Neurology and clinical neurophysiology Books

Book SynopsisHow do we perceive our body and where is it represented in our brain? Since decades it has been known that the primary somatosensory cortex (or SI) codes the surface of our body in a topographical way. Classic studies understand this body map representation in SI as fix and reflecting the physical location of peripheral stimulation in the form of the famous somatosensory homunculus. This book reports results of recent studies that challenge this view and suggest a more complex role of SI.

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Book SynopsisFully updated with the latest AAP recommendations, this award-winning guide offers parents balanced, reassuring information to help them manage this condition. Topics include: evaluation and diagnosis, coexisting conditions, behavior therapy, ADHD and academics, the role of medication, and complementary and alternative treatments. Parents will also find inspirational and relatable stories from other caretakers.

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Book SynopsisThe demographics of ageing suggest a great need for an early diagnosis of dementia and for the development of preventive strategies. Neurodegeneration in Alzheimer''s disease is estimated to start 20-30 years before clinical onset, and the identification of biological markers for pre-clinical and early diagnosis is the principal aim of research studies in the field. In this book, the authors present topical research on Alzheimer''s diagnosis including cerebrospinal fluid biomarker Amyloid-B 1-42 identification; visual impairment in Alzheimer''s disease; cerebral glucose metabolism through F-fluoro-deoxy-glucose positron emission tomography and neuroimaging.

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Book SynopsisParkinson''s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder that affects approximately 1 million persons in the United States. This disease has been a force in the transformation of neurology from a specialty restricted to diagnosis into one with active and controversial therapies. This book is an up-to-date volume presenting hot topics in this actual scenario. Sections include new functional aspects of basal ganglia, little-known environmental factors in the aetiology of the disease, insights into the disease-related neurodegeneration, a critical discussion of current treatments and their limitations, and unexplored neuropsychiatric presentations of the disease.

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Book SynopsisThe brain is often thought of as an immune-privilege site, implying that trafficking of immune cells and molecules into the central nervous system is limited or controlled so as to prevent collateral damage. Nevertheless, there is increasing evidence demonstrating complex interactions between the immune system and the nervous systems. The increasing evidence for the role of auto-immunity to neuronal proteins in both peripheral and central nervous system disorders has led to the development of animal models and in vitro systems to probe human disorders. This book reviews evidence for auto-immunity to neurons and axons in neurological diseases, discusses the animal models that are used to study the mechanisms of disease and indicates how such auto-immunity is relevant for therapies in these disorders

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Book SynopsisThis book presents current research in the study of neurologic disorders. Topics discussed include oxidative stress-mediated neurodegeneration; mechanisms of the motoneuron stress response and its relevance in neurodegeneration; genetics and molecular biology of Alzheimer''s disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration; molecular imaging and Parkinson''s disease; mitochondrion selective antioxidants as drug treatments for Alzheimer''s disease; the role of vitamins in vascular dementia and biofluid protein biomarkers for the diagnosis of vascular dementia.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents current research in the field of neuroscience. Topics discussed include noradrenergic actions in prefrontal cortex; prefrontal morphology, neurobiology and clinical manifestations of schizophrenia; prefrontal cholinergic receptors; deep brain stimulation and cortical stimulation methods; deep brain stimulation in adult and pediatric dystonia; cognitive aspects in idiopathic epilepsy; cognitive interventions to improve prefrontal functions; molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of Huntington''s disease and DNA repair and Huntington''s disease.

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Book SynopsisIn this book the complex impact of colour action on the organism is discussed. It is shown that the perception of colour depends on the action of irritants on other sensor systems and, vice versa, the action of colour may exert exciting or inhibiting influence on the perception of sounds or smells. The facts of mutual influence of the sensor systems force us to consider not only a single observation but the entire experience as a continuous flow of sensations which is formulated as the empirical monism principle. This book proposes the solutions of these problems from the point of view of perception''s activity and continuity.

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Book SynopsisSexual function in patients with physical or neurological disabilities is often disregarded by healthcare professionals, though it is a topic of great importance to patients and to those with whom they share significant relationships. Too often, physicians believe that sexuality is not as important as the injury or illness that brought the patient to the rehabilitation team. This book investigates sexual function in persons with neurological disorders, highlighting the importance of proper counselling, diagnosis and treatment.

