Materials science Books

Book SynopsisThe new edition of this classic emphasises real-world data, new techniques, and new topics in biomaterials, electronic materials, and cellular materials. With over 740 homework problems, online solutions and slides for instructors, this textbook remains ideal for senior undergraduate and graduate students in materials science and engineering.

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Book SynopsisThis book builds on the first edition and includes two new chapters on composite fittings and the design of a composite panel, as well additional exercises. The book enables graduate students and engineers to generate meaningful and robust designs of complex composite structures.Trade ReviewNevertheless, this book is an important contri-bution to the field and will provide a useful aid to postgraduate aerostructural engineers. (The Aeronautical Journal, 1 June 2014)Table of ContentsAbout the Author xi Series Preface xiii Preface to First Edition xv Preface to Second Edition xix 1 Applications of Advanced Composites in Aircraft Structures 1 References 7 2 Cost of Composites: a Qualitative Discussion 9 2.1 Recurring Cost 10 2.2 Nonrecurring Cost 18 2.3 Technology Selection 20 2.4 Summary and Conclusions 27 Exercises 30 References 31 3 Review of Classical Laminated Plate Theory 33 3.1 Composite Materials: Definitions, Symbols and Terminology 33 3.2 Constitutive Equations in Three Dimensions 35 3.2.1 Tensor Transformations 38 3.3 Constitutive Equations in Two Dimensions: Plane Stress 40 Exercises 52 References 53 4 Review of Laminate Strength and Failure Criteria 55 4.1 Maximum Stress Failure Theory 57 4.2 Maximum Strain Failure Theory 58 4.3 Tsai–Hill Failure Theory 58 4.4 Tsai–Wu Failure Theory 59 4.5 Puck Failure Theory 59 4.6 Other Failure Theories 61 References 62 5 Composite Structural Components and Mathematical Formulation 65 5.1 Overview of Composite Airframe 65 5.1.1 The Structural Design Process: The Analyst’s Perspective 66 5.1.2 Basic Design Concept and Process/Material Considerations for Aircraft Parts 71 5.1.3 Sources of Uncertainty: Applied Loads, Usage and Material Scatter 74 5.1.3.1 Knowledge of Applied Loads 75 5.1.3.2 Variability in Usage 75 5.1.3.3 Material Scatter 75 5.1.4 Environmental Effects 77 5.1.5 Effect of Damage 78 5.1.6 Design Values and Allowables 80 5.1.7 Additional Considerations of the Design Process 83 5.2 Governing Equations 84 5.2.1 Equilibrium Equations 84 5.2.2 Stress–Strain Equations 86 5.2.3 Strain–Displacement Equations 87 5.2.4 von Karman Anisotropic Plate Equations for Large Deflections 88 5.3 Reductions of Governing Equations: Applications to Specific Problems 94 5.3.1 Composite Plate under Localized In-Plane Load 94 5.3.2 Composite Plate under Out-of-Plane Point Load 105 5.4 Energy Methods 108 5.4.1 Energy Expressions for Composite Plates 109 5.4.1.1 Internal Strain Energy U 110 5.4.1.2 External Work W 113 Exercises 115 References 122 6 Buckling of Composite Plates 125 6.1 Buckling of Rectangular Composite Plate under Biaxial Loading 125 6.2 Buckling of Rectangular Composite Plate under Uniaxial Compression 129 6.2.1 Uniaxial Compression, Three Sides Simply Supported, OneSideFree 131 6.3 Buckling of Rectangular Composite Plate under Shear 133 6.4 Buckling of Long Rectangular Composite Plates under Shear 136 6.5 Buckling of Rectangular Composite Plates under Combined Loads 138 6.6 Design Equations for Different Boundary Conditions and Load Combinations 145 Exercises 145 References 152 7 Post-Buckling 153 7.1 Post-Buckling Analysis of Composite Panels under Compression 157 7.1.1 Application: Post-Buckled Panel under Compression 165 7.2 Post-Buckling Analysis of Composite Plates under Shear 168 7.2.1 Post-Buckling of Stiffened Composite Panels under Shear 172 7.2.1.1 Application: Post-Buckled Stiffened Fuselage Skin under Shear 177 7.2.2 Post-Buckling of Stiffened Composite Panels under Combined Uniaxial and Shear Loading 180 Exercises 181 References 187 8 Design and Analysis of Composite Beams 189 8.1 Cross-Section Definition Based on Design Guidelines 189 8.2 Cross-Sectional Properties 193 8.3 Column Buckling 199 8.4 Beam on an Elastic Foundation under Compression 200 8.5 Crippling 205 8.5.1 One-Edge-Free (OEF) Crippling 207 8.5.2 No-Edge-Free (NEF) Crippling 211 8.5.3 Crippling under Bending Loads 214 8.5.3.1 Application: Stiffener Design under Bending Loads 215 8.5.4 Crippling of Closed-Section Beams 219 8.6 Importance of Radius Regions at Flange Intersections 219 8.7 Inter-Rivet Buckling of Stiffener Flanges 222 8.8 Application: Analysis of Stiffeners in a Stiffened Panel under Compression 227 Exercises 230 References 235 9 Skin–Stiffened Structure 237 9.1 Smearing of Stiffness Properties (Equivalent Stiffness) 237 9.1.1 Equivalent Membrane Stiffnesses 237 9.1.2 Equivalent Bending Stiffnesses 239 9.2 Failure Modes of a Stiffened Panel 241 9.2.1 Local Buckling (between Stiffeners) versus Overall Panel Buckling (the Panel Breaker Condition) 242 9.2.1.1 Global Buckling = Local Buckling (Compression Loading) 243 9.2.1.2 Stiffener Buckling = PB × Buckling of Skin between Stiffeners (Compression Loading) 246 9.2.1.3 Example 249 9.2.2 Skin–Stiffener Separation 250 9.3 Additional Considerations for Stiffened Panels 265 9.3.1 ‘Pinching’ of Skin 265 9.3.2 Co-curing versus Bonding versus Fastening 266 Exercises 267 References 272 10 Sandwich Structure 275 10.1 Sandwich Bending Stiffnesses 276 10.2 Buckling of Sandwich Structure 278 10.2.1 Buckling of Sandwich under Compression 278 10.2.2 Buckling of Sandwich under Shear 280 10.2.3 Buckling of Sandwich under Combined Loading 281 10.3 Sandwich Wrinkling 281 10.3.1 Sandwich Wrinkling under Compression 282 10.3.2 Sandwich Wrinkling under Shear 293 10.3.3 Sandwich Wrinkling under Combined Loads 293 10.4 Sandwich Crimping 295 10.4.1 Sandwich Crimping under Compression 295 10.4.2 Sandwich Crimping under Shear 295 10.5 Sandwich