Electronics and communications engineering Books

Book SynopsisThis book explores and analyzes past and current technologies and trends in multimedia communication. It addresses the continually increasing requirement to provide connections that make the electronic encounter as natural and convenient as possible.Table of ContentsPreface xiii 1 A Digital World 1 1.1 Digital Natives and Immigrants 3 1.2 Contemporary Communications 6 1.2.1 Public Switched Telephone Network 7 1.2.2 The Internet 11 1.2.3 Enterprise Networks 16 1.2.4 Off-Air and Cable Television 17 1.2.5 Radio Broadcasting 18 1.3 Triple-Play Services 20 1.4 Contemporary Facilities 20 1.5 Competition 21 1.5.1 Legacy Telcos 21 1.5.2 Legacy Cellcos 23 1.5.3 Legacy Cablecos 23 1.5.4 The Dominance of the Internet 23 1.6 The Business of Multimedia Services 24 1.6.1 Residential Market Development 24 1.6.2 Evolving Networks 25 1.6.3 New Business Models 26 1.7 Next Generation Networks 27 1.7.1 Current Activities 28 1.7.2 EUIST Wireless World Initiative 29 2 Signal Formats 31 2.1 Digital Voice 32 2.1.1 Waveform Sampling 32 2.1.2 Plesiochronous and Synchronous Hierarchies 34 2.1.3 Processing to Achieve Lower Bit Rate Coding 36 2.1.4 Aural Modeling 36 2.1.5 Vocal Tract Modeling 37 2.2 Digital Audio 38 2.3 Digital Pictures 39 2.3.1 Computer Graphics 39 2.3.2 Still Scenes 39 2.4 Digital Video 41 2.4.1 MPEG 2 41 2.4.2 MPEG 4 43 2.4.3 MPEG 7 43 2.4.4 Digital TV Systems 43 2.5 Text 46 2.6 A Common Signal Format 47 2.7 Modulated Signals 47 2.7.1 Single-Carrier Modulation 47 2.7.2 Spread Spectrum Techniques 50 2.7.3 Multicarrier Modulation 52 2.8 Optical Fiber Transmission 54 2.8.1 Single Mode Fiber 55 2.8.2 Step Index and Graded Index Fibers 55 2.8.3 Optical Amplifi ers 55 2.8.4 Optical Modulation 57 2.8.5 RF over Glass 58 2.9 Legacy Signal Formats 58 2.9.1 Packet Relay 58 2.9.2 Frame Relay 59 2.9.3 Cell Relay–Asynchronous Transfer Mode 60 3 Frames, TCP/IP, and VoIP 63 3.1 OSI Client-Server Model 64 3.2 Internet Model 66 3.2.1 Transport Layer 68 3.2.2 Internet Layer 70 3.2.3 Private Addresses 73 3.2.4 Link Layer 74 3.3 VoIP 75 3.3.1 Generating VoIP Packets 75 3.3.2 VoIP Performance 76 3.3.3 Real-Time Transport Protocol 78 3.3.4 H.323 Session Control Protocol 78 3.3.5 SIP Session Initiation Protocol 83 3.3.6 H.323 versus SIP 86 4 Carrier Ethernet 87 4.1 Ethernet Operation 89 4.1.1 Bridging Ethernets 90 4.1.2 Redundant Coding 90 4.1.3 Frame Extensions 91 4.2 Quality of Service 93 4.2.1 Integrated Services Framework 94 4.2.2 Differentiated Services Framework 95 4.2.3 Fairness 96 4.3 Carrier-Grade Ethernet 96 4.3.1 Bridges 98 4.4 Multiprotocol Label Switching 101 4.4.1 MPLS–Traffi c Engineering 102 4.4.2 Generalized MPLS 103 4.4.3 PBB-TE and MPLS-TE 103 4.4.4 Protection, Restoration, Resilience, and OA&M 103 4.5 Pseudowires 105 4.5.1 PWE3 Encapsulation 105 4.5.2 Provisioning Pseudowires 108 5 Wire, Fiber, Cable, and Wireless Access 111 5.1 Digital Subscriber Lines 112 5.1.1 Representative DSL Systems 114 5.1.2 Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer 115 5.1.3 Ethernet in the Access Network 117 5.2 Optical Fiber 118 5.2.1 Optical Fiber Access Links 119 5.2.2 Passive Optical Fiber Access Network 119 5.2.3 EPON and GPON 121 5.3 Cable Access 121 5.3.1 Cable Industry Statistics 122 5.3.2 Cable Network Architecture 122 5.3.3 Cable Connections 124 5.3.4 Data Over Cable 125 5.3.5 Video Headend 126 5.3.6 PacketCable 127 5.4 Wireless Access 129 5.4.1 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Medium Access Control and Physical Layer Specifi cations 130 5.4.2 Wireless LAN 135 5.4.3 WiFi 135 5.4.4 Bluetooth 137 5.4.5 IEEE 802.16 Air Interface for Fixed/Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Systems 137 5.4.6 WiMAX 139 6 Mobile Phones 143 6.1 First Generation Cellular Systems 144 6.2 The Air Interface 146 6.3 Roaming and Handover 147 6.4 Second Generation 148 6.4.1 Global System for Mobile Telecommunication 148 6.4.2 IS-136 149 6.4.3 IS-95 (cdmaOne) 150 6.5 Third Generation 150 6.5.1 Third Generation Partnership Project 151 6.5.2 Third Generation Partnership Project 2 162 6.6 Fourth Generation 168 6.6.1 Long-Term Evolution 168 6.6.2 IMT–Advanced 170 6.6.3 Seamless Mobility 171 6.6.4 Multiple Antennas 172 6.7 Backhaul 173 6.8 Satellite Mobile Phones 173 6.9 Skype 174 7 Future Networks and Services 175 7.1 IPTV 176 7.1.1 IPTV Network 177 7.1.2 IPTV Architectural Requirements 179 7.1.3 IPTV Middleware 181 7.2 Networked Home 184 7.2.1 G.hn 185 7.2.2 HomeGrid Forum 186 7.2.3 Multimedia Over Coax Alliance 186 7.2.4 Home Plug Powerline Alliance 186 7.2.5 Wi-Fi and Femtocells 187 7.3 Next Generation Networks 187 7.3.1 TISPAN NGN 188 7.3.2 Next Generation Cable Architecture 192 7.4 Omnibus Broadband Initiative 193 7.5 The Digital Future 194 7.5.1 The Activities of Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants 194 7.5.2 Advanced Terminals 198 7.5.3 Future Requirements 200 7.5.4 Provider Perspective 200 7.5.5 Implications for Digital Natives 202 Appendix A Security 203 A.1 Security Techniques 203 A.1.1 Authentication and Authorization 204 A.1.2 Privacy 204 A.1.3 Integrity 204 A.1.4 Nonrepudiation 204 A.2 Cryptography 205 A.2.1 Symmetrical Cryptosystem 205 A.2.2 Asymmetrical Cryptosystem 205 A.2.3 Digital Signatures 207 A.2.4 Certifi cation Authority 207 A.3 Specifi c Techniques 208 A.3.1 Wired Equivalent Privacy 208 A.3.2 Wi-Fi Protected Access v.2 209 A.3.3 Advanced Encryption Standard 209 A.3.4 Firewall 210 A.3.5 Viruses, Trojans, and Worms 210 Appendix B Protocols 213 Abbreviations 219 Glossary 229 Index 251

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Book SynopsisExploring methods and techniques to optimize processing energy efficiency in process plants, Energy Optimization for the Process Industries provides a holistic approach that considers changing process conditions, process design changes, and upgrading process technology that has already been used in a process plant with success.Table of ContentsPREFACE xv PART 1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND THEORY 1 1 Overview of this Book 3 1.1 Introduction, 3 1.2 Who is this Book Written for?, 4 1.3 Five Ways to Improve Energy Efficiency, 5 1.4 Four Key Elements for Continuous Improvement, 7 1.5 Promoting Improvement Ideas in the Organization, 8 2 Theory of Energy Intensity 9 2.1 Introduction, 9 2.2 Definition of Process Energy Intensity, 10 2.3 The Concept of Fuel Equivalent (FE), 11 2.4 Energy Intensity for a Total Site, 13 2.5 Concluding Remarks, 15 3 Benchmarking Energy Intensity 16 3.1 Introduction, 16 3.2 Data Extraction from Historian, 17 3.3 Convert All Energy Usage to Fuel Equivalent, 17 3.4 Energy Balance, 21 3.5 Fuel Equivalent for Steam and Power, 23 3.6 Energy Performance Index (EPI) Method, 29 3.7 Concluding Remarks, 32 4 Key Indicators and Targets 35 4.1 Introduction, 35 4.2 Key Indicators Represent Operation Opportunities, 36 4.3 Define Key Indicators, 39 4.4 Set up Targets for Key Indicators, 45 4.5 Economic Evaluation for Key Indicators, 49 4.6 Application 1: Implementing Key Indicators into an "Energy Dashboard," 53 4.7 Application 2: Implementing Key Indicators to Controllers, 56 4.8 It is Worth the Effort, 57 PART 2 ENERGY SYSTEM ASSESSMENT METHODS 59 5 Fired Heater Assessment 61 5.1 Introduction, 61 5.2 Fired Heater Design for High Reliability, 62 5.3 Fired Heater Operation for High Reliability, 68 5.4 Efficient Fired Heater Operation, 73 5.5 Fired Heater Revamp, 80 6 Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment 82 6.1 Introduction, 82 6.2 Basic Concepts and Calculations, 83 6.3 Understand Performance Criterion—U Values, 89 6.4 Understanding Pressure Drop, 94 6.5 Heat Exchanger Rating Assessment, 96 6.6 Improving Heat Exchanger Performance, 106 7 Heat Exchanger Fouling Assessment 112 7.1 Introduction, 112 7.2 Fouling Mechanisms, 113 7.3 Fouling Mitigation, 114 7.4 Fouling Mitigation for Crude Preheat Train, 117 7.5 Fouling Resistance Calculations, 119 7.6 A Cost-Based Model for Clean Cycle Optimization, 121 7.7 Revised Model for Clean Cycle Optimization, 125 7.8 A Practical Method for Clean Cycle Optimization, 128 7.9 Putting All Together—A Practical Example of Fouling Mitigation, 130 8 Energy Loss Assessment 138 8.1 Introduction, 138 8.2 Energy Loss Audit, 139 8.3 Energy Loss Audit Results, 147 8.4 Energy Loss Evaluation, 149 8.5 Brainstorming, 150 8.6 Energy Audit Report, 152 9 Process Heat Recovery Targeting Assessment 154 9.1 Introduction, 154 9.2 Data Extraction, 155 9.3 Composite Curves, 156 9.4 Basic Concepts, 159 9.5 Energy Targeting, 160 9.6 Pinch Golden Rules, 160 9.7 Cost Targeting: Determine Optimal DTmin, 162 9.8 Case Study, 165 9.9 Avoid Suboptimal Solutions, 169 9.10 Integrated Cost Targeting and Process Design, 171 9.11 Challenges for Applying the Systematic Design Approach, 172 10 Process Heat Recovery Modification Assessment 175 10.1 Introduction, 175 10.2 Network Pinch—The Bottleneck of Existing Heat Recovery System, 176 10.3 Identification of Modifications, 179 10.4 Automated Network Pinch Retrofit Approach, 181 10.5 Case Studies for Applying the Network Pinch Retrofit Approach, 183 11 Process Integration Opportunity Assessment 195 11.1 Introduction, 195 11.2 Definition of Process Integration, 196 11.3 Plus and Minus (+/-) Principle, 198 11.4 Grand Composite Curves, 199 11.5 Appropriate Placement Principle for Process Changes, 200 11.6 Examples of Process Changes, 205 PART 3 PROCESS SYSTEM ASSESSMENT AND OPTIMIZATION 225 12 Distillation Operating Window 227 12.1 Introduction, 227 12.2 What is Distillation?, 228 12.3 Distillation Efficiency, 229 12.4 Definition of Feasible Operating Window, 232 12.5 Understanding Operating Window, 232 12.6 Typical Capacity Limits, 253 12.7 Effects of Design Parameters, 255 12.8 Design Checklist, 257 12.9 Example Calculations for Developing Operating Window, 257 12.10 Concluding Remarks, 276 13 Distillation System Assessment 281 13.1 Introduction, 281 13.2 Define a Base Case, 281 13.3 Calculations for Missing and Incomplete Data, 284 13.4 Building Process Simulation, 287 13.5 Heat and Material Balance Assessment, 288 13.6 Tower Efficiency Assessment, 292 13.7 Operating Profile Assessment, 295 13.8 Tower Rating Assessment, 298 13.9 Column Heat Integration Assessment, 300 13.10 Guidelines for Reuse of an Existing Tower, 302 14 Distillation System Optimization 305 14.1 Introduction, 305 14.2 Tower Optimization Basics, 306 14.3 Energy Optimization for Distillation System, 312 14.4 Overall Process Optimization, 318 14.5 Concluding Remarks, 326 PART 4 UTILITY SYSTEM ASSESSMENT AND OPTIMIZATION 327 15 Modeling of Steam and Power System 329 15.1 Introduction, 329 15.2 Boiler, 330 15.3 Deaerator, 333 15.4 Steam Turbine, 334 15.5 Gas Turbine, 338 15.6 Letdown Valve, 339 15.7 Steam Desuperheater, 341 15.8 Steam Flash Drum, 342 15.9 Steam Trap, 342 15.10 Steam Distribution Losses, 344 16 Establishing Steam Balances 345 16.1 Introduction, 345 16.2 Guidelines for Generating Steam Balance, 346 16.3 AWorking Example for Generating Steam Balance, 347 16.4 A Practical Example for Generating Steam Balance, 357 16.5 Verify Steam Balance, 362 16.6 Concluding Remarks, 364 17 Determining True Steam Prices 366 17.1 Introduction, 366 17.2 The Cost of Steam Generation from Boiler, 367 17.3 Enthalpy-Based Steam Pricing, 371 17.4 Work-Based Steam Pricing, 372 17.5 Fuel Equivalent-Based Steam Pricing, 373 17.6 Cost-Based Steam Pricing, 376 17.7 Comparison of Different Steam Pricing Methods, 377 17.8 Marginal Steam Pricing, 379 17.9 Effects of Condensate Recovery on Steam Cost, 384 17.10 Concluding Remarks, 384 18 Benchmarking Steam System Performance 386 18.1 Introduction, 386 18.2 Benchmark Steam Cost: Minimize Generation Cost, 387 18.3 Benchmark Steam and Condensate Losses, 389 18.4 Benchmark Process Steam Usage and Energy Cost Allocation, 394 18.5 Benchmarking Steam System Operation, 396 18.6 Benchmarking Steam System Efficiency, 397 19 Steam and Power Optimization 403 19.1 Introduction, 403 19.2 Optimizing Steam Header Pressure, 404 19.3 Optimizing Steam Equipment Loadings, 405 19.4 Optimizing On-Site Power Generation Versus Power Import, 407 19.5 Minimizing Steam Letdowns and Venting, 412 19.6 Optimizing Steam System Configuration, 413 19.7 Developing Steam System Optimization Model, 417 PART 5 RETROFIT PROJECT EVALUATION AND IMPLEMENTATION 423 20 Determine the True Benefit from the OSBL Context 425 20.1 Introduction, 425 20.2 Energy Improvement Options Under Evaluation, 426 20.3 A Method for Evaluating Energy Improvement Options, 429 20.4 Feasibility Assessment and Make Decisions for Implementation, 442 21 Determine the True Benefit from Process Variations 447 21.1 Introduction, 447 21.2 Collect Online Data for the Whole Operation Cycle, 448 21.3 Normal Distribution and Monte Carlo Simulation, 449 21.4 Basic Statistics Summary for Normal Distribution, 456 22 Revamp Feasibility Assessment 459 22.1 Introduction, 459 22.2 Scope and Stages of Feasibility Assessment, 460 22.3 Feasibility Assessment Methodology, 462 22.4 Get the Project Basis and Data Right in the Very Beginning, 465 22.5 Get Project Economics Right, 466 22.6 Do Not Forget OSBL Costs, 470 22.7 Squeeze Capacity Out of Design Margin, 471 22.8 Identify and Relax Plant Constraints, 472 22.9 Interactions Between Process Conditions, Yields, and Equipment, 473 22.10 Do Not Get Misled by False Balances, 474 22.11 Prepare for Fuel Gas Long, 475 22.12 Two Retrofit Cases for Shifting Bottlenecks, 477 22.13 Concluding Remarks, 480 23 Create an Optimization Culture with Measurable Results 481 23.1 Introduction, 481 23.2 Site-Wide Energy Optimization Strategy, 482 23.3 Case Study of the Site-Wide Energy Optimization Strategy, 487 23.4 Establishing Energy Management System, 492 23.5 Energy Operation Management, 496 23.6 Energy Project Management, 499 23.7 An Overall Work Process from Idea Discovery to Implementation, 500 References, 502 INDEX 503

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Book SynopsisAn innovative look at Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), this practical reference fully covers new developments in SAR and its various methodologies, enabling readers to interpret SAR imagery. It includes theoretical scattering models and SAR data analysis techniques, and presents cutting-edge research on theoretical modeling of terrain surface.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Basics of Polarimetric Scattering 1 1.1 Polarized Electromagnetic Wave 1 1.2 Volumetric Scattering 9 1.3 Surface Scattering 13 2 Vector Radiative Transfer 29 2.1 Radiative Transfer Equation 29 2.2 Components in Radiative Transfer Equation 35 2.3 Mueller Matrix Solution 40 2.4 Polarization Indices and Entropy 52 2.5 Statistics of Stokes Parameters 59 3 Imaging Simulation of Polarimetric SAR: Mapping and Projection Algorithm 79 3.1 Fundamentals of SAR Imaging 79 3.2 Mapping and Projection Algorithm 90 3.3 Platform for SAR Simulation 108 4 Bistatic SAR: Simulation, Processing, and Interpretation 123 4.1 Bistatic Mapping and Projection Algorithm (BI-MPA) 124 4.2 Scattering Models and Signal Model 130 4.3 Simulated BISAR Images 136 4.4 Polarimetric Characteristics of BISAR Image 141 4.5 Unified Bistatic Polarization Bases 146 4.6 Raw Signal Processing of Stripmap BISAR 150 5 Radar Polarimetry and Deorientation Theory 167 5.1 Radar Polarimetry and Target Decomposition 167 5.2 Deorientation Theory 184 5.3 Terrain Surface Classification 198 6 Inversions from Polarimetric SAR Images 215 6.1 Inversion of Digital Elevation Mapping 216 6.2 An Example of Algorithm Implementation 221 6.3 Inversion of Bridge Height 225 7 Automatic Reconstruction of Building Objects from Multi-Aspect SAR Images 235 7.1 Detection and Extraction of Object Image 237 7.2 Building Reconstruction from a Multi-Aspect Image 247 7.3 Automatic Multi-Aspect Reconstruction (AMAR) 257 7.4 Results and Discussion 260 7.5 Calibration and Validation of Multi-Aspect SAR Data 265 8 Faraday Rotation on Polarimetric SAR Image at UHF/VHF Bands 275 8.1 Faraday Rotation Effect on Terrain Surface Classification 276 8.2 Recovering the Mueller Matrix with Ambiguity Error p/2 283 8.3 Method to Eliminate the p/2 Ambiguity Error 287 9 Change Detection from Multi-Temporal SAR Images 291 9.1 The 2EM-MRF Algorithm 292 9.2 The 2EM-MRF for Change Detection in an Urban Area 298 9.3 Change Detection after the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake 301 10 Temporal Mueller Matrix for Polarimetric Scattering 311 10.1 Radiative Transfer in Inhomogeneous Random Scattering Media 312 10.2 Time-Dependent Mueller Matrix for Inhomogeneous Random Media 317 10.3 Polarimetric Bistatic and Backscattering Pulse Responses 321 10.4 Pulse Echoes from Lunar Regolith Layer 328 10.5 Monitoring Debris and Landslides 339 11 Fast Computation of Composite Scattering from an Electrically Large Target over a Randomly Rough Surface 351 11.1 Bidirectional Analytic Ray Tracing 352 11.2 Numerical Results 361 12 Reconstruction of a 3D Complex Target using Downward-Looking Step-Frequency Radar 375 12.1 Principle of 3D Reconstruction 376 12.2 Scattering Simulation and 3D Reconstruction 382 References 392 Index 395

