Technology, Engineering & Agriculture Books

Book SynopsisVolume 2 is a detailed, illustrated look at NASA's Gemini space program in the 1960s.Trade Review... these are the most detailed accounts I know of these pioneering programmes, bringing back memories of long ago for those of us old enough, providing inspiration for those not. -- Ray Ward, Popular Astronomy, December 2016

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Book SynopsisIn the 1960s, when computers were regarded as giant calculators, J.C.R. Licklider at MIT saw them as the ultimate communication device. With Defence Department funds, he and a band of computer whizzes began work on a nationwide network of computers. This is an account of their daring adventure.

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Book SynopsisNEC3 Engineering and Construction Contract is the core document from which the options A-F are extracted. It contains all core clauses and secondary option clauses, together with the schedules of cost components and forms for contract data. Construction Clients' Board endorsement of NEC3 The Construction Clients' Board (formerly Public Sector Clients' Forum) recommends that public sector organisations use the NEC3 contracts when procuring construction. Standardising use of this comprehensive suite of contracts should help to deliver efficiencies across the public sector and promote behaviours in line with the principles of Achieving Excellence in Construction.Table of ContentsCore clauses • 1 General • 2 The Contractor’s main responsibilities • 3 Time • 4 Testing and Defects • 5 Payment • 6 Compensation events • 7 Title • 8 Risks and insurance • 9 Termination Main option clauses • A Priced contract with activity schedule • B Priced contract with bill of quantities • C Target contract with activity schedule • D Target contract with bill of quantities • E Cost reimbursable contract • F Management contract Dispute resolution • Option W1 • Option W2 Secondary option clauses • X1 Price adjustment for inflation • X2 Changes in the law • X3 Multiple currencies • X4 Parent company guarantee • X5 Sectional Completion • X6 Bonus for early Completion • X7 Delay damages • X12 Partnering • X13 Performance bond • X14 Advanced payment to the Contractor • X15 Limitation of the Contractor’s liability for his design to reasonable skill and care • X16 Retention • X17 Low performance damages • X18 Limitation of liability • Y(UK)2 The Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 • Y(UK)3 The Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 • Z Additional conditions of contract Note: Options X8 to X11 and Y(UK)1 are not used Schedule of Cost Components Shorter Schedule of Cost Components Contract Data Index

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisA detailed, illustrated look at NASA's Mercury space program in the 1960s.Trade Reviewthese are the most detailed accounts I know of these pioneering programmes, bringing back memories of long ago for those of us old enough, providing inspiration for those not. - Ray Ward, Popular Astronomy, Dec 2016

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisThe UK's definitive guidebook to good pubs that serve real ale across the UK. Refreshed and updated for its 52nd edition it is fully revised and features recommended pubs across the United Kingdom that serve the best real ale as well as a comprehensive listing of UK breweries.

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Book SynopsisStep-by-step instructions enable chemical engineers to master key software programs and solve complex problems Today, both students and professionals in chemical engineering must solve increasingly complex problems dealing with refineries, fuel cells, microreactors, and pharmaceutical plants, to name a few. With this book as their guide, readers learn to solve these problems using their computers and Excel, MATLAB, Aspen Plus, and COMSOL Multiphysics. Moreover, they learn how to check their solutions and validate their results to make sure they have solved the problems correctly. Now in its Second Edition, Introduction to Chemical Engineering Computing is based on the author's firsthand teaching experience. As a result, the emphasis is on problem solving. Simple introductions help readers become conversant with each program and then tackle a broad range of problems in chemical engineering, including: Equations of state Chemical reactTable of ContentsPreface xv 1 Introduction 1 Organization, 2 Algebraic Equations, 3 Process Simulation, 3 Differential Equations, 3 Appendices, 4 2 Equations of State 7 Equations of State—Mathematical Formulation, 8 Solving Equations of State Using Excel (Single Equation in One Unknown), 12 Solution Using “Goal Seek”, 12 Solution Using “Solver”, 13 Example of a Chemical Engineering Problem Solved Using “Goal Seek”, 13 Solving Equations of State Using MATLAB (Single Equation in One Unknown), 15 Example of a Chemical Engineering Problem Solved Using MATLAB, 16 Another Example of a Chemical Engineering Problem Solved Using MATLAB, 18 Equations of State With Aspen Plus, 20 Example Using Aspen Plus, 20 Specific Volume of a Mixture, 21 Chapter Summary, 26 Problems, 26 Numerical Problems, 28 3 Vapor–Liquid Equilibria 29 Flash and Phase Separation, 30 Isothermal Flash—Development of Equations, 30 Example Using Excel, 32 Thermodynamic Parameters, 33 Example Using MATLAB, 34 Example Using Aspen Plus, 35 Nonideal Liquids—Test of Thermodynamic Model, 39 NIST Thermo Data Engine in Aspen Plus, 41 Chapter Summary, 44 Problems, 44 Numerical Problems, 48 4 Chemical Reaction Equilibria 49 Chemical Equilibrium Expression, 50 Example of Hydrogen for Fuel Cells, 51 Solution Using Excel, 52 Solution Using MATLAB, 53 Chemical Reaction Equilibria with Two or More Equations, 56 Multiple Equations, Few Unknowns Using MATLAB, 56 Chemical Reaction Equilibria Using Aspen Plus, 59 Chapter Summary, 59 Problems, 60 Numerical Problems, 63 5 Mass Balances with Recycle Streams 65 Mathematical Formulation, 66 Example Without Recycle, 68 Example with Recycle; Comparison of Sequential and Simultaneous Solution Methods, 70 Example of Process Simulation Using Excel for Simple Mass Balances, 72 Example of Process Simulation Using Aspen Plus for Simple Mass Balances, 73 Example of Process Simulation with Excel Including Chemical Reaction Equilibria, 74 Did the Iterations Converge?, 75 Extensions, 76 Chapter Summary, 76 Class Exercises, 76 Class Discussion (After Viewing Problem 5.10 on the Book Website), 76 Problems, 77 6 Thermodynamics and Simulation of Mass Transfer Equipment 85 Thermodynamics, 86 Guidelines for Choosing, 89 Properties Environment | Home | Methods Selection Assistant, 89 Thermodynamic Models, 90 Example: Multicomponent Distillation with Shortcut Methods, 91 Multicomponent Distillation with Rigorous Plate-to-Plate Methods, 95 Example: Packed Bed Absorption, 97 Example: Gas Plant Product Separation, 100 Example: Water Gas Shift Equilibrium Reactor with Sensitivity Block and Design Specification Block, 102 Chapter Summary, 106 Class Exercise, 106 Problems (using Aspen Plus), 106 7 Process Simulation 109 Model Library, 110 Example: Ammonia Process, 110 Development of the Model, 112 Solution of the Model, 115 Examination of Results, 115 Testing the Thermodynamic Model, 118 Utility Costs, 118 Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 120 Convergence Hints, 120 Optimization, 122 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, 125 Cellulose to Ethanol, 126 Chapter Summary, 128 Class Exercise, 128 Problems, 128 Problems Involving Corn Stover and Ethanol, 131 8 Chemical Reactors 137 Mathematical Formulation of Reactor Problems, 138 Example: Plug Flow Reactor and Batch Reactor, 138 Example: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor, 140 Using MATLAB to Solve Ordinary Differential Equations, 140 Simple Example, 140 Use of the “Global” Command, 142 Passing Parameters, 143 Example: Isothermal Plug Flow Reactor, 144 Example: Nonisothermal Plug Flow Reactor, 146 Using Comsol Multiphysics to Solve Ordinary Differential Equations, 148 Simple Example, 148 Example: Isothermal Plug Flow Reactor, 150 Example: Nonisothermal Plug Flow Reactor, 151 Reactor Problems with Mole Changes and Variable Density, 153 Chemical Reactors with Mass Transfer Limitations, 155 Plug Flow Chemical Reactors in Aspen Plus, 158 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors, 161 Solution Using Excel, 162 Solution Using MATLAB, 163 CSTR with Multiple Solutions, 163 Transient Continuous Stirred Tank Reactors, 164 Chapter Summary, 168 Problems, 169 Numerical Problems (See Appendix E), 174 9 Transport Processes in One Dimension 175 Applications in Chemical Engineering—Mathematical Formulations, 176 Heat Transfer, 176 Diffusion and Reaction, 177 Fluid Flow, 178 Unsteady Heat Transfer, 180 Introduction to Comsol Multiphysics, 180 Example: Heat Transfer in a Slab, 181 Solution Using Comsol Multiphysics, 181 Solution Using MATLAB, 184 Example: Reaction and Diffusion, 185 Parametric Solution, 186 Example: Flow of a Newtonian Fluid in a Pipe, 188 Example: Flow of a Non-Newtonian Fluid in a Pipe, 190 Example: Transient Heat Transfer, 193 Solution Using Comsol Multiphysics, 193 Solution Using MATLAB, 195 Example: Linear Adsorption, 196 Example: Chromatography, 199 Pressure Swing Adsorption, 203 Chapter Summary, 204 Problems, 204 Chemical Reaction, 204 Chemical Reaction and Heat Transfer, 205 Mass Transfer, 207 Heat Transfer, 207 Electrical Fields, 207 Fluid Flow, 208 Numerical Problems (See Appendix E), 213 10 Fluid Flow in Two and Three Dimensions 215 Mathematical Foundation of Fluid Flow, 217 Navier–Stokes Equation, 217 Non-Newtonian Fluid, 218 Nondimensionalization, 219 Option One: Slow Flows, 219 Option Two: High-Speed Flows, 220 Example: Entry Flow in a Pipe, 221 Example: Entry Flow of a Non-Newtonian Fluid, 226 Example: Flow in Microfluidic Devices, 227 Example: Turbulent Flow in a Pipe, 230 Example: Start-Up Flow in a Pipe, 233 Example: Flow Through an Orifice, 235 Example: Flow in a Serpentine Mixer, 239 Microfluidics, 240 Mechanical Energy Balance for Laminar Flow, 243 Pressure Drop for Contractions and Expansions, 245 Generation of Two-Dimensional Inlet Velocity Profiles for Three-Dimensional Simulations, 246 Chapter Summary, 249 Problems, 249 11 Heat and Mass Transfer in Two and Three Dimensions 259 Convective Diffusion Equation, 260 Nondimensional Equations, 261 Example: Heat Transfer in Two Dimensions, 262 Example: Heat Conduction with a Hole, 264 Example: Convective Diffusion in Microfluidic Devices, 265 Example: Concentration-Dependent Viscosity, 268 Example: Viscous Dissipation, 269 Example: Chemical Reaction, 270 Example: Wall Reactions, 272 Example: Mixing in a Serpentine Mixer, 272 Microfluidics, 274 Characterization of Mixing, 276 Average Concentration along an Optical Path, 276 Peclet Number, 276 Example: Convection and Diffusion in a Three-Dimensional T-Sensor, 278 Chapter Summary, 280 Problems, 280 Steady, Two-Dimensional Problems, 280 Heat Transfer with Flow, 283 Reaction with Known Flow, 284 Reaction with No Flow, 285 Solve for Concentration and Flow, 286 Numerical Problems, 289 Appendix A HintsWhen Using Excel® 291 Introduction, 291 Calculation, 292 Plotting, 293 Import and Export, 294 Presentation, 294 Appendix B HintsWhen Using MATLAB® 297 General Features, 298 Screen Format, 298 Stop/Closing the Program, 299 m-files and Scripts, 299 Workspaces and Transfer of Information, 300 “Global” Command, 300 Display Tools, 301 Classes of Data, 301 Programming Options: Input/Output, Loops, Conditional Statements, Timing, and Matrices, 302 Input/Output, 302 Loops, 303 Conditional Statements, 303 Timing Information, 304 Matrices, 304 Matrix Multiplication, 304 Element by Element Calculations, 305 More Information, 306 Finding and Fixing Errors, 306 Eigenvalues of a Matrix, 307 Evaluate an Integral, 307 Spline Interpolation, 307 Interpolate Data, Evaluate the Polynomial, and Plot the Result, 308 Solve Algebraic Equations, 309 Using “fsolve”, 309 Solve Algebraic Equations Using “fzero” or “fminsearch” (Both in Standard MATLAB), 309 Integrate Ordinary Differential Equations that are Initial Value Problems, 309 Differential-Algebraic Equations, 311 Checklist for Using “ode45” and Other Integration Packages, 311 Plotting, 312 Simple Plots, 312 Add Data to an Existing Plot, 312 Dress Up Your Plot, 312 Multiple Plots, 313 3D Plots, 313 More Complicated Plots, 314 Use Greek Letters and Symbols in the Text, 314 Bold, Italics, and Subscripts, 314 Other Applications, 315 Plotting Results from Integration of Partial Differential Equations Using Method of Lines, 315 Import/Export Data, 315 Import/Export with Comsol Multiphysics, 318 Programming Graphical User Interfaces, 318 MATLAB Help, 318 Applications of MATLAB, 319 Appendix C Hints When Using Aspen Plus® 321 Introduction, 321 Flowsheet, 323 Model Library, 323 Place Units on Flowsheet, 324 Connect the Units with Streams, 324 Data, 324 Setup, 324 Data Entry, 325 Specify Components, 325 Specify Properties, 325 Specify Input Streams, 326 Specify Block Parameters, 326 Run the Problem, 326 Scrutinize the Stream Table, 327 Checking Your Results, 328 Change Conditions, 328 Report, 329 Transfer the Flowsheet and Mass and Energy Balance to a Word Processing Program, 329 Prepare Your Report, 329 Save Your Results, 330 Getting Help, 330 Advanced Features, 330 Flowsheet Sections, 330 Mass Balance Only Simulations and Inclusion of Solids, 331 Transfer Between Excel and Aspen, 331 Block Summary, 331 Calculator Blocks, 332 Aspen Examples, 334 Molecule Draw, 334 Applications of Aspen Plus, 334 Appendix D HintsWhen Using Comsol Multiphysics® 335 Basic Comsol Multiphysics Techniques, 336 Opening Screens, 336 Equations, 337 Specify the Problem and Parameters, 337 Physics, 339 Definitions, 339 Geometry, 339 Materials, 340 Discretization, 341 Boundary Conditions, 341 Mesh, 342 Solve and Examine the Solution, 342 Solve, 342 Plot, 342 Publication Quality Figures, 343 Results, 343 Probes, 344 Data Sets, 344 Advanced Features, 345 Mesh, 345 Transfer to Excel, 346 LiveLink with MATLAB, 347 Variables, 348 Animation, 349 Studies, 349 Help with Convergence, 349 Help with Time-Dependent Problems, 350 Jump Discontinuity, 350 Help, 351 Applications of Comsol Multiphysics, 351 Appendix E Mathematical Methods 353 Algebraic Equations, 354 Successive Substitution, 354 Newton–Raphson, 354 Ordinary Differential Equations as Initial Value Problems, 356 Euler’s Method, 356 Runge–Kutta Methods, 357 MATLAB and ode45 and ode15s, 357 Ordinary Differential Equations as Boundary Value Problems, 358 Finite Difference Method, 359 Finite Difference Method in Excel, 360 Finite Element Method in One Space Dimension, 361 Initial Value Methods, 363 Partial Differential Equations in time and One Space Dimension, 365 Problems with Strong Convection, 366 Partial Differential Equations in Two Space Dimensions, 367 Finite-Difference Method for Elliptic Equations in Excel, 367 Finite Element Method for Two-Dimensional Problems, 368 Summary, 370 Problems, 370 References 373 Index 379

