Electronic devices and materials Books

Book SynopsisSuperconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct electrical current with no resistance and extremely low losses. High temperature superconductors, such as La2-xSrxCuOx (Tc=40K) and YBa2Cu3O7-x (Tc=90K), were discovered in 1987 and have been actively studied since. In spite of an intense, worldwide, research effort during this time, a complete understanding of the copper oxide (cuprate) materials is still lacking. Many fundamental questions are unanswered, particularly the mechanism by which high-Tc superconductivity occurs. More broadly, the cuprates are in a class of solids with strong electron-electron interactions. An understanding of such "strongly correlated" solids is perhaps the major unsolved problem of condensed matter physics with over ten thousand researchers working on this topic. High-Tc superconductors also have significant potential for applications in technologies ranging from electric power generation and transmission to digital electronics. This ability to carry large amounts of current can be applied to electric power devices such as motors and generators, and to electricity transmission in power lines. For example, superconductors can carry as much as 100 times the amount of electricity of ordinary copper or aluminium wires of the same size. Many universities, research institutes and companies are working to develop high-Tc superconductivity applications and considerable progress has been made. This book presents the latest research in this blossoming field.

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Book SynopsisIn this book we investigate mechanism of charge carrier transport in organic semiconductor thin film devices (OTFDs). Numerical models for the current conduction in single layer OTFDs including both injection and bulk effect for both trap free organics as well as organics with traps exponentially distributed in energy are developed. The dependencies of the current density on the operation voltage, the thickness of the organic layer and the trap properties are numerically studied.

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Book SynopsisThe book is devoted to theoretical investigations of interrelations in between morphology, single-electron spectrum, and optical properties of polycrystalline and spatially non-homogeneous amorphous semiconductors.

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Book SynopsisDuring the last few years, copper has become the standard metallisation material for on-chip interconnects in high-performance microprocessors. Compared to the previously used aluminium, copper shows not only a lower resistivity, but also significantly improved electromigration resistance. Copper ions, however, are very mobile in silicon and many dielectric materials under electrical and thermal bias. Thus, barrier layers are needed to prevent Cu diffusion into the insulating layers surrounding the metallic interconnects. Since Ta-based compounds are characterized by a high thermal stability, pure Ta films or layer stacks consisting of Ta and TaN are used for such barriers. The continuous scaling down of the interconnect dimensions and, therefore, the essential decrease in the barrier layer thickness coupled with the replacement of silicon oxide by advanced low-k dielectrics demand further improvements of the diffusion barrier performance. It is the aim of this book to carry out microstructure and functional property investigations for advanced, high-performance Tabased diffusion barriers (Ta-TaN layer stacks and Ta-Si-N single layers) before and after annealing to compare their thermal stabilities and to probe the corresponding failure mechanisms. For the Ta-TaN barriers, these studies are undertaken for a range of layer sequences, while for the Ta-Si-N barriers a variety of films with different chemical compositions are analysed.

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Book SynopsisThe superconductivity of MgB2 has been hidden for nearly 50 years although it has the highest Tc among the intermetallics superconductors. Beside the high Tc, simple crystal structure, large coherence length, high critical field, transparency of grain boundaries to current flow and low normal state resistivity MgB2 is a fascinating topic to study for both large scale application and electronic devices. Moreover, the presence of two-gap superconductivity (ð and ó band) has been theoretically and experimentally established. However, critical current density of pristine MgB2 drops rapidly in the high magnetic field due to the weak pinning centres and low upper critical field. During the past three years, novel techniques and developments for fabrication of useable MgB2 have been reported, including chemical alloying, irradiation, thermo-mechanical processing techniques and magnetic shielding to improve the critical density, upper critical field and the irreversibility field. Among the studies, atomic substitution, especially using nano-particles, may help in clarification of the superconductivity mechanism thus making it appropriate for practical application. On the other hand, the momentum of enhancing flux pinning using chemical doping is moving to a positive side. Nano-SiC powder is well known for effective improvement of the critical current density. In this book, a brief introduction of superconductivity in MgB2 is introduced. Further, the basic electronic and magnetic properties of the MgB2 as well as its crystal structure are reviewed. The authors also discuss the preparation method that has been well developed for experimentation on MgB2. Along with that, they review the experimental results of the chemical alloying on MgB2, particularly on the critical current density. In addition, the future prospects of MgB2 and developments for applications in the current superconductivity market are given.

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Book SynopsisSince first developed in the early sixties, silicon chip technology has made vast leaps forward. From a rudimentary circuit with a mere handful of transistors, the chip has evolved into a technological wonder, packing millions of bits of information on a surface no larger that a human thumbnail. And most experts predict that in the near future, we will see chips with over a billion bits. Quantum dots are small devices that contain a tiny droplet of free electrons. They are fabricated in semiconductor materials and have typical dimensions ranging from nanometres to a few microns. The size and shape of these structures and therefore the number of electrons they contain can be precisely controlled; a quantum dot can have anything from a single electron to a collection of several thousands. The physics of quantum dots shows many parallels with the behaviour of naturally occurring quantum systems in atomic and nuclear physics. As in an atom, the energy levels in a quantum dot become quantised due to the confinement of electrons. Unlike atoms however, quantum dots can be easily connected to electrodes and are therefore excellent tools for studying atomic-like properties. This new book presents the latest research developments in the world.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents current areas of research in the field of superconductors and superconducting magnets. The ways in which these magnets produce stronger magnetic fields than ordinary iron-core electromagnets is explored. A review of the electronic structure of transition metal oxides and salts is also included in this book, specifically what concerns electron transfer, electron correlation, electron-nuclear coupling, and inter-metal interaction in cuprates. Combining a number of well-known theories of conventional superconductors, a general vortex theory for inhomogeneous superconductors is proposed. Ways to fabricate superconducting magnets in a faster, cheaper and more practical way is also presented.

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Book SynopsisSuperconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain materials generally at very low temperatures, characterised by exactly zero electrical resistance and the exclusion of the interior magnetic field. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It cannot be understood simply as the idealisation of "perfect conductivity" in classical physics. Furthermore, superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of materials, including simple elements like tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys and some heavily-doped semiconductors. It does not occur in noble metals like gold and silver, nor in pure samples of ferromagnetic metals. This book gathers the latest research from around the globe in this dynamic field and highlights topics such as super-conducting miniundulators, super-conducting transitions in wire networks, the orbital physics of superconductors, the super-conducting circuits of Josephson junctions, and the types of stresses that affect super-conducting properties and behaviour.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents and discusses research in the study of superconductivity. Topics discussed herein include applications of confined quantum field theory to condensed matter systems; thermodynamic properties of superconducting states; vortices in layered superconductors; superconductivity in highly correlated systems; combined effects of disorder and magnetic field in superconductors; and the critical currents and vortex dynamics in percolative superconductors.

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Book SynopsisThis book compiles biographical sketches of top professionals in the fields of superconductivity and condensed matter, as well as research summaries from a number of different focuses in this important field.

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Book SynopsisThis book covers leading-edge research in a cross-section of fields centring on engineering applications including current research data on field measurement methods for fatigue life evaluation of existing steel bridges; softened membrane model for torsion in reinforced concrete members, design of rock slopes using classification systems; structural control of cable-stayed bridges; numerical simulation of non-linear wave generation by a piston wave maker in a step-type wave flume and workmanlike desktop NC machine tools with multi-application modes.

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Book SynopsisThe study of superconductivity in solids was initiated in 1911 after the discovery of this phenomenon in ordinary metals by Kamerlingh-Onnes. This book presents the fundamentals of the modern microscopic theory of conventional and unconventional superconductivity in high-Tc cuprates and other systems.

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Book SynopsisThe authors of this book present current research in the study of superconductivity. Topics discussed in this compilation include the effects of non-magnetic defects in hole doped cuprates; deep cryogenic refrigeration by photons based on the phonon deficit effect in superconductors; superconductivity driven by an anti-polar electric phase in high temperature superconducting materials; superconductive graphite intercalation compounds; a superconducting magnetic field concentrator with nanodimensional branches and slits; magnetic mechanisms of pairing in a strongly correlated electron system of copper oxides; two non-linear mechanisms of correlations between copper carriers in superconductivity and their microscopical descriptions; three dimensionality of the critical state and variational methods for magnetically anisotropic superconductors; theory of multi-band superconductivity; conserving approximation for the self-energy of the t-U-V-J model beyond the Hartree-Fock approximation; and superconductivity as a consequence of an ordering of zero-point oscillations in electron gas.

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Book SynopsisA maker's home is their DIY palace. From simple personalization to tricking out a custom connected home, Make: Volume 59 is all about adding maker flair to your abode. In this issue you'll make a NeoPixel map to track the traffic for your morning commute, build a levitating planter straight from the future, and learn how to automatically water your garden.Plus 13 projects inside, including: Build a DIY thermal imaging cameraPrank your friends with a pint-sized, noise-making throwie3D print an articulated blooming flower night lightLearn to code with the BBC micro: bit and Make: CodeAnd more!

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Book SynopsisArduino 101 houses an Intel Curie module which offers a better performance at a lower power footprint. The module has two 32-bit MCUs - an x86 Intel Quark processor and an ARC EM4 processor along with 384kB flash memory and 80kB SRAM. These onboard MCUs combine a variety of new technologies including wireless communication via Bluetooth Low Energy, 6 axis motion sensor with an accelerometer, and a gyroscope. With this book, you will:Explore neural net pattern matching Have the Arduino learn gesture recognitionPerfect for students, teachers, and hobbyists who need just enough information to get started with the Arduino 101

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Book SynopsisChina's hotbed of innovation and creativity, Shenzhen, is making waves around the world. In our cover story, Shenzhen native Naomi Wu talks about bringing open-source hardware to China and how Chinese culture influences her maker ethos. Then read about how five more women are each building their own unique maker experiences in Shenzhen. Plus, build these projects:3D print a flyweight FPV quadcopter Create LED shadow art with a box of mylar tubes Add a cheap radar set up to your robot Give your face a fun house look with the easy BigfaceboxAnd more

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Book SynopsisThe link between cyberpunk and making has always been strong, sharing the If you can't hack it, you don't own it ethos. In this issue of Make:, we show you the newest emerging technologies, how to get into things you shouldn't with our spy tech roundup, and how to repurpose useful parts from discarded electronics. We also help you answer the crucial question: are you still a cyberpunk? Inside you will find 13 projects, including how to: Build a wheelchair for your furry friend out of hardware store partsText your bestie with a casual raise of the eyebrow and a muscle sensorCraft a cheap, easy-to-assemble rubber-band helicopter out of household supplies and a 2-liter soda bottleMake super cute papercraft succulents to decorate your spaceAnd more!

