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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisThis textbook is a first-look at radiative transfer in planetary atmospheres with a particular focus on the Earth's atmosphere and climate. It covers the basics of the radiative transfer of sunlight, treating absorption and scattering, and the transfer of the thermal infrared. The examples included show how the solutions of the radiative transfer equation are used to evaluate changes in the Earth?s energy budget due to changes in atmospheric composition, how these changes lead to climate change, and also how remote sensing can be used to probe the thermal structure and composition of planetary atmospheres. The examples motivate students by leading them to a better understanding of and appreciation for the computer-generated numerical results. Aimed at upper-division undergraduates and beginning graduate students in physics and atmospheric sciences, the book is designed to cover the essence of the material in a 10-week course, while the material in the optional sections will facilitate its use at the more leisurely pace and in-depth focus of a semester course.Table of ContentsSIMPLE MODELS FOR THE RADIATIVE HAETING OF THE EARTH AND ITS ATMOSPHERE Introduction Radiative Heating of the Atmosphere Global Energy Budget The Window-Gray Approximation and the Greenhouse Effect Climate Sensitivity Radiative Time Constant Radiation and the Earth's Global Mean Vertical Temperature Profile Radiative Forcding Leads to Circulation RADIATION AND ITS SOURCES Basic Properties of Electromagnetic Wave Wave-Particle Duality of Light Blackbody Radiation Incident Sunlight TRANSFER OF RADIATION IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE Cross Sections Extinction Cross Section and Scattering Phase Function Atmospheric Optical Phenomena Related to Light Scattering Equation of Radiative Transfer Transfer Equation for Solar Radiation Transfer Equation for Terrestrial Radiation SOLUTIONS TO THE EQUATION OF TRANSFER Formal Solution to the Equation of Transfer Solution for Thermal Emission Solution for Scattering and Absorption Single-Scattering Approximation Fourier Decomposition of the Transfer Equation Eddington Approximation for Scattering and Absorbing Atmosphere Adding Layers in the Eddington Approximation Adding a Surface with a Nonzero Albedo in the Eddington Approximation Clouds in the Thermal Infrared Diffusivity Factor TREATMENT OF MOLECULAR ABSORPTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE Absorption by Molecules Molecular Absorption Lines and Line Shapes Molecular Absorption Spectra Distribution of Line Strengths for a Vibration Rotation Band Absorption by a Single, Weak Absorption Line Absorption by a Single, Strong, Pressure-Broadened Line Inhomogeneous Ppaths Bands of Isolated Lines Approximate Treatments for Overlapping Lines Exponential Sum-Fit and Correlated-K Methods ABSORBTION OF SOLRA RADIATION IN THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE Absorption of UV and Visible Sunlight by Ozone Absorption of Sunlight by Water Vapor SIMPLIFIED ESTIMATES OF EMISSION Emission in the 15-?m band of CO2 Change in Emitted Flux Due to a Doubling of CO2 Change in Stratospheric Temperature Due to a Doubling of CO2 APPENDICES Solving Differential Equations Integrals of the Planck Function Compilation of Line Parameters for Random Band Models Absorption Cross Sections for Ozone and Oxygen at Ultraviolet and Visible Wavelengths