Intracellular Buckling (Dimpling) under Compression 296 10.6 Attaching Sandwich Structures 296 10.6.1 Core Ramp-Down Regions 297 10.6.2 Alternatives to Core Ramp-Down 299 Exercises 301 References 306 11 Composite Fittings 309 11.1 Challenges in Creating Cost- and Weight-Efficient Composite Fittings 309 11.2 Basic Fittings 311 11.2.1 Clips 311 11.2.1.1 Tension Clips 311 11.2.1.2 Shear Clips 322 11.2.2 Lugs 328 11.2.2.1 Lug under Axial Loads 328 11.2.2.2 Lug under Transverse Loads 333 11.2.2.3 Lug under Oblique (Combined) Loads 337 11.3 Other Fittings 339 11.3.1 Bathtub Fittings 339 11.3.2 Root Fittings 340 Exercises 340 References 341 12 Good Design Practices and Design ‘Rules of Thumb’ 343 12.1 Layup/Stacking Sequence-related 343 12.2 Loading and Performance-related 344 12.3 Guidelines Related to Environmental Sensitivity and Manufacturing Constraints 345 12.4 Configuration and Layout-related 347 Exercises 348 References 349 13 Application – Design of a Composite Panel 351 13.1 Monolithic Laminate 351 13.2 Stiffened Panel Design 362 13.3 Sandwich Design 373 13.4 Cost Considerations 381 13.5 Comparison and Discussion 382 References 385 Index 387

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Book SynopsisThe book describes analytical methods (based primarily on classical modal synthesis), the Finite Element Method (FEM), Boundary Element Method (BEM), Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA), Energy Finite Element Analysis (EFEA), Hybrid Methods (FEM-SEA and Transfer Path Analysis), and Wave-Based Methods.Table of ContentsWiley Series in Acoustics, Noise and Vibration xiv List of Contributors xv 1 Overview 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Traditional Vibroacoustic Methods 2 1.2.1 Finite Element Method 2 1.2.2 Boundary Element Method 3 1.2.3 Statistical Energy Analysis 3 1.3 New Vibroacoustic Methods 4 1.3.1 Hybrid FE/SEA Method 4 1.3.2 Hybrid FE/TPA Method 4 1.3.3 Energy FE Analysis 4 1.3.4 Wave‐Based Structural Analysis 5 1.3.5 Future Developments 5 1.4 Choosing Numerical Methods 5 1.4.1 Geometrical Discretization 5 1.4.2 Solution Frequency Ranges 6 1.4.3 Type of Application 7 1.5 Chapter Organization 9 References 9 2 Structural Vibrations 10 2.1 Introduction 10 2.2 Waves in Structures 11 2.2.1 Compressional and Shear Waves in Isotropic, Homogeneous Structures 11 2.2.2 Bending (Flexural) Waves in Beams and Plates 13 2.2.3 Bending Waves in Anisotropic Plates 17 2.2.4 Bending Waves in Stiffened Panels 20 2.2.5 Structural Wavenumbers 21 2.3 Modes of Vibration 22 2.3.1 Modes of Beams 22 2.3.2 Modes of Plates 25 2.3.3 Global and Local Modes of Stiffened Panels 28 2.3.4 Modal Density 30 2.4 Mobility and Impedance 30 2.4.1 Damping 34 2.5 Bending Waves in Infinite Structures 39 2.6 Coupled Oscillators, Power Flow, and the Basics of Statistical Energy Analysis 42 2.6.1 Equations of Motion 42 2.6.2 Power Input, Flow, and Dissipation 44 2.6.3 Oscillator-based Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA) 45 2.7 Environmental and Installation Effects 48 2.8 Summary 50 References 50 3 Interior and Exterior Sound 52 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Interior Sound 52 3.2.1 Acoustic Wave Equation 52 3.2.2 Boundary Conditions 54 3.2.3 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 55 3.2.4 Forced Sound‐Pressure Response 59 3.2.5 Steady‐State Sound‐Pressure Response 60 3.2.6 Enclosure Driven at Resonance 64 3.2.7 Random Sound‐Pressure Response 66 3.2.8 Transient Sound‐Pressure Response 68 3.3 Exterior Sound 70 3.3.1 Sound Radiation Measures 72 3.3.2 One‐Dimensional Sound Radiation 73 3.3.3 Sound Radiation from Basic Sources and Radiators 75 3.3.3.1 Pulsating Sphere and Monopole Source 75 3.3.3.2 Oscillating Sphere and Dipole Source 77 3.3.4 Helmholtz and Rayleigh Integral Equations 78 3.3.5 Example Applications 81 3.3.5.1 Planar Baffled Vibrating Plate 81 3.3.5.2 Vibrating Crown Surface 84 3.4 Summary 86 References 86 4 Sound‐Structure Interaction Fundamentals 88 4.1 Introduction 88 4.2 Circular Piston Vibrating against an Acoustic Fluid 89 4.3 Fluid Loading of Structures 95 4.4 Structural Waves Vibrating against an Acoustic Fluid 99 4.5 Complementary Problem: Structural Vibrations Induced by Acoustic Pressure Waves 105 4.6 Summary 113 References 113 5 Structural‐Acoustic Modal Analysis and Synthesis 114 5.1 Introduction 114 5.2 Coupled Structural‐Acoustic System 114 5.2.1 Acoustic Cavity Modal Expansion 115 5.2.2 Absorption Wall Impedance 117 5.2.3 Structural Modal Expansion 118 5.2.4 Coupled Structural‐Acoustic Modal Expansions 120 5.3 Simplified Models 121 5.3.1 Helmholtz Resonator Model 121 5.3.2 Flexible Wall Model 122 5.3.3 Coupled Structural and Acoustic Modes 123 5.3.4 Dominant Structural Mode 125 5.3.5 Dominant Cavity Mode 127 5.4 Component Mode Synthesis 132 5.4.1 Coupled Structural‐Acoustic Model 132 5.4.2 Coupled Structures 134 5.4.3 Coupled Cavities 138 5.5 Summary 142 References 143 6 Structural‐Acoustic Finite‐Element Analysis for Interior Acoustics 144 6.1 Introduction 144 6.2 Acoustic Finite‐Element Analysis 144 6.2.1 Acoustic Finite‐Element Formulation 144 6.2.2 Flexible and Absorbent Walls 147 6.2.3 Cavity Modal Analysis 148 6.2.4 Flexible Wall Excitation 150 6.2.5 Acoustic Impedance Modeling 151 6.2.6 Porous Material Modeling 152 6.3 Structural‐Acoustic Finite‐Element Analysis 155 6.3.1 Structural Finite‐Element Formulation 155 6.3.2 Structural System Synthesis 158 6.4 Coupled Structural‐Acoustic Finite‐Element Formulation 159 6.4.1 Coupled Modes and Resonance Frequencies 160 6.4.2 Direct and Modal Frequency Response 161 6.4.3 Random Response 164 6.4.4 Participation Factors 166 6.4.5 Transient Response 171 6.4.5.1 Inverse Fourier Transform 171 6.4.5.2 Direct Transient Response 172 6.4.5.3 Modal Transient Response 172 6.4.6 Structural‐ and Acoustic‐Response Variation 173 6.5 Summary 177 References 177 7 Boundary‐Element Analysis 179 7.1 Theory—Assumptions 179 7.2 