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Book SynopsisAt the heart of modern power electronics converters are power semiconductor switching devices. The emergence of wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductor devices, including silicon carbide and gallium nitride, promises power electronics converters with higher efficiency, smaller size, lighter weight, and lower cost than converters using the established silicon-based devices. However, WBG devices pose new challenges for converter design and require more careful characterization, in particular due to their fast switching speed and more stringent need for protection. Characterization of Wide Bandgap Power Semiconductor Devices presents comprehensive methods with examples for the characterization of this important class of power devices. After an introduction, the book covers pulsed static characterization; junction capacitance characterization; fundamentals of dynamic characterization; gate drive for dynamic characterization; layout design and parasitic management; protection design for double pulse test; measurement and data processing for dynamic characterization; cross-talk consideration; impact of three-phase system; and topology considerations.Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Pulsed static characterization Chapter 3: Junction capacitance characterization Chapter 4: Fundamentals of dynamic characterization Chapter 5: Gate drive for dynamic characterization Chapter 6: Layout design and parasitic management Chapter 7: Protection design for double pulse test Chapter 8: Measurement and data processing for dynamic characterization Chapter 9: Cross-talk consideration Chapter 10: Impact of three-phase system Chapter 11: Topology consideration Appendix A: Recommended equipment and components list for DPT setup Appendix B: Data processing code for dynamic characterization

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Book SynopsisAt the end of the Second World War, a new technological trend was born: integrated electronics. This trend relied on the enormous rise of integrable electronic devices. Analog Devices and Circuits is composed of two volumes: the first deals with analog components, and the second with associated analog circuits. The goal here is not to create an overly comprehensive analysis, but rather to break it down into smaller sections, thus highlighting the complexity and breadth of the field. This first volume, after a brief history, describes the two main devices, namely bipolar transistors and MOS, with particular importance given to the modeling aspect. In doing so, we deal with new devices dedicated to radio frequency, which touches on nanoelectronics. We will also address some of the notions related to quantum mechanics. Finally, Monte Carlo methods, by essence statistics, will be introduced, which have become more and more important since the middle of the twentieth century. The second volume deals with the circuits that "use" the analog components that were introduced in Volume 1. Here, a particular emphasis is placed on the main circuit: the operational amplifier.Table of ContentsPreface ix Introduction xiii Chapter 1 Bipolar Junction Transistor 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 A schematic technological embodiment of an integrated bipolar junction transistor 2 1.2 Transistor effect 4 1.2.1 Flows and currents 5 1.2.2 Compromises for bipolar junction transistor 6 1.2.3 Configurations and associated current gains 7 1.3 Bipolar junction transistor: some calculations 9 1.3.1 Various modes of operation 15 1.4 The NPN transistor; Ebers–Moll model (1954: Jewell James Ebers and John L Moll) 16 1.4.1 Gummel curves 18 1.4.2 Consideration of second-order effects for the static model 19 1.4.3 Early curves 20 1.4.4 Base width modulation; Early effect 20 1.4.5 Ebers–Moll model wide signals 22 1.4.6 Current gain 26 1.5 Simple bipolar junction transistor model 27 1.6 Network of static characteristics of the bipolar junction transistor 27 1.6.1 Common emitter configuration 31 1.6.2 Common emitter configuration with emitter degeneration 34 1.7 Some applications 35 1.7.1 Current mirrors 35 1.7.2 Differential pair 38 1.7.3 Output stage 41 1.8 Application: operational amplifier 43 1.9 BiCMOS 43 Chapter 2 Mosfet 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.1.1 Base structure 45 2.1.2 Working principle 46 2.2 MOS capability: electric model and curve C(V) 47 2.3 Different types of MOS transistors 49 2.4 A CMOS technological process 50 2.5 Electric modeling of the NMOS enhancement transistor 52 2.6 Off state 52 2.7 Linear or ohmic or unsaturated regime 52 2.7.1 Saturation regime 53 2.7.2 High saturation velocity 53 2.7.3 Static characteristics 54 2.8 Applications 56 2.8.1 Digital inverter 56 2.8.2 Active resistor 58 2.8.3 MOS Single current mirror 59 2.8.4 MOS differential amplifier 60 2.9 Explained technological steps of a CMOS 60 Chapter 3 Devices Dedicated to Radio Frequency: Toward Nanoelectronics 75 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 Model for HBT SiGeC and device structure 76 3.2.1 Modeling the drift–diffusion equation 76 3.3 MOS of the future? 83 3.3.1 Introduction 83 3.3.2 Dgmos 84 3.3.3 Transport in nanoscale MOSFETs 85 3.3.4 Numerical methods 87 3.4 Conclusion 111 3.5 MATLAB use 112 3.5.1 Computer-aided modelling and simulations: synopsis 112 3.5.2 Calculation of the second elementary member ρ 1 139 3.6 Conclusion 185 Appendix 187 References 211 Index 213

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Book SynopsisUnleash the power of the ESP8266 and build a complete home automation system with it. About This Book • Harness the power of the ESP8266 Wi-Fi chip to build an effective Home Automation System • Learn about the various ESP8266 modules • Configuring the ESP8266 and making interesting home automation projects • A step-by-step guide on the ESP8266 chip and how to convert your home into a smart home. Who This Book Is For This book is targeted at people who want to build connected and inexpensive home automation projects using the ESP8266 Wi-Fi chip, and to completely automate their homes. A basic understanding of the board would be an added advantage What You Will Learn • Get, compile, install, and configure an MQTT server • Use the Wi-Fi connectivity feature to control appliances remotely • Control several home appliances using the ESP8266 Wi-Fi chip • Control and monitor your home from the cloud using ESP8266 modules • Stream real-time data from the ESP8266 to a server over WebSockets • Create an Android mobile application for your project In Detail The ESP8266 is a low-cost yet powerful Wi-Fi chip that is becoming more popular at an alarming rate, and people have adopted it to create interesting projects. With this book, you will learn to create and program home automation projects using the ESP8266 Wi-Fi chip. You will learn how to build a thermostat to measure and adjust the temperature accordingly and how to build a security system using the ESP8266. Furthermore, you will design a complete home automation system from sensor to your own cloud. You will touch base on data monitoring, controlling appliances, and security aspects. By the end of the book, you will understand how to completely control and monitor your home from the cloud and from a mobile application. You will be familiar with the capabilities of the ESP8266 and will have successfully designed a complete ready-to-sell home automated system. Style and approach A practical book that will cover independent home automation projects.

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Book SynopsisGait analysis is the study of the walking or running pattern of an individual. This can include spatial and temporal measurements such as step length, stride length and speed along with angular measurements of various joints and the interplay between various parts like the foot, hip, pelvis or spine when walking. Gait analysis can be used to assess clinical conditions and design effective rehabilitation; for example, following limb injury or amputation, or other disorders such as a stroke or Parkinson's diagnosis. It can be used to influence intervention decisions, such as whether a patient should undergo surgery, further physiotherapy, or begin a particular treatment regime. Gait analysis can also be used in sports science to monitor and review performance and technique. Gait can be recorded in a variety of ways, including pressure sensors, force plates, in-shoe pressure systems, through marker-based or marker-less systems using various cameras or sensors to calculate body positions in a set sequence of movements. This book focuses on both the hardware systems for collecting data as well as data visualisation and mathematical models for interpreting the data. It is written by a range of international researchers from academia, industry, and clinical settings, providing a complete overview of gait analysis technologies suitable for an audience of engineers in rehabilitation technologies or other biomedical engineering fields.Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to gait analysis Chapter 2: Gait analysis - a historical perspective Chapter 3: Gait analysis - kinematics Chapter 4: Gait analysis - kinetics Chapter 5: Assessment of muscle function Chapter 6: Considerations for data analysis Chapter 7: Novel technologies for gait analysis Chapter 8: Clinical gait analysis Chapter 9: Gait analysis in rehabilitation Chapter 10: Forensic gait analysis - Is there a case? Chapter 11: Future of gait analysis

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Book SynopsisDescribing the fundamental physical properties of materials used in electronics, the thorough coverage of this book will facilitate an understanding of the technological processes used in the fabrication of electronic and photonic devices. The book opens with an introduction to the basic applied physics of simple electronic states and energy levels. Silicon and copper, the building blocks for many electronic devices, are used as examples. Next, more advanced theories are developed to better account for the electronic and optical behavior of ordered materials, such as diamond, and disordered materials, such as amorphous silicon. Finally, the principal quasi-particles (phonons, polarons, excitons, plasmons, and polaritons) that are fundamental to explaining phenomena such as component aging (phonons) and optical performance in terms of yield (excitons) or communication speed (polarons) are discussed.Table of ContentsForeword xiii Introduction xv Chapter 1. Introduction: Representations of Electron-Lattice Bonds 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Quantum mechanics: some basics 2 1.3. Bonds in solids: a free electron as the zero order approximation for a weak bond; and strong bonds 6 1.4. Complementary material: basic evidence for the appearance of bands in solids 10 Chapter 2. The Free Electron and State Density Functions 17 2.1. Overview of the free electron 17 2.2. Study of the stationary regime of small scale (enabling the establishment of nodes at extremities) symmetric wells (1D model) 19 2.3. Study of the stationary regime for asymmetric wells (1D model) with L a favoring the establishment of a stationary regime with nodes at extremities 23 2.4. Solutions that favor propagation: wide potential wells where L 1 mm, i.e. several orders greater than inter-atomic distances 24 2.5. State density function represented in energy space for free electrons in a 1D system 27 2.6. From electrons in a 3D system (potential box) 32 2.7. Problems 40 Chapter 3. The Origin of Band Structures within the Weak Band Approximation 55 3.1. Bloch function 55 3.2. Mathieu’s equation 59 3.3. The band structure 66 3.4. Alternative presentation of the origin of band systems via the perturbation method 70 3.5. Complementary material: the main equation 79 3.6. Problems 81 Chapter 4. Properties of Semi-Free Electrons, Insulators, Semiconductors, Metals and Superlattices 87 4.1. Effective mass (m*) 87 4.2. The concept of holes 93 4.3. Expression for energy states close to the band extremum as a function of the effective mass 96 4.4. Distinguishing insulators, semiconductors, metals and semi-metals 97 4.5. Semi-free electrons in the particular case of super lattices 107 4.6. Problems 116 Chapter 5. Crystalline Structure, Reciprocal Lattices and Brillouin Zones 123 5.1. Periodic lattices 123 5.2. Locating reciprocal planes 125 5.3. Conditions for maximum diffusion by a crystal (Laue conditions) 128 5.4. Reciprocal lattice 133 5.5. Brillouin zones 135 5.6. Particular properties 137 5.7. Example determinations of Brillouin zones and reduced zones 141 5.8. Importance of the reciprocal lattice and electron filling of Brillouin zones by electrons in insulators, semiconductors and metals 146 5.9. The Fermi surface: construction of surfaces and properties 149 5.10. Conclusion. Filling Fermi surfaces and the distinctions between insulators, semiconductors and metals 154 5.11. Problems 156 Chapter 6. Electronic Properties of Copper and Silicon 173 6.1. Introduction 173 6.2. Direct and reciprocal lattices of the fcc structure 173 6.3. Brillouin zone for the fcc structure 178 6.4. Copper and alloy formation 181 6.5. Silicon 185 6.6. Problems 190 Chapter 7. Strong Bonds in One Dimension 199 7.1. Atomic and molecular orbitals 199 7.2. Form of the wave function in strong bonds: Floquet’s theorem 210 7.3. Energy of a 1D system 215 7.4. 1D and distorted AB crystals 224 7.5. State density function and applications: the Peierls metal-insulator transition 228 7.6. Practical example of a periodic atomic chain: concrete calculations of wave functions, energy levels, state density functions and band filling 233 7.7. Conclusion 239 7.8. Problems 241 Chapter 8. Strong Bonds in Three Dimensions: Band Structure of Diamond and Silicon 249 8.1. Extending the permitted band from 1D to 3D for a lattice of atoms associated with single s-orbital nodes (basic cubic system, centered cubic, etc.) 250 8.2. Structure of diamond: covalent bonds and their hybridization 258 8.3. Molecular model of a 3D covalent crystal (atoms in sp3-hybridization states at lattice nodes) 268 8.4. Complementary in-depth study: determination of the silicon band structure using the strong bond method 275 8.5. Problems 287 Chapter 9. Limits to Classical Band Theory: Amorphous Media 301 9.1. Evolution of the band scheme due to structural defects (vacancies, dangling bonds and chain ends) and localized bands 301 9.2. Hubbard bands and electronic repulsions. The Mott metal–insulator transition 303 9.3. Effect of geometric disorder and the Anderson localization 311 9.4. Conclusion 322 9.5. Problems 324 Chapter 10. The Principal Quasi-Particles in Material Physics 335 10.1. Introduction 335 10.2. Lattice vibrations: phonons 336 10.3. Polarons 352 10.4. Excitons 364 10.5. Plasmons 368 10.6. Problems 373 Bibliography 385 Index 387