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Book SynopsisThe main objective of this book is to present the basic theoretical principles and practical applications for the classical interferometric techniques and the most advanced methods in the field of modern fringe pattern analysis applied to optical metrology. A major novelty of this work is the presentation of a unified theoretical framework based on the Fourier description of phase shifting interferometry using the Frequency Transfer Function (FTF) along with the theory of Stochastic Process for the straightforward analysis and synthesis of phase shifting algorithms with desired properties such as spectral response, detuning and signal-to-noise robustness, harmonic rejection, etc.Trade Review“I recommend this book for several reasons: it provides great insights into the principles and practical applications of classical and advanced interferometry in optical metrology, and it presents the main algorithms for recovering the modulating phase from single or multiple patterns.” (Optics & Photonics, 8 October 2014)Table of ContentsPreface XI List of Symbols and Acronyms XV 1 Digital Linear Systems 1 1.1 Introduction to Digital Phase Demodulation in Optical Metrology 1 1.1.1 Fringe Pattern Demodulation as an I11-Posed Inverse Problem 1 1.1.2 Adding a priori Information to the Fringe Pattern: Carriers 3 1.1.3 Classification of Phase Demodulation Methods in Digital Interferometry 7 1.2 Digital Sampling 9 1.2.1 Signal Classification 9 1.2.2 Commonly Used Functions 11 1.2.3 Impulse Sampling 13 1.2.4 Nyquist–Shannon Sampling Theorem 14 1.3 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems 14 1.3.1 Definition and Properties 15 1.3.2 Impulse Response of LTI Systems 15 1.3.3 Stability Criterion: Bounded-Input Bounded-Output 17 1.4 Z-Transform Analysis of Digital Linear Systems 18 1.4.1 Definition and Properties 18 1.4.2 Region of Convergence (ROC) 19 1.4.3 Poles and Zeros of a Z-Transform 20 1.4.4 Inverse Z-Transform 21 1.4.5 Transfer Function of an LTI System in the Z-Domain 22 1.4.6 Stability Evaluation by Means of the Z-Transform 23 1.5 Fourier Analysis of Digital LTI Systems 24 1.5.1 Definition and Properties of the Fourier Transform 25 1.5.2 Discrete-Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) 25 1.5.3 Relation Between the DTFT and the Z-Transform 26 1.5.4 Spectral Interpretation of the Sampling Theorem 27 1.5.5 Aliasing: Sub-Nyquist Sampling 29 1.5.6 Frequency Transfer Function (FTF) of an LTI System 31 1.5.7 Stability Evaluation in the Fourier Domain 33 1.6 Convolution-Based One-Dimensional (1D) Linear Filters 34 1.6.1 One-Dimensional Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters 34 1.6.2 One-Dimensional Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filters 37 1.7 Convolution-Based two-dimensional (2D) Linear Filters 39 1.7.1 Two-Dimensional (2D) Fourier and Z-Transforms 39 1.7.2 Stability Analysis of 2D Linear Filters 40 1.8 Regularized Spatial Linear Filtering Techniques 42 1.8.1 Classical Regularization for Low-Pass Filtering 42 1.8.2 Spectral Response of 2D Regularized Low-Pass Filters 46 1.9 Stochastic Processes 48 1.9.1 Definitions and Basic Concepts 48 1.9.2 Ergodic Stochastic Processes 51 1.9.3 LTI System Response to Stochastic Signals 52 1.9.4 Power Spectral Density (PSD) of a Stochastic Signal 52 1.10 Summary and Conclusions 54 2 Synchronous Temporal Interferometry 57 2.1 Introduction 57 2.1.1 Historical Review of the Theory of Phase-Shifting Algorithms (PSAs) 57 2.2 Temporal Carrier Interferometric Signal 60 2.3 Quadrature Linear Filters for Temporal Phase Estimation 62 2.3.1 Linear PSAs Using Real-Valued Low-Pass Filtering 64 2.4 The Minimum Three-Step PSA 68 2.4.1 Algebraic Derivation of the Minimum Three-Step PSA 68 2.4.2 Spectral FTF Analysis of the Minimum Three-Step PSA 69 2.5 Least-Squares PSAs 71 2.5.1 Temporal-to-Spatial Carrier Conversion: Squeezing Interferometry 73 2.6 Detuning Analysis in Phase-Shifting Interferometry (PSI) 74 2.7 Noise in Temporal PSI 80 2.7.1 Phase Estimation with Additive Random Noise 82 2.7.2 Noise Rejection in N-Step Least-Squares (LS) PSAs 85 2.7.3 Noise Rejection of Linear Tunable PSAs 86 2.8 Harmonics in Temporal Interferometry 87 2.8.1 Interferometric Data with Harmonic Distortion and Aliasing 88 2.8.2 PSA Response to Intensity-Distorted Interferograms 91 2.9 PSA Design Using First-Order Building Blocks 95 2.9.1 Minimum Three-Step PSA Design by First-Order FTF Building Blocks 97 2.9.2 Tunable Four-Step PSAs with Detuning Robustness at 𝜔 = −𝜔0 100 2.9.3 Tunable Four-Step PSAs with Robust Background Illumination Rejection 101 2.9.4 Tunable Four-Step PSA with Fixed Spectral Zero at 𝜔 = π 102 2.10 Summary and Conclusions 104 3 Asynchronous Temporal Interferometry 107 3.1 Introduction 107 3.2 Classification of Temporal PSAs 108 3.2.1 Fixed-Coefficients (Linear) PSAs 108 3.2.2 Tunable (Linear) PSAs 108 3.2.3 Self-Tunable (Nonlinear) PSAs 109 3.3 Spectral Analysis of the Carré PSA 110 3.3.1 Frequency Transfer Function of the Carré PSA 112 3.3.2 Meta-Frequency Response of the Carré PSA 113 3.3.3 Harmonic-Rejection Capabilities of the Carré PSA 114 3.3.4 Phase-Step Estimation in the Carré PSA 116 3.3.5 Improvement of the Phase-Step Estimation in Self-Tunable PSAs 118 3.3.6 Computer Simulations with the Carré PSA with Noisy Interferograms 120 3.4 Spectral Analysis of Other Self-Tunable PSAs 122 3.4.1 Self-Tunable Four-Step PSA with Detuning-Error Robustness 123 3.4.2 Self-Tunable Five-Step PSA by Stoilov and Dragostinov 126 3.4.3 Self-Tunable Five-Step PSA with Detuning-Error Robustness 128 3.4.4 Self-Tunable Five-Step PSA with Double Zeroes at the Origin and the Tuning Frequency 130 3.4.5 Self-Tunable Five-Step PSA with Three Tunable Single Zeros 131 3.4.6 Self-Tunable Five-Step PSA with Second-Harmonic Rejection 133 3.5 Self-Calibrating PSAs 136 3.5.1 Iterative Least-Squares, the Advanced Iterative Algorithm 137 3.5.2 Principal Component Analysis 140 3.6 Summary and Conclusions 145 4 Spatial Methods with Carrier 149 4.1 Introduction 149 4.2 Linear Spatial Carrier 149 4.2.1 The Linear Carrier Interferogram 149 4.2.2 Instantaneous Spatial Frequency 152 4.2.3 Synchronous Detection with a Linear Carrier 155 4.2.4 Linear and Nonlinear Spatial PSAs 159 4.2.5 Fourier Transform Analysis 164 4.2.6 Space–Frequency Analysis 170 4.3 Circular Spatial Carrier 173 4.3.1 The Circular Carrier Interferogram 173 4.3.2 Synchronous Detection with a Circular Carrier 174 4.4 2D Pixelated Spatial Carrier 177 4.4.1 The Pixelated Carrier Interferogram 177 4.4.2 Synchronous Detection with a Pixelated Carrier 180 4.5 Regularized Quadrature Filters 186 4.6 Relation Between Temporal and Spatial Analysis 198 4.7 Summary and Conclusions 198 5 Spatial Methods Without Carrier 201 5.1 Introduction 201 5.2 Phase Demodulation of Closed-Fringe Interferograms 201 5.3 The Regularized Phase Tracker (RPT) 204 5.4 Local Robust Quadrature Filters 215 5.5 2D Fringe Direction 216 5.5.1 Fringe Orientation in Interferogram Processing 216 5.5.2 Fringe Orientation and Fringe Direction 219 5.5.3 Orientation Estimation 222 5.5.4 Fringe Direction Computation 225 5.6 2D Vortex Filter 229 5.6.1 The Hilbert Transform in Phase Demodulation 229 5.6.2 The Vortex Transform 230 5.6.3 Two Applications of the Vortex Transform 233 5.7 The General Quadrature Transform 235 5.8 Summary and Conclusions 239 6 Phase Unwrapping 241 6.1 Introduction 241 6.1.1 The Phase Unwrapping Problem 241 6.2 Phase Unwrapping by 1D Line Integration 244 6.2.1 Line Integration Unwrapping Formula 244 6.2.2 Noise Tolerance of the Line Integration Unwrapping Formula 246 6.3 Phase Unwrapping with 1D Recursive Dynamic System 250 6.4 1D Phase Unwrapping with Linear Prediction 251 6.5 2D Phase Unwrapping with Linear Prediction 255 6.6 Least-Squares Method for Phase Unwrapping 257 6.7 Phase Unwrapping Through Demodulation Using a Phase Tracker 258 6.8 Smooth Unwrapping by Masking out 2D Phase Inconsistencies 262 6.9 Summary and Conclusions 266 Appendix A List of Linear Phase-Shifting Algorithms (PSAs) 271 A.1 Brief Review of the PSAs Theory 271 A.2 Two-Step Linear PSAs 274 A.2.1 Two-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 274 A.3 Three-Step Linear PSAs 275 A.3.1 Three-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕3) 275 A.3.2 Three-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at 𝜔 = {0,−𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕2) 276 A.4 Four-Step Linear PSAs 277 A.4.1 Four-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕4) 277 A.4.2 Four-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and a Second-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 278 A.4.3 Four-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at 𝜔 = {0,−𝜔0∕2,−𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕2) 279 A.4.4 Four-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at −𝜔0 and a Second-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 280 A.4.5 Four-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and a Second-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = 2π∕3) 281 A.5 Five-Step Linear PSAs 282 A.5.1 Five-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕5) 282 A.5.2 Five-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at 𝜔 = {0,±2𝜔0} and a Second-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 283 A.5.3 Five-Step PSA with Second-Order Zeros at 𝜔 = {0,−𝜔0} (𝜔0 = 2π∕3) 284 A.5.4 Five-Step PSA with Second-Order Zeros at 𝜔 = {0,−𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕2) 285 A.5.5 Five-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and a Third-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 286 A.5.6 Five-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and a Third-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = 2π∕3) 287 A.6 Six-Step Linear PSAs 288 A.6.1 Six-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕6) 288 A.6.2 Six-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,±2𝜔0} and a Third-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 289 A.6.3 Six-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and a Fourth-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 290 A.6.4 Six-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and Second-OrderZeros at {−𝜔0,±2𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕2) 291 A.6.5 Six-Step (5LS + 1) PSA with a Second-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = 2π∕5) 292 A.7 Seven-Step Linear PSAs 293 A.7.1 Seven-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕7) 293 A.7.2 Seven-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,−𝜔0, 2𝜔0,±3𝜔0} and a Second-Order Zero at −2𝜔0 (𝜔0 = 2π∕6) 294 A.7.3 Seven-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,−𝜔0, 2𝜔0} and a Second-Order Zero at ±3𝜔0 (𝜔0 = 2π∕6) 295 A.7.4 Seven-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,±2𝜔0} and a Fourth-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 296 A.7.5 Seven-Step PSA with Second-Order Zeros at {0,−𝜔0,±2𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕2) 297 A.7.6 Seven-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and a Fifth-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 298 A.7.7 Seven-Step (6LS + 1) PSA with a Second-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = 2π∕6) 299 A.8 Eight-Step Linear PSAs 300 A.8.1 Eight-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕8) 300 A.8.2 Eight-Step Frequency-Shifted LS-PSA (𝜔0 = 2 × 2π∕8) 301 A.8.3 Eight-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,−𝜔0, ±2𝜔0, π∕10, −3π∕10, −7π∕10, 9π∕10} 302 A.8.4 Eight-Step PSA with Second-Order Zeros at {0,±2𝜔0} and a Third-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 303 A.8.5 Eight-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0, −π∕6,−5π∕6, ±2𝜔0} and a Fourth-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 304 A.8.6 Eight-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,±2𝜔0} and a Fifth-Order Zero at −𝜔0 (𝜔0 = π∕2) 305 A.9 Nine-Step Linear PSAs 306 A.9.1 Nine-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕9) 306 A.9.2 Nine-Step PSA with First-Order Zeros at {0,±2𝜔0} and Second-Order Zeros at {−𝜔0, −π∕4,−3π∕4} (𝜔0 = π∕2) 307 A.9.3 Nine-Step (8LS + 1) PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕8) 308 A.10 Ten-Step Linear PSAs 309 A.10.1 Ten-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕10) 309 A.10.2 Ten-Step PSA with a First-Order Zero at 𝜔 = 0 and Second-Order Zeros at {−𝜔0,±2𝜔0,±3𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕3) 310 A.11 Eleven-Step Linear PSAs 311 A.11.1 Eleven-Step Least-Squares PSA (𝜔0 = 2π∕11) 311 A.11.2 Eleven-Step PSA with Second-Order Zeros at {0,−𝜔0,±2𝜔0, ±3𝜔0} (𝜔0 = π∕3) 312 A.11.3 Eleven-Step Frequency-Shifted LS-PSA (𝜔0 = 3 × 2π∕11) 313 A.12 Twelve-step linear PSAs 314 A.12.1 Twelve-step frequency-shifted LS-PSA (𝜔0 = 5 × 2π∕12) 314 References 315 Index 325