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Book SynopsisA fully updated version of the popular Introduction to Tribology, the second edition of this leading tribology text introduces the major developments in the understanding and interpretation of friction, wear and lubrication. Considerations of friction and wear have been fully revised to include recent analysis and data work, and friction mechanisms have been reappraised in light of current developments. In this edition, the breakthroughs in tribology at the nano- and micro- level as well as recent developments in nanotechnology and magnetic storage technologies are introduced. A new chapter on the emerging field of green tribology and biomimetics is included. Introduces the topic of tribology from a mechanical engineering, mechanics and materials science points of view Newly updated chapter covers both the underlying theory and the current applications of tribology to industry Updated write-up on nanotribology and nanotechnology and intrTable of ContentsAbout the Author xv Foreword xvii Series Preface xix Preface to the Second Edition xxi Preface to the First Edition xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 1 1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 3 1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 4 1.4 Organization of the Book 6 2 Solid Surface Characterization 9 2.1 The Nature of Surfaces 9 2.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 10 2.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 14 2.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 51 2.5 Closure 84 3 Contact Between Solid Surfaces 91 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 Analysis of the Contacts 92 3.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 146 3.4 Closure 150 4 Adhesion 157 4.1 Introduction 157 4.2 Solid–Solid Contact 158 4.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 172 4.4 Closure 194 5 Friction 199 5.1 Introduction 199 5.2 Solid–Solid Contact 201 5.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 236 5.4 Friction of Materials 239 5.5 Closure 264 6 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 273 6.1 Introduction 273 6.2 Thermal Analysis 274 6.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 298 6.4 Closure 309 7 Wear 315 7.1 Introduction 315 7.2 Types of Wear Mechanism 316 7.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 365 7.4 Wear of Materials 369 7.5 Closure 388 8 Fluid Film Lubrication 399 8.1 Introduction 399 8.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 400 8.3 Viscous Flow and Reynolds Equation 404 8.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 418 8.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 428 8.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 481 8.7 Closure 493 9 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 501 9.1 Introduction 501 9.2 Boundary Lubrication 501 9.3 Liquid Lubricants 511 9.4 Greases 520 9.5 Closure 521 10 Nanotribology 525 10.1 Introduction 525 10.2 SFA Studies 527 10.3 AFM/FFM Studies 538 10.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 598 10.5 Closure 602 11 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 615 11.1 Introduction 615 11.2 Design Methodology 615 11.3 Typical Test Geometries 619 11.4 Closure 628 12 Tribological Components and Applications 631 12.1 Introduction 631 12.2 Common Tribological Components 631 12.3 MEMS/NEMS 644 12.4 Material Processing 656 12.5 Industrial Applications 662 12.6 Closure 676 13 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 683 13.1 Introduction 683 13.2 Green Tribology 683 13.3 Biomimetics 689 13.4 Closure 693 References 694 Further Reading 696 AppendixA Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 697 A.1 Fundamental Constants 697 A.2 Conversion of Units 698 A.3 Useful Relations 698 Index 701

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Book SynopsisSince the publication of the first edition of Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use in 1988, it has become the leading technical book for the industry. From the beginning it was recognised that the complexity of the chocolate industry means that no single person can be an expert in every aspect of it. For example, the academic view of a process such as crystallisation can be very different from that of a tempering machine operator, so some topics have more than one chapter to take this into account. It is also known that the biggest selling chocolate, in say the USA, tastes very different from that in the UK, so the authors in the book were chosen from a wide variety of countries making the book truly international. Each new edition is a mixture of updates, rewrites and new topics. In this book the new subjects include artisan or craft scale production, compound chocolates and sensory.This book is an essential purchase for all those involved in the manufacture,Trade Review'The fifth edition of this invaluable book continues to be the definitive work on all things to do with cocoa and chocolate... The level of detail is well judged, offering explanation, practical advice and plenty of technical and scientific detail in each chapter, but also providing cross references and an excellent bibliography at the end of each chapter to allow further investigation of topics. The writing style is lucid, drawing the reader into the subject and exciting interest and further reading. In addition to the text, there are many useful and interesting photographs, tables, drawings and charts which enhance the discussions and illustrate important points ... This is a book which justifies its place at the hand of anyone involved in cocoa and chocolate. There will be very few in the industry whose knowledge and experience are so comprehensive as not to find useful information between its covers.' Confectionery Production, November 2017Table of ContentsContributors, xxiv Preface, xxxv 1 Traditional chocolate making, 1Stephen T. Beckett 1.1 History, 1 1.2 Outline of the process, 2 1.3 Concept of the book, 7 References, 8 2 Cocoa beans: from tree to factory, 9Mark S. Fowler and Fabien Coutel 2.1 Introduction, 9 2.2 Growing cocoa, 10 2.3 Fermentation and drying, 20 2.4 The cocoa supply chain, 25 2.5 The cocoa value chain: long‐term perspectives and challenges, 31 2.6 Quality assessment of cocoa, 34 2.7 Types and origins of cocoa beans used in chocolate, 42 Conclusions, 47 References, 48 Appendix: Abbreviations, acronyms and organisations, 49 3 Production of cocoa mass, cocoa butter and cocoa powder, 50Henri J. Kamphuis, revised by Mark S. Fowler 3.1 Introduction, 50 3.2 Cleaning of cocoa beans, 50 3.3 Removal of shell, 52 3.4 Breaking and winnowing, 53 3.5 Alkalisation, 54 3.6 Bean and nib roasting, 54 3.7 Cocoa mass (cocoa liquor), 58 3.8 Cocoa butter, 62 3.9 Cocoa press cake and cocoa powder, 65 Conclusion, 69 Appendix: Manufacturers of cocoa processing equipment, 70 References and further reading, 70 4 Sugar and bulk sweeteners, 72Christof Krüger 4.1 Introduction, 72 4.2 The production of sugar, 72 4.3 Sugar qualities, 74 4.4 The storage of sugar, 75 4.5 Sugar grinding and the prevention of sugar dust explosions, 77 4.6 Amorphous sugar, 80 4.7 Other sugars and bulk sweeteners, 81 4.8 Physiological characteristics of sugars, bulk sweeteners and special polysaccharides, 89 4.9 The sweetening power of sugars and bulk sweeteners, 92 4.10 Other sensory properties of sugars and bulk sweeteners, 93 4.11 Solubilities and melting points of sugars and bulk sweeteners, 95 4.12 Maximum conching temperatures of chocolate masses with different bulk sweeteners, 95 4.13 Separate conching process for “no sugar added” chocolates, 97 4.14 Pre‐ and probiotic chocolates, 97 Conclusions, 98 References, 98 5 Ingredients from milk, 102Ulla P. Skytte and Kerry E. Kaylegian 5.1 Introduction, 102 5.2 Milk components, 103 5.3 Milk‐based ingredients for chocolate, 114 Conclusion, 131 References, 131 6 Chocolate Crumb, 135Martin A. Wells 6.1 Introduction and history, 135 6.2 Benefits of milk crumb, 136 6.3 Typical crumb recipes, 137 6.4 Flavour development in chocolate crumb, 137 6.5 Sugar crystallisation during crumb manufacture, 141 6.6 The structure of chocolate crumb, 142 6.7 Typical crumb processes and equipment, 145 6.8 Effect of the crumb process upon the crumb properties, 150 6.9 Changes to crumb during storage, 150 Conclusion, 151 References, 152 7 Properties of cocoa butter and vegetable fats, 153Geoff Talbot 7.1 Introduction, 153 7.2 Cocoa butter, 154 7.3 Cocoa butter equivalents, 162 7.4 Lauric cocoa butter substitutes, 176 7.5 Non‐lauric cocoa butter replacers, 179 7.6 Vegetable fats with specific properties, 181 Conclusion, 182 References and further reading, 183 8 Flavour development in cocoa and chocolate, 185Gottfried Ziegleder 8.1 Introduction, 185 8.2 Fermentation, 185 8.3 Drying, 190 8.4 Roasting, 193 8.5 Conching, 201 8.6 Dark chocolate and milk chocolate, 205 8.7 Flavour release in chocolate, 208 References, 209 9 Particle size reduction, 216Gregory R. Ziegler and Richard Hogg 9.1 Introduction, 216 9.2 Principles of fine grinding, 217 9.3 Grinding equipment, 220 9.4 Cocoa nib grinding, 224 9.5 Chocolate refining, 226 9.6 Particle size reduction and chocolate flow properties, 233 9.7 Particle size and sensory properties, 237 Conclusions, 238 References, 239 10 Conching, 241Stephen T. Beckett, Konstantinos Paggios and Ian Roberts 10.1 Introduction: the reason for conching, 241 10.2 The principles of conching, 242 10.3 The three phases of conching, 248 10.4 Conching machines, 251 Conclusion, 272 References and further reading, 273 11 Chocolate flow properties, 274Bettina Wolf 11.1 Introduction, 274 11.2 Non‐Newtonian flow, 275 11.3 Presentation of viscosity measurements, 278 11.4 Single point flow measurement, 279 11.5 Rotational viscometers, 282 11.6 Vibrational viscometers, 285 11.7 Oscillatory rheometers, 285 11.8 Sample preparation and measurement procedures, 286 11.9 Factors affecting the flow properties of chocolate, 289 11.10 Advanced methods to characterise chocolate flow behaviour, 295 Conclusions, 296 Acknowledgements, 296 References, 296 12 Bulk chocolate handling, 298John H. Walker 12.1 Introduction, 298 12.2 Viscosity and viscometry, 298 12.3 Pump sizes, 301 12.4 General criteria for choosing a pump, 301 12.5 Types of pump, 302 12.6 Pipeline pigging, 307 12.7 Storage of liquid chocolate, 308 12.8 Jacketed pipe work, 309 12.9 Valves, 311 12.10 Contamination removal, 312 Conclusions, 313 Acknowledgements, 313 13 Tempering, 314Erich J. Windhab 13.1 Introduction, 314 13.2 Physics of cocoa butter crystallisation, 315 13.3 Chocolate tempering technology, 316 13.4 Measurement of temper and its related characteristics, 318 13.5 Tempering processes, 323 13.6 Types of tempering machine, 331 13.7 Properties of CBCS tempered chocolate, 346 13.8 Other methods of tempering, 352 Conclusion, 352 Acknowledgements, 353 References and further reading, 353 Appendix: Machinery manufacturers, 355 14 Moulding, enrobing and cooling chocolate products, 356Michael P. Gray, revised and updated by Ángel Máñez-Cortell 14.1 Introduction, 356 14.2 Moulding, 356 14.3 Enrobing, 383 Conclusions, 398 Acknowledgements, 398 References and further reading, 398 15 Non‐conventional machines and processes, 400Dave J. Peters 15.1 Introduction, 400 15.2 Ultrasound, 400 15.3 High shear/low temperature crystalliser, 402 15.4 High pressure temperer, 404 15.5 Extrusion, 405 15.6 “Single shot” depositors, 413 15.7 Aeration of chocolate, 418 15.8 Cold forming technologies, 421 15.9 Paste conching, 428 Conclusions, 428 References, 429 16 Chocolate panning, 431Marcel Aebi, revised by Mark S. Fowler 16.1 Introduction, 431 16.2 Panning methods, 432 16.3 The process of chocolate panning, 434 16.4 Packaging and storage, 444 16.5 The panning department, 445 Conclusions and future developments, 449 References and further reading, 449 Appendix: Manufacturers of panning equipment, 449 17 Chocolate rework, 450Edward Minson and Randall Hofberger 17.1 Introduction, 450 17.2 Rework, 450 17.3 Constraints, 451 17.4 Economics, 453 Conclusions, 455 References, 455 18 Artisan chocolate making, 456Sophie Jewett 18.1 Introduction, 456 18.2 Chocolate trends in mature markets, 456 18.3 Selecting the right product lines to make, 458 18.4 Critical considerations, 464 18.5 Taking products to market, 469 18.6 Selecting the right chocolate, 473 18.7 Hand‐tempering techniques, 474 Conclusions, 478 Further reading, 478 19 Chocolate compounds and coatings, 479Stuart Dale 19.1 Introduction, 479 19.2 What are chocolate compounds and coatings?, 479 19.3 Manufacture of compounds and coatings, 482 19.4 How compounds are used, 485 19.5 Benefits of using chocolate compounds, 485 19.6 Trans fatty acids in chocolate compounds, 488 19.7 Environmental aspects, 489 19.8 Summary of the properties of compound coatings, 489 19.9 The future of compound coatings, 489 References and further reading, 491 20 Recipes, 492Edward G. Wohlmuth 20.1 Chocolate tastes in different countries, 492 20.2 The basic ingredients, 494 20.3 Conching to develop flavours, 495 20.4 Chocolate recipes, 496 Conclusions, 508 21 Sensory evaluation of chocolate and cocoa products, 509Meriel L. Harwood and John E. Hayes 21.1 Introduction, 509 21.2 Types of sensory tests, 510 21.3 Special considerations, 513 21.4 General considerations/good sensory testing practices, 517 Conclusions, 519 References, 519 22 Nutritional and health aspects of chocolate, 521Joshua D. Lambert 22.1 Introduction, 521 22.2 Macronutrients, 522 22.3 Vitamins and minerals, 523 22.4 Flavanols and proanthocyanidins, 523 22.5 Methylxanthines, 524 22.6 Cardiovascular disease, 524 22.7 Obesity and metabolic syndrome, 525 22.8 Inflammation, 526 22.9 Neuroprotective and cognitive effects, 527 Conclusions, 529 Acknowledgements, 529 References, 529 23 Quality control and shelf life, 532Marlene B. Stauffer 23.1 Introduction, 532 23.2 Finding the perfect bean, 532 23.3 Cocoa bean preparation on arrival, 535 23.4 Cocoa bean cleaning, 535 23.5 Roasting of cocoa beans, 537 23.6 Cocoa nib grinding, 539 23.7 Cocoa butter pressing, 541 23.8 Cocoa powder, 542 23.9 Chocolate manufacturing, 542 23.10 Specifications, 547 23.11 Tempering, 548 23.12 Shelf life of finished confections, 549 24 Instrumentation, 555Ulrich Loeser 24.1 Introduction, 555 24.2 Production measurement technology – in‐/on‐line, off‐line, 557 24.3 Laboratory analysis, 584 24.4 Summary of important analytical procedures in a typical quality assurance laboratory, 594 Conclusions, 595 Acknowledgements, 596 References and further reading, 596 25 Food safety in chocolate manufacture and processing, 598Faith Burndred and Liz Peace 25.1 Introduction, 598 25.2 The importance of food safety management in chocolate processing, 598 25.3 HACCP and prerequisite programmes, 599 25.4 Physical hazards, 599 25.5 Chemical hazards, 604 25.6 Microbiological hazards, 607 25.7 Allergen hazards, 614 Conclusions, 617 References, 617 26 Packaging, 620Carl E. Jones 26.1 Introduction, 620 26.2 Confectionery types, 620 26.3 Flow wrap machinery and sealing, 631 26.4 Materials, 633 26.5 Sustainability, 646 26.6 Portion control, 648 26.7 Quality control and environmental criteria, 651 References and further reading, 653 27 The global chocolate confectionery market, 654Jonathan Thomas 27.1 Background, 654 27.2 The global chocolate market, 656 27.3 Industry supply, 657 27.4 Global production and consumption of chocolate, 659 27.5 Reasons for eating confectionery, 662 27.6 The marketing of confectionery, 665 27.7 The regulatory position, 669 Conclusions, 672 References, 674 28 Legal aspects of chocolate manufacture, 675Richard Wood 28.1 Introduction, 675 28.2 International standards – the Codex Alimentarius, 675 28.3 European standards, 680 28.4 United States of America, 686 28.5 Canada, 689 28.6 BRIC markets, 690 28.7 Use of additives, 690 28.8 Labelling, 692 Conclusions, 693 Further reading, 694 29 Intellectual property: Protecting products and processes, 695Patrick J. Couzens 29.1 Introduction, 695 29.2 Patents, 695 29.3 Trade marks, 708 29.4 Designs, 711 29.5 Copyright, 712 29.6 Contracts and agreements, 713 29.7 Trade secrets, 715 29.8 Defensive publication, 717 29.9 Strategy, 717 29.10 Enforcement, 723 29.11 How to find help, 724 Conclusions, 725 References, 725 Appendix: Useful web addresses, 726 30 Future trends, 727Stephen T. Beckett 30.1 Past predictions, 727 30.2 Present position, 729 30.3 Possible future trends, 731 References, 732 Glossary, 734 Useful physical constants, 737 Index, 739