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Book SynopsisModel-based development methods, and supporting technologies, can provide the techniques and tools needed to address the dilemma between reducing system development costs and time, and developing increasingly complex systems. This book provides the information needed to understand and apply model-drive engineering (MDE) and model-drive architecture (MDA) approaches to the development of embedded systems. Chapters, written by experts from academia and industry, cover topics relating to MDE practices and methods, as well as emerging MDE technologies. Much of the writing is based on the presentations given at the Summer School “MDE for Embedded Systems” held at Brest, France, in September 2004.Table of ContentsChapter Summary xi Chapter 1. Model Transformation: A Survey of the State of the Art 1 Tom MENS 1.1. Model-driven engineering 1 1.2. Model transformation 2 1.3. Model transformation languages 5 1.4. Model transformation activities 8 1.5. Conclusion 14 1.6. Acknowledgements 14 1.7. Bibliography 15 Chapter 2. Model-Based Code Generation 21 Chris RAISTRICK 2.1. Introduction 21 2.2. The model-driven architecture (MDA) process 22 2.3. The automated approach to code generation 23 2.4. Domain modeling 25 2.5. The executable UML (xUML) formalism 29 2.6. System generation 31 2.7. Executable UML to code mappings 34 2.8. Conclusions 41 2.9. Bibliography 42 Chapter 3. Testing Model Transformations: A Case for Test Generation from Input Domain Models 43 Benoit BAUDRY 3.1. Introduction 43 3.2. Challenges for testing systems with large input domains 46 3.3. Selecting test data in large domains 52 3.4. Metamodel-based test input generation 58 3.5. Conclusion 67 3.6. Acknowledgements 68 3.7. Bibliography 68 Chapter 4. Symbolic Execution-Based Techniques for Conformance Testing 73 Christophe GASTON, Pascale LE GALL, Nicolas RAPIN and Assia TOUIL 4.1. Context 73 4.2. Input output symbolic transition systems 79 4.3. Symbolic execution 84 4.4. Conformance testing for IOSTS 87 4.5. Concluding remarks 96 4.6. Bibliography 101 Chapter 5. Using MARTE and SysML for Modeling Real-Time Embedded Systems 105 Huascar ESPINOZA, Daniela CANCILA, Sébastien GÉRARD and Bran SELIC 5.1. Introduction 105 5.2. Background 108 5.3. Scenarios of combined usage 113 5.4. Combination Strategies 125 5.5. Related work 130 5.6. Conclusion 133 5.7. Acknowledgements 134 5.8. Bibliography 134 Chapter 6. Software Model-based Performance Analysis 139 Dorina C. PETRIU 6.1. Introduction 139 6.2. Performance models 142 6.3. Software model with performance annotations 148 6.4. Mapping from software to performance model 155 6.5. Using a pivot language: Core Scenario Model (CSM) 158 6.6. Case study performance model 160 6.7. Conclusions 162 6.8. Acknowledgements 163 6.9. Bibliography 163 Chapter 7. Model Integration for Formal Qualification of Timing-Aware Software Data Acquisition Components 167 Jean-Philippe BABAU, Philippe DHAUSSY and Pierre-Yves PILLAIN 7.1. Introduction 167 7.2. System modeling 170 7.3. Variation points modeling 182 7.4. Experiments and results 189 7.5. Conclusion 194 7.6. Bibliography 195 Chapter 8. SoC/SoPC Development using MDD and MARTE Profile 201 Denis AULAGNIER, Ali KOUDRI, Stéphane LECOMTE, Philippe SOULARD, Joël CHAMPEAU, Jorgiano VIDAL, Gilles PERROUIN and Pierre LERAY 8.1. Introduction 201 8.2. Related works 203 8.3. MOPCOM process and models 206 8.4. Application 210 8.5. System analysis 211 8.6. Abstract modeling level 214 8.7. Execution modeling level 216 8.8. Detailed modeling level 220 8.9. Tooling Support 223 8.10. HDL Code Generation 225 8.11. Conclusion 228 8.12. Acknowledgements 229 8.13. Bibliography 229 List of Authors 233 Index 237

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Book SynopsisThe emergence of nanoelectronics has led us to renew the concepts of transport theory used in semiconductor device physics and the engineering community. It has become crucial to question the traditional semi-classical view of charge carrier transport and to adequately take into account the wave-like nature of electrons by considering not only their coherent evolution but also the out-of-equilibrium states and the scattering effects. This book gives an overview of the quantum transport approaches for nanodevices and focuses on the Wigner formalism. It details the implementation of a particle-based Monte Carlo solution of the Wigner transport equation and how the technique is applied to typical devices exhibiting quantum phenomena, such as the resonant tunnelling diode, the ultra-short silicon MOSFET and the carbon nanotube transistor. In the final part, decoherence theory is used to explain the emergence of the semi-classical transport in nanodevices.Table of ContentsSymbols ix Abbreviations xiii Introduction xv Acknowledgements xxi Chapter 1. Theoretical Framework of Quantum Transport in Semiconductors and Devices 1 1.1. The fundamentals: a brief introduction to phonons, quasi-electrons and envelope functions 2 1.2. The semi-classical approach of transport 11 1.3. The quantum treatment of envelope functions 16 1.4. The two main problems of quantum transport 29 Chapter 2. Particle-based Monte Carlo Approach to Wigner-Boltzmann Device Simulation 57 2.1. The particle Monte Carlo technique to solve the BTE 59 2.2. Extension of the particle Monte Carlo technique to the WBTE: principles 71 2.3. Simple validations via two typical cases 83 2.4. Conclusion 86 Chapter 3. Application of the Wigner Monte Carlo Method to RTD, MOSFET and CNTFET 89 3.1. The resonant tunneling diode (RTD) 90 3.2. The double-gate metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (DG-MOSFET) 99 3.3. The carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNTFET) 134 3.4. Conclusion 148 Chapter 4. Decoherence and Transition from Quantum to Semi-classical Transport 151 4.1. Simple illustration of the decoherence mechanism 152 4.2. Coherence and decoherence of Gaussian wave packets in GaAs 157 4.3. Coherence and decoherence in RTD: transition between semi-classical and quantum regions 171 4.4. Quantum coherence and decoherence in DG-MOSFET 175 4.5. Conclusion 180 Conclusion 183 Appendix A. Average Value of Operators in the Wigner Formalism 187 Appendix B. Boundaries of the Wigner Potential 189 Appendix C. Hartree Wave Function 191 Appendix D. Asymmetry Between Phonon Absorption and Emission Rates 193 Appendix E. Quantum Brownian Motion 195 Appendix F. Purity in the Wigner formalism 201 Appendix G. Propagation of a Free Wave Packet Subject to Quantum Brownian Motion 203 Appendix H. Coherence Length at Thermal Equilibrium 205 Bibliography 207 Index 241

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in the development of new and innovative materials, and of advanced modeling and characterization methods for nanoscale CMOS devices. Leading global industry bodies including the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) have created a forecast of performance improvements that will be delivered in the foreseeable future – in the form of a roadmap that will lead to a substantial enlargement in the number of materials, technologies and device architectures used in CMOS devices. This book addresses the field of materials development, which has been the subject of a major research drive aimed at finding new ways to enhance the performance of semiconductor technologies. It covers three areas that will each have a dramatic impact on the development of future CMOS devices: global and local strained and alternative materials for high speed channels on bulk substrate and insulator; very low access resistance; and various high dielectric constant gate stacks for power scaling. The book also provides information on the most appropriate modeling and simulation methods for electrical properties of advanced MOSFETs, including ballistic transport, gate leakage, atomistic simulation, and compact models for single and multi-gate devices, nanowire and carbon-based FETs. Finally, the book presents an in-depth investigation of the main nanocharacterization techniques that can be used for an accurate determination of transport parameters, interface defects, channel strain as well as RF properties, including capacitance-conductance, improved split C-V, magnetoresistance, charge pumping, low frequency noise, and Raman spectroscopy.Trade Review"All illustrations including half-tone impressions, graphs, tables and mathematical equations are presented in a manner the design and execution of which are as excellent as the material they go to serve and illustrate." (Current Engineering Practice, 2011)Table of ContentsIntroduction xv F. BALESTRA PART 1. NOVEL MATERIALS FOR NANOSCALE CMOS 1 Chapter 1. Introduction to Part 1 3 D. LEADLEY, A. DOBBIE, V. SHAH and J. PARSONS 1.1. Nanoscale CMOS requirements 3 1.2. The gate stack – high-_ dielectrics 5 1.3. Strained channels 7 1.4. Source-drain contacts 16 1.5. Bibliography 17 Chapter 2. Gate Stacks 23 O. ENGSTRÖM, I. Z. MITROVIC, S. HALL, P. K. HURLEY, K. CHERKAOUI, S. MONAGHAN, H. D. B. GOTTLOB and M. C. LEMME 2.1. Gate-channel coupling in MOSFETs 23 2.2. Properties of dielectrics 24 2.3. Interfaces states and bulk oxide traps 29 2.4. Two ternary compounds: GdSiO and LaSiO 39 2.5. Metal gate technology 50 2.6. Future outlook 56 2.7. Bibliography 58 Chapter 3. Strained Si and Ge Channels 69 D. LEADLEY, A. DOBBIE, M. MYRONOV, V. SHAH and E. PARKER 3.1. Introduction 69 3.2. Relaxation of strained layers 74 3.3. High Ge composition Si1–xGex buffers 83 3.4. Ge channel devices 105 3.5. Acknowledgements 115 3.6. Bibliography 115 Chapter 4. From Thin Si/SiGe Buffers to SSOI 127 S. MANTL and D. BUCA 4.1. Introduction 128 4.2. Nucleation of dislocations 129 4.3. Strain relaxation and strain transfer mechanisms 131 4.4. Overgrowth of strained Si and layer optimization 134 4.5. Characterization of the elastic strain 137 4.6. SSOI wafer fabrication 141 4.7. SSOI as channel material for MOSFET devices 145 4.8. Summary 152 4.9. Bibliography 153 Chapter 5. Introduction to Schottky-Barrier MOS Architectures: Concept, Challenges, Material Engineering and Device Integration 157 E. DUBOIS, G. LARRIEU, R VALENTIN, N. BREIL and F. DANNEVILLE 5.1. Introduction 157 5.2. Challenges associated with the source/drain extrinsic contacts 158 5.3. Extraction of low Schottky barriers 166 5.4. Modulation of Schottky barrier height using low temperature dopant segregation 177 5.5. State-of-the-art device integration 191 5.6. Conclusion 195 5.7. Acknowledgements 197 5.8. Bibliography 197 PART 2. ADVANCED MODELING AND SIMULATION FOR NANO-MOSFETS AND BEYOND-CMOS DEVICES 205 Chapter 6. Introduction to Part 2 207 E. SANGIORGI 6.1. Modeling and simulation approaches for gate current computation 208 6.2. Modeling and simulation approaches for drain current computation 209 6.3. Modeling of end of the roadmap nMOSFET with alternative channel material 209 6.4. NEGF simulations of nanoscale CMOS in the effective mass approximation 210 6.5. Compact models for advanced CMOS devices 211 6.6. Beyond CMOS 211 6.7. Bibliography 212 Chapter 7. Modeling and Simulation Approaches for Gate Current Computation 213 B. MAJKUSIAK, P. PALESTRI, A. SCHENK, A. S. SPINELLI, C. M. COMPAGNONI and M. LUISIER 7.1. Introduction 213 7.2. Calculation of the tunneling probability 216 7.3. Tunneling in nonconventional devices 228 7.4. Trap-assisted tunneling 237 7.5. Models for gate current computation in commercial TCAD 243 7.6. Comparison between modeling approaches 249 7.7. Bibliography 251 Chapter 8. Modeling and Simulation Approaches for Drain Current Computation 259 M. VASICEK, D. ESSENI, C. FIEGNA and T. GRASSER 8.1. Boltzmann transport equation for MOS transistors 260 8.2. Method of moments 262 8.3. Subband macroscopic transport models 276 8.4. Comparison with device-SMC 278 8.5. Conclusions 282 8.6. Bibliography 283 Chapter 9. Modeling of End of the Roadmap nMOSFET with Alternative Channel Material 287 Q. RAFHAY, R. CLERC, G. GHIBAUDO, P. PALESTRI and L. SELMI 9.1. Introduction: replacing silicon as channel material 287 9.2. State-of-the-art in the modeling of alternative channel material devices 290 9.3. Critical analysis of the literature using analytical models 297 9.4. Conclusions 327 9.5. Bibliography 328 Chapter 10. NEGF for 3D Device Simulation of Nanometric Inhomogenities 335 A. MARTINEZ, A. ASENOV and M. PALA 10.1. Introduction 335 10.2. Variabilities for nanoscale CMOS 343 10.3. Full quantum treatment of spatial fluctuations in ultra-scaled devices 361 10.4. Bibliography 377 Chapter 11. Compact Models for Advanced CMOS Devices 381 B. IÑIGUEZ, F. LIME, A. LÁZARO and T. A. FJELDLY 11.1. Introduction 381 11.2. Electrostatics modeling issues 385 11.3. Transport modeling issues 388 11.4. 1D compact models 390 11.5. Ultimate MuGFET modeling issues: ballistic current and quantum confinement 405 11.6. Velocity saturation and channel length modulation modeling 409 11.7. Hydrodynamic transport model 411 11.8. Charge and capacitance modeling 413 11.9. Short-channel effects 420 11.10. RF and noise modeling 434 11.11. Acknowledgements 437 11.12. Bibliography 438 Chapter 12. Beyond CMOS 443 G. IANNACCONE, G. FIORI, S. REGGIANI and M. PALA 12.1. Introduction 443 12.2. Atomistic modeling of carbon-based FETs 444 12.3. Numerical simulation of CNT-FETs 447 12.4. Effective mass modeling of carbon nanotube FETs 451 12.5. CNT versus graphene nanoribbon FETs 459 12.6. Full-quantum treatment of elastic and inelastic scattering in Si and SiC GAA nanowire FETs 461 12.7. Conclusions 467 12.8. Bibliography 468 PART 3. NANOCHARACTERIZATION METHODS 471 Chapter 13. Introduction to Part 3 473 D. FLANDRE Chapter 14. Accurate Determination of Transport Parameters in Sub-65 nm MOS Transistors 475 M. MOUIS and G. GHIBAUDO 14.1. Impact of transport on device performance in the drift-diffusion regime 476 14.2. Standard extraction techniques and their adaptation to short channel transistors 482 14.3. Alternative extraction techniques 518 14.4. Out of equilibrium transport 531 14.5. Conclusions 537 14.6. Bibliography 539 Chapter 15. Characterization of Interface Defects 545 P. HURLEY, O. ENGSTRÖM, D. BAUZA and G. GHIBAUDO 15.1. Characterization using the capacitance-voltage (C-V) response 545 15.2. Characterization using the conductance-voltage (G-V) response 550 15.3. Charge pumping 553 15.4. Low frequency noise 561 15.5. Bibliography 566 Chapter 16. Strain Determination 575 A. O’NEILL, S. OLSEN, P. DOBROSZ, R. AGAIBY and Y. TSANG 16.1. Introduction 575 16.2. Characterization requirements 575 16.3. Characterization techniques 579 16.4. Strain description 592 16.5. Bibliography 598 Chapter 17. Wide Frequency Band Characterization 603 D. FLANDRE, J.-P. RASKIN and V. KILCHYTSKA 17.1. Modified split-CV technique for reliable mobility extraction 604 17.2. Small-signal electrical characterization of FinFETs: impact of access resistances and capacitances 610 17.3. Substrate-related output conductance degradation 619 17.4. Small-signal electrical characterization of Schottky barrier MOSFETs 626 17.5. Bibliography 632 List of Authors 639 Index 649