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Book SynopsisIt is now known that the brain is actually capable of changing and developing throughout a lifetime. Our mental capacity is astonishingly large, and our ability to process widely varied information and complex new experiences with relative ease can often be surprising. The brains ability to act and react in ever-changing ways is known as neuroplasticity. Decades of research have now shown that these changes can profoundly alter the pattern of neuronal activation in response to experience. According to the theory of neuroplasticity, thinking, learning, acting and hearing can change both the brain''s physical structure and functional organisation according to the peripheral stimuli. This book reviews the latest knowledge on the neuroplasticity in the auditory brainstem: from physiology to the drug therapy.

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Book SynopsisThis compilation presents original study results on the leading edge of neuroscience research. Each article has been carefully selected in an attempt to present substantial research results across a broad spectrum. Included in this volume is the contribution effects of the putamen to cognitive function; temporal lobe pathology in neurodegenerative disease; renin-angiotensin system modulation functions in CPu; diagnostic utility of measures of variability in patients suffering from traumatic brain injury; and the assessment of dopaminergic function in Parkinson''s disease by SPECT/PET.

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Book SynopsisIn this book, the authors present current research in the study of the anatomy, functions and role in disease of the striatum. Topics discussed include the localisation, processing and function of cholinesterases in striatum; impaired nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurotransmission in Huntington''s disease; behavioural and neurochemical interrelations between the striatum and the cerebellum; striatal dysfunction and social cognition and the effects of experience on striatal morphology.

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Book SynopsisToday, the neurotoxic and neuroprotective roles of the innate immune reactions in ageing, brain injury, autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorders of the CNS are widely investigated and highly debated research topics. Nevertheless, several issues remain to be elucidated, notably the earlier cellular events that initiate dysregulation of brain inflammatory pathways. This book has been prepared to provide an overview of the field of neuroimmunology research.

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Book SynopsisSpinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition with enormous financial, social and personal costs. SCI is the most expensive traumatic condition in the United States. Overall, most frequent aetiologies of injury are motor vehicle crashes and falls, followed by violence, sports-related injuries, and work-related accidents. Research on SCI prevention, regeneration and long term care has progressed steadily over the past decade making an introductory foray into the epidemiology of SCI and important undertaking. This book is designed as a general reference book reviewing the epidemiology of SCI throughout the world with potential insight to cause and effect as well as the difficulties and boundaries to minimise this unfortunate occurrence.

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Book SynopsisCerebellar mutism syndrome refers to a specific disorder in which a complete but transient loss of speech, followed by dysarthria, occurs following resection of intrinsic posterior cranial fossa tumours or cerebellar haemorrhages, or upon trauma. Written and edited by leading international authorities in the field, it provides an in-depth review of knowledge of the definition to treatment of cerebellar mutism, with an emphasis on its anatomical features and treatment modalities, medical or surgical. Moreover, it gives clinicians and investigators current evidences and an outlook to future areas of cerebellar mutism and to innovative therapeutic philosophies. This book will represent the first extraordinary book on cerebellar mutism.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents and discusses topical data in the field of brain research. Topics discussed herein include nonpharmacological inhibition of cerebral dopaminergic activity; neuropsychology of the sense of agency; glucocorticoid-mediated regulation of tight junctions in brain vascular endothelium; the hierarchial organization and cerebral lateralisation of hand control and its relationship to language; and a unique cause of traumatic brain injury and all neuro-musculo-skeletal injuries.

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Book SynopsisNeurogenesis is a process that includes not only a generation of new neurons from neural stem and progenitor cells, but functional integration of these new-born neurons into cortical circuits as well. In this book, the authors present current research in the study of neurogenesis including altered adult neurogenesis in neurodegenerative diseases; modulation of dentate area postnatal neurogenesis in rats and mice; ischemia and neurogenesis; the primary cilium as the tiny driver of dentate gyral neurogenesis; neurogenic hypothesis and psychiatric disorders; and neurogenesis in the adult neocortex under pathological conditions.

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Book SynopsisIn this book, the authors present topical research in the study of comas and syncope. Topics discussed include the effects of acoustic stimulation on comatose patients; cardiogenic syncope; management of non-traumatic comas in sub-Saharan Africa and the role of neuroimaging and genetics in comatose pediatric patients.