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Book SynopsisThe ultimate reference on wireless technology?now updated and revised Fully updated to incorporate the latest developments and standards in the field, A Guide to the Wireless Engineering Body of Knowledge, Second Edition provides industry professionals with a one-stop reference to everything they need to design, implement, operate, secure, and troubleshoot wireless networks. Written by a group of international experts, the book offers an unmatched breadth of coverage and a unique focus on real-world engineering issues. The authors draw upon extensive experience in all areas of the technology to explore topics with proven practical applications, highlighting emerging areas such as Long Term Evolution (LTE) in wireless networks. The new edition is thoroughly revised for clarity, reviews wireless engineering fundamentals, and features numerous references for further study. Based on the areas of expertise covered in the IEEE Wireless CommunicatiTable of ContentsCONTRIBUTING EDITORS AND AUTHORS vii INTRODUCTION ix WIRELESS ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Wireless Access 3 1.3 Mobile Cellular Architecture and Design Fundamentals 10 1.4 Wireless Access Technology Standardization 26 1.5 Digital Mobile Cellular Technologies—GSM to LTE 30 1.6 3GPP2 Radio Access Standards Evolution 46 1.7 IEEE and Other Wireless Access Technologies 53 1.8 Wireless Access Technology Roadmap: Vision of the Future 68 1.9 References 71 1.10 Suggested Further Reading 73 NETWORK AND SERVICE ARCHITECTURE 75 2.1 Introduction 75 2.2 Circuit-Switched Cellular Network Architecture 76 2.3 TCP/IP in Packet Switched Networks 79 2.4 VoIP/SIP for IP Multimedia 84 2.5 Packet-Switched Mobile Networks and IMS 89 2.6 Introduction of the Evolved Packet Core 99 2.7 Alternative Network Architectures—Mesh Networks 105 2.8 Alternative Network Architectures—Mobile Ad Hoc Networks 110 2.9 Wireless Service Technologies and Architectures 112 2.10 Service Framework: Creation, Access, Delivery 117 2.11 Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering 121 2.12 References 128 2.13 Suggested Further Reading 132 NETWORK MANAGEMENT AND SECURITY 135 3.1 Introduction 135 3.2 Network Management Concepts 136 3.3 Operations Process Models 140 3.4 Network Management Protocols 147 3.5 Security Requirements 151 3.6 References 171 RADIO ENGINEERING AND ANTENNAS 173 4.1 Introduction 173 4.2 Radio Frequency Propagation 173 4.3 Antennas 181 4.4 Radio Engineering and Wireless Link Design 190 4.5 Radio System Considerations 203 4.6 Summary 214 4.7 References 215 4.8 Suggested Further Reading 216 FACILITIES INFRASTRUCTURE 219 5.1 Introduction 219 5.2 AC and DC Power Systems 219 5.3 Electrical Protection 222 5.4 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 231 5.5 Equipment Racks, Rack Mounting Spaces, and Related Hardware 232 5.6 Waveguides and Transmission Lines 233 5.7 Tower Specifications and Standards 234 5.8 Distributed Antenna Systems and Base Station Hotels 237 5.9 Physical Security, Alarm and Surveillance Systems 239 5.10 National and International Standards and Specifications 241 5.11 Resources 242 5.12 References 243 AGREEMENTS, STANDARDS, POLICIES, AND REGULATIONS 247 6.1 Introduction 247 6.2 Agreements 248 6.3 Standards 250 6.4 Policies 254 6.5 Regulations 258 6.6 References 263 FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE 265 7.1 Introduction 265 7.2 Electrical and RF Engineering 265 7.3 Communication Engineering 271 7.4 Engineering Management 279 7.5 References 281 APPENDICES APPENDIX A Glossary of Acronyms 283 APPENDIX B Summary of Knowledge Areas 289 APPENDIX C Creating WEBOK 2.0 301 APPENDIX D About the IEEE Communications Society 303

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Book SynopsisThe Handbook of Internet Studies brings together scholars from a variety of fields to explore the profound shift that has occurred in how we communicate and experience our world as we have moved from the industrial era into the age of digital media.Trade Review“Summing Up: Highly recommended. Upper-division undergraduates, graduate students, and faculty.” (Choice, 1 April 2012) “Together, the comprehensive and quite thought-provoking individual essays provide richly insightful perspectives into the extent to which the internet is shaping and being shaped by human cultures and societies, and the various ways in which scholars might consider and approach such processes.” (Digital Journalism, 19 August 2014) Table of ContentsNotes on Editors and Contributors Acknowledgments Introduction: What is “Internet Studies”? 1Charles Ess and Mia Consalvo Part I Beyond the Great Divides? A Primer on Internet Histories, Methods, and Ethics 9 Introduction to Part I 11Charles Ess 1 Studying the Internet Through the Ages 17Barry Wellman 2 Web Archiving – Between Past, Present, and Future 24Niels Brügger 3 New Media, Old Methods – Internet Methodologies and the Online/Offline Divide 43Klaus Bruhn Jensen 4 The Internet in Everyday Life: Exploring the Tenets and Contributions of Diverse Approaches 59Maria Bakardjieva 5 Internet Research Ethics: Past, Present, and Future 83Elizabeth A. Buchanan Part II Shaping Daily Life: The Internet and Society 109 Introduction to Part II 111Mia Consalvo 6 Assessing the Internet’s Impact on Language 117Naomi S. Baron 7 Internet Policy 137Sandra Braman 8 Political Discussion Online 168Jennifer Stromer-Galley and Alexis Wichowski 9 Does the Internet Empower? A Look at the Internet and International Development 188Deborah L. Wheeler 10 Internet and Health Communication 212Lorna Heaton 11 Internet and Religion 232Heidi Campbell 12 Indigenous Peoples on the Internet 251Laurel Dyson 13 Queering Internet Studies: Intersections of Gender and Sexuality 270Janne Bromseth and Jenny Sundén Introduction to Part III 303Mia Consalvo 14 Community and the Internet 309Lori Kendall 15 MOOs to MMOs: The Internet and Virtual Worlds 326Mia Consalvo 16 Internet, Children, and Youth 348Sonia Livingstone 17 Internet and Games 369T. L. Taylor 18 Social Networks 2.0 384Nancy K. Baym 19 Newly Mediated Media: Understanding the Changing Internet Landscape of the Media Industries 406P. David Marshall 20 Online Pornography: Ubiquitous and Effaced 424Susanna Paasonen 21 Music and the Internet 440Steve Jones 22 Why and How Online Sociability Became Part and Parcel of Teenage Life 452Marika Lüders Index 470

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Book SynopsisThis book presents and discusses alternatives to ordinary transmission lines for the design and implementation of advanced RF/microwave components in planar technology.This book is devoted to the analysis, study and applications of artificial transmission lines mostly implemented by means of a host line conveniently modified (e.g., with modulation of transverse dimensions, with etched patterns in the metallic layers, etc.) or with reactive loading, in order to achieve novel device functionalities, superior performance, and/or reduced size. The author begins with an introductory chapter dedicated to the fundamentals of planar transmission lines. Chapter 2 is focused on artificial transmission lines based on periodic structures (including non-uniform transmission lines and reactively-loaded lines), and provides a comprehensive analysis of the coupled mode theory. Chapters 3 and 4 are dedicated to artificial transmission lines inspired by metamaterials, oTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xvii 1 Fundamentals of Planar Transmission Lines 1 1.1 Planar Transmission Lines Distributed Circuits and Artificial Transmission Lines 1 1.2 Distributed Circuit Analysis and Main Transmission Line Parameters 5 1.3 Loaded (Terminated) Transmission Lines 8 1.4 Lossy Transmission Lines 16 1.4.1 Dielectric Losses: The Loss Tangent 19 1.4.2 Conductor Losses: The Skin Depth 25 1.5 Comparative Analysis of Planar Transmission Lines 28 1.6 Some Illustrative Applications of Planar Transmission Lines 31 1.6.1 Semilumped Transmission Lines and Stubs and Their Application to Low-Pass and Notch Filters 31 1.6.2 Low-Pass Filters Based on Richard’s Transformations 39 1.6.3 Power Splitters Based on λ/4 Lines 40 1.6.4 Capacitively Coupled λ/2 Resonator Bandpass Filters 42 References 44 2 Artificial Transmission Lines based on Periodic Structures 47 2.1 Introduction and Scope 47 2.2 Floquet Analysis of Periodic Structures 48 2.3 The Transfer Matrix Method 53 2.3.1 Dispersion Relation 54 2.3.2 Bloch Impedance 56 2.3.3 Effects of Asymmetry in the Unit Cell through an Illustrative Example 60 2.3.4 Comparison between Periodic Transmission Lines and Conventional Lines 62 2.3.5 The Concept of Iterative Impedance 63 2.4 Coupled Mode Theory 64 2.4.1 The Cross-Section Method and the Coupled Mode Equations 65 2.4.2 Relation between the Complex Mode Amplitudes and S-Parameters 69 2.4.3 Approximate Analytical Solutions of the Coupled Mode Equations 71 2.4.4 Analytical Expressions for Relevant Parameters of EBG Periodic Structures 77 2.4.5 Relation between the Coupling Coefficient and the S-Parameters 79 2.4.6 Using the Approximate Solutions of the Coupled Mode Equations 80 2.5 Applications 86 2.5.1 Applications of Periodic Nonuniform Transmission Lines 86 2.5.1.1 Reflectors 86 2.5.1.2 High-Q Resonators 92 2.5.1.3 Spurious Suppression in Planar Filters 93 2.5.1.4 Harmonic Suppression in Active Circuits 95 2.5.1.5 Chirped Delay Lines 99 2.5.2 Applications of Reactively Loaded Lines: The Slow Wave Effect 102 2.5.2.1 Compact CPW Bandpass Filters with Spurious Suppression 105 2.5.2.2 Compact Microstrip Wideband Bandpass Filters with Ultrawideband Spurious Suppression 108 References 114 3 Metamaterial Transmission Lines: Fundamentals Theory Circuit Models and Main Implementations 119 3.1 Introduction Terminology and Scope 119 3.2 Effective Medium Metamaterials 122 3.2.1 Wave Propagation in LH Media 123 3.2.2 Losses and Dispersion in LH Media 125 3.2.3 Main Electromagnetic Properties of LH Metamaterials 127 3.2.3.1 Negative Refraction 128 3.2.3.2 Backward Cerenkov Radiation 129 3.2.4 Synthesis of LH Metamaterials 131 3.2.4.1 Negative Effective Permittivity Media: Wire Media 132 3.2.4.2 Negative Effective Permeability Media: SRRs 136 3.2.4.3 Combining SRRs and Metallic Wires: One-Dimensional LH Medium 139 3.3 Electrically Small Resonators for Metamaterials and Microwave Circuit Design 141 3.3.1 Metallic Resonators 142 3.3.1.1 The Non-Bianisotropic SRR (NB-SRR) 142 3.3.1.2 The Broadside-Coupled SRR (BC-SRR) 142 3.3.1.3 The Double-Slit SRR (DS-SRR) 143 3.3.1.4 The Spiral Resonator (SR) 144 3.3.1.5 The Folded SIR 144 3.3.1.6 The Electric LC Resonator (ELC) 145 3.3.1.7 The Open Split-Ring Resonator (OSRR) 146 3.3.2 Applying Duality: Complementary Resonators 146 3.3.2.1 Complementary Split-Ring Resonator (CSRR) 147 3.3.2.2 Open Complementary Split-Ring Resonator (OCSRR) 149 3.4 Canonical Models of Metamaterial Transmission Lines 149 3.4.1 The Dual Transmission Line Concept 150 3.4.2 The CRLH Transmission Line 154 3.4.3 Other CRLH Transmission Lines 158 3.4.3.1 The Dual CRLH (D-CRLH) Transmission Line 158 3.4.3.2 Higher-Order CRLH and D-CRLH Transmission Lines 159 3.5 Implementation of Metamaterial Transmission Lines and Lumped-Element Equivalent Circuit Models 162 3.5.1 CL-Loaded Approach 162 3.5.2 Resonant-Type Approach 166 3.5.2.1 Transmission Lines based on SRRs 167 3.5.2.2 Transmission Lines based on CSRRs 177 3.5.2.3 Inter-Resonator Coupling: Effects and Modeling 183 3.5.2.4 Effects of SRR and CSRR Orientation: Mixed Coupling 191 3.5.2.5 Transmission Lines based on OSRRs and OCSRRs 195 3.5.2.6 Synthesis Techniques 203 3.5.3 The Hybrid Approach 204 References 206 4 Metamaterial Transmission Lines: RF/Microwave Applications 214 4.1 Introduction 214 4.2 Applications of CRLH Transmission Lines 215 4.2.1 Enhanced Bandwidth Components 215 4.2.1.1 Principle and Limitations 215 4.2.1.2 Illustrative Examples 219 4.2.2 Dual-Band and Multiband Components 225 4.2.2.1 Principle for Dual-Band and Multiband Operation 227 4.2.2.2 Main Approaches for Dual-Band Device Design and Illustrative Examples 228 4.2.2.3 Quad-Band Devices based on Extended CRLH Transmission Lines 246 4.2.3 Filters and Diplexers 250 4.2.3.1 Stopband Filters based on SRR- and CSRR-Loaded Lines 250 4.2.3.2 Spurious Suppression in Distributed Filters 251 4.2.3.3 Narrow Band Bandpass Filters and Diplexers Based on Alternate Right-/Left-Handed Unit Cells 255 4.2.3.4 Compact Bandpass Filters based on the Hybrid Approach 258 4.2.3.5 Highpass Filters Based on Balanced CRLH Lines 270 4.2.3.6 Wideband Filters Based on OSRRs and OCSRRs 270 4.2.3.7 Elliptic Lowpass Filters Based on OCSRRs 277 4.2.4 Leaky Wave Antennas (LWA) 282 4.2.5 Active Circuits 290 4.2.5.1 Distributed Amplifiers 290 4.2.5.2 Dual-Band Recursive Active Filters 298 4.2.6 Sensors 300 4.3 Transmission Lines with Metamaterial Loading and Applications 303 4.3.1 Multiband Planar Antennas 304 4.3.1.1 Multiband Printed Dipole and Monopole Antennas 304 4.3.1.2 Dual-Band UHF-RFID Tags 310 4.3.2 Transmission Lines Loaded with Symmetric Resonators and Applications 314 4.3.2.1 Symmetry Properties: Working Principle for Sensors and RF Bar Codes 315 4.3.2.2 Rotation Displacement and Alignment Sensors 316 4.3.2.3 RF Bar Codes 324 References 327 5 Reconfigurable Tunable and Nonlinear Artificial Transmission Lines 339 5.1 Introduction 339 5.2 Materials Components and Technologies to Implement Tunable Devices 339 5.2.1 Varactor Diodes Schottky Diodes PIN Diodes and Heterostructure Barrier Varactors 340 5.2.2 RF-MEMS 342 5.2.3 Ferroelectric Materials 344 5.2.4 Liquid Crystals 346 5.3 Tunable and Reconfigurable Metamaterial Transmission Lines and Applications 347 5.3.1 Tunable Resonant-Type Metamaterial Transmission Lines 347 5.3.1.1 Varactor-Loaded Split Rings and Applications 347 5.3.1.2 Tunable SRRs and CSRRs Based on RF-MEMS and Applications 362 5.3.1.3 Metamaterial Transmission Lines Based on Ferroelectric Materials 375 5.3.2 Tunable CL-Loaded Metamaterial Transmission Lines 377 5.3.2.1 Tunable Phase Shifters 378 5.3.2.2 Tunable Leaky Wave Antennas (LWA) 381 5.4 Nonlinear Transmission Lines (NLTLs) 385 5.4.1 Model for Soliton Wave Propagation in NLTLs 386 5.4.2 Numerical Solutions of the Model 391 References 395 6 Other Advanced Transmission Lines 402 6.1 Introduction 402 6.2 Magnetoinductive-wave and Electroinductive-wave Delay Lines 402 6.2.1 Dispersion Characteristics 403 6.2.2 Applications: Delay Lines and Time-Domain Reflectometry-Based Chipless Tags for RFID 406 6.3 Balanced Transmission Lines with Common-Mode Suppression 411 6.3.1 Strategies for Common-Mode Suppression 411 6.3.1.1 Differential Lines Loaded with Dumbbell-Shaped Slotted Resonators 412 6.3.1.2 Differential Lines Loaded with CSRRs 412 6.3.2 CSRR- and DS-CSRR-Based Differential Lines with Common-Mode Suppression: Filter Synthesis and Design 414 6.3.3 Applications of CSRR and DS-CSRR-Based Differential Lines 418 6.3.3.1 Differential Line with Common-Mode Suppression 418 6.3.3.2 Differential Bandpass Filter with Enhanced Common-Mode Rejection 421 6.3.4 Balanced Filters with Inherent Common-Mode Suppression 421 6.3.4.1 Balanced Bandpass Filters Based on OSRRs and OCSRRs 423 6.3.4.2 Balanced Bandpass Filters Based on Mirrored SIRs 425 6.4 Wideband Artificial Transmission Lines 429 6.4.1 Lattice Network Transmission Lines 429 6.4.1.1 Lattice Network Analysis 430 6.4.1.2 Synthesis of Lattice Network Artificial Transmission Lines 434 6.4.1.3 The Bridged-T Topology 437 6.4.2 Transmission Lines Based on Non-Foster Elements 439 6.5 Substrate-Integrated Waveguides and Their Application to Metamaterial Transmission Lines 441 6.5.1 SIWs with Metamaterial Loading and Applications to Filters and Diplexers 444 6.5.2 CRLH Lines Implemented in SIW Technology and Applications 445 References 454 Appendix A. Equivalence between Plane Wave Propagation in Source-Free Linear Isotropic and Homogeneous Media; TEM Wave Propagation in Transmission Lines; and Wave Propagation in Transmission Lines Described by its Distributed Circuit Model 460 Appendix B. The Smith Chart 468 Appendix C. The Scattering Matrix 474 Appendix D. Current Density Distribution in a Conductor 480 Appendix E. Derivation of the Simplified Coupled Mode Equations and Coupling Coefficient from the Distributed Circuit Model of a Transmission Line 482 Appendix F. Averaging the Effective Dielectric Constant in EBG-Based Transmission Lines 484 Appendix G. Parameter Extraction 486 Appendix H. Synthesis of Resonant-Type Metamaterial Transmission Lines by Means of Aggressive Space Mapping 491 Appendix I. Conditions to Obtain All-Pass X-Type and Bridged-T Networks 503 Acronyms 505 Index 508

