Metals technology / metallurgy Books

Book SynopsisThis book describes the origin, use, and limitations of electrochemical phase diagrams, testing schemes for active, passive, and localized corrosion, the development and electrochemical characterization of passivity, and methods in process alteration, failure prediction, and materials selection. It offers useful guidelines for assessing the efficacy of corrosion inhibitors and coatings for metals and alloys, developing effective corrosion prediction models, calculating the corrosion rates of various materials, determining the resistance of alloys to pitting and crevice corrosion, and considering current and potential distribution effects on corrosion.Trade Review"The motto of this book as stated in the Forward is that 'electrochemical methods, that are intelligently applied and rationally interpreted, are valuable research tools for understanding and solving corrosion problems.' This book will provide those who wish to follow this motto with a helpful guide. It is well-suited as a reference for corrosion researchers as well as a text for further study." - Chemie Ingenieur Technik"The text is comprehensive and well organized. Plenty of figures, tables, and graphs are provided, which makes for an interesting and easy-to-follow text…The strength of the book is the clarity that the authors provide for the reader with critical approaches to electrochemical techniques and corrosion."-Corrosion Review Promo CopyTable of ContentsIntroduction. Electrochemical Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Relevance to Corrosion. Passivity and Localized Corrosion. The Polarization Resistance Method for Determination of Instantaneous Corrosion Rates. The Influence of Mass Transport on Electrochemical Processes. Current and Potential Distributions in Corrosion. Development of Corrosion Models Based on Electrochemical Measurements. Electrochemical Studies of Surface Treatments for Metals and Alloys. Experimental Procedures. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe manufacturing industry currently employs a wide variety of welding processes. The main technological process applied in the production of weldments is fusion welding. Presenting the latest research on the topic, Surface Phenomena in Fusion Welding Processes is a cutting-edge and comprehensive book that details the various courses of action that occur during welding procedures. It explains established regularities that are useful in the development of processes; details the formation of defects, allowing for an understanding of the role of surface properties and surface phenomena during the formation of defects; and describes welding in space, elucidating the determination role of surface phenomena in that environment. The text also contains 217 figures, 29 tables, and 336 equations to provide the reader with a better understanding of the various processes. In the development of welding technologies, as well as welding consumables, it is essential to know and to takeTable of ContentsCharacterization of the Fusion Welding Process.Surface Properties and Phenomena. Results of Studying the Surface Properties and Phenomena. Electrode-Metal Transfer and Surface Phenomena. Formation of Weld and Deposited Metal. Non-Metallic Inclusions. Porosity in Welds. Solidification Cracking. Development of Welding and Surfacing Technologies with Allowance for Surface Phenomena. Appendix. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe most comprehensive and authoritative single-volume reference on nonferrous metals and alloys. Provides detailed information on major alloy groups, with particular emphasis on aluminum, titanium, copper, and magnesium. New topics include recycling, superconductors, metal-matrix composites, and intermetallics.

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Book SynopsisThe standard reference book on the mechanical characteristics and testing of metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites. Key Features: Describes the basics of mechanical behavior with in-depth coverage on testing methods for metals, plastics, ceramics and composites. Articles describe the purpose, equipment, fixturing, data evaluation, and typical applications for standard and emerging mechanical tests. Comparative mechanical properties and the mechanical characteristics of metals, plastics, and ceramics are included throughout for general reference. Updated references to ISO, ASTM, DIN, EN, JIS and other standards are also included throughout for metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites. Contents Include: Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals and Nonmetallic Materials Mechanical Testing of Polymers and Ceramics Mechanical Properties and Testing for Design Mechanical Testing for Metalworking processes Testing Machines and Strain Sensors Accreditation of Mechanical-Table of ContentsIntroduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals and Nonmetallic Materials; Mechanical Testing of Polymers and Ceramics; Mechanical Properties and Testing for Design; Mechanical Testing for Metalworking processes; Testing Machines and Strain Sensors; Accreditation of Mechanical-Testing Laboratories; Tension, Compression, Bend, and Shear Testing; Hardness Testing; Friction, Wear, and Surface Testing; Creep and Stress-Relaxtion Testing; High-Strain-Rate Testing; Impact-Toughness Testing and Fracture Mechanics; Fatigue Testing; Component Testing; Property-Comparison Tables; Glossary of Terms; Index.

