selection and Beamforming Optimization 463 References 474 13 Self-Organizing Networks 478 13.1 Self-Organizing Network Optimization 478 13.2 System Model 478 13.3 Joint Optimization of Tilts and AP Association 481 References 484 14 Complex Networks 486 14.1 Evolution Towards Large-Scale Networks 486 14.2 Network Characteristics 491 14.3 Random Graphs 494 References 496 15 Massive MIMO 499 15.1 Linearly Precoded Multicellular Downlink System 499 15.2 System Model 503 15.3 Optimization for Perfect Channel State Information 505 15.4 Robust Designs for WSRM Problem 509 Appendix A.15 519 Appendix B.15 519 References 521 16 Network Optimization Theory 523 16.1 Introduction 523 16.2 Layering as Optimization Decomposition 524 16.3 Cross-Layer Optimization 533 16.4 Optimization Problem Decomposition Methods 543 References 554 17 Network Information Theory 557 17.1 Capacity of Ad Hoc Networks 557 17.2 Information Theory and Network Architectures 569 17.3 Cooperative Transmission in Wireless Multihop Ad Hoc Networks 577 References 584 18 Stability of Advanced Network Architectures 585 18.1 Stability of Cooperative Cognitive Wireless Networks 585 18.2 System Model 586 18.4 Optimal Control Policy 592 18.5 Achievable Rates 594 18.6 Stabilizing Transmission Policies 598 References 605 19 Multi-Operator Spectrum Sharing 607 19.1 Business Models for Spectrum Sharing 607 19.2 Spectrum Sharing in Multi-hop Networks 638 References 656 20 Large Scale Networks and Mean Field Theory 659 20.1 MFT for Large Heterogeneous Cellular Networks 659 20.2 Large Scale Network Model Compression 664 20.3 Mean Field Theory Model of Large Scale DTN Networks 668 20.4 Mean Field Modeling of Adaptive Infection Recovery in Multicast DTN Networks 674 20.5 Mean Field Theory for Scale-Free Random Networks 701 20.6 Spectrum Sharing and MFT 709 20.7 Modeling Dynamics of Complex System 711 Appendix A.20 Iterative Algorithm to Solve Systems of Nonlinear ODEs (DiNSE-Algorithm) 721 Appendix B.20 Infection Rate of Destinations for DNCM 722 Appendix C.20 Infection Rate for Basic Epidemic Routing 722 References 722 21 mmWave Networks 726 21.1 mmWave Technology in Subcellular Architecture 726 21.2 Microeconomics of Dynamic mmWave Networks 737 References 747 22 Cloud Computing in Wireless Networks 750 22.1 Technology Background 750 22.2 System Model 752 22.3 System Optimization 756 22.4 Dynamic Control Algorithm 758 22.5 Achievable Rates 761 22.6 Stabilizing Control Policies 763 References 769 23 Wireless Networks and Matching Theory 771 23.1 Background Technology: Matching Markets 772 23.2 Distributed Stable Matching in Multiple Operator Cellular Network with Traffic Offloading 776 23.3 College Admissions Game Model for Cellular Networks with Traffic Offloading 779 23.4 Many to Many Matching Games for Caching in Wireless Networks 783 23.5 Many to One Matching with Externalities in Cellular Networks with Traffic Offloading 787 23.6 Security in Matching of Device to Device Pairs in Cellular Networks 791 References 795 24 Dynamic Wireless Network Infrastructure 797 24.1 Infrastructure Sharing in Multi-Operator Cellular Networks 797 24.2 User Provided Connectivity 802 24.3 Network Virtualization 806 24.4 Software Defined Networks 810 24.5 SDN Security 816 References 819 Index 827

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Book SynopsisAn exhaustive review of the history, current state, and future opportunities for harnessing light to accomplish useful work in materials, this book describes the chemistry, physics, and mechanics of light-controlled systems. Describes photomechanical materials and mechanisms, along with key applications Exceptional collection of leading authors, internationally recognized for their work in this growing area Covers the full scope of photomechanical materials: polymers, crystals, ceramics, and nanocomposites Deals with an interdisciplinary coupling of mechanics, materials, chemistry, and physics Emphasizes application opportunities in creating adaptive surface features, shape memory devices, and actuators; while assessing future prospects for utility in optics and photonics and soft roboticsTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xv 1 A Historical Overview of Photomechanical Effects in Materials, Composites, and Systems 1Toru Ube and Tomiki Ikeda 1.1 Introduction 1 References 25 2 Photochromism in the Solid State 37Oleksandr S. Bushuyev and Christopher J. Barrett 2.1 Molecular Photoswitches in the Solid State 37 2.2 Molecular and Macroscopic Motion of Azobenzene Chromophores 39 2.3 Photomechanical Effects 41 2.4 Solid-State Photochromic Molecular Machines 54 2.5 Surface Mass Transport and Phase Change Effects 62 2.6 Photochromic Reactions in Framework Architectures 65 2.7 Summary and Outlook 68 References 69 3 Photomechanics: Bend, Curl, Topography, and Topology 79Daniel Corbett, Carl D. Modes, and Mark Warner 3.1 The Photomechanics of Liquid-Crystalline Solids 81 3.2 Photomechanics and Its Mechanisms 82 3.3 A Sketch of Macroscopic Mechanical Response in LC Rubbers and Glasses 92 3.4 Photo- and Heat-Induced Topographical and Topological Changes 97 3.5 Continuous Director Variation, Part 1 97 3.6 Mechanico-Geometric Effects, Part 1 100 3.7 Continuous Director Variation, Part 2 100 3.8 Continuous Director Variation, Part 3 103 3.9 Mechanico-Geometric Effects, Part 2 106 3.10 Director Fields with Discontinuities–Advanced Origami! 