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Book SynopsisThe definitive work on grease lubrication in industrial and vehicle engineering, this book provides an overview of the literature, presents state of the art models, and examines the physical and chemical aspects of grease lubrication, particularly lubrication of rolling bearings.Table of ContentsPreface xvii List of Abbreviations xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why Lubricate Rolling Bearings? 1 1.2 History of Grease Lubrication 2 1.3 Grease Versus Oil Lubrication 3 2 Lubrication Mechanisms 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Definition of Grease 6 2.3 Operating Conditions 6 2.4 The Phases in Grease Lubrication 7 2.5 Film Thickness During the Bleeding Phase 8 2.6 Feed and Loss Mechanisms During the Bleeding Phase 10 2.7 Film Thickness and Starvation (Side Flow) 11 2.8 Track Replenishment 12 2.9 Grease Flow 13 2.10 Wall-Slip 15 2.11 Oxidation 16 2.12 EP Additives 16 2.13 Dynamic Behaviour 17 2.14 Grease Life 17 3 Grease Composition and Properties 23 3.1 Base Oil 24 3.2 Base Oil Viscosity and Density 41 3.3 Thickener 49 3.4 Additives 61 3.5 Solid Fillers/Dry Lubricants 66 3.6 Compatibility 67 3.7 Polymer Grease 67 4 Grease Life in Rolling Bearings 71 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Relubrication Intervals and Grease Life 71 4.3 The Traffic Light Concept 72 4.4 Grease Life as a Function of Temperature in the Green Zone 75 4.5 SKF Relubrication and Grease Life 76 4.6 Comparison Grease Life/Relubrication Models 78 4.7 Very Low and High Speeds 82 4.8 Large Rolling Bearings 85 4.9 Effect of Load 86 4.10 Effect of Outer-Ring Rotation 90 4.11 Cage Material 90 4.12 Bearing Type 91 4.13 Temperature and Bearing Material 92 4.14 Grease Fill 94 4.15 Vertical Shaft 95 4.16 Vibrations and Shock Loads 96 4.17 Grease Shelf Life/Storage Life 97 5 Lubricating Grease Rheology 99 5.1 Visco-Elastic Behaviour 99 5.2 Viscometers 102 5.3 Oscillatory Shear 108 5.4 Shear Thinning and Yield 112 5.5 Yield Stress 118 5.6 Wall-Slip Effects 122 5.7 Translation Between Oscillatory Shear and Linear Shear Measurements 125 5.8 Normal stresses 126 5.9 Time Dependent Viscosity and Thixotropy 128 5.10 Tackiness 133 6 Grease and Base Oil Flow 137 6.1 Grease Flow in Pipes 137 6.2 Grease Flow in Rolling Bearings 149 7 Grease Bleeding 157 7.1 Introduction 157 7.2 Ball Versus Roller Bearings 158 7.3 Grease Bleeding Measurement Techniques 158 7.4 Bleeding from the Covers and Under the Cage 159 7.5 A Grease Bleeding Model for Pressurized Grease by Centrifugal Forces 161 8 Grease Aging 171 8.1 Mechanical Aging 172 8.2 Grease Oxidation 179 8.3 The Chemistry of Base Oil Film Oxidation 181 8.4 Oxidation of the Thickener 183 8.5 A Simple Model for Base Oil Degradation 184 8.6 Polymerization 186 8.7 Evaporation 186 8.8 Simple Models for the Life of Base Oil 186 9 Film Thickness Theory for Single Contacts 191 9.1 Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication 192 9.2 Contact Geometry and Deformation 198 9.3 EHL Film Thickness, Oil 202 9.4 EHD Film Thickness, Grease 205 9.5 Starvation 212 9.6 Spin 225 10 Film Thickness in Grease Lubricated Rolling Bearings 227 10.1 Thin Layer Flow on Bearing Surfaces 228 10.2 Starved EHL for Rolling Bearings 234 10.3 Cage Clearance and Film Thickness 239 10.4 Full Bearing Film Thickness 241 11 Grease dynamics 245 11.1 Introduction 245 11.2 Grease Reservoir Formation 245 11.3 Temperature Behaviour 246 11.4 Temperature and Film Breakdown 249 11.5 Chaotic Behaviour 249 11.6 Quantitative Analysis of Grease Tests 253 11.7 Discussion 254 12 Reliability 257 12.1 Failure Distribution 258 12.2 Mean Life and Time Between Failures 261 12.3 Percentile Life 264 12.4 Point and Interval Estimates 265 12.5 Sudden Death Testing 275 12.6 System Life Prediction 281 13 Grease Lubrication and Bearing Life 283 13.1 Bearing Failure Modes 283 13.2 Rated Fatigue Life of Grease Lubricated Rolling Bearings 285 13.3 Background of the Fatigue Life Ratings of Grease Lubricated Bearings 289 13.4 Lubricant Chemistry and Bearing Life 296 13.5 Water in Grease 304 13.6 Surface Finish Aspects Related to Grease Lubrication 306 14 Grease Lubrication Mechanisms in Bearing Seals 309 14.1 Introduction 309 14.2 Lubrication Mechanisms for Radial Lip Seals 309 14.3 Sealing Action of Grease 312 14.4 Softening and Leakage 319 14.5 Compatibility 320 14.6 A Film Thickness Model for Bearing Seals 320 14.7 Importance of Sealing Grease Inside the Bearing 324 15 Condition Monitoring and Maintenance 327 15.1 Condition Monitoring 327 15.2 Acoustic Emission 328 15.3 Lubcheck 330 15.4 Consistency Measurement 331 15.5 Oil Bleeding Properties 332 15.6 Oil Content 332 15.7 Particle Contamination 332 15.8 Spectroscopy 333 15.9 Linear Voltammetry 334 15.10 Total Acid Number 335 15.11 DCS – Differential Scanning Calorimetry 335 15.12 Oxidation Bomb 336 15.13 Water 336 16 Grease Qualification Testing 339 16.1 Introduction 339 16.2 Standard Test Methods 339 16.3 Some Qualification Criteria for Grease Selection 374 16.4 Pumpability 375 17 Lubrication Systems 377 17.1 Single Point Lubrication Methods 379 17.2 Centralized Grease Lubrication Systems 380 17.3 Pumps 382 17.4 Valves 384 17.5 Distributors 386 17.6 Single-Line Centralized Lubrication Systems 386 17.7 Dual-Line Lubrication Systems 393 17.8 Progressive Lubrication Systems 394 17.9 Multi-Line Lubrication System 397 17.10 Cyclic Grease Flow 397 17.11 Requirements of the Grease 398 17.12 Grease Pumpability Tests 402 A Characteristics of Paraffinic Hydrocarbons 413 References 415 Index

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Book SynopsisDiscover practical skills that you won’t find anywhere else with these two hundred handy tips to make yourself a better yachtsman.Trade Review"...offers ample scope for improving your seamanship, navigation, boat-handling, safety at sea, ropework, weather forecasting...and quality of life on board' (Yachting Monthly, October 2010). "...you'll be surprised how much you learn from these bitesize nuggets." (Yachting World, November 2010).Table of ContentsPreface: Seamanship; Navigation; Safety; Boat handling; Ropes and knots; Life on board; Weather