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Book SynopsisThis three volume set includes 4,700 binary alloy phase diagrams and totals 3,589 pages; atomic/weight % compositions, solubilities, stable/metastable phases, discrepancies in reported values, uncertainties in experimental/calculated data; thermodynamics of pure elements; and nomenclature, composition, Pearson symbol, space group, Strukturbericht designation, prototype.

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Book SynopsisThis one-stop reference is a tremendous value time saver for engineers, designers and researchers. Emerging technologies, including aluminium metal matrix composites, are combined with all the essential aluminum information from the multi-volume ASM Handbook series.

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Book SynopsisContents include: Introduction to Stainless Steels; Corrosion Behaviour; Fabrication and Finishing; Metallography, Microstructures and Phase Diagrams; and Properties of Stainless Steels. An index is also included.

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Book SynopsisOffering a source of information on metallographic techniques and their application to the study of metals, ceramics and polymers, this work has a collection of micrographs and macrographs.

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Book SynopsisThis book is designed with the flexibility needed for use in courses for upper-level undergraduate and graduate students, for concentrated courses in industry, for individual study and as a reference book.

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Book SynopsisThis book is a comprehensive guide to the selection and applications of copper and copper alloys, which constitute one of the largest and most diverse families of engineering materials. The handbook includes all of the essential information contained in the 20-volume ASM Handbook series, as well as important reference information and data from a wide variety of ASM publications and industry sources.

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Book SynopsisPresents more than 1400 stress-strain curves from authoritative sources. The presentation of the curves is normalized to aid making comparisons among materialsThis second edition contains over 1400 curves. All diagrams include metric (SI) units, and many also include U.S. customary units.

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Book SynopsisSurface Hardening of Steels: Understanding the Basics is a practical selection guide to help engineers and technicians choose the most efficient surface hardening techniques that offer consistent and repeatable results. Emphasis is placed on characteristics such as processing temperature, case/coating thickness, bond strength, and hardness level obtained. The advantages and limitations of the various thermochemical, thermal, and coating/surface modification technologies are compared. Economic concerns and health and safety considerations are also addressed. Recent developments in the understanding of the relationships between microstructure and fatigue and wear performance are reviewed, as are more recently introduced surface hardening processes such as vacuum-related technologies, laser processing, CVD/PVD, and ion implantation. Methods for evaluating hardness patterns and depths of hardness for quality control and failure analysis are described. The book also reviews methods for

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Book SynopsisCeramography provides detailed instructions on how to saw, mount, grind, polish, etch, examine, interpret and measure ceramic microstructures. This new book includes an atlas of ceramic microstructures, quantitative microstructural example problems with solutions, properties and data tables specific to ceramic microstructures, more than 100 original photographs and illustrations, and numerous practical tips and tricks of the trade. An excellent reference guide for technicians in quality control and R&D, process engineers in ceramic manufacturing, and their counterparts in engineering firms, national laboratories, research institutes, and universities.Table of ContentsIntroduction. Ceramography in Materials Science. Crystallography. Laboratory Safety. Ceramographic Laboratory Design. Ceramic Fabrication. Ceramics Commercial Fabrication of Ceramics Laboratory Fabrication of Ceramics Sawing and Mounting. Sawing. Mounting. Edge Retention. Beveled Edge. Ceramographic Mounting Resins. Grinding and Polishing. Automatic Grinding. Automatic Polishing. Manual Grinding. Manual Polishing. Grinding and Polishing Accessories. Etching. Thermal Etching. Chemical Etching. Electrolytic Etching. Other Etching Methods. Overetched Ceramics. Petrographic Thin Section Preparation. Sawing. Mounting. Grinding. Optics and Microscopy. The Microscope. Köhler Illumination. Magnification and Resolution. Depth of Field. Differential Interference Contrast. Dark-Field Illumination. Oil Immersion. Stereomicroscopy. Crystal Optics. Petrography-Transmitted Light and Thin Sections. Replication and Field Ceramography. Sputter Coating. Scanning Electron Microscopy. Other Microscope Types. As-Fired Surface. Stereo Pairs. Acoustic Microscopy. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy. Micrography. Atlas of Ceramic Microstructures. Alumina. Borides. Carbides. Composites. Metallized Ceramics. Nitrides. Oxides. Silicon Carbide. Spinel. Zirconia. Quantitative Ceramography. Stereology. Grain Size. Grain Shape. Porosity and Second-Phase Content. Microindentation Hardness. Toughness. Qualitative Ceramography. Morphology. Phase Determination. Preferred Orientation. Fractography. Artifacts. Image Analysis. Algorithm. Critical Aspects. Measurements. Digital Images. Appendix A: ASTM Procedures Applicable to Ceramography. Headings in the ASTM Subject Index. Appendix B: Ceramographic Equipment Manufacturers. Appendix C: Abrasive Size Equivalents.