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Book SynopsisProvides fully updated coverage of new experiments in quantum optics This fully revised and expanded edition of a well-established textbook on experiments on quantum optics covers new concepts, results, procedures, and developments in state-of-the-art experiments. It starts with the basic building blocks and ideas of quantum optics, then moves on to detailed procedures and new techniques for each experiment. Focusing on metrology, communications, and quantum logic, this new edition also places more emphasis on single photon technology and hybrid detection. In addition, it offers end-of-chapter summaries and full problem sets throughout. Beginning with an introduction to the subject, A Guide to Experiments in Quantum Optics, 3rd Edition presents readers with chapters on classical models of light, photons, quantum models of light, as well as basic optical components. It goes on to give readers full coverage of lasers and amplifiers, and examines numerous photodetection techniques being used today. Other chapters examine quantum noise, squeezing experiments, the application of squeezed light, and fundamental tests of quantum mechanics. The book finishes with a section on quantum information before summarizing of the contents and offering an outlook on the future of the field. -Provides all new updates to the field of quantum optics, covering the building blocks, models and concepts, latest results, detailed procedures, and modern experiments -Places emphasis on three major goals: metrology, communications, and quantum logic -Presents fundamental tests of quantum mechanics (Schrodinger Kitten, multimode entanglement, photon systems as quantum emulators), and introduces the density function -Includes new trends and technologies in quantum optics and photodetection, new results in sensing and metrology, and more coverage of quantum gates and logic, cluster states, waveguides for multimodes, discord and other quantum measures, and quantum control -Offers end of chapter summaries and problem sets as new features A Guide to Experiments in Quantum Optics, 3rd Edition is an ideal book for professionals, and graduate and upper level students in physics and engineering science. Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Optics in Modern Life 1 1.2 The Origin and Progress of Quantum Optics 3 1.3 Motivation Through Simple and Direct Teaching Experiments 7 1.4 Consequences of Photon Correlations 12 1.5 How to Use This Guide 14 References 16 2 Classical Models of Light 19 2.1 Classical Waves 20 2.1.1 Mathematical Description of Waves 20 2.1.2 The Gaussian Beam 21 2.1.3 Quadrature Amplitudes 24 2.1.4 Field Energy, Intensity, and Power 25 2.1.5 A Classical Mode of Light 26 2.1.6 Light Carries Information 28 2.1.7 Modulations 30 2.2 Optical Modes and Degrees of Freedom 32 2.2.1 Lasers with Single and Multiple Modes 32 2.2.2 Polarization 33 2.2.2.1 Poincaré Sphere and Stokes Vectors 35 2.2.3 Multimode Systems 36 2.3 Statistical Properties of Classical Light 37 2.3.1 The Origin of Fluctuations 37 2.3.1.1 Gaussian Noise Approximation 38 2.3.2 Noise Spectra 39 2.3.3 Coherence 40 2.3.3.1 Correlation Functions 44 2.4 An Example: Light from a Chaotic Source as the Idealized Classical Case 46 2.5 Spatial Information and Imaging 50 2.5.1 State-of-the-Art Imaging 50 2.5.2 Classical Imaging 52 2.5.3 Image Detection 55 2.5.4 Scanning 56 2.5.5 Quantifying Noise and Contrast 58 2.5.6 Coincidence Imaging 59 2.5.7 Imaging with Coherent Light 60 2.5.8 Image Reconstruction with Structured Illumination 60 2.5.9 Image Analysis and Modes 61 2.5.10 Detection Modes and Displacement 61 2.6 Summary 62 References 63 Further Reading 64 3 Photons: The Motivation to Go Beyond Classical Optics 65 3.1 Detecting Light 65 3.2 The Concept of Photons 68 3.3 Light from a Thermal Source 70 3.4 Interference Experiments 73 3.5 Modelling Single-Photon Experiments 78 3.5.1 Polarization of a Single Photon 79 3.5.1.1 Some Mathematics 80 3.5.2 Polarization States 81 3.5.3 The Single-Photon Interferometer 83 3.6 Intensity Correlation, Bunching, and Anti-bunching 84 3.7 Observing Photons in Cavities 88 3.8 Summary 90 References 90 Further Reading 92 4 Quantum Models of Light 93 4.1 Quantization of Light 93 4.1.1 Some General Comments on Quantum Mechanics 93 4.1.2 Quantization of Cavity Modes 94 4.1.3 Quantized Energy 95 4.1.4 The Creation and Annihilation Operators 97 4.2 Quantum States of Light 97 4.2.1 Number or Fock States 97 4.2.2 Coherent States 99 4.2.3 Mixed States 101 4.3 Quantum Optical Representations 102 4.3.1 Quadrature Amplitude Operators 102 4.3.2 Probability and Quasi-probability Distributions 104 4.3.3 Photon Number Distributions 108 4.3.4 Covariance Matrix 111 4.3.4.1 Summary of Different Representations of Quantum States and Quantum Noise 112 4.4 Propagation and Detection of Quantum Optical Fields 113 4.4.1 Quantum Optical Modes in Free Space 114 4.4.2 Propagation in Quantum Optics 115 4.4.3 Detection in Quantum Optics 117 4.4.4 An Example: The Beamsplitter 118 4.5 Quantum Transfer Functions 120 4.5.1 A Linearized Quantum Noise Description 121 4.5.2 An Example: The Propagating Coherent State 123 4.5.3 Real Laser Beams 123 4.5.4 The Transfer of Operators, Signals, and Noise 124 4.5.5 Sideband Modes as Quantum States 126 4.5.6 Another Example: A Coherent State Pulse Through a Frequency Filter 129 4.5.7 Transformation of the Covariance Matrix 130 4.6 Quantum Correlations 131 4.6.1 Photon Correlations 131 4.6.2 Quadrature Correlations 132 4.6.3 Two-Mode Covariance Matrix 133 4.7 Summary 134 4.7.1 The Photon Number Basis 134 4.7.2 Quadrature Representations 135 4.7.3 Quantum Operators 135 4.7.4 The Quantum Noise Limit 136 References 136 Further Reading 137 5 Basic Optical Components 139 5.1 Beamsplitters 140 5.1.1 Classical Description of a Beamsplitter 140 5.1.1.1 Polarization Properties of Beamsplitters 142 5.1.2 The Beamsplitter in the Quantum Operator Model 143 5.1.3 The Beamsplitter with Single Photons 144 5.1.4 The Beamsplitter and the Photon Statistics 146 5.1.5 The Beamsplitter with Coherent States 149 5.1.5.1 Transfer Function for a Beamsplitter 149 5.1.6 Comparison Between a Beamsplitter and a Classical Current Junction 151 5.1.7 The Beamsplitter as a Model of Loss 152 5.2 Interferometers 153 5.2.1 Classical Description of an Interferometer 154 5.2.2 Quantum Model of the Interferometer 155 5.2.3 The Single-Photon Interferometer 156 5.2.4 Transfer of Intensity Noise Through the Interferometer 156 5.2.5 Sensitivity Limit of an Interferometer 157 5.2.6 Effect of Mode Mismatch on an Interferometer 160 5.3 Optical Cavities 162 5.3.1 Classical Description of a Linear Cavity 164 5.3.2 The Special Case of High Reflectivities 169 5.3.3 The Phase Response 170 5.3.4 Spatial Properties of Cavities 172 5.3.4.1 Mode Matching 172 5.3.4.2 Polarization 174 5.3.4.3 Tunable Mirrors 175 5.3.5 Equations of Motion for the Cavity Mode 175 5.3.6 The Quantum Equations of Motion for a Cavity 176 5.3.7 The Propagation of Fluctuations Through the Cavity 177 5.3.8 Single Photons Through a Cavity 180 5.3.9 Multimode Cavities 181 5.3.10 Engineering Beamsplitters, Interferometers, and Resonators 182 5.4 Other Optical Components 184 5.4.1 Lenses 184 5.4.2 Holograms and Metasurfaces 185 5.4.3 Crystals and Polarizers 187 5.4.4 Optical Fibres and Waveguides 188 5.4.5 Modulators 189 5.4.5.1 Phase and Amplitude Modulators 191 5.4.6 Spatial Light Modulators 193 5.4.7 Optical Noise Sources 195 5.4.8 Non-linear Processes 195 References 196 6 Lasers and Amplifiers 199 6.1 The Laser Concept 199 6.1.1 Technical Specifications of a Laser 201 6.1.2 Rate Equations 203 6.1.3 Quantum Model of a Laser 207 6.1.4 Examples of Lasers 209 6.1.4.1 Classes of Lasers 209 6.1.4.2 Dye Lasers and Argon Ion Lasers 209 6.1.4.3 The CW Nd: YAG Laser 210 6.1.4.4 Diode Lasers 213 6.1.4.5 Limits of the Single-Mode Approximation in Diode Lasers 213 6.1.5 Laser Phase Noise 214 6.1.6 Pulsed Lasers 215 6.2 Amplification of Optical Signals 215 6.3 Parametric Amplifiers and Oscillators 218 6.3.1 The Second-Order Non-linearity 219 6.3.2 Parametric Amplification 220 6.3.3 Optical Parametric Oscillator 221 6.3.3.1 Noise Spectrum of the Parametric Oscillator 222 6.3.4 Pair Production 223 6.4 Measurement-Based Amplifiers 224 6.4.1 Deterministic Measurement-Based Amplifiers 225 6.4.2 Heralded Measurement-Based Amplifiers 228 6.5 Summary 230 References 231 7 Photon Generation and Detection 233 7.1 Photon Sources 236 7.1.1 Deterministic Photon Sources 239 7.2 Photon Detection 240 7.2.1 Detecting Individual Photons 240 7.2.1.1 Photochemical Detectors 241 7.2.1.2 Photoelectric Detectors 241 7.2.1.3 Photo-thermal Detectors 243 7.2.1.4 Multipixel and Imaging Devices 243 7.2.2 Recording Electrical Signals from Individual Photons 245 7.3 Generating, Detecting, and Analysing Photocurrents 247 7.3.1 Properties of Photocurrents 247 7.3.1.1 Beat Measurements 247 7.3.1.2 Intensity Noise and the Shot Noise Level 248 7.3.1.3 Quantum Efficiency 249 7.3.1.4 Photodetector Materials 250 7.3.2 Generating Photocurrents 251 7.3.2.1 Photodiodes and Detector Circuit 251 7.3.2.2 Amplifiers and Electronic Noise 252 7.3.2.3 Detector Saturation 254 7.3.3 Recording of Photocurrents 255 7.3.4 Spectral Analysis of Photocurrents 257 7.3.4.1 Digital Fourier Transform 257 7.3.4.2 Analogue Fourier Transform 258 7.3.4.3 From Optical Sidebands to the Current Spectrum 258 7.3.4.4 The Operation of an Electronic Spectrum Analyser 259 7.3.4.5 Detecting Signal and Noise Independently 260 7.3.4.6 The Decibel Scale 261 7.3.4.7 Adding Electronic AC Signals 262 7.4 Imaging with Photons 263 References 264 Further Reading 267 8 Quantum Noise: Basic Measurements and Techniques 269 8.1 Detection and Calibration of Quantum Noise 269 8.1.1 Direct Detection and Calibration 269 8.1.1.1 White Light Calibration 273 8.1.2 Balanced Detection 273 8.1.3 Detection of Intensity Modulation and SNR 275 8.1.4 Homodyne Detection 275 8.1.4.1 The Homodyne Detector for Classical Waves 275 8.1.5 Heterodyne Detection 279 8.1.5.1 Measuring Other Properties 280 8.2 Intensity Noise 281 8.2.1 Laser Noise 281 8.3 The Intensity Noise Eater 282 8.3.1 Classical Intensity Control 282 8.3.2 Quantum Noise Control 285 8.3.2.1 Practical Consequences 289 8.4 Frequency Stabilization and Locking of Cavities 290 8.4.1 Pound–Drever–Hall Locking 292 8.4.2 Tilt Locking 293 8.4.3 The PID Controller 294 8.4.4 How to Mount a Mirror 295 8.4.5 The Extremes of Mirror Suspension: GW Detectors 296 8.5 Injection Locking 296 References 299 9 Squeezed Light 303 9.1 The Concept of Squeezing 303 9.1.1 Tools for Squeezing: Two Simple Examples 303 9.1.1.1 The Kerr Effect 304 9.1.1.2 Four-Wave Mixing 307 9.1.2 Properties of Squeezed States 310 9.1.2.1 What Are the Uses of These Various Types of Squeezed Light? 312 9.2 Quantum Model of Squeezed States 314 9.2.1 The Formal Definition of a Squeezed State 314 9.2.2 The Generation of Squeezed States 317 9.2.3 Squeezing as Correlations Between Noise Sidebands 319 9.3 Detecting Squeezed Light 322 9.3.1 Detecting Amplitude Squeezed Light 322 9.3.2 Detecting Quadrature Squeezed Light 322 9.3.3 Using a Cavity to Measure Quadrature Squeezing 324 9.3.4 Summary of Different Representations of Squeezed States 325 9.3.5 Propagation of Squeezed Light 325 9.4 Early Demonstrations of Squeezed Light 330 9.4.1 Four Wave Mixing 330 9.4.2 Optical Parametric Processes 333 9.4.3 Second Harmonic Generation 339 9.4.4 The Kerr Effect 343 9.4.4.1 The Response of the Kerr Medium 343 9.4.4.2 Optimizing the Kerr Effect 345 9.4.4.3 Fibre Kerr Squeezing 346 9.4.4.4 Atomic Kerr Squeezing 348 9.4.4.5 Atomic Polarization Self-Rotation 349 9.5 Pulsed Squeezing 349 9.5.1 Quantum Noise of Optical Pulses 349 9.5.2 Pulsed Squeezing Experiments with Kerr Media 352 9.5.3 Pulsed SHG and OPO Experiments 353 9.5.4 Soliton Squeezing 354 9.5.5 Spectral Filtering 355 9.5.6 Non-linear Interferometers 356 9.6 Amplitude Squeezed Light from Diode Lasers 358 9.7 Quantum State Tomography 360 9.8 State of the Art of CW Squeezing 363 9.9 Squeezing of Multiple Modes 365 9.9.1 Twin-Photon Beams 365 9.9.2 Polarization Squeezing 367 9.9.3 Degenerate Multimode Squeezers 368 9.10 Summary: Quantum Limits and Enhancement 370 References 371 Further Reading 376 10 Applications of Quantum Light 377 10.1 Quantum Enhanced Sensors 377 10.1.1 Coherent Sensors and Sensitivity Scaling 377 10.1.2 Practical Examples of Sensors 380 10.1.3 Ultimate Sensing Limits 382 10.1.4 Adaptive Phase Estimation 384 10.2 Optical Communication 384 10.3 Gravitational Wave Detection 389 10.3.1 The Origin and Properties of GW 389 10.3.1.1 Concept and Design of an Optical GW Detector 392 10.3.2 Quantum Properties of the Ideal Interferometer 393 10.3.2.1 Configurations of Interferometers 396 10.3.2.2 Recycling 397 10.3.2.3 Modulation Techniques 398 10.3.3 The Sensitivity of GW Observatories 400 10.3.3.1 Enhancement Below the SQL 402 10.3.4 Interferometry with Squeezed Light 405 10.3.4.1 Quantum Enhancement Beyond the SQL 410 10.4 Quantum Enhanced Imaging 411 10.4.1 Imaging with Photons on Demand 411 10.4.2 Quantum Enhanced Coincidence Imaging 412 10.5 Multimode Squeezing Enhancing Sensors 414 10.5.1 Spatial Multimode Squeezing 414 10.6 Summary and Outlook 419 References 419 11 QND 425 11.1 QND Measurements of Quadrature Amplitudes 425 11.2 Classification of QND Measurements 427 11.3 Experimental Results 430 11.4 Single-Photon QND 432 11.4.1 Measurement-Based QND 434 References 437 12 Fundamental Tests of Quantum Mechanics 441 12.1 Wave–Particle Duality 441 12.2 Indistinguishability 446 12.3 Non-locality 453 12.3.1 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen Paradox 453 12.3.2 Characterization of Entangled Beams via Homodyne Detection 458 12.3.2.1 Logarithmic Negativity and Two-Mode Squeezing 459 12.3.2.2 Entanglement of Formation 460 12.3.3 Bell Inequalities 461 12.3.3.1 Long-Distance Bell Inequality Violations 466 12.3.3.2 Loophole-Free Bell Inequality Violations 466 12.4 Summary 468 References 468 13 Quantum Information 473 13.1 Photons as Qubits 473 13.1.1 Other Quantum Encodings 475 13.2 Post-selection and Coincidence Counting 475 13.3 True Single-Photon Sources 477 13.3.1 Heralded Single Photons 477 13.3.2 Single Photons on Demand 480 13.4 Characterizing Photonic Qubits 482 13.5 Quantum Key Distribution 484 13.5.1 QKD Using Single Photons 485 13.5.2 QKD Using Continuous Variables 489 13.5.3 No Cloning 492 13.6 Teleportation 492 13.6.1 Teleportation of Photon Qubits 493 13.6.2 Continuous Variable Teleportation 495 13.6.3 Entanglement Swapping 502 13.6.4 Entanglement Distillation 502 13.7 Quantum Computation 505 13.7.1 Dual-Rail Quantum Computing 506 13.7.1.1 Quantum Circuits with Linear Optics 507 13.7.1.2 Cluster States 511 13.7.1.3 Quantum Gates with Non-linear Optics 513 13.7.2 Single-Rail Quantum Computation 514 13.7.2.1 Quantum Random Walks 515 13.7.2.2 Boson Sampling 516 13.7.3 Continuous Variable Quantum Computation 518 13.7.3.1 Cat State Quantum Computing 519 13.7.3.2 Continuous Variable Cluster States 521 13.7.4 Large-Scale Quantum Computation 522 13.8 Summary 525 References 526 Further Reading 531 14 The Future: From Q-demonstrations to Q-technologies 533 14.1 Demonstrating Quantum Effects 533 14.2 Matter Waves and Atoms 535 14.3 Q-Technology Based on Optics 537 14.3.1 Applications of Squeezed Light 537 14.3.2 Quantum Communication and Logic with Photons 539 14.3.3 Cavity QED 542 14.3.4 Extending to Other Wavelengths: Microwaves and Cryogenic Circuits 542 14.3.5 Quantum Optomechanics 542 14.3.6 Transfer of Quantum Information Between Different Physical Systems 543 14.3.7 Transferring and Storing Quantum States 544 14.4 Outlook 544 References 545 Further Reading 547 Appendices 549 Appendix A: List of Quantum Operators, States, and Functions 549 Appendix B: Calculation of the Quantum Properties of a Feedback Loop 551 Appendix C: Detection of Signal and Noise with an ESA 552 Reference 554 Appendix D: An Example of Analogue Processing of Photocurrents 554 Appendix E: Symbols and Abbreviations 556 Index 559