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Book SynopsisA single-volume resource featuring state-of-the art reviews of key elements of the roll-to-roll manufacturing processing methodology Roll-to-roll (R2R) manufacturing is an important manufacturing technology platform used extensively for mass-producing a host of film-type products in several traditional industries such as printing, silver-halide photography, and paper. Over the last two decades, some of the methodologies and know-how of R2R manufacturing have been extended and adapted in many new technology areas, including microelectronics, display, photovoltaics, and microfluidics. This comprehensive book presents the state-of-the-art unit operations of the R2R manufacturing technology, providing a practical resource for scientists, engineers, and practitioners not familiar with the fundamentals of R2R technology. Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing: Process Elements and Recent Advances reviews new developments in areas such as flexible glass, disTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing: An Overview 1Jehuda Greener 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 R2R Operation Overview 5 1.3 Process Economics 9 1.4 Environmental, Health, and Safety Considerations 13 1.5 Summary 15 References 15 2 Coating and Solidification 19E. J. Lightfoot and E. D. Cohen 2.1 Coating Methods 19 2.1.1 Coating Fundamentals 20 2.1.1.1 Wetting 20 2.1.1.2 Coating Distribution 22 2.1.1.3 The Coating Window 22 2.1.2 Coating Hardware 24 2.1.2.1 Pre-metered Coating 24 2.1.2.2 Self-Metered Coating 27 2.1.3 Selecting a Coating Method 39 2.2 Drying and Curing 43 2.2.1 Principles 43 2.2.1.1 Choice of Solidification Method 43 2.2.1.2 Coupled Mass and Energy Transfer 44 2.2.1.3 Infrared Drying 48 2.2.1.4 UV Curing 48 2.2.1.5 E-Beam Curing 49 2.2.1.6 Dielectric Drying 49 2.2.1.7 The Drying Curve 50 2.2.2 Hardware 52 2.2.2.1 Conduction 52 2.2.2.2 Convection 52 2.2.2.3 IR Drying 56 2.3 Defect Management 58 2.3.1 Characterizing Defects 58 2.3.2 Defect Naming 58 2.3.3 Online Defect Characterization Systems 58 2.3.4 Defect Troubleshooting 59 2.3.4.1 Contamination 59 2.3.4.2 Substrate Deficiencies 59 2.3.4.3 Liquid Coating Quality 60 2.3.4.4 Unsuitable Coating Method 60 2.3.4.5 Inadequate Design of Coating Line Equipment 60 2.3.4.6 Deterioration of Coating Line Equipment 60 2.3.4.7 Drying-Induced Defects 60 2.3.4.8 Variations in Web Handling System 61 2.3.4.9 Inadequate Operating Procedures and Training 61 2.3.4.10 Key Variables Not Properly Controlled 61 References 61 3 Drying of Polymer Solutions: Modeling and Real-Time Tracking of the Process 65S. Shams Es-haghi and Miko Cakmak 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Modeling of the Drying Process 67 3.3 Real- Time Tracking of the Drying Process of Polymer Solutions 80 3.3.1 Real-Time Measurement System 80 3.3.2 Drying Process of Polyimide/N,N-Dimethylformamide Solutions 84 3.3.3 Real-Time Study of Drying and Imidization of Polyamic Acid/NMP Solution 91 3.3.4 Development of Optical Gradient During Evaporation of Solvent 97 3.3.5 Effect of Organoclay and Graphene Oxide on the Drying Process of PAI/DMAc Solution 99 3.3.6 Real-Time Drying Study of Polyetherimide/NMP 102 3.4 Conclusions 104 References 106 4 In-Line Vacuum Deposition 111C. A. Bishop 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Substrates 112 4.2.1 Polymer Substrates 113 4.2.2 Flexible Glass 114 4.2.3 Metal Foils 115 4.2.4 Fibers, Fabrics, Nonwovens, and Foams 115 4.2.5 Paper 116 4.3 Managing Defects 117 4.4 Managing Heat Load 123 4.5 Vacuum Deposition Systems 124 4.5.1 Batch Systems 126 4.5.2 Air-to-Air Systems 127 4.6 Vacuum Deposition Processes 128 4.6.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 128 4.6.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 130 4.6.3 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) 130 4.7 Vacuum-Deposited Coatings for Growth Markets 133 4.8 Conclusions 136 References 137 5 Web Handling and Winding 147David R. Roisum, Gustavo Guzman, and S. Shams Es-haghi 5.1 Web Handling 147 5.2 Designfor Manufacturability (DFM) for Web Handling 149 5.3 Rollers 149 5.4 Tension Control 152 5.5 Nip Control 154 5.6 Temperature, Speed, and Gravity 155 5.7 Web Path Control, Guiding, and Oscillators 157 5.8 Slitting and Trim Removal 159 5.9 Winding 161 5.10 Wrinklings 167 References 169 6 Polymer Film Substrates for Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing: Process–Structure–Property Relationships 171Baris Yalcin and Miko Cakmak 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 Category II: Polyester Films 177 6.2.1 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 180 6.2.2 Poly(ethylene Terephthalate) (PET) and Poly(etherimide) (PEI) Blend 190 6.2.3 Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN) 196 6.3 Category I: Solvent Cast High Tg Materials 206 6.3.1 Polyimides 207 6.4 Summary 210 6.4.1 Transparency 211 6.4.2 Thermal Properties 211 6.4.3 Barrier to Moisture and Gases and Planarization Requirements 214 References 219 7 Curl Effects in Roll-to-Roll Operations 225Jehuda Greener 7.1 Introduction 225 7.2 Core-Set Curl 226 7.3 Physical Aging Effects 235 7.4 Core-Set Curl in R2R Operations 238 7.5 Other Curl Mechanisms and Curl Mitigation Strategies 247 References 249 8 Roll-to-Roll Processing of Glass 251Doug Brackley, Dale Marshall, Gary Merz, and Eric Miller 8.1 Introduction 251 8.2 History of Rolled Glass at Corning 251 8.3 Key Attributes of Glass 252 8.4 Properties of Glass That Impact R2R Processing 254 8.5 Important Considerations for a Successful R2R Glass Process 256 8.6 Summary 259 References 260 9 Novel Hybrid Composite Films by Roll-to-Roll Processing 261Saurabh Batra, W. Zhao, Baris Yalcin, and Miko Cakmak 9.1 Introduction 261 9.2 Process Overview 262 9.3 Transparent Electrically Conductive Films 265 9.4 Bendable Aerogels (Xerogel) 271 9.5 Flexible Hydrogels 273 9.6 Conclusion 280 References 280 10 Roll-to-Roll Manufacturing of Flexible Displays 285E. Montbach and D. Davis 10.1 Introduction: Thin and Flexible Substrates 285 10.1.1 Thinner Display Architectures 286 10.1.2 Challenges in Migrating to Roll-to-Roll 287 10.1.3 General Description of Roll-to-Roll Manufacture of Flexible Flat Panel Displays 292 10.1.3.1 Flexible Substrate 292 10.1.3.2 Application of Electrode 293 10.1.3.3 Electro-optic Layer 293 10.1.3.4 Cover Layer/Encapsulation 293 10.1.3.5 Singulation 293 10.1.3.6 Integration and Test 293 10.2 Roll-to-Roll Display Technologies 293 10.2.1 Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Displays 294 10.2.1.1 Industrial Technology Research Institute of Taiwan 294 10.2.1.2 Kent Displays, Inc. 296 10.2.2 Active Matrix Organic Light-Emitting Diode Displays 305 10.2.2.1 Background 305 10.2.2.2 Challenges in AMOLED Manufacturing 306 10.2.2.3 OLED Manufacturing Examples 309 10.2.3 Electrophoretic Displays 312 10.2.3.1 Function 312 10.2.3.2 Structure 313 10.2.3.3 Manufacturing 314 10.2.4 Microfluidic Displays 315 10.2.4.1 Function 315 10.2.4.2 Structure 316 10.2.4.3 Technology 316 10.3 Conclusions 318 References 319 11 Flexible Solar Cells 325Y. Galagan 11.1 Introduction to Photovoltaic Technologies 325 11.2 R2R Processing 326 11.2.1 Substrates for R2R Processing 327 11.2.2 Solution-Based R2R Methods 329 11.3 Organic Photovoltaics 334 11.3.1 Technology Assessment 336 11.3.2 Roll-to-Roll Printing and Coating of Electrode Materials 339 11.3.3 Patterning and Module Manufacturing 341 11.3.4 Current Progress in R2R Manufacturing of Organic Photovoltaics 342 11.4 Perovskite Photovoltaics 347 11.4.1 Scalable Processing Techniques for Manufacturing Perovskite Solar Cells 350 11.4.2 Other Challenges in the Scale-Up of Perovskite Solar Cells 351 11.5 Conclusions 352 References 352 12 Field-Assisted Self-Assembly of Nanocomposite Films: A Roll-to-Roll Approach 363Saurabh Batra and Miko Cakmak 12.1 Introduction 363 12.2 Process Overview 364 12.3 Electric Field Alignment 365 12.3.1 Orienting Clay Particles in Electric Field 367 12.3.2 Orienting BaTiO3 Particles in Electric Field 371 12.4 Magnetic Field Alignment 379 12.5 Thermal Gradient 386 12.5.1 Directional Crystal Growth Using Thermal Gradient 387 12.5.2 Block Copolymer Oriented with Thermal Gradient 389 12.6 Conclusions 391 References 392 Index 397

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Book SynopsisThe essential how-to guide to designing and building LED systems, revised and updated The second edition of Practical Lighting Design with LEDs has been revised and updated to provide the most current information for developing light-emitting diodes products. The authors, noted authorities in the field, offer a review of the most relevant topics including optical performance, materials, thermal design and modeling and measurement. Comprehensive in scope, the text covers all the information needed to design LEDs into end products. The user-friendly text also contains numerous drawings and schematics that show how things such as measurements are actually made, and show how circuits actually work.Designed to be practical, the text includes myriad notes and illustrative examples that give pointers and how-to guides on many of the book''s topics. In addition, the book's equations are used only for practical calculations, and are kept at the level of high-schooTable of ContentsABOUT THE AUTHORS IX PREFACE XI FIGURES XIII CHAPTER 1 PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO LEDs 1 CHAPTER 2 LIGHT BULBS AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS 13 CHAPTER 3 PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT 25 CHAPTER 4 PRACTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEDs 43 CHAPTER 5 PRACTICAL THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF LEDs 57 CHAPTER 6 PRACTICAL THERMAL MANAGEMENT OF LEDs 65 CHAPTER 7 PRACTICAL DC DRIVE CIRCUITRY FOR LEDs 75 CHAPTER 8 PRACTICAL AC DRIVE CIRCUITRY FOR LEDs 91 CHAPTER 9 PRACTICAL SYSTEM DESIGN WITH LEDs 121 CHAPTER 10 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF AN LED FLASHLIGHT 135 CHAPTER 11 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF A USB LIGHT 161 CHAPTER 12 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF AN AUTOMOTIVE TAIL LIGHT 185 CHAPTER 13 PRACTICAL DESIGN OF AN LED LIGHT BULB 207 CHAPTER 14 PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT OF LEDs AND LIGHTING 225 CHAPTER 15 PRACTICAL MODELING OF LEDs 245 REFERENCES 267 INDEX 269

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Book SynopsisTrade Review"This book provides good technical depth, yet also provides a practical treatment of symmetrical components"..."This would be a very good book for power system engineers" IEEE, Oct 2017Table of ContentsABOUT THE AUTHOR ix FOREWORD xi PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii CHAPTER 1 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS USING MATRIX METHODS 1 1.1 Transformations 2 1.2 Characteristic Roots, Eigenvalues, and Eigenvectors 2 1.2.1 Definitions 2 1.2.1.1 Characteristic Matrix 2 1.2.1.2 Characteristic Polynomial 2 1.2.1.3 Characteristic Equation 2 1.2.1.4 Eigenvalues 2 1.2.1.5 Eigenvectors, Characteristic Vectors 2 1.3 Diagonalization of a Matrix 5 1.4 Similarity Transformation 5 1.5 Decoupling a Three-Phase Symmetrical System 6 1.6 Symmetrical Component Transformation 8 1.7 Decoupling a Three-Phase Unsymmetrical System 10 1.8 Clarke Component Transformation 11 1.9 Significance of Selection of Eigenvectors in Symmetrical Components 12 References 14 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 15 2.1 Characteristics of Symmetrical Components 16 2.2 Characteristics of Sequence Networks 19 2.3 Sequence Impedance of Network Components 20 2.4 Construction of Sequence Networks 20 2.5 Sequence Components of Transformers 22 2.5.1 Delta-Wye or Wye-Delta Transformer 22 2.5.2 Wye-Wye Transformer 25 2.5.3 Delta-Delta Transformer 25 2.5.4 Zigzag Transformer 25 2.5.5 Three-Winding Transformers 27 2.6 Example of Construction of Sequence Networks 32 References 36 CHAPTER 3 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS-TRANSMISSION LINES AND CABLES 39 3.1 Impedance Matrix of Three-Phase Symmetrical Line 40 3.2 Three-Phase Line with Ground Conductors 40 3.3 Bundle Conductors 42 3.4 Carson’s Formula 44 3.4.1 Approximations to Carson’s Equations 46 3.5 Capacitance of Lines 50 3.5.1 Capacitance Matrix 50 3.6 Cable Constants 54 3.6.1 Zero Sequence Impedance of the OH lines and Cables 54 3.6.2 Concentric Neutral Underground Cable 55 3.6.3 Capacitance of Cables 57 3.7 EMTP Models 58 3.7.1 Frequency Dependent Model, FD 60 3.8 Effect of Harmonics on Line Models 62 3.9 Transmission Line Equations with Harmonics 62 References 66 CHAPTER 4 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF ROTATING EQUIPMENT AND STATIC LOAD 69 4.1 Synchronous Generators 69 4.1.1 Positive Sequence Impedance 69 4.1.2 Negative Sequence Impedance 70 4.1.3 Negative Sequence Capability of Generators 71 4.1.3.1 Effect of Harmonics 71 4.1.4 Zero Sequence Impedance 73 4.1.5 Sequence Component Transformation 75 4.1.6 Three-Phase Short-Circuit of a Generator 77 4.1.7 Park’s Transformation 79 4.2 Induction Motors 81 4.2.1 Equivalent Circuit 81 4.2.2 Negative Sequence Impedance 83 4.2.3 Harmonic Impedances 84 4.2.4 Zero Sequence Impedance 86 4.2.5 Terminal Short-Circuit of an Induction Motor 86 4.3 Static Loads 87 4.4 Harmonics and Sequence Components 87 References 88 Further Reading 89 CHAPTER 5 THREE-PHASE MODELS OF TRANSFORMERS AND CONDUCTORS 91 5.1 Three-Phase Models 91 5.2 Three-Phase Transformer Models 91 5.2.1 Symmetrical Components of Three-Phase Transformers 94 5.3 Conductors 99 References 102 CHAPTER 6 UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATIONS 103 6.1 Line-to-Ground Fault 104 6.2 Line-to-Line Fault 106 6.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault 107 6.4 Three-Phase Fault 109 6.5 Phase Shift in Three-Phase Transformer Windings 110 6.5.1 Transformer Connections 110 6.5.2 Phase Shifts in Winding as per Standards 112 6.5.3 Phase Shift for Negative Sequence Components 115 6.6 Unsymmetrical Long Hand Fault Calculations 116 6.7 Open Conductor Faults 126 6.7.1 Two Conductor Open Fault 126 6.7.2 One Conductor Open Fault 127 6.8 Short-Circuit Calculations with Bus Impedance Matrix 131 6.8.1 Line-to-Ground Fault 131 6.8.2 Line-to-Line Fault 131 6.8.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault 131 6.8.4 Calculation Procedure 133 6.9 System Grounding 138 6.9.1 Solidly Grounded Systems 140 6.9.2 Resistance Grounded Systems 140 6.9.3 High-Resistance Grounded Systems 141 6.9.4 Coefficient of Grounding 143 References 145 Further Reading 145 CHAPTER 7 SOME LIMITATIONS OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 147 7.1 Phase Coordinate Method 148 7.2 Three-Phase Models 150 7.2.1 Generators 150 7.2.2 Generator Model for Cogeneration 152 7.2.3 Load Models 152 7.3 Multiple Grounded Systems 154 7.3.1 Equivalent Circuit of Multiple Grounded Systems 156 7.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Approach 156 References 158 INDEX 159

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive guide to the theory and practice of signal enhancement and array signal processing, including matlab codes, exercises and instructor and solution manuals Systematically introduces the fundamental principles, theory and applications of signal enhancement and array signal processing in an accessible mannerOffers an updated and relevant treatment of array signal processing with rigor and concisionFeatures a companion website that includes presentation files with lecture notes, homework exercises, course projects, solution manuals, instructor manuals, and Matlab codes for the examples in the bookTable of ContentsPreface vii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Signal Enhancement 1 1.2 Approaches to Signal Enhancement 9 1.3 Array Signal Processing 11 1.4 Organization of the Book 14 1.5 How to Use the Book 16 2 Single-Channel Signal Enhancement in the Time Domain 21 2.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 21 2.2 Wiener Method 22 2.3 Spectral Method 40 2.4 Problems 55 3 Single-Channel Signal Enhancement in the Frequency Domain 61 3.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 61 3.2 Noise Reduction with Gains 62 3.3 Performance Measures 63 3.4 Optimal Gains 66 3.5 Constraint Wiener Gains 81 3.6 Implementation with the Short-Time Fourier Transform 87 3.7 Problems 95 4 Multichannel Signal Enhancement in the Time Domain 101 4.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 101 4.2 Conventional Method 102 4.3 Spectral Method 116 4.4 Case of a Rank Deficient Noise Correlation Matrix 131 4.5 Problems 136 5 Multichannel Signal Enhancement in the Frequency Domain 143 5.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 143 5.2 Linear Filtering 146 5.3 Performance Measures 147 5.4 Optimal Filters 152 5.5 Generalized Sidelobe Canceller Structure 171 5.6 A Signal Subspace Perspective 173 5.7 Implementation with the STFT 182 5.8 Problems 188 6 An Exhaustive Class of Linear Filters 197 6.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 197 6.2 Linear Filtering for Signal Enhancement 199 6.3 Performance Measures 200 6.4 Optimal Filters 202 6.5 Filling the Gap Between the Maximum SINR and Wiener Filters 214 6.6 Problems 221 7 Fixed Beamforming 227 7.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 227 7.2 Linear Array Model 228 7.3 Performance Measures 229 7.4 Spatial Aliasing 232 7.5 Fixed Beamformers 233 7.6 A Signal Subspace Perspective 253 7.7 Problems 261 8 Adaptive Beamforming 271 8.1 Signal Model, Problem Formulation, and Array Model 271 8.2 Performance Measures 272 8.3 Adaptive Beamformers 274 8.4 SNR Estimation 287 8.5 DOA Estimation 290 8.6 A Spectral Coherence Perspective 294 8.7 Problems 302 9 Differential Beamforming 309 9.1 Signal Model, Problem Formulation, and Array Model 309 9.2 Beampatterns 310 9.3 Front-to-Back Ratios 311 9.4 Array Gains 313 9.5 Examples of Theoretical Differential Beamformers 314 9.6 First-Order Design 317 9.7 Second-Order Design 320 9.8 Third-Order Design 328 9.9 Minimum-Norm Beamformers 335 9.10 Problems 341 10 Beampattern Design 349 10.1 Beampatterns Revisited 349 10.2 Nonrobust Approach 353 10.3 Robust Approach 355 10.4 Frequency-Invariant Beampattern Design 358 10.5 Least-Squares Method 361 10.6 Joint Optimization 367 10.7 Problems 378 11 Beamforming in the Time Domain 383 11.1 Signal Model and Problem Formulation 383 11.2 Broadband Beamforming 386 11.3 Performance Measures 387 11.4 Fixed Beamformers 391 11.5 Adaptive Beamformers 401 11.6 Differential Beamformers 413 11.7 Problems 423 Index 429

