Electrical engineering Books

Book SynopsisThis collection of 55 articles on superconductivity from the Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering makes it accessible to individuals who need the information but do not have access to the full 24-volume encyclopedia.Trade Review"A collection of 50 articles on the applications of superconductors from an engineering perspective, derived from the 24-volume Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineerin..." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 25, No. 3, September 2001) "For libraries without the full encyclopedia...this is a welcome volume." (E-Streams, Vol. 4, No. 12)Table of ContentsPreface. Superconductivity and Magnetism. Superconductors. Applications and Related Technology. Index.

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Book SynopsisPOWER GRID RESILIENCE AGAINST NATURAL DISASTERS How to protect our power grids in the face of extreme weather events The field of structural and operational resilience of power systems, particularly against natural disasters, is of obvious importance in light of climate change and the accompanying increase in hurricanes, wildfires, tornados, frigid temperatures, and more. Addressing these vulnerabilities in service is a matter of increasing diligence for the electric power industry, and as such, targeted studies and advanced technologies are being developed to help address these issues generallywhether they be from the threat of cyber-attacks or of natural disasters. Power Grid Resilience against Natural Disasters provides, for the first time, a comprehensive and systematic introduction to resilience-enhancing planning and operation strategies of power grids against extreme events. It addresses, in detail, the three necessary steps to ensure power grid sucTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xv Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxiii Part I Introduction 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Power Grid and Natural Disasters 3 1.2 Power Grid Resilience 4 1.2.1 Definitions 4 1.2.2 Importance and Benefits 6 1.2.2.1 Dealing withWeather-Related Disastrous Events 6 1.2.2.2 Facilitating the Integration of Renewable Energy Sources 7 1.2.2.3 Dealing with Cybersecurity-Related Events 8 1.2.3 Challenges 9 1.3 Resilience Enhancement Against Disasters 12 1.3.1 Preparedness Prior to Disasters 12 1.3.1.1 Component-Level Resilience Enhancement 13 1.3.1.2 System-Level Resilience Enhancement 14 1.3.2 Response as Disasters Unfold 14 1.3.2.1 System State Acquisition 15 1.3.2.2 Controlled Separation 16 1.3.3 Recovery After Disasters 17 1.3.3.1 Conventional Recovery Process 17 1.3.3.2 Microgrids for Electric Service Recovery 18 1.3.3.3 Distribution Grid Topology Reconfiguration 18 1.4 Coordination and Co-Optimization 20 1.5 Focus of This Book 22 1.6 Summary 23 References 23 Trim Size: 152mm x 229mm Single Column Lei801474 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/31/2022 4:04pm Page viii [1] [1] [1] [1] viii Contents Part II Preparedness Prior to a Natural Disaster 35 2 Preventive Maintenance to Enhance Grid Reliability 37 2.1 Component- and System-Level Deterioration Model 37 2.1.1 Component-Level Deterioration Transition Probability 38 2.1.2 System-Level Deterioration Transition Probability 40 2.1.3 Mathematical Model without Harsh External Conditions 40 2.2 Preventive Maintenance in Consideration of Disasters 41 2.2.1 Potential Disasters Influencing Preventive Maintenance 41 2.2.2 Preventive Maintenance Model with Disasters Influences 42 2.2.2.1 Probabilistic Model of Repair Delays Caused By Harsh External Conditions 42 2.2.2.2 Activity Vectors Corresponding to Repair Delays 42 2.2.2.3 Expected Cost 43 2.3 Solution Algorithms 44 2.3.1 Backward Induction 44 2.3.2 Search Space Reduction Method 44 2.4 Case Studies 45 2.4.1 Data Description 45 2.4.2 Case I: Verification of the Proposed Model 45 2.4.2.1 Verifying the Model Using Monte Carlo Simulations 46 2.4.2.2 Selection of Optimal Maintenance Activities 47 2.4.2.3 Influences of Harsh External Conditions on Maintenance 48 2.4.3 Case II: Results Simulating the Zhejiang Electric Power Grid 48 2.5 Summary and Conclusions 51 Nomenclature 52 References 53 3 Preallocating Emergency Resources to Enhance Grid Survivability 55 3.1 Emergency Resources of Grids against Disasters 55 3.2 Mobile Emergency Generators and Grid Survivability 58 3.2.1 Microgrid Formation 59 3.2.2 Preallocation and Real-Time Allocation 59 3.2.3 Coordination with Conventional Restoration Procedures 60 3.3 Preallocation Optimization of Mobile Emergency Generators 61 3.3.1 A Two-Stage Stochastic Optimization Model 61 3.3.2 Availability of Mobile Emergency Generators 66 3.3.3 Connection of Mobile Emergency Generators 66 3.3.4 Coordination of Multiple Flexibility in Microgrids 67 Trim Size: 152mm x 229mm Single Column Lei801474 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/31/2022 4:04pm Page ix [1] [1] [1] [1] Contents ix 3.4 Solution Algorithms 67 3.4.1 Scenario Generation and Reduction 68 3.4.2 Dijkstra’s Shortest-Path Algorithm 69 3.4.3 Scenario Decomposition Algorithm 69 3.5 Case Studies 70 3.5.1 Test System Introduction 70 3.5.2 Demonstration of the Proposed Dispatch Method 71 3.5.3 Capacity Utilization Rate 73 3.5.4 Importance of Considering Traffic Issue and Preallocation 75 3.5.5 Computational Efficiency 76 3.6 Summary and Conclusions 77 Nomenclature 78 References 80 4 Grid Automation Enabling Prompt Restoration 85 4.1 Smart Grid and Automation Systems 85 4.2 Distribution System Automation and Restoration 87 4.3 Prompt Restoration with Remote-Controlled Switches 89 4.4 Remote-Controlled Switch Allocation Models 91 4.4.1 Minimizing Customer Interruption Cost 91 4.4.2 Minimizing System Average Interruption Duration Index 93 4.4.3 Maximizing System Restoration Capability 94 4.5 Solution Method 95 4.5.1 Practical Candidate Restoration Strategies 95 4.5.2 Model Transformation 99 4.5.3 Linearization and Simplification Techniques 100 4.5.4 Overall Solution Process 100 4.6 Case Studies 102 4.6.1 Illustration on a Small Test System 102 4.6.1.1 Results of the CIC-oriented Model 102 4.6.1.2 Results of the SAIDI-oriented Model 103 4.6.1.3 Results of the RL-oriented Model 105 4.6.1.4 Comparisons 105 4.6.2 Results on a Large Test System 106 4.7 Impacts of Remote-Controlled Switch Malfunction 109 4.8 Consideration of Distributed Generations 110 4.9 Summary and Conclusions 111 Nomenclature of RCS-Restoration Models 112 Nomenclature of RCS Allocation Models 113 References 113 Trim Size: 152mm x 229mm Single Column Lei801474 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/31/2022 4:04pm Page x [1] [1] [1] [1] x Contents Part III Response as a Natural Disaster Unfolds 119 5 Security Region-Based Operational Point Analysis for Resilience Enhancement 121 5.1 Resilience-Oriented Operational Strategies 121 5.2 Security Region during an Unfolding Disaster 123 5.2.1 Sequential Security Region 123 5.2.2 Uncertain Varying System Topology Changes 125 5.3 Operational Point Analysis Resilience Enhancement 126 5.3.1 Sequential Security Region 126 5.3.2 Sequential Security Region with Uncertain Varying Topology Changes 127 5.3.3 Mapping System Topology Changes 129 5.3.4 Bilevel Optimization Model 130 5.3.5 Solution Process 131 5.4 Case Studies 132 5.5 Summary and Conclusions 138 Nomenclature 138 References 140 6 Proactive Resilience Enhancement Strategy for Transmission Systems 143 6.1 Proactive Strategy Against ExtremeWeather Events 143 6.2 System States Caused by Unfolding Disasters 145 6.2.1 Component Failure Rate 146 6.2.2 System States on Disasters’ Trajectories 146 6.2.3 Transition Probabilities Between Different System States 147 6.3 Sequentially Proactive Operation Strategy 148 6.3.1 Sequential Decision Processes 148 6.3.2 Sequentially Proactive Operation Strategy Constraints 148 6.3.3 Linear Scalarization of the Model 150 6.3.4 Case Studies 152 6.3.4.1 IEEE 30-Bus System 152 6.3.4.2 A Practical Power Grid System 156 6.4 Summary and Conclusions 159 Nomenclature 160 References 162 7 Markov Decision Process-Based Resilience Enhancement for Distribution Systems 165 7.1 Real-Time Response Against Unfolding Disasters 165 7.2 Disasters’ Influences on Distribution Systems 167 Trim Size: 152mm x 229mm Single Column Lei801474 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/31/2022 4:04pm Page xi [1] [1] [1] [1] Contents xi 7.2.1 Markov States on Disasters’ Trajectories 167 7.2.2 Transition Probability Between Markov States 169 7.3 Markov Decision Processes-Based Optimization Model 169 7.3.1 Markov Decision Processes-based Recursive Model 169 7.3.2 Operational Constraints 170 7.3.2.1 Radiality Constraint 170 7.3.2.2 Repair Constraint 170 7.3.2.3 Power Flow Constraint 171 7.3.2.4 Power Balance Constraint 171 7.3.2.5 Line Capacity Constraint 171 7.3.2.6 Voltage Constraint 172 7.4 Solution Algorithms – Approximate Dynamic Programming 172 7.4.1 Solution Challenges 172 7.4.2 Post-decision States 174 7.4.3 Forward Dynamic Algorithm 174 7.4.4 Proposed Model Reformulation 175 7.4.5 Iteration Process 177 7.5 Case Studies 177 7.5.1 IEEE 33-Bus System 177 7.5.1.1 Data Description 177 7.5.1.2 Estimated Values of Post-Decision States 178 7.5.1.3 Dispatch Strategies with Estimated Values of Post-Decision States 180 7.5.2 IEEE 123-Bus System 181 7.5.2.1 Data Description 181 7.5.2.2 Simulated Results 181 7.6 Summary and Conclusions 183 Nomenclature 184 References 186 Part IV Recovery After a Natural Disaster 189 8 Microgrids with Flexible Boundaries for Service Restoration 191 8.1 Using Microgrids in Service Restoration 191 8.2 Dynamically Formed Microgrids 194 8.2.1 Flexible Boundaries in Microgrid Formation Optimization 194 8.2.2 Radiality Constraints and Topological Flexibility 195 8.3 Mathematical Formulation of Radiality Constraints 198 8.3.1 Loop-Eliminating Model 200 8.3.2 Path-Based Model 200 Trim Size: 152mm x 229mm Single Column Lei801474 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/31/2022 4:04pm Page xii [1] [1] [1] [1] xii Contents 8.3.3 Single-Commodity Flow-Based Model 200 8.3.4 Parent–Child Node Relation-Based Model 201 8.3.5 Primal and Dual Graph-Based Model 201 8.3.6 Spanning Forest-Based Model 201 8.4 Adaptive Microgrid Formation for Service Restoration 202 8.4.1 Formulation and Validity 202 8.4.2 Tightness and Compactness 205 8.4.3 Applicability and Application 207 8.5 Case Studies 211 8.5.1 Illustration on a Small Test System 211 8.5.2 Results on a Large Test System 215 8.5.3 LinDistFlow Model Accuracy 219 8.6 Summary and Conclusions 219 8.A.1 Proof of Theorem 8.1 220 8.A.2 Proof of Proposition 8.1 220 Nomenclature of Spanning Tree Constraints 221 Nomenclature of MG Formation Model 221 References 222 9 Microgrids with Mobile Power Sources for Service Restoration 227 9.1 Grid Survivability and Recovery with Mobile Power Sources 227 9.2 Routing and Scheduling Mobile Power Sources in Microgrids 230 9.3 Mobile Power Sources and Supporting Facilities 233 9.3.1 Availability 233 9.3.2 Grid-Forming Functions 234 9.3.3 Cost-Effectiveness 234 9.4 A Two-Stage Dispatch Framework 235 9.4.1 Proactive Pre-Dispatch 235 9.4.2 Dynamic Routing and Scheduling 239 9.5 Solution Method 243 9.5.1 Column-and-Constraint Generation Algorithm 243 9.5.2 Linearization Techniques 245 9.6 Case Studies 245 9.6.1 Illustration on a Small Test System 246 9.6.1.1 Results of MPS Proactive Pre-positioning 246 9.6.1.2 Results of MPS Dynamic Dispatch 247 9.6.2 Results on a Large Test System 251 9.7 Summary and Conclusions 255 Nomenclature 255 References 257 Trim Size: 152mm x 229mm Single Column Lei801474 ftoc.tex V1 - 10/31/2022 4:04pm Page xiii [1] [1] [1] [1] Contents xiii 10 Co-Optimization of Grid Flexibilities in Recovery Logistics 261 10.1 Post-Disaster Recovery Logistics of Grids 261 10.1.1 Power Infrastructure Recovery 262 10.1.2 Microgrid-Based Service Restoration 263 10.1.3 A Co-Optimization Approach 264 10.2 Flexibility Resources in Grid Recovery Logistics 265 10.2.1 Routing and Scheduling of Repair Crews 265 10.2.2 Routing and Scheduling of Mobile Power Sources 268 10.2.3 Grid Reconfiguration and Operation 271 10.3 Co-Optimization of Flexibility Resources 277 10.4 Solution Method 280 10.4.1 Pre-assigning Minimal Repair Tasks 280 10.4.2 Selecting Candidate Nodes to Connect Mobile Power Sources 281 10.4.3 Linearization Techniques 283 10.5 Case Studies 284 10.5.1 Illustration on a Small Test System 284 10.5.2 Results on a Large Test System 287 10.5.3 Computational Efficiency 290 10.5.4 LinDistFlow Model Accuracy 292 10.6 Summary and Conclusions 293 10.A.1 Proof of Proposition 10.1 293 References 294 Index 301

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Book SynopsisHeavy tails extreme events or values more common than expected emerge everywhere: the economy, natural events, and social and information networks are just a few examples. Yet after decades of progress, they are still treated as mysterious, surprising, and even controversial, primarily because the necessary mathematical models and statistical methods are not widely known. This book, for the first time, provides a rigorous introduction to heavy-tailed distributions accessible to anyone who knows elementary probability. It tackles and tames the zoo of terminology for models and properties, demystifying topics such as the generalized central limit theorem and regular variation. It tracks the natural emergence of heavy-tailed distributions from a wide variety of general processes, building intuition. And it reveals the controversy surrounding heavy tails to be the result of flawed statistics, then equips readers to identify and estimate with confidence. Over 100 exercises complete this engTrade Review'Heavy tailed distributions are ubiquitous in many disciplines which use probabilistic models. The book by Nair, Wierman and Zwart is a superb introduction to the topic and presents fundamental principles in a rigorous yet accessible manner. It is a must-read for researchers interested in understanding heavy tails.' R. Srikant, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign'As one of the people who keeps discovering heavy tails in computer systems, I'm thrilled to see a book that delves into the deeper foundations behind these ubiquitous distributions. This beautifully written book is both mathematically precise and also full of intuitions and examples which make it accessible to newcomers in the field.' Mor Harchol-Balter, Carnegie Mellon University'The book provides a fresh look at heavy-tailed probability distributions on the real line and their role in applied probability. The authors show that these distributions appear via natural algebraic operations. Their approach, towards understanding properties of these distributions, combines the key mathematical ideas alongside with informal explanations. Physical intuition is also provided, for example, the 'catastrophe/big jump principle' for heavy-tailed distributions versus the 'conspiracy principle' for light-tailed ones. The book is designed to help the practitioner and includes many interesting examples and exercises that may help to the reader to adjust and enjoy its content.' Sergey Foss, Heriot-Watt UniversityTable of ContentsCommonly used notation; 1. Introduction; Part I. Properties: 2. Scale invariance, power laws, and regular variation; 3. Catastrophes, conspiracies, and subexponential distributions; 4. Residual lives, hazard rates, and long tails; Part II. Emergence: 5. Additive processes; 6. Multiplicative processes; 7. Extremal processes; Part III. Estimation: 8. Estimating power-law distributions: Listen to the body; 9. Estimating power-law tails: Let the tail do the talking; References; Index.