107 3.11 Mechanico-Geometric Consequences of Nonisometric Origami 110 3.12 Conclusions 110 References 112 4 Photomechanical Effects in Amorphous and Semicrystalline Polymers 117Jeong JaeWie 4.1 Introduction 117 4.2 Polymeric Materials 119 4.3 The Amorphous Polymer State 119 4.4 The Semicrystalline Polymer State 121 4.5 Absorption Processes 124 4.6 Photomechanical Effects in Amorphous and Semicrystalline Azobenzene-Functionalized Polymers 126 4.7 Molecular Alignment 132 4.8 Annealing and Aging 138 4.9 Sub-Tg SegmentalMobility 142 4.10 Cross-Link Density 145 4.11 Concluding Remarks 146 References 148 5 Photomechanical Effects in Liquid-Crystalline Polymer Networks and Elastomers 153Timothy J. White 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Optically Responsive Liquid Crystal Polymer Networks 159 5.3 Literature Survey 165 5.4 Outlook and Conclusion 169 References 171 6 Photomechanical Effects in Polymer Nanocomposites 179Balaji Panchapakesan, Farhad Khosravi, James Loomis, and Eugene M. Terentjev 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Photomechanical Actuation in Polymer–Nanotube Composites 180 6.3 Fast Relaxation of Carbon Nanotubes in Polymer Composite Actuators 186 6.4 Highly Oriented Nanotubes for Photomechanical Response and Flexible Energy Conversion 191 6.5 Photomechanical Actuation Based on 2-D Nanomaterial (Graphene)–Polymer Composites 205 6.6 Applications of Photomechanical Actuation in Nanopositioning 213 6.7 Future Outlook 224 Acknowledgments 225 References 225 7 Photomechanical Effects in Photochromic Crystals 233Lingyan Zhu, Fei Tong, Rabih O. Al-Kaysi, and Christopher J. Bardeen 7.1 Introduction 233 7.2 General Principles for Organic Photomechanical Materials 234 7.3 History and Background 234 7.4 Modes of Mechanical Action 240 7.5 Photomechanical Molecular Crystal Systems 242 7.6 Future Directions 260 7.7 Conclusion 264 Acknowledgments 264 References 264 8 Photomechanical Effects in Piezoelectric Ceramics 275Kenji Uchino 8.1 Introduction 275 8.2 Photovoltaic Effect 276 8.3 Photostrictive Effect 288 8.4 Photostrictive Device Applications 294 8.5 Concluding Remarks 299 References 300 9 Switching Surface Topographies Based on Liquid Crystal Network Coatings 303Danqing Liu and Dirk J. Broer 9.1 Introduction 303 9.2 Liquid Crystal Networks 304 9.3 Conclusions 322 References 322 10 Photoinduced Shape Programming 327Taylor H.Ware 10.1 One-Way Shape Memory 329 10.2 Two-Way Shape Memory 343 10.3 Summary and Outlook 358 References 358 11 Photomechanical Effects to Enable Devices 369M. Ravi Shankar 11.1 Introduction 369 11.2 Analog Photomechanical Actuators 371 11.3 Discrete-State (Digital) Photomechanical Actuators 373 11.4 Photomechanical Mechanisms and Machines 387 References 388 12 Photomechanical Effects in Materials, Composites, and Systems: Outlook and Future Challenges 393Timothy J.White 12.1 Introduction 393 12.2 Outlook and Challenges 393 12.3 Conclusion 401 References 401 Index 405

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Book SynopsisProvides unique coverage of wireless sensor system applications in space, underwater, underground, and extreme industrial environments in one volume This book covers the challenging aspects of wireless sensor systems and the problems and conditions encountered when applying them in outer space, under the water, below the ground, and in extreme industrial environments. It explores the unique aspects of designs and solutions that address those problems and challenges, and illuminates the connections, similarities, and differences between the challenges and solutions in those various environments. The creation of Wireless Sensor Systems for Extreme Environments is a response to the spread of wireless sensor technology into fields of health, safety, manufacturing, space, environmental, smart cities, advanced robotics, surveillance, and agriculture. It is the first of its kind to present, in a single reference, the unique aspects of wireless sensor system desiTable of ContentsList of Contributors xviiPreface xxi Part I Wireless Sensor Systems for Extreme Environments–Generic Solutions 11 Wireless Sensor Systems for Extreme Environments 3Habib F. Rashvand and Ali Abedi 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Wireless Sensor Systems for Space and other Extreme Environments 4 1.3 Chapter Summaries 6 2 Feedback Control Challenges with Wireless Networks in Extreme Environments 21Lonnie Labonte, Ali Abedi and Praveen Shankar 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Controllers in Extreme Environments 22 2.3 System Dynamics and Control Design Fundamentals 24 2.4 Feedback Control Challenges when using Wireless Networks 32 2.5 Effect of Delay on the Transient Response of a Second-order System 38 2.6 Discussion 42 2.7 Summary 42 References 43 3 Optimizing Lifetime and Power Consumption for Sensing Applications in Extreme Environments 45Gholamreza Alirezaei, Omid Taghizadeh and Rudolf Mathar 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Overview and Technical System Description 46 3.3 Power and Lifetime Optimisation 48 3.4 Visualization and Numerical Results 54 3.5 Application of Power Control in Extreme Environments 58 3.6 Summary 62 References 63 4 On Improving Connectivity-based Localisation in Wireless Sensor Networks 65Bang Wang 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Connectivity-based Localisation in One-Hop Networks 66 4.3 Connectivity-based Localisation in Multi-Hop Networks 67 4.4 On Improving Connectivity-based Localisation 70 4.5 Summary 78 References 79 5 Rare-events Sensing and Event-powered Wireless Sensor Networks 83Winston K.G. Seah and David Harrison 5.1 Coverage Preservation [19] 85 5.2 Event-powered Wireless Sensor [20] 92 5.3 Cluster-Centric WSNs for