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive guide to the application and processing of condition-based data to produce prognostic estimates of functional health and life. Prognostics and Health Management provides an authoritative guide for an understanding of the rationale and methodologies of a practical approach for improving system reliability using conditioned-based data (CBD) to the monitoring and management of health of systems. This proven approach uses electronic signatures extracted from conditioned-based electrical signals, including those representing physical components, and employs processing methods that include data fusion and transformation, domain transformation, and normalization, canonicalization and signal-level translation to support the determination of predictive diagnostics and prognostics. Written by noted experts in the field, Prognostics and Health Management clearly describes how to extract signatures from conditioned-based data using condiTable of ContentsList of Figures xi Series Editor’s Foreword xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxvii 1 Introduction to Prognostics 1 1.1 What Is Prognostics? 1 1.1.1 Chapter Objectives 1 1.1.2 Chapter Organization 3 1.2 Foundation of Reliability Theory 3 1.2.1 Time-to-Failure Distributions 4 1.2.2 Probability and Reliability 6 1.2.3 Probability Density Function 7 1.2.4 Relationships of Distributions 10 1.2.5 Failure Rate 10 1.2.6 Expected Value and Variance 16 1.3 Failure Distributions Under Extreme Stress Levels 18 1.3.1 Basic Models 18 1.3.2 Cumulative Damage Models 21 1.3.3 General Exponential Models 21 1.4 Uncertainty Measures in Parameter Estimation 23 1.5 Expected Number of Failures 26 1.5.1 Minimal Repair 26 1.5.2 Failure Replacement 28 1.5.3 Decreased Number of Failures Due to Partial Repairs 30 1.5.4 Decreased Age Due to Partial Repairs 30 1.6 System Reliability and Prognosis and Health Management 31 1.6.1 General Framework for a CBM-Based PHM System 32 1.6.2 Relationship of PHM to System Reliability 34 1.6.3 Degradation Progression Signature (DPS) and Prognostics 35 1.6.4 Ideal Functional Failure Signature (FFS) and Prognostics 37 1.6.5 Non-ideal FFS and Prognostics 41 1.7 Prognostic Information 41 1.7.1 Non-ideality: Initial-Estimate Error and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) 42 1.7.2 Convergence of RUL Estimates Given an Initial Estimate Error 44 1.7.3 Prognostic Distance (PD) and Convergence 45 1.7.4 Convergence: Figure of Merit (𝜒𝛼) 45 1.7.5 Other Sources of Non-ideality in FFS Data 46 1.8 Decisions on Cost and Benefits 47 1.8.1 Product Selection 47 1.8.2 Optimal Maintenance Scheduling 49 1.8.3 Condition-Based Maintenance or Replacement 54 1.8.4 Preventive Replacement Scheduling 55 1.8.5 Model Variants and Extensions 58 1.9 Introduction to PHM: Summary 60 References 60 Further Reading 62 2 Approaches for Prognosis and Health Management/Monitoring (PHM) 63 2.1 Introduction to Approaches for Prognosis and Health Management/Monitoring (PHM) 63 2.1.1 Model-Based Prognostic Approaches 63 2.1.2 Data-Driven Prognostic Approaches 63 2.1.3 Hybrid Prognostic Approaches 64 2.1.4 Chapter Objectives 64 2.1.5 Chapter Organization 64 2.2 Model-Based Prognostics 65 2.2.1 Analytical Modeling 66 2.2.2 Distribution Modeling 71 2.2.3 Physics of Failure (PoF) and Reliability Modeling 72 2.2.4 Acceleration Factor (AF) 74 2.2.5 Complexity Related to Reliability Modeling 76 2.2.6 Failure Distribution 78 2.2.7 Multiple Modes of Failure: Failure Rate and FIT 79 2.2.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Model-Based Prognostics 79 2.3 Data-Driven Prognostics 80 2.3.1 Statistical Methods 80 2.3.2 Machine Learning (ML): Classification and Clustering 85 2.4 Hybrid-Driven Prognostics 90 2.5 An Approach to Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) 92 2.5.1 Modeling of Condition-Based Data (CBD) Signatures 92 2.5.2 Comparison of Methodologies: Life Consumption and CBD Signature 92 2.5.3 CBD-Signature Modeling: An Illustration 93 2.6 Approaches to PHM: Summary 103 References 103 Further Reading 106 3 Failure Progression Signatures 107 3.1 Introduction to Failure Signatures 107 3.1.1 Chapter Objectives 107 3.1.2 Chapter Organization 108 3.2 Basic Types of Signatures 108 3.2.1 CBD Signature 109 3.2.2 FFP Signature 114 3.2.3 Transforming FFP into FFS 118 3.2.4 Transforming FFP into a Degradation Progression Signature (DPS) 120 3.2.5 Transforming DPS into DPS-Based FFS 122 3.3 Model Verification 124 3.3.1 Signature Classification 124 3.3.2 Verifying CBD Modeling 125 3.3.3 Verifying FFP Modeling 127 3.3.4 Verifying DPS Modeling 128 3.3.5 Verifying DPS-Based FFS Modeling 129 3.4 Evaluation of FFS Curves: Nonlinearity 130 3.4.1 Sensing System 132 3.4.2 FFS Nonlinearity 132 3.5 Summary of Data Transforms 134 3.6 Degradation Rate 140 3.6.1 Constant Degradation Rate: Linear DPS-Based FFS 140 3.6.2 Nonlinear Degradation Rate 141 3.7 Failure Progression Signatures and System Nodes 142 3.8 Failure Progression Signatures: Summary 144 References 145 Further Reading 146 4 Heuristic-Based Approach to Modeling CBD Signatures 147 4.1 Introduction to Heuristic-Based Modeling of Signatures 147 4.1.1 Review of Chapter 3 147 4.1.2 Theory: Heuristic Modeling of CBD Signatures 149 4.1.3 Chapter Objectives 150 4.1.4 Chapter Organization 151 4.2 General Modeling Considerations: CBD Signatures 151 4.2.1 Noise Margin 152 4.2.2 Definition of a Degradation-Signature Model 152 4.2.3 Feature Data: Nominal Value 152 4.2.4 Feature Data, Fault-to-Failure Progression Signature, and Degradation-Signature Model 153 4.2.5 Approach to Transforming CBD Signatures into FFS Data 153 4.3 CBD Modeling: Degradation-Signature Models 154 4.3.1 Representative Examples: Degradation-Signature Models 155 4.3.2 Example Plots of Representative FFP Degradation Signatures 167 4.3.3 Converting Decreasing Signatures to Increasing Signatures 167 4.4 DPS Modeling: FFP to DPS Transform Models 168 4.4.1 Developing Transform Models: FFP to DPS 168 4.4.2 Example Plots of FFP Signatures and DPS Signatures 177 4.5 FFS Modeling: Failure Level and Signature Modeling 177 4.5.1 Developing DPS-Based Failure Level (FL) Models Using FFP Defined Failure Levels 177 4.5.2 Modeling Results for Failure Levels: FFP-Based and DPS-Based 182 4.5.3 Transforming DPS Data into FFS Data 183 4.6 Heuristic-Based Approach to Modeling of Signatures: Summary 183 References 186 Further Reading 187 5 Non-Ideal Data: Effects and Conditioning 189 5.1 Introduction to Non-Ideal Data: Effects and Conditioning 189 5.1.1 Review of Chapter 4 189 5.1.2 Data Acquisition, Manipulation, and Transformation 189 5.1.3 Chapter Objectives 191 5.1.4 Chapter Organization 194 5.2 Heuristic-Based Approach Applied to Non-Ideal CBD Signatures 194 5.2.1 Summary of a Heuristic-Based Approach Applied to Non-Ideal CBD Signatures 195 5.2.2 Example Target for Prognostic Enabling 196 5.2.3 Noise is an Issue in Achieving High Accuracy in Prognostic Information 200 5.3 Errors and Non-Ideality in FFS Data 202 5.3.1 Noise Margin and Offset Errors 202 5.3.2 Measurement Error, Uncertainty, and Sampling 203 5.3.3 Other Sources of Noise 214 5.3.4 Data Smoothing and Non-Ideality in FFS Data 218 5.4 Heuristic Method for Adjusting FFS Data 223 5.4.1 Description of a Method for Adjusting FFS Data 223 5.4.2 Adjusted FFS Data 224 5.4.3 Data Conditioning: Another Example Data Set 225 5.5 Summary: Non-Ideal Data, Effects, and Conditioning 227 References 229 Further Reading 230 6 Design: Robust Prototype of an Exemplary PHM System 233 6.1 PHM System: Review 233 6.1.1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Prognostics 233 6.1.2 Chapter 2: Prognostic Approaches for Prognosis and Health Management 234 6.1.3 Chapter 3: Failure Progression Signatures 237 6.1.4 Chapter 4: Heuristic-Based Approach to Modeling CBD Signatures 239 6.1.5 Chapter 5: Non-Ideal Data: Effects and Conditioning 239 6.1.6 Chapter Objectives 243 6.1.7 Chapter Organization 245 6.2 Design Approaches for a PHM System 246 6.2.1 Selecting and Evaluating Targets and Their Failure Modes 247 6.2.2 Offline Prognostic Approaches: Selecting Results 248 6.2.3 Selecting a Base Architecture for the Online Phase 248 6.3 Sampling and Polling 249 6.3.1 Continual – Periodic Sampling 249 6.3.2 Periodic-Burst Sampling 250 6.3.3 Polling 252 6.4 Initial Design Specifications 253 6.4.1 Operation: Test/Demonstration vs. Real 253 6.4.2 Test Bed 255 6.4.3 Test Bed: Results 260 6.5 Special RMS Method for AC Phase Currents 261 6.5.1 Peak-RMS Method 263 6.5.2 Special Peak-RMS Method: Base Computational Routine 263 6.5.3 Special Peak-RMS Method: FFP Computational Routine 264 6.5.4 Peak-RMS Method: EMA 265 6.6 Diagnostic and Prognostic Procedure 274 6.6.1 SMPS Power Supply 274 6.6.2 EMA 275 6.7 Specifications: Robustness and Capability 275 6.7.1 Node-Based Architecture 276 6.7.2 Example Design 277 6.8 Node Specifications 279 6.8.1 System Node Definition 279 6.8.2 Node Definition 279 6.8.3 Other Node Definitions for the Prototype PHM System 287 6.9 System Verification and Performance Metrics 288 6.9.1 Offset Types of Errors 288 6.9.2 Uncertainty in Determining Prognostic Distance 292 6.9.3 Estimating Convergence to Within PHα 296 6.9.4 Performance Metrics 297 6.9.5 Prognostic Information: RUL, SoH, PH, and Degradation 299 6.10 System Verification: Advanced Prognostics 300 6.10.1 SMPS: FFP Signature Directly to FFS 300 6.10.2 SMPS: FFP Signature to DPS to FFS 301 6.11 PHM System Verification: EMA Faults 303 6.11.1 EMA: Load (Friction) Type of Fault 304 6.11.2 EMA: Winding Type of Fault 307 6.11.3 EMA: Power-Switching Transistor Type of Fault 307 6.12 PHM System Verification: Functional Integration 307 6.12.1 Functional Integration: Control and Data Flow 307 6.12.2 System Performance Metrics: Summary 309 6.12.3 PHM System: Plans 311 6.13 Summary: A Robust Prototype PHM System 315 References 316 Further Reading 317 7 Prognostic Enabling: Selection, Evaluation, and Other Considerations 319 7.1 Introduction to Prognostic Enabling 319 7.1.1 Review of Chapter 6 319 7.1.2 Electronic Health Solutions 320 7.1.3 Critical Systems and Advance Warning 322 7.1.4 Reduction in Maintenance 322 7.1.5 Health Management, Maintenance, and Logistics 323 7.1.6 Chapter Objectives 325 7.1.7 Chapter Organization 325 7.2 Prognostic Targets: Evaluation, Selection, and Specifications 325 7.2.1 Criteria for Evaluation, Selection, and Winnowing 326 7.2.2 Meaning of MTBF and MTTF 326 7.2.3 MTTF and MTBF Uncertainty 328 7.2.4 TTF and PITTFF 329 7.3 Example: Cost-Benefit of Prognostic Approaches 332 7.3.1 Cost-Benefit Situations 333 7.3.2 Cost Analyses 336 7.4 Reliability: Bathtub Curve 342 7.4.1 Bathtub Curve: MTBF and MTTF 343 7.4.2 Trigger Point and Prognostic Distance 343 7.5 Chapter Summary and Book Conclusion 344 References 345 Further Reading 346 Index 347