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Book SynopsisThis handbook is an update and expansion in scope of the book, 'Workability Testing Techniques', which was published by the American Society for Metals in 1984. The present book reflects the use of FEM analysis for process design. It provides practical workability testing techniques.

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Book SynopsisNitriding and ferritic nitrocarburizing offer unique advantages compared to other surface hardening heat treatments. This book provides a comprehensive guide to understanding these processes, selecting the appropriate process and process parameters, controlling the process, evaluating results, and troubleshooting.

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Book SynopsisDocuments the progressive rise in technical understanding and sophistication in the field. Only by continuously collecting and exchanging information can design concepts, construction methods, monitoring strategies, and reclamation practices keep pace with the times. This book creates a common platform on which to base correct, economical, and safe slope design and construction decisions.

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Book SynopsisAn in-depth examination of the oldest engineering process, The History of Grinding begins at the start of agriculture and outlines how size reduction developed over the centuries (without completely immersing the reader in technical detail). Photos and illustrations gleaned from numerous sources, a glossary, reference list, and index enhance the text.

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Book SynopsisThis volume contains the results of tests on the corrosivity of European sea waters towards three types of stainless steels as well as reviews and reports covering materials selection.

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Book SynopsisProceedings of the 3rd International Seminar of the International Federation for Heat Treatment held in Melbourne, in 1991 with the special focus on Quenching and Carburising'. Quenching and Carburising are two of the most basic and widely practised steel heat treatment processes. Each allows the base properties and performance of the steel to be significantly enhanced, such that a relatively inexpensive and simple starting material can be used for a wide range of demanding applications. Nevertheless, the technological developments within those two processes are often ignored in favour of high tech' surface treatments. The aim of Quenching and Carburising was to review the recent advancements that have been made in these fields.

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Book SynopsisProceedings of a Conference Held at the National Physical Laboratory, in Teddington, UK, on the 13-14 April 1994, with the main focus of Hydrogen Transport and Cracking in Metals.

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Book SynopsisThis book explains the refractories from different fundamental aspects, even with the support of phase diagrams, and also details the prominent applications of these industrial materials. The initial chapters cover fundamentals of refractories, classifications, properties, and testing, while later chapters describe different common shaped and unshaped refractories in detail and special refractories in a concise manner. The second edition includes new classifications, microstructures, the effect of impurities with binary and ternary phase diagrams, and recent trends in refractories including homework problems and an updated bibliography.Features: Provides exclusive material on refractories Discusses detailed descriptions of different shaped and unshaped refractories Covers concepts like environmental issues, recycling, and nanotechnology Explores details on testing and specifications including thermochemical and corrosion behavior IncTable of Contents1. Refractory . 2. Classifications of refractories. 3. Idea of properties. 4. Standards and testing. 5. Silica refractories. 6. Alumina refractories. 7. Fire clay refractories. 8. Magnesia refractories. 9. Dolomite refractories. 10. Chromite, mag-chrome and chrome-mag refractories. 11. Magnesia-carbon refractories. 12. Special refractories. 13. Unshaped (monolithic) refractories. 14. Trend of refractories and other issues.

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Book SynopsisDue to the structural flexibility, large surface area, tailorable pore size and functional tenability, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) can lead to materials with unique properties. This book covers the fundamental aspects of MOFs, their synthesis and modification, including their potential applications in different domains. The major focus is on applications including chemical, biosensors, catalysis, drug delivery, supercapacitors, energy storage, magnetics and their future perspectives.The volume: Covers all aspects related to metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), including characterization, modification, applications and associated challenges Illustrates designing and synthetic strategies for MOFs Describes MOFs for gas adsorption, separation and purification, and their role in heterogeneous catalysis Covers sensing of different types of noxious substances in the aqueous environment Includes concepts of molecular magnetism, tunable magnetic properties and future aspects This book is aimed at graduate students, and researchers in material science, coordination and industrial chemistry, chemical and environmental engineering and clean technologies.

