Industrial chemistry and manufacturing technologies Books

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Book SynopsisThere have been many volumes written that claim to be the most comprehensive compendium or handbook on chemical data. These wieldy volumes are often too big and extraneous to be useful to the practicing engineer.Table of ContentsPreface Author Biographies. List of Tables. 1. Corrosion. 1.1 General Information. 1.2 Types of Corrosion. 1.3 Materials Evaluation and Selection. 1.4 Corrosion Data. 2. Material Properties and Selection. 2.1 General Properties and Selection Criteria. 2.2 Cast Irons. 2.2.1 Gray Cast Iron. 2.2.2 White Cast Iron. 2.2.3 Malleable Cast Iron. 2.2.4 Nodular Cast Iron. 2.2.5 Austenitic Cast Iron. 2.2.6 Abrasion Resistance. 2.2.7 Corrosion Resistance. 2.2.8 Temperature Resistance. 2.2.9 Welding Cast Iron. 2.3 Steels. 2.3.1 Low Carbon Steels (Mild Steel). 2.3.2 Corrosion Resistance. 2.3.3 Heat Resistance. 2.3.4 Low Temperatures. 2.3.5 High-Carbon Steels. 2.3.6 Low-Carbon, Low-Alloy Steels. 2.3.7 Mechanical Properties. 2.3.8 Corrosion Resistance. 2.3.9 Oxidation Resistance and Creep Strength. 2.3.10 Low-Temperature Ductility. 2.3.11 High-Carbon, Low-Alloy Steels. 2.3.12 High-Alloy Steels. 2.3.12.1 Chromium Steels (400 Series), Low-Carbon Ferritic (Type 405). 2.3.12.2 Medium Carbon Martensitic. 2.3.12.3 Medium Carbon Ferrule. 2.3.12.4 Chromium/Nickel Austenitic Steels (300 Series). 2.3.13 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels. 2.4 Materials Properties Data Tables. 3. Property Tables of Various Liquids, Gases, and Fuels. 3.1 General Properties of Hydrocarbons. 3.1.1 General Information. 3.1.2 Isomers. 3.1.3 Alkenes. 3.1.4 Alkynes. 3.1.5 Straight-Chain Hydrocarbon Nomenclature. 3.1.6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons. 3.1.7 Hydrocarbon Derivatives. 3.1.8 Halogenated Hydrocarbons. 3.1.9 Alcohols. 3.1.10 Ethers. 3.1.11 Ketones. 3.1.12 Aldehydes. 3.1.13 Peroxides. 3.1.14 Esters. 3.1.15 Amines. 3.2 Fuel Properties. 3.2.1 Crude Oil. 3.2.2 Gasoline. 3.2.3 Bioethanol and ETBE. 3.2.4 Diesel Oil, Kerosene, Jet A1, and Biodiesel. 3.2.5 Fuel Oil. 3.2.6 Natural Gas, Biogas, LPG and Methane Hydrates. 3.2.7 Hydrogen. 4. General Guidelines on Fire Protection, Evacuation, First Responder, and Emergency Planning. 4.1 Flammability Properties. 4.1.1.1 General Information. 4.1.1.2 Flammability Designation. 4.1.2 Ignition Temperature. 4.1.3 Flammability Limits. 4.1.4 Vapor Density. 4.1.5 Specific Gravity. 4.1.6 Water Solubility. 4.1.7 Responding to Fires. 4.1.8 Firefighting Agents. 4.1.8.1 Water. 4.1.8.2 Foam. 4.1.8.3 Alcohol-Resistant Foams. 4.1.8.4 High Expansion Foams. 4.1.8.5 Other Extinguishing Agents. 4.1.8.6 Carbon Dioxide. 4.1.9 Electrical Fire Prevention. 4.1.10 Firefighting Guidance. 4.1.10.1 Types. 4.1.10.2 Firefighting Agents and Extinguishers. 4.1.10.3 Vehicles. 4.1.10.4 Firefighting Gear. 4.1.11 Specialized Rescue Procedures. 4.1.12 First Responder to Electrical Fire Incidents. 4.1.13 Evacuation Planning. 4.1.13.1 Designated Roles and Responsibilities. 4.1.13.2 Preparation & Planning for Emergencies. 4.1.14 Evacuation Procedure. 4.1.15 General. 4.1.16 Template for Emergency Evacuation Plan. 5. Chemical Data. 6. Chemical Safety Data. 7. Recommended Safe Levels of Exposure. 8. Fire and Chemical Reactivity Data.

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Book SynopsisThis handbook provides a framework for understanding how to characterize plastic manufacturing processes for use in troubleshooting problems. The 21 chapters are authored by well-known and experienced engineers who have specialized knowledge about the processes covered in this practical guide. From the Preface: In every chapter, the process is described and the most common problems are discussed along with the root causes and potential technical solutions. Numerous case studies are provided that illustrate the troubleshooting process. Mark A. Spalding, The Dow Chemical CompanyTable of ContentsPreface xvii 1. The Economics of Troubleshooting Polymer Processing Systems 1 2. Troubleshooting Philosophy 19 3. Statistical Tools for Trouble Shooting a Process 25 4. Single Screw Extrusion 45 5. Troubleshooting the Co-rotating Fully Intermeshing Twin-screw Compounding System 53 6. Troubleshooting for Injection Molding 65 7. Blown Film 85 8. Cast Film Troubleshooting 109 9. Oriented Films – Trouble Shooting and Characterization 129 10. Troubleshooting the Thermoforming Process 163 11. Proper Equipment Processing for Industrial/Technical Blow Molding 213 12. PET Stretch Blow Molding 13. Blow Molding – Problems and Solutions 275 14. Extrusion Coating Troubleshooting 293 15. Adhesive and Thermal Lamination 309 16. Troubleshooting for Retomolding 323 17. Plastics Calendering 355 18. Compression Molding 375 19. Transfer molding 389 20. Pultrusion Process Troubleshooting 399 21. Troubleshooting Static Problems in Plastics Processes 433 References 470 Recommended reading for further study 471 Index 473

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Book SynopsisThis updated version of one of the most popular and widely used CCPS books provides plant design engineers, facility operators, and safety professionals with key information on selected topics of interest. The book focuses on process safety issues in the design of chemical, petrochemical, and hydrocarbon processing facilities. It discusses how to select designs that can prevent or mitigate the release of flammable or toxic materials, which could lead to a fire, explosion, or environmental damage. Key areas to be enhanced in the new edition include inherently safer design, specifically concepts for design of inherently safer unit operations and Safety Instrumented Systems and Layer of Protection Analysis. This book also provides an extensive bibliography to related publications and topic-specific information, as well as key information on failure modes and potential design solutions.Trade Review“I highly recommend it to process design engineers, project engineers, facility operators, and process safety/loss prevention specialists who will find it very useful." (Process Safety Progress, 1 November 2012) “While detailed engineering designs are outside the scope of the book, the authors provide extensive references to assist designers who wish to go beyond safety philosophy to the specifics of a particular safety system design.” (Chemical Engineering Progress, 1 August 2012)Table of ContentsAcronyms and Abbreviations xv Glossary xxi Acknowledgments xxxiii Foreward xxxv Preface xxxvii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Engineering Design for Process Safety Through the Life Cycle of the Facility 2 1.2 Regulatory Review / Impact on Process Safety 5 1.3 Who Will Benefit From These Guidelines? 7 1.4 Organization of this Book 7 1.5 Other CCPS Resources 9 1.6 References 10 2. Foundational Concepts 13 2.1 Understanding the Hazard 14 2.2 Risk-Based Design 21 2.3 Intentional Unsteady State Condition Evaluation 27 2.4 Unintentional Unsteady State Issues 31 2.5 Non-Linearity of the Design Process 33 2.6 References 36 3. Basic Physical Properties / Thermal Stability Data 39 3.1 Basic Physical Properties 39 3.2 Flammability Data 40 3.3 Reactivity / Thermal Stability Data 47 3.4 References 60 4. Analysis Techniques 63 4.1 Hazard Identification 63 4.2 Hazard Analysis Techniques 94 4.3 Risk Assessment 108 4.4 Reliability / Maintainability Analysis 118 4.5 References 119 5. General Design 123 5.1 Safeguarding Strategies 123 5.2 Inherently Safer Design 128 5.3 Basic Process Control Systems 132 5.4 Instrumented Safety Systems 135 5.5 Process Design / Process Chemistry 135 5.6 Plant Siting and Layout 137 5.7 Materials of Construction 140 5.8 Corrosion 143 5.9 Civil / Structural / Support Design 146 5.10 Thermal Insulation 150 5.11 Human Factors in Design 155 5.12 Site Security Issues 158 5.13 References 161 6. Equipment Design 165 6.1 Vessels 167 6.2 Reactors 183 6.3 Mass Transfer Equipment 194 6.4 Heat Transfer Equipment 204 6.5 Dryers 214 6.6 Fluid Transfer Equipment 223 6.7 Solid-Fluid Separators 236 6.8 Solids Handling and Processing Equipment 244 6.9 Fired Equipment 256 6.10 Piping and Piping Components 266 6.11 Material Handling and Warehousing 291 6.12 Utility Systems 305 7. Protection Layers 315 7.1 Ignition Control 316 7.2 Instrumented Safety Systems 325 7.3 Pressure / Vacuum Relief Systems 332 7.4 Equipment Isolation / Blowdown 340 7.5 Effluent Disposal Systems 342 7.6 Emergency Response Alarm Systems 350 7.7 Fire Protection 357 7.8 Deflagration / Detonation Arresters 363 7.9 Explosion Suppression 366 7.10 Specialty Mitigation Systems 369 7.11 Effluent Handling / Post-Release Mitigation / Waste Treatment Issues 372 7.12 References 374 8. Documentation to Support Process Safety 379 8.1 Process Knowledge Management 379 8.2 Engineering Design Package 384 8.3 Operating / Maintenance Procedures 385 8.4 Asset Integrity / Reliability / Predictive Maintenance Data 389 8.5 References 390

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Book SynopsisOnium ions play a very significant role in chemistry as they are often used as catalysts in reactions. This book covers the different roles of onium ions as catalysts in reactions, as reagents and electrophilic reagents in chemical synthesis, and how they can be prepared.Table of ContentsAzonium Ions. Oxonium Ions. Sulfonium, Selenonium, Telluronium Ions. Phosphonium and Arsonium Ions. Halonium Ions. Carboxonium, Carbosulfonium and Carbazonium Ions. Carbonium Ions. Siliconium Ions. Onium Dications. Index.

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive, up-to-date reference to synthetic applications of organosilicon chemistry Organic, organometallic, and polymer chemistry as well as materials science all utilize silicon in various forms, yet there is little cross-fertilization of ideas and applications among the disciplines.Trade Review"...this book provides a good 'state-of-the-art' compilations and evaluation at the turn of the century. This work should be included in any chemistry reference collection." (Choice, Vol. 38, No. 8, April 2001) "This book was a pleasure to read. It is very well written in a relaxed chatty style that conveys the obvious deep interest and delight the author brings to the subject...the book can quite rightly claim to be the 'Eaborn' of the 2000s." (Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 123, No. 5, November 2000) In recent years there have been several books published that describe the various topical uses of silicon in organic synthesis. All of these books have been useful, but they did not present the broader picture of how the chemistry of the element silicon has had a major impact on many technologies. The author refers to some earlier "classical" books on silicon chemistry, particularly Eaborn's text of the 1960s, that set a very high and comprehensive standard by which to be judged. Without a doubt, Michael Brook has met this standard. This book was a pleasure to read. It is very well written in a relaxed and chatty style that conveys the obvious deep interest and delight the author brings to the subject. There are an impressive number of references to substantiate this scholarly text. One minor point that might (subjectively) make the book even better would be to place Chapter 14 (Electronic Effects of Silyl Group) earlier since it so germane to all of the book. The price is high, but not unreasonably so, and the book can quite rightly claim to be the "Eaborn" of the 2000s. (Phillip Magnus, University of Texas at Austin) "...Brook discusses selected topics regarding synthesis he considers of most use to graduate students and practicing chemists." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 24, No. 4, December 2000) "...this is a completely successful book..." (Angewandte Chemie - International Edition, 3rd November 2000)Table of ContentsFUNDAMENTALS OF SILICON REACTIVITY: REACTIVE INTERMEDIATES AND REACTION MECHANISMS. Organosilanes: Where to Find Them, What to Call Them, How to Detect Them. Atomic and Molecular Properties of Silicon. Silicon-Based Reactive Intermediates. Extracoordination at Silicon. Reaction Mechanisms for Nucleophilic Substitution at Silicon. THE FORMATION AND CLEAVAGE OF NON-CARBON BONDS TO SILICON: APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIC AND POLYMER CHEMISTRY. Silicon and Transition Metal Chemistry. Hydrosilanes as Reducing Agents. Replacing H with Si: Silicon-Based Reagents. Silicones. Siloxanes Based on T and Q Units. Other Silicon-Containing Polymers. THE FORMATION AND CLEAVAGE OF SILICON-CARBON BONDS: APPLICATIONS IN ORGANIC SYNTHESIS. Formation of Si-C Bonds: The Synthesis of Functional Organosilanes. Silicon in a Biological Environment. Silicon in the Organic World: Electronic Effects of Silyl Groups. Rearrangements. Cleavage of Si-C Bonds. Indices of Functional Group Transformations. Subject Index.

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Book SynopsisContains a balanced discussion of homogeneous catalytic reactions that are used in industry, featuring every documented example employed in a current commercial process, or that have a broad application in the organic synthesis laboratory. Incorporates synthesis with chiral catalysts in chapters on hydrogenation, CO chemistry and olefin oxidation. New additions include Tennessee Eastman''s coal-based acetic anhydride plant and IFP''s Dimersol process for dimerizing propylene as well as major changes in the areas on pharmaceuticals, flavors, fragrances, agricultural and electronic chemicals.Table of ContentsTrends in Homogeneous Catalysis in Industry. Isomerization of Olefins. Reactions of Olefins and Dienes--Hydrogenation and HY Additions. Polymerization and Oligomerization of Olefins and Dienes. Reactions of Carbon Monoxide. Oxidation of Olefins and Dienes. Arene Reactions. Reactions of Acetylenes. Carbene Complexes in Olefin Metathesis and Ring-Forming Reactions. Oxidation of Hydrocarbons by Oxygen. Esterification, Polycondensation, and Related Processes. Homogeneous Catalysis in Halocarbon Chemistry. Appendix. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe volumes of Organic Reactions are collections of chapters each devoted to a single reaction, or a definite phase of a reaction, of wide applicability. The material is treated from a preparative viewpoint, with emphasis on limitations, interfering influences, effects of structure, and the selection of experimental techniques. Numerous detailed procedures illustrate the significant modifications of each method. Includes tables that contain all possible examples of the reaction under consideration.Table of ContentsThe Pauson-Khand Cycloaddition Reaction for Synthesis ofCyclopentenones (N. Schore). Reduction with Diimide (D. Pasto & R. Taylor). The Pummerer Reaction of Sulfinyl Compounds (O. De Lucchi, etal.). The Catalyzed Nucleophilic Addition of Aldehydes to ElectrophilicDouble Bonds (H. Stetter & H. Kuhlmann). Author Index, Volumes 1-40. Chapters and Topic Index, Volumes 1-40.

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Book SynopsisThe latest volume in this series for organic chemists in industry presents critical discussions of widely used organic reactions or particular phases of a reaction. The material is treated from a preparative viewpoint, with emphasis on limitations, interfering influences, effects of structure and the selection of experimental techniques. Numerous detailed procedures illustrate the significant modifications of each method. Includes tables that contain all possible examples of the reaction under consideration.Table of ContentsDivinylcylopropane--Cycloheptadiene Rearrangement (T. Hudlicky, etal.). Formation of Carbon-Carbon Bonds via Organocopper Reagents (BLipshutz & S. Sengupta). Indexes.

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Book SynopsisThis is a revised and expanded edition of a major reference work offering complete coverage of Russian chemical terms, along with their English translations.Table of ContentsNot Obtainable.

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Book SynopsisA highly practical troubleshooting tool for today's complex processing industry Evolving industrial technology-driven by the need to increase safety while reducing production losses-along with environmental factors and legal concerns has resulted in an increased emphasis on sound troubleshooting techniques and documentation.Table of ContentsPreface. 1. Introduction. 2. Strength of Materials. 2.1 Load Calculations. 2.2 Stress Calculations. 2.2.1 Axial. 2.2.2 Shear. 2.2.3 Bending. 2.2.4 Torsional. 2.2.5 Combined Stresses. 2.2.6 Thermal Stresses. 2.2.7 Transient Temperatures and Stresses. 2.2.8 High Temperature Creep. 2.2.9 Shell Stresses. 2.3 Piping Thermal Forces, Moments, Frequencies. 2.3.1 Piping Failures. 2.4 Allowable and Design Stresses. 2.5 Fatigue Due to Cyclic Loading. 2.6 Elongation and Deflection Calculations. 2.7 Factors of Safety. 2.8 Case History: Agitator Bearing Loading. 2.9 Case History: Shaft Failure. 2.10 Dynamic Loading. 2.10.1 Centrifugal Force. 2.10.2 Inertia's and WR2. 2.10.3 Energy Relationships. 2.11 Case History: Centrifuge Bearing Failures. 2.12 Case History: Bird Impact Force on a Windscreen. 2.13 Case History: Torsional Impact on a Propeller. 2.14 Case History: Start-up Torque on a Motor Coupling. 2.15 Case History: Frictional Clamping Due to Bolting. 2.16 Case History: Failure of a Connecting Rod in a Race Car. 2.17 Bolting. 2.17.1 Holding Capacity. 2.17.2 Limiting Torque. 2.17.3 Bolt Elongation and Relaxation. 2.17.4 Torquing Methods. 2.17.5 Fatigue of Bolts. 2.17.6 Stripping Strength of Threads. 2.17.7 Case History: A Power Head Gasket Leak. 2.18 Ball and Roller Bearing Life Estimates. 2.18.1 Case History: Bearing Life of a Shaft Support. 2.18.2 Coupling Offset and Bearing Life. 2.19 Hydrodynamic Bearings. 2.19.1 Shell and Pad Failures. 2.20 Gears. 2.20.1 Gear Acceptability Calculations. 2.20.2 Case History: Up-Rate Acceptability of a Gear Unit. 2.21 Interference Fits. 2.21.1 Keyless Hydraulically Fitted Hubs. 2.21.2 Case History: Taper Fit Holding Ability. 2.21.3 Case History: The Flying Hydraulically Fitted Hub. 2.22 Strength of Welds. 2.23 Fatigue of Welds. 2.24 Repair of Machinery. 2.24.1 Shafts. 2.24.2 Housing and Cases. 2.24.3 Gearboxes. 2.24.4 Sleeve bearings and Bushing Clearances. 2.24.5 Alignments. 2.24.6 Acceptable Coupling Offset and Angular Misalignment. 2.24.7 Vibration Measurements. 2.25 Interpreting Mechanical Failures. 2.25.1 Failures with Axial, Bending and Torsional Loading. 2.25.2 Gear Teeth Failures. 2.25.3 Spring Failures. 2.25.4 Bolt Failures. 2.25.5 Bearing Failures. 2.25.6 Reading a Bearing. 2.25.7 Large Gearbox Keyway / Shaft Failures. 2.26 Case History: Sizing a Bushing Running Clearance. 2.27 Case History: Galling of a Shaft In A Bushing. 2.28 Case History: Remaining Fatigue Life with Cyclic Stresses. 2.29 A Procedure for Evaluating Gasket Joints. 2.30 Gaskets In High Temperature Service. 2.31 "O" Ring Evaluation. 2.32 Case History: Gasket Won't Pass Hydrotest. 2.33 Case History: Heat Exchanger Leak Due to Temperature. 2.34 Wear of Equipment. 2.35 Case History: Excessive Wear of a Ball Valve. 3. Vibration Analysis. 3.1 Spring /Mass Systems and Resonance. 3.2 Case History: Critical Speed Problem on Steam Turbine. 3.3 Determining Vibration Amplitudes. 3.3.1 Allowable Levels for X or F at Resonance . 3.4 Case History: Vibratory Torque on Gear of a Ship System. 3.5 Torsional Vibration. 3.6 Case History: Torsional Vibration of Motor-Generator-Blower. 3.7 Vibration Diagnosis and Campbell Diagrams. 3.8 Case History: The Effect of a Suddenly Applied Torsional Load. 3.9 Flow Induced Vibrations. 3.10 Case History: Heat Exchanger Tube Vibration. 3.11 Case History: Piping Vibration Failures. 4. Fluid Flow. 4.1 Continuity Equations. 4.2 Bernoulli's Equations. 4.3 Pressure Drop. 4.4 Forces Due to Fluids. 4.5 Case History: A Piping Failure Due to Water Hammer. 4.6 Case History: A Centrifugal Pump System. 4.6.1 System Curves. 4.6.2 Pump Curves. 4.6.3 Net Positive Suction Head NPSH. 4.6.4 Pump Laws. 4.6.5 Series and Parallel Pump Operation. 4.6.6 Blocked In Pump Concern. 4.6.7 Cryogenic Service Concerns. 4.6.8 Pump Control. 4.7 Case History: Wreck of a Centrifugal Pump. 4.8 Case History: Airfoil Aerodynamic Loads. 4.9 Case History: Pressure Loss Through Slots. 4.10 Friction Losses in Piping Systems. 4.11 Case History: Pipe Friction. 5. Heat Transfer. 5.1 Conduction. 5.2 Convection. 5.3 Radiation. 5.4 Heat Sources. 5.5 Case History: Insulation Burn-Out of a Resistor Bank. 5.6 Case History: Embedded Bearing Temperature. 5.7 Types of Heat Exchangers. 5.8 Heat Exchanger Design. 5.9 Case History: Verifying the Size of an Oil Cooler. 5.10 Case History: Temperature Distribution Along a Flare Line. 5.11 Case History: Derivation of a Pipe Temperature Distribution. 6. Compressor Systems and Thermodynamics. 6.1 Ideal Gas Laws. 6.2 Case History: Non - Relieving Explosion Relief Valve. 6.3 The Energy Equation. 6.4 Case History: Air Conditioner Feasibility Study. 6.5 Centrifugal Compressor Operation. 6.6 Compressor Configurations. 6.7 Centrifugal Compressor Head, Flow and Horsepower. 6.8 Compressor Surge. 6.9 Fan Laws. 6.10 Flow - Head Curve Troubleshooting. 6.11 Reciprocating Gas Compressors. 6.12 Component Failures and Prevention. 6.13 Reciprocating Compressor Horsepower Calculations. 6.14 Troubleshooting Reciprocating Compressors Using Gas Calculations. 6.15 Mechanical Seals. 6.16 Flexible Gear, Diaphragm and Disc Pack Couplings. 7. Statistics. 7.1 Average, Range, Variance, Standard Deviation. 7.2 Histograms and Normal Distributions. 7.3 Case History: Power Cylinder Life Comparison. 7.4 Mean Time Between Failures. 7.5 Case History: MTBF for a Gas Engine Compressor. 7.6 Reliability. 7.7 Deterministic and Probabilistic Modeling. 8. Problem Solving and Decision Making. 8.1 The 80-20 Relationship. 8.2 Going Through the Data. 8.3 A Problem Solving Technique. 8.4 Case History: Loss of a Slurry Pump. 8.5 Case History: The Fatigued Motor Shaft. 8.6 Case History: Coupling Failure. 8.7 Case History: Motorcycle Won't Start. 8.8 Case History: Galled Die. 8.9 Seven Causes. 8.10 A Decision Making Technique. 8.11 Case History: Selection of a Barrel Lifter. 9. Materials of Construction. 9.1 Carbon Steel. 9.2 High Strength Low Alloy Steels. 9.3 Martensitic Stainless Steels. 9.4 Austenitic Stainless Steels. 9.5 Monel 400. 9.6 17-4 PH. 9.7 Incoloy 825. 9.8 Inconel 718. 9.9 Structural Steels. 9.10 All Steels Are Not The Same. 9.11 Useful Material Properties. 9.12 Heat Treatments. 9.13 Failure Modes of Shafts, Bolting, Structures and Vessels. 9.14 Fretting Corrosion. 10. Mechanical System Modeling with Case Histories. 10.1 Sizing Up the Problem. 10.2 Case Histories. 10.3 Failures Caused by Excessive Loads:. 10.3.1 Case History: An Agitator Bolt Failure. 10.3.2 Case History: Loosening of Counterweight Bolt. 10.3.3 Case History: Evaluating Internal Thread Strip - Out. 10.3.4 Case History: Analyzing a Spline Failure. 10.3.5 Case History: The Bending of Impeller Blades . 10.3.6 Case History: A Compressor Rod Failure. 10.3.7 Case History: Seal Failure Due to Misalignment of an Agitator Shaft. 10.3.8 Case History: Gear Tooth Pitting Failure. 10.3.9 Case History: Impact Load Effect on a Large Gearbox Bearing. 10.3.10 Case History: A Motor Shaft Failure . 10.3.11 Case History: An In-Flight Aircraft Crankshaft Failure. 10.3.12 Case History: A Pitting Failure Due to a Poorly Distributed Bearing Load. 10.3.13 Case History: Failure of a Pre-loaded Fan Bearings. 10.3.14 Case History: The Separating Loads in an Extruder. 10.3.15 Case History: Containment of an Impeller. 10.4 Failures Caused by Wear:. 10.4.1 Case History: Examining the Wear of Extruder Screws. 10.4.2 Case History: Wear of a Spline Clutch. 10.5 Failures Caused by Thermal Loads:. 10.5.1 Case History: Thermal Distortions Move a 50 Ton Gearbox. 10.5.2 Case History: The Thermally Bowed Shaft. 10.5.3 Case History: A Steam Turbine Diaphragm Failure. 10.5.4 Case History: Screw Compressor Rotor Rub . 10.5.5 Case History: The Hidden Load in a Three Bearing Machine. 10.6 Miscellaneous Failures. 10.6.1 Case History: Crack Growth in a Rotor. 10.6.2 Case History: Structural Failure Due to Misalignment. 10.6.3 Case History: Oil Film Thickness of a Diesel Engine Bearing. 10.6.4 Case History: The Leaking Flange Gasket. 11. Fitness For Service with Case Histories. 11.1 A Little About Corrosion. 11.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking. 11.3 Uniform Corrosion. 11.3.1 Case History: Local Corrosion of a Vessel Wall. 11.4 Pitting Corrosion. 11.4.1 Case History: Pitting Corrosion of a Vessel Wall. 11.5 Brittle Fracture Concerns. 11.5.1 Academic Example: Temperature Effect on a Steel Plate. 11.5.2 Case History: Crack Like Defect in a Vessel Wall. 11.6 Cold Service Evaluations. 11.6.1 Case History: Cold Service Vessel. 11.7 Crack Growth and Fatigue Life. 11.8 Finding Those Cracks. 11.9 Troubleshooting Isn't So Easy. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis CCPS Guideline book outlines current transportation risk analysis software programs and demonstrates several available risk assessment programs for land transport by rail, truck, and pipeline for consequences that may affect the public or the environment. Provides introductory transport risk considerations for process engineers Gives guidance on route selection, equipment factors and materials Describes transportation security risk issues and industry practices to mitigate them Includes loading and unloading checklists for several transport modes Develops specific operating procedures and checklists to reduce human error Discusses considerations for transportation security, including threat and vulnerability assessments and potential countermeasures Summarizes key transportation security regulations, guidelines and industry initiatives. Note: CD-ROM/DVD and other supplementary materials are not inTable of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. Items on the CD. Glossary. 1. Introduction. 1.1 Key Shareholders in the Supply Chain and Risk Management Process. 1.2 Transportation Risk Management. 1.3 Using These Guidelines. 2. Primary Management Systems. 2.1Regulatory Compliance. 2.2 Essential Components of a Transportation Management System. 2.3 XYZ Chemical Example- Primary Management Systems. 3. Risk Assessment Fundamentals. 3.1 Safety Risk Assessment Concepts. 3.2 Risk Definitions. 3.3 Risk Analysis Protocol. 3.4 Identification and Prioritization Activities. 3.5 XYZ Chemical Example- Identification and Prioritization 4. Qualitative and Semi- Quantitative Risk Analysis. 4.1 Qualitative and Semi- Quantitative Risk Assessments. 4.2 Qualitative Risk Analysis. 4.3 Semi- Quantitative Risk Analysis. 5. Quantitative Risk Analysis. 5.1 Overview. 5.2 QRA Data Sources. 5.3 Presentation of Quantitative Results. 5.4 XYZ Chemical Example- Quantitative Risk Analysis. 6. Transportation Security Considerations. 6.1 Overview of Transportation Security. 6.2 Transportation Security Concepts. 6.3 Security Prioritization Process. 6.4 Transportation Security Vulnerability Assessment. 6.5 Practical Transportation Security Elements. 6.6 XYZ Chemical Example- Security Analysis. 7. Risk Reduction Strategies. 7.1 Risk Reduction Initiatives. 7.2 Factors Influencing Risk Reduction Options. 7.3 Selection of Risk Reduction Options. 7.4 XYZ Chemical Example- Risk Reduction Strategies. 8. Program Sustainability. 8.1 Ongoing Commitment to Risk Management. 8.2 Continuous Improvement. 8.3 Emerging Safety and Security Trends. 8.4 Evolving Transportation Risk Analysis Practices. 8.5 XYZ Chemical Example- Program Sustainability. Index.

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Book SynopsisStudies based on the building block approach technique are used by the author to investigate fundamental questions relevant to the development and commercial production of industrial chemicals.Table of ContentsBACKROUND MATERIAL. Sources, Production Pathways, and Pricing of Industrial OrganicChemicals. ALIPHATIC BUILDING BLOCKS. C1 Building Blocks. C2 Building Blocks. C3 Building Blocks. C4 Building Blocks, Including Isoprene and Cyclopentadiene. C5 and Higher Acyclic Building Blocks. CYCLIC BUILDING BLOCKS. Nonaromatic Carbocyclic Compounds. Aromatic Carbocyclic Compounds. Heterocyclic Building Blocks. Index.

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Book SynopsisSeparation processes are basic to the petroleum, chemical, petrochemical, energy, food products and minerals industries.Table of ContentsGENERAL PRINCIPLES. Phase Equilibria. Mass Transfer Principles. Phase Segregation. General Processing Considerations. INDIVIDUAL SEPARATION PROCESSES. Distillation. Absorption and Stripping. Extraction--Organic Chemicals Processing. Extraction--Metals Processing. Leaching--Metals Applications. Leaching--Organic Materials. Crystallization Operations. Adsorption. Ion Exchange. Large-Scale Chromatography. Separation Processes Based on Reversible ChemicalComplexation. Bubble and Foam Separations--Ore Flotation. Bubble and Foam Separations--Waste Treatment. Ultrafiltration and Reverse Osmosis. Recent Advances in Liquid Membrane Technology. Separation of Gaseous Mixtures Using Polymer Membranes. Membrane Processes--Dialysis and Electrodialysis. Selection of a Separation Process. Index.

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Book SynopsisTrade ReviewThe history of technology at its very best. It is also a volume which has a great deal to interest the business historian... A superb study replete with new insights and eqully valuable in its parts as in their sum... This is an exciting book which deserves the highest praise. Business History David Hounshell's history of the evolution of American production methods has few rivals: in execution of the theme it has none... Both the armchair historian and the specialist in the history of technology will find this a highly readable and most informative work. ScienceTable of ContentsFigures and TablesForewordAcknowledgementsIntroductionChapter 1. The American System of Manufacures in the Antebellum PeriodChapter 2. The Sewing Machine and the American System of ManufacturesChapter 3. Mass Production in American Woodworking Industries: A Case StudyChapter 4. The McCormick Reaper Works and American Manufacturing Technology in the Nineteenth CenturyChapter 5. From the American System toward Mass Production: The Bicycle Industry in the Nineteenth CenturyChapter 6. The Ford Motor Company and the Rise of Mass Production in AmericaChapter 7. Cul-de-sac: The Limits of Fordism and the Coming of "Flexible Mass Production"Chapter 8. The Ethos of Mass Production and Its CriticsAppendix 1. The Evolution of the Expression The American System of ManufacturesAppendix 2. Singer Sewing Machine Artificial AnalysisNotesBibliographyIndex

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Book SynopsisThe book supplements "Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis" by providing the failure rate data needed to perform a chemical process quantitative risk analysis. It is presented in a hard cover format.Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. Glossary. Acronyms. 1. Introduction. 1.1 Background. 1.2 Guidelines Purpose, Scope and Organization. 1.3 Use of This Guidelines. 2. Equipment Failure Rate Data. 2.1 Sources and Types of Failure Rate Data. 2.2 Failure Model. 2.3 Taxonomy. 2.4 Confidence and Tolerance. 2.5 Sources of Variation in Failure Rates. 2.6 Time-Related and Demand-Related Failure Causes. 2.7 Using Failure Rate Data. References. 3. CCPS Taxonomy. 3.1 CCPS Taxonomy Structure. 3.2 CCPS Taxonomy Development. 3.3 The CCPS Taxonomy and Its Use. References. 4. Data Bases, Sources, and Studies. 4.1 Data Resource Selection. 4.2 Data Resource Presentation. 4.3 Process Equipment Data Bases. 4.4 Process Equipment Data Sources. 4.5 Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Assessments (CPQRAs). 4.6 Nonprocess Equipment Data Bases. 4.7 Nonprocess Equipment Data Sources. 4.8 Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRAs). 5. CCPS Generic Failure Rate Data Base. 5.1 Data Selection. 5.2 Data Treatment. 5.3 Data Table Presentation. 5.4 Use of the CCPS Generic Failure Rate Data Base. 5.5 CCPS Generic Data Tables. 6. Collection and Conversion of Plant-Specific Data. 6.1 Data Sources. 6.2 Data Collection. 6.3 Data Review and Qualification. 6.4 Data Conversion. 6.5 Statistical Treatment. References. 7. Failure Rate Data Transfer. 8. Supplemental References. Appendix A. CCPS Generic Failure Rate Data Base Taxonomy. Appendix B. Equipment Index. Appendix C. Matrix of Data Elements in Data Resources. Appendix D. Unreviewed Data Bases, Data Sources, and Studies.

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Book SynopsisPuts together information on the design of post-release mitigation systems. This book presents engineering methods for minimizing the consequences of the release of toxic vapors, or ignition of flammable vapors. It emphasizes on planning and a systems approach, shows limitations of the methods discussed, and provides references.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction to Postrelease Mitigation. 1.1. Introduction. 1.2. Scope of This Book. 1.3. Benefits of Postrelease mitigation Techniques. 1.4. How to Use This Guideline. 1.5. Guideline Organization and Content. 1.6. References. Chapter 2. Overview of release Scenarios and Post release. Mitigation. 2.1. Introduction. 2.2. Mitigation Categories. 2.3. Prerelease Mitigation Techniques. 2.3.1. Inherently Safer Design. 2.3.2. Physical Integrity of a Plant. 2.3.3. Process Integrity. 2.3.4. Emergency Relief Treatment Systems. 2.3.5. Emergency Process Abort Systems. 2.3.6. Emergency Isolation of Releases. 2.4. Release Scenarios and Consequences. 2.4.1. Types of Releases. 2.4.2. Liquid Releases. 2.4.3. Liquid Pool Formation. 2.4.4. Flashing, Mixed Liquid-Vapor Releases. 2.4.5. Behavior of Flashing, Mixed Liquid-Vapor Releases. 2.4.6. Gases/Vapors. 2.5. Consequences of a release. 2.5.1. Nature of Hazards. 2.5.2. Toxic and Flammable Dispersion. 2.5.3. Thermal Radiation. 2.5.4. Explosions. 2.5.5. Explosion Hazards. 2.6. Postrelease Mitigation Techniques. 2.6.1. Containment or Suppression to Limit Releases to the Air. 2.6.2. Countermeasures. 2.7. References. 3. Vaporization Reduction. 3.1. Introduction. 3.1.1. Why Reduce Vaporization Rates? 3.1.2. Methodology. 3.2. Refrigeration. 3.2.1. Effect of Refrigeration on Vaporization Rates. 3.2.2. System Issues. 3.2.3. Reactive Materials. 3.3. Covers. 3.3.1. Vapor Suppression Foams. 3.3.2. Dry Chemical Covers. 3.3.3. Other Covering Techniques. 3.4. Deliberate Ignition. 3.5. References. Chapter 4. Fluid Curtains. 4.1. Introduction. 4.2. Previous Work. 4.3. Absorption/Mass Transfer. 4.4. Air Dilution. 4.5. Defining Spray Requirements for Mitigation. 4.5.1. Water Curtain Design Example. 4.5.2. Spray Nozzles. 4.5.3. Water Supply Capacity, Pressurization, and Reliability. 4.5.4. Fixed Water-Spray Systems. 4.5.5. Monitor Nozzle and Hydrant Protection. 4.5.6. Environmental Considerations. 4.6. Vapor-Phase Dilution Systems. 4.6.1. Overview. 4.6.2. Steam Curtains. 4.6.3. Air Curtains. 4.6.4. Foam Scrubbing. 4.6.5. Dry Powder Curtains. 4.7. References. 5. Secondary Containment. 5.1. Introduction. 5.2. Diking. 5.2.1. Optimal Dike Geometry. 5.2.2. Materials for Dike Construction. 5.2.3. Provisions for Removal of Materials From a Dike. 5.2.4. Regulatory Requirements Regarding Diking. 5.2.5. Emergency Response Dikes. 5.3. Double-Wall Containment. 5.4. Enclosures. 5.5. Transfer Vessels. 5.6. Leak Plugging. 5.6.1. Patching. 5.6.2. Freezing. 5.7. Physical Vapor Barriers. 5.7.1. Overview. 5.7.2. Vapor Fences. 5.7.3. Vapor Boxes. 5.7.4. Applicability of Vapor Barrier Devices. 5.7.5. Effects of Process Equipment and Structures. 5.8. References. Chapter 6. Detection and Response. 6.1. Introduction. 6.2. Leak Detection. 6.2.1. Fixed-Point Detectors. 6.2.2. Sampling Systems. 6.2.3. Portable Detectors. 6.2.4. Detector System Response Times. 6.2.5. Detector Placement. 6.2.6. System Reliability. 6.3. Emergency Response. 6.3.1. Introduction. 6.3.2. Fundamentals of a Comprehensive Emergency Response Plan. 6.3.3. Emergency Response Training. 6.4. Community Relationships and Interactions. 6.5. Drills and Simulations. 6.5.1. Table-Top Exercises. 6.5.2. Plant-Wide Emergency Drills. 6.5.3. Full-Scale Emergency Simulations. 6.6. Temporary Havens. 6.6.1. Criteria for Use. 6.6.2. Design Criteria. 6.6.3. Capacity. 6.6.4. Communications and Other Equipment. 6.7. References. Chapter 7. Examples of Mitigation Effectiveness. 7.1. Introduction. 7.2. Consequence Modeling. 7.3. Basis for Examples. 7.4. Modeling Conditions. 7.5. Effect of Diking. 7.6. Use of Foam. 7.7. Mitigation by Refrigeration. 7.7.1. Pressure Storage of Ammonia. 7.7.2. Refrigerated/Ammonia Storage. 7.7.3. Refrigeration Combined with Diking. 7.8. Use of Water Sprays. 7.9. Mitigation System Selection. 7.10. References.