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Book SynopsisCovering the complete Association of Marine Electric and Radio Colleges (AMERC) syllabus for Electrotechnology Officers (ETOs), the book is divided into three sections: Basic Electronics; Navigational Aids (theory and fault finding); and Radio Communications (including GMDSS).The first textbook aimed primarily at Electro-technical Officers (covering the changes to the STCW 2010), volume 15 of the Reeds Marine Engineering Series includes technical diagrams, worked examples and self-study questions to help in student understanding.This second edition has been updated throughout, and expanded with new questions and answers. It is an essential book for all students undertaking an ETO course.Table of Contents1 BASIC ELECTRONICS Insulators and Conductors Resistance Capacitance Inductance Semiconductors Signal Shaping Operational Amplifiers Transformers Amplifiers and Oscillators Power Supplies Digital Devices and Systems Displays Measuring Instruments 2 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS - THEORY AND FAULT FINDING Micro Computers Gyro Compass Autopilot Steering Gear Echo Sounder Speed Log Automatic Identification System (AIS) Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) Global Positioning System (GPS) Differential GPS Loran C eLoran Radar Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) Navtex Fault Finding in Bridge Equipment Systems 3 RADIO COMMUNICATIONS Radiation and Propagation Amplitude and Angle Modulation Radio Transmitters Radio Receivers Receiver Characteristics Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) 4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

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Book SynopsisThis Code of Practice provides a clear overview of EV charging equipment, as well as setting out the considerations needed prior to installations and the necessary physical and electrical installation requirements. It also details what needs to be considered when installing electric vehicle charging equipment in various different locations - such as domestic dwellings, on-street locations, and commercial and industrial premises. Key changes for the 4th Edition include: General requirements - updated in line with the very latest amendment to BS 7671 (specifically within Section 722) On street installations - section updated to reflect a range of situations Installations at dwellings - section updated to provide greater clarity on domestic installs Three phase installations - address in more detail within the commercial and industrial section of the code Vehicle to grid - section updated and expanded providing useful background to this emerging development as well as providing detail on installation issues Smart infrastructure integration - updated to cover installation considerations that are becoming increasingly complicated as EV charging needs to be compatible and integrated with a range of other systems and installations Wireless charging - expansion of coverage of this area as its potential begins to be established and realised Table of Contents Section 1: Scope Section 2: Overview of EV charging equipment Section 3: Arrangements prior to installation commencement Section 4: Physical installation requirements Section 5: Electrical requirements - General Section 6: Electrical requirements - Dwelling installations Section 7: Electrical requirements - On-street installations Section 8: Electrical requirements - Commercial and industrial installations Section 9: Inspection, testing and maintenance requirements Section 10: Vehicle as storage Section 11: Distribution network operator (DNO) notification Section 12: Integration and smart infrastructure Annex A: Charging connectors and charging cable types Annex B: Checklists for dwelling installations Annex C: Checklists for on-street installations Annex D: Checklists for commercial and industrial installations Annex E: Checklists for fuel filing station installations Annex F: Wireless power transfer (WPT) installations Annex G: Installing an earth electrode system to enable use of a PME supply earth, in accordance with Regulation 722.411.4.1 (ii) of BS 7671 Annex H: Separation of earth electrode zones where TT is used, and installation of electrodes Annex I: Determining a suitable location and voltage tripping threshold for a measurement earth electrode if used for compliance with Regulation 722.411.4.1 (iii) of BS 7671 Annex J: A rule of thumb for three-phase system balance in accordance with Regulation 722.411.4.1 (i) of BS 7671 Annex K: Supply and earthing arrangements for Mode 4 DC EVSE Annex L: Requirements of Electrical Installations BS 7671:018 Amendment 1:2020 Annex M: Glossary Annex N: Figures and Tables Annex O: References

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Book SynopsisSoC Physical Design is a comprehensive practical guide for VLSI designers that thoroughly examines and explains the practical physical design flow of system on chip (SoC). The book covers the rationale behind making design decisions on power, performance, and area (PPA) goals for SoC and explains the required design environment algorithms, design flows, constraints, handoff procedures, and design infrastructure requirements in achieving them. The book reveals challenges likely to be faced at each design process and ways to address them in practical design environments. Advanced topics on 3D ICs, EDA trends, and SOC trends are discussed in later chapters. Coverage also includes advanced physical design techniques followed for deep submicron SOC designs. The book provides aspiring VLSI designers, practicing design engineers, and electrical engineering students with a solid background on the complex physical design requirements of SoCs which are required to contribute effectively in design roles.Table of ContentsIntroduction.- SoC Physical Design Flow and Algorithms.- Physical Design Floor Plan and Placement.- Clock, Reset, and HFN.- Physical Design Routing.- Physical Design Verification.

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Book SynopsisSurface ship and submarine magnetic field signatures have been exploited for over 80 years by naval influence mines, and both underwater and airborne surveillance systems. The generating mechanism of the four major shipboard sources of magnetic fields is explained, along with a detailed description of the induced and permanent ferromagnetic signature characteristics. A brief historical summary of magnetic naval mine development during World War II is followed by a discussion of important improvements found in modern weapons, including an explanation of the damage mechanism for non-contact explosions. A strategy for selecting an optimum mine actuation threshold is given. A multi-layered defensive strategy against naval mines is outlined, with graphical explanations of the relationships between ship signature reduction and minefield clearing effectiveness. In addition to a brief historical discussion of underwater and airborne submarine surveillance systems and magnetic field sensing principles, mathematical formulations are presented for computing the expected target signal strengths and noise levels for several barrier types. Besides the sensor self-noise, equations for estimating geomagnetic, ocean surface wave, platform, and vector sensor motion noises will be given along with simple algorithms for their reduction.Table of ContentsIntroduction.- Shipboard Sources of Magnetic Field.- Exploitation of Magnetic Signatures by Naval Mines.- Exploitation of Magnetic Signatures by Submarine Surveillance Systems.- Summary.

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Book SynopsisThis book is about how electricity has profoundly changed the way we live, work, and play. Some twenty topics are covered, with an abundance of graphs and images to build a comprehensive picture. Each looks at the developments, and the people who initiated them, together with how one led to the next and their subsequent impact on society. Topics include electric supply, lighting through X-rays, and all those appliances that make our homes so comfortable.Most homes at the end of the twentieth century were full of electrical equipment, much of which was regarded as essential. It ran from lights, washing machines, fridges, freezers, kettles, telephones and so on, to the more subtle things such as wipers and starter motors on cars. In 1900, in all but a tiny minority of houses, there were none of these things. It is very difficult for us now to imagine a world without electrical equipment everywhere, and yet it has only taken a century. The Electric Century examines how we got from then to now. The nineteenth is often described as the century of steam from the impact it had on employment and transport, and The Electric Century makes a similar claim as the description of the twentieth. Electricity and the equipment using it are so pervasive that they have affected every corner of modern life.Trade Review“Williams is very thorough, and as with the electronics book, he or she is at his or her best when giving us historical statistics and nuggets of information about, for example, the early fragmented electricity generation companies, or Marconi's work or the development of batteries. … if you'd like to fill in some gaps in the history of technology, it's worth taking on.” (Brian Clegg, Popular Science, popsciencebooks.blogspot.com, January, 2018)“There is a good table of contents, a detailed bibliography, and a good index. This is an interesting treatise on the impact of electricity on our world. Williams’ book differs from others on this subject in the diversity of aspects covered and by also considering their social impacts on our society. A very enjoyable book.” (David B. Henderson, Computing Reviews, March, 2018)Table of Contents

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Book SynopsisPraise for prior editionsan excellent treatise of thin film coatings, explaining how to produce all sorts of different filters selected according to the function they are required to playâ an indispensable text for every filter manufacturer and user and an excellent guide for students. âContemporary Physicsessential reading for all those involved in the design, manufacture, and application of optical coatings âMaterials Worlda must-have addition to the library of any optical thin-film theorist or practitioner âSVC NewsThis book is quite simply the Bible for the field of optical thin films. It gives the most complete introduction to thin film optical coatings addressed to manufacturers and users alike. This fifth edition offers a complete update on current design, manufacture, performance, and applications. New topics include absorbers and coherent perfect absorbers, photonic crystals, and metamaterials for optical coating. The author has also made substantial additions on scattering, composite materials, wire grid polarizers, laser damage, and applications.H. Angus Macleod is President of Thin Film Center Inc., in Tucson, Arizona, and Professor Emeritus of Optical Sciences Center at the University of Arizona. His professional honors include a Gold Medal from SPIE, the Esther Hoffman Beller Medal from the Optical Society of America, and the Nathaniel H. Sugerman Memorial Award from the Society of Vacuum Coaters.Table of ContentsIntroduction. Basic Theory. Theoretical Techniques. Antireflection Coatings. Neutral Mirrors and Beam Splitters. Multilayer High-Reflectance Coatings. Edge Filters and Notch Filters. Band-Pass Filters. Tilted Dielectric Coatings. More on Tilted Coatings. Other Topics: From Rugate Filters to Photonic Crystals. Color in Optical Coatings. Production Methods. Material Properties. Composite, Birefringent and Metamaterials. Some Coating Properties Important in Systems. Specification of Filters and Coatings. Characteristics of Thin-Film Dielectric Materials.

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Book SynopsisThis modern text provides detailed coverage of the physical processes underpinning semiconductor devices. Self-contained and pedagogical, this book is ideal for graduate students in physics and electrical engineering, and later chapters offer descriptions of widely used photonic devices such as distributed feedback lasers and quantum dot lasers.Trade Review'Prof. Nisoli's book is an excellent introduction for masters or graduate level students wishing to learn more about the physics underlying semiconductor lasers and light emitting diodes. In the first half of the book there is a thorough, modern discussion of semiconductor physics, optical properties and band theory, with an interesting section on quantum wells. The final three chapters are a detailed and comprehensive discourse on LEDs, semiconductor lasers and low-dimensional lasers. I shall certainly be recommending my students to read this book as part of their studies.' Robert A. Taylor, University of Oxford'This is a comprehensive book dealing with the physical properties and lasing characteristics of most widely used semiconductor lasers. The author's approach is often theoretical, however, detailed discussion of the practical and applied aspects of semiconductor lasers and plenty of numerical exercises provide for a well-balanced description. It should be highly recommended for advanced courses on the topic or as a reference for researchers.' Orazio Svelto, Emeritus Professor of Physics, Politecnico di MilanoTable of ContentsPreface; 1. Band structure of semiconductors; 2. Electrons in semiconductors; 3. Basic concepts of quantum mechanics; 4. Electron-photon interaction; 5. Optical properties of semiconductors; 6. Quantum wells; 7. Light emitting diodes; 8. Semiconductor lasers; 9. Quantum dot lasers; 10. Distributed feedback lasers; 11. Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers; 12. Quantum cascade lasers; References; Appendix; Index.