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Book SynopsisResearch in the field of high-entropy materials is advancing rapidly. High-Entropy Materials: Advances and Applications focuses on materials discovered using the high-entropy alloys (HEA) strategy. It discusses various types of high-entropy materials, such as face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) HEAs, films and coatings, fibers, and powders and hard-cemented carbides, along with current research status and applications: Describes, compositions and processing of high-entropy materials. Summarizes industrially valuable alloys found in high-entropy materials that hold promise for promotion and application. Explains how high-entropy materials can be used in many fields and can outperform traditional materials.This book is aimed at researchers, advanced students, and academics in materials science and engineering and related disciplines.Table of ContentsChapter 1 Brief Introduction of High-Entropy MaterialsChapter 2 FCC-Structured High-Entropy MaterialsChapter 3 BCC-Structured High-Entropy MaterialsChapter 4 Multiple-Phase High-Entropy MaterialsChapter 5 High-Entropy Films and CoatingChapter 6 High-Entropy FibersChapter 7 High-Entropy Powder and Hard-Cemented Carbide AlloysChapter 8 High-Entropy Ceramics and Intermetallic CompoundsChapter 9 High-Entropy Polymers and Entropic MaterialsChapter 10 Future and Applications

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Book SynopsisOne of the only texts available to cover not only how failure occurs but also examine methods developed to expose the reasons for failure, Metal Failures has long been considered the most definitive and authoritative resources in metallurgical failure analysis.Table of ContentsPreface xv 1. Failure Analysis 1 I. Introduction 1 II. Examples of Case Studies Involving Structural Failures 6 III. Summary 25 References 25 Problems 26 2. Elements of Elastic Deformation 27 I. Introduction 27 II. Stress 27 III. Strain 32 IV. Elastic Constitutive Relationships 35 V. State of Stress Ahead of a Notch 44 VI. Summary 46 References 46 Appendix 2-1: Mohr Circle Equations for a Plane Problem 46 Appendix 2-2: Three-Dimensional Stress Analysis 49 Appendix 2-3: Stress Formulas Under Simple Loading Conditions 54 Problems 57 3. Elements of Plastic Deformation 59 I. Introduction 59 II. Theoretical Shear Strength 59 III. Dislocations 61 IV. Yield Criteria for Multiaxial Stress 68 V. State of Stress in the Plastic Zone Ahead of a Notch in Plane-Strain Deformation 70 VI. Summary 74 For Further Reading 75 Appendix 3-1: The von Mises Yield Criterion 75 Problems 76 4. Elements of Fracture Mechanics 80 I. Introduction 80 II. Griffith’s Analysis of the Critical Stress for Brittle Fracture 80 III. Alternative Derivation of the Griffith Equation 83 IV. Orowan-Irwin Modification of the Griffith Equation 84 V. Stress Intensity Factors 85 VI. The Three Loading Modes 88 VII. Determination of the Plastic Zone Size 88 VIII. Effect of Thickness on Fracture Toughness 89 IX. The R-Curve 91 X. Short Crack Limitation 92 XI. Case Studies 92 XII. The Plane-Strain Crack Arrest Fracture Toughness, K I a, of Ferritic Steels 95 XIII. Elastic-plastic Fracture Mechanics 96 XIV. Failure Assessment Diagrams 98 XV. Summary 101 References 101 Problems 102 5. Alloys and Coatings 105 I. Introduction 105 II. Alloying Elements 106 III. Periodic Table 107 IV. Phase Diagrams 108 V. Coatings 126 VI. Summary 130 References 130 Problems 130 6. Examination and Reporting Procedures 132 I. Introduction 132 II. Tools for Examinations in the Field 132 III. Preparation of Fracture Surfaces for Examination 133 IV. Visual Examination 133 V. Case Study: Failure of a Steering Column Component 134 VI. Optical Examination 135 VII. Case Study: Failure of a Helicopter Tail Rotor 136 VIII. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 136 IX. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 138 X. Replicas 142 XI. Spectrographic and Other Types of Chemical Analysis 143 XII. Case Study: Failure of a Zinc Die Casting 144 XIII. Specialized Analytical Techniques 145 XIV. Stress Measurement by X-Rays 146 XV. Case Study: Residual Stress in a Train Wheel 149 XVI. The Technical Report 150 XVII. Record Keeping and Testimony 151 XVIII. Summary 154 References 155 Problem 155 7. Brittle and Ductile Fractures 156 I. Introduction 156 II. Brittle Fracture 156 III. Some Examples of Brittle Fracture in Steel 159 IV. Ductile-Brittle Behavior of Steel 161 V. Case Study: The Nuclear Pressure Vessel Design Code 168 VI. Case Study: Examination of Samples from the Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic 172 VII. Ductile Fracture 177 VIII. Ductile Tensile Failure, Necking 177 IX. Fractographic Features Associated with Ductile Rupture 183 X. Failure in Torsion 185 XI. Case Study: Failure of a Helicopter Bolt 185 XII. Summary 188 References 191 Problems 191 8. Thermal and Residual Stresses 196 I. Introduction 196 II. Thermal Stresses, Thermal Strain, and Thermal Shock 196 III. Residual Stresses Caused by Nonuniform Plastic Deformation 200 IV. Residual Stresses Due to Quenching 204 V. Residual Stress Toughening 207 VI. Residual Stresses Resulting from Carburizing, Nitriding, and Induction Hardening 207 VII. Residual Stresses Developed in Welding 209 VIII. Measurement of Residual Stresses 211 IX. Summary 211 References 211 Appendix 8-1: Case Study of a Fracture Due to Thermal Stress 212 Problems 213 9. Creep 216 I. Introduction 216 II. Background 216 III. Characteristics of Creep 217 IV. Creep Parameters 220 V. Creep Fracture Mechanisms 222 VI. Fracture Mechanism Maps 224 VII. Case Studies 225 VIII. Residual Life Assessment 230 IX. Stress Relaxation 232 X. Elastic Follow-up 233 XI. Summary 234 References 234 Problems 234 10. Fatigue 237 I. Introduction 237 II. Background 237 III. Design Considerations 240 IV. Mechanisms of Fatigue 246 V. Factors Affecting Fatigue Crack Initiation 254 VI. Factors Affecting Fatigue Crack Growth 257 VII. Analysis of the Rate of Fatigue Crack Propagation 261 VIII. Fatigue Failure Analysis 273 IX. Case Studies 276 X. Thermal-Mechanical Fatigue 285 XI. Cavitation 285 XII. Composite Materials 286 XIII. Summary 287 References 287 For Further Reading 290 Problems 290 11. Statistical Distributions 293 I. Introduction 293 II. Distribution Functions 293 III. The Normal Distribution 294 IV. Statistics of Fatigue; Statistical Distributions 296 V. The Weibull Distribution 298 VI. The Gumbel Distribution 302 VII. The Staircase Method 307 VIII. Summary 310 References 310 Appendix 11-1: Method of Linear Least Squares (C. F. Gauss, 1794) 311 Problems 314 12. Defects 316 I. Introduction 316 II. Weld Defects 316 III. Case Study: Welding Defect 321 IV. Casting Defects 328 V. Case Study: Corner Cracking during Continuous Casting 329 VI. Forming Defects 329 VII. Case Studies: Forging Defects 330 VIII. Case Study: Counterfeit Part 332 IX. The Use of the Wrong Alloys; Errors in Heat Treatment, etc. 333 X. Summary 334 References 334 Problems 334 13. Environmental Effects 336 I. Introduction 336 II. Definitions 336 III. Fundamentals of Corrosion Processes 337 IV. Environmentally Assisted Cracking Processes 342 V. Case Studies 348 VI. Cracking in Oil and Gas Pipelines 350 VII. Crack Arrestors and Pipeline Reinforcement 352 VIII. Plating Problems 353 IX. Case Studies 353 X. Pitting Corrosion of Household Copper Tubing 356 XI. Problems with Hydrogen at Elevated Temperatures 356 XII. Hot Corrosion (Sulfidation) 358 XIII. Summary 358 References 358 Problems 359 14. Flaw Detection 360 I. Introduction 360 II. Inspectability 360 III. Visual Examination (VE) 364 IV. Penetrant Testing (PT) 364 V. Case Study: Sioux City DC-10 Aircraft 367 VI. Case Study: MD-88 Engine Failure 374 VII. Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 375 VIII. Case Study: Failure of an Aircraft Crankshaft 378 IX. Eddy Current Testing (ET) 382 X. Case Study: Aloha Airlines 384 XI. Ultrasonic Testing (UT) 384 XII. Case Study: B747 389 XIII. Radiographic Testing (RT) 389 XIV. Acoustic Emission Testing (AET) 391 XV. Cost of Inspections 393 XVI. Summary 393 References 394 Problems 394 15. Wear 396 I. Wear 396 II. The Coefficient of Friction 397 III. The Archard Equation 398 IV. An Example of Adhesive Wear 399 V. Fretting Fatigue 399 VI. Case Study: Friction and Wear; Bushing Failure 403 VII. Roller Bearings 404 VIII. Case Study: Failure of a Railroad Car Axle 410 IX. Gear Failures 410 X. Summary 414 References 414 Problems 415 Concluding Remarks 417 Solutions to Problems 419 Name Index 469 Subject Index 473