Rare-event Monitoring [21] 100 5.4 Summary 106 References 107 Part II Space WSS Solutions and Applications 111 6 Battery-less Sensors for Space 113Ali Abedi 6.1 Introduction 113 6.2 Wired or Wireless Sensing: Cost–Benefit Analysis 114 6.3 Active and Passive Wireless Sensors 117 6.4 Design Considerations for Battery-less Sensors 119 7 Contact Plan Design for Predictable Disruption-tolerant Space Sensor Networks 123Juan A. Fraire, Pablo Madoery and Jorge M. Finochietto 7.1 Introduction 123 7.2 Contact Plan Design Methodology 129 7.3 Contact Plan Design Analysis 140 7.4 Contact Plan Design Discussion 145 7.5 Summary 147 References 147 8 Infrared Wireless Sensor Network Development for the Ariane Launcher 151Hendra Kesuma, Johannes Sebald and Steffen Paul 8.1 Introduction 151 8.2 Development Processes and Measurements of Infrared Transceiver ASIC 154 8.3 Summary 166 References 167 9 Multichannel Wireless Sensor Networks for Structural Health Monitoring of Aircraft and Launchers 169Pascale Minet, Gerard Chalhoub, Erwan Livolant, Michel Misson, Ridha Soua, Rana Diab, Badr Rmili and Jean-Francois Perelgritz 9.1 Context 169 9.2 General Multichannel Challenges 173 9.3 Multichannel Challenges for Data Gathering Support 181 9.4 Sahara: Example of Solution 188 9.5 Summary 197 10 Wireless Piezoelectric Sensor Systems for Defect Detection and Localization 201Xuewu Dai, Shang Gao, Kewen Pan, Jiwen Zhu and Habib F. Rashvand 10.1 Introduction 201 10.2 Lamb Wave-based Defect Detection 204 10.3 Wireless PZT Sensor Networks 209 10.4 Wireless PZT Sensor Node 211 10.5 Distributed Data Processing 212 10.6 Summary 215 11 Navigation and Remote Sensing using Near-space Satellite Platforms 221Wen-Qin Wang and Dingde Jiang 11.1 Background and Motivation 221 11.2 Near-space Platforms in Wireless Sensor Systems 225 11.3 Overview of NSPs in Wireless Sensor Systems 228 11.4 Integrated Wireless Sensor Systems 231 11.5 Arrangement of Near-space Platforms 234 11.6 Limitations and Vulnerabilities 236 Part III Underwater and Submerged WSS Solutions 247 12 Underwater Acoustic Sensing: An Introduction 249Habib F. Rashvand, Lloyd Emokpae and James Agajo 12.1 Introduction 249 12.2 Underwater Wireless Smart Sensing 251 12.3 Netted Sensors 256 12.4 Networking 262 12.5 Typical Underwater Sensing Applications 266 13 Underwater Anchor Localisation Using Surface-reflected Beams 275Lloyd Emokpae 13.1 Introduction 275 13.2 UREAL Angle of Arrival Measurements 277 13.3 Closed-form Least Squares Position Estimation 278 13.4 Prototype Evaluation 281 Summary 286 References 286 14 Coordinates Determination of Submerged Sensors with a Single Beacon Using the Cayley–Menger Determinant 287Anisur Rahman and Vallipuram Muthukkumarasamy 14.1 Introduction 287 14.2 Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks 288 14.3 Dynamicity of Underwater Environment 289 14.4 Proposed Configuration 291 14.5 Distance Determination 293 14.6 Coordinate Determination 297 14.7 Simulation Results 304 15 Underwater and Submerged Wireless Sensor Systems: Security Issues and Solutions 311Kübra Kalkan, Albert Levi and Sherali Zeadally 15.1 Introduction 311 15.2 Underwater Wireless Sensor Systems 312 15.3 Security Requirements, Issues and Solutions 314 15.4 Future Challenges and Research Directions 320 15.5 Summary 321 References 321 Part IV Underground and Confined Environments WSS Solutions 325 16 Achievable Throughput of Magnetic Induction Based Sensor Networks for Underground Communications 327Steven Kisseleff, Ian F. Akyildiz and Wolfgang H. Gerstacker 16.1 Introduction 327 16.2 Method 329 16.3 Results 343 16.4 Discussion 346 16.5 Summary 347 References 348 17 Agricultural Applications of Underground Wireless Sensor Systems: A Technical Review 351Saeideh Sheikhpour, Ali Mahani and Habib F. Rashvand 17.1 Introduction 351 17.2 WSN Technology in Agriculture 352 17.3 WSNs for Agriculture 357 17.4 Design Challenges of WSNs in Agriculture 359 17.5 WSN-based Applications in Agriculture 366 Part V Industrial and Other WSS Solutions 381 18 Structural Health Monitoring with WSNs 383Chaoqing Tang, Habib F. Rashvand, Gui Yun Tian, Pan Hu, Ali Imam Sunny and Haitao Wang 18.1 Introduction 383 18.2 SHM Sensing Techniques 386 18.3 WSN-enabled SHM Applications 391 18.4 Network Topology and Overlays 397 19 Error Manifestations in Industrial WSN Communications and Guidelines for Countermeasures 409Filip Barac, Mikael Gidlund, Tingting Zhang and Emiliano Sisinni 19.1 Introduction 409 19.2 Compromising Factors in IWSN Communication 410 19.3 The Statistics of Link-quality Metrics for Poor Links 414 19.4 The Statistical Properties of Bit- and Symbol-Errors 417 19.5 Guidelines for Countermeasures 419 20 A Medium-access Approach to Wireless Technologies for Reliable Communication in Aircraft 431Murat Gürsu, Mikhail Vilgelm, Eriza Fazli and Wolfgang Kellerer 20.1 Introduction 431 20.2 Reliability Assessment Framework 433 20.3 Metrics and Parameters 438 20.4 Candidate Wireless Technologies 440 20.5 Evaluation 448 21 Applications of Wireless Sensor Systems for Monitoring of Offshore Windfarms 453Deepshikha Agarwal and Nand Kishor 21.1 Introduction 453 21.2 Literature Review 454 21.3 WSNs in Windfarms 454 21.4 Simulation and Discussion 463 Summary 465 References 466 Index 469