Theory—Overview of Theoretical Basis 180 7.3 Boundary‐Element Computations 183 7.4 The Rayleigh Integral 184 7.5 The Kirchhoff–Helmholtz Equation 186 7.6 Nonexistence/Nonuniqueness Difficulties 191 7.7 Impedance Boundary Conditions 199 7.8 Interpolation 202 7.9 Applicability over Frequency and Spatial Resolution 205 7.10 Implementation – Software Required 208 7.11 Computer Resources Required 210 7.12 Inputs and How to Determine them 213 7.13 Outputs 213 7.14 Applications 214 7.15 Verification and Validation 220 7.16 Error Analysis 225 7.17 Summary 225 References 226 8 Structural and Acoustic Noise Control Material Modeling 230 8.1 Introduction 230 8.2 Damping Materials 231 8.2.1 Damping Mechanisms 231 8.2.2 Viscoelastic Damping 232 8.2.3 Representation of the Frequency‐Dependent Properties of Viscoelastic Materials 233 8.2.4 Identification of the Dynamic Properties of VEM 234 8.2.5 Damping Design 235 8.2.6 Modeling Structures with added Viscoelastic Damping 238 8.2.7 Poroelastic Materials 241 8.2.8 Open‐Cell Porous Materials 241 8.2.9 Acoustic Impedance 242 8.2.10 Models of Sound Propagation in a Porous Material 244 8.2.11 Fluids Equivalent to Porous Materials 244 8.2.12 Models for the Effective Density and the Bulk Modulus 245 8.2.13 Perforated Plates 247 8.2.14 Porous Materials having an Elastic Frame 249 8.2.15 Measurement of the Parameters Governing Sound Propagation in Porous Materials 249 8.2.15.1 Porosity 249 8.2.15.2 Flow Resistivity 250 8.2.15.3 Tortuosity 250 8.2.15.4 Characteristics Lengths 253 8.2.15.5 Mechanical Properties 257 8.3 Modeling Multilayer Noise Control Materials 257 8.3.1 Use of the Transfer Matrix Method 258 8.3.2 Modeling a Sound Package within SEA 263 8.3.3 Modeling a Sound Package within FE 264 8.4 Conclusion 265 References 265 9 Structural–Acoustic Optimization 268 9.1 Introduction 268 9.2 Brief Survey of Structural–Acoustic Optimization 269 9.3 Structural–Acoustic Optimization Procedures and Literature 271 9.3.1 Applications 271 9.3.2 Choice of Parameters 272 9.3.3 Constraints 273 9.3.4 Objective Functions 274 9.4 Process of Structural–Acoustic Optimization 277 9.4.1 Structural–Acoustic Simulation 277 9.4.2 Strategy of Optimization 279 9.4.2.1 Formulation of Optimization Problem 279 9.4.2.2 Multiobjective Optimization 280 9.4.2.3 Approximation Concepts and Approximate Optimization 280 9.4.2.4 Optimization Methods 282 9.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis 284 9.4.3.1 Global Finite Differences 284 9.4.3.2 Semi‐Analytic Sensitivity Analysis 285 9.4.3.3 Adjoint Operators 286 9.4.4 Special Techniques 287 9.4.4.1 General Aspects and Ideas 287 9.4.4.2 Efficient Reanalysis 288 9.4.4.3 Frequency Ranges 289 9.5 Minimization of Radiated Sound Power from a Finite Beam 289 9.5.1 General Remarks 289 9.5.2 Simulation Models 289 9.5.3 Noise Transfer Function of Original Configurations 291 9.5.4 Objective Function 293 9.5.5 Formulation of Optimization Problem 293 9.5.6 Optimization Strategy 293 9.5.7 Optimization Results 294 9.5.8 Discussion of Results 297 9.5.9 Optimization of Complex Models 298 9.6 Conclusions 298 References 299 10 Random and Stochastic Structural–Acoustic Analysis 305 10.1 Introduction 305 10.2 Uncertainty Quantification in Vibroacoustic Problems 308 10.2.1 Antioptimization Method 308 10.2.2 Possibilistic Method 309 10.2.3 Probabilistic Method 309 10.3 Random Variables and Random Fields 310 10.4 Discretization of Random Quantities 313 10.4.1 Karhunen–Loève Expansion 313 10.4.2 Polynomial Chaos Expansion 314 10.5 Stochastic FEM Formulation of Structural Vibrations 317 10.5.1 General SFEM Formulation of Vibration Problems 319 10.5.2 Stochastic FEM Formulation of Vibroacoustic Problems 321 10.6 Numerical Simulation Procedures 322 10.6.1 Intrusive SFEM 322 10.6.2 Non‐intrusive SFEM 323 10.7 Numerical Examples 324 10.7.1 Discrete 2‐DOF Undamped System 324 10.7.2 Free Vibration of Orthotropic Plate with Uncertain Parameters 328 10.7.3 Random Equivalent Radiated Power 333 10.8 Summary and Concluding Remarks 335 References 335 11 Statistical Energy Analysis 339 11.1 Introduction 339 11.2 SEA Background 339 11.2.1 Characteristic Wavelengths 340 11.2.2 Modes and Complexity 341 11.2.3 Uncertainty 342 11.3 General Wave‐Based SEA Formulation 343 11.3.1 Piston Coupled with a Single Room 344 11.3.2 Direct Field 344 11.3.3 Reverberant Field 345 11.3.4 Uncertainty 346 11.3.5 Piston Response 347 11.3.6 A Diffuse Reverberant Field 348 11.3.7 Reciprocity between Direct Field Impedance and Diffuse Reverberant Load 348 11.3.8 Coupling Power Proportionality 349 11.3.9 Reverberant Power Balance Equations 352 11.3.10 Recovering Local Responses 354 11.3.11 Numerical Example 354 11.3.12 An Arbitrary Number of Coupled Subsystems 355 11.3.13 Summary 356 11.4 Energy Storage 356 11.4.1 Energy Storage in 1D Waveguides 356 11.4.1.1 A Thin Beam 359 11.4.1.2 Higher‐Order Wavetypes 360 11.4.2 Energy Storage in 2D Waveguides 361 11.4.2.1 A Thin Plate 363 11.4.2.2 A Singly Curved Shell 363 11.4.2.3 Higher Order Wavetypes 364 11.4.3 Energy Storage in 3D Waveguides 366 11.4.3.1 Numerical Example 368 11.4.4 Summary of Modal Density Formulas 369 11.5 Energy Transmission 370 11.5.1 Point Junctions 371 11.5.2 Line Junctions 373 11.5.3 Area Junctions 374 11.6 Power Input and Dissipation 377 11.7 Example Applications 378 11.7.1 Using SEA to Diagnose Transmission Paths 378 11.7.2 Industrial Applications 379 11.8 Summary 382 References 383 12 Hybrid FE‐SEA 385 12.1 Introduction 385 12.2 Overview 385 12.2.1 Low‐, Mid‐, and High‐Frequency Ranges 385 12.2.2 The Mid‐Frequency Problem 386 12.3 The Hybrid FE‐SEA Method 387 12.3.1 System 387 12.3.2 A Statistical Subsystem 387 12.3.3 Direct and Reverberant Fields 388 12.3.4 Ensemble Average Reverberant Loading 388 12.3.5 Coupling a Deterministic and Statistical Subsystem 389 12.4 Example 390 12.4.1 System 390 12.4.2 Deterministic Equations of Motion 390 12.4.3 Direct Field Dynamic Stiffness of SEA