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Book SynopsisThis book describes the weldability aspects of many structural materials used in a wide variety of engineering structures, including steels, stainless steels, Ni-base alloys, and Al-base alloys. The basic mechanisms of weldability are described and methods to improve weldability are described.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Author Biography xvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Fabrication-Related Defects 5 1.2 Service-Related Defects 6 1.3 Defect Prevention and Control 7 References 8 2 Welding Metallurgy Principles 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Regions of a Fusion Weld 10 2.3 Fusion Zone 13 2.3.1 Solidification of Metals 15 2.3.1.1 Solidification Parameters 15 2.3.1.2 Solidification Nucleation 17 2.3.1.3 Solidification Modes 19 2.3.1.4 Interface Stability 22 2.3.2 Macroscopic Aspects of Weld Solidification 24 2.3.2.1 Effect of Travel Speed and Temperature Gradient 27 2.3.3 Microscopic Aspects of Weld Solidification 30 2.3.3.1 Solidification Subgrain Boundaries (SSGB) 32 2.3.3.2 Solidification Grain Boundaries (SGB) 33 2.3.3.3 Migrated Grain Boundaries (MGB) 34 2.3.4 Solute Redistribution 34 2.3.4.1 Macroscopic Solidification 35 2.3.4.2 Microscopic Solidification 37 2.3.5 Examples of Fusion Zone Microstructures 40 2.3.6 Transition Zone (TZ) 43 2.4 Unmixed Zone (UMZ) 45 2.5 Partially Melted Zone (PMZ) 48 2.5.1 Penetration Mechanism 50 2.5.2 Segregation Mechanism 53 2.5.2.1 Gibbsian Segregation 56 2.5.2.2 Grain Boundary Sweeping 56 2.5.2.3 Pipeline Diffusion 57 2.5.2.4 Grain Boundary Wetting 58 2.5.3 Examples of PMZ formation 58 2.6 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 60 2.6.1 Recrystallization and Grain Growth 61 2.6.2 Allotropic Phase Transformations 63 2.6.3 Precipitation Reactions 66 2.6.4 Examples of HAZ Microstructure 69 2.7 Solid-State Welding 70 2.7.1 Friction Stir Welding 72 2.7.2 Diffusion Welding 76 2.7.3 Explosion Welding 77 2.7.4 Ultrasonic Welding 79 References 81 3 Hot Cracking 84 3.1 Introduction 84 3.2 Weld Solidification Cracking 85 3.2.1 Theories of Weld Solidification Cracking 85 3.2.1.1 Shrinkage-Brittleness Theory 86 3.2.1.2 Strain Theory 87 3.2.1.3 Generalized Theory 88 3.2.1.4 Modified Generalized Theory 89 3.2.1.5 Technological Strength Theory 90 3.2.1.6 Commentary on Solidification Cracking Theories 91 3.2.2 Predictions of Elemental Effects 94 3.2.3 The BTR and Solidification Cracking Temperature Range 97 3.2.4 Factors that Influence Weld Solidification Cracking 102 3.2.4.1 Composition Control 102 3.2.4.2 Grain Boundary Liquid Films 109 3.2.4.3 Effect of Restraint 110 3.2.5 Identifying Weld Solidification Cracking 112 3.2.6 Preventing Weld Solidification Cracking 116 3.3 Liquation Cracking 119 3.3.1 HAZ Liquation Cracking 119 3.3.2 weld metal Liquation Cracking 122 3.3.3 Variables that Influence Susceptibility to Liquation Cracking 123 3.3.3.1 Composition 123 3.3.3.2 Grain Size 124 3.3.3.3 Base Metal Heat Treatment 125 3.3.3.4 Weld Heat Input and Filler Metal Selection 125 3.3.4 Identifying HAZ and weld metal Liquation Cracks 126 3.3.5 Preventing Liquation Cracking 127 References 128 4 Solid-State Cracking 130 4.1 Introduction 130 4.2 Ductility-dip Cracking 130 4.2.1 Proposed Mechanisms 133 4.2.2 Summary of Factors That Influence DDC 139 4.2.3 Quantifying Ductility-Dip Cracking 143 4.2.4 Identifying Ductility-Dip Cracks 145 4.2.5 Preventing DDC 147 4.3 Reheat Cracking 149 4.3.1 Reheat Cracking in Low-Alloy Steels 150 4.3.2 Reheat Cracking in Stainless Steels 155 4.3.3 Underclad Cracking 158 4.3.4 Relaxation Cracking 160 4.3.5 Identifying Reheat Cracking 161 4.3.6 Quantifying Reheat Cracking Susceptibility 163 4.3.7 Preventing Reheat Cracking 166 4.4 Strain-age Cracking 168 4.4.1 Mechanism for Strain-age Cracking 171 4.4.2 Factors That Influence SAC Susceptibility 178 4.4.2.1 Composition 178 4.4.2.2 Grain Size 179 4.4.2.3 Residual Stress and Restraint 179 4.4.2.4 Welding Procedure 180 4.4.2.5 Effect of PWHT 181 4.4.3 Quantifying Susceptibility to Strain-age