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Book SynopsisIn recent decades, auditory cortex has taken centre stage in studies of the auditory system and sound perception. Our knowledge of this structure, though still sparse, paints a picture of an extremely complex brain region, probably the most complicated yet in the auditory pathway. This book is a collection of works summarising the latest developments in auditory cortex research and reviews the current state of knowledge about cortical anatomy, function and malfunction. The book highlights use of state-of-the-art technological methodologies in unravelling various facts about auditory cortex. It canvasses findings ranging from intracellular and extracellular electrophysiology, optical imaging, quantitative electroencephalography in addition to reviews of molecular techniques, functional imaging approaches and histological anatomy.

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Book SynopsisThe amygdala is a brain region that has attracted the interest of many researchers. This book focuses on various aspects of amygdala structure and function, and provides insights into their role in disorders. Topics discussed include the evolution of the amygdala from fish through amphibians, reptiles and birds to mammals; the role of the serotonergic system in amygdala-related behaviors and the impact of histaminergic, cholinergic and endocannabinoid systems on memory formation; the role of the central and medial nuclei, two major output centers of the amygdala, in the regulation of autonomic and somatic responses is highlighted from a clinical perspective; and the interaction of the amygdala with the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, as well as the importance of the central amygdaloid corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) system in the regulation of stress-responses and in addiction, are analysed.

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Book SynopsisBotulinum toxin (BoNT)is a powerful neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Its mechanism of action consists of the induction of a temporary muscle paralysis through the inhibition of the release of acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft. In this book, the authors discuss the uses and complications of botulinum toxin. Topics include the potential therapeutic applications of botulinum toxin in pain management and human epilepsy; a review of the efficacy and safety of currently available products; lower facial contouring with botulinum toxin; BoNT in urology, facial palsy, treatment of body deformities due to muscle hypertrophy, and for drug-refractory trigeminal neuralgia.

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Book SynopsisThe last century has witnessed remarkable progress in our understanding and treatment of epilepsy. Long regarded as a condition of the possessed and deranged, epilepsy is now accepted as a bona fide medical condition, with well-defined clinical symptoms, reliable diagnostic modalities, and effective therapeutic options that dramatically improve clinical outcomes and enhance quality of life. This book highlights the progress made in health-related topics such as social epileptology and the globalization of epilepsy care. Chapters included in this book, combine both broad brushstrokes detailing the developments in fields as varied as basic epileptology, epilepsy classification, anti-epileptic drug development, clinical neurophysiology, paediatric epileptology, and neuroimaging; as well as narrowed and focused treatises on topics such as the autosomal recessive epilepsies, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, the interplay of psychiatry and epilepsy, and the use of the operating room as a research laboratory. The book ends with a somewhat iconoclastic piece challenging several of our ongoing assumptions of epilepsy care perhaps serving as an impetus for further research as we head into the new century.

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Book SynopsisMotor neuron diseases are the most catastrophic of neurodegenerative disorders. The cognitive function is spared, but the motor neuron degeneration translates into progressive muscle weakness and paralysis that propel the afflicted patient to eventual death. Neurodegenerative disorders constitute one of the major challenges of modern medicine in view of the current lack of effective therapies. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has a distinguished history as an important model organism capable of shaping our fundamental understanding of life. Remarkably, the vast majority of all known human disease genes have a similar fly counterpart and at the molecular and physiological level, the basic principles of neuromuscular function are amazingly conserved between humans and Drosophila. Combine this with the presence of numerous genetic tools developed over the last century allowing genes and the proteins they encode to be manipulated swiftly to decipher their in vivo function and you have a superb genetic animal model organism of disease. This publication singles out the past and recent accomplishments of Drosophila in modelling motor neuron disease including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig''s disease), hereditary spastic paraplegias, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (Kennedy''s disease) and spinal muscular atrophy. The emphasis is on recent developments including the emerging molecular pathways underpinning these disorders. Genetic screens aimed at identifying novel genes that cause motor neuron degeneration or finding modifiers of the phenotype resulting from the disruption of disease-causative genes are also tackled. Importantly, this collection provides an inspiring look at the indispensability of the fruit fly, and of model organisms in general, to neuroscience research.