Subsystems 392 12.4.4 Ensemble Average Response 392 12.4.5 Reverberant Power Balance 393 12.4.6 Computing the Coupled Response 394 12.5 Implementation and Algorithms 395 12.5.1 Overview 395 12.5.2 Point Connection 395 12.5.3 Line Connection 396 12.5.4 Area Connection 396 12.6 Application Examples 397 12.6.1 Simple Numerical Example 397 12.6.2 Industrial Applications 398 12.7 Summary 403 References 403 13 Hybrid Transfer Path Analysis 406 13.1 Introduction 406 13.2 Transfer Path Analysis 406 13.3 Hybrid Transfer Path Analysis 408 13.4 Vibro‐Acoustic Transfer Function 409 13.4.1 Measured VATF 409 13.4.2 Predicted VATF 411 13.5 Operating Powertrain Loads 412 13.5.1 Measured Stiffness Method 412 13.5.2 Matrix Inversion Method 415 13.5.3 Predicted Powertrain Loads 416 13.6 HTPA Applications 417 13.6.1 Predicted Operating Loads + Measured VATFs 417 13.6.1.1 Predicted Powertrain Loads 418 13.6.1.2 Measured VATFs 419 13.6.1.3 Predicted Interior SPL 421 13.6.2 Predicted VATFs + Measured Operating Loads 424 13.6.2.1 Predicted VATFs 424 13.6.2.2 Measured Operating Loads 426 13.6.2.3 Predicted Interior SPL 426 13.6.2.4 Structural Modification 427 13.7 Vibrational Power Flow 429 13.8 Summary 430 References 431 14 Energy Finite Element Analysis 433 14.1 Overview of Energy Finite Element Analysis 433 14.2 Developing the Governing Differential Equations in EFEA 435 14.2.1 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation for an Acoustic Space 436 14.2.2 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation for the Bending Response of a Plate 439 14.3 Power Transfer Coefficients 441 14.3.1 Power Transfer Coefficients between Two Plates 441 14.3.2 Power Transfer Coefficients between a Plate and an Acoustic Space 444 14.3.2.1 Power Transmission from Plate to Acoustic Space 445 14.3.2.2 Power Transmission from Acoustic Space to Plate 447 14.4 Formulation of Energy Finite Element System of Equations 447 14.4.1 Finite Element Formulation of EFEA System of Equations 447 14.4.2 EFEA Joint Matrix 448 14.4.3 Input Power 450 14.4.4 EFEA System of Equations for a Simple Plate‐Acoustic System 451 14.5 Applications 455 14.5.1 Automotive Application 455 14.5.2 Aircraft Application 461 14.5.3 Naval Application 464 References 470 15 Wave‐based Structural Modeling 472 15.1 General Approach 472 15.1.1 Background 473 15.1.2 Advantages/Limitations 474 15.2 Theoretical Formulation 475 15.2.1 Elementary Rod Theory 475 15.2.2 Straight Beams, Timoshenko Beam Theory 477 15.2.3 Reflections at Boundaries 479 15.2.4 Wave Propagation Solution 480 15.2.5 Spectral Element Method 481 15.3 Wave‐based Spectral Finite Element Formulation 483 15.3.1 Dynamic Stiffness Matrix of a Substructure 483 15.3.2 State Vector Formulation and the Eigenvalue Problem 484 15.3.3 Relations between Dynamic Stiffness and Transfer Matrices 485 15.3.4 Derivation of a Numerical Spectral Matrix for Beam Problems 487 15.3.5 Numerical Spectral Matrix for General Periodic Structures 489 15.4 Applications 491 15.4.1 Beam Analysis via Analytical Approaches 491 15.4.2 Beam Analysis via Numerical Approach (WSFEM) 491 15.4.3 General Periodic Structure Analysis via Numerical Approach (WSFEM) 495 15.4.4 Range of Applicability 499 15.4.5 Implementation–Software Required 500 15.4.6 Computer Resources Required 500 15.4.7 Inputs and How to Determine Them 501 15.4.8 Forces/Enforced Displacements 501 15.4.9 Boundary Conditions 501 15.4.10 Material Properties 502 15.4.11 Outputs 502 15.4.12 Verification and Validation 502 15.5 Conclusion/Summary 503 References 503 Index 506

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Book Synopsis1. Introduction.- 1.1. Imaging Capabilities.- 1.2. Structure Analysis.- 1.3. Elemental Analysis.- 1.4. Summary and Outline of This Book.- Appendix A. Overview of Scanning Electron Microscopy.- Appendix B. Overview of Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis.- References.- 2. The SEM and Its Modes of Operation.- 2.1. How the SEM Works.- 2.1.1. Functions of the SEM Subsystems.- 2.1.1.1. Electron Gun and Lenses Produce a Small Electron Beam.- 2.1.1.2. Deflection System Controls Magnification.- 2.1.1.3. Electron Detector Collects the Signal.- 2.1.1.4. Camera or Computer Records the Image.- 2.1.1.5. Operator Controls.- 2.1.2. SEM Imaging Modes.- 2.1.2.1. Resolution Mode.- 2.1.2.2. High-Current Mode.- 2.1.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.- 2.1.2.4. Low-Voltage Mode.- 2.1.3. Why Learn about Electron Optics?.- 2.2. Electron Guns.- 2.2.1. Tungsten Hairpin Electron Guns.- 2.2.1.1. Filament.- 2.2.1.2. Grid Cap.- 2.2.1.3. Anode.- 2.2.1.4. Emission Current and Beam Current.- 2.2.1.5. Operator Control of the ElecTrade Review“There is no other single volume that covers as much theory and practice of SEM or X-ray microanalysis as Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis, 3rd Edition does. It is clearly written ... well organized. ... This is a reference text that no SEM or EPMA laboratory should be without.” (Thomas J. Wilson, Scanning, Vol. 27 (4), July/August, 2005) “As the authors pointed out, the number of equations in the book is kept to a minimum, and important conceptions are also explained in a qualitative manner. A lot of very distinct images and schematic drawings make for a very interesting book and help readers who study scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. The principal application and sample preparation given in this book are suitable for undergraduate students and technicians learning SEEM and EDS/WDS analyses. It is an excellent textbook for graduate students, and an outstanding reference for engineers, physical, and biological scientists.” (Microscopy and Microanalysis, Vol. 9 (5), October, 2003)Table of Contents1. Introduction.- 1.1. Imaging Capabilities.- 1.2. Structure Analysis.- 1.3. Elemental Analysis.- 1.4. Summary and Outline of This Book.- Appendix A. Overview of Scanning Electron Microscopy.