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Book SynopsisSoon, robots will leave the factories and make their way into living rooms, supermarkets, and care facilities. They will cooperate with humans in everyday life, taking on more than just practical tasks. How should they communicate with us? Do they need eyes, a screen, or arms? Should they resemble humans? Or may they enrich social situations precisely because they act so differently from humans?Meaningful Futures with Robots: Designing a New Coexistence provides insight into the opportunities and risks that arise from living with robots in the future, anchored in current research projects on everyday robotics. As well as generating ideas for robot developers and designers, it also critically discusses existing theories and methods for social robotics from different perspectives - ethical, design, artistical and technological â and presents new approaches to meaningful human-robot interaction design.Key Features: Provides insights into current Table of Contents1. Towards Designing Meaningful Relationships with Robots 2. Concept and Content of the Book Part 1 Designing a New Species Interaction Design and Product Design of Robots 3. How to Design Robots with Superpowers Robin Neuhaus, Ronda Ringfort Felner, Judith Dörrenbächer, Marc Hassenzahl 4. Social Robots Should Mediate, not Replace, Social Interactions Timo Kaerlein 5. Neither Human Nor Computer —A Symbiotic Human-Robot Collaboration in Autism Therapy Ronda Ringfort-Felner, Judith Dörrenbächer 6. Counting Characters and Spaces—On Robot Disabilities, Robot Care, and Technological Dependencies Lenneke Kuijer 7. Designing Robots with Personality Lara Christoforakos, Sarah Diefenbach, Daniel Ullrich 8. Designing Robots as Social Counterparts— A Discussion about a Technology Claiming its Own Needs Lara Christoforakos, Tobias Störzinger 9. Falling in Love With a Machine— What Happens if the Only Affection a Person Gets is From Machines? Felix Carros (F.C.), Anne Wierling (A.W.), Adrian Preussner (A.P.) 10. I am Listening to You!—How to Make Different Robotic Species Speak the Same Language Judith Dörrenbächer, Anne Wierling 11. How to Really Get in Touch with Robots—Haptic Interaction Technologies for VR and Teleoperation Bernhard Weber, Thomas Hulin, Lisa Schiffer Part 2 Designing Future Enviroments—Social Innovation Initiated by Robots 12. Design Fiction—The Future of Robots Needs Imagination Ronda Ringfort-Felner, Robin Neuhaus, Judith Dörrenbächer, Marc Hassenzahl 13. Cramer’s Funeral Service for Androids Uwe Post 14. Googly Eyes Marc Hassenzahl 15 Empathizing with Robots—Animistic and Performative Methods to Anticipate a Robot’s Impact Judith Dörrenbächer, Marc Hassenzahl 16. From the Lab to a Real-World Supermarket— About Anticipating the Chances and Challenges of a Shopping Robot Robin Neuhaus, Judith Dörrenbächer 17. Dominant, Persuasive or Polite?— About Human Curiosity, Provocative Users and Solving Conflicts between Humans and Robots Judith Dörrenbächer 18. Seven Observations, or Why Domestic Robots are Struggling to Enter the Habitats of Everyday Life James Auger 19. Is this a Patient or a Wall?— Adapting Robots from an Industrial Context to a Rehabilitation Clinic Jochen Feitsch, Bernhard Weber 20. Robotics x Book Studies Imagining a Robotic Archive of Embodied Knowledge Corinna Norrick-Rühl 21. "That’s the Future, I’m Telling You.” Antje Herden 22. Graphic Recording Cool Johanna Benz Part 3 Designing together with People— Civic Participation and Ethical Implications Concerning Robots 23. Citizen Participation in Social Robotics Research Felix Carros, Johanna Langendorf, Dave Randall, Rainer Wieching, Volker Wulf 24. Learning from Each Other— How Roboticists Learn from Users and how Users Teach their Robots Felix Carros, Adrian Preussner 25. My Friend Simsala, the Robot Edi Haug, Laura M. Schwengber 26. Move Away from the Stereotypical User in the Picture-perfect Scenario—A Plea for Early and Broad User Integration Stephanie Häusler Weiss, Kilian Röhm, Tobias Störzinger 27. Is it Good?— A Philosophical Approach Towards Ethics Centered- Design (ECD) Catrin Misselhorn, Manuel Scheidegger, Tobias Störzinger 28. Are Robots Good at Everything? A Robot in an Elementary School Elke Buttgereit 29. The Medium has a Message Educational Robots in a Didactic Triangle Scarlet Schaffrath 30. The Friendly Siblings of Workhorses and Killer Robots—About Becoming Alive Through the Nonliving, and Feeling Blessed by a Religious Machine Ilona Nord

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Book SynopsisOne of the most methodical treatments of electromagnetic wave propagation, radiation, and scatteringincluding new applications and ideas Presented in two parts, this book takes an analytical approach on the subject and emphasizes new ideas and applications used today. Part one covers fundamentals of electromagnetic wave propagation, radiation, and scattering. It provides ample end-of-chapter problems and offers a 90-page solution manual to help readers check and comprehend their work. The second part of the book explores up-to-date applications of electromagnetic wavesincluding radiometry, geophysical remote sensing and imaging, and biomedical and signal processing applications. Written by a world renowned authority in the field of electromagnetic research, this new edition of Electromagnetic Wave Propagation, Radiation, and Scattering: From Fundamentals to Applications presents detailed applications with useful appendices, including mathematical formulasTable of ContentsAbout The Author Xix Preface Xxi Preface To The First Edition Xxv Acknowledgments Xxvii Part I Fundamentals 1 1 Introduction 3 2 Fundamental Field Equations 7 2.1 Maxwell’s Equations / 7 2.2 Time-Harmonic Case / 10 2.3 Constitutive Relations / 11 2.4 Boundary Conditions / 15 2.5 Energy Relations and Poynting’s Theorem / 18 2.6 Vector and Scalar Potentials / 22 2.7 Electric Hertz Vector / 24 2.8 Duality Principle and Symmetry of Maxwell’s Equations / 25 2.9 Magnetic Hertz Vector / 26 2.10 Uniqueness Theorem / 27 2.11 Reciprocity Theorem / 28 2.12 Acoustic Waves / 30 Problems / 33 3 Waves In Inhomogeneous And Layered Media 35 3.1 Wave Equation for a Time-Harmonic Case / 35 3.2 Time-Harmonic Plane-Wave Propagation in Homogeneous Media / 36 3.3 Polarization / 37 3.4 Plane-Wave Incidence on a Plane Boundary: Perpendicular Polarization (s Polarization) / 39 3.5 Electric Field Parallel to a Plane of Incidence: Parallel Polarization (p Polarization) / 43 3.6 Fresnel Formula, Brewster’s Angle, and Total Reflection / 44 3.7 Waves in Layered Media / 47 3.8 Acoustic Reflection and Transmission from a Boundary / 50 3.9 Complex Waves / 51 3.10 Trapped Surface Wave (Slow Wave) and Leaky Wave / 54 3.11 Surface Waves Along a Dielectric Slab / 57 3.12 Zenneck Waves and Plasmons / 63 3.13 Waves in Inhomogeneous Media / 66 3.14 WKB Method / 68 3.15 Bremmer Series / 72 3.16 WKB Solution for the Turning Point / 76 3.17 Trapped Surface-Wave Modes in an Inhomogeneous Slab / 77 3.18 Medium With Prescribed Profile / 80 Problems / 81 4 Waveguides And Cavities 85 4.1 Uniform Electromagnetic Waveguides / 85 4.2 TM Modes or E Modes / 86 4.3 TE Modes or H Modes / 87 4.4 Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues / 89 4.5 General Properties of Eigenfunctions for Closed Regions / 91 4.6 k–β Diagram and Phase and Group Velocities / 95 4.7 Rectangular Waveguides / 98 4.8 Cylindrical Waveguides / 100 4.9 TEM Modes / 104 4.10 Dispersion of a Pulse in a Waveguide / 106 4.11 Step-Index Optical Fibers / 109 4.12 Dispersion of Graded-Index Fibers / 116 4.13 Radial and Azimuthal Waveguides / 117 4.14 Cavity Resonators / 120 4.15 Waves in Spherical Structures / 123 4.16 Spherical Waveguides and Cavities / 128 Problems / 133 5 Green’s Functions 137 5.1 Electric and Magnetic Dipoles in Homogeneous Media / 137 5.2 Electromagnetic Fields Excited by an Electric Dipole in a Homogeneous Medium / 139 5.3 Electromagnetic Fields Excited by a Magnetic Dipole in a Homogeneous Medium / 144 5.4 Scalar Green’s Function for Closed Regions and Expansion of Green’s Function in a Series of Eigenfunctions / 145 5.5 Green’s Function in Terms of Solutions of the Homogeneous Equation / 150 5.6 Fourier Transform Method / 155 5.7 Excitation of a Rectangular Waveguide / 157 5.8 Excitation of a Conducting Cylinder / 159 5.9 Excitation of a Conducting Sphere / 163 Problems / 166 6 Radiation From Apertures And Beam Waves 169 6.1 Huygens’ Principle and Extinction Theorem / 169 6.2 Fields Due to the Surface Field Distribution / 173 6.3 Kirchhoff Approximation / 176 6.4 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction / 178 6.5 Fourier Transform (Spectral) Representation / 182 6.6 Beam Waves / 183 6.7 Goos–Hanchen Effect / 187 6.8 Higher-Order Beam-Wave Modes / 191 6.9 Vector Green’s Theorem, Stratton–Chu Formula, and Franz Formula / 194 6.10 Equivalence Theorem / 197 6.11 Kirchhoff Approximation for Electromagnetic Waves / 198 Problems / 199 7 Periodic Structures And Coupled-Mode Theory 201 7.1 Floquet’s Theorem / 202 7.2 Guided Waves Along Periodic Structures / 203 7.3 Periodic Layers / 209 7.4 Plane Wave Incidence on a Periodic Structure / 213 7.5 Scattering from Periodic Surfaces Based on the Rayleigh Hypothesis / 219 7.6 Coupled-Mode Theory / 224 Problems / 229 8 Dispersion And Anisotropic Media 233 8.1 Dielectric Material and Polarizability / 233 8.2 Dispersion of Dielectric Material / 235 8.3 Dispersion of Conductor and Isotropic Plasma / 237 8.4 Debye Relaxation Equation and Dielectric Constant of Water / 240 8.5 Interfacial Polarization / 240 8.6 Mixing Formula / 241 8.7 Dielectric Constant and Permeability for Anisotropic Media / 244 8.8 Magnetoionic Theory for Anisotropic Plasma / 244 8.9 Plane-Wave Propagation in Anisotropic Media / 247 8.10 Plane-Wave Propagation in Magnetoplasma / 248 8.11 Propagation Along the DC Magnetic Field / 249 8.12 Faraday Rotation / 253 8.13 Propagation Perpendicular to the DC Magnetic Field / 255 8.14 The Height of the Ionosphere / 256 8.15 Group Velocity in Anisotropic Medium / 257 8.16 Warm Plasma / 259 8.17 Wave Equations for Warm Plasma / 261 8.18 Ferrite and the Derivation of Its Permeability Tensor / 263 8.19 Plane-Wave Propagation in Ferrite / 266 8.20 Microwave Devices Using Ferrites / 267 8.21 Lorentz Reciprocity Theorem for Anisotropic Media / 270 8.22 Bi-Anisotropic Media and Chiral Media / 272 8.23 Superconductors, London Equation, and the Meissner Effects / 276 8.24 Two-Fluid Model of Superconductors at High Frequencies / 278 Problems / 280 9 Antennas, Apertures, And Arrays 285 9.1 Antenna Fundamentals / 285 9.2 Radiation Fields of Given Electric and Magnetic Current Distributions / 289 9.3 Radiation Fields of Dipoles, Slots, and Loops / 292 9.4 Antenna Arrays with Equal and Unequal Spacings / 296 9.5 Radiation Fields from a Given Aperture Field Distribution / 301 9.6 Radiation from Microstrip Antennas / 305 9.7 Self- and Mutual Impedances of Wire Antennas with Given Current Distributions / 308 9.8 Current Distribution of a Wire Antenna / 313 Problems / 314 10 Scattering Of Waves By Conducting And Dielectric Objects 317 10.1 Cross Sections and Scattering Amplitude / 318 10.2 Radar Equations / 321 10.3 General Properties of Cross Sections / 322 10.4 Integral Representations of Scattering Amplitude and Absorption Cross Sections / 325 10.5 Rayleigh Scattering for a Spherical Object / 328 10.6 Rayleigh Scattering for a Small Ellipsoidal Object / 330 10.7 Rayleigh–Debye Scattering (Born Approximation) / 334 10.8 Elliptic Polarization and Stokes Parameters / 338 10.9 Partial Polarization and Natural Light / 341 10.10 Scattering Amplitude Functions f11, f12, f21, and f22 and the Stokes Matrix / 342 10.11 Acoustic Scattering / 344 10.12 Scattering Cross Section of a Conducting Body / 346 10.13 Physical Optics Approximation / 347 10.14 Moment Method: Computer Applications / 350 Problems / 354 11 Waves In Cylindrical Structures, Spheres, And Wedges 357 11.1 Plane Wave Incident on a Conducting Cylinder / 357 11.2 Plane Wave Incident on a Dielectric Cylinder / 361 11.3 Axial Dipole Near a Conducting Cylinder / 364 11.4 Radiation Field / 366 11.5 Saddle-Point Technique / 368 11.6 Radiation from a Dipole and Parseval’s Theorem / 371 11.7 Large Cylinders and the Watson Transform / 373 11.8 Residue Series Representation and Creeping Waves / 376 11.9 Poisson’s Sum Formula, Geometric Optical Region, and Fock Representation / 379 11.10 Mie Scattering by a Dielectric Sphere / 382 11.11 Axial Dipole in the Vicinity of a Conducting Wedge / 390 11.12 Line Source and Plane Wave Incident on a Wedge / 392 11.13 Half-Plane Excited by a Plane Wave / 394 Problems / 395 12 Scattering By Complex Objects 401 12.1 Scalar Surface Integral Equations for Soft and Hard Surfaces / 402 12.2 Scalar Surface Integral Equations for a Penetrable Homogeneous Body / 404 12.3 EFIE and MFIE / 406 12.4 T-Matrix Method (Extended Boundary Condition Method) / 408 12.5 Symmetry and Unitarity of the T-Matrix and the Scattering Matrix / 414 12.6 T-Matrix Solution for Scattering from Periodic Sinusoidal Surfaces / 416 12.7 Volume Integral Equations for Inhomogeneous Bodies: TM Case / 418 12.8 Volume Integral Equations for Inhomogeneous Bodies: TE Case / 423 12.9 Three-Dimensional Dielectric Bodies / 426 12.10 Electromagnetic Aperture Integral Equations for a Conducting Screen / 427 12.11 Small Apertures / 430 12.12 Babinet’s Principle and Slot and Wire Antennas / 433 12.13 Electromagnetic Diffraction by Slits and Ribbons / 439 12.14 Related Problems / 441 Problems / 441 13 Geometric Theory Of Diffraction And Lowfrequency Techniques 443 13.1 Geometric Theory of Diffraction / 444 13.2 Diffraction by a Slit for Dirichlet’s Problem / 447 13.3 Diffraction by a Slit for Neumann’s Problem and Slope Diffraction / 452 13.4 Uniform Geometric Theory of Diffraction for an Edge / 455 13.5 Edge Diffraction for a Point Source / 457 13.6 Wedge Diffraction for a Point Source / 461 13.7 Slope Diffraction and Grazing Incidence / 463 13.8 Curved Wedge / 463 13.9 Other High-Frequency Techniques / 465 13.10 Vertex and Surface Diffraction / 466 13.11 Low-Frequency Scattering / 467 Problems / 470 14 Planar Layers, Strip Lines, Patches, And Apertures 473 14.1 Excitation of Waves in a Dielectric Slab / 473 14.2 Excitation of Waves in a Vertically Inhomogeneous Medium / 481 14.3 Strip Lines / 485 14.4 Waves Excited by Electric and Magnetic Currents Perpendicular to Dielectric Layers / 492 14.5 Waves Excited by Transverse Electric and Magnetic Currents in Dielectric Layers / 496 14.6 Strip Lines Embedded in Dielectric Layers / 500 14.7 Periodic Patches and Apertures Embedded in Dielectric Layers / 502 Problems / 506 15 Radiation From A Dipole On The Conducting Earth 509 15.1 Sommerfeld Dipole Problem / 509 15.2 Vertical Electric Dipole Located Above the Earth / 510 15.3 Reflected Waves in Air / 514 15.4 Radiation Field: Saddle-Point Technique / 517 15.5 Field Along the Surface and the Singularities of the Integrand / 519 15.6 Sommerfeld Pole and Zenneck Wave / 521 15.7 Solution to the Sommerfeld Problem / 524 15.8 Lateral Waves: Branch Cut Integration / 528 15.9 Refracted Wave / 536 15.10 Radiation from a Horizontal Dipole / 538 15.11 Radiation in Layered Media / 541 15.12 Geometric Optical Representation / 545 15.13 Mode and Lateral Wave Representation / 549 Problems / 550 Part II Applications 553 16 Inverse Scattering 555 16.1 Radon Transform and Tomography / 555 16.2 Alternative Inverse Radon Transform in Terms of the Hilbert Transform / 559 16.3 Diffraction Tomography / 561 16.4 Physical Optics Inverse Scattering / 567 16.5 Holographic Inverse Source Problem / 570 16.6 Inverse Problems and Abel’s Integral Equation Applied to Probing of the Ionosphere / 572 16.7 Radar Polarimetry and Radar Equation / 575 16.8 Optimization of Polarization / 578 16.9 Stokes Vector Radar Equation and Polarization Signature / 580 16.10 Measurement of Stokes Parameter / 582 Problems / 584 17 Radiometry, Noise Temperature, And Interferometry 587 17.1 Radiometry / 587 17.2 Brightness and Flux Density / 588 17.3 Blackbody Radiation and Antenna Temperature / 589 17.4 Equation of Radiative Transfer / 592 17.5 Scattering Cross Sections and Absorptivity and Emissivity of a Surface / 594 17.6 System Temperature / 598 17.7 Minimum Detectable Temperature / 600 17.8 Radar Range Equation / 601 17.9 Aperture Illumination and Brightness Distributions / 602 17.10 Two-Antenna Interferometer / 604 Problems / 607 18 Stochastic Wave Theories 611 18.1 Stochastic Wave Equations and Statistical Wave Theories / 612 18.2 Scattering in Troposphere, Ionosphere, and Atmospheric Optics / 612 18.3 Turbid Medium, Radiative Transfer, and Reciprocity / 612 18.4 Stochastic Sommerfeld Problem, Seismic Coda, and Subsurface Imaging / 613 18.5 Stochastic Green’s Function and Stochastic Boundary Problems / 615 18.6 Channel Capacity of Communication Systems with Random Media Mutual Coherence Function / 619 18.7 Integration of Statistical Waves with Other Disciplines / 621 18.8 Some Accounts of Historical Development of Statistical Wave Theories / 622 19 Geophysical Remote Sensing And Imaging 625 19.1 Polarimetric Radar / 626 19.2 Scattering Models for Geophysical Medium and Decomposition Theorem / 630 19.3 Polarimetric Weather Radar / 632 19.4 Nonspherical Raindrops and Differential Reflectivity / 634 19.5 Propagation Constant in Randomly Distributed Nonspherical Particles / 636 19.6 Vector Radiative Transfer Theory / 638 19.7 Space–Time Radiative Transfer / 639 19.8 Wigner Distribution Function and Specific Intensity / 641 19.9 Stokes Vector Emissivity from Passive Surface and Ocean Wind Directions / 644 19.10 Van Cittert–Zernike Theorem Applied to Aperture Synthesis Radiometers Including Antenna Temperature / 646 19.11 Ionospheric Effects on SAR Image / 650 20 Biomedical Em, Optics, And Ultrasound 657 20.1 Bioelectromagnetics / 658 20.2 Bio-EM and Heat Diffusion in Tissues / 659 20.3 Bio-Optics, Optical Absorption and Scattering in Blood / 663 20.4 Optical Diffusion in Tissues / 666 20.5 Photon Density Waves / 670 20.6 Optical Coherence Tomography and Low Coherence Interferometry / 672 20.7 Ultrasound Scattering and Imaging of Tissues / 677 20.8 Ultrasound in Blood / 680 21 Waves In Metamaterials And Plasmon 685 21.1 Refractive Index n and μ–ε Diagram / 686 21.2 Plane Waves, Energy Relations, and Group Velocity / 688 21.3 Split-Ring Resonators / 689 21.4 Generalized Constitutive Relations for Metamaterials / 692 21.5 Space–Time Wave Packet Incident on Dispersive Metamaterial and Negative Refraction / 697 21.6 Backward Lateral Waves and Backward Surface Waves / 701 21.7 Negative Goos–Hanchen Shift / 704 21.8 Perfect Lens, Subwavelength Focusing, and Evanescent Waves / 708 21.9 Brewster’s Angle in NIM and Acoustic Brewster’s Angle / 712 21.10 Transformation Electromagnetics and Invisible Cloak / 716 21.11 Surface Flattening Coordinate Transform / 720 22 Time-Reversal Imaging 723 22.1 Time-Reversal Mirror in Free Space / 724 22.2 Super Resolution of Time-Reversed Pulse in Multiple Scattering Medium / 729 22.3 Time-Reversal Imaging of Single and Multiple Targets and DORT (Decomposition of Time- eversal Operator) / 731 22.4 Time-Reversal Imaging of Targets in Free Space / 735 22.5 Time-Reversal Imaging and SVD (Singular Value Decomposition) / 739 22.6 Time-Reversal Imaging with MUSIC (Multiple Signal Classification) / 739 22.7 Optimum Power Transfer by Time-Reversal Technique / 740 23 Scattering By Turbulence, Particles, Diffuse Medium, And Rough Surfaces 743 23.1 Scattering by Atmospheric and Ionospheric Turbulence / 743 23.2 Scattering Cross Section per Unit Volume of Turbulence / 746 23.3 Scattering for a Narrow Beam Case / 748 23.4 Scattering Cross Section Per Unit Volume of Rain and Fog / 750 23.5 Gaussian and Henyey–Greenstein Scattering Formulas / 751 23.6 Scattering Cross Section Per Unit Volume of Turbulence, Particles, and Biological Media / 752 23.7 Line-of-Sight Propagation, Born and Rytov Approximation / 753 23.8 Modified Rytov Solution with Power Conservation, and Mutual Coherence Function / 754 23.9 MCF for Line-of-Sight Wave Propagation in Turbulence / 756 23.10 Correlation Distance and Angular Spectrum / 759 23.11 Coherence Time and Spectral Broadening / 760 23.12 Pulse Propagation, Coherence Bandwidth, and Pulse Broadening / 761 23.13 Weak and Strong Fluctuations and Scintillation Index / 762 23.14 Rough Surface Scattering, Perturbation Solution, Transition Operator / 765 23.15 Scattering by Rough Interfaces Between Two Media / 771 23.16 Kirchhoff Approximation of Rough Surface Scattering / 774 23.17 Frequency and Angular Correlation of Scattered Waves from Rough Surfaces and Memory Effects / 779 24 Coherence In Multiple Scattering And Diagram Method 785 24.1 Enhanced Radar Cross Section in Turbulence / 786 24.2 Enhanced Backscattering from Rough Surfaces / 787 24.3 Enhanced Backscattering from Particles and Photon Localization / 789 24.4 Multiple Scattering Formulations, the Dyson and Bethe–Salpeter Equations / 791 24.5 First-Order Smoothing Approximation / 793 24.6 First- and Second-Order Scattering and Backscattering Enhancement / 794 24.7 Memory Effects / 795 25 Solitons And Optical Fibers 797 25.1 History / 797 25.2 KDV (Korteweg–De Vries) Equation for Shallow Water / 799 25.3 Optical Solitons in Fibers / 802 26 Porous Media, Permittivity, Fluid Permeability Of Shales And Seismic Coda 807 26.1 Porous Medium and Shale, Superfracking / 808 26.2 Permittivity and Conductivity of Porous Media, Archie’s Law, and Percolation and Fractal / 809 26.3 Fluid Permeability and Darcy’s Law / 811 26.4 Seismic Coda, P-Wave, S-Wave, and Rayleigh Surface Wave / 812 26.5 Earthquake Magnitude Scales / 813 26.6 Waveform Envelope Broadening and Coda / 814 26.7 Coda in Heterogeneous Earth Excited by an Impulse Source / 815 26.8 S-wave Coda and Rayleigh Surface Wave / 819 Appendices 821 References 913 Index 929

