Nanotechnology Books

Book SynopsisThe book is an introduction to nanomedicine informed by a philosophical reflection about the domain and recent developments. It is an overview of the field, sketching out the main areas of current investment and research. The authors present some case-studies illustrating the different areas of research (nanopharmacy, theranostics and patient monitoring) as well as reflecting on the risks that accompany it, such as unanticipated impacts on human health and environmental toxicity. This introduction to a fast-growing field in modern medical research is of great interest to researchers working in many disciplines as well as the general public. In addition to an overview of the work currently ongoing, the authors critically assess these projects from an ethical and philosophical perspective.Key Features Provides an overview of nanomedicine Employs a reflective and coherent critical evaluation of the benefits and risks of nanomedicine Table of Contents Authors. Introduction. Nanopharmacy: What's New With the Nano? Theranostics: Toward a New Integrative Horizon. Health Under Surveillance. Genetic Nanomedicine. Toxicology of Nanomaterials: A New Toxicology? Organs on Chips, Miniaturization and Medical Specialties: The Different Logics of Nanomedicine. Regenerative Medicine: Mobilizing the Body's Own Repair Mechanisms: Conclusion. Glossary. Index.

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Book SynopsisNanofillers for Sustainable Applications provides an in-depth review of the wide-ranging applications of nanofillers. It explores both synthetic and natural nanofillers and focuses on their use as reinforcement and active fillers in composite structures.Covering various aspects of nanofillers, including synthesis methods, characteristics, properties, and compatibility, this book highlights the potential of nanofillers as functional materials for different applications and offers a collection of comparative studies to showcase their efficacy. It emphasizes sustainability, intelligent design, and high-end applications in fields such as packaging, pulp and paper, aerospace, automotive, medicine, chemical industry, biodiesel, and chemical sensors. This book is organized into several sections, covering topics such as synthetic nanomaterials, nanosafety, natural nanofillers, polymer composites, metal nanofillers, nanofillers in various industries, nanofillers in renewable enTable of Contents1. Overviews of Synthetic Nanomaterials, Synthesis Methods, Characteristics and Recent Progress. 2. The Characterization Techniques of Nanomaterials. 3. Nanosafety: Exposure, Detection, and Toxicology. 4. Natural Nanofillers: Preparation and Properties. 5. Compatibility Study of Nanofillers-Based Polymer Composites. 6. Inclusion of Nano-Fillers in Natural Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Overviews and Applications. 7. Metal Nanofillers in Composite Structure. 8. Bio-oils as the Precursor for Carbon Nanostructure Formation. 9. Nanoplastics in Environment: Environmental Risk, Occurrence, Characterization, and Identification. 10. Nanofillers in Pulp and Paper. 11. Design of Recycled Aluminium (AA7075)-Based Composites Reinforced with Nano Filler NiAl Intermetallic and Nano Niobium Powder Produced with Vacuum Arc Melting for Aeronautical Applications. 12. Performance Evaluation of Nanolignin in Polymer Composites. 13. Natural Nanofillers in Biopolymer-Based Composites: A Review. 14. Effect of Dispersion and Interfacial Functionalization of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes in Epoxy Composites: Structural and Thermogravimetric Analysis Characteristics. 15. Natural Nanofillers in Polyolefins-Based Composites: A Review. 16. Nanofillers in Food Packaging. 17. Design of Recycled Aluminium (AA7075+AA1050 Fine Chips)-Based Composites Reinforced with Nano SiC Whiskers, Fine Carbon Fiber for Aeronautical Applications. 18. State-of-Art Review on Nanofiller in Biodiesel Applications. 19. Recent Progress of Advanced Nanomaterials in Renewable Energy. 20. Emerging Development on Nanocellulose and its Composites in Biomedical Sectors. 21. Cinnamon Pickering Emulsions as a Natural Disinfectant: Protection against Bacteria and SARS-CoV-2. 22. Nanofillers in Automotive and Aerospace Industry.

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Book SynopsisSmart drug delivery at both the micro- and nanoscale is an evolving field with numerous potential applications. It has the potential to revolutionize drug therapy by making treatments more effective, reducing side effects, and improving patient outcomes.This book presents a comprehensive review of the most recent studies on smart micro- and nanomaterials with a focus on their smart activity for formation of targeted and responsive drug-delivery carriers. This volume: Introduces readers to the fundamentals of these the micro- and nanoscale materials as well as approaches to smart drug delivery and drug delivery systems. Covers polymers, metals, and composite materials as well as quantum dots and carbon nanotubes. Describes of all possible stimulated systems for drug delivery such as enzyme-responsive, small molecules-responsive, thermo-responsive, pH-responsive, electric field-responsive, magnetic field-responsive, light-responsive, ultrasound

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Book SynopsisThis fully updated volume presents a wide range of methods for synthesis, surface modification, characterization and application of nano-sized materials (nanoparticles) in the life science and medical fields, with a focus on drug delivery and diagnostics.Table of ContentsPart I: Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Their Applications in Biology and Medicine 1. Procedures for the Synthesis and Capping of Metal Nanoparticles Claudia Gutiérrez-Wing, J. Jesús Velázquez-Salazar, and Miguel José-Yacamán 2. Antimicrobial Applications of Silver Nanoparticles to E. coli Colony Biofilms James P. McEvoy, Kayra Genc, Priya Loi, and William J. Walker 3. Elastin-Based Antimicrobial Particles for Delivery of Bioactive Compounds Raul Machado, André da Costa, Ana Margarida Pereira, José Carlos Rodriguez-Cabello, and Margarida Casal 4. Biomimetic Lipid Polymer Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery Ana Maria Carmona-Ribeiro 5. Crotamine Cell-Penetrating Nanocarriers: Cancer-Targeting and Potential Biotechnological and/or Medical Applications Mirian A.F. Hayashi, Joana D’Arc Campeiro, Lucas Carvalho Porta, Brian Szychowski, Wendel Andrade Alves, Eduardo B. Oliveira, Irina Kerkis, Marie-Christine Daniel, and Richard L. Karpel 6. Preparation of Lipid:Peptide:DNA (LPD) Nanoparticles and Their Use for Gene Transfection Fan Zhang and Hao-Ying Li 7. Preparation of Hyaluronic Acid-Based Nanoparticles for Macrophage-Targeted MicroRNA Delivery and Transfection Neha N. Parayath and Mansoor M. Amiji 8. Formulation and Characterization of Antithrombin Perfluorocarbon Nanoparticles Alexander J. Wilson, Qingyu Zhou, Ian Vargas, Rohun Palekar, Ryan Grabau, Hua Pan, and Samuel A. Wickline 9. Biomedical In Vivo studies with ORMOSIL Nanoparticles Containing Active Agents Sona Gandhi and Indrajit Roy 10. Preparation of Spray-Dried Nanoparticles for Efficient Drug Delivery to the Lungs Hao-Ying Li and Fan Zhang 11. Synthesis and Evaluation of Airway-Targeted PLGA Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Obstructive Lung Diseases Neeraj Vij 12. Synthesis and Evaluation of Dendrimers for Autophagy Augmentation and Alleviation of Obstructive Lung Diseases Neeraj Vij 13. Synthesis of Poly (2-Hydroxyethyl Methacrylate) (PHEMA)-Based Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications Rajesh Saini, Jaya Bajpai, and Anil K. Bajpai Part II: Focus on the Nanoparticles Derivatization, Bio-Interface, and Nanotoxicity 14. The Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Peptides on Gold Nanosurfaces Danilo Roccatano 15. Protein Immobilization on Gold Nanoparticles: Quantitative Analysis Evan Decker, Chunsheng Bai, Lauren Nelless, Enrico Ferrari, and Mikhail Soloviev 16. Oriented Immobilization on Gold Nanoparticles of a Recombinant Therapeutic Zymogen Elina Dosadina, Celetia Agyeiwaa, William Ferreira, Simon Cutting, Abdullah Jibawi, Enrico Ferrari, and Mikhail Soloviev 17. Directed and Modular Protein Immobilization on Gold and Silver Nanoparticles Angela Saccardo, Wenwei Ma, Mikhail Soloviev, and Enrico Ferrari 18. In Vitro Labeling Mesenchymal Stem Cells with Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Efficacy and Cytotoxicity Jasmin 19. RNA Quantification Using Noble Metal Nanoprobes: Simultaneous Identification of Several Different mRNA Targets Using Color Multiplexing and Application to Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Diagnostics Pedro Viana Baptista 20. Assessment of Toxicity of Nanoparticles Using Insects as Biological Models Yan Zhou, Yan Chen, Aracely Rocha, Carlos J. Sanchez, and Hong Liang Part III: Nanoparticles Characterization and Advanced Methods Development 21. Absolute Quantification of Gold Nanoparticles with Femtomolar Accuracy Using Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy Lee-Anne McCarthy, Andrew Dye, and Enrico Ferrari 22. NanoParticle Tracking Analysis for the Multiparameter Characterization and Counting of Nanoparticle Suspensions Duncan Griffiths, Pauline Carnell-Morris, and Matthew Wright 23. Nanoparticle Bridges for Studying Electrical Properties of Organic Molecules and Gas Sensor Applications Klaus Leifer, Syed Hassan Mujtaba Jafri, and Yuanyuan Han 24. Nanoparticle Characterization through Nano-Impact Electrochemistry: Tools and Methodology Development Kevin A. Kirk, Tulashi Luitel, Farideh Hosseini Narouei, and Silvana Andreescu 25. Photostability of Semiconductor Quantum Dots in Response to UV Exposure Julian Bailes 26. Gold Nanoclusters, Gold Nanoparticles, and Analytical Techniques for Their Characterization Germán Plascencia-Villa, Rubén Mendoza-Cruz, Lourdes Bazán-Díaz, and Miguel José-Yacamán 27. Combining Nanoparticles with Colloidal Bubbles: A Short Review Ekaterina Litau 28. Combination of Dark-Field and Confocal Microscopy for the Optical Detection of Silver and Titanium Nanoparticles in Mammalian Cells Robert Martin Zucker and William K. Boyes 29. Detection of Silver and TiO2 Nanoparticles in Cells by Flow Cytometry Robert Martin Zucker and William K. Boyes

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Book SynopsisThe first introductory book on the subject, this book will provide a complete grounding to this pioneering field for students and professionals across biomedical engineering, biology and medicine. It features a comprehensive overview of original work in this revolutionary field. Topics discussed include drug delivery, cell-material interaction and gene therapy, accompanied by real-world examples and over 100 illustrations. The book teaches readers how to design and test their own nanomedical systems for real-world applications in biomedical engineering, medicine and pharmacy. Presenting a thorough discussion of the science and engineering of nanomedicine, it discusses vital environmental, social and ethical impacts of this revolutionary technology. Including over 200 thought-provoking study questions, allowing the reader to self-assess their understanding, this book is a rich source of information that will be of interest and importance in nanomedicine.Table of Contents1. The need for new perspectives in medicine; 2. Nanomedicine: Single-cell medicine; 3. Targeted drug delivery; 4. Drug delivery cell entry mechanisms; 5. Nanomaterial cores for non-invasive imaging; 6. Attaching biomolecules to nanoparticles; 7. Characterizing nanoparticles; 8. Nanomedicine drug dosing; 9. Nanodelivery of therapeutic genes; 10. Assessing nanomedical therapies at the single-cell level; 11. Nanotoxicity at the single-cell level; 12. Designing nanodelivery systems for in-vivo use; 13. Designing and testing nanomedical devices; 14. Quality assurance and regulatory issues of nanomedicine for the pharmaceutical industry.

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Book SynopsisDiscover a new generation of organic nanomaterials and their applications Recent developments in nanoscience and nanotechnology have given rise to a new generation of functional organic nanomaterials with controlled morphology and well-defined properties, which enable a broad range of useful applications. This book explores some of the most important of these organic nanomaterials, describing how they are synthesized and characterized. Moreover, the book explains how researchers have incorporated organic nanomaterials into devices for real-world applications. Featuring contributions from an international team of leading nanoscientists, Organic Nanomaterials is divided into five parts: Part One introduces the fundamentals of nanomaterials and self-assembled nanostructures Part Two examines carbon nanostructures?from fullerenes to carbon nanotubes to graphene?reporting on properties, theoretical studies, and applications<Table of ContentsPreface vii Contributors ix 1 A Proposed Taxonomy and Classification Strategy for Well-Defined, Soft-Matter Nanoscale Building Blocks 1Jørn B. Christensen and Donald A. Tomalia 2 On the Role of Hydrogen-Bonding in the Nanoscale Organization of π-Conjugated Materials 33Albertus P. H. J. Schenning and David González-Rodríguez 3 Chiral Organic Nanomaterials 59David B. Amabilino 4 Biochemical Nanomaterials based on Poly(ε-caprolactone) 79Irakli Javakhishvili and Søren Hvilsted 5 Self-Assembled Porphyrin Nanostructures and their Potential Applications 103John A. Shelnutt and Craig J. Medforth 6 Nanostructures and Electron-Transfer Functions of Nonplanar Porphyrins 131Shunichi Fukuzumi and Takahiko Kojima 7 Tweezers and Macrocycles for the Molecular Recognition of Fullerenes 147David Canevet, Emilio M. Pérez, and Nazario Martín 8 Covalent, Donor–Acceptor Ensembles based on Phthalocyanines and Carbon Nanostructures 163Giovanni Bottari, Maxence Urbani, and Tomás Torres 9 Photoinduced Electron Transfer of Supramolecular Carbon Nanotube Materials Decorated with Photoactive Sensitizers 187Francis D’Souza, Atula S. D. Sandanayaka, and Osamu Ito 10 Interfacing Porphyrins/Phthalocyanines with Carbon Nanotubes 205Juergen Bartelmeß and Dirk M. Guldi 11 Organic Synthesis of Endohedral Fullerenes Encapsulating Helium, Dihydrogen, and Water 225Michihisa Murata, Yasujiro Murata, and Koichi Komatsu 12 Fundamental and Applied Aspects of Endohedral Metallofullerenes as Promising Carbon Nanomaterials 241Michio Yamada, Xing Lu, Lai Feng, Satoru Sato, Yuta Takano, Shigeru Nagase, and Takeshi Akasaka 13 An Update on Electrochemical Characterization and Potential Applications of Carbon Materials 259Fang-Fang Li, Adrián Villalta-Cerdas, Lourdes E. Echegoyen, and Luis Echegoyen 14 Solvating Insoluble Carbon Nanostructures by Molecular Dynamics 311Matteo Calvaresi and Francesco Zerbetto 15 Inorganic Capsules: Redox-Active Guests in Metal Cages 331Andrew Macdonell and Leroy Cronin 16 Stimuli-Responsive Monolayers 347Francesca A. Scaramuzzo, Mario Barteri, Pascal Jonkheijm, and Jurriaan Huskens 17 Self-Assembled Monolayers as Model Biosurfaces 369Anna Laromaine and Charles R. Mace 18 Low-Dimensionality Effects in Organic Field Effect Transistors 397Stefano Casalini, Tobias Cramer, Francesca Leonardi, Massimiliano Cavallini, and Fabio Biscarini 19 The Growth of Organic Nanomaterials by Molecular Self-Assembly at Solid Surfaces 421José M. Gallego, Roberto Otero, and Rodolfo Miranda 20 Biofunctionalized Surfaces 447Marisela Vélez 21 Carbon Nanotube Derivatives as Anticancer Drug Delivery Systems 469Chiara Fabbro, Tatiana Da Ros, and Maurizio Prato 22 Porous Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications 487Henning Lülf, André Devaux, Eko Adi Prasetyanto, and Luisa De Cola 23 Dicationic Gemini Nanoparticle Design for Gene Therapy 509Mahmoud Elsabahy, Ildiko Badea, Ronald Verrall, McDonald Donkuru, and Marianna Foldvari 24 Sensing Hg(II) Ions in Water: From Molecules to Nanostructured Molecular Materials 529Imma Ratera, Alberto Tárraga, Pedro Molina, and Jaume Veciana 25 Organic Nanomaterials for Efficient Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells 549Pavel A. Troshin and Niyazi Serdar Sariciftci 26 Mesoscopic Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 579Mohammad Khaja Nazeeruddin, Jaejung Ko, and Michael Grӓtzel Index 599

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Book SynopsisThe functional materials with the most promising outlook have the ability to precisely adjust the biological phenomenon in a controlled mode.Table of ContentsPreface xv Part I: Biomedical Materials 1. Application of the Collagen as Biomaterials 3 Kwangwoo Nam and Akio Kishida 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Structural Aspect of Native Tissue 5 1.3 Processing of Collagen Matrix 8 1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 14 2. Biological and Medical Significance of Nanodimensional and Nanocrystalline Calcium Orthophosphates 19 Sergey V. Dorozhkin 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 General Information on ?Nano? 21 2.3 Micron- and Submicron-Sized Calcium Orthophosphates versus the Nanodimensional Ones 23 2.4 Nanodimensional and Nanocrystalline Calcium Orthophosphates in Calcified Tissues of Mammals 26 2.5 The Structure of the Nanodimensional and Nanocrystalline Apatites 28 2.6 Synthesis of the Nanodimensional and Nanocrystalline Calcium Orthophosphates 34 2.7 Biomedical Applications of the Nanodimensional and Nanocrystalline Calcium Orthophosphates 47 2.8 Other Applications of the Nanodimensional and Nanocrystalline Calcium Orthophosphates 58 2.9 Summary and Perspectives 58 2.10 Conclusions 61 3. Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Thin Film: From Conventional To Advanced Biomedical and Bioanalytical Applications 101 Wing Cheung MAK 3.1 State-of-the-art LbL Technology 101 3.2 Principle of Biomaterials Based Lbl Architecture 102 3.3 LbL Thin Film for Biomaterials and Biomedical Implantations 103 3.4 LbL Thin Film for Biosensors and Bioassays 105 3.5 LbL Thin Film Architecture on Colloidal Materials 107 3.6 LbL Thin Film for Drug Encapsulation and Delivery 108 3.7 LbL Thin Film Based Micro/Nanoreactor 110 4. Polycaprolactone based Nanobiomaterials 115 Narendra K. Singh and Pralay Maiti 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 Preparation of Polycaprolactone Nanocomposites 118 4.3 Characterization of Poly(caprolactone) Nanocomposites 119 4.4 Properties 123 4.5 Biocompatibility and Drug Delivery Application 141 4.6 Conclusion 150 Acknowledgement 150 5. Bone Substitute Materials in Trauma and Orthopedic Surgery ? Properties and Use in Clinic 157 Esther M.M. Van Lieshout 5.1 Introduction 158 5.2 Types of Bone Grafts 159 5.3 Bone Substitute Materials 161 5.4 Combinations with Osteogenic and Osteoinductive Materials 171 5.5 Discussion and Conclusion 173 6. Surface Functionalized Hydrogel Nanoparticles 191 Mehrdad Hamidi, Hajar Ashrafi and Amir Azadi 6.1 Hydrogel Nanoparticles 191 6.2 Hydrogel Nanoparticles Based on Chitosan 193 6.3 Hydrogel Nanoparticles Based on Alginate 194 6.4 Hydrogel Nanoparticles Based on Poly(vinyl Alcohol) 195 6.5 Hydrogel Nanoparticles Based on Poly(ethylene Oxide) and Poly(ethyleneimine) 196 6.6 Hydrogel Nanoparticles Based on Poly(vinyl Pyrrolidone) 198 6.7 Hydrogel Nanoparticles Based on Poly-N-Isopropylacrylamide 198 6.8 Smart Hydrogel Nanoparticles 199 6.9 Self-assembled Hydrogel Nanoparticles 200 6.10 Surface Functionalization 201 6.11 Surface Functionalized Hydrogel Nanoparticles 205 Part II: Diagnostic Devices 7. Utility and Potential Application of Nanomaterials in Medicine 215 Ravindra P. Singh, Jeong -Woo Choi, Ashutosh Tiwari and Avinash Chand Pandey 7.1 Introduction 215 7.2 Nanoparticle Coatings 218 7.3 Cyclic Peptides 220 7.4 Dendrimers 221 7.5 Fullerenes/Carbon Nanotubes/Graphene 227 7.6 Functional Drug Carriers 229 7.7 MRI Scanning Nanoparticles 233 7.8 Nanoemulsions 235 7.9 Nanofibers 236 7.10 Nanoshells 239 7.11 Quantum Dots 240 7.12 Nanoimaging 248 7.13 Inorganic Nanoparticles 248 7.14 Conclusion 250 8. Gold Nanoparticle-based Electrochemical Biosensors for Medical Applications 261 Ülkü Anik 8.1 Introduction 261 8.2 Electrochemical Biosensors 262 8.3 Conclusion 272 9. Impedimetric DNA Sensing Employing Nanomaterials 277 Manel del Valle and Alessandra Bonanni 9.1 Introduction 277 9.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy for Genosensing 280 9.3 Nanostructured Carbon Used in Impedimetric Genosensors 286 9.4 Nanostructured Gold Used in Impedimetric Genosensors 290 9.5 Quantum Dots for Impedimetric Genosensing 293 9.6 Impedimetric Genosensors for Point-of-Care Diagnosis 293 9.7 Conclusions (Past, Present and Future Perspectives) 294 10. Bionanocomposite Matrices in Electrochemical Biosensors 301 Ashutosh Tiwari, Atul Tiwari 10.1 Introduction 301 10.2 Fabricationof SiO2-CHIT/CNTs Bionanocomposites 303 10.3 Preparation of Bioelectrodes 304 10.4 Characterizations 305 10.5 Electrocatalytic Properties 307 10.6 Photometric Response 315 10.7 Conclusions 316 11. Biosilica? Nanocomposites - Nanobiomaterials for Biomedical Engineering and Sensing Applications 321 Nikos Chaniotakis, Raluca Buiculescu 11.1 Introduction 321 11.2 Silica Polymerization Process 323 11.3 Biocatalytic Formation of Silica 325 11.4 Biosilica Nanotechnology 327 11.5 Applications 328 11.6 Conclusions 334 12. Molecularly Imprinted Nanomaterial-based Highly Sensitive and Selective Medical Devices 337 Bhim Bali Prasad and Mahavir Prasad Tiwari 12.1 Introduction 337 12.2 Molecular Imprinted Polymer Technology 340 12.3 Molecularly Imprinted Nanomaterials 360 12.4 Molecularly Imprinted Nanomaterial-based Sensing Devices 362 12.5 Conclusion 379 13. Immunosensors for Diagnosis of Cardiac Injury 391 Swapneel R. Deshpande, Aswathi Anto Antony, Ashutosh Tiwari, Emilia Wiechec, Ulf Dahlström, Anthony P.F. Turner 13.1 Immunosensor 391 13.2 Myocardial Infarction and Cardiac Biomarkers 392 13.3 Immunosensors for Troponin 399 13.4 Conclusions 404 Part III: Drug Delivery and Therapeutics 14. Ground-Breaking Changes in Mimetic and Novel Nanostructured Composites for Intelligent-, Adaptive- and In vivo-responsive Drug Delivery Therapies 411 Dipak K. Sarker 14. 1 Introduction 411 14.2 Obstacles to the Clinician 420 14.3 Hurdles for the Pharmaceuticist 428 14.4 Nanostructures 431 14.5 Surface Coating 435 14.7 Formulation Conditions and Parameters 439 14.8 Delivery Systems 440 14.9 Evaluation 443 14.10 Conclusions 447 15. Progress of Nanobiomaterials for Theranostic Systems 451 Dipendra Gyawali, Michael Palmer, Richard T. Tran and Jian Yang 15.1 Introduction 451 15.2 Design Concerns for Theranostic Nanosystems 456 15.3 Designing a Smart and Functional Theranostic System 459 15.4 Materials for Theranostic System 462 15.5 Theranostic Systems and Applications 474 15.6 Future Outlook 481 16. Intelligent Drug Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy 493 Mousa Jafari, Bahram Zargar, M. Soltani, D. Nedra Karunaratne, Brian Ingalls, P. Chen 16.1 Introduction 493 16.2 Peptides for Nucleic Acid and Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy 494 16.3 Lipid Carriers 499 16.4 Polymeric Carriers 506 16.5 Bactria Mediated Cancer Therapy 514 16.6 Conclusion 519 Part IV: Tissue Engineering and Organ Regeneration 531 17. The Evolution of Abdominal Wall Reconstruction and the Role of Nonobiotecnology in the Development of Intelligent Abdominal Wall Mesh 533 Cherif Boutros, Hany F. Sobhi and Nader Hanna 17.1 The Complex Structure of the Abdominal Wall 534 17.2 Need for Abdominal Wall Reconstruction 535 17.3 Failure of Primary Repair 535 17.4 Limitations of the Synthetic Meshes 536 17.5 Introduction of Biomaterials To Overcome Synthetic Mesh Limitations 537 17.6 Ideal Material for Abdominal Wall Reconstruction 538 17.7 Role of Bionanotechnology in Providing the 17.7 Future Directions 542 18. Poly(Polyol Sebacate)-based Elastomeric Nanobiomaterials for Soft Tissue Engineering 545 Qizhi Chen 18.1 Introduction 545 18.2 Poly(polyol sebacate) Elastomers 547 18.3 Elastomeric Nanocomposites 562 18.4 Summary 569 19. Electrospun Nanomatrix for Tissue Regeneration 577 Debasish Mondal and Ashutosh Tiwari 19.1 Introduction 577 19.2 Electrosun Nanomatrix 578 19.3 Polymeric Nanomatrices for Tissue Engineering 580 19.4 Biocompatibility of the Nanomatrix 581 19.5 Electrospun Nanomatrices for Tissue Engineering 583 19.6 Status and Prognosis 592 20. Conducting Polymer Composites for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 597 Yashpal Sharma, Ashutosh Tiwari and Hisatoshi Kobayashi 20.1 Introduction 598 20.3 Synthesis of Conducting Polymers 599 20.4 Application of Conducting Polymer in Tissue Engineering 600 20.5 Polypyrrole 600 20.6 Poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) 602 20.7 Polyaniline 603 20.8 Carbon Nanotube 605 20.9 Future Prospects and Conclusions 607 21. Cell Patterning Technologies for Tissue Engineering 611 Azadeh Seidi and Murugan Ramalingam 21.1 Introduction 611 21.2 Patterned Co-culture Techniques 612 21.3 Applications of Co-cultures in Tissue Engineering 618 21.4 Concluding Remarks 619 Acknowledgements 619 References 620 Index 000

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Book SynopsisThis book focuses on the latest advances in stem cells and tissue engineering using micro and nanotechnologies.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Contributors xv 1 Stem Cells and Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine 1 1.1 A Brief History of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, 1 1.2 Introduction to Stem Cells, 3 1.3 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Strategies, 5 1.4 Nanotechnology in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering, 8 1.5 Conclusions, 19 2 Nanofiber Technology for Controlling Stem Cell Functions and Tissue Engineering 27 2.1 Introduction, 27 2.2 Fabrication of Nanofibrous Scaffolds by Electrospinning, 30 2.3 Stem Cells: Type, Origin, and Functionality, 32 2.4 Stem Cell–Nanofiber Interactions in Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering, 35 2.5 Conclusions, 44 3 Micro- and Nanoengineering Approaches to Developing Gradient Biomaterials Suitable for Interface Tissue Engineering 52 3.1 Introduction, 52 3.2 Classification of Gradient Biomaterials, 54 3.3 Micro- and Nanoengineering Techniques for Fabricating Gradient Biomaterials, 59 3.4 Conclusions, 70 4 Microengineered Polymer- and Ceramic-Based Biomaterial Scaffolds: A Topical Review on Design, Processing, and Biocompatibility Properties 80 4.1 Introduction, 80 4.2 Dense Hydroxyapatite Versus Porous Hydroxyapatite Scaffold, 85 4.3 Property Requirement of Porous Scaffold, 86 4.4 Design Criteria and Critical Issues with Porous Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering, 88 4.5 An Exculpation of Porous Scaffolds, 90 4.6 Overview of Various Processing Techniques of Porous Scaffold, 92 4.7 Overview of Physicomechanical Properties Evaluation of Porous Scaffold, 95 4.8 Overview of Biocompatibility Properties: Evaluation of Porous Scaffolds, 104 4.9 Outstanding Issues, 107 4.10 Conclusions, 109 5 Synthetic Enroutes to Engineer Electrospun Scaffolds for Stem Cells and Tissue Regeneration 119 5.1 Introduction, 119 5.2 Synthetic Enroutes, 125 5.3 Novel Nanofibrous Strategies for Stem Cell Regeneration and Differentiation, 131 5.4 Conclusions, 135 6 Integrating Top-Down and Bottom-Up Scaffolding Tissue Engineering Approach for Bone Regeneration 142 6.1 Introduction, 142 6.2 Clinic Needs in Bone Regeneration Fields, 143 6.3 Bone Regeneration Strategies and Techniques, 144 6.4 Future Direction and Concluding Remarks, 151 7 Characterization of the Adhesive Interactions Between Cells and Biomaterials 159 7.1 Introduction, 159 7.2 Adhesion Receptors in Native Tissue, 160 7.3 Optimization of Cellular Adhesion Through Biomaterial Modification, 166 7.4 Measurement of Cell Adhesion, 170 7.5 Conclusions, 174 8 Microfluidic Formation of Cell-Laden Hydrogel Modules for Tissue Engineering 183 8.1 Introduction, 183 8.2 Cell-Laden Hydrogel Modules, 184 8.3 Cell Assay Systems Using Microfluidic Devices, 189 8.4 Implantable Applications, 191 8.5 Tissue Engineering, 194 8.6 Summary, 198 9 Micro- and Nanospheres for Tissue Engineering 202 9.1 Introduction, 202 9.2 Materials Classification of Micro- and Nanospheres, 204 9.3 Applications of Micro- and Nanospheres in Tissue Engineering, 205 9.4 Conclusions, 212 10 Micro- and Nanotechnologies to Engineer Bone Regeneration 220 10.1 Introduction, 220 10.2 Nano-Hydroxyapatite Reinforced Scaffolds, 221 10.3 Biodegradable Polymeric Scaffolds and Nanocomposites, 225 10.4 Silk Fibers and Scaffolds, 227 10.5 Summary, 231 11 Micro- and Nanotechnology for Vascular Tissue Engineering 236 11.1 Introduction, 236 11.2 Conventional Vascular Grafts, 237 11.3 Tissue-Engineered Vascular Grafts, 237 11.4 Micro- and Nanotopography in Vascular Tissue Engineering, 238 11.5 Micro- and Nanofibrous Scaffolds in Vascular Tissue Engineering, 241 11.6 Microvascular Tissue Engineering, 246 11.7 Conclusions, 253 12 Application of Stem Cells in Ischemic Heart Disease 261 12.1 Introduction, 261 12.2 Adult Skeletal Myoblast Cells, 267 12.3 Adult Bone Marrow–Derived Stem Cells, 269 12.4 Type of Stem Cells Used to Treat Cardiac Diseases, 273 12.5 Application, 277 12.6 Other Developing Technologies in Cell Engineering, 282 Acknowledgments, 293 References, 293 Index 303

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Book SynopsisThis reference/text addresses concepts and synthetic techniques for the preparation of polymers for state-of-the-art usein biomedicine, synthetic biology, and bionanotechnology.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What makes Polymers so Interesting? 1 1.2 Macromolecular Engineering and Nanostructure Formation 4 1.3 Specific Needs in Bionanotechnology and Biomedicine 5 Reference 6 2 Terminology 7 2.1 Polymer Architectures 7 2.2 Multifunctionality 11 2.3 Bioconjugates 12 2.4 Biocompatibility 12 2.5 Biodegradation 14 2.6 Bioactivity 14 2.7 Multivalency 15 2.8 Bionanotechnology 17 References 18 3 Preparation Methods and Tools 19 3.1 General Aspects of Polymer Synthesis 19 3.1.1 Chain Growth Polymerizations 20 3.1.2 Step Growth Polymerizations 23 3.1.3 Modification of Polymers 25 3.2 Controlled Polymer Synthesis 25 3.2.1 Anionic Polymerization 26 3.2.2 Cationic Polymerization 30 3.2.3 Controlled Radical Polymerization 34 3.2.4 Metal‐Catalyzed Polymerization 37 3.2.5 Chain Growth Condensation Polymerization 41 3.3 Effective Polymer Analogous Reactions 43 3.4 Pegylation 47 3.5 Bioconjugation 51 3.5.1 Polynucleotide Conjugates 53 3.5.2 Protein Conjugates 55 3.5.3 Polysaccharide Conjugates 57 3.6 Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis 59 3.7 Solid Phase Synthesis and Biotechnological Approaches 63 3.7.1 Solid Phase Synthesis 63 3.7.2 Biotechnology Approaches in the Synthesis of Biopolymers 75 3.8 Hydrogels and Hydrogel Scaffolds 81 3.8.1 Hydrogels 81 3.8.2 Hydrogels as Scaffold Materials 84 3.9 Surface Modification and Film Preparation 92 3.9.1 Self‐Assembled Monolayers 93 3.9.2 Langmuir–Blodgett Films 95 3.9.3 Layer‐by‐Layer Deposition 96 3.9.4 Immobilization by Chemical Binding to Substrates 97 3.9.5 Low‐Pressure Plasma 99 3.9.6 Electron Beam Treatment 101 3.10 Microengineering of Polymers and Polymeric Surfaces 102 References 107 4 Analytical Methods 113 4.1 Molecular Structure and Molar Mass Determination of Polymers and Biohybrids 113 4.1.1 Structural Characterization 114 4.1.2 Determination of Molar Mass and Molar Mass Distribution 132 4.2 Characterization of Aggregates and Assemblies 137 4.2.1 Dynamic Light Scattering 138 4.2.2 Pulsed Field Gradient and Electrophoretic Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 139 4.2.3 Field‐Flow Fractionation 142 4.2.4 UV–Vis Spectroscopy and Fluorescence Spectroscopy 144 4.2.5 Electron Microscopy 145 4.3 Characterization of Hydrogel Networks 147 4.3.1 Network Structure of Hydrogels 148 4.3.2 Swelling Degree 148 4.3.3 Mechanical Properties 150 4.3.4 Deriving Microscopic Network Parameters from Macroscopic Hydrogel Properties 153 4.4 Surface Characterization 154 4.4.1 X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 154 4.4.2 Contact Angle Measurements by Axisymmetric Drop Shape Analysis 157 4.4.3 Electrokinetic Measurements 158 4.4.4 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 159 4.4.5 Quartz Crystal Microbalance with Dissipation Monitoring 160 4.4.6 Surface Plasmon Resonance 161 4.4.7 Scanning Force Techniques 162 4.4.8 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy 164 4.5 Biophysical Characterization and Biocompatibility 166 4.5.1 Biophysical Characterization 167 4.5.2 Biocompatibility 175 References 183 5 Multifunctional Polymer Architectures 187 5.1 Multifunctional (Block) Copolymers 187 5.1.1 Multifunctionality through Copolymerization 187 5.1.2 Multifunctionality by Polymer Analogous Reactions 189 5.1.3 Spatially Defined Multifunctionality by Phase Separation and Self‐Assembly of Segmented Copolymers 190 5.2 Dendritic Polymers 196 5.2.1 Synthesis of Dendrimers and Hyperbranched Polymers 198 5.2.2 Properties and Applications 200 5.3 Glycopolymers 203 5.3.1 Linear Glycopolymers 205 5.3.2 Globular Glycomacromolecules 207 5.4 Peptide‐Based Structures 212 5.4.1 Hierarchical Self‐Assembly of Peptide Molecules 214 5.4.2 General Design Concepts for Peptide‐Based Structural Materials 215 5.4.3 Noncanonical Amino Acids in Peptide/Protein Engineering 217 5.4.4 Peptide‐Based Materials Inspired by Naturally Occurring Structural Proteins 217 5.4.5 Polypeptide Materials Based on other Naturally Occurring or De Novo Designed Self‐Assembling Domains such as Coiled Coils 221 5.4.6 Self‐Assembly of Short Peptide Derivates and Peptide‐Based Amphiphilic Molecules 222 5.5 Biohybrid Hydrogels 224 5.5.1 Composition Basic Principles and Formation of Biohybrids 225 5.5.2 Polynucleotide Biohybrids 228 5.5.3 Polypeptide or Protein Biohybrids 231 5.5.4 Polysaccharide Biohybrids 232 References 235 6 Functional Materials and Applied Systems 241 6.1 Organic Nanoparticles and Aggregates for Drug and Gene Delivery 241 6.1.1 Polymeric Micelles Polymersomes and Nanocapsules 241 6.1.2 Polymeric Beads and Micro/Nanogels Based on Dendritic Structures 254 6.1.3 Polyplexes for Gene Delivery 263 6.2 Polymer Therapeutics and Targeting Approaches 264 6.2.1 Current Status of Polymer Therapeutics 264 6.2.2 Implications and Rationale for Effective Delivery Systems 266 6.2.3 Cellular Uptake and Targeting 267 6.3 Multi‐ and Polyvalent Polymeric Architectures 271 6.3.1 Polyvalent Interactions on Biological Interfaces 272 6.3.2 Prospects for Multivalent Drugs 277 6.4 Bioresponsive Networks 280 6.4.1 Active Principle 280 6.4.2 Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Coagulation 281 6.4.3 Insulin Release in Response to Glucose Concentration 282 6.4.4 Urate‐Responsive Release of Urate Oxidase 283 6.4.5 Cell‐Responsive Degradation of Hydrogel Networks 284 6.5 Biofunctional Surfaces 284 6.5.1 Concepts and Aims of Biofunctional Material Surfaces 284 6.5.2 Biofunctional Surfaces for the Prevention of Biofouling 287 6.5.3 Anticoagulant Coatings for Blood‐Contacting Devices 292 References 295 Abbreviations 303 Index 309

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Book SynopsisThe first book written on this important topic, Metal Chalcogenide Semiconductor Nanostructures and Their Applications in Renewable Energy provides an in-depth examination of the properties and synthesis of a class of nanomaterials essential to renewable energy manufacturing.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Part 1: Renewable Energy Conversion Systems 1 1 Introduction: An Overview of Metal Chalcogenide Nanostructures for Renewable Energy Applications 3 Ahsanulhaq Qurashi 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Metal Chalcogenide Nanostructures 7 1.3 Growth of Metal Chalcogenide Nanostructures 8 1.4 Applications of Metal Chalcogenide Nanostructures 16 1.5 Summary and Future Perspective 18 References 18 2 Renewable Energy and Materials 23 Muhammad Asif 2.1 Global Energy Scenario 23 2.2 Role of Renewable Energy in Sustainable Energy Future 25 2.3 Importance of Materials Role in Renewable Energy 27 References 30 3 Sustainable Feed Stock and Energy Futures 33 H. Idriss 3.1 Introduction 33 3.2 Discussion 34 References 41 Part 2: Synthesis of Metal Chalcogenide Nanostructures 43 4 Metal-Selenide Nanostructures: Growth and Properties 45 Ramin Yousefi 4.1 Introduction 45 4.2 Growth and Properties of Different Groups of Metal-Selenide Nanostructures 48 4.3 Metal Selenides from III?VI Semiconductors 57 4.4 Metal Selenides from IV?VI Semiconductors 61 4.5 Metal Selenides from V?VI Semiconductors 66 4.6 Metal Selenides from Transition Metal (TM) 69 4.7 Ternary Metal-Selenide Compounds 75 4.8 Summary and Future Outlook 78 Acknowledgment 79 References 79 5 Growth Mechanism and Surface Functionalization of Metal Chalcogenides Nanostructures 83 Muhammad Nawaz Tahir, Jugal Kishore Sahoo, Faegheh Hoshyargar, and Wolfgang Tremel 5.1 Introduction 84 5.2 Synthetic Methods for Layered Metal Chalcogenides 89 5.3 Surface Functionalization of Layered Metal Dichalcogenide Nanostructures 102 5.4 Applications of Inorganic Nanotubes and Fullerenes 110 References 113 6 Optical and Structural Properties of Metal Chalcogenide Semiconductor Nanostructures 123 Ihsan-ul-Haq Toor and Shafique Khan 6.1 Optical Properties of Metal Chalcogenides Semiconductor Nanostructures 124 6.2 Structural Properties and Defects of Metal Chalcogenide Semiconductor Nanostructures 133 References 142 7 Structural and Optical Properties of CdS Nanostructures 147 Y. Al-Douri, Abdulwahab S. Z. Lahewil, U. Hashim, and N. M. Ahmed 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 Nanomaterials 150 7.3 II-VI Semiconductors 152 7.4 Sol-Gel Process 155 7.5 Structural and Surface Characterization of Nanostructured CdS 156 7.6 Optical Properties 159 7.7 Conclusion 161 Acknowledgments 162 References 162 Part 3: Applications of Metal Chalcogenides Nanostructures 165 8 Metal Sulfide Photocatalysts for Hydrogen Generation by Water Splitting under Illumination of Solar Light 167 Dr. Zhonghai Zhang 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Photocatalytic Water Splitting on Single Metal Sulfide 169 8.3 Photocatalytic Water Splitting on Multi-metal Sulfide 173 8.4 Metal Sulfides Solid-Solution Photocatalysts 180 8.5 Summary and Future Outlook 184 References 184 9 Metal Chalcogenide Hierarchical Nanostructures for Energy Conversion Devices 189 Ramin Yousefi, Farid Jamali-Sheini, and Ali Khorsand Zak 9.1 Introduction 190 9.2 Main Characteristics of Cd-Chalcogenide Nanocrystals (CdE; E = S, Se, Te) 192 9.3 Different Methods to Grow Cd-Chalcogenide Nanocrystals 192 9.4 Solar Energy Conversion 212 9.5 Cd-Chalcogenide Nanocrystals as Solar Energy Conversion 219 9.6 Summary and Future Outlook 230 References 230 10 Metal Chalcogenide Quantum Dots for Hybrid Solar Cell Applications 233 Mir Waqas Alam and Ahsanulhaq Qurashi 10.1 Introduction 233 10.2 Chemical Synthesis of Quantum Dots 235 10.3 Quantum Dots Solar cell 238 10.4 Summary and Future Prospects 243 References 243 11 Solar Cell Application of Metal Chalcogenide Semiconductor Nanostructures 247 Hongjun Wu 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 Chalcogenide-Based Thin-Film Solar Cells 248 11.3 CdTe-Based Solar Cells 249 11.4 Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 (CIGS)-Based Solar Cells 251 11.5 Metal Chalcogenides-Based Quantum-Dots-Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs) 253 11.6 Hybrid Metal Chalcogenides Nanostructure-Conductive Polymer Composite Solar Cells 257 11.7 Conclusions 261 References 262 12 Chalcogenide-Based Nanodevices for Renewable Energy 269 Y. Al-Douri 12.1 Introduction 269 12.2 Renewable Energy 272 12.3 Nanodevices 274 12.4 Density Functional Theory 277 12.5 Analytical Studies 278 12.6 Conclusion 284 Acknowledgments 285 References 285 13 Metal Tellurides Nanostructures for Thermoelectric Applications 289 Salman B. Inayat 13.1 Introduction 290 13.2 Thermoelectric Microdevice Fabricated by a MEMS-Like Electrochemical Process 290 13.3 Bi2Te3-Based Flexible Micro Thermoelectric Generator 292 13.4 High-Thermoelectric Performance of Nanostructured Bismuth Antimony Telluride Bulk Alloys 293 13.5 Nano-manufactured Thermoelectric Glass Windows for Energy Efficient Building Technologies 294 13.6 Conclusion 296 References 297

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Book SynopsisWith contributed papers from the 2011 Materials Science and Technology symposia, this is a useful one-stop resource for understanding the most important issues in advances in the synthesis, processing, and applications of nanostructures. Logically organized and carefully selected, the articles cover the themes of the symposia: Nanotechnology for Energy, Healthcare and Industry; Controlled Synthesis Processing and Applications of Structural and Functional Nanomaterials; and Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Noble Metal Nanostructures. A must for academics in mechanical and chemical engineering, materials and or ceramics, and chemistry.Table of ContentsPreface vii CONTROLLED SYNTHESIS, PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL AND FUNTIONAL NANOMATERIALS Effect of Annealing and Transition Metal Doping on Structural, Optical and Magnetic Properties of ZnO Nanomaterial 3 Navendu Goswami Chemical Vapor Deposition Growth of Graphene Encapsulated Palladium Nanoparticles 17 Junchi Wu and Nitin Chopra Well Adhered, Nanocrystalline, Photoactive, Ti02, Thin Films Dip-Coated On Corona-Treated Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) by Modified Sol-Gel Processing at ~95°C and Drying at ~130°C 31 H.C. Pham, D.A.H. Hanaor, Ü.M. Cox, and C.C. Sorrell Large-Scale Synthesis of MoS2-Polymer Derived SiCN Composite Nanosheets 45 R. Bhandavat, L. David, U. Barrera, and G. Singh Synthesis of Ti02/Sn02 Bifunctional Nanocomposites 53 Huaming Yang and Chengli Huo Fabrication of Porous Mullite by Freeze Casting and Sintering of Alumina-Silica Nanoparticles 57 Wenle Li, Margaret Anderson, Kathy Lu, and John Y. Walz Low Temperature Sintering of a Gadolinium-Doped Ceria for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 65 Pasquale F. Lavorato, and Leon L. Shaw NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR ENERGY, HEALTHCARE, AND INDUSTRY Current Status and Prospects of Nanotechnology in Arab States 79 Bassam Alfeeli, Ghada Al-Naqi, and Abeer Al-Qattan Finite Element Modeling for Mode Reduction in Bundled Sapphire Photonic Crystal Fibers 93 Neal T. Pfeiffenberger and Gary R. Pickrell p-Type Silicon Optical Fiber 103 Brian Scott, Ke Wang, Adam Floyd, and Gary Pickrell Synthesis and Characterization of Cobalt Aluminate and Fe203 Nanocomposite Electrode for Solar Driven Water Splitting to Produce Hydrogen 109 Sudhakar Shet, Kwang-Soon Ahn, Yanfa Yan, Heli Wang, Nuggehalli Ravindra, John Turner, and Mowafak Al-Jassim Influence of Substrate Temperature and RF Power on the Formation of ZnO Nanorods for Solar Driven Hydrogen Production 115 Sudhakar Shet, Heli Wang, Yanfa Yan, Nuggehalli Ravindra, John Turner, and Mowafak Al-Jassim Porous Material Fabrication using Ice Particles as a Pore Forming Agent 121 Samantha Smith and Gary Pickrell Random-Hole Optical Fiber Sensors and Their Sensing Applications 129 Ke Wang, Brian Scott, Neal Pfeiffenberger, and Gary Pickrell Wetting Properties of Silicon Incorporated DLC Films on Aluminum Substrate 135 Tae Gyu Kim, Van Cao Nguyen, Hye Sung Kim, Soon-Jik Hong, and Ri-ichi Murakami Nanoporous Ag Prepared by Electrochemical Dealloying of Melt-Spun Cu-Ag-Si Alloys 141 Guijing Li, FeiFei Lu, Linping Zhang, Zhanbo Sun, Xiaoping Song, Bingjun Ding, and Zhimao Yang Effect of Film Thickness on Electrical and Optical Properties of ZnO/Ag Dual Layer Film 149 Hiromi Yabe, Eri Akita, Pangpang Wang, Daisuke Yonekura, Ri-ichi Murakami, and Xiaoping Song Author Index 157