- Appendix B. Overview of Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis.- References.- 2. The SEM and Its Modes of Operation.- 2.1. How the SEM Works.- 2.1.1. Functions of the SEM Subsystems.- 2.1.1.1. Electron Gun and Lenses Produce a Small Electron Beam.- 2.1.1.2. Deflection System Controls Magnification.- 2.1.1.3. Electron Detector Collects the Signal.- 2.1.1.4. Camera or Computer Records the Image.- 2.1.1.5. Operator Controls.- 2.1.2. SEM Imaging Modes.- 2.1.2.1. Resolution Mode.- 2.1.2.2. High-Current Mode.- 2.1.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.- 2.1.2.4. Low-Voltage Mode.- 2.1.3. Why Learn about Electron Optics?.- 2.2. Electron Guns.- 2.2.1. Tungsten Hairpin Electron Guns.- 2.2.1.1. Filament.- 2.2.1.2. Grid Cap.- 2.2.1.3. Anode.- 2.2.1.4. Emission Current and Beam Current.- 2.2.1.5. Operator Control of the Electron Gun.- 2.2.2. Electron Gun Characteristics.- 2.2.2.1. Electron Emission Current.- 2.2.2.2. Brightness.- 2.2.2.3. Lifetime.- 2.2.2.4. Source Size, Energy Spread, Beam Stability.- 2.2.2.5. Improved Electron Gun Characteristics.- 2.2.3. Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Electron Guns.- 2.2.3.1. Introduction.- 2.2.3.2. Operation of the LaB6 Source.- 2.2.4. Field Emission Electron Guns.- 2.3. Electron Lenses.- 2.3.1. Making the Beam Smaller.- 2.3.1.1. Electron Focusing.- 2.3.1.2. Demagnification of the Beam.- 2.3.2. Lenses in SEMs.- 2.3.2.1. Condenser Lenses.- 2.3.2.2. Objective Lenses.- 2.3.2.3. Real and Virtual Objective Apertures.- 2.3.3. Operator Control of SEM Lenses.- 2.3.3.1. Effect of Aperture Size.- 2.3.3.2. Effect of Working Distance.- 2.3.3.3. Effect of Condenser Lens Strength.- 2.3.4. Gaussian Probe Diameter.- 2.3.5. Lens Aberrations.- 2.3.5.1. Spherical Aberration.- 2.3.5.2. Aperture Diffraction.- 2.3.5.3. Chromatic Aberration.- 2.3.5.4. Astigmatism.- 2.3.5.5. Aberrations in the Objective Lens.- 2.4. Electron Probe Diameter versus Electron Probe Current.- 2.4.1. Calculation of dmin and imax.- 2.4.1.1. Minimum Probe Size.- 2.4.1.2. Minimum Probe Size at 10-30 kV.- 2.4.1.3. Maximum Probe Current at 10-30 kV.- 2.4.1.4. Low-Voltage Operation.- 2.4.1.5. Graphical Summary.- 2.4.2. Performance in the SEM Modes.- 2.4.2.1. Resolution Mode.- 2.4.2.2. High-Current Mode.- 2.4.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.- 2.4.2.4. Low-Voltage SEM.- 2.4.2.5. Environmental Barriers to High-Resolution Imaging.- References.- 3. Electron Beam–Specimen Interactions.- 3.1. The Story So Far.- 3.2. The Beam Enters the Specimen.- 3.3. The Interaction Volume.- 3.3.1. Visualizing the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.2. Simulating the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3. Influence of Beam and Specimen Parameters on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3.1. Influence of Beam Energy on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3.2. Influence of Atomic Number on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3.3. Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.4. Electron Range: A Simple Measure of the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.4.1. Introduction.- 3.3.4.2. The Electron Range at Low Beam Energy.- 3.4. Imaging Signals from the Interaction Volume.- 3.4.1. Backscattered Electrons.- 3.4.1.1. Atomic Number Dependence of BSE.- 3.4.1.2. Beam Energy Dependence of BSE.- 3.4.1.3. Tilt Dependence of BSE.- 3.4.1.4. Angular Distribution of BSE.- 3.4.1.5. Energy Distribution of BSE.- 3.4.1.6. Lateral Spatial Distribution of BSE.- 3.4.1.7. Sampling Depth of BSE.- 3.4.2. Secondary Electrons.- 3.4.2.1. Definition and Origin of SE.- 3.4.2.2. SE Yield with Primary Beam Energy.- 3.4.2.3. SE Energy Distribution.- 3.4.2.4. Range and Escape Depth of SE.- 3.4.2.5. Relative Contributions of SE1 and SE2.- 3.4.2.6. Specimen Composition Dependence of SE.- 3.4.2.7. Specimen Tilt Dependence of SE.- 3.4.2.8. Angular Distribution of SE.- References.- 4. Image Formation and Interpretation.- 4.1. The Story So Far.- 4.2. The Basic SEM Imaging Process.- 4.2.1. Scanning Action.- 4.2.2. Image Construction (Mapping).- 4.2.2.1. Line Scans.- 4.2.2.2. Image (Area) Scanning.- 4.2.2.3. Digital Imaging: Collection and Display.- 4.2.3. Magnification.- 4.2.4. Picture Element (Pixel) Size.- 4.2.5. Low-Magnification Operation.- 4.2.6. Depth of Field (Focus).- 4.2.7. Image Distortion.- 4.2.7.1. Projection Distortion: Gnomonic Projection.- 4.2.7.2. Projection Distortion: Image Foreshortening.- 4.2.7.3. Scan Distortion: Pathological Defects.- 4.2.7.4. Moiré Effects.- 4.3. Detectors.- 4.3.1. Introduction.- 4.3.2. Electron Detectors.- 4.3.2.1. Everhart–Thornley Detector.- 4.3.2.2. “Through-the-Lens” (TTL) Detector.- 4.3.2.3. Dedicated Backscattered Electron Detectors.- 4.4. The Roles of the Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation.- 4.4.1. Contrast.- 4.4.2. Compositional (Atomic Number) Contrast.- 4.4.2.1. Introduction.- 4.4.2.2. Compositional Contrast with Backscattered Electrons.- 4.4.3. Topographic Contrast.- 4.4.3.1. Origins of Topographic Contrast.- 4.4.3.2. Topographic Contrast with the Everhart–Thornley Detector.- 4.4.3.3. Light-Optical Analogy.- 4.4.3.4. Interpreting Topographic Contrast with Other Detectors.- 4.5. Image Quality.- 4.6. Image Processing for the Display of Contrast Information.- 4.6.1. The Signal Chain.- 4.6.2. The Visibility Problem.- 4.6.3. Analog and Digital Image Processing.- 4.6.4. Basic Digital Image Processing.- 4.6.4.1. Digital Image Enhancement.- 4.6.4.2. Digital Image Measurements.- References.- 5. Special Topics in Scanning Electron Microscopy.- 5.1. High-Resolution Imaging.- 5.1.1. The Resolution Problem.- 5.1.2. Achieving High Resolution at High Beam Energy.- 5.1.3. High-Resolution Imaging at Low Voltage.- 5.2. STEM-in-SEM: High Resolution for the Special Case of Thin Specimens.- 5.3. Surface Imaging at Low Voltage.- 5.4. Making Dimensional Measurements in the SEM.- 5.5. Recovering the Third Dimension: Stereomicroscopy.