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive look at state-of-the-art ADP theory and real-world applications This book fills a gap in the literature by providing a theoretical framework for integrating techniques from adaptive dynamic programming (ADP) and modern nonlinear control to address data-driven optimal control design challenges arising from both parametric and dynamic uncertainties. Traditional model-based approaches leave much to be desired when addressing the challenges posed by the ever-increasing complexity of real-world engineering systems. An alternative which has received much interest in recent years are biologically-inspired approaches, primarily RADP.Despite their growing popularity worldwide, until now books on ADP have focused nearly exclusively on analysis and design, with scant consideration given to how it can be applied to address robustness issues, a new challenge arising from dynamic uncertainties encountered in common engineering problems. Robust Adaptive Dynamic Programmingzeros in Table of ContentsABOUT THE AUTHORS xi PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii ACRONYMS xvii GLOSSARY xix 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 From RL to RADP 1 1.2 Summary of Each Chapter 5 References 6 2 ADAPTIVE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FOR UNCERTAIN LINEAR SYSTEMS 11 2.1 Problem Formulation and Preliminaries 11 2.2 Online Policy Iteration 14 2.3 Learning Algorithms 16 2.4 Applications 24 2.5 Notes 29 References 30 3 SEMI-GLOBAL ADAPTIVE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING 35 3.1 Problem Formulation and Preliminaries 35 3.2 Semi-Global Online Policy Iteration 38 3.3 Application 43 3.4 Notes 46 References 46 4 GLOBAL ADAPTIVE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FOR NONLINEAR POLYNOMIAL SYSTEMS 49 4.1 Problem Formulation and Preliminaries 49 4.2 Relaxed HJB Equation and Suboptimal Control 52 4.3 SOS-Based Policy Iteration for Polynomial Systems 55 4.4 Global ADP for Uncertain Polynomial Systems 59 4.5 Extension for Nonlinear Non-Polynomial Systems 64 4.6 Applications 70 4.7 Notes 81 References 81 5 ROBUST ADAPTIVE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING 85 5.1 RADP for Partially Linear Composite Systems 86 5.2 RADP for Nonlinear Systems 97 5.3 Applications 103 5.4 Notes 109 References 110 6 ROBUST ADAPTIVE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING FOR LARGE-SCALE SYSTEMS 113 6.1 Stability and Optimality for Large-Scale Systems 113 6.2 RADP for Large-Scale Systems 122 6.3 Extension for Systems with Unmatched Dynamic Uncertainties 124 6.4 Application to a Ten-Machine Power System 128 6.5 Notes 132 References 133 7 ROBUST ADAPTIVE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING AS A THEORY OF SENSORIMOTOR CONTROL 137 7.1 ADP for Continuous-Time Stochastic Systems 138 7.2 RADP for Continuous-Time Stochastic Systems 143 7.3 Numerical Results: ADP-Based Sensorimotor Control 153 7.4 Numerical Results: RADP-Based Sensorimotor Control 165 7.5 Discussion 167 7.6 Notes 172 References 173 A BASIC CONCEPTS IN NONLINEAR SYSTEMS 177 A.1 Lyapunov Stability 177 A.2 ISS and the Small-Gain Theorem 178 B SEMIDEFINITE PROGRAMMING AND SUM-OF-SQUARES PROGRAMMING 181 B.1 SDP and SOSP 181 C PROOFS 183 C.1 Proof of Theorem 3.1.4 183 C.2 Proof of Theorem 3.2.3 186 References 188 INDEX 191

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Book SynopsisSystematically presents the input-output finite-time stability (IO-FTS) analysis of dynamical systems, covering issues of analysis, design and robustness The interest in finite-time control has continuously grown in the last fifteen years. This book systematically presents the input-output finite-time stability (IO-FTS) analysis of dynamical systems, with specific reference to linear time-varying systems and hybrid systems. It discusses analysis, design and robustness issues, and includes applications to real world engineering problems. While classical FTS has an important theoretical significance, IO-FTS is a more practical concept, which is more suitable for real engineering applications, the goal of the research on this topic in the coming years. Key features: Includes applications to real world engineering problems. Input-output finite-time stability (IO-FTS) is a practical concept, useful to study the behavior of a dynamiTable of ContentsPreface xi List of Acronyms xiii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Finite-Time Stability (FTS) 1 1.2 Input-Output Finite-Time Stability 6 1.3 FTS and Finite-Time Convergence 10 1.4 Background 10 1.4.1 Vectors and signals 10 1.4.2 Impulsive dynamical linear systems 12 1.5 Book Organization 13 2. Linear Time-Varying Systems: IO-FTS Analysis 15 2.1 Problem Statement 15 2.2 IO-FTS for W2 Exogenous Inputs 16 2.2.1 Preliminaries 16 2.2.2 Necessary and sufficient conditions for IO-FTS for W2 exogenous inputs 22 2.2.3 Computational issues 25 2.3 A Sufficient Condition for IO-FTS for W∞ Inputs 26 2.4 Summary 29 3. Linear Time-Varying Systems: Design of IO Finite-Time Stabilizing Controllers 33 3.1 IO Finite-Time Stabilization via State Feedback 34 3.2 IO-Finite-Time Stabilization via Output Feedback 36 3.3 Summary 42 4. IO-FTS with Nonzero Initial Conditions 45 4.1 Preliminaries 45 4.2 Interpretation of the Norm of the Operator LSNZ 48 4.3 Sufficient Conditions for IO-FTS-NZIC 52 4.4 Design of IO Finite-Time Stabilizing Controllers NZIC 55 4.4.1 State feedback 56 4.4.2 Output feedback 57 4.5 Summary 58 5. IO-FTS with Constrained Control Inputs 61 5.1 Structured IO-FTS and Problem Statement 61 5.2 Structured IO-FTS Analysis 63 5.3 State Feedback Design 65 5.4 Design of an Active Suspension Control System Using Structured IO-FTS 67 5.5 Summary 70 6. Robustness Issues and the Mixed H∞/FTS Control Problem 71 6.1 Preliminaries 72 6.1.1 System setting 72 6.1.2 IO-FTS with an H∞ bound 73 6.2 Robust and Quadratic