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Book SynopsisWith the growth in renewable energy (RE) generation installed capacity, many countries such as the UK are relying on higher levels of RE generation to meet targets for reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In the face of this, the integration issue is now of increasing concern, in particular to system operators.Table of ContentsForeword xv Preface to the First Edition xix Preface to the Second Edition xxi Acknowledgements xxiii About the Companion Website xxv 1 Energy and Electricity 1 1.1 The World Energy Scene 1 1.1.1 History 1 1.1.2 World Energy Consumption 1 1.1.3 Finite Resources 2 1.1.4 Energy Security and Disparity of Use 3 1.2 The Environmental Impact of Energy Use 4 1.2.1 The Problem 4 1.2.2 The Science 5 1.2.3 The Kyoto Protocol 7 1.2.4 Economics of Mitigation 10 1.2.5 Efficient Energy Use 11 1.2.6 The Electricity Sector 14 1.2.7 Possible Solutions and Sustainability 15 1.3 Generating Electricity 16 1.3.1 Conversion from Other Energy Forms – The Importance of Efficiency 16 1.3.2 The Nuclear Path 17 1.3.3 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 17 1.3.4 Renewables 18 1.4 The Electrical Power System 20 1.4.1 Structure of the Electrical Power System 20 1.4.2 Integrating Renewables into Power Systems 23 1.4.3 Distributed Generation 23 1.4.4 Renewable Energy Penetration 24 1.4.5 Network Stability 25 References 25 2 Features of Conventional and Renewable Generation 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Conventional Sources: Coal, Gas and Nuclear 28 2.3 Hydroelectric Power 29 2.3.1 Large-Scale Hydro 30 2.3.2 Small Hydro 31 2.3.2.1 Turbine Designs 32 2.4 Wind Power 33 2.4.1 The Resource 33 2.4.2 Wind Variability 34 2.4.3 Wind Turbines 37 2.4.4 Power Variability 40 2.4.4.1 Variability from Second to Second 40 2.4.4.2 Variability from Minute to Minute 41 2.4.4.3 Variability from Hour to Hour and from Day-to-Day 41 2.4.4.4 Seasonal Variability 42 2.4.5 Offshore Wind 42 2.5 PV and Solar Thermal Electricity 47 2.5.1 The Resource 47 2.5.2 The Technology 49 2.5.3 Photovoltaic Systems 49 2.5.4 Solar Thermal Electric Systems 52 2.6 Tidal Power 54 2.6.1 The Resource 54 2.6.2 Tidal Enhancement 54 2.6.2.1 Funnelling 54 2.6.2.2 Resonance 55 2.6.2.3 Coriolis Effect 55 2.6.3 Tidal Barrages 55 2.6.4 Operational Strategies 55 2.6.4.1 Power Variability 56 2.6.5 Tidal Current Schemes 57 2.7 Wave Power 59 2.7.1 The Resource 59 2.7.2 The Technology 59 2.7.3 Variability 60 2.8 Biomass 62 2.8.1 The Resource 62 2.8.2 Resource Sustainability 62 2.9 Summary of Power Generation Characteristics 63 2.10 Combining Sources 64 References 65 3 Power Balance/Frequency Control 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.1.1 The Power Balance Issue 67 3.2 Electricity Demand 68 3.2.1 Demand Curves 68 3.2.2 Load Aggregation 69 3.2.3 Demand-Side Management – Deferrable Loads 70 3.3 Power Governing 71 3.3.1 Power Conversion Chain 71 3.3.2 Governor Steady State Characteristics 72 3.3.3 Parallel Operation of Two Generators 73 3.3.4 A Multi-Generator System 74 3.3.5 The Steady State Power–Frequency Relationship 75 3.4 Dynamic Frequency Control of Large Systems 76 3.4.1 Demand Matching 76 3.4.2 Demand Forecasting 77 3.4.3 Frequency Limits 79 3.4.4 Generation Scheduling and Reserve 79 3.4.5 Frequency Control at Different Timescales 80 3.4.6 Meeting Demand and Ensuring Reliability 82 3.4.7 Capacity Factor and Capacity Credit 83 3.5 Impact of Renewable Generation on Frequency Control and Reliability 84 3.5.1 Introduction 84 3.5.2 Aggregation of Sources 85 3.5.2.1 The Monthly Distribution of Power Availability 85 3.5.2.2 The Daily Distribution of Power Availability 85 3.5.2.3 Short Term Variability 86 3.5.2.4 The Capacity Factor 86 3.5.3 Value of Energy from the Wind 88 3.5.4 Impact on Balancing 88 3.5.5 Impact on Reliability 90 3.5.6 Discarded/Curtailed Energy 91 3.5.7 Overall Penalties Due to Increasing Penetration 92 3.5.8 Combining Different Renewable Sources 92 3.5.9 Differences Between Electricity Systems 93 3.5.10 Limits of Penetration from Non-Dispatchable Sources 94 3.6 Frequency Response Services from Renewables 96 3.6.1.1 Wind Power 96 3.6.1.2 Biofuels 100 3.6.1.3 Waterpower 100 3.6.1.4 Photovoltaics 100 3.7 Frequency Control Modelling 101 3.7.1 Background 101 3.7.1.1 Modelling a Generator 101 3.7.1.2 Modelling Released Demand 102 3.7.1.3 Modelling the Grid’s Inertial Energy Store 102 3.7.2 A Modelling Example 103 3.8 Energy Storage 105 3.8.1 Introduction 105 3.8.2 Storage Devices 106 3.8.3 Dynamic Demand Control 108 References 111 Further Reading 113 4 Electrical Power Generation and Conditioning 115 4.1 The Conversion of Renewable Energy into Electrical Form 115 4.2 The Synchronous Generator 116 4.2.1 Construction and Mode of Operation 116 4.2.2 The Rotating Magnetic Field 119 4.2.3 Synchronous Generator Operation When Grid Connected 120 4.2.4 The Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuit 122 4.2.5 Power Transfer Equations 123 4.2.6 Three-Phase Equations 124 4.2.7 Four-Quadrant Operation 125 4.2.8 Power–Load Angle Characteristic 125 4.3 The Transformer 126 4.3.1 Transformer Basics 126 4.3.2 The Transformer Equivalent Circuit 128 4.3.3 Further Details on Transformers 129 4.4 The Asynchronous Generator 130 4.4.1 Construction and Properties 130 4.4.2 The Induction Machine Equivalent Circuit 132 4.4.3 The Induction Machine Efficiency 134 4.4.4 The Induction Machine Speed-Torque Characteristic 134 4.4.5 Induction Generator Reactive Power 137 4.4.6 Comparison Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Generators 137 4.5 Power Electronics 139 4.5.1 Introduction 139 4.5.2 Power-Semiconductor Devices 139 4.5.2.1 Diodes 139 4.5.2.2 Thyristors 139 4.5.2.3 Transistors 140 4.5.3 Diode Bridge Rectifier 141 4.5.4 Harmonics 142 4.5.5 The Thyristor Bridge Converter 143 4.5.6 The Transistor Bridge 145 4.5.6.1 Basic Square Wave 146 4.5.6.2 Quasi-Sine Wave (Modified Square Wave) 146 4.5.6.3 Pulse-Width Modulation 146 4.5.6.4 Comparison of Switching Methods 148 4.5.6.5 Output Control in a Grid-Connected Inverter 148 4.5.6.6 The Three-Phase Bridge 149 4.5.7 Converter Internal Control Systems 149 4.5.8 DC–DC Converters 150 4.5.8.1 Step-Down DC–DC Converter 150 4.5.8.2 Step-Up DC–DC Converter 150 4.5.9 Multi-Level Converters 151 4.5.10 Matrix Converters 151 4.5.11 Z-Source Converters 151 4.6 Applications to Renewable Energy Generators 152 4.6.1 Applications to PV Systems 152 4.6.1.1 PV System Characteristics 152 4.6.1.2 Basic Grid-Connected PV Inverter 153 4.6.1.3 Transformerless Grid-Connected PV Inverter 153 4.6.1.4 PV Inverter Using a High-Frequency Transformer 154 4.6.1.5 PV Inverter Using a Steering Bridge 154 4.6.1.6 PV Inverters for Stand-Alone Operation 155 4.6.2 Applications to Wind Power 155 4.6.2.1 Fixed Versus Variable Speed – Energy Capture [4] 155 4.6.2.2 Fixed Versus Variable Speed – Dynamics 156 4.6.3 Synchronous Generator Supplying an Autonomous Network 157 4.6.3.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines 157 4.6.3.2 Variable Slip Wind Turbines 158 4.6.4 The Principle of Slip Energy Recovery 159 4.6.4.1 DFIG Wind Turbines 160 4.6.4.2 Wind Turbines with Full Converters 162 4.6.5 Synchronous Generators in Wind Turbines 162 4.6.6 Gearless Wind Turbines 163 4.6.7 Hybrid Drive Train Designs 164 4.6.8 DC Transmission for Wind 165 4.7 Applications to Small Scale Hydro 166 4.8 Applications to Tidal Stream Turbines 167 References 168 5 Power-System Analysis 171 5.1 Introduction 171 5.2 The Transmission System 171 5.2.1 Single-Phase Representation 173 5.2.2 Transmission and Distribution Systems 173 5.2.3 Example Networks 174 5.3 Voltage Control 176 5.4 Power Flow in an Individual Section of Line 178 5.4.1 Electrical Characteristics of Lines and Cables 178 5.4.2 Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit 178 5.4.3 Voltage Drop Calculation 179 5.4.4 Simplifications and Conclusions 180 5.5 Reactive Power Management 181 5.5.1 Reactive Power Compensation Equipment 182 5.5.1.1 Tap Changers and Voltage Regulators 182 5.5.1.2 AVRs 183 5.5.1.3 Static Compensators 184 5.5.1.4 FACTS 184 5.5.1.5 RE Generator Interfaces 184 5.6 Load-Flow and Power-System Simulation 184 5.6.1 Uses of Load Flow 184 5.6.2 A Particular Case 185 5.6.3 Network Data 186 5.6.4 Load/Generation Data 186 5.6.4.1 Time Dependence 186 5.6.4.2 Types of Nodes (Buses) 187 5.6.5 The Load-Flow Calculations 188 5.6.6 Results 189 5.6.7 Unbalanced Load-Flow 189 5.7 Faults and Protection 190 5.7.1 Short-Circuit Fault Currents 191 5.7.2 Symmetrical Three-Phase Fault Current 191 5.7.3 Fault Currents in General 191 5.7.4 Fault Level (Short-Circuit Level) –Weak Grids 192 5.7.5 Thévenin Equivalent Circuit 193 5.8 Time Varying and Dynamic Simulations 193 5.9 Power-System Stability 194 5.9.1 Equal Area Stability Criterion 195 5.9.2 Power-System Stabilisers 196 5.10 Dynamic Line Rating 196 5.11 Reliability Analysis 197 References 197 6 Renewable Energy Generation in Power Systems 199 6.1 Distributed Generation 199 6.1.1 Introduction 199 6.1.2 Point of Common Coupling (PCC) 200 6.1.3 Connection Voltage 200 6.2 Voltage Effects 201 6.2.1 Steady State Voltage Rise 201 6.2.2 Automatic Voltage Control – Tap Changers 202 6.2.3 Active and Reactive Power from Renewable Energy Generators 203 6.2.4 Example Load Flow 204 6.3 Thermal Limits 207 6.3.1 Overhead Lines and Cables 207 6.3.2 Transformers 208 6.4 Other Embedded Generation Issues 208 6.4.1 Flicker, Voltage Steps and Dips 208 6.4.1.1 Flicker 208 6.4.1.2 Steps and Dips 209 6.4.2 Harmonics/Distortion 209 6.4.3 Phase Voltage Imbalance 210 6.4.4 Network Reinforcement 211 6.4.5 Network Losses 211 6.4.6 Fault Level Increase 211 6.5 Islanding 212 6.5.1 Introduction 212 6.5.2 Loss-of-Mains Protection for Rotating Machines 213 6.5.3 Loss-of-Mains Protection for Inverters 213 6.6 Fault Ride-Through 214 6.7 Generator and Converter Characteristics 215 References 216 7 Power System Economics and the Electricity Market 219 7.1 Introduction 219 7.2 The Costs of Electricity Generation 219 7.2.1 Capital and Running Costs of Renewable and Conventional Generation Plant 219 7.2.2 Total Generation Costs 221 7.3 Economic Optimisation in Power Systems 221 7.3.1 Diversity of Generator Characteristics in a Power System 221 7.3.2 Optimum Economic Dispatch 221 7.3.3 Equal Incremental Cost Dispatch 224 7.3.4 OED with Several Units and Generation Limits 225 7.3.5 Costs on a Level Playing Field 228 7.4 External Costs 229 7.4.1 Introduction 229 7.4.2 Types of External Cost 230 7.4.3 The Kyoto Protocol and Subsequent Agreements 231 7.4.4 Costing Pollution 233 7.5 Effects of Embedded Generation 234 7.5.1 Value of Energy At Various Points of the Network 234 7.5.2 An Example Cash-Flow Analysis 235 7.5.3 Value of Embedded Generation – Regional and Local Issues 237 7.5.4 Capacity Credit 238 7.5.5 Summary 241 7.6 Support Mechanisms for Renewable Energy 241 7.6.1 Introduction 241 7.6.2 Feed-in Law 242 7.6.3 Quota System 242 7.6.3.1 Renewables Obligation (RO) 242 7.6.3.2 Contract for Difference (CFD) 243 7.6.4 Carbon Tax 243 7.6.4.1 Climate Change Levy 243 7.6.4.2 Eco-Tax Reform 243 7.6.4.3 Tax Relief 244 7.7 Electricity Markets 244 7.7.1 Introduction 244 7.7.2 The UK Electricity Supply Industry 244 7.7.2.1 The State-Owned Central Electricity-Generating Board 244 7.7.2.2 The Electricity Pool 244 7.7.2.3 The Operation of the Pool and Pool Rules 245 7.7.2.4 Hedging 246 7.7.2.5 Electricity Market Reform (EMR) 247 7.7.2.6 Ancillary Services 247 7.7.2.7 Marketing Green Electricity 248 References 248 8 The Future – Towards a Sustainable Electricity Supply System 249 8.1 Introduction 249 8.2 The Future of Wind Power 251 8.2.1 Large Wind Turbines 251 8.2.2 Offshore Wind Farm Development 254 8.2.2.1 Electrical Integration 256 8.2.2.2 DC Transmission for Wind 257 8.2.2.3 Innovative Collector Systems 257 8.2.2.4 A Proposed European DC Supergrid 257 8.2.2.5 Smarter Wind Farms 260 8.2.3 Building Integrated Wind Turbines 262 8.3 The Future of Solar Power 264 8.3.1 PV Technology Development 264 8.3.1.1 Different Deployment Options 265 8.3.2 Solar Thermal Electric Systems 267 8.4 The Future of Biofuels 268 8.5 Geothermal Power 271 8.6 The Future of Hydro and Marine Power 271 8.7 The Shape of Future Networks 272 8.7.1 Transmission System Evolution 273 8.7.2 Low Inertia Power Systems 275 8.7.3 Distribution Network Evolution 276 8.7.3.1 Active Networks 277 8.7.4 Problems Associated with Distributed Generation 278 8.7.4.1 Fault Levels 278 8.7.4.2 Voltage Levels 278 8.7.4.3 Network Security 279 8.7.4.4 Network Stability 279 8.7.5 Options to Ameliorate the Technical Difficulties 279 8.7.5.1 Planning Standards 279 8.7.5.2 Using Power Electronics Technology 279 8.7.5.3 Islanding 280 8.7.5.4 Dynamic Loads 280 8.7.5.5 Demand-Side Management of Loads 281 8.7.5.6 Storage 282 8.7.5.7 Microgrids 282 8.7.5.8 Virtual Power Stations 283 8.8 Conclusions 283 References 285 Appendix A Basic Electric Power Engineering Concepts 289 A.1 Introduction 289 A.2 Generators and Consumers of Energy 289 A.3 Why AC? 291 A.4 AC Waveforms 291 A.5 Response of Circuit Components to AC 292 A.5.1 Resistance 292 A.5.2 Inductance 293 A.5.3 Capacitance 295 A.6 Phasors 296 A.7 Phasor Addition 297 A.8 Rectangular Notation 298 A.9 Reactance and Impedance 300 A.9.1 Resistance 300 A.9.2 Inductance 301 A.9.3 Capacitance 301 A.9.4 Impedance 301 A.10 Power in AC Circuits 302 A.11 Reactive Power 304 A.12 Complex Power 305 A.13 Conservation of Active and Reactive Power 306 A.14 Effects of Reactive Power Flow – Power Factor Correction 307 A.15 Three-Phase AC 308 A.16 The Thévenin Equivalent Circuit 310 Reference 311 Index 313