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Book SynopsisOffers guidelines that can reduce the risk or mitigate the severity of accidents associated with storing and handling reactive materials. Necessary elements of a reliable system to prevent equipment or human failures that might lead to a reactive chemical incident are sound and responsible management policies.Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. Acronyms. Introduction. 1. Chemical Reactivity Hazards. 1.1 Framework for Understanding Reactivity Hazards. 1.1.1 Grouping of Reactivity Hazards into General Categories. 1.1.2 Key Parameters That Drive Reactions. 1.1.3 Types of Runaway Reactions. 1.1.4 How Reactive Chemical Storage and Handling Accidents Are Initiated. 1.2 Self-Reactive Polymerizing Chemicals. 1.2.1 Thermal Instability. 1.2.2 Induction Time. 1.2.3 Example. 1.3 Self-Reactive Decomposing Chemicals. 1.3.1 Peroxides. 1.3.2 Self-Accelerating Decomposition Temperature. 1.3.3 Predicting Instability Potential. 1.3.4 Deflagration and Detonation of Pure Material. 1.3.5 Slow Gas-Forming Reactions. 1.3.6 Heat of Compression. 1.3.7 Minimum Pressure for Vapor Decomposition. 1.3.8 Shock Sensitivity. 1.3.9 Examples of Shock Sensitivity. 1.4 Self-Reactive Rearranging Chemicals. 1.4.1 Isomerization. 1.4.2 Disproportionation. 1.5 Reactivity with Oxygen. 1.5.1 Spontaneous Ignition and Pyrophoricity. 1.5.2 Pyrophoricity versus Hypergolic Properties. 1.5.3 Accumulation and Explosion of Pyrophoric Materials. 1.5.4 Competition between Air and Atmosphere Moisture. 1.5.5 Peroxide Formation. 1.6 Reactivity with Water. 1.6.1 Water Reactivity: Fast and Slow Reactions. 1.6.2 Water-Reactive Structures. 1.7 Reactivity with Other Common Substances. 1.7.1 Reactions with Metals. 1.7.2 Surface Area Effects. 1.7.3 Catalyst Deactivation and Surface Passivation. 1.8 Reactive with Other Chemicals Incompatibility. 1.8.1 Oxidizing and Reducing Properties. 1.8.2 Acidic and basic Properties. 1.8.3 Formation of Unstable Materials. 1.8.4 Thermite-Type Reactions. 1.8.5 Incompatibility with Heat Transfer Fluids and Refrigerants. 1.8.6 Adsorbents. References. 2. Chemical Reactivity Classifications. 2.1 NFPA Reactivity Hazard Signal. 2.1.1 NFPA 704 Rating System for Overall Reactivity. 2.1.2 Definitions for Reactivity Signal Ratings. 2.1.3 Reactivity Hazards Not Identified by NFPA 704. 2.1.4 NFPA Reactivity Ratings for Specific Chemicals. 2.2 NPCA Hazardous Materials Identification System. 2.3 Classifications of Organic Peroxides. 2.3.1 SPI 19A Classification of Organic Peroxides. 2.3.2 NFPA 43B Classification of Organic Peroxides. 2.4 Classification of Materials That Form Peroxides. 2.5 Classification of Water-Reactive Materials. 2.5.1 Materials That React Violently with Water. 2.5.2 Materials That React Slowly with Water. References. 3. Materials Assessment. 3.1 Prior Experience Review. 3.1.1 Common Knowledge. 3.1.2 Analogy. 3.1.3 Safety Data and Literature. 3.2 Theoretical Evaluations. 3.2.1 Unstable Atomic Groups. 3.2.2 Oxygen Balance. 3.2.3 Thermodynamics: Heat of 3.2.4 Thermodynamics: Heats of Reaction and Self-Reaction. 3.2.5 Thermodynamics: Equilibrium Considerations. 3.2.6 CHETAH. 3.2.7 Example Evaluation. 3.3 Expert Determination. 3.3.1 Expert Committees. 3.3.2 Kinetics Determination Factors. 3.4 Reactivity Screening Tests. 3.4.1 Thermal Stability Screening Tests. 3.4.2 Shock Sensitivity Screening. 3.4.3 Pyrophoricity Screening. 3.4.4 Water Reactivity Screening. 3.4.5 Peroxide Formation Screening. 3.4.6 Compatibility Screening. References. 4. Consequence Analysis. 4.1 Identifying Potential Accident Scenarios. 4.1.1 Process Hazard Analysis. 4.1.2 Checklist of Potentially Hazardous Events. 4.1.3 Chemical Interaction Matrix. 4.1.4 Industry Experience. 4.1.5 Local Size Experience. 4.2 Severity Testing. 4.2.1 Calorimetric Testing for Consequence Analysis. 4.2.2 Self-Accelerating Decomposition Temperature. 4.2.3 Isoperibolic Calorimetry. 4.2.4 Assessment of Maximum Pressure and Temperature. 4.3 Where to Find Methods for Estimating Immediate Consequences. 4.3.1 Reactive Chemical Explosions. 4.3.2 Reactive Chemical Fires. 4.3.3 Toxic Releases. 4.4 Where to Find Methods for Estimating Immediate Impact. 4.4.1 Explosion Effect Models. 4.4.2 Thermal Effect Models. 4.4.3 Toxic Gas Effect Models. 4.4.4 Modeling Systems. 4.4.5 Caveats. 4.5 Applications of Consequence Analysis. 4.5.1 Selection of Size, Quantity, and Location of Facilities. 4.5.2 Selection of Dedicated Safeguard Systems. 4.5.3 Basis for Emergency Response Systems and Planning. 4.5.4 Better Understanding of the Hazard and the Consequences. 4.5.5 Significant Step toward a Well-Managed Operating Facility. References. 5. General Design Considerations. 5.1 Summary of General Design Strategies. 5.1.1 Reduce the Inherent Hazards. 5.1.2 Build Reliable Safety Layers. 5.1.3 Conduct In-Depth Reviews. 5.1.4 Use Previous Experience. 5.2 Compatibility. 5.2.1 Identifying Potential Incompatibility Problems. 5.2.2 Compatibility with Process Materials/Reagents. 5.2.3 Compatibility with Impurities. 5.2.4 Compatibility with Heat Transfer Fluids. 5.2.5 Compatibility with Materials of Construction and Corrosion Products. 5.2.6 Compatibility with Insulation. 5.2.7 Compatibility with Fire-Extinguishing Agents. 5.2.8 Compatibility with Other Materials. 5.2.9 Other Compatibility-Related Practices. 5.3 Storage Time and Shelf Life. 5.3.1 Storage Time Limitations. 5.3.2 Practices for Increasing Shelf Life. 5.3.3 Handling and Disposal of Too-Old Material. 5.4 Storage Quantity and Configuration. 5.4.1 Determining Maximum Inventory. 5.4.2 Storage Configurations. 5.4.3 Top versus Bottom Discharge. 5.4.4 Facility Siting. 5.4.5 Restrictions on Container Shape or Configuration. 5.4.6 Mixing and Recirculation. 5.5 Air and Moisture Exclusion. 5.5.1 Air Exclusion Practices. 5.5.2 Moisture Exclusion Practices. 5.6 Monitoring and Control. 5.6.1 Oxygen Concentration Monitoring. 5.6.2 Humidity/Moisture Content Monitoring. 5.6.3 Pressure Monitoring. 5.6.4 Temperature Monitoring. 5.6.5 Temperature Control. 5.7 Handling and Transfer. 5.7.2 Piping Specifications and Layout. 5.7.3 Fittings and Connections. 5.7.4 Pumps and Pump Seals. 5.7.5 Valves. 5.7.6 Drain Systems. 5.7.7 Cleaning Equipment. 5.7.8 Transfer Systems Operating and Maintenance Practices. 5.8 Last-Resort Safety Features. 5.8.1 Inhibitor Injection. 5.8.2 Quench System. 5.8.3 Dump System. 5.8.4 Depressuring System. 5.8.5 Emergency Relief Configuration. 5.8.6 Emergency Relief Sizing Basis. 5.8.7 Emergency Relief Headers. 5.8.8 Emergency Relief Treatment Systems. 5.8.9 Explosion Suppression. 5.9 Passive Mitigation. 5.9.1 Flow-Limiting Orifices. 5.9.2 Fire-Resistant/Explosion-Resistant Construction. 5.9.3 Weak Seams and Explosion Venting. 5.9.4 Bunkers, Blast Walls and Barricades. 5.9.5 Secondary Containment. 5.9.6 Separation Distances. 5.10 Detections, Warning and Isolation. 5.10.1 Release Detection. 5.10.2 Release Warning. 5.10.3 Release Isolation. 5.11 Fire Prevention and Protection. 5.11.1 Ignition Source Control. 5.11.2 Fireproofing and Insulation. 5.11.3 Extinguishing Systems. 5.12 Postrelease Mitigation. 5.12.1 Reactive Release Countermeasures. 5.12.2 Reactive Chemicals Personal Protective Equipment. 5.12.3 Reactive Chemicals Emergency Response. 5.13 Hazard Reviews. 5.13.1 Hazard Severity Categories. 5.13.2 Reactive Chemicals Hazard Reviews. 5.14 Codes and Standards. References. 6. Process Safety Management of Reactive Material Facilities. 6.1 Accountability: Objective and Goals. 6.2 Process Knowledge and Documentation. 6.3 Capital Project Review and Design Procedures. 6.4 Process Risk Management. 6.5 Management of Change. 6.6 Process and Equipment Integrity. 6.7 Human Factors. 6.8 Personnel Training and Performance. 6.9 Incident Investigation. 6.10 Standards, Codes, and Regulations. 6.11 Audits and Corrective Actions. 6.12 Enhancement of Process Safety Knowledge. 6.13 Other Elements Required by Regulatory Authorities. Bibliography. References. 7. Specific Design Considerations. 7.1 Polymerizable Materials: Acrylic Acid. 7.2 Polymerizable Materials: Styrene. 7.3 Organic Peroxides. 7.4 Organic Peroxides: Dibenzoyl Peroxide. 7.5 Organic Peroxides: MEK Peroxide. 7.6 Temperature-Sensitive Materials: Ethylene Oxide. 7.7 Pyrophoric Materials: Aluminum Alkyls. 7.8 Peroxide Formers: 1,3-Butadiene. 7.9 Water-Reactive Materials: Sodium. 7.10 Water-Reactive Materials: Chlorosulfonic Acid. References. Appendix A. Reactive Chemicals Literature Sources. Procedures for Hazard Evaluation and Testing. Accident and Loss Prevention. Data Sources and Compilations. Material Safety Data Sheets. Computerized On-line Databases. Educational and Training Materials. Appendix B. Industry Practice Survey Results. Glossary. Index.

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Book SynopsisWritten by industry professionals for warehouse operators and designers, this book offers a performance-based approach to hazards such as health effects, environmental pollution, fire, and explosion. It also presents practical means to minimize the risk of these hazards to employees, the surrounding population, the environment, and property.Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgment. Acronyms. Chapter 1. Introduction. 1.1. Background. 1.2. Scope. 1.3. Purpose. Chapter 2. Commodity Hazards. 2.1. Synopsis. 2.2. Identification of Chemicals. 2.3. Properties and Hazard Identification of Chemicals. 2.4. Systems for Commodity Classification. 2.4.1. Environmental Protection Agency. 2.4.2. National Fire Protection Association. 2.4.3. National Paint and Coating s Association's Hazardous Materials Identification System. 2.4.4. United nations (UN) and Department of Transportation (DOT) Hazardous Materials Classes. 2.5. Container and Packaging Systems. 2.6. Commodity Compatibility and Separation. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 3. Administrative Controls. 3.1. Synopsis. 3.2. Safety and Risk Management Policies. 3.3. Hazard and Risk Management. 3.4. Control of Ignition Sources. 3.5. Regulatory Compliance. 3.6. Risk Management Organization. 3.7. Employee Hiring, Training and Operations. 3.7.1. Employee Hiring. 3.7.2. Training. 3.7.3. Operations. 3.8. Housekeeping. 3.9. Inventory Management. 3.10. Management of Change. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 4. Employee Safety and Health. 4.1. Synopsis. 4.2. Policy. 4.3. Administrative and Engineering Controls. 4.3.1. Administrative Controls. 4.3.2. Engineering Controls. 4.4. Hazard Communication. 4.4.1. Labels. 4.4.2. Material Safety Data Sheets. 4.4.3. Employee Information and Training. 4.5. Personal Protective Equipment. 4.5.1. Implementing a PPE Program. 4.5.2. Selecting PPE Program. 4.5.3. Chemical Protective Clothing. 4.5.4. Foot Protection. 4.5.5. Head Protection. 4.5.6. Eye and Face Protection. 4.5.7. Hand Protection. 4.5.8. Respirators. 4.5.9. Respirator Selection. 4.5.10. Respirator Usage. 4.5.11. Training. 4.5.12. Maintenance and Inspection. 4.6. Safety Equipment. 4.7. Emergency Response Training. 4.7.1. Emergency Spill Response. 4.7.2. Manual Fire Fighting. 4.7.3. First Aid. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 5. Site Considerations. 5.1. Synopsis. 5.2. Health and Environmental Exposure. 5.2.1. Baseline Environmental Assessment. 5.2.2. Population Proximity, Density, and Sensitivity. 5.2.3. Warehouse Truck Traffic. 5.2.4. Highly Sensitive Environments. 5.2.5. Surface Water, Ground water, and Soil Permeability. 5.3. Natural Peril Exposures. 5.3.1. Earthquake. 5.3.2. Flood. 5.3.3. Hurricanes. 5.3.4. Tornadoes. 5.3.5. Lightning. 5.3.6. Arctic Freeze. 5.4. Exposures from Surrounding Activities. 5.4.1. Adjacent Facilities, Airports, Highways, and Railroads. 5.4.2. High Pressure Flammable Gas and Liquid Transmission Lines. 5.4.3. Riot and Civil Commotion. 5.5. Emergency Responders. 5.6. Adequacy and Reliability of Public Utilities. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 6. Design and Construction. 6.1. Synopsis. 6.2. Construction Documents-Approvals and Permits. 6.3. Means of Egress. 6.3.1. travel Distance. 6.4. Environmental Protection. 6.4.1. Containment and Drainage Capacity Considerations. 6.4.2. Warehouse Floor System. 6.4.3. Concrete Criteria. 6.4.4. Surface Preparation. 6.4.5. Coating and Sealers. 6.4.6. Maintenance and Repair of the Floor. 6.4.7. Airborne Effluent. 6.5. Fire Mitigation Construction Features. 6.5.1. Fire-Rated Separations. 6.5.2. Protection of Openings and Penetrations. 6.5.3. Through-Penetrations. 6.5.4. Heat and Smoke Venting. 6.5.5. Powered Ventilation Systems. 6.5.6. Emergency and Standby Power Systems. 6.6. Deflagration Prevention and Mitigation. 6.1.1. Temperature Control. 6.6.2. Gas and Vapor Control. 6.6.3. Sources of Ignition. 6.6.4. Spatial Separation. 6.6.5. Damage Limiting Construction. 6.7. Natural Peril Mitigation. 6.7.1. Earthquake. 6.7.2. Flood. 6.7.3. Lightning. 6.7.4. Windstorm, Hurricane, and Tornado. 6.8. Security Features. 6.9. Outdoor Storage. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 7. Fire Protection Systems. 7.1. Synopsis. 7.2. Storage Considerations. 7.3. Fire Control, Suppression, and Extinguishing Systems. 7.3.1. Fire Control. 7.3.2. Fire Suppression. 7.3.3. Fire Extinguishment. 7.3.4. Fire Extinguishers. 7.4. Fire Detection and Alarm Systems. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 8. Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance Programs. 8.1. Synopsis. 8.2. Inspection and Test Programs. 8.2.1. Program Objectives. 8.2.2. Critical Equi9pment and Construction Features. 8.2.3. Inspection and Test Program Elements. 8.2.5. Maintenance Procedures. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 9. Emergency Planning. 9.1. Synopsis. 9.2. Loss Scenarios. 9.3. Plan Objectives. 9.3.1. Employees. 9.3.2. Surrounding Population. 9.3.3. Environment. 9.3.4. Property Protection and Business Interruption. 9.4. Plan Development. 9.5. Plan Elements. 9.5.1. Policy Statement. 9.5.2. Scope and Objectives. 9.5.3. Pre-Incident Planning. 9.5.4. Incident Response. 9.6. Emergency Spill Response. 9.6.1. Planning. 9.6.2. Responding to a Hazardous Material Spill. 9.6.3. Cleanup. 9.6.4. Reporting. 9.6.5. Public Response. 9.7. Regulations and Resources. 9.7.1. U.S. Regulations. 9.7.2. CMA Responsible Care Program. References. Additional Reading. Chapter 10. Selected research and Discussion Topics. 10.1. Synopsis. 10.2. Commodity Hazards and Fire Protection Systems. 10.3. Design and Construction. Appendix A. Summary of NFPA 704 Marking System. Appendix B. Summary of HMIS. Appendix C. United Nations and U.S. Department of Transportation Hazardous Materials Classes. Appendix D. Additional Resources. Glossary of Terms. Index.

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Book SynopsisQuantitative Risk Analysis is a powerful tool used to help manage risk and improve safety. When used appropriately, it provides a rational basis for evaluating process safety and comparing alternative safety improvements. This guide, an update of an earlier American Chemistry Council (ACC) publication utilizing the hands-on experience of CPI risk assessment practitioners and safety professionals involved with the CCPS and ACC, explains how managers and users can make better-informed decisions about QRA, and how plant engineers and process designers can better understand, interpret and use the results of a QRA in their plant.Table of ContentsList of Figures. List of Tables. Preface. Acknowledgments. Executive Summary. Advice for the Reader. Acronyms. Glossary. Chapter 1. Introduction. 1.1. Background. 1.2. The Process of Risk Analysis. 1.3. Definition of QRA. 1.4. Misconceptions About QRA. Chapter 2. Deciding Whether to Use QRA. 2.1. Some Reasons for Considering QRA. 2.2. Types of Information Available From Risk Studies. 2.3. Criteria for Electing to Use QRA. Chapter 3. Management Use of QRA. 3.1. Chartering the Analysis. 3.1.1. Study Objective. 3.1.2. Scope. 3.1.3. Technical Approach. 3.1.4. Resources. 3.2. Selecting QRA Techniques. 3.2.1. Hazard Identification. 3.2.2. Consequence Analysis. 3.2.3. Frequency Analysis. 3.2.4. Risk Evaluation and Presentation. 3.3. Understanding the Assumptions and Limitations. 3.3.1. Completeness. 3.3.2. Model Validity. 3.3.3. Accuracy/Uncertainty. 3.3.4. Reproducibility. 3.3.5. Inscrutability. Chapter 4. Using QRA Results. 4.1. Comparative Methods for Establishing Perspective. 4.2. Factors Influencing Risk Perception. 4.2.1. Type of Hazard. 4.2.2. Voluntary versus Involuntary. 4.2.3. Societal versus Individual. 4.2.4. Public versus Employee. 4.2.5. High Consequence/Low Frequency versus Low Consequence/High Frequency 4.2.6. Acute versus Latent Effects. 4.2.7. Familiarity. 4.2.8. Controllability. 4.2.9. Age of Exposed Population. 4.2.10. Distribution of Risk and Benefit. 4.3. Communicating Risk. 4.3.1. Accept and Involve the Public as a Legitimate Partner. 4.3.2. Plan Carefully and Evaluate Your Efforts. 4.3.3. Listen to People's Specific Concerns. 4.3.4. Be Honest, Frank, and Open. 4.3.5. Coordinate and Collaborate with Other Credible Sources. 4.3.6. Meet the Needs of the Media. 4.3.7. Speak Clearly and with Compassion. 4.4. Pitfalls in Using QRA Results. Chapter 5. Conclusions. References. Suggested Additional Reading.

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisWritten by Laurence Britton, who has over 20 years'' experience in the fields of static ignition and process fire and explosion hazards research, this resource addresses an area not extensively covered in process safety standards or literature: understanding and reducing potential hazards associated with static electricity. The book covers the nature of static electricity, characteristics and effective energies of different static resources, techniques for evaluating static electricity hazards, general bonding, grounding, and other techniques used to control static or prevent ignition, gases and liquids, powders and hybrid mixtures.Table of ContentsPreface. Acknowledgments. Chapter 1. Introduction. 1.1. Purpose. 1.2. Exclusive. 1.3. Units. 1.4. Organization of the Book. Chapter 2. Fundamentals of Static Electricity. 2.1. What is Static Electricity. 2.1.1. Charge Separation. 2.1.2. Magnitude of Current and Potential. 2.1.3. Concentration of Charged Species. 2.1.4. Importance of Trace Contaminants. 2.1.5. Hazard Evaluation. 2.1.6. Statistics. 2.2. Charge Generation. 2.2.1. Induction Charging. 2.2.2. Ionic Charging. 2.3. Charge Dissipation. 2.3.1. Variability of Conductivity. 2.4. Charge Accumulation. 2.5. Ignition. 2.5.1. Effective Energy. 2.6. Static Discharges. 2.6.1. Corona Discharge. 2.6.2. Brush Discharge. 2.6.3. Bulking Brush Discharge. 2.6.4. Spark Discharge. 2.6.5. Propagating Brush Discharge (PBD). 2.6.6. Surface Streamer. 2.7. Personnel Spark and Shock Hazards. 2.7.1. Body Capacitance and Resistance. 2.7.2. Voltage (V) and Energy (W) Attained. 2.7.3. Human Shock Response. Chapter 3. Evaluating the Hazard of Static Electricity. 3.1. General. 3.2. Hazard Identification Methods. 3.2.1. Decision Trees. 3.3. Charge Accumulation. 3.3.1. Conductive Objects. 3.3.2. Nonconductive Objects. 3.4. Energy Estimates. 3.4.1. Charge Sharing. 3.5. Instrumentation. 3.5.1. Charge. 3.5.2. Electric Field. 3.5.3. Potential. 3.5.4. Ignition Energy. 3.5.5. Conductivity of Liquids. 3.5.6. Resistivity of Solids. 3.5.7. Resistance. 3.6. Direct Observation of Discharges. 3.7. Radio Frequency Detection of Discharges. 3.8. Measuring the Effective Energy of Nonspark Discharges. 3.8.1. Gas Composition. Chapter 4. Controlling Electrostatic Hazards. 4.1. Bonding and Grounding. 4.1.1. Definitions. 4.1.2. Purpose of Bonding and Grounding. 4.1.3. Resistance to Ground. 4.1.4. Bonding and Grounding Systems. 4.1.5. Ground Rods. 4.1.6. Grounding and Cathodic Protection. 4.2. Control of Charge Relaxation. 4.2.1. Increase of Conductivity. 4.2.2. Charge Neutralizers. 4.3. Control of Personnel Charging. 4.3.1. Personnel Grounding. 4.3.2. Clothing. 4.3.3. Gloves. 4.4. Control of Flammable Atmospheres. 4.4.1. Liquid Nitrogen/Liquid Air Hazards. Chapter 5. Flammable Liquids, Vapors, and Gases. 5.1. Ignition Hazards of Liquid Vapor and Mist. 5.1.1. Flammable Liquid. 5.1.2. Flammable Limits. 5.1.3. Liquid Mist. 5.1.4. Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE). 5.1.5. Explosion Prevention Systems. 5.2. Generation and Relaxation (Loss) of Charge in Liquid Systems. 5.2.1. Charge Generation. 5.2.2. Charge Density. 5.2.3. Factors Influencing Charge Generation. 5.2.4. Charge Relaxation. 5.2.5. Classification of Liquids based on Conductivity. 5.2.6. Antistatic Additives. 5.2.7. Bonding and Grounding. 5.3. Flow in Pipe, Hose, and Tubing. 5.3.1. Metallic Piping Systems. 5.3.2. Nonconductive Pipe and Linings. 5.3.3. Flexible Hoses. 5.3.4. Dip Pipes. 5.3.5. Filters and Relaxation Tanks. 5.3.6. Suspended Material. 5.3.7. Valves and Other Line Restrictions. 5.4. Filling Criteria for Tank Operations. 5.4.1. Storage Tanks. 5.4.2. Road Tankers. 5.4.3. Rail Cars. 5.4.4. Liquid Phase Mixers, Blenders, and Reactors. 5.4.5. Liquid-Solid Mixers, Blenders and Reactors. 5.4.6. Vacuum Trucks. 5.4.7. Plastic Tanks. 5.5. Sampling, Gauging, and Analysis. 5.5.1. Sample Container Cord. 5.5.2. Sampling. 5.5.3. Gauging. 5.5.4. Portable Flammable Gas Analyzers. 5.6. Tank Cleaning. 5.6.1. Water Washing. 5.6.2. Solvent Washing. 5.6.3. Steam Cleaning. 5.6.4. Acid Washing. 5.6.5. Grit Blasting. 5.7. Portable Tanks. 5.7.1. Metal Portable Tanks. 5.7.2. Plastic Portable Tanks. 5.8. Portable Containers Less Than 60 Gallons Capacity. 5.8.1. All-Steel Drums. 5.8.2. Plastic Lined Drums. 5.8.3. Plastic Drums. 5.8.4. Hand-Held Containers. 5.8.5. Wet-Dry Vacuum Cleaners. 5.9. Miscellaneous Flammable Atmospheres. 5.9.1. Clean Rooms. 5.9.2. Water and Steam Curtains. 5.9.3. Static Electrification in Gas Flow. 5.9.4. Ignition of Vented Gas. 5.9.5. Hazards of Plastic Sheet and Wrap. 5.9.6. Oxidant Enriched Atmospheres. 5.9.7. Elevated Temperature and Pressure. 5.9.8. Automotive and Marine. 5.9.9. Aerosol Spray Cans. 5.10. Cathode Ray Tube Video Display Screens. 5.10.1. Cleaning. 5.10.2. Screens in Hazardous Locations. 5.10.3. Static Dissipating Screen Overlays. Chapter 6. Powders and Solids. 6.1. Flammability of Dust Suspensions. 6.1.1. Flammable Limits. 6.1.2. Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) of Dust Suspensions. 6.1.3. Hybrid Mixtures. 6.1.4. Unstable or Energetic Powders. 6.1.5. Effect of Temperature on Ignition Energy. 6.1.6. Effect of Moisture on Ignition Energy. 6.2. Charging Mechanisms. 6.2.1. Charge Density. 6.2.2. Classification of Powders Based on Conductivity. 6.3. Pneumatic Conveying. 6.3.1. Charging in Pipeline Flow. 6.3.2. Special Grounding Cases. 6.4. Types of Static Discharge in Powder Systems. 6.4.1. Sparks. 6.4.2. Bulking Brush Discharges. 6.4.3. Propagating Brush Discharge. 6.5. General Operations. 6.5.1. Vacuum Trucks. 6.5.2. Bag Houses. 6.6. Manual Transfers from Portable Containers. 6.7. Flexible Intermediate Bulk Containers (FIBCs). 6.7.1. Powder Transfers in Air Atmospheres. 6.7.2. Powder Transfers from FIBCs to Flammable Liquids. 6.7.3. Conductive and Antistatic FIBCs. 6.7.4. Vacuum FIBC Transfers. Appendix A. Explanatory Material. Propagating Brush Discharge. Resistance to Ground. MIE of Liquid Mists. Hyperbolic Relaxation. Filtration. Filling Criteria for Tank Operations. Effect of Road Tires. Potentials During Water Washing of Tanks. Effect of Particle Size on Dust MIE. Ignition Energy of Hybrid Mixtures. Effect of Temperature on Powder MIE. Appendix B. Data Tables. Flammability Data for Gases and Vapors. Typical Conductivities, Dielectric Constants and Relaxation (or Dissipation) Times of Liquids. Typical Resistivities, Dielectric Constants, and Breakdown Strengths of Solid Dielectrics. Appendix C. Formulas and Mathematical Relationships (SI UNITS). C.1. Principal Relationships. C.2. Analysis: Grounded Sphere above Charged Nonconductive Disc. References. Glossary. Index.

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Book SynopsisPowders and bulk solids, handled widely in the chemical, pharmaceutical, agriculture, smelting, and other industries present unique fire, explosion, and toxicity hazards. Indeed, substances which are practically inert in consolidated form may become quite hazardous when converted to powders and granules.Table of ContentsAcknowledgments. 1. Introduction and Overview. 1.1 Purpose of Book. 1.2 Particulate Hazards. 1.2.1 Combustibility Hazards. 1.2.2 Instability Hazards. 1.2.3 Reactivity Hazards. 1.2.4 Toxicity Hazards. 1.3 Accident Data and Case Histories. 1.3.1 Dust Explosion Data and Case Histories. 1.3.2 Other Particulate Incident Databases. 1.3.3 Sample Case Histories for Particulate Instability, and Reactivity Incidents. 1.4 Particulate Handling and Storage Equipment Hazard Overview. 1.5 Historical and Regulatory Perspective. References. 2. Particulate Characteristics and Properties. 2.1 How Particulate Characteristics and Properties Affect Hazards. 2.2 Particulate Physical Characteristics. 2.2.1 Size Measurement Methods. 2.2.2 Particle Size Distribution. 2.2.3 Filter Characteristics. 2.2.4 Flake Characteristics. 2.2.5 Abrasiveness. 2.2.6 Hardness and Friability. 2.2.7 Agglomeration. 2.2.8 Particle Size Changes due to Friability and Agglomeration. 2.2.9 Bulk Density Measurements and Characterizations. 2.2.10 Dust Cloud Concentration Measurements. 2.2.11 Bulk Powder Moisture Measurements. 2.2.12 Fluidity and Dispersibility. 2.2.13 Electrical Resistivity. 2.3 Overview of Particulate Chemical Characteristics. 2.3.1 Flammability and Explosibility. 2.3.2 Thermal Degradation and Instability. 2.3.3 Chemical Reactivity: Incompatible Chemical Groups. 2.3.4 Corrosivity. 2.4 Overview of Particulate Toxicity. 2.4.1 Particulate Properties Pertinent to Respiratory Hazards. 2.4.2 Allergenic and Irritant Materials. 2.4.3 Systemic and Single Exposure Toxicity. 2.4.4 Carcinogenic Classifications. References. 3. Particulate Hazard Scenarios and Examples. 3.1 Thermal and Shock Instability Scenarios. 3.1.1 Exothermic Decomposition Explosions. 3.1.2 Shock/Friction Sensitive Instability Scenarios. 3.1.3 Self-Heating Hazard Scenarios. 3.2 Decision Trees for Assessing Thermal Instability Hazard Scenarios. 3.3 Chemical Incompatibility Hazard Scenarios. 3.3.1 Contamination Hazard Scenarios. 3.3.2 Water Entry Scenarios. 3.3.3 Container/Packaging Incompatibility Scenarios. 3.3.4 Air Access to Pyrophoric Particulates. 3.4 Chemical Compatibility Charts for Assessing Hazards. 3.5 Particulate Fire Scenarios. 3.5.1 Smoldering Fires in Storage Piles and Dust Collectors. 3.5.2 Dust Layer Fires. 3.5.3 Waterhouse Storage Fires. 3.5.4 Particulate Flash Fires. 3.6 Decision Trees for Assessing Particulate Fire Scenarios. 3.7 Dust Explosion Scenarios. 3.7.1 Primary Dust Explosions in Process Equipment. 3.7.2 Hybrid Explosion Scenarios. 3.7.3 Explosion Propagation to Connected Equipment. 3.7.4 Secondary Dust Explosions in Building. 3.8 Dust Explosion Decision Trees and Protection Flow Charts. 3.9 Toxic Material Exposure Scenarios. 3.9.1 Chronic Exposure Scenarios during Processing and Material Handling. 3.9.2 Acute Exposure Accident Scenarios. 3.9.3 Fire and Explosion Exposure Scenarios. 3.9.4 Incident Cleanup Exposure Scenarios. References. 4. Assessing Particulate Hazards. 4.1 Preliminary Assessment via Material Safety Data Sheets, Handbooks, Guidelines, Codes, and Standards. 4.1.1 Preliminary Assessment of Instability Hazards. 4.1.2 Preliminary Assessments of Reactivity Hazards. 4.1.3 Preliminary Assessments of Combustibility and Explosibility Hazards. 4.1.4 Preliminary Assessments of Toxicity. 4.1.5 Special Considerations and Cautions in Using MSDS and Generic Databases. 4.1.6 Publicly Available Computer Databases. 4.1.7 Company and Consortium Databases. 4.2 When Are More Detailed Particulate Hazard Data Needed? 4.3 Laboratory Test Methods for Detailed Assessments of Particulate Hazards. 4.3.1 Particulate Sampling and Conditioning for Testing. 4.3.2 Laboratory Testing for Instability Hazards. 4.3.3 Laboratory Test Methods for Chemical Incompatibility Hazards. 4.3.4 Self-Heating, Spontaneous Combustion, and Pyrophoric Solids Test Methods. 4.3.5 Dust Layer Combustibility Test Methods. 4.3.6 Electrostatic Charging and Discharge Testing for Particulates. 4.3.7 Dust Cloud Explosibility Test Methods. 4.3.8 Fire Exposure Tests. 4.3.9 Particulate Toxicity Testing. 4.3.10 UN Testing Scheme for Classification of Materials as Explosions. 4.4 Scaling Considerations in Applying Laboratory Test Data. 4.5 Larger-Scale Testing and Theoretical Modeling. References. 5. Equipment Hazards and Preventive/Protective Measures. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Safety Aspects of Batch versus Continuous Operation. 5.3 Particulate Solids Processing Equipment Hazards and Preventive and Protective Measures. 5.3.1 Bag Openers (Slitters). 5.3.2 Blenders/Mixers. 5.3.3 Drying Equipment. 5.3.4 Dust Collectors. 5.3.5 Extruders. 5.3.6 Feeders and Rotary Valves. 5.3.7 Hoses, Loading Spouts, and Flexible Boots and Socks. 5.3.8 Mechanical Conveyors and Bucket Elevators. 5.3.9 Pneumatic Conveyors. 5.3.10 Portable Containers. 5.3.11 Portable Container Emptying (Unloading) Equipment. 5.3.12 Portable Container Filling Systems. 5.3.13 Samplers and Sampling Systems. 5.3.14 Screens and Classifiers. 5.3.15 Silos and Hoppers. 5.3.16 Size Enlargement Equipment. 5.3.17 Size Reduction Equipment. 5.3.18 Solids Charging Systems. 5.3.19 Tableting Systems. 5.3.20 Values for Solids. 5.3.21 Weighing Systems. 5.4 Loading and Unloading of Railcars and Hopper Trucks. 5.4.1 Types of Railcars and Hopper Trucks. 5.4.2 Railcar and Hopper Truck Loading. 5.4.3 Railcar and Hopper Truck Unloading. 5.5 Instrumentation. 5.5.1 Flow Instruments. 5.5.2 Level Instruments. 5.5.3 Pressure Instruments. 5.5.4 Temperature Instruments. References. 6. Designing and Installing Systems to Prevent and Control Combustion, Explosions, Uncontrolled Reactions, and Release of Toxic Particulate Solids. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Causes of Fire and Deflagration. 6.2.1 The Fire Triangle. 6.2.2 Types of Ignition Sources. 6.3 Ignition Sources: Description, Control, and Removal. 6.3.1 Electrostatic Hazards and Their Control. 6.3.2 Spontaneous Combustion: Evaluation and Control. 6.3.3 Pyrophoric and Water-Reaction Solids. 6.3.4 Flames and Hot Gases. 6.3.5 Hot Work. 6.3.6 Hot Surfaces. 6.3.7 Hot Particles. 6.3.8 Friction and Impact. 6.3.9 Chemical Reactions. 6.3.10 Physical Sources. 6.3.11 Electrical Equipment. 6.3.12 Lightning. 6.3.13 Projectiles. 6.4 Electrical Equipment Hazards and Area Classifications. 6.4.1 Electrical Equipment Hazards. 6.4.2 Electrical Area Classification. 6.5 Deflagration Prevention Methods. 6.5.1 Prevention Minimization of Dust Clouds Formation. 6.5.2 Oxidant Concentration Reduction (Inverting). 6.5.3 Combustible Concentration Reduction (Air Dilution). 6.6 Deflagration Protection Methods. 6.6.1 Deflagration Venting. 6.6.2 Deflagration Suppression. 6.6.3 Deflagration Pressure Containment. 6.6.4 Deflagration Isolation Systems. 6.6.5 Spark Detection and Extinguishing Systems. 6.6.6 Prevention of Secondary Explosions. 6.7 Sitting of Equipment and Buildings to Minimize Damage from Fires and Explosions. 6.8 Blast Resistant (Damage-Limiting) Construction of Buildings. 6.9 Protection of Equipment and Buildings by Water Sprinkler/Deluge Systems. 6.10 Protection of Equipment and Buildings by Foam and Other Special Extinguishing Systems. 6.10.1 Foams. 6.10.2 Dry Chemical Systems. 6.10.3 Carbon Dioxide Systems. 6.10.4 Halon Replacement (Clean) Agents. 6.11 Containment for Control of Releases of Toxic Particulate Solids. 6.12 Identification of System-Wide Design, Protection, and Prevention Requirements. References. 7. Plant Operation and Maintenance. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Regulatory Requirements. 7.3 Management of Change. 7.4 Process Hazard Analyses. 7.5 Housekeeping Practices to Prevent or Minimize Dust Emissions and Accumulation. 7.6 Mechanical Integrity of Equipment. 7.6.1 Scheduled Inspections and Testing of Equipment. 7.6.2 Upgrading and Repairs of Equipment. 7.6.3 Documentation. 7.7 Corrosion, Erosion, and Materials of Construction. 7.7.1 Introduction. 7.7.2 Types of Corrosion. 7.7.3 Corrosion Detection and Measurement. 7.7.4 Corrosion Prevention and Minimization Methods. 7.7.5 Erosion and Its Effect on Equipment. 7.7.6 Materials of Construction. 7.8 Maintenance Practices. 7.8.1 Introduction. 7.8.2 Preventive Maintenance. 7.8.3 Predictive Maintenance. 7.8.4 Good Maintenance Practices for Particulate Solids Processes and Equipment. 7.9 Incident Investigations. References. 8. Occupational Health and Environmental Considerations. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Occupational Health and Environmental Concerns. 8.2.1 Protecting Employees and the Community. 8.2.2 Regulatory Requirements. 8.2.3 Product Stewardship. 8.3 Routine Operations Considerations. 8.3.1 Permitting Issues. 8.3.2 Monitoring Emissions from Equipment. 8.3.3 Employee Exposure Monitoring and Risk Assessment. 8.3.4 System Design to Eliminate or Minimize Employee Exposure. 8.3.5 Health Standards. 8.3.6 Employee Precautions When Handling Toxic Particulate Solids. 8.3.7 Selection, Storage, and Maintenance of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). 8.3.8 Normal (Routine) Venting. 8.3.9 Environmental Issues during Maintenance. 8.3.10 Housekeeping/Cleanup Health Hazards. 8.3.11 Hazards of Asphyxiation from Inerting/Safe Vessel Entry. 8.3.12 Design and Operations of Isolation Rooms. 8.3.13 Design and Operation of Cleanrooms. 8.4 Nonroutine Operations Considerations. 8.4.1 Emergency Venting. 8.4.2 Measuring the Impact of a Nonroutine Release. 8.4.3 Permitting and Reporting Issues for Emergency Vents. 8.4.4 Emergency Response for Accidents with Powder and Dusts. 8.4.5 Determining the Cause of a Protective System Activation. 8.4.6 Disabling of Protective Systems by an Explosion. Appendix A. Commercial Testing Facilities for Powder/Dust Hazard Assessments. Appendix B. Equipment Overview. Acronyms and Abbreviations. Glossary. Index.

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Book SynopsisFocusing on mechanical-based advanced manufacturing process technologies for materials, Innovations in Manufacturing provides an in-depth understanding of fundamentals on a wide range of state-of-the-art materials manufacturing processes for upper undergraduates, graduate students, and researchers in materials and mechanical engineering.Table of ContentsForeword xvii List of Contributors xix Part I Advanced Forming Processes 1 1 Advances in Stamping 3 Ilyas Kacar and Fahrettin Ozturk 1.1 Introduction 3 References 13 2 Hydroforming 15 C Hartl 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Fundamentals 16 2.3 Process Development and Design 33 2.4 Hydroforming Systems 37 2.5 Concluding Remarks 39 References 40 3 Incremental Sheet Forming 47 Rogelio Perez‐Santiago, Isabel Bagudanch, and Maria Luisa Garcia‐Romeu 3.1 Incremental Sheet Forming: General Overview 47 3.2 ISF Variants 49 3.3 Process Cycle 51 3.4 Materials 52 3.5 Formability in ISF 52 3.6 ISF Process Parameters 55 3.7 Accuracy 55 3.8 Simulation 57 3.9 Future Trends in ISF 58 3.10 Case Study 59 3.11 Concluding Remarks 59 References 60 4 Powder Forming 65 Rahmi Unal 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Reasons for Using PM Route 67 4.3 Powder Production 69 4.4 Consolidation Techniques 73 4.5 Sintering 79 4.6 Powder Injection Molding (PIM) 82 4.7 Summary and Future Work 84 References 85 5 Injection Molding at Multiscales 89 Danyang Zhao, Minjie Wang, and Donggang Yao 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Overview of Injection Molding 91 5.3 Injection Molding of Precision Parts 105 5.4 Injection Molding of Thin Wall Parts 109 5.5 Injection Molding of Microstructured Parts 116 5.6 Injection Molding of Microparts 124 5.7 Simulation of Injection Molding 127 5.8 Summary and Outlook 131 References 132 6 Manufacturing Techniques of Bulk Metallic Glasses 137 Mustafa Bakkal, Umut Karaguzel, and Ali T. Kuzu 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 Mechanical Properties and Usage of Bulk Metallic Glasses 139 6.3 Rapid Quenching Methods 140 6.4 Water‐Quenching Method 141 6.5 Arc Melting Drop/Suction Casting Method 142 6.6 High‐Pressure Die Casting Method 143 6.7 Copper Mold Casting Method 144 6.8 Cap Casting Method 144 6.9 Centrifugal Casting Method 145 6.10 Metal Foaming Method 146 6.11 Concluding Remarks 147 References 147 7 Micromanufacturing 149 Omer N. Cora and Muammer Koc 7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Classification of Micromanufacturing Processes 150 7.3 Micromanufacturing Processes 154 References 179 Part II Thermal and Energy‐assisted Manufacturing Processes 185 8 Warm Stamping 187 Fahrettin Ozturk , Serkan Toros, and Ilyas Kacar 8.1 What is Stamping? 187 8.2 Benefits and Usage Areas of Warm Stamping 187 8.3 Warm Stamping and Recent Developments 188 8.4 Effects of Temperature on Strain Hardening for Warm Stamping 194 8.5 Interrelation of Temperature and Strain Rate 196 8.6 Effect of Temperature and Deformation on Elasticity Modulus 198 8.7 Effect of Temperature on Springback 201 8.8 Effect of Temperature on Forming Limit Diagrams (FLD) 204 8.9 Analyze Techniques on Formability at Warm Stamping 205 8.10 The Effects of Lubrication 215 8.11 Future Directions 215 References 216 9 Warm Hydroforming 219 Muammer Koc, Omer N. Cora, Huseyin S. Halkacı, and Mevlut Turkoz 9.1 Introduction 219 9.2 Warm Sheet Hydroforming 220 9.3 Warm Hydromechanical Deep Drawing 230 9.4 Warm Tube Hydroforming 231 References 237 10 Hot Stamping 239 Fahrettin Ozturk , Ilyas Kacar, and Muammer Koc 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Process Description and Motivation 240 10.3 Why Hot Stamping? 241 10.4 Automotive Parts by Hot Stamping and Potentials 241 10.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 243 10.6 Process Description and Methods 245 10.7 Cooling for Hot Stamping 254 10.8 Process Control 255 10.9 Modeling and Analysis 255 10.10 Design and Optimization in Hot Stamping 256 10.11 FEA in Hot Stamping 257 10.12 Research and Development Trends and Needs 258 References 262 11 High‐Speed Forming (Electromagnetic, Electrohydraulic, and Explosive Forming) 265 Brad Kinsey and Yannis Korkolis 11.1 Introduction 265 11.2 Electromagnetic Forming and Magnetic Pulsed Welding 267 11.3 Electrohydraulic Forming 274 11.4 Explosive Forming 279 11.5 Emerging Technologies 282 11.6 Metrology and Measurements 284 11.7 Material Characterization 286 11.8 Modeling of High‐Speed Forming Processes 288 11.9 Summary and Future Work 291 References 292 Part III Advanced Material Removal Processes 295 12 High‐Speed Machining 297 Elisa Vazquez and Guillem Quintana 12.1 High‐Speed Machining Overview 297 12.2 High‐Speed Machining Processes and Capabilities 298 12.3 Machine Tools for High‐Speed Machining 298 12.4 Tools for High‐Speed Machining 300 12.5 High‐Speed Machining Applications and Future Trends 305 References 306 13 Hard Machining 309 Durul Ulutan and Tuğrul Ozel 13.1 Introduction 309 13.2 Mechanics of Hard Machining 312 13.3 Cutting Tools 313 13.4 Surface Quality and Integrity 316 13.5 Summary and Conclusions 320 References 320 14 Advances in Material Modeling for Manufacturing Analysis and Simulation (Deformation and Cutting Processes) 323 Elisabetta Ceretti, Claudio Giardini, and Antonio Fiorentino 14.1 Introduction on Material Characterization and Modeling 323 14.2 Material Models and Applications 324 14.3 Failure Models 327 14.4 Modeling of Contact, Friction, and Wear 331 References 347 15 Advanced Grinding 351 Taghi Tawakoli and Amir Daneshi 15.1 Introduction 351 15.2 Grinding Wheels 351 15.3 Bond Materials 353 15.4 Grinding Wheel Conditioning 354 15.5 Grinding Force and Energy 363 15.6 Thermal Damages in Grinding 363 15.7 Environmentally Friendly Grinding 364 15.8 High‐efficiency Deep Grinding (HEDG) 367 15.9 Ultrasonic‐Assisted Grinding (UAG) 367 15.10 Ultrasonic‐Assisted Dressing 371 References 373 16 Electro‐Discharge Machining (EDM) 377 Muhammad P. Jahan 16.1 Introduction 377 16.2 Principle of the EDM Process 378 16.3 EDM System Components 379 16.4 Analysis of the Pulses Used in the EDM Process 383 16.5 Brief Overview of the EDM Parameters 384 16.6 EDM Variants: Working Principles and Application Examples 385 16.7 Examples of Research Advances in EDM and Micro‐EDM 393 16.8 Research Focus Toward Micro‐ and Nano‐EDM 402 16.9 Summary 403 References 404 17 MicroMilling Operations 411 Simon S. Park, Martin B.G. Jun, and Gerardo Garcia 17.1 Introduction 411 17.2 Machine Tools for Micromilling 413 17.3 Micromilling Forces 420 17.4 Tool Tip Dynamics 427 17.5 Summary 430 References 431 18 Laser Machining 427 Dani Teixidor, Ines Ferrer, Luis Criales, and Tuğrul Ozel 18.1 Introduction 435 18.2 Laser–Material Interaction 437 18.3 Laser Processing of Materials 438 18.4 Laser‐Processing Parameters 442 18.5 Laser Drilling 445 18.6 Laser Cutting 448 18.7 Laser Milling 450 18.8 Concluding Remarks 452 References 453 19 Laser‐assisted Machining Operations 459 Eneko Ukar, Ivan Tabernero, Silvia Martinez, Aitzol Lamikiz, and Asier Fernandez 19.1 Introduction 459 19.2 Heat‐assisted Processes 460 19.3 Analysis of LAM Processes 470 19.4 Laser‐assisted Applications 474 19.5 Conclusions 477 References 478 20 Selective Laser Sintering 481 Jordi Delgado, Lidia Sereno, Karla Monroy, and Joaquim Ciurana 20.1 General Overview 481 20.2 Mechanisms 483 20.3 Process Parameters 486 20.4 Materials 490 20.5 Capabilities and Limitations 494 References 496 Index 501