IO-FTS with an H∞ Bound 77 6.2.1 Main result 78 6.2.2 A numerical example 80 6.3 State Feedback Design 82 6.3.1 Numerical example: Cont’d 85 6.4 Case study: Quadratic IO-FTS with an H∞ Bound of the Inverted Pendulum 86 6.5 Summary 88 7. Impulsive Dynamical Linear Systems: IO-FTS Analysis 89 7.1 Background 90 7.1.1 Preliminary results for the W2 case 90 7.2 Main Results: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for IO-FTS in Presence of W2 Signals 91 7.3 Example and Computational Issues 96 7.4 Main Result: A Sufficient Condition for IO-FTS in Presence of W∞ Signals 98 7.4.1 An illustrative example 99 7.5 Summary 100 8. Impulsive Dynamical Linear Systems: IO Finite-Time Stabilization via Dynamical Controllers 103 8.1 Problem Statement 103 8.2 IO Finite-Time Stabilization of IDLSs: W2 Signals 104 8.2.1 A numerical example 107 8.3 IO Finite-Time Stabilization of IDLSs: W∞ Signals 108 8.3.1 Illustrative example: Cont’d 110 8.4 Summary 111 9. Impulsive Dynamical Linear Systems with Uncertain Resetting Times 113 9.1 Arbitrary Switching 113 9.2 Uncertain Switching 114 9.3 Numerical Example 116 9.3.1 Known resetting times 117 9.3.2 Arbitrary switching 118 9.3.3 Uncertain switching 118 9.4 Summary 119 10. Hybrid Architecture for Deployment of Finite-Time Control Systems 121 10.1 Controller Architecture 121 10.2 Examples 123 10.2.1 Hybrid active suspension control 123 10.2.2 Lateral collision avoidance system 124 10.3 Summary 129 A. Fundamentals on Linear Time-Varying Systems 131 B. Schur Complements 137 C. Computation of Feasible Solutions to Optimizations Problems Involving DLMIs 139 D. Solving Optimization Problems Involving DLMIs using MATLAB® 145 E. Examples of Applications of IO-FTS Control Design to Real-World Systems 151 References 159 Index 167

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Book SynopsisLEDs are in the midst of revolutionizing the lighting industry Up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of light-emitting materials and devices used in solid state lighting and displaysPresents the fundamental principles underlying luminescenceIncludes inorganic and organic materials and devicesLEDs offer high efficiency, long life and mercury free lighting solutionsTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii About the Editor xix 1. Principles of Solid State Luminescence 1Adrian Kitai 1.1 Introduction to Radiation from an Accelerating Charge 1 1.2 Radiation from an Oscillating Dipole 4 1.3 Quantum Description of an Electron during a Radiation Event 5 1.4 The Exciton 7 1.5 Two-Electron Atoms 10 1.6 Molecular Excitons 16 1.7 Band-to-Band Transitions 19 1.8 Photometric Units 23 1.9 The Light Emitting Diode 28 References 30 2. Quantum Dots for Displays and Solid State Lighting 31Jesse R. Manders, Debasis Bera, Lei Qian and Paul H. Holloway 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Nanostructured Materials 34 2.3 Quantum Dots 35 2.3.1 History of Quantum Dots 36 2.3.2 Structure and Properties Relationship 36 2.3.3 Quantum Confinement Effects on Band Gap 38 2.4 Relaxation Process of Excitons 41 2.4.1 Radiative Relaxation 42 2.4.2 Nonradiative Relaxation Process 45 2.5 Blinking Effect 46 2.6 Surface Passivation 47 2.6.1 Organically Capped QDs 47 2.6.2 Inorganically Passivated QDs 48 2.7 Synthesis Processes 49 2.7.1 Top-Down Synthesis 49 2.7.2 Bottom-Up Approach 50 2.8 Optical Properties and Applications 53 2.8.1 Displays 53 2.8.2 Solid State Lighting 73 2.8.3 Biological Applications 78 2.9 Perspective 81 Acknowledgments 82 References 82 3. Color Conversion Phosphors for Light Emitting Diodes 91Jack Silver, George R. Fern and Robert Withnall 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 Disadvantages of Using LEDs Without Color Conversion Phosphors 93 3.3 Phosphors for Converting the Color of Light Emitted by LEDs 95 3.3.1 General Considerations 95 3.3.2 Requirements of Color Conversion Phosphors 95 3.3.3 Commonly Used Activators in Color Conversion Phosphors 97 3.3.4 Strategies for Generating White Light from LEDs 97 3.3.5 Outstanding Problems with Color Conversion Phosphors for LEDs 98 3.4 Survey of the Synthesis and Properties of Some Currently Available Color Conversion Phosphors 99 3.4.1 Phosphor synthesis 99 3.4.2 Metal Oxide Based Phosphors 99 3.4.3 Metal Sulfide Based Phosphors 113 3.4.4 Metal Nitrides 117 3.4.5 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxo-Nitrides 120 3.4.6 Metal Fluoride Phosphors 121 3.5 Multi-Phosphor pcLEDs 122 3.6 Quantum Dots 123 3.7 Laser Diodes 124 3.8 Conclusions 125 Acknowledgments 125 References 126 4. Nitride and Oxynitride Phosphors for Light Emitting Diodes 135Le Wang and Rong-Jun Xie 4.1 Introduction 135 4.2 Synthesis of Nitride and Oxynitride Phosphors 138 4.2.1 Solid State Reaction Method 138 4.2.2 Gas Reduction and Nitridation 139 4.2.3 Carbothermal Reduction and Nitridation 140 4.2.4 Alloy Nitridation 140 4.2.5 Ammonothermal Synthesis 141 4.3 Photoluminescence Properties of Nitride and Oxynitride Phosphors 142 4.3.1 Luminescence Spectra of Typical Activators 142 4.4 Emerging Nitride Phosphors and Their Synthesis 165 4.4.1 Narrow-Band Red Nitride Phosphors 165 4.4.2 Narrow-Band Green Nitride Phosphors 167 4.5 Applications of Nitride Phosphors 169 4.5.1 General Lighting 169 4.5.2 LCD Backlight 172 References 173 5. Organic Light Emitting Device Materials for Displays 183Tyler Davidson-Hall, Yoshitaka Kajiyama and Hany Aziz 5.1 Introduction to OLEDs and Organic Electroluminscent Materials 184 5.2 OLED Light Emitting Materials 186 5.2.1 Neat Emitters 187 5.2.2 Guest Emitters 192 5.2.3 Aggregate-Induced