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Book SynopsisOver the last 50 years, a variety of techniques have been developed to add a third dimension to regular imaging, with an extended spectrum associated to every imaging pixel. Dubbed 3D spectroscopy from its data format, it is now widely used in the astrophysical domain, but also inter alia for atmospheric sciences and remote sensing purposes. This is the first book to comprehensively tackle these new capabilities. It starts with the fundamentals of spectroscopic instruments, in particular their potentials and limits. It then reviews the various known 3D techniques, with particular emphasis on pinpointing their different `ecological? niches. Putative users are finally led through the whole observing process, from observation planning to the extensive ? and crucial - phase of data reduction. This book overall goal is to give the non-specialist enough hands-on knowledge to learn fast how to properly use and produce meaningful data when using such a 3D capability.Table of ContentsForeword xi Acknowledgments xiii The Emergence of 3D Spectroscopy in Astronomy 1 Scientific Rationale 1 3D History 4 3D Technology 9 Part I 3D Instrumentation 11 1 The Spectroscopic Toolbox 13 1.1 Introduction 13 1.1.1 Geometrical Optics # 101 13 1.1.2 Etendue Conservation 15 1.2 Basic Spectroscopic Principles 18 1.2.1 The Spectroscopic Case 18 1.3 Scanning Filters 20 1.3.1 Introduction 20 1.3.2 Interference Filters 22 1.3.3 Fabry–Pérot Filter 24 1.4 Dispersers 25 1.4.1 Prisms 25 1.4.2 Grating Principle 27 1.4.3 The Grating Spectrograph 28 1.4.4 Grating Species 29 1.4.5 Grating Etendue 30 1.4.6 Conclusion 31 1.5 2D Detectors 31 1.5.1 Introduction 31 1.5.2 The Photographic Plate 32 1.5.3 2D Optical Detectors 32 1.5.4 2D Infrared Arrays 35 1.5.5 Conclusion 35 1.6 Optics and Coatings 36 1.6.1 Introduction to Optics 36 1.6.2 Optical Computation 37 1.6.3 Optical Fabrication 40 1.6.4 Anti-Reflection Coatings 42 1.6.5 High Reflectivity Coatings 43 1.6.6 Conclusions 44 1.7 Mechanics, Cryogenics and Electronics 45 1.7.1 Mechanical Design 45 1.7.2 Alignments 48 1.7.3 Cryogenics 48 1.7.4 Electronics and Control System 49 1.8 Management, Timeline, and Cost 50 1.9 Conclusion 52 2 Multiobject Spectroscopy 61 2.1 Introduction 61 2.1.1 MOS History: The Pioneers 61 2.1.2 MOS History: The Digital Age 62 2.1.3 MOS Flavors 62 2.2 Slitless Based Multi-Object Spectroscopy 62 2.2.1 Slitless Spectroscopy Concept 62 2.2.2 Slitless Spectroscopic Systems 64 2.3 Multislit-Based Multiobject Spectroscopy 64 2.3.1 Multislit Concept 64 2.3.2 Multislit Holders 66 2.3.3 Multislit Systems 69 2.3.4 Multislit Instruments 70 2.4 Fiber-Based Multiobject Spectroscopy 70 2.4.1 Multifiber Concept 70 2.4.2 Positioning Systems 71 2.4.3 Fiber-Based Spectrograph 75 2.4.4 Fiber Systems Performance 75 2.4.5 Present Multifiber Facilities 76 2.4.6 Conclusion 77 3 Scanning Imaging Spectroscopy 81 3.1 Introduction 81 3.2 Scanning Long-Slit Spectroscopy 81 3.2.1 The Scanning Long-Slit Spectroscopy Concept 81 3.2.2 Astronomical Use 82 3.3 Scanning Fabry–Pérot Spectroscopy 83 3.3.1 Introduction 83 3.3.2 Fixed Fabry–Pérot Concept 83 3.3.3 Scanning Fabry–Pérot 85 3.4 Scanning Fourier Transform Spectroscopy 88 3.4.1 Fourier Transform Spectrometer 88 3.4.2 Fourier Transform Spectrograph 90 3.5 Conclusion: Comparing the Different Scanning Flavors 91 4 Integral Field Spectroscopy 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Lenslet-Based Integral Field Spectrometer 95 4.3 Fiber-Based Integral Field Spectrometer 102 4.3.1 The Fiber-Based IFS Concept 102 4.3.2 The Fiber-Based IFS Development 103 4.3.3 Conclusion 103 4.4 Slicer-Based Integral Field Spectrograph 104 4.4.1 Introduction 104 4.4.2 Integral Field Spectroscopy from Space 107 4.5 Conclusion: Comparing the Different IFS Flavors 108 5 Recent Trends in Integral Field Spectroscopy 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 High-Contrast Integral Field Spectrometer 115 5.2.1 Exoplanet Detection 115 5.2.2 High-Contrast Integral Field Spectrometer 116 5.3 Wide-Field Integral Field Spectroscopy 117 5.3.1 The Rationale for Wide-Field Integral Field Spectroscopy 117 5.3.2 Current Wide-Field Projects 117 5.3.3 Wide-Field Systems 3D Format 119 5.4 An Example: Autopsy of the MUSE Wide-Field Instrument 120 5.4.1 MUSE Concept 120 5.4.2 MUSE Approach 120 5.4.3 MUSE Conclusions 122 5.4.4 Validity of the Multi-instrument Approach 123 5.5 Deployable Multiobject Integral Field Spectroscopy 123 5.5.1 Concept 123 5.5.2 The First Deployable Integral Field Units System 124 5.5.3 Near Infra-Red Deployable Integral Field Units 124 5.5.4 Deployable Multi-Integral Field Systems: Conclusion 126 6 Comparing the Various 3D Techniques 129 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 3D Spectroscopy Grasp Invariant Principle 129 6.3 3-D Techniques Practical Differences 130 6.3.1 Packing Efficiency 130 6.3.2 Observational Efficiency 131 6.4 A Tentative Rating 133 7 Future Trends in 3D Spectroscopy 137 7.1 3D Instrumentation for the ELTs 137 7.2 Photonics-Based Spectrograph 138 7.2.1 OH Suppression Filter 138 7.2.2 Photonics Dispersers 141 7.2.3 Photonics Fourier Transform Spectrometer 141 7.2.4 Analysis 142 7.3 Quest for the Grail: Toward 3D Detectors? 144 7.3.1 Introduction 144 7.3.2 Photon-Counting 3D Detectors 144 7.3.3 Integrating 3D Detector 145 7.4 Conclusion 146 7.5 For Further Reading 146 Part II Using 3D Spectroscopy 151 8 Data Properties 153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Data Sampling and Resolution 153 8.2.1 Spatial Sampling and Resolution 154 8.2.2 Spectral Sampling and Resolution 155 8.3 Noise Properties 158 9 Impact of Atmosphere 167 9.1 Introduction 167 9.2 Basic Seeing Principles 168 9.2.1 What is Astronomical Seeing? 168 9.2.2 Seeing Properties 170 9.3 Seeing-Limited Observations 172 9.3.1 Seeing Impact on 3D Instruments 172 9.4 Adaptive Optics Corrected Observations 173 9.4.1 The Need for Overcoming Atmospheric Turbulence 173 9.4.2 Adaptive Optics Correction Principle 173 9.4.3 Adaptive Optics Components 176 9.4.4 Adaptive Optics: The Optical Domain Curse 178 9.4.5 Addressing the Lack of Reference Stars 179 9.4.6 Addressing the Small Field Limitation 182 9.4.7 Large Field Partial AO Correction 183 9.4.8 AO-Based Scanning Interferometers 184 9.4.9 AO-Based Slit Spectrographs 185 9.4.10 AO-Based Integral Field Spectrographs 185 9.4.11 AO-Based Near-IR Multiobject Integral Field Spectrographs 187 9.4.12 Deriving AO-Corrected Point-Spread Functions 188 9.4.13 Conclusion 188 9.4.14 For Further Reading 189 9.5 Other Atmosphere Impacts 189 9.5.1 Atmospheric Extinction 189 9.5.2 Atmospheric Refraction 189 9.5.3 Night Sky Emission 191 9.6 Space-Based Observations 192 9.6.1 The Case for Space-Based Observations 192 9.6.2 Why all Telescopes are not Space Telescopes 193 9.7 Conclusion 194 10 Data Gathering 199 10.1 Introduction 199 10.2 Planning Observations 199 10.3 Estimating Observing Time 200 10.4 Observing Strategy 204 10.5 At the Telescope 206 10.6 Conclusion 209 11 Data Reduction 213 11.1 Introduction 213 11.2 Basics 214 11.3 Specific Cases 216 11.3.1 Slitless Multiobject Spectrograph 216 11.3.2 Scanning Fabry–Pérot Spectrograph 216 11.3.3 Scanning Fourier Transform Spectrograph 217 11.3.4 Getting Noise Variance Estimation 217 11.3.5 Minimizing Systematics 218 11.4 Data Reduction Example: The MUSE Scheme 219 11.4.1 Detector Calibration 221 11.4.2 Flat-Field Calibrations and Trace Mask 222 11.4.3 Wavelength Calibrations 224 11.4.4 Geometrical Calibration 225 11.4.5 Basic Science Extraction and Pixel Tables 226 11.4.6 Differential Atmospheric Correction 226 11.4.7 Sky Subtraction 228 11.4.8 Spectrophotometric and Astrometric Calibrations 229 11.4.9 Data-Cube Creation 232 11.4.10 Data Quality 233 11.5 Conclusion 236 12 Data Analysis 237 12.1 Introduction 237 12.2 Handling Data Cubes 237 12.2.1 The Spectral View 238 12.2.2 The Spatial View 239 12.2.3 The 3D View 239 12.3 Viewing Data Cubes 240 12.4 Conclusion 241 12.5 Further Reading 243 13 Conclusions 245 13.1 Conclusions 245 13.2 General-Use Instruments 245 13.3 Team-Use Instruments 250 13.4 The Bumpy Road to Success 251 References 253 Index 269