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Book SynopsisSafety continues to be a primary concern in the food, water, and pharmaceutical industries. Written by experts in food, drug, and water safety, this book examines some of the ways in which communication has affected safety issues in the recent past and encourages discussions about what improvements can be made.Table of ContentsA Note from the Series Editor ix Preface xi List of Contributors xiii Acknowledgments xv 1 Cowboys and Computers: Communicating National Animal Identification in the Beef Industry 1David Wright 1.1 Industries Collide 1 1.1.1 Resistance to Technology in the Beef Industry 3 1.1.2 Having a Cow over Mad Cow Disease 3 1.1.3 Change Is Slow in the Beef Industry 6 1.1.4 Communication Breakdowns and Coffee Shop Policymaking 7 1.1.5 Can We All Just Get Along? 9 1.1.6 USDA Strategies for Communication 10 1.2 A New Approach to Studying Complex Communication Issues 11 1.2.1 Ethnography and Diffusion in the Beef Supply Chain 13 1.2.2 Communication Theory Linguistics and Diffusion in the Beef Supply Chain 16 1.2.3 Linguistic Textual Analysis 19 1.2.4 Diffusing Innovations in the Real World 23 1.2.5 Diffusion and Communication Networks 24 1.3 Results of My Investigation 25 1.3.1 Alice at the Auction 26 1.3.2 Backstage at the Sale Barn 27 1.3.3 Buying the NAIS 29 1.3.4 Down on the Farm 30 1.3.5 Interviews with Members of the Beef Industry 32 1.3.6 Interviews with Livestock Market Owners 33 1.3.7 Rules from the Road 38 1.3.8 Communication Gaps and Communication Theory 40 1.3.9 Textual Analysis with Implicature and Pragmatics 48 1.4 Lessons of Beef and Bandwidth 49 1.4.1 No Pardon for Jargon 51 1.4.2 Alice Is Not in Wonderland 52 1.4.3 The Telephone Game Still Happens 53 1.4.4 It All Comes Down to Doin’ Business 54 1.4.5 What We Have Here Is a Failure to Communicate 56 1.4.6 Culture Is King 58 1.4.7 The Situation Now 59 References 60 2 Children Communicating Food Safety/Teaching Technical Communication to Children: Opportunities Gleaned from the FIRST® LEGO® League 2011 Food Factor Challenge 63Edward A. Malone and Havva Tezcan-Malone 2.1 Enhancing the Visibility and Recognition of Technical Communication 63 2.2 Literature Review: Teaching Technical Communication Engineering and Food Safety to Children 65 2.3 Background: The League the Challenge and the Team 67 2.3.1 First Lego League 67 2.3.2 The Food Factor Challenge 69 2.3.3 The Team: Global Dreamers 70 2.4 Examples of Technical Communication Activities in FLL Projects 71 2.4.1 Branding (Creating a Name and Logo) 72 2.4.2 Conducting Primary and Secondary Research 72 2.4.3 Giving Presentations and Demonstrations 74 2.4.4 Designing a Document 77 2.5 The Food Factor Challenge as a Model of Food-Safety Education 77 2.5.1 Fostering Food-Safety Habits in Children 78 2.5.2 Promoting Dialogue Rather Than Monologue 79 2.5.3 Generating Interest in Food-Safety Careers 79 2.6 Conclusion 80 Acknowledgments 81 References 81 3 The Role of Public (Mis)perceptions in the Acceptance of New Food Technologies: Implications for Food Nanotechnology Applications 89Mary L. Nucci and William K. Hallman 3.1 Accepting New Foods: Consumers Technology and Media 89 3.1.1 Food Technology Acceptance 90 3.1.2 The Role of the Media in Public Perceptions of Food Technologies 92 3.2 Nanotechnology: Unseen Unknown 95 3.2.1 Nanotechnology in the Media 96 3.2.2 Public Perceptions of Nanotechnology 96 3.2.3 Perceptions and Acceptance of Nanotechnology 97 3.3 Discussing New Food Technologies 101 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 4 The New Limeco Story: How One Produce Company Used Third-Party Food Safety Audit Scores to Improve Its Operation 119Roy E. Costa 4.1 Food Safety in Modern Food Supply Operations 119 4.2 Safety Audits Cause Some Level of Controversy 122 4.3 New Limeco’s Journey to Safety 122 4.3.1 Implementing Changes 124 4.3.2 Sanitation Issues 125 4.3.3 Gradual Safety Improvement 125 References 126 5 Communication Practices by Way of Permits and Policy: Do Environmental Regulations Promote Sustainability in the Real World? 129Becca Cammack 5.1 Communication in the Modern Environmental Movement 129 5.2 Background 130 5.2.1 Who Is on the Receiving End of Environmental Regulation? 131 5.2.2 What Are the Effects of Construction and Storm Water on the Environment? 131 5.3 Studying Groundwater Regulation 133 5.3.1 Textual Analysis 133 5.3.2 Case Study 134 5.4 Results of My Investigation 134 5.4.1 The CGP Fact Sheet Background Section 135 5.4.2 The CGP Rationale Section 136 5.4.3 Construction General Permit (CGP) 136 5.4.4 A Targeted Case Study of CGP 137 5.5 Discussion of Study Results 142 References 144 6 Influences of Technical Documentation and Its Translation on Efficiency and Customer Satisfaction 145Elena Sperandio 6.1 Considering Technical Documentation 145 6.1.1 The Problem with Integrating Systems 146 6.1.2 Enterprise Resource Planning Systems 147 6.1.3 Production Information Management Systems 148 6.1.4 Document Management Systems/Content Management Systems 148 6.1.5 Translation Memory Systems/Computer-Aided Translation 149 6.2 Data Management in Technical Communication 150 6.2.1 Development and Diffusion of Data Management Tools 150 6.3 Technical Communication in Small Companies 153 6.3.1 Workflow Advantages in Small Companies 153 6.3.2 Workflow Disadvantages in Small Companies 154 6.4 Technical Communication in Medium-Sized Companies 154 6.4.1 Workflow Advantages in Medium-Sized Companies 155 6.4.2 Workflow Disadvantages in Medium-Sized Companies 156 6.5 Technical Communication in Large Companies 156 6.5.1 Workflow Advantages in Large Companies 158 6.5.2 Workflow Disadvantages in Large Companies 159 6.6 Translation of Technical Information 159 6.6.1 Translations in Small Companies 160 6.6.2 Translations in Medium-Sized Companies 162 6.6.3 Translations in Large Companies 163 6.7 Consequences for Technical Communication 165 6.8 Assumptions About Technical Communication 166 6.9 Outlook 168 References 169 7 Communicating Food Through Muckraking: Ethics Food Engineering and Culinary Realism 171Kathryn C. Dolan 7.1 Muckraking and Promoting Food Safety 172 7.2 Culinary Realism and Food Safety 173 7.2.1 Tubercular Beef in The Jungle 174 7.3 High Fructose Corn Syrup in The Omnivore’s Dilemma and In Defense of Food 179 7.4 Literature as a Watchdog in Food Safety 184 7.5 The Effects of Literature on Everyday Practices 186 References 186 Index 189

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Book SynopsisAn understanding of organizational change management (OCM) an often overlooked subject is essential for successful corporate decision making with little adverse effect on the health and safety of employees or the surrounding community.Table of ContentsList of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Files on the Web Accompanying This Book xv Acronyms and Abbreviations xvii Glossary xxi Acknowledgements xxiii Preface xxv Introduction and Scope 1 1.1 Case Study- Hickson and Welsh LTD, England (1994) 1 1.2 Introduction 3 1.3 The Need for Management of Organizational Change 5 1.4 Organization of the Book 6 1.5 A History of Organizational Change Management 11 1.6 Definitions Related to Management of Organizational Change 16 Corporate Standard for Organizational Change Management 21 2.1 Case Study – BP – Grangemouth, Scotland (2000) 21 2.2 OCM Background 24 2.3 Management Commitment 25 2.4 OCM Policy 26 2.5 OCM Workflow 27 2.6 OCM Procedure 28 2.7 Definition of Organizational Change 29 2.8 Roles and Responsibilities 32 2.9 Initiate an Organizational Change 32 2.10 Review the Change 34 2.11 OCM Risk Assessment 35 2.12 Action and Implementation/Transition Plans 55 2.13 Post-Implementation Monitoring 59 2.14 Closeout 61 2.15 Conclusion 61 Modification of Working Conditions 65 3.1 Case Study – Esso – Longford, Victoria, Australia (1998) 65 3.2 Modifying location, communication, or time allocation for people 68 3.3 Case Study – Changes in shift schedules and staffing during turnarounds 69 3.4 Changes to terms and conditions of employment (e.g. hours, shifts, allowable overtime) 72 3.5 Staffing during turnarounds, facility-wide emergencies, or extreme weather events 74 3.6 Impacts and Associated Risks 76 3.7 Special Training Requirements 79 3.8 Conclusion 80 Personnel Changes 83 4.1 Case Study – Union Carbide – Bhopal, India (1984) 83 4.2 Case Study – Bayer CropScience, LLC – Institute, West Virginia, USA (2008) 87 4.3 Changes in Plant Management, Such as Plant Manager or EHS Manager 91 4.4 Replacement of a Subject Matter Expert (SME) 92 4.5 Replacing the Incumbent in a Position that Directly Affects Process Safety 93 4.6 Strikes, work stoppages, slowdowns, and other workforce actions 93 4.7 Emergency Response Team Staffing 95 4.8 Impacts/Associated Risks 95 4.9 Organizational Change Procedures versus OCM for new hires, promotions, etc. 97 4.10 Conclusion 98 Task Allocation Changes 99 5.1 Downsizing Examples 99 5.2 Task Allocation Changes 101 5.3 Job Competency Change 102 5.4 Case Study – Bayer CropSscience LLC – Institute, West Virginia, USA (2008) 103 5.5 Assigning New Responsibilities 105 5.6 Temporary Backfilling 106 5.7 Vanishing Task Allocations 106 5.8 Case Study – BP – Whiting, Indiana, USA (1998 – 2006) 107 5.9 Impacts/Associated Risks 109 5.10 Conclusions 111 Organizational Hierarchy Changes 113 6.1 Centralization or Decentralization of Job Functions 114 6.2 Case Study – Esso – Longford, Victoria, Australia (1998) 115 6.3 Reorganizations and De-layering the Hierarchy 117 6.4 Impacts/Associated Risks 119 6.5 Changes to Span of Control 121 6.6 Impacts/Associated Risks 122 6.7 Linear vs. Matrix Organization 122 6.8 Case Study – BP, Texas City, Texas, USA (2005) 124 6.9 Impacts/Associated Risks 126 6.10 Acquisitions, Mergers, Divestitures, and Joint Ventures 127 6.11 Case Study – Anonymous, USA (1998) 127 6.12 Associated Risks 128 6.13 Case Study – Union Carbide, Bhopal, India (1984) 129 6.14 Changing Service Providers 132 6.15 Impacts/Associated Risks 132 6.16 Conclusion 133 Organizational Policy Changes 135 7.1 Case Study – Dupont, Delaware, USA (1818) 135 7.2 Changes to Mission and Vision Statements 136 7.3 New and Revised Corporate Process Safety Related Policies/Procedures 138 7.4 Major Changes to Policy of Budgets for Maintenance or Operations 139 7.5 Impacts/Associated Risks 140 7.6 In/Outsourcing of Key Departmental Functions Such as Engineering Design or Maintenance 142 7.7 Staffing Level Policy Changes (shutdowns, turnarounds, startups) 144 7.8 Special Training Requirements 146 7.9 Conclusion 146 Appendix A. Example Tools for Evaluating Organizational Changes 149 Appendix B. Example Procedures for Managing Organizational Changes 199 Index 236

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Book SynopsisProvides a comprehensive review on the brand-new development of several multiphase reactor techniques applied in energy-related processes Explains the fundamentals of multiphase reactors as well as the sophisticated applicationsHelps the reader to understand the key problems and solutions of clean coal conversion techniquesDetails the emerging processes for novel refining technology, clean coal conversion techniques, low-cost hydrogen productions and CO2 capture and storageIntroduces current energy-related processes and links the basic principles of emerging processes to the features of multiphase reactors providing an overview of energy conversion in combination with multiphase reactor engineeringIncludes case studies of novel reactors to illustrate the special features of these reactorsTable of ContentsPreface xiii List of Contributors Xv 1 Novel Fluid Catalytic Cracking Processes 1Jinsen Gao, Chunming Xu, Chunxi Lu Chaohe Yang, Gang Wang, Xingying Lan and Yongmin Zhang 1.1 FCC Process Description 1 1.2 Reaction Process Regulation for the Heavy Oil FCC 3 1.2.1 Technology Background 3 1.2.2 Principle of the Technology 3 1.2.3 Key Fundamental Research 4 1.2.4 Industrial Validation 7 1.3 Advanced Riser Termination Devices for the FCC Processes 10 1.3.1 Introduction 10 1.3.2 General Idea of the Advanced RTD System 11 1.3.3 Development of the External‐Riser FCC RTD Systems 12 1.3.4 Development of the Internal‐Riser FCC RTDs 15 1.3.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 18 1.4 An MZCC FCC Process 19 1.4.1 Technology Background 19 1.4.2 Reaction Principle for MZCC 19 1.4.3 Design Principle of MZCC Reactor 20 1.4.4 Key Basic Study 23 1.4.5 The Industry Application of MZCC 23 1.4.6 Prospectives 26 1.5 Two‐Stage Riser Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process 28 1.5.1 Preface 28 1.5.2 Reaction Mechanism of Heavy Oil in the Riser Reactor 29 1.5.3 The Proposed TSR FCC Process 32 1.5.4 The Industrial Application of the TSR FCC Technology 33 1.5.5 The Development of the TSR FCC Process 33 1.6 FCC Gasoline Upgrading by Reducing Olefins Content Using SRFCC Process 36 1.6.1 Research Background 36 1.6.2 Reaction Principle of Gasoline Upgrading 37 1.6.3 Design and Optimization on the Subsidiary Riser 38 1.6.4 Key Fundamental Researches 38 1.6.5 Industrial Applications of the SRFCC Process 42 1.6.6 Outlook 43 1.7 FCC Process Perspectives 44 References 45 2 Coal Combustion 49Guangxi Yue, Junfu Lv and Hairui Yang 2.1 Fuel and Combustion Products 49 2.1.1 Composition and Properties of Fuel 49 2.1.2 Analysis of Compositions in the Fuel 50 2.1.3 Calorific Value of Fuel 50 2.1.4 Classifications of Coal 50 2.1.5 Combustion Products and Enthalpy of Flue Gas 51 2.2 Device and Combustion Theory of Gaseous Fuels 52 2.2.1 Ignition of the Gaseous Fuels 52 2.2.2 Diffusion Gas Burner 52 2.2.3 Fully Premixed‐Type Gas Burner 53 2.3 Combustion Theory of Solid Fuel 53 2.3.1 The Chemical Reaction Mechanism of Carbon Combustion 54 2.3.2 Carbon Combustion Reaction Process 54 2.4 Grate Firing of Coal 55 2.4.1 Coal Grate Firing Facilities 56 2.5 Coal Combustion in CFB Boiler 57 2.5.1 The Characteristic of Fluidized Bed 57 2.5.2 Combustion Characteristic of CFB Boiler 58 2.5.3 Development of Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Technology 58 2.5.4 Comparison Between Bubbling Fluidized bed and Circulating Fluidized Bed 59 2.6 Pulverized Coal Combustion 60 2.6.1 Furnace Type of Pulverized Coal Combustion 61 2.6.2 Circulation Mode of Water Wall 62 2.6.3 Modern Large‐Scale Pulverized Coal Combustion Technology 62 2.6.4 The International Development of the Supercritical Pressure Boiler 62 References 63 3 Coal Gasification 65Qiang Li and Jiansheng Zhang 3.1 Coal Water Slurry 65 3.1.1 The Advantage of CWS 65 3.1.2 The Production of CWS 66 3.1.3 The Atomization of CWS 67 3.2 The Theory of Coal Gasification 70 3.2.1 Overview of Coal Gasification 70 3.2.2 The Main Reaction Processes of Coal Gasification 72 3.2.3 Kinetics of Coal Gasification Reaction 73 3.2.4 The Influencing Factors of Coal Gasification Reaction 77 3.3 Fixed Bed Gasification of Coal 79 3.3.1 The Principle of Fixed Bed Gasification 79 3.3.2 The Classification of Fixed Bed Gasification Technology 81 3.3.3 Typical Fixed Bed Gasification Technologies 81 3.3.4 The Key Equipment for Pressurized Fixed Bed Gasifier 85 3.3.5 The Application and Improvement of Pressurized Fixed Bed Gasifier in China 89 3.4 Fluid Bed Gasification of Coal 90 3.4.1 The Basic Principles of Fluidized Bed Gasification 90 3.4.2 Typical Technology and Structure of Fluidized Bed Gasification 91 3.5 Entrained Flow Gasification of Coal 98 3.5.1 The Principle of Entrained Flow Gasification Technology 98 3.5.2 Typical Entrained Gas Gasification Technologies 101 3.6 Introduction to the Numerical Simulation of Coal Gasification 112 3.6.1 The Numerical Simulation Method of Coal Gasification 112 3.6.2 Coal Gasification Numerical Simulation (CFD) Method 113 References 116 4 New Development in Coal Pyrolysis Reactor 119Guangwen Xu, Xi Zeng, Jiangze Han and Chuigang Fan 4.1 Introduction 119 4.2 Moving Bed with Internals 121 4.2.1 Laboratory Tests at Kilogram Scale 122 4.2.2 Verification Tests at 100‐kg Scale 125 4.2.3 Continuous Pilot Verification 127 4.3 Solid Carrier FB Pyrolysis 129 4.3.1 Fundamental Study 130 4.3.2 Pilot Verification with Air Gasification 136 4.4 Multistage Fluidized Bed Pyrolysis 139 4.4.1 Experimental Apparatus and Method 139 4.4.2 Results and Discussion 141 4.5 Solid Carrier Downer Pyrolysis 145 4.5.1 Experimental Apparatus and Method 146 4.5.2 Results and Discussion 147 4.6 Other Pyrolysis Reactors 149 4.6.1 Solid Heat Carrier Fixed Bed 149 4.6.2 A Few Other New Pyrolysis Reactors 150 4.7 Concluding Remarks 153 Acknowledgments 153 References 153 5 Coal Pyrolysis to Acetylene in Plasma Reactor 155Binhang Yan and Yi Cheng 5.1 Introduction 155 5.1.1 Background 155 5.1.2 Principles and Features of Thermal Plasma 156 5.1.3 Basic Principles of Coal Pyrolysis in Thermal Plasma 157 5.1.4 Development of Coal Pyrolysis to Acetylene Process 158 5.2 Experimental Study of Coal Pyrolysis to Acetylene 159 5.2.1 Experimental Setup 159 5.2.2 Typical Experimental Results 161 5.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of Coal Pyrolysis to Acetylene 164 5.3.1 Equilibrium Composition with/without Consideration of Solid Carbon 164 5.3.2 Validation of Thermodynamic Equilibrium Predictions 164 5.3.3 Effect of Additional Chemicals on Thermodynamic Equilibrium 165 5.3.4 Key Factors to Determine the Reactor Performance 166 5.3.5 Key Factors to Determine the Reactor Performance 168 5.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics‐Assisted Process Analysis and Reactor Design 171 5.4.1 Kinetic Models of Coal Devolatilization 171 5.4.2 Generalized Model of Heat Transfer and Volatiles Evolution Inside Particles 176 5.4.3 Cross‐Scale Modeling and Simulation of Coal Pyrolysis to Acetylene 180 5.5 Conclusion and Outlook 183 References 186 6 Multiphase Flow Reactors for Methanol and Dimethyl Ether Production 189Tiefeng Wang and Jinfu Wang 6.1 Introduction 189 6.1.1 Methanol 189 6.1.2 Dimethyl Ether 189 6.2 Process Description 191 6.2.1 Methanol Synthesis 191 6.2.2 DME Synthesis 192 6.2.3 Reaction Kinetics 195 6.3 Reactor Selection 197 6.3.1 Fixed Bed Reactor 197 6.3.2 Slurry Reactor 198 6.4 Industrial Design and Scale‐Up of Fixed Bed Reactor 200 6.4.1 Types of Fixed Bed Reactors 200 6.4.2 Design of Large‐Scale Fixed Bed Reactor 201 6.5 Industrial Design and Scale‐Up of Slurry Bed Reactor 202 6.5.1 Flow Regime of the Slurry Reactor 202 6.5.2 Hydrodynamics of Slurry Bed Reactor 203 6.5.3 Process Intensification with Internals 203 6.5.4 Scale‐Up of Slurry Reactor 206 6.6 Demonstration of Slurry Reactors 213 6.7 Conclusions and Remarks 214 References 215 7 Fischer–Tropsch Processes and Reactors 219Li Weng and Zhuowu Men 7.1 Introduction to Fischer–Tropsch Processes and Reactors 219 7.1.1 Introduction to Fischer–Tropsch Processes 219 7.1.2 Commercial FT Processes 219 7.1.3 FT Reactors 220 7.1.4 Historical Development of FT SBCR 221 7.1.5 Challenges for FT SBCR 222 7.2 SBCR Transport Phenomena 222 7.2.1 Hydrodynamics Characteristics 222 7.2.2 Mass Transfer 226 7.2.3 Heat Transfer 229 7.3 SBCR Experiment Setup and Results 231 7.3.1 Introduction to SBCR Experiments 231 7.3.2 Cold Mode and Instrumentation 234 7.3.3 Hot Model and Operation 247 7.4 Modeling of SBCR for FT Synthesis Process 249 7.4.1 Introduction 249 7.4.2 Model Discussion 250 7.4.3 Multiscale Analysis 256 7.4.4 Conclusion 258 7.5 Reactor Scale‐Up and Engineering Design 259 7.5.1 General Structures of SBCR 259 7.5.2 Internal Equipment 259 7.5.3 Design and Scale‐Up Strategies of SBCR 261 Nomenclature 262 References 263 8 Methanol to Lower Olefins and Methanol to Propylene 271Yao Wang and Fei Wei 8.1 Background 271 8.2 Catalysts 272 8.3 Catalytic Reaction Mechanism 273 8.3.1 HP Mechanism 274 8.3.2 Dual‐Cycle Mechanism 274 8.3.3 Complex Reactions 275 8.4 Features of the Catalytic Process 275 8.4.1 Autocatalytic Reactions 275 8.4.2 Deactivation and Regeneration 276 8.4.3 Exothermic Reactions 278 8.5 Multiphase Reactors 278 8.5.1 Fixed Bed Reactor 279 8.5.2 Moving Bed Reactor 280 8.5.3 Fluidized Bed Reactor 281 8.5.4 Parallel or Series Connection Reactors 284 8.6 Industrial Development 286 8.6.1 Commercialization of MTO 286 8.6.2 Commercialization of MTP 288 References 292 9 Rector Technology for Methanol to Aromatics 295Weizhong Qian and Fei Wei 9.1 Background and Development History 295 9.1.1 The Purpose of Developing Methanol to Aromatics Technology 295 9.1.2 Comparison of MTA with Other Technologies Using Methanol as Feedstock 297 9.2 Chemistry Bases of MTA 298 9.3 Effect of Operating Conditions 300 9.3.1 Effect of Temperature 300 9.3.2 Partial Pressure 302 9.3.3 Space Velocity of Methanol 302 9.3.4 Pressure 302 9.3.5 Deactivation of the Catalyst 303 9.4 Reactor Technology of MTA 304 9.4.1 Choice of MTA Reactor: Fixed Bed or Fluidized Bed 304 9.4.2 MTA in Lab‐Scale Fluidized Bed Reactor and the Comparison in Reactors with Different Stages 305 9.4.3 20 kt/a CFB Apparatus for MTA 306 9.4.4 Pilot Plant Test of 30 kt/a FMTA System 306 9.5 Comparison of MTA Reaction Technology with FCC and MTO System 310 References 311 10 Natural Gas Conversion 313Wisarn Yenjaichon, Farzam Fotovat and John R. Grace 10.1 Introduction 313 10.2 Reforming Reactions 313 10.3 Sulfur and Chloride Removal 314 10.4 Catalysts 314 10.5 Chemical Kinetics 315 10.6 Fixed Bed Reforming Reactors 316 10.7 Shift Conversion Reactors 317 10.7.1 High‐Temperature WGS 317 10.7.2 Low‐Temperature WGS 317 10.8 Pressure Swing Adsorption 317 10.9 Steam Reforming of Higher Hydrocarbons 318 10.10 Dry (Carbon Dioxide) Reforming 318 10.11 Partial Oxidation (POX) 320 10.11.1 Homogeneous POX 321 10.11.2 Catalytic Partial Oxidation 321 10.12 Autothermal Reforming (ATR) 321 10.13 Tri‐Reforming 321 10.14 Other Efforts to Improve SMR 322 10.14.1 Fluidized Beds 323 10.14.2 Permselective Membranes 323 10.14.3 Sorbent‐Enhanced Reforming 325 10.15 Conclusions 326 References 326 11 Multiphase Reactors for Biomass Processing and Thermochemical Conversions 331Xiaotao T. Bi and Mohammad S. Masnadi 11.1 Introduction 331 11.2 Biomass Feedstock Preparation 332 11.2.1 Biomass Drying 332 11.2.2 Biomass Torrefaction Treatment 333 11.3 Biomass Pyrolysis 336 11.3.1 Pyrolysis Principles and Reaction Kinetics 336 11.3.2 Multiphase Reactors for Slow and Fast Pyrolysis 338 11.3.3 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Biomass 342 11.3.4 Biomass‐to‐Liquid Via Fast Pyrolysis 342 11.4 Biomass Gasification 343 11.4.1 Principles of Biomass Gasification 343 11.4.2 Gasification Reactions Mechanisms and Models 344 11.4.3 Catalytic Gasification of Biomass 347 11.4.4 Multiphase Reactors for Gasification 349 11.4.5 Biomass Gasification Reactor Modeling 355 11.4.6 Downstream Gas Processing 356 11.4.7 Technology Roadmap and Recent Market Developments 357 11.5 Biomass Combustion 359 11.5.1 Principles of Biomass Combustion 359 11.5.2 Reaction Mechanisms and Kinetics 360 11.5.3 Multiphase Reactors for Combustion 361 11.5.4 Advanced Combustion Systems 363 11.5.5 Agglomeration, Fouling, and Corrosion 365 11.5.6 Future Technology Developments 365 11.6 Challenges of Multiphase Reactors for Biomass Processing 366 11.6.1 Fluidization of Irregular Biomass Particles 366 11.6.2 Feeding, Conveying of Biomass 366 11.6.3 Reactor Modeling, Simulation, and Scale‐Up 367 11.6.4 Economics of Commercial Biomass Conversion Systems 368 References 369 12 Chemical Looping Technology for Fossil Fuel Conversion with In Situ CO2 Control 377Liang‐Shih Fan, Andrew Tong and Liang Zeng 12.1 Introduction 377 12.1.1 Chemical Looping Concept 377 12.1.2 Historical Development 379 12.2 Oxygen Carrier Material 381 12.2.1 Primary Material Selection 381 12.2.2 Iron‐Based Oxygen Carrier Development 382 12.3 Chemical Looping Reactor System Design 384 12.3.1 Thermodynamic Analysis 385 12.3.2 Kinetic Analysis 388 12.3.3 Hydrodynamic Analysis 392 12.4 Chemical Looping Technology Platform 396 12.4.1 Syngas Chemical Looping Process 397 12.4.2 Coal Direct Chemical Looping Process 398 12.4.3 Shale Gas-to-Syngas Process 399 12.5 Conclusion 400 References 401 Index 405

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Book SynopsisAIChE manual updates and consolidates procedures for testing performance of distillation columns From classic distillation operations to air stripping to other separations processes, selecting the correct column for appropriate efficient, safe, and environmentally-sound operations can be an important step. The newest updated volume in AIChE's long-running Equipment Testing Procedures series, Trayed and Packed Columns: A Guide to Performance Evaluation, Third Edition provides chemical engineers, plant managers, and other professionals with helpful advice to assess and measure performance of a variety of distillation columns, including those that utilize bubble cap, sieve, valve trays, or packing material. The new book combines and updates into one user-friendly volume the best available field knowledge from previous publications on both types of distillation columns. Designed not as a single set of compulsory steps, but as a compilation of techniques, it wTable of Contents100.0 PURPOSE & SCOPE 1 101.0 Purpose 1 102.0 Scope 1 200.0 DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF TERMS 2 201.0 Flow Quantities 2 202.0 Key Components 3 203.0 Mass Transfer Efficiency 4 203.1 Theoretical Trays or Plates or Stages 4 203.2 Overall Column Efficiency 4 203.3 Apparent Murphree Tray Efficiency 4 203.4 Ideal Murphree Tray Efficiency 4 203.5 Murphree Point Efficiency 4 203.6 HETP 4 203.7 HTU 4 203.8 NTU 4 204.0 Operating Lines 5 205.0 Pinch 5 206.0 Maximum Throughput 5 206.1 Maximum Hydraulic Throughput 5 206.2 Maximum Operational Capacity 5 206.3 Maximum Efficient Capacity 5 207.0 Minimum Operating Rate 5 208.0 Operating Section 5 209.0 Hardware 6 209.1 Components of a Trayed Column 6 209.2 Components of a Packed Column 7 300.0 TEST PLANNING 9 301.0 Preliminary Preparation 9 301.1 Safety 10 301.2 Environmental Considerations 10 301.3 Test Objectives 10 301.4 Organizational Resources 10 301.5 Schedule 10 301.6 Review of Historic Operating Data 10 302.0 Column Control and Instrumentation 11 303.0 Peripheral Equipment 11 304.0 Pre-test Calculations 11 304.1 Process Simulation 11 304.2 Dry Run 11 305.0 Types of Tests 12 305.1 Performance Tests 12 305.2 Acceptance Tests 12 306.0 Specific Areas of Interest 12 306.1 Packing Efficiencies 12 306.2 Tray Efficiencies 12 306.3 Overall Column Efficiency 13 306.4 Capacity Limitations 13 307.0 Energy Consumption 14 308.0 Pressure Drop Restrictions 15 309.0 Data Collection Requirements 15 309.1 Process Operating Data 15 309.2 Gamma Scan Data 15 310.0 Conditions of External Streams 18 310.1 Overall and Component Material Balances 18 310.2 Overall Enthalpy Balances 18 311.0 Internal Temperatures 18 311.1 Heat Balances 18 311.2 Internal Profiles 18 312.0 Internal Samples 20 312.1 Internal Samples for Efficiency Checks 20 312.2 Internal Samples for Overall Performance 20 313.0 Pressure Profiles 20 314.0 Data Requirements-Physical Properties 20 314.1 Test Mixtures 20 314.2 Essential Data 21 315.0 Auxiliary Data 21 316.0 Test Procedure Documentation 21 400.0 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING 22 401.0 System Controls and Operating Stability 22 402.0 Measurement of Temperatures 22 402.1 Accuracy 22 402.2 Errors 22 403.0 Measurement of Flow Rates 24 403.1 Orifice Meters 24 403.2 Rotameters 25 403.3 Vortex Flow Meters 25 403.4 Coriolis Flow Meters 25 403.5 Magnetic Flow Meters 25 403.6 Pitot Tube (or Annubar) 25 403.7 Direct Volume or Weight Measurement 26 404.0 Measurement of Column Pressure Drop 26 404.1 Instrument 26 404.2 Pressure Taps 26 404.3 Seal Pots 33 404.4 Leakage Check 33 404.5 Accuracy 33 405.0 Sampling Procedure 34 405.1 General 34 405.2 Selection of Sampling Points 34 405.3 Sample Connections 35 405.4 Containers 35 405.5 Sampling of High Boiling Materials 36 405.6 Sampling of Intermediate Boiling Materials 37 405.7 Sampling of Materials Having Boiling Points Below -50°F (-46°C) 40 405.8 Leakage Check 41 405.9 Labeling and Handling the Samples 41 500.0 TEST PROCEDURE 43 501.0 Preliminary 43 502.0 Test Procedure for Maximum Hydraulic Throughput 43 502.1 Flood Symptoms 44 502.2 Performing Capacity Tests 45 502.3 Optional Test Technique – Gamma Scanning 48 503.0 Considerations Affecting Efficiency Test Procedure 48 503.1 Rigorous Versus Shortcut Efficiency Tests 48 503.2 Strategy of Efficiency Testing 49 503.3 Early Preparation for Efficiency Tests 50 503.4 Last-minute Preparations for Efficiency Tests 53 503.5 Establishment of Steady State Conditions 55 503.6 The Test Day 56 503.7 Concluding Test 56 600.0 COMPUTATION OF RESULTS 601.0 Verification of Test Data and Simulation Models 58 602.0 Material Balance 59 602.1 End Effects 59 603.0 Enthalpy Balance 59 603.1 Overall Balance 59 603.2 Internal Flow Rates 60 604.0 Hydraulic Performance 60 604.1 Trayed Column 60 604.2 Packed Column 61 605.0 Efficiency Performance 61 605.1 Trayed Column 62 605.2 Packed Column 69 700.0 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 76 701.0 Sources of Experimental Error 76 701.1 Material and Enthalpy Balances 77 702.0 Effects of Experimental Error 78 703.0 Design versus Performance 78 703.1 Mechanical/Tower Equipment 78 703.2 Process Conditions 78 704.0 Hydraulic Performance 79 704.1 Mechanical/Tower Equipment 79 704.2 Tray 79 704.3 Packing 80 704.4 Process Conditions 80 705.0 Mass Transfer Performance 81 705.1 Mechanical/Tower Equipment 81 705.2 Tray 81 705.3 Packing 82 705.4 Maldistribution 82 705.5 Process 84 706.0 Test Troubleshooting 85 706.1 Analysis Procedure 85 706.2 Sampling 85 706.3 Equilibrium Data 85 706.4 Temperature Measurements 85 706.5 Heat and Material Balances 86 706.6 Fluctuation of Process Conditions 86 706.7 Pressure Drop Measurements 86 706.8 Incorrect Prediction of Pressure Drop 86 706.9 Errors in Assumptions in Modeling Mass Transfer 86 706.10 Multicomponent Systems Deviate from Binary Data 87 706.11 High Purity Separation 87 706.12 Test and Design Conditions 87 800.0 APPENDIX 88 801.0 Notation 88 801.1 Greek Symbols 90 802.0 Sample Calculations 90 802.1 General Analysis of Test Data 90 802.2 Packed Column 91 802.3 Trayed Column 107 803.0 References 126

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Book SynopsisThe book examines the possibility of integrating different membrane unit operations (microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and gas separation) in the same industrial cycle or in combination with conventional separation systems.Table of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xi 1 Ultrafiltration, Microfiltration, Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis in Integrated Membrane Processes 1Catherine Charcosset 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Membrane Processes 2 1.2.1 Ultrafiltration, Microfiltration and Nanofiltration 2 1.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 3 1.2.3 Membrane Distillation 3 1.2.4 Electrodialysis 4 1.2.5 Membrane Bioreactors 5 1.3 Combination of Various Membrane Processes 6 1.3.1 Pressure-Driven Separation Processes 6 1.3.2 Membrane Distillation and Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes 12 1.3.3 Electrodialysis and Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes 13 1.3.4 Membrane Bioreactors and Pressure-Driven Separation Processes 14 1.3.5 Other Processes and Pressure-Driven Separation Processes 15 1.4 Conclusion 17 List of Abbreviations 18 References 18 2 Bioseparations Using Integrated Membrane Processes 23Raja Ghosh 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Integrated Bioseparation Processes Involving Microfiltration 24 2.3 Integrated Bioseparation Processes Involving Ultrafiltration 28 2.4 Conclusion 31 References 32 3 Integrated Membrane Processes in the Food Industry 35Alfredo Cassano 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Fruit Juice Processing 36 3.2.1 Fruit Juice Clarification 36 3.2.2 Fruit Juice Concentration 38 3.2.3 Integrated Systems in Fruit Juice Processing 40 3.3 Milk and Whey Processing 48 3.3.1 Integrated Systems in Milk Processing 48 3.3.2 Integrated Systems in Cheesemaking 51 3.3.3 Integrated Systems in Whey Processing 52 3.4 Conclusions 54 List of Abbreviations 54 References 55 4 Continuous Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass via Integrated Membrane Processes 61Mohammadmahdi Malmali and S. Ranil Wickramasinghe 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Continuous Enzymatic Hydrolysis 63 4.3 Integrated Submerged Membrane System 65 4.4 Sugar Concentration 66 4.5 Sugar Concentration and Hydrolysate Detoxification by Nanofiltration 68 4.6 Statistical Design of Experiments 69 4.7 Analysis of Variance using Response Surface Methodology 69 4.8 Future Challenges 74 4.9 Conclusion 75 Acknowledgements 75 List of Abbreviations 75 List of Symbols 75 References 76 5 Integrated Membrane Processes for the Preparation of Emulsions, Particles and Bubbles 79Goran T. Vladisavljevi´c 5.1 Introduction 79 5.1.1 Membrane Dispersion Processes 80 5.1.2 Membrane Treatment of Dispersions 81 5.1.3 Comparison of Membrane and Microfluidic Drop Generation Processes 82 5.1.4 Comparison of Membrane and Conventional Homogenisation Processes 83 5.2 Membranes for Preparation of Emulsions and Particles 84 5.2.1 SPG Membrane 84 5.2.2 Microengineered Membranes 90 5.3 Production of Emulsions Using SPG Membrane 92 5.4 Production of Emulsions Using Microengineered Membranes 96 5.5 Factors Affecting Droplet Size in DME 98 5.5.1 Effect of Transmembrane Pressure and Flux 99 5.5.2 Influence of Pore (Channel) Size and Shear Stress on the Membrane Surface 101 5.5.3 Influence of Surfactant 101 5.6 Factors Affecting Droplet Size in PME 103 5.7 Integration of ME with Solid/Semi-Solid Particle Fabrication 104 5.7.1 Integration of ME and Crosslinking of Gel-forming Polymers 104 5.7.2 Integration of ME and Melt Solidification 114 5.7.3 Integration of ME and Polymerisation 115 5.7.4 Integration of ME and Solvent Evaporation/Extraction 118 5.8 Integration of Membrane Permeation and Gas Dispersion 120 5.9 Integration of Membrane Micromixing and Nanoprecipitation 121 5.10 Conclusions 123 List of Acronyms 123 Symbols 124 Subscripts 126 References 126 6 Nanofiltration in Integrated Membrane Processes 141Bart Van der Bruggen 6.1 Introduction 141 6.2 Pretreatment for Nanofiltration 144 6.3 Nanofiltration as a Pretreatment Method 146 6.4 Processes in Series 148 6.5 Integrated Processes 150 6.6 Hybrid Processes 153 6.7 Nanofiltration Cascades 156 6.8 Conclusions 158 List of Abbreviations 159 References 159 7 Seawater, Brackish Waters, and Natural Waters Treatment with Hybrid Membrane Processes 165Maxime Ponti´e and Catherine Charcosset 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 Desalination Market 166 7.2.1 Growth of Desalination Capacity Worldwide 166 7.2.2 Desalination Technologies 167 7.3 Seawater and Brackish Waters Composition 168 7.3.1 Seawater Composition 168 7.3.2 Brackish Water versus Seawater 168 7.3.3 Product Water Specification 170 7.4 Desalination with Integrated Membrane Processes 170 7.4.1 MF/UF–RO 170 7.4.2 NF versus RO 172 7.4.3 NF–RO 174 7.5 Natural Water Treatment Using Hybrid Membrane Processes 176 7.5.1 Natural Organic Matter 178 7.5.2 Arsenic 183 7.5.3 Other Species 186 7.6 Conclusion 190 List of Acronyms 191 References 192 8 Wastewater Treatment Using Integrated Membrane Processes 197Jinsong Zhang and Anthony G. Fane 8.1 Introduction 197 8.2 IMS Application for Wastewater Treatment: Current Status 198 8.2.1 IMS for Textile Industrial Wastewater: Target to Zero Discharge 198 8.2.2 Integrated Pressure-Driven Membrane Process for Municipal Wastewater Reclamation 200 8.2.3 Integrated Multiple Function Driven Membrane Process for Wastewater Reclamation 212 8.3 Strategic Co-location Concept for Integrated Process Involving RO, PRO, and Wastewater Treatment 219 8.4 Conclusions 221 Nomenclature 221 List of Greek letters 222 References 222 9 Membrane Reactor: An Integrated “Membrane + Reaction” System 231Angelo Basile, Adolfo Iulianelli and Simona Liguori 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Hydrogen Economy 232 9.2.1 Why Membrane Reactors? 232 9.3 Membrane Reactors 235 9.3.1 Membrane Reactors Utilization 236 9.4 Membranes for Membrane Reactors 236 9.4.1 Ceramic Membranes 237 9.4.2 Zeolite Membranes 237 9.4.3 Carbon Membranes 238 9.4.4 Metal Membranes 238 9.4.5 Composite Membranes 239 9.5 Mass Transport Mechanisms for Inorganic Membranes 239 9.6 Applications of Inorganic Membrane Reactors 241 9.6.1 Recent Advances on Hydrogen Production in MRs from Steam Reforming of Renewable Sources 241 9.7 Conclusions 244 List of Symbols 245 List of Abbreviations 245 References 246 10 Membranes for IGCC Power Plants 255Kamran Ghasemzadeh, Angelo Basile, and Seyyed Mohammad Sadati Tilebon 10.1 Introduction 255 10.2 IGCC Technology for Power Generation 256 10.3 Application of Membranes in an IGCC Power Plants 257 10.3.1 Hydrogen Selective Membranes 264 10.3.2 Oxygen Selective Membranes 272 10.3.3 CO2 Selective Membranes 275 10.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 280 Abbreviations 280 References 281 11 Integration of a Membrane Reactor with a Fuel Cell 285Viktor Hacker, Merit Bodner, and Alexander Schenk 11.1 Introduction 285 11.2 Fuel Cell Basics 286 11.2.1 Reaction Mechanisms 287 11.2.2 Electrochemical Basics of the Fuel Cell 289 11.3 Different Types of Fuel Cells 292 11.3.1 Methods of Classification 292 11.3.2 Fuel Cell Types 294 11.4 Contaminations of the PEFC 295 11.4.1 Anode Gas Stream 295 11.4.2 Cathode Gas Stream 297 11.4.3 Contaminations of Components 298 11.5 Methods to Avoid Poisoning 298 11.5.1 Increasing the Fuel Cell Tolerance towards Contaminations 299 11.5.2 Avoiding Contaminations 300 11.6 Conclusion 302 List of Abbreviations 302 List of Symbols 302 References 303 12 Solar Membrane Reactor 307Kamran Ghasemzadeh, Angelo Basile, and Abbas Aghaeinejad-Meybodi 12.1 Introduction 307 12.2 Configurations of Solar MR Systems 308 12.2.1 Solar MRs for Water and Wastewater Treatment 309 12.2.2 Solar MRs for Hydrogen Production 312 12.3 Solar MRs Application from a Modeling Point of View 319 12.3.1 Water Decomposition Literature 319 12.3.2 Steam Reforming Literature 320 12.4 Solar MRs Application from an Experimental Point of View 322 12.4.1 Water Decomposition Literature 322 12.4.2 Water Electrolysis Literature 329 12.4.3 Steam Reforming Literature 331 12.5 The Main Challenges 334 12.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 335 List of Abbreviations 335 References 336 13 Membrane-Adsorption Integrated Systems/Processes 343Sayed S. Madaeni and Ehsan Salehi 13.1 Introduction 343 13.2 Adsorption Pretreatment for Membranes 345 13.3 Integrated Membrane-Adsorption Systems 347 13.3.1 LPM-Adsorption Integration 348 13.3.2 Membrane-Adsorption Bioreactors 352 13.3.3 MABR Operating Conditions 354 13.3.4 MABR Applications 355 13.4 Membrane Adsorbents 356 13.4.1 Protein-Adsorbent Membranes 357 13.4.2 Metal-Adsorbent Membranes 358 13.4.3 Imprinted-Membrane Adsorbents 360 13.4.4 Thin Membrane Adsorbents 362 13.4.5 Modeling Aspects 362 13.4.6 Regeneration and Reuse 365 13.5 Adsorption Post-treatment for Membranes 366 References 367 Index 375