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Book SynopsisA timely overview of cutting edge technologies for multimedia retrieval with a special emphasis on scalability The amount of multimedia data available every day is enormous and is growing at an exponential rate, creating a great need for new and more efficient approaches for large scale multimedia search. This book addresses that need, covering the area of multimedia retrieval and placing a special emphasis on scalability. It reports the recent works in large scale multimedia search, including research methods and applications, and is structured so that readers with basic knowledge can grasp the core message while still allowing experts and specialists to drill further down into the analytical sections. Big Data Analytics for Large-Scale Multimedia Search covers: representation learning, concept and event-based video search in large collections; big data multimedia mining, large scale video understanding, big multimedia data fusion, large-scale social mulTable of ContentsIntroduction xv List of Contributors xix About the Companion Website xxiii Part I Feature Extraction from Big Multimedia Data 1 1 Representation Learning on Large and Small Data 3 Chun-Nan Chou, Chuen-Kai Shie, Fu-Chieh Chang, Jocelyn Chang and Edward Y. Chang 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Representative Deep CNNs 5 1.2.1 AlexNet 6 1.2.1.1 ReLU Nonlinearity 6 1.2.1.2 Data Augmentation 7 1.2.1.3 Dropout 8 1.2.2 Network in Network 8 1.2.2.1 MLP Convolutional Layer 9 1.2.2.2 Global Average Pooling 9 1.2.3 VGG 10 1.2.3.1 Very Small Convolutional Filters 10 1.2.3.2 Multi-scale Training 11 1.2.4 GoogLeNet 11 1.2.4.1 Inception Modules 11 1.2.4.2 Dimension Reduction 12 1.2.5 ResNet 13 1.2.5.1 Residual Learning 13 1.2.5.2 Identity Mapping by Shortcuts 14 1.2.6 Observations and Remarks 15 1.3 Transfer Representation Learning 15 1.3.1 Method Specifications 17 1.3.2 Experimental Results and Discussion 18 1.3.2.1 Results of Transfer Representation Learning for OM 19 1.3.2.2 Results of Transfer Representation Learning for Melanoma 20 1.3.2.3 Qualitative Evaluation: Visualization 21 1.3.3 Observations and Remarks 23 1.4 Conclusions 24 References 25 2 Concept-Based and Event-Based Video Search in Large Video Collections 31 Foteini Markatopoulou, Damianos Galanopoulos, Christos Tzelepis, Vasileios Mezaris and Ioannis Patras 2.1 Introduction 32 2.2 Video preprocessing and Machine Learning Essentials 33 2.2.1 Video Representation 33 2.2.2 Dimensionality Reduction 34 2.3 Methodology for Concept Detection and Concept-Based Video Search 35 2.3.1 Related Work 35 2.3.2 Cascades for Combining Different Video Representations 37 2.3.2.1 Problem Definition and Search Space 37 2.3.2.2 Problem Solution 38 2.3.3 Multi-Task Learning for Concept Detection and Concept-Based Video Search 40 2.3.4 Exploiting Label Relations 41 2.3.5 Experimental Study 42 2.3.5.1 Dataset and Experimental Setup 42 2.3.5.2 Experimental Results 43 2.3.5.3 Computational Complexity 47 2.4 Methods for Event Detection and Event-Based Video Search 48 2.4.1 Related Work 48 2.4.2 Learning from Positive Examples 49 2.4.3 Learning Solely from Textual Descriptors: Zero-Example Learning 50 2.4.4 Experimental Study 52 2.4.4.1 Dataset and Experimental Setup 52 2.4.4.2 Experimental Results: Learning from Positive Examples 53 2.4.4.3 Experimental Results: Zero-Example Learning 53 2.5 Conclusions 54 2.6 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 3 Big Data Multimedia Mining: Feature Extraction Facing Volume, Velocity, and Variety 61 Vedhas Pandit, Shahin Amiriparian, Maximilian Schmitt, Amr Mousa and Björn Schuller 3.1 Introduction 61 3.2 Scalability through Parallelization 64 3.2.1 Process Parallelization 64 3.2.2 Data Parallelization 64 3.3 Scalability through Feature Engineering 65 3.3.1 Feature Reduction through Spatial Transformations 66 3.3.2 Laplacian Matrix Representation 66 3.3.3 Parallel latent Dirichlet allocation and bag of words 68 3.4 Deep Learning-Based Feature Learning 68 3.4.1 Adaptability that Conquers both Volume and Velocity 70 3.4.2 Convolutional Neural Networks 72 3.4.3 Recurrent Neural Networks 73 3.4.4 Modular Approach to Scalability 74 3.5 Benchmark Studies 76 3.5.1 Dataset 76 3.5.2 Spectrogram Creation 77 3.5.3 CNN-Based Feature Extraction 77 3.5.4 Structure of the CNNs 78 3.5.5 Process Parallelization 79 3.5.6 Results 80 3.6 Closing Remarks 81 3.7 Acknowledgements 82 References 82 Part II Learning Algorithms for Large-Scale Multimedia 89 4 Large-Scale Video Understanding with Limited Training Labels 91 Jingkuan Song, Xu Zhao, Lianli Gao and Liangliang Cao 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Video Retrieval with Hashing 91 4.2.1 Overview 91 4.2.2 Unsupervised Multiple Feature Hashing 93 4.2.2.1 Framework 93 4.2.2.2 The Objective Function of MFH 93 4.2.2.3 Solution of MFH 95 4.2.2.3.1 Complexity Analysis 96 4.2.3 Submodular Video Hashing 97 4.2.3.1 Framework 97 4.2.3.2 Video Pooling 97 4.2.3.3 Submodular Video Hashing 98 4.2.4 Experiments 99 4.2.4.1 Experiment Settings 99 4.2.4.1.1 Video Datasets 99 4.2.4.1.2 Visual Features 99 4.2.4.1.3 Algorithms for Comparison 100 4.2.4.2 Results 100 4.2.4.2.1 CC_WEB_VIDEO 100 4.2.4.2.2 Combined Dataset 100 4.2.4.3 Evaluation of SVH 101 4.2.4.3.1 Results 102 4.3 Graph-Based Model for Video Understanding 103 4.3.1 Overview 103 4.3.2 Optimized Graph Learning for Video Annotation 104 4.3.2.1 Framework 104 4.3.2.2 OGL 104 4.3.2.2.1 Terms and Notations 104 4.3.2.2.2 Optimal Graph-Based SSL 105 4.3.2.2.3 Iterative Optimization 106 4.3.3 Context Association Model for Action Recognition 107 4.3.3.1 Context Memory 108 4.3.4 Graph-based Event Video Summarization 109 4.3.4.1 Framework 109 4.3.4.2 Temporal Alignment 110 4.3.5 TGIF: A New Dataset and Benchmark on Animated GIF Description 111 4.3.5.1 Data Collection 111 4.3.5.2 Data Annotation 112 4.3.6 Experiments 114 4.3.6.1 Experimental Settings 114 4.3.6.1.1 Datasets 114 4.3.6.1.2 Features 114 4.3.6.1.3 Baseline Methods and Evaluation Metrics 114 4.3.6.2 Results 115 4.4 Conclusions and Future Work 116 References 116 5 Multimodal Fusion of Big Multimedia Data 121 Ilias Gialampoukidis, Elisavet Chatzilari, Spiros Nikolopoulos, Stefanos Vrochidis and Ioannis Kompatsiaris 5.1 Multimodal Fusion in Multimedia Retrieval 122 5.1.1 Unsupervised Fusion in Multimedia Retrieval 123 5.1.1.1 Linear and Non-linear Similarity Fusion 123 5.1.1.2 Cross-modal Fusion of Similarities 124 5.1.1.3 Random Walks and Graph-based Fusion 124 5.1.1.4 A Unifying Graph-based Model 126 5.1.2 Partial Least Squares Regression 127 5.1.3 Experimental Comparison 128 5.1.3.1 Dataset Description 128 5.1.3.2 Settings 129 5.1.3.3 Results 129 5.1.4 Late Fusion of Multiple Multimedia Rankings 130 5.1.4.1 Score Fusion 131 5.1.4.2 Rank Fusion 132 5.1.4.2.1 Borda Count Fusion 132 5.1.4.2.2 Reciprocal Rank Fusion 132 5.1.4.2.3 Condorcet Fusion 132 5.2 Multimodal Fusion in Multimedia Classification 132 5.2.1 Related Literature 134 5.2.2 Problem Formulation 136 5.2.3 Probabilistic Fusion in Active Learning 137 5.2.3.1 If P(S=0|V,T)≠0: 138 5.2.3.2 If P(S=0|V,T)≠0: 138 5.2.3.3 Incorporating Informativeness in the Selection (P(S|V)) 139 5.2.3.4 Measuring Oracle’s Confidence (P(S|T)) 139 5.2.3.5 Re-training 140 5.2.4 Experimental Comparison 141 5.2.4.1 Datasets 141 5.2.4.2 Settings 142 5.2.4.3 Results 143 5.2.4.3.1 Expanding with Positive, Negative or Both 143 5.2.4.3.2 Comparing with Sample Selection Approaches 145 5.2.4.3.3 Comparing with Fusion Approaches 147 5.2.4.3.4 Parameter Sensitivity Investigation 147 5.2.4.3.5 Comparing with Existing Methods 148 5.3 Conclusions 151 References 152 6 Large-Scale Social Multimedia Analysis 157 Benjamin Bischke, Damian Borth and Andreas Dengel 6.1 Social Multimedia in Social Media Streams 157 6.1.1 Social Multimedia 157 6.1.2 Social Multimedia Streams 158 6.1.3 Analysis of the Twitter Firehose 160 6.1.3.1 Dataset: Overview 160 6.1.3.2 Linked Resource Analysis 160 6.1.3.3 Image Content Analysis 162 6.1.3.4 Geographic Analysis 164 6.1.3.5 Textual Analysis 166 6.2 Large-Scale Analysis of Social Multimedia 167 6.2.1 Large-Scale Processing of Social Multimedia Analysis 167 6.2.1.1 Batch-Processing Frameworks 167 6.2.1.2 Stream-Processing Frameworks 168 6.2.1.3 Distributed Processing Frameworks 168 6.2.2 Analysis of Social Multimedia 169 6.2.2.1 Analysis of Visual Content 169 6.2.2.2 Analysis of Textual Content 169 6.2.2.3 Analysis of Geographical Content 170 6.2.2.4 Analysis of User Content 170 6.3 Large-Scale Multimedia Opinion Mining System 170 6.3.1 System Overview 171 6.3.2 Implementation Details 171 6.3.2.1 Social Media Data Crawler 171 6.3.2.2 Social Multimedia Analysis 173 6.3.2.3 Analysis of Visual Content 174 6.3.3 Evaluations: Analysis of Visual Content 175 6.3.3.1 Filtering of Synthetic Images 175 6.3.3.2 Near-Duplicate Detection 177 6.4 Conclusion 178 References 179 7 Privacy and Audiovisual Content: Protecting Users as Big Multimedia Data Grows Bigger 183 Martha Larson, Jaeyoung Choi, Manel Slokom, Zekeriya Erkin, Gerald Friedland and Arjen P. de Vries 7.1 Introduction 183 7.1.1 The Dark Side of Big Multimedia Data 184 7.1.2 Defining Multimedia Privacy 184 7.2 Protecting User Privacy 188 7.2.1 What to Protect 188 7.2.2 How to Protect 189 7.2.3 Threat Models 191 7.3 Multimedia Privacy 192 7.3.1 Privacy and Multimedia Big Data 192 7.3.2 Privacy Threats of Multimedia Data 194 7.3.2.1 Audio Data 194 7.3.2.2 Visual Data 195 7.3.2.3 Multimodal Threats 195 7.4 Privacy-Related Multimedia Analysis Research 196 7.4.1 Multimedia Analysis Filters 196 7.4.2 Multimedia Content Masking 198 7.5 The Larger Research Picture 199 7.5.1 Multimedia Security and Trust 199 7.5.2 Data Privacy 200 7.6 Outlook on Multimedia Privacy Challenges 202 7.6.1 Research Challenges 202 7.6.1.1 Multimedia Analysis 202 7.6.1.2 Data 202 7.6.1.3 Users 203 7.6.2 Research Reorientation 204 7.6.2.1 Professional Paranoia 204 7.6.2.2 Privacy as a Priority 204 7.6.2.3 Privacy in Parallel 205 References 205 Part III Scalability in Multimedia Access 209 8 Data Storage and Management for Big Multimedia 211 Björn Þór Jónsson, Gylfi Þór Gudmundsson, Laurent Amsaleg and Philippe Bonnet 8.1 Introduction 211 8.1.1 Multimedia Applications and Scale 212 8.1.2 Big Data Management 213 8.1.3 System Architecture Outline 213 8.1.4 Metadata Storage Architecture 214 8.1.4.1 Lambda Architecture 214 8.1.4.2 Storage Layer 215 8.1.4.3 Processing Layer 216 8.1.4.4 Serving Layer 216 8.1.4.5 Dynamic Data 216 8.1.5 Summary and Chapter Outline 217 8.2 Media Storage 217 8.2.1 Storage Hierarchy 217 8.2.1.1 Secondary Storage 218 8.2.1.2 The Five-Minute Rule 218 8.2.1.3 Emerging Trends for Local Storage 219 8.2.2 Distributed Storage 220 8.2.2.1 Distributed Hash Tables 221 8.2.2.2 The CAP Theorem and the PACELC Formulation 221 8.2.2.3 The Hadoop Distributed File System 221 8.2.2.4 Ceph 222 8.2.3 Discussion 222 8.3 Processing Media 222 8.3.1 Metadata Extraction 223 8.3.2 Batch Processing 223 8.3.2.1 Map-Reduce and Hadoop 224 8.3.2.2 Spark 225 8.3.2.3 Comparison 226 8.3.3 Stream Processing 226 8.4 Multimedia Delivery 226 8.4.1 Distributed In-Memory Buffering 227 8.4.1.1 Memcached and Redis 227 8.4.1.2 Alluxio 227 8.4.1.3 Content Distribution Networks 228 8.4.2 Metadata Retrieval and NoSQL Systems 228 8.4.2.1 Key-Value Stores 229 8.4.2.2 Document Stores 229 8.4.2.3 Wide Column Stores 229 8.4.2.4 Graph Stores 229 8.4.3 Discussion 229 8.5 Case Studies: Facebook 230 8.5.1 Data Popularity: Hot, Warm or Cold 230 8.5.2 Mentions Live 231 8.6 Conclusions and Future Work 231 8.6.1 Acknowledgments 232 References 232 9 Perceptual Hashing for Large-Scale Multimedia Search 239 LiWeng, I-Hong Jhuo and Wen-Huang Cheng 9.1 Introduction 240 9.1.1 Related work 240 9.1.2 Definitions and Properties of Perceptual Hashing 241 9.1.3 Multimedia Search using Perceptual Hashing 243 9.1.4 Applications of Perceptual Hashing 243 9.1.5 Evaluating Perceptual Hash Algorithms 244 9.2 Unsupervised Perceptual Hash Algorithms 245 9.2.1 Spectral Hashing 245 9.2.2 Iterative Quantization 246 9.2.3 K-Means Hashing 247 9.2.4 Kernelized Locality Sensitive Hashing 249 9.3 Supervised Perceptual Hash Algorithms 250 9.3.1 Semi-Supervised Hashing 250 9.3.2 Kernel-Based Supervised Hashing 252 9.3.3 Restricted Boltzmann Machine-Based Hashing 253 9.3.4 Supervised Semantic-Preserving Deep Hashing 255 9.4 Constructing Perceptual Hash Algorithms 257 9.4.1 Two-Step Hashing 257 9.4.2 Hash Bit Selection 258 9.5 Conclusion and Discussion 260 References 261 Part IV Applications of Large-Scale Multimedia Search 267 10 Image Tagging with Deep Learning: Fine-Grained Visual Analysis 269 Jianlong Fu and Tao Mei 10.1 Introduction 269 10.2 Basic Deep Learning Models 270 10.3 Deep Image Tagging for Fine-Grained Image Recognition 272 10.3.1 Attention Proposal Network 274 10.3.2 Classification and Ranking 275 10.3.3 Multi-Scale Joint Representation 276 10.3.4 Implementation Details 276 10.3.5 Experiments on CUB-200-2011 277 10.3.6 Experiments on Stanford Dogs 280 10.4 Deep Image Tagging for Fine-Grained Sentiment Analysis 281 10.4.1 Learning Deep Sentiment Representation 282 10.4.2 Sentiment Analysis 283 10.4.3 Experiments on SentiBank 283 10.5 Conclusion 284 References 285 11 Visually Exploring Millions of Images using Image Maps and Graphs 289 Kai Uwe Barthel and Nico Hezel 11.1 Introduction and Related Work 290 11.2 Algorithms for Image Sorting 293 11.2.1 Self-Organizing Maps 293 11.2.2 Self-Sorting Maps 294 11.2.3 Evolutionary Algorithms 295 11.3 Improving SOMs for Image Sorting 295 11.3.1 Reducing SOM Sorting Complexity 295 11.3.2 Improving SOM Projection Quality 297 11.3.3 Combining SOMs and SSMs 297 11.4 Quality Evaluation of Image Sorting Algorithms 298 11.4.1 Analysis of SOMs 298 11.4.2 Normalized Cross-Correlation 299 11.4.3 A New Image Sorting Quality Evaluation Scheme 299 11.5 2D Sorting Results 301 11.5.1 Image Test Sets 301 11.5.2 Experiments 302 11.6 Demo System for Navigating 2D Image Maps 304 11.7 Graph-Based Image Browsing 306 11.7.1 Generating Semantic Image Features 306 11.7.2 Building the Image Graph 307 11.7.3 Visualizing and Navigating the Graph 310 11.7.4 Prototype for Image Graph Navigation 312 11.8 Conclusion and Future Work 313 References 313 12 Medical Decision Support Using Increasingly Large Multimodal Data Sets 317 Henning Müller and Devrim Ünay 12.1 Introduction 317 12.2 Methodology for Reviewing the Literature in this chapter 320 12.3 Data, Ground Truth, and Scientific Challenges 321 12.3.1 Data Annotation and Ground Truthing 321 12.3.2 Scientific Challenges and Evaluation as a Service 321 12.3.3 Other Medical Data Resources Available 322 12.4 Techniques used for Multimodal Medical Decision Support 323 12.4.1 Visual and Non-Visual Features Describing the Image Content 323 12.4.2 General Machine Learning and Deep Learning 323 12.5 Application Types of Image-Based Decision Support 326 12.5.1 Localization 326 12.5.2 Segmentation 326 12.5.3 Classification 327 12.5.4 Prediction 327 12.5.5 Retrieval 327 12.5.6 Automatic Image Annotation 328 12.5.7 Other Application Types 328 12.6 Discussion on Multimodal Medical Decision Support 328 12.7 Outlook or the Next Steps of Multimodal Medical Decision Support 329 References 330 Conclusions and Future Trends 337 Index 339

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Book SynopsisProvides practical examples of circuit design and analysis using PSpice, MATLAB, and the Smith Chart This book presents the three technologies used to deal with electronic circuits: MATLAB, PSpice, and Smith chart. It gives students, researchers, and practicing engineers the necessary design and modelling tools for validating electronic design concepts involving bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), field-effect transistors (FET), OP Amp circuits, and analog filters. Electronic Circuits with MATLAB, PSpice, and Smith Chart presents analytical solutions with the results of MATLAB analysis and PSpice simulation. This gives the reader information about the state of the art and confidence in the legitimacy of the solution, as long as the solutions obtained by using the two software tools agree with each other. For representative examples of impedance matching and filter design, the solution using MATLAB and Smith chart (Smith V4.1) are presented for comparisonTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Load Line Analysis and Fourier Series 1 1.1 Load Line Analysis 1 1.1.1 Load Line Analysis of a Nonlinear Resistor Circuit 3 1.1.2 Load Line Analysis of a Nonlinear RL circuit 7 1.2 Voltage-Current Source Transformation 10 1.3 Thevenin/Norton Equivalent Circuits 11 1.4 Miller’s Theorem 18 1.5 Fourier Series 18 1.5.1 Computation of Fourier Coefficients Using Symmetry 20 1.5.2 Circuit Analysis Using Fourier Series 29 1.5.3 RMS Value and Distortion Factor of a Non-Sinusoidal Periodic Signal 35 Problems 36 2 Diode Circuits 43 2.1 The v-i Characteristic of Diodes 43 2.1.1 Large-Signal Diode Model for Switching Operations 44 2.1.2 Small-Signal Diode Model for Amplifying Operations 44 2.2 Analysis/Simulation of Diode Circuits 46 2.2.1 Examples of Diode Circuits 46 2.2.2 Clipper/Clamper Circuits 51 2.2.3 Half-wave Rectifier 53 2.2.4 Half-wave Rectifier with Capacitor – Peak Rectifier 53 2.2.5 Full-wave Rectifier 57 2.2.6 Full-wave Rectifier with LC Filter 59 2.2.7 Precision Rectifiers 62 2.2.7.1 Improved Precision Half-wave Rectifier 63 2.2.7.2 Precision Full-wave Rectifier 65 2.2.8 Small-Signal (AC) Analysis of Diode Circuits 67 2.3 Zender Diodes 75 Problems 85 3 BJT Circuits 105 3.1 BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) 106 3.1.1 Ebers-Moll Representation of BJT 106 3.1.2 Operation Modes (Regions) of BJT 109 3.1.3 Parameters of BJT 109 3.1.4 Common-Base Configuration 111 3.1.5 Common-Emitter Configuration 113 3.1.6 Large-Signal (DC) Model of BJT 115 3.1.7 Small-Signal (AC) Model of BJT 142 3.1.8 Analysis of BJT Circuits 143 3.1.9 BJT Current Mirror 156 3.1.10 BJT Inverter/Switch 161 3.1.11 Emitter-Coupled Differential Pair 165 3.2 BJT Amplifier Circuits 168 3.2.1 Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier 169 3.2.2 Common-Collector (CC) Amplifier (Emitter Follower) 173 3.2.3 Common-Base (CB) Amplifier 180 3.2.4 Multistage Cascaded BJT Amplifier 187 3.2.5 Composite/Compound Multi-Stage BJT Amplifier 199 3.3 Logic Gates Using Diodes/Transistors[C-3, M-1] 209 3.3.1 DTL NAND Gate 209 3.3.2 TTL NAND Gate 215 3.3.2.1 Basic TTL NAND Gate Using Two BJTs 215 3.3.2.2 TTL NAND Gate Using Three BJTs 218 3.3.2.3 Totem-Pole Output Stage 222 3.3.2.4 Open-Collector Output and Tristate Output 227 3.3.3 ECL (Emitter-Coupled Logic) OR/NOR Gate 229 3.4 Design of BJT Amplifier 239 3.4.1 Design of CE Amplifier with Specified Voltage Gain 232 3.4.2 Design of CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower) with Specified Input Resistance 239 3.5 BJT Amplifier Frequency Response 243 3.5.1 CE Amplifier 243 3.5.2 CC Amplifier (Emitter Follower) 248 3.5.3 CB Amplifier 255 3.6 BJT Inverter Time Response 259 Problems 266 4 FET Circuits 303 4.1 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) 303 4.1.1 JFET (Junction FET) 304 4.1.2 MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET) 313 4.1.3 MOSFET Used as a Resistor 327 4.1.4 FET Current Mirror 328 4.1.5 MOSFET Inverter 338 4.1.5.1 NMOS Inverter Using an Enhancement NMOS as a Load 342 4.1.5.2 NMOS Inverter Using a Depletion NMOS as a Load 347 4.1.5.3 CMOS Inverter 350 4.1.6 Source-Coupled Differential Pair 355 4.1.7 CMOS Logic Circuits 359 4.2 FET Amplifer 360 4.2.1 Common-Source (CS) Amplifier 362 4.2.2 CD Amplifier (Source Follower) 366 4.2.3 Common-Gate (CG) Amplifier 370 4.2.4 Common-Source (CS) Amplifier with FET Load 373 4.2.4.1 CS Amplifier with an Enhancement FET Load 373 4.2.4.2 CS Amplifier with a Depletion FET Load 376 4.2.5 Multistage FET Amplifiers 380 4.3 Design of FET Amplifier 398 4.3.1 Design of CS Amplifier 398 4.3.2 Design of CD Amplifier 405 4.4 FET Amplifier Frequency Response 409 4.4.1 CS Amplifier 410 4.4.2 CD Amplifier (Source Follower) 415 4.4.3 CG Amplifier 419 4.5 FET Inverter Time Response 423 Problems 428 5 OP Amp Circuits 467 5.1 OP Amp Basics[Y-1] 468 5.2 OP Amp Circuits with Resistors[Y-1] 471 5.2.1 OP Amp Circuits with Negative Feedback 471 5.2.1.1 Inverting OP Amp Circuit 471 5.2.1.2 Non-Inverting OP Amp Circuit 473 5.2.1.3 Voltage Follower 476 5.2.1.4 Linear Combiner 477 5.2.2 OP Amp Circuits with Positive Feedback 479 5.2.2.1 Inverting Positive Feedback OP Amp Circuit 480 5.2.2.2 Non-Inverting Positive Feedback OP Amp Circuit 481 5.3 First-Order OP Amp Circuits[Y-1] 485 5.3.1 First-Order OP Amp Circuits with Negative Feedback 485 5.3.2 First-Order OP Amp Circuits with Positive Feedback 487 5.3.2.1 Square(Rectangular)-Wave Generator 487 5.3.2.2 Rectangular/Triangular-Wave Generator 490 5.3.3 555 Timer Using OP Amp as Comparator 492 5.4 Second-Order OP Amp Circuits[Y-1] 495 5.4.1 MFB (Multi-FeedBack) Topology 495 5.4.2 Sallen-Key Topology 496 5.5 Active Filter[Y-1] 502 5.5.1 First-Order Active Filter 502 5.5.2 Second-Order Active LPF/HPF 503 5.5.3 Second-Order Active BPF 505 5.5.4 Second-Order Active BSF 507 Problems 512 6 Analog Filter 523 6.1 Analog Filter Design 523 6.2 Passive Filter 533 6.2.1 Low-pass Filter (LPF) 533 6.2.1.1 Series LR Circuit 533 6.2.1.2 Series RC Circuit 535 6.2.2 High-pass Filter (HPF) 535 6.2.2.1 Series CR Circuit 535 6.2.2.2 Series RL Circuit 536 6.2.3 Band-pass Filter (BPF) 537 6.2.3.1 Series Resistor, an Inductor, and a Capacitor (RLC) Circuit and Series Resonance 536 6.2.3.2 Parallel RLC Circuit and Parallel Resonance 539 6.2.4 Band-stop Filter (BSF) 541 6.2.4.1 Series RLC Circuit 541 6.2.4.2 Parallel RLC Circuit 544 6.2.5 Quality Factor 545 6.2.6 Insertion Loss 549 6.2.7 Frequency Scaling and Transformation 549 6.3 Passive Filter Realization 553 6.3.1 LC Ladder 553 6.3.2 L-Type Impedance Matcher 561 6.3.3 T- and П-Type Impedance Matchers 565 6.3.4 Tapped-C Impedance Matchers 571 6.4 Active Filter Realization 576 Problems 586 7 Smith Chart and Impedance Matching 601 7.1 Transmission Line 601 7.2 Smith Chart 608 7.3 Impedance Matching Using Smith Chart 616 7.3.1 Reactance Effect of a Lossless Line 616 7.3.2 Single-Stub Impedance Matching 618 7.3.2.1 Shunt-Connected Single Stub 618 7.3.2.2 Series-Connected Single Stub 622 7.3.3 Double-Stub Impedance Matching 626 7.3.4 The Quarter-Wave Transformer 631 7.3.4.1 Binomial Multisection QWT 633 7.3.4.2 Chebyshev Multisection QWT 634 7.3.5 Filter Implementation Using Stubs[P-1] 635 7.3.6 Impedance Matching with Lumped Elements 646 Problems 661 8 Two-Port Network and Parameters 677 8.1 Two-Port Parameters[Y-1] 677 8.1.1 Definitions and Examples of Two-Port Parameters 678 8.1.2 Relationships Among Two-Port Parameters 685 8.1.3 Interconnection of Two-Port Networks 689 8.1.3.1 Series Connection and z-parameters 690 8.1.3.2 Parallel (Shunt) Connection and y-parameters 690 8.1.3.3 Series-Parallel(Shunt) Connection and h-parameters 691 8.1.3.4 Parallel(Shunt)-Series Connection and g-parameters 691 8.1.3.5 Cascade Connection and a-parameters 692 8.1.4 Curse of Port Condition 692 8.1.5 Circuit Models with Given Parameters 697 8.1.5.1 Circuit Model with Given z-parameters 697 8.1.5.2 Circuit Model with Given y-parameters 699 8.1.5.3 Circuit Model with Given a/b-parameters 699 8.1.5.4 Circuit Model with Given h/g-parameters 699 8.1.6 Properties of Two-Port Networks with Source/Load 700 8.2 Scattering Parameters 709 8.2.1 Definition of Scattering Parameters 709 8.2.2 Two-Port Network with Source/Load 714 8.3 Gain and Stability 723 8.3.1 Two-Port Power Gains[L-1, P-1] 723 8.3.2 Stability[E-1, L-1, P-1] 728 8.3.3 Design for Maximum Gain[M-2, P-1] 733 8.3.4 Design for Specified Gain[M-2, P-1] 740 Problems 746 Appendix A Laplace Transform 761 Appendix B Matrix Operations with MATLAB 767 Appendix C Complex Number Operations with MATLAB 773 Appendix D Nonlinear/Differential Equations with MATLAB 775 Appendix E Symbolic Computations with MATLAB 779 Appendix F Useful Formulas 783 Appendix G Standard Values of Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors 785 Appendix H OrCAD/PSpice® 791 Appendix I MATLAB® Introduction 831 Appendix J Diode/BJT/FET 835 Bibliography 845 Index 849