- 5.5.1. Qualitative Stereo Imaging and Presentation.- 5.5.2. Quantitative Stereo Microscopy.- 5.6. Variable-Pressure and Environmental SEM.- 5.6.1. Current Instruments.- 5.6.2. Gas in the Specimen Chamber.- 5.6.2.1. Units of Gas Pressure.- 5.6.2.2. The Vacuum System.- 5.6.3. Electron Interactions with Gases.- 5.6.4. The Effect of the Gas on Charging.- 5.6.5. Imaging in the ESEM and the VPSEM.- 5.6.6. X-Ray Microanalysis in the Presence of a Gas.- 5.7. Special Contrast Mechanisms.- 5.7.1. Electric Fields.- 5.7.2. Magnetic Fields.- 5.7.2.1. Type 1 Magnetic Contrast.- 5.7.2.2. Type 2 Magnetic Contrast.- 5.7.3. Crystallographic Contrast.- 5.8. Electron Backscatter Patterns.- 5.8.1. Origin of EBSD Patterns.- 5.8.2. Hardware for EBSD.- 5.8.3. Resolution of EBSD.- 5.8.3.1. Lateral Spatial Resolution.- 5.8.3.2. Depth Resolution.- 5.8.4. Applications.- 5.8.4.1. Orientation Mapping.- 5.8.4.2. Phase Identification.- References.- 6. Generation of X-Rays in the SEM Specimen.- 6.1. Continuum X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung).- 6.2. Characteristic X-Ray Production.- 6.2.1. Origin.- 6.2.2. Fluorescence Yield.- 6.2.3. Electron Shells.- 6.2.4. Energy-Level Diagram.- 6.2.5. Electron Transitions.- 6.2.6. Critical Ionization Energy.- 6.2.7. Moseley’s Law.- 6.2.8. Families of Characteristic Lines.- 6.2.9. Natural Width of Characteristic X-Ray Lines.- 6.2.10. Weights of Lines.- 6.2.11. Cross Section for Inner Shell Ionization.- 6.2.12. X-Ray Production in Thin Foils.- 6.2.13. X-Ray Production in Thick Targets.- 6.2.14. X-Ray Peak-to-Background Ratio.- 6.3. Depth of X-Ray Production (X-Ray Range).- 6.3.1. Anderson–Hasler X-Ray Range.- 6.3.2. X-Ray Spatial Resolution.- 6.3.3. Sampling Volume and Specimen Homogeneity.- 6.3.4.Depth Distribution of X-Ray Production, ?(?z).- 6.4. X-Ray Absorption.- 6.4.1. Mass Absorption Coefficient for an Element.- 6.4.2. Effect of Absorption Edge on Spectrum.- 6.4.3. Absorption Coefficient for Mixed-Element Absorbers.- 6.5. X-Ray Fluorescence.- 6.5.1. Characteristic Fluorescence.- 6.5.2. Continuum Fluorescence.- 6.5.3. Range of Fluorescence Radiation.- References.- 7. X-Ray Spectral Measurement: EDS and WDS.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer.- 7.2.1. Operating Principles.- 7.2.2. The Detection Process.- 7.2.3. Charge-to-Voltage Conversion.- 7.2.4. Pulse-Shaping Linear Amplifier and Pileup Rejection Circuitry.- 7.2.5. The Computer X-Ray Analyzer.- 7.2.6. Digital Pulse Processing.- 7.2.7. Spectral Modification Resulting from the Detection Process.- 7.2.7.1. Peak Broadening.- 7.2.7.2. Peak Distortion.- 7.2.7.3. Silicon X-Ray Escape Peaks.- 7.2.7.4. Absorption Edges.- 7.2.7.5. Silicon Internal Fluorescence Peak.- 7.2.8. Artifacts from the Detector Environment.- 7.2.9. Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts.- 7.3. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer.- 7.3.1. Introduction.- 7.3.2. Basic Description.- 7.3.3. Diffraction Conditions.- 7.3.4. Diffracting Crystals.- 7.3.5. The X-Ray Proportional Counter.- 7.3.6. Detector Electronics.- 7.4. Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Conventional Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers.- 7.4.1. Geometric Collection Efficiency.- 7.4.2. Quantum Efficiency.- 7.4.3. Resolution.- 7.4.4. Spectral Acceptance Range.- 7.4.5. Maximum Count Rate.- 7.4.6. Minimum Probe Size.- 7.4.7. Speed of Analysis.- 7.4.8. Spectral Artifacts.- 7.5. Emerging Detector Technologies.- 7.5.1. X-Ray Microcalorimetery.- 7.5.2. Silicon Drift Detectors.- 7.5.3. Parallel Optic Diffraction-Based Spectrometers.- References.- 8. Qualitative X-Ray Analysis.- 8.1. Introduction.- 8.2. EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.1. X-Ray Peaks.- 8.2.2. Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.2.1. General Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.2.2. Specific Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.3. Examples of Manual EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.4. Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.5. Advanced Qualitative Analysis: Peak Stripping.- 8.2.6. Automatic Qualitative EDS Analysis.- 8.3. WDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.3.1. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometry of X-Ray Peaks.- 8.3.2. Guidelines for WDS Qualitative Analysis.- References.- 9. Quantitative X-Ray Analysis: The Basics.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Advantages of Conventional Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis in the SEM.- 9.3. Quantitative Analysis Procedures: Flat-Polished Samples.- 9.4. The Approach to X-Ray Quantitation: The Need for Matrix Corrections.- 9.5. The Physical Origin of Matrix Effects.- 9.6. ZAF Factors in Microanalysis.- 9.6.1. Atomic number effect, Z.- 9.6.1.1. Effect of Backscattering (R) and Energy Loss (S ).- 9.6.1.2. X-Ray Generation with Depth, ?(?z).- 9.6.2. X-Ray Absorption Effect, A.- 9.6.3. X-Ray Fluorescence, F.- 9.7. Calculation of ZAF Factors.- 9.7.1. Atomic Number Effect, Z.- 9.7.2. Absorption correction, A.- 9.7.3. Characteristic Fluorescence Correction, F.- 9.7.4. Calculation of ZAF.- 9.7.5. The Analytical Total.- 9.8. Practical Analysis.- 9.8.1. Examples of Quantitative Analysis.- 9.8.1.1. Al–Cu Alloys.- 9.8.1.2. Ni–10 wt% Fe Alloy.- 9.8.1.3. Ni–38.5 wt% Cr–3.0 wt% Al Alloy.- 9.8.1.4. Pyroxene: 53.5 wt% SiO2, 1.11 wt% Al2O3, 0.62 wt% Cr2O3, 9.5 wt% FeO, 14.1 wt% MgO, and 21.2 wt% CaO.- 9.8.2. Standardless Analysis.- 9.8.2.1. First-Principles Standardless Analysis.- 9.8.2.2. “Fitted-Standards” Standardless Analysis.- 9.8.3. Special Procedures for Geological Analysis.- 9.8.3.1. Introduction.- 9.8.3.2. Formulation of the Bence–Albee Procedure.- 9.8.3.3. Application of the Bence–Albee Procedure.- 9.8.3.4. Specimen Conductivity.- 9.8.4. Precision and Sensitivity in X-Ray Analysis.- 9.8.4.1. Statistical Basis for Calculating Precision and Sensitivity.- 9.8.4.2. Precision of Composition.