Electronics and communications engineering Books

Book SynopsisExplores real-world wireless sensor network development, deployment, and applications Presents state-of-the-art protocols and algorithmsIncludes end-of-chapter summaries, exercises, and referencesFor students, there are hardware overviews, reading links, programming examples, and tests available at [website]For Instructors, there are PowerPoint slides and solutions available at [website]Table of ContentsHow to Use This Book xiii 1 What are Wireless Sensor Networks? 1 1.1 Wireless Sensor Networks 1 1.2 Sample Applications Around the World 3 1.3 Types of Wireless Sensor Networks 7 Summary 10 Further Reading 10 2 Anatomy of a Sensor Node 11 2.1 Hardware Components 11 2.2 Power Consumption 13 2.3 Operating Systems and Concepts 15 2.3.1 Memory Management 17 2.3.2 Interrupts 23 2.3.3 Tasks Threads and Events 24 2.4 Simulators 26 2.5 Communication Stack 28 2.5.1 Sensor Network Communication Stack 28 2.5.2 Protocols and Algorithms 30 Anatomy of a Sensor Node: Summary 30 Further Reading 30 3 Radio Communications 33 3.1 Radio Waves and Modulation/Demodulation 33 3.2 Properties of Wireless Communications 36 3.2.1 Interference and Noise 37 3.2.2 Hidden Terminal Problem 38 3.2.3 Exposed Terminal Problem 39 3.3 Medium Access Protocols 39 3.3.1 Design Criteria for Medium Access Protocols 41 3.3.2 Time Division Multiple Access 42 3.3.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access 45 3.3.4 Sensor MAC 48 3.3.5 Berkeley MAC 50 3.3.6 Optimizations of B-MAC 51 3.3.7 Other Protocols and Trends 51 Radio Communications: Summary 53 Questions and Exercises 53 Further Reading 54 4 Link Management 57 4.1 Wireless Links Introduction 57 4.2 Properties of Wireless Links 59 4.2.1 Links and Geographic Distance 59 4.2.2 Asymmetric Links 60 4.2.3 Link Stability and Burstiness 61 4.3 Error Control 62 4.3.1 Backward Error Control 62 4.3.2 Forward Error Control 63 4.4 Naming and Addressing 64 4.4.1 Naming 64 4.4.2 Addressing 65 4.4.3 Assignment of Addresses and Names 65 4.4.4 Using Names and Addresses 66 4.5 Link Estimation Protocols 66 4.5.1 Design Criteria 66 4.5.2 Link Quality Based 67 4.5.3 Delivery Rate Based 68 4.5.4 Passive and Active Estimators 69 4.5.5 Collection Tree Protocol 69 4.6 Topology Control 71 4.6.1 Centralized Topology Control 71 4.6.2 Distributed Topology Control 72 Link Management: Summary 73 Questions and Exercises 73 Further Reading 74 5 Multi-Hop Communications 77 5.1 Routing Basics 77 5.2 Routing Metrics 80 5.2.1 Location and Geographic Vicinity 80 5.2.2 Hops 81 5.2.3 Number of Retransmissions 82 5.2.4 Delivery Delay 83 5.3 Routing Protocols 84 5.3.1 Full-Network Broadcast 85 5.3.2 Location-Based Routing 87 5.3.3 Directed Diffusion 90 5.3.4 Collection Tree Protocol 92 5.3.5 Zigbee 94 Multi-Hop Communications: Summary 95 Questions and Exercises 96 Further Reading 96 6 Data Aggregation and Clustering 99 6.1 Clustering Techniques 99 6.1.1 Random Clustering 101 6.1.2 Nearest Sink 102 6.1.3 Geographic Clustering 103 6.1.4 Clustering Summary 104 6.2 In-Network Processing and Data Aggregation 104 6.2.1 Compression 104 6.2.2 Statistical Techniques 107 6.3 Compressive Sampling 109 Data Aggregation and Clustering: Summary 110 Questions and Exercises 111 Further Reading 111 7 Time Synchronization 113 7.1 Clocks and Delay Sources 113 7.2 Requirements and Challenges 114 7.3 Time Synchronization Protocols 117 7.3.1 Lightweight Tree Synchronization 117 7.3.2 Reference Broadcast Synchronization 118 7.3.3 NoTime Protocol 118 Time Synchronization: Summary 120 Questions and Exercises 121 Further Reading 121 8 Localization Techniques 123 8.1 Localization Challenges and Properties 123 8.1.1 Types of Location Information 124 8.1.2 Precision Against Accuracy 125 8.1.3 Costs 125 8.2 Pre-Deployment