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CITTable of ContentsVorwort xv 1 Allgemeine Einführung in die Mikrostrukturtechnik 1 1.1 Was ist Mikrostrukturtechnik? 1 1.2 Von der Mikrostrukturtechnik zur Mikrosystemtechnik 9 2 Parallelen zur Mikroelektronik 15 2.1 Herstellung von Einkristallscheiben 15 2.1.1 Herstellung von Silizium-Einkristallen 17 2.1.1.1 Tiegelziehverfahren (Czochralski-Verfahren) 19 2.1.1.2 Zonenziehverfahren (Float-Zone-Verfahren) 21 2.1.1.3 Segregation 23 2.1.1.4 Weiterverarbeitung der Ingots 25 2.1.2 Herstellung von GaAs-Einkristallen 28 2.1.2.1 Bridgman- und Gradient-Freeze-Verfahren 28 2.1.2.2 LEC-Verfahren (Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski) 30 2.2 Technologische Grundprozesse 31 2.2.1 Herstellung eines integrierten Schaltkreises 33 2.2.1.1 Reinigung 33 2.2.1.2 Oxidation 34 2.2.1.3 Photolithographie 34 2.2.1.4 Ionenimplantation und Diffusion 35 2.2.1.5 Ätzen 35 2.2.1.6 Beschichtung 36 2.3 Weiterverarbeitung der integrierten Schaltungen 36 2.3.1 Anforderungen an die Aufbau- und Verbindungstechnik 37 2.3.2 Hybridtechniken 38 2.3.2.1 Dickschichttechnik 38 2.3.2.2 Bestücken und Löten der Schaltung 39 2.3.2.3 Montage und Kontaktierung ungehäuster Halbleiterbauelemente 40 2.4 Reinraumtechnik 41 2.4.1 Partikelmessung im Reinraum 45 2.5 Punktfehler und Ausbeute bei Halbleiterbauelementen 45 3 Physikalische und chemische Grundlagen der Mikrotechnik 49 3.1 Kristalle und Kristallographie 49 3.1.1 Gitter und Gittertypen 50 3.1.2 Stereographische Projektion 52 3.1.3 Silizium-Einkristall 56 3.1.4 Reziprokes Gitter und Kristallstrukturanalyse 58 3.2 Methoden zur Bestimmung der Kristallstruktur 65 3.2.1 Röntgenstrahlbeugung 65 3.2.2 Elektronenstrahlbeugung 67 3.3 Grundlagen der galvanischen Abscheidung 69 3.3.1 Phasengrenze Elektrode-Elektrolyt 72 3.3.1.1 Elektrisches und elektrochemisches Potential 72 3.3.2 Polarisation und Überspannung 75 3.3.3 Mechanismen der kathodischen Metallabscheidung 77 3.3.3.1 Migration 79 3.3.3.2 Diffusion 80 3.3.3.3 Konvektion 80 3.3.3.4 Stofftransportvorgänge während der Mikrogalvanoformung 83 3.4 Grundlagen der Vakuumtechnik 84 3.4.1 Mittlere freie Weglänge 84 3.4.2 Wiederbedeckungszeit 86 3.4.3 Geschwindigkeit von Atomen und Molekülen 87 3.4.4 Gasdynamik 89 3.4.5 Einteilung des technischen Vakuums 89 3.5 Vakuumerzeugung 91 3.5.1 Pumpen für Grob- und Feinvakuum 91 3.5.1.1 Verdrängervakuumpumpen 91 3.5.2 Hochvakuum- und Ultrahochvakuumpumpen 93 3.5.2.1 Treibmittelvakuumpumpen 95 3.5.2.2 Gas bindende Vakuumpumpen (Sorptionspumpen) 96 3.6 Vakuummessung 99 3.6.1 Druckmessdose 99 3.6.2 Wärmeleitungsvakuummeter 99 3.6.3 Reibungsvakuummeter 100 3.6.4 Ionisationsvakuummeter mit unselbständiger Entladung (Glühkathode) 100 3.6.5 Ionisationsvakuummeter mit selbständiger Entladung (Penning-Prinzip) 101 3.6.6 Leckage und Lecksuche 102 3.7 Eigenschaften von Dünnschichten 103 3.7.1 Strukturzonenmodelle 103 3.7.2 Haftfestigkeit der Schicht 106 4 Materialien der Mikrosystemtechnik 109 4.1 Materialeigenschaften 111 4.1.1 Thermische Eigenschaften 112 4.1.1.1 Wärmeleitfähigkeit 113 4.1.1.2 Spezifische Wärme 113 4.1.1.3 Latente Wärme 114 4.1.1.4 Wärmeausdehnungskoeffizient 114 4.1.2 Elektrische Eigenschaften 115 4.1.2.1 Elektrische Leitfähigkeit 115 4.1.2.2 Dielektrische Konstante 116 4.1.2.3 Thermoelektrizität 116 4.1.2.4 Piezoresistivität 117 4.1.3 Mechanische Eigenschaften 119 4.2 Kunststoffe 120 4.2.1 Ordnung der Makromoleküle 121 4.2.2 Polymere für die Lithographie 122 4.2.3 Flüssigkristalle 124 4.2.4 Flüssigkristalline Polymere 125 4.2.5 Gele 127 4.2.6 Elektrorheologische Flüssigkeiten 129 4.3 Halbleiter 131 4.4 Keramiken 134 4.4.1 Keramik als Substrat 134 4.4.2 Keramik als Material für Aktoren 135 4.4.3 Keramik als Material für Gassensoren 135 4.5 Metalle 136 4.5.1 Magnetostriktive Metalle 137 4.5.2 Anwendungen der Magnetostriktion 139 4.5.3 Formgedächtnis-Legierungen 140 4.5.3.1 Einwegeffekt 141 4.5.3.2 Zweiwegeffekt 142 4.5.3.3 Unterdrücktes Formgedächtnis 143 4.5.3.4 Einsatz als Aktoren 144 4.5.3.5 Herstellung 144 4.5.3.6 Eigenschaften der Formgedächtnislegierungen 145 5 Basistechnologien der Mikrotechnik 147 5.1 Schichtabscheidung 147 5.1.1 Physikalische Beschichtungstechniken 147 5.1.1.1 Aufdampfen 147 5.1.1.2 Sputtern (Kathodenzerstäuben) 151 5.1.1.3 Ionenplattieren 153 5.1.2 Chemische Beschichtungstechniken 154 5.1.2.1 CVD-Verfahren 154 5.1.2.2 Epitaxie 160 5.1.2.3 GaAs-Epitaxie 163 5.1.2.4 Plasmapolymerisation 163 5.2 Schichtmodifikation 164 5.2.1 Thermische Oxidation 164 5.2.2 Diffusion 165 5.2.3 Ionenimplantation 167 5.3 Schichtabtragung (Ätzen) 168 5.3.1 Physikalische und chemische Trockenätzverfahren 170 5.3.1.1 Plasmaquellen 172 5.3.1.2 Charakteristika der rein physikalischen Ätzprozesse 173 5.3.1.3 Kombination chemischer und physikalischer Ätzprozesse 178 5.3.1.4 Charakteristika des reaktiven Ionen- und Ionenstrahlätzens 180 5.3.1.5 Das rein chemische Ätzen 181 5.4 Analyse von Dünnschichten und Oberflächen 184 5.4.1 Elektronenstrahl-Mikroanalyse (Electron Probe Microanalysis, Epm) 185 5.4.2 Auger-Elektronenspektroskopie (AES) 186 5.4.3 Photoelektronenspektroskopie (Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis, ESCA) 187 5.4.4 Sekundärionen-Massenspektrometrie (SIMS) 188 5.4.5 Sekundär-Neutralteilchen-Massenspektrometrie (SNMS) 188 5.4.6 Ionen-Streuspektroskopie (ISS) 189 5.4.7 Rutherford-Rückstreuungsspektroskopie (Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy, RBS) 189 5.4.8 Rastertunnelmikroskop (Atomic Force Microscope, AFM) 190 6 Lithographie 191 6.1 Überblick und Historie 191 6.2 Resists 196 6.3 Verfahren der Lithographie 198 6.3.1 Computer Aided Design (CAD) 199 6.3.1.1 CAD-Entwurf 200 6.3.1.2 Justiermarken und Teststrukturen 202 6.3.1.3 Organisation des Entwurfs (Hierarchie, Layers) 203 6.4 Elektronenstrahllithographie 205 6.4.1 Gauß’scher Strahl 206 6.4.2 Geformter Strahl 211 6.4.3 Postprozessor 213 6.5 Proximity-Effekt 214 6.6 Optische Lithographie 216 6.6.1 Masken 217 6.6.2 Schattenprojektion 218 6.6.3 Abbildende Projektion 221 6.6.3.1 Ganzscheiben-Belichtung 222 6.6.3.2 Moderne Lithographiemaschinen 223 6.7 Weiterentwicklungen 224 6.7.1 Phasenmasken 224 6.7.2 Spezielle Resisttechnologien 225 6.7.3 Optische Lithographie für die Mikrostrukturtechnik 226 6.8 Ionenstrahllithographie 231 6.9 Röntgenlithographie 232 6.9.1 Masken für die Röntgenlithographie 233 6.9.2 Röntgenlichtquellen 234 6.9.3 Synchrotronstrahlung 235 6.9.4 Einsatz der Röntgenlithographie 240 7 Silizium-Mikromechanik 241 7.1 Siliziumtechnologie 242 7.1.1 IC-Prozesse und -Substrate 243 7.1.2 Foundry-Technologien 247 7.2 Silizium-Bulk-Mikromechanik 248 7.2.1 Einleitung 248 7.2.1.1 Ätzrate und Anisotropie 250 7.2.1.2 Selektivität 251 7.2.1.3 Prozesskompatibilität 251 7.2.1.4 Einfachheit der Verwendung und Sicherheit 252 7.2.1.5 Kosten 253 7.2.2 Nasschemisches Ätzen 253 7.2.2.1 HNA-Ätzlösungen 253 7.2.2.2 Alkalihydroxid-Ätzlösungen 255 7.2.2.3 Ammoniumhydroxid-Ätzlösungen 259 7.2.2.4 Ethylendiamin-Brenzkatechin-Ätzlösungen 260 7.2.3 Grundlegende Ätzformen 261 7.2.3.1 Ätzgruben und -gräben 262 7.2.3.2 Membranen 264 7.2.3.3 Mesas und Spitzen 264 7.2.3.4 Cantilever 265 7.2.3.5 Brücken 267 7.2.4 Ätzkontrolle 268 7.2.4.1 Ätzstoppmechanismen 268 7.2.4.2 Elektrochemisches Siliziumätzen 271 7.2.4.3 Elektrochemische Siliziumporosifizierung 273 7.2.5 Charakterisierung von anisotropen Nassätzmitteln 274 7.2.6 Trockenätzen 276 7.2.6.1 XeF2 –Ätzen 276 7.2.6.2 Fertigung von Mikrostrukturen mit hohem Aspektverhältnis 279 7.2.6.3 Anwendungen von trockenem Siliziumätzen 281 7.3 Oberflächenmikromechanik 285 7.3.1 Polysilizium-Mikromechanik 287 7.3.2 Opferaluminium-Mikromechanik 290 7.3.3 Opferpolymer-Mikromechanik 292 7.3.4 Sticking 293 7.4 Mikrowandler und -systeme in der Siliziumtechnologie 294 7.4.1 Mechanische Bauteile und Systeme 295 7.4.1.1 Drucksensoren 296 7.4.1.2 Beschleunigungssensoren 298 7.4.1.3 Drehratensensoren 300 7.4.1.4 Stresssensoren 302 7.4.2 Thermische Mikrobauteile und -systeme 304 7.4.2.1 Temperaturmessung 304 7.4.2.2 Durchflusssensoren 308 7.4.2.3 Vakuum- und Drucksensoren 311 7.4.3 Komponenten und Systeme für Strahlungssignale 313 7.4.3.1 Ungekühlte Infrarotdetektoren 313 7.4.3.2 Thermische Szenensimulatoren 316 7.4.3.3 Lichtschalter 316 7.4.4 Magnetische Bauteile und Systeme 319 7.4.5 Chemische Mikrosensoren 321 7.4.5.1 Mikrofluidische Komponenten und Systeme 324 7.4.6 Mikromechanische Bauteile für die Signalverarbeitung 326 7.5 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 328 8 LIGA-Verfahren 329 8.1 Überblick 329 8.2 Maskenherstellung 331 8.2.1 Prinzipieller Aufbau einer Maske 331 8.2.1.1 Absorber 331 8.2.1.2 Trägerfolie 332 8.2.2 Herstellung der Trägerfolien 334 8.2.3 Strukturierung des Resists für Röntgenzwischenmasken 335 8.2.3.1 Optische Lithographie 335 8.2.3.2 Direkte Elektronenstrahllithographie 336 8.2.3.3 Reaktives Ionenätzen 337 8.2.3.4 Vergleich der Strukturierungsmethoden zur Herstellung von Zwischenmasken 337 8.2.4 Goldgalvanik für Röntgenmasken 337 8.2.5 Herstellung von Arbeitsmasken 339 8.2.6 Justieröffnungen in Röntgenarbeitsmasken 340 8.3 Röntgentiefenlithographie 341 8.3.1 Herstellung von dicken Resistschichten 341 8.3.1.1 Strahleninduzierte Reaktionen und Entwicklung des Resists 343 8.3.2 Anforderungen an die absorbierte Strahlendosis 347 8.3.3 Einflüsse auf die Strukturqualität 350 8.3.3.1 Fresnel-Beugung, Photoelektronen 351 8.3.3.2 Divergenz der Strahlung 353 8.3.3.3 Neigung der Absorberwände zum Strahl 354 8.3.3.4 Fluoreszenzstrahlung aus der Maskenmembran 354 8.3.3.5 Erzeugung von Sekundärelektronen aus der Haft- und Galvanikstartschicht 354 8.3.3.6 Quellen des Resists 356 8.4 Galvanische Abscheidung 356 8.4.1 Galvanische Abscheidung von Nickel für die Mikrostrukturherstellung 357 8.4.2 Formeinsatzherstellung für die Mikroabformung 361 8.4.3 Galvanische Abscheidung weiterer Metalle und Legierungen 362 8.5 Kunststoffabformung im LIGA-Verfahren 364 8.5.1 Herstellung von Mikrostrukturen im Reaktionsgießverfahren 365 8.5.2 Herstellung von Mikrostrukturen im Spritzgießverfahren 368 8.5.3 Herstellung von Mikrostrukturen im Heißprägeverfahren 374 8.5.4 Herstellung von metallischen Mikrostrukturen aus abgeformten Kunststoffstrukturen (zweite Galvanoformung) 377 8.5.4.1 Zweite Galvanoformung geprägter Mikrostrukturen 377 8.5.4.2 Zweite Galvanoformung mit Hilfe einer metallischen Angussplatte 377 8.5.4.3 Zweite Galvanoformung mit Hilfe elektrisch leitfähiger Kunststoffe 379 8.5.4.4 Zweite Galvanoformung durch Beschichtung der Kunststoffstrukturen 381 8.6 Variationen und ergänzende Schritte des LIGA-Verfahrens 382 8.6.1 Opferschichttechnik 382 8.6.2 3D-Strukturierung 385 8.6.2.1 Gestufte Strukturen 385 8.6.2.2 Geneigte Strukturen 387 8.6.2.3 Konische Strukturen und Strukturen mit sphärischer Oberfläche 388 8.6.2.4 Herstellung von Strukturen mit beweglicher Maske 389 8.6.3 Herstellung Licht leitender Strukturen durch Abformung 391 8.7 Protonenlithographie (DLP) – ein weiteres Strukturierungsverfahren zur Herstellung von Mikrostrukturen mit großem Aspektverhältnis 394 8.8 Anwendungsbeispiele 399 8.8.1 Starre metallische Mikrostrukturen 400 8.8.1.1 Filter für das Ferne Infrarot 400 8.8.1.2 Mikrospulen 401 8.8.1.3 Mikrozahnräder, Mikrogetriebe 403 8.8.2 Bewegliche Mikrostrukturen, Mikrosensoren, Mikroaktoren 403 8.8.2.1 Beschleunigungssensoren 404 8.8.2.2 Elektrostatischer Linearantrieb 406 8.8.2.3 Elektromagnetischer Linearaktor 407 8.8.2.4 Mikroturbine, Strömungssensoren, Mikrofräser 412 8.8.2.5 Mikromotoren 413 8.8.3 Fluidische Mikrostrukturen 416 8.8.3.1 Mikrostrukturierte Fluidplatten 416 8.8.3.2 Mikropumpen nach dem LIGA-Verfahren 416 8.8.3.3 Mikrofluidische Schalter 416 8.8.3.4 Mikrofluidische Linearaktoren 418 8.8.4 LIGA-Strukturen für optische Anwendungen 419 8.8.4.1 Einfache optische Elemente – Linsen, Prismen 420 8.8.4.2 Mikrooptische Bank 422 8.8.4.3 Mikrooptische Bänke mit Aktoren 426 8.8.4.4 Funktionsmodule mit optisch aktiven Elementen – modulares Aufbaukonzept 429 9 Alternative Verfahren der Mikrostrukturierung 437 9.1 Ultrapräzisionsmikrobearbeitung 438 9.1.1 Anwendungsbeispiele 443 9.1.1.1 Mikrowärmeüberträger 443 9.1.1.2 Mikroreaktoren 445 9.1.1.3 Retrospiegel 446 9.1.1.4 Mikropumpen 447 9.2 Mikrofunkenerosion (von R. Förster) 448 9.2.1 Physikalisches Prinzip 448 9.2.1.1 Aufbauphase 450 9.2.1.2 Entladephase 451 9.2.1.3 Abbauphase 451 9.2.2 Funkenerosive Bearbeitung keramischer Werkstoffe 452 9.2.2.1 Siliziuminfiltriertes Siliziumcarbid (SiSiC) 453 9.2.2.2 Siliziumnitrid (Si3 N4) 454 9.2.2.3 Elektrisch nicht leitfähige Keramiken 454 9.2.3 Verfahrensvarianten 455 9.2.3.1 Funkenerosives Senken 455 9.2.3.2 Funkenerosives Schneiden 456 9.2.4 Anwendungsbeispiele 459 9.3 Präzisionselektrochemische Mikrobearbeitung (von R. Förster) 461 9.3.1 Vorgänge im Bearbeitungsspalt 462 9.3.1.1 Spannungsabfall 462 9.3.1.2 Anodische Metallauflösung 464 9.3.2 Elektrolytlösungen 466 9.3.2.1 Kenngrößen der Elektrolytlösungen 468 9.3.3 Untersuchungen verschiedener Werkstoffe 469 9.3.3.1 Eisen, Eisenlegierungen und Stähle 469 9.3.3.2 Titan und Titanlegierungen 470 9.3.3.3 Hartmetalle 470 9.3.4 ECM-Senken mit oszillierender Werkzeugelektrode 471 9.3.4.1 Prozesskenngrößen 471 9.3.4.2 Darstellung der Vorgänge im Arbeitsspalt 472 9.3.4.3 Werkzeugelektrodenwerkstoffe 473 9.3.5 Elektrochemische Bearbeitungsverfahren in der Mikro-systemtechnik 474 9.3.5.1 Elektrochemisches Mikrobohren 474 9.3.5.2 Elektrochemisches Mikrodrahtschneiden 474 9.3.5.3 Elektrochemisches Mikrofräsen 475 9.3.5.4 Weitere Anwendungsbeispiele des Verfahrens in der Mikrosystemtechnik 476 9.4 Replikationstechniken 478 9.4.1 Spritzgießen 478 9.4.2 Heißprägen 480 9.5 Laserunterstützte Verfahren 482 10 Aufbau- und Verbindungstechniken 485 10.1 Hybridtechniken 486 10.1.1 Substrate und Pasten 486 10.1.2 Schichterzeugung 489 10.1.2.1 Trocknen und Einbrennen der Pasten 490 10.1.3 Bestücken und Löten der Schaltung 490 10.1.4 Montage und Kontaktierung ungehäuster Halbleiterbauelemente 493 10.2 Drahtbondtechniken 493 10.2.1 Thermokompressionsdrahtbonden (Warmpressschweißen) 494 10.2.2 Ultraschalldrahtbonden (Ultraschallschweißen) 495 10.2.3 Thermosonicdrahtbonden (Ultraschallwarmschweißen) 495 10.2.4 Ball-Wedge-Bonden (Kugel-Keil-Schweißen) 496 10.2.5 Wedge-Wedge-Bonden (Keil-Keil-Schweißen) 497 10.2.6 Vor- und Nachteile der einzelnen Drahtbondverfahren 498 10.2.7 Prüfverfahren und Alternativen 499 10.3 Alternative Kontaktierungstechniken 500 10.3.1 TAB-Technik 500 10.3.2 Flip-Chip-Technik 501 10.3.3 Entwicklung neuer Kontaktierungssysteme 503 10.4 Kleben 503 10.4.1 Isotropes Kleben 504 10.4.2 Anisotropes Kleben 505 10.5 Anodisches Bonden 507 11 Systemtechnik 511 11.1 Definition eines Mikrosystems 511 11.2 Sensoren 513 11.3 Aktoren 517 11.4 Signalverarbeitung 519 11.4.1 Signalverarbeitung für Sensoren in Mikrosystemen 519 11.4.2 Neuronale Datenverarbeitung für Sensorarrays 523 11.5 Schnittstellen eines Mikrosystems 528 11.5.1 IE-Übertragung 531 11.5.1.1 Elektrische Mikro-/Makroankopplungen 531 11.5.1.2 Optische Mikro-/Makroankopplungen 533 11.5.1.3 Lichtwellenleiter-Ankopplungen 533 11.5.1.4 Mechanische Mikro-/Makroankopplungen 533 11.5.1.5 Ultraschallübertragung 534 11.5.2 S-Übertragung 535 11.5.2.1 Fluidische Mikro-/Makroankopplungen 535 11.5.2.2 Fluidische Mikrokomponenten 535 11.6 Entwurf, Simulation und Test von Mikrosystemen 537 11.7 Modulkonzept der Mikrosystemtechnik 540 Literatur 545 Stichwortverzeichnis 565