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Book SynopsisGas Treating: Absorption Theory and Practice provides an introduction to the treatment of natural gas, synthesis gas and flue gas, addressing why it is necessary and the challenges involved. The book concentrates in particular on the absorptiondesorption process and mass transfer coupled with chemical reaction. Following a general introduction to gas treatment, the chemistry of CO2, H2S and amine systems is described, and selected topics from physical chemistry with relevance to gas treating are presented. Thereafter the absorption process is discussed in detail, column hardware is explained and the traditional mass transfer model mechanisms are presented together with mass transfer correlations. This is followed by the central point of the text in which mass transfer is combined with chemical reaction, highlighting the associated possibilities and problems. Experimental techniques, data analysis and modelling are covered, and the book concludes with a discussion on vaTable of ContentsPreface xvii List of Abbreviations xxi Nomenclature List xxi 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Definitions 1 1.2 Gas Markets, Gas Applications and Feedstock 3 1.3 Sizes 3 1.4 Units 4 1.5 Ambient Conditions 7 1.6 Objective of This Book 7 1.7 Example Problems 7 1.7.1 Synthesis Gas Plant 8 1.7.2 Natural Gas Treatment 9 1.7.3 Natural Gas Treatment for LNG 9 1.7.4 Flue Gas CO2 Capture from a CCGT Power Plant 9 1.7.5 Flue Gas CO2 Capture from a Coal Based Power Plant 11 1.7.6 CO2 Removal from Biogas 11 1.7.7 CO2 Removal from Landfill Gas 12 1.7.8 Summarising Plant Sizes Just Considered 12 References 13 2. Gas Treating in General 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Process Categories 16 2.2.1 Absorption 16 2.2.2 Adsorption 17 2.2.3 Cryogenics 19 2.2.4 LNG Trains 30 2.2.5 Membranes 36 2.3 Sulfur Removal 37 2.3.1 Scavengers 38 2.3.2 Adsorption 39 2.3.3 Direct Oxidation–Liquid Redox Processes 39 2.3.4 Claus Plants 41 2.3.5 Novelties 43 2.4 Absorption Process 43 References 45 3. Rate of Mass Transfer 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 The Rate Equation 50 3.3 Co-absorption and/or Simultaneous Desorption 51 3.4 Convection and Diffusion 51 3.5 Heat Balance 51 3.6 Axially along the Column 52 3.7 Flowsheet Simulators 52 3.8 Rate versus Equilibrium Approaches 53 Further Reading 53 4. Chemistry in Acid Gas Treating 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 ‘Chemistry’ 57 4.3 Acid Character of CO2 and H2S 63 4.4 The H2S Chemistry with any Alkanolamine 65 4.5 Chemistry of CO2 with Primary and Secondary Alkanolamines 65 4.5.1 Zwitterion Mechanism 66 4.5.2 Termolecular Mechanism of Crooks and Donnellan 67 4.5.3 Australian Approach 69 4.5.4 Older Representations 70 4.6 The Chemistry of Tertiary Amines 72 4.7 Chemistry of the Minor Sulfur Containing Gases 73 4.7.1 The COS Chemistry 74 4.7.2 Chemistry of CS2 76 4.7.3 Chemistry of Mercaptans (RSH) 77 4.8 Sterically Hindered Amines 78 4.9 Hot Carbonate Absorbent Systems 80 4.10 Simultaneous Absorption of H2S and CO2 82 4.11 Reaction Mechanisms and Activators–Final Words 82 4.12 Review Questions, Problems and Challenges 82 References 83 5. Physical Chemistry Topics 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Discussion of Solvents 87 5.3 Acid–Base Considerations 90 5.3.1 Arrhenius, Brønsted and Lewis 90 5.3.2 Weak and Strong Acids and Bases 91 5.3.3 pH 91 5.3.4 Strength of Acids and Bases 92 5.3.5 Titration 93 5.3.6 Buffer Action in the NaOH or KOH Based CO2 Absorbents 96 5.4 The Amine–CO2 Buffer System 98 5.5 Gas Solubilities, Henry’s and Raoult’s Laws 100 5.5.1 Henry’s Law 101 5.5.2 Gas Solubilities 103 5.5.3 Raoult’s Law 104 5.6 Solubilities of Solids 105 5.7 N2O Analogy 105 5.8 Partial Molar Properties and Representation 106 5.9 Hydration and Hydrolysis 107 5.10 Solvation 107 References 108 6. Diffusion 111 6.1 Dilute Mixtures 111 6.2 Concentrated Mixtures 114 6.3 Values of Diffusion Coefficients 116 6.3.1 Gas Phase Values 117 6.3.2 Liquid Phase Values 119 6.4 Interacting Species 121 6.5 Interaction with Surfaces 122 6.6 Multicomponent Situations 122 6.7 Examples 122 6.7.1 Gaseous CO2 –CH4 122 6.7.2 Gaseous H2O–CH4 123 6.7.3 Liquid Phase Diffusion of H2O in TEG 124 References 125 Further Reading 126 7. Absorption Column Mass Transfer Analysis 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 The Column 128 7.3 The Flux Equations 128 7.4 The Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients and the Interface 129 7.4.1 Overall Gas Side Mass Transfer Coefficient 130 7.4.2 Overall Liquid Side Mass Transfer Coefficient 131 7.5 Control Volumes, Mass and Energy – Balances 132 7.5.1 The Relation between Gas and Liquid Concentrations 132 7.5.2 Height of Column Based on Gas Side Analysis 134 7.5.3 Height of Column Based on Liquid Side Analysis 134 7.6 Analytical Solution and Its Limitations 135 7.7 The NTU–HTU Concept 137 7.8 Operating and Equilibrium Lines – A Graphical Representation 138 7.9 Other Concentration Units 139 7.10 Concentrated Mixtures and Simultaneous Absorption 140 7.11 Liquid or Gas Side Control? A Few Pointers 143 7.12 The Equilibrium Stage Alternative Approach 144 7.13 Co-absorption in a Defined Column 145 7.14 Numerical Examples 146 7.14.1 Ammonia Train CO2 Removal with Sepasolv, NTUs 146 7.14.2 Ammonia Train CO2 Removal with Selexol, NTUs 148 7.14.3 Ammonia Train CO2 Removal with Selexol, NTUs by Numerical Integration 149 References 151 8. Column Hardware 153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Packings 154 8.2.1 Types of Random Packings 155 8.2.2 Types of Structured Packings 157 8.2.3 Fluid Flow Design for Packings 157 8.2.4 Operational Considerations 162 8.3 Packing Auxiliaries 162 8.3.1 Liquid Distributors 162 8.3.2 Liquid Redistributors 163 8.3.3 Packing Support 164 8.3.4 Hold-Down Plate 165 8.4 Tray Columns and Trays 165 8.4.1 Types of Trays 167 8.4.2 Functional Parts of a Tray Column 167 8.4.3 Capacities and Limitations 168 8.4.4 Flow Regimes on Trays 169 8.4.5 Tray Column Efficiencies 170 8.5 Spray Columns 170 8.6 Demisters 170 8.6.1 Knitted Wire Mesh Pads 172 8.6.2 Vanes or Chevrons 172 8.7 Examples 173 8.7.1 The Sepasolv Example from Chapter 7 173 8.7.2 The Selexol Example from Chapter 7 174 8.7.3 Natural Gas Treating Example 175 8.7.4 Example, Flue Gas from CCGT 176 References 178 Further Reading 179 9. Rotating Packed Beds 181 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Flooding and Pressure Drop 183 9.3 Fluid Flow 184 9.4 Mass Transfer Correlations 184 9.5 Application to Gas Treating 187 9.5.1 Absorption 188 9.5.2 Desorption 188 9.6 Other Salient Points 189 9.7 Challenges Associated with Rotating Packed Beds 189 References 189 10. Mass Transfer Models 193 10.1 The Film Model 193 10.2 Penetration Theory 195 10.3 Surface Renewal Theory 197 10.4 Boundary Layer Theory 198 10.5 Eddy Diffusion, ‘Film-Penetration’ and More 198 References 199 11. Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients 201 11.1 Introduction 201 11.2 Packings: Generic Considerations 201 11.3 Random Packings 202 11.4 Structured Packings 206 11.5 Packed Column Correlations 206 11.6 Tray Columns 211 11.7 Examples 212 11.7.1 Treatment of Natural Gas for CO2 Content 212 11.7.2 Atmospheric Flue Gas CO2 Capture 213 11.7.3 Treatment of Natural Gas for H2 O Content 214 11.7.4 Comparison of Correlations 215 References 218 Further Reading 221 12. Chemistry and Mass Transfer 223 12.1 Background 223 12.2 Equilibrium or Kinetics 223 12.3 Diffusion with Chemical Reaction 225 12.4 Reaction Regimes Related to Mass Transfer 226 12.4.1 Absorption with Slow Reaction 226 12.4.2 Fast First Order Irreversible Reaction 227 12.4.3 Instantaneous Irreversible Reaction 230 12.4.4 Instantaneous Reversible Reaction 234 12.4.5 Second Order Irreversible Reaction 242 12.5 Enhancement Factors 243 12.5.1 Transition from Slow to Fast Reaction 245 12.6 Arbitrary, Reversible Reactions and/or Parallel Reactions 246 12.7 Software 247 12.8 Numerical Examples 248 12.8.1 Natural Gas Problem with MEA 248 12.8.2 Flue Gas Problem 250 12.8.3 Natural Gas Problem Revisited with MDEA 251 References 253 Further Reading 254 13. Selective Absorption of H2S 255 13.1 Background 255 13.2 Theoretical Discussion of Rate Based Selectivity 256 13.3 What Fundamental Information is Available in the Literature? 258 13.3.1 Equilibrium Data 258 13.3.2 Rate and Selectivity Research Data 259 13.4 Process Options and Industrial Practice 260 13.5 Key Design Points 262 13.6 Process Intensification 262 13.7 Numerical Example 262 References 264 14. Gas Dehydration 267 14.1 Background 267 14.2 Dehydration Options 268 14.3 Glycol Based Processes 269 14.4 Contaminants and Countermeasures 273 14.5 Operational Problems 274 14.6 TEG Equilibrium Data 274 14.7 Hydrate Inhibition in Pipelines 276 14.8 Determination of Water 276 14.9 Example Problems 277 14.9.1 Example 1: Check for Hydrate Potential 277 14.9.2 Example 2: TEG and Water Balance 277 14.9.3 Example 3: Tower Diameter 279 14.9.4 Example 4: Mass Transfer Resistances 279 References 280 15. Experimental Techniques 283 15.1 Introduction 283 15.2 Experimental Design 283 15.3 Laminar Jet 285 15.3.1 Background 285 15.3.2 Principle and Experimental Layout 286 15.3.3 Mathematics and Practicalities 287 15.3.4 Past Users 288 15.4 Wetted Wall 289 15.4.1 Background 289 15.4.2 Mathematics and Practicalities 290 15.4.3 Past Users 290 15.5 Single Sphere 291 15.5.1 Background 291 15.5.2 Principle and Experimental Layout 291 15.5.3 Mathematics and Practicalities 293 15.5.4 Past Users 293 15.6 Stirred Cell 293 15.6.1 Background 293 15.6.2 Principle and Experimental Layout 293 15.6.3 Mathematics and Practicalities 294 15.6.4 Past Users 295 15.7 Stopped Flow 295 15.7.1 Background 295 15.7.2 Principle and Experimental Layout 295 15.7.3 Mathematics and Practicalities 297 15.7.4 Past Users 297 15.8 Other Mass Transfer Methods Less Used 298 15.8.1 Rapid Mixing 298 15.8.2 Rotating Drum 298 15.8.3 Moving Band 298 15.8.4 Kinetic Measurement Techniques Summarised 298 15.9 Other Techniques in Gas–Liquid Mass Transfer 300 15.10 Equilibrium Measurements 300 15.10.1 Physical Solubilities 300 15.10.2 Chemical Solubilities 301 15.11 Data Interpretation and Sub-Models 303 References 303 16. Absorption Equilibria 307 16.1 Introduction 307 16.2 Fundamental Relations 308 16.3 Literature Data Reported 311 16.4 Danckwerts–McNeil 312 16.5 Kent–Eisenberg 313 16.6 Deshmukh–Mather 313 16.7 Electrolyte NRTL (Austgen–Bishnoi–Chen–Rochelle) 314 16.8 Li–Mather 314 16.9 Extended UNIQUAC 315 16.10 EoS – SAFT 315 16.11 Other Models 316 References 316 17. Desorption 319 17.1 Introduction 319 17.2 Chemistry of Desorption 322 17.2.1 Zwitterion Based Analysis 323 17.2.2 Crooks–Donnellan 323 17.2.3 Alternative Mechanisms 323 17.2.4 For Tertiary Amines 324 17.2.5 H2S Desorption 324 17.3 Kinetics of Reaction 324 17.4 Bubbling Desorption 325 17.5 Desorption Process Analysis and Modelling 327 17.6 Unconventional Approaches to Desorption 328 References 329 18. Heat Exchangers 333 18.1 Introduction 333 18.2 Reboiler 333 18.2.1 Introduction 333 18.2.2 Heat Media 333 18.2.3 Kettle Reboiler Design 334 18.2.4 Reboiler Specifics 336 18.2.5 Alternatives to Kettle Reboiler 336 18.3 Desorber Overhead Condenser 337 18.3.1 Introduction 337 18.3.2 The Reflux System 337 18.3.3 The Condenser Design 337 18.3.4 Alternatives 338 18.4 Economiser or Lean/Rich Heat Exchanger 338 18.4.1 Introduction 338 18.4.2 Design Considerations 339 18.5 Amine Cooler 341 18.6 Water Wash Circulation Cooler 341 18.7 Heat Exchanger Alternatives 341 References 342 Further Reading 343 19. Solution Management 345 19.1 Introduction 345 19.2 Contaminant Problem 346 19.3 Feed Gas Pretreatment 346 19.4 Rich Absorbent Flash 348 19.5 Filter 348 19.5.1 Active Carbon Filter 349 19.5.2 Mechanical Filter 350 19.6 Reclaiming 351 19.6.1 Traditional Reclaiming 351 19.6.2 Ion Exchange Reclaiming 352 19.6.3 Electrodialysis Reclaiming 353 19.7 Chemicals to Combat Foaming 353 19.8 Corrosion Inhibitors 355 19.9 Waste Handling 355 19.10 Solution Containment 355 19.11 Water Balance 355 19.12 Cleaning the Plant Equipment 356 19.13 Final Words on Solution Management 356 References 356 20. Absorption–Desorption Cycle 359 20.1 The Cycle and the Dimensioning Specifications 359 20.2 Alternative Cycle Variations 362 20.3 Other Limitations 364 20.4 Matching Process and Treating Demands 365 20.5 Solution Management 366 20.6 Flowsheet Variations to Save Desorption Energy 368 References 369 21. Degradation 371 21.1 Introduction to Degradation 371 21.2 Carbamate Polymerisation 372 21.3 Thermal Degradation 372 21.4 Oxidative Degradation 373 21.5 Corrosion and Degradation 373 21.6 The Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSSs) 373 21.7 SOx and NOx in Feed Gas 373 21.8 Nitrosamines 374 21.9 Concluding Remarks 374 References 374 22. Materials, Corrosion, Inhibitors 375 22.1 Introduction 375 22.2 Corrosion Basics 376 22.3 Gas Phase 377 22.4 Protective Layers and What Makes Them Break Down (Chemistry) 378 22.5 Fluid Velocities and Corrosion 378 22.6 Stress Induced Corrosion 379 22.7 Effect of Heat Stable Salts (HSS) 379 22.8 Inhibitors 379 22.9 Problem Areas, Observations and Mitigation Actions 380 References 380 23. Technological Fronts 383 23.1 Historical Background 383 23.2 Fundamental Understanding and Absorbent Trends 384 23.3 Natural Gas Treating 385 23.4 Syngas Treating 385 23.5 Flue Gas Treating 386 23.6 Where Are We Heading? 386 References 387 24. Flue Gas Treating 389 24.1 Introduction 389 24.2 Pressure Drop and Size Issues 390 24.3 Absorbent Degradation 390 24.4 Treated Gas as Effluent 390 24.5 CO2 Export Specification 391 24.6 Energy Implications 391 24.7 Cost Issues 392 24.8 The Greenhouse Gas Problem 394 24.8.1 Global Warming and Increased Level of CO2 394 24.8.2 Geological Storage 395 24.8.3 Transport of CO2 395 24.8.4 Political Challenges 395 References 396 Web Sites 396 25. Natural Gas Treating (and Syngas) 397 25.1 Introduction 397 25.2 Gas Export Specification 398 25.3 Natural Gas Contaminants and Foaming 398 25.4 Hydrogen Sulfide 399 25.5 Regeneration by Flash 399 25.6 Choice of Absorbents 399 Further Reading 400 26. Treating in Various Situations 401 26.1 Introduction and Environmental Perspective 401 26.2 End of Pipe Solutions 401 26.3 Sulfur Dioxide 402 26.4 Nitrogen Oxides 402 26.5 Dusts and Aerosols 403 26.6 New Challenges 403 Index 405

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Book SynopsisThis book presents a guidance on a large range of decision aids for risk analysts and decision makers in industry so that vital decisions can be made in a more consistent, logical, and rigorous manner. It provide good industry practices on how risk decision making is conducted in the chemical industry from many risk information sources as well as all the elements that need to be addressed to ensure good decisions are being made. Topics Include: Identifying Risk Decisions, A Risk Decision Strategy for Process Safety, Case Studies in Risk Decision Making Failures, Guidance on Selecting Decision Aids, Templates for Decision Making in Risk-Based Process Safety, Understanding Process Hazards & Worst Possible Consequences, Management of Change as an Exercise in Risk Identification, Inherently Safer Design as an Exercise in Risk Tradeoff Analysis, Using LOPA and Risk Matrices in Risk Decisions, Using CPQRA and Safety Risk Criteria in Risk Decisions, Group Decision Making, Avoiding DecisionTable of ContentsContents v List of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Acronyms and Abbreviations xv Glossary xix Acknowledgements xxxi Preface xxxiii Introduction 35 1.1 History of Approaches to Process Safety Management 35 1.2 The Paradigm of Risk-Based Process Safety Management 36 1.2.1 Risk Based Process Safety (RBPS) Management 36 1.2.2 Risk Decisions Characteristics 39 1.3 A Risk Decision Making Method 40 1.4 Road Map and Relationship of this Book with Other Material 41 1.5 Risk Decisions during Process Life Cycle 43 1.6 Pros and cons 44 1.7 Summary 44 Key Concepts in Risk Management 47 2.1 Risk Management Process 47 2.2 Risk Identification – Risk Scenario 47 2.2.1 Risk Identification 49 2.3 Risk Analysis - Consequences and Frequency 49 2.3.1 Consequences and Impacts 50 2.3.2 Frequency 50 2.3.3 Risk Estimation 51 2.4 Risk Evaluation 56 2.4.1 Decision criteria 56 2.4.2 Qualitative, Semi-Quantitative and Quantitative Risk Criteria 59 2.4.3 Risk Reduction Factor 61 2.5 Summary 62 Understanding Process Hazards, Consequences and Risks 63 3.1 Process Hazards 63 3.1.1 Acute Toxicity 63 3.1.2 Flammability and Explosivity 67 3.1.3 Chemical Reactivity 70 3.1.4 Significant or Large Environmental Release Hazards 72 3.1.5 Other Process Hazards 72 3.2 Risk Identification 73 3.3 Consequences and Impacts 73 3.4 Frequency 74 3.5 Risk 76 Risk Decisions and Strategies 79 4.1 Objectives and attributes 79 4.1.1 Objectives 79 4.1.2 Attributes 79 4.2 Process Life Cycle and Alternatives 81 4.3 The Decision Process 82 4.3.1 Define the Problem 82 4.3.2 Evaluate the Baseline Risk 83 4.3.3 Identify the Alternatives 83 4.3.4 Screen the Alternatives 84 4.3.5 Make the Decision 84 4.4 Objectives and Outcomes 84 4.5 Tradeoffs 85 4.6 Uncertainty 87 4.7 Risk Tolerance 90 4.8 Linked Decisions 91 4.9 Decision trees 92 Decision Making 95 5.1 Defining the Decision Problem 95 5.1.1 Types of Decisions 95 5.2 Selecting a Decision Tool 97 5.2.1 Progression of Risk Analysis Tools 97 5.2.2 Factors in Decision Tool Selection 98 5.3 Assembling the Appropriate Assessment Resources 101 5.3.1 Team Members 101 5.3.2 Opening Meeting 104 5.3.2 Tools/Methods 104 5.3.3 Time 105 5.4 Define decision criteria 105 5.4.1 Process Safety Risk Criteria 105 5.4.2 Other Criteria 107 5.5 Making the decision 107 5.5.1 Characteristics of Decision Aids 107 5.5.2 Appling the Decision Tools, Aids, and Criteria 108 5.5.3 Recognizing and Dealing with Uncertainties 111 5.5.4 Recognizing the Need to Escalate the Decision 113 5.6 Finalizing decision and the approval process 114 5.7 Communicating, Documenting, and implementing the Decision 114 5.7 Summary 116 Potential Decision Traps 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Anchoring Trap 117 6.2.1 Anchoring Trap Example, Titanic 118 6.2.2 Countering the Anchoring Trap 118 6.3 Status-Quo Trap 119 6.3.1 Status Quo Examples 119 6.3.2 Countering the Status-Quo Trap 120 6.4 Sunk-cost and escalation of commitment trap 120 6.4.1 Countering the Sunk-Cost Trap 121 6.5 Confirming-Evidence Trap 121 6.5.1 Countering the Confirming Evidence Trap 122 6.6 Framing Trap 122 6.6.1 Framing Example 123 6.6.2 Countering the Framing Trap 123 6.7 Estimating and Forecasting Trap 123 6.7.1 Overconfidence 123 6.7.2 Prudence 126 6.7.3 Recallability 127 6.7.4 Countering Estimating and Forecasting Traps 127 6.8 Groupthink Trap 128 6.8.1 Groupthink Example, Flixborough, UK Explosion 128 6.8.2 Countering the Groupthink Trap 128 6.9 Summary 129 Inherently Safer Design 131 7.1 Introduction to inherently safer design 131 7.2 Inherently Safer Design Strategies 131 7.3 Hierarchy of Risk Management Controls 132 7.4 ISD examples to illustrate decision Process 133 7.4.1 Example with minimization 135 7.4.2 Example with moderation 136 7.4.3 Example with simplification 137 7.4.3 Other tradeoffs 137 Make versus buy 138 Substitution 138 7.5 Summary 138 Management of Change 139 8.1 Introduction 139 8.2 Decision Approval level 143 8.3 Examples of Decision Process Applied to Changes 144 8.3.1 Equipment Change 144 8.3.2 Procedural Change 145 8.3.3 Process Parameter Change 146 8.3.4 Organizational Change 147 8.3.5 Raw Material Change 148 8.3.6 Vendor Change 149 8.4 Summary 150 Using LOPA and Risk Matrices in Risk Decisions 151 9.1 Introduction 151 9.2 Risk Matrices 151 9.2.1 Risk Matrix Format 152 9.3 Layer of Protection Analysis 155 9.3.1 Independent Protection Layers 158 9.3.2 LOPA Format 159 9.4 Phosgene Handling Process for Risk Decision Example 159 9.4.1 Description 159 9.4.2 Risk Matrix for Phosgene Handling Example 161 9.5 Phosgene Example Decision Process Using Risk Matrix 164 9.6 Decision Process for Phosgene Example Using LOPA 165 9.7 Summary 172 Using QRA and Safety Risk Criteria in Risk Decisions 173 10.1 Introduction to CPQRA 173 10.1.1 Calculate Frequencies 173 10.1.2 Calculate Consequences 178 10.1.3 Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA) 179 10.2 Safety Risk Criteria 179 10.2.1 Scope of Risk Criteria 179 10.2.2 Individual and Societal Risk 180 10.2.3 Continual Improvement 184 10.3 High Consequence Low Probability (HCLP) Events 185 10.4 Examples 188 10.4.1 Comparing Design Options: Bromine Handling Facility 188 10.4.2 Compliance and Continual Improvement: Organic Acid Vent System 192 10.4.3 Special Case: The Domino Effect 193 10.5 Summary 195 Decision Implementation 197 11.1 Introduction 197 11.2 Implementation 197 11.3 Documentation 197 11.3.1 Importance of a decision document 197 11.3.2 Writing recommendations 197 11.3.3 Advice of legal counsel 198 11.3.4 Contents of the decision document 199 11.3.5 Retention of the decision document 199 11.4 Revalidation 200 11.4.1 Time based 200 11.4.2 Situation based 200 11.5 Summary 201 Summary and Lessons 203 12.1 Introduction 203 12.2 Case Studies in Risk: Decision Making Failures 203 12.2.1 Failure to Define the Problem 203 12.2.2 Failure to Establish Baseline Risk and Identify Alternatives 204 12.2.3 Make the Decision - Failure to consider tradeoffs 205 12.2.4 Make the Decision - Failure to understand uncertainty 206 12.2.5 Make the Decision – Failure to do risk identification and Failure to probe risk tolerance 206 12.2.6 Make the Decision - Failure to recognize linked decisions 207 12.3 Lessons and Summary 207 References 211 Index 219

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Book SynopsisDiscusses the CFD-DEM method of modeling which combines both the Discrete Element Method and Computational Fluid Dynamics to simulate fluid-particle interactions. Deals with both theoretical and practical concepts of CFD-DEM, its numerical implementation accompanied by a hands-on numerical code in FORTRAN Gives examples of industrial applications Table of ContentsAbout the Authors xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Multiphase Coupling 2 1.2 Modeling Approaches 2 1.3 Modeling with DEM 5 1.4 CFD‐DEM Modeling 7 1.5 Applications 10 1.6 Scope and Overall Plan 10 1.7 Online Content 12 References 12 Part I DEM 15 2 DEM Formulation 17 2.1 Hard‐Sphere 18 2.1.1 Equation of Motion 19 2.1.2 Collision Model 19 2.1.3 Interparticle Forces 22 2.2 Soft‐Sphere 24 2.2.1 Equations of Motion 25 2.3 Force‐Displacement Laws 27 2.3.1 Linear Viscoelastic Model 29 2.3.2 Nonlinear Viscoelastic Models 36 2.3.3 Comparison of Viscoelastic Force‐Displacement Models 45 2.3.4 Elastic Perfectly Plastic Models 49 2.4 Torque Expressions 56 2.4.1 Model A: Constant Torque Model 56 2.4.2 Model B: Viscous Model 57 2.4.3 Model C: Spring‐Dashpot Model 57 2.5 Boundary and Initial Conditions 58 2.5.1 Boundary Conditions 58 2.5.2 Initial Condition 60 Nomenclature 60 References 64 3 DEM Implementation 68 3.1 Computational View 68 3.2 Program Structure 71 3.3 Contact Search Algorithms 76 3.3.1 Definition of Problem 79 3.3.2 Cell‐Based Algorithms 80 3.3.3 Sort‐Based Algorithms 96 3.3.4 Tree‐Based Broad Search Algorithms 99 3.3.5 Fine Search for Spherical Particles 103 3.4 Integration Methods 103 3.4.1 Single‐Step Methods 106 3.4.2 Multi‐Step Algorithms 110 3.4.3 Predictor‐Corrector Methods 112 3.4.4 Evaluation of Integration Methods 114 3.5 Spring Stiffness 119 3.5.1 Maximum Overlap 122 3.5.2 Collision Time and Maximum Contact Force 123 3.6 Wall Implementation 123 3.6.1 Definition of Wall Elements 125 3.6.2 Contact Detection 128 3.6.3 Moving Wall 136 3.7 Parallelization 138 3.7.1 Distributed Memory Parallelization 138 3.7.2 Shared‐Memory Parallelization 141 Nomenclature 145 References 147 4 Non‐Spherical Particles 152 4.1 Shape Representation 153 4.2 Kinematics and Dynamics of a Rigid Body 156 4.2.1 Euler Angles and Transformation Matrix 157 4.2.2 Equations of Motion 159 4.2.3 Quaternions for Rigid Body Dynamics 163 4.3 Superellipsoids 164 4.3.1 Contact Forces 166 4.3.2 Effective Radius and Curvatures 169 4.3.3 Torque Calculations 173 4.3.4 Contact Detection 174 4.4 Multi‐Sphere Method 178 Nomenclature 184 References 186 5 DEM Applications to Granular Flows 189 5.1 Packing of Particles 189 5.1.1 Confined Packing 189 5.1.2 Pile Formation 192 5.1.3 Rigid and Flexible Fibers 194 5.2 Flow in Hoppers 196 5.2.1 Flow Patterns 197 5.2.2 Segregation 199 5.2.3 Discharge Rate 201 5.3 Solid Mixing 203 5.3.1 Mechanisms of Mixing and Segregation 203 5.3.2 Mixing Index 205 5.3.3 Rotating Drums 209 5.3.4 Tumbling Blenders 220 5.3.5 Shaft Batch Mixers 223 5.3.6 Continuous Mixers 229 5.4 Screw Conveying 234 5.4.1 Simulation of Screw Conveyor 237 5.4.2 Results of the Simulations 238 5.4.3 Literature 239 5.5 Film Coating 241 5.5.1 Phenomenological Models 243 5.5.2 Monte‐Carlo Method 244 Nomenclature 247 References 249 Part II CFD‐DEM 257 6 CFD‐DEM Formulation and Coupling 259 6.1 Multiphase Coupling 260 6.1.1 Coupling Strategies 260 6.1.2 Types of Coupling 262 6.1.3 Interphase Interactions 265 6.2 Momentum Coupling 267 6.2.1 Single Phase Flow of Fluids 267 6.2.2 Fluid Resolution in CFD‐DEM 274 6.2.3 Unresolved Surface CFD‐DEM 275 6.2.4 Surface Force Decomposition 287 6.3 Energy Coupling 303 6.3.1 Governing Equations 304 6.3.2 Rates of Heat Transfer for Particles 308 6.3.3 Rates of Heat Transfer for Fluid 316 6.3.4 Sequence of Calculations 317 6.4 Mass Coupling 319 6.4.1 Governing Equations 319 6.4.2 Rates of Mass Transfer for Particles 324 6.4.3 Rates of Change in Fluid 329 6.4.4 Sequence of Calculations 329 Nomenclature 329 References 335 7 CFD‐DEM Applications to Multiphase Flow 341 7.1 Fluidization 341 7.1.1 Macro‐Scale Phenomena 342 7.1.2 Meso‐Scale Phenomena 344 7.1.3 Micro‐Scale Phenomena 345 7.2 Spouting 347 7.3 Pneumatic Conveying 355 7.3.1 Dilute Phase and Dense Phase Conveying 356 7.3.2 Horizontal Conveying 357 7.3.3 Vertical Conveying 359 7.4 Non‐Isothermal Flows 359 7.5 Reactive Flows 362 7.6 Miscellaneous 364 Nomenclature 365 References 366 8 Interparticle Forces and External Fields 372 8.1 Governing Equations 373 8.1.1 Sequence of Calculations 375 8.2 Interparticle Forces 376 8.2.1 van der Waals Force 376 8.2.2 Liquid Bridge Force 379 8.2.3 Electrostatic Force 386 8.3 External Fields 390 8.3.1 Electric Field 390 8.3.2 Magnetic Field 393 8.3.3 Vibration Field 397 8.3.4 Acoustic Field 398 8.4 Applications 399 Nomenclature 404 References 407 Index 412

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Book SynopsisThis book is an update and expansion of topics covered in Guidelines for Mechanical Integrity Systems (2006). The new book is consistent with Risk-Based Process Safety and Life Cycle approaches and includes details on failure modes and mechanisms. Also, example testing an inspection programs is included for various types of equipment and systems. Guidance and examples are provided for selecting and maintaining critical safety systems.Table of ContentsList of Figures xi List of Tables xiii Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix Files on the Web xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and Scope 1 1.2 What is Asset Integrity Management? 2 1.3 What Assets are Included? 5 1.4 AIM Life Cycle 7 1.5 Relationship to Other Programs 7 1.6 Relationship to RAGAGEP 8 1.7 Structure of this Document 12 Chapter 1 References 15 2 Management Responsibility 17 2.1 Leadership Roles and Responsibilities 17 2.2 Technical Assurance Responsibilities 25 Chapter 2 References 29 3 AIM Life Cycle 31 3.1 Overview 31 3.2 Research Through Process Development 33 3.3 Process Design 35 3.4 Engineering, Procurement and Construction 39 3.5 Commissioning 40 3.6 Operation and Maintenance 42 3.7 Decommissioning 44 3.8 RAGAGEP Selection and Application at Each Stage 45 Chapter 3 References 47 Appendix 3A. Design Review Suggestions 49 4 Failure Modes and Mechanisms 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Equipment Functions and Functional Failure 54 4.3 Failure Modes 57 4.4 Damage Mechanisms 61 4.5 Failure Effects 64 4.6 Risk 65 4.7 Analysis 66 4.8 ITPM Task Assignments 69 4.9 Operational Issues 69 4.10 Other Related Activities 70 Chapter 4 References 70 Appendix 4A. Risk Concepts Related to AIM 73 5 Asset Selection and Criticality Determination 77 5.1 Program Objectives and Philosophy 77 5.2 Asset Selection Criteria and Principles 79 5.3 Level of Detail 84 5.4 Asset Criticality Determination 86 5.5 Documentation 96 5.6 Roles and Responsibilities 97 Chapter 5 References 99 Appendix 5A. Sample Guidelines for Selecting Assets for an AIM Program 100 6 Inspection, Testing and Preventive Maintenance 105 6.1 ITPM Task Planning 107 6.2 ITPM Task Execution and Monitoring 128 6.3 ITPM Program Roles and Responsibilities 137 Chapter 6 References 141 Appendix 6A. Common Predictive Maintenance and Nondestructive Testing (NDT) Techniques for Mechanical Equipment 142 7 Established Approaches for Developing Test and Inspection Plans 171 7.1 Code/Standard Approaches 171 7.2 Regulatory Authority Approaches 172 7.3 Company-Specific Approaches 172 7.4 Risk-Based Inspection (RBI) 173 7.5 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis Approaches 176 7.6 Safety Instrumented Systems 179 Chapter 7 References 184 8 AIM Training and Performance Assurance 187 8.1 Skills and Knowledge Assessment 189 8.2 Training For New and Current Workers 191 8.3 Verification and Documentation of Performance Assurance 193 8.4 Certifications 194 8.5 Ongoing and Refresher Training 195 8.6 Training for Maintenance Technicians and Operators Performing Maintenance Tasks 197 8.7 Training for Technical Personnel 200 Contents ix 8.8 Contractor Issues 202 8.9 Roles and Responsibilities 203 Chapter 8 References 206 Appendix 8A. Sample Training Survey 207 Appendix 8B. Sample Training Guide 208 9 Asset Integrity Procedures 211 9.1 Types of Procedures Supporting the AIM Program 213 9.2 Identification of Needs 216 9.3 Procedure Development Process 220 9.4 Format and Content 223 9.5 Other Sources of AIM Procedures 226 9.6 Implementing and Maintaining AIM Procedures 227 9.7 AIM Procedure Program Roles and Responsibilities 229 Chapter 9 References 229 Appendix 9A. Example AIM Procedure 232 10 Quality Management 239 10.1 Design 241 10.2 Procurement 243 10.3 Fabrication 244 10.4 Receiving 246 10.5 Storage and Retrieval 247 10.6 Construction and Installation 248 10.7 In-service Repairs, Alterations and Rerating 250 10.8 Temporary Installations and Temporary Repairs 252 10.9 Decommissioning / Re-use 254 10.10 Used Assets 255 10.11 Spare Parts 256 10.12 Contractor-Supplied Assets and Materials 256 10.13 QA Program Roles and Responsibilities 257 Chapter 10 References 257 Appendix 10A. Sample Vendor QA Plan 260 Appendix 10B. Positive Material Identification 262 Appendix 10C. Sample Service Contractor QA Plan 266 11 Equipment Deficiency Management 269 11.1 Equipment Deficiency Management Process 270 11.2 Acceptance Criteria 270 11.3 Equipment Deficiency Identification 274 11.4 Responding to Equipment Deficiencies 275 11.5 Equipment Deficiency Communication 278 11.6 Tracking of Temporary Repairs 279 11.7 Deficiency Management Roles and Responsibilities 279 Chapter 11 References 280 12 Equipment-Specific Integrity Management 287 12.1 Vessels, Tanks and Piping 289 12.2 Relief and Vent Systems 294 12.3 Instrumentation and Controls 297 12.4 Rotating Equipment 300 12.5 Fired Equipment 303 12.6 Electrical Systems 304 12.7 Fire Protection and Suppression Systems 305 12.8 Ventilation and Purge Systems 306 12.9 Protective Systems 307 12.10 Passive Mitigation Systems 309 12.11 Solids-Handling Systems 310 12.12 Refrigeration Systems 311 12.13 Utilities 311 12.14 Safety Equipment 311 Chapter 12 References 314 Appendix 12A. Asset Integrity Activities by Equipment Type 317 13 AIM Program Implementation 383 13.1 Budgeting and Resources 383 13.2 Use of Data Management Systems 396 13.3 AIM Benefits and Return on Investment 400 Chapter 13 References 402 Appendix 13A. AIM Program Design Activity Worksheets 403 14 Metrics, Audits and Continuous Improvement: Learning from Experience 409 14.1 Performance Measurement and Monitoring 411 14.2 AIM Program and Implementation Audits 420 14.3 Continuous Improvement 427 Chapter 14 References 429 Appendix 14A. AIM-Related Regulatory Citations 430 15 Other Asset Management Tools 437 15.1 Introduction to Common Risk-based Analytical Techniques Used in AIM Programs 437 15.2 Incorporating Risk into AIM Decisions 443 15.3 Reliability-Centered Maintenance 445 15.4 Protection Layer Analysis Techniques 448 15.5 Asset Failure and Root Cause Analyses 451 Chapter 15 References 457 Acronyms and Abbreviations 459 Glossary 463 Index 469