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Book SynopsisThe SUPERMEN "After a rare speech at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, in 1976, programmers in the audience had suddenly fallen silent when Cray offered to answer questions. He stood there for several minutes, waiting for their queries, but none came.Table of ContentsThe Codebreakers. The Incubator. Seymour. Engineers' Paradise. The Hog Trough. The CRAY-1. The Cray Way. The New Genius. Shakeout. Notes. Acknowledgments. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe first edition of this book is considered the bible of this topic... Suffice it to say that there is no other published treatise that approaches the depth of treatment offered by this book. The coverage is the state of the published art, while the added contents cover the new known developments in the field. Haisam Osman; Technology Development Manager, United Launch Alliance This long-awaited second edition of a respected text from world leaders in the field of acoustic materials covers the state of the art with a depth of treatment unrivalled elsewhere. Allard and Atalla employ a logical and progressive approach that leads to a thorough understanding of porous material modelling. The first edition of Propagation of Sound in Porous Media introduced the basic theory of acoustics and the related techniques. Research and development in sound absorption has however progressed significantly since the first edition, and the models and methods described, at the tiTrade Review"All in all this is an impressive book which will serve as an excellent reference for those working in the acoustics of porous media, and as a perfect introduction to the subject for novices." (Journal of Sound & Vibration, 2010)Table of ContentsPreface to the second edition. 1 Plane waves in isotropic fluids and solids. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Notation – vector operators. 1.3 Strain in a deformable medium. 1.4 Stress in a deformable medium. 1.5 Stress–strain relations for an isotropic elastic medium. 1.6 Equations of motion. 1.7 Wave equation in a fluid. 1.8 Wave equations in an elastic solid. References. 2 Acoustic impedance at normal incidence of fluids. Substitution of a fluid layer for a porous layer. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Plane waves in unbounded fluids. 2.3 Main properties of impedance at normal incidence. 2.4 Reflection coefficient and absorption coefficient at normal incidence. 2.5 Fluids equivalent to porous materials: the laws of Delany and Bazley. 2.6 Examples. 2.7 The complex exponential representation. References. 3 Acoustic impedance at oblique incidence in fluids. Substitution of a fluid layer for a porous layer. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Inhomogeneous plane waves in isotropic fluids. 3.3 Reflection and refraction at oblique incidence. 3.4 Impedance at oblique incidence in isotropic fluids. 3.5 Reflection coefficient and absorption coefficient at oblique incidence. 3.6 Examples. 3.7 Plane waves in fluids equivalent to transversely isotropic porous media. 3.8 Impedance at oblique incidence at the surface of a fluid equivalent to an anisotropic porous material. 3.9 Example. References. 4 Sound propagation in cylindrical tubes and porous materials having cylindrical pores. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Viscosity effects. 4.3 Thermal effects. 4.4 Effective density and bulk modulus for cylindrical tubes having triangular, rectangular and hexagonal cross-sections. 4.5 High- and low-frequency approximation. 4.6 Evaluation of the effective density and the bulk modulus of the air in layers of porous materials with identical pores perpendicular to the surface. 4.7 The biot model for rigid framed materials. 4.8 Impedance of a layer with identical pores perpendicular to the surface. 4.9 Tortuosity and flow resistivity in a simple anisotropic material. 4.10 Impedance at normal incidence and sound propagation in oblique pores. Appendix 4.A Important expressions. Description on the microscopic scale. Effective density and bulk modulus. References. 5 Sound propagation in porous materials having a rigid frame. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Viscous and thermal dynamic and static permeability. 5.3 Classical tortuosity, characteristic dimensions, quasi-static tortuosity. 5.4 Models for the effective density and the bulk modulus of the saturating fluid. 5.5 Simpler models. 5.6 Prediction of the effective density and the bulk modulus of open cell foams and fibrous materials with the different models. 5.7 Fluid layer equivalent to a porous layer. 5.8 Summary of the semi-phenomenological models. 5.9 Homogenization. 5.10 Double porosity media. Appendix 5.A: Simplified calculation of the tortuosity for a porous material having pores made up of an alternating sequence of cylinders. Appendix 5.B: Calculation of the characteristic length Λ'. Appendix 5.C: Calculation of the characteristic length Λ for a cylinder perpendicular to the direction of propagation. References. 6 Biot theory of sound propagation in porous materials having an elastic frame. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Stress and strain in porous materials. 6.3 Inertial forces in the biot theory. 6.4 Wave equations. 6.5 The two compressional waves and the shear wave. 6.6 Prediction of surface impedance at normal incidence for a layer of porous material backed by an impervious rigid wall. Appendix 6.A: Other representations of the Biot theory. References. 7 Point source above rigid framed porous layers. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Sommerfeld representation of the monopole field over a plane reflecting surface. 7.3 The complex sinθ plane. 7.4 The method of steepest descent (passage path method). 7.5 Poles of the reflection coefficient. 7.6 The pole subtraction method. 7.7 Pole localization. 7.8 The modified version of the Chien and Soroka model. Appendix 7.A Evaluation of N. Appendix 7.B Evaluation of pr by the pole subtraction method. Appendix 7.C From the pole subtraction to the passage path: Locally reacting surface. References. 8 Porous frame excitation by point sources in air and by stress circular and line sources – modes of air saturated porous frames. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Prediction of the frame displacement. 8.3 Semi-infinite layer – Rayleigh wave. 8.4 Layer of finite thickness – modified Rayleigh wave. 8.5 Layer of finite thickness – modes and resonances. Appendix 8.A Coefficients rij and Mi,j. Appendix 8.B Double Fourier transform and Hankel transform. Appendix 8.B Appendix .C Rayleigh pole contribution. References. 9 Porous materials with perforated facings. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Inertial effect and flow resistance. 9.3 Impedance at normal incidence of a layered porous material covered by a perforated facing – Helmoltz resonator. 9.4 Impedance at oblique incidence of a layered porous material covered by a facing having cirular perforations. References. 10 Transversally isotropic poroelastic media. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Frame in vacuum. 10.3 Transversally isotropic poroelastic layer. 10.4 Waves with a given slowness component in the symmetry plane. 10.5 Sound source in air above a layer of finite thickness. 10.6 Mechanical excitation at the surface of the porous layer. 10.7 Symmetry axis different from the normal to the surface. 10.8 Rayleigh poles and Rayleigh waves. 10.9 Transfer matrix representation of transversally isotropic poroelastic media. Appendix 10.A: Coefficients Ti in Equation (10.46). Appendix 10.B: Coefficients Ai in Equation (10.97). References. 11 Modelling multilayered systems with porous materials using the transfer matrix method. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Transfer matrix method. 11.3 Matrix representation of classical media. 11.4 Coupling transfer matrices. 11.5 Assembling the global transfer matrix. 11.6 Calculation of the acoustic indicators. 11.7 Applications. Appendix 11.A The elements Tij of the Transfer Matrix T ]. References. 12 Extensions to the transfer matrix method. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Finite size correction for the transmission problem. 12.3 Finite size correction for the absorption problem. 12.4 Point load excitation. 12.5 Point source excitation. 12.6 Other applications. Appendix 12.A: An algorithm to evaluate the geometrical radiation impedance. References. 13 Finite element modelling of poroelastic materials. 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Displacement based formulations. 13.3 The mixed displacement–pressure formulation. 13.4 Coupling conditions. 13.5 Other formulations in terms of mixed variables. 13.6 Numerical implementation. 13.7 Dissipated power within a porous medium. 13.8 Radiation conditions. 13.9 Examples. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisBased on the author's industry experience and collaborative works with other industries, Control of Electric Machine Drive System is packed with implemented, tested, and verified ideas that relate to everyday problems in the field.Trade Review"The book's practicality and realworld relatability make it an invaluable resource for professionals and engineers involved in the research and development of electric machine drive business, industrial drive designers, and senior undergraduate and graduate students." (Trading-house.net, 7 March 2011)Table of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 Electric Machine Drive System 4 1.1.2 Trend of Development of Electric Machine Drive System 5 1.1.3 Trend of Development of Power Semiconductor 7 1.1.4 Trend of Development of Control Electronics 8 1.2 Basics of Mechanics 8 1.2.1 Basic Laws 9 1.2.2 Force and Torque 9 1.2.3 Moment of Inertia of a Rotating Body 11 1.2.4 Equations of Motion for a Rigid Body 13 1.2.5 Power and Energy 17 1.2.6 Continuity of Physical Variables 18 1.3 Torque Speed Curve of Typical Mechanical Loads 18 1.3.1 Fan, Pump, and Blower 18 1.3.2 Hoisting Load; Crane, Elevator 20 1.3.3 Traction Load (Electric Vehicle, Electric Train) 21 1.3.4 Tension Control Load 23 Problems 24 References 35 2 Basic Structure and Modeling of Electric Machines and Power Converters 36 2.1 Structure and Modeling of DC Machine 36 2.2 Analysis of Steady-State Operation 41 2.2.1 Separately Excited Shunt Machine 42 2.2.2 Series Excited DC Machine 45 2.3 Analysis of Transient State of DC Machine 46 2.3.1 Separately Excited Shunt Machine 47 2.4 Power Electronic Circuit to Drive DC Machine 50 2.4.1 Static Ward–Leonard System 51 2.4.2 Four-Quadrants Chopper System 52 2.5 Rotating Magnetic Motive Force 53 2.6 Steady-State Analysis of a Synchronous Machine 58 2.7 Linear Electric Machine 62 2.8 Capability Curve of Synchronous Machine 63 2.8.1 Round Rotor Synchronous Machine with Field Winding 63 2.8.2 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 64 2.9 Parameter Variation of Synchronous Machine 66 2.9.1 Stator and Field Winding Resistance 66 2.9.2 Synchronous Inductance 66 2.9.3 Back EMF Constant 67 2.10 Steady-State Analysis of Induction Machine 70 2.10.1 Steady-State Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Machine 72 2.10.2 Constant Air Gap Flux Operation 77 2.11 Generator Operation of an Induction Machine 79 2.12 Variation of Parameters of an Induction Machine 81 2.12.1 Variation of Rotor Resistance, Rr 81 2.12.2 Variation of Rotor Leakage Inductance, Llr 82 2.12.3 Variation of Stator Resistance, Rs 82 2.12.4 Variation of Stator Leakage Inductance, Lls 83 2.12.5 Variation of Excitation Inductance, Lm 84 2.12.6 Variation of Resistance Representing Iron Loss, Rm 84 2.13 Classification of Induction Machines According to Speed–Torque Characteristics 84 2.14 Quasi-Transient State Analysis 87 2.15 Capability Curve of an Induction Machine 88 2.16 Comparison of AC Machine and DC Machine 90 2.16.1 Comparison of a Squirrel Cage Induction Machine and a Separately Excited DC Machine 90 2.16.2 Comparison of a Permanent Magnet AC Machine and a Separately Excited DC Machine 92 2.17 Variable-Speed Control of Induction Machine Based on Steady-State Characteristics 92 2.17.1 Variable Speed Control of Induction Machine by Controlling Terminal Voltage 93 2.17.2 Variable Speed Control of Induction Machine Based on Constant Air-Gap Flux (͌≈V=F) Control 94 2.17.3 Variable Speed Control of Induction Machine Based on Actual Speed Feedback 95 2.17.4 Enhancement of Constant Air-Gap Flux Control with Feedback of Magnitude of Stator Current 96 2.18 Modeling of Power Converters 96 2.18.1 Three-Phase Diode/Thyristor Rectifier 97 2.18.2 PWM Boost Rectifier 98 2.18.3 Two-Quadrants Bidirectional DC/DC Converter 101 2.18.4 Four-Quadrants DC/DC Converter 102 2.18.5 Three-Phase PWM Inverter 103 2.18.6 Matrix Converter 105 2.19 Parameter Conversion Using Per Unit Method 106 Problems 108 References 114 3 Reference Frame Transformation and Transient State Analysis of Three-Phase AC Machines 116 3.1 Complex Vector 117 3.2 d–q–n Modeling of an Induction Machine Based on Complex Space Vector 119 3.2.1 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Machine at d–q–n AXIS 120 3.2.2 Torque of the Induction Machine 125 3.3 d–q–n Modeling of a Synchronous Machine Based on Complex Space Vector 128 3.3.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Machine at d–q–n AXIS 128 3.3.2 Torque of a Synchronous Machine 138 3.3.3 Equivalent Circuit and Torque of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 140 3.3.4 Synchronous Reluctance Machine (SynRM) 144 Problems 146 References 153 4 Design of Regulators for Electric Machines and Power Converters 154 4.1 Active Damping 157 4.2 Current Regulator 158 4.2.1 Measurement of Current 158 4.2.2 Current Regulator for Three-Phase-Controlled Rectifier 161 4.2.3 Current Regulator for a DC Machine Driven by a PWM Chopper 166 4.2.4 Anti-Wind-Up 170 4.2.5 AC Current Regulator 173 4.3 Speed Regulator 179 4.3.1 Measurement of Speed/Position of Rotor of an Electric Machine 179 4.3.2 Estimation of Speed with Incremental Encoder 182 4.3.3 Estimation of Speed by a State Observer 189 4.3.4 PI/IP Speed Regulator 198 4.3.5 Enhancement of Speed Control Performance with Acceleration Information 204 4.3.6 Speed Regulator with Anti-Wind-Up Controller 206 4.4 Position Regulator 208 4.4.1 Proportional–Proportional and Integral (P–PI) Regulator 208 4.4.2 Feed-Forwarding of Speed Reference and Acceleration Reference 209 4.5 Detection of Phase Angle of AC Voltage 210 4.5.1 Detection of Phase Angle on Synchronous Reference Frame 210 4.5.2 Detection of Phase Angle Using Positive Sequence Voltage on Synchronous Reference Frame 213 4.6 Voltage Regulator 215 4.6.1 Voltage Regulator for DC Link of PWM Boost Rectifier 215 Problems 218 References 228 5 Vector Control 230 5.1 Instantaneous Torque Control 231 5.1.1 Separately Excited DC Machine 231 5.1.2 Surface-Mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SMPMSM) 233 5.1.3 Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (IPMSM) 235 5.2 Vector Control of Induction Machine 236 5.2.1 Direct Vector Control 237 5.2.2 Indirect Vector Control 243 5.3 Rotor Flux Linkage Estimator 245 5.3.1 Voltage Model Based on Stator Voltage Equation of an Induction Machine 245 5.3.2 Current Model Based on Rotor Voltage Equation of an Induction Machine 246 5.3.3 Hybrid Rotor Flux Linkage Estimator 247 5.3.4 Enhanced Hybrid Estimator 248 5.4 Flux Weakening Control 249 5.4.1 Constraints of Voltage and Current to AC Machine 249 5.4.2 Operating Region of Permanent Magnet AC Machine in Current Plane at Rotor Reference Frame 250 5.4.3 Flux Weakening Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 257 5.4.4 Flux Weakening Control of Induction Machine 262 5.4.5 Flux Regulator of Induction Machine 267 Problems 269 References 281 6 Position/Speed Sensorless Control of AC Machines 283 6.1 Sensorless Control of Induction Machine 286 6.1.1 Model Reference Adaptive System (MRAS) 286 6.1.2 Adaptive Speed Observer (ASO) 291 6.2 Sensorless Control of Surface-Mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (SMPMSM) 297 6.3 Sensorless Control of Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (IPMSM) 299 6.4 Sensorless Control Employing High-Frequency Signal Injection 302 6.4.1. Inherently Salient Rotor Machine 304 6.4.2 AC Machine with Nonsalient Rotor 305 Problems 317 References 320 7 Practical Issues 324 7.1 Output Voltage Distortion Due to Dead Time and Its Compensation 324 7.1.1 Compensation of Dead Time Effect 325 7.1.2 Zero Current Clamping (ZCC) 327 7.1.3 Voltage Distortion Due to Stray Capacitance of Semiconductor Switches 327 7.1.4 Prediction of Switching Instant 330 7.2 Measurement of Phase Current 334 7.2.1 Modeling of Time Delay of Current Measurement System 334 7.2.2 Offset and Scale Errors in Current Measurement 337 7.3 Problems Due to Digital Signal Processing of Current Regulation Loop 342 7.3.1 Modeling and Compensation of Current Regulation Error Due to Digital Delay 342 7.3.2 Error in Current Sampling 346 Problems 350 References 353 Appendix A Measurement and Estimation of Parameters of Electric Machinery 354 A.1 Parameter Estimation 354 A.1.1 DC Machine 355 A.1.2 Estimation of Parameters of Induction Machine 357 A.2 Parameter Estimation of Electric Machines Using Regulators of Drive System 361 A.2.1 Feedback Control System 361 A.2.2 Back EMF Constant of DC Machine, K 363 A.2.3 Stator Winding Resistance of Three-Phase AC Machine, Rs 363 A.2.4 Induction Machine Parameters 365 A.2.5 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 370 A.3 Estimation of Mechanical Parameters 374 A.3.1 Estimation Based on Mechanical Equation 374 A.3.2 Estimation Using Integral Process 376 References 380 Appendix B d–q Modeling Using Matrix Equations 381 B.1 Reference Frame and Transformation Matrix 381 B.2 d–q Modeling of Induction Machine Using Transformation Matrix 386 B.3 d–q Modeling of Synchronous Machine Using Transformation Matrix 390 Index 391 IEEE Press Series on Power Engineering 401

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Book SynopsisA modern and broad exposition emphasizing heat transfer by convection. This edition contains valuable new information primarily pertaining to flow and heat transfer in porous media and computational fluid dynamics as well as recent advances in turbulence modeling. Problems of a mixed theoretical and practical nature provide an opportunity to test mastery of the material.Table of ContentsEquations of Continuity, Motion, Energy, and Mass Diffusion. One-Dimensional Solutions. Laminar Heat Transfer in Ducts. Laminar Boundary Layers. Integral Methods. Turbulence Fundamentals. Turbulent Boundary Layers. Turbulent Flow in Ducts. Natural Convection. Boiling. Condensation. Appendices. Index.

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Book SynopsisA fascinating and informative read for all those interested in the history of ICE and how it has grown as well as the civil engineering industry and its impact on the world in which we liveTable of Contents1. Introduction 2. An Institution is born 3. A learning society 4. Education, training and membership 5. Regional development 6. Professional conduct 7. Governance, influence and communication 8. Fragmentation, unification and self-regulation 9. Civil engineers at war 10. The library 11. The buildings 12. Contracts and management 13. The Presidents 14. Secretaries and staff

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Book SynopsisClean water, paved roads, public transit, electricity and gas, sewers, waste processing, telecommunication, even the Internet all this infrastructure is what makes cities work and powers our lives, often seamlessly and silently. Virtually everything we do and consume depends on infrastructure. Yet, most people have little to no idea how these systems work. How is water treated? Why do traffic jams exist? How is electricity generated and distributed? What happens to trash after it is picked up? How does the Internet work?In The Infrastructure Book, world-renown urban engineering expert Sybil Derrible reveals the behind-the-scenes machinations of the foundational systems that make our societies function. Visiting sixteen cities around the world and their unique approaches to organizational challenges from city planning in Los Angeles to waste management in Tokyo, Chicago's power grid to Shanghai's unique take on traffic, public transportation in the busiest cities and water treatment in the driest deserts this highly readable book uses fascinating case studies and historical detours to show how infrastructure works and, sometimes, doesn't. With large-scale infrastructure repairs looming, and the need for our current infrastructure to be completely transformed if we hope to be sustainable and resilient into the future. After reading The Infrastructure Book, readers will never look at a city the same way.

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Book SynopsisA gripping account of the perpetual war between human and machine examines the many disasters that have occured in the world of high technology.Trade Review"ultimatly hopeful, recounting numerous acts of foresight or bravery in the face of bureaucratic opposition" -- Publisher's Weekly "Full of scary news, but unsensational and thoroughly documented. Just don't read it in flight." -- Kirkus Reviews

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Book SynopsisThere is no part of our bodies that fully rotates be it a wrist or ankle or arm in a shoulder socket, we are made to twist only so far. And yet, there is no more fundamental human invention than the wheel a rotational mechanism that accomplishes what our physical form cannot. Throughout history, humans have developed technologies powered by human strength, complementing the physical abilities we have while overcoming our weaknesses. Providing a unique history of the wheel and other rotational devices, like cranks, cranes, carts, and capstans, Why the Wheel Is Round examines the contraptions and tricks we have devised in order to more efficiently move and move through the physical world. Steven Vogel combines his engineering expertise with his remarkable curiosity about how things work to explore how wheels and other mechanisms were, until very recently, powered by the push and pull of the muscles and skeletal systems of humans and other animals. Why the Wheel Is Round explores all mann

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Book SynopsisWhat is a weed, opined Emerson, but a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered? While that may be a worthy notion in theory, these plants of undiscovered virtue cause endless hours of toil for backyard gardeners. Encyclopedic in scope, this book intends to cover North American weeds at every stage of growth.

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Book SynopsisPublisher's Note: Products purchased from Third Party sellers are not guaranteed by the publisher for quality, authenticity, or access to any online entitlements included with the product.BUILD, CONVERT, OR BUY A STATE-OF-THE-ART ELECTRIC VEHICLEThoroughly revised and expanded, Build Your Own Electric Vehicle, Third Edition, is your go-to guide for converting an internal combustion engine vehicle to electric or building an EV from the ground up. You'll also find out about the wide variety of EVs available for purchase and how they're being built. This new editiondetails all the latest breakthroughs, including AC propulsion and regenerative braking systems, intelligent controllers, batteries, and charging technologies.Filled with updated photos, this cutting-edge resource fully Table of ContentsChapter 1. Why Electric VehiclesWhat are Electric VehiclesNew Electricity Rates/Oil costsConversion costsChapter 2. Electric Vehicle BenefitsReports from the US Dept. of EnergyChapter 3. Electric Vehicle (recent) History Toyota's hybrid drive technologyGM and CARBFord and TH!NK CityTesla RoadsterChapter 4. Drive Systems, Chassis, and DesignsLithium Nono-phosphatesIntelligent Drive SystemsChapter 5. Sources, Parts, Conversion Companies and ExpertsUpdates on everything from previous edition, plus links to an online companion site that will be updated every 3 months or so for new informationChapter 6. Calculating Torque CurvesSoftware from Grassroots electric vehicles, Electric Vehicles of America, and NetGain technologiesChapter 7. Electric MotorsAC and DCMetric Mind CorporationAnaheim AutomationHi Performance Electric Vehicle SystemsAC PropulsionTesla MototrsWARP MotorsChapter 8. ControllersChapter 9. BatteriesLithiumLithium-polyphosphateNickelChapter 10. ChargersNewer, standardized SAE systemsChapter 11. AC/DC Drive and Controller PackagesLead Acid conversionsLithium Polymer conversionsChapter 12. Visions for Future Electric Cars and Electric Car Conversions