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Book SynopsisLeading experts from "The Physics of Quantum Information" network, initiated by the European Commission, bring together the most recent results from this emerging area of quantum technology. Written in a consistent style as a research monograph, the book introduces quantum cryptography, quantum teleportation, and quantum computation, considering both theory and newest experiments. Both scientists working in the field and advanced students will find a rich source of information on this exciting new area.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews "Included among the more than 40 contributors are some of the subject¿s leading European practitioners¿ Topics are well balanced between presentations of the theory (dazzling in its ingenuity) and crude attempts at implementation (tours de force in technol9gy, but still a long way from non-trivial computational application)¿ ¿The Physics of Quantum Information¿ does convey a through and authoritative picture of the state of this fascinating futuristic art as we enter the 21st century." - American Scientist "This volume covers Quantum Cryptography Quantum Teleportation and Quantum Computation. The book presents clearly the fundamental concepts, amply illustrated with theoretical calculations and descriptions of experimental work. Consequently, this is a first-class primer, pitched at a level suitable for honours students or above.The first section, dealing with Quantum Cryptography, discusses the possibility of secure exchange of key material via entangled states in quantum channels. The presentation makes it clear that quantum key exchange, using quantum indeterminacy to test for an eavesdropper, offers genuine security. The discussion of experimental realisations suggests that this will be a practical technology in the not too distant future.The next chapter is on Quantum "teleportation", the transfer of a quantum state to an entangled system at another location. This chapter includes a discussion of a number of elegant experiments.Much of the book is devoted to Quantum Computing. An introduction introduces the qubit (quantum bit) and quantum logic gates, followed by a very clear exposition of quantum algorithms, and their speed advantages over classical algorithms. The presentation then moves to the practicalities of building a quantum computer. Decoherence, a formidable challenge, is covered at length. There is a tendency in some writings to understate the difficulties that decoherence might present, but here the discussion is clear and balanced. The authors then move to potential solutions; quantum error correction and entanglement purification. Finally, this book has a very good index and an extensive bibliography. Unreservedly recommended, and deserving of a place in any Physics library."Andrew DaviesDepartment of DefenceCanberra ACTThe Physicist, Australian Institute of Physics, 2001,38,1"The best of these (multi-author works) so far is The Physics of Quantum Information edited by Dik Bouwmeester, Artur Ekert and Anton Zeilinger and published by Springer-Verlag. It is too much to expect that a multi-author book would present a coherent vision of a subject as young as this. The editors however have done an excellent job of stitching together a rewarding tapestry of the field as it stands today. (...) The Physics of Quantum Information is essential reading for anyone new to the field, particularly if they enter from the direction of quantum optics and atomic physics." Gerard J. Milburn, Australia; Quantum Information and Computation 1, 89-90 (2001) "The editors however have done an excellent job of stitching together a rewarding tapestry of the field as it stands today…The Physics of Quantum Information is essential reading for anyone new to the field, particularly if they enter from the direction of quantum optics and atomic physics."–The Physicist "Unreservedly recommended, and deserving of a place in any Physics library."–Andrew Davies, Department of Defence, Canberra, Australia AMERICAN SCIENTIST"Topics are well balanced between presentations of the theory (dazzling in its ingenuity) and crude attempts at its implementation (tours de force of technology, but still a long way from any nontrivial computational application)…does convey a thorough and authoritative picture of the state of this fascinating futuristic art as we enter the 21st century.” QUANTUM INFORMATION & COMPUTATION"…an excellent job of stitching together a rewarding tapestry of the field as it stands today…essential reading for anyone new to the field, particularly if they enter from the direction of quantum optics and atomic physics.”Table of Contents1. The Physics of Quantum Information: Basic Concepts.- 2. Quantum Cryptography.- 3. Quantum Dense Coding and Quantum Teleportation.- 4. Concepts of Quantum Computation.- 5. Experiments Leading Towards Quantum Computation.- 6. Quantum Networks and Multi-Particle Entanglement.- 7. Decoherence and Quantum Error Correction.- 8. Entanglement Purification.- References.