Emission 201 5.3 OLED Displays 203 5.3.1 RGB Color Patterning Approaches 203 5.3.2 Display Addressing Approaches 204 5.3.3 FMM Technology 207 5.3.4 Alternative Fabrication Techniques 208 5.3.5 Outlook on OLED Display Commercialization 212 5.4 Quantum Dot Light Emitting Devices 213 5.4.1 QD Optimization by Core–Shell Morphology 214 5.4.2 Organic Charge Transport QD-LEDs 215 5.4.3 Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Charge Transport QD-LEDs 217 5.4.4 Energy Transfer Enhanced QD-LEDs 219 5.4.5 QD-LED Lifetime 220 References 220 6. White-Light Emitting Materials for Organic Light-Emitting Diode-Based Displays and Lighting 231Simone Lenk, Michael Thomschke and Sebastian Reineke 6.1 Introduction 231 6.2 White Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 233 6.3 Photometry and Radiometry 236 6.3.1 OLED Efficiencies 239 6.3.2 Color Stimulus Specification 239 6.3.3 Color Correlated Temperature 240 6.3.4 Color Rendering Index 241 6.3.5 White Light 241 6.4 Device Optics 242 6.4.1 Optical Properties of Thin Films 242 6.4.2 Optical Outcoupling 245 6.4.3 Top-Emitting OLEDs 247 6.4.4 Simulation Tools 248 6.5 Materials for Efficient White Electroluminescence 248 6.5.1 Spin Statistics for Electroluminescence 248 6.5.2 Fluorescence-Emitting Molecules 249 6.5.3 Advanced Concepts Comprising Fluorescent Emitters 251 6.5.4 Phosphorescence-Emitting Molecules 251 6.5.5 Single White-Light Emitting Phosphorescent Materials 256 6.5.6 Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence-Based Emitters 257 6.5.7 Phosphorescence Versus Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence 261 6.5.8 TADF Assisted Fluorescence (TAF) Emitters 263 6.6 Polymer Concepts 263 6.6.1 Various Concepts Involving Polymer Materials 265 6.6.2 Learning from High Performance Small Molecules for High Efficiency Polymers 267 6.7 Summary and Outlook 268 References 269 7. Light Emitting Diode Materials and Devices 273Michael R. Krames 7.1 Introduction 273 7.2 Light Emitting Diode Basics 273 7.2.1 Construction 273 7.2.2 Recombination Processes 275 7.2.3 Heterojunctions 277 7.2.4 Quantum Wells 278 7.2.5 Current Injection 278 7.2.6 Forward voltage 280 7.3 Material Systems 280 7.3.1 Ga(As,P) 280 7.3.2 Ga(As,P):N 281 7.3.3 (Al,Ga)As 282 7.3.4 (Al,Ga)InP 282 7.3.5 (Ga,In)N 283 7.3.6 White Light Generation 285 7.4 Packaging Technologies 288 7.4.1 Low Power 288 7.4.2 Mid Power 288 7.4.3 High Power 289 7.4.4 Chip-On-Board LEDs 290 7.4.5 Multi-Color LEDs 290 7.4.6 Electrostatic Discharge Protection 290 7.5 Performance 291 7.5.1 Light Extraction Efficiency 291 7.5.2 Monochromatic Performance 292 7.5.3 White-Emitting Performance 298 7.5.4 Temperature Effects 306 7.5.5 Reliability 306 References 307 8. Alternating Current Thin Film and Powder Electroluminescence 313Adrian Kitai 8.1 Introduction 313 8.2 Background of TFEL 314 8.2.1 Thick Film Dielectric EL Structure 315 8.2.2 Ceramic Sheet Dielectric EL 316 8.2.3 Sphere-Supported TFEL 316 8.3 Theory of Operation 317 8.4 Electroluminescent Phosphors 324 8.5 Thin Film Double-Insulating EL Devices 325 8.6 Current Status of TFEL 327 8.7 Background of AC Powder EL 328 8.8 Mechanism of Light Emission in AC Powder EL 329 8.9 Electroluminescence Characteristics of AC Powder EL Materials 333 8.10 Emission Spectra of AC Powder EL 334 8.11 Luminance Degradation 335 8.12 Moisture and Operating Environment 336 8.13 Current Status and Limitations of Powder EL 336 8.14 Research Directions in AC Powder EL and TFEL 336 References 337 Index 339

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Book SynopsisOffers a holistic approach to guiding product design, manufacturing, and after-sales support as the manufacturing industry transitions from a product-oriented model to service-oriented paradigm This book provides fundamental knowledge and best industry practices in reliability modelling, maintenance optimization, and service parts logistics planning. It aims to develop an integrated product-service system (IPSS) synthesizing design for reliability, performance-based maintenance, and spare parts inventory. It also presents a lifecycle reliability-inventory optimization framework where reliability, redundancy, maintenance, and service parts are jointly coordinated. Additionally, the book aims to report the latest advances in reliability growth planning, maintenance contracting and spares inventory logistics under non-stationary demand condition. Reliability Engineering and Service provides in-depth chapter coverage of topics such as: Reliability Concepts and Models; Mean and Variance Table of ContentsSeries Editor’s Foreword xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgement xxv About the Companion Website xxvii 1 Basic Reliability Concepts and Models 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Reliability Definition and Hazard Rate 1 1.3 Mean Lifetime and Mean Residual Life 9 1.4 System Downtime and Availability 14 1.5 Discrete Random Variable for Reliability Modeling 15 1.6 Continuous Random Variable for Reliability Modeling 18 1.7 Bayesian Reliability Model 28 1.8 Markov Model and Poisson Process 30 References 34 Problems 35 2 Reliability Estimation with Uncertainty 41 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 Reliability Block Diagram 41 2.3 Series Systems 43 2.4 Parallel Systems 47 2.5 Mixed Series and Parallel Systems 49 2.6 Systems with k-out-of-n:G Redundancy 55 2.7 Network Systems 58 2.8 Reliability Confidence Intervals 66 2.9 Reliability of Multistate Systems 68 2.10 Reliability Importance 71 References 78 Problems 81 3 Design and Optimization for Reliability 