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Book SynopsisPublisher's Note: Products purchased from Third Party sellers are not guaranteed by the publisher for quality, authenticity, or access to any online entitlements included with the product.Add some SPARK to your study of ELECTRICITYHaving trouble understanding the fundamentals of electricity? Problem solved! Electricity Demystified, Second Edition, makes it shockingly easy to learn the basic concepts.Written in a step-by-step format, this practical guide begins by covering direct current (DC), voltage, resistance, circuits, cells, and batteries. The book goes on to discuss alternating current (AC), power supplies, wire, and cable. Magnetism and electromagnetic effects are also addressed. Detailed examples and concise explanations make it easy to understand the material. End-of-chapter quizzes and a final exam help reinforce key concepts.It's a no-brainer! You'll learn about: Table of ContentsPART I: DIRECT CURRENT1. A Circuit Sampler2. Charge, Current, Voltage, and Resistance3. Ohm's Law, Power, and Energy4. Simple DC Circuits5. Cells and BatteriesTest: Part IPART II: ALTERNATING CURRENT6. What is Alternating Current7. Electricity in the Home8. Electrical Power Supplies9. Wire and CableTest: Part IIPART III: MAGNETISM10. What is Magnetism11. Electromagnetic Effects12. Practical MagnetismTest: Part IIIFinal ExamAnswers to Quizzes, Tests, and Final ExamAppendix: Schematic SymbolsSuggested Additional ReadingIndex

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Book SynopsisPublisher's Note: Products purchased from Third Party sellers are not guaranteed by the publisher for quality, authenticity, or access to any online entitlements included with the product.The definitive guide to the theory of constraintsIn this authoritative volume, the world's top Theory of Constraints (TOC) experts reveal how to implement the ground-breaking management and improvement methodology developed by Dr. Eliyahu M. Goldratt. Theory of Constraints Handbook offers an in-depth examination of this revolutionary concept of bringing about global organization performance improvement by focusing on a few leverage points of the system. Clear explanations supplemented by examples and case studies define how the theory works, why it works, what issues are resolved, and what benefits accrue, and demonstrate how TOC can be applied to different industries and situations.Theory of Constraints Handbook covers:Table of ContentsSection I: What is TOC?; Chapter 1. Introduction to TOC--My Perspective; Section II: Critical Chain Project Management; Chapter 2. The Problems with Project Management; Chapter 3. A Critical Chain Project Management Primer; Chapter 4. Getting Durable Results with Critical Chain--A Field Report; Chapter 5. Making Change Stick; Chapter 6. Project Management in a Lean World--Translating Lean Six Sigma (LSS) into the Project Environment; Section III: Drum-Butter-Rope, Buffer Management and Distribution; Chapter 7. A Review of Literature on Drum-Butter-Rope, Buffer Management and Distribution; Chapter 8. DBR, Buffer Management, and VATI Flow; Chapter 9. From DBR to Simplified-DBR for Make-to-Order; Chapter 10. Managing Make-to-Stock and the Concept of Make-to-Availability; Chapter 11. Supply Chain Management; Chapter 12. Integrated Supply Chain; Section IV: Performance Measures; Chapter 13. Traditional Measures in Finance and Accounting, Problems, Literature Review, and TOC Measures; Chapter 14. Resolving Measurement/Performance Dilemmas; Chapter 15. Continuous Improvement and Auditing; Chapter 16. Holistic TOC Implementation Case Studies; Section V: Strategy, Marketing, and Sales; Chapter 17. Traditional Strategy Models and Theory of Constraints; Chapter 18. Theory of Constraints Strategy; Chapter 19. Strategy; Chapter 20. The Layers of Resistance--The Buy-In Process According to TOC; Chapter 21. Less is More--Applying the Flow Concepts to Sales; Chapter 22. Mafia Offers: Dealing With a Market Constraint; Section VI: Thinking Processes; Chapter 23. The TOC Thinking Processes; Chapter 24. Daily Management with TOC; Chapter 25. Thinking Processes Including S&T Trees; Chapter 26. TOC for Education; Chapter 27. Theory of Constraints in Prisons; Section VII: TOC in Services; Chapter 28. Services Management; Chapter 29. Theory of Constraints in Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services; Chapter 30. Customer Support Services According to TOC; Chapter 31. Viable Vision for Health Care Systems; Chapter 32. TOC for Large-Scale Healthcare Systems; Section VIII: TOC in Complex Environments; Chapter 33. Theory of Constraints in Complex Organizations; Chapter 34. Applications of Strategy and Tactics Trees in Organizations; Chapter 35. Complex Environments; Chapter 36/ Combining Lean, Six Sigma, and the Theory of Constraints to Achieve Breakthrough Performance; Chapter 37. Using TOC in Complex Systems; Chapter 38. Theory of Constraints for Personal Productivity/Dilemmas; Selected Bibliography of Eliyahu M. Goldratt; Index

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Book SynopsisBranislav M. Notaroš received the Dipl.Ing. (B.Sc.), M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in 1988, 1992, and 1995, respectively. From 1996 to 1998, he was an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of Belgrade, and before that, from 1989 to 1996, a Teaching and Research Assistant (faculty position) in the same department.  He spent the 1998-1999 academic year as a Research Associate at the University of Colorado at Boulder. He was an Assistant Professor, from 1999 to 2004, and Associate Professor (with Tenure), from 2004 to 2006, in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He is currently an Associate Professor (with Tenure) of electrical and computer engineering at Colorado State University.   Research activities of Prof. Notaroš Trade ReviewThe worked examples are very good and seem to be the anchor for different “concept nuggets.” The examples either demonstrate the use of the mathematics in a very complete manner or model a real-world problem using the principles developed in the previous material. By rereading the material and carefully going over the example, the student will not be intimidated by the one or two questions and problems at the end of the chapter referenced at the end of the section.Table of Contents Chapter 1 Electrostatic Field in Free Space Chapter 2 Dielectrics, Capacitance, and Electric Energy Chapter 3 Steady Electric Currents Chapter 4 Magnetostatic Field in Free Space Chapter 5 Magnetostatic Field in Material Media Chapter 6 Slowly Time-Varying Electromagnetic Field Chapter 7 Inductance and Magnetic Energy Chapter 8 Rapidly Time-Varying Electromagnetic Field Chapter 9 Uniform Plane Electromagnetic Waves Chapter 10 Reflection and Transmission of Plane Waves Chapter 11 Field Analysis of Transmission Lines Chapter 12 Circuit Analysis of Transmission Lines Chapter 13 Waveguides and Cavity Resonators Chapter 14 Antennas and Wireless Communication Systems APPENDICES 1 Quantities, Symbols, Units, and Constants 2 Mathematical Facts and Identities 3 Vector Algebra and Calculus Index 4 Answers to Selected Problems Bibliography Index

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Book SynopsisThis is an entertaining guide to the most common grammatical mistakes in English, from apostrophe atrocities to the lie/lay conundrum. Using examples of errors found in major newspapers, magazines, and TV broadcasting, Thomas Parrish's fictional friend "the Grouchy Grammarian" explains basic elements of grammar and good writing.Trade Review“…this is a lighthearted but highly effective reminder for anyone looking to avoid the pitfalls of the English language…” (Good Book Guide, June 2003)Table of ContentsThe Grouch and I. The Topics. 1. Think! 2. Agreement; or, Where Did the Subject Go? 3. Special Kinds of Subjects. 4. A Bit More about Each. 5. There-the Introducer. 6. Former Greats. 7. Just Because They Sound Alike. 8. The Reason Isn't Because. 9. May and Might: Did They or Didn't They? 10. As of Yet. 11. Floaters and Danglers. 12. A.M./Morning, P.M./Afternoon, Evening. 13. Would Have vs. Had. 14. Apostrophe Atrocities. 15. It's a Contraction-Really. 16. Whom Cares? 17. Whiches, Who's, and That's. 18. Where's the Irony? 19. The Intrusive Of. 20. Preposition Propositions. 21. But Won't You Miss Me? 22. Well, Better, Best, Most. 23. Between Who and What?: Prepositions with More Than One Object. 24. Other . . . or Else. 25. Lie, Lay. 26. A Case of Lead Poisoning. 27. Silly Tautologies. 28. False Series. 29. French Misses. 30. None Is, None Are? 31. Drug Is a Drag. It Must Have Snuck In. 32. And/Or. 33. Overworked and Undereffective. 34. Quantities, Numbers. 35. Watering What You're Writing: The Alleged Criminal and the Alleged Crime. 36. Only But Not Lonely. 37. Pairs-Some Trickier Than Others. 38. Between vs. Among. 39. Those Good Old Sayings. 40. Fuzz. 41. As . . .Than. 42. Not Appropriate. 43. Sorry, You've Already Used That One. 44. From Classical Tongues. 45. Like, Like. 46. Just the Facts, Ma'am. 47. Lost Causes? The Grouch Reflects. Afterword. Using This Book. Thanks. From the Grouch's Shelves-A Bibliography. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book is one of the first to give an overview of biomechatronic exoskeletons including their applications and implications. A collective reference specifically on biomechatronic exoskeletons, an area that is relevant to mechanical and biomedical engineers as well as those working in prosthetics, rehabilitation, and defense.Table of ContentsForeword xv Preface xvii List of Contributors xix 1 Introduction to wearable robotics 1J. L. Pons, R. Ceres and L. Calderón 1.1 Wearable robots and exoskeletons 1 1.1.1 Dual human–robot interaction in wearable robotics 3 1.1.2 A historical note 4 1.1.3 Exoskeletons: an instance of wearable robots 5 1.2 The role of bioinspiration and biomechatronics in wearable robots 6 1.2.1 Bioinspiration in the design of biomechatronic wearable robots 8 1.2.2 Biomechatronic systems in close interaction with biological systems 9 1.2.3 Biologically inspired design and optimization procedures 9 1.3 Technologies involved in robotic exoskeletons 9 1.4 A classification of wearable exoskeletons: application domains 10 1.5 Scope of the book 12 References 15 2 Basis for bioinspiration and biomimetism in wearable robots 17A. Forner-Cordero, J. L. Pons and M. Wisse 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 General principles in biological design 18 2.2.1 Optimization of objective functions: energy consumption 19 2.2.2 Multifunctionality and adaptability 21 2.2.3 Evolution 22 2.3 Development of biologically inspired designs 23 2.3.1 Biological models 24 2.3.2 Neuromotor control structures and mechanisms as models 24 2.3.3 Muscular physiology as a model 27 2.3.4 Sensorimotor mechanisms as a model 29 2.3.5 Biomechanics of human limbs as a model 31 2.3.6 Recursive interaction: engineering models explain biological systems 31 2.4 Levels of biological inspiration in engineering design 31 2.4.1 Biomimetism: replication of observable behaviour and structures 32 2.4.2 Bioimitation: replication of dynamics and control structures 32 2.5 Case Study: limit-cycle biped walking robots to imitate human gait and to inspire the design of wearable exoskeletons 33M. Wisse 2.5.1 Introduction 33 2.5.2 Why is human walking efficient and stable? 33 2.5.3 Robot solutions for efficiency and stability 34 2.5.4 Conclusion 36 Acknowledgements 36 2.6 Case Study: MANUS-HAND, mimicking neuromotor control of grasping 36J. L. Pons, R. Ceres and L. Calderón 2.6.1 Introduction 37 2.6.2 Design of the prosthesis 37 2.6.3 MANUS-HAND control architecture 39 2.7 Case Study: internal models, CPGs and reflexes to control bipedal walking robots and exoskeletons: the ESBiRRo project 40A. Forner-Cordero 2.7.1 Introduction 40 2.7.2 Motivation for the design of LC bipeds and current limitations 41 2.7.3 Biomimetic control for an LC biped walking robot 41 2.7.4 Conclusions and future developments 43 References 43 3 Kinematics and dynamics of wearable robots 47A. Forner-Cordero, J. L. Pons, E. A. Turowska and A. Schiele 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Robot mechanics: motion equations 48 3.2.1 Kinematic analysis 48 3.2.2 Dynamic analysis 53 3.3 Human biomechanics 57 3.3.1 Medical description of human movements 57 3.3.2 Arm kinematics 59 3.3.3 Leg kinematics 61 3.3.4 Kinematic models of the limbs 64 3.3.5 Dynamic modelling of the human limbs 68 3.4 Kinematic redundancy in exoskeleton systems 70 3.4.1 Introduction to kinematic redundancies 70 3.4.2 Redundancies in human–exoskeleton systems 71 3.5 Case Study: a biomimetic, kinematically compliant knee joint modelled by a four-bar linkage 74J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu, D. Garrido and F. Moll 3.5.1 Introduction 74 3.5.2 Kinematics of the knee 75 3.5.3 Kinematic analysis of a four-bar linkage mechanism 75 3.5.4 Genetic algorithm methodology 77 3.5.5 Final design 77 3.5.6 Mobility analysis of the optimal crossed four-bar linkage 78 3.6 Case Study: design of a forearm pronation–supination joint in an upper limb exoskeleton 79J. M. Belda-Lois, R. Poveda, R. Barberà and J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu 3.6.1 The mechanics of pronation–supination control 79 3.7 Case Study: study of tremor characteristics based on a biomechanical model of the upper limb 80E. Rocon and J. L. Pons 3.7.1 Biomechanical model of the upper arm 81 3.7.2 Results 83 References 83 4 Human–robot cognitive interaction 87L. Bueno, F. Brunetti, A. Frizera and J. L. Pons 4.1 Introduction to human–robot interaction 87 4.2 cHRI using bioelectrical monitoring of brain activity 89 4.2.1 Physiology of brain activity 90 4.2.2 Electroencephalography (EEG) models and parameters 92 4.2.3 Brain-controlled interfaces: approaches and algorithms 93 4.3 cHRI through bioelectrical monitoring of muscle activity (EMG) 96 4.3.1 Physiology of muscle activity 97 4.3.2 Electromyography models and parameters 98 4.3.3 Surface EMG signal feature extraction 99 4.3.4 Classification of EMG activity 102 4.3.5 Force and torque estimation 104 4.4 cHRI through biomechanical monitoring 104 4.4.1 Biomechanical models and parameters 105 4.4.2 Biomechanically controlled interfaces: approaches and algorithms 108 4.5 Case Study: lower limb exoskeleton control based on learned gait patterns 109J. C. Moreno and J. L. Pons 4.5.1 Gait patterns with knee joint impedance modulation 109 4.5.2 Architecture 109 4.5.3 Fuzzy inference system 110 4.5.4 Simulation 110 4.6 Case Study: identification and tracking of involuntary human motion based on biomechanical data 111E. Rocon and J. L. Pons 4.7 Case Study: cortical control of neuroprosthetic devices 115J. M. Carmena 4.8 Case Study: gesture and posture recognition using WSNs 118E. Farella and L. Benini 4.8.1 Platform description 119 4.8.2 Implementation of concepts and algorithm 119 4.8.3 Posture detection results 121 4.8.4 Challenges: wireless sensor networks for motion tracking 121 4.8.5 Summary and outlook 122 References 122 5 Human–robot physical interaction 127E. Rocon, A. F. Ruiz, R. Raya, A. Schiele and J. L. Pons 5.1 Introduction 127 5.1.1 Physiological factors 128 5.1.2 Aspects of wearable robot design 129 5.2 Kinematic compatibility between human limbs and wearable robots 130 5.2.1 Causes of kinematic incompatibility and their negative effects 130 5.2.2 Overcoming kinematic incompatibility 133 5.3 Application of load to humans 134 5.3.1 Human tolerance of pressure 134 5.3.2 Transmission of forces through soft tissues 135 5.3.3 Support design 138 5.4 Control of human–robot interaction 138 5.4.1 Human–robot interaction: human behaviour 139 5.4.2 Human–robot interaction: robot behaviour 140 5.4.3 Human–robot closed loop 143 5.4.4 Physically triggered cognitive interactions 146 5.4.5 Stability 147 5.5 Case Study: quantification of constraint displacements and interaction forces in nonergonomic pHR interfaces 149A. Schiele 5.5.1 Theoretical analysis of constraint displacements, d 150 5.5.2 Experimental quantification of interaction force, Fd 151 5.6 Case Study: analysis of pressure distribution and tolerance areas for wearable robots 154J. M. Belda-Lois, R. Poveda and M. J. Vivas 5.6.1 Measurement of pressure tolerance 155 5.7 Case Study: upper limb tremor suppression through impedance control 156E. Rocon and J. L. Pons 5.8 Case Study: stance stabilization during gait through impedance control 158J. C. Moreno and J. L. Pons 5.8.1 Knee–ankle–foot orthosis (exoskeleton) 159 5.8.2 Lower leg–exoskeleton system 159 5.8.3 Stance phase stabilization: patient test 160 References 161 6 Wearable robot technologies 165J. C. Moreno, L. Bueno and J. L. Pons 6.1 Introduction to wearable robot technologies 165 6.2 Sensor technologies 166 6.2.1 Position and motion sensing: HR limb kinematic information 166 6.2.2 Bioelectrical activity sensors 171 6.2.3 HR interface force and pressure: human comfort and limb kinetic information 175 6.2.4 Microclimate sensing 179 6.3 Actuator technologies 181 6.3.1 State of the art 181 6.3.2 Control requirements for actuator technologies 183 6.3.3 Emerging actuator technologies 185 6.4 Portable energy storage technologies 189 6.4.1 Future trends 189 6.5 Case Study: inertial sensor fusion for limb orientation 190J. C. Moreno, L. Bueno and J. L. Pons 6.6 Case Study: microclimate sensing in wearable devices 192J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu, J. M. Belda-Lois, J. M. Prat and R. Barberà 6.6.1 Introduction 192 6.6.2 Thermal balance of humans 192 6.6.3 Climate conditions in clothing and wearable devices 193 6.6.4 Measurement of thermal comfort 194 6.7 Case Study: biomimetic design of a controllable knee actuator 194J. C. Moreno, L. Bueno and J. L. Pons 6.7.1 Quadriceps weakness 195 6.7.2 Functional analysis of gait as inspiration 195 6.7.3 Actuator prototype 197 References 198 7 Communication networks for wearable robots 201F. Brunetti and J. L. Pons 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Wearable robotic networks, from wired to wireless 203 7.2.1 Requirements 203 7.2.2 Network components: configuration of a wearable robotic network 205 7.2.3 Topology 206 7.2.4 Wearable robatic network goals and profiles 208 7.3 Wired wearable robotic networks 209 7.3.1 Enabling technologies 209 7.3.2 Network establishment, maintenance, QoS and robustness 213 7.4 Wireless wearable robotic networks 214 7.4.1 Enabling technologies 214 7.4.2 Wireless sensor network platforms 216 7.5 Case Study: smart textiles to measure comfort and performance 218J. Vanhala 7.5.1 Introduction 218 7.5.2 Application description 220 7.5.3 Platform description 221 7.5.4 Implementation of concepts 222 7.5.5 Results 222 7.5.6 Discussion 223 7.6 Case Study: ExoNET 224F. Brunetti and J. L. Pons 7.6.1 Application description 224 7.6.2 Network structure 224 7.6.3 Network components 224 7.6.4 Network protocol 225 7.7 Case Study: NeuroLab, a multimodal networked exoskeleton for neuromotor and biomechanical research 226A. F. Ruiz and J. L. Pons 7.7.1 Application description 226 7.7.2 Platform description 227 7.7.3 Implementation of concepts and algorithms 227 7.8 Case Study: communication technologies for the integration of robotic systems and sensor networks at home: helping elderly people 229J. V. Martí, R. Marín, J. Fernández, M. Nuñez, O. Rajadell, L. Nomdedeu, J. Sales, P. Agustí, A. Fabregat and A. P. del Pobil 7.8.1 Introduction 230 7.8.2 Communication systems 230 7.8.3 IP-based protocols 232 Acknowledgements 233 References 233 8 Wearable upper limb robots 235E. Rocon, A. F. Ruiz and J. L. Pons 8.1 Case Study: the wearable orthosis for tremor assessment and suppression (WOTAS) 236E. Rocon and J. L. Pons 8.1.1 Introduction 236 8.1.2 Wearable orthosis for tremor assessment and suppression (WOTAS) 236 8.1.3 Experimental protocol 239 8.1.4 Results 240 8.1.5 Discussion and conclusions 241 8.2 Case Study: the CyberHand 242L. Beccai, S. Micera, C. Cipriani, J. Carpaneto and M. C. Carrozza 8.2.1 Introduction 242 8.2.2 The multi-DoF bioinspired hand prosthesis 242 8.2.3 The neural interface 245 8.2.4 Conclusions 247 8.3 Case Study: the ergonomic EXARM exoskeleton 248A. Schiele 8.3.1 Introduction 248 8.3.2 Ergonomic exoskeleton: challenges and innovation 250 8.3.3 The EXARM implementation 251 8.3.4 Summary and conclusion 254 8.4 Case Study: the NEUROBOTICS exoskeleton (NEUROExos) 255S. Roccella, E. Cattin, N. Vitiello, F. Vecchi and M. C. Carrozza 8.4.1 Exoskeleton control approach 257 8.4.2 Application domains for the NEUROExos exoskeleton 258 8.5 Case Study: an upper limb powered exoskeleton 259J. C. Perry and J. Rosen 8.5.1 Exoskeleton design 259 8.5.2 Conclusions and discussion 268 8.6 Case Study: soft exoskeleton for use in physiotherapy and training 269N. G. Tsagarakis, D. G. Caldwell and S. Kousidou 8.6.1 Soft arm–exoskeleton design 270 8.6.2 System control 272 8.6.3 Experimental results 275 8.6.4 Conclusions 277 References 278 9 Wearable lower limb and full-body robots 283J. Moreno, E. Turowska and J. L. Pons 9.1 Case Study: GAIT–ESBiRRo: lower limb exoskeletons for functional compensation of pathological gait 283J. C. Moreno and J. L. Pons 9.1.1 Introduction 283 9.1.2 Pathological gait and biomechanical aspects 284 9.1.3 The GAIT concept 285 9.1.4 Actuation 286 9.1.5 Sensor system 286 9.1.6 Control system 286 9.1.7 Evaluation 287 9.1.8 Next generation of lower limb exoskeletons: the ESBiRRo project 289 9.2 Case Study: an ankle–foot orthosis powered by artificial pneumatic muscles 289D. P. Ferris 9.2.1 Introduction 289 9.2.2 Orthosis construction 290 9.2.3 Artificial pneumatic muscles 291 9.2.4 Muscle mounting 291 9.2.5 Orthosis mass 292 9.2.6 Orthosis control 292 9.2.7 Performance data 292 9.2.8 Major conclusions 295 9.3 Case Study: intelligent and powered leg prosthesis 295K. De Roy 9.3.1 Introduction 296 9.3.2 Functional analysis of the prosthetic leg 297 9.3.3 Conclusions 303 9.4 Case Study: the control method of the HAL (hybrid assistive limb) for a swinging motion 304J. Moreno, E. Turouska and J. L. Pons 9.4.1 System 305 9.4.2 Actuator control 305 9.4.3 Performance 306 9.5 Case Study: Kanagawa Institute of Technology power-assist suit 308K. Yamamoto 9.5.1 The basic design concepts 308 9.5.2 Power-assist suit 308 9.5.3 Controller 310 9.5.4 Physical dynamics model 310 9.5.5 Muscle hardness sensor 310 9.5.6 Direct drive pneumatic actuators 311 9.5.7 Units 311 9.5.8 Operating characteristics of units 312 9.6 Case Study: EEG-based cHRI of a robotic wheelchair 314T. F. Bastos-Filho, M. Sarcinelli-Filho, A. Ferreira, W. C. Celeste, R. L. Silva, V. R. Martins, D. C. Cavalieri, P. N. S. Filgueira and I. B. Arantes 9.6.1 EEG acquisition and processing 315 9.6.2 The PDA-based graphic interface 317 9.6.3 Experiments 317 9.6.4 Results and concluding remarks 318 Acknowledgements 319 References 319 10 Summary, conclusions and outlook 323J. L. Pons, R. Ceres and L. Calderón 10.1 Summary 323 10.1.1 Bioinspiration in designing wearable robots 324 10.1.2 Mechanics of wearable robots 326 10.1.3 Cognitive and physical human–robot interaction 327 10.1.4 Technologies for wearable robots 328 10.1.5 Outstanding research projects on wearable robots 329 10.2 Conclusions and outlook 330 References 332 Index 335