Schemes 126 8.3 Proximity Schemes 126 8.4 Ranging Schemes 128 8.4.1 Triangulation 129 8.4.2 Trilateration 129 8.5 Range-Based Localization 129 8.6 Range-Free Localization 130 8.6.1 Hop-Based Localization 130 8.6.2 Point in Triangle (PIT) 131 Localization: Summary 132 Questions and Exercises 133 Further Reading 133 9 Sensing Techniques 135 9.1 Types of Sensors 135 9.2 Sensing Coverage 136 9.3 High-Level Sensors 137 9.4 Special Case: The Human As a Sensor 138 9.5 Actuators 138 9.6 Sensor Calibration 139 9.7 Detecting Errors 140 Sensing Techniques: Summary 141 Questions and Exercises 141 10 Designing and Deploying WSN Applications 143 10.1 Early WSN Deployments 143 10.1.1 Murphy Loves Potatoes 144 10.1.2 Great Duck Island 144 10.2 General Problems 145 10.2.1 Node Problems 146 10.2.2 Link/Path Problems 147 10.2.3 Global Problems 148 10.3 General Testing and Validation 149 10.4 Requirements Analysis 151 10.4.1 Analyzing the Environment 151 10.4.2 Analyzing Lifetime and Energy Requirements 153 10.4.3 Analyzing Required Data 153 10.4.4 Analyzing User Expectations 154 10.5 The Top-Down Design Process 154 10.5.1 The Network 154 10.5.2 The Node Neighborhood 155 10.5.3 The Node 156 10.5.4 Individual Components of the Node 156 10.6 Bottom-Up Implementation Process 157 10.6.1 Individual Node-Level Modules 158 10.6.2 The Node As an Entity 159 10.6.3 The Network As an Entity 159 Designing and Deploying WSN Applications: Summary 160 Further Reading 160 11 Summary and Outlook 163 Index 167

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Book SynopsisThe focus of this book is broadband telecommunications: both fixed (DSL, fiber) and wireless (1G-4G). It uniquely covers the broadband telecom field from technological, business and policy angles. The reader learns about the necessary technologies to a certain depth in order to be able to evaluate and analyse competing technologies.Table of ContentsPreface viii 1 Introduction 1 2 Technology, Business and Policy 14 3 Voice Communications 49 4 Information Theory 78 5 From Analogue to Digital 98 6 Error Control Coding 129 7 Digital Modulation 153 8 Packetised Data Communications 169 9 Fixed Broadband Communications Systems 191 10 Terrestrial Broadband Wireless Telecommunications 215 11 Satellite Communications 257 12 Personal Wireless Communications Systems 282 13 Network Topologies, Design and Convergence 307 14 Content Delivery and Net Neutrality 334 Acknowledgements 355 Case Study Index 356 Index 357

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Book SynopsisThis book is the first of its kind to discuss error estimation with a model-based approach. From the basics of classifiers and error estimators to distributional and Bayesian theory, it covers important topics and essential issues pertaining to the scientific validity of pattern classification.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xix List of Symbols xxi 1 Classification 1 1.1 Classifiers 1 1.2 Population-Based Discriminants 3 1.3 Classification Rules 8 1.4 Sample-Based Discriminants 13 1.4.1 Quadratic Discriminants 14 1.4.2 Linear Discriminants 15 1.4.3 Kernel Discriminants 16 1.5 Histogram Rule 16 1.6 Other Classification Rules 20 1.6.1 k-Nearest-Neighbor Rules 20 1.6.2 Support Vector Machines 21 1.6.3 Neural Networks 22 1.6.4 Classification Trees 23 1.6.5 Rank-Based Rules 24 1.7 Feature Selection 25 Exercises 28 2 Error Estimation 35 2.1 Error Estimation Rules 35 2.2 Performance Metrics 38 2.2.1 Deviation Distribution 39 2.2.2 Consistency 41 2.2.3 Conditional Expectation 41 2.2.4 Linear Regression 42 2.2.5 Confidence Intervals 42 2.3 Test-Set Error Estimation 43 2.4 Resubstitution 46 2.5 Cross-Validation 48 2.6 Bootstrap 55 2.7 Convex Error Estimation 57 2.8 Smoothed Error Estimation 61 2.9 Bolstered Error Estimation 63 2.9.1 