89 3.1 Introduction 89 3.2 Lifecycle Reliability Optimization 89 3.3 Reliability and Redundancy Allocation 95 3.4 Multiobjective Reliability–Redundancy Allocation 103 3.5 Failure-in-Time Based Design 108 3.6 Failure Rate Considering Uncertainty 115 3.7 Fault-Tree Method 118 3.8 Failure Mode, Effect, and Criticality Analysis 121 3.9 Case Study: Reliability Design for Six Sigma 123 References 127 Problems 129 4 Reliability Growth Planning 133 4.1 Introduction 133 4.2 Classification of Failures 133 4.3 Failure Mode Types 136 4.4 No Fault Found (NFF) Failures 138 4.5 Corrective Action Effectiveness 141 4.6 Reliability Growth Model 145 4.7 Reliability Growth and Demonstration Test 154 4.8 Lifecycle Reliability Growth Planning 159 4.9 Case Study 164 References 166 Problems 169 5 Accelerated Stress Testing and Economics 171 5.1 Introduction 171 5.2 Design of Accelerated Stress Test 171 5.3 Scale Acceleration Model and Usage Rate 178 5.4 Arrhenius Model 184 5.5 Eyring Model and Power Law Model 187 5.6 Semiparametric Acceleration Models 190 5.7 Highly Accelerated Stress Screening Testing 195 5.8 A Case Study for HASS Project 199 References 204 Problems 206 6 Renewal Theory and Superimposed Renewal 211 6.1 Introduction 211 6.2 Renewal Integral Equation 211 6.3 Exponential and Erlang Renewal 219 6.4 Generalized Exponential Renewal 221 6.5 Weibull Renewal with Decreasing Failure Rate 226 6.6 Weibull Renewal with Increasing Failure Rate 230 6.7 Renewal under Deterministic Fleet Expansion 239 6.8 Renewal under Stochastic Fleet Expansion 245 6.9 Case Study 248 References 252 Problems 255 7 Performance-Based Maintenance 259 7.1 Introduction 259 7.2 Corrective Maintenance 259 7.3 Preventive Maintenance 262 7.4 Condition-Based Maintenance 267 7.5 Inverse Gaussian Degradation Process 275 7.6 Non-Stationary Gaussian Degradation Process 278 7.7 Performance-Based Maintenance 285 7.8 Contracting for Performance-Based Logistics 293 7.9 Case Study – RUL Prediction of Electronics Equipment 295 Appendix 298 References 299 Problems 304 8 Warranty Models and Services 309 8.1 Introduction 309 8.2 Warranty Concept and Its Roles 309 8.3 Warranty Policy for Non-repairable Product 312 8.4 Warranty Models for Repairable Products 321 8.5 Warranty Service for Variable Installed Base 325 8.6 Warranty Service under Reliability Growth 329 8.7 Other Warranty Services 335 8.8 Case Study: Design for Warranty 340 References 343 Problems 346 9 Basic Spare Parts Inventory Models 349 9.1 Introduction 349 9.2 Overview of Inventory Model 349 9.3 Deterministic EOQ Model 352 9.4 The News vendor Model 357 9.5 The (q, r) Inventory System under Continuous Review 361 9.6 The (s, S, T) Policy under Periodic Review 368 9.7 Basic Supply Chain Systems 372 9.8 Spare Parts Demand Forecasting 377 References 383 Problems 387 10 Repairable Inventory System 391 10.1 Introduction 391 10.2 Characteristics of Repairable Inventory Systems 391 10.3 Single-Echelon Inventory with Uncapacitated Repair 396 10.4 Single-Echelon Inventory with Capacitated Repair 402 10.5 Repairable Inventory for a Finite Fleet Size 405 10.6 Single-Echelon Inventory with Emergency Repair 408 10.7 Repairable Inventory Planning under Fleet Expansion 412 10.8 Multi-echelon, Multi-item Repairable Inventory 417 10.9 Case Study: Teradyne’s Spare Parts Supply Chain 424 References 432 Problems 434 11 Reliability and Service Integration 439 11.1 Introduction 439 11.2 The Rise of Product-Service System 439 11.3 Allocation of Reliability and Inventory for a Static Fleet 444 11.4 Allocation of Reliability and Inventory under Fleet Expansion 451 11.5 Joint Allocation of Maintenance, Inventory, and Repair 458 11.6 Case Study: Supporting Wind Generation Using PBC 467 Appendix 470 References 475 Problems 479 12 Resilience Engineering and Management 481 12.1 Introduction 481 12.2 Resilience Concept and Measures 481 12.3 Disaster Resilience Models of Power Grid 489 12.4 Prevention, Survivability, and Recovery 500 12.5 Variable Generation System Model 508 12.6 Case Study: Design for Resilient Distribution Systems 512 References 516 Problems 520 Index 525

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Book SynopsisThe recent widespread use of mobile Internet together with the advent of numerous smart applications has led to the explosive growth of the mobile data traffic in the last few years. This momentum of mobile traffic will continue due to the emerging needs of connecting people, machines, and applications through mobile infrastructure. As a result, the current and projected dramatic growth of mobile data traffic necessitates the development of fifth-generation (5G) mobile communications technology. As a result, there is significant interest in the development of innovative backhaul and fronthaul solutions for ultra-dense heterogeneous networks. This book brings together mobile stakeholders from academia and industry to identify and promote technical challenges and recent results related to smart backhaul/fronthaul research for future communication system such as 5G. Moreover, it presents a comprehensive analysis on different types of backhaul/fronthaul technology and topology. ITable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction: The Communication Haul Challenge 1 Kazi Mohammed Saidul Huq and Jonathan Rodriguez 1.1 Introduction 1 References 7 2 A C‐RAN Approach for 5G Applications 9 Kazi Mohammed Saidul Huq, Shahid Mumtaz and Jonathan Rodriguez 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 From Wired to Wireless Backhaul/Fronthaul Technologies 11 2.3 Architecture for Coordinated