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Book SynopsisAn accessible but technically rigorous guide to color management for all users in all market segments Understanding Color Management, 2nd Edition explains the basics of color science as needed to understand color profiling software, color measuring instruments, and software applications, such as Adobe Photoshop and proofing RIPs. It also serves as a practical guide to International Color Consortium (ICC) profiles describing procedures for managing color with digital cameras, LCD displays, inkjet proofers, digital presses and web browsers and tablets. Updates since the first edition include new chapters on iPads, tablets and smartphones; home-cinema projection systems, as well as, with the industrial user in mind, new additional chapters on large-format inkjet for signage and banner printing, flexography, xerography and spot color workflows. Key features: Managing color in digital cameras with Camera Raw and DNG. Step-by-stTable of ContentsForeword to 2nd Edition xv Foreword to 1st Edition xvii Preface xix Acknowledgments xxvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why Do We Need Color Management? 1 1.2 Closed-loop Color Control 3 1.3 Need for an Open System 4 1.4 A Color Management System 5 1.5 Color Management Workflows 8 1.6 ICC – International Color Consortium 10 1.7 RGB and CMYK Color Specification 13 1.8 CIE 1931 Yxy and CIE 1976 L∗a∗b∗ 16 1.9 Color Conversions 17 1.10 Three Cs of Color Management 19 1.11 Profile Types 20 1.11.1 Custom Profiles 20 1.11.2 Generic Profiles 21 1.11.3 Standard Profiles 22 1.12 Color Gamuts 24 1.13 Rendering Intents 26 1.14 Color Accuracy 28 1.15 Late-binding Workflows 29 1.16 Spot Colors and Proprietary Systems 30 1.17 Benefits of Color Management 31 1.18 Summary 34 2 Principles of Light and Color 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Light Source – Object – Human Observer 38 2.3 Electromagnetic Radiation 39 2.3.1 The Visible Spectrum 39 2.4 Specifying the Light Source 40 2.4.1 Spectral Power Distribution 40 2.4.2 Color Temperature 42 2.4.3 CIE Illuminants and Standard Sources 43 2.4.4 Viewing Booths 45 2.4.5 “Warm” and “Cold” Colors 46 2.5 Measuring the Sample Spectrum 46 2.5.1 Practical Color Samples 47 2.6 Quantifying Human Color Vision 49 2.6.1 CIE Standard Observer 50 2.6.2 Trichromatic Vision 51 2.7 Changing the Light Source 53 2.7.1 Chromatic Adaptation 53 2.7.2 Yellow Sodium-Vapor Street Lighting 54 2.7.3 Metamerism – Matching Jacket and Trousers 56 2.7.4 PANTONE® D50 Lighting Indicator 58 2.8 Vision and Measurement 58 2.8.1 Viewing the Invisible – Infrared 59 2.8.2 Ultraviolet Fluorescence 60 2.8.3 Color Illusions 60 2.8.4 Color Appearance Modeling 61 2.9 Summary 63 3 Color by Numbers 65 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Basic Attributes of Color: Hue, Saturation, and Lightness 66 3.3 Munsell Color System 67 3.4 CIE Color Specification 68 3.5 XYZ Tristimulus Values 69 3.5.1 Calculating XYZ 69 3.5.2 XYZ Example Colors 71 3.5.3 XYZ for Light Sources 72 3.6 CIE 1931 Yxy System 72 3.6.1 Advantages of the Yxy Chromaticity Diagram 74 3.6.2 Disadvantages of the Yxy Chromaticity Diagram 75 3.7 CIE 1976 L∗a∗b∗ System 77 3.7.1 L∗a∗b∗ Practical Examples 80 3.7.2 L∗a∗b∗ vs. Spectral Data 82 3.8 CIE 1976 L∗C∗h 83 3.9 Quantifying Color Difference 84 3.9.1 Calculating ΔE 85 3.9.2 Improved ΔE Equations 88 3.9.3 Which ΔE Should I Use? 91 3.9.4 ΔE and Images 92 3.10 Summary 93 4 Measuring Instruments 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Instrument Types 96 4.3 Instrument Filter Bands 97 4.4 Densitometers 98 4.4.1 Density Equation 99 4.4.2 Status Densitometry 99 4.4.3 Density and Process Control 100 4.5 Colorimeters 101 4.5.1 Filter-based Colorimetry 101 4.5.2 Improvements in Display Colorimeters 103 4.6 Spectrophotometers 104 4.6.1 Spectrophotometer Features and Functions 106 4.6.2 Ever Popular X-Rite i1Pro2 109 4.6.3 OBA and UV Fluorescence 110 4.6.4 M0, M1, M2, M3 Measurement Modes 111 4.7 Smartphone and Other Low-cost Systems 114 4.8 Inter-instrument and Inter-model Agreement 115 4.9 Instrument Repeatability vs. Accuracy 116 4.10 Instrument Calibration 117 4.11 Summary 120 5 Inside Profiles 121 5.1 Introduction 121 5.2 ICC Profile Specification 122 5.3 Hexadecimal Profile Encoding 123 5.4 Structure of an ICC Profile 124 5.5 Profile Header 124 5.5.1 Preferred CMM 125 5.5.2 Specification Version 125 5.5.3 Profile Class 126 5.5.4 Data Color Space and PCS 127 5.5.5 Flags 128 5.5.6 Rendering Intent 130 5.5.7 PCS Illuminant 130 5.5.8 Profile Creator 130 5.6 Tag Table 131 5.6.1 Profile Description Tag 131 5.6.2 XYZ Primaries Tag 132 5.6.3 Tone Reproduction Curve Tag 133 5.6.4 Media White Point Tag 133 5.6.5 Chromatic Adaptation Tag 133 5.6.6 Lookup Table Tags 135 5.6.7 Target Tag 137 5.6.8 Gamut Tag 139 5.6.9 Optional Tags 139 5.6.10 Private Tags 140 5.7 Version 2 and Version 4 Profiles 140 5.8 Version 5 Profiles and iccMAX 141 5.9 How Does a Lookup Table Work? 142 5.10 Summary 144 6 Managing Color in Digital Cameras 147 6.1 Introduction 147 6.2 Scanner Profiling 148 6.2.1 Making a Scanner Profile 148 6.3 Paradigm Shift from Scanners to Digital Cameras 149 6.4 Color Management for a Digital Camera 152 6.4.1 Bayer Color Filter Array 152 6.4.2 In-Camera JPEG Processing 153 6.4.3 Camera RAW Processing 154 6.4.4 Camera RAW Color Management 155 6.4.5 Creating a Camera RAW Profile 157 6.4.6 Digital Negative – DNG 157 6.5 File Formats for Digital Cameras 159 6.5.1 JPEG Lossy File Format 160 6.5.2 TIFF Lossless File Format 161 6.6 Studio Color Management 161 6.7 Summary 162 7 Monitor Profiles 165 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 Three Cs of Monitor Profiling 167 7.3 Monitor Profiling Solutions 167 7.3.1 Free Utilities 167 7.3.2 Commercial Profiling Software 168 7.3.3 Integrated Soft Proofing Solutions 169 7.3.4 Hardware Calibrated Monitor Systems 170 7.4 Monitor Basics 171 7.4.1 External Brightness and Contrast 171 7.4.2 RGB Primaries 172 7.4.3 White Point 174 7.4.4 Monitor Gamma 174 7.4.5 Luminance Levels 175 7.4.6 The Dingy Yellow Effect 175 7.5 Making a Monitor Profile 177 7.6 Checking a Monitor Profile 178 7.7 Monitor Profiles and Windows 179 7.8 Monitor Profiles and Web Browsers 180 7.9 Monitor Profiles and Mobile Devices 181 7.10 Soft Proofing in Adobe Acrobat 182 7.11 Standards for Viewing Booths 183 7.12 Summary 184 8 Press and Printer Profiling 187 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 The Three Cs in Printer Profiling 188 8.3 Calibration in Inkjet Systems 188 8.3.1 Ink Limiting 189 8.3.2 Ink Hooking 190 8.3.3 Ink Splitting 191 8.4 Calibration in Digital Presses 192 8.5 Calibration in Offset Printing 193 8.5.1 G7 Calibration 194 8.5.2 Shared Neutral Appearance vs. Full Color Match 196 8.6 Printer Test Charts 197 8.6.1 Commonly Used Printer Test Charts 197 8.6.2 Visual vs. Random Layout 199 8.7 Printing and Measuring the Test Chart 200 8.7.1 RGB or CMYK or Halftone Printer? 200 8.7.2 Printing with “No Color Management” 202 8.7.3 Layout for Different Measuring Instruments 204 8.7.4 White Backing 205 8.7.5 Examining the Measurement File 205 8.7.6 Averaging Measurement Files 206 8.8 Making a Printer Profile 206 8.8.1 Black Channel Generation 206 8.8.2 Profile Quality 209 8.9 Checking the Printer Profile 210 8.9.1 Quantitative Checking 210 8.9.2 Qualitative Checking 212 8.10 Reference Printing Conditions 213 8.10.1 Developing Reference Printing Conditions 214 8.10.2 American and European Reference Printing Conditions 215 8.10.3 Using Reference Printing Conditions in Prepress and Press 217 8.10.4 “Printing to the Numbers” 219 8.11 Rendering Intents 221 8.11.1 Perceptual Rendering Intent 222 8.11.2 Relative Colorimetric Rendering Intent 223 8.11.3 Absolute Colorimetric Rendering Intent 224 8.11.4 Saturation Rendering Intent 225 8.12 Device LinkWorkflows 225 8.12.1 ICC Device Linking 225 8.12.2 Proprietary Device Linking 226 8.13 Process Control in Printing 227 8.14 Summary 230 9 Spot Colors & Expanded Gamut Printing 233 9.1 Introduction 233 9.2 Specifying a Spot Color – PANTONE MATCHING SYSTEM® 236 9.2.1 PANTONE Guides 236 9.2.2 Pantone Digital Color Libraries 239 9.2.3 PANTONE Ink Formulation Recipes 241 9.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of the PMS System 242 9.3 Printing a Spot Color 243 9.3.1 Printing with a Spot Color Ink 243 9.3.2 Simulating a Spot Color in CMYK 244 9.4 Spot Colors and Digital Presses 246 9.4.1 Creating a Swatch Book on a Digital Press 247 9.4.2 Spot Color Matching in Digital Presses 247 9.4.3 Spot Color Editor for a Digital Press 249 9.5 Expanded Gamut Printing 249 9.6 Software Solutions for Spot Colors and Expanded Gamut Printing 253 9.6.1 Gamut Warning in Adobe Photoshop 253 9.6.2 Using PANTONE Color Manager 253 9.6.3 Color Conversion with Esko Equinox 254 9.6.4 Gamut Calculation in Esko Color Engine Pilot 255 9.7 Summary 256 10 XML and Color Management 259 10.1 Introduction 259 10.2 Markup Languages 260 10.3 XML Design Principles 261 10.4 Basics of XML 262 10.4.1 Declaration 262 10.4.2 Elements 263 10.4.3 Attributes 263 10.4.4 Schema 264 10.4.5 Private Schemas 265 10.4.6 Validation and Conformance 265 10.5 Working with XML 267 10.5.1 iccMAX 267 10.5.2 Windows Color System (WCS) 268 10.5.3 Color Exchange Format (CxF) 269 10.5.4 X-Rite i1Profiler 271 10.5.5 JDF 272 10.6 XML not-best Practices 272 10.7 Summary 274 11 Color Management in Photoshop 275 11.1 Introduction 275 11.2 Photoshop Through the Ages 276 11.3 Photoshop’s Color Management Rules 278 11.3.1 Rule 1: Image + Profile 279 11.3.2 Rule 2: Profile – Connection Space – Profile 279 11.3.3 Rule 3: Real vs. Simulated Conversions 279 11.4 Photoshop’s Working Space 280 11.5 Menus in Photoshop 281 11.5.1 Opening an Image 282 11.5.2 Image Status 283 11.5.3 Color Settings 284 11.5.4 Assign Profile 286 11.5.5 Convert to Profile 287 11.5.6 Soft Proof Setup 289 11.6 Photoshop and Printing 290 11.6.1 Photoshop’s Print Settings 290 11.6.2 Hard Proofing 292 11.7 Putting It All Together 293 11.8 Summary 295 A Appendix 297 Index 305