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Book SynopsisThis book describes how to conduct Process Hazard Assessments (PHAs) for processes handling combustible solids. The book explains how to do a dust hazard assessment by using either an approach based on compliance with existing consensus standards, or by using a risk based approach.Table of ContentsList of Tables xiii List of Figures xv Acronyms and Abbreviations xvii Glossary xix Acknowledgments xxiv Preface xxvii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Purpose of Book 1 1.2 Book Road Map 2 1.3 References 4 2. Background 5 2.1 Nature of the Dust Fire and Explosion Problem 5 2.1.1 Dust Explosion Statistics 5 2.1.2 Case Study: Hoeganaes Corporation 5 Findings and Lessons 10 2.2 Requirements for Dust Fires and Explosions 11 2.2.1 Layer Fire. 12 2.2.2 Flash Fires and Explosions 12 2.3 Combustibility and Explosivity Parameters 15 2.3.1 Explosibility Screening Test 15 2.3.2 Deflagration Index, KSt (bar-m/sec) 18 2.3.3 Maximum Pressure, Pmax (Bar) 18 2.3.4 Minimum Explosible Concentration, MEC (g/m3) 19 2.3.5 Minimum Ignition Energy, MIE (mJoules, mJ) 19 2.3.6 Minimum Auto Ignition Temperature, Cloud, MAIT (°C) 20 2.3.7 Layer Ignition Temperature, LIT (°C) 20 2.3.8 Limiting Oxygen Concentration, LOC (vol% O2) 20 2.3.9 Volume Resistivity (Ohm-m) 20 2.4 Comparison to Combustible Vapors 21 2.5 Effect of Parameters 22 2.6 Summary 22 2.7 References 23 3. The Hazards Within – Dust Inside Equipment 25 3.1 Methods of Prevention, Protection, Mitigation 25 3.1.1 Ignition Control 26 3.1.2 Inerting/Oxidant Control 28 3.1.3 Combustible Concentration Control 28 3.1.4 Deflagration Venting 28 3.1.5 Deflagration Suppression 29 3.1.6 Containment 29 3.1.7 Deflagration Isolation 30 3.2 Issues 30 3.2.1 Air/Material Separators 32 3.2.2 Size Reduction Equipment (grinders, mills, etc.) 34 3.2.3 Dryers 35 3.2.4 Silos/Hoppers 36 3.2.5 Portable Containers 37 3.2.6 Conveyors 38 3.2.7 Blenders/Mixers 41 3.2.8 Feeding into Vessels Having Flammable Vapor Atmospheres 41 3.3 Summary 42 3.4 References 42 4. Hazards of Dust External to Equipment 45 4.1 Case Study – Imperial Sugar 45 4.2 Issues Inside a Room or Building 48 4.3 Methods of Prevention and Protection 49 4.3.1 Control of Dust Deposits Outside of Equipment 49 4.3.2 Ignition Control 52 4.3.3 Damage Limiting Construction 52 4.4 Summary 52 4.5 References 53 5. Traditional Approach to Hazard Assessment and Control 55 5.1 Introduction 55 5.1.1 Process Safety Information (PSI) 55 5.1.2 Competent Team 56 5.2 Steps to the Traditional Approach 56 5.2.1 Step 1 – Is a combustible dust involved? 57 5.2.2 Step 2 – Determine Which Standards Apply 58 5.2.3 Step 3 - Determine Where Fire/Explosion Hazards Exist 62 5.2.4 Step 4 – Review Unit Operation vs. Standard Requirements for Prevention and Mitigation of Fires/Explosions 63 5.2.5 Step 5 – Make Recommendations 65 5.2.6 Step 6 – Document the DHA 65 5.2.7 Step 7 – Implement the Recommendations 66 5.3 Summary 67 5.4 References 68 6. Risk-based Approach to Dust Hazard Analysis 69 6.1 Introduction 69 6.2 Technique for a Risk-based DHA 70 6.2.1 Step 1: Identify Failure Scenarios 70 6.2.2 Step 2: Evaluate the Consequences 70 6.2.3 Step 3: Are the Consequences Tolerable? 73 6.2.4 Step 4: Estimate Likelihood and Risk 73 6.2.5 Step 5: Is the Risk Tolerable 78 6.2.6 Step 6: Recommend and Evaluate Solutions 80 6.2.7 Step 7: Is the Mitigated Risk Tolerable? 81 6.2.8 Step 8: Document Results 81 6.3 DHA Risk Assessment, Additional Requirements 82 6.3.1 DHA Leader Competency 83 6.3.2 Documentation 83 6.4 Managing Change and Updating Risk Assessment 83 6.5 Summary 83 6.6 References 84 7. Special Considerations: Combustible Dust Issues in Existing Facilities 87 7.1 Introduction 87 7.2 Existing Facilities and Combustible Dusts 87 7.2.1 Potential Issues 87 7.2.2 Issues Impact 91 7.2.3 Precautions 92 7.3 Summary 92 7.4 References 93 8. Worked Examples 95 8.1 Introduction 95 8.2 Example 1 95 8.2.1 Process Description – Example 1 95 8.2.2 Traditional DHA – Example 1 95 8.2.3 Risk-based DHA – Example 1 112 8.2.4 Comparison of Traditional vs. Risk-based Approach – Example 1 167 8.3 Example 2 169 8.3.1 Process Description 2 169 8.3.2 Traditional DHA 171 8.3.3 Risk-based DHA 173 8.3.4 Comparison of Traditional vs. Risk-based Approach – Example 2 176 8.4 Example 3 177 8.4.1 Process Description – Example 3 177 8.4.2 Traditional DHA – Example 3 179 8.4.3 Risk-based DHA – Example 3 181 8.5 Summary 188 8.6 References 188 Appendix A Regulations and Codes 191 A.1 Regulations 191 A.1.1 U.S. 191 A.1.2 International 191 A.2 Codes 192 References 195 Appendix B Additional Resources 197 B.1 Books 197 B.2 U.S. Chemical Safety Board Reports 197 B.3 Journal Articles 198 B.4 Other 199 Appendix C Data for Risk-based DHA 201 C.1 Probability Assessment of Process Unit Fire or Dust Explosion 201 C.1.1 Initiating Event Frequencies 204 C.1.2 Ignition Probabilities 205 C.1.3 Protection Layer PFDs 207 C.2 References 209 Appendix D Good Practices 211 D.1 Self Assessment 211 D.2 Housekeeping 213 D.2.1 Combustible Dust Housekeeping Inspection Checklist 215 D.3 Explosion Protection Methods 217 Appendix E DHA Roadmap 219 Notes for Figure E.1 221 Index 223

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Book SynopsisENGINEERING APPLICATIONS A comprehensive text on the fundamental principles of mechanical engineering Engineering Applications presents the fundamental principles and applications of the statics and mechanics of materials in complex mechanical systems design. Using MATLAB to help solve problems with numerical and analytical calculations, authors and noted experts on the topic Mihai Dupac and Dan B. Marghitu offer an understanding of the static behaviour of engineering structures and components while considering the mechanics of materials knowledge as the most important part of their design. The authors explore the concepts, derivations, and interpretations of general principles and discuss the creation of mathematical models and the formulation of mathematical equations. This practical text also highlights the solutions of problems solved analytically and numerically using MATLAB. The figures generated with MATLAB reinforce visual learning for students andTable of Contents1 Forces 1 1.1 Terminology and Notation 1 1.2 Resolution of Forces 3 1.3 Angle Between Two Forces 3 1.4 Force Vector 4 1.5 Scalar (Dot) Product of Two Forces 5 1.6 Cross Product of Two Forces 5 1.7 Examples 6 2 Moments and Couples 15 2.1 Types of Moments 15 2.2 Moment of a Force About a Point 15 2.3 Moment of a Force About a Line 18 2.4 Couples 20 2.5 Examples 21 3 Equilibrium of Structures 55 3.1 Equilibrium Equations 55 3.2 Supports 57 3.3 Free-Body Diagrams 59 3.4 Two-Force and Three-Force Members 60 3.5 Plane Trusses 61 3.6 Analysis of Simple Trusses 62 3.6.1 Method of Joints 62 3.6.2 Method of Sections 65 3.7 Examples 67 4 Centroids and Moments of Inertia 129 4.1 Centre of the Mass and Centroid 129 4.2 Centroid and Centre of the Mass of a Solid Region, Surface or Curve 130 4.3 Method of Decomposition 134 4.4 First Moment of an Area 134 4.5 The Centre of Gravity 135 4.6 Examples 136 5 Stress, Strain and Deflection 185 5.1 Stress 185 5.2 Elastic Strain 185 5.3 Shear and Moment 186 5.4 Deflections of Beams 189 5.5 Examples 193 6 Friction 211 6.1 Coefficient of Static Friction 212 6.2 Coefficient of Kinetic Friction 213 6.3 Friction Models 213 6.3.1 Coulomb Friction Model 214 6.3.2 Coulomb Model with Viscous Friction 216 6.3.3 Coulomb Model with Stiction 217 6.4 Angle of Friction 218 6.5 Examples 219 7 Work, Energy and Power 255 7.1 Work 255 7.2 Kinetic Energy 256 7.3 Work and Power 258 7.4 Conservative Forces 259 7.5 Work Done by the Gravitational Force 259 7.6 Work Done by the Friction Force 260 7.7 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 261 7.8 Work Done and Potential Energy of an Elastic Force 261 7.9 Potential Energy Due to the Gravitational Force 262 7.9.1 Potential Energy Due to the Gravitational Force for a Particle 262 7.9.2 Potential Energy Due to the Gravitational Force for a Rigid Body 263 7.10 Examples 264 8 Simple Machines 295 8.1 Load and Effort, Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and Efficiency of a Simple Machine 295 8.1.1 Load and Effort 295 8.1.2 Mechanical Advantage 296 8.1.3 Velocity Ratio and Efficiency 296 8.2 Effort and Load of an Ideal Machine 297 8.3 The Lever 297 8.4 Inclined Plane (Wedge) 298 8.5 Screws 299 8.6 Simple Screwjack 299 8.6.1 Motion Impending Upwards 301 8.6.2 Motion Impending Downwards 302 8.6.3 Efficiency While Hoisting Load 303 8.7 Differential Screwjack 303 8.8 Pulleys 304 8.8.1 First-order Pulley System 304 8.8.2 Second-order Pulley System 306 8.8.3 Third-order Pulley System 307 8.9 Differential Pulley 308 8.10 Wheel and Axle 309 8.11 Wheel and Differential Axle 310 8.12 Examples 312 References 353 Index 357

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Book SynopsisThis book is a short introduction to the engineering principles of harnessing the vast potential of microorganisms, and animal and plant cells in making biochemical products. It was written for scientists who have no background in engineering, and for engineers with minimal background in biology. The overall subject dealt with is process.Table of ContentsPreface xvii About the CompanionWebsite xix 1 An Overview of Bioprocess Technology and Biochemical Engineering 1 1.1 A Brief History of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering 1 1.1.1 Classical Biotechnology 1 1.1.2 Recombinant DNA 4 1.1.3 A Typical Bioprocess 6 1.1.4 Biochemical Engineering and Bioprocess Technology 8 1.2 Industrial Organisms 10 1.2.1 Prokaryotes 12 1.2.1.1 Eubacteria and Archaea 12 1.2.2 Eukaryotic Microorganisms 12 1.2.2.1 Fungi 13 1.2.2.2 Algae 13 1.2.3 Multicellular Organisms andTheir Cells 13 1.2.3.1 Insect Cells 13 1.2.3.2 Plant Cells, Tissues, and Organs 13 1.2.3.3 Animal Cells, Tissues, and Organs 14 1.2.4 Transgenic Plants and Animals 14 1.3 Biotechnological Products 15 1.3.1 Metabolic Process 15 1.3.2 Metabolites 18 1.3.3 Cells, Tissues, and Their Components 19 1.3.3.1 Viruses 20 1.3.4 Secreted Enzymes and Other Biopolymers 20 1.3.5 Recombinant DNA Products 20 1.3.5.1 Heterologous rDNA Proteins 20 1.3.6 Metabolic Engineering and Synthetic Pathways 22 1.4 Technology Life Cycle, and Genomics- and Stem Cell-Based New Biotechnology 23 1.4.1 The Story of Penicillin and the Life Cycle of Technology 23 1.4.2 Genomics, Stem Cells, and Transformative Technologies 25 Further Reading 26 Problems 26 2 An Introduction to Industrial Microbiology and Cell Biotechnology 29 2.1 Universal Features of Cells 29 2.2 Cell Membranes, Barriers, and Transporters 30 2.3 Energy Sources for Cells 31 2.3.1 Classification of Microorganisms According toTheir Energy Source 32 2.4 Material and Informational Foundation of Living Systems 34 2.4.1 All Cells Use the Same Molecular Building Blocks 34 2.4.2 Genes 34 2.4.3 Genetic Information Processing 36 2.5 Cells of Industrial Importance 36 2.5.1 Prokaryotes 38 2.5.2 Eubacteria 38 2.5.2.1 CellWall and Cell Membrane 38 2.5.2.2 Membrane and Energy Transformation 40 2.5.2.3 Differentiation 41 2.5.3 Archaea 42 2.5.4 Eukaryotes 43 2.5.4.1 The Nucleus 44 2.5.4.2 Mitochondrion 45 2.5.4.3 Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus 46 2.5.4.4 Other Organelles 47 2.5.4.5 Cytosol 48 2.6 Cells Derived from Multicellular Organisms 49 2.7 Concluding Remarks 50 Further Reading 50 Problems 50 3 Stoichiometry of Biochemical Reactions and Cell Growth 53 3.1 Stoichiometry of Biochemical Reactions 53 3.1.1 Metabolic Flux at Steady State 58 3.1.1.1 NAD/NADH Balance in Glycolysis 59 3.1.1.2 OxidativeMetabolism and NADH 60 3.1.2 Maximum Conversion of a Metabolic Product 63 3.2 Stoichiometry for Cell Growth 66 3.2.1 Cell Composition and Material Flow to Make Cell Mass 66 3.2.1.1 Composition and Chemical Formula of Cells 66 3.2.1.2 Material Flow for Biomass Formation 69 3.2.2 Stoichiometric Equation for Cell Growth 70 3.2.2.1 Yield Coefficient 71 3.3 Hypothetical Partition of a Substrate for Biomass and Product Formation 73 3.4 Metabolic Flux Analysis 74 3.4.1 Analysis of a Chemical Reaction System 74 3.4.1.1 Setting Up Material Balance Equations 74 3.4.1.2 Quasi–Steady State 76 3.4.1.3 Stoichiometric Matrix, Flux Vectors, and Solution 76 3.4.2 Analysis of Fluxes in a Bioreaction Network 77 3.4.3 Metabolic Flux Analysis on a Cellular System 81 3.4.3.1 Selecting Reactions for Analysis 81 3.4.3.2 Compartmentalization 83 3.4.3.3 Biomass 83 3.4.3.4 Limitations on Accounting of Materials 84 3.4.3.5 Solution and Analysis 84 3.5 Concluding Remarks 85 Further Reading 85 Nomenclature 86 Problems 86 4 Kinetics of Biochemical Reactions 95 4.1 Enzymes and Biochemical Reactions 95 4.2 Mechanics of Enzyme Reactions 96 4.3 Michaelis–Menten Kinetics 98 4.4 Determining the Value of Kinetic Parameters 101 4.5 Other Kinetic Expressions 104 4.6 Inhibition of Enzymatic Reactions 106 4.7 Biochemical Pathways 108 4.7.1 Kinetic Representation of a Reaction Pathway 108 4.7.2 Linearity of Fluxes in Biochemical Pathways 110 4.8 Reaction Network 114 4.9 Regulation of Reaction Rates 114 4.9.1 Flux Modulation by Km 114 4.9.2 Allosteric Regulation of Enzyme Activities 115 4.9.3 Regulation at Transcriptional and Posttranslational Levels 117 4.9.4 Modulation of Resource Distribution through Reversible Reactions 118 4.10 Transport across Membrane and Transporters 120 4.10.1 Transport across the Cell Membrane 120 4.10.2 Transport of Electrolytes 121 4.10.3 Transport of Charged Molecules across Membrane 122 4.10.4 Types of Transporters 123 4.10.5 Kinetics of a Facilitated Transporter 124 4.11 Kinetics of Binding Reactions 126 4.11.1 Binding Reactions in Biological Systems 126 4.11.2 Dissociation Constant 127 4.11.3 Saturation Kinetics 128 4.11.4 Operator Binding and Transcriptional Regulation 129 4.11.5 Kinetics of Transcription and Translation 131 4.12 Concluding Remarks 135 Further Reading 136 Nomenclature 136 Problems 138 5 Kinetics of Cell Growth Processes 145 5.1 Cell Growth and Growth Kinetics 145 5.2 Population Distribution 148 5.3 Description of Growth Rate 149 5.4 Growth Stage in a Culture 150 5.5 Quantitative Description of Growth Kinetics 151 5.5.1 Kinetic Description of Substrate Utilization 153 5.5.2 Using the Monod Model to Describe Growth in Culture 155 5.6 Optimal Growth 156 5.7 Product Formation 158 5.8 Anchorage-Dependent Vertebrate Cell Growth 159 5.9 Other Types of Growth Kinetics 161 5.10 Kinetic Characterization of Biochemical Processes 162 5.11 Applications of a Growth Model 163 5.12 The Physiological State of Cells 164 5.12.1 MultiscaleModel Linking Biotic and Abiotic Phases 166 5.13 Kinetics of Cell Death 168 5.14 Cell Death and the Sterilization of Medium 169 5.15 Concluding Remarks 171 Further Reading 172 Nomenclature 172 Problems 173 6 Kinetics of Continuous Culture 183 6.1 Introduction 183 6.2 Kinetic Description of a Continuous Culture 185 6.2.1 Balance Equations for Continuous Culture 185 6.2.2 Steady-State Behavior of a Continuous Culture 187 6.2.2.1 Monod Kinetics 187 6.2.2.2 Steady-State Concentration Profiles 187 6.2.2.3 Washout 189 6.2.3 Productivity in Continuous Culture 190 6.3 Continuous Culture with Cell Recycling 193 6.3.1 Increased Productivity with Cell Recycling 193 6.3.2 Applications of Continuous Culture with Cell Recycling 196 6.3.2.1 Low Substrate Levels in the Feed 196 6.3.2.2 Low Residual Substrate Concentration 197 6.3.2.3 Labile Product 197 6.3.2.4 Selective Enrichment of Cell Subpopulation 197 6.3.2.5 High-Intensity Mammalian Cell Culture 197 6.4 Specialty Continuous Cultures 199 6.4.1 Multiple-Stage Continuous Culture 199 6.4.2 Immobilized Cell Culture System 200 6.4.3 Continuous Culture with Mixed Populations 201 6.5 Transient Response of a Continuous Culture 202 6.5.1 Pulse Increase at the Substrate Level 203 6.5.2 Step Change in Feed Concentration 204 6.6 Concluding Remarks 205 Further Reading 205 Nomenclature 205 Problems 206 7 Bioreactor Kinetics 217 7.1 Bioreactors 217 7.2 Basic Types of Bioreactors 218 7.2.1 Flow Characteristics in Idealized Stirred-Tank (Well-Mixed) and Tubular (Plug Flow) Reactors 219 7.2.2 Reaction in an Idealized CSTR 220 7.2.3 Reaction in an Idealized PFR 222 7.2.4 Heterogeneous and Multiphasic Bioreactors – Segregation of Holding Time 225 7.3 Comparison of CSTR and PFR 225 7.3.1 CSTR versus PFR in Conversion Yield and Reaction Rate 225 7.3.2 CSTR versus PFR in Terms of Nutrient Depletion and Scale-Up 226 7.3.3 CSTR versus PFR – A Perspective from Residence Time Distribution 227 7.4 Operating Mode of Bioreactors 229 7.4.1 Batch Cultures 229 7.4.2 Fed-Batch Cultures 229 7.4.2.1 Intermittent Harvest 229 7.4.2.2 Fed-Batch 230 7.5 Configuration of Bioreactors 231 7.5.1 Simple Stirred-Tank Bioreactor 231 7.5.2 Airlift Bioreactor 233 7.5.3 Hollow-Fiber Bioreactor 233 7.6 Other Bioreactor Applications 233 7.7 Cellular Processes through the Prism of Bioreactor Analysis 235 7.8 Concluding Remarks 236 Further Reading 236 Nomenclature 237 Problems 237 8 Oxygen Transfer in Bioreactors 241 8.1 Introduction 241 8.2 Oxygen Supply to Biological Systems 242 8.3 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Concentration in Medium – Henry’s Law 243 8.4 Oxygen Transfer through the Gas–Liquid Interface 244 8.4.1 A Film Model for Transfer across the Interface 244 8.4.2 Concentration Driving Force for Interfacial Transfer 245 8.4.3 Mass Transfer Coefficient and Interfacial Area 246 8.5 Oxygen Transfer in Bioreactors 248 8.5.1 Material Balance on Oxygen in a Bioreactor 249 8.5.2 Oxygen Transfer in a Stirred Tank 251 8.6 ExperimentalMeasurement of KLa and OUR 253 8.6.1 Determination of KLa in a Stirred-Tank Bioreactor 253 8.6.2 Measurement of OUR and qO2 254 8.7 Oxygen Transfer in Cell Immobilization Reactors 256 8.8 Concluding Remarks 256 Further Reading 256 Nomenclature 256 Problems 258 9 Scale-Up of Bioreactors and Bioprocesses 265 9.1 Introduction 265 9.2 General Considerations in Scale Translation 266 9.2.1 Process and Equipment Parameters Affected by Scale-Up 266 9.2.2 Scale Translation for Product Development and Process Troubleshooting 266 9.2.3 How Scale-Up Affects Process Variables, Equipment, and Cellular Physiology 267 9.2.4 Scale-Up of Equipment and Geometrical Similarity 267 9.3 Mechanical Agitation 268 9.4 Power Consumption and Mixing Characteristics 269 9.4.1 Power Consumption of Agitated Bioreactors 269 9.4.2 Other Dimensionless Numbers 272 9.4.3 Correlation of Oxygen Transfer Coefficient 273 9.5 Effect of Scale on Physical Behavior of Bioreactors 273 9.6 Mixing Time 276 9.6.1 Nutrient Enrichment Zone: Mixing Time versus Starvation Time 276 9.6.2 Mixing Time 277 9.6.3 Mixing Time Distribution 278 9.7 Scaling Up and Oxygen Transfer 279 9.7.1 Material Balance on Oxygen in Bioreactor 279 9.7.1.1 Aeration Rate and the Oxygen Transfer Driving Force 280 9.8 Other Process Parameters and Cell Physiology 281 9.9 Concluding Remarks 282 Further Reading 283 Nomenclature 283 Problems 284 10 Cell Culture Bioprocesses and Biomanufacturing 289 10.1 Cells in Culture 289 10.2 Cell Culture Products 290 10.2.1 Vaccines 290 10.2.2 Therapeutic Proteins 291 10.2.3 Biosimilars 292 10.3 Cellular Properties Critical to Biologics Production 294 10.3.1 Protein Secretion 294 10.3.1.1 Folding in the Endoplasmic Reticulum 294 10.3.1.2 Membrane Vesicle Translocation and Golgi Apparatus 295 10.3.2 Glycosylation 296 10.3.3 Protein Secretion and Glycan Heterogeneity 296 10.4 Nutritional Requirements 299 10.4.1 Chemical Environment In Vivo and in Culture 299 10.4.2 Types of Media 300 10.4.2.1 Basal Medium and Supplements 300 10.4.2.2 Complex Medium, Defined Medium 301 10.5 Cell Line Development 301 10.5.1 Host Cells and Transfection 301 10.5.2 Amplification 302 10.6 Bioreactors 304 10.6.1 Roller Bottles 304 10.6.2 Stirred-Tank Bioreactors for Suspension Cells 305 10.6.3 Stirred-Tank Bioreactor with Microcarrier Cell Support 306 10.6.4 Disposable Systems 307 10.7 Cell Retention and Continuous Processes 307 10.7.1 Continuous Culture and Steady State 307 10.8 Cell Culture Manufacturing – Productivity and Product Quality 308 10.8.1 Process and Product Quality 308 10.8.2 Product Life Cycle 309 10.8.3 Product Manufacturing 311 10.8.3.1 Platform Process 311 10.8.3.2 Manufacturing 311 10.9 Concluding Remarks 312 Further Reading 312 Problems 313 11 Introduction to Stem Cell Bioprocesses 319 11.1 Introduction to Stem Cells 319 11.2 Types of Stem Cells 320 11.2.1 Adult Stem Cells 320 11.2.1.1 Hematopoietic Stem Cells 321 11.2.1.2 Mesenchymal Stem Cells 323 11.2.1.3 Neuronal Stem Cells 323 11.2.2 Embryonic Stem Cells 324 11.2.3 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Reprogramming 324 11.3 Differentiation of Stem Cells 326 11.4 Kinetic Description of Stem Cell Differentiation 328 11.5 StemCell Technology 331 11.6 Engineering in Cultivation of Stem Cells 332 11.7 Concluding Remarks 335 Further Reading 335 Nomenclature 336 Problems 336 12 Synthetic Biotechnology: FromMetabolic Engineering to Synthetic Microbes 339 12.1 Introduction 339 12.2 Generalized Pathways for Biochemical Production 340 12.3 General Strategy for Engineering an Industrial, Biochemical-Producing Microorganism 342 12.3.1 Genomics, Metabolomics, Deducing Pathway, and Unveiling Regulation 342 12.3.2 Introducing Genetic Alterations 343 12.3.3 Isolating Superior Producers 345 12.3.3.1 Screening of Mutants with the Desired Phenotype 345 12.3.3.2 Selection of Mutants with the Target Trait 345 12.3.4 Mechanisms of Enhancing the Biosynthetic Machinery 347 12.3.4.1 Relaxing the Constriction Points in the Pathway 347 12.3.4.2 Channeling Precursor Supply 348 12.3.4.3 Eliminating Product Diversion 350 12.3.4.4 Enhancing Product Transport 350 12.3.4.5 Rerouting Pathways 350 12.3.5 Engineering Host Cells – Beyond the Pathway 352 12.3.5.1 Altering Substrate Utilization 352 12.3.5.2 Manipulating the Time Dynamics of Production 352 12.3.5.3 Increasing Product Tolerance 354 12.4 Pathway Synthesis 356 12.4.1 Host Cells: Native Hosts versus Archetypical Hosts 356 12.4.2 Expressing Heterologous Enzymes to Produce a Nonnative Product 357 12.4.3 Activating a Silent Pathway in a Native Host 359 12.5 Stoichiometric and Kinetic Considerations in Pathway Engineering 359 12.6 Synthetic Biology 367 12.6.1 Synthetic (Cell-Free) Biochemical Reaction System 367 12.6.2 Synthetic Circuits 369 12.6.2.1 Artificial Genetic Circuits 369 12.6.2.2 Synthetic Signaling Pathway 369 12.6.3 Synthetic Organisms 371 12.6.3.1 Minimum Genome and Reduced Genome 371 12.6.3.2 Chemical Synthesis of a Genome 372 12.6.3.3 Surrogate Cells from a Synthetic Genome 374 12.7 Concluding Remarks 374 Further Reading 374 Problems 375 13 Process Engineering of Bioproduct Recovery 381 13.1 Introduction 381 13.2 Characteristics of Biochemical Products 382 13.3 General Strategy of Bioproduct Recovery 385 13.3.1 Properties Used in Bioseparation 385 13.3.2 Stages in Bioseparation 387 13.3.2.1 Cell and Solid Removal 387 13.3.2.2 Product Isolation (Capture) and Volume Reduction 387 13.3.2.3 Product Purification 388 13.3.2.4 Product Polishing 388 13.4 Unit Operations in Bioseparation 389 13.4.1 Filtration 389 13.4.2 Centrifugation 390 13.4.3 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 393 13.4.4 Liquid Chromatography 395 13.4.5 Membrane Filtration 396 13.4.6 Precipitation and Crystallization 397 13.5 Examples of Industrial Bioseparation Processes 398 13.5.1 Recombinant Antibody IgG 398 13.5.2 Penicillin 401 13.5.3 Monosodium Glutamate 404 13.5.4 Cohn Fractionation 404 13.6 Concluding Remarks 404 Further Reading 406 Nomenclature 407 Problems 408 14 Chromatographic Operations in Bioseparation 413 14.1 Introduction 413 14.2 Adsorbent 415 14.2.1 Types of Adsorbent 415 14.2.2 Ligand and Mechanism of Separation 418 14.2.3 Types of Liquid Chromatography 419 14.3 Adsorption Isotherm 420 14.3.1 Adsorption Equilibrium: Langmuir Isotherm 420 14.3.2 Isotherm Dynamics in Adsorption and Desorption 421 14.4 Adsorption Chromatography 425 14.4.1 Discrete-Stage Analysis 425 14.4.2 Breakthrough Curve 427 14.4.3 An Empirical Two-Parameter Description of a Breakthrough Curve 429 14.4.4 One-Porosity Model for an Adsorption Process 431 14.4.5 Elution of Solutes from an Adsorption Column 433 14.5 Elution Chromatography 435 14.5.1 Discrete-Stage Analysis 435 14.5.2 Determination of Stage Number 441 14.5.3 Effect of Stage Number and Number of Theoretical Plates 442 14.5.4 Two-Porosity Model, Mass Transfer Limitation 444 14.6 Scale-Up and Continuous Operation 447 14.6.1 Mass Transfer Limitation and the van Deemter Equation 447 14.6.2 Scale-Up of Chromatography 448 14.6.3 Continuous Adsorption and Continuous Elution Chromatography 450 14.7 Concluding Remarks 454 Further Reading 454 Nomenclature 454 Problems 456 Index 471

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Book SynopsisFrom basic tenets to the latest advances, this is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the process of biodesulfurization in the petroleum refining industry. Petroleum refining and process engineering is constantly changing. No new refineries are being built, but companies all over the world are still expanding or re-purposing huge percentages of their refineries every year, year after year. Rather than building entirely new plants, companies are spending billions of dollars in the research and development of new processes that can save time and money by being more efficient and environmentally safer. Biodesulfurization is one of those processes, and nowhere else it is covered more thoroughly or with more up-to-date research of the new advances than in this new volume from Wiley-Scrivener. Besides the obvious benefits to biodesulfurization, there are new regulations in place within the industry with which companies will, over the next decade or longeTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Background 1 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 1 1.1 Petroleum 2 1.2 Petroleum Composition 7 1.2.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 8 1.2.2 Petroleum Non-Hydrocarbons 12 1.2.2.1 Problems Generated by Asphaltenes 14 1.3 Sulfur Compounds 15 1.4 Sulfur in Petroleum Major Refinery Products 20 1.4.1 Gasoline 20 1.4.2 Kerosene 23 1.4.3 Jet Fuel 23 1.4.4 Diesel Fuel 23 1.4.5 Heating/Fuel Oils 24 1.4.6 Bunker Oil 24 1.5 Sulfur Problem 25 1.6 Legislative Regulations of Sulfur Levels in Fuels 29 References 32 2 Desulfurization Technologies 39 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 39 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 Hydrodesulfurization 47 2.3 Oxidative Desulfurization 71 2.4 Selective Adsorption 108 2.5 Biocatalytic Desulfurization 127 2.5.1 Anaerobic Process 127 2.5.2 Aerobic Process 128 References 130 3 Biodesulfurization of Natural Gas 159 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 159 3.1 Introduction 161 3.2 Natural Gas Processing 169 3.3 Desulfurization Processes 183 3.3.1 Scavengers 183 3.3.2 Adsorption 187 3.3.3 Liquid Redox Processes 193 3.3.4 Claus Plants 195 3.3.4.1 Classic Claus Plant 196 3.3.4.2 Split-Flow Claus Plant 198 3.3.4.3 Oxygen Enrichment Claus Plant 199 3.3.4.4 Claus Plant Tail Gas 199 3.3.5 Absorption/Desorption Process 201 3.3.6 Biodesulfurization 203 3.3.6.1 Photoautotrophic Bacteria 206 3.3.6.2 Heterotrophic Bacteria 211 3.3.6.3 Chemotrophic Bacteria 212 3.3.7 Other Approaches Concerning the Biodesulfurization of Natural Gas 231 References 242 4 Microbial Denitrogenation of Petroleum and its Fractions 263 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 263 4.1 Introduction 265 4.2 Denitrogenation of Petroleum and its Fractions 269 4.2.1 Hydrodenitrogenation 269 4.2.2 Adsorptive Denitrogenation 272 4.2.3 Extractive and Catalytic Oxidative Denitrogenation 278 4.3 Microbial Attack of Nitrogen Polyaromatic Heterocyclic Compounds (NPAHs) 279 4.4 Enhancing Biodegradation of NPAHs by Magnetic Nanoparticles 295 4.5 Challenges and Opportunities for BDN in Petroleum Industries 300 References 307 5 Bioadsorptive Desulfurization of Liquid Fuels 327 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 327 5.1 Introduction 329 5.2 ADS by Agroindustrial-Wastes Activated Carbon 332 5.3 ADS on Modified Activated Carbon 342 5.4 ADS on Carbon Aerogels 352 5.5 ADS on Activated Carbon Fibers 353 5.6 ADS on Natural Clay and Zeolites 355 5.7 ADS on New Adsorbents Prepared from Different Biowastes 360 References 365 6 Microbial Attack of Organosulfur Compounds 375 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 375 6.1 Introduction 377 6.2 Biodegradation of Sulfur Compounds in the Environment 380 6.3 Microbial Attack on Non–Heterocyclic Sulfur–Containing Hydrocarbons 383 6.3.1 Alkyl and Aryl Sulfides 383 6.3.2 Non – Aromatic Cyclic Sulfur – Containing Hydrocarbons 386 6.4 Microbial Attack of Heterocyclic Sulfur – Hydrocarbons 388 6.4.1 Thiophenes 389 6.4.2 Benzothiophenes and Alkyl-Substituted Benzothiophenes 390 6.4.3 Naphthothiophenes 402 6.4.4 Dibenzothiophene and Alkyl-Substituted Dibenzothiophenes 406 6.4.4.1 Aerobic Biodesulfurization of DBT 406 6.4.4.2 Aerobic Biodesulfurization of Alkylated DBT 419 6.4.4.3 Anaerobic Biodesulfurization of DBT 421 6.5 Recent Elucidated DBT-BDS Pathways 422 References 439 7 Enzymology and Genetics of Biodesulfurization Process 459 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 459 7.1 Introduction 461 7.2 Genetics of PASHs BDS Pathway 462 7.2.1 Anaerobic BDS Pathway 462 7.2.2 Aerobic BDS Pathway 463 7.2.2.1 Kodama Pathway 463 7.2.2.2 Complete Degradation Pathway 464 7.2.2.3 4S-Pathway 466 7.3 The Desulfurization dsz Genes 468 7.4 Enzymes Involved in Specific Desulfurization of Thiophenic Compounds 472 7.4.1 The Dsz Enzymes 472 7.4.1.1 DszC Enzyme (DBT-Monooxygenase) 474 7.4.1.2 DszA Enzyme (DBTO2-Monooxygenase) 476 7.4.1.3 DszB Enzyme (HBPS- Desulfinase) 477 7.4.1.4 DszD Enzyme (Flavin-Oxidoreductase Enzyme) 478 7.5 Repression of dsz Genes 480 7.6 Recombinant Biocatalysts for BDS 484 References 506 8 Factors Affecting the Biodesulfurization Process 521 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 521 8.1 Introduction 524 8.2 Effect of Incubation Period 525 8.3 Effect of Temperature and pH 527 8.4 Effect of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration 530 8.5 Effect of Agitation Speed 532 8.6 Effect of Initial Biomass Concentration 536 8.7 Effect of Biocatalyst Age 538 8.8 Effect of Mass Transfer 541 8.9 Effect of Surfactant 541 8.10 Effect of Initial Sulfur Concentration 544 8.11 Effect of Type of S-Compounds 546 8.12 Effect of Organic Solvent and Oil to Water Phase Ratio 553 8.13 Effect of Medium Composition 560 8.14 Effect of Growing and Resting Cells 579 8.15 Inhibitory Effect of Byproducts 580 8.16 Statistical Optimization 590 References 616 9 Kinetics of Batch Biodesulfurization Process 639 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 639 9.1 Introduction 642 9.2 General Background 643 9.2.1 Phases of Microbial Growth 643 9.2.1.1 The Lag Phase 644 9.2.1.2 The Log Phase 644 9.2.1.3 The Stationary Phase 645 9.2.1.4 The Decline Phase 645 9.2.2 Modeling of Population Growth as a Function of Incubation Time 645 9.3 Microbial Growth Kinetics 645 9.3.1 Exponential Growth Model 645 9.3.2 Logistic Growth Model 648 9.4 Some of the Classical Kinetic Models Applied in BDS-Studies 650 9.5 Factors Affecting the Rate of Microbial Growth 651 9.5.1 Effect of Temperature 651 9.5.2 Effect of pH 654 9.5.3 Effect of Oxygen 654 9.6 Enzyme Kinetics 654 9.6.1 Basic Enzyme Reactions 656 9.6.2 Factors Affecting the Enzyme Activity 657 9.6.2.1 Enzyme Concentration 657 9.6.2.2 Substrate Concentration 658 9.6.2.3 Effect of Inhibitors on Enzyme Activity 659 9.6.2.4 Effect of Temperature 660 9.6.2.5 Effect of pH 661 9.7 Michaelis-Menten Equation 662 9.7.1 Direct Integration Procedure 664 9.7.2 Lineweaver-Burk Plot Method 666 9.7.3 Eadie-Hofstee 666 9.8 Kinetics of a Multi-Substrates System 667 9.9 Traditional 4S-Pathway 668 9.9.1 Formulation of a Kinetic Model for DBT Desulfurization According to 4S-Pathway 669 9.10 Different Kinetic Studies on the Parameters Affecting the BDS Process 673 9.11 Evaluation of the Tested Biocatalysts 734 9.11.1 Kinetics of the Overall Biodesulfurization Reaction 735 9.11.2 Maximum Percentage of Desulfurization (XMAXBDS %) 735 9.11.3 Time for Maximum Biodesulfurization tBDSmax (min) 735 9.11.4 Initial DBT Removal Rate RODBT (μmol/L/min) 736 9.11.5 Maximum Productivity PMAXBDS (%/min) 736 9.11.6 Specific Conversion Rate (SE %L/g/min) 736 References 737 10 Enhancement of BDS Efficiency 753 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 753 10.1 Introduction 756 10.2 Isolation of Selective Biodesulfurizing Microorganisms with Broad Versatility on Different S-Compounds 757 10.2.1 Anaerobic Biodesulfurizing Microorganisms 758 10.2.2 Bacteria Capable of Aerobic Selective DBT-BDS 759 10.2.3 Microorganisms with Selective BDS of Benzothiophene and Dibenzothiophene 769 10.2.4 Microorganisms with Methoxylation Pathway 770 10.2.5 Microorganisms with High Tolerance for Oil/Water Phase Ratio 771 10.2.6 Thermotolerant Microorganisms with Selective BDS Capability 772 10.2.7 BDS Using Yeast and Fungi 776 10.3 Genetics and its Role in Improvement of BDS Process 778 10.4 Overcoming the Repression Effects of Byproducts 789 10.5 Enzymatic Oxidation of Organosulfur Compounds 793 10.6 Enhancement of Biodesulfurization via Immobilization 795 10.6.1 Types of Immobilization 800 10.6.1.1 Adsorption 800 10.6.1.2 Covalent Binding 809 10.6.1.3 Encapsulation 809 10.6.1.4 Entrapment 810 10.7 Application of Nano-Technology in BDS Process 826 10.8 Role of Analytical Techniques in BDS 849 10.8.1 Gas Chromatography 850 10.8.1.1 Determination of Sulfur Compounds by GC 850 10.8.1.2 Assessment of Biodegradation 851 10.8.2 Presumptive Screening for Desulfurization and Identification of BDS Pathway 852 10.8.2.1 Gibb’s Assay 853 10.8.2.2 Phenol Assay 853 10.8.3 More Advanced Screening for Desulfurization and Identification of BDS Pathway 854 10.8.3.1 High Performance Liquid Chromatography 854 10.8.3.2 X-ray Sulfur Meter and other Techniques for Determining Total Sulfur Content 855 References 857 11 Biodesulfurization of Real Oil Feed 895 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 895 11.1 Introduction 897 11.2 Biodesulfurization of Crude Oil 903 11.3 Biodesulfurization of Different Oil Distillates 909 11.4 BDS of Crude Oil and its Distillates by Thermophilic Microorganisms 921 11.5 Application of Yeast and Fungi in BDS of Real Oil Feed 923 11.6 Biocatalytic Oxidation 924 11.7 Anaerobic BDS of Real Oil Feed 926 11.8 Deep Desulfurization of Fuel Streams by Integrating Microbial with Non-Microbial Methods 928 11.8.1 BDS as a Complement to HDS 928 11.8.2 BDS as a Complementary to ADS 939 11.8.3 Coupling Non-Hydrodesulfurization with BDS 945 11.8.4 Three Step BDS-ODS-RADS 945 11.9 BDS of other Petroleum Products 946 References 952 12 Challenges and Opportunities 973 List of Abbreviations and Nomenclature 973 12.1 Introduction 975 12.2 New Strains with Broad Versatility 983 12.3 New Strains with Higher Hydrocarbon Tolerance 990 12.4 Overcoming the Feedback Inhibition of the End-Products 994 12.5 Biodesulfurization under Thermophilic Conditions 995 12.6 Anaerobic Biodesulfurization 997 12.7 Biocatalytic Oxidation 1000 12.8 Perspectives for Enhancing the Rate of BDS 1001 12.8.1 Application of Genetics in BDS 1002 12.8.2 Implementation of Resting Cells 1009 12.8.3 Microbial Consortium and BDS 1011 12.8.4 Surfactants and BDS 1014 12.8.5 Application of Nanotechnology in the BDS Process 1017 12.9 Production of Valuable Products 1028 12.10 Storage of Fuel and Sulfur 1031 12.11 Process Engineering Research 1033 12.12 BDS Process of Real Oil Feed 1053 12.13 BDS as a Complementary Technology 1061 12.14 Future Perspectives 1063 12.15 Techno-Economic Studies 1066 12.16 Economic Feasibility 1068 12.17 Fields of Developments 1077 12.18 BDS Now and Then 1080 12.19 Conclusion 1083 References 1084 Glossary 1119 Index 1155