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Book SynopsisToday, nano- and microencapsulation are increasingly being utilized in the pharmaceutical, textile, agricultural and food industries. Microencapsulation is a process in which tiny particles or droplets of a food are surrounded by a coating to give small capsules.Trade Review“This book will help food companies to develop new nanotechnology for major problems such as the development of functional coatings to enhance the long-term suitability of food products.” (South African Food Science and Technology magazine, 1 February 2015)Table of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Preface xvii 1 Overview of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Foods 1 Hae-Soo Kwak 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Nano- or microencapsulation as a rich source of delivery of functional components 3 1.3 Wall materials used for encapsulation 3 1.4 Techniques used for the production of nano- or microencapsulation of foods 4 1.5 Characterization of nano- or microencapsulated functional particles 5 1.6 Fortification of foods through nano- or microcapsules 6 1.7 Nano- or microencapsulation technologies: industrial perspectives and applications in the food market 6 1.8 Overview of the book 8 Acknowledgments 12 References 12 Part I Concepts and rationales of nano- and microencapsulation for foods 15 2 Theories and Concepts of Nano Materials, Nano- and microencapsulation 17 Jingyuan Wen, Guanyu Chen, and Raid G. Alany 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Materials used for nanoparticles, nano- and microencapsulation 19 2.2.1 Polymers 19 2.3 Nano- and microencapsulation techniques 20 2.3.1 Chemical methods 20 2.3.2 Physico-chemical methods 23 2.3.3 Other methods 25 2.3.4 Factors influencing optimization 28 2.4 Pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications 30 2.4.1 Various delivery routes for nano- and microencapsulation systems 30 2.5 Food ingredients and nutraceutical applications 35 2.5.1 Background and definitions 35 2.5.2 Nanomaterials, nano- and microencapsulation in nutraceuticals 36 2.6 Conclusion 37 References 38 3 Rationales of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Food Ingredients 43 Sundaram Gunasekaran and Sanghoon Ko 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Factors affecting the quality loss of food ingredients 45 3.2.1 Oxygen 45 3.2.2 Light 47 3.2.3 Temperature 48 3.2.4 Adverse interaction 49 3.2.5 Taste masking 50 3.3 Case studies of food ingredient protection through nano- and microencapsulation 50 3.3.1 Vitamins 51 3.3.2 Enzymes 52 3.3.3 Minerals 53 3.3.4 Phytochemicals 54 3.3.5 Lipids 55 3.3.6 Probiotics 55 3.3.7 Flavors 56 3.4 Conclusion 57 References 58 4 Methodologies Used for the Characterization of Nano- and Microcapsules 65 Minh-Hiep Nguyen, Nurul Fadhilah Kamalul Aripin, Xi G. Chen, and Hyun-Jin Park 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Methodologies used for the characterization of nano- and microcapsules 67 4.2.1 Particle size and particle size distribution 67 4.2.2 Zeta potential measurement 75 4.2.3 Morphology 77 4.2.4 Membrane flexibility 80 4.2.5 Stability 82 4.2.6 Encapsulation efficiency 83 4.3 Conclusion 88 Acknowledgements 88 References 88 5 Advanced Approaches of Nano- and Microencapsulation for Food Ingredients 95 Mi-Jung Choi and Hae-Soo Kwak 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Nanoencapsulation based on the microencapsulation technology 96 5.3 Classification of the encapsulation system 97 5.3.1 Nanoparticle or microparticle 97 5.3.2 Structural encapsulation systems 100 5.4 Preparation methods for the encapsulation system 106 5.4.1 Emulsification 106 5.4.2 Precipitation 107 5.4.3 Desolvation 108 5.4.4 Ionic gelation 109 5.5 Application of the encapsulation system in food ingredients 109 5.6 Conclusion 110 References 111 Part II Nano- and microencapsulations of food ingredients 117 6 Nano- and Microencapsulation of Phytochemicals 119 Sung Je Lee and Marie Wong 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Classification of phytochemicals 120 6.2.1 Flavonoids 120 6.2.2 Carotenoids 124 6.2.3 Betalains 126 6.2.4 Phytosterols 127 6.2.5 Organosulfurs and glucosinolates 128 6.3 Stability and solubility of phytochemicals 129 6.4 Microencapsulation of phytochemicals 130 6.4.1 Spray-drying 131 6.4.2 Freeze-drying 135 6.4.3 Liposomes 136 6.4.4 Coacervation 138 6.4.5 Molecular inclusion complexes 141 6.5 Nanoencapsulation 146 6.5.1 Nanoemulsions 147 6.5.2 Nanoparticles 148 6.5.3 Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) 150 6.5.4 Nanoparticles through supercritical anti-solvent precipitation 152 6.6 Conclusion 153 References 153 7 Microencapsulation for Gastrointestinal Delivery of Probiotic Bacteria 167 Kasipathy Kailasapathy 7.1 Introduction 167 7.2 The gastrointestinal (GI) tract 169 7.2.1 Microbiota of the adult GI tract 169 7.2.2 Characteristics of the GI tract for probiotic delivery 170 7.3 Encapsulation technologies for probiotics 173 7.4 Techniques for probiotic encapsulation 175 7.4.1 Microencapsulation (ME) in gel particles using polymers 175 7.4.2 The extrusion technique 175 7.4.3 The emulsion technique 177 7.4.4 Spray-drying, spray-coating and spray-chilling technologies 179 7.4.5 Microencapsulation technologies for nutraceuticals incorporating probiotics 182 7.5 Controlled release of probiotic bacteria 182 7.6 Potential applications of encapsulated probiotics 183 7.6.1 Yoghurt 184 7.6.2 Cheese 185 7.6.3 Frozen desserts 186 7.6.4 Unfermented milks 186 7.6.5 Powdered formulations 187 7.6.6 Meat products 187 7.6.7 Plant-based (vegetarian) probiotic products 188 7.7 Future trends and marketing perspectives 189 References 191 8 Nano-Structured Minerals and Trace Elements for Food and Nutrition Applications 199 Florentine M. Hilty and Michael B. Zimmermann 8.1 Introduction 199 8.2 Special characteristics of nanoparticles 200 8.3 Nano-structured entities in natural foods 202 8.4 Nano-structured minerals in nutritional applications 202 8.4.1 Iron 202 8.4.2 Zinc 207 8.4.3 Calcium 209 8.4.4 Magnesium 210 8.4.5 Selenium 211 8.4.6 Copper 211 8.5 Uptake of nano-structured minerals 212 8.6 Conclusion 213 References 214 9 Nano- and Microencapsulation of Vitamins 223 Ashok R. Patel and Bhesh Bhandari 9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 Vitamins for food and nutraceutical applications 224 9.2.1 Vitamins: nutritional requirement and biological functions 224 9.2.2 Vitamins: formulation challenges and stability issues 224 9.3 Colloidal encapsulation (nano and micro) in foods: principles of use 227 9.3.1 Solid-in-liquid dispersions 229 9.3.2 Liquid-in-liquid dispersions 232 9.3.3 Dispersions of self-assembled colloids 234 9.3.4 Encapsulation in dry matrices 238 9.3.5 Molecular encapsulation of vitamins in cyclodextrins 239 9.4 Conclusion and future trends 240 References 241 10 Nano- and Microencapsulation of Flavor in Food Systems 249 Kyuya Nakagawa 10.1 Introduction 249 10.2 Flavor stabilization in food nano- and microstructures 250 10.2.1 Application of encapsulated flavors 250 10.2.2 Interactions between flavor compounds and carrier matrices 251 10.2.3 Flavor retention in colloidal systems 251 10.2.4 Flavor retention in food gel 252 10.2.5 Flavor inclusion in starch nanostructure 253 10.3 Flavor retention and release in an encapsulated system 254 10.3.1 Mass transfer at the liquid–gas interface 254 10.3.2 Mass transfer at a solid–gas interface 258 10.4 Nano- and microstructure processing 259 10.4.1 Spray-drying 260 10.4.2 Freeze-drying 262 10.4.3 Complex coacervation 264 10.5 Conclusion 266 Acknowledgements 267 References 267 11 Application of Nanomaterials, Nano- and Microencapsulation to Milk and Dairy Products 273 Hae-Soo Kwak, Mohammad Al Mijan, and Palanivel Ganesan 11.1 Introduction 273 11.2 Milk 274 11.2.1 Microencapsulation of functional ingredients 274 11.2.2 Microencapsulation of vitamins 278 11.2.3 Microencapsulation of iron 279 11.2.4 Microencapsulation of lactase 281 11.2.5 Nanofunctional ingredients 285 11.2.6 Nanocalcium 287 11.3 Yogurt 287 11.3.1 Microencapsulation of functional ingredients 287 11.3.2 Microencapsulation of iron 288 11.3.3 Nanofunctional ingredients 289 11.4 Cheese 291 11.4.1 Microencapsulation for accelerated cheese ripening 291 11.4.2 Microencapsulation of iron 292 11.4.3 Nanopowdered functional ingredients 292 11.5 Others 293 11.5.1 Microencapsulation of iron 293 11.6 Conclusion 293 References 294 12 Application of Nano- and Microencapsulated Materials to Food Packaging 301 Loong-Tak Lim 12.1 Introduction 301 12.2 Nanocomposite technologies 302 12.2.1 Layered silicate nanocomposites 302 12.2.2 Mineral oxide and organic nanocrystal composites 305 12.2.3 Material properties’ enhancement of biodegradable/compostable polymers 306 12.3 Intelligent and active packaging based on nano- and microencapsulation technologies 307 12.3.1 Product quality and shelf-life indicators 308 12.3.2 Nano- and microencapsulated antimicrobial composites 312 12.3.3 TiO2 ethylene scavenger for shelf-life extension of fruits and vegetables 317 12.4 Conclusion 318 References 319 Part III Bioactivity, toxicity, and regulation of nanomaterial, nano- and microencapsulated ingredients 325 13 Controlled Release of Food Ingredients 327 Sanghoon Ko and Sundaram Gunasekaran 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Fracturation 328 13.3 Diffusion 329 13.4 Dissolution 331 13.5 Biodegradation 333 13.6 External and internal triggering 334 13.6.1 Thermosensitive 335 13.6.2 Acoustic sensitive 336 13.6.3 Light-sensitive 337 13.6.4 pH-sensitive 338 13.6.5 Chemical-sensitive 339 13.6.6 Enzyme-sensitive 339 13.6.7 Other stimuli 340 13.7 Conclusion 340 References 340 14 Bioavailability and Bioactivity of Nanomaterial, Nano- and Microencapsulated Ingredients in Foods 345 Soo-Jin Choi 14.1 Introduction 345 14.2 Bioavailability of nano- and microencapsulated phytochemicals 347 14.3 Bioavailability of other nano- and microencapsulated nutraceuticals 352 14.4 Bioavailability of nano- and microencapsulated bioactive components 355 14.5 Conclusion 357 References 358 15 Potential Toxicity of Food Ingredients Loaded in Nano- and Microparticles 363 Guanyu Chen, Soon-Mi Shim, and Jingyuan Wen 15.1 Introduction 363 15.2 Factors influence the toxicity of nano- and microparticles 365 15.2.1 Size of the nano- and microparticles 366 15.2.2 Shape of the nano- and microparticles 367 15.2.3 Solubility of the nano- and microparticles 367 15.2.4 Chemical composition of the nano- and microparticles 367 15.3 Behavior and health risk of nano- and microparticles in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract 370 15.3.1 Absorption 370 15.3.2 Distribution 371 15.3.3 Excretion/elimination 371 15.4 Toxicity studies of nano- and microparticles 371 15.4.1 Oral exposure studies for toxicity 371 15.4.2 In vitro studies for toxicity 372 15.4.3 Lack of an analytical method model to evaluate the safety of micro- and nanoparticles 373 15.5 Risk assessment of micro- and nanomaterials in food applications 374 15.5.1 Risk assessment 375 15.6 Conclusion 377 References 377 16 Current Regulation of Nanomaterials Used as Food Ingredients 383 Hyun-Kyung Kim, Jong-Gu Lee, and Si-Young Lee 16.1 Introduction 383 16.2 The European Union (EU) 384 16.2.1 Definition 384 16.2.2 The EFSA Guidance 385 16.2.3 Regulation 386 16.3 The United Kingdom (UK) 388 16.4 France 389 16.5 The United States of America (USA) 389 16.6 Canada 391 16.7 Korea 392 16.8 Australia and New Zealand 393 References 393 Index 395

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Book SynopsisThis book provides readers with a one-stop entry into the chemistry of varied hybrids and applications, from a molecular synthetic standpoint Describes introduction and effect of organic structures on specific support components (carbon-based materials, proteins, metals, and polymers). Chapters cover hot topics including nanodiamonds, nanocrystals, metal-organic frameworks, peptide bioconjugates, and chemoselective protein modification Describes analytical techniques, with pros and cons, to validate synthetic strategies Edited by internationally-recognized chemists from different backgrounds (synthetic polymer chemistry, inorganic surfaces and particles, and synthetic organic chemistry) to pull together diverse perspectives and approachesTable of ContentsPreface vii Contributors ix 1 COVALENT ORGANIC FUNCTIONALIZATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF CARBON NANOTUBES 1 Cécilia Ménard-Moyon 2 FUNCTIONALIZED GRAPHENES 36 Iban Azcarate, David Lachkar, Emmanuel Lacôte, Jennifer Lesage de la Haye, and Anne-Laure Vallet 3 NANODIAMONDS: EMERGENCE OF FUNCTIONALIZED DIAMONDOIDS AND THEIR UNIQUE APPLICATIONS 69 Maria A. Gunawan, Paul Kahl, Didier Poinsot, Bruno Domenichini, Peter R. Schreiner, Andrey A. Fokin, and Jean-Cyrille Hierso 4 TITANIA-BASED HYBRID MATERIALS: FROM MOLECULAR PRECURSORS TO THE CONTROLLED DESIGN OF HIERARCHICAL HYBRID MATERIALS 114 Laurence Rozes, Loïc D’Arras, Chloé Hoffman, François Potier, Niki Halttunen, and Lionel Nicole 5 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF ZIRCONIUM OXIDE SURFACES 168 Marc Petit and Julien Monot 6 FUNCTIONAL METAL–ORGANIC FRAMEWORKS: SYNTHESIS AND REACTIVITY 200 Flavien L. Morel, Xiaoying Xu, Marco Ranocchiari, and Jeroen A. van Bokhoven 7 SURFACE CHEMISTRY OF COLLOIDAL SEMICONDUCTOR NANOCRYSTALS: ORGANIC, INORGANIC, AND HYBRID 233 Richard Brutchey, Zeger Hens, and Maksym V. Kovalenko 8 COVALENT ORGANIC FUNCTIONALIZATION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS 272 Michel Arthur and Mélanie Etheve-Quelquejeu 9 CHEMOSELECTIVE PROTEIN MODIFICATIONS: METHODS AND APPLICATIONS FOR THE FUNCTIONALIZATION OF VIRAL CAPSIDS 299 Divya Agrawal and Christian P. R. Hackenberger 10 CYCLODEXTRINS–METAL HYBRIDS 349 Maxime Guitet, Mickaël Ménand, and Matthieu Sollogoub 11 POST-FUNCTIONALIZATION OF POLYMERS VIA ORTHOGONAL LIGATION CHEMISTRY 395 Anja S. Goldmann, M. Glassner, Andrew J. Inglis, and Christopher Barner-Kowollik 12 POLYMER–PROTEIN/PEPTIDE BIOCONJUGATES 466 Paul Wilson, Julien Nicolas, and David M. Haddleton 13 HYBRID MATERIALS BUILT FROM (PHOSPHORUS) DENDRIMERS 503 Anne-Marie Caminade, Beatrice Delavaux-Nicot, and Jean-Pierre Majoral Index

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Book SynopsisThis book covers all aspects of the different classes of nanomaterials from synthesis to application. It investigates in detail the use and feasibility of developing nanocomposites with these nanomaterials as reinforcements. The book encompasses synthesis and properties of cellulose nanofibers, bacterial nanocellulose, carbon nanotubes / nanofibers, graphene, nanodiamonds, nanoclays, inorganic nanomaterials and their nanocomposites for high-end applications such as electronic devices, energy storage, structural and packaging. The book also provides insight into various modification techniques for improving the functionality of nanomaterials apart from their compatibility with the base matrix.Table of ContentsPart I: Nanomaterials 1 Cellulose Nanofibers: Synthesis, Properties and Applications 3 Mahuya Das and Rupa Bhattacharyya 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Synthesis of Cellulose Nanofibers 4 1.3 Properties of Cellulose Nanofibers 14 1.4 Applications of Nanocellulose Fibers 28 1.5 Conclusion 32 References 33 2 Bacterial Nanocellulose: Synthesis, Properties and Applications 39 M.L. Foresti, P. Cerrutti and A. Vazquez 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Bacterial Nanocellulose Synthesis 41 2.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose Properties 49 2.4 Bacterial Nanocellulose Applications 52 2.5 Conclusions 57 References 58 3 Carbon Nanofibers: Synthesis, Properties and Applications 63 Tanmoy Rath 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Carbon Nanofiber Structure and Defects 65 3.3 Synthesis 67 3.4 Growth Mechanism of CNFs 773.5 Properties 78 3.6 Applications 82 3.7 Conclusion 84 References 85 4 Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Properties and Applications 89 Raghunandan Sharma Poonam Benjwal and Kamal K. Kar 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Carbon Nanostructures 91 4.3 Structure: Chirality 97 4.4 Synthesis 99 4.5 Characterizations 103 4.6 Properties 108 4.7 Applications 112 4.8 Conclusions 131 Acknowledgement 132 References 1325 Graphene: Synthesis, Properties and Application 139 Subash Chandra Sahu, Aneeya K. Samantara, Jagdeep Mohanta, Bikash Kumar Jena and Satyabrata Si 5.1 Introduction 140 5.2 History of Graphene 142 5.3 Natural Occurrence 143 5.4 Carbon Allotropes 144 5.5 Molecular Structure and Chemistry of Graphene 147 5.6 Properties of Graphene 147 5.7 Synthesis of Graphene 153 5.8 Biomedical Application of Graphene 155 5.9 Graphene in Energy 166 5.10 Graphene in Electronics 174 5.11 Graphene in Catalysis 177 5.12 Graphene Composites 177 5.13 Conclusion and Perspective 179 Acknowledgement 180 References 181 6 Nanoclays: Synthesis, Properties and Applications 195 Biswabandita Kar and Dibyaranjan Rout 6.1 Introduction 195 6.2 Structure and Properties of Nanoclays 196Contents ix 6.3 Synthesis of Polymer-Clay Nanocomposites 203 6.4 Applications of Nanoclays 206 6.5 Conclusion 211 References 212 7 Applications for Nanocellulose in Polyolefins-Based Composites 215 Alcides Lopes Leao, Bibin Mathew Cherian, Suresh Narine, Mohini Sain, Sivoney Souza and Sabu Thomas 7.1 Introduction 215 7.2 Flexural Strength 224 References 227 8 Recent Progress in Nanocomposites Based on Carbon Nanomaterials and Electronically Conducting Polymers 229 Jayesh Cherusseri and Kamal K. Kar 8.1 Introduction 230 8.2 Electronically Conducting Polymers 230 8.3 Carbon Nanomaterials 233 8.4 Why Nanocomposites? 235 8.5 Electronically Conducting Polymer/Fullerene Nanocomposites 236 8.6 Electronically Conducting Polymer/Carbon Nanofiber Nanocomposites 240 8.7 Electronically Conducting Polymer/Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites 243 8.8 Electronically Conducting Polymer/Graphene Nanocomposites 246 8.9 Applications 249 8.10 Conclusions 252 Acknowledgement 253 References 253 Part II: Nanocomposites Based on Inorganic Nanoparticles 9 Nanocomposites Based on Inorganic Nanoparticles 259 M. Balasubramanian, and P. Jawahar 9.1 Introduction 260 9.2 Processing of Clay-Polymer Nanocomposites (CPN) 273 9.3 Particulate-Polymer Nanocomposites Processing 283 9.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 292 9.5 Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites 301 9.6 Application of Nanocomposites 336 References 342xii Contents 10 Polymer Nanocomposites Reinforced with Functionalized Carbon Nanomaterials: Nanodiamonds, Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene 347 F. Navarro-Pardo, A.L. Martínez-Hernández and C. Velasco-Santos 10.1 Introduction 348 10.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanomaterials 349 10.3 Functionalization 351 10.4 Methods of Nanocomposite Preparation 358 10.5 Properties 360 10.6 Concluding Remarks 386 References 386 Part III: Green Nanocomposites 11 Green Nanocomposites from Renewable Resource-Based Biodegradable Polymers and Environmentally Friendly Blends 403 P. J. Jandas, S. Mohanty and S. K. Nayak 11.1 Introduction 404 11.2 Organically Modified Layered Silicates Reinforced Biodegradable Nanocomposites: New Era of Polymer Composites 407 11.3 Environmentally Friendly Polymer Blends from Renewable Resources 425 11.4 Applications and Prototype Development 436 11.5 Future Perspectives 436 11.6 Conclusion 437 References 438 Part IV: Applications of Polymer Nanocomposites 12 Nanocomposites for Device Applications 445 Sreevalsa VG 12.1 Introduction 446 12.2 Nonvolatile Memory Devices 447 12.3 Fabrication of Nonvolatile Memory Devices Utilizing Graphene Materials Embedded in a Polymer Matrix 451 12.4 Electric-Field-Induced Resistive Switching 452 12.5 Nanocomposite Solar Cells 455 12.6 Thin-Film Capacitors for Computer Chips 457 12.7 Solid Polymer Electrolyes for Batteries 457 12.8 Automotive Engine Parts and Fuel Tanks 458 12.9 Oxygen and Gas Barriers 459 12.10 Printing Technologies 459 12.11 Capacitors 461 12.12 Inductors 461 12.13 Optical Waveguides 462 12.14 Low-K and Low-Loss Composites 463 12.15 ZnO-Based Nanocomposites 463xiv Contents 12.16 Functional Polymer Nanocomposites 464 12.17 Plasmonics 464 12.18 Polymer Nanocomposites 465 12.19 Magnetically Active Nanocomposites 475 12.20 Nanocomposites of Nature 479 References 479 13 Polymer Nanocomposites for Energy Storage Applications 483 Sutapa Ghosh and Naresh Chilaka 13.1 Introduction 483 13.2 Energy Storage Mechanism in Supercapacitor and Batteries 485 13.3 Synthesis of Conducting Polymers 488 13.4 Characterization of Nanocomposites: Structure, Electrical, Chemical Composition and Surface Area 491 13.5 Conducting Polymer Nanocomposites for Energy Storage Application 494 13.6 Future of Graphene and Conducting Polymer Nancomposites 499 13.7 Conclusions and Future Research Initiatives 500 References 501 14 Polymer Nanocomposites for Structural Applications 505 M. Mollo and C. Bernal 14.1 Introduction 506 14.2 Nanocomposite Fibers 510 14.3 Nano-Enhanced Conventional Composites 512 14.4 Nano-Enhanced All-Polymer Composites 513 14.5 Single Polymer Nanocomposites 514 14.6 Summary, Conclusions and Future Trends 515Contents xv References 517 15 Nanocomposites in Food Packaging 519 Mahuya Das 15.1 Introduction 519 15.2 Nanoreinforcements in Food Packaging Materials 523 15.3 Polymer Matrix for Nanocomposite 538 15.4 Recent Trends in Packaging Developed by Application of Nanocomposites 541 15.5 Application of Nanocomposites as Nanosensor for Smart/Intelligent Packaging 551 15.6 Conclusion 556 References 557 Index 573

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Book SynopsisThis book describes a broad area of nanomedicine which involves mainly applications, diseases, and diagnostics. The comprehensive coverage provides researchers, academics, and health specialists with a great tool, that includes techniques applicable to various uses.Table of ContentsPreface xv Part 1: Nanomedicine 1 1 High-technology Therapy Using Biomolecules or Synthetic Compounds for HIV Inhibition 3 Elvis Fosso-Kankeu, Pascaline Fontehand Ajay K.Mishra 1.1 Gene Therapy Including RNAHigh-Technology Against HIV 4 1.2 Metals and HIV Therapy 16 1.3 Conclusions 26 References 27 2 Emerging Nanomedicine Approaches for Osteochondral Tissue Regeneration 39 Author Lineis Missing 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Emerging NanomedicineApproaches 42 References 54 3 Synthesis of Poly(Methacrylate) Encapsulated Magnetite Nanoparticles via Phosphonic Acid Anchoring Chemistry and Its Applications Toward Biomedicine 63 B. Kothandapaniand Ajay K. Mishra 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Synthesis of Magnetite Nanoparticles 73 3.3 Application in Biomedical Fields 82 3.4 Conclusions 84 References 85 4 Potentiometric PVC Membrane Sensors and Their Analytical Applications in Pharmaceuticals and Environmental Samples at Micro- and Nano-level 87 Gamal Abel-Hafiz Mostafa 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Ion Selective Electrode 88 4.3 Glass Membrane Electrode 89 4.4 Characteristics of ISE 90 4.5 Preparation of PVC Membrane 94 4.6 Method of Preparation of the Liquid Membrane ISEs 96 4.7 Application of Ion Selective Electrodes in Pharmaceutical and Environmental Analysis Using 97 4.8 Conclusion 123 References 127 5 Bioceramics: Silica-based Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials for Medical Applications 135 Sadanand Pandey and Shivani B. Mishra 5.1 Introduction 136 5.2 Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials 141 5.3 Tissue Engineering 146 5.4 Other Organic-Inorganic Bioceramics for Medical Applications 150 5.5 Conclusion 156 5.6 Considerations and Future Directions 157 Acknowledgement 157 References 158 6 Recent Advances of Multifunctional Nanomedicines 163 Pradeep Pratap Singh and Ambika 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Nanomaterials of Biomedical Interest 164 6.3 Target-specificPharmacotherapy: Need for Nanocarrier Delivery Systems 165 6.4 Engineering of Pharmaceutical Nanosystems 166 6.5 Applications of Pharmaceutical Nanotools 180 6.6 Nanotoxicity 181 6.7 Future prospects 182 6.8 Conclusion 183 References 184 7 Nanomedicinal Approaches for Diabetes Management 189 Prashant Kumar Raiand Ajay Kumar Mishra 7.1 Introduction: The Motivation behind the Chapter 189 7.2 Type of Diabetes 191 7.3 Treatments for Diabetes 192 7.4 Why the Interest in Nanomedicine Research? 193 7.5 The Vision of Nanotechnology and its Clinical Applications for Diabetes 194 7.6 Summary 195 Acknowledgements 195 References 195 8 Polymeric Nanofibersin Regenerative Medicine 197 Narayan Chandra Mishra and Sharmistha Mitra (Majumder) 8.1 Introduction 197 8.2 Preparation of Nanofibers 199 8.3 RecentAdvances onApplication of Polymeric Nanofibersin Regenerative Medicine 201 8.4 Conclusions 222 References 222 Part 2: Drug Delivery and Therapeutics 227 9 Multifunctional Nano/Micro Polymer Capsules as Potential 229 Haider Sami, J. Jaishree, Ashok Kumar and Sri Sivakumar 9.1 Introduction 230 9.2 Synthesis of Polymer Capsules 232 9.3 Properties of Multilayered Polymer Capsules 237 9.4 Loading of Therapeutics 239 9.5 Stimuli-responsive Polymer Capsules 242 9.6 Multifunctional Hybrid Capsules 255 9.7 Targeted Polymer Capsules 267 9.8 BiomedicalApplications 268 9.9 Outlook and Future Prospects 274 References 274 10 Nanophosphors-Nanogold Immunoconjugates in Isolation of Biomembranes and in Drug Delivery 285 Dwijendra Gupta, Dhruv Kumar, Manish Dwivedi, Vijay Tripathi, Pratibha Phadke-Gupta and Surya Pratap Singh 10.1 Introduction 286 10.2 Nanoparticle Technology 287 10.3 The Versatility of Nanoparticles in Biological Sciences 288 10.4 Materials and Methods 293 10.5 Nanotags for Bio-labeling and Targeting: Nanophosphors or Quantum Dots 297 10.6 AFM Study of CdS and BSATagged ZnS-Mn Nanoparticles 302 10.7 Nano-Conjugates in Drug Delivery 304 10.8 Nanoparticle-mediated Drug Delivery and Nanotherapeutics 305 10.9 The Limitations of QDs 306 10.10 Summary 307 Acknowledgements 308 References 309 11 Cyclodextrin-based Nanoengineered Drug Delivery System 313 Jaya Lakkakula and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause 11.1 Introduction 314 11.2 Inclusion Complex Formation 316 11.3 Phase Solubility Relationships 318 11.4 Effect of Cyclodextrin on Drug Formulation 321 11.5 Cyclodextrin-based Drug Delivery 324 11.6 Cyclodextrins in Novel Drug Delivery Systems (DDS) 331 11.7 Conclusion 335 Acknowledgements 335 References 338 12 Medicinal Patches and Drug Nanoencapsulation 343 María H. Lissarrague, Hernan Garate, Melisa E. Lamanna, Norma B. D’Accorso and Silvia N.Goyanes 12.1 Introduction 343 12.2 Overview of Passive Skin Permeation (Passive Patches) 344 12.3 Recent Development on Skin Permeation 357 12.4 Drug Encapsulation 361 12.5 Triggered Release 369 12.6 Conclusions 374 References 374 13 Dendrimers: AClass of Polymer in the Nanotechnology for the Drug Delivery 379 Sunil K.Singh and Vivek K. Sharma 13.1 Introduction 379 13.2 Historical Origin of Dendrimers 380 13.3 Structure of Dendrimers 381 13.4 Terms Used in Dendrimer Chemistry 383 13.5 Types of Dendrimers 385 13.6 Application of Dendrimers 392 13.7 Dendrimers in Oral Drug Delivery 394 13.8 Dendrimers in Transdermal Drug Delivery 396 13.9 Dendrimers in Ocular Drug Delivery 398 13.10 Dendrimers inAnticancer Drug Delivery 399 13.11 Dendrimers in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment 401 13.12 Conclusion 411 References 411 14 Designing Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery 417 Munishwar N. Gupta and Joyeeta Mukherjee 14.1 Introduction 417 14.2 Sizes, Shapes andAdvantages of Nanomaterials 418 14.3 Bioconjugation Strategies 421 14.4 Carbon Nanotubes 429 14.5 Drug Targeting 434 14.6 Future Perspectives 436 Acknowledgements 437 References 437 15 Multifunctional Polymeric Micelles for Drug Delivery and Therapeutics 443 Alicia Sawdon and Ching-An Peng 15.1 Introduction 443 15.2 Composition, Formation and Characterization of Polymeric Micelles 444 15.3 Polymeric Micelles for Cancer Chemotherapy 450 15.4 Targeting Schemes 457 15.5 Polymeric Micelles for Diagnostics and Imaging 465 15.6 Conclusions 467 References 467 16 Nanoparticles-based Carriers for Gene Therapy and Drug Delivery 477 Marketa Ryvolova, Jana Drbohlavova, Kristyna Smerkova, Jana Chomoucka, Pavlina Sobrova,Vojtech Adam, PavelKopel, Jaromir Hubalek and Rene Kizek 16.1 Introduction 478 16.2 Targeted Delivery 478 16.3 Conclusion 494 References 494

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Book SynopsisEmerging Nanoelectronic Devices focuses on the future direction of semiconductor and emerging nanoscale device technology.Table of ContentsPreface xix List of Contributors xxi Acronyms xxiii PART ONE INTRODUCTION 1 1 The Nanoelectronics Roadmap 3 James Hutchby 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Technology Scaling: Impact and Issues 4 1.3 Technology Scaling: Scaling Limits of Charge-based Devices 4 1.4 The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors 6 1.5 ITRS Emerging Research Devices International Technology Working Group 7 1.6 Guiding Performance Criteria 8 1.7 Selection of Nanodevices as Technology Entries 13 1.8 Perspectives 13 References 14 2 What Constitutes a Nanoswitch? A Perspective 15 Supriyo Datta, Vinh Quang Diep, and Behtash Behin-Aein 2.1 The Search for a Better Switch 15 2.2 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Switch: Why it Shows Gain 17 2.3 Switch Based on Magnetic Tunnel Junctions: Would it Show Gain? 20 2.4 Giant Spin Hall Effect: A Route to Gain 23 2.5 Other Possibilities for Switches with Gain 27 2.6 What do Alternative Switches Have to Offer? 29 2.7 Perspective 32 2.8 Summary 32 Acknowledgments 32 References 33 PART TWO NANOELECTRONIC MEMORIES 35 3 Memory Technologies: Status and Perspectives 37 Victor V. Zhirnov and Matthew J. Marinella 3.1 Introduction: Baseline Memory Technologies 37 3.2 Essential Physics of Charge-based Memory 38 3.3 Dynamic Random Access Memory 39 3.4 Flash Memory 43 3.5 Static Random Access Memory 49 3.6 Summary and Perspective 52 Appendix: Memory Array Interconnects 52 Acknowledgments 54 References 54 4 Spin Transfer Torque Random Access Memory 56 Jian-Ping Wang, Mahdi Jamali, Angeline Klemm, and Hao Meng 4.1 Chapter Overview 56 4.2 Spin Transfer Torque 57 4.3 STT-RAM Operation 60 4.4 STT-RAM with Perpendicular Anisotropy 63 4.5 Stack and Material Engineering for Jc Reduction 66 4.6 Ultra-Fast Switching of MTJs 71 4.7 Spin–Orbit Torques for Memory Application 72 4.8 Current Demonstrations for STT-RAM 73 4.9 Summary and Perspectives 73 References 74 5 Phase Change Memory 78 Rakesh Jeyasingh, Ethan C. Ahn, S. Burc Eryilmaz, Scott Fong, and H.-S. Philip Wong 5.1 Introduction 78 5.2 Device Operation 79 5.3 Material Properties 80 5.4 Device and Material Scaling to the Nanometer Size 88 5.5 Multi-Bit Operation and 3D Integration 93 5.6 Applications 97 5.7 Future Outlook 100 5.8 Summary 103 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 6 Ferroelectric FET Memory 110 Ken Takeuchi and An Chen 6.1 Introduction 110 6.2 Ferroelectric FET for Flash Memory Application 111 6.3 Ferroelectric FET for SRAM Application 115 6.4 System Consideration: SSD System with Fe-NAND Flash Memory 118 6.5 Perspectives and Summary 119 References 120 7 Nano-Electro-Mechanical (NEM) Memory Devices 123 Adrian M. Ionescu 7.1 Introduction and Rationale for a Memory Based on NEM Switch 123 7.2 NEM Relay and Capacitor Memories 126 7.3 NEM-FET Memory 130 7.4 Carbon-based NEM Memories 132 7.5 Opportunities and Challenges for NEM Memories 133 References 135 8 Redox-based Resistive Memory 137 Stephan Menzel, Eike Linn, and Rainer Waser 8.1 Introduction 137 8.2 Physical Fundamentals of Redox Memories 139 8.3 Electrochemical Metallization Memory Cells 144 8.4 Valence Change Memory Cells 149 8.5 Performance 154 8.6 Summary 158 References 158 9 Electronic Effect Resistive Switching Memories 162 An Chen 9.1 Introduction 162 9.2 Charge Injection and Trapping 164 9.3 Mott Transition 167 9.4 Ferroelectric Resistive Switching 170 9.5 Perspectives 173 9.6 Summary 176 References 176 10 Macromolecular Memory 181 Benjamin F. Bory and Stefan C.J. Meskers 10.1 Chapter Overview 181 10.2 Macromolecules 181 10.3 Elementary Physical Chemistry of Macromolecular Memory 184 10.4 Classes of Macromolecular Memory Materials and Their Performance 187 10.5 Perspectives 190 10.6 Summary 190 Acknowledgments 190 References 191 11 Molecular Transistors 194 Mark A. Reed, Hyunwook Song, and Takhee Lee 11.1 Introduction 194 11.2 Experimental Approaches 194 11.3 Molecular Transistors 213 11.4 Molecular Design 218 11.5 Perspectives 222 Acknowledgments 223 References 223 12 Memory Select Devices 227 An Chen 12.1 Introduction 227 12.2 Crossbar Array and Memory Select Devices 227 12.3 Memory Select Device Options 230 12.4 Challenges of Memory Select Devices 241 12.5 Summary 242 References 242 13 Emerging Memory Devices: Assessment and Benchmarking 246 Matthew J. Marinella and Victor V. Zhirnov 13.1 Introduction 246 13.2 Common Emerging Memory Terminology and Metrics 248 13.3 Redox RAM 249 13.4 Emerging Ferroelectric Memories 254 13.5 Mott Memory 258 13.6 Macromolecular Memory 259 13.7 Carbon-based Resistive Switching Memory 260 13.8 Molecular Memory 262 13.9 Assessment and Benchmarking 263 13.10 Summary and Conclusions 271 Acknowledgments 271 References 271 PART THREE NANOELECTRONIC LOGIC AND INFORMATION PROCESSING 277 14 Re-Invention of FET 279 Toshiro Hiramoto 14.1 Introduction 279 14.2 Historical and Future Trend of MOSFETs 279 14.3 Near-term Solutions 282 14.4 Long-term Solutions 285 14.5 Summary 295 References 296 15 Graphene Electronics 298 Frank Schwierz 15.1 Introduction 298 15.2 Properties of Graphene 300 15.3 Graphene MOSFETs for Mainstream Logic and RF Applications 303 15.4 Graphene MOSFETs for Nonmainstream Applications 308 15.5 Graphene NonMOSFET Transistors 309 15.6 Perspectives 310 Acknowledgment 311 References 311 16 Carbon Nanotube Electronics 315 Aaron D. Franklin 16.1 Carbon Nanotubes – The Ideal Transistor Channel 315 16.2 Operation of the CNTFET 319 16.3 Important Aspects of CNTFETs 320 16.4 Scaling CNTFETs to the Sub-10 Nanometer Regime 324 16.5 Material Considerations 327 16.6 Perspective 329 16.7 Conclusion 331 References 331 17 Spintronics 336 Alexander Khitun 17.1 Introduction 336 17.2 Spin Transistors 337 17.3 Magnetic Logic Circuits 348 17.4 Summary 364 References 365 18 NEMS Switch Technology 370 Louis Hutin and Tsu-Jae King Liu 18.1 Electromechanical Switches for Digital Logic 370 18.2 Actuation Mechanisms 373 18.3 Electrostatic Switch Designs 379 18.4 Reliability and Scalability 383 References 386 19 Atomic Switch 390 Tsuyoshi Hasegawa and Masakazu Aono 19.1 Chapter Overview 390 19.2 Historical Background of the Atomic Switch 390 19.3 Fundamentals of Atomic Switches 391 19.4 Various Atomic Switches 395 19.5 Perspectives 401 References 402 20 ITRS Assessment and Benchmarking of Emerging Logic Devices 405 Shamik Das 20.1 Introduction 405 20.2 Overview of the ITRS Roadmap for Emerging Research Logic Devices 406 20.3 Recent Results for Selected Emerging Devices 407 20.4 Perspective 412 20.5 Summary 413 Acknowledgments 413 References 413 PART FOUR CONCEPTS FOR EMERGING ARCHITECTURES 417 21 Nanomagnet Logic: A Magnetic Implementation of Quantum-dot Cellular Automata 419 Michael T. Niemier, György Csaba, and Wolfgang Porod 21.1 Introduction 419 21.2 Technology Background 420 21.3 NML Circuit Design Based on Conventional, Boolean Logic Gates 423 21.4 Alternative Circuit Design Techniques and Architectures 432 21.5 Retrospective, Future Challenges, and Future Research Directions 437 References 439 22 Explorations in Morphic Architectures 443 Tetsuya Asai and Ferdinand Peper 22.1 Introduction 443 22.2 Neuromorphic Architectures 443 22.3 Cellular Automata Architectures 447 22.4 Taxonomy of Computational Ability of Architectures 450 22.5 Summary 452 References 452 23 Design Considerations for a Computational Architecture of Human Cognition 456 Narayan Srinivasa 23.1 Introduction 456 23.2 Features of Biological Computation 457 23.3 Evolution of Behavior as a Basis for Cognitive Architecture Design 460 23.4 Considerations for a Cognitive Architecture 460 23.5 Emergent Cognition 463 23.6 Perspectives 463 References 464 24 Alternative Architectures for NonBoolean Information Processing Systems 467 Yan Fang, Steven P. Levitan, Donald M. Chiarulli, and Denver H. Dash 24.1 Introduction 467 24.2 Hierarchical Associative Memory Models 475 24.3 N-Tree Model 484 24.4 Summary and Conclusion 494 Acknowledgments 496 References 496 25 Storage Class Memory 498 Geoffrey W. Burr and Paul Franzon 25.1 Introduction 498 25.2 Traditional Storage: HDD and Flash Solid-state Drives 499 25.3 What is Storage Class Memory? 499 25.4 Target Specifications for SCM 501 25.5 Device Candidates for SCM 502 25.6 Architectural Issues in SCM 504 25.7 Conclusions 508 References 509 PART FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND OUTLOOK FOR NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES 511 26 Outlook for Nanoelectronic Devices 513 An Chen, James Hutchby, Victor V. Zhirnov, and George Bourianoff 26.1 Introduction 513 26.2 Quantitative Logic Benchmarking for Beyond CMOS Technologies 514 26.3 Survey-based Critical Assessment of Emerging Devices 518 26.4 Retrospective Assessment of ERD Tracked Technologies 526 References 528 Index 529

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Book SynopsisThere has been concerted effort across scientific disciplines to develop artificial materials and systems that can help researchers understand natural stimuli-responsive activities. With its up-to-date coverage on intelligent stimuli-responsive materials, Intelligent Stimuli-Responsive Materials provides research, industry, and academia professionals with the fundamentals and principles of intelligent stimuli-responsive materials, with a focus on methods and applications. Emphasizing nanostructures and applications for a broad range of fields, each chapter comprehensively covers a different stimuli-responsive material and discusses its developments, advances, challenges, analytical techniques, and applications.Trade Review“From this book it becomes clear that the potential of stimuli-responsive materials is enormous. It is a superb guide to the subject, and I enthusiastically recommend reading it.” (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed, 1 October 2014)Table of ContentsPreface vii Contributors ix 1 Nature-Inspired Stimuli-Responsive Self-Folding Materials 1 Leonid Ionov 2 Stimuli-Responsive Nanostructures from Self-Assembly of Rigid–Flexible Block Molecules 17 Yongju Kim, Taehoon Kim, and Myongsoo Lee 3 Stimuli-Directed Alignment Control of Semiconducting Discotic Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures 55 Hari Krishna Bisoyi and Quan Li 4 Anion-Driven Supramolecular Self-Assembled Materials 115 Hiromitsu Maeda 5 Photoresponsive Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 141 Yannian Li and Quan Li 6 Electric- and Light-Responsive Bent-Core Liquid Crystals: From Molecular Architecture and Supramolecular Nanostructures to Applications 189 Yongqiang Zhang 7 Photomechanical Liquid Crystalline Polymers:Motion in Response to Light 233 Haifeng Yu and Quan Li 8 Responsive Nanoporous Silica Colloidal Films and Membranes 265 Amir Khabibullin and Ilya Zharov 9 Stimuli-Responsive Smart Organic Hybrid Metal Nanoparticles 293 Chenming Xue and Quan Li 10 Biologically Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels 335 Akifumi Kawamura and Takashi Miyata 11 Biomimetic Self-Oscillating Polymer Gels 363 Ryo Yoshida 12 Stimuli-Responsive Surfaces in Biomedical Applications 377 Alice Pranzetti, Jon A. Preece, and Paula M. Mendes 13 Stimuli-Responsive Conjugated Polymers: From Electronic Noses to Artificial Muscles 423 Astha Malhotra, Matthew McInnis, Jordan Anderson, and Lei Zhai Index 471

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Book SynopsisThe continued advancement in the sciences of functional foods and nutraceuticals has clearly established a strong correlation between consumption of bioactives and improved human health and performance. However, the efficacy and bioavailability of these bioactive ingredients (e.g.Table of ContentsContributors ix 1 Introduction 1Cristina M. Sabliov, Hongda Chen and Rickey Yada 2 Nutrient absorption in the human gastrointestinal tract 3Emily S. Mohn and Elizabeth J. Johnson 3 Cellular fate of delivery systems and entrapped bioactives 35Cristina M. Sabliov, Dorel Moldovan, Brian Novak, Toni Borel, and Meocha Whaley 4 Interfacial science and the creation of nanoparticles 52Stephanie R. Dungan 5 Controlling properties of micro] to nanosized dispersions using emulsification devices 69Zheng Wang, Marcos A. Neves, Isao Kobayashi, and Mitsutoshi Nakajima 6 Delivery systems for food applications: an overview of preparation methods and encapsulation, release, and dispersion properties 91Qixin Zhong, Huaiqiong Chen, Yue Zhang, Kang Pan, and Wan Wang 7 Characterization of nanoscale delivery systems 112Rohan V. Tikekar 8 Impact of delivery systems on the chemical stability of bioactive lipids 130Ketinun Kittipongpittaya, Lorena Salcedo, David Julian McClements, and Eric Andrew Decker 9 Encapsulation strategies to stabilize a natural folate, L-5-methyltetrahydrofolic acid, for food fortification practices 142David D. Kitts and Yazheng Liu 10 The application of nanoencapsulation to enhance the bioavailability and distribution of polyphenols 158Alison Kamil, C]Y. Oliver Chen, and Jeffrey B. Blumberg 11 Properties and applications of multilayer and nanoscale emulsions 175Moumita Ray, Renuka Gupta, and Dérick Rousseau 12 Liposome as efficient system for intracellular delivery of bioactive molecules 191Mihaela Trif and Oana Craciunescu 13 Solid lipid nanoparticles and applications 214Maria Fernanda San Martin]Gonzalez 14 Protein–polysaccharide complexes for effective delivery of bioactive functional food ingredients 224Yunqi Li and Qingrong Huang 15 Bicontinuous delivery systems 247Graciela Padua 16 Self]assembly of amylose, protein, and lipid as a nanoparticle carrier of hydrophobic small molecules 263Genyi Zhang, Deepak Bhopatkar, Bruce R. Hamaker, and Osvaldo H. Campanella 17 Polymeric nanoparticles for food applications 272Cristina M. Sabliov and Carlos E. Astete 18 Encapsulation of bioactive compounds using electrospinning and electrospraying technologies 297Loong]Tak Lim 19 Risks and ethics in the context of food nanotechnology and the delivery of bioactive ingredients 318Paul B. Thompson 20 Consumer perceptions of nanomaterials in functional foods 331William K. Hallman and Mary L. Nucci 21 Safety assessment of nano] and microscale delivery vehicles for bioactive ingredients 348Qasim Chaudhry and Laurence Castle 22 Evidence]based regulation of food nanotechnologies: a perspective from the European Union and United States 358Diana Bowman, Qasim Chaudhry and Anna Gergely Index 375