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Book SynopsisMotor neuron disease (MND), also commonly known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder of the motor system in adults, characterised by the loss of motor neurons in the cortex, brain stem and spinal cord. This book presents current research from across the globe in the study of the causes, classification and treatments of MND, including membrane trafficking defects as determinants of motor neuron susceptibility and degeneration in ALS; motorneuron specific calcium dysregulation and perturbed cellular calcium homeostasis in ALS; stem cells and their application in ALS treatment; excitotoxicity and selective motor neuron degeneration and therapeutic intervention and assistive technology treatments.

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Book SynopsisThe cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a dynamic, metabolically active fluid that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around the brain, and has many important functions. CSF is a promising body fluid for the search of biomarkers associated with neurological disease, because the CSF has more physical contact with brain than any other fluids, biochemical changes related to many pathology may be reflected in the CSF. Although CSF is obtained by lumbar puncture, invasive and potentially painful for the patient, it is probably the most informative fluid in biomarkers discovery for neurological disease prognosis. This book discusses CSF biomarkers; novel developed biomarkers in neurological diseases; CSF biochemical markers of cerebral metabolism in dogs; and guidance for the selection and interpretation of laboratory tests.

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Book SynopsisExecutive functioning incorporates three relatively global processes: shifting between tasks, updating and monitoring working memory, and the inhibition of automatic responses. These cognitive processes impact most mental events involved in daily functioning in addition to having specific implications in learning and memory. Research has shown that neurological disorders, such as Parkinson''s disease, Huntington''s disease, multiple sclerosis, and spina bifida commonly result in deficits in executive processes. Considering the negative effects associated with deficits in executive functioning, accurately measuring a patient''s abilities is of importance not only for the patient, but the family, caregivers, and the medical system overall. This book explores current measures of executive functioning used in clinical practice as well as measures that are frequently used in experimental cognitive research.

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Book SynopsisHyperhidrosis is defined as excessive sweat production beyond requirements for temperature regulation. It can be idiopathic, secondary to other systemic conditions such as endocrine or autonomic dysfunction, as well as a side effect to medication. An estimated 7.8 million Americans suffer from hyperhidrosis with up to 1.3 million reporting severe disease. Affected patients can experience limitations in occupational and social circumstances. As a result, patients with hyperhidrosis often experience decreased physical and emotional wellbeing, difficulty in personal relationships, and can suffer from social stigmatization. This book discusses several different causes of hyperhidrosis, as well as treatment options and outcomes.

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Book SynopsisCerebral palsy (CP) is an extremely heterogeneous condition. There is any number of etiological pathways possible for causing brain damage to the developing fetus and into early childhood, and these are morphing and changing over time. There are also numerous clinical manifestations of CP encompassing: different motor types, topographies, gross motor function levels, manual abilities, intellectual, communication, behavioral, sensory, abilities and impairments. Understanding the risk factors and complex causal pathways to CP has been a slow and protracted process. This handbook discusses the risk factors of cerebral palsy, as well as the therapeutic management options, and long-term prognosis of the condition.

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Book SynopsisDementia is a distressing, progressively disabling, financially burdening and, most of all, self-erasing illness. The nature of the disease presents patients, families and care providers from multiple domains with numerous, multi-faceted challenges. As a rule, these challenges morph into new and distinctive challenges as patients move through various stages of the disease. Caring for persons with dementia represents one of the most challenging medical issues of the 21st century. A sense of urgency related to the problem of dementia has recently intensified, as the number of patients receiving a new dementia diagnosis is rapidly on the rise. This book explores the prevalence, risk factors and the management strategies available for dementia patients.

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Book SynopsisThis compilation presents original study results on the leading edge of neuroscience research. Each article has been carefully selected in an attempt to present substantial research results across a broad spectrum. Included in this volume are consequences of sub-concussion and concussion in male ice hockey players; respiratory disorders of new-born with syndromic and non-syndronic neurological disease; role of neural crest in tuberous sclerosis complex; spinal tumours in tuberous sclerosis; and semantics with or without categorisation.