- 9.8.4.3. Sample Homogeneity.- 9.8.4.4. Analytical Sensitivity.- 9.8.4.5. Trace Element Analysis.- 9.8.4.6. Trace Element Analysis Geochronologic Applications.- 9.8.4.7. Biological and Organic Specimens.- References.- 10. Special Topics in Electron Beam X-Ray Microanalysis.- 10.1. Introduction.- 10.2. Thin Film on a Substrate.- 10.3. Particle Analysis.- 10.3.1. Particle Mass Effect.- 10.3.2. Particle Absorption Effect.- 10.3.3. Particle Fluorescence Effect.- 10.3.4. Particle Geometric Effects.- 10.3.5. Corrections for Particle Geometric Effects.- 10.3.5.1. The Consequences of Ignoring Particle Effects.- 10.3.5.2. Normalization.- 10.3.5.3. Critical Measurement Issues for Particles.- 10.3.5.4. Advanced Quantitative Methods for Particles.- 10.4. Rough Surfaces.- 10.4.1. Introduction.- 10.4.2. Rough Specimen Analysis Strategy.- 10.4.2.1. Reorientation.- 10.4.2.2. Normalization.- 10.4.2.3. Peak-to-Background Method.- 10.5. Beam-Sensitive Specimens (Biological, Polymeric).- 10.5.1. Thin-Section Analysis.- 10.5.2. Bulk Biological and Organic Specimens.- 10.6. X-Ray Mapping.- 10.6.1. Relative Merits of WDS and EDS for Mapping.- 10.6.2. Digital Dot Mapping.- 10.6.3. Gray-Scale Mapping.- 10.6.3.1. The Need for Scaling in Gray-Scale Mapping.- 10.6.3.2. Artifacts in X-Ray Mapping.- 10.6.4. Compositional Mapping.- 10.6.4.1. Principles of Compositional Mapping.- 10.6.4.2. Advanced Spectrum Collection Strategies for Compositional Mapping.- 10.6.5. The Use of Color in Analyzing and Presenting X-Ray\ Maps.- 10.6.5.1. Primary Color Superposition.- 10.6.5.2. Pseudocolor Scales.- 10.7. Light Element Analysis.- 10.7.1. Optimization of Light Element X-Ray Generation.- 10.7.2. X-Ray Spectrometry of the Light Elements.- 10.7.2.1. Si EDS.- 10.7.2.2. WDS.- 10.7.3. Special Measurement Problems for the Light Elements.- 10.7.3.1. Contamination.- 10.7.3.2. Overvoltage Effects.- 10.7.3.3. Absorption Effects.- 10.7.4.Light Element Quantification.- 10.8. Low-Voltage Microanalysis.- 10.8.1. “Low-Voltage” versus “Conventional” Microanalysis.- 10.8.2. X-Ray Production Range.- 10.8.2.1. Contribution of the Beam Size to the X-Ray Analytical Resolution.- 10.8.2.2. A Consequence of the X-Ray Range under Low-Voltage Conditions.- 10.8.3. X-Ray Spectrometry in Low-Voltage Microanalysis.- 10.8.3.1. The Oxygen and Carbon Problem.- 10.8.3.2. Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis at Low Voltage.- 10.9. Report of Analysis.- References.- 11. Specimen Preparation of Hard Materials: Metals, Ceramics, Rocks, Minerals, Microelectronic and Packaged Devices, Particles, and Fibers.- 11.1. Metals.- 11.1.1. Specimen Preparation for Surface Topography.- 11.1.2. Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis.- 11.1.2.1. Initial Sample Selection and Specimen Preparation Steps.- 11.1.2.2. Final Polishing Steps.- 11.1.2.3. Preparation for Microanalysis.- 11.2. Ceramics and Geological Samples.- 11.2.1. Initial Specimen Preparation: Topography and Microstructure.- 11.2.2. Mounting and Polishing for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis.- 11.2.3. Final Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis.- 11.3. Microelectronics and Packages.- 11.3.1. Initial Specimen Preparation.- 11.3.2. Polishing.- 11.3.3. Final Preparation.- 11.4. Imaging of Semiconductors.- 11.4.1. Voltage Contrast.- 11.4.2. Charge Collection.- 11.5. Preparation for Electron Diffraction in the SEM.- 11.5.1. Channeling Patterns and Channeling Contrast.- 11.5.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction.- 11.6. Special Techniques.- 11.6.1. Plasma Cleaning.- 11.6.2. Focused-Ion-Beam Sample Preparation for SEM.- 11.6.2.1. Application of FIB for Semiconductors.- 11.6.2.2. Applications of FIB in Materials Science.- 11.7.Particles and Fibers.- 11.7.1. Particle Substrates and Supports.- 11.7.1.1. Bulk Particle Substrates.- 11.7.1.2. Thin Particle Supports.- 11.7.2. Particle Mounting Techniques.- 11.7.3. Particles Collected on Filters.- 11.7.4. Particles in a Solid Matrix.- 11.7.5. Transfer of Individual Particles.- References.- 12. Specimen Preparation of Polymer Materials.- 12.1. Introduction.- 12.2. Microscopy of Polymers.- 12.2.1. Radiation Effects.- 12.2.2. Imaging Compromises.- 12.2.3. Metal Coating Polymers for Imaging.- 12.2.4. X-Ray Microanalysis of Polymers.- 12.3. Specimen Preparation Methods for Polymers.- 12.3.1. Simple Preparation Methods.- 12.3.2. Polishing of Polymers.- 12.3.3. Microtomy of Polymers.- 12.3.4. Fracture of Polymer Materials.- 12.3.5. Staining of Polymers.- 12.3.5.1. Osmium Tetroxide and Ruthenium Tetroxide.- 12.3.5.2. Ebonite.- 12.3.5.3. Chlorosulfonic Acid and Phosphotungstic Acid.- 12.3.6. Etching of Polymers.- 12.3.7. Replication of Polymers.- 12.3.8. Rapid Cooling and Drying Methods for Polymers.- 12.3.8.1. Simple Cooling Methods.- 12.3.8.2. Freeze-Drying.- 12.3.8.3. Critical-Point Drying.- 12.4. Choosing Specimen Preparation Methods.- 12.4.1. Fibers.- 12.4.2. Films and Membranes.- 12.4.3. Engineering Resins and Plastics.- 12.4.4. Emulsions and Adhesives.- 12.5. Problem-Solving Protocol.- 12.6. Image Interpretation and Artifacts.- References.- 13. Ambient-Temperature Specimen Preparation of Biological Material.- 13.1. Introduction.- 13.2. Preparative Procedures for the Structural SEM of Single Cells, Biological Particles, and Fibers.- 13.2.1. Particulate, Cellular, and Fibrous Organic Material.- 13.2.2. Dry Organic Particles and Fibers.- 13.2.2.1. Organic Particles and Fibers on a Filter.- 13.2.2.2. Organic Particles and Fibers Entrained within a Filter.- 13.2.2.3. Organic Particulate Matter Suspended in a Liquid.- 13.2.2.4. Manipulating Individual Organic Particles.- 13.3. Preparative Procedures for the Structural Observation of Large Soft Biological Specimens.- 13.3.1. Introduction.- 13.3.2. Sample Handling before Fixation.- 13.3.3. Fixation.- 13.3.4. Microwave Fixation.- 13.3.5. Conductive Infiltration.- 13.3.6. Dehydration.- 13.3.7. Embedding.