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Book SynopsisPWM DC-DC power converter technology underpins many energy conversion systems including renewable energy circuits, active power factor correctors, battery chargers, portable devices and LED drivers. Following the success of Pulse-Width Modulated DC-DC Power Converters this second edition has been thoroughly revised and expanded to cover the latest challenges and advances in the field. Key features of 2nd edition: Four new chapters, detailing the latest advances in power conversion, focus on: small-signal model and dynamic characteristics of the buck converter in continuous conduction mode; voltage-mode control of buck converter; small-signal model and characteristics of the boost converter in the discontinuous conduction mode and electromagnetic compatibility EMC. Provides readers with a solid understanding of the principles of operation, synthesis, analysis and design of PWM power converters and semiconductor power devices, includinTable of ContentsAbout the Author xxi Preface xxiii Nomenclature xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Classification of Power Supplies 1 1.2 Basic Functions of Voltage Regulators 3 1.3 Power Relationships in DC–DC Converters 4 1.4 DC Transfer Functions of DC–DC Converters 5 1.5 Static Characteristics of DC Voltage Regulators 6 1.6 Dynamic Characteristics of DC Voltage Regulators 9 1.7 Linear Voltage Regulators 12 1.7.1 Series Voltage Regulator 13 1.7.2 Shunt Voltage Regulator 14 1.8 Topologies of PWM DC–DC Converters 16 1.9 Relationships Among Current, Voltage, Energy, and Power 18 1.10 Summary 19 References 19 Review Questions 20 Problems 21 2 Buck PWM DC–DC Converter 22 2.1 Introduction 22 2.2 DC Analysis of PWM Buck Converter for CCM 22 2.2.1 Circuit Description 22 2.2.2 Assumptions 25 2.2.3 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 25 2.2.4 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T 26 2.2.5 Device Stresses for CCM 27 2.2.6 DC Voltage Transfer Function for CCM 27 2.2.7 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 29 2.2.8 Capacitors 31 2.2.9 Ripple Voltage in Buck Converter for CCM 33 2.2.10 Switching Losses with Linear MOSFET Output Capacitance 39 2.2.11 Switching Losses with Nonlinear MOSFET Output Capacitance 40 2.2.12 Power Losses and Efficiency of Buck Converter for CCM 43 2.2.13 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Converter for CCM 48 2.2.14 MOSFET Gate-Drive Power 48 2.2.15 Gate Driver 49 2.2.16 Design of Buck Converter for CCM 50 2.3 DC Analysis of PWM Buck Converter for DCM 52 2.3.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 56 2.3.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ (D + D1)T 58 2.3.3 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T 58 2.3.4 Device Stresses for DCM 59 2.3.5 DC Voltage Transfer Function for DCM 59 2.3.6 Maximum Inductance for DCM 62 2.3.7 Power Losses and Efficiency of Buck Converter for DCM 63 2.3.8 Design of Buck Converter for DCM 65 2.4 Buck Converter with Input Filter 68 2.5 Buck Converter with Synchronous Rectifier 68 2.6 Buck Converter with Positive Common Rail 76 2.7 Quadratic Buck Converter 76 2.8 Tapped-Inductor Buck Converters 79 2.8.1 Tapped-Inductor Common-Diode Buck Converter 79 2.8.2 Tapped-Inductor Common-Transistor Buck Converter 81 2.8.3 Watkins–Johnson Converter 82 2.9 Multiphase Buck Converter 83 2.10 Switched-Inductor Buck Converter 85 2.11 Layout 85 2.12 Summary 85 References 87 Review Questions 88 Problems 88 3 Boost PWM DC–DC Converter 90 3.1 Introduction 90 3.2 DC Analysis of PWM Boost Converter for CCM 90 3.2.1 Circuit Description 90 3.2.2 Assumptions 91 3.2.3 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 93 3.2.4 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T 94 3.2.5 DC Voltage Transfer Function for CCM 94 3.2.6 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 95 3.2.7 Ripple Voltage in Boost Converter for CCM 98 3.2.8 Power Losses and Efficiency of Boost Converter for CCM 100 3.2.9 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Boost Converter for CCM 102 3.2.10 Design of Boost Converter for CCM 103 3.3 DC Analysis of PWM Boost Converter for DCM 107 3.3.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 110 3.3.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ (D + D1)T 111 3.3.3 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T 112 3.3.4 Device Stresses for DCM 112 3.3.5 DC Voltage Transfer Function for DCM 112 3.3.6 Maximum Inductance for DCM 117 3.3.7 Power Losses and Efficiency of Boost Converter for DCM 117 3.3.8 Design of Boost Converter for DCM 120 3.4 Bidirectional Buck and Boost Converters 127 3.5 Synchronous Boost Converter 129 3.6 Tapped-Inductor Boost Converters 129 3.6.1 Tapped-Inductor Common-Diode Boost Converter 131 3.6.2 Tapped-Inductor Common-Load Boost Converter 132 3.7 Duality 133 3.8 Power Factor Correction 134 3.8.1 Power Factor 134 3.8.2 Boost Power Factor Corrector 138 3.8.3 Electronic Ballasts for Fluorescent Lamps 141 3.9 Summary 141 References 142 Review Questions 143 Problems 143 4 Buck–Boost PWM DC–DC Converter 145 4.1 Introduction 145 4.2 DC Analysis of PWM Buck–Boost Converter for CCM 145 4.2.1 Circuit Description 145 4.2.2 Assumptions 146 4.2.3 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 146 4.2.4 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T 148 4.2.5 DC Voltage Transfer Function for CCM 149 4.2.6 Device Stresses for CCM 150 4.2.7 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 151 4.2.8 Ripple Voltage in Buck–Boost Converter for CCM 152 4.2.9 Power Losses and Efficiency of the Buck–Boost Converter for CCM 155 4.2.10 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Buck–Boost Converter for CCM 158 4.2.11 Design of Buck–Boost Converter for CCM 159 4.3 DC Analysis of PWM Buck–Boost Converter for DCM 162 4.3.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 165 4.3.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ (D + D1)T 166 4.3.3 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T 167 4.3.4 Device Stresses of the Buck–Boost Converter in DCM 167 4.3.5 DC Voltage Transfer Function of the Buck–Boost Converter for DCM 167 4.3.6 Maximum Inductance for DCM 170 4.3.7 Power Losses and Efficiency of the Buck–Boost Converter in DCM 172 4.3.8 Design of Buck–Boost Converter for DCM 174 4.4 Bidirectional Buck–Boost Converter 180 4.5 Synthesis of Buck–Boost Converter 181 4.6 Synthesis of Boost–Buck (ćuk) Converter 183 4.7 Noninverting Buck–Boost Converters 184 4.7.1 Cascaded Noninverting Buck–Boost Converters 184 4.7.2 Four-Transistor Noninverting Buck–Boost Converters 184 4.8 Tapped-Inductor Buck–Boost Converters 186 4.8.1 Tapped-Inductor Common-Diode Buck–Boost Converter 186 4.8.2 Tapped-Inductor Common-Transistor Buck–Boost Converter 187 4.8.3 Tapped-Inductor Common-Load Buck–Boost Converter 188 4.8.4 Tapped-Inductor Common-Source Buck–Boost Converter 191 4.9 Summary 192 References 192 Review Questions 193 Problems 193 5 Flyback PWM DC–DC Converter 195 5.1 Introduction 195 5.2 Transformers 196 5.3 DC Analysis of PWM Flyback Converter for CCM 197 5.3.1 Derivation of PWM Flyback Converter 197 5.3.2 Circuit Description 197 5.3.3 Assumptions 199 5.3.4 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 200 5.3.5 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T 201 5.3.6 DC Voltage Transfer Function for CCM 203 5.3.7 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 204 5.3.8 Ripple Voltage in Flyback Converter for CCM 205 5.3.9 Power Losses and Efficiency of Flyback Converter for CCM 207 5.3.10 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Converter for CCM 210 5.3.11 Design of Flyback Converter for CCM 211 5.4 DC Analysis of PWM Flyback Converter for DCM 214 5.4.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 217 5.4.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ (D + D1)T 219 5.4.3 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T 220 5.4.4 DC Voltage Transfer Function for DCM 221 5.4.5 Maximum Magnetizing Inductance for DCM 222 5.4.6 Ripple Voltage in Flyback Converter for DCM 225 5.4.7 Power Losses and Efficiency of Flyback Converter for DCM 226 5.4.8 Design of Flyback Converter for DCM 228 5.5 Multiple-Output Flyback Converter 232 5.6 Bidirectional Flyback Converter 237 5.7 Ringing in Flyback Converter 237 5.8 Flyback Converter with Passive Dissipative Snubber 240 5.9 Flyback Converter with Zener Diode Voltage Clamp 240 5.10 Flyback Converter with Active Clamping 241 5.11 Two-Transistor Flyback Converter 241 5.12 Summary 243 References 244 Review Questions 244 Problems 245 6 Forward PWM DC–DC Converter 246 6.1 Introduction 246 6.2 DC Analysis of PWM Forward Converter for CCM 246 6.2.1 Derivation of Forward PWM Converter 246 6.2.2 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 248 6.2.3 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ DT + tm 251 6.2.4 Time Interval: DT + tm < t ≤ T 253 6.2.5 Maximum Duty Cycle 253 6.2.6 Device Stresses 254 6.2.7 DC Voltage Transfer Function for CCM 255 6.2.8 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 255 6.2.9 Ripple Voltage in Forward Converter for CCM 256 6.2.10 Power Losses and Efficiency of Forward Converter for CCM 258 6.2.11 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Converter for CCM 261 6.2.12 Design of Forward Converter for CCM 262 6.3 DC Analysis of PWM Forward Converter for DCM 269 6.3.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 269 6.3.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ DT + tm 272 6.3.3 Time Interval: DT + tm < t ≤ (D + D1)T 273 6.3.4 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T 273 6.3.5 DC Voltage Transfer Function for DCM 274 6.3.6 Maximum Inductance for DCM 277 6.3.7 Power Losses and Efficiency of Forward Converter for DCM 278 6.3.8 Design of Forward Converter for DCM 280 6.4 Multiple-Output Forward Converter 288 6.5 Forward Converter with Synchronous Rectifier 288 6.6 Forward Converters with Active Clamping 288 6.7 Two-Switch Forward Converter 290 6.8 Forward–Flyback Converter 291 6.9 Summary 292 References 293 Review Questions 293 Problems 294 7 Half-Bridge PWM DC–DC Converter 296 7.1 Introduction 296 7.2 DC Analysis of PWM Half-Bridge Converter for CCM 296 7.2.1 Circuit Description 296 7.2.2 Assumptions 299 7.2.3 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 299 7.2.4 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T∕2 301 7.2.5 Time Interval: T∕2 < t ≤ T∕2 + DT 303 7.2.6 Time Interval: T∕2 + DT < t ≤ T 304 7.2.7 Device Stresses 304 7.2.8 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossless Half-Bridge Converter for CCM 304 7.2.9 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 305 7.2.10 Ripple Voltage in Half-Bridge Converter for CCM 306 7.2.11 Power Losses and Efficiency of Half-Bridge Converter for CCM 308 7.2.12 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Converter for CCM 311 7.2.13 Design of Half-Bridge Converter for CCM 312 7.3 DC Analysis of PWM Half-Bridge Converter for DCM 315 7.3.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 315 7.3.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ (D + D1)T 320 7.3.3 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T∕2 322 7.3.4 DC Voltage Transfer Function for DCM 322 7.3.5 Maximum Inductance for DCM 326 7.4 Summary 326 References 327 Review Questions 327 Problems 328 8 Full-Bridge PWM DC–DC Converter 330 8.1 Introduction 330 8.2 DC Analysis of PWM Full-Bridge Converter for CCM 330 8.2.1 Circuit Description 330 8.2.2 Assumptions 332 8.2.3 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 332 8.2.4 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T∕2 334 8.2.5 Time Interval: T∕2 < t ≤ T∕2 + DT 336 8.2.6 Time Interval: T∕2 + DT < t ≤ T 336 8.2.7 Device Stresses 337 8.2.8 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossless Full-Wave Converter for CCM 337 8.2.9 Boundary Between CCM and DCM 338 8.2.10 Ripple Voltage in Full-Bridge Converter for CCM 339 8.2.11 Power Losses and Efficiency of Full-Bridge Converter for CCM 340 8.2.12 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Converter for CCM 344 8.2.13 Design of Full-Bridge Converter for CCM 345 8.3 DC Analysis of PWM Full-Bridge Converter for DCM 351 8.3.1 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 351 8.3.2 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ (D + D1)T 353 8.3.3 Time Interval: (D + D1)T < t ≤ T∕2 355 8.3.4 DC Voltage Transfer Function for DCM 356 8.3.5 Maximum Inductance for DCM 359 8.4 Phase-Controlled Full-Bridge Converter 361 8.5 Summary 362 References 362 Review Questions 362 Problems 363 9 Small-Signal Models of PWM Converters for CCM and DCM 365 9.1 Introduction 365 9.2 Assumptions 366 9.3 Averaged Model of Ideal Switching Network for CCM 366 9.4 Averaged Values of Switched Resistances 369 9.5 Model Reduction 375 9.6 Large-Signal Averaged Model for CCM 377 9.7 DC and Small-Signal Circuit Linear Models of Switching Network for CCM 381 9.7.1 Large-Signal Circuit Model of Switching Network for CCM 381 9.7.2 Linearization of Switching Network Model for CCM 384 9.8 Block Diagram of Small-signal Model of PWM DC–DC Converters 385 9.9 Family of PWM Converter Models for CCM 386 9.10 PWM Small-Signal Switch Model for CCM 389 9.11 Modeling of Ideal Switching Network for DCM 391 9.11.1 Relationships Among DC Components for DCM 391 9.11.2 Small-Signal Model of Ideal Switching Network for DCM 395 9.12 Averaged Parasitic Resistances for DCM 398 9.13 Summary 400 References 402 Review Questions 405 Problems 405 10 Small-Signal Characteristics of Buck Converter for CCM 407 10.1 Introduction 407 10.2 Small-Signal Model of the PWM Buck Converter 407 