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Book SynopsisA guide to all practical aspects of building, implementing, managing, and maintaining MPC applications in industrial plants Multivariable Predictive Control: Applications in Industry provides engineers with a thorough understanding of all practical aspects of multivariate predictive control (MPC) applications, as well as expert guidance on how to derive maximum benefit from those systems. Short on theory and long on step-by-step information, it covers everything plant process engineers and control engineers need to know about building, deploying, and managing MPC applications in their companies. MPC has more than proven itself to be one the most important tools for optimising plant operations on an ongoing basis. Companies, worldwide, across a range of industries are successfully using MPC systems to optimise materials and utility consumption, reduce waste, minimise pollution, and maximise production. Unfortunately, due in part to the lack of practical reTable of ContentsFigure List xix Table List xxi Preface xxiii 1 Introduction of Model Predictive Control 1 1.1 Purpose of Process Control in Chemical Process Industries (CPI) 1 1.2 Shortcomings of Simple Regulatory PID Control 2 1.3 What Is Multivariable Model Predictive Control? 3 1.4 Why Is a Multivariable Model Predictive Optimizing Controller Necessary? 4 1.5 Relevance of Multivariable Predictive Control (MPC) in Chemical Process Industry in Today’s Business Environment 6 1.6 Position of MPC in Control Hierarchy 6 1.6.1 Regulatory PID Control Layer 6 1.6.2 Advance Regulatory Control (ARC) Layer 8 1.6.3 Multivariable Model‐Based Control 8 1.6.4 Economic Optimization Layer 8 1.6.4.1 First Layer of Optimization 8 1.6.4.2 Second Layer of Optimization 9 1.6.4.3 Third Layer of Optimization 9 1.7 Advantage of Implementing MPC 10 1.8 How Does MPC Extract Benefit? 13 1.8.1 MPC Inherent Stabilization Effect 13 1.8.2 Process Interactions 14 1.8.3 Multiple Constraints 15 1.8.4 Intangible Benefits of MPC 17 1.9 Application of MPC in Oil Refinery, Petrochemical, Fertilizer, and Chemical Plants, and Related Benefits 17 2 Theoretical Base of MPC 23 2.1 Why MPC? 23 2.2 Variables Used in MPC 25 2.2.1 Manipulated Variables (MVs) 25 2.2.2 Controlled Variables (CVs) 25 2.2.3 Disturbance Variables (DVs) 25 2.3 Features of MPC 26 2.3.1 MPC Is a Multivariable Controller 26 2.3.2 MPC Is a Model Predictive Controller 26 2.3.3 MPC Is a Constrained Controller 26 2.3.4 MPC Is an Optimizing Controller 27 2.3.5 MPC Is a Rigorous Controller 27 2.4 Brief Introduction to Model Predictive Control Techniques 27 2.4.1 Simplified Dynamic Control Strategy of MPC 28 2.4.2 Step 1: Read Process Input and Output 29 2.4.3 Step 2: Prediction of CVs 30 2.4.3.1 Building Dynamic Process Model 30 2.4.3.2 How MPC Predicts the Future 32 2.4.4 Step 3: Model Reconciliation 33 2.4.5 Step 4: Determine the Size of the Control Process 34 2.4.6 Step 5: Removal of Ill‐Conditioned Problems 34 2.4.7 Step 6: Optimum Steady‐State Targets 35 2.4.8 Step 7: Develop Detailed Plan of MV Movement 36 3 Historical Development of Different MPC Technology 43 3.1 History of MPC Technology 43 3.1.1 Pre‐Era 43 3.1.1.1 Developer 43 3.1.1.2 Motivation 44 3.1.1.3 Limitations 44 3.1.2 First Generation of MPC (1970–1980) 44 3.1.2.1 Characteristics of First‐Generation MPC Technology 44 3.1.2.2 IDCOM Algorithm and Its Features 45 3.1.2.3 DMC Algorithm and Its Features 46 3.1.3 Second‐Generation MPC (1980–1985) 46 3.1.4 Third‐Generation MPC (1985–1990) 47 3.1.4.1 Distinguishing Features of Third‐Generation MPC Algorithm 48 3.1.4.2 Distinguishing Features of the IDCOM‐M Algorithm 49 3.1.4.3 Evolution of SMOC 50 3.1.4.4 Distinctive Features of SMOC 50 3.1.5 Fourth‐Generation MPC (1990–2000) 50 3.1.5.1 Distinctive Features of Fourth‐Generation MPC 51 3.1.6 Fifth‐Generation MPC (2000–2015) 51 3.2 Points to Consider While Selecting an MPC 52 4 MPC Implementation Steps 55 4.1 Implementing a MPC Controller 55 4.1.1 Step 1: Preliminary Cost–Benefit Analysis 55 4.1.2 Step 2: Assessment of Base Control Loops 55 4.1.3 Step 3: Functional Design of Controller 56 4.1.4 Step 4: Conduct the Preliminary Plant Test (Pre‐Stepping) 57 4.1.5 Step 5: Conduct the Plant Step Test 57 4.1.6 Step 6: Identify a Process Model 57 4.1.7 Step 7: Generate Online Soft Sensors or Virtual Sensors 58 4.1.8 Step 8: Perform Offline Controller Simulation/Tuning 58 4.1.9 Step 9: Commission the Online Controller 58 4.1.10 Step 10: Online MPC Controller Tuning 59 4.1.11 Step 11: Hold Formal Operator Training 59 4.1.12 Step 12: Performance Monitoring of MPC Controller 59 4.1.13 Step 13: Maintain the MPC Controller 60 4.2 Summary of Steps Involved in MPC Projects with Vendor 60 5 Cost–Benefit Analysis of MPC before Implementation 63 5.1 Purpose of Cost–Benefit Analysis of MPC before Implementation 63 5.2 Overview of Cost–Benefit Analysis Procedure 64 5.3 Detailed Benefit Estimation Procedures 65 5.3.1 Initial Screening for Suitability of Process to Implement MPC 65 5.3.2 Process Analysis and Economics Analysis 66 5.3.3 Understand the Constraints 67 5.3.4 Identify Qualitatively Potential Area of Opportunities 67 5.3.4.1 Example 1: Air Separation Plant 68 5.3.4.2 Example 2: Distillation Columns 69 5.3.5 Collect All Relevant Plant and Economic Data (Trends, Records) 69 5.3.6 Calculate the Standard Deviation and Define the Limit 69 5.3.7 Estimate the Stabilizing Effect of MPC and Shift in the Average 70 5.3.7.1 Benefit Estimation: When the Constraint Is Known 71 5.3.7.2 Benefit Estimation: When the Constraint Is Not Well Known or Changing 72 5.3.8 Estimate Change in Key Performance Parameters Such as Yield, Throughput, and Energy Consumption 72 5.3.8.1 Example: Ethylene Oxide Reactor 72 5.3.9 Identify How This Effect Translates to Plant Profit Margin 73 5.3.10 Estimate the Economic Value of the Effect 73 5.4 Case Studies 73 5.4.1 Case Study 1 73 5.4.1.1 Benefit Estimation Procedure 73 5.4.2 Case Study 2 74 5.4.2.1 Benefit Estimation Procedure 74 6 Assessment of Regulatory Base Control Layer in Plants 77 6.1 Failure Mode of Control Loops and Their Remedies 77 6.2 Control Valve Problems 77 6.2.1 Improper Valve Sizing 78 6.2.1.1 How to Detect a Particular Control Valve Sizing Problem 78 6.2.2 Valve Stiction 79 6.2.2.1 What Is Control Valve Stiction? 79 6.2.2.2 How to Detect Control Valve Stiction Online 80 6.2.2.3 Combating Stiction 80 6.2.2.4 Techniques for Combating Stiction Online 80 6.2.3 Valve Hysteresis and Backlash 81 6.3 Sensor Problems 82 6.3.1 Noisy 82 6.3.2 Flatlining 82 6.3.3 Scale/Range 82 6.3.4 Calibration 82 6.3.5 Overfiltered 83 6.4 Controller Problems 83 6.4.1 Poor Tuning and Lack of Maintenance 83 6.4.2 Poor or Missing Feedforward Compensation 83 6.4.3 Inappropriate Control Structure 84 6.5 Process‐Related Problems 84 6.5.1 Problems of Variable Gain 84 6.5.2 Oscillations 84 6.5.2.1 Variable Valve Gain 85 6.5.2.2 Variable Process Gain 85 6.6 Human Factor 85 6.7 Control Performance Assessment/Monitoring 86 6.7.1 Available Software for Control Performance Monitoring 86 6.7.2 Basic Assessment Procedure 87 6.8 Commonly Used Control System Performance KPIs 87 6.8.1 Traditional Indices 88 6.8.1.1 Peak Overshoot Ratio (POR) 88 6.8.1.2 Decay Rate 88 6.8.1.3 Peak Time and Rise Time 88 6.8.1.4 Settling Time 88 6.8.1.5 Integral of Error Indexes 88 6.8.2 Simple Statistical Indices 88 6.8.2.1 Mean of Control Error (%) 89 6.8.2.2 Standard Deviation of Control Error (%) 89 6.8.2.3 Standard Variation of Control Error (%) 89 6.8.2.4 Standard Deviation of Controller Output (%) 89 6.8.2.5 Skewness of Control Error 89 6.8.2.6 Kurtosis of Control Error 89 6.8.2.7 Ratio of Standard of Control Error and Controller Output 89 6.8.2.8 Maximum Bicoherence 90 6.8.3 Business/Operational Metrics 90 6.8.3.1 Loop Health 90 6.8.3.2 Service Factor 90 6.8.3.3 Key Performance Indicators 90 6.8.3.4 Operational Performance Efficiency Factor 90 6.8.3.5 Overall Loop Performance Index 90 6.8.3.6 Controller Output Changes in Manual 90 6.8.3.7 Mode Changes 90 6.8.3.8 Totalized Valve Reversals and Valve Travel 90 6.8.3.9 Process Model Parameters 90 6.8.4 Advanced Indices 90 6.8.4.1 Harris Index 91 6.8.4.2 Nonlinearity Index 91 6.8.4.3 Oscillation‐Detection Indices 91 6.8.4.4 Disturbance Detection Indices 92 6.8.4.5 Autocorrelation Indices 92 6.9 Tuning for PID Controllers 92 6.9.1 Complications with Tuning PID Controllers 93 6.9.2 Loop Retuning 93 6.9.3 Classical Controller Tuning Algorithms 94 6.9.3.1 Controller Tuning Methods 94 6.9.3.2 Ziegler‐Nichols Tuning Method 94 6.9.3.3 Dahlin (Lambda) Tuning Method 94 6.9.4 Manual Controller Tuning Methods in Absence of Any Software 95 6.9.4.1 Pre‐Tuning 95 6.9.4.2 Bring in Baseline Parameters 97 6.9.4.3 Some Like It Simple 97 6.9.4.4 Tuning Cascade Control 98 7 Functional Design of MPC Controllers 101 7.1 What Is Functional Design? 101 7.2 Steps in Functional Design 102 7.2.1 Step 1: Define Process Control Objectives 102 7.2.1.1 Economic Objectives 102 7.2.1.2 Operating Objectives 103 7.2.1.3 Control Objectives 104 7.2.2 Step 2: Identify Process Constraints 104 7.2.2.1 Process Limitations 104 7.2.2.2 Safety Limitations 104 7.2.2.3 Process Instrument Limitations 105 7.2.2.4 Raw Material and Utility Supply Limitation 105 7.2.2.5 Product Limitations 105 7.2.3 Step 3: Define Controller Scope 105 7.2.4 Step 4: Select the Variables 106 7.2.4.1 Economics of the Unit 106 7.2.4.2 Constraints of the Unit 107 7.2.4.3 Control of the Unit 107 7.2.4.4 Manipulated Variables (MVs) 107 7.2.4.5 Controlled Variables (CVs) 107 7.2.4.6 Disturbance Variables (DVs) 108 7.2.4.7 Practical Guidelines for Variable Selections 108 7.2.5 Step 5: Rectify Regulatory Control Issues 109 7.2.5.1 Practical Guidelines for Changing Regulatory Controller Strategy 109 7.2.6 Step 6: Explore the Scope of Inclusions of Inferential Calculations 110 7.2.7 Step 7: Evaluate Potential Optimization Opportunity 110 7.2.7.1 Practical Guidelines for Finding out Optimization Opportunities 111 7.2.8 Step 8: Define LP or QP Objective Function 111 7.2.8.1 CDU Example 112 8 Preliminary Process Test and Step Test 113 8.1 Pre‐Stepping, or Preliminary Process Test 113 8.1.1 What Is Pre‐Stepping? 113 8.1.2 Objective of Pre‐Stepping 113 8.1.3 Prerequisites of Pre‐Stepping 113 8.1.4 Pre‐Stepping 114 8.2 Step Testing 115 8.2.1 What Is a Step Test? 115 8.2.2 What Is the Purpose of a Step Test? 115 8.2.3 Details of Step Testing 116 8.2.3.1 Administrative Aspects 116 8.2.3.2 Technical Aspects 116 8.2.4 Different Step‐Testing Method 117 8.2.4.1 Manual Step Testing 117 8.2.4.2 PRBS (Pseudo Random Binary Sequence) 117 8.2.4.3 General Guidelines of PRBS Test 117 8.2.5 Difference between Normal Step Testing and PRBS Testing 118 8.2.6 Which One to Choose? 118 8.2.7 Dos and Don’ts of Step Testing 118 8.3 Development of Step‐Testing Methodology over the Years 120 9 Model Building and System Identification 123 9.1 Introduction to Model Building 123 9.2 Key Issues in Model Identifications 124 9.2.1 Identification Test 124 9.2.2 Model Structure and Parameter Estimation 125 9.2.3 Order Selection 126 9.2.4 Model Validation 127 9.3 The Basic Steps of System Identification 127 9.3.1 Step 0: Experimental Design and Execution 128 9.3.2 Step 1: Plan the Case that Needs to Be Modeled 130 9.3.2.1 Action 1 130 9.3.2.2 Action 2 130 9.3.3 Step 2: Identify Good Slices of Data 130 9.3.3.1 Looking at the Data 131 9.3.4 Step 3: Pre‐Processing of Data 131 9.3.5 Step 4: Identification of Model Curve 132 9.3.5.1 Hybrid Approach to System Identification 132 9.3.5.2 Direct Modeling Approach of System Identification 133 9.3.5.3 Subspace Identification 134 9.3.5.4 Detailed Steps of Implementations 135 9.3.6 Step 5: Select Final Model 136 9.4 Model Structures 137 9.4.1 FIR Models 138 9.4.1.1 FIR Structures 138 9.4.2 Prediction Error Models (PEM Models) 139 9.4.2.1 PEM Structures 139 9.4.3 Model for Order and Variance Reduction 140 9.4.3.1 ARX Parametric Models (Discrete Time) 140 9.4.3.2 Output Error Models (Discrete Time) 140 9.4.3.3 Laplace Domain Parametric Models 141 9.4.3.4 Final Model Form 141 9.4.4 State‐Space Models 141 9.4.5 How to Know Which Structure and Method to Use 142 9.5 Common Features of Commercial Identification Packages 142 10 Soft Sensors 145 10.1 What Is a Soft Sensor? 145 10.2 Why Soft Sensors Are Necessary 145 10.2.1 Process Monitoring and Process Fault Detection 146 10.2.2 Sensor Fault Detection and Reconstruction 146 10.2.3 Use of Soft Sensors in MPC Application 146 10.3 Types of Soft Sensors 147 10.3.1 First Principle‐Based Soft Sensors 147 10.3.1.1 Advantages 147 10.3.1.2 Disadvantages 147 10.3.2 Data‐Driven Soft Sensors 148 10.3.2.1 Advantages 148 10.3.2.2 Disadvantages 148 10.3.3 Gray Model‐Based Soft Sensors 148 10.3.3.1 Advantages 149 10.3.4 Hybrid Model‐Based Soft Sensors 149 10.3.4.1 Advantages 149 10.4 Soft Sensors Development Methodology 149 10.4.1 Data Collection and Data Inspection 149 10.4.2 Data Preprocessing and Data Conditioning 150 10.4.2.1 Outlier Detection and Replacement 151 10.4.2.2 Univariate Approach to Detect Outliers 151 10.4.2.3 Multivariate Approach to Detect Outliers (Lin 2007) 151 10.4.2.4 Handling of Missing Data 152 10.4.3 Selection of Relevant Input Output Variables 153 10.4.4 Data Alignment 153 10.4.5 Model Selection, Training, and Validation (Kadlec 2009; Lin 2007) 153 10.4.6 Analyze Process Dynamics 154 10.4.7 Deployment and Maintenance 155 10.5 Data‐Driven Methods for Soft Sensing 156 10.5.1 Principle Component Analysis 156 10.5.1.1 The Basics of PCA 156 10.5.1.2 Why Do We Need to Rotate the Data? 156 10.5.1.3 How Do We Generate Principal Components? 156 10.5.1.4 Steps to Calculating Principal Components 157 10.5.2 Partial Least Squares 157 10.5.3 Artificial Neural Networks 158 10.5.3.1 Network Architecture 159 10.5.3.2 Back Propagation Algorithm (BPA) 159 10.5.4 Neuro‐Fuzzy Systems 160 10.5.5 Support Vector Machines 161 10.5.5.1 Support Vector Regression–Based Modeling 161 10.6 Open Issues and Future Steps of Soft Sensor Development 162 10.6.1 Large Effort Required for Preprocessing of Industrial Data 162 10.6.2 Which Modeling Method to Choose? 163 10.6.3 Agreement of the Developed Model with Physics of the Process 163 10.6.4 Performance Deterioration of Developed Soft Sensor Model 163 11 Offline Simulation 167 11.1 What Is Offline Simulation? 167 11.2 Purpose of Offline Simulation 167 11.3 Main Task of Offline Simulation 168 11.4 Understanding Different Tuning Parameters of Offline Simulations 168 11.4.1 Tuning Parameters for CVs 169 11.4.1.1 Methods for Handling of Infeasibility 170 11.4.1.2 Priority Ranking of CVs 170 11.4.1.3 cv Give‐Up 170 11.4.1.4 cv Error Weight 170 11.4.2 Tuning Parameters for MVs 171 11.4.2.1 mv Maximum Movement Limits or Rate‐of‐Change Limits 171 11.4.2.2 Movement Weights 171 11.4.3 Tuning Parameters for Optimizer 172 11.4.3.1 Economic Optimization 172 11.4.3.2 General Form of Objective Function 173 11.4.3.3 Weighting Coefficients 173 11.4.3.4 Setting Linear Objective Coefficients 173 11.4.3.5 Optimization Horizon and Optimization Speed Factor 174 11.4.3.6 Optimization Speed Factor 174 11.4.3.7 mv Optimization Priority 174 11.4.4 Soft Limits 175 11.4.4.1 How Soft Limits Work 175 11.4.4.2 cv Soft Limits 175 11.4.4.3 mv Soft Limits 176 11.5 Different Steps to Build and Activate Simulator in an Offline PC 176 11.6 Example of Tests Carried out in Simulator 177 11.6.1 Control and Optimization Objectives 177 11.6.1.1 Test 1 178 11.6.1.2 Test 2 179 11.6.1.3 Test 3 179 11.6.1.4 Test 4 180 11.6.1.5 Test 5 180 11.6.1.6 Test 6 180 11.6.1.7 Others Tests 181 11.7 Guidelines for Choosing Tuning Parameters 181 11.7.1 Guidelines for Choosing Initial Values 181 11.7.2 How to Select Maximum Move Size and MV Movement Weights During Simulation Study 182 12 Online Deployment of MPC Application in Real Plants 183 12.1 What Is Online Deployment (Controller Commissioning)? 183 12.2 Steps for Controller Commissioning 183 12.2.1 Set up the Controller Configuration and Final Review of the Model 183 12.2.2 Build the Controller 184 12.2.3 Load Operator Station on PC Near the Panel Operator 184 12.2.4 Take MPC Controller in Line with Prediction Mode 186 12.2.5 Put the MPC Controller in Close Loop with One CV at a Time 187 12.2.6 Observe MPC Controller Performance 187 12.2.7 Put Optimizer in Line and Observe Optimizer Performance 189 12.2.8 Evaluate Overall Controller Performance 189 12.2.9 Perform Online Tuning and Troubleshooting 190 12.2.10 Train Operators and Engineers on Online Platform 190 12.2.11 Document MPC Features 190 12.2.12 Maintain the MPC Controller 191 13 Online Controller Tuning 193 13.1 What Is Online MPC Controller Tuning? 193 13.2 Basics of Online Tuning 193 13.2.1 Key Checkout Regarding Controller Performance 193 13.2.2 Steps to Troubleshoot the Problem 194 13.3 Guidelines to Choose Different Tuning Parameters 195 14 Why Do Some MPC Applications Fail? 199 14.1 What Went Wrong? 199 14.2 Failure to Build Efficient MPC Application 201 14.2.1 Historical Perspective 201 14.2.2 Capability of MPC Software to Capture Benefits 202 14.2.3 Expertise of Implementation Team 202 14.2.3.1 MPC Vendor Limitations 203 14.2.3.2 Client Limitations 204 14.2.4 Reliability of APC Project Methodology 204 14.3 Contributing Failure Factors of Postimplementation MPC Application 205 14.3.1 Technical Failure Factors 206 14.3.1.1 Lack of Performance Monitoring of MPC Application 206 14.3.1.2 Unresolved Basic Control Problems 206 14.3.1.3 Poor Tuning and Degraded Model Quality 207 14.3.1.4 Problems Related to Controller Design 207 14.3.1.5 Significant Process Modifications and Enhancement 207 14.3.2 Nontechnical Failure Factors 208 14.3.2.1 Lack of Properly Trained Personnel 208 14.3.2.2 Lack of Standards and Guidelines to MPC Support Personnel 208 14.3.2.3 Lack of Organizational Collaboration and Alignment 208 14.3.2.4 Poor Management of Control System 209 14.4 Strategies to Avoid MPC Failures 210 14.4.1 Technical Solutions 211 14.4.1.1 Development of Online Performance Monitoring of APC Applications 211 14.4.1.2 Improvement of Base Control Layer 212 14.4.1.3 Tuning Basic Controls 212 14.4.1.4 Control Performance Monitoring Software 213 14.4.2 Management Solutions 214 14.4.2.1 Training of MPC Console Operators 214 14.4.2.2 Training of MPC Control Engineers 215 14.4.2.3 Development of Corporate MPC Standards and Guidelines 216 14.4.2.4 Central Engineering Support Organization for MPC 217 14.4.3 Outsourcing Solutions 219 15 MPC Performance Monitoring 221 15.1 Why Performance Assessment of MPC Application Is Necessary 221 15.2 Types of Performance Assessment 222 15.2.1 Control Performance 222 15.2.2 Optimization Performance 222 15.2.3 Economic Performance 222 15.2.4 Intangible Performance 222 15.3 Benefit Measurement after MPC Implementation 222 15.4 Parameters to Be Monitored for MPC Performance Evaluation 223 15.4.1 Service Factors 224 15.4.2 KPI for Financial Criteria 224 15.4.3 KPI for Standard Deviation of Key Process Variable 225 15.4.3.1 Safety Parameters 225 15.4.3.2 Quality Giveaway Parameters 225 15.4.3.3 Economic Parameters 225 15.4.4 KPI for Constraint Activity 226 15.4.5 KPI for Constraint Violation 226 15.4.6 KPI for Inferential Model Monitoring 226 15.4.7 Model Quality 226 15.4.8 Limit Change Frequencies for CV/MVs 227 15.4.9 Active MV Limit 227 15.4.10 Long‐Term Performance Monitoring of MPC 227 15.5 KPIs to Troubleshoot Poor Performance of Multivariable Controls 228 15.5.1 Supporting KPIs for Low Service Factor 228 15.5.2 KPIs to Troubleshoot Cycling 229 15.5.3 KPIs for Oscillation Detection 230 15.5.4 KPIs for Regulatory Control Issues 230 15.5.5 KPIs for Measuring Operator Actions 231 15.5.6 KPIs for Measuring Process Changes and Disturbances 231 15.6 Exploitation of Constraints Handling and Maximization of MPC Benefit 231 16 Commercial MPC Vendors and Applications 235 16.1 Basic Modules and Components of Commercial MPC Software 235 16.1.1 Basic MPC Package 235 16.1.2 Data Collection Module 236 16.1.3 MPC Online Controller 236 16.1.4 Operator/ Engineer Station 237 16.1.5 System Identification Module 237 16.1.5.1 Different Modeling Options 239 16.1.5.2 Reporting and Documentation Function 239 16.1.5.3 Data Analysis and Pre‐Processing 239 16.1.6 PC‐Based Offline Simulation Package 240 16.1.7 Control Performance Monitoring and Diagnostics Software 240 16.1.7.1 Control Performance Monitoring 240 16.1.7.2 Basic Features of Performance Monitoring and Diagnostics Software 240 16.1.7.3 Performance and Benefits Metrics 241 16.1.7.4 Offline Module 241 16.1.7.5 Online Package 241 16.1.7.6 Online Reports 241 16.1.8 Soft Sensor Module (Also Called Quality Estimator Module) 242 16.1.8.1 Soft Sensor Offline Package 242 16.1.8.2 Soft Sensor Online Package 243 16.1.8.3 Soft Sensor Module Simulation Tool 243 16.2 Major Commercial MPC Software 243 16.3 AspenTech and DMCplus 244 16.3.1 Brief History of Development 244 16.3.1.1 Enhancement of DMC Technology to QDMC Technology in 1983, Regarded as Second‐Generation of MPC Technology (1980–1985) 244 16.3.1.2 Introduction of AspenTech and Evolvement of Third‐Generation MPC Technology (1985–1990) 245 16.3.1.3 Appearance of DMCplus Product with Fourth‐Generation MPC Technology (1990–2000) 245 16.3.1.4 Improvement of DMCplus Technology for Quicker Implementation in Shop Floor, Regarded as Fifth‐Generation MPC (2000–2015) 245 16.3.2 DMCplus Product Package 246 16.3.2.1 Aspen DMCplus Desktop 246 16.3.2.2 Aspen DMCplus Online 246 16.3.2.3 DMCplus Models and Identification Package 247 16.3.2.4 Aspen IQ (Soft Sensor Software) 247 16.3.2.5 Aspen Watch: AspenTech MPC Monitoring and Diagnostic Software 247 16.3.3 Distinctive Features of DMCplus Software Package 248 16.3.3.1 Automating Best Practices in Process Unit Step Testing 248 16.3.3.2 Adaptive Modeling 248 16.3.3.3 New Innovation 249 16.3.3.4 Background Step Testing 250 16.4 RMPCT by Honeywell 251 16.4.1 Brief History of Development 251 16.4.2 Honeywell MPC Product Package and Its Special Features 251 16.4.3 Key Features and Functions of RMPCT 251 16.4.3.1 Special Feature to Handle Model Error 251 16.4.3.2 Coping with Model Error 252 16.4.3.3 Funnels 252 16.4.3.4 Range Control Algorithm 252 16.4.4 Product Value Optimization Capabilities 252 16.4.5 “One‐Knob” Tuning 253 16.5 SMOC–Shell Global Solution 253 16.5.1 Evolution of Advance Process Control in Shell 253 16.5.1.1 1975–1998: The Beginnings 253 16.5.1.2 1998–2008: Shell Global Solution and Partnering with Yokogawa Era 254 16.5.1.3 2008 Onward: Shell Returns to Its Own Application 254 16.5.2 Shell MPC Product Package and Its Special Features 255 16.5.2.1 Key Characteristics of SMOC 255 16.5.2.2 Applications 255 16.5.3 SMOC Integrated Software Modules 255 16.5.3.1 AIDA Pro Offline Modeling Package 256 16.5.3.2 md Pro 256 16.5.3.3 RQE Pro 256 16.5.3.4 SMOC Pro 257 16.5.4 SMOC Claim of Superior Distinctive Features 259 16.5.4.1 Integrated Dynamic Modeling Tools and Automatic Step Tests 259 16.5.4.2 State‐of‐the‐Art Online Commissioning Tools 259 16.5.4.3 Online Tuning 259 16.5.4.4 Advance Regulatory Controls 260 16.5.4.5 Features of New Product 260 16.6 Conclusion 261 Index 263

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Book SynopsisThe revised edition of the guide to environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products The revised and updated second edition of Pharma-Ecologyjoins the health and environmental sciences professions'' concern over the occurrence and fate of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environment and explores how to best minimize their impact. The text highlights the biological effects of various classes of pharmaceutical compounds under clinical settings, their modes of action, and approximate quantities consumed. The second edition contains the most recent knowledge about the ecological impact of PPCPs as more sensitive detection techniques have become available, since the book was first published. The second edition offers the most up-to-date information on pharma ecology and bridges the gap between medicine, public health, and environmental science. This new edition contains helpful learning objectives for each chapter, as Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 Usage of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products 1 1.1 Pharmaceutical Consumption Trends 9 Study Questions 11 References 12 2 Most Prescribed Pharmaceuticals and Related Endpoints 15 2.1 Antihypertensive and Cardiovascular 16 2.2 Anxiolytic Sedatives, Hypnotics, and Antipsychotics 21 2.3 Analgesics and Anti‐inflammatory Drugs 29 Study Questions 33 References 33 3 Usage of Antimicrobial Agents and Related Endpoints 39 3.1 Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibiting Antibiotics 41 3.2 Inhibitors of Protein Synthesis 46 3.3 Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors 60 3.4 Antagonism to Metabolic Processes 67 3.5 Antibiotics that Disrupt Membrane Integrity 68 3.6 Other Antimicrobials 69 Study Questions 70 References 70 4 Usage of Other Groups of Pharmaceuticals and Related Endpoints 75 4.1 Gastrointestinal Drugs 76 4.2 Antidiabetic Drugs 78 4.3 Diuretics and Electrolytes 79 4.4 Thyroid System Medication 81 4.5 Respiratory Drugs 82 4.6 Oral Contraceptive and Reproductive Therapeutics 84 4.7 Biophosphonates and Other Skeletal Ailment Drugs 90 4.8 Steroids 91 4.9 Hematologic Drugs 94 4.10 Nutritional Drugs 94 4.11 Triptans 95 4.12 Anesthetics 96 4.13 Antineoplastics and Immunosuppressants 97 Study Questions 98 References 98 5 Personal Care Products of Environmental Concern 103 5.1 Fragrances and Musks 104 5.2 Ultraviolet Light Filters 111 5.3 Detergents 111 5.4 Disinfectants 114 Study Questions 115 References 116 6 Detection and Occurrence of PPCPs in the Environment 119 6.1 Detection of PPCPs in the Environment 123 6.1.1 Detection Using Instrumentation 126 6.1.2 Detection Using Bioassays 127 6.2 Occurrence of PPCPs in Various Environments 131 6.2.1 Aquatic Systems 133 6.2.1.1 PPCPs in Wastewater 133 6.2.1.2 PPCPs in Surface Water 141 6.2.1.3 PPCPs in Groundwater 146 6.2.1.4 PPCPs in Potable Water 149 6.2.2 Occurrence of PPCPs in Sediments 152 6.2.3 Occurrence of PPCPs in Soil 152 6.2.4 PPCPs in Aerial Environments 154 6.3 Excretion as a Driver of Pharmaceutical Occurrence in the Environment 158 Study Questions 162 References 163 7 Ecopharmacokinetics and Ecopharmacodynamics of PPCPs 177 7.1 Overview of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics 178 7.1.1 PPCP Sorption and Bioavailability in the Environment 188 7.1.2 Compound Half‐life and Clearance 192 7.2 Degradation of PPCPs in the Environment 196 7.2.1 Degradation of Antibiotics in the Environment 197 7.2.1.1 Degradation of Quinolone Compounds 198 7.2.1.2 Fate of β‐Lactams and Cephalosporins 199 7.2.1.3 Degradation of Tetracyclines 201 7.2.1.4 Degradation of Macrolides 203 7.2.1.5 Fate of Other Important Groups of Antibiotics 203 7.2.2 Degradation of Analgesics and Anti‐inflammatory Drugs 204 7.2.3 Degradation of Estrogens and Other Reproductive Hormones 207 7.2.4 Degradation of Other Important Pharmaceuticals 210 7.2.5 Degradation of Surfactants 210 7.3 Role of Physicochemical Factors in the Fate of PPCPs in the Environment 211 7.3.1 Molecular Size as an Attribute to Absorption and Persistence 211 7.3.2 Solubility and Hydrolysis 212 7.3.3 Effects of Dissociation, Partitioning, and Lipophilicity on Degradability 214 7.3.4 Effects of Moisture and Oxygen to the Fate of PPCPs in the Environment 217 7.3.5 Effects of Temperature in PPCP Dynamics and Degradation in the Environment 218 7.3.6 Other Determinants of PPCP Fate and Persistence in the Environment 219 7.3.6.1 Presence of Other Compounds 219 7.3.6.2 Photolysis of PPCPs 221 Study Questions 225 References 226 8 Ecotoxicity of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 239 8.1 Conventional Assessment of the Risk 245 8.2 Ecological Impact of PPCPs on Microorganisms and Microbial Processes 250 8.2.1 Antibiotic Resistance 250 8.2.1.1 Acquisition of Antibiotic Resistance 256 8.2.1.2 Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance 256 8.2.2 Biogeochemical Perturbations 257 8.3 Effects of PPCPs on Invertebrates 259 8.4 PPCP Ecotoxicity on Aquatic Organisms 261 8.4.1 Endocrine Disrupters in the Aquatic System 264 8.4.2 Effects of Antibiotic Resistance to Aquatic Organisms 269 8.4.3 Ecotoxicological Effects of Cosmetics on Aquatic Organisms 269 8.4.4 Ecotoxicity of Other PPCPs in Aquatic Organisms 270 8.5 Ecotoxicity of PPCPs on Terrestrial Wildlife 272 8.6 Livestock and Human Health 276 8.6.1 Clinical Antibiotic‐resistance Cases 277 8.6.2 PPCP‐related Allergic Reactions 282 8.6.3 Endocrine Disruption in Humans and Livestock 283 8.6.4 Is There an Association Between PPCPs in the Environment and Some Cancers? 284 8.6.5 Other PPCPs of Concern to Humans and Livestock in the Environment 286 8.7 Ecotoxicity of PPCPs on Vegetation 286 8.8 General Considerations in Long‐term PPCP Toxicity 287 Study Questions 289 References 290 9 Technologies for Removing and Reducing PPCPs in the Environment 313 9.1 Conventional Treatment Systems 316 9.1.1 Primary Treatment 316 9.1.2 Secondary Treatment 317 9.1.2.1 Lagoons 317 9.1.2.2 Fixed Filter Systems 318 9.1.2.3 Suspended Filter Systems 319 9.2 Advanced Treatment Processes 320 9.2.1 Advanced Filtration Systems 321 9.2.1.1 Activated Carbon 321 9.2.1.2 Filtration Membranes 328 9.2.2 Oxidation Processes 338 9.2.2.1 Chlorination 338 9.2.2.2 Ozonation 340 9.2.3 UV Treatment 342 9.2.4 Electrolysis 342 9.2.5 Advanced Oxidation Processes 344 9.3 Effect of Wastewater Retention Time on PPCP Removal 346 9.4 Formulation and Regimen Design for Reduced Environmental Impact 347 9.5 Source Separation of Urine and Decentralization Needs 348 9.6 Future Technological Trends 348 Study Questions 349 References 350 10 Guidelines for a Regulatory Framework on PPCPs in the Environment 357 10.1 Improving Assessment of the Risks from PPCPs in the Environment 359 10.2 Effect of Mixtures 363 10.3 Effects of Chronic Exposure to Low PPCP Doses 363 10.4 Use of Quantitative Structure–Activity Relationships in Ecotoxicology 364 10.5 Toxicogenomic Approaches for Guiding Regulations 365 10.6 Social Responsibility in Legislation and Making Policy 366 10.7 Drug Approval and Advertising 371 10.8 Use of Prescription Records for Mapping PPCPs 372 Study Questions 373 References 374 Index 377

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Book SynopsisThe first statistics guide focussing on practical application to process control design and maintenance Statistics for Process Control Engineers is the only guide to statistics written by and for process control professionals. It takes a wholly practical approach to the subject.Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Author xix Supplementary Material xxi Part 1: The Basics 1 1. Introduction 3 2. Application to Process Control 5 2.1 Benefit Estimation 5 2.2 Inferential Properties 7 2.3 Controller Performance Monitoring 7 2.4 Event Analysis 8 2.5 Time Series Analysis 9 3. Process Examples 11 3.1 Debutaniser 11 3.2 De-ethaniser 11 3.3 LPG Splitter 12 3.4 Propane Cargoes 17 3.5 Diesel Quality 17 3.6 Fuel Gas Heating Value 18 3.7 Stock Level 19 3.8 Batch Blending 22 4. Characteristics of Data 23 4.1 Data Types 23 4.2 Memory 24 4.3 Use of Historical Data 24 4.4 Central Value 25 4.5 Dispersion 32 4.6 Mode 33 4.7 Standard Deviation 35 4.8 Skewness and Kurtosis 37 4.9 Correlation 46 4.10 Data Conditioning 47 5. Probability Density Function 51 5.1 Uniform Distribution 55 5.2 Triangular Distribution 57 5.3 Normal Distribution 59 5.4 Bivariate Normal Distribution 62 5.5 Central Limit Theorem 65 5.6 Generating a Normal Distribution 69 5.7 Quantile Function 70 5.8 Location and Scale 71 5.9 Mixture Distribution 73 5.10 Combined Distribution 73 5.11 Compound Distribution 75 5.12 Generalised Distribution 75 5.13 Inverse Distribution 76 5.14 Transformed Distribution 76 5.15 Truncated Distribution 77 5.16 Rectified Distribution 78 5.17 Noncentral Distribution 78 5.18 Odds 79 5.19 Entropy 80 6. Presenting the Data 83 6.1 Box and Whisker Diagram 83 6.2 Histogram 84 6.3 Kernel Density Estimation 90 6.4 Circular Plots 95 6.5 Parallel Coordinates 97 6.6 Pie Chart 98 6.7 Quantile Plot 98 7. Sample Size 105 7.1 Mean 105 7.2 Standard Deviation 106 7.3 Skewness and Kurtosis 107 7.4 Dichotomous Data 108 7.5 Bootstrapping 110 8. Significance Testing 113 8.1 Null Hypothesis 113 8.2 Confidence Interval 116 8.3 Six-Sigma 118 8.4 Outliers 119 8.5 Repeatability 120 8.6 Reproducibility 121 8.7 Accuracy 122 8.8 Instrumentation Error 123 9. Fitting a Distribution 127 9.1 Accuracy of Mean and Standard Deviation 130 9.2 Fitting a CDF 131 9.3 Fitting a QF 134 9.4 Fitting a PDF 135 9.5 Fitting to a Histogram 138 9.6 Choice of Penalty Function 141 10. Distribution of Dependent Variables 147 10.1 Addition and Subtraction 147 10.2 Division and Multiplication 148 10.3 Reciprocal 153 10.4 Logarithmic and Exponential Functions 153 10.5 Root Mean Square 162 10.6 Trigonometric Functions 164 11. Commonly Used Functions 165 11.1 Euler’s Number 165 11.2 Euler–Mascheroni Constant 166 11.3 Logit Function 166 11.4 Logistic Function 167 11.5 Gamma Function 168 11.6 Beta Function 174 11.7 Pochhammer Symbol 174 11.8 Bessel Function 176 11.9 Marcum Q-Function 178 11.10 Riemann Zeta Function 180 11.11 Harmonic Number 180 11.12 Stirling Approximation 182 11.13 Derivatives 183 12. Selected Distributions 185 12.1 Lognormal 186 12.2 Burr 189 12.3 Beta 191 12.4 Hosking 195 12.5 Student t 204 12.6 Fisher 208 12.7 Exponential 210 12.8 Weibull 213 12.9 Chi-Squared 216 12.10 Gamma 221 12.11 Binomial 225 12.12 Poisson 231 13. Extreme Value Analysis 235 14. Hazard Function 245 15. Cusum 253 16. Regression Analysis 259 16.1 F Test 275 16.2 Adjusted R 2 278 16.3 Akaike Information Criterion 279 16.4 Artificial Neural Networks 281 16.5 Performance Index 286 17. Autocorrelation 291 18. Data Reconciliation 299 19. Fourier Transform 305 Part 2: Catalogue of Distributions 315 20. Normal Distribution 317 20.1 Skew-Normal 317 20.2 Gibrat 320 20.3 Power Lognormal 320 20.4 Logit-Normal 321 20.5 Folded Normal 321 20.6 Lévy 323 20.7 Inverse Gaussian 325 20.8 Generalised Inverse Gaussian 329 20.9 Normal Inverse Gaussian 330 20.10 Reciprocal Inverse Gaussian 332 20.11 Q-Gaussian 334 20.12 Generalised Normal 338 20.13 Exponentially Modified Gaussian 345 20.14 Moyal 347 21. Burr Distribution 349 21.1 Type I 349 21.2 Type II 349 21.3 Type III 349 21.4 Type IV 350 21.5 Type V 351 21.6 Type VI 351 21.7 Type VII 353 21.8 Type VIII 354 21.9 Type IX 354 21.10 Type X 355 21.11 Type XI 356 21.12 Type XII 356 21.13 Inverse 357 22. Logistic Distribution 361 22.1 Logistic 361 22.2 Half-Logistic 364 22.3 Skew-Logistic 365 22.4 Log-Logistic 367 22.5 Paralogistic 369 22.6 Inverse Paralogistic 370 22.7 Generalised Logistic 371 22.8 Generalised Log-Logistic 375 22.9 Exponentiated Kumaraswamy–Dagum 376 23. Pareto Distribution 377 23.1 Pareto Type I 377 23.2 Bounded Pareto Type I 378 23.3 Pareto Type II 379 23.4 Lomax 381 23.5 Inverse Pareto 381 23.6 Pareto Type III 382 23.7 Pareto Type IV 383 23.8 Generalised Pareto 383 23.9 Pareto Principle 385 24. Stoppa Distribution 389 24.1 Type I 389 24.2 Type II 389 24.3 Type III 391 24.4 Type IV 391 24.5 Type V 392 25. Beta Distribution 393 25.1 Arcsine 393 25.2 Wigner Semicircle 394 25.3 Balding–Nichols 395 25.4 Generalised Beta 396 25.5 Beta Type II 396 25.6 Generalised Beta Prime 399 25.7 Beta Type IV 400 25.8 Pert 401 25.9 Beta Rectangular 403 25.10 Kumaraswamy 404 25.11 Noncentral Beta 407 26. Johnson Distribution 409 26.1 S N 409 26.2 S U 410 26.3 S l 412 26.4 S B 412 26.5 Summary 413 27. Pearson Distribution 415 27.1 Type I 416 27.2 Type II 416 27.3 Type III 417 27.4 Type IV 418 27.5 Type V 424 27.6 Type VI 425 27.7 Type VII 429 27.8 Type VIII 433 27.9 Type IX 433 27.10 Type X 433 27.11 Type XI 434 27.12 Type XII 434 28. Exponential Distribution 435 28.1 Generalised Exponential 435 28.2 Gompertz–Verhulst 435 28.3 Hyperexponential 436 28.4 Hypoexponential 437 28.5 Double Exponential 438 28.6 Inverse Exponential 439 28.7 Maxwell–Jüttner 439 28.8 Stretched Exponential 440 28.9 Exponential Logarithmic 441 28.10 Logistic Exponential 442 28.11 Q-Exponential 442 28.12 Benktander 445 29. Weibull Distribution 447 29.1 Nukiyama–Tanasawa 447 29.2 Q-Weibull 447 30. Chi Distribution 451 30.1 Half-Normal 451 30.2 Rayleigh 452 30.3 Inverse Rayleigh 454 30.4 Maxwell 454 30.5 Inverse Chi 458 30.6 Inverse Chi-Squared 459 30.7 Noncentral Chi-Squared 460 31. Gamma Distribution 463 31.1 Inverse Gamma 463 31.2 Log-Gamma 463 31.3 Generalised Gamma 467 31.4 Q-Gamma 468 32. Symmetrical Distributions 471 32.1 Anglit 471 32.2 Bates 472 32.3 Irwin–Hall 473 32.4 Hyperbolic Secant 475 32.5 Arctangent 476 32.6 Kappa 477 32.7 Laplace 478 32.8 Raised Cosine 479 32.9 Cardioid 481 32.10 Slash 481 32.11 Tukey Lambda 483 32.12 Von Mises 486 33. Asymmetrical Distributions 487 33.1 Benini 487 33.2 Birnbaum–Saunders 488 33.3 Bradford 490 33.4 Champernowne 491 33.5 Davis 492 33.6 Fréchet 494 33.7 Gompertz 496 33.8 Shifted Gompertz 497 33.9 Gompertz–Makeham 498 33.10 Gamma-Gompertz 499 33.11 Hyperbolic 499 33.12 Asymmetric Laplace 502 33.13 Log-Laplace 504 33.14 Lindley 506 33.15 Lindley-Geometric 507 33.16 Generalised Lindley 509 33.17 Mielke 509 33.18 Muth 510 33.19 Nakagami 512 33.20 Power 513 33.21 Two-Sided Power 514 33.22 Exponential Power 516 33.23 Rician 517 33.24 Topp–Leone 517 33.25 Generalised Tukey Lambda 519 33.26 Wakeby 521 34. Amoroso Distribution 525 35. Binomial Distribution 529 35.1 Negative-Binomial 529 35.2 Pόlya 531 35.3 Geometric 531 35.4 Beta-Geometric 535 35.5 Yule–Simon 536 35.6 Beta-Binomial 538 35.7 Beta-Negative Binomial 540 35.8 Beta-Pascal 541 35.9 Gamma-Poisson 542 35.10 Conway–Maxwell–Poisson 543 35.11 Skellam 546 36. Other Discrete Distributions 549 36.1 Benford 549 36.2 Borel–Tanner 552 36.3 Consul 555 36.4 Delaporte 556 36.5 Flory–Schulz 558 36.6 Hypergeometric 559 36.7 Negative Hypergeometric 561 36.8 Logarithmic 561 36.9 Discrete Weibull 563 36.10 Zeta 564 36.11 Zipf 565 36.12 Parabolic Fractal 567 Appendix 1 Data Used in Examples 569 Appendix 2 Summary of Distributions 577 References 591 Index 593