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Book SynopsisDas vorliegende Buch dient Arbeitgebern und fachkundigen Personen als kompaktes Nachschlagewerk und Hilfestellung bei der Erstellung der Gefährdungsbeurteilung von Laser-Arbeitsplätzen, der Berechnung von Expositionsgrenzwerten und der Messung von Laserstrahlung.Das Werk basiert auf den Anforderungen der optischen Strahlungsverordnung (OStrV) und den Technischen Regeln Optische Strahlung (TROS Laserstrahlung), die diese konkretisieren. Gleichzeitig bildet das Buch die Kursinhalte der Ausbildung zu fachkundigen Personen an der Akademie für Lasersicherheit Berlin und der Berufsgenossenschaft BGETEM ab.Table of ContentsRECHTLICHE, TECHNISCHE, PHYSIKALISCHE UND BIOLOGISCHE GRUNDLAGEN.- Rechtliche Grundlagen.- Physikalische Grundlagen der Lasertechnik.- Messungen von Laserstrahlung und Geräte.- Biologische Wirkung von Laserstrahlung.- GRENZWERTE.- Expositionsgrenzwerte (EGW).- Laserklassifizierung und Laserklassen.- GEFÄHRDUNGEN UND SCHUTZMASSNAHMEN.- Gefährdungen durch Laserstrahlung.- Substitution.- Technische und bauliche Schutzmaßnahmen.- Organisatorische Schutzmaßnahmen.- Persönliche Schutzausrüstung (PSA), insbesondere Schutzbrillen.- Unterweisung.- Show- und Projektionslaser.- GEFÄHRDUNGSBEURTEILUNG, DURCHFÜHRUNG UND BEISPIELE.- Die Gefährdungsbeurteilung.- Beispiele für Gefährdungsbeurteilungen verschiedener Anwendungsbereiche.- ANHANG.- Verordnung zum Schutz der Beschäftigten vor Gefährdungen durch künstliche optische Strahlung (Arbeitsschutzverordnung zu künstlicher optischer Strahlung - OStrV).- Formelsammlung für den Laserschutz.- Beispiele für eine Betriebsanweisung.- Bestellung zum/zur Laserschutzbeauftragten .- Nachweis der jährlichen Unterweisung zum Laserschutz nach OStrV (§ 8).- FAQ.