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Book SynopsisVibration Testing: Theory and Practice, Second Edition is a step-by-step guide that shows how to obtain meaningful experimental results via the proper use of modern instrumentation, vibration exciters, and signal-processing equipment, with particular emphasis on how different types of signals are processed with a frequency analyzer. Thoroughly updated, this new edition covers all basic concepts and principles underlying dynamic testing, explains how current instruments and methods operate within the dynamic environment, and describes their behavior in a number of commonly encountered field and laboratory test situations.Trade Review"…is a good foundational text for engineers concerned with component vibration testing as it might relate to failure analysis, qualification testing, reliability testing, and machinery diagnostics. The book is well written and makes the presented concepts easy to understand. I recommend it both as an introduction to laboratory testing techniques for the relative novice and as a reference for experienced practitioners in the field." (Noise Control Engineering, Jan-Feb 2009)Table of ContentsPreface xix 1. An Overview of Vibration Testing 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Preliminary Considerations 6 1.3 General Input-Output Relationships in the Frequency Domain 8 1.4 Overview of Equipment Employed 10 1.5 Summary 12 2. Dynamic Signal Analysis 13 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Phasor Representation of Periodic Functions 21 2.3 Periodic Time Histories 26 2.4 Transient Signal Analysis 32 2.5 Correlation Concepts—A Statistical Point of View 38 2.6 Correlation Concepts—Periodic Time Histories 40 2.7 Correlation Concepts—Transient Time Histories 47 2.8 Correlation Concepts—Random Time Histories 50 2.9 Summary 63 2.10 General References on Signal Analysis 65 3. Vibration Concepts 67 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 The Single DOF Model 68 3.3 Single Degree of Freedom Forced Response 76 3.4 General Input-Output Model For Linear Systems 88 3.5 The Two Degrees of Freedom Vibration Model 101 3.6 The Second-Order Continuous Vibration Model 115 3.7 Fourth-Order Continuous Vibration System—The Beam 130 3.8 Nonlinear Behavior 143 3.9 Summary 156 3.10 References 161 4. Transducer Measurement Considerations 164 4.1 Introduction 164 4.2 Fixed Reference Transducers 166 4.3 Mechanical Model of Seismic Transducers—The Accelerometer 173 4.4 Piezoelectric Sensor Characteristics 180 4.5 Combined Linear and Angular Accelerometers 193 4.6 Transducer Response to Transient Inputs 199 4.7 Accelerometer Cross-Axis Sensitivity 212 4.8 The Force Transducer General Model 222 4.9 Correcting FRF Data for Force Transducer Mass Loading 235 4.10 Calibration 246 4.11 Environmental Factors 263 4.12 Summary 267 5. The Digital Frequency Analyzer 272 5.1 Introduction 272 5.2 Basic Processes of a Digital Frequency Analyzer 274 5.3 Digital Analyzer Operating Principles 289 5.4 Factors in the Application of a Single-Channel Analyzer 296 5.5 The Dual-Channel Analyzer 314 5.6 The Effects of Signal Noise on FRF Measurements 326 5.7 Overlapping Signal Analysis to Reduce Analysis Time 339 5.8 Zoom Analysis 348 5.9 Scan Analysis, Scan Averaging, and More on Spectral Smearing 359 5.10 Summary 368 6. Vibration Excitation Mechanisms 374 6.1 Introduction 375 6.2 Mechanical Vibration Exciters 382 6.3 Electrohydraulic Exciters 394 6.4 The Modeling of an Electro Magnetic Vibration Exciter System 403 6.5 An Exciter System’s Bare Table Characteristics 419 6.6 Interaction of An Exciter and a Grounded Single DOF Structure 426 6.7 Interaction of an Exciter and an Ungrounded Structure Under Test 438 6.8 Measuring An Exciter’s Actual Characteristics 449 6.9 Summary 460 7. The Application of Basic Concepts to Vibration Testing 465 7.1 Introduction 466 7.2 Sudden Release Or Step Relaxation Method 468 7.3 Forced Response of a Simply Supported Beam Mounted on an Exciter 485 7.4 Impulse Testing 499 7.5 Selecting Proper Windows for Impulse Testing 510 7.6 Vibration Exciter Driving a Free-Free Beam With Point Loads 530 7.7 Windowing Effects on Random Test Results 539 7.8 Low-Frequency Damping Measurements Reveal Subtle Data Processing Problems 551 7.9 A Linear Structure Becomes Nonlinear Due To Its Test Environment 559 7.10 Summary 573 8. General Vibration Testing Model: From the Field to the Laboratory 579 8.1 Introduction 580 8.2 A Two-Point Input-Output Model of Field and Laboratory Simulation Environments 587 8.3 Laboratory Simulation Schemes Based on the Elementary Model 593 8.4 An Example Using a Two DOF Test Item and a Two DOF Vehicle 603 8.5 The General Field Environment Model 622 8.6 The General Laboratory Environment Model 627 8.7 Test Scenarios for Laboratory Simulations 630 8.8 Summary 634 Index 641

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Book SynopsisIn this updated and revised second edition, the authors present asystematic and practical approach to the analytical and numericalaspects of the prediction of rotordynamics behaviour. The influenceof bending is a main theme of the book, although the effects oftorsion are also considered. The use of finite element techniquesand the characteristics of rotor elements are introduced. The bookgoes on to consider simple models showing basic phenomena which arethen linked to industrial applications such as turbocompressors,high pressure centrifugal compressors, and steam and air turbines.Key features include: * The inclusion of a computer program available free of charge onthe Internet * The development of a simple model of co-axial multirotors * New industrial applications and 1995 API specifications This book will be of great interest and value to students andengineers concerned with predictions in rotordynamics andmechanical engineering.Table of ContentsCharacteristics of Rotor Elements. Monorotors: Simple Models, Basic Phenomena. Multirotors: Simple Models, Basic Phenomena. Rotors Equations: Solutions of Equations. A Computer Program. Towards Industrial Applications. Industrial Applications. Transient Motions. Torsion. Miscellaneous Topics. Appendices. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisRevealing suspension geometry design methods in unique detail, John Dixon shows how suspension properties such as bump steer, roll steer, bump camber, compliance steer and roll centres are analysed and controlled by the professional engineer.Table of ContentsPreface. 1 Introduction and History. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Early Steering History. 1.3 Leaf-Spring Axles. 1.4 Transverse Leaf Springs. 1.5 Early Independent Fronts. 1.6 Independent Front Suspension. 1.7 Driven Rigid Axles. 1.8 De Dion Rigid Axles. 1.9 Undriven Rigid Axles. 1.10 Independent Rear Driven. 1.11 Independent Rear Undriven. 1.12 Trailing-Twist Axles. 1.13 Some Unusual Suspensions. References. 2 Road Geometry. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 The Road. 2.3 Road Curvatures. 2.4 Pitch Gradient and Curvature. 2.5 Road Bank Angle. 2.6 Combined Gradient and Banking. 2.7 Path Analysis. 2.8 Particle-Vehicle Analysis. 2.9 Two-Axle-Vehicle Analysis. 2.10 Road Cross-Sectional Shape. 2.11 Road Torsion. 2.12 Logger Data Analysis. References. 3 Road Profiles. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Isolated Ramps. 3.3 Isolated Bumps. 3.4 Sinusoidal Single Paths. 3.5 Sinusoidal Roads. 3.6 Fixed Waveform. 3.7 Fourier Analysis. 3.8 Road Wavelengths. 3.9 Stochastic Roads. References. 4 Ride Geometry. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Wheel and Tyre Geometry. 4.3 Suspension Bump. 4.4 Ride Positions. 4.5 Pitch. 4.5 Roll. 4.7 Ride Height. 4.8 Time-Domain Ride Analysis. 4.9 Frequency-Domain Ride Analysis. 4.10 Workspace. 5 Vehicle Steering. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Turning Geometry – Single Track. 5.3 Ackermann Factor. 5.4 Turning Geometry – Large Vehicles. 5.5 Steering Ratio. 5.6 Steering Systems. 5.7 Wheel Spin Axis. 5.8 Wheel Bottom Point. 5.9 Wheel Steering Axis. 5.10 Caster Angle. 5.11 Camber Angle. 5.12 Kingpin Angle Analysis. 5.13 Kingpin Axis Steered. 5.14 Steer Jacking. References. 6 Bump and Roll Steer. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Wheel Bump Steer. 6.3 Axle Steer Angles. 6.4 Roll Steer and Understeer. 6.5 Axle Linear Bump and Roll Steer. 6.6 Axle Non-Linear Bump and Roll Steer. 6.7 Axle Double-Bump Steer. 6.8 Vehicle Roll Steer. 6.9 Vehicle Heave Steer. 6.10 Vehicle Pitch Steer. 6.11 Static Toe-In and Toe-Out. 6.12 Rigid Axles with Link Location. 6.13 Rigid Axles with Leaf Springs. 6.14 Rigid Axles with Steering. References. 7 Camber and Scrub. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Wheel Inclination and Camber. 7.3 Axle Inclination and Camber. 7.4 Linear Bump and Roll. 7.5 Non-Linear Bump and Roll. 7.6 The Swing Arm. 7.7 Bump Camber Coefficients. 7.8 Roll Camber Coefficients. 7.9 Bump Scrub. 7.10 Double-Bump Scrub. 7.11 Roll Scrub. 7.12 Rigid Axles. References. 8 Roll Centres. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 The Swing Arm. 8.3 The Kinematic Roll Centre. 8.4 The Force Roll Centre. 8.5 The Geometric Roll Centre. 8.6 Symmetrical Double Bump. 8.7 Linear Single Bump. 8.8 Asymmetrical Double Bump. 8.9 Roll of a Symmetrical Vehicle. 8.10 Linear Symmetrical Vehicle Summary. 8.11 Roll of an Asymmetrical Vehicle. 8.12 Road Coordinates. 8.13 GRC and Latac. 8.14 Experimental Roll Centres. References. 9 Compliance Steer. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Wheel Forces and Moments. 9.3 Compliance Angles. 9.4 Independent Suspension Compliance. 9.5 Discussion of Matrix. 9.6 Independent-Suspension Summary. 9.7 Hub Centre Forces. 9.8 Steering. 9.9 Rigid Axles. 9.10 Experimental Measurements. References. 10 Pitch Geometry. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Acceleration and Braking. 10.3 Anti-Dive. 10.4 Anti-Rise 10.5 Anti-Lift. 10.6 Anti-Squat. 10.7 Design Implications. 11 Single-Arm Suspensions. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Pivot Axis Geometry. 11.3 Wheel Axis Geometry. 11.4 The Trailing Arm. 11.5 The Sloped-Axis Trailing Arm. 11.6 The Semi-Trailing Arm. 11.7 The Low-Pivot Semi-Trailing Arm. 11.8 The Transverse Arm. 11.9 The Sloped-Axis Transverse Arm. 11.10 The Semi-Transverse Arm. 11.11 The Low-Pivot Semi-Transverse Arm. 11.12 General Case Numerical Solution. 11.13 Comparison of Solutions. 11.14 The Steered Single Arm. 11.15 Bump Scrub. References. 12 Double-Arm Suspensions. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Configurations. 12.3 Arm Lengths and Angles. 12.4 Equal Arm Length. 12.5 Equally-Angled Arms. 12.6 Converging Arms. 12.7 Arm Length Difference. 12.8 General Solution. 12.9 Design Process. 12.10 Numerical Solution in Two Dimensions. 12.11 Pitch. 12.12 Numerical Solution in Three Dimensions. 12.13 Steering. 12.14 Strut Analysis in Two Dimensions. 12.15 Strut Numerical Solution in Two Dimensions. 12.16 Strut Design Process. 12.17 Strut Numerical Solution in Three Dimensions. 12.18 Double Trailing Arms. 12.19 Five-Link Suspension. 13 Rigid Axles. 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Example Configuration. 13.3 Axle Variables. 13.4 Pivot-Point Analysis. 13.5 Link Analysis. 13.6 Equivalent Links. 13.7 Numerical Solution. 13.8 The Sensitivity Matrix. 13.9 Results: Axle 1. 13.10 Results: Axle 2. 13.11 Coefficients. 14 Installation Ratios. 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 Motion Ratio. 14.3 Displacement Method. 14.4 Velocity Diagrams. 14.5 Computer Evaluation. 14.6 Mechanical Displacement. 14.7 The Rocker. 14.8 The Rigid Arm. 14.9 Double Wishbones. 14.10 Struts. 14.11 Pushrods and Pullrods. 14.12 Solid Axles. 14.13 The Effect of Motion Ratio on Inertia. 14.14 The Effect of Motion Ratio on Springs. 14.15 The Effect of Motion Ratio on Dampers. 14.16 Velocity Diagrams in Three Dimensions. 14.17 Acceleration Diagrams. References. 15 Computational Geometry in Three Dimensions. 15.1 Introduction. 15.2 Coordinate Systems. 15.3 Transformation of Coordinates. 15.4 Direction Numbers and Cosines. 15.5 Vector Dot Product. 15.6 Vector Cross Product. 15.7 The Sine Rule. 15.8 The Cosine Rule. 15.9 Points. 15.10 Lines. 15.11 Planes. 15.12 Spheres. 15.13 Circles. 15.14 Routine PointFPL2P. 15.15 Routine PointFPLPDC. 15.16 Routine PointITinit. 15.17 Routine PointIT. 15.18 Routine PointFPT. 15.19 Routine Plane3P. 15.20 Routine PointFP. 15.21 Routine PointFPPl3P. 15.22 Routine PointATinit. 15.23 Routine PointAT. 15.24 Routine Points3S. 15.25 Routine Points2SHP. 15.26 Routine Point3Pl. 15.27 Routine 'PointLP'. 15.28 Routine Point3SV. 15.29 Routine PointITV. 15.30 Routine PointATV. 15.31 Rotations. 16 Programming Considerations. 16.1 Introduction. 16.2 The RASER Value. 16.3 Failure Modes Analysis. 16.4 Reliability. 16.5 Bad Conditioning. 16.6 Data Sensitivity. 16.7 Accuracy. 16.8 Speed. 16.9 Ease of Use. 16.10 The Assembly Problem. 16.11 Checksums. 17 Iteration. 17.1 Introduction. 17.2 Three Phases of Iteration. 17.3 Convergence. 17.4 Binary Search. 17.5 Linear Iterations. 17.6 Iterative Exits. 17.7 Fixed-Point Iteration. 17.8 Accelerated Convergence. 17.9 Higher Orders without Derivatives. 17.10 Newton’s Iterations. 17.11 Other Derivative Methods. 17.12 Polynomial Roots. 17.13 Testing. References. Appendix A: Nomenclature. Appendix B: Units. Appendix C: Greek Alphabet. Appendix D: Quaternions for Engineers. Appendix E: Frenet, Serret and Darboux. Appendix F: The Fourier Transform. References and Bibliography. Index.