Cracking 182 4.4.4 Identifying Strain-age Cracking 189 4.4.5 Preventing Strain-age Cracking 189 4.5 Lamellar Cracking 190 4.5.1 Mechanism of Lamellar Cracking 191 4.5.2 Quantifying Lamellar Cracking 195 4.5.3 Identifying Lamellar Cracking 197 4.5.4 Preventing Lamellar Cracking 198 4.6 Copper Contamination Cracking 201 4.6.1 Mechanism for Copper Contamination Cracking 201 4.6.2 Quantifying Copper Contamination Cracking 203 4.6.3 Identifying Copper Contamination Cracking 205 4.6.4 Preventing Copper Contamination Cracking 205 References 207 5 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 213 5.1 Introduction 213 5.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement Theories 214 5.2.1 Planar Pressure Theory 216 5.2.2 Surface Adsorption Theory 217 5.2.3 Decohesion Theory 217 5.2.4 Hydrogen-Enhanced Localized Plasticity Theory 218 5.2.5 Beachem’s Stress Intensity Model 219 5.3 Factors That Influence HIC 221 5.3.1 Hydrogen in Welds 221 5.3.2 Effect of Microstructure 224 5.3.3 Restraint 228 5.3.4 Temperature 230 5.4 Quantifying Susceptibility to HIC 230 5.4.1 Jominy End Quench Method 231 5.4.2 Controlled Thermal Severity Test 234 5.4.3 The Y-Groove (Tekken) Test 235 5.4.4 Gapped Bead-on-Plate Test 236 5.4.5 The Implant Test 237 5.4.6 Tensile Restraint Cracking Test 243 5.4.7 Augmented Strain Cracking Test 244 5.5 Identifying HIC 245 5.6 Preventing HIC 247 5.6.1 CE Method 251 5.6.2 AWS Method 254 References 259 6 Corrosion 263 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Forms of Corrosion 264 6.2.1 General Corrosion 264 6.2.2 Galvanic Corrosion 265 6.2.3 Crevice Corrosion 267 6.2.4 Selective Leaching 268 6.2.5 Erosion Corrosion 268 6.2.6 Pitting 268 6.2.7 Intergranular Corrosion 271 6.2.7.1 Preventing Sensitization 275 6.2.7.2 Knifeline Attack 276 6.2.7.3 Low-Temperature Sensitization 276 6.2.8 Stress Corrosion Cracking 277 6.2.9 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion 280 6.3 Corrosion Testing 282 6.3.1 Atmospheric Corrosion Tests 282 6.3.2 Immersion Tests 282 6.3.3 Electrochemical Tests 284 References 286 7 Fracture and Fatigue 288 7.1 Introduction 288 7.2 Fracture 290 7.3 Quantifying Fracture Toughness 293 7.4 Fatigue 297 7.5 Quantifying Fatigue Behavior 305 7.6 Identifying Fatigue Cracking 306 7.6.1 Beach Marks 307 7.6.2 River Lines 307 7.6.3 Fatigue Striations 307 7.7 Avoiding Fatigue Failures 309 References 310 8 Failure Analysis 311 8.1 Introduction 311 8.2 Fractography 312 8.2.1 History of Fractography 312 8.2.2 The SEM 313 8.2.3 Fracture Modes 315 8.2.4 Fractography of Weld Failures 320 8.2.4.1 Solidification Cracking 320 8.2.4.2 Liquation Cracking 323 8.2.4.3 Ductility-Dip Cracking 326 8.2.4.4 Reheat Cracking 326 8.2.4.5 Strain-Age Cracking 331 8.2.4.6 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 332 8.3 An Engineer’s Guide to Failure Analysis 333 8.3.1 Site Visit 334 8.3.2 Collect Background Information 335 8.3.3 Sample Removal and Testing Protocol 336 8.3.4 Sample Removal, Cleaning, and Storage 336 8.3.5 Chemical Analysis 336 8.3.6 Macroscopic Analysis 337 8.3.7 Selection of Samples for Microscopic Analysis 338 8.3.8 Selection of Analytical Techniques 338 8.3.9 Mechanical Testing 339 8.3.10 Simulative Testing 339 8.3.11 Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques 340 8.3.12 Structural Integrity Assessment 340 8.3.13 Consultation with Experts 340 8.3.14 Final Reporting 340 8.3.15 Expert Testimony in Support of Litigation 341 References 342 9 Weldability Testing 343 9.1 Introduction 343 9.2 Types of Weldability Test Techniques 344 9.3 The Varestraint Test 345 9.3.1 Technique for Quantifying Weld Solidification Cracking 346 9.3.2 Technique for Quantifying HAZ Liquation Cracking 350 9.4 The Cast Pin Tear Test 354 9.5 The Hot Ductility Test 357 9.6 The Strain-to-Fracture Test 362 9.7 Reheat Cracking Test 363 9.8 Implant Test for HAZ Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 366 9.9 Gapped Bead-on-Plate Test for Weld Metal HIC 367 9.10 O ther Weldability Tests 370 References 371 Appendix A 372 Appendix B 374 Appendix C 383 Appendix D 388 Index 396