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Book SynopsisPhysikalische Grundlagen stehen am Anfang der meisten Ingenieur- und Naturwissenschaften bis hin zur Medizin. Dieses Lehrbuch enthält die wichtigsten Grundlagen der Mechanik, Elektrizität, Optik und Wärme sowie exemplarisch einige Fakten der Atom- und Kernphysik. Kurz und knapp werden die physikalischen Begriffe und Gesetze dargestellt und erläutert. Auf die in der Physik üblichen exakten mathematischen Formulierungen wird dabei nicht verzichtet. Mathematische Einschübe geben, wenn nötig, Hilfestellung. Typische Merkmale der Physik werden vermittelt, wie z.B. Vorgehensweisen bei Ableitungen von Gesetzen, Querverbindungen oder die Beschreibung von Materialeigenschaften. Viele übersichtliche Abbildungen und einfache Beispiele sind zum leichteren Verständnis eingefügt, ebenso wie über 50 Aufgaben mit Lösungen zur Vertiefung und Nacharbeitung des Stoffes. Die vorliegende 4. Auflage wurde gründlich überarbeitet und neu geschrieben. Sie wendet sich an Studierende mit Physik als Nebenfach ebenso wie an alle, die bei ihrer Arbeit mit Physik konfrontiert sind. Table of ContentsVorwort.- 1 Mechanik.- 2 Elektrizität.- 3 Optik.- 4 Wärme.- 5 Atom- und Kernphysik.- Weiterführende Lehrbücher.- Sachverzeichnis.

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Book SynopsisUsing phase–plane analysis, findings from the theory of topological horseshoes and linked-twist maps, this book presents a novel method to prove the existence of chaotic dynamics. In dynamical systems, complex behavior in a map can be indicated by showing the existence of a Smale-horseshoe-like structure, either for the map itself or its iterates. This usually requires some assumptions about the map, such as a diffeomorphism and some hyperbolicity conditions. In this text, less stringent definitions of a horseshoe have been suggested so as to reproduce some geometrical features typical of the Smale horseshoe, while leaving out the hyperbolicity conditions associated with it. This leads to the study of the so-called topological horseshoes. The presence of chaos-like dynamics in a vertically driven planar pendulum, a pendulum of variable length, and in other more general related equations is also proved.Table of ContentsChapter 1. Topological Considerations.- Chapter 2. Topological horseshoes and coin-tossing dynamics.- Chapter 3. Chaotic Dynamics in the vertically driven planar pendulum.- Chapter 4. Chaos in a pendulum with variable length.

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Book SynopsisThe material for these volumes has been selected from the past twenty years' examination questions for graduate students at University of California at Berkeley, Columbia University, the University of Chicago, MIT, State University of New York at Buffalo, Princeton University and University of Wisconsin.

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Book SynopsisThe material for these volumes has been selected from the past twenty years' examination questions for graduate students at University of California at Berkeley, Columbia University, the University of Chicago, MIT, State University of New York at Buffalo, Princeton University and University of Wisconsin.

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Book SynopsisIn this book, the authors give an up-to-date account of thermoluminescence (TL) and other thermally stimulated phenomena. Although most recent experimental results of TL in different materials are described in some detail, the main emphasis in the present book is on general processes, and the approach is more theoretical. Thus the details of the possible processes which can take place during the excitation of the sample, and during its heating, are carefully analysed. The methods for analysing TL glow curves are critically discussed, and recommendations as to their application are made. Also discussed is the expected behavior of these phenomena as functions of the experimental parameters, for example, dose of excitation. The consequences of the main applications of TL (for example, radiation dosimetry) are also discussed in detail as are the similarities and dissimilarities of other thermally stimulated phenomena, and the simultaneous measurements of the latter and TL.

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Book SynopsisThe dielectric microstructures act as ultrahigh Q factors optical cavities, which modify the spontaneous emission rates and alter the spatial distributions of the input and output radiation. The editors have selected leading scientists who have made seminal contributions in different aspects of optical processes in microcavities. Every attempt has been made to unify the underlying physics pertaining to microcavities of various shapes. This book begins with a chapter on the role of microcavity modes with additional chapters on how these microcavity modes affect the spontaneous and stimulated emission rates, enhance nonlinear optical processes, used in cavity-QED and chemical physics experiments, aid in single-molecule detection, influence the design of microdisk semiconductor lasers, and how deformed cavities can be treated with classical chaos theory.

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Book SynopsisFrom Leonardo to Oppenheimer, from candles to lasers, from cave drawings to cinema, from stonehenge to quantum mechanics, from Genesis to the Big Bang, light has filled our thoughts, our way of life, our aesthetics, our technology, and our means for survival. Richard Weiss leads us along these paths over the past 500 light years. The way is lit by pioneers such as Rembrandt, Einstein, D W Griffith, Newton, and Heisenberg. A BRIEF HISTORY OF LIGHT, AND THOSE THAT LIT THE WAY is a summer's day roller-coaster ride through five centuries of man's achievements in understanding and manipulating light.