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Book SynopsisThis book concerns the analysis and design of induction heating of poor electrical conduction materials. Some innovating applications such as inductive plasma installation or transformers, thermo inductive non-destructive testing and carbon-reinforced composite materials heating are studied. Analytical, semi-analytical and numerical models are combined to obtain the best modeling technique for each case. Each model has been tested with experimental results and validated. The principal aspects of a computational package to solve these kinds of coupled problems are described. In the first chapter, the mathematical tools for coupled electromagnetic and thermal phenomena are introduced. In Chapter 2, these tools are used to analyze a radio frequency inductive plasma installation. The third chapter describes the methodology of designing a low frequency plasma transformer. Chapter 4 studies the feasibility of the thermo inductive technique for non-destructive testing and the final chapter is dedicated to the use of induction heating in the lifecycle of carbon-reinforced composite materials. Contents 1. Thermal and Electromagnetic Coupling, Javad Fouladgar, Didier Trichet and Brahim Ramdane.2. Simplified Model of a Radiofrequency Inductive Thermal Plasma Installation, Javad Fouladgar and Jean-Pierre Ploteau.3. Design Methodology of A Very Low-Frequency Plasma Transformer, Javad Fouladgar and Souri Mohamed Mimoune.4. Non Destructive Testing by Thermo-Inductive Method, Javad Fouladgar, Brahim Ramdane, Didier Trichet and Tayeb Saidi.5. Induction Heating of Composite Materials, Javad Fouladgar, Didier Trichet, Samir Bensaid and Guillaume WasselynckTable of ContentsIntroduction xiii Javad FOULADGAR Chapter 1. Thermal and Electromagnetic Coupling 1 Javad FOULADGAR, Didier TRICHET and Brahim RAMDANE 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Electromagnetic problem 2 1.3. Thermal problem 15 1.4. Magnetothermal coupling 16 1.5. Solving the electromagnetic and thermal equations 18 1.6. Conclusion 35 1.7. Bibliography 36 Chapter 2. Simplified Model of a Radiofrequency Inductive Thermal Plasma Installation 39 Javad FOULADGAR and Jean-Pierre PLOTEAU 2.1. Introduction 39 2.2. Plasma and its characteristics 40 2.3. Modeling a plasma installation 49 2.4. Calculating charge impedance 57 2.5. Generator model 64 2.6. Conclusion 80 2.7. Bibliography 81 Chapter 3. Design Methodology of A Very Low-Frequency Plasma Transformer 85 Javad FOULADGAR and Souri Mohamed MIMOUNE 3.1. Introduction 85 3.2. Different types of very low-frequency applicators 87 3.3. Simplified analytical model for analysis and preliminary design 88 3.4. Nonlinear model 97 3.5. Plasma stability in the transitory and sinusoidal states 100 3.6. Advanced inductive plasma transformer model 103 3.7. Plasma initialization 111 3.8. Conclusion 114 3.9. Bibliography 114 Chapter 4. Non Destructive Testing by Thermo-Inductive Method 117 Javad FOULADGAR, Brahim RAMDANE, Didier TRICHET and Tayeb SAIDI 4.1. Introduction 117 4.2. Principles of the thermo-inductive method 119 4.3. Basic thermo-inductive technique theory 126 4.4. Application of the thermo-inductive method to inspect massive magnetic steel components 145 4.5. Comparison with infrared thermography 164 4.6. Applications on composite materials 168 4.7. Conclusion and general instructions 185 4.8. Bibliography 190 Chapter 5. Induction Heating of Composite Materials 195 Javad FOULADGAR, Didier TRICHET, Samir BENSAID and Guillaume WASSELYNCK 5.1. Introduction 195 5.2. Composite materials 197 5.3. Lifecycle of composite materials 202 5.4. Induction and the lifecycle of composite materials 203 5.5. Identifying the physical properties of composite materials by experimental methods 207 5.6. Homogenization techniques 224 5.7. Heating composite materials by induction 251 5.8. Setup model 253 5.9. Influence of the folds’ orientation 260 5.10. Difficulty of the electrothermal coupling 262 5.11. Validating the electrothermal model 262 5.12. Conclusion 267 5.13. Bibliography 268 List of Authors 273 Index 275

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Book SynopsisThis book describes up-to-date technology applied to high-K materials for More Than Moore applications, i.e. microsystems applied to microelectronics core technologies. After detailing the basic thermodynamic theory applied to high-K dielectrics thin films including extrinsic effects, this book emphasizes the specificity of thin films. Deposition and patterning technologies are then presented. A whole chapter is dedicated to the major role played in the field by X-Ray Diffraction characterization, and other characterization techniques are also described such as Radio frequency characterization. An in-depth study of the influence of leakage currents is performed together with reliability discussion. Three applicative chapters cover integrated capacitors, variables capacitors and ferroelectric memories. The final chapter deals with a reasonably new research field, multiferroic thin films.Table of ContentsChapter 1. The Thermodynamic Approach 1 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 1.1. Background 1 1.2. The functions of state 2 1.3. Linear equations, piezoelectricity 6 1.4. Nonlinear equations, electrostriction 8 1.5. Thermodynamic modeling of the ferroelectric–paraelectric phase transition 9 1.6. Conclusion 24 1.7. Bibliography 25 Chapter 2. Stress Effect on Thin Films 27 Pierre-Eymeric JANOLIN 2.1. Introduction 27 2.2. Modeling the system under consideration 27 2.3. Temperature–misfit strain phase diagrams for monodomain films 28 2.4. Domain stability map 35 2.5. Temperature–misfit strain phase diagram for polydomain films 48 2.6. Discussion of the nature of the “misfit strain” 50 2.7. Conclusion 52 2.8. Experimental validation of phase diagrams: state of the art 52 2.9. Case study 53 2.10. Results 53 2.11. Comparison between the experimental data and the temperature–misfit strain phase diagrams 60 2.12. Conclusion 65 2.13. Bibliography 66 Chapter 3. Deposition and Patterning Technologies 71 Chrystel DEGUET, Gwenaël LE RHUN, Bertrand VILQUIN and Emmanuel DEFAŸ 3.1. Deposition method 71 3.2. Etching 86 3.3. Contamination 86 3.4. Monocrystalline thin-film transfer 87 3.5. Design of experiments 96 3.6. Conclusion 107 3.7. Bibliography 108 Chapter 4. Analysis Through X-ray Diffraction of Polycrystalline Thin Films 111 Patrice GERGAUD 4.1. Introduction 111 4.2. Some reminders of x-ray diffraction and crystallography 112 4.3. Application to powder or polycrystalline thin-films 122 4.4. Phase analysis by X-ray diffraction 126 4.5. Identification of coherent domain sizes of diffraction and micro-strains 132 4.6. Identification of crystallographic textures by X-ray diffraction 139 4.7. Determination of strains/stresses by X-ray diffraction 146 4.8. Bibliography 156 Chapter 5. Physicochemical and Electrical Characterization 159 Gwenaël LE RHUN, Brahim DKHIL and Pascale GEMEINER 5.1. Introduction 159 5.2. Useful characterization techniques 159 5.3. Ferroelectric measurement 170 5.4. Dielectric measurement 177 5.5. Bibliography 180 Chapter 6. Radio-Frequency Characterization 183 Thierry LACREVAZ 6.1. Introduction 183 6.2. Notions and basic concepts associated with HF 184 6.3. Frequency analysis: HF characterization of materials 204 6.4. Bibliography 211 Chapter 7. Leakage Currents in PZT Capacitors 213 Emilien BOUYSSOU 7.1. Introduction 213 7.2. Leakage current in metal/insulator/metal structures 215 7.3. Problem of leakage current measurement 225 7.4. Characterization of the relaxation current 233 7.5. Literature review of true leakage current in PZT 237 7.6. Dynamic characterization of true leakage current: I(t, T) 239 7.7. Static characterization of the true leakage current: I(V,T) 263 7.8. Conclusion 273 7.9. Bibliography 275 Chapter 8. Integrated Capacitors 281 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 8.1. Introduction 281 8.2. Potentiality of perovskites for RF devices: permittivity and losses 283 8.3. Bi-dielectric capacitors with high linearity 294 8.4. STO capacitors integrated on CMOS substrate by AIC technology 298 8.5. Bibliography 303 Chapter 9. Reliability of PZT Capacitors 305 Emilien BOUYSSOU 9.1. Introduction 305 9.2. Accelerated aging of metal/insulator/metal structures 307 9.3. Accelerated aging of PZT capacitors through CVS tests 316 9.4. Lifetime extrapolation of PZT capacitors 325 9.5. Conclusion 335 9.6. Bibliography 336 Chapter 10. Ferroelectric Tunable Capacitors 341 Benoit GUIGUES 10.1. Introduction 341 10.2. Overview of the tunable capacitors 342 10.3. Types of actual tunable capacitors 355 10.4. Toward new tunable capacitors 366 10.5. Bibliography 375 Chapter 11. FRAM Ferroelectric Memories: Basic Operations, Limitations, Innovations and Applications 379 Christophe MULLER 11.1. Taxonomy of non-volatile memories 379 11.2. FRAM memories: basic operations and limitations 383 11.3. Technologies available in 2011 387 11.4. Technological innovations 388 11.5. Some application areas of FRAM technology 394 11.6. Conclusion 396 11.7. Bibliography 397 Chapter 12. Integration of Multiferroic BiFeO3 Thin Films into Modern Microelectronics 403 Xiaohong ZHU 12.1. Introduction 403 12.2. Preparation methods 407 12.3. Ferroelectricity and magnetism 416 12.4. Device applications 427 12.5. Bibliography 436 List of Authors 443 Index 445