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Book SynopsisWelding Metallurgy and Weldability of Stainless Steels, the first book in over twenty years to address welding metallurgy and weldability issues associated with stainless steel, offers the most up-to-date and comprehensive treatment of these topics currently available. The authors emphasize fundamental metallurgical principles governing microstructure evolution and property development of stainless steels, including martensistic, ferric, austenitic, duplex, and precipitation hardening grades. They present a logical and well-organized look at the history, evolution, and primary uses of each stainless steel, including detailed descriptions of the associated weldability issues.Trade Review"…offers a solid and detailed coverage of welding with stainless steels." (E-STREAMS, August 2006) "…an exciting metallurgy book…that is difficult to put down…the authors have performed an excellent piece of work in developing this book." (Materials and Manufacturing Processes, February 2006) "...a delight to read...has a wealth of information and written in a concise, informative manner…" (MRS Bulletin, January 2006) "...an authoritative resource for both students and professionals that serves as a handy reference...essential." (CHOICE, December 2005) "…information is not something that can be easily found in most metallurgical reference books…extremely useful for the selection or application of stainless steels." (Journal of Metals Online, July 21, 2005) "...an up-to-date textbook that will surely become a respected volume for years to come." (Welding Journal, September 2005)Table of Contents PREFACE xv 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Definition of a Stainless Steel 2 1.2 History of Stainless Steel 2 1.3 Types of Stainless Steel and Their Application 4 1.4 Corrosion Resistance 5 1.5 Production of Stainless Steel 6 References 7 2 PHASE DIAGRAMS 8 2.1 Iron–Chromium System 9 2.2 Iron–Chromium–Carbon System 10 2.3 Iron–Chromium–Nickel System 12 2.4 Phase Diagrams for Specific Alloy Systems 15 References 18 3 ALLOYING ELEMENTS AND CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS 19 3.1 Alloying Elements in Stainless Steels 19 3.1.1 Chromium 20 3.1.2 Nickel 20 3.1.3 Manganese 21 3.1.4 Silicon 21 3.1.5 Molybdenum 22 3.1.6 Carbide-Forming Elements 22 3.1.7 Precipitation-Hardening Elements 23 3.1.8 Interstitial Elements: Carbon and Nitrogen 23 3.1.9 Other Elements 24 3.2 Ferrite-Promoting Versus Austenite-Promoting Elements 24 3.3 Constitution Diagrams 25 3.3.1 Austenitic–Ferritic Alloy Systems: Early Diagrams and Equivalency Relationships 25 3.3.2 Schaeffler Diagram 29 3.3.3 DeLong Diagram 33 3.3.4 Other Diagrams 34 3.3.5 WRC-1988 and WRC-1992 Diagrams 40 3.4 Austenitic–Martensitic Alloy Systems 43 3.5 Ferritic–Martensitic Alloy Systems 46 3.6 Neural Network Ferrite Prediction 50 References 52 4 MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS 56 4.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables 57 4.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy 59 4.3 Welding Metallurgy 63 4.3.1 Fusion Zone 63 4.3.2 Heat-Affected Zone 67 4.3.3 Phase Transformations 70 4.3.4 Postweld Heat Treatment 71 4.3.5 Preheat, Interpass, and Postweld Heat Treatment Guidelines 74 4.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments 77 4.5 Weldability 77 4.5.1 Solidification and Liquation Cracking 78 4.5.2 Reheat Cracking 78 4.5.3 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 79 4.6 Supermartensitic Stainless Steels 80 4.7 Case Study: Calculation of MS Temperatures of Martensitic Stainless Steels 84 References 86 5 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS 87 5.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables 88 5.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy 92 5.2.1 Effect of Alloying Additions on Microstructure 95 5.2.2 Effect of Martensite 95 5.2.3 Embrittlement Phenomena 96 5.2.3.1 475°C Embrittlement 97 5.2.3.2 Sigma and Chi Phase Embrittlement 97 5.2.3.3 High-Temperature Embrittlement 98 5.2.3.4 Notch Sensitivity 103 5.2.4 Mechanical Properties 104 5.3 Welding Metallurgy 104 5.3.1 Fusion Zone 104 5.3.1.1 Solidification and Transformation Sequence 104 5.3.1.2 Precipitation Behavior 109 5.3.1.3 Microstructure Prediction 111 5.3.2 Heat-Affected Zone 112 5.3.3 Solid-State Welds 113 5.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments 114 5.4.1 Low-Chromium Alloys 114 5.4.2 Medium-Chromium Alloys 116 5.4.3 High-Chromium Alloys 119 5.5 Weldability 123 5.5.1 Weld Solidification Cracking 123 5.5.2 High-Temperature Embrittlement 124 5.5.3 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 126 5.6 Corrosion Resistance 126 5.7 Postweld Heat Treatment 130 5.8 Filler Metal Selection 132 5.9 Case Study: HAZ Cracking in Type 436 During Cold Deformation 132 5.10 Case Study: Intergranular Stress Corrosion Cracking in the HAZ of Type 430 135 References 137 6 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS 141 6.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables 143 6.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy 147 6.2.1 Mechanical Properties 149 6.3 Welding Metallurgy 151 6.3.1 Fusion Zone Microstructure Evolution 153 6.3.1.1 Type A: Fully Austenitic Solidification 154 6.3.1.2 Type AF Solidification 155 6.3.1.3 Type FA Solidification 155 6.3.1.4 Type F Solidification 158 6.3.2 Interfaces in Single-Phase Austenitic Weld Metal 162 6.3.2.1 Solidification Subgrain Boundaries 162 6.3.2.2 Solidification Grain Boundaries 163 6.3.2.3 Migrated Grain Boundaries 163 6.3.3 Heat-Affected Zone 164 6.3.3.1 Grain Growth 165 6.3.3.2 Ferrite Formation 165 6.3.3.3 Precipitation 165 6.3.3.4 Grain Boundary Liquation 166 6.3.4 Preheat and Interpass Temperature and Postweld Heat Treatment 166 6.3.4.1 Intermediate-Temperature Embrittlement 167 6.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments 168 6.5 Weldability 173 6.5.1 Weld Solidification Cracking 173 6.5.1.1 Beneficial Effects of Primary Ferrite Solidification 175 6.5.1.2 Use of Predictive Diagrams 177 6.5.1.3 Effect of Impurity Elements 179 6.5.1.4 Ferrite Measurement 181 6.5.1.5 Effect of Rapid Solidification 182 6.5.1.6 Solidification Cracking Fracture Morphology 186 6.5.1.7 Preventing Weld Solidification Cracking 189 6.5.2 HAZ Liquation Cracking 189 6.5.3 Weld Metal Liquation Cracking 190 6.5.4 Ductility-Dip Cracking 194 6.5.5 Reheat Cracking 196 6.5.6 Copper Contamination Cracking 199 6.5.7 Zinc Contamination Cracking 200 6.5.8 Helium-Induced Cracking 200 6.6 Corrosion Resistance 200 6.6.1 Intergranular Corrosion 201 6.6.1.1 Preventing Sensitization 204 6.6.1.2 Knifeline Attack 205 6.6.1.3 Low-Temperature Sensitization 205 6.6.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking 206 6.6.3 Pitting and Crevice Corrosion 208 6.6.4 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion 208 6.6.5 Selective Ferrite Attack 209 6.7 Specialty Alloys 211 6.7.1 Heat-Resistant Alloys 211 6.7.2 High-Nitrogen Alloys 214 6.8 Case Study: Selecting the Right Filler Metal 220 6.9 Case Study: What’s Wrong with My Swimming Pool? 223 6.10 Case Study: Cracking in the Heat-Affected Zone 224 References 225 7 DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS 230 7.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables 231 7.2 Physical Metallurgy 234 7.2.1 Austenite–Ferrite Phase Balance 234 7.2.2 Precipitation Reactions 237 7.3 Mechanical Properties 237 7.4 Welding Metallurgy 238 7.4.1 Solidification Behavior 238 7.4.2 Role of Nitrogen 240 7.4.3 Secondary Austenite 244 7.4.4 Heat-Affected Zone 246 7.5 Controlling the Ferrite–Austenite Balance 250 7.5.1 Heat Input 251 7.5.2 Cooling Rate Effects 251 7.5.3 Ferrite Prediction and Measurement 253 7.6 Weldability 254 7.6.1 Weld Solidification Cracking 254 7.6.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 254 7.6.3 Intermediate-Temperature Enbrittlement 255 7.6.3.1 Alpha-Prime Embrittlement 256 7.6.3.2 Sigma Phase Embrittlement 256 7.7 Weld Mechanical Properties 259 7.8 Corrosion Resistance 261 7.8.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking 261 7.8.2 Pitting Corrosion 261 References 262 8 PRECIPITATION-HARDENING STAINLESS STEELS 264 8.1 Standard Alloys and Consumables 265 8.2 Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy 267 8.2.1 Martensitic Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels 269 8.2.2 Semi-Austenitic Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels 274 8.2.3 Austenitic Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels 276 8.3 Welding Metallurgy 277 8.3.1 Microstructure Evolution 278 8.3.2 Postweld Heat Treatment 278 8.4 Mechanical Properties of Weldments 279 8.5 Weldability 280 8.6 Corrosion Resistance 285 References 285 9 DISSIMILAR WELDING OF STAINLESS STEELS 287 9.1 Applications of Dissimilar Welds 287 9.2 Carbon or Low-Alloy Steel to Austenitic Stainless Steel 288 9.2.1 Determining Weld Metal Constitution 288 9.2.2 Fusion Boundary Transition Region 291 9.2.3 Nature of Type II Boundaries 294 9.3 Weldability 296 9.3.1 Solidification Cracking 296 9.3.2 Clad Disbonding 298 9.3.3 Creep Failure in the HAZ of Carbon or Low-Alloy Steel 299 9.4 Other Dissimilar Combinations 301 9.4.1 Nominally Austenitic Alloys Whose Melted Zone Is Expected to Include Some Ferrite or to Solidify asPrimary Ferrite 301 9.4.2 Nominally Austenitic Alloys Whose Melted Zone Is Expected to Contain Some Ferrite, Welded to FullyAustenitic Stainless Steel 301 9.4.3 Austenitic Stainless Steel Joined to Duplex Stainless Steel 302 9.4.4 Austenitic Stainless Steel Joined to Ferritic Stainless Steel 302 9.4.5 Austenitic Stainless Steel Joined to Martensitic Stainless Steel 302 9.4.6 Martensitic Stainless Steel Joined to Ferritic Stainless Steel 302 9.4.7 Stainless Steel Filler Metal for Difficult-to-Weld Steels 303 9.4.8 Copper-Base Alloys Joined to Stainless Steels 305 9.4.9 Nickel-Base Alloys Joined to Stainless Steels 306 References 307 10 WELDABILITY TESTING 309 10.1 Introduction 309 10.1.1 Weldability Test Approaches 310 10.1.2 Weldability Test Techniques 310 10.2 Varestraint Test 311 10.2.1 Technique for Quantifying Weld Solidification Cracking 312 10.2.2 Technique for Quantifying HAZ Liquation Cracking 316 10.3 Hot Ductility Test 319 10.4 Fissure Bend Test 323 10.5 Strain-to-Fracture Test 328 10.6 Other Weldability Tests 329 References 329 APPENDIX 1 NOMINAL COMPOSITIONS OF STAINLESS STEELS 331 APPENDIX 2 ETCHING TECHNIQUES FOR STAINLESS STEEL WELDS 343 AUTHOR INDEX 347 SUBJECT INDEX 353

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