10.3 Open-Loop Transfer Functions 408 10.3.1 Open-Loop Control-to-Output Transfer Function 409 10.3.2 Delay in Control-to-Output Transfer Function 416 10.3.3 Open-Loop Input-to-Output Transfer Function 418 10.3.4 Open-Loop Input Impedance 420 10.3.5 Open-Loop Output Impedance 423 10.4 Open-Loop Step Responses 426 10.4.1 Open-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Input Voltage 426 10.4.2 Open-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Duty Cycle 431 10.4.3 Open-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Load Current 433 10.5 Open-Loop DC Transfer Functions 434 10.6 Summary 436 References 436 Review Questions 437 Problems 438 11 Small-Signal Characteristics of Boost Converter for CCM 439 11.1 Introduction 439 11.2 DC Characteristics 439 11.3 Open-Loop Control-to-Output Transfer Function 440 11.4 Delay in Open-Loop Control-to-Output Transfer Function 449 11.5 Open-Loop Audio Susceptibility 451 11.6 Open-Loop Input Impedance 455 11.7 Open-Loop Output Impedance 457 11.8 Open-Loop Step Responses 461 11.8.1 Open-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Input Voltage 461 11.8.2 Open-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Duty Cycle 464 11.8.3 Open-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Load Current 465 11.9 Summary 467 References 467 Review Questions 468 Problems 468 12 Voltage-Mode Control of PWM Buck Converter 470 12.1 Introduction 470 12.2 Properties of Negative Feedback 471 12.3 Stability 474 12.4 Single-Loop Control of PWM Buck Converter 475 12.5 Closed-Loop Small-Signal Model of Buck Converter 478 12.6 Pulse-Width Modulator 478 12.7 Feedback Network 483 12.8 Transfer Function of Buck Converter with Modulator and Feedback Network 486 12.9 Control Circuits 489 12.9.1 Error Amplifier 489 12.9.2 Proportional Controller 490 12.9.3 Integral Controller 492 12.9.4 Proportional-Integral Controller 493 12.9.5 Integral-Single-Lead Controller 497 12.9.6 Loop Gain 504 12.9.7 Closed-Loop Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function 504 12.9.8 Closed-Loop Input-to-Output Transfer Function 506 12.9.9 Closed-Loop Input Impedance 508 12.9.10 Closed-Loop Output Impedance 509 12.10 Closed-Loop Step Responses 511 12.10.1 Response to Step Change in Input Voltage 511 12.10.2 Response to Step Change in Reference Voltage 513 12.10.3 Closed-Loop Response to Step Change in Load Current 515 12.10.4 Closed-Loop DC Transfer Functions 515 12.11 Summary 518 References 519 Review Questions 519 Problems 520 13 Voltage-Mode Control of Boost Converter 521 13.1 Introduction 521 13.2 Circuit of Boost Converter with Voltage-Mode Control 521 13.3 Transfer Function of Modulator, Boost Converter Power Stage, and Feedback Network 523 13.4 Integral-Double-Lead Controller 527 13.5 Design of Integral-Double-Lead Controller 532 13.6 Loop Gain 536 13.7 Closed-Loop Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function 537 13.8 Closed-Loop Audio Susceptibility 539 13.9 Closed-Loop Input Impedance 539 13.10 Closed-Loop Output Impedance 542 13.11 Closed-Loop Step Responses 544 13.11.1 Closed-Loop Response to Step Change in Input Voltage 544 13.11.2 Closed-Loop Response to Step Change in Reference Voltage 547 13.11.3 Closed-Loop Response to Step Change in Load Current 548 13.12 Closed-Loop DC Transfer Functions 549 13.13 Summary 552 References 552 Review Questions 552 Problems 553 14 Current-Mode Control 554 14.1 Introduction 554 14.2 Principle of Operation of PWM Converters with Peak CMC 555 14.3 Relationship Between Duty Cycle and Inductor-Current Slopes 559 14.4 Instability of Closed-Current Loop 560 14.5 Slope Compensation 564 14.5.1 Analysis of Slope Compensation in Time Domain 564 14.5.2 Boundary of Slope Compensation for Buck and Buck–Boost Converters 569 14.5.3 Boundary Slope Compensation for Boost Converter 570 14.6 Sample-and-Hold Effect on Current Loop 570 14.6.1 Natural Response of Inductor Current to Small Perturbation in Closed-Current Loop 572 14.6.2 Forced Response of Inductor Current to Step Change in Control Voltage in Closed-Current Loop 575 14.6.3 Relationship Between s-Domain and z-Domain 577 14.6.4 Transfer Function of Closed-Current Loop in z-Domain 578 14.7 Closed-Loop Control Voltage-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function in s-Domain 580 14.7.1 Approximation of Hicl by Rational Transfer Function 582 14.7.2 Step Responses of Closed-Inner Loop 588 14.8 Loop Gain of Current Loop 588 14.8.1 Loop Gain of Inner Loop in z-Domain 588 14.8.2 Loop Gain of Inner Loop in s-Domain 590 14.9 Gain-Crossover Frequency of Inner Loop 595 14.10 Phase Margin of Inner Loop 596 14.11 Maximum Duty Cycle for Converters without Slope Compensation 598 14.12 Maximum Duty Cycle for Converters with Slope Compensation 600 14.13 Minimum Slope Compensation for Buck and Buck–Boost Converter 605 14.14 Minimum Slope Compensation for Boost Converter 607 14.15 Error Voltage-to-Duty Cycle Transfer Function 610 14.16 Closed-Loop Control Voltage-to-Duty Cycle Transfer Function of Current Loop 614 14.17 Alternative Representation of Current Loop 618 14.18 Current Loop with Disturbances 618 14.18.1 Modified Approximation of Current Loop 619 14.19 Voltage Loop of PWM Converters with Current-Mode Control 624 14.19.1 Control-to-Output Transfer Function for Buck Converter 624 14.19.2 Block Diagram of Power Stages of PWM Converters 627 14.19.3 Closed-Voltage Loop Transfer Function of PWM Converters with Current-Mode Control 628 14.19.4 Closed-Loop Audio Susceptibility of PWM Converters with Current-Mode Control 628 14.19.5 Closed-Loop Output Impedance of PWM Converters with Current-Mode Control 630 14.20 Feedforward Gains in PWM Converters with Current-Mode Control without Slope Compensation 631 14.21 Feedforward Gains in PWM Converters with Current-Mode Control and Slope Compensation 634 14.22 Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function of Inner Loop with Feedforward Gains 636 14.23 Audio-Susceptibility of Inner Loop with Feedforward Gains 637 14.24 Closed-Loop Transfer Functions with Feedforward Gains 638 14.25 Slope Compensation by Adding a Ramp to Inductor Current Waveform 638 14.26 Relationships for Constant-Frequency Current-Mode On-Time Control 639 14.27 Summary 639 References 640 Review Questions 644 Problems 644 14.28 Appendix: Sample-and-Hold Modeling 645 14.28.1 Sampler of the Control Voltage 645 14.28.2 Zero-Order Hold of Inductor Current 648 14.28.3 Approximations of esTs 650 15 Current-Mode Control of Boost Converter 653 15.1 Introduction 653 15.2 Open-Loop Small-Signal Transfer Functions 653 15.2.1 Open-Loop Duty Cycle-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function 653 15.2.2 High-Frequency Open-Loop Duty Cycle-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function 659 15.2.3 Open-Loop Input Voltage-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function 660 15.2.4 Open-Loop Inductor-to-Output Current Transfer Function 665 15.3 Open-Loop Step Responses of Inductor Current 667 15.3.1 Open-Loop Response of Inductor Current to Step Change in Input Voltage 667 15.3.2 Open-Loop Response of the Inductor Current to Step Change in the Duty Cycle 670 15.3.3 Open-Loop Response of Inductor Current to Step Change in Load Current 672 15.4 Closed-Current-Loop Transfer Functions 675 15.4.1 Forward Gain 675 15.4.2 Loop Gain of Current Loop 675 15.4.3 Closed-Loop Gain of Current Loop 675 15.4.4 Control-to-Output Transfer Function 677 15.4.5 Input Voltage-to-Duty Cycle Transfer Function 684 15.4.6 Load Current-to-Duty Cycle Transfer Function 688 15.4.7 Output Impedance of Closed-Current Loop 690 15.5 Closed-Voltage-Loop Transfer Functions 695 15.5.1 Control-to-Output Transfer Function 695 15.5.2 Control Voltage-to-Feedback Voltage Transfer Function 695 15.5.3 Loop Gain of Voltage Loop 697 15.5.4 Closed-Loop Gain of Voltage Loop 701 15.5.5 Closed-Loop Audio Susceptibility with Integral Controller 703 15.5.6 Closed-Loop Output Impedance with Integral Controller 704 15.6 Closed-Loop Step Responses 706 15.6.1 Closed-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Input Voltage 706 15.6.2 Closed-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Load Current 708 15.6.3 Closed-Loop Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Reference Voltage 708 15.7 Closed-Loop DC Transfer Functions 710 15.8 Summary 711 References 711 Review Questions 712 Problems 712 16 Open-Loop Small-Signal Characteristics of PWM Boost Converter for DCM 713 16.1 Introduction 713 16.2 Small-Signal Model of Boost Converter for DCM 713 16.3 Open-Loop Control-to-Output Transfer Function 716 16.4 Open-Loop Input-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function 719 16.5 Open-Loop Input Impedance 724 16.6 Open-Loop Output Impedance 725 16.7 Step Responses of Output Voltage of Boost Converter for DCM 728 16.7.1 Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Input Voltage 728 16.7.2 Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Duty Cycle 730 16.7.3 Response of Output Voltage to Step Change in Load Current 730 16.8 Open-Loop Duty Cycle-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function 731 16.9 Open-Loop Input Voltage-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function 735 16.10 Open-Loop Output Current-to-Inductor Current Transfer Function 735 16.11 Step Responses of Inductor Current of Boost Converter for DCM 738 16.11.1 Step Response of Inductor Current to Step Change in Input Voltage 738 16.11.2 Step Response of Inductor Current to Step Change in Duty Cycle 740 16.11.3 Step Response of Inductor Current to Step Change in Load Current 741 16.12 DC Characteristics of Boost Converter for DCM 742 16.12.1 DC-to-DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossless Boost Converter for DCM 742 16.12.2 DC-to-DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Boost Converter for DCM 743 16.12.3 Efficiency of Boost Converter for DCM 745 16.13 Summary 745 References 745 Review Questions 746 Problems 746 17 Silicon and Silicon-Carbide Power Diodes 747 17.1 Introduction 747 17.2 Electronic Power Switches 747 17.3 Atom 748 17.4 Electron and Hole Effective Mass 749 17.5 Semiconductors 750 17.6 Intrinsic Semiconductors 751 17.7 Extrinsic Semiconductors 756 17.7.1 n-Type Semiconductor 756 17.7.2 p-Type Semiconductor 759 17.7.3 Maximum Operating Temperature 761 17.8 Wide Band Gap Semiconductors 762 17.9 Physical Structure of Junction Diodes 764 17.9.1 Formation of Depletion Layer 765 17.9.2 Charge Transport 767 17.10 Static I–V Diode Characteristic 768 17.11 Breakdown Voltage of Junction Diodes 772 17.11.1 Depletion-Layer Width 773 17.11.2 Electric Field Intensity Distribution 775 17.11.3 Avalanche Breakdown Voltage 779 17.11.4 Punch-Through Breakdown Voltage 781 17.11.5 Edge Terminations 782 17.12 Capacitances of Junction Diodes 784 17.12.1 Junction Capacitance 784 17.12.2 Diffusion Capacitance 787 17.13 Reverse Recovery of pn Junction Diodes 789 17.13.1 Qualitative Description 789 17.13.2 Reverse Recovery in Resistive Circuits 790 17.13.3 Charge-Continuity Equation 793 17.13.4 Reverse Recovery in Inductive Circuits 796 17.14 Schottky Diodes 798 17.14.1 Static I–V Characteristic of Schottky Diodes 801 17.14.2 Breakdown Voltages of Schottky Diodes 802 17.14.3 Junction Capacitance of Schottky Diodes 802 17.14.4 Switching Characteristics of Schottky Diodes 802 17.15 Solar Cells 806 17.16 Light-Emitting Diodes 809 17.17 SPICE Model of Diodes 810 17.18 Summary 811 References 815 Review Questions 816 Problems 817 18 Silicon and Silicon-Carbide Power MOSFETs 819 18.1 Introduction 819 18.2 Integrated MOSFETs 819 18.3 Physical Structure of Power MOSFETs 819 18.4 Principle of Operation of Power MOSFETs 824 18.4.1 Cutoff Region 824 18.4.2 Formation of MOSFET Channel 824 18.4.3 Linear Region 824 18.4.4 Saturation Region 825 18.4.5 Antiparallel Diode 825 18.5 Derivation of Power MOSFET Characteristics 826 18.5.1 Ohmic Region 826 18.5.2 Pinch-off Region 829 18.5.3 Channel-Length Modulation 830 18.6 Power MOSFET Characteristics 831 18.7 Mobility of Charge Carriers 833 18.7.1 Effect of Doping Concentration on Mobility 834 18.7.2 Effect of Temperature on Mobility 836 18.7.3 Effect of Electric Field on Mobility 840 18.8 Short-Channel Effects 846 18.8.1 Ohmic Region 846 18.8.2 Pinch-off Region 847 18.9 Aspect Ratio of Power MOSFETs 848 18.10 Breakdown Voltage of Power MOSFETs 850 18.11 Gate Oxide Breakdown Voltage of Power MOSFETs 852 18.12 Specific On-Resistance 852 18.13 Figures-of-Merit of Semiconductors 855 18.14 On-Resistance of Power MOSFETs 857 18.14.1 Channel Resistance 857 18.14.2 Accumulation Region Resistance 857 18.14.3 Neck Region Resistance 858 18.14.4 Drift Region Resistance 859 18.15 Capacitances of Power MOSFETs 862 18.15.1 Gate-to-Source Capacitance 862 18.15.2 Drain-to-Source Capacitance 864 18.15.3 Gate-to-Drain Capacitance 864 18.16 Switching Waveforms 875 18.17 SPICE Model of Power MOSFETs 877 18.18 IGBTs 879 18.19 Heat Sinks 880 18.20 Summary 886 References 888 Review Questions 888 Problems 889 19 Electromagnetic Compatibility 891 19.1 Introduction 891 19.2 Definition of EMI 891 19.3 Definition of EMC 892 19.4 EMI Immunity 892 19.5 EMI Susceptibility 893 19.6 Classification of EMI 893 19.7 Sources of EMI 895 19.8 Safety Standards 896 19.9 EMC Standards 896 19.10 Near Field and Far Field 897 19.11 Techniques of EMI Reduction 897 19.12 Insertion Loss 898 19.13 EMI Filters 898 19.14 Feed-Through Capacitors 900 19.15 EMI Shielding 900 19.16 Interconnections 902 19.17 Summary 903 References 903 Review Questions 903 Problem 904 A Introduction to SPICE 907 B Introduction to MATLAB® 910 C Physical Constants 915 Answers to Problems 917 Index 925