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Book SynopsisKraft-Wärme-Kopplung in Heizkraftwerken, Wärmerückgewinnung aus Abluft oder aus Abwasserströmen - wo immer ein hoher energetischer Wirkungsgrad gefragt ist, müssen Verfahren und Prozesse in geeigneter Form miteinander gekoppelt werden. Verlustenergien, wie sie bei konventionellen Prozessen anfallen, lassen sich auf diese Weise nutzen, was Energie einspart und Ressourcen schont. Damit das angestrebte Ziel nicht nur für einzelne Spezialisten erreichbar ist, werden gewonnene Erfahrungen verallgemeinert und in Empfehlungen, den verfahrens- und energietechnischen Kompositionsregeln, zusammengefasst. Praxisnah zeigt dieses Buch, wie energieeffiziente Verfahren und Prozesse aufgebaut beziehungsweise aufzubauen sind, und erläutert die komplexen thermodynamischen Aspekte der Energieumwandlung bei Entwurf und Optimierung verfahrenstechnischer und verwandter Systeme. Zusammenhänge werden erkennbar und helfen, eine eigene Systematik zu entwickeln. Mit Beispielen, die sich am beruflichen Alltag der Verfahrenstechniker ausrichten, wird jede Regel veranschaulicht. Eine umfassende Einführung für Studenten der Verfahrenstechnik, Energietechnik, Heizungs- und Klimatechnik und anderer Ingenieurwissenschaften sowie das ideale Werkzeug für den beruflichen Alltag von Ingenieuren der Verfahrens- und Wärmetechnik sowie von Chemieingenieuren.Trade Review"Ein geeignetes Kreativ-Werkzeug für den beruflichen Alltag von Ingenieuren." KI - Kälte Luft Klimatechnik (7-8/2012, 01.08.2012) "Der Autor, der Chemie- und Wärmetechnikingenieur Herbert Müller, beleuchtet intensiv die Thermodynamik bei Energiegewinnung und -umwandlung. Das liegt dem ehemaligen Lehrstuhlinhaber der Hochschule Wismar angesichts der zunehmenden Bedeutung der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung am Herzen. Gedacht ist sein Buch für Studierende und als Nachschlagewerk." VDI Nachrichten (23.12.2011) "Es gibt zur Lösung des Energieproblems nur eine Strategie mit Erfolgsaussichten, nämlich die Nutzung erneuerbarer Energien gekoppelt mit einer Erhöhung der Energieeffizienz. (...) Im vorliegenden Buch (werden) diesbezüglich gewonnenen Erfahrungen verallgemeinert und in Empfehlungen, den verfahrens- und energietechnischen Kompositionsregeln, zusammengestellt." Hlh.de (19.09.2011)Table of ContentsVorwort XI 1 Das Umfeld der Aufstellung und Nutzung von Kompositionsregeln 1 1.1 Kosten und Kostenreduzierung in verfahrenstechnischen Systemen 1 1.2 Strategische Orientierungen und Maßnahmeklassen der Rationalisierung 2 1.3 Funktions- und Prinzipstrukturen 6 2 Allgemeine Kompositionsregeln 13 2.1 Überblick und Wiederverwertungsregel 13 2.2 Regeln, die sich unmittelbar aus den Rationalisierungs-Maßnahmeklassen ableiten 15 2.2.1 Anergienutzungsregel 15 2.2.1.1 Beispiel: Wärmepumpeneinsatz (betrifft Nr. 9 und Nr. 11 nach Abb. 1.4) 16 2.2.1.2 Beispiel: Kühlung warmer Stoffe (Nr. S2 nach Abb. 1.4) 18 2.2.2 Intervallteilungsregel 20 2.2.2.1 Beispiele zur Anwendung der Intervallteilungsregel in ihrer direkten Form 22 2.2.2.2 Beispiele zur Anwendung der Intervallteilungsregel in ihrer Umkehrform 33 2.2.2.3 Zusammenfassung 38 2.2.3 Exergiekonzentrierungsregel 38 2.2.3.1 Beispiel: Wärmetrafoeinsatz bei der Klärschlammtrocknung 38 2.2.4 Temperaturwechselungsregel 41 2.2.4.1 Beispiel: Flüssigkeitsunterkühlung in Kälteprozessen 42 2.2.4.2 Beispiel: Regenerative Speisewasservorwärmung im Dampfkraftprozess 43 2.2.5 Beimischregel 44 2.2.5.1 Beispiel: Beimischregelung in der Heizungs- und Feuerungstechnik 44 2.2.5.2 Beispiel: Kondensationswärmerückgewinnung mittels sog. „Dampfpumpe“ 45 2.2.6 Splittungsregel 46 2.2.6.1 Beispiel: Verdichtersatz für Wärmepumpen 47 2.2.6.2 Beispiel: Kapazitätsquantelung bei Pumpensystemen 48 2.2.6.3 Beispiel: Werkhallenbeheizung und Kaltwärmezufuhr von Wärmepumpen 48 2.2.7 Partnerwahlregel 49 2.2.7.1 Beispiel: Kraft-Wärme-Kälte-Kopplung KWKK 50 2.2.7.2 Beispiel: Wärmerückgewinnung bei thermischen Prozessen mit stückigen Gütern 51 2.2.7.3 Beispiel: Anlagenkomposition nach der Pinch-Point-Methode 53 2.2.7.4 Beispiel: Gekoppelte Kompressions-/Absorptionskühlanlage 56 2.2.7.5 Beispiel: Rückgewinnung mechanischer Energie – Umkehrosmose 56 2.3 Regeln, die die Wahl der Arbeits- oder Hilfsstoffe betreffen 57 2.3.1 Zusatzstoffregel 57 2.3.1.1 Beispiel: Sorptionskreisprozesse 59 2.3.1.2 Beispiel: Platen-Munters-Prinzip 65 2.3.1.3 Beispiel: Führen von Phasenwandlungsprozessen in einem Trägergas zur Potentialverschiebung – Verdunstung 65 2.3.1.4 Beispiel: Klimatisierung und verbesserte Wärmerückgewinnung durch Hinzunahme von Sorbentien 68 2.3.1.5 Beispiel: Cheng- oder STIG-Prozess (Steam Injected Gas Turbine) 70 2.3.1.6 Beispiel: Ausfrieren 71 2.3.1.7 Beispiel: „Schleppmittel“-Rektifikation 72 2.3.1.8 Beispiel: Regenerative Wärmeübertragung 72 2.3.1.9 Zusammenfassende Bemerkung 73 2.3.2 Gleichstoffregel 73 2.3.2.1 Beispiel: WDK-Prozess 73 2.3.2.2 Beispiel: Brüdenverdichtung (andere Bezeichnung: Thermokompression) 74 2.3.2.3 Beispiel: Hochtemperatur-Gasexpansion zur Effektivierung der Wiederverdampfung von verflüssigtem Methan – Fortsetzung des Beispiels in Abschnitt 2.2.2.2.2 76 2.3.2.4 Beispiel: Ruths-Dampfspeicher 77 2.4 Regeln, die die Strukturbildung direkt betreffen 77 2.4.1 Überlagerungsregel 77 2.4.1.1 Beispiel: Lüftungs- und Heizungsanlagen – vgl. Abb. 2.34 78 2.4.2 Diversifizierungsregel 80 2.4.2.1 Beispiel: Hintereinandergeschaltete Kraftprozesse 80 2.4.3 Stufenbildungsregel 82 2.4.3.1 Beispiel: Mehrstufige Kompressionskälteanlagen 82 2.4.3.2 Beispiel: Arbeitsmittelgemische in der Tieftemperatur-Kältetechnik 83 2.4.3.3 Beispiel: Rektifikation 83 2.4.3.4 Beispiel: Partielle Kaskadenschaltung – Wärmepumpe mit Hilfskreislauf 84 2.4.4 Kompaktierungsregel 85 2.4.4.1 Beispiel: Flexibilisierung des Sorptions-BHKW 85 2.4.4.2 Beispiel: Kombinierte Kompressions-Absorptionswärmepumpe 86 2.4.4.3 Beispiel: Multi-effect- und Multi-lift-Überlagerung – Teil I 87 2.4.5 Substitutions- und Kompensationsregel 92 2.4.5.1 Beispiel: Kreisprozess-Elementar- und -Kombifälle 93 2.4.5.2 Beispiel: Multi-effect- und Multi-lift-Überlagerung – Teil II 93 2.4.5.3 Beispiel: Wärmerückgewinnung bei Druckluft 96 2.4.6 Ortsänderungsregel 97 2.4.6.1 Beispiel: Kalte Fernwärmeversorgung 98 2.5 Regeln, die das Zeitverhalten betreffen 100 2.5.1 Funktionsumkehrregel 100 2.5.1.1 Beispiel: Zeitgleiche Wärme-Kältekopplung (bei Druckluftkühlung, Trocknung, Lebensmittelmärkten) 102 2.5.1.2 Beispiel: Wärmeübertrager als Heizer und Kühler 103 2.5.1.3 Beispiel: Zeitlich alternierende Wärme-Kälte-Kopplung 103 2.5.1.4 Beispiel: Adsorptive Kühlung 105 2.5.1.5 Beispiel: Alternierend Kraft- und Arbeitsmaschine 108 2.5.1.6 Beispiel: Thermodiffusions-Intervalltrocknungsverfahren 108 2.5.1.7 Beispiel: Absorptionskälteanlagen als Wärmetransformator in verfahren-/verarbeitungstechnischen Prozessen 109 2.5.2 Flexibilitätsregel 110 2.5.2.1 Beispiel: Direktantrieb von Arbeitsmaschinen u. ä. 110 2.5.2.2 Beispiel: Zusatzfeuerung beim GuD-Prozess 111 2.5.2.3 Beispiel: Großkälteanlage zum Heizen und Kühlen in Helsinki/Finnland 111 2.5.2.4 Beispiel: Bypassverwendung 112 2.5.2.5 Beispiel: Flexible Raumklimatisierung bei Wärme-Kälte-Kopplung 114 2.5.3 Ausgleichungsregel 115 2.5.3.1 Beispiel: Netzarten 115 2.5.3.2 Beispiel: Energiespeicherung 119 2.5.3.3 Beispiel: „Multifunktionales“ Fernwärmenetz 124 2.6 Weitere allgemeine Regeln, die sich keiner bisherigen Gruppe zwanglos zuordnen lassen 125 2.6.1 Zeit-und-Ort-Regel 125 2.6.1.1 Beispiel: Thermowechselspeicher 126 2.6.1.2 Beispiel: Mehrkolbenverbundtechnik 128 2.6.2 Ausgewogenheitsregel 129 2.6.2.1 Beispiel: Funktionsdifferenzierte Dieselmotorenanlage – der „Isomotor“ 130 2.6.2.2 Beispiel: Funktionsintegrierte Bauelemente 131 2.6.3 Von-Selbst-Regel 132 2.6.3.1 Beispiel: Passive Kühlung durch Nachtlüftung 135 2.6.3.2 Beispiel: Schwerkraftbedingte Von-Selbst-Lösungen 136 2.6.3.3 Beispiel: „Von-Selbst“-Drucklufttrocknung 138 2.6.4 Öffnungsregel 139 2.6.4.1 Beispiel: Geschlossene und offene Heizungssysteme 140 2.6.4.2 Beispiel: Hochtemperaturbrennwertnutzung 141 2.6.4.3 Beispiel: Offene Geschlossenheit 144 2.6.4.4 Beispiel: Gasturbine – Schließen bisher offener Systeme 145 2.6.5 WEPOL-Regel 146 2.6.5.1 Beispiel: Katalyse 148 2.6.5.2 Beispiel: Schutzgasmoduliertes Schweißen 148 2.6.6 Prioritätsregel 150 2.6.6.1 Beispiel: Integrierte Energieversorgung eines Krankenhauskomplexes 150 3 Spezielle Kompositionsregeln für ausgewählte Prozesse 153 3.1 Überblick 153 3.2 Kreisprozesse 155 3.3 Wärmeübertragung (bzw. Wärmeübertrager) 157 3.3.1 Beispiel zu Regel WÜ 11: Wärmerückgewinnung aus Schlachtbetrieb-Abwasser 160 3.4 Verdampfung 161 3.4.1 Beispiel: Wasserentsalzung 167 3.5 Kristallisation 168 3.6 Trocknung 170 3.6.1 Beispiel zu den TR-Regeln: Trocknung eines organischen Breis zu Pulver 173 3.7 Sorption 175 3.8 Extraktion und Destillation/Rektifikation 180 3.9 Chemische Reaktionstechnik 182 3.9.1 Beispiel: Verknüpfung exo- und endothermer Reaktionen 184 4 Nutzung der Regeln für Anlagenanalysen 187 4.1 Beispiel: Perpetuum mobile II. Art 188 5 Komplexe Beispiele 191 5.1 Offene Kaltluftmaschine 191 5.2 Energetische Verbesserung der Trinkwassergewinnung aus feuchter Luft 193 5.3 Energierückgewinnung aus Trocknerabluft mit Kondensationswärmenutzung 195 5.4 Integrierte thermische Solarenergienutzung 201 5.5 Energieautarke Verarbeitungstechnik in landwirtschaftlichen Kooperativen 208 5.5.1 Kooperativen auf einer energetischen Basis ohne Biobrennstoffe 208 5.5.2 Kooperativen auf einer energetischen Basis mit Biobrennstoffen 213 5.6 Druckzellenmotor 216 6 Ausblick 221 Literaturverzeichnis 223 Anhang 1: Übersicht über die allgemeinen Kompositionsregeln 231 Anhang 2: Verzeichnis der Einzelbeispiele in den Kapiteln 2 bis 4 237 Stichwortverzeichnis 241