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Book SynopsisA review of the principles of the safety of software-based equipment, this book begins by presenting the definition principles of safety objectives. It then moves on to show how it is possible to define a safety architecture (including redundancy, diversification, error-detection techniques) on the basis of safety objectives and how to identify objectives related to software programs. From software objectives, the authors present the different safety techniques (fault detection, redundancy and quality control). “Certifiable system” aspects are taken into account throughout the book. Contents 1. Safety Management. 2. From System to Software. 3. Certifiable Systems. 4. Risk and Safety Levels. 5. Principles of Hardware Safety. 6. Principles of Software Safety. 7. Certification. About the Authors Jean-Louis Boulanger is currently an Independent Safety Assessor (ISA) in the railway domain focusing on software elements. He is a specialist in the software engineering domain (requirement engineering, semi-formal and formal method, proof and model-checking). He also works as an expert for the French notified body CERTIFER in the field of certification of safety critical railway applications based on software (ERTMS, SCADA, automatic subway, etc.). His research interests include requirements, software verification and validation, traceability and RAMS with a special focus on SAFETY.Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION ix CHAPTER 1. SAFETY MANAGEMENT 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Dependability 1 1.3. Conclusion 8 1.4. Bibliography 8 CHAPTER 2. FROM SYSTEM TO SOFTWARE 9 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Systems of command and control 10 2.3 System 13 2.4 Software implementation 14 2.5. Conclusion 16 2.6. Bibliography 17 2.7. Glossary 17 CHAPTER 3. CERTIFIABLE SYSTEMS 19 3.1. Introduction 19 3.2. Normative context 20 3.3. Conclusion 37 3.4. Bibliography 38 3.5. Glossary 41 CHAPTER 4. RISK AND SAFETY LEVELS 43 4.1. Introduction 43 4.2. Basic definitions 43 4.3. Safety implementation 48 4.4. In standards IEC 61508 and IEC 61511 70 4.5. Conclusions 74 4.6. Bibliography 74 4.7. Acronyms 77 CHAPTER 5. PRINCIPLES OF HARDWARE SAFETY 79 5.1. Introduction 79 5.2. Safe and/or available hardware 79 5.3. Reset of a processing unit 80 5.4. Presentation of safety control techniques 81 5.5. Conclusion 117 5.6. Bibliography 118 5.7. Glossary 119 CHAPTER 6. PRINCIPLES OF SOFTWARE SAFETY 121 6.1. Introduction 121 6.2. Techniques to make software application safe 121 6.3. Other forms of diversification 149 6.4. Overall summary 150 6.5. Quality management 150 6.6. Conclusion 155 6.7. Bibliography 156 6.8. Glossary 157 CHAPTER 7. CERTIFICATION 159 7.1. Introduction 159 7.2. Independent assessment 159 7.3. Certification 160 7.4. Certification in the rail sector 161 7.5. Automatic systems 171 7.6. Aircraft 171 7.7. Nuclear 171 7.8. Automotive 172 7.9. Spacecraft 172 7.10 Safety case 172 7.11 Conclusion 173 7.12 Bibliography 174 7.13 Glossary 176 CONCLUSION 177 INDEX 179

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Book SynopsisThis book offers a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in innovative Beyond-CMOS nanodevices for developing novel functionalities, logic and memories dedicated to researchers, engineers and students. It particularly focuses on the interest of nanostructures and nanodevices (nanowires, small slope switches, 2D layers, nanostructured materials, etc.) for advanced More than Moore (RF-nanosensors-energy harvesters, on-chip electronic cooling, etc.) and Beyond-CMOS logic and memories applications.Table of ContentsACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii GENERAL INTRODUCTION xv Francis BALESTRA PART 1. SILION NANOWIRE BIOCHEMICAL SENSORS 1 PART 1. INTRODUCTION 3 Per-Erik HELLSTRÖM and Mikael ÖSTLING CHAPTER 1. FABRICATION OF NANOWIRES 5 Jens BOLTEN, Per-Erik HELLSTRÖM, Mikael ÖSTLING, Céline TERNON and Pauline SERRE 1.1. Introduction 5 1.2. Silicon nanowire fabrication with electron beam lithography 6 1.2.1. Key requirements 6 1.2.2. Why electron beam lithography? 7 1.2.3. Lithographic requirements 8 1.2.4. Tools, resist materials and development processes 9 1.2.5. Exposure strategies and proximity effect correction 10 1.2.6. Technology limitations and how to circumvent them 11 1.3. Silicon nanowire fabrication with sidewall transfer lithography 14 1.4. Si nanonet fabrication 17 1.4.1. Si NWs fabrication 18 1.4.2. Si nanonet assembling 19 1.4.3. Si nanonet morphology and properties 19 1.5. Acknowledgments 21 1.6. Bibliography 21 CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONALIZATION OF SI-BASED NW FETs FOR DNA DETECTION 25 Valérie STAMBOULI, Céline TERNON, Pauline SERRE and Louis FRADETAL 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. Functionalization process 27 2.3. Functionalization of Si nanonets for DNA biosensing 28 2.3.1. Detection of DNA hybridization on the Si nanonet by fluorescence microscopy 31 2.3.2. Preliminary electrical characterizations of NW networks 33 2.4. Functionalization of SiC nanowire-based sensor for electrical DNA biosensing35 2.4.1. SiC nanowire-based sensor functionalization process 35 2.4.2. DNA electrical detection from SiC nanowire-based sensor 38 2.5. Acknowledgments 39 2.6. Bibliography 40 CHAPTER 3. SENSITIVITY OF SILICON NANOWIRE BIOCHEMICAL SENSORS 43 Pierpaolo PALESTRI, Mireille MOUIS, Aryan AFZALIAN, Luca SELMI, Federico PITTINO, Denis FLANDRE and Gérard GHIBAUDO 3.1. Introduction 43 3.1.1. Definitions 43 3.1.2. Main parameters affecting the sensitivity 47 3.2. Sensitivity and noise 47 3.3. Modeling the sensitivity of Si NW biosensors 50 3.3.1. Modeling the electrolyte 52 3.4. Sensitivity of random arrays of 1D nanostructures 54 3.4.1. Electrical characterization 55 3.4.2. Low-frequency noise characterization 56 3.4.3. Simulation of electron conduction in random networks of 1D nanostructures 56 3.4.4. Discussion 59 3.5. Conclusions 59 3.6. Acknowledgments 60 3.7. Bibliography 60 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION OF SILICON NANOWIRES WITH CMOS 65 Per-Erik HELLSTRÖM, Ganesh JAYAKUMAR and Mikael ÖSTLING 4.1. Introduction 65 4.2. Overview of CMOS process technology 66 4.3. Integration of silicon nanowire after BEOL 66 4.4. Integration of silicon nanowires in FEOL 67 4.5. Sensor architecture design 69 4.6. Conclusions 71 4.7. Bibliography 72 CHAPTER 5. PORTABLE, INTEGRATED LOCK-IN-AMPLIFIER-BASED SYSTEM FOR REAL-TIME IMPEDIMETRIC MEASUREMENTS ON NANOWIRES BIOSENSORS 73 Michele ROSSI and Marco TARTAGNI 5.1. Introduction 73 5.2. Portable stand-alone system 74 5.3. Integrated impedimetric interface 76 5.4. Impedimetric measurements on nanowire sensors 78 5.5. Bibliography 81 PART 2. NEW MATERIALS, DEVICES AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY HARVESTING 83 PART 2. INTRODUCTION 85 Enrico SANGIORGI CHAPTER 6. VIBRATIONAL ENERGY HARVESTING 89 Luca LARCHER, Saibal ROY, Dhiman MALLICK, Pranay PODDER, Massimo DE VITTORIO, Teresa TODARO, Francesco GUIDO, Alessandro BERTACCHINI, Ronan HINCHET, Julien KERAUDY and Gustavo ARDILA 6.1. Introduction 89 6.2. Piezoelectric energy transducer 91 6.2.1. Introduction 91 6.2.2. State-of-the-art devices and materials 92 6.2.3. MEMS piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting transducers 95 6.2.4. RMEMS prototypes characterization and discussions of experimental results 102 6.2.5. Near field characterization techniques 104 6.2.6. Dedicated electro-mechanical models for piezoelectric transducer design 106 6.3. Electromagnetic energy transducers 109 6.3.1. Introduction 109 6.3.2. State-of-the-art devices and materials 109 6.3.3. Vibration energy harvester exploiting both the piezoelectric and electromagnetic effect 122 6.3.4. Device design 125 6.4. Bibliography 128 CHAPTER 7. THERMAL ENERGY HARVESTING 135 Mireille MOUIS, Emigdio CHÁVEZ-ÁNGEL, Clivia SOTOMAYOR-TORRES, Francesc ALZINA, Marius V. COSTACHE, Androula G. NASSIOPOULOU, Katerina VALALAKI, Emmanouel HOURDAKIS, Sergio O. VALENZUELA, Bernard VIALA, Dmitry ZAKHAROV, Andrey SHCHEPETOV and Jouni AHOPELTO 7.1. Introduction 135 7.1.1. Basics of thermoelectric conversion 136 7.1.2. Strategies to increase ZT 137 7.1.3. Heavy-metal-free TE generation 140 7.1.4. Alternatives to TE harvesting for self-powered solid-state microsystems 141 7.2. Thermal transport at nanoscale 142 7.2.1. Brief review of nanoscale thermal conductivity 143 7.2.2. The effect of phonon confinement 146 7.2.3. Fabrication of ultrathin free-standing silicon membranes 153 7.2.4. Advanced methods of characterizing phonon dispersion, lifetimes and thermal conductivity 156 7.3. Porous silicon for thermal insulation on silicon wafers 172 7.3.1. Introduction 172 7.3.2. Thermal conductivity of nanostructured porous Si 172 7.3.3. Thermal isolation using thick porous Si layers 176 7.3.4. Thermoelectric generator using porous Si thermal isolation 177 7.4. Spin dependent thermoelectric effects 185 7.4.1. Physical principle and interest for thermal energy harvesting 186 7.4.2. Demonstration of the magnon drag effect 188 7.5. Composites of thermal shape memory alloy and piezoelectric materials 192 7.5.1. Introduction 192 7.5.2. Physical principle and interest for thermal energy harvesting 193 7.5.3. Novelty and realizations 194 7.5.4. Theoretical considerations 195 7.5.5. Examples of use 196 7.5.6. Summary of composite harvesting by the combination of SMA and piezoelectric materials 204 7.6. Conclusions 204 7.7. Bibliography 205 CHAPTER 8. NANOWIRE BASED SOLAR CELLS 221 Mauro ZANUCCOLI, Anne KAMINSKI-CACHOPO, Jérôme MICHALLON, Vincent CONSONNI, Igar SEMENIKHIN, Mehdi DAANOUNE, Frédérique DUCROQUET, David KOHEN, Christine MORIN and Claudio FIEGNA 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2. Design of NW-based solar cells 223 8.2.1. Geometrical optimization of NW-based solar cells by numerical simulations 223 8.2.2. TCAD simulation of NW-based solar cells 230 8.3. Fabrication and opto-electrical characterization of NW-based solar cells 235 8.3.1. Elaboration of NW-based solar cells 235 8.3.2. Opto-electrical characterization of NW-based solar cells 236 8.4 Conclusion 243 8.5 Acknowledgments 243 8.6 Bibliography 243 CHAPTER 9. SMART ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND CONVERSION 249 Wensi WANG, James F. ROHAN, Ningning WANG, Mike HAYES, Aldo ROMANI, Enrico MACRELLI, Michele DINI, Matteo FILIPPI, Marco TARTAGNI and Denis FLANDRE 9.1. Introduction 249 9.2. Power management solutions for energy harvesting devices 251 9.2.1. Ultra-low voltage thermoelectric energy harvesting 251 9.2.2. Sub-1mW photovoltaic energy harvesting 256 9.2.3. Piezoelectric and micro-electromagnetic energy harvesting 260 9.2.4. DC/DC power management for future micro-generator 262 9.3. Sub-mW energy storage solutions 266 9.4. Conclusions 270 9.5. Bibliography 271 PART 3. ON-CHIP ELECTRONIC COOLING 277 CHAPTER 10. TUNNEL JUNCTION ELECTRONIC COOLERS 279 Martin PREST, James RICHARDSON-BULLOCK, Terry WHALL, Evan PARKER and David LEADLEY 10.1. Introduction and motivation 279 10.1.1. Existing cryogenic technology 280 10.2. Tunneling junctions as coolers 281 10.2.1. The NIS junction 281 10.2.2. Cooling power 284 10.2.3. Thermometry 286 10.2.4. The superconductor-insulator-normal metal-insulator-superconductor (SINIS) structure 287 10.2.5. Double junction superconductor-silicon-superconductor (SSmS) cooler 288 10.3. Limitations to cooling 289 10.3.1. States within the superconductor gap 290 10.3.2. Joule heating 291 10.3.3. Series resistance 291 10.3.4. Quasi-particle-related heating 293 10.3.5. Andreev reflection 295 10.4. Heavy fermion-based coolers 297 10.5. Summary 299 10.6. Bibliography 300 CHAPTER 11. SILICON-BASED COOLING ELEMENTS 303 David LEADLEY, Martin PREST, Jouni AHOPELTO, Tom BRIEN, David GUNNARSSON, Phil MAUSKOPF, Juha MUHONEN, Maksym MYRONOV, Hung NGUYEN, Evan PARKER, Mika PRUNNILA, James RICHARDSON-BULLOCK, Vishal SHAH, Terry WHALL and Qing-Tai ZHAO 11.1. Introduction to semiconductor-superconductor tunnel junction coolers 303 11.2. Silicon-based Schottky barrier junctions 304 11.3. Carrier-phonon coupling in strained silicon 308 11.3.1. Measurement of electron-phonon coupling constant 312 11.4. Strained silicon Schottky barrier mK coolers 315 11.5. Silicon mK coolers with an oxide barrier [GUN 13] 318 11.5.1. Reduction of sub-gap leakage 318 11.5.2. Effects of strain 319 11.6. The silicon cold electron bolometer 321 11.7. Integration of detector and electronics 324 11.8. Summary and future prospects 325 11.9. Acknowledgments 327 11.10 Bibliography 327 CHAPTER 12. THERMAL ISOLATION THROUGH NANOSTRUCTURING. 331 David LEADLEY, Vishal SHAH, Jouni AHOPELTO, Francesc ALZINA, Emigdio CHÁVEZ-ÁNGEL, Juha MUHONEN, Maksym MYRONOV, Androula G. NASSIOPOULOU, Hung NGUYEN, Evan PARKER, Jukka PEKOLA, Martin PREST, Mika PRUNNILA, Juan Sebastian REPARAZ, Andrey SHCHEPETOV, Clivia SOTOMAYOR-TORRES, Katerina VALALAKI and Terry WHALL 12.1. Introduction 331 12.2. Lattice cooling by physical nanostructuring 331 12.3. Porous Si membranes as cryogenic thermal isolation platforms 337 12.3.1. Porous Si micro-coldplates 337 12.3.2. Porous Si thermal conductivity 339 12.4. Crystalline membrane platforms 343 12.4.1. Strained germanium membranes 343 12.4.2. Thermal conductance measurements in Si and Ge membranes 350 12.4.3. Epitaxy-compatible thermal isolation platform 355 12.5. Summary of thermal conductance measurements 355 12.6. Acknowledgments. 358 12.7. Bibliography 358 PART 4. NEW MATERIALS, DEVICES AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR RF APPLICATIONS 365 PART 4. INTRODUCTION 367 Androula G. NASSIOPOULOU CHAPTER 13. SUBSTRATE TECHNOLOGIES FOR SILICON-INTEGRATED RF AND MM-WAVE PASSIVE DEVICES 373 Androula G. NASSIOPOULOU, Panagiotis SARAFIS, Jean-Pierre RASKIN, Hanza ISSA, Philippe FERRARI 13.1. Introduction 373 13.2. High-resistivity Si substrate for RF 374 13.2.1. Losses along coplanar waveguide transmission lines 375 13.2.2. Crosstalk 380 13.2.3. Nonlinearities along CPW lines 384 13.3. Porous Si substrate technology 385 13.3.1. General properties of porous Si 386 13.3.2. Dielectric properties of porous Si 389 13.3.3. Broadband electrical characterization of CPWT Lines on porous Si 393 13.3.4. Inductors on porous Si397 13.3.5. Antennas on porous Si399 13.4. Comparison between HR Si and local porous Si substrate technologies 400 13.4.1. Comparison of similar CPW TLines on different substrates 400 13.4.2. Comparison of inductors on different RF substrates 404 13.5. Design of slow-wave CPWs and filters on porous silicon 404 13.5.1. Slow-wave CPW TLines on porous Si 405 13.5.2. Simulation results for S-CPW TLines 406 13.5.3. Stepped impedance low-pass filter on porous silicon 408 13.5.4. Simulation results for filters 409 13.6. Conclusion 411 13.7. Acknowledgments 411 13.8. Bibliography 411 CHAPTER 14. METAL NANOLINES AND ANTENNAS FOR RF AND MM-WAVE APPLICATIONS 419 Philippe BENECH, Chuan-Lun HSU, Gustavo ARDILA, Panagiotis SARAFIS and Androula G. NASSIOPOULOU 14.1. Introduction 419 14.2. Metal nanowires (nanolines) 420 14.2.1. General properties 420 14.2.2. Transmission nanolines in microstrip configuration: characterization and modeling 426 14.2.3. Transmission nanolines in CPW configuration: fabrication, characterization and modeling 430 14.2.4. Characterization up to 200 GHz 440 14.3. Antennas 441 14.3.1. On-chip antennas: general 441 14.3.2. On-chip antenna characterization method 443 14.3.3. Measurement results 444 14.3.4. Discussion on antenna results 451 14.4. Conclusion 451 14.5. Acknowledgments 452 14.6. Bibliography 452 CHAPTER 15. NANOSTRUCTURED MAGNETIC MATERIALS FOR HIGH-FREQUENCY APPLICATIONS 457 Saibal ROY, Jeffrey GODSELL and Tuhin MAITY 15.1. Introduction 457 15.2. Power conversion and integration 457 15.3. Materials and integration 459 15.4. Controlling the magnetic properties 463 15.5. Magnetic properties of nanocomposite materials 467 15.6. Magnetic properties of nanomodulated continuous films 470 15.7. Conclusion 478 15.8. Bibliography 479 LIST OF AUTHORS 485 INDEX 493