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Book SynopsisDistillation Principles and Practice Second Edition covers all the main aspects of distillation including the thermodynamics of vapor/liquid equilibrium, the principles of distillation, the synthesis of distillation processes, the design of the equipment, and the control of process operation.Table of Contents1 Introduction 1 1.1 Principle of Distillation Separation 1 1.2 Historical 3 2 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 7 2.1 Basic Thermodynamic Correlations 7 2.1.1 Measures of Concentration 7 2.1.2 Equations of State (EOS) 8 2.1.3 Molar Mixing and Partial Molar State Variables 12 2.1.4 Saturation Vapor Pressure and Boiling Temperature of Pure Components 13 2.1.5 Fundamental Equation and the Chemical Potential 14 2.1.6 Gibbs-Duhem Equation and Gibbs-Helmholtz Equation 17 2.2 Calculation of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium in Mixtures 18 2.2.1 Basic Equilibrium Conditions 18 2.2.2 Gibbs Phase Rule 19 2.2.3 Correlations for the Chemical Potential 19 2.2.4 Calculating Activity Coefficients with the Molar Excess Free Energy 23 2.2.5 Thermodynamic Consistency Check of Molar Excess Free Energy and Activity Coefficients 28 2.2.6 Iso-fugacity Condition 30 2.2.7 Fugacity of the Liquid Phase 30 2.2.8 Fugacity of the Vapor Phase 31 2.2.9 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Using an Equation of State 32 2.2.10 Fugacity of Pure Liquid as Standard Fugacity: Raoult’s Law 47 2.2.11 Fugacity of Infinitely Diluted Component as Standard Fugacity: Henry’s Law 48 2.2.12 Correlations describing the Molar Excess Free Energy and Activity Coefficients 49 2.2.13 Using Experimental Data of Binary Mixtures for Correlations Describing the Molar Excess Free Energy and Activity Coefficients .55 2.2.14 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Ratio of Mixtures 59 2.2.15 Relative Volatility of Mixtures 59 2.2.16 Boiling Condition of Liquid Mixtures 61 2.2.17 Condensation (Dew Point) Condition of Vapor Mixtures .62 2.3 Binary Mixtures and Phase Diagrams 81 2.3.1 Boiling Curve Correlation 81 2.3.2 Condensation (Dew Point) Curve Correlation 83 2.3.3 (p, x, y)-Diagram.84 2.3.4 (T, x, y)-Diagram 84 2.3.5 McCabe-Thiele Diagram 86 2.3.6 Boiling and Condensation Behavior of Binary Mixtures 86 2.3.7 General Aspects of Azeotropic Mixtures 90 2.3.8 Limiting Cases of Binary Mixtures 104 2.4 Ternary Mixtures 114 2.4.1 Boiling and Condensation Conditions of Ternary Mixtures 114 2.4.2 Triangular Diagrams 116 2.4.3 Boiling Surfaces 116 2.4.4 Condensation Surfaces 122 2.4.5 Derivation of Distillation Lines .123 2.4.6 Examples for Distillation Lines 128 3 Single Stage Distillation and Condensation 137 3.1 Continuous Closed Distillation and Condensation 137 3.1.1 Closed Distillation of Binary Mixtures 137 3.1.2 Closed Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures 140 3.2 Batchwise Open Distillation and Open Condensation 152 3.2.1 Binary Mixtures .152 3.2.2 Ternary Mixtures 157 3.2.3 Multicomponent Mixtures 167 3.3 Semi-continuous Single Stage Distillation 169 3.3.1 Semi-continuous Single Stage Distillation of Binary Mixtures 169 4 Multistage Continuous Distillation (Rectification) 173 4.1 Principles 173 4.1.1 Equilibrium-Stage Concept 176 4.1.2 Transfer-Unit Concept 177 4.1.3 Comparison of Equilibrium-Stage and Transfer-Unit Concepts 180 4.2 Multistage Distillation of Binary Mixtures 181 4.2.1 Calculations Based on Material Balances 182 4.2.2 Calculation Based on Material and Enthalpy Balances 189 4.2.3 Distillation of Binary Mixtures at Total Reflux and Reboil .192 4.2.4 Distillation of Binary Mixtures at Minimum Reflux and Reboil 198 4.2.5 Energy Requirement for Distillation of Binary Mixtures.204 4.3 Multistage Distillation of Ternary Mixtures 206 4.3.1 Calculations Based on Material Balances 208 4.3.2 Distillation of Ternary Mixtures at Total Reflux and Reboil 215 4.3.3 Distillation of Ternary Mixtures at Minimum Reflux and Reboil 224 4.3.4 Energy Requirement of Ternary Distillation 248 4.4 Multistage Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures 255 4.4.1 Rigorous Column Simulation 256 5 Reactive Distillation, Catalytic Distillation 283 5.1 Fundamentals 284 5.1.1 Chemical Equilibrium 284 5.1.2 Stoichiometric Lines 284 5.1.3 Non-Reactive and Reactive Distillation Lines .287 5.1.4 Reactive Azeotropes 289 5.2 Topology of Reactive Distillation Lines 293 5.2.1 Reactions in Ternary Systems 293 5.2.2 Reactions in Ternary Systems with Inert Components 295 5.2.3 Reactions with Side Products 297 5.2.4 Reactions in Quaternary Systems.298 5.3 Topology of Reactive Distillation Processes 298 5.3.1 Single Product Reactions 300 5.3.2 Decomposition Reactions.302 5.3.3 Side Reactions 306 5.4 Arrangement of Catalysts in Columns 307 5.4.1 Homogeneous Catalyst.307 5.4.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 308 6 Multistage Batch Distillation 313 6.1 Batch Distillation of Binary Mixtures 314 6.1.1 Operation with Constant Reflux 315 6.1.2 Operation with Constant Distillate Composition 318 6.1.3 Operation with Minimum Energy Input 323 6.1.4 Comparison of Energy Requirement for Different Modes of Distillation.327 6.2 Batch Distillation of Ternary Mixtures 327 6.2.1 Zeotropic Mixtures 328 6.2.2 Azeotropic Mixtures 332 6.3 Batch Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures 336 6.4 Influence of Column Liquid Hold-up on Batch Distillation 337 6.5 Processes for Separating Zeotropic Mixtures by Batch Distillation 340 6.6 Processes for Separating Azeotropic Mixtures by Batch Distillation 341 6.6.1 Processes in One Distillation Field 342 6.6.2 Processes in Two Distillation Fields 343 6.6.3 Process Simplifications 348 6.6.4 Hybrid Processes 348 7 Energy Economization in Distillation 357 7.1 Energy Requirement of Single Columns 358 7.1.1 Reduction of Energy Requirement 358 7.1.2 Reduction of Exergy Losses 359 7.2 Optimal Separation Sequences of Ternary Distillation 363 7.2.1 Process and Energy Requirement of the a-Path 363 7.2.2 Process and Energy Requirement of the c-Path.365 7.2.3 Process and Energy Requirement of the Preferred a/c-Path 366 7.3 Modifications of the Basic Processes 368 7.3.1 Material (Direct) Coupling of Columns.368 7.3.2 Processes with Side Columns 370 7.3.3 Thermal (Indirect) Coupling of Columns 386 7.4 Design of Heat Exchanger Networks 390 7.4.1 Optimum Heat Exchanger Networks 392 7.4.2 Modifying the Optimum Heat Exchanger Network 397 7.4.3 Dual Flow Heat Exchangers Networks 401 7.4.4 Process Modifications 401 8 Industrial Distillation Processes 407 8.1 Constraints for Industrial Distillation Processes 407 8.2 Fractionation of Binary Mixtures 412 8.2.1 Recycling of Diluted Sulfuric Acid 412 8.2.2 Ammonia Recovery from Waste Water 414 8.2.3 Hydrogen Chloride Recovery from Inert Gases .416 8.2.4 Linde Process for Air Separation 418 8.2.5 Process Water Purification 421 8.2.6 Steam Distillation 425 8.3 Fractionation of Multicomponent Zeotropic Mixtures 429 8.3.1 Separation Paths 429 8.3.2 Processes with Side Columns 431 8.4 Fractionation of Heterogeneous Azeotropic Mixtures 435 8.5 Fractionation of Azeotropic Mixtures by Pressure Swing Processes 436 8.6 Fractionation of Azeotropic Mixtures by Addition of an Entrainer 439 8.6.1 Processes for Systems without Distillation Boundary 440 8.6.2 Processes for Systems with Distillation Boundary 443 8.6.3 Hybrid Processes.455 8.7 Industrial Processes of Reactive Distillation 469 8.7.1 Synthesis of MTBE 469 8.7.2 Synthesis of Mono-Ethylene Glycol 471 8.7.3 Synthesis of TAME 473 8.7.4 Synthesis of Methyl-Acetate 474 9 Design of Mass Transfer Equipment 481 9.1 Types of Design 482 9.1.1 Tray Columns.482 9.1.2 Packed Columns 484 9.1.3 Criteria for Use of Tray or Packed Columns 486 9.2 Design of Tray Columns 487 9.2.1 Design Parameters of Tray Columns 487 9.2.2 Operating Region of Tray Columns 489 9.2.3 Two-Phase Flow on Trays 497 9.2.4 Mass Transfer in the Two-Phase Layer on Column Trays 518 9.3 Design of Packed Columns 533 9.3.1 Design Parameters of Packed Columns 534 9.3.2 Operating Region of Packed Columns 545 9.3.3 Two-Phase Flow in Packed Columns .548 9.3.4 Mass Transfer in Packed Columns 568 9.4 Appendix to Chapter 9: Pressure Drop in Packed Beds 587 10 Control of Distillation Processes 601 10.1 Control Loops 602 10.1.1 Single Control Loop 602 10.1.2 Ratio Control Loop 604 10.1.3 Disturbance Feed Forward Control Loop 604 10.1.4 Cascade Control Loop 605 10.2 Single Control Tasks for Distillation Columns 605 10.2.1 Liquid Level Control 605 10.2.2 Split Stream Control 606 10.2.3 Pressure Control 611 10.2.4 Product Concentration Control 613 10.3 Basic Control Configurations of Distillation Columns 613 10.3.1 Basic Control Systems without Composition Control 617 10.3.2 One-Point Composition Control Configurations 623 10.3.3 Two-Point Composition Control Configurations 626 10.4 Application Ranges of the Basic Control Configurations 629 10.4.1 Impact of Split Parameters according to Split Rule 2.629 10.4.2 Sharp Separations of Ideal Mixtures with Constant Relative Volatility at Minimum Reflux and Boilup Ratio 639 10.4.3 Extended Application Ranges of the Basic Control Configurations 643 10.5 Examples for Control Configurations of Distillation Processes 646 10.5.1 Azeotropic Distillation Process by Pressure Change.646 10.5.2 Distillation Process for Air Separation 647 10.5.3 Distillation Process with a Main and a Side Column 649 10.5.4 Azeotropic Distillation Process by Using an Entrainer 650 10.6 Control Configurations for Batch Distillation Processes 651 Index 655

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Book SynopsisA reference for engineers, scientists, and academics who want to be abreast of the latest industrial separation/treatment technique, this new volume aims at providing a holistic vision on the potential of advanced membrane processes for solving challenging separation problems in industrial applications. Separation processes are challenging steps in any process industry for isolation of products and recycling of reactants. Membrane technology has shown immense potential in separation of liquid and gaseous mixtures, effluent treatment, drinking water purification and solvent recovery. It has found endless popularity and wide acceptance for its small footprint, higher selectivity, scalability, energy saving capability and inherent ease of integration into other unit operations. There are many situations where the target component cannot be separated by distillation, liquid extraction, and evaporation. The different membrane processes such as pervaporation, vapor permeatioTable of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Tackling Challenging Industrial Separation Problems through Membrane Processes 1 Siddhartha Moulik, Sowmya Parakala and S. Sridhar 1.1 Water: The Source of Life 2 1.2 Significance of Water/Wastewater Treatment 5 1.3 Wastewater Treatment Techniques 8 1.4 Membrane Technologies for Water/Wastewater Treatment 11 1.5 Membranes: Materials, Classification and Configurations 12 1.5.1 Types of Membranes 12 1.5.1.1 Symmetric Membranes 12 1.5.1.2 Asymmetric Membranes 13 1.5.1.3 Electrically Charged Membranes 14 1.5.1.4 Inorganic Membranes 14 1.5.2 Membranes Modules and Their Characteristics 14 1.6 Introduction to Membrane Processes 17 1.6.1 Conventional Membrane Processes 17 1.7 CSIR-IICT’s Contribution for Water/Wastewater Treatment 21 1.7.1 Nanofiltration Plant for Processing Coke Oven Wastewater in Steel Industry 22 1.8 Potential of Pervaporation (PV), Vapor Permeation (VP), and Membrane Distillation (MD) in Wastewater Treatment 24 1.9 Conclusion 32 References 33 2 Pervaporation Membrane Separation: Fundamentals and Applications 37 Siddhartha Moulik, Bukke Vani, D. Vaishnavi and S. Sridhar 2.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 38 2.2 Principle 40 2.2.1 Mass Transfer 42 2.2.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Performance 44 2.3 Membranes for Pervaporation 45 2.4 Applications of Pervaporation 46 2.4.1 Solvent Dehydration 46 2.4.2 Organophilic Separation 55 2.4.2.1 Removal of VOCs 57 2.4.2.2 Extraction of Aroma Compounds 58 2.4.3 Organic/Organic Separation 64 2.4.3.1 Separation of Polar/Non-Polar Mixture 64 2.4.3.2 Separation of Aromatic/Alicyclic Mixtures 70 2.4.3.3 Separation of Aromatic/Aliphatic/Aromatic Hydrocarbons 71 2.4.3.4 Separation of Isomers 72 2.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 77 References 78 3 Pervaporation for Ethanol-Water Separation and Effect of Fermentation Inhibitors 89 Anjali Jain, Sushant Upadhyaya, Ajay K. Dalai and Satyendra P. Chaurasia 3.1 Introduction 90 3.2 Theory of Pervaporation 91 3.2.1 Applications of Pervaporation 92 3.2.2 Advantages of Pervaporation 93 3.2.3 Pervaporation Performance Evaluation Parameters 93 3.3 Various Membranes Used for the Recovery of Ethanol 94 3.3.1 Organic Membranes 94 3.3.2 Inorganic Membranes 102 3.3.3 Mixed Matrix Membranes 104 3.4 Effects of Process Variables on Ethanol Concentration in PV 106 3.4.1 Effect of Feed Flow Rate 106 3.4.2 Effect of Ethanol Concentration in Feed 107 3.4.3 Effect of Feed Temperature 108 3.4.4 Effect of Permeate Pressure 109 3.5 Effect of Fermentation Inhibitors on Pervaporation Performance 109 3.5.1 Effect of Furfural Concentration 112 3.5.2 Influence of Hydroxymethyl-Furfural 113 3.5.3 Effect of Vanillin 114 3.5.4 Effect of Acetic Acid 115 3.5.5 Effect of Catechol 116 3.6 Conclusions 116 References 117 4 Dehydration of Acetonitrile Solvent by Pervaporation through Graphene Oxide/Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Mixed Matrix Membranes 123 Siddhartha Moulik, D.Vaishnavi and S.Sridhar 4.1 Introduction 124 4.2 Materials and Methods 126 4.2.1 Materials 126 4.2.2 Preparation of Graphene Oxide 126 4.2.3 Fabrication of GO Membrane 127 4.2.4 Structural Characterization of GO/PVA Mixed Matrix Membrane 127 4.2.5 Pervaporation Experiments 127 4.2.6 Determination of Diffusion Coefficients 129 4.2.7 Membrane Characterization 130 4.2.8 Hydrodynamic Simulation 130 4.2.8.1 Specification of Computational Domain and Governing Equations 130 4.3 Results and Discussions 132 4.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscope 132 4.3.2 Differential Scanning Calorimeter 132 4.3.3 Effect of GO concentration on PV Performance 134 4.3.4 Sorption Behavior 135 4.3.5 Concentration Distribution of Water within the Membrane 135 4.3.6 Effect of Feed Water Concentration 137 4.3.7 Effect of Permeate Pressure 137 4.4 Conclusions 139 References 139 5 Recovery of Acetic Acid from Vinegar Wastewater Using Pervaporation in a Pilot Plant 141 Haresh K Dave and Kaushik Nath 5.1 Introduction 142 5.2 Materials and Methods 144 5.2.1 Chemicals and Membranes 144 5.2.2 Preparation and Cross-Linking of Membrane 144 5.2.3 Equilibrium Sorption in PVA-PES Membrane 144 5.2.4 Permeation Experimental Study 145 5.2.5 Flux and Separation Factor 146 5.2.6 Permeability and Membrane Selectivity 147 5.2.7 Diffusion and Partition Coefficient 147 5.2.8 Thermogravimetric Analysis 148 5.2.9 FTIR Analysis 148 5.2.10 AFM and SEM Analysis 148 5.2.11 Mechanical Properties 149 5.3 Results and Discussion 149 5.3.1 Sorption in PVA-PES Membrane 149 5.3.2 Effect of Feed Composition on Flux and Separation Factor 151 5.3.3 Activation Energy and Heat of Sorption 152 5.3.4 Permeability, Permeance and Intrinsic Membrane Selectivity 153 5.3.5 Diffusion and Partition Coefficient 154 5.3.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis 156 5.3.7 Surface Chemistry by FTIR Analysis 156 5.3.8 Surface Topology by AFM Analysis 159 5.3.9 Surface Topology by SEM Analysis 161 5.3.10 Mechanical Properties of the Membrane 162 5.3.11 Reusability of the Membrane 163 5.4 Conclusion 164 Nomenclature 165 Acknowledgement 165 References 166 6 Thermodynamic Models for Prediction of Sorption Behavior in Pervaporation 169 Reddi Kamesh, Sumana Chenna and K. Yamuna Rani 6.1 Introduction 170 6.2 Thermodynamic Models for Sorption 172 6.2.1 Flory-Huggins Models 172 6.2.1.1 Models for Single Liquid Sorption in Polymer 172 6.2.1.2 Models for Binary Liquid Sorption in Polymer 175 6.2.2 UNIQUAC Model 180 6.2.2.1 Calculation of Binary Solvent-Solvent Interaction Parameters (τij & τji) 181 6.2.2.2 Calculation of Binary Polymer-Solvent Interaction Parameters (τim, τmi & τjm, τmj) 184 6.2.2.3 Prediction of Sorption Levels for a Ternary System Using UNIQUAC Model 185 6.2.3 UNIQUAC-HB Model 187 6.2.3.1 Calculation of Binary Solvent-Solvent Interaction Parameters (τʹij and τʹji ) 187 6.2.3.2 Calculation of Binary Solvent-Polymer Interaction Parameters 188 6.2.3.3 Prediction of Sorption Levels for a Ternary System 189 6.2.4 Modified NRTL Model 190 6.2.4.1 Calculation of Binary Solvent-Solvent Interaction Parameters (τ12 & τ21) 192 6.2.4.2 Calculation of Binary Polymer-Solvent Interaction Parameters (τiM & τMi) 192 6.2.4.3 Prediction of Sorption Behavior for a Ternary System – Method 1 193 6.2.4.4 Prediction of Sorption Behavior for a Ternary System – Method 2 194 6.3 Computational Procedure 196 6.4 Case Study 202 6.5 Summary and Conclusions 207 References 208 7 Molecular Dynamics Simulation for Prediction of Structure-Property Relationships of Pervaporation Membranes 211 Shaik Nazia, Siddhartha Moulik, Jega Jegatheesan, Suresh K. Bhargava and S. Sridhar 7.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 212 7.2 Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulations 213 7.3 Calculation of Interaction Parameters 214 7.4 Calculation of Permeation Properties 216 7.5 Free Volume Analysis 220 7.6 Conclusions 224 References 224 8 Vapor Permeation: Fundamentals, Principles and Applications 227 Siddhartha Moulik, Sowmya Parakala and S. Sridhar 8.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 228 8.2 Principle 229 8.3 Mass Transfer Models in Vapor Permeation 231 8.4 Membranes for VP 233 8.4.1 Inorganic Membranes 233 8.4.2 Polymeric Membranes: 236 8.4.3 Mixed Matrix Membranes (MMMs) 239 8.5 Applications of Vapor Permeation 243 8.6 Conclusions and Future Trends 252 References 252 9 Vapor Permeation - A Thermodynamic Perspective 257 Sujay Chattopadhyay 9.1 Introduction 258 9.2 Parameters Influencing Vapor Permeation 259 9.3 Sorption in Polymeric Materials 262 9.3.1 Sorption of Pure Liquid or Vapors 263 9.3.2 Sorption of Binary Mixtures of Liquids and Vapors 264 9.4 Vapor Permeation in Polymeric Membranes 265 9.4.1 Vapor Permeation Through Rubbery Membranes 265 9.4.2 Vapor Permeation Through Glassy Membranes 265 9.4.3 Vapor Permeation Through Crystalline Polymers 267 9.5 Thermodynamics of Penetrant/Polymer Membrane 268 9.6 Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics 271 9.7 Design of Vapor Permeation Membrane with High Selectivity 273 9.8 Membranes and Membrane Modules 276 9.9 Applications of Vapor Permeation 277 9.10 Conclusion 279 References 280 10 Vapor Permeation: Theory and Modelling Perspectives 283 Harsha Nagar, P. Anand and S. Sridhar 10.1 Introduction 284 10.2 Advantages of Vapor Permeation Process 287 10.3 Mass Transfer Mechanism in VP Process 287 10.4 Fundamentals of Vapor Permeation Modelling 288 10.4.1 Solution-Diffusion Mechanisms 289 10.4.2 Diffusion Modelling 290 10.4.2.1 Multi-Component Diffusion 292 10.4.3 Solubility Modelling 293 10.4.3.1 Equation of State Approach 293 10.4.3.2 Lattice Fluid-Based Models 294 10.5 Case Studies of VP Modelling 296 10.5.1 Modelling of a Multi-Component System for Vapor Permeation Process 296 10.5.2 Cost Effective Vapor Permeation Process for Isopropanol Dehydration 298 10.5.3 Vapor Permeation Modeling for Inorganic Shell and Tube Membranes. 299 10.6 Conclusion 301 References 302 11 Membrane Distillation: Historical Perspective and a Solution to Existing Issues of Membrane Technology 305 Siddhartha Moulik, Sowmya Parakala and S. Sridhar 11.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective of Membrane Distillation 306 11.2 Principle of Membrane Distillation 308 11.3 Mass Transfer in MD 312 11.4 Parameters Affecting Performance of MD 314 11.5 Heat Transfer in MD 317 11.6 Membranes for MD 318 11.7 Applications of Membrane Distillation 328 11.7.1 Seawater Desalination 328 11.7.2 Drinking Water Purification 333 11.7.3 Oily Wastewater Treatment 338 11.7.4 Solvent Dehydration 340 11.7.5 Treatment of Textile Industrial Effluent 343 11.7.6 Food Industrial Applications 345 11.7.7 Treatment of Radioactive Waste Water 346 11.7.8 Dairy Effluent Treatment 347 11.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 350 References 351 12 Dewatering of Diethylene Glycol and Lactic Acid Solvents by Membrane Distillation Technique 357 M. Madhumala, I. Ravi Kiran, Shakarachar M. Sutar and S. Sridhar 12.1 Introduction 358 12.2 Materials and Methods 360 12.2.1 Materials 360 12.2.2 Membrane Synthesis 360 12.2.2.1 Synthesis of Microporous Hydrophobic ZSM-5/PVC Mixed Matrix Membrane 360 12.2.2.2 Synthesis of Ultraporous Hydrophobic Polyvinylchloride Membrane 361 12.2.3 Experimental 361 12.2.3.1 Description of Membrane Distillation Set-up 361 12.2.3.2 Experimental Procedure 362 12.2.4 Membrane Characterization Techniques 363 12.2.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) 363 12.2.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Studies (XRD) 363 12.2.4.3 Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) 364 12.2.4.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 364 12.2.4.5 Contact Angle Measurement 364 12.3 Results and Discussion 364 12.3.1 Membrane Characterization 364 12.3.1.1 FTIR 364 12.3.1.2 XRD 366 12.3.1.3 TGA 367 12.3.1.4 SEM 368 12.3.1.5 Contact Angle Measurement 369 12.3.2 Case Study 1: Dehydration of Lactic Acid Using ZSM-5 Loaded Polyvinyl Chloride Membrane 369 12.3.2.1 Effect of Feed Lactic Acid Concentration on Membrane Performance 369 12.3.3 Case Study 2: Dehydration of Diethylene Glycol Using Ultraporous PVC Membrane 371 12.3.3.1 Effect of Feed Diethylene Glycol Concentration on Membrane Performance 371 12.4 Conclusions 372 References 373 13 Graphene Oxide/Polystyrene Mixed Matrix Membranes for Desalination of Seawater through Vacuum Membrane Distillation 375 Siddhartha Moulik, Sowmya Parakala and S. Sridhar 13.1 Introduction 376 13.1.1 Graphene and its Derivatives 378 13.2 Materials and Methods 380 13.2.1 Materials 380 13.2.2 Preparation of Graphene Oxide 380 13.2.3 Membrane Synthesis 381 13.2.4 Performance of the Crosslinked GO Loaded PS Membrane 382 13.2.5 Membrane Distillation Experiment 383 13.2.6 Membrane Characterization 384 13.2.7 Computational Fluid Dynamics Study 384 13.2.7.1 Model Development 384 13.3 Results and Discussions 388 13.3.1 Membrane Characterization 388 13.3.1.1 SEM 388 13.3.1.2 Contact Angle Measurement 389 13.3.1.3 FTIR 390 13.3.1.4 Raman Spectra 391 13.3.2 Effect of GO Concentration on MD Performance 391 13.3.3 Concentration Profile of Water Vapor within the Membrane 392 13.3.4 Effect of Feed Salt Concentration 393 13.3.5 Effect of Degree of Vacuum on MD Performance 395 13.3.6 Effect of Membrane Thickness 395 13.4 Conclusion 396 References 397 14 Vacuum Membrane Distillation for Water Desalination 399 Sushant Upadhyaya, Kailash Singh, S.P. Chaurasia, Rakesh Baghel and Sarita Kalla 14.1 Introduction 400 14.2 Membrane Distillation 400 14.2.1 Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD) 400 14.2.2 Air Gap Membrane Distillation (AGMD) 401 14.2.3 Sweeping Gas Membrane Distillation (SGMD) 401 14.2.4 Vacuum Membrane Distillation (VMD) 401 14.3 Selection Criteria for MD Membrane 402 14.4 Characterization of Membranes in MD 403 14.5 Applications 403 14.6 Modelling in MD 404 14.7 Mass and Heat Transport in VMD 407 14.8 Recovery Modelling in VMD 410 14.9 Operating Variables Influence on VMD Process 411 14.9.1 Variation in Permeate Flux with Feed Rate 411 14.9.2 Variation in Permeate Flux with Feed Inlet Temperature 412 14.9.3 Variation in Permeate Flux with Permeate Pressure 415 14.9.4 Variation in Permeate Flux with Feed Salt Concentration 416 14.9.5 Effect of Runtime 417 14.10 Water Recovery 418 14.11 Fouling on Membrane 420 14.12 Conclusions 424 Nomenclature 425 Greek Symbols 426 References 426 15 Glycerol Purification Using Membrane Technology 431 Priya Pal, S.P.Chaurasia, Sushant Upadhyaya, Madhu Agarwal and S. Sridhar 15.1 Introduction 432 15.2 Glycerol 433 15.2.1 Impurities Present in Crude Glycerol 433 15.3 Sources of Glycerol 434 15.3.1 Transesterification Reaction 435 15.3.2 Saponification of Oils and Fats 436 15.3.3 Hydrolysis of Oils and Fats 436 15.4 Purification Processes 440 15.4.1 Conventional Method (Physicochemical Method) 440 15.4.1.1 Pre-Treatment (Acidification and Neutralization) 440 15.4.1.2 Solvent Removal 441 15.4.1.3 Activated Charcoal Treatment for Color Removal 442 15.4.1.4 Ion-Exchange Adsorption 442 15.4.2 Membrane Technology 443 15.4.2.1 Membrane Distillation (MD) 443 15.4.2.2 Operating Variables Affecting VMD Process 447 15.5 Material and Methods 453 15.5.1 Materials 453 15.5.2 Synthesis of Hydrophobic Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Membrane 453 15.5.3 Methods 453 15.5.4 Membrane Characterization 455 15.5.4.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 455 15.5.4.2 Membrane Porosity Measurement 455 15.5.4.3 Membrane Thickness 456 15.5.4.4 Contact Angle 456 15.5.4.5 FTIR 457 15.6 Results and Discussion 457 15.6.1 Characterization of Membrane 457 15.6.2 Effect of Glycerol Concentration on Flux and Percentage Rejection 459 15.7 Conclusions 459 Nomenclature 460 References 461 16 Reclamation of Water and Toluene from Bulk Drug Industrial Effluent by Vacuum Membrane Distillation 467 Pavani Vadthya, Y.V.L. Ravikumar and S. Sridhar 16.1 Introduction 468 16.2 Materials and Methods 469 16.2.1 Materials 469 16.2.2 Membrane Synthesis 469 16.2.3 Membrane Characterization 470 16.2.3.1 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 470 16.2.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 470 16.2.3.3 X-Ray Diffraction Studies (XRD) 470 16.2.3.4 Sorption Studies 470 16.2.4 Experimental Set Up 471 16.2.5 Experimental Procedure 471 16.2.6 Flux 471 16.2.7 Refractive Index 472 16.3 Results and Discussion 472 16.3.1 Membrane Characterization 472 16.3.1.1 FTIR 472 16.3.1.2 SEM 473 16.3.1.3 XRD 473 16.3.1.4 Sorption Studies 474 16.3.2 Effect of Membrane Thickness 476 16.3.3 Effect of Polymer Loading 476 16.3.4 Effect of Permeate Pressure 477 16.4 Conclusions 479 References 480 Index 481

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Book Synopsis Comprehensive and consolidated resource covering the evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors for safeguarding pipeline steels against corrosion, with supporting case studies Imidazoline Inhibitors for Corrosion Protection of Oil Pipeline Steels represents a comprehensive compilation of the experimental findings that delve into the evaluation of imidazoline inhibitors for safeguarding pipeline steels against corrosion, consolidating invaluable insights and discoveries from a multitude of investigations. The experimental methodologies employed encompass a diverse range of techniques, enabling a thorough exploration of the inhibitive properties of imidazoline compounds. The book explores the significance of various corrosion control strategies, including the utilization of a variety of inhibitors, the implementation of pigging techniques, the application of cathodic protection, and the relevant codes and standards. To aid in reader comprehension, the book presents a

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Book SynopsisWritten by two of the most prolific and respected chemical engineers in the world, this groundbreaking two-volume set is the new standard in the industry, offering engineers and students alike the most up-do-date, comprehensive, and state-of-the-art coverage of processes and best practices in the field today. This first new volume in a two-volume set explores and describes integrating new tools for engineering education and practice for better utilization of the existing knowledge on process design. Useful not only for students, professors, scientists and practitioners, especially process, chemical, mechanical and metallurgical engineers, it is also a valuable reference for other engineers, consultants, technicians and scientists concerned about various aspects of industrial design. The text can be considered as a complementary text to process design for senior and graduate students as well as a hands-on reference work or refresher for engineers at entry level.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xix About the Authors xxi 1 Computations with Excel Spreadsheet-UniSim Design Simulation 1 Section I - Numerical Analysis 1 Introduction 1 Excel Spreadsheet 1 Functions 2 Trendline Coefficients 2 Goal Seek 5 Solver 6 Linear Regression 7 Measuring Regression Quality 9 Multiple Regression 9 Polynomial Regression 11 Simultaneous Linear Equations 11 Nonlinear Equations 12 Interpolations 13 Integrations 14 The Trapezoidal Rule 14 Simpson’s 1/3 Rule 15 Simpson’s 3/8 Rule 15 Differential Equations 15 Nth Order Ordinary Differential Equations 15 Solution of First-Order Ordinary Differential Equations 15 Runge-Kutta Methods 16 Examples and Solutions 17 Section II – Process Simulation 28 Introduction 28 Thermodynamics for Process Simulators 29 UNISIM Design Software 30 Examples and Solutions 31 References 78 2 Physical Property of Pure Components and Mixtures 81 Pure Components 81 Density of Liquid 82 Viscosity of Liquid 83 Heat Capacity of Liquid 85 Thermal Conductivity of Liquid 87 Volumetric Expansion Rate 90 Vapor Pressure 91 Viscosity of Gas 93 Thermal Conductivity of Gas 94 Heat Capacity of Gases 95 Mixtures 97 Surface Tensions 98 Viscosity of Gas Mixture 99 Enthalpy of Formation 101 Enthalpy of Vaporization 103 Gibbs Energy of Reaction 105 Henry’s Law Constant for Gases in Water 107 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Liquid 108 Diffusion Coefficients 109 Gas-Phase Diffusion Coefficients 109 Liquid-Phase Diffusion Coefficients 110 Compressibility Z-factor 111 Solubility and Adsorption 116 Solubility of Hydrocarbons in Water 116 Solubility of Gases in Water 117 Solubility of Sulfur and Nitrogen Compounds in Water 118 Adsorption on Activated Carbon 119 References 119 3 Fluid Flow 121 Introduction 121 Flow of Fluids in Pipes 121 Equivalent Length of Various Fittings and Valves 123 Excess Head Loss 123 Pipe Reduction and Enlargement 124 Pressure Drop Calculations for Single-phase Incompressible Fluids 124 Friction Factor 127 Overall Pressure Drop 128 Nomenclature 130 Compressible Fluid Flow in Pipes 130 Maximum Flow and Pressure Drop 131 Critical or Sonic Flow and the Mach Number 131 Mach Number 132 Mathematical Model of Compressible Isothermal Flow 134 Flow Rate Through Pipeline 136 Pipeline Pressure Drop 138 Nomenclature 139 Subscripts 139 Two-phase Flow in Process Piping 139 Flow Patterns 140 Flow Regimes 142 Pressure Drop 142 Erosion-Corrosion 145 Nomenclature 145 Vapor-liquid Two-phase Vertical Downflow 146 The Equations 147 The Algorithm 147 Nomenclature 147 Line Sizes for Flashing Steam Condensate 148 The Equations 148 Nomenclature 149 Flow Through Packed Beds 150 The Equations 151 Nomenclature 152 Examples and Solutions 152 References 162 4 Equipment Sizing 165 Introduction 165 Sizing of Vertical and Horizontal Separators 166 Vertical Separators 166 Calculation Method for a Vertical Drum 168 Calculation Method for a Horizontal Drum 170 Liquid Holdup and Vapor Space Disengagement 171 Wire Mesh Pad 171 Standards for Horizontal Separators 172 Piping Requirements 172 Nomenclature 172 Sizing of Partly Filled Vessels and Tanks 173 The Equations 173 Nomenclature 175 Preliminary Vessel Design 176 Nomenclature 177 Cyclone Design 178 Introduction 178 Cyclone Design Procedure 178 The Equations 179 Saltation Velocity 180 Pressure Drop 181 Troubleshooting Cyclone Maloperations 182 Cyclone Collection Efficiency 182 Cyclone Design Factor 182 Cyclone Design Procedure 183 Nomenclature 183 Gas Dryer Design 184 The Equations 186 Pressure Drop 187 Desiccant Reactivation 188 Nomenclature 188 Examples and Solutions 189 References 194 5 Instrument Sizing 195 Introduction 195 Variable-Head Meters 195 Macroscopic Mechanical Energy Balance 196 Variable-Head Meters 196 Orifice Sizing for Liquid and Gas Flows 200 Orifice Sizing for Liquid Flows 201 Orifice Sizing for Gas Flows 202 Orifice Sizing for Liquid Flow 204 Orifice Sizing for Gas Flow 204 Types of Restriction Orifice Plates 205 Case Study 1 205 Nomenclature 212 Control Valve Sizing 221 Introduction 221 Control Valve Characteristics 223 Pressure Drop for Sizing 224 Choked Flow 224 Flashing and Cavitation 224 Control Valve Sizing for Liquid, Gas, Steam and Two-Phase Flows 225 Liquid Sizing 226 Gas Sizing 227 Critical Condition 227 Steam Sizing 227 Two-Phase Flow 228 Installation 229 Noise 229 Control Valve Sizing Criteria 230 Valve Sizing Criteria 230 Self-Acting Regulators 231 Types of Self-Acting Regulators 231 Case Study 2 233 Rules of Thumb 246 Nomenclature 246 References 247 6 Pumps and Compressors Sizing 249 Pumps 249 Introduction 249 Pumping of Liquids 249 Pump Design Standardization 252 Basic Parts of a Centrifugal Pump 253 Impellers 253 Casing 253 Shaft 254 Centrifugal Pump Selection 255 Single-Stage (Single Impeller) Pumps 256 Hydraulic Characteristics for Centrifugal Pumps 260 Friction Losses Due to Flow 269 Velocity Head 269 Friction 271 Net Positive Suction Head (npsh) and Pump Suction 271 General Suction System 277 Reductions in NPSHR 279 Corrections to NPSHR for Hot Liquid Hydrocarbons and Water 279 Charting NPSHR Values of Pumps 280 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 280 Specific Speed 282 “Type Specific Speed” 285 Rotative Speed 286 Pumping Systems and Performance 286 System Head Using Two Different Pipe Sizes in Same Line 288 Power Requirements for Pumping Through Process Lines 291 Hydraulic Power 292 Relations Between Head, Horsepower, Capacity, Speed 293 Brake Horsepower (BHP) Input at Pump 293 Affinity Laws 296 Pump Parameters 298 Specific Speed, Flowrate and Power Required by a Pump 299 Pump Sizing of Gas-Oil 301 Debutanizer Unit 303 Centrifugal Pump Efficiency 306 Centrifugal Pump Specifications 311 Pump Specifications 311 Steps in Pump Sizing 312 Reciprocating Pumps 313 Significant Features in Reciprocating Pump Arrangements 314 Application 316 Performance 316 Discharge Flow Patterns 317 Horsepower 318 Pump Selection 318 Selection Rules-of-Thumb 318 A Case Study 321 Pump Simulation on a PFD 321 Variables Descriptions 322 Simulation Algorithm 322 Problem 323 Discussion 324 Pump Cavitation 332 Factors in Pump Selection 333 Compressors 334 Introduction 334 General Application Guide 334 Specification Guides 337 General Considerations for Any Type of Compressor Flow Conditions 337 Fluid Properties 338 Compressibility 338 Corrosive Nature 338 Moisture 339 Special Conditions 339 Specification Sheet 339 Performance Considerations 339 Cooling Water to Cylinder Jackets 339 Heat Rejected to Water 339 Drivers 340 Ideal Pressure – Volume Relationship 341 Actual Compressor Diagram 343 Deviations From Ideal Gas Laws: Compressibility 343 Adiabatic Calculations 346 Charles’ Law at Constant Pressure 346 Amonton’s Law at Constant Volume 346 Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws 346 Entropy Balance Method 347 Isentropic Exponent Method 347 Compression Ratio 354 Horsepower 356 Single Stage 356 Theoretical Hp 356 Actual Brake Horsepower, Bhp 356 Actual Brake Horsepower, Bhp (Alternate Correction for Compressibility) 361 Temperature Rise – Adiabatic 363 Temperature Rise – Polytropic 365 A Case Study Using Unisim Design R460.1 Software for a Two–stage Compression 365 Case Study 2 365 Solution 365 1. Starting UniSim Design Software 366 2. Creating a New Simulation 366 Saving the Simulation 367 3. Adding Components to the Simulation 367 4. Selecting a Fluids Package 368 5. Select the Units for the Simulation 369 6. Enter Simulation Environment 369 Accidentally Closing the PFD 371 Object Palette 371 7. Adding Material Streams 371 8. Specifying Material Streams 372 9. Adding A Compressor 374 Specifications 381 Compression Process 385 Adiabatic 385 Isothermal 385 Polytropic 385 Efficiency 388 Head 390 Adiabatic Head Developed Per Single-stage Wheel 390 Polytropic Head 391 Polytropic 391 Brake Horsepower 393 Speed of Rotation 396 Temperature Rise During Compression 397 Sonic or Acoustic Velocity 399 Mach Number 402 Specific Speed 402 Compressor Equations in Si Units 403 Polytropic Compressor 405 Adiabatic Compressor 408 Efficiency 409 Mass Flow Rate, w 409 Mechanical Losses 410 Estimating Compressor Horsepower 411 Multistage Compressors 412 Multicomponent Gas Streams 414 Affinity Laws 422 Speed 423 Impeller Diameters (Similar) 423 Impeller Diameter (Changed) 424 Effect of Temperature 424 Affinity Law Performance 425 Troubleshooting of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Compressors 425 Nomenclature 429 Greek Symbols 431 Subscripts 432 Nomenclature 432 Subscripts 434 Greek Symbols 434 References 434 Pumps 434 Bibliography 435 References 435 Compressors 435 Bibliography 436 7 Mass Transfer 437 Introduction 437 Vapor Liquid Equilibrium 437 Bubble Point Calculation 441 Dew Point Calculation 442 Equilibrium Flash Composition 442 Fundamental 443 The Equations 444 The Algorithm 445 Nomenclature 446 Tower Sizing for Valve Trays 446 Introduction 446 The Equations 448 Nomenclature 452 Greek Letters 465 Packed Tower Design 466 Introduction 466 Pressure Drop 466 Flooding 466 Operating and Design Conditions 468 Design Equations 471 Packed Towers versus Trayed Towers 473 Economic Trade-Offs 473 Nomenclature 474 Greek Letters 474 Determination of Plates in Fractionating Columns By the Smoker Equations 474 Introduction 474 The Equations 474 Application to a Distillation Column 475 Rectifying Section: 475 Stripping Section: 476 Nomenclature 476 Multicomponent Distribution and Minimum Trays In Distillation Columns 477 Introduction 477 Key Components 477 Equations Surveyed 477 Fractionating Tray Stability Diagrams 479 Areas of Unacceptable Operation 479 Foaming 480 Flooding 480 Entrainment 480 Weeping/Dumping 480 Fractionation Problem Solving Considerations 481 Mathematical Modeling 481 The Fenske’s Method for Total Reflux 483 The Gilliland Method for Number of Equilibrium Stages 484 The Underwood Method 485 Equations for Describing Gilliland’s Graph 486 Kirkbride’s Feed Plate Location 487 Nomenclature 487 Greek Letters 488 Examples and Solutions 488 References 499 Index 501