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Basics of Three-Phase AC Converters 1 1.2 Basics of Three-Phase AC Converter Design 20 1.3 Goal and Organization of This Book 26 Part I Components 31 2 Power Semiconductor Devices 33 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Static Characteristics 35 2.3 Switching Characteristics 50 2.4 Thermal Characteristics 57 2.5 Other Attributes 60 2.6 Scalability (Parallel/Series) 68 2.7 Relevance to Converter Design 70 2.8 Summary 72 3 Capacitors 75 3.1 Introduction 75 3.2 Capacitor Types and Technologies 75 3.3 Capacitor Selection in a Converter Design 82 3.4 Capacitor Characteristics and Models 84 3.5 Capacitor Bank (Parallel/Series) 98 3.6 Relevance to Converter Design 100 3.7 Summary 102 4 Magnetics 105 4.1 Introduction 105 4.2 Magnetic Core Materials and Construction 105 4.3 Inductor Design in a Converter 108 4.4 Inductor Characteristics and Models 110 4.5 Relevance to Converter Design 127 4.5.1 Capacitor Winding Capacitance 127 4.6 Summary 128 Part II Subsystems Design 131 5 Passive Rectifiers 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Passive Rectifier Design Problem Formulation 135 5.3 Passive Rectifier Models 140 5.4 Passive Rectifier Design Optimization 157 5.5 Interface to Other Subsystem Designs 161 5.6 Summary 164 6 Load-side Inverters 167 6.1 Introduction 167 6.2 Load-side Inverter Design Problem Formulation 167 6.3 Load-side Inverter Models 173 6.4 Load-side Inverter Design Optimization 230 6.5 Load-side Inverter Interfaces to Other Subsystem Designs 236 6.6 Summary 241 7 Active Rectifiers and Source-side Inverters 245 7.1 Introduction 245 7.2 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Design Problem Formulation 245 7.3 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Models 251 7.4 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Design Optimization 280 7.5 Impact of Topology 280 7.6 Active Rectifier and Source-side Inverter Interfaces to Other Subsystem Designs 300 7.7 Summary 300 8 EMI Filters 305 8.1 Introduction 305 8.2 EMI Filter Design Basics 306 8.3 EMI Filter Design Problem Formulation 324 8.4 EMI Filter Models 326 8.5 EMI Filter Design Optimization and Some Practical Considerations 343 8.6 EMI Noise and Filter Reduction Techniques 353 8.7 Interface to Other Subsystem Designs 365 8.8 Summary 366 9 Thermal Management System 369 9.1 Introduction 369 9.2 Cooling Technology Overview 369 9.3 Thermal Management System Design Problem Formulation 384 9.4 Thermal Management System Models 388 9.5 Thermal Management System Design Optimization 393 9.6 Thermal Management System Interface to Other Subsystems 397 9.7 Other Cooling Considerations 400 9.8 Summary 407 10 Control and Auxiliaries 411 10.1 Introduction 411 10.2 Control Architecture 411 10.3 Control Hardware Selection and Design 414 10.4 Isolation 415 10.5 Gate Driver 418 10.6 Sensors and Measurements 430 10.7 Protection 445 10.8 Printed Circuit Boards 452 10.9 Deadtime Setting and Compensation 455 10.10 Interface to Other Subsystems 466 10.11 Summary 467 11 Mechanical System 471 11.1 Introduction 471 11.2 Mechanical System Design Problem Formulation 475 11.3 Busbar Design 482 11.4 Mechanical System Interface to Other Subsystems 502 11.5 Summary 504 12 Application Considerations 507 12.1 Introduction 507 12.2 Motor Drive Applications 507 12.3 Grid Applications 547 12.4 Summary 577 Part III Design Optimization 581 13 Design Optimization 583 13.1 Introduction 583 13.2 Design Optimization Concept and Procedure 583 13.3 Optimization Algorithms 587 13.4 Partitioned Optimizers vs. Single Optimizer for Converter Design 590 13.5 Design Tool Development 596 13.6 Virtual Prototyping 638 13.7 Summary 642 References 643 Index 647