Gaussian-Bolstered Error Estimation 67 2.9.2 Choosing the Amount of Bolstering 68 2.9.3 Calibrating the Amount of Bolstering 71 Exercises 73 3 Performance Analysis 77 3.1 Empirical Deviation Distribution 77 3.2 Regression 79 3.3 Impact on Feature Selection 82 3.4 Multiple-Data-Set Reporting Bias 84 3.5 Multiple-Rule Bias 86 3.6 Performance Reproducibility 92 Exercises 94 4 Error Estimation for Discrete Classification 97 4.1 Error Estimators 98 4.1.1 Resubstitution Error 98 4.1.2 Leave-One-Out Error 98 4.1.3 Cross-Validation Error 99 4.1.4 Bootstrap Error 99 4.2 Small-Sample Performance 101 4.2.1 Bias 101 4.2.2 Variance 103 4.2.3 Deviation Variance, RMS, and Correlation 105 4.2.4 Numerical Example 106 4.2.5 Complete Enumeration Approach 108 4.3 Large-Sample Performance 110 Exercises 114 5 Distribution Theory 115 5.1 Mixture Sampling Versus Separate Sampling 115 5.2 Sample-Based Discriminants Revisited 119 5.3 True Error 120 5.4 Error Estimators 121 5.4.1 Resubstitution Error 121 5.4.2 Leave-One-Out Error 122 5.4.3 Cross-Validation Error 122 5.4.4 Bootstrap Error 124 5.5 Expected Error Rates 125 5.5.1 True Error 125 5.5.2 Resubstitution Error 128 5.5.3 Leave-One-Out Error 130 5.5.4 Cross-Validation Error 132 5.5.5 Bootstrap Error 133 5.6 Higher-Order Moments of Error Rates 136 5.6.1 True Error 136 5.6.2 Resubstitution Error 137 5.6.3 Leave-One-Out Error 139 5.7 Sampling Distribution of Error Rates 140 5.7.1 Resubstitution Error 140 5.7.2 Leave-One-Out Error 141 Exercises 142 6 Gaussian Distribution Theory: Univariate Case 145 6.1 Historical Remarks 146 6.2 Univariate Discriminant 147 6.3 Expected Error Rates 148 6.3.1 True Error 148 6.3.2 Resubstitution Error 151 6.3.3 Leave-One-Out Error 152 6.3.4 Bootstrap Error 152 6.4 Higher-Order Moments of Error Rates 154 6.4.1 True Error 154 6.4.2 Resubstitution Error 157 6.4.3 Leave-One-Out Error 160 6.4.4 Numerical Example 165 6.5 Sampling Distributions of Error Rates 166 6.5.1 Marginal Distribution of Resubstitution Error 166 6.5.2 Marginal Distribution of Leave-One-Out Error 169 6.5.3 Joint Distribution of Estimated and True Errors 174 Exercises 176 7 Gaussian Distribution Theory: Multivariate Case 179 7.1 Multivariate Discriminants 179 7.2 Small-Sample Methods 180 7.2.1 Statistical Representations 181 7.2.2 Computational Methods 194 7.3 Large-Sample Methods 199 7.3.1 Expected Error Rates 200 7.3.2 Second-Order Moments of Error Rates 207 Exercises 218 8 Bayesian MMSE Error Estimation 221 8.1 The Bayesian MMSE Error Estimator 222 8.2 Sample-Conditioned MSE 226 8.3 Discrete Classification 227 8.4 Linear Classification of Gaussian Distributions 238 8.5 Consistency 246 8.6 Calibration 253 8.7 Concluding Remarks 255 Exercises 257 A Basic Probability Review 259 A.1 Sample Spaces and Events 259 A.2 Definition of Probability 260 A.3 Borel-Cantelli Lemmas 261 A.4 Conditional Probability 262 A.5 Random Variables 263 A.6 Discrete Random Variables 265 A.7 Expectation 266 A.8 Conditional Expectation 268 A.9 Variance 269 A.10 Vector Random Variables 270 A.11 The Multivariate Gaussian 271 A.12 Convergence of Random Sequences 273 A.13 Limiting Theorems 275 B Vapnik–Chervonenkis Theory 277 B.1 Shatter Coefficients 277 B.2 The VC Dimension 278 B.3 VC Theory of Classification 279 B.3.1 Linear Classification Rules 279 B.3.2 kNN Classification Rule 280 B.3.3 Classification Trees 280 B.3.4 Nonlinear SVMs 281 B.3.5 Neural Networks 281 B.3.6 Histogram Rules 281 B.4 Vapnik–Chervonenkis Theorem 282 C Double Asymptotics 285 Bibliography 291 Author index 301 Subject index 305