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Book SynopsisIn water research, nanotechnology is applied to develop more cost-effective and high-performance water treatment systems, as well as to provide instant and continuous ways to monitor water quality. This title presents an array of nanotechnology research in water applications including treatment, remediation, sensing, and pollution prevention.Table of ContentsPreface xix Part 1: General 1 1 Nanotechnology and Water: Ethical and Regulatory Considerations 3 Jillian Gardner and Ames Dhai 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Ethics and Nanotechnology 4 1.3 Legal and Regulatory Issues and Concerns Related to the Application of Nanotechnology in the Water Sector 14 1.4 Nanotechnology, Water and Human Health Research 17 1.5 Conclusion 18 References 19 2 Nanoparticles Released into Water Systems from Nanoproducts and Structural Nanocomposites Applications 21 James Njuguna, Laura Gendre and Sophia Sachse 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Case Study on Polyurethane/Organically-Modified Montmorillonite (PU/OMMT) Nanofoam Nanoparticles in Water Suspension 23 2.3 Methodology 25 2.4 Results and Discussion 27 2.5 Conclusion 32 Acknowledgement 33 References 33 Part 2: Remediation 37 3 Prospects for Immobilization of Microbial Sorbents on Carbon Nanotubes for Biosorption: Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Polluted Water 39 E. Fosso-Kankeu, A.F. Mulaba-Bafubiandi and A.K. Mishra 3.1 Dispersion of Metal Pollutants in Water Sources 40 3.2 Removal of Metal by Conventional Methods 41 3.3 Microbial Sorbents for Removal of Toxic Heavy Metals from Water 42 3.4 Immobilization of Microbial Sorbents on CNTs 50 3.5 Conclusion 54 References 54 4 Plasma Technology: A New Remediation for Water Purification with or without Nanoparticles 63 Pankaj Attri, Bharti Arora, Rohit Bhatia, P. Venkatesu and Eun Ha Choi 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Water Purification Using Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) 64 4.3 Nanoparticle Synthesis Using Plasma and Its Application towards Water Purification 65 4.4 Application of Plasma for Water Purification 67 4.5 Combined Action of Nanoparticles and Plasma for Water Purification 73 4.6 Conclusion 74 References 75 5 Polysaccharide-Based Nanosorbents in Water Remediation 79 R.B. Shrivastava, P. Singh, J. Bajpai and A.K. Bajpai 5.1 Introduction 80 5.2 Water Pollution 81 5.3 Hazardous Effects of Toxic Metal Ions 85 5.4 Technologies for Water Remediation 87 5.5 Shortcomings of the Technologies Used for Water Remediation 89 5.6 Nanotechnology 90 5.7 Polysaccharides 95 5.8 Advantages of Using Polysaccharides for Removal of Toxic Metal Ions 104 5.9 Brief Review of the Work Done 106 References 107 Part 3: Membranes & Carbon Nanotubes 115 6 The Use of Carbonaceous Nanomembrane Filter for Organic Waste Removal 117 Farheen Khan, Rizwan Wahab, Mohd. Rashid, Asif Khan, Asma Khatoon, Javed Musarrat and Abdulaziz A.Al-Khedhairy 6.1 Introduction 118 6.2 Organic Wastes and Organic Pollutant 120 6.3 Low-Cost Adsorbents 123 6.4 Heavy Metals 124 6.5 Composite Materials 127 6.6 Carbonaceous Materials 128 6.7 Experimental 132 6.8 Nanomaterials 136 6.9 Summary and Future Directions 139 References 139 7 Carbon Nanotubes in the Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Aqueous Solution 153 M.A. Mamo and A.K. Mishra 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Synthesis of CNTs 155 7.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 155 7.4 Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions on Carbon Nanotubes 160 7.5 Competitive Adsorption 165 7.6 Summary and Conclusion 168 References 168 8 Application of Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Composites and Carbon Nanotube-Semiconductor Hybrids in Water Treatment 183 G. Mamba, X.Y. Mbianda and A.K. Mishra 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Classification of Dyes 184 8.3 Conventional Treatment Technologies for Textile Effluent 190 8.4 Conclusion 220 Acknowledgements 221 References 222 9 Advances in Nanotechnologies for Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Water Purification 229 Sabelo Dalton Mhlanga and Edward Ndumiso Nxumalo 9.1 Introduction 230 9.2 Nanotechnology-Enabled POU/POE Systems for Drinking Water Treatment 233 9.3 Absorptive Nanocomposites Polymers Based on Cyclodextrins 235 9.4 Nanotechnology-Based Membrane Filtration 244 9.5 Ceramic-Based Filters and Nanofibers 254 9.6 Challenges and Opportunities 259 References 262 Part 4: Nanomaterials 269 10 Mesoporous Materials as Potential Absorbents for Water Purification 271 Ephraim Vunain and Reinout Meijboom 10.1 Introduction 271 10.2 Generalized Synthesis of Mesoporous Materials 272 10.3 Common Method of Synthesizing Silicate Mesoporous Molecular Sieves 276 10.4 Adsorption of Heavy Metals 280 10.5 Conclusions 282 References 283 11 Removal of Fluoride from Potable Water Using Smart Nanomaterial as Adsorbent 285 Dinesh Kumar and Vaishali Tomar 11.1 Introduction 286 11.2 Technologies for Defluoridation 289 11.3 Conclusions 303 Acknowledgement 303 References 303 12 Chemical Nanosensors for Monitoring Environmental Pollution 309 Sadanand Pandey and Shivani B Mishra 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 Conclusion 325 12.3 Challenges and Future Prospect 326 Acknowledgements 327 References 327 13 Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol as a Model Reaction for Nanocatalysis 333 Jihyang Noh and Reinout Meijboom 13.1 Introduction 333 13.2 Kinetic Evaluation and Mechanism of 4-NP Reduction 337 13.3 Effect of Various Conditions 360 13.4 Synthetic Methods of Metal Nanocomposites and Their 4-NP Catalysis 364 13.5 Conclusion 395 References 395 Part 5: Water Treatment 407 14 Doped Diamond Electrodes for Water Treatment 409 Qingyi Shao, Guangwen Wang, Cairu Shao, Juan Zhang and Shejun Hu 14.1 Introduction 410 14.2 Calculation Method 414 14.3 Calculation Results and Discussions 416 14.4 Conclusions 428 References 430 15 Multifunctional Silver, Copper and Zero Valent Iron Metallic Nanoparticles for Wastewater Treatment 435 S.C.G. Kiruba Daniel, S. Malathi, S. Balasubramanian, M. Sivakumar and T. Anitha Sironmani 15.1 Introduction 436 15.2 Metal Nanoparticles and Microbial Inactivation 437 15.3 Metal Nanoparticles for Heavy Metal and Dye Removal 441 15.4 Multifunctional Hybrid Nanoparticles – Ag, Cu and ZVI 443 15.5 Mechanism of Action 445 15.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 448 Acknowledgement 448 References 448 16 Iron Oxide Materials for Photo-Fenton Conversion of Water Pollutants 459 S.A.C. Carabineiro, A.M.T. Silva, C.G. Silva, R.A. Segundo, P.B. Tavares, N. Bogdanchikova, J.L. Figueiredo and J.L. Faria 16.1 Introduction 460 16.2 Experimental 461 16.3 Results and Discussion 463 16.4 Conclusions 471 Acknowledgments 472 References 472 17 Nanomaterials with Uniform Composition in Wastewater Treatment and Their Applications 475 Farheen Khan and Rizwan Wahab 17.1 Introduction 476 17.2 Experimental 488 17.3 Effects of Pollutants on Health and the Environment 490 17.4 Summary and Future Directions 499 References 500 Index 513

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Book SynopsisNanoparticles are the building blocks for nanotechnology; they are better built, long lasting, cleaner, safer, and smarter products for use across industries, including communications, medicine, transportation, agriculture and other industries. Controlled size, shape, composition, crystallinity, and structure-dependent properties govern the unique properties of nanotechnology. Bio-Nanoparticles: Biosynthesis and Sustainable Biotechnological Implications explores both the basics of and advancements in nanoparticle biosynthesis. The text introduces the reader to a variety of microorganisms able to synthesize nanoparticles, provides an overview of the methodologies applied to biosynthesize nanoparticles for medical and commercial use, and gives an overview of regulations governing their use. Authored by leaders in the field, Bio-Nanoparticles: Biosynthesis and Sustainable Biotechnological Implications bridges the gap between biology and technology, and is an iTable of ContentsList of Contributors xv Introduction xvii 1 Diversity of Microbes in Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles: Progress and Limitations 1Mahendra Rai, Irena Maliszewska, Avinash Ingle, Indarchand Gupta, and Alka Yadav 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Bacteria 2 1.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Fungi 9 1.4 Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Algae 12 1.5 Applications of Metal Nanoparticles 16 1.5.1 Nanoparticles as Catalyst 16 1.5.2 Nanoparticles as Bio]membranes 17 1.5.3 Nanoparticles in Cancer Treatment 17 1.5.4 Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery 17 1.5.5 Nanoparticles for Detection and Destruction of Pesticides 17 1.5.6 Nanoparticles in Water Treatment 18 1.6 Limitations of Synthesis of Biogenic Nanoparticles 18 References 20 2 Role of Fungi Toward Synthesis of Nano]Oxides 31Rajesh Ramanathan and Vipul Bansal 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Fungus]mediated Synthesis of Nanomaterials 34 2.2.1 Biosynthesis of Binary Nano]oxides using Chemical Precursors 34 2.2.2 Biosynthesis of Complex Mixed]metal Nano]oxides using Chemical Precursors 39 2.2.3 Biosynthesis of Nano]oxides using Natural Precursors employing Bioleaching Approach 42 2.2.4 Biosynthesis of nano]oxides employing bio]milling approach 44 2.3 Outlook 46 References 47 3 Microbial Molecular Mechanisms in Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles 53Atmakuru Ramesh, Marimuthu Thiripura Sundari, and Perumal Elumalai Thirugnanam 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Chemical Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 54 3.2.1 Brust–Schiffrin Synthesis 55 3.3 Green Synthesis 57 3.4 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles 58 3.5 Mechanisms for Formation or Synthesis of Nanoparticles 61 3.5.1 Biomineralization using Magnetotactic Bacteria (MTB) 61 3.5.2 Reduction of Tellurite using Phototroph Rhodobacter capsulatus 62 3.5.3 Formation of AgNPs using Lactic Acid and Bacteria 62 3.5.4 Microfluidic Cellular Bioreactor for the Generation of Nanoparticles 62 3.5.5 Proteins and Peptides in the Synthesis of Nanoparticles 65 3.5.6 NADH]dependent Reduction by Enzymes 65 3.5.7 Sulfate and Sulfite Reductase 66 3.5.8 Cyanobacteria 67 3.5.9 Cysteine Desulfhydrase in Rhodopseudomonas palustris 68 3.5.10 Nitrate and Nitrite reductase 68 3.6 E xtracellular Synthesis of Nanoparticles 69 3.6.1 Bacterial Excretions 69 3.6.2 Fungal Strains 71 3.6.3 Yeast: Oxido]reductase Mechanism 72 3.6.4 Plant Extracts 73 3.7 Conclusion 76 References 78 4 Biofilms in Bio]Nanotechnology: Opportunities and Challenges 83Chun Kiat Ng, Anee Mohanty, and Bin Cao 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 Microbial Synthesis of Nanomaterials 84 4.2.1 Overview 84 4.2.2 Significance of Biofilms in Biosynthesis of Nanomaterials 89 4.2.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterials using Biofilms 90 4.3 Interaction of Microbial Biofilms with Nanomaterials 90 4.3.1 Nanomaterials as Anti]biofilm Agents 90 4.3.2 Nanomaterials as a Tool in Biofilm Studies 92 4.4 Future Perspectives 93 References 94 5 Extremophiles and Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles: Current and Future Perspectives 101Jingyi Zhang, Jetka Wanner, and Om V. Singh 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 104 5.2.1 Microorganisms: An Asset in Nanoparticle Biosynthesis 104 5.2.2 E xtremophiles in Nanoparticle Biosynthesis 104 5.3 Mechanism of Nanoparticle Biosynthesis 108 5.4 Fermentative Production of Nanoparticles 111 5.5 Nanoparticle Recovery 114 5.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 115 5.7 Conclusion 115 References 116 6 Biosynthesis of Size-Controlled Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles by Bacteria 123Chung-Hao Kuo, David A. Kriz, Anton Gudz, and Steven L. Suib 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Intracellular Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles by Bacteria 124 6.3 E xtracellular Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles by Bacteria 129 6.4 Synthesis of Metal Oxide and Sulfide Nanoparticles by Bacteria 131 6.5 Conclusion 135 References 135 7 Methods of Nanoparticle Biosynthesis for Medical and Commercial Applications 141Shilpi Mishra, Saurabh Dixit, and Shivani Soni 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles using Bacteria 144 7.2.1 Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles by Bacteria 144 7.2.2 Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles by Bacteria 145 7.2.3 Synthesis of other Metallic Nanoparticles by Bacteria 145 7.3 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles using Actinomycete 146 7.4 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles using Fungi 147 7.5 Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles using Plants 148 7.6 Conclusions 149 References 149 8 Microbial Synthesis of Nanoparticles: An Overview 155Sneha Singh, Ambarish Sharan Vidyarthi, and Abhimanyu Dev 8.1 Introduction 156 8.2 Nanoparticles Synthesis Inspired by Microorganisms 157 8.2.1 Bacteria in NPs Synthesis 162 8.2.2 Fungi in NPs Synthesis 167 8.2.3 Actinomycetes in NPs Synthesis 170 8.2.4 Yeast in NPs Synthesis 171 8.2.5 Virus in NPs Synthesis 173 8.3 Mechanisms of Nanoparticles Synthesis 174 8.4 Purification and Characterization of Nanoparticles 176 8.5 Conclusion 177 References 179 9 Microbial Diversity of Nanoparticle Biosynthesis 187Raveendran Sindhu, Ashok Pandey, and Parameswaran Binod 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Microbial-mediated Nanoparticles 187 9.2.1 Gold 188 9.2.2 Silver 190 9.2.3 Selenium 191 9.2.4 Silica 192 9.2.5 Cadmium 192 9.2.6 Palladium 193 9.2.7 Zinc 193 9.2.8 Lead 194 9.2.9 Iron 195 9.2.10 Copper 195 9.2.11 Cerium 196 9.2.12 Microbial Quantum Dots 196 9.2.13 Cadmium Telluride 197 9.2.14 Iron Sulfide-greigite 198 9.3 Native and Engineered Microbes for Nanoparticle Synthesis 198 9.4 Commercial Aspects of Microbial Nanoparticle Synthesis 199 9.5 Conclusion 200 References 200 10 S ustainable Synthesis of Palladium(0) Nanocatalysts and their Potential for Organohalogen Compounds Detoxification 205Michael Bunge and Katrin Mackenzie 10.1 Introduction 205 10.2 Chemically Generated Palladium Nanocatalysts for Hydrodechlorination: Current Methods and Materials 206 10.2.1 Pd Catalysts 206 10.2.2 Data Analysis 207 10.2.3 Pd as Dehalogenation Catalyst 207 10.2.4 Intrinsic Potential vs. Performance 208 10.2.5 Concepts for Pd Protection 210 10.3 Bio-supported Synthesis of Palladium Nanocatalysts 211 10.3.1 Background 211 10.4 Current Approaches for Synthesis of Palladium Catalysts in the Presence of Microorganisms 212 10.4.1 Pd(II)-Tolerant Microorganisms for Future Biotechnological Approaches 213 10.4.2 Controlling Size and Morphology during Bio-Synthesis 214 10.4.3 Putative and Documented Mechanisms of Biosynthesis of Palladium Nanoparticles 215 10.4.4 Isolation of Nanocatalysts from the Cell Matrix and Stabilization 216 10.5 Bio-Palladium(0)-nanocatalyst Mediated Transformation of Organohalogen Pollutants 217 10.6 Conclusions 218 References 219 11 E nvironmental Processing of Zn Containing Wastes and Generation of Nanosized Value-Added Products 225Abhilash and B.D. Pandey 11.1 Introduction 225 11.1.1 World Status of Zinc Production 226 11.1.2 E nvironmental Impact of the Process Wastes Generated 226 11.1.3 Production Status in India 227 11.1.4 Recent Attempts at Processing Low-Grade Ores and Tailings 228 11.2 Physical/Chemical/Hydrothermal Processing 229 11.2.1 E xtraction of Pb-Zn from Tailings for Utilization and Production in China 229 11.2.2 Vegetation Program on Pb-Zn Tailings 229 11.2.3 Recovering Valuable Metals from Tailings and Residues 229 11.2.4 E xtraction of Vanadium, Lead and Zinc from Mining Dump in Zambia 230 11.2.5 Recovery of Zinc from Blast Furnace and other Dust/Secondary Resources 230 11.2.6 Treatment and Recycling of Goethite Waste 231 11.2.7 Other Hydrometallurgical Treatments of Zinc-based Industrial Wastes and Residues 231 11.3 Biohydrometallurgical Processing: International Scenario 233 11.3.1 Bioleaching of Zn from Copper Mining Residues by Aspergillus niger 233 11.3.2 Bioleaching of Zinc from Steel Plant Waste using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans 234 11.3.3 Bacterial Leaching of Zinc from Chat (Chert) Pile Rock and Copper from Tailings Pond Sediment 234 11.3.4 Dissolution of Zn from Zinc Mine Tailings 234 11.3.5 Microbial Diversity in Zinc Mines 234 11.3.6 Chromosomal Resistance Mechanisms of A. ferrooxidans on Zinc 235 11.3.7 Bioleaching of Zinc Sulfides by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans 235 11.3.8 Bioleaching of High-sphalerite Material 235 11.3.9 Bioleaching of Low-grade ZnS Concentrate and Complex Sulfides (Pb-Zn) using Thermophilic Species 236 11.3.10 Improvement of Stains for Bio-processing of Sphalerite 236 11.3.11 Tank Bioleaching of ZnS and Zn Polymetallic Concentrates 237 11.3.12 Large-Scale Development for Zinc Concentrate Bioleaching 237 11.3.13 Scale-up Studies for Bioleaching of Low-Grade Sphalerite Ore 238 11.3.14 Zinc Resistance Mechanism in Bacteria 238 11.4 Biohydrometallurgical Processing: Indian Scenario 238 11.4.1 E lectro-Bioleaching of Sphalerite Flotation Concentrate 239 11.4.2 Bioleaching of Zinc Sulfide Concentrate 239 11.4.3 Bioleaching of Moore Cake and Sphalarite Tailings 239 11.5 Synthesis of Nanoparticles 240 11.6 Applications of Zinc-based Value-added Products/Nanomaterials 244 11.6.1 Hydro-Gel for Bio-applications 244 11.6.2 Sensors 244 11.6.3 Biomedical Applications 245 11.6.4 Antibacterial Properties 245 11.6.5 Zeolites in biomedical applications 246 11.6.6 Textiles 246 11.6.7 Prospects of Zinc Recovery from Tailings and Biosynthesis of Zinc-based Nano-materials 246 11.7 Conclusions and Future Directions 247 References 248 12 Interaction Between Nanoparticles and Plants: Increasing Evidence of Phytotoxicity 255Rajeshwari Sinha and S.K. Khare 12.1 Introduction 255 12.2 Plant–Nanoparticle Interactions 256 12.3 E ffect of Nanoparticles on Plants 256 12.3.1 Monocot Plants 257 12.3.2 Dicot Plants 257 12.4 Mechanisms of Nanoparticle]induced Phytotoxicity 257 12.4.1 Endocytosis 257 12.4.2 Transfer through Ion Channels Post]ionization 262 12.4.3 Aquaporin Mediated 262 12.4.4 Carrier Proteins Mediated 262 12.4.5 Via Organic Matter 262 12.4.6 Complex Formation with Root Exudates 262 12.4.7 Foliar Uptake 263 12.5 E ffect on Physiological Parameters 263 12.5.1 Loss of Hydraulic Conductivity 263 12.5.2 Genotoxic Effects 263 12.5.3 Absorption and Accumulation 263 12.5.4 Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 264 12.5.5 Biotransformation of NPs 264 12.6 Genectic and Molecular Basis of NP Phytotoxicity 266 12.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 266 References 267 13 Cytotoxicology of Nanocomposites 273Horacio Bach 13.1 Introduction 273 13.2 Cellular Toxicity 274 13.2.1 Mechanisms of Cellular Toxicity 274 13.2.2 E ffect of Glutathione (GSH) in Oxidative Stress 276 13.2.3 Damage to Cellular Biomolecules 277 13.3 Nanoparticle Fabrication 281 13.3.1 Physico]chemical Characteristics of NPs 282 13.3.2 Cellular Uptake 284 13.3.3 Factors Affecting the Internalization of NPs 287 13.4 Immunological Response 289 13.4.1 Cytokine Production 289 13.4.2 Cytotoxicity, Necrosis, Apoptosis, and Cell Death 290 13.5 Factors to Consider to Reduce the Cytotoxic Effects of NP 292 13.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 293 References 294 14 Nanotechnology: Overview of Regulations and Implementations 303Om V. Singh and Thomas Colonna 14.1 Introduction 303 14.2 Scope of Nanotechnology 305 14.3 Safety Concerns Related to Nanotechnology 310 14.4 Barriers to the Desired Regulatory Framework 311 14.4.1 Regulatory Framework in the United States 312 14.4.2 Global Efforts toward Regulation of Nanotechnology 315 14.5 Biosynthesis of Microbial Bio]nanoparticles: An Alternative Production Method 317 14.6 Conclusion 325 References 326 Name index 331 Subject index 333

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Book SynopsisFocusing on the cutting-edge technologies available in the field of photovoltaics, Solar Cell Nanotechnology explores the latest research and development activities related to organic, inorganic, and hybrid materials being used in solar cell manufacturing.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1 Current Developments 1 1 Design Considerations for Efficient and Stable Polymer Solar Cells 3 Prajwal Adhikary, Jing Li, and Qiquan Qiao 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Role of Interfacial Layer for Efficient BHJ Solar Cells 11 1.3 Selection of Interfacial Layer for Stable and Longer Lifetime 20 1.4 Materials Used as Interfacial Layer 26 1.5 Conclusion and Outlook 34 Acknowledgement 34 References 35 2 Carbazole-Based Organic Dyes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: Role of Carbazole as Donor, Auxiliary Donor and π-linker 41 A. Venkateswararao and K. R. Justin Thomas 2.1 Introduction 42 2.2 Carbazole as a Donor for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 44 2.3 Carbazole as a π-Linker 64 2.4 Carbazole as Auxiliary Donor for DSSC 75 2.5 Carbazole as Donor as Well as Linker for DSSC 87 2.6 Conclusion and Outlook 91 Acknowledgements 92 References 92 3 Colloidal Synthesis of CuInS2 and CuInSe2 Nanocrystals for Photovoltaic Applications 97 Joanna Kolny-Olesiak 3.1 Introduction 97 3.2 Synthesis of CuInS2 and CuInSe2 Nanocrystals 99 3.3 Application of Colloidal CuInS2 and CuInSe2 Nanoparticles in Solar Energy Conversion 109 3.4 Conclusion and Outlook 112 References 112 4 Two Dimensional Layered Semiconductors: Emerging Materials for Solar Photovoltaics 117 Mariyappan Shanmugam and Bin Yu 4.1 Introduction 118 4.2 Material Synthesis 119 4.3 Photovoltaic Device Fabrication 122 4.4 Microstructural and Raman Spectroscopic Studies of MoS2 and WS2 124 4.5 Photovoltaic Performance Evaluation 126 4.6 Electronic Transport and Interfacial Recombination 129 4.7 Conclusion and Outlook 132 References 133 5 Control of ZnO Nanorods for Polymer Solar Cells 135 Hsin-Yi Chen, Ching-Fuh Lin 5.1 Introduction 136 5.2 Preparation and Characterization of ZnO NRs 137 5.3 Application of ZnO NR in Polymer Solar Cells 147 5.4 Conclusion and Outlook 154 References 154 Part 2 Noble Approaches 159 6 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 161 Lakshmi V. Munukutla, Aung Htun, Sailaja Radhakrishanan, Laura Main, and Arunachala M. Kannan 6.1 Introduction 161 6.2 Background 163 6.3 DSSC Key Performance Parameters 173 6.4 Device Improvements 174 6.5 DSSC Performance with Different Electrolytes 180 6.6 Conclusion and Outlook 183 References 183 7 Nanoimprint Lithography for Photovoltaic Applications 185 Benjamin Schumm and Stefan Kaskel 7.1 Introduction 186 7.2 Soft Lithography 186 7.3 NIL-Based Techniques for PV 190 7.4 Conclusion and Outlook 198 References 199 8 Indoor Photovoltaics: Efficiencies, Measurements and Design 203 Monika Freunek (Müller) 8.1 Introduction 203 8.2 Indoor Radiation 205 8.3 Maximum Efficiencies 208 8.4 Optimization Strategies 213 8.5 Characterization and Measured Efficiencies 216 8.6 Irradiance Measurements 217 8.7 Characterization 217 8.8 Conclusion and Outlook 219 References 221 9 Photon Management in Rare Earth Doped Nanomaterials for Solar Cells 223 Jiajia Zhou, Jianrong Qiu 9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 Basic Aspects of Solar Cell 224 9.4 Down-Conversion Nanomaterials for Solar Cell Application 232 9.5 Conclusion and Outlook 236 References 238 Part 3 Developments in Prospective 241 10 Advances in Plasmonic Light Trapping in Thin-Film Solar Photovoltaic Devices 243 J. Gwamuri, D. Ö. Güney, and J. M. Pearce 10.1 Introduction 244 10.2 Theoretical Approaches to Plasmonic Light Trapping Mechanisms in Thin-fi lm PV 247 10.3 Plasmonics for Improved Photovoltaic Cells Optical Properties 256 10.4 Fabrication Techniques and Economics 260 10.5 Conclusion and Outlook 263 Acknowledgements 266 References 266 11 Recent Research and Development of Luminescent Solar Concentrators 271 Yun Seng Lim, Shin Yiing Kee, and Chin Kim Lo 11.1 Introduction 272 11.2 Mechanisms of Power Losses in Luminescent Solar Concentrator 274 11.3 Modeling 276 11.4 Polymer Materials 279 11.5 Luminescent Materials for Luminescent Solar Concentrator 280 11.6 New Designs of Luminescent Solar Concentrator 286 11.7 Conclusion and Outlook 287 References 289 12 Luminescent Solar Concentrators – State of the Art and Future Perspectives 293 M. Tonezzer, D. Gutierrez, and D. Vincenzi 12.1 Introduction to the Third Generation of Photovoltaic Systems 294 12.2 Luminescence Solar Concentrators (LSCs) 294 12.3 Components of LSC Devices 299 12.4 Pathways for Improving LSC Efficiency 308 12.5 Conclusion and Outlook 311 Acknowledgments 312 References 312 13 Organic Fluorophores for Luminescent Solar Concentrators 317 Luca Beverina and Alessandro Sanguineti 13.1 Introduction 318 13.2 LSCs: Device Operation and Main Features 321 13.3 Luminophores in LSCs 324 13.4 Conclusion and Outlook 349 References 351 14 PAn-Graphene-Nanoribbon Composite Materials for Organic Photovoltaics: A DFT Study of Their Electronic and Charge Transport Properties 357 Javed Mazher, Asefa A. Desta, and Shabina Khan 14.1 Introduction 358 14.2 Review of Computational Background 379 14.3 Atomistic Computational Simulations: Modeling and Methodology 385 14.4 Results and Discussions 389 14.5 Conclusion and Outlook 398 References 400 15 Analytical Modeling of Thin-Film Solar Cells – Fundamentals and Applications 409 Kurt Taretto 15.1 Introduction 409 15.2 Basics 410 15.3 Fundamental Semiconductor Equations 417 15.4 Analytical Models for Selected Solar Cells 425 15.5 The Importance of the Temperature Dependence of VOC 442 15.6 Conclusions and Outlook 444 Acknowledgements 444 References 444 16 Efficient Organic Photovoltaic Cells: Current Global Scenario 447 Sandeep Rai and Atul Tiwari 16.1 Introduction 448 16.2 Current Developments in OPVs 455 16.3 Economics of Solar Energy 464 16.4 Conclusions and Future Trends in Photovoltaic 468 References 471 17 Real and Reactive Power Control of Voltage Source Converter-Based Photovoltaic Generating Systems 475 S. Mishra and P. C. Sekhar 17.1 Introduction 476 17.2 State of Art 478 17.3 Proposed Solution 479 17.4 Modeling of the PV Generator 480 17.5 Control of the PV Generator 483 17.6 Validation of the Proposed Control Architecture 491 17.7 Conclusion and Outlook 501 References 502 Index 505

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Book SynopsisNanomaterial Characterization Providing various properties of nanomaterials and the various methods available for their characterization Over the course of the last few decades, research activity on nanomaterials has gained considerable press coverage. The use of nanomaterials has meant that consumer products can be made lighter, stronger, esthetically more pleasing, and less expensive. The significant role of nanomaterials in improving the quality of life is clear, resulting in faster computers, cleaner energy production, target-driven pharmaceuticals, and better construction materials. It is not surprising, therefore, that nanomaterial research has really taken off, spanning across different scientific disciplines from material science to nanotoxicology. A critical part of any nanomaterial research, however, is the need to characterize physicochemical properties of the nanomaterials, which is not a trivial matter. Nanomaterial Characterization: An IntroduTrade Review"For those actively involved in the nanosafety and other relevant research fields involving nanomaterials, as well as those new to the field, this book represents an excellent reference point and source of knowledge." (Andy Booth 2016)Table of ContentsList of Contributors xv Editor’s Preface xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Properties Unique to Nanomaterials 3 1.3 Terminology 4 1.3.1 Nanomaterials 4 1.3.2 Physicochemical Properties 7 1.4 Measurement of Good Practice 8 1.4.1 Method Validation 8 1.4.2 Standard Documents 13 1.5 Typical Methods 16 1.5.1 Sampling 16 1.5.2 Dispersion 19 1.6 Potential Errors Due to Chosen Methods 20 1.7 Summary 20 Acknowledgments 21 References 21 2 Nanomaterial Syntheses 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Bottom–Up Approach 26 2.2.1 Arc-Discharge 26 2.2.2 Inert-Gas Condensation 26 2.2.3 Flame Synthesis 27 2.2.4 Vapor-Phase Deposition 27 2.2.5 Colloidal Synthesis 27 2.2.6 Biologically synthesized nanomaterials 28 2.2.7 Microemulsion Synthesis 28 2.2.8 Sol–Gel Method 29 2.3 Synthesis: Top–Down Approach 29 2.3.1 Mechanical Milling 29 2.3.2 Laser Ablation 30 2.4 Bottom–Up and Top–Down: Lithography 30 2.5 Bottom–Up or Top–Down? Case Example: Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 30 2.6 Particle Growth: Theoretical Considerations 32 2.6.1 Nucleation 32 2.6.2 Particle Growth and Growth Kinetics 33 2.6.2.1 Diffusion-Limited Growth 33 2.6.2.2 Ostwald Ripening 34 2.7 Case Study: Microreactor for the Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles 34 2.7.1 Introduction 34 2.7.2 Method 36 2.7.2.1 Materials 36 2.7.2.2 Protocol: Nanoparticles Batch Synthesis 37 2.7.2.3 Protocol: Nanoparticle Synthesis via Continuous Flow Microfluidics 37 2.7.2.4 Protocol: Nanoparticles Synthesis via Droplet-Based Microfluidics 38 2.7.2.5 Protocol: Dynamic Light Scattering 38 2.7.3 Results Interpretation and Conclusion 39 2.8 Summary 42 Acknowledgments 43 References 43 3 Reference Nanomaterials 49 3.1 Definition, Development, and Application Fields 49 3.2 Case Studies 50 3.2.1 Silica Nanomaterial as Potential Reference Material to Establish Possible Size Effects on Mechanical Properties 50 3.2.1.1 Introduction 50 3.2.1.2 Findings So Far 53 3.2.2 Silica Nanomaterial as Potential Reference Material in Nanotoxicology 55 3.3 Summary 57 Acknowledgments 58 References 58 4 Particle Number Size Distribution 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Measuring Methods 65 4.2.1 Particle Tracking Analysis 65 4.2.2 Resistive Pulse Sensing 67 4.2.3 Single Particle Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry 69 4.2.4 Electron Microscopy 71 4.2.5 Atomic Force Microscopy 73 4.3 Summary of Capabilities of the Counting Techniques 74 4.4 Experimental Case Study 74 4.4.1 Introduction 74 4.4.2 Method 76 4.4.3 Results and Interpretation 76 4.4.4 Conclusion 77 4.5 Summary 78 References 78 5 Solubility Part 1: Overview 81 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 Separation Methods 84 5.2.1 Filtration, Centrifugation, Dialysis, and Ultrafiltration 84 5.2.2 Ion Exchange 85 5.2.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography, Electrophoresis, Field Flow Fractionation 87 5.3 Quantification Methods: Free Ions (And Labile Fractions) 90 5.3.1 Electrochemical Methods 90 5.3.2 Colorimetric Methods 93 5.4 Quantification Methods to Measure Total Dissolved Species 94 5.4.1 Indirect Measurements 94 5.4.2 Direct Measurements 95 5.5 Theoretical Modeling Using Speciation Software 96 5.6 Which Method? 97 5.7 Case Study: Miniaturized Capillary Electrophoresis with Conductivity Detection to Determine Nanomaterial Solubility 99 5.7.1 Introduction 99 5.7.2 Method 100 5.7.2.1 Materials 100 5.7.2.2 Dispersion Protocol 100 5.7.2.3 Instrumentation: CE-Conductivity Device 100 5.7.2.4 CE-Conductivity Microchip: Measurement Protocol 101 5.7.2.5 Protocol: To Assess the Feasibility of Measuring the Zn2+ (from ZnO Nanomaterial) Signal above the Fish Medium Background 102 5.7.2.6 Protocol: To Assess Data Variability between Different Microchips 102 5.7.3 Results and Interpretation 103 5.7.3.1 Study 1: Assessing Feasibility of the CE-Conductivity Microchip to Detect Free Zn2+ Arising from Dispersion of ZnO in Fish Medium 103 5.7.3.2 Study 2: Assessing Performance of Microchips Using Reference Test Material 103 5.7.4 Conclusion 105 5.8 Summary 105 Acknowledgments 105 References 106 6 Solubility Part 2: Colorimetry 117 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Materials and Method 119 6.2.1 Materials 119 6.2.2 Mandatory Protocol: NanoGenotox Dispersion for Nanomaterials 119 6.2.3 Mandatory Protocol: Simulated In Vitro Digestion Model 120 6.2.4 Colorimetry Analysis 121 6.2.5 SEM Analysis 122 6.3 Results and Interpretation 123 6.4 Conclusion 127 Acknowledgments 128 A6. 1 Materials and Method 128 A6.1.1 Materials 128 A6.1.2 Mandatory Protocol: Ultrasonic Probe Calibration 128 A6.1.3 Mandatory Protocol: Benchmarking of SiO2 (NM 200) 129 A6.1.4 Mandatory Protocol: Preliminary Characterization of ZnO (NM 110) 129 A6.1.5 Mandatory Protocol: Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) 130 A6. 2 Results and Interpretation 130 A6.2.1 Probe Sonication 130 A6.2.2 Benchmarking with SiO2 (NM 200) 130 A6.2.3 NM 110: Characterizing Batch Dispersions ZnO (NM 110) 131 References 131 7 Surface Area 133 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 Measurement Methods: Overview 134 7.3 Case Study: Evaluating Powder Homogeneity Using NMR Versus Bet 140 7.3.1 Background: NMR for Surface Area Measurements 141 7.3.2 Method 142 7.3.2.1 Materials 142 7.3.2.2 Sample Preparation for NMR 142 7.3.2.3 Protocol: NMR Analysis 142 7.3.2.4 BET Protocol 143 7.3.3 Results and Interpretation 143 7.3.4 Conclusion 145 7.4 Summary 145 Acknowledgments 145 References 149 8 Surface Chemistry 153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Measurement Challenges 155 8.3 Analytical Techniques 157 8.3.1 Electron Spectroscopies 158 8.3.1.1 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 158 8.3.1.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) 159 8.3.2 Incident Ion Techniques 160 8.3.2.1 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 160 8.3.2.2 Low- and Medium-Energy Ion Scattering (LEIS and MEIS) 160 8.3.3 Scanning Probe Microscopies 161 8.3.4 Optical Techniques 161 8.3.5 Other Techniques 162 8.4 Case Studies 163 8.4.1 Part I: Surface Characterization of Biomolecule-Coated Nanoparticles 163 8.4.2 Part II: Surface Characterization of Commercial Metal-Oxide Nanomaterials by TOF-SIMS 169 8.4.2.1 Effect of Sample Topography 171 8.4.2.2 Chemical Analysis of Nanopowders 171 8.5 Summary 174 References 174 9 Mechanical Tribological Properties and Surface Characteristics of Nanotextured Surfaces 179 9.1 Introduction 179 9.2 Fabricating Nanotextured Surfaces 181 9.2.1 Plasma Treatment Processes 181 9.2.2 Randomly Nanotextured Surfaces by Plasma Etching 182 9.2.3 Ordered Hierarchical Nanotextured by Plasma Etching 185 9.2.4 Carbon Nanotube Forests by Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 185 9.3 Mechanical Property Characterization 187 9.3.1 Nanoindentation Testing 187 9.3.2 Tribological Characterization by Nanoscratching 190 9.4 Case Study: Nanoscratch Tests to Characterize Mechanical Stability of PS/PMMA Surfaces 191 9.4.1 Method 191 9.4.2 Results and Discussion 192 9.5 Case Study: Structural Integrity of Multiwalled CNT Forest 194 9.6 Case Study: Mechanical Characterization of Plasma-Treated Polylactic Acid (PLA) for Packaging Applications 197 9.7 Conclusions 201 Acknowledgments 202 References 202 10 Methods for Testing Dustiness 209 10.1 Introduction 209 10.2 Cen Test Methods (Under Consideration) 213 10.2.1 The EN 15051 Rotating Drum (RD) Method 213 10.2.2 The EN 15051 Continuous Drop (CD) Method 215 10.2.3 The Small Rotating Drum (SRD) Method 217 10.2.4 The Vortex Shaker (VS) Method 219 10.2.5 Dustiness Test: Comparison of Methods 223 10.3 Case Studies: Application of Dustiness Data 225 10.4 Summary 226 Acknowledgments 227 References 227 11 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy for Nanofunctionality Characterization 231 11.1 Introduction 231 11.2 Extreme Field STM: a Brief History 234 11.3 STM/STS for the Extraction of Surface Local Density of States (LDOS): Theoretical Background 234 11.4 Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy (STS) at Low Temperatures: Background 238 11.5 STM Instrumentation at Extreme Conditions: Specification Requirements and Design 239 11.6 STM/STS Imaging Under Extreme Environments: a Review on Applications 242 11.6.1 Atomic-Scale STM Imaging 242 11.6.2 Interference of Low-Dimensional Electron Waves 244 11.6.3 Interesting Phenomena Related to High-Magnetic Fields 246 11.7 Summary and Future Outlook 248 Acknowledgments 248 References 249 12 Biological Characterization of Nanomaterials 253 12.1 Introduction 253 12.1.1 Importance of Nanomaterial Characterization 253 12.1.2 Extrinsic NMs Characterization 254 12.1.3 The Proposal for Measuring “extrinsic” Properties 255 12.2 Measurement Methods 255 12.2.1 Review of Existing Approaches 255 12.2.2 Introducing Acetylcholinesterase as a Model Biosensor Protein 256 12.3 Experimental Case Study 257 12.3.1 Introduction 257 12.3.2 Method: Assay of AChE Activity 258 12.3.3 Results and Discussion 260 12.3.4 Conclusions 262 12.4 Summary 263 Acknowledgments 263 References 263 13 Visualization of Multidimensional Data for Nanomaterial Characterization 269 13.1 Introduction 269 13.2 Case Study: Structure–Activity Relationship (SAR) Analysis of Nanoparticle Toxicity 271 13.2.1 Introduction 271 13.2.2 Parallel Coordinates: Background 273 13.2.3 Case Study Data 274 13.2.4 Method 276 13.2.5 Results and Interpretation 277 13.2.5.1 Analysis of the 14 Dry Powder Samples Using BET and DTT Data Only 277 13.2.5.2 Analysis of the Structural Properties of Zinc Oxide (N14) and Nickel Oxide (N12) (Excluding BET and DTT Data) 278 13.2.5.3 Metal-Content-Only Analysis of the 18 Samples Excluding Structural Descriptors 279 13.2.5.4 Analysis of the Structural Properties of Nanotubes (N3) 281 13.2.5.5 Analysis of the Structural Properties of Aminated Beads (N6) (Excluding BET and DTT Data) 281 13.2.6 Conclusion 283 13.3 Summary 283 References 284 Index 287

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Book SynopsisProvides detailed reviews of a range of nanostructures used in the construction of biosensors as well as the applications of these biosensor nanotechnologies in the biological, chemical, and environmental monitoring fields. This book examines some of the emerging technologies that are fueling scientific discovery and underpinning new products.Table of ContentsPreface xv Part 1: New Materials and Methods 1 1 ZnO and Graphene Microelectrode Applications in Biosensing 3 Susana Campuzano, María Pedrero, Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli, José M. Pingarron, Dimitrios P. Nikolelis, Nikolaos Tzamtzis and Vasillios N. Psychoyios 1.1 Biosensors Based on Nanostructured Materials 4 1.2 Graphene Nanomaterials Used in ElectrochemicalBiosensor Fabrication 5 1.3 ZnO Nanostructures Used in the Fabrication of Electrochemical Biosensors 7 1.4 Miniaturized Graphene and ZnO Nanostructured Electrochemical Biosensors for Food and Clinical Applications 10 1.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 30 Acknowledgements 32 References 32 2 Assembly of Polymers/Metal Nanoparticles and Their Applications as Medical Devices 37 Magdalena Stevanovic 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 Platinum Nanoparticles 40 2.3 Gold Nanoparticles 41 2.4 Silver Nanoparticles 44 2.5 Assembly of Polymers/Silver Nanoparticles 45 2.6 Conclusion 51 Acknowledgements 51 References 52 3 Gold Nanoparticle-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Medical Applications 63 Ülkü Anik 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Gold Nanoparticles 64 3.3 Conclusion 76 References 76 4 Impedimetric DNA Biosensors Based on Nanomaterials 81 Manel del Valle and Alessandra Bonanni 4.1 Introduction 82 4.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy for Genosensing 85 4.3 Nanostructured Carbon Used in Impedimetric Genosensors 91 4.4 Nanostructured Gold Used in Impedimetric Genosensors 97 4.5 Quantum Dots for Impedimetric Genosensing 100 4.6 Impedimetric Genosensors for Point-of-Care Diagnosis 101 4.7 Conclusions (Past, Present and Future Perspectives) 102 Acknowledgements 104 References 104 5 Graphene: Insights of its Application in Electrochemical Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring 111 G.A. Álvarez-Romero, G. Alarcon-Angeles and A. Merkoçi 5.1 Introduction 112 5.2 Environmental Applications of Graphene-based Biosensors 117 5.3 Conclusions and Perspectives 133 References 134 6 Functional Nanomaterials for Multifarious Nanomedicine 141 Ravindra P. Singh, Jeong-Woo Choi, Ashutosh Tiwari and Avinash Chand Pandey 6.1 Introduction 142 6.2 Nanoparticle Coatings 145 6.3 Cyclic Peptides 147 6.4 Dendrimers 149 6.5 Fullerenes/Carbon Nanotubes/Graphene 156 6.6 Functional Drug Carriers 157 6.7 MRI Scanning Nanoparticles 162 6.8 Nanoemulsions 165 6.9 Nanofibers 166 6.10 Nanoshells 169 6.11 Quantum Dots 171 6.12 Nanoimaging 179 6.13 Inorganic Nanoparticles 180 6.14 Conclusions 182 Acknowledgement 183 References 183 Part 2: Principals and Prospective 199 7 Computational Nanochemistry Study of the Molecular Structure, Spectra and Chemical Reactivity Properties of the BFPF Green Fluorescent Protein Chromophore 201 Daniel Glossman-Mitnik 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Theory and Computational Details 202 7.3 Results and Discussion 206 7.4 Conclusions 233 Acknowledgements 234 References 234 8 Biosynthesis of etal Nanoparticles and Their Applications 239 Meryam Sardar, Abhijeet Mishra and Razi Ahmad 8.1 Introduction 240 8.2 Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles 241 8.3 Applications 253 8.4 Conclusions 255 Acknowledgement 256 References 257 9 Ionic Discotic Liquid Crystals: Recent Advances and Applications 267 Santanu Kumar Pal and Sandeep Kumar 9.1 Introduction 268 9.2 Part I: Chromonic LCs 271 9.3 Part II: Thermotropic Ionic Discotic Liquid Crystals 282 Acknowledgement 309 References 309 10 Role of Advanced Materials as Nanosensors in Water Treatment 315 Sheenam Thatai, Parul Khurana and Dinesh Kumar 10.1 Introduction 315 10.2 Nanoparticles 318 10.3 Different Fabrication Methods of Nanoparticles 319 10.4 Core Material/Nanofillers 321 10.5 Shell Material/Nanomatrix 324 10.6 Core-Shell Material 326 10.7 Properties of Metal Nanoparticles and Core-Shell Nanocomposites 330 10.8 Detection of Heavy Metals Using Smart Core-Shell Nanocomposites 333 10.9 Conclusions 337 Acknowledgement 337 References 338 Part 3: Advanced Structures and Properties 345 11 Application of Bioconjugated Nanoporous Gold Films in Electrochemical Biosensors 347 Leila Kashefi-Kheyrabadi, Abolhassan Noori and Masoud Ayatollahi Mehrgardi 11.1 Introduction 348 11.2 Fabrication of Nanoporous Gold 349 11.3 Nucleic Acids (NAs)-Based Biosensors 351 11.4 Protein-Nanostructured Gold Bioconjugates in Biosensing 356 11.5 Conclusion 369 References 369 12 Combination of Molecular Imprinting and Nanotechnology: Beginning of a New Horizon 375 Rashmi Madhuri, Ekta Roy, Kritika Gupta and Prashant K. Sharma 12.1 Introduction 376 12.2 Classification of Imprinted Nanomaterials 383 12.3 Imprinted Materials at Nanoscale 421 12.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook 427 Acknowledgements 428 References 428 13 Structural, Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Pure and Substituted BiFeO3 Multiferroics 433 S. Jangid, S. K. Barbar and M. Roy 13.1 Introduction 434 13.2 Synthesis of Materials 446 13.3 Structural and Morphological Analyses 454 13.4 Electrical Properties 467 13.5 Magnetic Properties 476 13.6 Thermal Analysis (MDSC Studies) 489 13.7 Summary and Conclusion 496 References 498 14 Synthesis, Characterization and Rietveld Studies of Sr-modified PZT Ceramics 507 Kumar Brajesh, A.K. Himanshu and N.K. Singh 14.1 Introduction 508 14.2 Experiment 509 14.3 Rietveld Refinement Details 510 14.4 Results and Discussion 511 14.5 Conclusions 521 References 521 Index 523