Systems According to Baseline 3GPP 12 2.4 Reference Architecture for C‐RAN 15 2.4.1 System Architecture for Fronthaul‐based C‐RAN 15 2.4.2 Cloud Resource Optimizer 16 2.5 Potential Applications for C‐RAN‐based Mobile Systems 20 2.5.1 Virtualization of D2D Services 20 2.5.2 Numerical Analysis 21 2.6 Conclusion 24 References 27 3 Backhauling 5G Small Cells with Massive‐MIMO‐Enabled mmWave Communication 29 Ummy Habiba, Hina Tabassum and Ekram Hossain 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Existing Wireless Backhauling Solutions for 5G Small Cells 31 3.3 Fundamentals of mmWave and Massive MIMO Technologies 32 3.3.1 MmWave Communication 32 3.3.2 MU‐MIMO with Large Antenna Arrays 33 3.4 MmWave Backhauling: State of the Art and Research Issues 34 3.4.1 LOS mmWave Backhauling 35 3.4.2 NLOS mmWave Backhauling 36 3.4.3 Research Challenges for Backhauling in 5G Networks 37 3.5 Case Study: Massive‐MIMO‐based mmWave Backhauling System 40 3.5.1 System Model 41 3.5.2 Maximizing User Rate 44 3.5.3 Matching Theory for User Association 45 3.5.4 Numerical Results 48 3.6 Conclusion 51 Acknowledgement 51 References 51 4 Fronthaul for a Flexible Centralization in Cloud Radio Access Networks 55 Jens Bartelt, Dirk Wübben, Peter Rost, Johannes Lessmann and Gerhard Fettweis 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Radio Access Network Architecture 57 4.3 Functional Split Options 58 4.4 Requirements of Flexible Functional Splits 60 4.4.1 Split A 61 4.4.2 Split B 62 4.4.3 Split C 63 4.4.4 Split D 64 4.4.5 Summary and Examples 64 4.5 Statistical Multiplexing in a Flexibly Centralized Network 67 4.5.1 Distribution of FH Data Rate per Base Station 67 4.5.2 Outage Rate 68 4.5.3 Statistical Multiplexing on Aggregation Links 69 4.6 Convergence of Fronthaul and Backhaul Technologies 73 4.6.1 Physical Layer Technologies 73 4.6.2 Data/MAC Layer Technologies 75 4.6.3 Network Layer Technologies 77 4.6.4 Control and Management Plane 78 4.7 Enablers of a Flexible Functional Split 78 4.8 Summary 80 Acknowledgement 82 References 82 5 Analysis and Optimization for Heterogeneous Backhaul Technologies 85 Gongzheng Zhang, Tony Q. S. Quek, Marios Kountouris, Aiping Huang and Hangguan Shan 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Backhaul Model 88 5.2.1 Network Model 88 5.2.2 Delay Model 89 5.2.3 Cost Model 92 5.3 Backhaul Packet Delay Analysis 93 5.3.1 Mean Backhaul Packet Delay 93 5.3.2 Delay‐limited Success Probability 95 5.3.3 Performance Evaluation 97 5.4 Backhaul Deployment Cost Analysis 101 5.5 Backhaul‐aware BS Association Policy 103 5.5.1 Mean Network Packet Delay 103 5.5.2 BS Association Policy 107 5.5.3 Numerical Results 109 5.6 Conclusions 115 References 115 6 Dynamic Enhanced Inter‐cell Interference Coordination Strategy with Quality of Service Guarantees for Heterogeneous Networks 119 Wei‐Sheng Lai, Tsung‐Hui Chang, Kuan‐Hsuan Yeh and Ta‐Sung Lee 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 System Model and Problem Statement 121 6.2.1 Network Environments 121 6.2.2 QoS Constraint 124 6.2.3 Problem Statements 125 6.3 Dynamic Interference Coordination Strategy 126 6.3.1 SMDP Analysis 126 6.3.2 Admission Control with a QoS Constraint 128 6.3.3 Joint Dynamic eICIC and Admission Control for Sum Rate Maximization 129 6.3.4 Joint Dynamic eICIC and Admission Control for Proportional Fairness Maximization 130 6.4 Numerical Results 132 6.5 Conclusion 140 References 140 7 Cell Selection for Joint Optimization of the Radio Access and Backhaul in Heterogeneous Cellular Networks 143 Antonio De Domenico, Valentin Savin and Dimitri Ktenas 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 System Model and Problem Statement 145 7.2.1 Joint RAN/BH Capacity 146 7.2.2 Problem Statement 151 7.3 Proposed Solutions 151 7.3.1 Evolve 151 7.3.2 Relax 154 7.3.3 Practical Implementation of the Proposed Algorithms 156 7.4 Simulation Results 157 7.5 Conclusion 165 References 165 8 Multiband and Multichannel Aggregation for High‐speed Wireless Backhaul: Challenges and Solutions 167 Xiaojing Huang 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Spectrum for Wireless Backhaul 170 8.2.1 Microwave Band and Channel Allocation 170 8.2.2 Millimetre‐wave Band and Usage Trend 171 8.3 Multiband and Multichannel Aggregation 172 8.3.1 Band and Channel Aggregation Overview 172 8.3.2 System Architecture 174 8.3.3 Subband Aggregation and Implementations 177 8.3.4 Full SDR Approach for Band and Channel Aggregation 183 8.4 Spectrally Efficient Channel Aggregation 185 8.4.1 System Overview 185 8.4.2 Frequency‐domain Multiplexing Without a Guard Band 186 8.4.3 Digital IF Signal Generation and Reception 188 8.4.4 High-performance OFDM Transmission 188 8.5 Practical System Examples 189 8.5.1 CSIRO Ngara Backhaul 190 8.5.2 CSIRO High‐speed E‐band Systems 191 8.6 Conclusions 194 References 194 9 Security Challenges for Cloud Radio Access Networks 195 Victor Sucasas, Georgios Mantas and Jonathan Rodriguez 9.1 Introduction 195 9.2 Overview of C‐RAN Architecture 196 9.3 Intrusion Attacks in the C‐RAN Environment 197 9.3.1 Entry Points for Intrusion Attacks 198 9.3.2 Technical Challenges for Intrusion Detection Counter‐mechanisms 201 9.3.3 Insider Attacks 203 9.4 Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks Against C‐RAN 205 9.4.1 DDoS Attacks Using Signalling Amplification 206 9.4.2 DDoS Attacks Against External Entities Over the Mobile Network 207 9.4.3 DDoS Attacks from External Compromised IP Networks Over the Mobile Network 208 9.5 Conclusions 209 References 209 Index 213

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