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a comprehensive treatment of investing chemical processing incidents. It presents on-the-job information, techniques, and examples that support successful investigations. Issues related to identification and classification of incidents (including near misses), notifications and initial response, assignment of an investigation team, preservation and control of an incident scene, collecting and documenting evidence, interviewing witnesses, determining what happened, identifying root causes, developing recommendations, effectively implementing recommendation, communicating investigation findings, and improving the investigation process are addressed in the third edition. While the focus of the book is investigating process safety incidents the methodologies, tools, and techniques described can also be applied when investigating other types of events such as reliability, quality, occupational health, and safety incidents.Table of ContentsPreface xxv Acknowledgments xxvii Acronyms and Abbreviations xxix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Building on the Past 1 1.2 Investigation Basics 2 1.2.1 The First Step 2 1.2.2 The Second Step 4 1.2.3 The Third Step 4 1.2.4 The Fourth step 4 1.2.5 The Fifth Step 5 1.2.6 The Sixth Step 5 1.3 Who Should Read This Book? 5 1.4 The Guideline’s Objectives 6 1.5 The Guideline’s Content and Organization 6 1.6 The Continuing Evolution of Incident Investigation 11 2 Overview of Chemical Process Incident Causation 13 2.1 Stages of a Process-Related Incident 14 2.1.1 Three Phase Model of Process-Related Incidents 14 2.1.2 Event Tree 14 2.1.3 Swiss Cheese Model 16 2.1.4 Importance of Latent Failures 17 2.2 Key Causation Concepts 18 2.2.1 Loss of Containment or Energy 18 2.2.2 Management System Failure 20 2.2.3 Human Factors 21 2.2.4 Multiple Causation 22 2.2.5 Events vs Root Causes 22 2.2.6 Controlling Risk 23 2.3 Summary 24 3 An Overview of Investigation Methodologies 26 3.1 History of Investigation Methodologies and Tools 29 3.1.1 One-on-One Interview 29 3.1.2 Brainstorming 29 3.1.3 What If Analysis 30 3.1.4 5-Whys 30 3.1.5 Process of Elimination 31 3.1.6 Timelines 31 3.1.7 Sequence Diagrams 31 3.1.8 Predefined Trees 33 3.2 Tools for Use in Preparation for Root Cause Analysis 34 3.2.1 Timelines 34 3.2.2 Sequence Diagrams 35 3.2.3 Scientific Method 35 3.2.4 Causal Factor Identification 36 3.3 Structured Root Cause Analysis Methodologies 37 3.3.1 Checklists 37 3.3.2 Predefined Trees 38 3.3.3 Team-Developed Logic Trees 39 3.4 Selecting an Appropriate Methodology 43 3.4.1 Methodologies Used by CCPS Members 46 4 Designing An Incident Investigation Management System 47 4.1 System Considerations 49 4.1.1 An Organization’s Responsibilities 49 4.1.2 Workforce Responsibilities 51 4.1.3 Role of the Management System Developers 53 4.1.4 Integration with Other Functions and Teams 54 4.1.5 Involvement by Regulatory Agencies 55 4.2 Typical Management System Topics 58 4.2.1 Classifying Incidents 58 4.2.2 Specifying and Managing Documentation 59 4.2.3 Legal Considerations 60 4.2.4 Describing Team Organization and Functions 63 4.2.5 Electronic Process Data and Control Systems 64 4.2.6 Defining Training Requirements 65 4.2.7 Emphasizing Root Causes 69 4.2.8 Fostering a Blame-Free Policy 70 4.2.9 Developing Recommendations 70 4.2.10 Recommendation Responsibilities 71 4.2.11 Implementing the Recommendations and Follow-up Activities 72 4.2.12 Providing a Template for Formal Reports 73 4.2.13 Management System Review and Approval 73 4.2.14 Planning for Continuous Improvement 73 4.3 Management System 74 4.3.1 Initial Implementation— Training 75 4.3.2 Developing a Specific Investigation Plan 75 5 Initial Notification, Classification and Investigation of Process Safety Incidents 79 5.1 Internal Reporting 79 5.2 Incident Classification 81 5.2.1 Severity Classification 82 5.2.2 Local Jurisdiction 89 5.2.3 Other Options for Establishing Classification Criteria 89 5.3 Incident Notification 90 5.3.1 Corporate Notification 90 5.3.2 Agency Notification 91 5.3.3 Other Stakeholder Notification 91 5.3.4 Other Notifications 92 5.4 Type of Investigation 92 5.4.1 Which Investigation System to Use? 92 5.4.2 Investigation Approach 93 5.5 Summary 94 6 Building and Leading An Incident Investigation Team 96 6.1 Team Approach 96 6.2 Advantages of the Team Approach 97 6.3 Leading a Process Safety Incident Investigation Team 98 6.4 Potential Team Composition 100 6.5 Building a Team for a Specific Incident 104 6.5.1 Composition and Size of Investigation Team 104 6.6 Team Activities 106 6.7 Summary 108 7 Witness Management 110 7.1 Overview 110 7.1.1 Witness Issues Following a Major Occurrence 111 7.1.2 Investigation Team Priorities for Managing Witnesses 112 7.2 Identifying Witnesses 113 7.3 Witness Interviews 115 7.3.1 Human Factors Related to Interviews 115 7.3.2 Collecting Information from Witnesses 118 7.3.3 Initial Witness Statements 120 7.3.4 Conducting the Interview 121 7.4 Conducting Follow-up Activities 134 7.5 Conducting Follow-up Interviews 135 7.6 Reliability of Witness Statements 135 7.7 Summary 135 8 Evidence Identification, Collection and Management 137 8.1 Overview 137 8.1.1 Developing a Specific Plan 138 8.1.2 Investigation Environment Following a Major Occurrence 139 8.1.3 Priorities for Managing an Incident Investigation Team 141 8.2 Sources of Evidence 144 8.2.1 Types of Sources 144 8.2.2 Physical Evidence and Data 147 8.2.3 Paper Evidence and Data 149 8.2.4 Electronic Evidence and Data 152 8.2.5 Position Evidence and Data 153 8.3 Evidence Gathering 156 8.3.1 Initial Site Visit 157 8.3.2 Identifying and Documenting Evidence 159 8.3.3 Tools and Supplies 162 8.3.4 Photography and Video 164 8.4 Timelines and Sequence Diagrams 168 8.4.1 Constructing a Timeline 168 8.4.2 Constructing a Sequence Diagram 174 8.5 Summary 176 9 Evidence Analysis and Causal Factor Determination 178 9.1 Scientific Method 178 9.2 Confirmation Bias 181 9.3 Evidence Analysis 181 9.3.1 Data Organization - Timelines 182 9.3.2 Use of Protocols 182 9.3.3 Mechanical Failure Analysis 184 9.3.4 Advanced Data Systems 187 9.4 Hypothesis Formulation 187 9.4.1 Fact/Hypothesis Matrix 188 9.5 Hypothesis Testing 190 9.5.1 Engineering Analysis 190 9.5.2 Computational Modeling 191 9.5.3 Reconstruction 191 9.5.4 Test the Items under Simulated Conditions 192 9.5.5 Testing of Human Input/Performance 192 9.6 Select the Final Hypothesis 193 9.6.1 Causal Factor Identification 193 9.6.2 Causal Factor Charting 198 9.6.3 Developing a Causal Factor Chart 200 9.7 Summary 202 10 Determining Root Causes—Structured Approaches 203 10.1 Concept of Root Cause Analysis 203 10.2 Case Histories 206 10.3 Methodologies for Root Cause Analysis 208 10.3.1 5 Whys Technique 208 10.3.2 Structured Root Cause Determination 212 10.4 Root Cause Determination Using Logic Trees 214 10.4.1 Gather Evidence and List Facts 215 10.4.2 Timeline Development 215 10.4.3 Logic Tree Development 215 10.5 Building a Logic Tree 219 10.5.1 Choosing the Top Event 220 10.5.2 Logic Tree Basics 220 10.5.3 Example—Chemical Spray Injury 228 10.5.4 What to Do if the Process Stalls 232 10.5.5 Guidelines for Stopping Tree Development 232 10.6 Example Applications 235 10.6.1 Fire and Explosion Incident—Fault Tree 235 10.6.2 Data-Driven Cause Analysis 239 10.6.3 Logic Tree Summary 241 10.7 Root Cause Determination Using Predefined Trees 242 10.7.1 Scenario Determination 244 10.7.2 Causal Factors 244 10.7.3 Predefined Tree 245 10.8 Using Predefined Trees 246 10.8.1 Predefined Tree Methodology 247 10.8.2 Example—Environmental Incident 248 10.8.2 Quality Assurance 255 10.8.3 Predefined Tree Summary 255 10.9 Checklists 256 10.9.1 Use of Checklists 257 10.9.2 Checklist Summary 258 10.10 Human Factors Applications 258 10.11 Summary 259 11 The Impact of Human Factors 261 11.1 Human Factors Concepts 262 11.2 Incorporating Human Factors into the Incident Investigation Process 267 11.2.1 Human Factors Before and During the Incident 268 11.2.2 Human Factors during the Causal Analysis 269 11.2.3 Human Factors in Developing Recommendations 275 11.2.4 After the Investigation 275 11.3 Other References 276 11.4 Summary 276 12 Developing Effective Recommendations 278 12.1 Key Concepts 278 12.2 Developing Effective Recommendations 280 12.2.1 Team Responsibilities 280 12.2.2 Attributes of Good Recommendations 280 12.3 Types of Recommendations 283 12.3.1 Inherently Safer Design 284 12.3.2 Layers of Protection 285 12.3.3 Commendation/Disciplinary Action 289 12.3.4 The “Further Action Required” Recommendation 289 12.4 The Recommendation Process 290 12.4.1 Select Each Cause 290 12.4.2 Perform a Completeness Test 290 12.4.3 Assessing the Effectiveness 291 12.4.4 Prepare to Present Recommendations 291 12.4.5 Review Recommendations with Management 293 12.4.6 Tracking and Closure of Recommendations 293 12.5 Summary 294 13 Preparing the Final Report 295 13.1 Report Scope 295 13.2 Interim Reports 296 13.3 Writing the Report 297 13.4 Sample Report Format 299 13.4.1 Executive Summary 300 13.4.2 Introduction 301 13.4.3 Background 301 13.4.4 Sequence of Events and Description of the Incident 302 13.4.5 Findings 302 13.4.6 Causal Factors 303 13.4.7 Root Causes 304 13.4.8 Recommendations 304 13.4.9 Noncontributory Factors 306 13.4.10 Attachments or Appendices 306 13.5 Report Review and Quality Assurance 307 13.5.1 Reviewing the Report 307 13.5.2 Avoiding Common Mistakes 308 13.6 Investigation Document and Evidence Retention 310 13.7 Summary 311 14 Implementing Recommendations 314 14.1 Activities Related to Recommendation Implementation 315 14.2 Validation of Effectiveness – Case Studies 317 14.2.1 Nuclear Plant Incident 317 14.2.2 Aircraft Incident 318 14.2.3 Petrochemical Plant Incident 318 14.2.4 Challenger Space Shuttle Incident 318 14.2.5 Typical Plant Incidents 319 14.3 Practical Suggestions for Successful Recommendation Implementation 319 14.3.1 Assigning a Responsible Individual 320 14.3.2 Due Dates and Priorities to Implement Recommendations 320 14.3.3 Challenges to Resolving Recommendations 321 14.3.4 Tracking Action Items 323 14.3.5 Follow-up Verification 323 15 Continuous Improvement for the Incident Investigation System 326 15.1 Regulatory Compliance Review 327 15.2 Investigation Quality Assessment 329 15.3 Causal Category Analysis 331 15.4 Review of Near-Miss Events 334 15.5 Recommendations Review 334 15.6 Investigation Follow-up Review 336 15.7 Key Performance Indicators 337 15.8 Summary 338 16 Lessons Learned 340 16.1 Various Sources of Learning from Incidents 341 16.1.1 Internal Sources 341 16.1.2 External Sources 341 16.1.3 Cross-Industry 343 16.2 Identifying Learning Opportunities 343 16.3 Sharing and Institutionalizing Lessons Learned 345 16.4 Senior Management – Incident Sharing and Commitment 347 16.5 Examples of Sharing Lessons Learned 348 16.5.1 Creating a Process Safety Alert from a Case Study 348 16.5.2 Safety Newsletter 350 16.5.3 Videos of Incidents 355 16.5.4 Detailed Incident Reports and Databases 355 16.6 Summary 355 Appendix A. Photography Guidelines for Maximum Results 357 Appendix B. Example Protocol – Checking Position of a Chain Valve 362 Appendix C. Process Safety Events Leveling Criteria 366 Appendix D. Example Case Study 368 Appendix E. Quick Checklist for Investigators 398 Appendix F. Evidence Preservation Checklist – Prior to Arrival of the Investigation Team 404 Appendix G. Guidance On Classifying Potential Severity of a Loss of Primary Containment 406 Glossary 416 References 427 Index 437

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Book SynopsisA systematic approach to profit optimization utilizing strategic solutions and methodologies for the chemical process industry In the ongoing battle to reduce the cost of production and increase profit margin within the chemical process industry, leaders are searching for new ways to deploy profit optimization strategies. Profit Maximization Techniques For Operating Chemical Plants defines strategic planning and implementation techniques for managers, senior executives, and technical service consultants to help increase profit margins. The book provides in-depth insight and practical tools to help readers find new and unique opportunities to implement profit optimization strategies. From identifying where the large profit improvement projects are to increasing plant capacity and pushing plant operations towards multiple constraints while maintaining continuous improvementsthere is a plethora of information to help keep plant operations on budget. The book also includes informatiTable of ContentsFigure List xix Table List xxv Preface xxvii 1 Concept of Profit Maximization 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Who is This Book Written for? 3 1.3 What is Profit Maximization and Sweating of Assets All About? 4 1.4 Need for Profit Maximization in Today’s Competitive Market 7 1.5 Data Rich but Information Poor Status of Today’s Process Industries 8 1.6 Emergence of Knowledge-Based Industries 9 1.7 How Knowledge and Data Can Be Used to Maximize Profit 9 References 10 2 Big Picture of the Modern Chemical Industry 11 2.1 New Era of the Chemical Industry 11 2.2 Transition from a Conventional to an Intelligent Chemical Industry 11 2.3 How Will Digital Affect the Chemical Industry and Where Can the Biggest Impact Be Expected? 12 2.3.1 Attaining a New Level of Functional Excellence 12 2.3.1.1 Manufacturing 13 2.3.1.2 Supply Chain 14 2.3.1.3 Sales and Marketing 14 2.3.1.4 Research and Development 15 2.4 Using Advanced Analytics to Boost Productivity and Profitability in Chemical Manufacturing 15 2.4.1 Decreasing Downtime Through Analytics 16 2.4.2 Increase Profits with Less Resources 17 2.4.3 Optimizing the Whole Production Process 18 2.5 Achieving Business Impact with Data 19 2.5.1 Data’s Exponential Growing Importance in Value Creation 19 2.5.2 Different Links in the Value Chain 20 2.5.2.1 The Insights Value Chain – Definitions and Considerations 21 2.6 From Dull Data to Critical Business Insights: The Upstream Processes 22 2.6.1 Generating and Collecting Relevant Data 22 2.6.2 Data Refinement is a Two-Step Iteration 23 2.7 From Valuable Data Analytics Results to Achieving Business Impact: The Downstream Activities 25 2.7.1 Turning Insights into Action 25 2.7.2 Developing Data Culture 25 2.7.3 Mastering Tasks Concerning Technology and Infrastructure as Well as Organization and Governance 25 References 26 3 Profit Maximization Project (PMP) Implementation Steps 27 3.1 Implementing a Profit Maximization Project (PMP) 27 3.1.1 Step 1: Mapping the Whole Plant in Monetary Terms 27 3.1.2 Step 2: Assessment of Current Plant Conditions 27 3.1.3 Step 3: Assessment of the Base Control Layer of the Plant 28 3.1.4 Step 4: Assessment of Loss from the Plant 29 3.1.5 Step 5: Identification of Improvement Opportunity in Plant and Functional Design of PMP Applications 29 3.1.6 Step 6: Develop an Advance Process Monitoring Framework by Applying the Latest Data Analytics Tools 30 3.1.7 Step 7: Develop a Real-Time Fault Diagnosis System 30 3.1.8 Step 8: Perform a Maximum Capacity Test Run 30 3.1.9 Step 9: Develop and Implement Real-Time APC 31 3.1.10 Step 10: Develop a Data-Driven Offline Process Model for Critical Process Equipment 31 3.1.11 Step 11: Optimizing Process Operation with a Developed Model 32 3.1.12 Step 12: Modeling and Optimization of Industrial Reactors 32 3.1.13 Step 13: Maximize Throughput of All Running Distillation Columns 33 3.1.14 Step 14: Apply New Design Methodology for Process Equipment 33 References 34 4 Strategy for Profit Maximization 35 4.1 Introduction 35 4.2 How is Operating Profit Defined in CPI? 36 4.3 Different Ways to Maximize Operating Profit 36 4.4 Process Cost Intensity 37 4.4.1 Definition of Process Cost Intensity 37 4.4.2 Concept of Cost Equivalent (CE) 39 4.4.3 Cost Intensity for a Total Site 39 4.5 Mapping the Whole Process in Monetary Terms and Gain Insights 40 4.6 Case Study of a Glycol Plant 40 4.7 Steps to Map the Whole Plant in Monetary Terms and Gain Insights 43 4.7.1 Step 1: Visualize the Plant as a Black Box 43 4.7.2 Step 2: Data Collection from a Data Historian and Preparation of Cost Data 46 4.7.3 Step 3: Calculation of Profit Margin 46 4.7.4 Step 4: Gain Insights from Plant Cost and Profit Data 48 4.7.5 Step 5: Generation of Production Cost and a Profit Margin Table for One Full Year 51 4.7.6 Step 6: Plot Production Cost and Profit Margin for One Full Year and Gain Insights 51 4.7.7 Step 7: Calculation of Relative Standard Deviations of each Parameter in order to Understand the Cause of Variability 52 4.7.8 Step 8: Cost Benchmarking 53 Reference 54 5 Key Performance Indicators and Targets 55 5.1 Introduction 55 5.2 Key Indicators Represent Operation Opportunities 56 5.2.1 Reaction Optimization 56 5.2.2 Heat Exchanger Operation Optimization 58 5.2.3 Furnace Operation 58 5.2.4 Rotating Equipment Operation 59 5.2.5 Minimizing Steam Let down Flows 59 5.2.6 Turndown Operation 59 5.2.7 Housekeeping Aspects 59 5.3 Define Key Indicators 60 5.3.1 Process Analysis and Economics Analysis 61 5.3.2 Understand the Constraints 61 5.3.3 Identify Qualitatively Potential Area of Opportunities 65 5.4 Case Study of Ethylene Glycol Plant to Identify the Key Performance Indicator 66 5.4.1 Methodology 66 5.4.2 Ethylene Oxide Reaction Section 67 5.4.2.1 Understand the Process 67 5.4.2.2 Understanding the Economics of the Process 68 5.4.2.3 Factors that can Change the Production Cost and Overall Profit Generated from this Section 69 5.4.2.4 How is Production Cost Related to Process Parameters from the Standpoint of the Cause and Effect Relationship? 69 5.4.2.5 Constraints 69 5.4.2.6 Key Parameter Identifications 70 5.4.3 Cycle Water System 71 5.4.3.1 Main Purpose 71 5.4.3.2 Economics of the Process 71 5.4.3.3 Factors that can Change the Production Cost of this Section 72 5.4.3.4 Constraints 72 5.4.3.5 Key Performance Parameters 72 5.4.4 Carbon Dioxide Removal Section 73 5.4.4.1 Main Purpose 73 5.4.4.2 Economics 73 5.4.4.3 Factors that can Change the Production Cost of this Section 73 5.4.4.4 Constraints 74 5.4.4.5 Key Performance Parameters 74 5.4.5 EG Reaction and Evaporation Section 74 5.4.5.1 Main Purpose 74 5.4.5.2 Economics 75 5.4.5.3 Factors that can Change the Production Cost of this Section 76 5.4.5.4 Key Performance Parameters 76 5.4.6 EG Purification Section 76 5.4.6.1 Main Purpose 76 5.4.6.2 Economics 77 5.4.6.3 Key Performance Parameters 77 5.5 Purpose to Develop Key Indicators 77 5.6 Set up Targets for Key Indicators 78 5.7 Cost and Profit Dashboard 78 5.7.1 Development of Cost and Profit Dashboard to Monitor the Process Performance in Money Terms 78 5.7.2 Connecting Key Performance Indicators in APC 79 5.8 It is Crucial to Change the Viewpoints in Terms of Cost or Profit 80 References 80 6 Assessment of Current Plant Status 83 6.1 Introduction 83 6.1.1 Data Extraction from a Data Historian 83 6.1.2 Calculate the Economic Performance of the Section 84 6.2 Monitoring Variations of Economic Process Parameters 90 6.3 Determination of the Effect of Atmosphere on the Plant Profitability 90 6.4 Capacity Variations 91 6.5 Assessment of Plant Reliability 91 6.6 Assessment of Profit Suckers and Identification of Equipment for Modeling and Optimization 91 6.7 Assessment of Process Parameters Having a High Impact on Profit 93 6.8 Comparison of Current Plant Performance Against Its Design 93 6.9 Assessment of Regulatory Control System Performance 94 6.9.1 Basic Assessment Procedure 96 6.10 Assessment of Advance Process Control System Performance 97 6.11 Assessment of Various Profit Improvement Opportunities 97 References 98 7 Process Modeling by the Artificial Neural Network 99 7.1 Introduction 99 7.2 Problems to Develop a Phenomenological Model for Industrial Processes 100 7.3 Types of Process Model 101 7.3.1 First Principle-Based Model 101 7.3.2 Data-Driven Models 101 7.3.3 Grey Model 101 7.3.4 Hybrid Model 101 7.4 Emergence of Artificial Neural Networks as One of the Promising Data-Driven Modeling Techniques 106 7.5 ANN-Based Modeling 106 7.5.1 How Does ANN Work? 106 7.5.2 Network Architecture 107 7.5.3 Back-Propagation Algorithm (BPA) 107 7.5.4 Training 108 7.5.5 Generalizability 110 7.6 Model Development Methodology 110 7.6.1 Data Collection and Data Inspection 110 7.6.2 Data Pre-processing and Data Conditioning 110 7.6.2.1 Outlier Detection and Replacement 112 7.6.2.2 Univariate Approach to Detect Outliers 112 7.6.2.3 Multivariate Approach to Detect Outliers 112 7.6.3 Selection of Relevant Input–Output Variables 113 7.6.4 Align Data 113 7.6.5 Model Parameter Selection, Training, and Validation 113 7.6.6 Model Acceptance and Model Tuning 115 7.7 Application of ANN Modeling Techniques in the Chemical Process Industry 115 7.8 Case Study: Application of the ANN Modeling Technique to Develop an Industrial Ethylene Oxide Reactor Model 116 7.8.1 Origin of the Present Case Study 116 7.8.2 Problem Definition of the Present Case Study 117 7.8.3 Developing the ANN-Based Reactor Model 119 7.8.4 Identifying Input and Output Parameters 119 7.8.5 Data Collection 120 7.8.6 Neural Regression 121 7.8.7 Results and Discussions 122 7.9 Matlab Code to Generate the Best ANN Model 124 References 125 8 Optimization of Industrial Processes and Process Equipment 131 8.1 Meaning of Optimization in an Industrial Context 131 8.2 How Can Optimization Increase Profit? 132 8.3 Types of Optimization 133 8.3.1 Steady-State Optimization 133 8.3.2 Dynamic Optimization 133 8.4 Different Methods of Optimization 134 8.4.1 Classical Method 134 8.4.2 Gradient-Based Methods of Optimization 134 8.4.3 Non-traditional Optimization Techniques 135 8.5 Brief Historical Perspective of Heuristic-based Non-traditional Optimization Techniques 136 8.6 Genetic Algorithm 138 8.6.1 What is Genetic Algorithm? 138 8.6.2 Foundation of Genetic Algorithms 138 8.6.3 Five Phases of Genetic Algorithms 140 8.6.3.1 Initial Population 140 8.6.3.2 Fitness Function 140 8.6.3.3 Selection 140 8.6.3.4 Crossover 140 8.6.3.5 Termination 141 8.6.4 The Problem Definition 141 8.6.5 Calculation Steps of GA 141 8.6.5.1 Step 1: Generating Initial Population by Creating Binary Coding 141 8.6.5.2 Step 2: Evaluation of Fitness 142 8.6.5.3 Step 3: Selecting the Next Generation’s Population 142 8.6.6 Advantages of GA Against Classical Optimization Techniques 144 8.7 Differential Evolution 145 8.7.1 What is Differential Evolution (DE)? 145 8.7.2 Working Principle of DE 145 8.7.3 Calculation Steps Performed in DE 145 8.7.4 Choice of DE Key Parameters (NP, F, and CR) 145 8.7.5 Stepwise Calculation Procedure for DE implementation 146 8.8 Simulated Annealing 149 8.8.1 What is Simulated Annealing? 149 8.8.2 Procedure 149 8.8.3 Algorithm 150 8.9 Case Study: Application of the Genetic Algorithm Technique to Optimize the Industrial Ethylene Oxide Reactor 151 8.9.1 Conclusion of the Case Study 152 8.10 Strategy to Utilize Data-Driven Modeling and Optimization Techniques to Solve Various Industrial Problems and Increase Profit 153 References 155 9 Process Monitoring 159 9.1 Need for Advance Process Monitoring 159 9.2 Current Approaches to Process Monitoring and Diagnosis 160 9.3 Development of an Online Intelligent Monitoring System 161 9.4 Development of KPI-Based Process Monitoring 161 9.5 Development of a Cause and Effect-Based Monitoring System 163 9.6 Development of Potential Opportunity-Based Dash Board 163 9.6.1 Development of Loss and Waste Monitoring Systems 164 9.6.2 Development of a Cost-Based Monitoring System 165 9.6.3 Development of a Constraints-Based Monitoring System 166 9.7 Development of Business Intelligent Dashboards 166 9.8 Development of Process Monitoring System Based on Principal Component Analysis 167 9.8.1 What is a Principal Component Analysis? 168 9.8.2 Why Do We Need to Rotate the Data? 169 9.8.3 How Do We Generate Principal Components? 170 9.8.4 Steps to Calculating the Principal Components 170 9.9 Case Study for Operational State Identification and Monitoring Using PCA 171 9.9.1 Case Study 1: Monitoring a Reciprocating Reclaim Compressor 171 References 174 10 Fault Diagnosis 177 10.1 Challenges to the Chemical Industry 177 10.2 What is Fault Diagnosis? 178 10.3 Benefit of a Fault Diagnosis System 179 10.3.1 Characteristic of an Automated Fault Diagnosis System 180 10.4 Decreasing Downtime Through a Fault Diagnosis Type Data Analytics 180 10.5 User Perspective to Make an Effective Fault Diagnosis System 181 10.6 How Are Fault Diagnosis Systems Made? 183 10.6.1 Principal Component-Based Approach 184 10.6.2 Artificial Neural Network-Based Approach 184 10.7 A Case Study to Build a Robust Fault Diagnosis System 185 10.7.1 Challenges to a Build Fault Diagnosis of an Ethylene Oxide Reactor System 187 10.7.2 PCA-Based Fault Diagnosis of an EO Reactor System 187 10.7.3 Acquiring Historic Process Data Sets to Build a PCA Model 188 10.7.4 Criteria of Selection of Input Parameters for PCA 189 10.7.5 How PCA Input Data is Captured in Real Time 191 10.7.6 Building the Model 192 10.7.6.1 Calculations of the Principal Components 192 10.7.6.2 Calculations of Hotelling’s T2 192 10.7.6.3 Calculations of the Residual 193 10.7.7 Creation of a PCA Plot for Training Data 193 10.7.8 Creation of Hotelling’s T2 Plot for the Training Data 194 10.7.9 Creation of a Residual Plot for the Training Data 194 10.7.10 Creation of an Abnormal Zone in the PCA Plot 194 10.7.11 Implementing the PCA Model in Real Time 194 10.7.12 Detecting Whether the Plant is Running Normally or Abnormally on a Real-Time Basis 195 10.7.13 Use of a PCA Plot During Corrective Action in Real Time 197 10.7.14 Validity of a PCA Model 198 10.7.14.1 Time-Varying Characteristic of an EO Catalyst 198 10.7.14.2 Capturing the Efficiency of the PCA Model Using the Residual Plot 199 10.7.15 Quantitive Decision Criteria Implemented for Retraining of an Ethylene Oxide (EO) Reactor PCA Model 200 10.7.16 How Retraining is Practically Executed 200 10.8 Building an ANN Model for Fault Diagnosis of an EO Reactor 200 10.8.1 Acquiring Historic Process Data Sets to Build an ANN Model 200 10.8.2 Identification of Input and Output Parameters 201 10.8.3 Building of an ANN-Based EO Reactor Model 201 10.8.3.1 Complexity of EO Reactor Modeling 201 10.8.3.2 Model Building 202 10.8.4 Prediction Performance of an ANN Model 203 10.8.5 Utilization of an ANN Model for Fault Detection 203 10.8.6 How Do PCA Input Data Relate to ANN Input/Output Data? 204 10.8.7 Retraining of an ANN Model 206 10.9 Integrated Robust Fault Diagnosis System 206 10.10 Advantages of a Fault Diagnosis System 208 References 208 11 Optimization of an Existing Distillation Column 209 11.1 Strategy to Optimize the Running Distillation Column 209 11.1.1 Strategy 209 11.2 Increase the Capacity of a Running Distillation Column 210 11.3 Capacity Diagram 211 11.4 Capacity Limitations of Distillation Columns 212 11.5 Vapour Handling Limitations 214 11.5.1 Flow Regimes – Spray and Froth 214 11.5.2 Entrainment 215 11.5.3 Tray Flooding 215 11.5.4 Ultimate Capacity 217 11.6 Liquid Handling Limitations 217 11.6.1 Downcomer Flood 217 11.6.2 Downcomer Residence Time 217 11.6.3 Downcomer Froth Back-Up% 219 11.6.4 Downcomer Inlet Velocity 220 11.6.5 Weir liquid loading 221 11.6.6 Downcomer Sizing Criteria 221 11.7 Other Limitations and Considerations 221 11.7.1 Weeping 221 11.7.2 Dumping 222 11.7.3 Tray Turndown 222 11.7.4 Foaming 223 11.8 Understanding the Stable Operation Zone 223 11.9 Case Study to Develop a Capacity Diagram 224 11.9.1 Calculation of Capacity Limits 224 11.9.1.1 Spray Limit 224 11.9.1.2 Vapor Flooding Limit 226 11.9.1.3 Downcomer Backup Limit 226 11.9.1.4 Maximum Liquid Loading Limit 227 11.9.1.5 Minimum Liquid Loading Limit 227 11.9.1.6 Minimum Vapor Loading Limit 228 11.9.2 Plotting a Capacity Diagram 228 11.9.3 Insights from the Capacity Diagram 229 11.9.4 How Can the Capacity Diagram Be Used for Profit Maximization? 229 References 230 12 New Design Methodology 231 12.1 Need for New Design Methodology 231 12.2 Case Study of the New Design Methodology for a Distillation Column 231 12.2.1 Traditional Way to Design a Distillation Column 231 12.2.2 Background of the Distillation Column Design 232 12.3 New Intelligent Methodology for Designing a Distillation Column 234 12.4 Problem Description of the Case Study 237 12.5 Solution Procedure Using the New Design Methodology 237 12.6 Calculations of the Total Cost 238 12.7 Search Optimization Variables 239 12.8 Operational and Hydraulic Constraints 239 12.9 Particle Swarm Optimization 241 12.9.1 PSO Algorithm 241 12.10 Simulation and PSO Implementation 242 12.11 Results and Analysis 243 12.12 Advantages of PSO 245 12.13 Advantages of New Methodology over the Traditional Approach 246 12.14 Conclusion 248 Nomenclature 248 References 250 Appendix 12.1 251 13 Genetic Programing for Modeling of Industrial Reactors 259 13.1 Potential Impact of Reactor Optimization on Overall Profit 259 13.2 Poor Knowledge of Reaction Kinetics of Industrial Reactors 259 13.3 ANN as a Tool for Reactor Kinetic Modeling 260 13.4 Conventional Methods for Evaluating Kinetics 260 13.5 What is Genetic Programming? 261 13.6 Background of Genetic Programming 262 13.7 Genetic Programming at a Glance 263 13.7.1 Preparatory Steps of Genetic Programming 264 13.7.2 Executional Steps of Genetic Programming 264 13.7.3 Creating an Individual 267 13.7.4 Fitness Test 268 13.7.5 The Genetic Operations 269 13.7.6 User Decisions 271 13.7.7 Computing Resources 272 13.8 Example Genetic Programming Run 272 13.8.1 Preparatory Steps 273 13.8.2 Step-by-Step Sample Run 274 13.8.3 Selection, Crossover, and Mutation 275 13.9 Case Studies 277 13.9.1 Case Study 1 277 13.9.2 Case Study 2 278 13.9.3 Case Study 3 279 13.9.4 Case Study 4 280 References 281 14 Maximum Capacity Test Run and Debottlenecking Study 283 14.1 Introduction 283 14.2 Understanding Different Safety Margins in Process Equipment 283 14.3 Strategies to Exploit the Safety Margin 284 14.4 Capacity Expansion versus Efficiency Reduction 285 14.5 Maximum Capacity Test Run: What is it All About? 286 14.6 Objective of a Maximum Capacity Test Run 287 14.7 Bottlenecks of Different Process Equipment 288 14.7.1 Functional Bottleneck 288 14.7.2 Reliability Bottleneck 288 14.7.3 Safety Interlock Bottleneck 290 14.8 Key Steps to Carry Out a Maximum Capacity Test Run in a Commercial Running Plant 291 14.8.1 Planning 291 14.8.2 Discussion with Technical People 296 14.8.3 Risk and Opportunity 296 14.8.4 Dos and Don’ts 297 14.8.5 Simulations 298 14.8.6 Preparations 299 14.8.7 Management of Change 299 14.8.8 Execution 300 14.8.9 Data Collections 300 14.8.10 Critical Observations 302 14.8.11 Report Preparations 303 14.8.12 Detailed Simulations and Assembly of All Observations 303 14.8.13 Final Report Preparation 304 14.9 Scope and Phases of a Detailed Improvement Study 304 14.9.1 Improvement Scoping Study 305 14.9.2 Detail Feasibility Study 305 14.9.3 Retrofit Design Phase 305 14.10 Scope and Limitations of MCTR 306 14.10.1 Scope 306 14.10.2 Two Big Benefits of Doing MCTR 306 14.10.3 Limitations of MCTR 306 15 Loss Assessment 309 15.1 Different Losses from the System 309 15.2 Strategy to Reduce the Losses andWastages 309 15.3 Money Loss Audit 310 15.4 Product or Utility Losses 312 15.4.1 Loss in the Drain 312 15.4.2 Loss Due to Vent and Flaring 313 15.4.3 Utility Loss 314 15.4.4 Heat Loss Assessment for the Fired Heater 314 15.4.5 Heat Loss Assessment for the Distillation Column 315 15.4.6 Heat Loss Assessment for Steam Leakage 316 15.4.7 Heat Loss Assessment for Condensate Loss 317 16 Advance Process Control 319 16.1 What is Advance Process Control? 319 16.2 Why is APC Necessary to Improve Profit? 320 16.3 Why APC is Preferred over Normal PID Regulatory Control 322 16.4 Position of APC in the Control Hierarchy 324 16.5 Which are the Plants where Implementations of APC were Proven Very Profitable? 327 16.6 How do Implementations of APC Increase Profit? 328 16.7 How does APC Extract Benefits? 330 16.8 Application of APC in Oil Refinery, Petrochemical, Fertilizer and Chemical Plants and Related Benefits 334 16.9 Steps to Execute an APC Project 336 16.9.1 Step 1: Preliminary Cost –Benefit Analysis 336 16.9.2 Step 2: Assessment of Base Control Loops 337 16.9.3 Step 3: Functional Design of the Controller 337 16.9.4 Step 4: Conduct the Plant Step Test 338 16.9.5 Step 5: Generate a Process Model 338 16.9.6 Step 6: Commission the Online Controller 338 16.9.7 Step 7: Online APC Controller Tuning 339 16.10 How Can an Effective Functional Design Be Done? 339 16.10.1 Step 1: Define Process Control Objectives 340 16.10.2 Step 2: Identification of Process Constraints 342 16.10.3 Step 3: Define Controller Scope 343 16.10.4 Step 4: Variable Selection 344 16.10.5 Step 5: Rectify Regulatory Control Issues 346 16.10.6 Step 6: Explore the Scope of Inclusions of Inferential Calculations 347 16.10.7 Step 7: Evaluate Potential Optimization Opportunity 347 16.10.8 Step 8: Define LP or QP Objective Function 348 References 349 17 150 Ways and Best Practices to Improve Profit in Running Chemical Plant 351 17.1 Best Practices Followed in Leading Process Industries Around the World 351 17.2 Best Practices Followed in a Steam and Condensate System 351 17.3 Best Practices Followed in Furnaces and Boilers 355 17.4 Best Practices Followed in Pumps, Fans, and Compressor 357 17.5 Best Practices Followed in Illumination Optimization 359 17.6 Best Practices in Operational Improvement 359 17.7 Best Practices Followed in Air and Nitrogen Header 360 17.8 Best Practices Followed in Cooling Tower and CoolingWater 361 17.9 Best Practices Followed inWater Conservation 362 17.10 Best Practices Followed in Distillation Column and Heat Exchanger 363 17.11 Best Practices in Process Improvement 364 17.12 Best Practices in Flare Gas Reduction 365 17.13 Best Practices in Product or Energy Loss Reduction 365 17.14 Best Practices to Monitor Process Control System Performance 366 17.15 Best Practices to Enhance Plant Reliability 367 17.16 Best Practices to Enhance Human Resource 368 17.17 Best Practices to Enhance Safety, Health, and the Environment 368 17.18 Best Practices to Use New Generation Digital Technology 369 17.19 Best Practices to Focus a Detailed Study and R&D Effort 370 Index 373

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Book SynopsisThis is the most comprehensive and in-depth study of the theory and practical applications of a new and groundbreaking method for the energy industry to go green with renewable and alternative energy sources. The global warming phenomenon as a significant sustainability issue is gaining worldwide support for development of renewable energy technologies. The term polygeneration is referred to as an energy supply system, which delivers more than one form of energy to the final user. For example, electricity, cooling and desalination can be delivered from a polygeneration process. The polygeneration process in a hybrid solar thermal power plant can deliver electricity with less impact on the environment compared to a conventional fossil fuel-based power generating system. It is also THE next generation energy production technique with the potential to overcome the undesirable intermittence of renewable energy systems. In this study, the polygeneration process simulTable of ContentsContents Foreword ix Preface xi 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Global Scenario on Renewable Energy 3 1.2. Indian Scenario on Renewable Energy 6 Exercise 8 References 9 2. State-of-the-Art Concentrated Solar Thermal Technologies for End Use Applications 11 2.1. Solar Thermal Technologies for Low Grade Heat Applications 11 2.1.1. Flat Plate Collector System 12 2.1.2. Built-In Storage Solar Water Heating System 15 2.1.3. Evacuated Tubular Collector System 16 ETC Water Heating System Specification 18 2.1.4. Cumulative Growth of SWHS Installation Capacity 20 2.1.5. Performance Evaluation of SWHs 20 2.1.6. Cost Benefits Analysis 23 2.2. Solar Cooking 25 2.2.1. Thermal Performance of Solar Box Type Cooker 30 2.3. Solar Thermal Cooling 35 2.4. Desalination System 38 2.5. Industrial Process Heat applications 45 2.6. Solar Thermal Technologies for Power Generation 49 2.6.1. Parabolic Trough Collector 49 2.6.2. Linear Fresnel Reflector 51 2.6.3. Central Solar Tower 53 2.6.4. Parabolic Dish 54 2.7. Cooling with Process Heat in Cogeneration Process for Industrial Applications 57 2.7.1. System Description 58 Exercise 61 References 62 3. Resource Assessment of Solar and Biomass for Hybrid Thermal Power Plant 69 3.1. Apparent Solar Time 70 3.2. Solar Angles 71 3.3. Solar Resources (DNI) In India 76 3.3.1. Solar DNI from Satellite and Ground Measured Data 76 3.3.2. DNI Assessment at NISE 78 3.4. Biomass Resources in India 81 3.5. Analysis of Solar DNI And Biomass Resources for Hybrid Power Plants 83 Exercise 106 References 106 4. Solar Thermal Power Plant 109 4.1. A Case Study of 1 MWe Solar Thermal Power Plant 122 4.2. Major Components 124 4.2.1. Parabolic Trough Collector 124 4.2.2. Linear Fresnel Reflector 125 4.2.3. Storage 127 4.2.4. Nitrogen Blanketing System 129 4.2.5. Heat Exchanger 129 4.2.6. Power Block 132 4.2.7. Balance of Plant-Utility Systems 134 4.3. Performance of the Plant 136 Exercise 161 References 162 5. Modeling and Simulation of Hybrid Solar and Biomass Thermal Power Plant 163 5.1. Modeling Approach of a Hybrid Solar-Biomass Thermal Power Plant 167 5.2. Thermodynamic Evaluation 168 5.2.1. Energy Evaluation 169 5.2.2. Exergy Evaluation 174 5.3. Analysis of Hybrid Solar and Biomass Thermal Power Plant 177 Exercise 181 References 182 6. Modeling, Simulation, Optimization and Cost Analysis of a Polygeneration Hybrid Solar Biomass System 187 6.1. Modeling Approach of Polygeneration Process in an HSB Thermal Power Plant 191 6.2. Thermodynamic Evaluation 193 6.2.1. Energy Evaluation 193 6.2.2. Exergy Evaluation 201 6.3. Primary Energy Savings on the Polygeneration Process in an HSB Thermal Power Plant 206 6.4. Optimization 207 6.4.1. Objective Functions 207 6.4.2. Decision Variable and Constraints 207 6.4.3. Genetic Algorithm (GA) 207 6.5. Cost Analysis 209 6.6. Analysis Of Polygeneration Process in an HSB Thermal Power Plant for Power, Cooling, and Desalination 211 6.7. Optimization of the Polygeneration System 216 6.8. Cost Analysis of a Polygeneration System 220 Exercise 224 References 226 Appendix 1 231 Nomenclature 231 Greek 233 Subscripts 233 Acronyms 234 Appendix 2. 237 EES Software Coding 237 Appendix 3. 253 Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) with Answers. 253 Answers 274 About the Author 275 Index 277

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