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Book SynopsisOffers a comprehensive and interdisciplinary view of the research on advanced materials for healthcare technology and applications. This book summarizes the state of knowledge in the field of advanced materials for functional therapeutics, point-of-care diagnostics, translational materials, and up-and-coming bioengineering devices.Trade Review“Although they claim in the Preface that this book is written for university students and researchers from diverse backgrounds, I believe having read the majority of the scientific aspects of the work it really expects the reader to have a very thorough knowledge of polymer chemistry at the nanometer level of particle or pore size and suggest this book is aimed at the researchers in the pharmaceutical industry or academics in pharmaceutical chemistry research rather than researchers into biomaterials.” (Scope, 1 February 2014) Table of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Stimuli-Responsive Smart Nanoparticles for Biomedical Application 1 Arnab De, Sushil Mishra and Subho Mozumdar 1.1 A Brief Overview of Nanotechnology 2 1.2 Nanoparticulate Delivery Systems 3 1.3 Delivery Systems 4 1.4 Polymers for Nanoparticle Synthesis 11 1.5 Synthesis of Nanovehicles 15 1.6 Dispersion of Preformed Polymers 16 1.7 Emulsion Polymerization 20 1.8 Purification of Nanoparticle 22 1.9 Drying of Nanoparticles 24 1.10 Drug Loading 25 1.11 Drug Release 26 1.12 Conclusion 27 References 27 2 Diagnosis and Treatment of Cancer—Where We Are and Where We Have to Go! 35 Rajiv Lochan Gaur and Richa Srivastava 2.1 Cancer Pathology 36 2.2 Cancer Diagnosis 37 2.3 Treatment 41 Conclusion 42 References 42 3 Advanced Materials for Biomedical Application and Drug Delivery 47 Salam J.J. Titinchi, Mayank P. Singh, Hanna S. Abbo and Ivan R. Green 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Anticancer Drug Entrapped Zeolite Structures as Drug Delivery Systems 48 3.3 Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles and Multifunctional Magnetic Nanoparticles in Biomedical Applications 52 3.4 BioMOFs: Metal-Organic Frameworks for Biological and Medical Applications 64 3.5 Conclusions 75 References 75 4 Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and/or Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease 85 S.G. Antimisiaris, S. Mourtas, E. Markoutsa, A. Skouras, and K. Papadia 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Nanoparticles 86 4.3 Physiological Factors Related with Brain-Located Pathologies: Focus on AD 96 4.4 Current Methodologies to Target AD-Related Pathologies 110 4.5 Nanoparticles for Diagnosis of AD 136 4.6 Nanoparticles for Therapy of AD 146 4.7 Summary of Current Progress and Future Challenges 160 Acknowledgments 161 References 161 5 Novel Biomaterials for Human Health: Hemocompatible Polymeric Micro-and Nanoparticles and Their Application in Biosensor 179 Chong Sun, Xiaobo Wang, Chun Mao and Jian Shen 5.1 Introduction 179 5.2 Design and Preparation of Hemocompatible Polymeric Micro- and Nanoparticles 181 5.3 The Biosafety and Hemocompatibility Evaluation System for Polymeric Micro- and Nanoparticles 183 5.4 Construction of Biosensor for Direct Detection in Whole Blood 188 5.5 Conclusion and Prospect 194 References 195 6 The Contribution of Smart Materials and Advanced Clinical Diagnostic Micro-Devices on the Progress and Improvement of Human Health Care 199 Teles, F.R.R. and Fonseca, L.P. 6.1 Introduction 200 6.2 Physiological Biomarkers as Targets in Clinical Diagnostic Bioassays 202 6.3 Biosensors 205 6.4 Advanced Materials and Nanostructures for Health Care Applications 217 6.5 Applications of Micro-Devices to Some Important Clinical Pathologies 223 6.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects 227 Acknowledgment 227 References 228 7 Hierarchical Modeling of Elastic Behavior of Human Dental Tissue Based on Synchrotron Diffraction Characterization 233 TanSui and Alexander M. Korsunsky 7.1 Introduction 233 7.2 Experimental Techniques 236 7.3 Model Formulation 238 7.4 Experimental Results and Model Validation 245 7.5 Discussion 251 7.6 Conclusions 255 Acknowledgments 256 Appendix 256 References 260 8 Biodegradable Porous Hydrogels 263 Martin Pradny, Miroslav Vetrik, Martin Hruby and Jiri Michalek 8.1 Introduction 263 8.2 Methods of Preparation of Porous Hydrogels 265 8.3 Hydrogels Crosslinked With Degradable Crosslinkers 271 8.4 Hydrogels Degradable in the Main Chain 276 8.5 Conclusions 281 Acknowledgments 281 References 283 9 Hydrogels: Properties, Preparation, Characterization and Biomedical Applications in Tissue Engineering, Drug Delivery and Wound Care 289 Mohammad Sirousazar, Mehrdad Forough, Khalil Farhadi, Yasaman Shaabani and Rahim Molaei 9.1 Introduction 289 9.2 Types of Hydrogels 290 9.3 Properties of Hydrogels 295 9.4 Preparation Methods of Hydrogels 299 9.5 Characterization of Hydrogels 305 9.6 Biomedical Applications of Hydrogels 308 9.7 Hydrogels for Wound Management 319 9.8 Recent Developments on Hydrogels 337 9.9 Conclusions 340 References 341 10 Modified Natural Zeolites—Functional Characterization and Biomedical Application 353 Jela Miliæ, Aleksandra Dakoviæ, Danina Krajišnik and George E. Rottinghaus 10.1 Introduction 354 10.2 Surfactant Modified Zeolites (SMZs) 359 10.3 Minerals as Pharmaceutical Excipients 366 10.4 SMZs for Pharmaceutical Application 372 10.5 Conclusions 389 Acknowledgement 390 References 390 11 Supramolecular Hydrogels Based on Cyclodextrin Poly(Pseudo)Rotaxane for New and Emerging Biomedical Applications 397 JinHuang, Jing Hao, Debbie P. Anderson and Peter R. Chang 11.1 Introduction 398 11.2 Fabrication of Cyclodextrin Poly(pseudo)rotaxane-Based Hydrogels 400 11.3 Stimulus-Response Properties of Cyclodextrin Poly(pseudo)rotaxane Based Hydrogels 409 11.4 Nanocomposite Supramolecular Hydrogels 413 11.5 Biomedical Application of Cyclodextrin Poly(pseudo)rotaxane-Based Hydrogels 420 11.6 Conclusions and Prospects 425 References 425 12 Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Biomaterials for Applicationsin Biomedical Engineering 431 Chenghao Zhu and Qizhi Chen 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Synthesis of PHAs 433 12.3 Processing and its Influence on the Mechanical Properties of PHAs 435 12.4 Mechanical Properties of PHA Sheets/Films 436 12.5 PHA-Based Polymer Blends 439 12.6 Summary 451 References 451 13 Biomimetic Molecularly Imprinted Polymers as Smart Materials and Future Perspective in Health Care 457 Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Farnoush Faridbod and Parviz Norouzi 13.1 Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Technology 458 13.2 Synthesis of MIPs 458 13.3 Application of MIPs 463 13.4 Biomimetic Molecules 464 13.5 MIPs as Receptors in Bio-Molecular Recognition 465 13.6 MIPs as Sensing Elements in Sensors/Biosensors 466 13.7 MIPs as Drug Delivery Systems 467 13.8 MIPs as Sorbent Materials in Separation Science 475 13.9 Future Perspective of MIP Technologies 480 13.10 Conclusion 480 References 480 14 The Role of Immunoassays in Urine Drug Screening 485 Niina J. Ronkainen and Stanley L. Okon 14.1 Introduction 486 14.2 Urine and Other Biological Specimens 489 14.3 Immunoassays 491 14.4 Drug Screening with Immunoassays 504 14.5 Immunoassay Specificity: False Negative and False Positive Test Results 507 14.6 Confirmatory Secondary Testing Using Chromatography Instruments 510 Conclusion 513 References

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xv 1 Processing and Characterizations: State-of-the-Art and New Challenges 1 Visakh. P. M. 1.1 Membrane: Technology and Chemistry 1 1.2 Characterization of Membranes 3 1.3 Ceramic and Inorganic Polymer Membranes: Preparation, Characterization and Applications 4 1.4 Supramolecular Membranes: Synthesis and Characterizations 5 1.5 Organic Membranes and Polymers to Remove Pollutants 7 1.6 Membranes for CO2 Separation 8 1.7 Polymer Nanomembranes 9 1.8 Liquid Membranes 11 1.9 Recent Progress in Separation Technology Based on Ionic Liquid Membranes 12 1.10 Membrane Distillation 13 1.11 Alginate-based Films and Membranes: Preparation, Characterization and Applications 14 References 15 2 Membrane Technology and Chemistry 27 Manuel Palencia, Alexander Córdoba and Myleidi Vera 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Membrane Technology: Fundamental Concepts 28 2.3 Separation Mechanisms 33 2.4 Chemical Nature of Membrane 41 2.5 Surface Treatment of Membranes 42 2.6 Conclusions 48 References 48 3 Characterization of Membranes 55 Derya Y. Koseoglu-Imer, Ismail Koyuncu, Reyhan Sengur-Tasdemir, Serkan Guclu, Recep Kaya, Mehmet Emin Pasaoglu and Turker Turken 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Physical Methods for Characterizing Pore Size of Membrane 56 3.3 Membrane Chemical Structure 67 3.4 Conclusions 85 References 85 4 Ceramic and Inorganic Polymer Membranes: Preparation, Characterization and Applications 89 Chiam-Wen Liew and S. Ramesh 4.1 Introduction 90 4.2 Recent Developments in Filler-doped Polymer Electrolytes 95 4.3 Methodology 105 4.4 Results and Discussion 109 4.5 Conclusions 127 Acknowledgment 128 References 128 5 Supramolecular Membranes: Synthesis and Characterizations 137 Cher Hon Lau, Matthew Hill and Kristina Konstas 5.1 Overview 138 5.2 Supramolecular Materials 138 5.3 Supramolecular Membranes 157 5.4 Membrane Fabrication Using Supramolecular Chemistry 170 5.5 Conclusions 184 References 186 6 Organic Membranes and Polymers for the Removal of Pollutants 203 Bernabé L. Rivas, Julio Sánchez and Manuel Palencia 6.1 Membranes: Fundamental Aspects 204 6.2 Liquid-phase Polymer-based Retention (LPR) 212 6.3 Applications for Removal of Specific Pollutants 216 6.4 Future Perspectives 228 6.5 Conclusions 228 Acknowledgments 228 References 228 7 Membranes for CO2 Separation 237 Abedalkhader Alkhouzaam, Majeda Khraisheh, Mert Atilhan, Shaheen A. Al-Muhtaseb and Syed Javaid Zaidi 7.1 Introduction 238 7.2 Fundamentals of Membrane Gas Separation 239 7.3 Polymeric Membranes for CO2 Separation 245 7.4 Mixed Matrix Membranes 258 7.5 Supported Ionic Liquid Membranes (SILMs) for CO2 Separation 263 7.6 Conclusion 278 7.7 Overall Comparison and Future Outlook 279 Abbreviations 282 References 285 8 Polymer Nanomembranes 293 Giuseppe Firpo and Ugo Valbusa 8.1 Introduction 293 8.2 Materials 294 8.3 Nanomembrane Fabrication 298 8.4 Characterization 304 8.5 Applications 310 References 316 9 Liquid Membranes 329 Jiangnan Shen, Lijing Zhu, Lixin Xue and Congjie Gao 9.1 Introduction 329 9.2 Most Recent Developments 330 9.3 Liquid Membranes Based Separation Processes 330 9.4 Conclusion 379 References 379 10 Recent Progress in Separation Technology Based on Ionic Liquid Membranes 391 M.J. Salar-García, V.M. Ortiz-Martínez, A. Pérez de los Ríos and F.J. Hernández-Fernández 10.1 Introduction 392 10.2 Ionic Liquid Properties 393 10.3 Bulk Ionic Liquid Membranes 395 10.4 Emulsified Ionic Liquid Membranes 397 10.5 Immobilized Ionic Liquid Membranes 400 10.6 Green Aspect of Ionic Liquids 410 10.7 Conclusions 411 Acknowledgments 411 References 412 11 Membrane Distillation 419 Mohammadali Baghbanzadeh, Christopher Q. Lan, Dipak Rana and Takeshi Matsuura 11.1 Introduction 419 11.2 Applications of Membrane Distillation Technology 420 11.3 Different Kinds of Membrane Distillation Configurations 422 11.4 Distillation Membranes 432 11.5 Transport Phenomena in MD 439 11.6 Conclusion 450 References 450 12 Alginate-based Films and Membranes: Preparation, Characterization and Applications 457 Jiwei Li and Jinmei He 12.1 Introduction 457 12.2 Recent Development 459 12.3 Applications 468 12.4 Conclusion 473 References 474 Index 491

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Book SynopsisThe 2nd volume on applications with discuss the various aspects of state-of-the-art, new challenges and opportunities for gas and vapor separation of polymer membranes, membranes for wastewater treatment, polymer electrolyte membranes and methanol fuel cells, polymer membranes for water desalination, optical, electrochemical and anion/polyanion sensors, polymeric pervaporation membranes, organic-organic separation, biopolymer electrolytes for energy devices, carbon nanoparticles for pervaporation polymeric membranes, and mixed matrix membranes for nanofiltration application.Table of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Nanostructured Polymer Membranes: Applications, State-of-the-Art, New Challenges and Opportunities 1 Visakh. P. M 1.1 Membranes: Technology and Applications 1 1.2 Polymer Membranes: Gas and Vapor Separation 3 1.3 Membranes for Wastewater Treatment 4 1.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell 5 1.5 Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment 6 1.6 Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices 7 1.7 Phosphoric Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes 9 1.8 Natural Nanofibers in Polymer Membranes for Energy Applications 10 1.9 Potential of Carbon Nanoparticles for Pervaporation Polymeric Membranes 14 1.10 Mixed Matrix Membranes for Nanofiltration Application 16 1.11 Fundamentals, Applications and Future Prospects of Nanofiltration Membrane Technique 18 References 19 2 Membranes: Technology and Applications 27 Yang Liu and Guibin Wang 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Reverse Osmosis Process 37 2.3 Ultrafiltration Process 50 2.4 Pervaporation Process 59 2.5 Microfiltration Process 65 2.6 Coupled and Facilitated Transport 69 References 84 3 Polymeric Membranes for Gas and Vapor Separations 89 Seyed Saeid Hosseini and Sara Najari 3.1 Introduction 89 3.2 Significance and Prominent Industrial Applications 91 3.3 Fundamentals and Transport of Gases in Polymeric Membranes 100 3.4 Polymeric Membrane Materials for Gas and Vapor Separations 112 3.5 Strategies for Tuning the Transport in Polymeric Membranes through Molecular Design and Architecture 128 3.6 Process Modeling and Simulation 132 3.7 Challenges and Future Directions 141 3.8 Concluding Remarks 144 References 144 4 Membranes for Wastewater Treatment 159 Alireza Zirehpour and Ahmad Rahimpour 4.1 Introduction 160 4.2 Membrane Theory 161 4.3 Membrane Separation Techniques in Industry 168 4.4 Membrane Operations in Wastewater Management 178 4.5 Existing Membrane Processes 185 4.6 Industrial Development of Membrane Modules 194 4.7 Conclusion 198 References 198 5 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Methanol Fuel Cell 209 Kilsung Kwon and Daejoong Kim 5.1 Introduction 209 5.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) 212 5.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) 228 5.4 Principle and Working Process of PEMFCs 232 5.5 Principle and Working Process of DMFCs 236 5.6 Modeling and Theory of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells 241 5.7 Conclusion 243 References 243 6 Polymer Membranes for Water Desalination and Treatment 251 Tânia L. S. Silva, Sergio Morales-Torres, José L. Figueiredo and Adrián M. T. Silva 6.1 Introduction 252 6.2 Polymer Membranes Used in Distillation 253 6.3 Membrane Distillation 256 6.4 Desalination Driven by MD Systems 265 6.5 MD Hybrid Systems for Water Desalination and Treatment 272 6.6 Conclusions 275 Acknowledgments 275 References 276 7 Polymeric Pervaporation Membranes: Organic-Organic Separation 287 Francesco Galiano, Francesco Falbo and Alberto Figoli 7.1 General Introduction on Pervaporation 287 7.2 Brief History of Pervaporation 290 7.3 Polymeric Materials for Organic-Organic Separation – General Requirements 291 7.4 Pervaporation Case Studies for Organic-Organic Separation 298 7.5 Conclusions and Future Directions 303 References 303 8 Biopolymer Electrolytes for Energy Devices 311 Tan Winie1 and A. K. Arof 8.1 Introduction 312 8.2 Chitosan-Based Electrolyte Membranes 312 8.3 Methyl Cellulose-based Electrolyte Membranes 315 8.4 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Lithium Polymer Batteries 317 8.5 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Supercapacitors 322 8.6 Polymer Electrolytes in Fuel Cells 328 8.7 Biopolymer Electrolytes in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 332 8.8 Conclusions 344 Acknowledgments 346 References 346 9 Phosphoric Acid-Doped Polybenzimidazole Membranes: A Promising Electrolyte Membrane for High Temperature PEMFC 357 S. R. Dhanushkodi, M. W.Fowler, M. D. Pritzker and W. Merida 9.1 Introduction 357 9.2 Synthesis of PBI 362 9.3 Characterization of PBI 363 9.4 Research Needs and Conclusions 370 Table of Abbreviations 373 References 374 10 Natural Nanofibers in Polymer Membranes for Energy Applications 379 Annalisa Chiappone 10.1 Introduction 379 10.2 Natural Fibers 380 10.2.1 Cellulose and Chitin Structures 381 10.3 Polymer Nanocomposite Membranes Based on Natural Fibers: Production, Properties and General Applications 386 10.4 Applications of Natural Fibers Nanocomposite Membranes in the Energy Field 393 10.5 Conclusions 402 References 403 11 Potential Interests of Carbon Nanoparticles for Pervaporation Polymeric Membranes 413 Anastasia V. Penkova and Denis Roizard 11.1 Introduction 413 11.2 Principle of Permeation 415 11.3 Current Requirements for Pervaporation Membranes 418 11.4 Performances of Nanocomposite Membranes: From Membrane Preparations to Enhanced Properties with Carbon Nanoparticles 420 11.5 Impact of the Insertion of Carbon Particles in Pervaporation Membranes 422 11.6 Pervaporation Membranes 423 11.7 Pervaporation with the Use of MMM Containing Pristine Carbon Particles 424 11.8 Pervaporation with the Use of MMM Containing Functionalized Carbon Particles 427 11.9 Conclusion 434 Acknowledgment 435 References 435 12 Mixed Matrix Membranes for Nanofiltraion Application 441 Vahid Vatanpour, Mahdie Safarpour and Alireza Khataee 12.1 Introduction 442 12.2 Nanofiltration Process: History and Principles 443 12.3 Mixed Matrix Nanofiltration Membranes 444 12.4 Applications of Mixed Matrix Nanofiltration Membranes 468 12.5 Conclusion 469 Acknowledgment 470 List of Abbreviations 470 References 471 13 Fundamentals, Applications and Future Prospects of Nanofiltration Membrane Technique 477 Siddhartha Moulik, Shaik Nazia and S. Sridhar 13.1 Introduction 478 13.2 Membrane Synthesis 483 13.3 Membrane Characterization 485 13.4 Equations for Calculation of Operating Parameters 487 13.5 Effect of Feed Pressure on Process Flux 488 13.6 Optimization of NF Process Using Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 490 13.7 Applications of NF in Societal Development and Industrial Progress 501 13.8 Economics of NF Process for Groundwater Purification 510 13.9 Conclusions 514 References 515 Index 519

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Book SynopsisOften described as a miracle material, graphene''s potential applications are extraordinary, ranging from nanoscale ''green'' technologies, to sensors and future conductive coatings. This book covers the topic of ''graphene'' the history, fundamental properties, methods of production and applications of this exciting new material. The style of the book is both scientific and technical it is accessible to an audience that has a general, undergraduate-level background in the sciences or engineering, and is aimed at industries considering graphene applications. As the graphene topic is a broad-reaching and rapidly moving field of research, the aim of this book is therefore to provide information about graphene and its current and future applications that are immediately implementable, relevant and concise. After reading this book, the reader will have sufficient knowledge and background to move forward independently into graphene R&D and to apply the knowledge therein. Table of ContentsForeword (Hisanori Shinohara) xv Preface xvii 1 The History of Graphene 1 2 Structure and Properties of Graphene 17 2.1 The Structure of Graphene 17 2.2 Disorder in Graphene Structure 25 2.3 Properties of Graphene 28 2.4 Summary 37 3 Nanographene and Carbon Quantum Dots (C-Dots) 39 3.1 Nanographene 40 3.2 Graphene Quantum Dots or Carbon Dots 46 3.3 Conclusions 71 4 Identification and Characterization of Graphene 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Microscopic Methods 76 4.3 Spectroscopic Methods 81 4.4 Optical Property Analysis 93 4.5 Measurement of Mechanical Properties 99 4.6 Thermal Properties and Thermal Effect Analysis 105 4.7 Characterization of Electrical Properties 108 4.8 Work Function 109 4.9 Anomolous Quantum Hall Effect 109 4.10 Spin Transport 110 4.11 Summary 111 5 Engineering Properties of Graphene 113 5.1 Introduction 113 5.2 Engineering Magnetic Properties 114 5.3 Engineering Graphene with Enhanced Mechanical Properties 115 5.4 Engineering the Field Emission (FE) Properties 119 5.5 Engineering Band Gap or Energy Gap of Graphene 120 5.6 Engineering the Electronic Properties of Graphene 122 5.7 Engineering Structural Properties of Graphene 132 5.8 Summary 142 6 Applications of Graphene 145 6.1 Application Possibilities 146 6.2 Summary 164 7 Towards Mass Production of Graphene: Lab to Industry (Scaling Up) 167 7.1 Exfoliation of Graphite: A Top-Down Approach 168 7.2 Length-Wise Unzipping of Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) 171 7.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Method 179 7.4 Epitaxial growth of Graphene on Silicon Carbide 181 7.5 Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO) 184 7.6 Arc-Discharge Method 194 7.7 Solvothermal Method 194 7.8 Substrate-Free Gas Phase Synthesis Of Graphene 195 7.9 Other Growth Methods 196 7.10 Summary 196 8 Direct Transfer or Roll-To-Roll Transfer of Graphene Sheet onto Desired Substrate 197 8.1 Introduction 197 8.2 Direct Transfer of Graphene by Etching and Scooping Method 199 8.3 Direct Transfer of Graphene by Etching and Scooping Method Using a Graphene Protecting Media 200 8.4 Roll-to-Roll Synthesis and Transfer of Graphene 205 8.5 Apparatus Used for Roll-to-Roll Transfer of Graphene Sheet 208 8.6 Considerations for Minimizing Defects or Cracking During Transfer 212 8.7 Summary 214 9 Graphene in Industry, Commercialization Challenges and Economics 217 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Graphene Industries 219

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a highly practical treatment of Glancing Angle Deposition (GLAD), a thin film fabrication technology optimized to produce precise nanostructures from a wide range of materials.Table of ContentsSeries Preface xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction: Glancing Angle Deposition Technology 1 1.1 Nanoscale engineering and glancing angle deposition 1 1.2 GLAD-vantages 4 1.2.1 Nanoscale morphology control 4 1.2.2 Broad material compatibility 6 1.2.3 Novel thin-film material properties 10 1.2.4 Compatibility with standard microfabrication processes 10 1.2.5 Scalable fabrication method 11 1.3 The roots of glancing angle deposition: oblique deposition 12 1.4 The importance of experimental calibration 13 1.5 Computer simulations of glancing angle deposition growth 15 1.6 Major application areas in glancing angle deposition technology 17 1.6.1 Energy and catalysis 17 1.6.2 Sensing applications 19 1.6.3 Optics 20 1.7 Summary and outline of the book 21 2 Engineering Film Microstructure with Glancing Angle Deposition 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Basics of conventional film growth 32 2.2.1 Physical vapour deposition 32 2.2.2 Nucleation and coalescence 33 2.2.3 Column microstructure 35 2.3 Glancing angle deposition technology: microstructural control via substrate motion 37 2.4 Engineering film morphology with α 41 2.4.1 Controlling microstructure and porosity 41 2.4.2 Directional column growth: column tilt β 44 2.5 Engineering film morphology: column steering via φ rotation 47 2.5.1 Controlling column architecture with φ: helical columns 47 2.5.2 Controlling microstructure with rotation speed: vertical columns 48 2.5.3 Continuous versus discrete substrate rotation 49 2.6 Growth characteristics of glancing angle deposition technology films 53 2.6.1 Evolutionary column growth 53 2.6.2 Column broadening 56 2.6.3 Column bifurcation 57 2.6.4 Anisotropic shadowing and column fanning 59 2.7 Advanced column steering algorithms 60 2.7.1 β variations in zigzag microstructures 61 2.7.2 Spin–pause/two-phase substrate rotation: decoupling β and film density 63 2.7.3 Phisweep motion: competition-resilient structure growth 67 2.8 Additional control over film growth and structure 72 2.8.1 High-temperature glancing angle deposition growth 72 2.8.2 Multimaterial structures: co-deposition processes 75 3 Creating High-Uniformity Nanostructure Arrays 81 3.1 Introduction 81 3.2 Seed layer design 82 3.2.1 Seed spacing and seed height 84 3.2.2 Seed lattice geometry 86 3.2.3 Seed size 87 3.2.4 Planar fill fraction 89 3.2.5 Seed shape 90 3.2.6 Two-dimensional shadow coverage 91 3.2.7 Seed material 94 3.2.8 Design parameter summary 95 3.3 Seed fabrication 95 3.3.1 Conventional techniques 96 3.3.2 Unconventional techniques 97 3.4 Advanced control of local shadowing environment 99 3.4.1 Preventing bifurcation: slow-corner motion 99 3.4.2 Preventing broadening: phisweep and substrate swing 102 4 Properties and Characterization Methods 113 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 Structural analysis with electron microscopy 113 4.2.1 Practical aspects 114 4.2.2 Scanning electron microscope image analysis 117 4.2.3 Three-dimensional column imaging: tomographic sectioning 122 4.2.4 Characterizing internal column structure with transmission electron microscope imaging 124 4.3 Structural properties of glancing angle deposition films 126 4.3.1 Film surface roughness and evolution 126 4.3.2 Column broadening 128 4.3.3 Intercolumn spacing and column density 133 4.4 Film density 134 4.4.1 Controlling density with α: theoretical models 135 4.4.2 Experimental measurement and control of film density 136 4.5 Porosimetry and surface area determination 140 4.5.1 Surface area enhancement in glancing angle deposition films 141 4.5.2 The pore structure of glancing angle deposition films 144 4.6 Crystallographic texture and evolution 146 4.7 Electrical properties 148 4.7.1 Resistivity in microstructured glancing angle deposition films 148 4.7.2 Anisotropic resistivity 151 4.7.3 Modelling glancing angle deposition film resistivity 153 4.7.4 Individual nanocolumn properties 154 4.8 Mechanical properties 155 4.8.1 α effects on film stress 155 4.8.2 Hardness properties 158 4.8.3 Elastic behaviour of glancing angle deposition films 159 4.8.4 Additional mechanical properties 163 5 Glancing Angle Deposition Optical Films 173 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 The optics of structured glancing angle deposition films 173 5.2.1 Optical anisotropy in columnar glancing angle deposition films 173 5.2.2 Modelling glancing angle deposition films with effective medium theory 176 5.2.3 The column and void material refractive indices 179 5.2.4 Modelling form birefringence via the depolarization factor 180 5.2.5 Dealing with microstructural uncertainty: bounds on the effective dielectric function 182 5.3 Calibrating optical properties of glancing angle deposition films 182 5.3.1 Basic measurements: isotropic approximations 183 5.3.2 Calibrating anisotropy with polarization-sensitive measurements 185 5.3.3 In-depth characterization with generalized techniques 186 5.3.4 Additional factors 186 5.4 Controlling glancing angle deposition film optical properties 187 5.4.1 Basic refractive index engineering with α 187 5.4.2 Controlling planar birefringence with α 188 5.4.3 Optimizing birefringence with serial bideposition 189 5.4.4 Modulating birefringence with complex φ motions 192 5.4.5 Controlling n with advanced glancing angle deposition motions 195 5.5 Graded-index coatings: design and fabrication 195 5.5.1 General design method for glancing angle deposition graded-index coatings 196 5.5.2 Designing φ motions for high-accuracy graded-index coatings 197 5.5.3 Specific examples 199 5.5.4 Antireflection coatings 199 5.5.5 Rugate interference filters 201 5.5.6 Avoiding high- α growth instabilities in graded-index films 205 5.6 Designing helical structures for circular polarization optics 206 5.6.1 Optics of chiral glancing angle deposition media 206 5.6.2 Engineering basic helical structures 208 5.6.3 Polygonal helical structures 210 5.6.4 Optimization of circular bragg phenomena with serial bideposition 212 5.6.5 Microcavity design in helical structures 213 5.6.6 Fabricating graded-birefringence thin-film designs 214 5.7 Practical information and issues 216 5.7.1 Post-deposition tuning 216 5.7.2 Environmental sensitivity 217 5.7.3 Optical scattering 217 6 Post-Deposition Processing and Device Integration 227 6.1 Introduction 227 6.2 Post-deposition structural control 227 6.2.1 Annealing 227 6.2.2 Chemical composition control 231 6.2.3 Microstructural control via chemical etching 231 6.2.4 Ion-milling structural modification 233 6.2.5 Column surface modifications 235 6.3 Deposition onto nonplanar geometries 236 6.4 Photolithographic patterning of glancing angle deposition thin films 237 6.5 Encapsulation and replanarization of glancing angle deposition films 240 6.5.1 Encapsulation layer substrate motions 240 6.5.2 Film stress in encapsulation layers 242 6.6 Integrating electrical contacts with glancing angle deposition microstructures 244 6.6.1 Planar electrode configurations 244 6.6.2 Parallel-plate electrode configurations 245 6.7 Films in liquid environments 247 6.8 Using glancing angle deposition microstructures as replication templates 251 6.8.1 Single- and double-template fabrication processes 251 6.8.2 Nanotube fabrication via template fabrication 252 7 Glancing Angle Deposition Systems and Hardware 261 7.1 Introduction 261 7.2 Vacuum conditions 261 7.2.1 Vacuum requirements for glancing angle deposition systems 261 7.2.2 Physical vapour deposition process gases and higher pressure deposition 263 7.3 Thickness calibration and deposition rate monitoring 265 7.3.1 Source directionality and tooling factor 265 7.3.2 Thickness calibration at nonzero α: deposition ratios 267 7.3.3 Extended source: effect on collimation 269 7.4 Uniformity calculations for glancing angle deposition processes 270 7.4.1 Calculating geometry variation over a wafer 270 7.4.2 Mapping out thickness variation 272 7.4.3 Calculating parameter variations for moving substrates 274 7.4.4 Calculating thickness uniformity for moving substrates 276 7.4.5 Calculating column orientation uniformity 278 7.5 Substrate motion hardware 281 7.5.1 α motion accuracy and precision 281 7.5.2 φ motion requirements 283 7.5.3 Additional factors to consider 284 7.5.4 Substrate heating and cooling approaches 285 7.6 Scalability to manufacturing 286 References 286 A Selected Patents 289 Index 297

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Book SynopsisNanomagnetic and spintronic computing devices are strong contenders for future replacements of CMOS. This is an important and rapidly evolving area with the semiconductor industry investing significantly in the study of nanomagnetic phenomena and in developing strategies to pinpoint and regulate nanomagnetic reliably with a high degree of energy efficiency. This timely book explores the recent and on-going research into nanomagnetic-based technology. Key features: Detailed background material and comprehensive descriptions of the current state-of-the-art research on each topic. Focuses on direct applications to devices that have potential to replace CMOS devices for computing applications such as memory, logic and higher order information processing. Discusses spin-based devices where the spin degree of freedom of charge carriers are exploited for device operation and ultimately information processing. Describes magnet switching methodoTable of ContentsAbout the Editors and Acknowledgments xi List of Contributors xiii Foreword xvii Preface xix 1 Introduction to Spintronic and Nanomagnetic Computing Devices 1Jayasimha Atulasimha and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay 1.1 Spintronic Devices 1 1.2 Nanomagnetic Devices 3 1.2.1 Use of Spin Torque to Switch Nanomagnets 6 1.2.2 Other Methodologies for Switching Nanomagnets 6 1.3 Thinking beyond Traditional Boolean Logic 7 References 7 2 Potential Applications of all Electric Spin Valves Made of Asymmetrically Biased Quantum Point Contacts 9Nikhil Bhandari, Maitreya Dutta, James Charles, Junjun Wan, Marc Cahay, and S.T Herbert 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Quantum Point Contacts 11 2.3 Spin Orbit Coupling 14 2.3.1 Rashba SOC (RSOC) 15 2.3.2 Dresselhaus SOC (DSOC) 15 2.3.3 Lateral Spin-Orbit Coupling (LSOC) 16 2.4 Importance of Spin Relaxation in 1D Channels 18 2.5 Observation of a 0.5 Conductance Plateau in Asymmetrically Biased QPCs in the Presence of LSOC 20 2.5.1 Early Experimental Results Using InAs QPCs 20 2.5.2 NEGF Conductance Calculations 20 2.5.3 Spin Texture Associated with Conductance Anomalies in QPCs 23 2.5.4 Prospect for Generation of Spin Polarized Current at Higher Temperature 25 2.5.5 Observation of Other Anomalous Conductance Plateaus in an Asymmetrically Biased InAs/In0.52 Al0.48 as QPCs 26 2.6 Intrinsic Bistability near Conductance Anomalies 27 2.6.1 Experimental Results 28 2.6.2 NEGF Simulations 30 2.7 QPC Structures with Four In-plane SGs: Toward an All Electrical Spin Valve 43 2.7.1 Preliminary Results on Four-gate QPCs 43 2.7.2 Experiments 46 2.7.3 Onset of Hysteresis and Negative Resistance Region 50 2.8 Future Work 56 2.9 Summary 58 Acknowledgments 60 References 60 3 Spin-Transistor Technology for Spintronics/CMOS Hybrid Logic Circuits and Systems 65Satoshi Sugahara, Yusuke Shuto, and Shuu’ichirou Yamamoto 3.1 Spin-Transistor and Pseudo-Spin-Transistor 65 3.1.1 Spin – MOSFET 66 3.1.2 Pseudo-Spin-MOSFET 69 3.2 Energy-Efficient Logic Applications of Spin-Transistors 72 3.2.1 Power Gating with Nonvolatile Retention 73 3.2.2 Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits 75 3.2.3 Break-even Time 76 3.3 Nonvolatile SRAM Technology 78 3.3.1 Static Noise Margin of Nonvolatile SRAM 79 3.3.2 Energy Performance of NV-SRAM 81 3.4 Application of Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits for Memory Systems 86 References 88 4 Spin Transfer Torque: A Multiscale Picture 91Yunkun Xie, Ivan Rungger, Kamaram Munira, Maria Stamenova, Stefano Sanvito, and Avik W. Ghosh 4.1 Introduction 91 4.1.1 Background 91 4.1.2 STT Modeling: An Integrated Approach 93 4.2 The Physics of Spin Transfer Torque 94 4.2.1 Free-Electron Model for Magnetic Tunnel Junction 96 4.3 First Principles Evaluation of TMR and STT 102 4.3.1 The TMR Effect in the MgO Barrier 104 4.3.2 Currents and Torques in NEGF 114 4.3.3 First Principles Results on Spin Transfer Torque 116 4.4 Magnetization Dynamics 119 4.4.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation 119 4.4.2 Spin Torque Switching in Presence of Thermal Fluctuations 121 4.4.3 Including Thermal Fluctuations: Stochastic LLG vs Fokker Planck 122 4.5 Summary: Multiscaling from Atomic Structure to Error Rate 125 Acknowledgments 129 References 129 5 Magnetic Tunnel Junction Based Integrated Logics and Computational Circuits 133Jian-Ping Wang, Mahdi Jamali, Angeline Klemm Smith, and Zhengyang Zhao 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 GMR Based Field Programmable Devices 134 5.3 MTJ Based Field Programmable Devices 136 5.3.1 MTJ Structure and TMR Ratio 136 5.3.2 MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 137 5.3.3 Utilization of STT in MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 144 5.4 Information Transformation between Gates 145 5.4.1 Direct Communication Using Charge Current 146 5.4.2 Magnetic Domain Walls for Information Transferring 148 5.5 MTJ Based Logic-in-Memory Devices 148 5.6 Magnetic Quantum Cellular Automata 149 5.6.1 Introduction and Background 149 5.6.2 Experimental Demonstrations 150 5.7 All-Spin Based Magnetic Logic 155 5.7.1 Nonlocal Lateral Spin Valve Background 155 5.7.2 Critical Parameters for Operation 155 5.7.3 Selected Review of Experimental Demonstrations 156 5.7.4 Applications to All-Spin Logic Devices 158 5.8 Summary 161 Acknowledgment 161 References 162 6 Magnetization Switching and Domain Wall Motion Due to Spin Orbit Torque 165Debanjan Bhowmik, OukJae Lee, Long You, and Sayeef Salahuddin 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Theory 166 6.2.1 Rashba Effect 168 6.2.2 Spin Hall Effect 169 6.3 Magnetic Switching Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 171 6.4 Domain Wall Motion Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 176 6.5 Applications of Spin Orbit Torque 184 6.6 Conclusion 186 References 186 7 Magnonic Logic Devices 189Alexander Khitun and Alexander Kozhanov 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Magnonic Logic Devices 197 7.3 Spin Wave-Based Logic Gates and Architectures 206 7.4 Discussion and Summary 212 References 216 8 Strain Mediated Magnetoelectric Memory 221N. Tiercelin, Y. Dusch, S. Giordano, A. Klimov, V. Preobrazhensky, and P. Pernod 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Concept of Unequivocal Strain- or Stress-Switched Nanomagnetic Memory 223 8.2.1 Magnetic Configuration and Equilibrium Positions 223 8.2.2 Quasi-Static Stress-Mediated Switching 225 8.3 LLG Simulations – Macrospin Model 226 8.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation and Effective Magnetic Field 226 8.3.2 Memory Parameters 227 8.3.3 Results of the Macrospin Model 228 8.4 LLG Simulations – Eshelby Approach 231 8.4.1 Geometry of the Memory Element 232 8.4.2 Coupling with the External Magnetic Field 233 8.4.3 Coupling with the External Electric Field and Elastic Stress 234 8.4.4 Static Behavior of the System 234 8.4.5 Dynamic Behavior of the System 235 8.5 Stochastic Error Analysis 238 8.5.1 Statistical Mechanics of Magnetization in a Single-Domain Particle 238 8.5.2 Switching Process within the Magnetoelectric Memory 243 8.6 Preliminary Experimental Results 248 8.6.1 Piezoelectric Actuator with in-Plane Polarization 248 8.6.2 Ferroelectric Relaxors with out-of-Plane Polarization 249 8.6.3 Magnetoelastic Switching in a Magneto-Resistive Structure 250 8.7 Conclusions 250 Acknowledgments 252 References 253 9 Hybrid Spintronics-Strainronics 259Ayan K. Biswas, Noel D’Souza, Supriyo Bandyopadhyay, and Jayasimha Atulasimha 9.1 Introduction 259 9.1.1 Nanomagnetic Memory and Logic Devices: The Problem of Energy Dissipation in the Clocking Circuit 260 9.1.2 Switching Nanomagnets with Strain Could Drastically Reduce Energy Dissipation: Hybrid Spintronics-Straintronics Overview 261 9.1.3 Landau Lifshitz Gilbert (LLG) Equation 263 9.2 Nanomagnetic Memory Switched with Strain 265 9.2.1 Complete Magnetization Reversal (180◦ Switching): Complex out-of-Plane Dynamics 265 9.2.2 Switching the Magnetization between Two Mutually Perpendicular Stable Orientations and Extension to Stable Orientations with Angular Separation >90◦ 268 9.2.3 Complete 180◦ Switching with Stress Alone 269 9.2.4 Mixed Mode Switching of Magnetization by 180◦: Acoustically Assisted Spin Transfer Torque (STT) Switching for Nonvolatile Memory 273 9.3 Straintronic Clocking of Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.1 Two-State Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.2 Four-state Multiferroic Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 279 9.3.3 Switching Error in Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 283 9.3.4 Straintronic Nanomagnetic Logic Devices (NML) 284 9.4 Summary and Conclusions 286 References 286 10 Unconventional Nanocomputing with Physical Wave Interference Functions 291Santosh Khasanvis, Mostafizur Rahman, Prasad Shabadi, and Csaba Andras Moritz 10.1 Overview 291 10.2 Spin Waves Physical Layer for WIF Implementation 293 10.2.1 Physical Fabric Components 295 10.3 Elementary WIF Operators for Logic 298 10.4 Binary WIF Logic Design 303 10.4.1 Binary WIF Full Adder 303 10.4.2 Parallel Counters 306 10.4.3 Benchmarking Binary WIF Circuits vs. CMOS 309 10.4.4 WIF Topology Exploration 310 10.5 Multivalued WIF Logic Design 311 10.5.1 Multivalued Operators and Implementation Using WIF 312 10.5.2 Multivalued Arithmetic Circuit Example: Quaternary Full Adder 316 10.5.3 Benchmarking of WIF Multivalued Circuits vs. Conventional CMOS 318 10.5.4 Input/Output Logic for Data Conversion between Binary and Radix-r Domains 319 10.6 Microprocessors with WIF: Opportunities and Challenges 320 10.7 Summary and Future Work 326 References 326 Index 329 A color plate section falls between pages 44 and 45

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive advanced level examination of the transport theory of nanoscale devices Provides advanced level material of electron transport in nanoscale devices from basic principles of quantum mechanics through to advanced theory and various numerical techniques for electron transportCombines several up-to-date theoretical and numerical approaches in a unified manner, such as Wigner-Boltzmann equation, the recent progress of carrier transport research for nanoscale MOS transistors, and quantum correction approximationsThe authors approach the subject in a logical and systematic way, reflecting their extensive teaching and research backgroundsTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgements xi 1 Emerging Technologies 1 1.1 Moore's Law and the Power Crisis 1 1.2 Novel Device Architectures 2 1.3 High Mobility Channel Materials 5 1.4 Two-Dimensional (2-D) Materials 7 1.5 Atomistic Modeling 8 2 First-principles calculations for Si nanostructures 12 2.1 Band structure calculations 12 2.1.1 Si ultrathin-body structures 12 2.1.2 Si nanowires 17 2.1.3 Strain effects on band structures: From bulk to nanowire 20 2.2 Tunneling current calculations through Si/SiO2/Si structures 31 2.2.1 Atomic models of Si (001)/SiO2 /Si (001) structures 32 2.2.2 Current-voltage characteristics 33 2.2.3 SiO2 thickness dependences 35 3 Quasi-ballistic Transport in Si Nanoscale MOSFETs 41 3.1 A picture of quasi-ballistic transport simulated using quantum-corrected Monte Carlo simulation 41 3.1.1 Device structure and simulation method 42 3.1.2 Scattering rates for 3-D electron gas 44 3.1.3 Ballistic transport limit 46 3.1.4 Quasi-ballistic transport 50 3.1.5 Role of elastic and inelastic phonon scattering 51 3.2 Multi-sub-band Monte Carlo simulation considering quantum confinement in inversion layers 55 3.2.1 Scattering Rates for 2-D Electron Gas 56 3.2.2 Increase in Dac for SOI MOSFETs 58 3.2.3 Simulated electron mobilities in bulk Si and SOI MOSFETs 59 3.2.4 Electrical characteristics of Si DG-MOSFETs 61 3.3 Extraction of quasi-ballistic transport parameters in Si DG-MOSFETs 64 3.3.1 Backscattering coefficient 64 3.3.2 Current drive 66 3.3.3 Gate and drain bias dependences 67 3.4 Quasi-ballistic transport in Si junctionless transistors 69 3.4.1 Device structure and simulation conditions 70 3.4.2 Influence of SR scattering 71 3.4.3 Influence of II scattering 74 3.4.4 Backscattering coefficient 75 3.5 Quasi-ballistic transport in GAA-Si nanowire MOSFETs 76 3.5.1 Device structure and 3DMSB-MC method 76 3.5.2 Scattering rates for 1-D electron gas 77 3.5.3 ID-VG characteristics and backscattering coefficient 79 4 Phonon Transport in Si Nanostructures 85 4.1 Monte Carlo simulation method 87 4.1.1 Phonon dispersion model 87 4.1.2 Particle simulation of phonon transport 88 4.1.3 Free flight and scattering 89 4.2 Simulation of thermal conductivity 91 4.2.1 Thermal conductivity of bulk silicon 91 4.2.2 Thermal conductivity of silicon thin films 94 4.2.3 Thermal conductivity of silicon nanowires 98 4.2.4 Discussion on Boundary scattering effect 100 4.3 Simulation of heat conduction in devices 102 4.3.1 Simulation method 102 4.3.2 Simple 1-D structure 103 4.3.3 FinFET structure 106 5 Carrier Transport in High-mobility MOSFETs 112 5.1 Quantum-corrected MC Simulation of High-mobility MOSFETs 112 5.1.1 Device Structure and Band Structures of Materials 112 5.1.2 Band Parameters of Si, Ge, and III-V Semiconductors 114 5.1.3 Polar-optical Phonon (POP) Scattering in III-V Semiconductors 115 5.1.4 Advantage of UTB Structure 116 5.1.5 Drive Current of III-V, Ge and Si n-MOSFETs 119 5.2 Source-drain Direct Tunneling in Ultrascaled MOSFETs 124 5.3 Wigner Monte Carlo (WMC) Method 125 5.3.1 Wigner Transport Formalism 126 5.3.2 Relation with Quantum-corrected MC Method 129 5.3.3 WMC Algorithm 131 5.3.4 Description of Higher-order Quantized Subbands 133 5.3.5 Application to Resonant-tunneling Diode 133 5.4 Quantum Transport Simulation of III-V n-MOSFETs with Multi-subband WMC (MSB-WMC) Method 138 5.4.1 Device Structure 138 5.4.2 POP Scattering Rate for 2-D Electron Gas 139 5.4.3 ID-VG Characteristics for InGaAs DG-MOSFETs 139 5.4.4 Channel Length Dependence of SDT Leakage Current 143 5.4.5 Effective Mass Dependence of Subthreshold Current Properties 144 6 Atomistic Simulations of Si, Ge and III-V Nanowire MOSFETs 151 6.1 Phonon-limited electron mobility in Si nanowires 151 6.1.1 Band structure calculations 152 6.1.2 Electron-phonon interaction 161 6.1.3 Electron mobility 162 6.2 Comparison of phonon-limited electron mobilities between Si and Ge nanowires 168 6.3 Ballistic performances of Si and InAs nanowire MOSFETs 173 6.3.1 Band structures 174 6.3.2 Top-of-the-barrier model 174 6.3.3 ID-VG characteristics 177 6.3.4 Quantum capacitances 178 6.3.5 Power-delay-product 179 6.4 Ballistic performances of InSb, InAs, and GaSb nanowire MOSFETs 181 6.4.1 Band structures 182 6.4.2 ID-VG characteristics 182 6.4.3 Power-delay-product 186 Appendix A: Atomistic Poisson equation 187 Appendix B: Analytical expressions of electron-phonon interaction Hamiltonian matrices 188 7 2-D Materials and Devices 191 7.1 2-D Materials 191 7.1.1 Fundamental Properties of Graphene, Silicene and Germanene 192 7.1.2 Features of 2-D Materials as an FET Channel 197 7.2 Graphene Nanostructures with a Bandgap 198 7.2.1 Armchair-edged Graphene Nanoribbons (A-GNRs) 199 7.2.2 Relaxation Effects of Edge Atoms 203 7.2.3 Electrical Properties of A-GNR-FETs Under Ballistic Transport 205 7.2.4 Bilayer Graphenes (BLGs) 209 7.2.5 Graphene Nanomeshes (GNMs) 214 7.3 Influence of Bandgap Opening on Ballistic Electron Transport in BLG and A-GNR-MOSFETs 215 7.3.1 Small Bandgap Regime 217 7.3.2 Large Bandgap Regime 219 7.4 Silicene, Germanene and Graphene Nanoribbons 221 7.4.1 Bandgap vs Ribbon Width 222 7.4.2 Comparison of Band Structures 222 7.5 Ballistic MOSFETs with Silicene, Germanene and Graphene nanoribbons 223 7.5.1 ID-VG Characteristics 223 7.5.2 Quantum Capacitances 224 7.5.3 Channel Charge Density and Average Electron Velocity 225 7.5.4 Source-drain Direct Tunneling (SDT) 226 7.6 Electron Mobility Calculation for Graphene on Substrates 228 7.6.1 Band Structure 229 7.6.2 Scattering Mechanisms 229 7.6.3 Carrier Degeneracy 231 7.6.4 Electron Mobility Considering Surface Optical Phonon Scattering of Substrates 232 7.6.5 Electron Mobility Considering Charged Impurity Scattering 234 7.7 Germanane MOSFETs 236 7.7.1 Atomic Model for Germanane Nanoribbon Structure 237 7.7.2 Band Structure and Electron Effective Mass 238 7.7.3 Electron Mobility 240 Appendix A: Density-of-states for Carriers in Graphene 242 References 242 Index 247