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xvii Preface xix Acknowledgments xx Acronyms xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Why Perform Partial Discharge Measurements? 1 1.2 Partial Discharge and Corona 2 1.3 Categories of PD Tests 3 1.3.1 Factory PD Testing 3 1.3.2 Onsite/Off line PD Tests 5 1.3.3 Online PD Testing and Continuous Monitoring 5 1.4 PD Test Standards 6 1.5 History of PD Measurement 7 1.5.1 RIV Test – The First Era 7 1.5.2 Analog PD Detection Using Oscilloscopes – The Second Era 9 1.5.3 Digitizing, Ultrahigh Frequency, and Post- Processing – The Third Era 11 1.5.3.1 Transition to Digital Instruments 11 1.5.3.2 VHF and UHF PD Detection 12 1.5.3.3 Post- Processing of Signals 14 1.6 The Future 15 1.7 Roadmap for the Book 16 References 17 2 Electric Fields and Electrical Breakdown 21 2.1 Electric Fields in High- Voltage Equipment 21 2.1.1 Impact of Electric Field on Partial Discharges 21 2.1.2 Basic Quantities and Equations 21 2.1.3 Simple Electrode Configurations 22 2.1.3.1 Parallel Plates Capacitor 24 2.1.3.2 Coaxial Cylindrical Electrodes 24 2.1.3.3 Concentric Spheres 25 2.1.3.4 Point/Plane Electrodes 25 2.1.4 Multi- Dielectric Systems 25 2.1.4.1 Cavities (Voids) 26 2.1.4.2 Interfaces 28 2.1.4.3 Triple Point (Triple Junction) 29 2.1.5 Floating Metal Objects 30 2.2 Electrical Breakdown 30 2.3 Breakdown in Gases 31 2.3.1 Breakdown in Uniform Fields 31 2.3.2 Breakdown in Divergent Fields 36 2.3.3 Breakdown Under Impulse Voltages – the V- t Characteristic 37 2.4 Breakdown in Solids 38 2.4.1 Electrical Treeing 40 2.5 Breakdown in Liquids 41 2.6 Dielectric Strength 43 References 45 3 Physics of Partial Discharge 47 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Classification of Partial Discharges 47 3.3 PD Current Pulse Characteristics 48 3.4 Effects of PD 53 3.5 Corona Due to Non- Uniform Electric Fields Around Conductors 55 3.5.1 PD and Corona Polarity 56 3.5.2 Corona AC Phase Position 57 3.5.3 Corona Current Pulse Characteristics 57 3.6 Partial Discharge in Voids 59 3.6.1 PD Inception 59 3.6.1.1 Inception Delay 61 3.6.2 Modified Field Due to Space Charge 62 3.7 PD on Insulation Surfaces 66 3.7.1 Triple Point Junction 66 3.7.2 Electrical Tracking 66 3.8 Effect of Ambient Conditions and Conditioning 67 3.8.1 Conditioning 67 3.8.2 Ambient/Operating Conditions 68 3.9 Summary of Measured PD Quantities 68 3.9.1 Magnitude 69 3.9.2 Pulse Count Rate 69 3.9.3 Phase Position 70 3.10 Understanding the PD Pattern with Respect to the AC Cycle 71 3.10.1 Polarity Analysis 71 3.10.2 Physical Basis for PRPD Patterns 71 3.10.3 PD Packets 80 References 82 4 Other Discharge Phenomena 85 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 PD as Interference 86 4.3 Circuit Breaker Arcing 87 4.4 Contact Arcing and Intermittent Connections 87 4.5 Metal Oxide Layer Breakdown 89 4.6 Dry Band Arcing 89 4.7 Glow (or Pulseless) Discharge 89 References 90 5 PD Measurement Overview 93 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Charge- Based and Electromagnetic Measurement Methods 93 5.3 Optical PD Detection 95 5.4 Acoustic Detection of PD 97 5.4.1 Acoustic Detection of PD Through the Air 98 5.4.2 Acoustic PD Detection Within Enclosed HV Apparatus 102 5.4.2.1 Power Transformers 102 5.4.2.2 Gas- Insulated Switchgear and Isolated Phase Bus 104 5.5 Chemical Detection 105 5.5.1 Ozone in Air 105 5.5.2 Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) 106 5.5.3 SF 6 Decomposition Products in GIS 107 References 107 6 Charge- Based PD Detection 109 6.1 Introduction 109 6.2 Basic Electrical Detection Circuits Using Coupling Capacitors 109 6.2.1 Direct Circuit 110 6.2.2 Indirect Circuit 111 6.3 Measuring Impedances 111 6.3.1 Resistors and Quadripoles 111 6.3.2 AC Synchronization and Quadripoles 113 6.3.3 High- Frequency Current Transformers 113 6.4 Electrical PD Detection Models 115 6.4.1 ABC Model 115 6.4.1.1 Equivalent Circuit 117 6.4.1.2 Equivalent PD Current Generator 117 6.4.1.3 Coupling Capacitor 117 6.4.1.4 Under Estimation of Charge 118 6.4.2 Dipole Model 118 6.4.3 Comparing the ABC Model with the Dipole Model 120 6.4.4 Pulse Polarity 120 6.5 Quasi- integration in Charge- Based Measuring Systems 121 6.5.1 Quasi- integration Explained 121 6.5.2 Frequency Range of Charge- Based PD Detectors 122 6.5.2.1 Pros and Cons of the Narrowband vs Wideband Systems 123 6.6 Calibration into Apparent Charge 125 6.6.1 Capacitive Test Objects 125 6.6.2 Distributed Test Objects 126 6.6.2.1 PD Pulse Splitting and Reflections 127 6.6.2.2 Attenuation and Dispersion 129 6.6.3 Inductive- Capacitive Test Objects 132 6.6.4 Practical Calibrators 134 References 135 7 Electromagnetic (RF) PD Detection 137 7.1 Why Measure Electromagnetic Signals from PD 137 7.2 Terminology 139 7.3 Basic Electrical Detection Circuits 141 7.3.1 Transmission Path 141 7.3.2 Sensors 144 7.3.3 Time and Frequency Domain Measurement 145 7.4 Types of RF Sensors 148 7.4.1 Ferrite Antennas 148 7.4.2 Magnetic Loops 148 7.4.3 Transient Earth Voltage (TEV) Sensors 148 7.4.4 Internal or Tank- Mounted UHF Sensors 149 7.4.5 Antennas 150 7.4.5.1 Monopole 150 7.4.5.2 Patch (Microstrip) Antenna 151 7.4.5.3 Horn Antenna 152 7.4.5.4 Stator Slot Couplers 152 7.5 Measuring Instruments 153 7.6 Performance and Sensitivity Check 153 7.7 PD Source Location 155 References 156 8 PD Measurement System Instrumentation and Software 159 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 Frequency Range Selection 160 8.3 PD Detector Hardware Configurations 160 8.3.1 Minimum Threshold and Processing Time 162 8.3.2 AC Voltage Measurement and Synchronization 163 8.3.3 Combined Analog–Digital Systems 164 8.3.4 Digital System to Measure Pulse Magnitude and Selected Pulse Characteristics 165 8.3.5 Systems to Facilitate Waveform Post- Processing 165 8.4 Hardware- Based Interference Suppression and PD Source Identification 166 8.4.1 Hardware- Based Gating 166 8.4.2 Time- of- Flight (or Time of Arrival) Method 167 8.4.3 Pulse Shape Analysis 169 8.5 PD Calibrator Hardware 170 8.6 Special Hardware Requirements for Continuous Monitors 171 8.6.1 Sensor Reliability 172 8.6.2 Instrument Robustness 173 8.6.3 Cybersecurity 173 8.7 PD System Output Charts 174 8.7.1 Pulse Magnitude Analysis (PMA) Plot 174 8.7.2 Phase- Magnitude- Number (Ø- q- n) Plot 175 8.7.3 Phase- Resolved PD (PRPD) Plot 176 8.7.4 Trend Plot 176 8.7.5 PDIV/PDEV Plot 178 8.7.6 Scatter Plot 179 8.8 PD Activity Indicators 179 8.8.1 Quasi- Peak PD Magnitude (Q IEC) 180 8.8.2 Peak PD Magnitude (Q m) 181 8.8.3 Integrated PD Indicators 181 8.9 Post- Processing Software for Interference Suppression and PD Analysis 183 8.9.1 Statistical Post- Processing 183 8.9.2 Time- Frequency Maps 184 8.9.3 Three- Phase Synchronous Pattern Analysis 186 8.9.4 Software- Based Censoring 187 8.9.5 Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Expert Systems 188 References 190 9 Suppression of External Electrical Interference 193 9.1 Impact of External Electrical Interference 193 9.1.1 Factory Testing 193 9.1.2 Condition Assessment Testing 194 9.2 Typical Sources of Noise and External Electrical Interference 194 9.2.1 Electrical/Electronic Noise 194 9.2.2 External Electrical Interference (“Disturbances”) 195 9.2.2.1 PD and Corona from Connected Equipment 195 9.2.2.2 Arcing from Poorly Bonded Metal and Connections 196 9.2.2.3 Electronic Switching 196 9.2.2.4 Slip Ring/Brush Arcing 197 9.2.2.5 Lighting 197 9.3 Interference Suppression for Off line PD Testing 198 9.3.1 Electromagnetic Shielded Rooms 198 9.3.2 Good Practice for Test Set- Up 198 9.3.3 Power Supply Filtering 199 9.3.4 Signal Filtering 199 9.3.5 PD Measurement Bridges 200 9.3.6 Time- of- Flight 201 9.3.7 PRPD Pattern Recognition 202 9.3.8 Time- Frequency Map 202 9.3.9 Gating 202 9.4 Online Interference Suppression 203 References 203 10 Performing PD Tests and Basic Interpretation 205 10.1 Introduction 205 10.2 PDIV/PDEV Measurement 206 10.2.1 Test Procedure 206 10.2.2 Sensitivity 207 10.2.3 Interpretation 207 References 225 11 PD Testing of Lumped Capacitive Test Objects 227 11.1 Lumped Capacitive Objects 227 11.2 Test Procedures 228 11.3 Measures to Suppress Electrical Interference 230 11.4 Sensitivity Check 231 References 233 12 PD in Power Cables 235 12.1 Introduction 235 12.2 Cable System Structure 235 12.2.1 Cable Insulation 236 References 279 13 Gas-Insulated Switchgear (GIS) 283 13.1 Introduction 283 13.2 Relevant Standards and Technical Guidance 283 13.3 The GIS Insulation System 286 13.3.1 Insulation System Components 286 References 358 14 Air- Insulated Switchgear and Isolated Phase Bus 365 14.1 Introduction 365 14.2 AIS Insulation Systems 366 14.3 Insulation Failure Processes 368 14.3.1 Surface Electrical Tracking 368 References 379 15 Power Transformers 381 15.1 Introduction 381 15.2 Transformer Insulation Systems 382 15.2.1 Dry- Type Transformer 382 15.2.2 Materials Used in Liquid- Filled Paper- Insulated Power Transformers 384 References 452 16 Rotating Machine Stator Windings 457 16.1 Introduction 457 16.2 Relevant Standards 458 16.3 Stator Winding Insulation Systems 458 16.3.1 Insulation System Components 459 16.3.2 PD Suppression Coatings 461 16.3.3 Stator Winding Construction 462 References 501 17 PD Detection in DC Equipment 505 17.1 Why Is HVDC So Popular Now? 505 17.2 Insulation System Design in dc 506 17.3 The Reasons for PD Testing Using dc 507 17.4 Off line PD Testing with DC Excitation 510 17.5 Interpretation of PD Measurements Under DC Excitation 511 17.5.1 Time Series Interpretation 512 17.5.2 Magnitude Dispersion 513 17.5.3 Effect of Operating Conditions on PD 514 17.6 Perspective 517 References 517 18 PD Detection Under Impulse Voltage 519 18.1 Introduction 519 18.2 Insulation Failure Due to Short Risetime Impulse Voltages 520 18.2.1 High Peak Voltage 520 18.2.2 Short Risetime Causing High Turn Voltages in Windings 521 References 531 Index 533

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents 1 Introduction 2 Continuous-Time Signals and Systems 3 Continuous-Time Linear Time-Invariant Systems 4 Fourier Series 5 The Fourier Transform 6 Applications of the Fourier Transform 7 The Laplace Transform 8 State Variables for Continuous-Time Systems 9 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems 10 Discrete-Time Linear Time-Invariant Systems 11 The z-Transform 12 Fourier Transforms of Discrete-Time Signals 13 State Variables for Discrete-Time Systems

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