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Book SynopsisThis book offers a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in innovative Beyond-CMOS nanodevices for developing novel functionalities, logic and memories dedicated to researchers, engineers and students. The book will particularly focus on the interest of nanostructures and nanodevices (nanowires, small slope switches, 2D layers, nanostructured materials, etc.) for advanced More than Moore (RF-nanosensors-energy harvesters, on-chip electronic cooling, etc.) and Beyond-CMOS logic and memories applications.Table of ContentsACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix GENERAL INTRODUCTION xi Francis BALESTRA INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME 2: SILICON NANOWIRE BIO-CHEMICAL SENSORS 1 Francis BALESTRA CHAPTER 1. SMALL SLOPE SWITCHES 5 Adrian M. IONESCU and Francis BALESTRA, Kathy BOUCART, Giovanni SALVATORE and Alexandru RUSU 1.1. Introduction 5 1.2. Tunnel FETs 6 1.3. Ferroelectric gate FET 14 1.4. Bibliography 21 CHAPTER 2. NANOWIRE DEVICES 25 Gérard GHIBAUDO, Sylvain BARRAUD, Mikaël CASSÉ, Xin Peng WANG, Guo Qiang LO, Dim-Lee KWONG, Marco PALA and Zheng FANG 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. NW for logic CMOS devices 26 2.2.1. NW fabrication and technology 26 2.2.2. Quantum simulation of NWs 37 2.2.3. Electrical characterization of NWs 49 2.3. Nano-CMOS ultimate memories 66 2.3.1. Overview of memory 66 2.3.2. NW application in the evolutive solution path 67 2.3.3. NW technology along the disruptive solution path 73 2.4. Conclusions 81 2.5. Acknowledgments 82 2.6. Bibliography 82 CHAPTER 3. GRAPHENE AND 2D LAYER DEVICES FOR MORE MOORE AND MORE-THAN-MOORE APPLICATIONS 97 Max C. LEMME 3.1. Introduction 97 3.2. Graphene 98 3.2.1. Graphene fabrication 98 3.2.2. Macroscopic graphene field effect transistors 101 3.2.3. Graphene nanoribbon transistors 103 3.2.4. Bilayer graphene and substrate effects 105 3.2.5. RF transistors 106 3.2.6. Alternative graphene switches 107 3.3. 2D materials beyond graphene 108 3.4. Conclusions 109 3.5. Acknowledgments 110 3.6. Bibliography 110 CHAPTER 4. NANOELECTROMECHANICAL SWITCHES 117 Hervé FANET 4.1. Context 117 4.2. Nanorelay principles 118 4.2.1. The electrostatic actuation 119 4.2.2. The piezoelectrical actuation 120 4.2.3. The magnetic actuation 120 4.2.4. The thermal actuation 120 4.3. Electrostatic nanorelay modeling and optimization 121 4.3.1. Dynamic modeling 121 4.3.2. Quasi-static modeling 124 4.4. Technological challenges for NEMS computing 127 4.4.1. Low voltage operation 127 4.4.2. Reliability of contact technology 128 4.5. NEMS-based architectures 129 4.5.1. Conventional architectures 129 4.5.2. Adiabatic architectures 130 4.6. Conclusions 131 4.7. Bibliography 132 LIST OF AUTHORS 133 INDEX 135