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Book SynopsisBiorenewable polymers based nanomaterials are rapidly emerging as one of the most fascinating materials for multifunctional applications. Among biorenewable polymers, cellulose based nanomaterials are of great importance due to their inherent advantages such as environmental friendliness, biodegradability, biocompatibility, easy processing and cost effectiveness, to name a few. They may be produced from biological systems such as plants or be chemically synthesised from biological materials. This book summarizes the recent remarkable achievements witnessed in green technology of cellulose based nanomaterials in different ?elds ranging from biomedical to automotive. This book also discusses the extensive research developments for next generation nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites. The book contains seventeen chapters and each chapter addresses some specific issues related to nanocellulose and also demonstrates the real potentialities of these nanomaterials in differentTable of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1: Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocellulose based Polymer Nanocomposites 1 1 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Introduction 3 Manju Kumari Thakur, Vijay Kumar Thakur and Raghavan Prasanth 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Nanocellulose: Source, Structure, Synthesis and Applications 5 1.3 Conclusions 12 References 13 2 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Nanocomposites: Roadmap for Innovative Materials 17 Ana R. P. Figueiredo, Carla Vilela, Carlos Pascoal Neto, Armando J. D. Silvestre and Carmen S. R. Freire 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Bacterial Cellulose Production, Properties and Applications 18 2.3 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 28 2.4 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Hybrid Nanocomposite Materials 41 2.5 Acknowledgements References 55 3 Polyurethanes Reinforced with Cellulose 65 María L. Auad, Mirna A. Mosiewicki and Norma E. Marcovich 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Conventional Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 67 3.3 Waterborne Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 76 3.4 Biobased Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 78 Conclusions and Final Remarks 84 References 85 4 Bacterial Cellulose and Its Use in Renewable Composites 89 Dianne R. Ruka, George P. Simon and Katherine M. Dean 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Cellulose Properties and Production 91 4.3 Tailor-Designing Bacterial Cellulose 105 4.4 Bacterial Cellulose Composites 114 4.5 Biodegradability 121 4.6 Conclusions 123 References 123 5 Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites Fabricated by In-Situ Polymerization Technique 131 Dipa Ray and Sunanda Sain 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Cellulose as Filler in Polymer Matrix Composites 132 5.3 Cellulose Nanocomposites 138 5.4 In-Situ Polymerized Cellulose Nanocomposites 138 5.5 Novel Materials with Wide Application Potential 140 5.6 Effect of In-Situ Polymerization on Biodegradation Behavior of Cellulose Nanocomposites 154 5.7 Future of Cellulose Nanocomposites 157 References 159 6 Multifunctional Ternary Polymeric Nanocomposites Based on Cellulosic Nanore- inforcements 163 D. Puglia, E. Fortunati, C. Santulli and J. M. Kenny 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Cellulosic Reinforcements (CR) 166 6.3 Interaction of CNR with Different Nanoreinforcements 171 6.4 Ternary Polymeric Systems Based on CNR 179 6.5 Conclusions 190 Acknowledgments 191 References 191 7 Effect of Fiber Length on Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene Nanobiocomposites Reinforced with Kenaf Fiber and Nanoclay 199 Na Sim and Seong Ok Han 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Experimental 200 7.3 Results and Discussion 202 7.4 Conclusions 211 References 211 8 Cellulose-Based Liquid Crystalline Composite Systems 215 J. P. Borges, J. P. Canejo, S. N. Fernandes and M. H. Godinho 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Liquid Crystalline Phases of Cellulose and Its Derivatives 216 8.3 Conclusion 232 Acknowledgements 232 References 232 9 Recent Advances in Nanocomposites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Nanocellulose 237 J. I. Morán, L. N. Ludueña and V. A. Alvarez 9.1 Introduction 237 9.2 Cellulose Bionanocomposites Incorporation of Cellulose Nanofibers into Biodegradable Polymers: General Effect on the Properties 243 9.3 Future Perspectives and Concluding Remarks 249 References 250 Part 2: Processing and Applications Nanocellulose based Polymer Nanocomposites 255 10 Cellulose Nano/Microfibers-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Processing Aspects 257 K. Priya Dasan and A. Sonia 10.1 Introduction 257 10.2 The Role of Isolation Methods on Composite Properties 260 10.3 Pretreatment of Fibers and Its Role in Composite Performance 262 10.4 Different Processing Methodologies in Cellulose Nanocomposites and Their Effect on Final Properties 264 10.5 Conclusion 268 References 268 11 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposite: Isolation, Characterization and Applications 273 H. P. S. Abdul Khalil, Y. Davoudpour, N. A. Sri Aprilia, Asniza Mustapha, Md. Nazrul Islam and Rudi Dungani 11.1 Introduction 274 11.2 Cellulose and Nanocellulose 274 11.3 Isolation of Nanocellulose 276 11.4 Characterization of Nanocellulose 283 11.5 Drying of Nanocellulose 289 11.6 Modifications of Nanocellulose 290 11.7 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 295 11.8 Conclusion 302 Acknowledgement 303 References 303 12 Electrospinning of Cellulose: Process and Applications 311 Raghavan Prasanth, Shubha Nageswaran, Vijay Kumar Takur and Jou-Hyeon Ahn 12.1 Cellulosic Fibers 311 12.2 Crystalline Structure of Electrospun Cellulose 312 12.3 Applications of Cellulose 313 12.4 Electrospinning 313 12.5 Electrospinning of Cellulose 317 12.6 Solvents for Electrospinning of Cellulose 318 12.7 Cellulose Composite Fibers 333 12.8 Conclusions 336 Abbreviations 336 Symbols 336 References 337 13 Effect of Kenaf Cellulose Whiskers on Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Nanocomposites Properties 341 Lukmanul Hakim Zaini, M. T. Paridah, M. Jawaid, AlothmanY. Othman and A. H. Juliana 13.1 Introduction 341 13.2 Experimental 342 13.3 Characterization 344 13.4 Result and Discussion 345 13.5 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgements 353 References 353 14 Processes in Cellulose Derivative Structures 355 Mihaela Dorina Onofrei, Adina Maria Dobos and Silvia Ioan 14.1 Introduction 355 14.2 Liquid Crystalline Polymers 357 14.3 Liquid Crystal Dispersed in a Polymer Matrix 359 14.4 Techniques for Obtaining Liquid Crystals Dispersed into a Polymeric Matrix 360 14.5 Some Methods to Characterize the Liquid Crystal State 360 14.6 Liquid Crystal State of Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives in Solution 364 14.7 Cellulose Derivatives/Polymers Systems 373 Conclusions 383 References 384 15 Cellulose Nanocrystals: Nanostrength for Industrial and Biomedical Applications 393 Anuj Kumar, Samit Kumar, Yuvraj Singh Negi and Veena Choudhary 15.1 Introduction 393 15.2 Cellulose and Its Sources 394 15.3 Nanocellulose 396 15.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals 398 15.5 Aqueous Suspension and Drying of CNCs 408 15.6 Functionalization of CNCs 410 15.7 Processing of CNCs for Biocomposites 15.8 Applications of CNCs-Reinforced Biocomposites 416 15.9 Biomedical Applications 421 15.10 Conclusion 427 Acknowledgements 428 References 428 16 Medical Applications of Cellulose and Its Derivatives: Present and Future 437 Karthika Ammini Sindhu, Raghavan Prasanth and Vijay Kumar Thakur 16.1 Historical Overview 438 16.2 Use of Cellulose for Treatment of Renal Failure 439 16.3 Types of Membranes 444 16.4 Use of Cellulose for Wound Dressing 447 16.5 Cotton as Wound Dressing Material 448 16.6 Biosynthesis, Structure and Properties of MC 450 16.7 MC as a Wound Healing System 451 16.8 Microbial Cellulose/Ag Nanocomposite 456 16.9 Nanocomposites of Microbial Cellulose and Chitosan 458 16.10 Commercialization of Microbial Cellulose 461 16.11 Use of Cellulose as Implant Material 462 16.12 Dental Applications 470 Conclusions 471 Abbreviations 472 Symbols 472 References 473 17 Bacterial Cellulose and Its Multifunctional Composites: Synthesis and Properties 479 V. Thiruvengadam and Satish Vitta 17.1 Introduction 479 17.2 Magnetic Composites 485 17.3 Composites with Catalytic Activity 489 17.4 Electrically Conducting Composites 492 17.5 Composites as Fuel Cell Components, Electrodes and Membrane 496 17.6 Optically Transparent and Mechanically Flexible Composites 499 17.7 Summary and Outlook 502 References 502

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Book SynopsisBeginning with a general overview of nanocomposites, Bionanocomposites: Integrating Biological Processes for Bio-inspired Nanotechnologies details the systems available in nature (nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids) that can be integrated within suitable inorganic matrices for specific applications. Describing the relationship between architecture, hierarchy and function, this book aims at pointing out how bio-systems can be key components of nanocomposites. The text then reviews the design principles, structures, functions and applications of bionanocomposites. It also includes a section presenting related technical methods to helpreaders identify and understand the most widely used analytical tools such as mass spectrometry, calorimetry, and impedance spectroscopy, among others.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xv 1 What Are Bionanocomposites? 1Agathe Urvoas, Marie Valerio‐Lepiniec, Philippe Minard and Cordt Zollfrank 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 A Molecular Perspective: Why Biological Macromolecules? 3 1.3 Challenges for Bionanocomposites 3 References 6 2 Molecular Architecture of Living Matter 9 2.1 Nucleic Acids 11Enora Prado, Mónika Ádok‐Sipiczki and Corinne Nardin 2.1.1 Introduction: A Bit of History 11 2.1.2 Definition and Structure 12 2.1.2.1 Nomenclature 12 2.1.2.2 Structure 13 2.1.3 DNA and RNA Functions 15 2.1.3.1 Introduction 15 2.1.3.2 Transcription–Translation Process 16 2.1.3.3 Replication Process 18 2.1.4 Specific Secondary Structures 19 2.1.4.1 Watson–Crick H‐Bonds 19 2.1.4.1.1 Stem‐Loop 19 2.1.4.1.2 Kissing Complex 20 2.1.4.2 Other Kinds of H‐Bonding 21 2.1.4.2.1 G‐Quartets 21 2.1.4.2.2 i‐Motifs 23 2.1.5 Stability 23 2.1.6 Conclusion 25 References 25 2.2 Lipids 29Carole Aimé and Thibaud Coradin 2.2.1 Lipids Self‐Assembly 29 2.2.2 Structural Diversity of Lipids 30 2.2.2.1 Fatty Acyls (FA) 30 2.2.2.2 Glycerolipids (GL) 32 2.2.2.3 Glycerophospholipids (GP) 32 2.2.2.4 Sphingolipids (SP) 33 2.2.2.5 Sterol Lipids (ST) 34 2.2.2.6 Prenol Lipids (PR) 34 2.2.2.7 Saccharolipids (SL) 35 2.2.2.8 Polyketides (PK) 35 2.2.3 Lipid Synthesis and Distribution 35 2.2.4 The Diversity of Lipid Functions 36 2.2.4.1 Cellular Architecture 37 2.2.4.2 Lipid Rafts 37 2.2.4.3 Energy Storage 37 2.2.4.4 Regulating Membrane Proteins by Protein–Lipid Interactions 39 2.2.4.5 Signaling Functions 39 2.2.5 Lipidomics 39 References 40 2.3 Carbohydrates 41Mirjam Czjzek 2.3.1 Introduction 41 2.3.2 Monosaccharides 42 2.3.3 Oligosaccharides 44 2.3.3.1 Disaccharides 44 2.3.3.2 Protein Glycosylations 46 2.3.4 Polysaccharides 47 2.3.4.1 Cellulose 49 2.3.4.2 Hemicelluloses 50 2.3.4.2.1 Xyloglucan 50 2.3.4.2.2 Xylan 50 2.3.4.2.3 Mannan or Glucomannan 52 2.3.4.2.4 Mixed‐Linkage Glucan (MLG) 52 2.3.4.3 Pectins 53 2.3.4.4 Chitin 54 2.3.4.5 Alginate 54 2.3.4.6 Marine Galactans 55 2.3.4.7 Storage Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, and Laminarin 55 References 56 2.4 Proteins: From Chemical Properties to Cellular Function: A Practical Review of Actin Dynamics 59Stéphane Romero and François‐Xavier Campbell‐Valois 2.4.1 Introduction 59 2.4.2 Molecular Architecture of Proteins 59 2.4.2.1 Amino Acids 60 2.4.2.2 Peptide Bond 60 2.4.2.3 Primary Structure 64 2.4.3 Protein Folding 66 2.4.3.1 Peptide and Protein: Secondary Structure 66 2.4.3.2 3D Folding: Tertiary Structure 67 2.4.3.3 Quaternary Structure 68 2.4.3.4 Protein Folding and De Novo Design 70 2.4.4 Interacting Proteins for Cellular Functions 73 2.4.4.1 Protein Interactions 73 2.4.4.2 Enzymatic Activity of Proteins 75 2.4.4.3 Molecular Motors 77 2.4.5 Self‐ Assembly and Auto‐Organization: Regulation of the Actin Cytoskeleton Assembly 78 2.4.5.1 Origin of the Actin Treadmilling 79 2.4.5.2 Regulation of Actin Treadmilling 83 2.4.5.3 Arp2/3 and Formin‐Initiated Actin Assembly to Generate Mechanical Forces 83 2.4.5.4 Self‐Organization Properties and Force Generation Understood Using In Vitro Reconstituted Actin‐Based Nanomovements 85 2.4.5.5 Applications in Bionanotechnologies 85 2.4.6 Conclusion 87 References 88 3 Functional Biomolecular Engineering 93 3.1 Nucleic Acid Engineering 95Enora Prado, Mónika Ádok‐Sipiczki and Corinne Nardin 3.1.1 Introduction 95 3.1.2 How to Synthetically Produce Nucleic Acids? 95 3.1.2.1 The Chemical Approach 95 3.1.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction 96 3.1.2.3 Combinatorial Synthesis of Oligonucleotides and Gene Libraries: Aptamers 100 3.1.3 Secondary Structures in Nanotechnologies 102 3.1.3.1 Watson–Crick H‐Bonds 102 3.1.3.1.1 Stem‐Loop 102 3.1.3.1.2 Kissing Complex 103 3.1.3.2 Other Kind of H‐Bonding 103 3.1.3.2.1 G‐Quartets 103 3.1.3.2.2 Origami: Nano‐architecture on Surface 105 3.1.4 Conclusion 108 References 108 3.2 Protein Engineering 113Agathe Urvoas, Marie Valerio‐Lepiniec and Philippe Minard 3.2.1 Synthesis of Polypeptides: Chemical or Biological Approach? 113 3.2.2 Proteins: From Natural to Artificial Sources 114 3.2.2.1 How to Get the Coding Sequence of the Protein of Interest? 114 3.2.2.2 E. coli: A Cheap “Protein Factory” with a Diversified Tool Box 114 3.2.2.3 Common Expression Plasmids 116 3.2.2.4 Limits of Recombinant Protein Expression in E. coli 117 3.2.2.5 Some Solutions Are Available to Solve these Expression Problems 118 3.2.3 Proteins: A Large Repertoire of Functional Objects 118 3.2.3.1 Looking for Natural Proteins with Desired Function 118 3.2.3.2 From Protein Engineering to Protein Design 119 3.2.3.2.1 Modified Proteins Are Often Destabilized 119 3.2.3.2.2 Natural or Engineered Proteins: From Small Step to Giant Leap in Sequence Space 120 3.2.3.2.3 Computational Protein Design 120 3.2.3.2.4 Directed Evolution: A Diverse Repertoire Combined with a Selection Process 121 3.2.3.3 Combining Chemistry with Biological Objects 123 3.2.3.3.1 Labeling Natural Amino Acids 123 3.2.3.3.2 Bioorthogonal Labeling 123 3.2.3.3.3 Tag‐Mediated Labeling and Enzymatic Coupling 125 3.2.3.3.4 Enzyme‐Mediated Ligation 126 3.2.3.3.5 Quality Control of Labeled Biomolecules 126 References 126 4 The Composite Approach 129 4.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 131Carole Aimé and Thibaud Coradin 4.1.1 Introduction 131 4.1.2 Overview of Inorganic Nanoparticles 132 4.1.3 Synthesis of Inorganic Nanoparticles 132 4.1.3.1 Basic Principles 132 4.1.3.2 Nanoparticles from Solutions 138 4.1.3.2.1 Ionic Solids 138 4.1.3.2.2 Metals 139 4.1.3.2.3 Metal Oxides 140 4.1.3.2.4 Morphological Control 144 4.1.4 Some Specific Properties of Inorganic Nanoparticles 145 4.1.5 Concluding Remarks 149 References 149 4.2 Hybrid Particles: Conjugation of Biomolecules to Nanomaterials 153Nikola Ž. Knežević, Laurence Raehm and Jean‐Olivier Durand 4.2.1 General Considerations 153 4.2.2 Functionalization of Nanoparticle Surface 154 4.2.2.1 Functionalization of Hydroxylated Surfaces 154 4.2.2.2 Functionalization of Hydride‐Containing Surfaces 154 4.2.2.3 Functionalization of Metal‐Containing Nanoparticles 155 4.2.2.4 Functionalization of Carbon‐Based Nanomaterials 155 4.2.3 Linker‐Mediated Conjugation of Biomolecules to Nanoparticles 155 4.2.3.1 Conjugation through Carbodiimide Chemistry 155 4.2.3.2 Carbamate, Urea, and Thiourea Linkage 156 4.2.3.3 Schiff Base Linkage 158 4.2.3.4 Multicomponent Linkage Formation 159 4.2.3.5 Biofunctionalization through Alkylation 160 4.2.3.6 Bioorthogonal Linkage Formation 161 4.2.3.7 Conjugation through Host–Guest Interactions 162 4.2.3.8 Linkage through Metal Coordination 162 4.2.3.9 Ligation through Complementary Base Pairing 164 4.2.3.10 Electrostatic Interactions 164 4.2.4 Conclusions 164 Acknowledgments 165 References 165 4.3 Biocomposites from Nanoparticles: From 1D to 3D Assemblies 169Carole Aimé and Thibaud Coradin 4.3.1 General Considerations 169 4.3.2 One‐Dimensional Bionanocomposites 170 4.3.3 Two‐Dimensional Organization of Nanoparticles 175 4.3.4 Three‐Dimensional Organization of Particles 175 4.3.5 Conclusion and Perspectives 180 References 180 5 Applications 185 5.1 Optical Properties 187Cordt Zollfrank and Daniel Van Opdenbosch 5.1.1 Introduction 187 5.1.2 Interactions of Light with Matter 189 5.1.3 Optics at the Nanoscale 190 5.1.3.1 Nanoscale Optical Processes 190 5.1.3.2 Nanoscale Confinement of Matter 191 5.1.3.3 Nanoscale Confinement of Radiations 191 5.1.4 Optical Properties of Bionanocomposites 191 5.1.4.1 Absorption Properties of Bionanocomposites 192 5.1.4.2 Emission Properties of Bionanocomposites 195 5.1.4.3 Structural Colors with Bionanocomposites 200 5.1.5 Conclusions 201 References 202 5.2 Magnetic Bionanocomposites: Current Trends, Scopes, and Applications 205Wei Li, Yuehan Wu, Xiaogang Luo and Shilin Liu 5.2.1 Introduction 205 5.2.2 Construction Strategies for Magnetic Biocomposites 208 5.2.2.1 The Blending Method 208 5.2.2.2 In Situ Synthesis Method 209 5.2.2.3 Grafting‐onto Method 210 5.2.3 Applications of Magnetic Biocomposites 212 5.2.3.1 Environmental Applications 212 5.2.3.1.1 Removal of Toxic Metal Ions 212 5.2.3.1.2 Removal of Dyes 216 5.2.3.1.3 Biocatalysis and Bioremediation 216 5.2.3.2 Biomedical Applications 218 5.2.3.2.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 218 5.2.3.2.2 Cellular Therapy and Labeling 219 5.2.3.2.3 Tissue Engineering Applications 221 5.2.3.2.4 Drug Delivery 221 5.2.3.2.5 Tissue Regeneration 224 5.2.3.3 Biotechnological and Bioengineering Applications 225 5.2.3.3.1 Biosensing 226 5.2.3.3.2 Magnetically Responsive Films 228 5.2.4 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 228 Acknowledgments 229 References 229 5.3 Mechanical Properties of Natural Biopolymer Nanocomposites 235Biqiong Chen 5.3.1 Introduction 235 5.3.2 Overview of Mechanical Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites and Their Measurement Methods 237 5.3.3 Solid Biopolymer Nanocomposites 237 5.3.4 Porous Biopolymer Nanocomposites 245 5.3.5 Biopolymer Nanocomposite Hydrogels 247 5.3.6 Conclusions 249 References 251 5.4 Bionanocomposite Materials for Biocatalytic Applications 257Sarah Christoph and Francisco M. Fernandes 5.4.1 Bionanocomposites and Biocatalysis 257 5.4.2 Form and Function in Bionanocomposite Materials for Biocatalysis 260 5.4.2.1 Bionanocomposites Structure 260 5.4.2.1.1 Biopolymers 260 5.4.2.1.2 The Inorganic Fraction 264 5.4.2.2 Key Biocatalysts 269 5.4.2.2.1 Nucleotides and Amino Acids 269 5.4.2.2.2 Enzymes 272 5.4.2.2.3 Whole Cells 273 5.4.3 Applications 277 5.4.3.1 Biosynthesis 277 5.4.3.2 Sensing Applications 281 5.4.3.3 Environmental Applications 283 5.4.3.4 Energy Applications of Biocatalytic Bionanocomposites 286 5.4.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 289 References 290 5.5 Nanocomposite Biomaterials 299Gisela Solange Alvarez and Martín Federico Desimone 5.5.1 Introduction 299 5.5.2 Natural Nanocomposites 301 5.5.2.1 Cellulosic Materials 301 5.5.2.2 Chitosan 305 5.5.2.3 Alginate 305 5.5.2.4 Collagen 307 5.5.2.5 Gelatin 307 5.5.2.6 Silk Fibroin 309 5.5.3 Synthetic Nanocomposites 309 5.5.3.1 PLLA and PLGA 309 5.5.3.2 Polyethylene Glycol 312 5.5.3.3 Methacrylate 312 5.5.3.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol 314 5.5.3.5 Polyurethanes 314 5.5.4 Conclusions 315 Acknowledgments 317 References 317 6 A Combination of Characterization Techniques 321Carole Aimé and Thibaud Coradin 6.1 Introductory Remarks 321 6.2 Chemical Analyses 322 6.2.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma 322 6.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 323 6.2.3 X‐Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Auger Electron Spectroscopy 324 6.2.4 Energy–Dispersive X‐Ray Spectroscopy and Electron–Energy Loss Spectroscopy 328 6.3 Determining Size and Structure 329 6.3.1 Imaging 329 6.3.1.1 Electron Microscopy 330 6.3.1.2 Atomic Force Microscopy 333 6.3.2 Scattering Techniques 335 6.3.2.1 Small Angle Scattering 337 6.3.2.2 Dynamic Light Scattering and Zetametry 337 6.3.3 Monitoring Particle–Biomolecule Interactions 339 6.3.3.1 Electrophoresis 339 6.3.3.2 Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy 340 6.3.3.3 Isothermal Titration Calorimetry and Surface Plasmon Resonance 342 6.4 Materials Properties 344 6.4.1 Optical Properties 344 6.4.2 Mechanical Testing 346 6.4.2.1 Rheology 346 6.4.2.2 Compression Tests 347 6.4.2.3 Tensile Tests 348 6.4.2.4 Relaxation Tests 348 6.4.2.5 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 349 6.4.2.6 Indentation 349 6.4.2.7 Mechanical Testing of Hydrogels 349 6.4.3 Magnetic Measurements 350 6.4.4 Biological Properties 353 References 355 Index 359

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Book SynopsisSince the publication of the successful first edition of the book in 2010, the field has matured and a large number of advancements have been made to the science of polymer nanotube nanocomposites (PNT) in terms of synthesis, filler surface modification, as well as properties. Moreover, a number of commercial applications have been realized. The aim of this second volume of the book is, thus, to update the information presented in the first volume as well as to incorporate the recent research and industrial developments. This edited volume brings together contributions from a variety of senior scientists in the field of polymer nanotube composites technology to shed light on the recent advances in these commercially important areas of polymer technology. The book provides the following features: Reviews the various synthesis techniques, properties and applications of the polymer nanocomposite systems. Describes the functionalization strategies for singleTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Polymer Nanotube Nanocomposites: A Review of Synthesis Methods, Properties and Applications 1 Joel Fawaz and Vikas Mittal 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Methods of Nanotube Nanocomposites Synthesis 4 1.3 Properties of Polymer Nanotube Nanocomposites 18 1.4 Applications 38 References 40 2 Functionalization Strategies for Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Integration into Epoxy Matrices 45 J.M. González-Domínguez, A.M. Díez-Pascual, A. Ansón-Casaos, M.A. Gómez-Fatou, and M. T. Martínez 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 Covalent Strategies for the Production of SWCNT 51 2.3 Non-covalent Strategies for the Production of SWCNT/Epoxy Composites 62 2.4 Effect of Functionalization on the Epoxy Physical Properties 76 2.5 Applications of Functionalized SWCNTs in Epoxy Composites 104 2.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook 106 Acknowledgements 108 References 109 3 Multiscale Modeling of Polymer?Nanotube Nanocomposites 117 Maenghyo Cho and Seunghwa Yang 3.1 Introduction 117 3.2 Molecular Modeling and Simulation of CNT-Polymer Nanocomposites 121 3.3 Micromechanics Modeling and Simulation of CNT-Polymer Nanocomposites 132 3.4 Fully Integrated Multiscale Model for Elastoplastic Behavior with Imperfect Interface 145 3.5 Conclusion and Perspective on Future Trends 158 References 160 4 SEM and TEM Characterization of Polymer Nanotube Nanocomposites 167 Francisco Solá 4.1 Introduction 167 4.2 Imaging CNTs in Polymer Matrices by SEM 168 4.3 Mechanical Properties of CNT/Polymer Nanocomposites by In-Situ SEM 172 4.4 Imaging CNT in Polymer Matrices by TEM 176 4.5 Mechanical Properties of CNT/Polymer Nanocomposites by In-Situ TEM 180 4.6 Conclusions and Future Outlook 181 Acknowledgement 182 References 183 5 Polymer-Nanotube Nanocomposites for Transfemoral Sockets 187 S. Arun and S. Kanagaraj 5.1 Introduction 188 5.2 Materials Used for the Socket System 190 5.3 Summary 204 Acknowledgements 204 References 204 6 Micro-Patterning of Polymer Nanotube Nanocomposites 211 Naga S. Korivi 6.1 Introduction 211 6.2 Micro-Patterning Methods 213 6.3 Conclusions 230 Acknowledgments 231 References 231 7 Carbon Nanotube-Based Hybrid Materials and Their Polymer Composites 239 Tianxi Liu, Wei Fan, and Chao Zhang 7.1 Introduction 240 7.2 Structures and Properties of Carbon Nanomaterials 242 7.3 Strategies for the Hybridization of CNTs with Carbon Nanomaterials 247 7.4 Preparation of CNT-Based Hybrid Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites 257 7.5 Physical Properties of CNT-Based Hybrid Reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites 262 7.6 Summary 272 Acknowledgements 273 References 273 8 Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite Foams 279 Marcelo Antunes and José Ignacio Velasco 8.1 Introduction 279 8.2 Basic Concepts of Polymer Nanocomposite Foams 281 8.3 Main Polymer Nanocomposite Foaming Technologies 282 8.4 Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite Foams 287 8.5 Recent Developments and New Applications of Polymer- Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposite Foams 312 8.6 Conclusions 320 Acknowledgements 322 References 323 9 Processing and Properties of Carbon Nanotube/Polycarbonate Composites 333 Shailaja Pande, Bhanu Pratap Singh, and Rakesh Behari Mathur 9.1 Introduction 333 9.2 Fabrication/ Processing of CNT/PC Composites 335 9.3 Mechanical Properties of CNT/PC Composites 344 9.4 Electrical Properties of CNT/PC Composites 355 9.5 Conclusions 359 References 361 10 Advanced Microscopy Techniques for a Better Understanding of the Polymer/Nanotube Composite Properties 365 K. Masenelli-Varlot, C. Gauthier, L. Chazeau, F. Dalmas, T. Epicier, and J.Y. Cavaillé 10.1 Introduction 365 10.2 Near-Field Microscopies 367 10.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 372 10.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy 387 10.5 Focused Ion Beam Microscopy 395 10.6 Conclusions 396 Acknowledgements 398 References 398 11 Visualization of CNTs in Polymer Composites 405 Wenjing Li and Wolfgang Bauhofer 11.1 Introduction 405 11.2 Experimental 408 11.3 Visualization of CNTs at High Accelerating Voltage (5-15 kV) 408 11.4 Visualization of CNTs at Low Accelerating Voltage (0.3-5 kV) 417 11.5 Essential Requirements and Tips for CNT Visualization 423 11.6 Conclusion 424 Acknowledgement 425 References (with DOI) 425 Reference List 426 12 Polymer Nanotube Composites: Latest Challenges and Applications 429 Amal M. K. Esawi and Mahmoud M. Farag 12.1 Carbon Nanotubes 430 12.2 Case Studies 440 12.3 Conclusions 459 References 460 Index

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Book SynopsisAddressing a cutting-edge, multidisciplinary field, this book reviews nanomaterials and their biomedical applications. It covers regeneration, implants, adhesives, and biosensors and strategies for more efficient therapy, diagnosis, and drug delivery with the use of nanotechnology.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xiii 1 Nanomaterials for Medicine 1 Mustafa O. Guler and Ayse B. Tekinay 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Nanoscale Material Properties 2 1.3 Nanomaterials for Understanding Disease Pathways 2 1.4 Nanomaterials for Therapy 3 1.5 Challenges and Future Prospects 5 2 Nanosized Delivery Systems for Tissue Regeneration 7 Goksu Cinar, Didem Mumcuoglu, Ayse B. Tekinay, and Mustafa O. Guler 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Delivery of Protein Therapeutics with Nanocarriers for Tissue Regeneration 10 2.2.1 GFs and Cytokines 10 2.3 Gene and siRNA Delivery with Nanocarriers for Tissue Regeneration 13 2.3.1 Gene Delivery 13 2.3.2 siRNA Delivery 15 2.4 Systemic Targeting and Cellular Internalization Strategies for Tissue Regeneration 15 2.4.1 Targeted Delivery 15 2.4.2 Cellular Internalization Strategies 18 2.5 Future Perspectives 20 References 22 3 Nanomaterials for Neural Regeneration 33 Melike Sever, Busra Mammadov, Mevhibe Gecer, Mustafa O. Guler, and Ayse B. Tekinay 3.1 Introduction 33 3.1.1 Extracellular Matrix of Central Nervous System 33 3.1.2 ECM of Peripheral Nervous System 37 3.1.3 Urgent Need for Materials to Induce Regeneration in Nervous Tissue 39 3.2 Nanomaterials for Neural Regeneration 40 3.2.1 Physical Functionalization of Nanomaterials to Induce Neural Differentiation 40 3.2.2 Effects of Mechanical Stiffness on Cellular Behavior 40 3.2.3 Effects of Dimensionality on Cellular Behavior 42 3.2.4 Effects of Substrate Topography on Cell Behavior 43 3.2.5 Effects of Electrical Conductivity on Cell Behavior 44 3.3 Chemical and Biological Functionalization of Nanomaterials for Neural Differentiation 45 3.3.1 Effects of Biologically Active Molecules on Cell Behavior 45 3.3.2 Effects of Chemical Groups on Cellular Behavior 46 3.3.3 Effects of Biofunctionalization on Cellular Behavior Through ECM‐Derived Short Peptides 48 3.4 Conclusion 50 References 51 4 Therapeutic Nanomaterials for Cartilage Regeneration 59 Elif Arslan, Seher Ustun Yaylacı, Mustafa O. Guler, and Ayse B. Tekinay 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Current Treatment Methods for Cartilage Injuries 63 4.3 Tissue Engineering Efforts 66 4.3.1 Natural Polymers 67 4.3.2 Synthetic Polymers 69 4.3.3 Composite Materials 70 4.3.4 Physical Stimuli 71 4.4 Clinical Therapeutics for Cartilage Regeneration 72 4.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 73 References 78 5 Wound Healing Applications of Nanomaterials 87 Berna Senturk, Gozde Uzunalli, Rashad Mammadov, Mustafa O. Guler, and Ayse B. Tekinay 5.1 Introduction 87 5.1.1 The Structure of Healthy Mammalian Skin 88 5.1.2 The Mechanisms of Wound Healing 89 5.1.3 Repair Process in Chronic Wounds 94 5.2 Applications of Nanomaterials for the Enhancement of Wound Healing Process 95 5.2.1 Artificial Skin 96 5.2.2 Natural Nanomaterials for Wound Healing 97 5.2.3 Synthetic Nanomaterials for Wound Healing 100 5.2.4 Wound Dressings Containing Growth Factors 101 5.2.5 Biomimetic Materials 102 5.2.6 Current Challenges in the Design of Nanomaterials for Chronic Wound Management 103 5.3 Peptide Nanofiber Gels for Wound Healing 105 5.3.1 Relevance of Nanofibrous Structure of Peptide Gels for Wound Healing 106 5.3.2 Engineered PA Nanofiber Gels for Wound Healing and Insights into Various Designs 107 References 110 6 Nanomaterials for Bone Tissue Regeneration and Orthopedic Implants 119 Gulcihan Gulseren, Melis Goktas, Hakan Ceylan, Ayse B. Tekinay, and Mustafa O. Guler 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Bone Matrix 120 6.2.1 Organic Matrix and Bioactivity 120 6.3 Inorganic Matrix, Mineralization, and Bone Organization 122 6.3.1 Mechanical Properties and Structural Hierarchy of Bone Tissue 123 6.4 Regulation of Bone Matrix in Adult Tissue 125 6.4.1 Angiogenic Factors in Bone Remodeling 126 6.5 Strategies for Bone Tissue Regeneration 127 6.5.1 Hard Grafts for Bone Regeneration 127 6.6 Soft Grafts for Bone Regeneration 131 6.6.1 Peptide‐Based Bone Grafts 132 6.6.2 Polymer Nanocomposites as Bone Grafts 134 6.7 Future Perspectives 138 References 138 7 Nanomaterials for the Repair and Regeneration of Dental Tissues 153 Gulistan Tansık, Alper Devrim Ozkan, Mustafa O. Guler, and Ayse B. Tekinay 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Formation of Dental and Osseous Tissues 155 7.3 Dental Implants 156 7.3.1 Metallic Implants 158 7.3.2 Ceramic Implants 158 7.3.3 Polymeric Implants 159 7.4 Osseointegration of Dental Implants 159 7.5 Uses of Nanotechnology in the Development of Dental Implants 160 7.5.1 Enhancement of the Osseointegration Process 161 7.5.2 Pulp and Dentin Tissue Regeneration 162 7.5.3 Whole Tooth Regeneration 165 7.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 166 References 166 8 Nanomaterials as Tissue Adhesives 173 I. Ceren Yasa, Hakan Ceylan, Ayse B. Tekinay, and Mustafa O. Guler 8.1 Introduction 173 8.2 Tissue Adhesives Based on Synthetic Polymers 176 8.3 Naturally Derived Tissue Adhesives 180 8.4 Bioinspired Strategies 182 8.5 Nanoenabled Adhesives 186 8.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 186 References 189 9 Advances in Nanoparticle‐Based Medical Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques 197 Melis Sardan, Alper Devrim Ozkan, Aygul Zengin, Ayse B. Tekinay, and Mustafa O. Guler 9.1 Introduction 197 9.2 NPs used in MRI 200 9.2.1 T1 CAs 201 9.2.2 T2 CAs 205 9.2.3 Dual Modal Contrast Agents 207 9.3 NPs used in Computed Tomography 208 9.3.1 Noble Metal‐Based NPs 209 9.3.2 Heavy Metal‐Based NPs 211 9.4 NPs used in Optical and Fluorescence Imaging 213 9.4.1 Quantum Dots 214 9.4.2 AuNPs 216 9.4.3 UCNPs 217 9.5 Theranostic Approaches and Multimodal Systems 218 9.6 Overlook and Future Directions 222 References 223 10 Biosensors for Early Disease Diagnosis 235 Ahmet E. Topal, Alper Devrim Ozkan, Aykutlu Dana, Ayse B. Tekinay, and Mustafa O. Guler 10.1 Introduction 235 10.2 Biosensor Elements 237 10.2.1 Recognition Elements 237 10.2.2 Output Type and Detection Techniques 239 10.2.3 Optical Biosensors 248 10.2.4 Electrical and Electrochemical Biosensors 250 10.2.5 Mechanical Biosensors 251 10.2.6 Other Biosensor Types 252 10.3 The Impact of Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials in Biosensor Design 253 10.4 Early Diagnosis and Biosensor‐Based Disease Detection 255 10.5 Conclusion and Future Directions 258 References 259 11 Safety of Nanomaterials 271 Nuray Gunduz, Elif Arslan, Mustafa O. Guler, and Ayse B. Tekinay 11.1 Introduction 271 11.2 Characterization, Design, and Synthesis of Nanomaterials 272 11.2.1 Chemical Identity and Physicochemical Properties 272 11.2.2 Biological Identity 275 11.3 Interactions at the Cell–Material Interface 277 11.3.1 Intracellular Activity 278 11.3.2 Cellular Uptake Mechanisms 283 11.4 Assays for Cell Viability/Proliferation 283 11.4.1 Assays for Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis Mechanisms 284 11.4.2 E valuation of Uptake and Accumulation of ENMs 284 11.4.3 Genotoxicity Assays 285 11.5 Animal Models and Long‐Term Risk Assessment 286 11.5.1 The Blood–Brain Barrier 286 11.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 290 References 291 Index 299

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Book SynopsisGraphene Materials: Fundamentals and Emerging Applications brings together innovative methodologies with research and development strategies to provide a detailed state-of-the-art overview of the processing, properties, and technology developments of graphene materials and their wide-ranging applications. The applications areas covered are biosensing, energy storage, environmental monitoring, and health. The book discusses the various methods that have been developed for the preparation and functionalization of single-layered graphene nanosheets. These form the essential building blocks for the bottom-up architecture of various graphene materials because they possess unique physico-chemical properties such as large surface areas, good conductivity and mechanical strength, high thermal stability and desirable flexibility. The electronic behavior in graphene, such as dirac fermions obtained due to the interaction with the ions of the lattice, has led to the discovery of Table of ContentsPreface xv Foreword by Rosita Yakimova xix Part 1: Fundamentals of Graphene and Graphene-Based Nanocomposites 1 1 Graphene and Related Two-Dimensional Materials 3Manas Mandal, Anirban Maitra, Tanya Das and Chapal Kumar Das 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Preparation of Graphene Oxide by Modified Hummer’s Method 6 1.3 Dispersion of Graphene Oxide in Organic Solvents 6 1.4 Paper-like Graphene Oxide 7 1.5 Thin Films of Graphene Oxide and Graphene 7 1.6 Nanocomposites of Graphene Oxide 8 1.7 Graphene-Based Materials 9 1.8 Graphene-like 2D Materials 10 1.8.1 Tungsten Sulfide 10 1.8.2 Molybdenum Sulfide 14 1.8.3 Tin Sulfide 15 1.8.4 Tin Selenide 17 1.8.5 Manganese Dioxide 17 1.8.6 Nickel Oxide 18 1.8.7 Boron Nitride 19 1.9 Conclusion 20 References 20 2 Surface Functionalization of Graphene 25Mojtaba Bagherzadeh and Anahita Farahbakhsh 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of Graphene 27 2.3 Covalent Functionalization of Graphene 34 2.3.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction 34 2.3.2 Electrophilic Substitution Reaction 41 2.3.3 Condensation Reaction 42 2.3.4 Addition Reaction 50 2.4 Graphene–Nanoparticles 51 2.4.1 Metals NPs: Au, Pd, Pt, Ag 54 2.4.2 Metal oxide NPs: ZnO, SnO2, TiO2, SiO2,RuO2, Mn3O4, Co3O4, and Fe3O4 54 2.4.3 Semiconducting NPs: CdSe, CdS, ZnS, CdTe and Graphene QD 56 2.5 Conclusion 58 References 58 3 Architecture and Applications of Functional Th ree-dimensional Graphene Networks 67Ramendra Sundar Dey and Qijin Chi 3.1 Introduction 68 3.1.1 Synthesis of 3D Porous Graphene-Based Materials 69 3.1.2 Overview of 3DG Structures 73 3.2 Applications 77 3.2.1 Supercapacitor 77 3.2.2 Fuel Cells 91 3.2.3 Sensors 92 3.2.4 Other Applications 93 3.3 Summary, Conclusion, Outlook 93 Abbreviations 94 References 94 4 Covalent Graphene-Polymer Nanocomposites 101Horacio J. Salavagione 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Properties of Graphene for Polymer Reinforcement 102 4.3 Graphene and Graphene-like Materials 103 4.4 Methods of Production 104 4.5 Chemistry of Graphene 108 4.6 Conventional Graphene Based Polymer Nanocomposites 109 4.7 Covalent Graphene-polymer Nanocomposites 112 4.8 Grafting-From Approaches 114 4.8.1 Living Radical Polymerizations 115 4.8.2 Other Approaches 123 4.9 Grafting-to Approaches 126 4.9.1 Graphene Oxide-based Chemistry 127 4.9.2 Crosslinking Reactions 130 4.9.3 Click Chemistry 131 4.9.4 Other Grafting-to Approaches 137 4.10 Conclusions 140 References 141 Part 2: Emerging Applications of Graphene in Energy, Health, Environment and Sensors 151 5 Magnesium Matrix Composites Reinforced with Graphene Nanoplatelets 153Muhammad Rashad, Fusheng Pan and Muhammad Asif 5.1 Introduction 154 5.1.1 Magnesium 154 5.1.2 Metal Matrix Composites 154 5.1.3 Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) 155 5.2 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets on Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium 156 5.2.1 Introduction 156 5.2.2 Synthesis 157 5.2.3 Microstructural Characterization 157 5.2.4 Crystallographic Texture Measurements 158 5.2.5 Mechanical Characterization 160 5.2.6 Conclusions 163 5.3 Synergetic Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) and Multi-walled Carbon Nanotube (MW-CNTs) on Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium 164 5.3.1 Introduction 164 5.3.2 Synthesis 165 5.3.3 Microstructure Characterization 166 5.3.4 Mechanical Characterization 169 5.3.5 Conclusions 174 5.4 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) Addition on Strength and Ductility of Magnesium-Titanium Alloys 175 5.4.1 Introduction 175 5.4.2 Synthesis 176 5.4.3 Microstructure Characterization 176 5.4.4 Mechanical Characterization 178 5.4.5 Conclusions 179 5.5 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets on Tensile Properties of Mg–1%Al–1%Sn Alloy 180 5.5.1 Introduction 180 5.5.2 Synthesis 180 5.5.3 Microstructure Characterization 180 5.5.4 Mechanical Characterization 181 5.5.5 Conclusions 184 Acknowledgments 184 References 185 6 Graphene and Its Derivatives for Energy Storage 191Malgorzata Aleksandrzak and Ewa Mijowska 6.1 Introduction 191 6.2 Graphene in Lithium Batteries 192 6.2.1 Lithium Ion Batteries 193 6.2.2 Lithium-Oxygen Batteries 201 6.2.3 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 206 6.3 Graphene in Supercapacitors 212 6.4 Summary 218 References 218 7 Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite: An Ideal Electroactive Material for High Performance Supercapacitors 225Alagiri Mani, Khosro Zangene Kamali, Alagarsamy Pandikumar, Lim Yee Seng, Lim Hong Ngee and Huang Nay Ming 7.1 Introduction 226 7.2 Renewable Energy Sources 226 7.3 Importance of Energy Storage 227 7.4 Supercapacitors 228 7.5 Principle and Operation of Supercapacitiors 228 7.6 Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 230 7.7 Graphene-based Supercapacitors and Th eir Limitations 231 7.8 Graphene-Polymer-Composite-based Supercapacitors 232 7.9 Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite-based Supercapacitiors 233 7.10 Fabrication of Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite for Supercapacitiors 233 7.11 Performance of Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite-based Supercapacitors 239 7.12 Summary and Outlooks 240 References 243 8 Hydrophobic ZnO Anchored Graphene Nanocomposite Based Bulk Hetro-junction Solar Cells to Improve Short Circuit Current Density 245Rajni Sharma, Firoz Alam, A.K. Sharma, V. Dutta and S.K. Dhawan 8.1 Introduction 246 8.2 Economic Expectations of OPV 248 8.3 Device Architecture 253 8.3.1 Bulk-heterojunction Structure 252 8.4 Operational Principles 253 8.4.1 Series and Shunt Resistance 255 8.4.2 Standard Test Conditions 256 8.5 Experimental procedure for synthesis of hydrophobic nanomaterials 258 8.5.1 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 258 8.5.2 ZnO Nanoparticle Decorated Graphene (Z@G) Nanocomposite 259 8.6 Characterization of Synthesized ZnO Nanoparticles and ZnO Decorated Graphene (Z@G) Nanocomposite 259 8.6.1 Structural Analysis 259 8.6.2 Morphological Analysis 260 8.6.3 Optical Analysis 262 8.6.4 FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy 263 8.6.5 Raman Spectroscopy 265 8.6.6 Hydrophobicity Measurement 266 8.7 Hybrid Solar Cell Fabrication and Characterization 267 8.7.1 Device Fabrication 267 8.7.2 J-V (Current density-Voltage) Characteristics 267 8.8. Conclusion 272 Acknowledgement 273 References 273 9 Three-dimensional Graphene Bimetallic Nanocatalysts Foam for Energy Storage and Biosensing 277Chih-Chien Kung, Liming Dai, Xiong Yu and Chung-Chiun Liu 9.1 Background and Introduction 278 9.1.1 Biosensors 278 9.1.2 Fuel Cells 280 9.1.3 Bimetallic Nanocatalysts 282 9.1.4 Carbon Supported Materials 282 9.1.5 Rotating Disk Electrode 284 9.1.6 Cyclic Voltammetry and Chronoamperometric Techniques 286 9.1.7 Methods of Estimating Limit of Detection (LOD) 288 9.1.8 CO Stripping for the Estimation of the Catalyst Surface Area 288 9.1.9 Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) Measurement 288 9.1.10 Motivations of the Study 289 9.2 Preparation and Characterization of Three Dimensional Graphene Foam Supported Platinum-Ruthenium Bimetallic Nanocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Based Electrochemical Biosensors 290 9.2.1 Introduction 290 9.2.2 Experimental 291 9.2.3 Results and Discussion 294 9.2.4 Conclusion for H2O2 Detection in Biosensing 307 9.3 Three dimensional graphene Foam Supported Platinum–Ruthenium Bimetallic Nanocatalysts for Direct Methanol and Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell Applications 307 9.3.1 Introduction 308 9.3.2 Experimental 309 9.3.3 Results and Discussion 311 9.3.4 Conclusion for Methanol and Ethanol Oxidation Reactions in Energy Storage 319 9.4 Conclusions 319 Acknowledgments 320 References 320 10 Electrochemical Sensing and Biosensing Platforms Using Graphene and Graphene-based Nanocomposites 325Sandeep Kumar Vashist and John H.T. Luong 10.1 Introduction 326 10.2 Fabrication of Graphene and Its Derivatives 328 10.2.1 Exfoliation 328 10.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 330 10.2.3 Miscellaneous Techniques 331 10.3 Properties of Graphene and Its Derivatives 332 10.4 Electrochemistry of Graphene 333 10.5 Graphene and Graphene-Based Nanocomposites as Electrode Materials 335 10.6 Electrochemical Sensing/Biosensing 336 10.6.1 Glucose 336 10.6.2 DNA/Proteins/Cells 341 10.6.3 Other Small Electroactive Analytes 344 10.7 Challenges and Future Trends 347 References 351 11 Applications of Graphene Electrodes in Health and Environmental Monitoring 361Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli, Susana Campuzano, José M. Pingarrón and Dimitrios P. Nikolelis 11.1 Biosensors Based on Nanostructured Materials 362 11.2 Graphene Nanomaterials Used in Electrochemical (bio) Sensors Fabrication 363 11.3 Miniaturized Graphene Nanostructured Biosensors for Health Monitoring 365 11.3.1 Graphene in Bio-field-eff ect Transistors 365 11.3.2 Graphene Impedimetric Biosensors 367 11.3.3 Graphene in Electrochemical Biosensors 368 11.4 Miniaturized Graphene Nanostructured Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring 377 11.4.1 Detection of Toxic Gases in Air 377 11.4.2 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 379 11.4.3 Detection of Organic Pollutants 381 11.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 384 Acknowledgements 386 References 386 Index 393