- 13.3.8. Exposing the Internal Contents of Bulk Specimens.- 13.3.8.1. Mechanical Dissection.- 13.3.8.2. High-Energy-Beam Surface Erosion.- 13.3.8.3. Chemical Dissection.- 13.3.8.4. Surface Replicas and Corrosion Casts.- 13.3.9. Specimen Supports and Methods of Sample Attachment.- 13.3.10. Artifacts.- 13.4. Preparative Procedures for the in Situ Chemical Analysis of Biological Specimens in the SEM.- 13.4.1. Introduction.- 13.4.2. Preparative Procedures for Elemental Analysis Using X-Ray Microanalysis.- 13.4.2.1. The Nature and Extent of the Problem.- 13.4.2.2. Types of Sample That May be Analyzed.- 13.4.2.3. The General Strategy for Sample Preparation.- 13.4.2.4. Criteria for Judging Satisfactory Sample Preparation.- 13.4.2.5. Fixation and Stabilization.- 13.4.2.6. Precipitation Techniques.- 13.4.2.7. Procedures for Sample Dehydration, Embedding, and Staining.- 13.4.2.8. Specimen Supports.- 13.4.3. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Molecules Using Histochemistry.- 13.4.3.1. Staining and Histochemical Methods.- 13.4.3.2. Atomic Number Contrast with Backscattered Electrons.- 13.4.4. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Macromolecues Using Immunocytochemistry.- 13.4.4.1. Introduction.- 13.4.4.2. The Antibody–Antigen Reaction.- 13.4.4.3. General Features of Specimen Preparation for Immunocytochemistry.- 13.4.4.4. Imaging Procedures in the SEM.- References.- 14. Low-Temperature Specimen Preparation.- 14.1. Introduction.- 14.2. The Properties of Liquid Water and Ice.- 14.3. Conversion of Liquid Water to Ice.- 14.4. Specimen Pretreatment before Rapid (Quench) Cooling.- 14.4.1. Minimizing Sample Size and Specimen Holders.- 14.4.2. Maximizing Undercooling.- 14.4.3. Altering the Nucleation Process.- 14.4.4. Artificially Depressing the Sample Freezing Point.- 14.4.5. Chemical Fixation.- 14.5. Quench Cooling.- 14.5.1. Liquid Cryogens.- 14.5.2. Solid Cryogens.- 14.5.3. Methods for Quench Cooling.- 14.5.4. Comparison of Quench Cooling Rates.- 14.6. Low-Temperature Storage and Sample Transfer.- 14.7. Manipulation of Frozen Specimens: Cryosectioning, Cryofracturing, and Cryoplaning.- 14.7.1. Cryosectioning.- 14.7.2. Cryofracturing.- 14.7.3. Cryopolishing or Cryoplaning.- 14.8. Ways to Handle Frozen Liquids within the Specimen.- 14.8.1. Frozen-Hydrated and Frozen Samples.- 14.8.2. Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.2.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.2.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.2.3. Artifacts Associated with Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.3. Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding.- 14.8.3.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding.- 14.8.3.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding.- 14.9. Procedures for Hydrated Organic Systems.- 14.10. Procedures for Hydrated Inorganic Systems.- 14.11. Procedures for Nonaqueous Liquids.- 14.12. Imaging and Analyzing Samples at Low Temperatures.- References.- 15. Procedures for Elimination of Charging in Nonconducting Specimens.- 15.1. Introduction.- 15.2. Recognizing Charging Phenomena.- 15.3. Procedures for Overcoming the Problems of Charging.- 15.4. Vacuum Evaporation Coating.- 15.4.1. High-Vacuum Evaporation Methods.- 15.4.2. Low-Vacuum Evaporation Methods.- 15.5. Sputter Coating.- 15.5.1. Plasma Magnetron Sputter Coating.- 15.5.2. Ion Beam and Penning Sputtering.- 15.6. High-Resolution Coating Methods.- 15.7. Coating for Analytical Studies.- 15.8. Coating Procedures for Samples Maintained at Low Temperatures.- 15.9. Coating Thickness.- 5.10. Damage and Artifacts on Coated Samples.- 15.11. Summary of Coating Guidelines.- References.- Enhancements CD.

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Book SynopsisFrom H.G. Wells to Star Trek, audiences have been captivated by the notions of time travel, time warps, space warps, and wornholes. But science fiction is not the only realm where these concepts thrive. An active group of general relativists and quantum field theorists has produced a considerable body of serious (thought admittedly speculative) mathematical and physical analyses of the wormhole system. Now, with this fascinating book, readers can explore in depth the science behind the science fiction. Drawing on pivotal work by Einstein, Wheeler, Morris, Thorne, Hawking, and others, Matt Visser charts the development and current state of Lorentzian wormhole physics. Dr. Visser shows that by pushing established physical theories to their limits, it is possible to deduce the physical properties of such exotica as wormholes and time travel. The physical framework he uses is derived from one of the major research frontiers of modern theoretical physics: quantum gravity-the intersection of classical Einstein gravity and quantum field theory. Physicists, students of general relativity, cosmology, quantum physics, or any interested reader with a background in physics wil find this a provocative introduction to an exciting and active topic of ongoing research.Table of ContentsPreface; Acknowledgments; I. Background: 1. Introduction; 2. General Relativity; 3. Quantum Field Theory; 4. Units and Natural Scales; II. History: 5. The Einstein-Rosen Bridge; 6. Spacetime Foam; 7. The Kerr Wormhole; 8. The Cosmological Constant; 9. Wormhole Taxonomy; 10. Interregnum; III. Renaissance: 11. Traversible Wormholes; 12. Energy Conditions; 13. Engineering Considerations; 14. Thin Shells: Fromalism; 15. Thin Shells: Wormholes; 16. Topological Censorship; IV.: Time Travel: 17. Chronology: Basic Notions; 18. From Wormhole to Time Machine; 19. Response to the Paradoxes; V. Quantum Effects; 20. Semiclassical Quantum Gravity; 21. van Vleck Determinants: Formalism; 22. van Vleck Determinants: Wormholes; 23. Singularity Structure; 24. Minisuperspace Wormholes; VI. Reprise: 25. Where We Stand; Bibliography; Index

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