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a systematic approach to realizing NiTi shape memory alloy actuation, and is aimed at science and engineering students who would like to develop a better understanding of the behaviors of SMAs, and learn to design, simulate, control, and fabricate these actuators in a systematic approach. Several innovative biomedical applications of SMAs are discussed. These include orthopedic, rehabilitation, assistive, cardiovascular, and surgery devices and tools. To this end unique actuation mechanisms are discussed. These include antagonistic bi-stable shape memory-superelastic actuation, shape memory spring actuation, and multi axial tension-torsion actuation. These actuation mechanisms open new possibilities for creating adaptive structures and biomedical devices by using SMAs.Table of ContentsList of Contributors vii Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii 1 Introduction 1Christoph Haberland, Mahmoud Kadkhodaei and Mohammad H. Elahinia 2 Mathematical Modeling and Simulation 45Reza Mirzaeifar and Mohammad H. Elahinia 3 SMA Actuation Mechanisms 85Masood Taheri Andani, Francesco Bucchi and Mohammad H. Elahinia 4 Control of SMA Actuators 125Hashem Ashrafiuon and Mohammad H. Elahinia 5 Fatigue of Shape Memory Alloys 155Mohammad J. Mahtabi, Nima Shamsaei and Mohammad H. Elahinia 6 Fabricating NiTi SMA Components 191Christoph Haberland and Mohammad H. Elahinia 7 Experimental Characterization of Shape Memory Alloys 239Ali S. Turabi, Soheil Saedi, Sayed Mohammad Saghaian, Haluk E. Karaca and Mohammad H. Elahinia Index 279

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