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Book SynopsisOver 170 contributions (invited talks, oral presentations, and posters) were presented by participants from universities, research institutions, and industry, which offered interdisciplinary discussions indicating strong scientific and technological interest in the field of nanostructured systems. This issue contains 23 peer-reviewed papers that cover various aspects and the latest developments related to nanoscaled materials and functional ceramics.Table of ContentsPreface ix Introduction xi MULTIFUNCTIONAL MATERIALS Oxynitride Glasses as Grain Boundary Phases in Silicon Nitride: Correlations of Chemistry and Properties 3Stuart Hampshire Preparation and Properties of Aluminosilicate Glasses Containing N and F 15Michael J. Pomeroy Comparison of Conventional and Microwave Sintering of Bioceramics 23Anne Leriche, Etienne Savary, Anthony Thuault, Jean-Christophe Hornez, Michel Descamps, and Sylvain Marinel A Novel Additive Manufacturing Technology for High-Performance Ceramics 33Johannes Homa and Martin Schwentenwein Characterization of Matrix Materials for Additive Manufacturing of Silicon Carbide-Based Composites 41Mrityunjay Singh, Michael C. Halbig, and Shirley X. Zhu An Industrial Microwave (Hybrid) System for In-Line Processing of High Temperature Ceramics 49Ramesh D. Peelamedu and Donald A. Seccombe Jr. Comparison of Properties of YSZ Prepared by Microwave and Conventional Processing 61Kanchan L. Singh, Anirudh P. Singh, Ajay Kumar, and S.S. Sekhon Diffusion Bonding and Interfacial Characterization of Sintered Fiber Bonded Silicon Carbide Ceramics using Boron–Molybdenum Interlayers 73H. Tsuda, S. Mori, M. C. Halbig, M. Singh, and R. Asthana Mechanical Behavior of Green Ceramic Tapes used in a Viscoelastic Shaping Process 81Ming-Jen Pan, Stephanie Wimmer, and Virginia DeGiorgi Mechanical Behavior of Foamed Insulating Ceramics 89Vania R. Salvini, Dirceu Spinelli, and Victor C. Pandolfelli Stress Estimation for Multiphase Ceramics Laminates during Sintering 101Kouichi Yasuda,Tadachika Nakayama, and Satoshi Tanaka Advanced Measurements of Indentation Fracture Resistance of Alumina by the Powerful Optical Microscopy for Small Ceramic Products 107Hiroyuki Miyazaki and Yu-ichi Yoshizawa The Microstructure and Dielectric Properties of Sm2O3 Doped Ba0.6Sr0.4TiO3-MgO Compound for Phase Shifters 115Xiaohong Wang, Mengjie Wang, and Wenzhong Lu Dielectric Properties of BaTiO3 Ceramics and Curie-Weiss and Modified Curie-Weiss Affected by Fractal Morphology 123 NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS Understanding Diamond Nanoparticle Evolution during Zirconia Spark Plasma Sintering 137Kathy Lu, Wenle Li, and George Li Influence of Ti4+ on the Energetics and Microstructure of SnO2 Nanoparticles 145Joice Miagava, Douglas Gouvêa, Ricardo H. R. Castro, and Alexandra NavrotskyAnnealing Effect on the Structural, Morphological, and Photovoltaic Properties of ZnO-CNTs Nanocomposite Thin Films 153Huda Abdullah, Azimah Omar, Izamarlina Asshaari, Mohd Ambar Yarmo, Mohd Zikri Razali, Sahbudin Shaari, Savisha Mahalingam, and Aisyah Bolhan Investigation of Multilayer Superhard Ti-Hf-Si-N/NbN/Al2O3 Coatings for High Performance Protection 163A. D. Pogrebnjak, A. S. Kaverina, V. M. Beresnev, Y. Takeda, K. Oyoshi, H. Murakami, A. P. Shypylenko, M. G. Kovaleva, M.S. Prozorova, O. V. Kolisnichenko, B. Zholybekov, and D. A. Kolesnikov Influence of the Structure and Elemental Composition on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of (TiZrHfVNb)N Nanostructured Coatings 173A. D. Pogrebnjak, I. V. Yakushchenko, O. V. Bondar, A. A. Bagdasaryan, V. M. Beresnev, D.A. Kolesnikov, G. Abadias, P. Chartier, Y. Takeda, and M. O. Bilokur Effects of Mg Contents on ZnAl2O4 Thin Films by Sol Gel Method and Its Application 185Huda Abdullah, Wan Nasarudin Wan Jalal, Mohd Syafiq Zulfakar, Badariah Bais, Sahbudin Shaari, Mohammad Tariqul Islam, and Sarada Idris Synthesis and Characterization of Si-Doped Carbon Nanotubes 197Qi Zhen, Shaoming Dong, Yanmei Kan, Yue Leng, Jianbao Hu Structural and Morphology of Zn1-xCuxS Films as Anti-Reflecting Coating (ARC) Affected the Cell Performance 205Huda Abdullah, Ili Salwani, and Sahbudin Saari Nanoceramics Processing: Revolutionizing Medicine 213Qi Wang and Thomas J. Webster Author Index 219

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Book SynopsisMechanics of Microsystems Alberto Corigliano, Raffaele Ardito, Claudia Comi, Attilio Frangi, Aldo Ghisi and Stefano Mariani, Politecnico di Milano, Italy A mechanical approach to microsystems, covering fundamental concepts including MEMS design, modelling and reliability Mechanics of Microsystems takes a mechanical approach to microsystems and covers fundamental concepts including MEMS design, modelling and reliability. The book examines the mechanical behaviour of microsystems from a design for reliability' point of view and includes examples of applications in industry. Mechanics of Microsystems is divided into two main parts. The first part recalls basic knowledge related to the microsystems behaviour and offers an overview on microsystems and fundamental design and modelling tools from a mechanical point of view, together with many practical examples of real microsystems. The second part covers the mechanical characterization of materials at the micro-scale and considers the mTable of ContentsSeries Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii Notation xix About the Companion Website xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Microsystems 1 1.2 Microsystems Fabrication 3 1.3 Mechanics in Microsystems 5 1.4 Book Contents 6 References 7 Part I Fundamentals 9 2 Fundamentals of Mechanics and Coupled Problems 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Kinematics and Dynamics of Material Points and Rigid Bodies 12 2.2.1 Basic Notions of Kinematics and Motion Composition 12 2.2.2 Basic Notions of Dynamics and Relative Dynamics 15 2.2.3 One-Degree-of-Freedom Oscillator 17 2.2.4 Rigid-Body Kinematics and Dynamics 22 2.3 Solid Mechanics 25 2.3.1 Linear Elastic Problem for Deformable Solids 26 2.3.2 Linear Elastic Problem for Beams 35 2.4 Fluid Mechanics 43 2.4.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 43 2.4.2 Fluid–Structure Interaction 48 2.5 Electrostatics and Electromechanics 49 2.5.1 Basic Notions of Electrostatics 49 2.5.2 Simple Electromechanical Problem 54 2.5.3 General Electromechanical Coupled Problem 58 2.6 Piezoelectric Materials in Microsystems 60 2.6.1 Piezoelectric Materials 60 2.6.2 PiezoelectricModelling 62 2.7 Heat Conduction and Thermomechanics 64 2.7.1 Heat Problem 64 2.7.2 Thermomechanical Coupled Problem 67 References 70 3 Modelling of Linear and NonlinearMechanical Response 73 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Fundamental Principles 74 3.2.1 Principle of Virtual Power 74 3.2.2 Total Potential Energy Principle 74 3.2.3 Hamilton’s Principle 75 3.2.4 Specialization of the Principle of Virtual Powers to Beams 76 3.3 Approximation Techniques andWeighted Residuals Approach 76 3.4 Exact and Approximate Solutions for Dynamic Problems 79 3.4.1 Free Flexural Linear Vibrations of a Single-span Beam 79 3.4.2 Nonlinear Vibration of an Axially Loaded Beam 80 3.5 Example of Application: Bistable Elements 84 References 90 Part II Devices 91 4 Accelerometers 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 94 4.2.1 In-Plane Sensing 94 4.2.2 Out-of-Plane Sensing 96 4.3 Resonant Accelerometers 98 4.3.1 Resonating Proof Mass 98 4.3.2 Resonating Elements Coupled to the Proof Mass 99 4.4 Examples 101 4.4.1 Three-Axis Capacitive Accelerometer 101 4.4.2 Out-of-Plane Resonant Accelerometer 104 4.4.3 In-Plane Resonant Accelerometer 105 4.5 Design Problems and Reliability Issues 107 References 107 5 Coriolis-Based Gyroscopes 109 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 BasicWorking Principle 109 5.2.1 Sensitivity of Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscopes 112 5.3 Lumped-Mass Gyroscopes 113 5.3.1 Symmetric and Decoupled Gyroscope 113 5.3.2 Tuning-Fork Gyroscope 114 5.3.3 Three-Axis Gyroscope 115 5.3.4 Gyroscopes with Resonant Sensing 115 5.4 Disc and Ring Gyroscopes 118 5.5 Design Problems and Reliability Issues 118 References 119 6 Resonators 121 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Electrostatically Actuated Resonators 123 6.3 Piezoelectric Resonators 125 6.4 Nonlinearity Issues 126 References 128 7 Micromirrors and Parametric Resonance 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Electrostatic Resonant Micromirror 132 7.2.1 Numerical Simulations with a Continuation Approach 136 7.2.2 Experimental Set-Up 140 References 145 8 Vibrating Lorentz Force Magnetometers 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Vibrating Lorentz Force Magnetometers 148 8.2.1 Classical Devices 148 8.2.2 Improved Design 151 8.2.3 Further Improvements 155 8.3 Topology or Geometry Optimization 156 References 159 9 Mechanical Energy Harvesters 161 9.1 Introduction 161 9.2 Inertial Energy Harvesters 162 9.2.1 Classification of Resonant Energy Harvesters 162 9.2.2 Mechanical Model of a Simple Piezoelectric Harvester 165 9.3 Frequency Upconversion and Bistability 174 9.4 Fluid–Structure Interaction Energy Harvesters 176 9.4.1 Synopsis of Aeroelastic Phenomena 177 9.4.2 Energy Harvesting through Vortex-Induced Vibration 179 9.4.3 Energy Harvesting through Flutter Instability 180 References 181 10 Micropumps 185 10.1 Introduction 185 10.2 Modelling Issues for Diaphragm Micropumps 186 10.3 Modelling of Electrostatic Actuator 188 10.3.1 Simplified Electromechanical Model 188 10.3.2 Reliability Issues 192 10.4 MultiphysicsModel of an Electrostatic Micropump 196 10.5 Piezoelectric Micropumps 198 10.5.1 Modelling of the Actuator 198 10.5.2 Complete Multiphysics Model 201 References 202 Part III Reliability and Dissipative Phenomena 205 11 Mechanical Characterization at theMicroscale 207 11.1 Introduction 207 11.2 Mechanical Characterization of Polysilicon as a Structural Material for Microsystems 209 11.2.1 Polysilicon as a Structural Material for Microsystems 209 11.2.2 TestingMethodologies 210 11.2.3 Quasi-Static Testing 211 11.2.4 High-Frequency Testing 214 11.3 Weibull Approach 215 11.4 On-Chip TestingMethodology for Experimental Determination of Elastic Stiffness and Nominal Strength 219 11.4.1 On-Chip Bending Test through a Comb-Finger Rotational Electrostatic Actuator 220 11.4.2 On-Chip Bending Test through a Parallel-Plate Electrostatic Actuator 225 11.4.3 On-Chip Tensile Test through an Electrothermomechanical Actuator 229 11.4.4 On-Chip Test forThick Polysilicon Films 233 References 240 12 Fracture and Fatigue in Microsystems 245 12.1 Introduction 245 12.2 Fracture Mechanics: An Overview 245 12.3 MEMS Failure Modes due to Cracking 249 12.3.1 Cracking and Delamination at Package Level 249 12.3.2 Cracking at Silicon Film Level 250 12.4 Fatigue in Microsystems 256 12.4.1 An Introduction to Fatigue in Mechanics 256 12.4.2 Polysilicon Fatigue 259 12.4.3 Fatigue in Metals at the Microscale 261 12.4.4 Fatigue Testing at the Microscale 263 References 266 13 Accidental Drop Impact 271 13.1 Introduction 271 13.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Response to Drops 272 13.3 Estimation of the Acceleration Peak Induced by an Accidental Drop 276 13.4 A Multiscale Approach to Drop Impact Events 277 13.4.1 Macroscale Level 277 13.4.2 Mesoscale Level 279 13.4.3 Microscale Level 279 13.5 Results: Drop-Induced Failure of Inertial MEMS 280 References 287 14 Fabrication-Induced Residual Stresses and Relevant Failures 291 14.1 Main Sources of Residual Stresses in Microsystems 291 14.2 The Stoney Formula and its Modifications 292 14.3 ExperimentalMethods for the Evaluation of Residual Stresses 299 14.4 Delamination, Buckling and Cracks inThin Films due to Residual Stresses 304 References 310 15 Damping in Microsystems 313 15.1 Introduction 313 15.2 Gas Damping in the Continuum Regime with Slip Boundary Conditions 314 15.2.1 Experimental Validation at Ambient Pressure 317 15.2.2 Effects of DecreasingWorking Pressure 318 15.3 Gas Damping in the Rarefied Regime 320 15.3.1 Evaluation of Damping at Low Pressure using KineticModels 321 15.3.2 Linearization of the BGK Model 323 15.3.3 Numerical Implementation 324 15.3.4 Application to MEMS 325 15.4 Gas Damping in the Free-Molecule Regime 328 15.4.1 Boundary Integral Equation Approach 328 15.4.2 Experimental Validations 330 15.5 Solid Damping: Thermoelasticity 335 15.6 Solid Damping: Anchor Losses 338 15.6.1 Analytical Estimation of Dissipation 339 15.6.2 Numerical Estimation of Anchor Losses 342 15.7 Solid Damping: Additional unknown Sources – Surface Losses 346 15.7.1 Solid Damping: Deviations from Thermoelasticity 346 15.7.2 Solid Damping: Losses in Piezoresonators 346 References 348 16 Surface Interactions 351 16.1 Introduction 351 16.2 Spontaneous Adhesion or Stiction 352 16.3 Adhesion Sources 353 16.3.1 Capillary Attraction 353 16.3.2 Van derWaals Interactions 356 16.3.3 Casimir Forces 358 16.3.4 Hydrogen Bonds 359 16.3.5 Electrostatic Forces 360 16.4 Experimental Characterization 361 16.4.1 Experiments by Mastrangelo and Hsu 361 16.4.2 Experiments by the Sandia Group 362 16.4.3 Experiments by the Virginia Group 365 16.4.4 Peel Experiments 367 16.4.5 Pull-in Experiments 368 16.4.6 Tests for Sidewall Adhesion 372 16.5 Modelling and Simulation 374 16.5.1 Lennard-Jones Potential 374 16.5.2 Tribological Models: Hertz, JKR, DMT 375 16.5.3 Computation of Adhesion Energy 377 16.6 Recent Advances 380 16.6.1 Finite Element Analysis of Adhesion between Rough Surfaces 380 16.6.2 Accelerated Numerical Techniques 383 References 387 Index 393

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Book SynopsisThe continued advancement of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) complexity, performance, commercial exploitation and market size requires an ever-expanding graduate population with state-of-the-art expertise. Understanding MEMS: Principles and Applications provides a comprehensive introduction to this complex and multidisciplinary technology that is accessible to senior undergraduate and graduate students from a range of engineering and physical sciences backgrounds. Fully self-contained, this textbook is designed to help students grasp the key principles and operation of MEMS devices and to inspire advanced study or a career in this field. Moreover, with the increasing application areas, product categories and functionality of MEMS, industry professionals will also benefit from this consolidated overview, source of relevant equations and extensive solutions to problems. Key features: Details the fundamentals of MEMS, enablTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Scaling of Forces 1 1.1 Scaling of Forces Model 1 1.2 Weight 2 1.2.1 Example: MEMS Accelerometer 2 1.3 Elastic Force 3 1.3.1 Example: AFM Cantilever 4 1.4 Electrostatic Force 4 1.4.1 Example: MEMS RF Switch 6 1.5 Capillary Force 6 1.5.1 Example: Wet Etching Force 8 1.6 Piezoelectric Force 8 1.6.1 Example: Force in Film Embossing 9 1.7 Magnetic Force 10 1.7.1 Example: Compass Magnetometer 10 1.8 Dielectrophoretic Force 11 1.8.1 Example: Nanoparticle in a Spherical Symmetry Electric Field 12 1.9 Summary 13 Problems 13 2 Elasticity 15 2.1 Stress 15 2.2 Strain 18 2.3 Stress–strain Relationship 20 2.3.1 Example: Plane Stress 21 2.4 Strain–stress Relationship in Anisotropic Materials 22 2.5 Miller Indices 23 2.5.1 Example: Miller Indices of Typical Planes 24 2.6 Angles of Crystallographic Planes 25 2.6.1 Example 25 2.7 Compliance and Stiffness Matrices for Single-Crystal Silicon 26 2.7.1 Example: Young’s Modulus and Poisson Ratio for (100) Silicon 27 2.8 Orthogonal Transformation 29 2.9 Transformation of the Stress State 31 2.9.1 Example: Rotation of the Stress State 31 2.9.2 Example: Matrix Notation for the Rotation of the Stress State 32 2.10 Orthogonal Transformation of the Stiffness Matrix 32 2.10.1 Example: C11 Coefficient in Rotated Axes 33 2.10.2 Example: Young’s Modulus and Poisson Ratio in the (111) Direction 34 2.11 Elastic Properties of Selected MEMS Materials 36 Problems 36 3 Bending of Microstructures 37 3.1 Static Equilibrium 37 3.2 Free Body Diagram 38 3.3 Neutral Plane and Curvature 39 3.4 Pure Bending 40 3.4.1 Example: Neutral Plane for a Rectangular Cross-section 41 3.4.2 Example: Cantilever with Point Force at the Tip 42 3.5 Moment of Inertia and Bending Moment 43 3.5.1 Example: Moment of Inertia of a Rectangular Cross-section 43 3.6 Beam Equation 44 3.7 End-loaded Cantilever 45 3.8 Equivalent Stiffness 47 3.9 Beam Equation for Point Load and Distributed Load 48 3.10 Castigliano’s Second Theorem 48 3.10.1 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body Subject to Pure Bending 50 3.11 Flexures 51 3.11.1 Fixed–fixed Flexure 51 3.11.2 Example: Comparison of Stiffness Constants 53 3.11.3 Example: Folded Flexure 53 3.12 Rectangular Membrane 54 3.13 Simplified Model for a Rectangular Membrane Under Pressure 55 3.13.1 Example: Thin Membrane Subject to Pressure 57 3.14 Edge-clamped Circular Membrane 58 Problems 60 4 Piezoresistance and Piezoelectricity 65 4.1 Electrical Resistance 65 4.1.1 Example: Resistance Value 66 4.2 One-dimensional Piezoresistance Model 67 4.2.1 Example: Gauge Factors 68 4.3 Piezoresistance in Anisotropic Materials 69 4.4 Orthogonal Transformation of Ohm’s Law 70 4.5 Piezoresistance Coefficients Transformation 71 4.5.1 Example: Calculation of Rotated Piezoresistive Components 𝜋′ 11, 𝜋′ 12 and 𝜋′ 16 for unit axes X′ [110], Y′ [ ̄110] and Z′ [001] 72 4.5.2 Analytical Expressions for Some Rotated Piezoresistive Components 74 4.6 Two-dimensional Piezoresistors 74 4.6.1 Example: Accelerometer with Cantilever and Piezoresistive Sensing 76 4.7 Pressure Sensing with Rectangular Membranes 79 4.7.1 Example: Single-resistor Pressure Sensor 82 4.7.2 Example: Pressure Sensors Comparison 85 4.8 Piezoelectricity 86 4.8.1 Relevant Data for Some Piezoelectric Materials 88 4.8.2 Example: Piezoelectric Generator 89 Problems 91 5 Electrostatic Driving and Sensing 93 5.1 Energy and Co-energy 93 5.2 Voltage Drive 97 5.3 Pull-in Voltage 97 5.3.1 Example: Forces in a Parallel-plate Actuator 99 5.4 Electrostatic Pressure 101 5.5 Contact Resistance in Parallel-plate Switches 101 5.6 Hold-down Voltage 101 5.6.1 Example: Calculation of Hold-down Voltage 102 5.7 Dynamic Response of Pull-in-based Actuators 102 5.7.1 Example: Switching Transient 103 5.8 Charge Drive 105 5.9 Extending the Stable Range 105 5.10 Lateral Electrostatic Force 106 5.11 Comb Actuators 106 5.12 Capacitive Accelerometer 108 5.13 Differential Capacitive Sensing 108 5.14 Torsional Actuator 110 Problems 111 6 Resonators 115 6.1 Free Vibration: Lumped-element Model 115 6.2 Damped Vibration 116 6.3 Forced Vibration 117 6.3.1 Example: Vibration Amplitude as a Function of the Damping Factor 120 6.4 Small Signal Equivalent Circuit of Resonators 121 6.4.1 Example: Series and Parallel Resonances 125 6.4.2 Example: Spring Softening 125 6.5 Rayleigh–Ritz Method 126 6.5.1 Example: Vibration of a Cantilever 128 6.5.2 Example: Gravimetric Chemical Sensor 129 6.6 Resonant Gyroscope 130 6.7 Tuning Fork Gyroscope 133 6.7.1 Example: Calculation of Sensitivity in a Tuning Fork Gyroscope 134 Problems 135 7 Microfluidics and Electrokinetics 137 7.1 Viscous Flow 137 7.2 Flow in a Cylindrical Pipe 140 7.2.1 Example: Pressure Gradient Required to Sustain a Flow 141 7.3 Electrical Double Layer 142 7.3.1 Example: Debye Length and Surface Charge 144 7.4 Electro-osmotic Flow 144 7.5 Electrowetting 146 7.5.1 Example: Droplet Change by Electrowetting 148 7.5.2 Example: Full Substrate Contacts 149 7.6 Electrowetting Dynamics 151 7.6.1 Example: Contact-angle Dynamics 153 7.7 Dielectrophoresis 153 7.7.1 Electric Potential Created by a Constant Electric Field 154 7.7.2 Potential Created by an Electrical Dipole 155 7.7.3 Superposition 156 Problems 157 8 Thermal Devices 159 8.1 Steady-state Heat Equation 159 8.2 Thermal Resistance 161 8.2.1 Example: Temperature Profile in a Heated Wire 162 8.2.2 Example: Resistor Suspended in a Bridge 165 8.3 Platinum Resistors 166 8.4 Flow Measurement Based on Thermal Sensors 166 8.4.1 Example: Micromachined Flow Sensor 169 8.5 Dynamic Thermal Equivalent Circuit 171 8.6 Thermally Actuated Bimorph 172 8.6.1 Example: Bimorph Actuator 174 8.7 Thermocouples and Thermopiles 175 8.7.1 Example: IR Detector 175 Problems 176 9 Fabrication 181 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Photolithography 182 9.3 Patterning 183 9.4 Lift-off 184 9.5 Bulk Micromachining 184 9.5.1 Example: Angle of Walls in Silicon (100) Etching 185 9.6 Silicon Etch Stop When Using Alkaline Solutions 186 9.6.1 Example: Boron drive-in at 1050◦C 186 9.7 Surface Micromachining 186 9.7.1 Example: Cantilever Fabrication by Surface Micromachining 187 9.8 Dry Etching 188 9.9 CMOS-compatible MEMS Processing 188 9.9.1 Example: Bimorph Actuator Compatible with CMOS Process 189 9.10 Wafer Bonding 190 9.11 PolyMUMPs Foundry Process 190 9.11.1 Example: PolyMUMPs Cantilever for a Fabry–Perot Pressure Sensor 191 Problems 192 APPENDICES 195 A Chapter 1 Solutions 197 B Chapter 2 Solutions 207 C Chapter 3 Solutions 221 D Chapter 4 Solutions 239 E Chapter 5 Solutions 249 F Chapter 6 Solutions 267 G Chapter 7 Solutions 277 H Chapter 8 Solutions 285 I Chapter 9 Solutions 299 References 307 Index 311

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Book SynopsisAdvanced Computational Nanomechanics is a state-of-the-art publication on computational nanomechanics and contains eleven chapters prepared by world experts in this field.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv 1 Thermal Conductivity of Graphene and Its Polymer Nanocomposites: A Review 1Yingyan Zhang, Yu Wang, Chien Ming Wang and Yuantong Gu 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Graphene 1 1.2.1 Introduction of Graphene 1 1.2.2 Properties of Graphene 6 1.2.3 Thermal Conductivity of Graphene 7 1.3 Thermal Conductivity of Graphene–Polymer Nanocomposites 9 1.3.1 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of Nanocomposites 9 1.3.2 Modelling of Thermal Conductivity of Nanocomposites 9 1.3.3 Progress and Challenge for Graphene–Polymer Nanocomposites 14 1.3.4 Interfacial Thermal Resistance 16 1.3.5 Approaches for Reduction of Interfacial Thermal Resistance 19 1.4 Concluding Remarks 22 References 22 2 Mechanics of CNT Network Materials 29Mesut Kirca and Albert C. To 2.1 Introduction 29 2.1.1 Types of CNT Network Materials 30 2.1.2 Synthesis of CNT Network Materials 31 2.1.3 Applications 35 2.2 Experimental Studies on Mechanical Characterization of CNT Network Materials 39 2.2.1 Non-covalent CNT Network Materials 40 2.2.2 Covalently Bonded CNT Network Materials 45 2.3 Theoretical Approaches Toward CNT Network Modeling 48 2.3.1 Ordered CNT Networks 48 2.3.2 Randomly Organized CNT Networks 50 2.4 Molecular Dynamics Study of Heat-Welded CNT Network Materials 55 2.4.1 A Stochastic Algorithm for Modeling Heat-Welded Random CNT Network 56 2.4.2 Tensile Behavior of Heat-Welded CNT Networks 60 References 65 3 Mechanics of Helical Carbon Nanomaterials 71Hiroyuki Shima and Yoshiyuki Suda 3.1 Introduction 71 3.1.1 Historical Background 71 3.1.2 Classification: Helical “Tube” or “Fiber”? 73 3.1.3 Fabrication and Characterization 74 3.2 Theory of HN-Tubes 76 3.2.1 Microscopic Model 76 3.2.2 Elastic Elongation 79 3.2.3 Giant Stretchability 80 3.2.4 Thermal Transport 82 3.3 Experiment of HN-Fibers 84 3.3.1 Axial Elongation 84 3.3.2 Axial Compression 87 3.3.3 Resonant Vibration 89 3.3.4 Fracture Measurement 92 3.4 Perspective and Possible Applications 93 3.4.1 Reinforcement Fiber for Composites 93 3.4.2 Morphology Control in Synthesis 93 References 94 4 Computational Nanomechanics Investigation Techniques 99Ghasem Ghadyani and Moones Rahmandoust 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Fundamentals of the Nanomechanics 100 4.2.1 Molecular Mechanics 101 4.2.2 Newtonian Mechanics 101 4.2.3 Lagrangian Equations of Motion 102 4.2.4 Hamilton Equations of a Γ-Space 104 4.3 Molecular Dynamics Method 106 4.3.1 Interatomic Potentials 106 4.3.2 Link Between Molecular Dynamics and Quantum Mechanics 112 4.3.3 Limitations of Molecular Dynamics Simulations 114 4.4 Tight Binding Method 115 4.5 Hartree–Fock and Related Methods 116 4.6 Density Functional Theory 118 4.7 Multiscale Simulation Methods 120 4.8 Conclusion 120 References 120 5 Probabilistic Strength Theory of Carbon Nanotubes and Fibers 123Xi F. Xu and Irene J. Beyerlein 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 A Probabilistic Strength Theory of CNTs 124 5.2.1 Asymptotic Strength Distribution of CNTs 124 5.2.2 Nonasymptotic Strength Distribution of CNTs 127 5.2.3 Incorporation of Physical and Virtual Testing Data 130 5.3 Strength Upscaling from CNTs to CNT Fibers 135 5.3.1 A Local Load Sharing Model 136 5.3.2 Interpretation of CNT Bundle Tensile Testing 139 5.3.3 Strength Upscaling Across CNT-Bundle-Fiber Scales 141 5.4 Conclusion 145 References 145 6 Numerical Nanomechanics of Perfect and Defective Hetero-junction CNTs 147Ali Ghavamian, Moones Rahmandoust and Andreas Öchsner 6.1 Introduction 147 6.1.1 Literature Review: Mechanical Properties of Homogeneous CNTs 147 6.1.2 Literature Review: Mechanical Properties of Hetero-junction CNTs 150 6.2 Theory and Simulation 152 6.2.1 Atomic Geometry and Finite Element Simulation of Homogeneous CNTs 152 6.2.2 Atomic Geometry and Finite Element Simulation of Hetero-junction CNTs 153 6.2.3 Finite Element Simulation of Atomically Defective Hetero-junction CNTs 155 6.3 Results and Discussion 156 6.3.1 Linear Elastic Properties of Perfect Hetero-junction CNTs 156 6.3.2 Linear Elastic Properties of Atomically Defective Hetero-junction CNTs 162 6.4 Conclusion 164 References 171 7 A Methodology for the Prediction of Fracture Properties in Polymer Nanocomposites 175Samit Roy and Avinash Akepati 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2 Literature Review 175 7.3 Atomistic J-Integral Evaluation Methodology 176 7.4 Atomistic J-Integral at Finite Temperature 181 7.5 Cohesive Contour-based Approach for J-Integral 184 7.6 Numerical Evaluation of Atomistic J-Integral 185 7.7 Atomistic J-Integral Calculation for a Center-Cracked Nanographene Platelet 187 7.8 Atomistic J-Integral Calculation for a Center-Cracked Nanographene Platelet at Finite Temperature (T = 300 K) 190 7.9 Atomistic J-Integral Calculation for a Center-Cracked Nanographene Platelet Using ReaxFF 192 7.10 Atomistic J-Integral Calculation for a Center-Cracked EPON 862 Model 194 7.11 Conclusions and Future Work 197 Acknowledgment 198 References 199 8 Mechanical Characterization of 2D Nanomaterials and Composites 201Ruth E. Roman, Nicola M. Pugno and Steven W. Cranford 8.1 Discovering 2D in a 3D World 201 8.2 2D Nanostructures 203 8.2.1 Graphene 203 8.2.2 Graphynes and Graphene Allotropes 204 8.2.3 Silicene 205 8.2.4 Boron Nitride 206 8.2.5 Molybdenum Disulfide 207 8.2.6 Germanene, Stanene, and Phosphorene 208 8.3 Mechanical Assays 210 8.3.1 Experimental 210 8.3.2 Computational 211 8.4 Mechanical Properties and Characterization 212 8.4.1 Defining Stress 213 8.4.2 Uniaxial Stress, Plane Stress, and Plane Strain 214 8.4.3 Stiffness 216 8.4.4 Effect of Bond Density 218 8.4.5 Bending Rigidity 219 8.4.6 Adhesion 222 8.4.7 Self-Adhesion and Folding 225 8.5 Failure 227 8.5.1 Quantized Fracture Mechanics 228 8.5.2 Nanoscale Weibull Statistics 231 8.6 Multilayers and Composites 233 8.7 Conclusion 236 Acknowledgment 236 References 237 9 The Effect of Chirality on the Mechanical Properties of Defective Carbon Nanotubes 243Keka Talukdar 9.1 Introduction 243 9.2 Carbon Nanotubes, Their Molecular Structure and Bonding 245 9.2.1 Diameter and Chiral Angle 245 9.2.2 Bonding Speciality in CNTs 246 9.2.3 Defects in CNT Structure 246 9.3 Methods and Modelling 247 9.3.1 Simulation Method 247 9.3.2 Berendsen Thermostat 248 9.3.3 Second-Generation REBO Potential 249 9.3.4 C–C Non-bonding Potential 251 9.3.5 Method of Calculation 251 9.4 Results and Discussions 251 9.4.1 Results for SWCNTs 251 9.4.2 Results for SWCNT Bundle and MWCNTs 255 9.4.3 Chirality Dependence 260 9.5 Conclusions 262 References 263 10 Mechanics of Thermal Transport in Mass-Disordered Nanostructures 265Ganesh Balasubramanian 10.1 Introduction 265 10.2 Equilibrium Molecular Dynamics to Understand Vibrational Spectra 266 10.3 Nonequilibrium Molecular Dynamics for Property Prediction 268 10.4 Quantum Mechanical Calculations for Phonon Dispersion Features 270 10.5 Mean-Field Approximation Model for Binary Mixtures 272 10.6 Materials Informatics for Design of Mass-Disordered Structures 275 10.7 Future Directions in Mass-Disordered Nanomaterials 278 References 279 11 Thermal Boundary Resistance Effects in Carbon Nanotube Composites 281Dimitrios V. Papavassiliou, Khoa Bui and Huong Nguyen 11.1 Introduction 281 11.2 Background 282 11.3 Techniques to Enhance the Thermal Conductivity of CNT Nanocomposites 285 11.4 Dual-Walled CNTs and Composites with CNTs Encapsulated in Silica 286 11.4.1 Simulation Setup 287 11.4.2 Results 289 11.5 Discussion and Conclusions 291 Acknowledgment 291 References 291 Index 295