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Book SynopsisProvides comprehensive coverage of the basic principles and methods of electric power conversion and the latest developments in the fieldThis book constitutes a comprehensive overview of the modern power electronics. Various semiconductor power switches are described, complementary components and systems are presented, and power electronic converters that process power for a variety of applications are explained in detail. This third edition updates all chapters, including new concepts in modern power electronics. New to this edition is extended coverage of matrix converters, multilevel inverters, and applications of the Z-source in cascaded power converters. The book is accompanied by a website hosting an instructor's manual, a PowerPoint presentation, and a set of PSpice files for simulation of a variety of power electronic converters.Introduction to Modern Power Electronics, Third Edition: Discusses power conversion tTrade Review"This book would be an excellent introduction for those who want to learn about power electronics, or a refresher for those already familiar with the topic. The descriptions are clearly written and supported by numerous circuit schematics, drawings, and tables, which will help the reader fully grasp the subject matter.[Overall]... the book admirably serves the purpose of introducing power electronics to a wide audience of engineers." (IEEE Electrical Insulation magazine May 2017) Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Principles of Electric Power Conversion 1 1.1 What is Power Electronics? 1 1.2 Generic Power Converter 3 1.3 Waveform Components and Figures of Merit 8 1.4 Phase Control and Square-Wave Mode 16 1.5 Pulse Width Modulation 22 1.6 Computation of Current Waveforms 30 1.6.1 Analytical Solution 30 1.6.2 Numerical Solution 35 1.6.3 Practical Example: Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers 38 Summary 43 Examples 43 Problems 50 Computer Assignments 53 Further Reading 56 2 Semiconductor Power Switches 57 2.1 General Properties of Semiconductor Power Switches 57 2.2 Power Diodes 59 2.3 Semi-Controlled Switches 63 2.3.1 SCRs 64 2.3.2 Triacs 67 2.4 Fully Controlled Switches 68 2.4.1 GTOs 68 2.4.2 IGCTs 69 2.4.3 Power BJTs 70 2.4.4 Power MOSFETs 74 2.4.5 IGBTs 75 2.5 Comparison of Semiconductor Power Switches 77 2.6 Power Modules 79 2.7 Wide Bandgap Devices 84 Summary 86 Further Reading 87 3 Supplementary Components and Systems 88 3.1 What Are Supplementary Components and Systems? 88 3.2 Drivers 89 3.2.1 Drivers for SCRs, Triacs, and BCTs 89 3.2.2 Drivers for GTOs and IGCTs 90 3.2.3 Drivers for BJTs 91 3.2.4 Drivers for Power MOSFETs and IGBTs 94 3.3 Overcurrent Protection Schemes 96 3.4 Snubbers 98 3.4.1 Snubbers for Power Diodes, SCRs, and Triacs 101 3.4.2 Snubbers for GTOs and IGCTs 102 3.4.3 Snubbers for Transistors 103 3.4.4 Energy Recovery from Snubbers 104 3.5 Filters 106 3.6 Cooling 109 3.7 Control 111 Summary 113 Further Reading 114 4 AC-to-DC Converters 115 4.1 Diode Rectifiers 115 4.1.1 Three-Pulse Diode Rectifier 115 4.1.2 Six-Pulse Diode Rectifier 117 4.2 Phase-Controlled Rectifiers 130 4.2.1 Phase-Controlled Six-Pulse Rectifier 130 4.2.2 Dual Converters 143 4.3 PWM Rectifiers 149 4.3.1 Impact of Input Filter 149 4.3.2 Principles of PWM 150 4.3.3 Current-Type PWM Rectifier 158 4.3.4 Voltage-Type PWM Rectifier 163 4.3.5 Vienna Rectifier 175 4.4 Device Selection for Rectifiers 178 4.5 Common Applications of Rectifiers 180 Summary 184 Examples 185 Problems 191 Computer Assignments 193 Further Reading 195 5 AC-to-AC Converters 196 5.1 AC Voltage Controllers 196 5.1.1 Phase-Controlled Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller 196 5.1.2 Phase-Controlled Three-Phase AC Voltage Controllers 203 5.1.3 PWM AC Voltage Controllers 211 5.2 Cycloconverters 215 5.3 Matrix Converters 220 5.3.1 Classic Matrix Converters 220 5.3.2 Sparse Matrix Converters 227 5.3.3 Z-Source Matrix Converters 230 5.4 Device Selection for AC-to-AC Converters 234 5.5 