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Book SynopsisThis book, the second of two volumes, describes heterostructures and optoelectronic devices made from GaN and ZnO nanowires. Over the last decade, the number of publications on GaN and ZnO nanowires has grown exponentially, in particular for their potential optical applications in LEDs, lasers, UV detectors or solar cells. So far, such applications are still in their infancy, which we analyze as being mostly due to a lack of understanding and control of the growth of nanowires and related heterostructures. Furthermore, dealing with two different but related semiconductors such as ZnO and GaN, but also with different chemical and physical synthesis methods, will bring valuable comparisons in order to gain a general approach for the growth of wide band gap nanowires applied to optical devices.Table of ContentsPREFACE xi PART 1. GaN AND ZnO NANOWIRE HETEROSTRUCTURES 1 CHAPTER 1. AlGaN/GaN NANOWIRE HETEROSTRUCTURES 3 Jörg TEUBERT, Jordi ARBIOL and Martin EICKHOFF 1.1. A model system for AlGaN/GaN heterostructures 3 1.2. Axial AlGaN/GaN nanowire heterostructures 4 1.2.1. Structural properties of axial AlGaN/GaN nanowire heterostructures 5 1.2.2. Optical properties of axial AlGaN/GaN nanowire heterostructures 8 1.2.3. Lateral internal electric fields 12 1.2.4. Axial internal electric fields 14 1.2.5. Optical characterization of single-AlGaN/GaN nanowires containing GaN nanodisks 15 1.2.6. Electrical transport properties 18 1.3. AlGaN/GaN core–shell nanowire heterostructures 19 1.3.1. Structural properties 20 1.3.2. Optical characteristics 23 1.3.3. Electronic properties 24 1.3.4. True one-dimensional GaN quantum wire second-order self-assembly 28 1.4. Application examples 29 1.4.1. AlGaN/GaN nanowire heterostructure optochemical gas sensors 30 1.4.2. AlGaN/GaN nanowire heterostructure resonant tunneling diodes 33 1.5. Conclusions 34 1.6. Bibliography 35 CHAPTER 2. InGaN NANOWIRE HETEROSTRUCTURES 41 Bruno DAUDIN 2.1. Introduction 41 2.2. Self-assembled InGaN nanowires 43 2.3. X-ray characterization of InGaN nanowires 46 2.4. InGaN nanodisks and nanoislands in GaN nanowires 49 2.5. Selective area growth (SAG) of InGaN nanowires 52 2.6. Conclusion 55 2.7. Bibliography 56 CHAPTER 3. ZnO-BASED NANOWIRE HETEROSTRUCTURES 61 Guy FEUILLET and Pierre FERRET 3.1. Introduction 61 3.2. Designing ZnO-based nanowire heterostructures 63 3.3. Growth of ZnxMg1-xO/ZnO core–shell heterostructures by metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy 66 3.4. Misfit relaxation processes in Znx Mg1-xO/ZnO core–shell structures 70 3.5. Optical efficiency of core–shell oxidebased nanowire heterostructures 73 3.6. Axial nanowire heterostructures 76 3.7. Conclusions and perspectives 80 3.8. Bibliography 81 CHAPTER 4. ZnO AND Ga NANOWIRE-BASED TYPE II HETEROSTRUCTURES 85 Yong ZHANG 4.1. Semiconductor heterostructures 85 4.2. Type II heterostructures 87 4.3. Optimal device architecture 88 4.4. Electronic structure of type II core–shell nanowires 91 4.5. Synthesis of the type II core–shell nanowires and their signatures 94 4.6. Demonstration of type II effects in ZnO–ZnSe core–shell nanowires and photovoltaic devices 96 4.7. Summary 101 4.8. Acknowledgments 102 4.9. Bibliography 102 PART 2. INTEGRATION OF GaN AND ZnO NANOWIRES IN OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES 105 CHAPTER 5. AXIAL GaN NANOWIRE-BASED LEDS 107 Qi WANG, Hieu N’GUYEN, Songrui ZHAO and Zetian MI 5.1. Introduction 107 5.2. Top-down GaN-based axial nanowire LEDs 108 5.2.1. Fabrication of top-down GaN-based axial nanowires 108 5.2.2. Device fabrication of axial nanowire LEDs 110 5.2.3. Performance characteristics of top-down axial nanowire LEDs 111 5.3. Bottom-up GaN-based axial nanowire LEDs 112 5.3.1. Growth techniques 112 5.3.2. Doping, polarity and surface charge properties 113 5.3.3. Design and typical performance of bottom-upaxial nanowire LEDs 114 5.4. Carrier loss processes of axial nanowire LEDs 121 5.4.1. Auger recombination 121 5.4.2. Electron overflow 122 5.4.3. Surface recombination 123 5.5. Controlling carrier loss of GaN-based nanowire LEDs 124 5.5.1. p-type modulation doping and AlGaN electron blocking layer 124 5.5.2. InGaN/GaN/AlGaN core–shell dot-in-a-wire phosphor-free white LEDs 126 5.6. Conclusions 127 5.7. Bibliography 127 CHAPTER 6. RADIAL GaN NANOWIRE-BASED LEDS 135 Shunfeng LI 6.1. Radial GaN nanowire-based LED: an emerging device 135 6.2. Growth of GaN nanowires and radial nanowire-based devices 138 6.3. Radial GaN nanowire-based LED structure 145 6.4. Characteristics of radial NW devices 150 6.5. Further work and perspectives 152 6.6. Bibliography 154 CHAPTER 7. GaN NANOWIRE-BASED LASERS 161 Xiang ZHOU, Jordan Paul CHESIN and Silvija GRADEÈAK 7.1. Introduction to nanowire lasers 161 7.2. Theoretical considerations and simulations 163 7.3. The first experimental observations of lasing in nanowires 165 7.4. GaN nanowire-based lasers 166 7.5. Toward wavelength tunability: nanowire lasers based on GaN/InxGa1-xN heterostructures 169 7.6. GaN nanowire lasers coupled with hybrid structures 171 7.7. Challenges and opportunities 173 7.8. Bibliography 175 CHAPTER 8. GaN NANOWIRE-BASED ULTRAVIOLET PHOTODETECTORS 179 Lorenzo RIGUTTI and Maria TCHERNYCHEVA 8.1. Introduction 179 8.2. Growth and fabrication techniques 180 8.3. GaN nanowire photoconductive detectors 183 8.4. p–i–n junction-based GaN nanowire detectors 187 8.5. Single-wire GaN/AlN multiple quantum disk photodetectors 190 8.6. Single-wire InGaN/GaN core–shell photodetectors 193 8.7. Conclusions 197 8.8. Acknowledgments 197 8.9. Bibliography 198 CHAPTER 9. ZnO NANOWIRE-BASED LEDS 203 Magnus WILLANDER and Omer NOUR 9.1. Outline 203 9.2. Introduction 203 9.3. Growth of ZnO nanowires 205 9.4. White light emission from ZnO nanowires 209 9.5. ZnO NW white LEDs on solid crystalline substrates 212 9.6. ZnO NWs white LEDs on flexible substrates 214 9.7. Enhancing the emission of ZnO nanowire-based LEDs 220 9.8. Conclusion and future prospective 222 9.9. Bibliography 222 CHAPTER 10. ZnO NANOWIRE-BASED SOLAR CELLS 227 Jason B. BAXTER 10.1. Introduction 227 10.1.1. Solar energy conversion and nanostructured solar cells 227 10.1.2. Use of ZnO in solar cells 228 10.2. ZnO nanowire dye-sensitized solar cells 229 10.3. Quantum dot-sensitized nanowire solar cells 235 10.4. Extremely thin absorber solar cells 237 10.5. Nanowire arrays completely filled with inorganic absorbers 239 10.6. ZnO nanorod – organic hybrid solar cells 241 10.7. ZnO nanowire arrays for photoelectrochemical water splitting 244 10.8. Conclusions 245 10.9. Acknowledgments 247 10.10. Bibliography 247 LIST OF AUTHORS 253

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Book SynopsisOver the past 20 years, software architectures have significantly contributed to the development of complex and distributed systems. Nowadays, it is recognized that one of the critical problems in the design and development of any complex software system is its architecture, i.e. the organization of its architectural elements. Software Architecture presents the software architecture paradigms based on objects, components, services and models, as well as the various architectural techniques and methods, the analysis of architectural qualities, models of representation of architectural templates and styles, their formalization, validation and testing and finally the engineering approach in which these consistent and autonomous elements can be tackled.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Metamodeling in Software Architectures 1 Adel SMEDA and Mourad Chabane OUSSALAH 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Metamodeling, why? 3 1.3. Software architecture metamodeling 3 1.4. MADL: a meta-architecture description language 5 1.4.1. Four levels of modeling in software architectures 5 1.4.2. MADL: reflexive core dedicated to the meta-meta-architecture 7 1.4.3. MADL structure 8 1.4.4. MADL instantiation: example of the ADL Acme 11 1.4.5. Comparison of MADL and MDA/MOF 13 1.5. Mapping of ADLs to UML 17 1.5.1. Why to map an ADL to UML? 18 1.5.2. ADL mapping to UML 19 1.6. A mapping example: the case of the Acme language. 31 1.7. Some remarks on the mapping of ADL concepts to UML 32 1.7.1. UML 2.0 as an ADL 32 1.7.2. Mapping strategies 33 1.8. Conclusion 34 1.9. Bibliography 34 Chapter 2. Architecture Constraints 37 Chouki TIBERMACINE 2.1. Introduction 38 2.2. State of the art 40 2.2.1. Expression of architecture constraints in the design phase 40 2.2.2. Expression of architecture constraints in the implementation phase 49 2.3. Architecture constraints on object-oriented applications 57 2.3.1. Architecture constraints in the design phase 57 2.3.2. Architecture constraints in the implementation phase 61 2.4. Architecture constraints on component-based applications 68 2.4.1. Architecture constraints in the design phase 69 2.4.2. Architecture constraints in the implementation phase 75 2.5. Architecture constraints on service-oriented applications 79 2.6. Conclusion 85 2.7. Bibliography 86 Chapter 3. Software Architectures and Multiple Variability 91 Mathieu ACHER, Philippe COLLET and Philippe LAHIRE 3.1. Introduction 91 3.2. Variability: foundations and principles 95 3.2.1. Variability and product lines 95 3.2.2. Feature models 97 3.3. Framework of studies and connected work 99 3.3.1. From multiplicity to variability 100 3.3.2. Extraction and evolution of architectural variability 101 3.4. Video surveillance component architecture 102 3.4.1. Case study 102 3.4.2. Accounting for multiple variability 104 3.4.3. Results 108 3.5. SOA for scientific workflows 110 3.5.1. Case study 110 3.5.2. Accounting for multiple variability 112 3.5.3. Results 114 3.6. Reverse engineering plugin-based architecture 116 3.6.1. Case study 116 3.6.2. Accounting for multiple variability 118 3.6.3. Results 120 3.7. Evaluation 122 3.7.1. The necessity of tooling 122 3.7.2. Summary of case studies 123 3.8. Conclusion 125 3.9. Bibliography 126 Chapter 4. Architecture and Quality of Software Systems 133 Nicole LÉVY, Francisca LOSAVIO and Yann POLLET 4.1. Introduction 133 4.2. Quality approach 135 4.2.1. ISO 25010 quality 135 4.2.2. Quality reference 137 4.2.3. Quality model of a system 138 4.2.4. Functional quality model 139 4.2.5. Quality model of the architecture 140 4.3. Approach for architecture development of a domain 142 4.3.1. General principles 142 4.3.2. Functional quality model 145 4.3.3. Architectural quality model 145 4.3.4. Reference architecture 145 4.3.5. Transition from domain level to system level 147 4.4. Development of the reference architecture in a functional domain 148 4.4.1. Example of functional domain 148 4.4.2. Functional refinement 148 4.4.3. Development of the FQM 150 4.4.4. Definition of the preliminary architecture 151 4.4.5. Development of architectural quality model 152 4.4.6. Integration of the reference architecture of the domain 152 4.5. Architectures at system level 156 4.5.1. Functional refinement 156 4.5.2. Functional quality model 157 4.5.3. Basic architecture 158 4.5.4. Architectural quality model 158 4.5.5. Architecture of the Dopamine and Samarkand systems 159 4.6. Related work 161 4.7. Conclusion 166 4.8. Bibliography 167 Chapter 5. Software Architectures and Multiagent Systems 171 Jean-Paul ARCANGELI, Victor NOËL and Frédéric MIGEON 5.1. Introduction 172 5.2. MAS and agent-oriented software engineering 172 5.2.1. Agent 173 5.2.2. System and interactions 174 5.2.3. MAS 175 5.2.4. Examples of MAS 177 5.2.5. Agent-oriented software engineering 178 5.3. MAS as an architectural style 183 5.3.1. Positioning the “MAS” style 183 5.3.2. Characteristics in terms of abstraction 184 5.3.3. Characteristics in terms of (de)composition 188 5.3.4. Link with the requirements 190 5.3.5. A family of architectural styles 194 5.4. The architectural gap 195 5.4.1. State of the practice 196 5.4.2. Analysis from an architectural point of view 197 5.4.3. Assessment 200 5.5. How to fill the architectural gap 200 5.5.1. Limitations of existing solutions 200 5.5.2. Realization of the microarchitecture 201 5.6. Conclusion 204 5.7. Bibliography 205 Chapter 6. Software Architectures and Software Processes 209 Fadila AOUSSAT, Mourad Chabane OUSSALAH and Mohamed AHMED-NACER 6.1. Introduction 209 6.2. Software process architectures 211 6.2.1. Software process models: definition 211 6.2.2. Modeling software architecture-based software processes 213 6.3. Comparison framework for SA-based SP model reuse solutions 214 6.3.1. The software process axis evaluation criteria 217 6.3.2. The software architecture axis evaluation criteria 220 6.3.3. The quality axis evaluation criteria 223 6.4. Evaluation of SA-based SP modeling and execution approaches 225 6.4.1. SP axis evaluation of SA-based SP reuse approaches 225 6.4.2. SA axis evaluation of SA-based SP reuse approaches 229 6.4.3. Quality axis evaluation of SA-based SP reuse approaches 232 6.4.4. Assessment and discussions 234 6.5. Conclusion 235 6.6. Bibliography 236 List of Authors 241 Index 243