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Book SynopsisApplied Nanoindentation in Advanced Materials is a comprehensive, self-contained reference covering applied aspects of nanoindentation in advanced materials. With contributions from leading researchers in the field, this book is divided into three parts.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xvii Preface xxiii Part I 1 1 Determination of Residual Stresses by Nanoindentation 3P-L. Larsson 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Theoretical Background 5 1.3 Determination of Residual Stresses 12 1.3.1 Low Hardening Materials and Equi-biaxial Stresses 12 1.3.2 General Residual Stresses 13 1.3.3 Strain-hardening Effects 15 1.3.4 Conclusions and Remarks 15 References 16 2 Nanomechanical Characterization of Carbon Films 19Ben D. Beake and TomaszW. Liskiewicz 2.1 Introduction 19 2.1.1 Types of DLC Coatings and their Mechanical Properties 19 2.1.2 Carbon Films Processing Methods 20 2.1.3 Residual Stresses in Carbon Films 21 2.1.4 Friction Properties of Carbon Films 22 2.1.5 Multilayering Strategies 23 2.1.6 Applications of Carbon Films 24 2.1.7 Optimization/testing Challenges 24 2.2 Factors Influencing Reliable and Comparable Hardness and Elastic Modulus Determination 24 2.2.1 The International Standard for Depth-sensing Indentation: EN ISO 14577–4 : 2007 24 2.2.2 Challenges in Ultra-thin Films 27 2.2.3 Indenter Geometry 28 2.2.4 Surface Roughness 28 2.3 Deformation in Indentation Contact 30 2.3.1 The Relationship Between H/E and Plastic and ElasticWork in Nanoindentation 30 2.3.2 Variation in H/E and Plasticity Index for Different DLC Films 31 2.3.3 Cracking and Delamination 32 2.3.4 Coatings on Si: Si Phase Transformation 33 2.4 Nano-scratch Testing 34 2.4.1 Scan Speed and Loading Rate 35 2.4.2 Influence of Probe Radius 36 2.4.3 Contact Pressure 36 2.4.4 Role of the Si Substrate in Nano-scratch Testing 38 2.4.5 Failure Behaviour of ta-C on Si 40 2.4.6 Film Stress and Thickness 43 2.4.7 Repetitive Nano-wear by Multi-pass Nano-scratch Tests 44 2.4.8 Load Dependence of Friction 46 2.5 Impact and Fatigue Resistance of DLC Films Using Nano-impact Testing 46 2.5.1 Compositionally Graded a-C and a-C:H Coatings on M42 Tool Steel 49 2.5.2 DLC/Cr Coating on Steel 51 2.5.3 PACVD a-C:H Coatings on M2 Steel 51 2.5.4 DLC Films on Si-film Thickness, Probe Geometry, Impact Force and Interfacial Toughness 52 2.6 Wear Resistance of Amorphous Carbon Films Using Nano-fretting Testing 54 2.6.1 Nano-fretting: State-of-the-art 55 2.6.2 Nano-fretting of Thin DLC Films on Si 55 2.6.3 Nano-fretting of DLC Coatings on Steel 57 2.7 Conclusion 58 References 59 3 Mechanical Evaluation of Nanocoatings under Extreme Environments for Application in Energy Systems 69E.J. Rubio, G. Martinez, S.K. Gullapalli, M. Noor-A-Alam and C.V. Ramana 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Thermal Barrier Coatings 70 3.2.1 Nanoindentation Characterization of TBCs 72 3.2.2 Mechanical Properties of Hafnium-based TBCs 74 3.3 Nanoindentation Evaluation of Coatings for Nuclear Power Generation Applications 76 3.3.1 Evaluation ofW-based Materials for Nuclear Application 77 3.4 Conclusions and Outlook 80 Acknowledgments 81 References 81 4 Evaluation of the Nanotribological Properties of Thin Films 83ShojiroMiyake and MeiWang 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 Evaluation Methods of Nanotribology 83 4.3 Nanotribology Evaluation Methods and Examples 84 4.3.1 Nanoindentation Evaluation 84 4.3.2 Nanowear and Friction Evaluation 88 4.3.2.1 Nanowear Properties 89 4.3.2.2 Frictional Properties with Different Lubricants 91 4.3.2.3 Nanowear and Frictional Properties, Evaluated with and without Vibrations 95 4.3.3 Evaluation of the Force Modulation 98 4.3.4 Evaluation of the Mechanical and Other Physical Properties 102 4.4 Conclusions 108 References 108 5 Nanoindentation on Tribological Coatings 111Francisco J.G. Silva 5.1 Introduction 111 5.2 Relevant Properties on Coatings for Tribological Applications 116 5.3 How can Nanoindentation Help Researchers to Characterize Coatings? 116 5.3.1 Thin Coatings Nanoindentation Procedures 118 5.3.2 Hardness Determination 120 5.3.3 Young’s Modulus Determination 123 5.3.4 Tensile Properties Determination 124 5.3.5 Fracture Toughness inThin Films 125 5.3.6 Coatings Adhesion Analysis 126 5.3.7 Stiffness and Other Mechanical Properties 127 5.3.8 Simulation and Models Applied to Nanoindentation 128 References 129 6 Nanoindentation of Macro-porous Materials for Elastic Modulus and Hardness Determination 135Zhangwei Chen 6.1 Introduction 135 6.1.1 Nanoindentation Fundamentals for Dense Materials 135 6.1.2 Introduction to Porous Materials 137 6.1.3 Studies of Elastic Properties of Porous Materials 138 6.2 Nanoindentation of Macro-porous Bulk Ceramics 140 6.3 Nanoindentation of Bone Materials 143 6.4 Nanoindentation of Macro-porous Films 144 6.4.1 Substrate Effect 145 6.4.2 Densification Effect 147 6.4.3 Surface Roughness Effect 149 6.5 Concluding Remarks 151 Acknowledgements 151 References 151 7 Nanoindentation Applied to DC Plasma Nitrided Parts 157Silvio Francisco Brunatto and CarlosMaurício Lepienski 7.1 Introduction 157 7.2 Basic Aspects of DC Plasma Nitrided Parts 160 7.2.1 The Potential Distribution for an Abnormal Glow Discharge 160 7.2.2 Plasma-surface Interaction in Cathode Surface 161 7.2.3 Electrical Configuration Modes in DC Plasma Nitriding 162 7.3 Basic Aspects of Nanoindentation in Nitrided Surfaces 163 7.4 Examples of Nanoindentation Applied to DC Plasma Nitrided Parts 167 7.4.1 Mechanical Polishing: Nanoindentation in Niobium 169 7.4.2 Surface Roughness: Nanoindentation in DC Plasma Nitrided Parts 170 7.4.2.1 Nanoindentation in DC Plasma Nitrided Niobium 170 7.4.2.2 Nanoindentation in DC Plasma Nitrided Titanium 174 7.4.2.3 Nanoindentation in DC Plasma Nitrided Martensitic Stainless Steel 175 7.4.3 Nitrogen-concentration Gradients: Nanoindentation in DC Plasma Nitrided Tool Steel 176 7.4.4 Crystallographic Orientation: Nanoindentation in DC Plasma Nitrided Austenitic Stainless Steels 177 7.5 Conclusion 178 Acknowledgements 179 References 179 8 Nanomechanical Properties of Defective Surfaces 183Oscar Rodríguez de la Fuente 8.1 Introduction 183 8.1.1 The Role of Surface Defects in Plasticity 183 8.1.2 Experimental Techniques for Visualization and Generation of Surface Defects 184 8.1.3 Approaches to Study and Probe Nanomechanical Properties 185 8.2 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Dislocation Nucleation 186 8.2.1 Homogeneous Dislocation Nucleation 186 8.2.2 Heterogeneous Dislocation Nucleation 188 8.3 Surface Steps 190 8.3.1 Studies on Surface Steps 191 8.4 Subsurface Defects 194 8.4.1 Sub-surface Vacancies 195 8.4.2 Sub-surface Impurities and Dislocations 195 8.5 Rough Surfaces 197 8.6 Conclusions 200 Acknowledgements 200 References 200 9 Viscoelastic and Tribological Behavior of Al2O3 Reinforced Toughened Epoxy Hybrid Nanocomposites 205Mandhakini Mohandas and AlagarMuthukaruppan 9.1 Introduction 205 9.2 Experimental 206 9.2.1 Materials 206 9.2.2 FTIR Analysis 208 9.2.3 Results and Discussion 209 9.2.3.1 Viscoeleastic Properties 210 9.2.3.2 Hardness and Modulus by Nanoindentation 214 9.3 Conclusion 219 References 220 10 Nanoindentation of Hybrid Foams 223Anne Jung, Zhaoyu Chen and Stefan Diebels 10.1 Introduction 223 10.1.1 Motivation 223 10.1.2 State of the art of Nanoindentation of Metal and Metal Foam 226 10.2 Sample Material and Preparation 230 10.2.1 Al Material and Coating Process 230 10.2.2 Sample Preparation for Nanoindentation 231 10.3 Nanoindentation Experiments 232 10.3.1 Experimental Setup 232 10.3.2 Results and Discussion 232 10.4 Conclusions and Outlook 239 Acknowledgements 240 References 240 11 AFM-based Nanoindentation of Cellulosic Fibers 247Christian Ganser and Christian Teichert 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 Experimental 248 11.2.1 AFM Instrumentation 248 11.2.2 AFM-based Nanoindentation 250 11.2.3 Comparison with Results of Classical NI 255 11.2.4 Sample Preparation 256 11.3 Mechanical Properties of Cellulose Fibers 257 11.3.1 Pulp Fibers 257 11.3.2 Swollen Viscose Fibers 259 11.4 Conclusions and Outlook 265 Acknowledgments 265 References 266 12 Evaluation of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Coatings for Stainless Steel 269A.Mina, J.C. Caicedo,W. Aperador, M. Mozafari and H.H. Caicedo 12.1 Introduction 269 12.2 Experimental Details 270 12.3 Results and Discussion 271 12.3.1 Crystal Lattice Arrangement of β-TCP/Ch Coatings 271 12.3.2 Surface Coating Analysis 272 12.3.3 Morphological Analysis of the β-TCP-Ch Coatings 274 12.3.4 Mechanical Properties 276 12.3.5 Tribological Properties 279 12.3.6 SurfaceWear Analysis 280 12.3.7 Adhesion Behaviour 281 12.4 Conclusions 283 Acknowledgements 283 References 283 13 Nanoindentation in Metallic Glasses 287Vahid Nekouie, Anish Roy and Vadim V. Silberschmidt 13.1 Introduction 287 13.1.1 Motivation 287 13.1.2 Nanoindentation Studies of Metallic Glasses 288 13.1.2.1 Pile-up and Sink-in 291 13.1.2.2 Indentation Size Effect 293 13.2 Experimental Studies 296 13.2.1 Nano Test Platform III Indentation System 296 13.2.2 Calibration 297 13.2.2.1 Frame Compliance 298 13.2.2.2 Cross-hair Calibration 298 13.2.2.3 Indenter Area Function 298 13.2.3 Experimental Procedure 301 13.2.4 Results and Discussion 301 13.3 Conclusions 307 References 308 Part II 313 14 Molecular Dynamics Modeling of Nanoindentation 315C.J. Ruestes, E.M. Bringa, Y. Gao and H.M. Urbassek 14.1 Introduction 315 14.2 Methods 316 14.2.1 The Indentation Tip 318 14.2.2 Control Methods Used in Experiment and in MD Simulations 319 14.2.3 Penetration Rate 320 14.3 Interatomic Potentials 321 14.3.1 Elastic Constants 321 14.3.2 Generalized Stacking Fault Energies 322 14.4 Elastic Regime 324 14.5 The Onset of Plasticity 325 14.5.1 Evolution of the Dislocation Network 325 14.5.2 Contact Area and Hardness 327 14.5.3 Indentation Rate Effect 328 14.5.4 Tip Diameter Effect 329 14.6 The Plastic Zone: Dislocation Activity 329 14.6.1 Face-centered Cubic Metals 329 14.6.2 Body-centered Cubic Metals 330 14.6.3 Quantification of Dislocation Length and Density 331 14.6.4 Pile-up 333 14.6.5 Geometrically-necessary Dislocations and the Identification of Intrinsic Length-scales from Hardness Simulations 334 14.7 Outlook 336 Acknowledgements 337 References 337 15 Continuum Modelling and Simulation of Indentation in Transparent Single Crystalline Minerals and Energetic Solids 347J.D. Clayton, B.B. Aydelotte, R. Becker, C.D. Hilton and J. Knap 15.1 Introduction 347 15.2 Theory: MaterialModelling 349 15.2.1 General Multi-field Continuum Theory 349 15.2.2 Crystal Plasticity Theory 350 15.2.3 Phase FieldTheory for Twinning 351 15.3 Application: Indentation of RDX Single Crystals 352 15.3.1 Review of PriorWork 353 15.3.2 New Results and Analysis 354 15.4 Application: Indentation of Calcite Single Crystals 356 15.4.1 Review of PriorWork 359 15.4.2 New Results and Analysis 361 15.5 Conclusions 364 Acknowledgements 365 References 365 16 NanoindentationModeling: From Finite Element to Atomistic Simulations 369Daniel Esqué- de los Ojos and Jordi Sort 16.1 Introduction 369 16.2 Scaling and Dimensional Analysis Applied to IndentationModelling 370 16.2.1 Geometrical Similarity of Indenter Tips 370 16.2.2 Dimensional Analysis 371 16.2.3 Dimensional Analysis Applied to Extraction of Mechanical Properties 372 16.3 Finite Element Simulations of Advanced Materials 374 16.3.1 Nanocrystalline Porous Materials and Pressure-sensitive Models 375 16.3.2 Finite Element Simulations of 1D Structures: Nanowires 378 16.3.3 Continuum Crystal Plasticity Finite Element Simulations: Nanoindentation of Thin Solid Films 380 16.4 Nucleation and Interaction of Dislocations During Single Crystal Nanoindentaion: Atomistic Simulations 383 16.4.1 Dislocation Dynamics Simulations 383 16.4.2 Molecular Dynamics Simulations 385 References 386 17 Nanoindentation in silico of Biological Particles 393Olga Kononova, Kenneth A. Marx and Valeri Barsegov 17.1 Introduction 393 17.2 ComputationalMethodology of Nanoindentation in silico 395 17.2.1 Molecular Modelling of Biological Particles 395 17.2.2 Coarse-graining: Self-organized Polymer (SOP) Model 396 17.2.3 MultiscaleModeling Primer: SOP Model Parameterization for Microtubule Polymers 398 17.2.4 Using Graphics Processing Units as Performance Accelerators 399 17.2.5 Virtual AFM Experiment: Forced Indentation in silico of Biological Particles 401 17.3 Biological Particles 403 17.3.1 Cylindrical Particles: Microtubule Polymers 403 17.3.2 Spherical Particles: CCMV Shell 404 17.4 Nanoindentation in silico: Probing Reversible Changes in Near-equilibrium Regime 406 17.4.1 Probing Reversible Transitions 406 17.4.2 Studying Near-equilibrium Dynamics 407 17.5 Application of in silico Nanoindentation: Dynamics of Deformation of MT and CCMV 409 17.5.1 Long Polyprotein – Microtubule Protofilament 409 17.5.2 Cylindrical Particle – Microtubule Polymer 411 17.5.3 Spherical Particle – CCMV Protein Shell 416 17.6 Concluding Remarks 421 References 424 18 Modeling and Simulations in Nanoindentation 429Yi Sun and Fanlin Zeng 18.1 Introduction 429 18.2 Simulations of Nanoindention on Polymers 430 18.2.1 Models and Simulation Methods 430 18.2.2 Load-displacement Responses 431 18.2.3 Hardness and Young’s Modulus 433 18.2.4 The Mechanism of Mechanical Behaviours and Properties 437 18.3 Simulations of Nanoindention on Crystals 441 18.3.1 Models and Simulation Methods 442 18.3.2 The Load-displacement Responses 444 18.3.3 Dislocation Nucleation 446 18.3.4 Mechanism of Dislocation Emission 449 18.4 Conclusions 455 Acknowledgments 456 References 456 19 Nanoindentation of Advanced Ceramics: Applications to ZrO2 Materials 459Joan Josep Roa Rovira, Emilio Jiménez Piqué andMarc J. Anglada Gomila 19.1 Introduction 459 19.2 IndentationMechanics 460 19.2.1 Deformation Mechanics 460 19.2.2 Elastic Contact 461 19.2.3 Elasto/plastic Contact 462 19.3 Fracture Toughness 462 19.4 Coatings 463 19.4.1 Coating Hardness 463 19.4.2 Coating Elastic Modulus 464 19.5 Issues for Reproducible Results 464 19.6 Applications of Nanoindentation to Zirconia 465 19.6.1 Hardness and Elastic Modulus 466 19.6.2 Stress–strain Curve and Phase Transformation 467 19.6.3 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 468 19.6.4 Mechanical Properties of Damaged Surfaces 468 19.6.5 Relation Between Microstructure and Local Mechanical Properties by Massive Nanoindentation Cartography 471 19.7 Conclusions 472 Acknowledgements 472 References 473 20 FEM Simulation of Nanoindentation 481F. Pöhl, W. Theisen and S. Huth 20.1 Introduction 481 20.2 Indentation of Isotropic Materials 482 20.3 Indentation of Thin Films 489 20.4 Indentation of a Hard Phase Embedded in Matrix 490 References 495 21 Investigations Regarding Plastic Flow Behaviour and Failure Analysis on CrAlN Thin Hard Coatings 501Jan Perne 21.1 Introduction 501 21.2 Description of the Method 501 21.2.1 Flow Curve Determination 502 21.2.1.1 Nanoindentation Step 502 21.2.1.2 Yield Strength Determination 502 21.2.1.3 Flow Curve Determination by Iterative Simulation 503 21.2.1.4 Determination of Strain Rate and Temperature Dependency 503 21.2.2 Failure Criterion Determination with Nano-scratch Analysis 503 21.3 Investigations into the CrAlN Coating System 504 21.3.1 Flow curve dependency on chemical composition and microstructure 504 21.3.2 Strain Rate Dependency of Different CrN-AlN Coating Systems 506 21.3.3 Failure criterion determination on a CrN/AlN nanolaminate 507 21.4 Concluding Remarks 509 References 511 22 Scale Invariant Mechanical Surface Optimization 513Norbert Schwarzer 22.1 Introduction 513 22.1.1 Interatomic Potential Description of Mechanical Material Behavior 513 22.1.2 The Effective Indenter Concept and Its Extension to Layered Materials 514 22.1.3 About Extensions of the Oliver and Pharr Method 514 22.1.3.1 Making the Classical Oliver and Pharr Method Fit for Time Dependent Mechanical Behavior 515 22.1.4 Introduction to the Physical Scratch and/or Tribological Test and its Analysis 515 22.1.5 Illustrative Hypothetical Example for Optimization Against Dust Impact 515 22.1.6 About the Influence of Intrinsic Stresses 516 22.2 Theory 517 22.2.1 First Principle Based Interatomic Potential Description of Mechanical Material Behavior 517 22.2.2 The Effective Indenter Concept 521 22.2.3 An Oliver and Pharr Method for Time Dependent Layered Materials 522 22.2.4 Theory for the Physical Scratch and/or Tribological Test 533 22.2.5 From Quasi-Static Experiments and Parameters to DynamicWear, Fretting and Tribological Tests 534 22.2.6 Including Biaxial Intrinsic Stresses 537 22.3 The Procedure 540 22.4 Discussion by Means of Examples 544 22.5 Conclusions 555 Acknowledgements 555 Referencess 556 23 Modelling and Simulations of Nanoindentation in Single Crystals 561Qiang Liu,Murat Demiral, Anish Roy and Vadim V. Silberschmidt 23.1 Introduction 561 23.2 Review of IndentationModelling 564 23.3 Crystal PlasticityModelling of Nanoindentation 565 23.3.1 Indentation of F.C.C. Copper Single Crystal 567 23.3.2 Indentation of B.C.C. Ti-64 569 23.3.3 Indentation of B.C.C. Ti-15-3-3 571 23.4 Conclusions 573 References 574 24 Computer Simulation and Experimental Analysis of Nanoindentation Technique 579A. Karimzadeh,M.R. Ayatollahi and A. Rahimi 24.1 Introduction 579 24.2 Finite Element Simulation for Nanoindentation 580 24.3 Finite Element Modeling 580 24.3.1 Geometry 580 24.3.2 Material Characteristics 581 24.3.3 Boundary Condition 582 24.3.4 Interaction 582 24.3.5 Meshing 582 24.4 Verification of Finite Element Simulation 583 24.4.1 Nanoindentation Experiment on Al 1100 584 24.4.2 Comparison Between Simulation and Experimental Results for Al 1100 584 24.4.2.1 Load-displacement 584 24.4.2.2 Hardness 588 24.5 Molecular Dynamic Modeling for Nanoindentation 591 24.5.1 Simulation Procedure 592 24.6 Results of Molecular Dynamic Simulation 595 24.7 Conclusions 597 References 597 25 Atomistic Simulations of Adhesion, Indentation andWear at Nanoscale 601Jun Zhong, Donald J. Siegel, Louis G. Hector, Jr. and James B. Adams 25.1 Introduction 601 25.2 Methodologies 604 25.2.1 Density FunctionalTheory 604 25.2.1.1 The Exchange–correlation Functional 605 25.2.1.2 PlaneWaves and Supercell 606 25.2.2 Pseudopotential Approximation 606 25.2.3 Molecular Dynamics 607 25.2.3.1 Equations of Motion 607 25.2.3.2 Algorithms 608 25.2.3.3 Statistical Ensembles 608 25.2.3.4 Interatomic Potentials 608 25.2.3.5 Ab initio Molecular Dynamics 609 25.2.4 Some Commercial Software 611 25.2.4.1 The VASP 611 25.2.4.2 The LAMMPS 611 25.3 Density Functional Study of Adhesion at the Metal/Ceramic Interfaces 612 25.3.1 Calculations 612 25.3.2 Effect of Surface Energies in theWsep 614 25.3.3 Conclusions 615 25.4 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Nanoindentation 616 25.4.1 Empirical Modeling 616 25.4.1.1 Modeling Geometry and Simulation Procedures 617 25.4.1.2 Results and discussions 618 25.4.1.3 Conclusions 622 25.4.2 Ab initio Modeling 622 25.4.2.1 Modeling Geometry and Simulation Procedures 622 25.4.2.2 Results and Discussions 624 25.5 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of AdhesiveWear on the Al-substrate 628 25.5.1 Modeling Geometry and Simulation Procedures 629 25.5.2 Results and Discussions 630 25.5.2.1 One CommonWear Sequence 630 25.5.2.2 Thermal Analysis for theWear Sequence 631 25.5.2.3 Wear Rate Analyses 632 25.6 Summary and Prospect 636 Acknowledgments 638 References 638 26 Multiscale Model for Nanoindentation in Polymer and Polymer Nanocomposites 647Rezwanur Rahman 26.1 Introduction 647 26.2 Modeling Scheme 648 26.2.1 Details of the MD Simulation 649 26.3 Nanoindentation Test 650 26.4 Theoretically and Experimentally Determined Result 651 26.5 Multiscale of Complex Heterogeneous Materials 651 26.5.1 Introduction to Peridynamics 652 26.5.2 Nonlocal Multiscale Modeling using Peridynamics: Linking Macro- to Nano-scales 654 26.6 MultiscaleModeling for Nanoindentation in Epoxy: EPON 862 655 26.7 UnifiedTheory for MultiscaleModeling 658 26.8 Conclusion 658 References 659 Index 663

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive and interdisciplinary resource filled with strategic insights, tools, and techniques for the design and construction of hybrid materials. Hybrid materials represent the best of material properties being combined for the development for materials with properties otherwise unavailable for application requirements. Novel Nanoscale Hybrid Materials is a comprehensive resource that contains contributions from a wide range of noted scientists from various fields, working on the hybridization of nanomolecules in order to generate new materials with superior properties. The book focuses on the new directions and developments in design and application of new materials, incorporating organic/inorganic polymers, biopolymers, and nanoarchitecture approaches. This book delves deeply into the complexities that arise when characteristics of a molecule change on the nanoscale, overriding the properties of the individual nanomolecules and generating new properties and capabilities alTable of ContentsList of Contributors xiii 1 Silanols as Building Blocks for Nanomaterials 1Masafumi Unno and Hisayuki Endo 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Synthesis and Applications of Silanols 2 1.2.1 Silanetriols and Disiloxanetetraols 2 1.2.2 Cyclotetrasiloxanetetraol (Cyclic Silanols, All]cis Isomer) 5 1.2.3 Cyclotetrasiloxanetetraol (Cyclic Silanols, Other Isomers) 14 1.2.4 Cyclotrisiloxanetriol 15 1.3 Structures and Properties of Nanomaterials Obtained from Silanols 20 1.3.1 Structure of Laddersiloxanes 20 1.3.2 Thermal Property of Laddersiloxanes 23 1.3.3 Thermal Property of Other Silsesquioxanes 26 1.3.4 Refractive Indices of Silsesquioxanes 28 1.4 Summary and Outlook 29 References 29 2 Biomacromolecule]Enabled Synthesis of Inorganic Materials 33Kristina L. Roth and Tijana Z. Grove 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 DNA 34 2.3 Proteins and Peptides 36 2.3.1 Cage Proteins 37 2.3.2 Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) 38 2.3.3 Engineered Peptides 40 2.3.4 Engineered Protein Scaffolds 42 2.4 Polysaccharides 44 2.5 Methods of Characterization 46 2.6 Conclusion 50 References 50 3 Multilayer Assemblies of Biopolymers: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications 57Jun Chen, Veronika Kozlovskaya, Daniëlle Pretorius, and Eugenia Kharlampieva 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Assembly of Biopolymer Multilayers 58 3.2.1 Biopolymers and Their Properties 58 3.2.2 Growth and Thickness of Biopolymer Multilayers 59 3.2.3 Stability in Solutions and Enzymatic Degradation of Biopolymer Multilayers 74 3.2.3.1 Enzymatic Degradation 75 3.2.3.2 pH and Salt Stability 78 3.2.4 Hydration and Swelling of Biopolymer Multilayers 81 3.3 Properties of Biopolymer Multilayers 83 3.3.1 Surface Properties of Biopolymer Multilayers and Their Interaction with Cells 83 3.3.2 Antibacterial Properties 84 3.3.3 Immunomodulatory Properties 85 3.3.4 Mechanical Properties of Biopolymer Multilayers 87 3.3.5 Other Properties 90 3.4 Applications 91 3.5 Conclusion and Outlook 95 Acknowledgments 96 References 96 4 Functionalization of P3HT]Based Hybrid Materials for Photovoltaic Applications 107Michèle Chevrier, Riccardo Di Ciuccio, Olivier Coulembier, Philippe Dubois, Sébastien Richeter, Ahmad Mehdi, and Sébastien Clément 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Design and Synthesis of Regioregular Poly(3]Hexylthiophene) 109 4.2.1 Metal]Catalyzed Cross]Coupling Reactions 114 4.2.1.1 Nickel]Catalyzed Cross]Coupling Reactions 114 4.2.1.2 Palladium]Catalyzed Cross]Coupling Reactions 121 4.2.2 Functionalization of P3HT 126 4.2.2.1 End]Group Functionalization 127 4.2.2.2 Side]Chain Functionalization 130 4.3 Morphology Control of P3HT/PCBM Blend by Functionalization 132 4.3.1 Introduction 132 4.3.2 End]Group Functionalization 134 4.3.2.1 Fluorinated Chain Ends 135 4.3.2.2 Hydrophilic Chain Ends 139 4.3.2.3 Aromatic Chain Ends 139 4.3.2.4 Fullerene Chain Ends: Compatibilizer Case 141 4.3.3 Side]Chain Functionalization 144 4.3.3.1 Thermal and Photo]Cross]Linking 144 4.3.3.2 Fullerene Side]Functionalization on Polythiophene Block Copolymers 147 4.3.3.3 Cooperative Self]Assembling 149 4.4 Polymer–Metal Oxide Hybrid Solar Cells 154 4.4.1 Anchoring Method 156 4.4.2 Surface Modification Using End] and Side]Chain]Functionalized P3HT 158 4.4.2.1 End]Group Functionalization 158 4.4.2.2 Side]Chain Functionalization 161 4.5 Conclusion 163 Acknowledgments 164 References 164 5 Insights on Nanofiller Reinforced Polysiloxane Hybrids 179Debarshi Dasgupta, Alok Sarkar, Dieter Wrobel, and Anubhav Saxena 5.1 Properties of Silicone (Polysiloxane) 179 5.2 Nanofiller Composition and Chemistry 183 5.2.1 Fumed Silica 183 5.2.2 Aerogel Silica 185 5.2.3 Carbon Black 187 5.3 Polymer [Poly(dimethylsiloxane)]–Filler Interaction 187 5.4 Polymer– Filler Versus Filler–Filler Interactions 190 5.5 PDMS Nanocomposite with Anisotropic Fillers 194 5.6 PDMS– Molecular Filler Nanocomposite 196 Acknowledgment 198 References 198 6 Nanophotonics with Hybrid Nanostructures: New Phenomena and New Possibilities 201Noor Eldabagh, Jessica Czarnecki, and Jonathan J. Foley IV 6.1 Introduction 202 6.2 Theoretical Nanophotonics 204 6.2.1 Mie Theory for Spherical Nanostructures 205 6.2.2 Transfer Matrix Methods for Planar Structures 208 6.2.3 The Finite]Difference Time]Domain Method 214 6.2.4 The Discrete Dipole Approximation 215 6.3 Hybrid Nanostructures 216 6.3.1 Emergent Electrodynamics Phenomena: Inhomogeneous Surface Plasmon Polaritons 216 6.3.2 Advancing Imaging Beyond the Diffraction Limit with ISPPs 220 6.3.3 Emergent Material]Dependent Optical Response in Hybrid Nanostructures 222 6.3.4 Perspective on the Horizon of Health Applications of Hybrid Nanostructures 228 6.3.5 Photodynamic Therapy 228 6.3.6 In Vivo Light Sources 231 6.4 Concluding Remarks 233 References 233 7 Drug Delivery Vehicles from Stimuli]Responsive Block Copolymers 239Prajakta Kulkarni and Sanku Mallik 7.1 Introduction 239 7.2 Block Copolymers for Drug Delivery 241 7.3 Polymeric Nanoparticles 241 7.3.1 Micelles 241 7.3.2 Hydrogels 243 7.3.3 Polymersomes 244 7.4 Stimuli] Responsive Drug Delivery 245 7.4.1 Physical/External Stimuli]Responsive Polymers 246 7.4.1.1 Temperature 246 7.4.1.2 Electro]Responsive Polymers 247 7.4.1.3 Light]Responsive Polymers 247 7.4.1.4 Ultrasound]Responsive Polymers 248 7.4.2 Chemical/Internal Stimuli]Responsive Polymers 248 7.4.2.1 PH]Responsive Polymers 248 7.4.2.2 Ionic Strength]Responsive Polymers 251 7.4.2.3 Enzyme]Responsive Polymers 251 7.4.2.4 Reduction]Sensitive Polymers 251 7.5 Challenges and Prospects 252 7.6 Summary 252 References 253 8 Mechanical Properties of Rubber]Toughened Epoxy Nanocomposites 263B. Zewde, I. J. Zvonkina, A. Bagasao, K. Cassimere, K. Holloway, A. Karim, and D. Raghavan 8.1 Introduction 263 8.2 Epoxy Resins 265 8.3 Rubber] Toughened Epoxy Resin 266 8.4 Nanoparticle Filled Epoxy Nanocomposites 269 8.5 Carbon Nanotubes 270 8.6 Rubber]Toughened CNT Filled Epoxy Nanocomposites 275 8.7 Nanoclay Filled Epoxy Nanocomposites 277 8.8 Rubber]Toughened Nanoclay Filled Epoxy Nanocomposites 282 8.9 Silicon Dioxide Nanoparticles 284 8.10 Rubber]Toughened Nanosilica Filled Epoxy Nanocomposites 286 8.11 Conclusions 289 Acknowledgments 280 References 280 9 Metal Complexes in Reverse Micelles 301Marc A. Walters 9.1 Introduction 301 9.2 Location of Metal Complex Probes in the RM Core 302 9.3 Metal Complexes in Confinement 304 9.3.1 Substitution Reactions and Physical Methods 304 9.3.2 Redox Reactions in Reverse Micelles 309 9.3.3 Metal Ion Binding 311 9.4 Conclusions 320 References 320 10 Heterogenized Catalysis on Metals Impregnated Mesoporous Silica 323Fatima Abi Ghaida, Sébastien Clément, and Ahmad Mehdi 10.1 Introduction 323 10.2 Mesoporous Silica in Catalysis 327 10.3 Modified Mesoporous Silica 329 10.4 Recent Advances in SBA Applied to Catalysis 332 10.5 Conclusion 341 References 342 Index 351

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Book SynopsisThe book highlights applications of hybrid materials in solar energy systems, lithium ion batteries, electromagnetic shielding, sensing of pollutants and water purification. A hybrid material is defined as a material composed of an intimate mixture of inorganic components, organic components, or both types of components. In the last few years, a tremendous amount of attention has been given towards the development of materials for efficient energy harvesting; nanostructured hybrid materials have also been gaining significant advances to provide pollutant free drinking water, sensing of environmental pollutants, energy storage and conservation. Separately, intensive work on high performing polymer nanocomposites for applications in the automotive, aerospace and construction industries has been carried out, but the aggregation of many fillers, such as clay, LDH, CNT, graphene, represented a major barrier in their development. Only very recently has this problem been overTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Hybrid Nanostructured Materials for Advanced Lithium Batteries 1Soumyadip Choudhury and Manfred Stamm 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Battery Requirements 4 1.3 Survey of Rechargeable Batteries 7 1.4 Advanced Materials for Electrodes 9 1.5 Future Battery Strategies 38 1.6 Limitations of Existing Strategies 59 1.7 Conclusions 62 Acknowledgments 63 References 63 2 High Performing Hybrid Nanomaterials for Supercapacitor Applications 79Sanjit Saha, Milan Jana and Tapas Kuila 2.1 Introduction 80 2.2 Scope of the Chapter 82 2.3 Characterization of Hybrid Nanomaterials 82 2.4 Hybrid Nanomaterials as Electrodes for Supercapacitor 91 2.5 Applications of Supercapacitor 130 2.6 Conclusions 134 References 135 3 Nanohybrid Materials in the Development of Solar Energy Applications 147Poulomi Roy 3.1 Introduction 147 3.2 Significance of Nanohybrid Materials 148 3.3 Synthetic Strategies 162 3.4 Application in Solar Energy Conversion 167 3.5 Summary 175 References 176 4 Hybrid Nanoadsorbents for Drinking Water Treatment: A Critical Review 199Ashok K. Gupta, Partha S. Ghosal and Brajesh K. Dubey 4.1 Introduction 199 4.2 Status and Health Effects of Different Pollutants 201 4.3 Removal Technologies 203 4.4 Hybrid Nanoadsorbent 208 4.5 Issues and Challenges 217 4.6 Conclusions 224 References 225 5 Advanced Nanostructured Materials in Electromagnetic Interference Shielding 241Suneel Kumar Srivastava and Vikas Mittal 5.1 Introduction 241 5.2 Theoretical Aspect of EMI Shielding 243 5.3 Experimental Methods in Measuring Shielding Effectiveness 247 5.4 Carbon Allotrope-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 248 Fillers-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 265 5.5 Intrinsically Conducting Polymer (ICP) Derived Nanocomposites 276 5.6 Summary 300 6 Preparation, Properties and the Application of Hybrid Nanomaterials in Sensing Environmental Pollutants 321R. Ajay Rakkesh, D. Durgalakshmi and S. Balakumar 6.1 Introduction 321 6.2 Hybrid Nanomaterials: Smart Material for Sensing Environmental Pollutants 323 6.3 Synthesis Methods of Hybrid Nanomaterials 326 6.4 Basic Mechanism of Gas Sensors Using Hybrid Nanomaterials 330 6.5 Hybrid Nanomaterials-Based Conductometric Gas Sensors for Environmental Monitoring 331 6.6 Conclusion 342 References 342 7 Development of Hybrid Fillers/Polymer Nanocomposites for Electronic Applications 349Mariatti Jaafar 7.1 Introduction 350 7.2 Factors Influencing the Properties of Filler/Polymer Composite 353 7.3 Hybridization of Fillers in Polymer Composites 355 7.4 Hybrid Fillers in Polymer Nanocomposites 358 7.5 Fabrication Methods of Hybrid Fillers/Polymer Composites 362 7.6 Applications of Hybrid Fillers/Polymer Composites 365 References 366 8 High Performance Hybrid Filler Reinforced Epoxy Nanocomposites 371Suman Chhetri, Tapas Kuila and Suneel Kumar Srivastava 8.1 Introduction 372 8.2 Reinforcing Fillers 373 8.3 Necessity of Hybrid Filler Systems 376 8.4 Epoxy Resin 379 8.5 Preparation of Hybrid Filler/Epoxy Nanocomposites 380 8.6 Characterization of Hybrid Filler/Epoxy Polymer Composites 381 8.7 Properties of the Hybrid Filler/Epoxy Nanocomposites 383 8.8 Summary and Future Prospect 408 References 413 9 Recent Developments in Elastomer/Hybrid Filler Nanocomposites 423Suneel Kumar Srivastava and Vikas Mittal 9.1 Introduction 423 9.2 Preparation Methods of Elastomer Nanocomposites 426 9.3 Hybrid Fillers in Elastomer Nanocomposites 427 9.4 Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposites 440 9.5 Dynamical Mechanical Thermal Analysis (DMA) of Elastomer Nanocomposites 452 9.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposites 464 9.7 Differential Scanning Calorimetric (DSC) Analysis of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposites 468 9.8 Electrical Conductivity of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposites 476 9.9 Thermal Conductivity of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposites 477 9.10 Dielectric Properties of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposits 477 9.11 Shape Memory Property of Hybrid Filler Incorporated Elastomer Nanocomposites 478 9.12 Summary 478 Acknowledgment 479 References 479

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Book SynopsisSignificant research has been done in polymeric nanocomposites and progress has been made in understanding nanofiller-polymer interface and interphase and their relation to nanocomposite properties. However, the information is scattered in many different publication media. This is the first book that consolidates the current knowledge on understanding, characterization and tailoring interfacial interactions between nanofillers and polymers by bringing together leading researchers and experts in this field to present their cutting edge research. Eleven chapters authored by senior subject specialists cover topics including: Thermodynamic mechanisms governing nanofiller dispersion, engineering of interphase with nanofillers Role of interphase in governing the mechanical, electrical, thermal and other functional properties of nanocomposites, characterization and modelling of the interphase Effects of crystallization on the interface, chemicalTable of ContentsPreface xiii Part 1 Nanocomposite Interfaces/Interphases 1 Polymer Nanocomposite Interfaces: The Hidden Lever for Optimizing Performance in Spherical Nanofilled Polymers 3 Ying Li, Yanhui Huang, Timothy Krentz, Bharath Natarajan, Tony Neely and Linda S. Schadler 1.1 Introduction 4 1.1.1 Dispersion Control 5 1.1.2 Interface Structure 6 1.1.3 Interface Properties 6 1.1.4 Measuring and Modeling the Interface 7 1.2 Dispersion Control through Interfacial Modification 8 1.2.1 Introduction 8 1.2.2 Short Ligands 8 1.2.3 Polymer Brush 11 1.2.3.1 Polymer Brush Synthesis Methods 12 1.2.3.2 Enthalpic and Entropic Contributions of Polymer Brushes to Dispersion Control 13 1.3 Interface Structure 16 1.3.1 Introduction 16 1.3.2 Effects of Particle Size 17 1.3.3 Effects of Crystallinity and Crosslinking 18 1.3.4 Effects of Polymer Brush Penetration 19 1.3.4.1 The Athermal Case 19 1.3.4.2 The Enthalpic Case 21 1.3.5 Characterizing the Interface Structure 22 1.4 Interface Properties and Characterization Techniques 24 1.4.1 Introduction 24 1.4.2 Molecular Mobility in Nanocomposite Interfaces 25 1.4.3 Thermomechanical Properties and Measurements 28 1.4.3.1 Direct Measurement 30 1.4.3.2 Indirect Methods 32 1.4.4 Dielectric Properties and Measurements 40 1.4.4.1 Effects of Nanofillers 42 1.4.4.2 Measurement Techniques 43 1.4.4.3 Indirect Measurement 44 1.4.4.4 Finite Element Modeling 50 1.4.5 Remarks on Characterization Methods 52 1.5 Summary 53 Acknowledgements 54 References 55 2 Interphase Engineering with Nanofillers in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites 71 József Karger-Kocsis, Sándor Kéki, Haroon Mahmood and Alessandro Pegoretti 2.1 Introduction 72 2.2 Interphase Tailoring for Stress Transfer 74 2.2.1 Coating with Nanofillers 74 2.2.2 Creation of Hierarchical Fibers 80 2.2.2.1 Chemical Grafting of Nanofillers 80 2.2.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 81 2.2.2.3 Other “Grafting” Techniques 83 2.2.3 Effects of Matrix Modification with Nanofillers 85 2.3 Interphase Tailoring for Functionality 87 2.3.1 Sensing/Damage Detection 87 2.3.2 Self-Healing/Repair 89 2.3.3 Damping 91 2.4 Outlook and Future Trends 91 2.5 Summary 93 2.6 Acknowledgements 93 2.7 Nomenclature 94 References 94 3 Formation and Functionality of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 103 Peng-Cheng Ma, Bin Hao and Jang-Kyo Kim 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Formation of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 105 3.3 Functionality of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 111 3.3.1 Load Transfer in Nanocomposites 111 3.3.2 Reduction in Growth Rate of Fatigue Cracks in Nanocomposites 116 3.3.3 Controlling the Fracture Behavior of Nanocomposites 119 3.3.4 Enhancing the Damping Properties of Nanocomposites 121 3.3.5 Channels for the Transport of Ions and Moisture in Nanocomposites 123 3.3.6 Phonon Scattering in Nanocomposites 125 3.3.7 Electron Transfer in Nanocomposites 128 3.4 Summary and Prospects 130 Acknowledgements 133 References 133 4 Impact of Crystallization on the Interface in Polymer Nanocomposites 139 Nandika D’Souza Siddhi Pendse, Laxmi Sahu, Ajit Ranade and Shailesh Vidhate 4.1 Introduction 140 4.2 Thermodynamics of Crystallization 142 4.3 Nylon Nanocomposites 144 4.4 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 145 4.5 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in Nylon 146 4.6 Permeability 149 4.7 PET Nanocomposites 151 4.8 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 151 4.9 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in PET 151 4.10 PEN Nanocomposites 156 4.11 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 156 4.12 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in PEN 157 4.13 Permeability 162 4.14 The Role of the Interface in Permeability: PET versus PEN 162 4.15 Summary 167 References 168 5 Improved Nanofiller-Matrix Bonding and Distribution in GnP-reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites by Surface Plasma Treatments of GnP 171 Rafael J. Zaldivar and Hyun I. Kim 5.1 Introduction 172 5.2 Experimental 173 5.2.1 Composite Fabrication 173 5.2.2 Image Analysis 174 5.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy 174 5.2.4 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 174 5.2.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 175 5.2.6 Mechanical Testing 175 5.3 Results 175 5.4 Conclusions 187 Acknowledgement 187 References 187 6 Interfacial Effects in Polymer Nanocomposites Studied by Thermal and Dielectric Techniques 191 Panagiotis Klonos, Apostolos Kyritsis and Polycarpos Pissis 6.1 Introduction 192 6.2 Experimental Techniques 197 6.2.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 197 6.2.2 Dielectric Techniques 202 6.2.2.1 Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy (BDS) 203 6.2.2.2 Thermally Stimulated Depolarization Current (TSDC) Techniques 207 6.3 Evaluation in Terms of Interfacial Characteristics 209 6.3.1 Analysis of DSC Measurements 209 6.3.2 Analysis of Dielectric Measurements 211 6.3.3 Thickness of the Interfacial Layer 213 6.4 Examples 214 6.4.1 DSC Measurements 214 6.4.2 Dielectric Measurements 221 6.5 Prospects 235 6.6 Summary 236 Acknowledgements 237 References 237 Part 2 Techniques to Characterize/Control Nanoadhesion 7 Investigation of Interfacial Interactions between Nanofillers and Polymer Matrices Using a Variety of Techniques 251 Luqi Liu 7.1 Introduction 251 7.2 Observation of Interfacial Layer in Nanostructured Carbon Materials-based Nanocomposites 253 7.2.1 Characterization of Interface Layer Around CNTs 253 7.2.2 Characterization of Interface Layer Around Graphene Sheets 255 7.3 Interfacial Properties between Nanofiller and Polymer Matrix 256 7.3.1 Theoretical Simulations of CNT and/or Graphene-based Nanocomposites 256 7.3.1.1 Theoretical Simulation of CNT-based Nanocomposites 256 7.3.1.2 Theoretical Simulation of Graphene-based Nanocomposites 258 7.3.2 Experimental Studies to Characterize Interfacial Behavior in CNT and/or Graphene-based Nanocomposite Systems 260 7.3.2.1 Indirect Measurement 261 7.3.2.2 Direct Measurement 261 7.4 Summary 270 Acknowledgements 271 References 271 8 Chemical and Physical Techniques for Surface Modification of Nanocellulose Reinforcements 279 Viktoriya Pakharenko, Muhammad Pervaiz, Hitesh Pande and Mohini Sain 8.1 Introduction 279 8.2 Chemical Surface Modification 281 8.2.1 Acetylation 281 8.2.2 Silylation 284 8.2.3 Bacterial Treatment 285 8.2.4 Grafting 287 8.2.5 Surfactant Adsorption 289 8.2.6 TEMPO-mediated Oxidation 290 8.2.7 Click chemistry 292 8.3 Physical Surface Modification 292 8.3.1 Plasma 292 8.3.2 Corona 297 8.3.3 Laser 299 8.3.4 Flame 299 8.4 Use of Ions 300 8.5 Summary 300 Acknowledgments 301 References 301 9 Nondestructive Sensing of Interface/Interphase Damage in Fiber/Matrix Nanocomposites 307 Zuo-Jia Wang, Dong-Jun Kwon, Jin-Yeong Choi, Pyeong-Su Shin, K. Lawrence DeVries and Joung-Man Park 9.1 Introduction 308 9.2 Experimental Specimens and Methods 311 9.2.1 Gradient Specimen Test 311 9.2.2 Dual Matrix Fragmentation Test 314 9.3 Damage Sensing Using Electrical Resistance Measurements 317 9.3.1 Electrical Resistance Measurement for Strain Sensing Application 317 9.3.2 Electrical Resistance Measurement for Interface/Interphase Evaluation 321 9.4 Summary 327 References 327 10 Development of Polymeric Biocomposites: Particulate Incorporation, Interphase Generation and Evaluation by Nanoindentation 333 Oisik Das and Debes Bhattacharyya 10.1 Introduction 334 10.2 The Definitions of Composite and its Constituents 337 10.2.1 Composite 337 10.2.2 Biocomposite 337 10.2.3 The Reinforcement 337 10.2.4 The Matrix 338 10.3 Physical and Chemical Structures of Bio–based Reinforcements 339 10.3.1 Plant/Vegetable-based Reinforcements/Fibres 339 10.3.1.1 Physical Structure 339 10.3.1.2 Chemical Structure 339 10.3.2 Animal-based Reinforcements/Fibres 342 10.3.2.1 Physical Structure 342 10.3.2.2 Chemical Structure 343 10.4 Particulate and Short Fibre Composites 344 10.4.1 Biochar as Potential New Bio-based Particulate Reinforcement 345 10.4.2 Properties of Particulate-based Composites: Governing Factors 351 10.4.2.1 Particulate Properties 351 10.4.2.2 Particulate Structure 355 10.5 Nanoindentation Technique to Determine Interphase and Composite Properties 358 10.5.1 The Technique and Theory of Nanoindentation 358 10.5.1.1 Different Types of Indenter Tips 360 10.5.1.2 Nanoindentation Theory 362 10.5.1.3 Nanoindentation Instrument 364 10.5.2 Nanoindentation on Polymeric Composites and their Interphase 364 10.5 Concluding Remarks 369 References 370 11 Perspectives on the Use of Molecular Dynamics Simulations to Characterize Filler-Matrix Adhesion and Nanocomposite Mechanical Properties 375 Sanket A. Deshmukh, Benjamin J. Hanson, Qian Jiang and Melissa A. Pasquinelli 11.1 Introduction 376 11.2 Overview of Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulations 377 11.3 Characterization of Interfacial Adhesion with MD Simulations 381 11.3.1 Quantifying Adhesion Strength 381 11.3.2 Effect of the Strength of Matrix-Filler Interactions 383 11.3.3 Effect of Filler Geometry 386 11.3.4 Effect of Ordering and Crosslinking within the Polymer Matrix 388 11.4 Characterization of Mechanical Properties with MD Simulations 391 11.4.1 Predicting Static Mechanical Properties 392 11.4.2 Predicting Dynamic Mechanical Properties 395 11.5 Prospects 399 11.6 Summary 400 Acknowledgements 400 References 400

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Book SynopsisThe Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceeding has been published by The American Ceramic Society since 1980. This series contains a collection of papers dealing with issues in both traditional ceramics (i.e., glass, whitewares, refractories, and porcelain enamel) and advanced ceramics. Topics covered in the area of advanced ceramic include bioceramics, nanomaterials, composites, solid oxide fuel cells, mechanical properties and structural design, advanced ceramic coatings, ceramic armor, porous ceramics, and more.Table of ContentsPreface ix Introduction xi ADVANCED PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING Development of High Temperature Joining and Thermomechanical Characterization Approaches for SiC/SiC Composites 3Michael C. Halbig, Mrityunjay Singh, and Jerry Lang Microstructural Observation of Interfaces in Diffusion Bonded Silicon Carbide Ceramics by TEM 13Hiroshi Tsuda, Shigeo Mori, Michael C. Halbig, Mrityunjay Singh, and Rajiv Asthana Preparation and Characterization of Rb-SiC Ceramics Fabricated from Phenolic Resin/SiC 21Akihiro Shimamura, Mikinori Hotta, Tatsuki Ohji, and Naoki Kondo New Combined Method of MPS and FEM for Simulating Friction Stir Processing 27Hisashi Serizawa and Fumikazu Miyasaka Novel Visualizing Technique of the Tips of the Cracks for Indentation Fracture Resistance Method 37H. Miyazaki and Y. Yoshizawa Slip-Casting by Water-Absorbing Resin Mold Enables Crack-Free Ceramic Molding System and Products with Partially Different Thicknesses 45Akio Matsumoto Influence of Lanthanoid Dopant and N/O Substitution on the Electronic Structure and Luminescent Properties of Lanthanum Silicon Oxynitride Phosphors 55I.A.M. Ibrahim, Z. Len éš, L. Benco, and P. Šajgalík Effect of Ti3SiC2 Particulates on the Mechanical and Tribological Behavior of Sn Matrix Composites 65T. Hammann, R. Johnson, M. F. Riyad, and S. Gupta Field Assisted Sintering of Silicate Glass-Containing Alumina 75Mattia Biesuz and Vincenzo M. Sglavo Modeling the First Activation Stages of the Fe(hfa)2TMEDA CVD Precursor on a Heated Growth Surface 83Gloria Tabacchi, Ettore Fois, Davide Barreca, Giorgio Carraro, Alberto Gasparotto, and Chiara Maccato Development of High Aspect Ratio Hexagonal Boron Nitride Filler by Mechanical Exfoliation 91Yuichi Tominaga, Kimiyasu Sato, Daisuke Shimamoto, Yusuke Imai, and Yuji Hotta Preparation and Characterization of Nanostructured Films: Study of Hydrophobicity and Antibacterial Properties for Surface Protection 101M. Barberio, S. Veltri, E. Sokullu, F. Xu, M.A. Gauthier, and P. Antici ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING AND 3D PRINTING 3-D Printing and Characterization of Polymer Composites with Different Reinforcements 115Anton Salem, Mrityunjay Singh, and Michael C. Halbig Additive Manufacturing of Drainage Segments for Cooling System of Crucible Melting Furnaces 123Miranda Fateri, Andreas Gebhardt, and Georg Renftle Additive Manufacturing of Silicon Carbide-Based Ceramics by 3-D Printing Technologies 133Shirley X. Zhu, Michael C. Halbig, and Mrityunjay Singh Additive Manufacturing of Light Weight Ceramic Matrix Composites for Gas Turbine Engine Applications 145Mrityunjay Singh, Michael C. Halbig, and Joseph E. Grady Application of Selective Separation Sintering in Ceramics 3D Printing 151J. Zhang and B. Khoshnevis Contour Crafting of Advanced Ceramic Materials 159Mahmood Shirooyeh, Mohammadaref Vali, David Shackleford, Payman Torabi, Paul W. Rehrig, Oh-Hun Kwon, and Behrokh Khoshnevis Author Index 169