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Book SynopsisNeurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1) is a hereditary neurocutaneous tumour disorder that owes many of its most common features to abnormalities in neural crest-derived cells. NF1 may cause dysplasia in various tissues, even in some tissues that are non-neural crest-derived (eg: bone). While common manifestations of NF1 include café-au-lait spots and neurofibromas, vasculopathies are less common yet noteworthy complications of NF1. NF1 vasculopathies can involve vessels supplying various organs. Cerebrovascular abnormalities associated with NF1 have been sporadically described in the literature; these conditions are of interest due to the incomplete understanding of their pathogenesis and genetics. This book discusses the diagnosis, managements and clinical outcomes for neurofibromatosis.

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Book SynopsisA condition which has received much attention since its initial "discovery" or labeling has been that of Asperger''s Syndrome. Some find it mysterious, others label it as "odd, bizarre, idiosyncratic" behavior, and yet others have mocked and ridiculed the behaviors and oddities. There have even been television shows and movies extolling this condition, and bringing awareness to the general public. A recent development has been the elimination of Asperger''s from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association. It should be noted that this text is used for diagnostic purposes in America, but is often referenced in other parts of the world. There are obvious ramifications and repercussions to this recent event. Some see this as a travesty. Others believe it to be a more sublime organization of the phenomenon called "Autism." In any event, this book examines and explores this condition from both a positive perspective and perhaps negative perspective from the point of view of management strategies, cognitive-behavioral differences and difficulties. This is the most current, comprehensive book available on this topic and it is hoped that the book will provide some guidance to parents, teachers and clinicians as well as researchers and scholars in the field.

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Book SynopsisThe fight-or-flight response could be characterised as a discretionary capability of choice, conditioned by learning that allows evolution to go beyond instinct. This book seeks to enlighten readers about the fight-or-flight response that is coupled by the body metabolic parameter of connectivity.

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Book SynopsisRett syndrome is a X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder that affects 1 in 10,000 females. It presents itself clinically with developmental regression at 6-18 months of age, with loss of acquired language and motor skills, leading to a complex lifelong syndrome characterised by intellectual disability; behavioural and neuropsychiatric disturbances; social withdrawal; hand stereotypies; epilepsy; autonomic dysfunction causing breathing irregularities and cardiac arrhythmias; muscle tone abnormalities leading to orthopaedic deformities such as scoliosis; and motor incoordination that causes gait disturbance and feeding difficulties which, along with a number of gastrointestinal problems, leads to growth failure and nutritional deficiencies. This book discusses symptoms, treatment and prognosis of Rett Syndrome, as well as other related communication disorders.

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Book SynopsisThe grasp of neuroanatomy, maybe more than in other organ systems, is closely related to function, neurophysiology and neuro-biochemistry. Its understanding requires a working knowledge of the pivotal neuro-embryological events as well as a working knowledge of general anatomy. For these reasons, it remains one of the greatest challenges, both for the aspiring student and for the dedicated mentor in the medical field. The span of books used as references in teaching neuroanatomy is either too detailed or too simplistic in their attempt to balance the time constraints against the key points for each subject. In addition, since the field of neuroscience is currently at the forefront of research, many of the textbooks that are available are written by researchers rather than clinicians, and as a result they tend to suffer a lack of clinical focus. This book, written by a tutor of neuroanatomy and a practising neurosurgeon, attempts to offer a better balance and a more useful formula. This book is composed for the medical student, relying on comments from past medical students. The book begins with an introduction chapter which discusses the organisation of the nervous system, anatomical planes, introduction to neuro-embryology, as well as relevant scalp and skull anatomy. The next succeeding six chapters discuss the central nervous system regionally. Each chapter begins with the key embryological processes that shape the anatomy and function of that region. The gross anatomical description is followed by a short discussion of microscopic anatomy, grey and white matter anatomical features, major connections and key clinical correlations. The next three chapters tackle specific problematic topics separately. The meninges, the cerebrospinal fluid and the lateral ventricles are discussed first, followed by an overview of the cerebral blood supply. A unique chapter focusing on specific skull base complex structures, such as the cavernous sinus region, the sphenoid sinus, and the jugular foramen is subsequently presented. The book ends with two chapters presenting the special sensory senses, vision and audition. These chapters are organised in a system rather than in regional anatomy forms, with an in-depth discussion of related anatomical features.