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Book SynopsisA guide to industrially relevant products and processes for transportation fuels The Handbook of Fuels offers a comprehensive review of the wide variety of fuels used to power vehicles, aircraft and ships and examines the processes to produce these fuels. The updated second edition reflects the growing importance of fuels and fuel additives from renewable sources. New chapters include information on current production technology and use of bioethanol, biomethanol and biomass-to-liquid fuels. The book also reviews novel additives and performanace enhancers for conventional engines and fuels for novel bybrid engines. This comprehensive resource contains critical information on the legal, safety, and environmental issues associated with the production and use of fuels as well as reviewing important secondary aspects of the use and production of fuels. This authoritative guide includes contributions from authors who are long-standing contributors to the Ullmann's Encyclopedia, the world's most trusted reference for industrial chemistry. This important guide: Contains an updated edition of the authoritative resource to the production and use of fuels used for transportation Includes information that has been selected to reflect only commercially relevant products and processes Presents contributions from a team of noted experts in the field Offers the most recent developments in fuels and additives from renewable sources Written for professionals in the fields of fossil and renewable fuels, engine design, and transportation, Handbook of Fuels is the comprehensive resource that has been revised to reflect the recent developments in fuels used for transportation.Table of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xix 1 Introduction 1Klaus Reders and Andrea Schütze 1.1 History of the Spark Ignited “Otto” Engine and of Gasoline 3 1.2 History of the Diesel Engine and of Diesel Fuel 14 1.3 History of Alternative Fuels 19 1.3.1 Ethanol 19 1.3.2 Methanol 24 1.3.3 Vegetable Oils and Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils (HVOs) 24 1.3.4 Biodiesel/FAME 25 1.3.5 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 28 1.3.6 Natural Gas 30 1.4 Emission RegulationsWorldwide 33 1.4.1 Europe 35 1.4.2 United States 41 1.4.3 Japan 48 1.4.4 China 51 1.5 Well-to-Wheel Analysis of Alternative Fuels 53 1.5.1 Life-cycle Assessment 54 1.5.2 Well-to-Wheel 55 1.5.3 Boundary Conditions of the JRC Study 56 1.5.4 Summary of Results of the JRC Study 57 1.5.4.1 Alternative Liquid Fuels 60 1.5.4.2 Alternative Gaseous Fuels 61 1.5.4.3 Electricity and Hydrogen 61 1.5.4.4 2020+ Horizon 62 References 64 Part I Automotive Fuels 69 2 Engine Technology 71Werner Dabelstein, Arno Reglitzky, Andrea Schütze, and Klaus Reders 2.1 Otto Engines 71 2.2 Diesel Engines 73 References 75 3 Fuel Composition and Engine Efficiency 77Werner Dabelstein, Arno Reglitzky, Andrea Schütze, Klaus Reders, and Andreas Brunner 3.1 Fuel Composition and Engine Efficiency 77 3.1.1 Quality Aspects of Gasoline 77 3.1.1.1 Octane Quality 77 3.1.1.2 Volatility 79 3.1.1.3 Fuel Composition to Reduce Toxicity and Exhaust Emissions 80 3.1.1.4 Stability, Cleanliness, etc. 83 3.1.1.5 Performance Additives 84 3.1.2 Quality Aspects of Diesel Fuels 84 3.1.2.1 Ignition Quality 84 3.1.2.2 Density 85 3.1.2.3 Sulfur Content 85 3.1.2.4 Cold Flow Properties 85 3.1.2.5 Lubricity 85 3.1.2.6 Viscosity 86 3.1.2.7 Volatility 86 3.1.2.8 Diesel Fuel Stability, Cleanliness, and Safety 86 3.1.2.9 Diesel Fuel Effects on Exhaust Emissions 86 3.1.2.10 Performance Additives 88 References 88 4 Fuel Components: Petroleum-derived Fuels 91Werner Dabelstein, Arno Reglitzky, Andrea Schütze, and Klaus Reders 4.1 Petroleum-derived Fuels 91 4.1.1 Gasoline Components 91 4.1.1.1 Straight-run Gasoline 91 4.1.1.2 Thermally Cracked Gasoline 93 4.1.1.3 Catalytically Cracked Gasoline 93 4.1.1.4 Catalytic Reformate (Platformate) 94 4.1.1.5 Isomerate 94 4.1.1.6 Alkylate 94 4.1.1.7 Polymer Gasoline 94 4.1.1.8 Oxygenates 95 4.1.2 Diesel Fuel Components 95 4.1.2.1 Straight-run Middle Distillate 95 4.1.2.2 Thermally Cracked Gas Oil 96 4.1.2.3 Catalytically Cracked Gas Oil 96 4.1.2.4 Hydrocracked Gas Oil 97 4.1.2.5 Kerosene 97 4.1.2.6 Biofuel Components 97 4.1.2.7 Synthetic Diesel Fuel 98 4.1.3 Storage and Transportation 98 References 99 5 Liquefied Petroleum Gas 101Stephen M. Thompson, Gary Robertson, RobertMyers, and Andrea Schütze 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Properties 102 5.3 Production and Processing 103 5.3.1 Recovery from Natural Gas 103 5.3.1.1 Recovery and Manufacture in the Refinery 103 5.4 Purification 108 5.4.1 Adsorptive Purification 109 5.4.2 Absorptive Purification 109 5.5 Storage and Transportation 110 5.5.1 Aboveground Storage 110 5.5.2 Underground Storage 110 5.5.3 Transportation 111 5.6 Uses 111 5.6.1 LPG Standards and Regulations 112 5.6.1.1 Refueling Infrastructure 112 5.6.1.2 Vehicle Conversions to LPG 113 5.6.2 Environmental Benefits 113 5.6.2.1 Outlook 115 5.7 Safety Aspects 115 5.7.1 Occupational Health 116 References 116 6 Natural Gas 119Klaus Reders, Margret Schmidt, and Andrea Schütze 6.1 Occurrence 119 6.2 Composition 121 6.3 Processing 123 6.3.1 Oil and Condensate Removal 124 6.3.2 Water Removal 124 6.3.3 Separation of Natural Gas Liquids 125 6.3.3.1 Cryogenic Expansion Process 126 6.3.4 Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal 126 6.4 Transport/Distribution/Local Blending 126 6.5 Properties and Specifications 127 6.6 Natural Gas as Automotive Fuel 129 6.6.1 Vehicle Refueling Systems 133 6.6.1.1 Slow-Fill Refueling 133 6.6.1.2 Fast-Fill Refueling 134 6.6.2 Vehicle and Engine Concepts 134 6.6.2.1 Vehicle Technology 135 6.6.3 CNG Vehicles in the Market 137 6.6.4 Vehicle Fuel Supply System 137 6.6.5 Combustion and Emissions 139 6.7 Safety Aspects 141 6.8 Biomethane 141 6.8.1 Production 142 6.8.1.1 Anaerobic Fermentation 145 6.8.1.2 Biogas from Solids 146 6.8.2 Upgrading of Biogas to Natural Gas Quality 147 6.8.2.1 Water Scrubbing and Physical Scrubbing 147 6.8.2.2 Chemical Absorption 148 6.8.2.3 Membrane Separation 148 6.8.2.4 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) 149 6.8.2.5 Cryogenic Separation 149 6.8.3 Storage and Transportation 149 6.8.3.1 Storage 149 6.8.3.2 Distribution 150 6.8.4 Biomethane Regulations 150 6.8.4.1 Regulations and Standards 151 6.8.5 Well-to-wheel Analysis for LPG, CNG, and Biomethane 152 6.8.5.1 Well-to-Tank Analysis 152 6.8.5.2 Compressed Biomethane (CBM) 155 6.8.5.3 Well-to-Wheels Analysis 156 References 158 7 Synthetic Diesel Fuels 161H.P. Calis, Wolfgang Lüke, Ingo Drescher, and Andrea Schütze 7.1 XTL Fuels 162 7.1.1 History 162 7.1.2 XTL Production Process 162 7.1.2.1 Fischer–Tropsch Process 162 7.1.2.2 IH2 Technology 166 7.1.2.3 BTL Fuels 168 7.1.3 GTL and BTL Fuel Characteristics 170 7.1.3.1 Cold Flow Performance 171 7.1.3.2 Lubricity Performance 174 7.1.3.3 Impact on Injector Cleanliness and Spray Characteristics 174 7.1.3.4 Advantages of Synthetic Fuels for Emission Control 175 7.1.4 Outlook 178 7.2 DME (Dimethyl Ether) and OME Fuels 180 7.2.1 Introduction 180 7.2.2 Fuel Standards 181 7.2.3 Fuel Properties 183 7.2.4 Infrastructure and Safety 186 7.2.4.1 Use as Fuel 187 7.3 Well-to-Wheel (WTW) Analysis for XTL and DME Fuels 190 7.3.1 Well-to-Wheels Analysis for XTL 190 7.3.2 Well-to-Tank Analysis for DME 193 7.4 Well-to-Wheel Analysis for XTL and DME 195 References 196 8 Synthetic Gasoline Fuels 201Andrea Schütze 8.1 GTL Naphtha 201 8.2 Methanol to Gasoline Process (MTG) 202 8.3 Production Process 202 8.4 Fuel Properties 203 References 204 9 Ethanol 207Andrea Schütze 9.1 Production 210 9.1.1 Milling 211 9.1.2 Processing of Starch/Maize Mash 212 9.1.3 Fermentation of Glucose 213 9.1.4 Distillation and Increase of Ethanol Concentration 213 9.2 Feedstock 214 9.3 Land Use 215 9.3.1 Direct Land Use Change Emissions (DLUC) 217 9.3.2 Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC) 217 9.4 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions 217 9.5 Water Foot Print and Impact onWater Table 219 9.6 Other Environmental Effects 219 9.6.1 Soil Quality/Erosion 219 9.6.2 Eutrophication and Acidification 219 9.6.3 Biodiversity 219 9.7 Bioethanol Made from Lignocellulose 220 9.8 Fuel Standards 221 9.9 Fuel Properties 224 9.9.1 Octane Number 224 9.9.1.1 Volatility and Distillation 226 9.9.1.2 Heat of Vaporization 228 9.9.1.3 Energy Content 228 9.9.1.4 Water Content 228 9.9.1.5 Corrosion Protection 228 9.9.1.6 Denaturant and Denaturant Content 229 9.9.1.7 Material Compatibility 229 9.9.1.8 Lubricity 229 9.9.1.9 Emissions 229 9.10 Well-to-Wheels Analysis for Fuel Ethanol and Ethanol Gasoline Blends 230 9.10.1 Pathways 230 9.10.1.1 Sugar Beet to Ethanol 230 9.10.1.2 Wheat to Ethanol 231 9.10.1.3 Straw to Ethanol 231 9.11 WTT Analysis for Bioethanol 236 9.12 WTWAnalysis 237 References 240 10 Methanol 245Martin Bertau,Michael Kraft, Ludolf Plass, and Hans-JürgenWernicke 10.1 Introduction 248 10.2 Physical and Chemical Properties 249 10.3 Production of Methanol 249 10.3.1 Methanol Production Capacities and Markets 250 10.3.2 ConventionalMethanol Production Processes 252 10.3.2.1 Synthesis Gas Generation 252 10.3.2.2 Methanol Synthesis 255 10.3.2.3 Liquid Phase Methanol Synthesis (LPMEOH®) 258 10.3.2.4 Methanol Distillation 258 10.3.3 Renewable Methanol Production Processes 259 10.3.3.1 CO2 – Hydrogenation 260 10.4 Methanol as Fuel 261 10.4.1 History 263 10.4.2 Uses 264 10.4.2.1 Methanol as a Fuel for Otto Engines 264 10.4.2.2 Vehicle Developments 265 10.4.2.3 Conclusions 268 10.4.2.4 Methanol as Marine Fuel 269 10.4.3 Safety Aspects 270 10.4.3.1 Explosion and Fire Control 270 10.4.3.2 Fire Prevention 271 10.4.3.3 Fire Fighting 271 10.4.3.4 Small-scale Storage 271 10.4.3.5 Large-scale Storage 271 10.4.3.6 Large-scale Transportation 272 10.4.3.7 Safety Regulations Governing Transportation 272 10.4.3.8 Methanol as a Hazard 272 10.5 Methanol-based Derivatives as Fuels and Fuel Additives 273 10.5.1 Methanol-to-Gasoline (MTG) 274 10.5.2 Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) 276 10.5.3 tert-Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME) 278 10.5.4 Dimethyl Ether (DME) 279 10.5.5 Oxymethylene Ether (OME) 281 10.5.6 Dimethyl Carbonate (DMC) and Methyl Formate (MF) 285 10.6 Economic Aspects 289 10.6.1 Gas-based Methanol 289 10.6.2 Coal-based Methanol 289 10.6.3 Biomass-based Methanol 291 10.6.4 Renewable Methanol Based on the Recycle of Carbon Dioxide 292 10.7 Outlook 297 References 297 11 2,5-Dimethylfuran (DMF) and 2-Methylfuran (MF) 307Andrea Schütze 11.1 Synthesis of Dimethylfuran 307 11.2 Properties of 2,5-Dimethylfuran and Methylfuran 309 11.3 Combustion and Emissions 311 References 312 12 Alternative Biofuel Options – Diesel 315Andrea Schütze 12.1 Biomass-to-Liquids (BTL) 315 12.2 Biodiesel (FAME) 316 12.2.1 Production 318 12.2.1.1 Introduction 318 12.2.1.2 Industrial Process 321 12.2.1.3 Feedstock 322 12.2.1.4 Microalgae 324 12.2.2 AnalyticalMethods 326 12.2.2.1 Ester Content and Fatty Acid Composition 326 12.2.2.2 Polyunsaturated Methyl Esters Content 327 12.2.2.3 Glycerol and Glyceride Content 328 12.2.3 Fuel Standards 332 12.2.3.1 United States 332 12.2.3.2 Europe 336 12.2.4 Fuel Properties 337 12.2.4.1 Cetane Number 338 12.2.4.2 Density and Energy Content 339 12.2.4.3 Kinematic Viscosity 339 12.2.4.4 Cold Temperature Properties 339 12.2.4.5 Filterability 341 12.2.4.6 Distillation 341 12.2.4.7 Fuel Stability 341 12.2.4.8 Water Content and Sediment 343 12.2.4.9 Lubricity 343 12.2.4.10 Material Compatibility 343 12.2.4.11 Engine Deposits 344 12.2.4.12 Emissions 345 12.3 Vegetable Oils (VO) 345 12.3.1 Production 346 12.3.2 Fuel Properties 346 12.3.2.1 Kinematic Viscosity 347 12.3.2.2 Cetane Number 348 12.3.2.3 Flash Point 348 12.3.2.4 Carbon Residue 348 12.3.2.5 Heating Value 348 12.3.2.6 Density 348 12.3.2.7 Iodine Number 349 12.3.2.8 Fuel Stability 349 12.3.2.9 Calcium, Magnesium, and Phosphorus 350 12.3.2.10 Total Contamination andWater Content 350 12.3.2.11 Acid Value 350 12.3.3 Fuel Standards 350 12.4 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils 351 12.4.1 Production 352 12.4.1.1 Process 352 12.4.1.2 Production Plants 354 12.4.2 Fuel Standard and Properties 354 12.4.2.1 Density and Energy Content 355 12.4.2.2 Distillation Characteristics 355 12.4.2.3 Cold Temperature Properties 356 12.4.2.4 Cetane Number 356 12.4.2.5 Fuel Stability 356 12.4.2.6 Lubricity 357 12.4.2.7 Material Compatibility 357 12.4.2.8 Emissions and Combustion 357 12.5 Well-to-Wheel Analysis of FAME and HVO Fuels 357 12.5.1 FAME Fuels 359 12.5.1.1 WTT Analysis 359 12.5.1.2 WTWAnalysis 361 12.5.2 HVO Fuels 363 12.5.2.1 WTT Analysis 363 12.5.2.2 WTWAnalysis 364 References 366 13 Hydrogen 373Lalit M. Das 13.1 Introduction 373 13.2 Life Cycle Analysis 373 13.3 Hydrogen Production 374 13.4 Historical Overview of Hydrogen Engine: Research and Development 375 13.5 Properties of Hydrogen which Influence Engine Combustion 377 13.6 Undesirable Combustion Phenomena 381 13.7 Design Criteria for Hydrogen Engines 382 13.8 Hydrogen-fueledWankel Engine 384 13.9 Performance Characteristic of a Hydrogen-fueled SI Engine 385 13.10 Exhaust Emissions 386 13.11 Combustion Characteristics 387 13.12 Hydrogen Use in CI Engines 389 13.13 Hydrogen-CNG Blend 391 13.14 Safety Criteria for Hydrogen Engines 392 13.15 Hydrogen Detection 393 13.16 Storage of Hydrogen 393 13.17 Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution 394 13.18 Hydrogen Vehicles based on Internal Combustion Engine 395 13.19 Conclusion 398 References 398 14 Octane Enhancers 403Marco Di Girolamo, Maura Brianti, and MarioMarchionna 14.1 Introduction 403 14.2 Technical Information 405 14.2.1 Combustion in Otto Engines 405 14.2.2 Knock Phenomena 406 14.2.3 Octane Number 406 14.3 Types of Octane Enhancers 409 14.4 Metal-containing Additives 409 14.4.1 Alkyl Lead Compounds 412 14.4.2 Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl 414 14.5 Ashless Octane Enhancers 415 14.5.1 Heteroatom-based Components 415 14.5.1.1 History of Fuel Oxygenates 417 14.5.1.2 Properties of Oxygenates 420 14.5.1.3 Production 424 14.5.1.4 Toxicology 426 14.5.2 Pure Hydrocarbon Components 427 References 428 Further Reading 430 15 Hybrid and Electrified Powertrains 431Jakob Andert, MaximilianWick, Rene Savelsberg, andMichael Stapelbroek 15.1 Introduction 431 15.2 Classification 432 15.2.1 Topologies 432 15.2.1.1 Serial Hybrids 433 15.2.1.2 Parallel Hybrids 434 15.2.1.3 Power-split Hybrids 435 15.2.2 Degree of Hybridization 436 15.3 Functionalities 437 15.3.1 Regenerative Braking 437 15.3.2 Load Point Shift/Boosting 438 15.3.3 E-drive and Sailing 439 15.4 Battery 440 15.4.1 NiMH Batteries 441 15.4.2 Li-ion Batteries 442 15.5 Energy Management 443 15.6 Market Situation and Outlook 444 References 444 16 Fuel Cells 447Sören Tinz, Steffen Dirkes,MariusWalters, and Jakob Andert 16.1 Transportation Applications 447 16.2 Fundamentals 449 16.2.1 Auxiliaries 452 16.2.1.1 Air Supply System 452 16.2.1.2 Hydrogen Supply System 454 16.2.1.3 Cooling Circuit 454 16.2.1.4 HV Architecture 455 16.2.1.5 Controls 455 16.2.1.6 Integrated System Design 455 16.2.2 Onboard Hydrogen Storage 456 16.3 Costs, Durability, and Reliability 457 16.4 Cold and Freeze Start 459 16.5 Efficiency 459 16.6 Summary 460 References 460 Part II Automobile Exhaust Control 465 17 Introduction 467Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers Reference 469 18 Pollutant Formation and Limitation 471Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers 18.1 Carbon Monoxide 471 18.2 Hydrocarbons 471 18.3 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) 472 18.4 Particulate Emissions 472 18.5 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 473 18.6 Sulfur Compounds 473 Reference 474 19 Catalytic Exhaust Aftertreatment, General Concepts 475Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers 19.1 The Physical Design of the Catalytic Converter 475 19.1.1 Ceramic Monoliths 477 19.1.2 MetallicMonoliths 477 19.1.3 Particulate Filters 478 19.1.4 Extruded Catalysts 478 19.2 TheWashcoat 478 19.3 The Catalytic Material 480 19.4 Production of Catalysts 480 References 481 20 Catalytic Aftertreatment of Stoichiometric Exhaust Gas 483Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers 20.1 Three-way Catalysts 484 20.2 Oxygen Storage in Three-way Catalysts 485 20.3 Precious Metals inThree-way Catalysis 487 References 487 21 Exhaust Aftertreatment for Diesel Vehicles 489Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers 21.1 The Diesel Oxidation Catalyst 489 21.1.1 Oxidation of Particulate Emissions 490 21.1.2 Oxidation of SO2 490 21.1.3 Oxidation of NO 490 21.1.4 Particulate Filter Regeneration 490 21.1.5 Pt/Pd Dispersion 491 21.2 The Particulate Filter 491 21.2.1 Soot Oxidation by Oxygen 492 21.2.2 Soot Oxidation by NO2 492 21.2.3 Ash Load 493 21.2.4 Open Filter Systems 493 21.3 NOx Treatment of Oxygen-rich Exhaust 494 21.3.1 HC–DeNOx 494 21.3.2 The NOx Adsorber Catalyst 495 21.3.3 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) with Ammonia 496 21.3.4 NH3 Generation Onboard 496 21.3.5 Vanadium SCR Catalysts 497 21.3.6 Zeolite-based SCR Catalysts 498 21.3.7 Oxidation Catalyst Upstream of the SCR Catalyst 498 22 Exhaust Aftertreatment for Lean-burn Gasoline Engines 499Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers 23 Conclusion and Outlook 501Martin Votsmeier, Thomas Kreuzer, Jürgen Gieshoff, Gerhard Lepperhoff, and Barbara Elvers Part III Aviation Fuels 503 24 Aviation Turbine Fuels 505Geoff J. Bishop and Barbara Elvers 24.1 History 505 24.1.1 Fuel Types and Specifications 505 24.1.1.1 Specification Requirements 507 24.1.1.2 Fuel Properties 507 24.1.1.3 Nonspecification Properties 516 24.1.2 Production 518 24.1.2.1 Fuel 518 24.1.2.2 Additives 520 24.1.3 Handling, Storage, and Transportation 522 24.1.3.1 System Descriptions 522 24.1.3.2 Contamination-removal Equipment 522 24.1.4 Legal Aspects 523 24.1.5 Environmental Aspects 523 24.1.6 Economic Aspects 523 24.1.7 Future Trends 524 24.1.7.1 Petroleum-Derived Fuels 524 24.1.7.2 Alternative Fuels 524 References 525 Further Reading 527 25 Aviation Gasoline (Avgas) 529Geoff J. Bishop and Barbara Elvers 25.1 History 530 25.2 Avgas Grades 530 25.2.1 Avgas 100 530 25.2.2 Avgas 100LL 530 25.2.3 Avgas 100VLL 531 25.2.4 Avgas UL82 531 25.2.5 Avgas UL87 531 25.2.6 Avgas UL91 531 Reference 531 Further Reading 531 Part IV Marine Fuels 533 26 Marine Fuels 535Christopher FriedrichWirz, Torsten Mundt, and Klaus Reders 26.1 History 535 26.2 Specifications 536 26.3 Composition 536 26.4 Properties 537 26.4.1 Distillate Fuels 537 26.4.2 Residual Fuels 537 Reference 540 Index 541

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