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Book SynopsisThis unique multidisciplinary 8-volume set focuses on the emerging issues concerning synthesis, characterization, design, manufacturing and various other aspects of composite materials from renewable materials and provides a shared platform for both researcher and industry. The Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials comprises a set of 8 individual volumes that brings an interdisciplinary perspective to accomplish a more detailed understanding of the interplay between the synthesis, structure, characterization, processing, applications and performance of these advanced materials. The Handbook comprises 169 chapters from world renowned experts covering a multitude of natural polymers/ reinforcement/ fillers and biodegradable materials. Volume 7 is solely focused on the Nanocomposites: Science and Fundamentals of renewable materials. Some of the important topics include but not limited to: Preparation, characterization, and applications of naTable of ContentsPreface xxi 1 Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Nanomaterials (Cellulose, Lignin, and Silica) from Renewable (Lignocellulosic) Resources 1K.G. Satyanarayana, Anupama Rangan, V.S. Prasad and Washington Luiz Esteves Magalhaes 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Cellulose and Nanocellulose 3 1.1.1.1 Types of Nanocellulose 5 1.1.2 Lignin and Nanolignin 7 1.1.3 Silica and Nanosilica 7 1.2 Preparation of Nanomaterials 10 1.2.1 Nanocellulose from Lignocellulosic Materials 10 1.2.1.1 Mechanical Shearing and Grinding 11 1.2.1.2 Steam Explosion/High-Pressure Homogenization 12 1.2.1.3 Chemical Methods (Acid Hydrolysis, Alkaline Treatment and Bleaching) 16 1.2.1.4 Ultrasonication 17 1.2.1.5 Other Methods 18 1.2.1.6 Functionalized Nanocellulose from Fibers 20 1.2.2 Nanolignin 21 1.2.2.1 Precipitation Method 22 1.2.2.2 Chemical Modification 22 1.2.2.3 Electro Spinning Followed by Surface Modification 22 1.2.2.4 Freeze Drying Followed by Thermal Stabilization and Carbonization 22 1.2.2.5 Supercritical Antisolvent Technology 23 1.2.2.6 Chemomechanical Methods 23 1.2.2.7 Nanolignin by Self-Assembly 23 1.2.2.8 Lignin Nanocontainers by Miniemulsion Method 23 1.2.2.9 Template-Mediated Synthesis 24 1.2.3 Nanosilica 25 1.2.3.1 Nanosilica Obtained from Plants 25 1.2.3.2 Enzymatic Crystallization of Amorphous Nanosilica 27 1.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials 27 1.3.1 Characterization of Nanocellulose 29 1.3.1.1 Structure and Morphology of NC 29 1.3.1.2 Physical Properties (Dimensions, Density, Electrical, Crystallinity, and Any Other) 33 1.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties 36 1.3.2 Characterization of Lignin Nanoparticles 37 1.3.2.1 Morphology of Lignin Nanoparticles 38 1.3.2.2 Thermal Analysis 39 1.3.3 Other Methods 39 1.3.4 Characterization of Nanosilica 39 1.4 Applications and Market Aspects 45 1.4.1 Nanocellulose 45 1.4.1.1 Biomedical Applications 46 1.4.1.2 Dielectric Materials 46 1.4.1.3 In Composite Manufacturing for Various Applications 46 1.4.1.4 Advanced Functional Materials 47 1.4.2 Nanolignin 49 1.4.3 Nanosilica 51 1.4.3.1 In Composites 51 1.4.3.2 Nanosilica in Nacre Composite 52 1.4.3.3 Encapsulation of Living Cells by Nanosilica 52 1.5 Concluding Remarks and Challenges Ahead 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 2 Hydrogels and its Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources: Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications 67B. Manjula, A. Babul Reddy, T. Jayaramudu, E.R. Sadiku, S.J. Owonubi, Oluranti Agboola and Tauhami Mokrani 2.1 Introduction 67 2.2 Hydrogels from Renewable Resources 71 2.3 Hydrogel Technical Features 72 2.4 Nanocomposite Hydrogels 72 2.4.1 Polymer-Clay-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels 75 2.4.2 Poly(ethylene Oxide)–Silicate Nanocomposite Hydrogels 76 2.4.3 Poly(acryl Amide) and Poly(vinyl Alcohol)–Silicate-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels 77 2.5 Nanocomposite Hydrogels with Natural Polymers 79 2.6 Classifications of Hydrogels 80 2.7 Applications of Hydrogels as Biomaterials 82 2.7.1 Hydrogels for Drug Delivery Applications 82 2.7.2 Hydrogels for Tissue-Engineering Scaffolds 84 2.7.3 Hydrogels for Contact Lens 85 2.7.4 Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation 85 2.7.5 Artificial Muscles and Nerve Regeneration 86 2.8 Conclusions 87 Acknowledgment 88 References 88 3 Preparation of Chitin-Based Nanocomposite Materials Through Gelation with Ionic Liquid 97Kazuya Yamamoto and Jun-ichi Kadokawa 3.1 Introduction 98 3.2 Dissolution and Gelation of Chitin with Ionic Liquid 100 3.3 Fabrication of Self-Assembled Chitin Nanofibers by Regeneration from the Chitin Ion Gels 103 3.4 Preparation of Nanocomposite Materials from Chitin Nanofibers 104 3.5 Conclusion 114 References 115 4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites 121Abbas Dadkhah Tehrani, Masoumeh Parsamanesh and Ali Bodaghi 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Nanocomposites 122 4.3 Starch Structural Features 123 4.4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites 124 4.4.1 Starch Silicate Nanocomposites 125 4.4.2 Starch/Chitosan Composites 126 4.4.3 Starch Cellulose Nanocomposites 128 4.4.4 Starch Nanocomposites with Other Nanofillers 129 4.5 Starch Nanocrystal, Nanoparticle, and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods 131 4.5.1 Starch Nanocrystals Preparation by Acid Hydrolysis Method 131 4.5.2 Starch Nanocrystal Modification Methods 133 4.5.2.1 Starch Nanocrystals Chemical Modification by Molecules with Low Molecular Weight 133 4.5.2.2 Modification of Starch Nanocrystals via Surface Grafting of Polymers 133 4.5.3 Starch Nanoparticle and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods 135 4.6 Nano Starch as Fillers in Other Nanocomposites 140 4.7 Biomedical Application 143 4.8 Conclusion 144 References 145 5 Biorenewable Nanofiber and Nanocrystal: Renewable Nanomaterials for Constructing Novel Nanocomposites 155Linxin Zhong and Xinwen Peng 5.1 Nanocellulose-Based and Nanocellulose-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels 156 5.1.1 Gelling Performances of Nanocelluloses 157 5.1.2 Nanocelluloses-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels 159 5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Aerogels 166 5.2.1 Preparation and Properties of Nanocellulose Aerogels 166 5.2.2 Nanocellulose–Polymer Composite Aerogels 171 5.2.3 Nanocellulose–Inorganic Nanocomposite Aerogels 176 5.2.4 Nanocellulose–Nanocarbon Hybrid Aerogels 179 5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Biomimetic and Conductive Nanocomposite Films 183 5.3.1 Nanocellulose–Polymer Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films 183 5.3.2 Nanocellulose–Inorganic Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films 187 5.3.3 Nanocellulose–Nanocarbon Conductive Nanocomposite Films 190 5.4 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal and its Nanocomposites with Unique Optical Properties 196 5.4.1 CNC Chiral Nematic Performances 196 5.4.2 CNC–Polymer Photonic Nanocomposites 199 5.4.3 CNC–Inorganic Photonic Nanocomposites 202 5.4.4 CNC-Templated Chiral Nematic Nanomaterials 204 5.5 Spun Fibers from Nanocelluloses 207 5.5.1 Spinning Performances of Nanocelluloses and Properties 207 5.5.2 Nanocellulose–Polymer Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers 210 5.5.3 Nanocellulose–Nanocarbons Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers 212 5.6 Summary and Outlook 213 References 215 6 Investigation of Wear Characteristics of Dental Composite Reinforced with Rice Husk–Derived Nanosilica Filler Particles 227I.K. Bhat, Amar Patnaik and Shiv Ranjan Kumar 6.1 Introduction 227 6.2 Materials and Method 229 6.2.1 Synthesis of Nanosilica Powder 229 6.2.2 Materials and Fabrication Details 230 6.2.3 Determination of Hardness 230 6.2.4 Determination of Flexural Strength 231 6.2.5 Determination of Wear 231 6.2.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope 232 6.3 Results and Discussion 232 6.3.1 Effect of Vickers Hardness on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica 232 6.3.2 Effect of Flexural Strength on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica 233 6.3.3 Steady-State Condition for Wear Characterization in Food Slurry and Acidic Medium 233 6.3.3.1 Effect of Chewing Load on Volumetric Wear Rate on Dental Composite 233 6.3.3.2 Effect of Profile Speed on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite 235 6.3.3.3 Effect of Chamber Temperature on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite 236 6.3.4 Wear Analysis of Experimental Results by Taguchi Method and ANOVA Analysis 237 6.3.4.1 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Food Slurry Using Taguchi and ANOVA 237 6.3.4.2 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Citric Acid Using Taguchi and ANOVA 240 6.3.5 Surface Morphology of Worn Surfaces Under Food Slurry and Citric Acid Condition 241 6.3.6 Confirmation Experiment of Proposed Composites 243 6.4 Conclusions 244 Acknowledgments 245 Nomenclature 245 References 245 7 Performance of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites Fabricated via Ionic Liquid Based on Halloysites and Vermiculite 249Nurbaiti Abdul Hanid, Mat Uzir Wahit and Qipeng Guo 7.1 Introduction 250 7.1.1 Overview 250 7.1.2 Cellulose Structure and Properties 250 7.1.3 Regenerated Cellulose 251 7.1.4 Conventional Solvent for Cellulose 251 7.1.5 Dissolution of Cellulose in NMMO 252 7.1.6 Cellulose Dissolution in Ionic Liquid 253 7.1.7 Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites 255 7.1.8 Halloysites 255 7.1.9 Vermiculite 255 7.2 Experimental 256 7.2.1 Materials 256 7.2.2 Sample Preparation 257 7.2.2.1 The Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose via Ionic Liquid 257 7.2.2.2 Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites via Ionic Liquids 257 7.2.3 Characterization of the Nanocomposites Films 257 7.3 Results and Discussions 258 7.3.1 XRD Patterns of RC Nanocomposites 258 7.3.2 FTIR Spectra of RC Nanocomposites 259 7.3.3 Mechanical Properties of RC Nanocomposites 261 7.3.4 Morphology Analysis of the RC Nanocomposites 263 7.3.4.1 Transmission Electron Micrographs Images Analysis 263 7.3.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy Images Analysis 264 7.3.5 Thermal Stability Analysis of RC Nanocomposites 265 7.3.6 Water Absorption of RC Nanocomposites 267 7.4 Conclusion 268 Acknowledgments 269 References 269 8 Preparation, Structure, Properties, and Interactions of the PVA/Cellulose Composites 275Bai Huiyu 8.1 PVA and Cellulose 275 8.1.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol 275 8.1.1.1 Molecular Weight and the Degree of Alcoholysis 275 8.1.1.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of PVA 276 8.1.2 Cellulose 277 8.1.2.1 Structure and Chemistry of Cellulose 277 8.1.2.2 Source of Cellulose 278 8.1.2.3 The Particle Types of Cellulose 278 8.1.2.4 Properties of Cellulose 279 8.1.2.5 Application of Cellulose 280 8.1.3 PVA/Cellulose Composites 280 8.1.3.1 The Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 280 8.1.3.2 Application of PVA/Cellulose Composites 281 8.2 The Bulk and Surface Modification of Cellulose Particles 281 8.2.1 The Bulk Modification of Cellulose Particles 281 8.2.1.1 Complex Modification 281 8.2.1.2 Graft Polymerization 282 8.2.2 The Surface Modification of Cellulose 283 8.2.2.1 Chemical Surface Modification 283 8.2.2.2 Physical Surface Modification 284 8.3 The Methods and Technology of Preparation of the PVA/Cellulose Composites 284 8.3.1 Solvent Casting 284 8.3.2 Melt Processing 285 8.3.3 Electrospun Fiber 285 8.3.4 In Situ Production 286 8.4 The Relationship between Structure and Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 286 8.4.1 Interpenetrating Polymer Network 286 8.4.2 Hydrogen-Bonding or Bond Network 287 8.4.3 Chemical Cross-Linked Network 287 8.5 The Effect of the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose on Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 288 8.5.1 Characterization Methods for the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose 288 8.5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy 288 8.5.1.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 288 8.5.1.3 X-Ray Powder Diffraction 289 8.5.1.4 Fourier Transform Infrared 289 8.5.2 Interaction between PVA and Cellulose 290 8.5.2.1 Molecular Interactions 290 8.5.2.2 Covalent Interactions 290 8.5.2.3 Nucleation of Cellulose 290 8.6 Conclusions and Outlook 291 References 291 9 Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 299Denis Mihaela Panaitescu, Adriana Nicoleta Frone and Ioana Chiulan 9.1 Introduction 299 9.2 A Short Overview on Nanosized Cellulose 300 9.3 General Aspects on Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 304 9.4 Green Composites from Biopolyamides and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 305 9.5 Green Composites from Polylactide and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 309 9.5.1 General Aspects 309 9.5.2 Processing Methods 310 9.5.2.1 Solution Casting 310 9.5.2.2 Melt Processing 311 9.5.2.3 Other Processing Techniques 314 9.5.3 Mechanical, Thermal, and Morphological Properties 314 9.5.4 Applications 318 9.6 Microbial Polyesters Nanocellulose Composites 319 9.6.1 PHAs Biosynthesis 319 9.6.2 General Overview on PHAs–Nanocellulose Composites 321 9.6.3 Processing Strategies for the Preparation of PHAs–Cellulose Nanocomposites 321 9.6.4 Morphological, Thermal, and Mechanical Characteristics of PHAs/Nanocellulose 323 9.6.5 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility 327 9.6.6 Applications 328 9.7 Conclusions 328 Acknowledgment 329 References 329 10 Biomass Composites from Bamboo-Based Micro/Nanofibers 339Haruo Nishida, Keisaku Yamashiro and Takayuki Tsukegi 10.1 Introduction 339 10.2 Bamboo Microfiber and Microcomposites 340 10.2.1 Bamboo Fibrovascular Bundle Structure 340 10.2.2 Preparation Methods of Short Bamboo Microfiber 341 10.2.3 Preparation of sBμF with Super-Heated Steam 342 10.2.3.1 SHS Treatment 342 10.2.3.2 Characterization Methods of sBμF 342 10.2.3.3 Changes in Surface Morphology of SHS-Treated Bamboo 344 10.2.3.4 Changes in Chemical and Physical Properties of SHS-Treated Bamboo 345 10.2.3.5 Classification of sBμF 348 10.2.4 Preparation of sBμF/Plastic Microcomposites 349 10.2.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties of sBμF/Plastic Microcomposites 349 10.2.4.2 Melt Processability of sBμF/Plastic Microcomposites 350 10.2.4.3 Electrical Properties of sBμF/Plastic Microcomposites 350 10.3 Bamboo Lignocellulosic Nanofiber and Nanocomposite 352 10.3.1 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Cellulose 352 10.3.2 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Lignocellulose 352 10.3.3 Reactive Processing for Nanofibrillation 353 10.3.4 Changes in Cellulose Crystalline Structure after Nanofibrillation 355 10.3.5 Preparation of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites 355 10.3.6 Properties of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites 356 10.4 Conclusions 357 References 358 11 Synthesis and Medicinal Properties of Polycarbonates and Resins from Renewable Sources 363Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, T.V. Surendra and G. Madhumitha 11.1 Introduction 363 11.2 Synthesis 365 11.2.1 Chemical Synthesis of Polycarbonates 365 11.2.2 Synthesis of Polycarbonate from Eugenol 365 11.2.3 Synthesis of Renewable Bisphenols from 2,3-Pentanedione 366 11.2.4 Synthesis of Mesoporous PC–SiO2 367 11.2.5 Synthesis of Fluorinated Epoxy-Terminated Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (FBPA-PC EP) 367 11.2.6 Synthesis of Eugenol-Based Epoxy Resin (DEU-EP) 368 11.3 Polycarbonates from Renewable Resources 368 11.3.1 Ethylene from Biomass 368 11.3.2 Synthesis of Dianols via Microwave Degradation 369 11.3.3 Glycerol Carbonates from Recyclable Catalyst 369 11.3.4 Alternative to Phosgene for Aromatic Polycarbonate and Isocyanate Syntheses 370 11.3.5 Liquid-Phase Synthesis of Polycarbonate 371 11.4 Medicinal Properties 372 11.4.1 Polycarbonates in Drug Delivery 372 11.4.2 Polycarbonates in Gene Transformation 372 11.4.3 Cytotoxicity Test of Polycarbonates 373 11.4.4 Polycarbonates in Autoimmunity 374 11.4.5 Activation of Hyperprolactinemia and Immunostimulatory Response by Polycarbonates 375 11.5 Conclusion 376 References 376 12 Nanostructured Polymer Composites with Modified Carbon Nanotubes 381A.P. Kharitonov, A.G. Tkachev, A.N. Blohin, I.V. Burakova, A.E. Burakov, A.E. Kucherova and A.A. Maksimkin 12.1 Introduction 382 12.1.1 Polymer Materials and Their Application 382 12.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes Application and Their Main Properties 387 12.2 Experimental Methods 390 12.2.1 Investigation of the CNTs Synthesis 390 12.2.2 CNTs Treatment 395 12.2.3 Composites Fabrication 395 12.2.4 Testing Procedures 395 12.3 Results and Discussion 396 12.3.1 FTIR Spectroscopy 396 12.3.2 Influence of Fluorination on the CNTs Specific Surface 396 12.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Study 396 12.3.4 TGA of Virgin and Fluorinated CNTs 397 12.3.5 SEM Data of Composites Fracture 397 12.3.6 TGA and DSC of Composites 401 12.3.7 Mechanical Properties of Composites 402 12.3.7.1 Tensile Strength 402 12.3.7.2 Flexural Strength 403 12.4 Conclusion 403 Acknowledgments 404 References 404 13 Organic–Inorganic Nanocomposites Derived from Polysaccharides: Challenges and Opportunities 409Ana Barros-Timmons, Fabiane Oliveira and José A. Lopes-da-Silva 13.1 Introduction 409 13.2 Constituents 412 13.2.1 Polysaccharides 412 13.2.2 Inorganic Nanofillers 413 13.3 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Derived Nanocomposites 414 13.3.1 Surface Modification 414 13.3.2 Addition of Components 416 13.3.3 In Situ Preparation of Nanoparticles via Precursors 419 13.4 Processing 421 13.4.1 Plasticizers 422 13.4.2 Conventional Processing Methods to Prepare Inorganic–Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 422 13.4.3 Emerging Methods to Prepare Inorganic–Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 424 13.5 Trends and Perspectives 426 Acknowledgments 426 References 427 14 Natural Polymer-Based Nanocomposites: A Greener Approach for the Future 433Prasanta Baishya, Moon Mandal, Pankaj Gogoi and Tarun K. Maji 14.1 Introduction 433 14.2 Wood Polymer Nanocomposite 435 14.3 Basic Components of Wood Polymer Nanocomposite 436 14.4 Natural Polymer/Raw Material Used in Preparation of WPNC 436 14.4.1 Starch 436 14.4.2 Gluten 437 14.4.3 Chitosan 438 14.4.4 Vegetable Oil 439 14.4.4.1 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oil 440 14.5 Wood 442 14.6 Cross-Linker 443 14.7 Modification of Natural Polymers 443 14.7.1 Grafting of Starch 443 14.7.2 Modification of Starch by Other Methods 444 14.7.3 Plasticizer 445 14.7.4 Nano-Reinforcing Agents 446 14.7.4.1 Montmorillonite 446 14.7.4.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 447 14.7.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes 448 14.7.4.4 Nanocellulose 448 14.8 Properties of Natural Polymer-Based Composites 449 14.8.1 Mechanical Properties 449 14.8.2 Thermal Properties 450 14.8.3 Water Uptake and Dimensional Stability 450 14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects 451 References 452 15 Cellulose Whisker-Based Green Polymer Composites 461Silviya Elanthikkal, Tania Francis, C. Sangeetha and G. Unnikrishnan 15.1 Cellulose: Discovery, Sources, and Microstructure 462 15.1.1 Sources of Cellulose 462 15.1.2 Microstructure of Cellulose 463 15.2 Nanocellulose 466 15.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis 467 15.2.2 Mechanical Processes 470 15.2.3 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation 471 15.2.4 Steam Explosion Method 472 15.2.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 473 15.2.6 Hydrolysis with Gaseous Acid 474 15.2.7 Treatment with Ionic Liquid 474 15.3 Polymer Composites 475 15.3.1 Polymer Composite Fabrication Techniques 476 15.3.1.1 Casting Evaporation Technique 476 15.3.1.2 Extrusion 476 15.3.1.3 Compression Molding 477 15.3.1.4 Injection Molding 478 15.3.2 Cellulose Whisker Composites: Literature-Based Discussion 478 15.3.2.1 Latex-Based Composites 478 15.3.2.2 Polar Polymer-Based Composites 479 15.3.2.3 Nonpolar Polymer-Based Composites 479 15.4 Applications of Cellulose Whisker Composites 483 15.4.1 Packaging 484 15.4.2 Automotive and Toys 484 15.4.3 Electronics 484 15.4.4 Biomedical Applications 485 References 486 16 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites Reinforced with Different Additives 495Ravi Babu Valapa, G. Pugazhenthi and Vimal Katiyar 16.1 Introduction 495 16.2 Biopolymers 497 16.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers 497 16.3 PLA Nanocomposites 502 16.3.1 PLA–Clay Nanocomposites 502 16.3.2 PLA–Carbonaceous Nanocomposites 507 16.3.3 PLA-Bio Filler Composites 510 16.3.4 PLA–Silica Nanocomposites 516 16.4 Summary 516 References 516 17 Nanocrystalline Cellulose: Green, Multifunctional and Sustainable Nanomaterials 523Samira Bagheri, Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli and Negar Mansouri 17.1 Introduction: Natural Based Products 523 17.2 Nanocellulose 524 17.2.1 Nanocellulose: Properties 524 17.2.1.1 Nanocellulose: Mechanical Properties 526 17.2.1.2 Nanocellulose: Physical Properties 526 17.2.1.3 Nanocellulose: Surface Chemistry Properties 529 17.2.2 Nanocellulose: Synthesis Process 529 17.2.2.1 Conventional Acid Hydrolysis Process 529 17.2.3 Nanocellulose: Limitations 530 17.2.3.1 Single Particles Dispersion 530 17.2.3.2 Barrier Properties 530 17.2.3.3 Permeability Properties 531 17.3 Nanocellulose: Chemical Functionalization 531 17.3.1 Organic Compounds Functionalization 532 17.3.1.1 Molecular Functionalization 532 17.3.1.2 Macromolecular Functionalization 536 17.3.2 Nanocellulose: Inorganic Compounds Functionalization 539 17.3.2.1 Nanocellulose-Titanium Oxide Functionalization 539 17.3.2.2 Nanocellulose-Fluorine Functionalization 539 17.3.2.3 Nanocellulose-Gold Functionalization 540 17.3.2.4 Nanocellulose-Silver Functionalization 540 17.3.2.5 Nanocellulose-Pd Functionalization 540 17.3.2.6 Nanocellulose-CdS Functionalization 541 17.4 Applications of Functionalized Nanocellulose 541 17.4.1 Wastewater Treatment 541 17.4.2 Biomedical Applications 542 17.4.3 Biosensor and Bioimaging 542 17.4.4 Catalysis 543 17.5 Conclusion 543 Acknowledgment 544 References 544 18 Halloysite-Based Bionanocomposites 557Giuseppe Lazzara, Marina Massaro, Stefana Milioto and Serena Riela 18.1 Introduction 557 18.2 Biodegradable Polymers 559 18.2.1 Cellulose 559 18.2.2 Chitosan 560 18.2.3 Starch 561 18.2.4 Alginate 562 18.2.5 Pectin 562 18.3 Natural Inorganic Filler: Halloysite Nanotubes 563 18.3.1 Functionalization of HNTs 565 18.3.1.1 Functionalization of External Surface 565 18.3.1.2 Functionalization of the Lumen 567 18.3.2 Composites Structured with Halloysite 568 18.4 Bionanocomposites 569 18.4.1 HNT-Biopolymer Nanocomposite Formation 569 18.4.2 Properties of HNTs-Biopolymer Nanocomposites 570 18.4.2.1 Bionanocomposites Surface Morphology 571 18.4.2.2 Bionanocomposites Mechanical and Thermal Response 573 18.5 Applications of HNT/Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 576 18.6 Conclusions 578 References 579 19 Nanostructurated Composites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Silver Nanoparticles 585Oana Fufă, George Mihail Vlăsceanu, Georgiana Dolete, Daniela Cabuzu, Rebecca Alexandra Puiu, Andreea Cîrjă, Bogdan Nicoară and Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu 19.1 Introduction 585 19.2 Silver Nanoparticles 586 19.3 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles 588 19.4 Silver Nanoparticle Composites 594 19.4.1 In situ and ex situ Strategies for AgNPs-Based Composites with Polymer Matrix 594 19.4.2 Other AgNPs Composites 599 19.5 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles Composites 600 19.5.1 Active Substance Delivery Composites 600 19.5.2 Antimicrobial Composites 603 19.6 Conclusions and Future Prospectives 607 Acknowledgments 608 References 608 20 Starch-Based Biomaterials and Nanocomposites 623Arantzazu Valdés and María Carmen Garrigós 20.1 Introduction 623 20.2 Starch: Structure and Characteristics 625 20.3 Applicability of Starch in Food Industry 627 20.3.1 Starch Biomaterials: Films, Coatings, and Blends 629 20.3.2 Reinforced Materials 631 20.3.3 Starch Nanoparticles 632 20.4 Conclusion 632 References 633 21 Green Nanocomposites-Based on PLA and Natural Organic Fillers 637Roberto Scaffaro, Luigi Botta, Francesco Lopresti, Andrea Maio and Fiorenza Sutera 21.1 Introduction 637 21.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 638 21.3 Natural Organic Nanofillers 640 21.3.1 Cellulose 641 21.3.1.1 Main Derivatization Methods Used to Increase Cellulose Affinity to PLA 643 21.3.2 Chitin 645 21.3.3 Starch 646 21.4 Bionanocomposites Based on PLA 648 21.4.1 PLA/cellulose Nanocomposites 648 21.4.1.1 Preparation 648 21.4.1.2 Properties 651 21.4.1.3 Degradation 653 21.4.2 PLA/chitin Nanocomposites 654 21.4.2.1 Preparation 654 21.4.2.2 Properties 655 21.4.3 PLA/starch Nanocomposites 656 21.4.3.1 Preparation 656 21.4.3.2 Properties 657 21.5 Conclusions 659 References 659 22 Chitin and Chitosan-Based (NANO) Composites 671André R. Fajardo, Antonio G. B. Pereira, Alessandro F. Martins, Alexandre T. Paulino, Edvani C. Muniz and You-Lo Hsieh 22.1 Introduction 672 22.1.1 Chitin 672 22.1.2 Chitosan 673 22.2 Chitin and Chitosan Properties and Processing 674 22.3 Preparation and Characterization of Ct and Cs Composites: An Overview 675 22.4 Ct- and Cs-Metal Composites 679 22.5 Ct and Cs-Inorganic Composites 685 22.5.1 Food Packaging 685 22.5.2 Membranes 685 22.5.3 Biomedical Uses 685 22.5.4 Environmental Remediation 686 22.6 Composites Based on Ct and Cs Whiskers 687 22.7 Overview, Perspectives, and Conclusion 690 References 691 Index 701

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Book SynopsisThis unique multidisciplinary 8-volume set focuses on the emerging issues concerning synthesis, characterization, design, manufacturing and various other aspects of composite materials from renewable materials and provides a shared platform for both researcher and industry. The Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials comprises a set of 8 individual volumes that brings an interdisciplinary perspective to accomplish a more detailed understanding of the interplay between the synthesis, structure, characterization, processing, applications and performance of these advanced materials. The Handbook comprises 169 chapters from world renowned experts covering a multitude of natural polymers/ reinforcement/ fillers and biodegradable materials. Volume 8 is solely focused on the Nanocomposites: Advanced Applications. Some of the important topics include but not limited to: Virgin and recycled polymers applied to advanced nanocomposites; biodegrTable of ContentsPreface xxi 1 Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites 1Luis Claudio Mendes and Sibele Piedade Cestari 1.1 Introduction 1 References 12 2 Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments 15Geoffrey S. Simate 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.1 Introduction 17 2.2.2 Starch–Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.3 Cellulose–Carbon Nanotube Composites 18 2.2.4 Chitosan–Carbon Nanotubes Composites 20 2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments 23 2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 23 2.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants 26 2.4 Concluding Remarks 27 References 27 3 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals 35Iosody Silva-Castro, Pablo Martín-Ramos, Petruta Mihaela Matei, Marciabela Fernandes-Correa, Salvador Hernández-Navarro and Jesús Martín-Gil 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides 37 3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials 39 3.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials 39 3.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts 41 3.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species 42 3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 44 3.4.1 Biological Methods 44 3.4.2 Physical Methods 45 3.4.3 Chemical Methods 47 3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials 48 3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan 49 3.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications 50 3.6.2 Biomedical Applications 51 3.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings 51 3.6.2.2 Drug Delivery 51 3.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 51 3.6.3 Food-Related Applications 52 3.6.4 Environmental Applications 52 3.6.4.1 Metal Absorption 52 3.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment 52 3.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops 53 3.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation 53 3.7 Conclusions 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 4 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites 61Jinyou Lin, Xiaran Miao, Xiangzhi Zhang and Fenggang Bian 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 63 4.2.1 Experimental Section 63 4.2.2 Results and Discussion 64 4.2.3 Short Summary 71 4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 72 4.3.1 Experimental Section 73 4.3.2 Results and Discussion 74 4.3.3 Short Summary 86 4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers 86 4.4.1 Experiments Details 86 4.4.1 Results and Discussion 88 4.4.3 Summary 96 4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites 97 4.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite 97 4.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier 100 4.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film 101 4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 102 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 5 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications 109Ming-Guo Ma, Yan-Jun Liu and Yan-Yan Dong 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Nanocellulose 110 5.3 Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 120 5.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites 127 5.3.8 Mechanical Properties 127 5.3.9 Biodegradation Properties 128 5.3.10 Virus Removal 129 5.3.11 Porous Materials 129 5.4 Summary 130 Acknowledgments 131 References 131 6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications 135S.C. Agwuncha, E.R. Sadiku, I.D. Ibrahim, B.A. Aderibigbe, S.J. Owonubi O. Agboola, A. Babul Reddy, M. Bandla, K. Varaprasad, B.L. Bayode and S.S. Ray 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Preparations of PLA 137 6.3 Biocomposite 138 6.4 PLA Biocomposites 139 6.5 Nanocomposites 140 6.6 PLA Nanocomposites 140 6.7 Biomaterials 141 6.8 PLA Biomaterials 142 6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials 143 6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials 145 6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA 146 6.12 Medical Implants 146 6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 147 6.13.1 Fibers 147 6.13.2 Meshes 149 6.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices 150 6.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect 151 6.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect 151 6.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods 152 6.13.7 Plates 153 6.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings 154 6.14 PLA Packaging Applications 155 6.15 Conclusion 156 References 157 7 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene 171Mohd Amil Usmani, Imran Khan, Aamir H. Bhat and M.K. Mohamad Haafiz 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Threats to Water Treatment 173 7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment 173 7.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 175 7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration 176 7.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials 178 7.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials 179 7.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds 180 7.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification 181 7.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts 185 7.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis 186 7.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials 188 7.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination 191 7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 192 7.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes 192 7.4.2 Dendrimers 193 7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health 195 7.6 Conclusions 196 Acknowledgments 196 References 197 8 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation 207Paulraj Manidurai and Ramkumar Sekar 8.1 Introduction 207 8.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension 209 8.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity 209 8.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect 210 8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology 211 8.3 In Solar Cells 211 8.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 212 8.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode 213 8.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte 214 8.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells 215 8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst 216 8.5 Energy Storage 217 8.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 217 8.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage 217 8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator 218 8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production 220 8.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production 223 8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles 223 8.8.1 Antibacterial Activity 223 8.8.2 Antioxidant Activity 224 8.9 Conclusion 224 References 224 9 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications 229Ana M. Díez-Pascual 9.1 Introduction 229 9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications 231 9.2.1 Synthesis 231 9.2.2 Structure 232 9.2.3 Properties 233 9.2.4 Applications 234 9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications 235 9.3.1 Structure 235 9.3.2 Properties 235 9.3.3 Synthesis 236 9.3.4 Applications 237 9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing 239 9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites 239 9.5.1 Morphology 239 9.5.2 Crystalline Structure 241 9.5.3 FTIR Spectra 242 9.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior 243 9.5.5 Thermal Stability 244 9.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 245 9.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties 247 9.5.8 Barrier Properties 249 9.5.9 Migration Properties 250 9.5.10 Antibacterial Properties 251 9.6 Conclusions and Outlook 253 References 253 10 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources 259Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, J. Fowsiya, D. Devi Priya and G. Madhumitha 10.1 Introduction 259 10.1.1 Nanotechnology 259 10.1.2 Nanocomposites 260 10.2 Biopolymers 260 10.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers 261 10.2.2 Polylactide Polymers 261 10.3 PLA Production 262 10.3.1 PLA Properties 263 10.3.1.1 Rheological Properties 263 10.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties 263 10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites 264 10.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5 PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite 266 10.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites 268 10.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites 268 10.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites 270 10.6 Conclusion 271 References 271 11 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 275A. Babul Reddy, B. Manjula, T. Jayaramudu, S.J. Owonubi, E.R. Sadiku, O. Agboola, V. Sivanjineyulu and Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa 11.1 Introduction 276 11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites 278 11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite 283 11.4 Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 284 11.5 Preparation Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 286 11.6 Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 290 11.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications 290 11.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications 291 11.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications 292 11.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications 292 11.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications 293 11.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems 294 11.7 Conclusions 295 Acknowledgment 296 References 296 12 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries 305Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli, Samira Bagheri and Negar Mansouri 12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries 305 12.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries 306 12.1.2 Nanotechnology 306 12.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries 307 12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries 307 12.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle 307 12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries 308 12.3.1 Nanosilica/Hybrid 308 12.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid 308 12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries 309 12.4.1 Nanocellulose 309 12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries 311 12.5.1 Nanokaolin 312 12.5.2 Nano ZnO/Hybrid 312 12.5.3 Nanocarbonate 313 12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries 313 12.6.1 Nanozeolite 313 12.6.2 Nano TiO2 313 12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries 314 12.7.1 Nanoclay 315 12.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate 315 12.7.3 Nano TiO2/Hybrid 315 12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries 315 12.8.1 Nano ZnO 315 12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries 316 12.9.1 Nanopolymer 316 12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives 317 12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective 317 Acknowledgments 318 Conflict of Interests 318 References 318 13 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid 327Mihai Cosmin Corobea, Zina Vuluga, Dorel Florea, Florin Miculescu and Stefan Ioan Voicu 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA 329 13.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA 332 13.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA 336 13.2.3 Applications 351 13.3 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgment 353 References 353 14 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery 361Alex López-Córdoba, Guillermo R. Castro and Silvia Goyanes 14.1 Introduction 361 14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources 362 14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning 364 14.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up 364 14.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes 365 14.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives 366 14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning 369 14.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials 370 14.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles 370 14.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends 373 14.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites 374 14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 375 14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 379 14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 382 Acknowledgments 382 References 382 15 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications 389Ibrahim M. El-Sherbiny and Isra H. Ali 15.1 Introduction 389 15.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin 390 15.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure 390 15.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials 390 15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties 391 15.2.1 Polysaccharides 391 15.2.1.1 Starch 391 15.2.1.2 Cellulose 393 15.2.1.3 Chitin 395 15.2.2 Alginate 397 15.2.2.1 Origin 397 15.2.3 Proteins 398 15.2.3.1 Albumin 398 15.2.3.2 Collagen 398 15.2.3.3 Gelatin 399 15.2.3.4 Silk Proteins 399 15.2.3.5 Keratin 400 15.2.4 Microbial Polyesters 400 15.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates 400 15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites 400 15.3.1 Direct Compounding 400 15.3.2 In Situ Synthesis 401 15.3.3 Other Techniques 402 15.3.3.1 Electrospinning 403 15.3.3.2 Self-Assembly 403 15.3.3.3 Phase Separation 403 15.3.3.4 Template Synthesis 403 15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 403 15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites 404 15.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation 404 15.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 406 15.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption 406 15.5.3 Pollutants Sensing 407 15.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry 407 15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 409 References 409 16 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments 423Andy H. Choi and Besim Ben-Nissan 16.1 Introduction 423 16.2 Hydroxyapatite 426 16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings 428 16.3.1 Collagen 428 16.3.2 Chitosan 429 16.3.3 Liposomes 430 16.3.4 Synthetic Polymers 430 16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 431 16.4.1 Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan Nanocomposites 433 16.4.2 Calcium Phosphate–Collagen Nanocomposites 434 16.4.3 Calcium Phosphate–Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites 436 16.4.4 Calcium Phosphate–Cellulose Nanocomposites 437 16.4.5 Calcium Phosphate–Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites 437 16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 438 16.6 Concluding Remarks 443 References 444 17 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 451Vinod Saharan, Ajay Pal, Ramesh Raliya and Pratim Biswas 17.1 Introduction 451 17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer 452 17.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation 453 17.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization 453 17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 454 17.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 455 17.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method 455 17.4 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites 456 17.4.1 Chitosan–Zn Nanocomposite 456 17.4.2 Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 456 17.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn–Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 459 17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan 461 17.6 Conclusion 462 References 462 18 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water 465T.S. Anirudhan and J.R. Deepa 18.1 Introduction 465 18.2 Materials and Methods 468 18.2.1 Materials 468 18.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization 468 18.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent 468 18.2.4 Adsorption Experiments 469 18.2.5 Desorption Experiments 470 18.2.6 Grafting Density 470 18.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups 470 18.2.8 Point of Zero Charge 471 18.3 Results and Discussion 471 18.3.1 FTIR Analysis 471 18.3.2 XRD Analysis 473 18.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and –COOH Determination 474 18.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 475 18.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption 475 18.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics 477 18.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm 479 18.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics 480 18.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent 481 18.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water 482 18.4 Conclusions 483 Acknowledgments 483 References 483

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Book SynopsisOverall, this book presents a detailed and comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art development of different nanoscale intelligent materials for advanced applications. Apart from fundamental aspects of fabrication and characterization of nanomaterials, it also covers key advanced principles involved in utilization of functionalities of these nanomaterials in appropriate forms. It is very important to develop and understand the cutting-edge principles of how to utilize nanoscale intelligent features in the desired fashion. These unique nanoscopic properties can either be accessed when the nanomaterials are prepared in the appropriate form, e.g., composites, or in integrated nanodevice form for direct use as electronic sensing devices. In both cases, the nanostructure has to be appropriately prepared, carefully handled, and properly integrated into the desired application in order to efficiently access its intelligent features. These aspects are reviewed in detail in three themed sTable of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1 Nanomaterials, Fabrication and Biomedical Applications 1 Electrospinning Materials for Skin Tissue Engineering 3 Beste Kinikoglu 1.1 Skin Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 4 1.2 Conclusions 14 References 15 2 Electrospinning: A Versatile Technique to Synthesize Drug Delivery Systems 21 Xueping Zhang, Dong Liu and Tianyan You 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 The Types of Delivered Drugs 22 2.3 Polymers Used in Electrospinning 29 2.4 The Development of Electrospinning Process for Drug Delivery 36 2.5 Conclusions 41 Acknowledgment 42 References 42 3 Electrospray Jet Emission: An Alternative Interpretation Invoking Dielectrophoretic Forces 51 Francesco Aliotta, Oleg Gerasymov and Pietro Calandra 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Electrospray: How It Works? 54 3.3 Historical Background 63 3.4 How the Current (and Wrong) Description of the Electrospray Process Has Been Generated? 65 3.5 What Is Wrong in the Current Description? 68 3.6 Some Results Shedding More Light 70 3.7 Discriminating between Electrophoretic and Dielectrophoretic Forces 72 3.8 Some Theoretical Aspects of Dielectrophoresis 76 3.9 Conclusions 83 References 86 4 Advanced Silver and Oxide Hybrids of Catalysts During Formaldehyde Production 91 Anita Kovač Kralj 4.1 Introduction 92 4.2 The Catalysis 93 4.3 Case Study 95 4.4 Limited Hybrid Catalyst Method for Formaldehyde Production 97 4.5 Conclusion 104 4.6 Nomenclatures 105 References 105 5 Physico-chemical Characterization and Basic Research Principles of Advanced Drug Delivery Nanosystems 107 Natassa Pippa, Stergios Pispas and Costas Demetzos 5.1 Introduction 108 5.2 Basic Research Principles and Techniques for the Physicochemical Characterization of Advanced Drug Delivery Nanosystems 108 5.3 Conclusions 122 References 122 6 Nanoporous Alumina as an Intelligent Nanomaterial for Biomedical Applications 127 Moom Sinn Aw and Dusan Losic 6.1 Introduction 127 6.2 Nanoporous Anodized Alumina as a Drug Nano-carrier 129 6.3 Biocompatibility of NAA and NNAA Materials 138 6.4 NAA for Diabetic and Pancreatic Applications 143 6.5 NAA Applications in Orthopedics 144 6.6 NAA Applications for Heart, Coronary, and Vasculature Treatment 148 6.7 NAA in Dentistry 150 6.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 152 Acknowledgment 153 References 154 7 Nanomaterials: Structural Peculiarities, Biological Effects, and Some Aspects of Applications 161 N.F. Starodub, M.V. Taran, A.M. Katsev, C. Bisio and M. Guidotti 7.1 Introduction 162 7.2 Physicochemical Properties Determining the Bioavailability and Toxicity of NPS 164 7.3 Current Nanoecotoxicological Knowledge 168 7.4 Modern Direction of the Application of Nanocomposites as Basis for Detoxication Process 187 7.5 Conclusions 189 Acknowledgments 190 References 190 8 Biomedical Applications of Intelligent Nanomaterials 199 M. D. Fahmy, H. E. Jazayeri, M. Razavi, M. Hashemi, M. Omidi, M. Farahani, E. Salahinejad, A. Yadegari, S. Pitcher and Lobat Tayebi 8.1 Introduction 200 8.2 Polymeric Nanoparticles 202 8.3 Lipid-based Nanoparticles 206 8.4 Carbon Nanostructures 213 8.5 Nanostructured Metals 219 8.6 Hybrid Nanostructures 223 8.7 Concluding Remarks 228 References 229 Part 2 Nanomaterials for Energy, Electronics, and Biosensing 9 Phase Change Materials as Smart Nanomaterials for Thermal Energy Storage in Buildings 249 M. Kheradmand, M. Abdollahzadeh, M. Azenha and J.L.B. de Aguiar 9.1 Introduction 250 9.2 Phase Change Materials: Definition, Principle of Operation, and Classifications 252 9.3 PCM-enhanced Cement-based Materials 254 9.4 Hybrid PCM for Thermal Storage 255 9.5 Numerical Simulations 267 9.6 Thermal Modeling of Phase Change 269 9.7 Nanoparticle-enhanced Phase Change Material 280 9.8 Conclusions (General Remarks) 288 References 289 10 Nanofluids with Enhanced Heat Transfer Properties for Thermal Energy Storage 295 Manila Chieruzzi, Adio Miliozzi, Luigi Torre and José Maria Kenny 10.1 Introduction 296 10.2 Thermal Energy Storage 298 10.3 Nanofluids for Thermal Energy Storage 313 10.4 Nanofluids Based on Molten Salts: Enhancement of Thermal Properties 330 10.5 Conclusions 349 References 351 11 Resistive Switching of Vertically Aligned Carbon Nanotubes for Advanced Nanoelectronics Devices 361 O.A. Ageev, Yu. F. Blinov, M.V. Il’ina, B.G. Konoplev and V.A. Smirnov 11.1 Introduction 362 11.2 Theoretical Description of Resistive Switching Mechanism of Structures Based on VACNT 363 11.3 Techniques for Measuring the Electrical Resistivity and Young’s Modulus of VACNT Based on Scanning Probe Microscopy 377 11.4 Experimental Studies of Resistive Switching in Structures Based on VACNT Using Scanning Tunnel Microscopy 384 References 391 12 Multi-objective Design of Nanoscale Double Gate MOSFET Devices Using Surrogate Modeling and Global Optimization 395 T. Bentrcia, F. Djeffal and E. Chebaki 12.1 Introduction 396 12.2 Downscaling Parasitic Effects 400 12.3 Modeling Framework 405 12.4 Simulation and Results 412 12.5 Concluding Remarks 422 References 422 13 Graphene-based Electrochemical Biosensors: New Trends and Applications 427 Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli, Stephanos Karapetis, Spyridoula Bratakou, Dimitrios P. Nikolelis, Nikolaos Tzamtzis and Vasillios N. Psychoyios 13.1 Introduction 428 13.2 Scope of This Review 429 13.3 Graphene and Sensors 430 13.4 Graphene Nanomaterials Used in Electrochemical (Bio)sensors Fabrication 430 13.5 Graphene-based Enzymatic Electrodes 432 13.6 Graphene-based Electrochemical DNA Sensors 437 13.7 Graphene-based Electrochemical Immunosensors 439 13.8 Commercial Activities in the Field of Graphene Sensors 442 13.9 Recent Developments in the Field of Graphene Sensors 442 13.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 443 Acknowledgments 445 References 445 Part 3 Smart Nanocomposites, Fabrication, and Applications 14 Carbon Fibers-based Silica Aerogel Nanocomposites 451 Agnieszka Ślosarczyk 14.1 Introduction to Nanotechnology 451 14.2 Chemistry of Sol–gel Process 454 14.3 Types of Silica Aerogel Nanocomposites 462 14.4 Carbon Fiber-based Silica Aerogel Nanocomposites 476 14.5 Conclusions 493 References 494 15 Hydrogel–carbon Nanotubes Composites for Protection of Egg Yolk Antibodies 501 Bellingeri Romina, Alustiza Fabrisio, Picco Natalia, Motta Carlos, Grosso Maria C, Barbero Cesar, Acevedo Diego and Vivas Adriana 15.1 Introduction 502 15.2 Polymeric Hydrogels 504 15.3 Carbon Nanotubes 507 15.4 Polymer–CNT Composites 511 15.5 Egg Yolk Antibodies Protection 515 15.6 In Vitro Evaluation of Nanocomposite Performance 517 15.7 In Vivo Evaluation of Nanocomposite Performance 518 15.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 521 References 522 16 Green Fabrication of Metal Nanoparticles 533 Anamika Mubayi, Sanjukta Chatterji and Geeta Watal 16.1 Introduction 533 16.2 Development of Herbal Medicines 535 16.3 Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles 536 16.4 Characterization of Phytofabricated Nanoparticles 539 16.5 Impact of Plant-mediated Nanoparticles on Therapeutic Efficacy of Medicinal Plants 540 16.6 Conclusions 550 References 551

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Book SynopsisDetails the source, release, exposure, adsorption, aggregation, bioavailability, transport, transformation, and modeling of engineered nanoparticles found in many common products and applications Covers synthesis, environmental application, detection, and characterization of engineered nanoparticles Details the toxicity and risk assessment of engineered nanoparticles Includes topics on the transport, transformation, and modeling of engineered nanoparticles Presents the latest developments and knowledge of engineered nanoparticles Written by world leading experts from prestigious universities and companies Table of ContentsSERIES PREFACE vii PREFACE ix LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi PART 1 SYNTHESIS, ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATION, DETECTION, AND CHARACTERIZATION OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES 1 1 Challenges Facing the Environmental Nanotechnology Research Enterprise 3Stacey M. Louie, Amy L. Dale, Elizabeth A. Casman, and Gregory V. Lowry 2 Engineered Nanoparticles for Water Treatment Application 20Jeehye Byun and Cafer T. Yavuz 3 Mass Spectrometric Methods for Investigating the Influence of Surface Chemistry on the Fate of Core–Shell Nanoparticles in Biological and Environmental Samples 31Sukru Gokhan Elci, Alyssa L. M. Marsico, Yuqing Xing, Bo Yan, and Richard W. Vachet 4 Separation and Analysis of Nanoparticles (NP) in Aqueous Environmental Samples 53Ralf Kaegi 5 Nanocatalysts for Groundwater Remediation 75Kimberly N. Heck, Lori A. Pretzer, and Michael S. Wong PART 2 ENVIRONMENTAL RELEASE, PROCESSES, AND MODELING OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES 93 6 Properties, Sources, Pathways, and Fate of Nanoparticles in the Environment 95Yon Ju-Nam and Jamie Lead 7 Environmental Exposure Modeling Methods for Engineered Nanomaterials 118Niall J. O’Brien and Enda J. Cummins 8 Aggregation Kinetics and Fractal Dimensions of Nanomaterials in Environmental Systems 139Navid B. Saleh, A. R. M. Nabiul Afrooz, Nirupam Aich, and Jaime Plazas-Tuttle 9 Adsorption of Organic Compounds by Engineered Nanoparticles 160Bo Pan and Baoshan Xing 10 Sorption of Heavy Metals by Engineered Nanomaterials 182Gangfen Miao, Kun Yang, and Daohui Lin 11 Emission, Transformation, and Fate of Nanoparticles in the Atmosphere 205Prashant Kumar and Abdullah N. Al-Dabbous 12 Nanoparticle Aggregation and Deposition in Porous Media 224Yao Xiao and Mark R. Wiesner 13 Interfacial Charge Transfers of Surface-Modified TiO2 Nanoparticles in Photocatalytic Water Treatment 245Hyunwoong Park 14 Chemical Transformations of Metal, Metal Oxide, and Metal Chalcogenide Nanoparticles in the Environment 261Thomas R. Kuech, Robert J. Hamers, and Joel A. Pedersen PART 3 TOXICITY OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES AND RISK ASSESSMENT 293 15 Fate, Behavior, and Biophysical Modeling of Nanoparticles in Living Systems 295Emppu Salonen, Feng Ding, and Pu Chun Ke 16 Subchronic Inhalation Toxicity Study in RatsWith Carbon Nanofibers: Need for Establishing a Weight-of-Evidence Approach for Setting no Observed Adverse Effect Levels (NOAELs) 314David B. Warheit, Ken L. Reed, and Michael P. DeLorme 17 Toxicity of Manufactured Nanomaterials to Microorganisms 320Yuan Ge, Allison M. Horst, Junyeol Kim, John H. Priester, Zoe S. Welch, and Patricia A. Holden 18 Toxicity of Engineered Nanoparticles to Fish 347Wei Liu, Yanmin Long, Nuoya Yin, Xingchen Zhao, Cheng Sun, Qunfang Zhou, and Guibin Jiang 19 Toxicity of Engineered Nanoparticles to Aquatic Invertebrates 367Denisa Cupi, Sara N. Sørensen, Lars M. Skjolding, and Anders Baun 20 Effects and Uptake of Nanoparticles in Plants 386Arnab Mukherjee, Jose R. Peralta-Videa, Jorge Gardea-Torresdey, and Jason C. White 21 Feasibility and Challenges of Human Health Risk Assessment for Engineered Nanomaterials 409Karin Aschberger, Frans M. Christensen, Kirsten Rasmussen, and Keld A. Jensen 22 Ecotoxicological Risk of Engineered Nanomaterials (ENMs) for the Health of the Marine Environment 442Xiaoshan Zhu, Shengyan Tian, Chao Wang, Lihong Zhao, Jin Zhou, and Zhonghua Cai INDEX 475

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