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Book SynopsisProgressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a rare, disabling and potentially fatal brain infection of the central nervous system (CNS) caused by reactivation of the John Cunningham virus (JCV). The most important risk factor for PML is immunosuppression associated with HIV/AIDS or therapy. Approximately 60 to 80% of the adult population has JC antibodies, but PML is rarely diagnosed. The chapters in this book include research on the pathologic features of PML, the diagnosis, risk factors, pathogenesis, and management strategies.

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Book SynopsisAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with underlying brain anatomical and functional measures, as well as familial/genetic factors that are major foci of neuropsychiatric research. In recent years, ADHD is one of the neuropsychiatric diseases receiving more attention in scientific literature. During this decade, numerous studies were published on the implementation of diagnostic criteria and assessment tools for clinical research and the social impact of the disease, which continued to discuss genetic and neurobiological aspects. Psychostimulants are highly effective medications for the treatment of ADHD, and the development of long-acting stimulant formulations has greatly expanded the treatment options for individuals with ADHD. However, despite the established efficacy of the stimulants in ADHD, 10-30% of the adolescent population with ADHD does not respond to stimulants or may not tolerate them due to side effects. The potential for abuse and the stigma of a controlled medication are reasons to consider alternatives to stimulants in children and adolescents with ADHD. Traditionally, ADHD is regarded as a childhood disorder, but it is now clear that ADHD affects both children and adults. Many adults with ADHD are undiagnosed and untreated. Thus, the negative outcomes reported by most follow-up studies may be a consequence of untreated symptoms. The diagnosis of ADHD is broad and heterogeneous, with multiple causes being of neurological, paediatric and psycho-social nature. With this in mind, it must always be done rigorously by a multidisciplinary team.

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Book SynopsisThis is a comprehensive, yet practical guide for any physician interested in this life changing therapy for patients with Parkinson''s disease, tremor, dystonia or obsessive-compulsive disorders. Written by experts in the field from different world renowned institutions, this book gives a unique and comprehensive insight into the universe of deep brain stimulation. Filled with tables and colored figures, this book covers all the aspects of deep brain stimulation, including a historical review, the underlying neurophysiologic mechanism of treatment, intra-operative details from the neurosurgical and the neurophysiologic standpoint, a review of the evidence supporting the use of deep brain stimulation for each disorder, algorithms for patient selection, programming strategies, as well as troubleshooting and prospective indications. It will be useful to residents and fellows, as well as neurologists and psychiatrists already managing or looking into managing the care of patients with deep brain stimulation.

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Book SynopsisAlzheimer''s disease (AD) is the most common form of senile dementia worldwide. Anosognosia, a deficit in self-awareness, is recognised as one of the core symptoms of Alzheimer''s disease dementia, in which self-awareness gradually deteriorates with disease progression. Chapter one of this book discusses anosognosia in Alzheimer''s disease. Chapter two examines whether pathological narcissistic personality predicts increased risk of neuropsychiatric symptoms in AD. Chapter three discusses the impairment of instrumental activities of daily living in mild-to-moderate AD patients. Chapter four studies the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in four candidate genes, and compares their frequencies in healthy individuals with the frequencies in Venezuelans diagnosed with AD. Chapter five studies the role of IL-6 genotypes in the late-onset of AD. The last chapter evaluates the risk factors and protective factors for impairment in elderly individuals living in communities in Shanghai.

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Book SynopsisDisorders of consciousness (DOC) represent one of the most complex and crucial challenges for neuroscientists. A precise and reliable assessment of the arousal and awareness of consciousness in patients with severe brain damage would allow for a comprehensible classification of DOC. Intensive care has led to an increase in the number of patients who survive after severe acute brain damage. Most comatose patients who survive begin to awaken and recover gradually within 24 weeks. Although some of these individuals gradually experience complete brain function loss which leads to brain death (BD), oftentimes this state is treated as synonymous with the death of the individual. Nonetheless, other individuals progress to "wakeful unawareness", which is defined as a vegetative state (VS). DOC terminology may be useful clinically, but does little to explain the nature of consciousness. While it is not known which portions of the brain are responsible for cognition and consciousness, what little is known points to substantial interconnections among the brainstem, subcortical structures and the neocortex. Thus, the "higher brain" may well exist only as a metaphorical concept and not in reality.