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Book SynopsisThe authors of this book provide the first review of haptic optical tweezers, a new technique which brings together force feedback teleoperation and optical tweezers. This technique allows users to explore the microworld by sensing and exerting piconewton-scale forces with trapped microspheres. The design of optical tweezers for high-quality haptic feedback is challenging, given the requirements for very high sensitivity and dynamic stability. The concept, design process and specification of optical tweezers reviewed throughout this book focus on those intended for haptic teleoperation. The authors provide two new specific designs as well as the current state of the art. Furthermore, the remaining important issues are identified for further developments. Haptic optical tweezers will soon become an invaluable tool for force feedback micromanipulation of biological samples and nano- and micro-assembly parts.Table of ContentsPREFACE ix INTRODUCTION xi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO HAPTIC OPTICAL TWEEZERS 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. A dexterous experimental platform 3 1.2.1. A dexterous micromanipulation technique 3 1.2.2. A dexterous user interaction for micromanipulation 5 1.2.3. Pioneering works 8 1.3. Interactive optical tweezers 10 1.3.1. Displacement techniques 10 1.3.2. Impact of the laser deflection 14 1.3.3. Measurement techniques 16 1.4. Specific designs for haptic interactions 21 1.4.1. Temporal sharing 22 1.4.2. Spatial sharing 24 1.5. Discussion 26 1.6. Conclusion 29 1.7. Bibliography 30 CHAPTER 2. HIGH-SPEED VISION: FROM FRAME-BASED TO EVENT-BASED 45 2.1. High-speed cameras 45 2.1.1. Image data acquisition 46 2.1.2. Image data transmission 48 2.1.3. Image data processing 51 2.2. Silicon retinas 52 2.2.1. Neuromorphic engineering 52 2.2.2. Dynamic vision sensor (DVS) 54 2.2.3. Asynchronous time-based image sensor 57 2.3. The advantages of asynchronous event-based vision 59 2.3.1. Frame-based methodology 59 2.3.2. Event-based acquisition 60 2.3.3. Event-based processing 62 2.4. The fundamentals of event-based computation 64 2.5. State of the art of silicon retina applications 67 2.6. High-speed vision in robotics 70 2.6.1. Examples 71 2.6.2. Difficulties 74 2.7. Necessity of high-speed vision in microrobotics 76 2.7.1. Automatic control of a microrobot 76 2.7.2. Teleoperated micromanipulation 77 2.7.3. Two concrete applications 80 2.8. Bibliography 85 CHAPTER 3. ASYNCHRONOUS EVENT-BASED 2D MICROSPHERE TRACKING 93 3.1. Reliable haptic optical tweezers 93 3.2. State of the art of high-speed microparticle tracking 95 3.2.1. Position detection devices 96 3.2.2. Candidate algorithms 98 3.3. Microsphere tracking using DVS 101 3.3.1. Event-based continuous Hough transform 101 3.3.2. Multiple microsphere tracking 103 3.3.3. Brownian motion detection 108 3.4. 2D haptic feedback micromanipulation with optical tweezers 112 3.4.1. Strategy of haptic coupling with optical tweezer 113 3.4.2. Haptic feedback optical tweezer system setup 114 3.4.3. First experiments on force sensing in the microworld 117 3.4.4. A comparison of frame-based and event-based vision in micromanipulation 121 3.5. Conclusions 124 3.6. Bibliography 125 CHAPTER 4. ASYNCHRONOUS EVENT-BASED 3D MICROSPHERE TRACKING 129 4.1. 3D sphere tracking methods 130 4.1.1. Defocus 131 4.1.2. Intensity average on frame-based images 133 4.1.3. Polarity integration 135 4.1.4. Extension of continuous Hough transform 137 4.1.5. Robust circle fitting 139 4.1.6. Summary of different methods 143 4.2. 3D haptic feedback teleoperation of optical tweezers 144 4.2.1. Configuration and method 144 4.2.2. Z-axis force feedback 147 4.3. Haptic feedback on multitrap optical tweezers 149 4.3.1. Time multiplexing multitrapping by galvanometer 149 4.3.2. Events-trap correspondence 152 4.3.3. Multitrap experimental results 154 4.3.4. Marketability 158 4.4. Piezoelectric microgripper tracking for stable haptic feedback 160 4.4.1. System setup 161 4.4.2. Vision system 164 4.4.3. Haptic coupling strategy 167 4.4.4. Experimental results 170 4.4.5. Interest to industry 177 4.5. Conclusions 177 4.6. Bibliography 178 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 181 INDEX 187

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Book SynopsisElectrochemical capacitors are electrochemical energy storage devices able to quickly deliver or store large quantities of energy. They have stimulated numerous innovations throughout the last 20 years and are now implemented in many fields. Supercapacitors Based on Carbon or Pseudocapacitive Materials provides the scientific basis for a better understanding of the characteristics and performance of electrochemical capacitors based on electrochemical double layer electrodes or pseudocapacitive materials, as well as providing information on the design and conception of new devices such as lithium-ion capacitors. This book details the various applications of supercapacitors, ranging from power electronics and stationary use, to transportation (hybrid vehicles, trams, planes, etc.). They are increasingly used in the automotive sector, especially as part of stop/start systems that have allowed for energy recovery through braking and reduced fuel consumption. Table of Contents1. Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC). 2. Electrolytes. 3. Pseudocapacitive Materials. 4. Hybrid and/or Asymmetric Systems.

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Book SynopsisModel-based development methods, and supporting technologies, can provide the techniques and tools needed to address the dilemma between reducing system development costs and time, and developing increasingly complex systems. The Model Driven Architecture (MDA) initiative of the Object Management Group (OMG) is concerned with the development of standards and technologies that enable and support model-based system development. The aim of this book is to provide the information needed to understand and apply MDE (including MDA) approaches to the development of embedded systems. Chapters, written by experts from academia and industry, cover topics relating to MDE practices and methods, as well as emerging MDE technologies. Much of the writing is based on the presentations given at the Summer School 'MDE for Embedded Systems' held at Brest, France, in September 2004.Table of Contents1. Model engineering: from principles to platforms - Jean Bezivin; 2. Model-driven development of distributed real-time and embedded systems - Douglas C. Schmidt; 3. About model-transformations: QVT vs. OCL vs.... - Pierre-Alain Muller; 4. Separating dependability and technology-specific concerns using aspect-oriented modelling techniques - Robert France; 5. Model-driven systems engineering: SysML & the MDSysE approach at THALES - Veronique Normand and Daniel Exertier; 6. Maturity of model driven engineering for embedded control systems from a mechatronic perspective - Martin Torngren; 7. Real time components and contracts - Jean-Marc Jezequel; 8. The THINK component-based operating system - Jean-Philippe Fassino; 9. Model-driven schedulability analysis - Jean-Philippe Babau and Sebastien Gerard; 10. Performance analysis based on the UML SPT profile - Dorina C. Petriu; 11. Embedded code generation - Ivan Porres; 12 - Model-driven architecture for intensive embedded systems - Lossan Bonde, Pierre Boulet, Arnaud Cuccuru, Jean-Luc Dekeyser, Cedric Dumoulin, Philippe Marquet and Michael Samyn; 13. Spidergon: a NoC modeling paradigm - Marcello Coppola.

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Book SynopsisThis updated, second edition textbook provides a thorough and accessible treatment of semiconductor lasers from a design and engineering perspective. It includes both the physics of devices as well as the engineering, designing and testing of practical lasers. The material is presented clearly with many examples provided. Readers of the book will come to understand the finer aspects of the theory, design, fabrication and test of these devices and have an excellent background for further study of optoelectronics.Table of ContentsIntroduction: The Basics of Optical Communications.- The Basics of Lasers.- Semiconductors as Laser Material 1: Fundamentals.- Semiconductors as Laser Materials 2: Density of States, Quantum Wells and Gain.- Semiconductor Laser Operation.- Electrical Characteristics of Semiconductor Lasers.- The Optical Cavity.- Laser Modulation.- Distributed Feedback Lasers.- Assorted Miscellany: Dispersion, Fabrication, and Reliability.- Laser Communication Systems I: Amplitude Modulated Systems.- Coherent Communication Systems.

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Book SynopsisThis book showcases the state of the art in the field of sensors and microsystems, revealing the impressive potential of novel methodologies and technologies. It covers a broad range of aspects, including: bio-, physical and chemical sensors; actuators; micro- and nano-structured materials; mechanisms of interaction and signal transduction; polymers and biomaterials; sensor electronics and instrumentation; analytical microsystems, recognition systems and signal analysis; and sensor networks, as well as manufacturing technologies, environmental, food and biomedical applications. The book gathers a selection of papers presented at the 20th AISEM National Conference on Sensors and Microsystems, held in Naples, Italy in February 2019, the event brought together researchers, end users, technology teams and policy makers.

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Book SynopsisThis one-semester textbook teaches students Electromagnetic Waves, via an early introduction to Maxwell’s Equations in the first chapter. Mathematics fundamentals are used as needed, but rigor is de-emphasized in preference to understanding the basic ideas and principles of EM waves. Each chapter includes extensive, step-by-step, solved examples, as well as abundant exercises. Designed for a one-semester course in electromagnetic waves; Introduces Maxwell’s equations in the first chapter; De-emphasizes mathematical rigor in order to make key ideas and principles easy to understand; Makes material accessible to readers of varying backgrounds, with extensive use of solved examples; Includes abundant exercises for each chapter. Trade Review“The book includes a huge number of figures, a large number of exercises and a reasonable number of solved examples, which, altogether, help the reader to understand quickly the exposition.” (Luis Filipe Pinheiro de Castro, zbMATH 1455.78001, 2021)Table of ContentsIntroduction.- Maxwell’s Equations.- Plane Waves and Wave Equations.- Characteristics and Parameters of EM Waves.- Boundary Conditions and Behavior of EM Waves.- Transmission Line.- Smith Chart.- Antenna.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents and facilitates new research and development results with hot topics in the thermoelectric generators (TEGs) field. Topics include: novel thin film; multilayer, composite and nanostructured thermoelectric materials; simulation of phenomena related to thermoelectricity; thermoelectric thin film and multilayer materials manufacturing technologies; measurement techniques for characterization; thermoelectric generators; and the simulation, modeling, design, thermal, and mechanical degradation problems. This book helps researchers tackle the challenges that still remain in creating cheap and effective TEGs and presents the latest trends and technologies in development and production of advanced thermoelectric generation devices.Table of ContentsNovel thin film and multilayer thermoelectric materials.- Simulation of phenomena related to thermoelectricity.- Thermoelectric thin film and multilayer materials manufacturing technologies.- Measurement techniques for Characterization thin film and multilayer materials and devices.- Thermolectric generators simulation, modeling, and design.- Thermal and mechanical degradation problems in prospective thin film and multilayer thermoeclectric materials and TEG modules.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents the mechanics of piezoelectric semiconductor structures where the main electromechanical coupling of interest is the interaction between mechanical fields and semiconduction. This volume stands as the first full book treatment of this multi-physical subject from the mechanics angle. The analysis of piezoelectric semiconductor structures and devices is an emerging and rapidly growing interdisciplinary area involving materials, electronics, and solid mechanics. It has direct applications in the new area of piezotronics and piezo-phototronics. The book is theoretical, beginning with a phenomenological framework and progressing to include solutions to problems fundamental to the theory and application. Dr. Yang illustrates how in piezoelectric semiconductors, mechanical fields interact with semiconduction through the piezoelectrically produced electric fields by mechanical loads. This provides the foundation of piezotronic and piezo-phototronic devices in which semiconduction is induced, affected, manipulated, or controlled by mechanical fields. Also discussing composite structures of piezoelectric dielectrics and nonpiezoelectric semiconductors as well as thermal effects, the book is an ideal basic reference on the topic for researchers.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Macroscopic Theory.- Chapter 2. Exact Solutions.- Chapter 3. Extension of Rods.- Chapter 4. Bending of Beams.- Chapter 5. Extension and Bending of Plates.- Chapter 6. Composite Structures.- Chapter 7. Thermal Effects.

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