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Book SynopsisNicolaas Bloembergen, recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physics (1981), wrote Nonlinear Optics in 1964, when the field of nonlinear optics was only three years old. The available literature has since grown by at least three orders of magnitude.The vitality of Nonlinear Optics is evident from the still-growing number of scientists and engineers engaged in the study of new nonlinear phenomena and in the development of new nonlinear devices in the field of opto-electronics. This monograph should be helpful in providing a historical introduction and a general background of basic ideas both for experts specializing in this discipline and for scientists and students who wish to become acquainted with it.This is the fourth reprint and includes new references to the recent literature.Table of ContentsClassical introduction; quantum thoery of nonlinear susceptibilities; Maxwell's equations in nonlinear media; wave propagation in nonlinear media; experimental results.

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Book SynopsisThis book describes the propagation of light in biaxial media, the properties of biaxial thin films, and applications such as birefringent filters for tuning the wavelength of dye lasers.A novel feature of the first part is the parallel treatment of Stokes, Jones, and Berreman matrix formalisms in a chapter-by-chapter development of wave equations, basis vectors, transfer matrices, reflection and transmission equations, and guided waves. Computational tools for MATLAB are included.The second part focuses on an emerging planar technology in which anisotropic microstructures are formed by oblique deposition in vacuum. Methods for characterizing dielectric and metal films are discussed. Topics such as form birefringence, effective medium theory, anisotropic scatter and anisotropic fluid transport are discussed in detail.Practical applications of bulk and layered birefringent media are considered in the final part. Separate chapters are devoted to linear polarizers, phase retarders, and birefringent filters. Traditional bulk-media polarizing elements are included and compared with thin film designs.Table of ContentsPart 1 Propagation in biaxial media: propagation equations; basis vectors; transfer matrices; reflection and transmission; guided waves. Part 2 Characterization of biaxial films: deposition; form birefringence; effective media; anisotropic scatter; fluid transport; metal films. Part 3 Applications of biaxial media: linear polarizers; phase retarders; birefringent filters.

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Book SynopsisThis book discusses quantum optics and investigates the quantum properties of interactions between atoms and laser fields. It is divided into three parts. Part I introduces the elementary theory of the interaction between atoms and light. Part II provides a concentrated discussion on the quantum properties of light fields. Part III deals with the quantum dynamic properties of the atoms interacting with laser fields. This book can be used as a text for both graduate and undergraduate students; it will also benefit scientists who are interested in quantum optics and theoretical physics.Table of ContentsTheory of the interaction between atom and radiation field: three pictures in quantum mechanics description; two-level atom and the optical Bloch equation; quantized description of the radiation field; Dicke Hamiltonian and Jaynes - Cummings model; quantum theory of a small system coupling to a "reservoir". The quantum properties of light: coherence of light; squeezed states of light; resonance fluorescence; superfluorescence; optical bistability; effects of virtual photon processes. Quantum properties of the atomic behaviour under the interaction of the radiation field: collapses and revivals of the atomic populations; squeezing effects of the atomic operators; coherent trapping of the atomic population; quantum characteristics of a two-atom system under the interaction of radiation field; autoionization of the atom in a laser field; motion of the atom in a laser field; laser cooling.

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Book SynopsisWith clear illustrations throughout and without recourse to quantum mechanics, the reader is invited to revisit unsolved problems lying at the foundations of theoretical physics. Maxwell and his contemporaries abandoned their search for a geometrical representation of the electric and magnetic fields. The wave-particle dilemma and Bose-Einstein statistical counting have resulted in unsatisfactory non-realistic interpretations. Furthermore, a simple structure of the hydrogen atom that includes hyperfine levels is still wanting. Working with the latest experimental data in photoionics a proposed solution to the wave-particle dilemma is suggested based on an array of circular-polarized rays. The Bose–Einstein counting procedure is recast in terms of distinguishable elements. Finally, a vortex model of a 'particle' is developed based on a trapped photon. This consists of a single ray revolving around a toroidal surface, and allows a geometrical definition of mass, electric potential, and magnetic momentum. With the adjustment of two parameters, values to 4 dp for the hyperfine frequencies (MHz) of hydrogen can be obtained for which a computer program is available.Table of ContentsIntroduction; The Helical Space Dislocation (HSD); A Transversely Iterated Single Photon; A Longitudinally Iterated Single Photon; The Helical Array Dislocation (HAD); The Unloaded OAM Mass Ring; The Loaded OAM Mass Ring; Hydrogen Atom Fine Structure; Hydrogen Atom Hyperfine Structure; A Workable Computer Program for Computing Hyperfine Frequencies;

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Book SynopsisThis book is a science text about light for the general reader; it is also an adventure story and a detective story revealing how the secrets of light were uncovered. Readers can share in the thrill of each discovery and learn about some of the myriad applications opened up by these fascinating discoveries, including the telescope, fiber optics, the laser, and even the recent optical detection of gravitational waves from space.With Professor Fortson, distinguished experimental physicist, as your tour guide, follow the journey from the 17th century — when Descartes first calculated the size of the rainbow — to the 20th century, when the quantum theory of light was born. Learn how Huygens, Newton, Planck, Einstein and many other great scientists solved one mystery after another, from the reason underlying the law of refraction to the puzzle of the photoelectric effect. The journey ends with the solution to the most challenging mystery of all: that light is both a wave and a particle — a fascinating finale.

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Book SynopsisThe unique compendium presents special principles and techniques of spectroscopic measurements that are used in semiconductor manufacturing.Since industrial applications of spectroscopy are significantly different from those traditionally used in scientific laboratories, the design concepts and characteristics of industrial spectroscopic devices may vary significantly from conventional systems. These peculiarities are thus succinctly summarized in this volume for a wide audience of students, engineers, and scientific workers.Exceptionally well-illustrated with practical solutions in detail, this useful reference text will open new horizons in new research areas.

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Book SynopsisVisible light has an inescapable presence all around us. We have generated light from prehistoric times using a variety of techniques. In modern times, we mainly produce illumination through electrical means. There are interesting historic anecdotes and fascinating scientific facts behind the various modern techniques for generating light.This book attempts to describe the stories and technologies related to many light sources — some common, some less so. Described in a more-or-less chronological fashion, the book looks at developments from Edison and Swan's invention of the incandescent lamp, through lasers, to LEDs, and more. While the main focus is on sources of visible light, a number of devices that produce invisible radiation are also covered for the sake of completeness.The book provides a holistic view of common and uncommon light sources from both historic and technical perspectives, to help readers place more modern developments in the context of what came before, and how. This book will be of benefit to all who are interested in optical sciences, especially in the generation, detection or use of electromagnetic radiation.

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Book SynopsisVisible light has an inescapable presence all around us. We have generated light from prehistoric times using a variety of techniques. In modern times, we mainly produce illumination through electrical means. There are interesting historic anecdotes and fascinating scientific facts behind the various modern techniques for generating light.This book attempts to describe the stories and technologies related to many light sources — some common, some less so. Described in a more-or-less chronological fashion, the book looks at developments from Edison and Swan's invention of the incandescent lamp, through lasers, to LEDs, and more. While the main focus is on sources of visible light, a number of devices that produce invisible radiation are also covered for the sake of completeness.The book provides a holistic view of common and uncommon light sources from both historic and technical perspectives, to help readers place more modern developments in the context of what came before, and how. This book will be of benefit to all who are interested in optical sciences, especially in the generation, detection or use of electromagnetic radiation.

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Book SynopsisThe investigation on novel optical materials with unprecedented optical properties is of paramount importance for the development of advanced applications in many fields having a strong impact on our everyday lives such as biomedicine, food and agriculture security, optical communication and information technology, etc. Moreover, the interaction of light with matter in the past decades has allowed the quick growth of new disciplines such as biophotonics, covering all aspects of this interaction with biological materials; nanophotonics, investigating the optical behavior of nanostructures; opto-mechanics, going from optical manipulation of small objects to optical control of micro- and nano-robots.This book comprises timely contributions from active research groups covering several classes of materials and processes including nano-structured plasmonic and photonic materials, 2-D materials, photo-polymers, liquid crystals, photo-sensitive and opto-thermal, and other specially engineered materials.Novel Optical Materials will serve as a useful reference for researchers, engineers, and optical and materials scientists in both industry and academia. It is also an excellent supplement and reference for graduate courses in materials science, physics, and optical engineering.

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