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Book SynopsisAluminum is the third most abundant element in the Earth''s crust. In many of the previous experimental, epidemiological, pathohistological, biochemical and other research studies, aluminum, accumulated from the environment has been recognized as a very harmful substance to the human body. Aluminum intake usually happens unintentionally due to the fact that people know little about its prevalence in water, factory-processed foods, medicines, cosmetics, etc. When accumulated in human organs, it can cause severe damage, and even lead to chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Both oxidative and nitrosative stress can be the leading cause or contribute to its toxic effects in humans and animals. All of this is supported by the fact that mitochondrial dysfunction is the earliest stage of aluminum neurotoxicity. When oxidative damage occurs under the effects of free radicals, together with the decreased antioxidant protection due to the decreased production of the chemical energy molecule (adenosine triphosphate) as well as reducing equivalents (both in and out of mitochondria) then the conditions for the occurrence of a vicious circle in aluminum neurotoxicity are created. Aluminum also significantly interferes with the main steps of the synaptic neurotransmission, which may lead to the progression of neuropathies. The glutamate-glutamine pathway and numerous neurotransmitter transporters are affected as well. Oxidative stress and the disruption of neurotransmission do not only exist when adult individuals are exposed to this neurotoxin, but also in individuals prenatally exposed to it as well, and these are expressed after birth. Numerous research studies, both in animals and humans, ex vivo and in vitro, quite clearly showed that aluminum can be associated with chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, there is a positive correlation between the exposure to aluminum and the pathophysiology of Alzheimer''s, Parkinson''s, Huntington''s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and so on. One of the possible mechanisms for the generation/development of these diseases could be the disturbed homeostasis of essential metals and the appearance of unfolded or misfolded proteins that are mostly specific for a particular disease. In those research studies, the influence of aluminum on the generation of beta-amyloid, alpha synuclein, etc. was satisfactorily examined. It is very difficult, however, to suppress aluminum neurotoxicity, as well as development and progression of the diseases caused by or associated with aluminum. This is the result of some complex mechanisms through which aluminum causes its deleterious effects, and which are also responsible for the existence of multiple targets for aluminum. It is, therefore, necessary to know how these mechanisms induce the damage, in order to be able to prevent or treat the damage once it occurs. A large number of substances, including active components in traditional medicine, medical drugs and substances which are used only experimentally, have been examined so far. The results of studies conducted so far are inconclusive and they require further research. According to all the aforementioned findings, it may be concluded that well-planned, prospective and randomized clinical trials are necessary in order to use any of these substances in humans.

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Book SynopsisThe facial nerve is arguably one of the most important cranial nerves as its injury may result in not only the inability to produce voluntary facial expressions but also the loss of protective eyelid closure and glandular secretions. Facial nerve injuries present a multitude of serious problems for patients that may hugely impact their quality of life and general health including: difficulties with eating or drinking, loss of articulate speech, ocular injury and significant psychosocial morbidity. This book examines clinical features, management and outcomes of facial paralysis. Chapters One and Two discusses the anatomy of the facial nerve, the possible causes of facial nerve palsy, how to assess and diagnose facial palsy, and reviews management options of facial paralysis. Chapter Three studies facial palsy in otitis media. Chapter Four discusses the association between the different techniques for achieving symmetry recovery in facial palsy patients. Chapter Five reviews the surgical management of static and dynamic rehabilitation of facial paralysis. Chapter Six assesses the clinical results of hemihypoglossal-facial nerve anastomosis (HHFA).

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Book SynopsisThe brain exhibits extraordinarily complex activity and undergoes very rapid change during early development. The ways in which the brain undergoes change during development and interacts with other elements such as genetics and the environment can influence behavioral organization. This process of change and the ability to be molded (which is known as plasticity) is important for development, organization, and recovery of function after injury or damage. Through processes involving mechanisms of plasticity, both behavior and cognition can be influenced in many ways important to neurological and psychological function and health. The confluence of brain plasticity, behavior, cognition, and health is complex and requires an interdisciplinary and integrative examination to fully appreciate the biological and psychological implications. The author utilizes this unique approach to review evidence important for behavior and cognition, while addressing important implications for physical and mental health and wellness.

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