Common Applications of AC-to-AC Converters 235 Summary 236 Examples 237 Problems 241 Computer Assignments 242 Further Reading 243 6 DC-to-DC Converters 245 6.1 Static DC Switches 245 6.2 Step-Down Choppers 248 6.2.1 First-Quadrant Chopper 250 6.2.2 Second-Quadrant Chopper 254 6.2.3 First-and-Second-Quadrant Chopper 256 6.2.4 First-and-Fourth-Quadrant Chopper 258 6.2.5 Four-Quadrant Chopper 260 6.3 Step-Up Chopper 262 6.4 Current Control in Choppers 265 6.5 Device Selection for Choppers 265 6.6 Common Applications of Choppers 267 Summary 269 Examples 269 Problems 272 Computer Assignments 274 Further Reading 275 7 DC-to-AC Converters 276 7.1 Voltage-Source Inverters 276 7.1.1 Single-Phase VSI 277 7.1.2 Three-Phase VSI 286 7.1.3 Voltage Control Techniques for PWM Inverters 295 7.1.4 Current Control Techniques for VSIs 306 7.2 Current-Source Inverters 315 7.2.1 Three-Phase Square-Wave CSI 315 7.2.2 Three-Phase PWM CSI 319 7.3 Multilevel Inverters 322 7.3.1 Diode-Clamped Three-Level Inverter 324 7.3.2 Flying-Capacitor Three-Level Inverter 327 7.3.3 Cascaded H-Bridge Inverter 329 7.4 Soft-Switching Inverters 333 7.5 Device Selection for Inverters 341 7.6 Common Applications of Inverters 344 Summary 352 Examples 352 Problems 359 Computer Assignments 360 Further Reading 362 8 Switching Power Supplies 364 8.1 Basic Types of Switching Power Supplies 364 8.2 Nonisolated Switched-Mode DC-to-DC Converters 365 8.2.1 Buck Converter 366 8.2.2 Boost Converter 369 8.2.3 Buck–Boost Converter 371 8.2.4 Ĉuk Converter 374 8.2.5 SEPIC and Zeta Converters 378 8.2.6 Comparison of Nonisolated Switched-Mode DC-to-DC Converters 379 8.3 Isolated Switched-Mode DC-to-DC Converters 382 8.3.1 Single-Switch-Isolated DC-to-DC Converters 383 8.3.2 Multiple-Switch-Isolated DC-to-DC Converters 386 8.3.3 Comparison of Isolated Switched-Mode DC-to-DC Converters 389 8.4 Resonant DC-to-DC Converters 390 8.4.1 Quasi-Resonant Converters 391 8.4.2 Load-Resonant Converters 395 8.4.3 Comparison of Resonant DC-to-DC Converters 402 Summary 402 Examples 403 Problems 406 Computer Assignments 408 Further Reading 410 9 Power Electronics and Clean Energy 411 9.1 Why is Power Electronics Indispensable in Clean Energy Systems? 411 9.2 Solar and Wind Renewable Energy Systems 413 9.2.1 Solar Energy Systems 413 9.2.2 Wind Energy Systems 417 9.3 Fuel Cell Energy Systems 422 9.4 Electric Cars 424 9.5 Hybrid Cars 426 9.6 Power Electronics and Energy Conservation 430 Summary 431 Further Reading 432 Appendix A Spice Simulations 433 Appendix B Fourier Series 438 Appendix C Three-Phase Systems 442 Index 447

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Book SynopsisThe only book to offer special coverage of the fundamentals of multicore DSP for implementation on the TMS320C66xx SoC This unique book provides readers with an understanding of the TMS320C66xx SoC as well as its constraints. It offers critical analysis of each element, which not only broadens their knowledge of the subject, but aids them in gaining a better understanding of how these elements work so well together. Written by Texas Instruments' First DSP Educator Award winner, Naim Dahnoun, the book teaches readers how to use the development tools, take advantage of the maximum performance and functionality of this processor and have an understanding of the rich content which spans from architecture, development tools and programming models, such as OpenCL and OpenMP, to debugging tools. It also covers various multicore audio and image applications in detail. Additionally, this one-of-a-kind book is supplemented with: A rich set of tested laboratorTable of ContentsPreface xviii Acknowledgements xxi Foreword xxii About the Companion Website xxiii 1 Introduction to DSP 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Multicore processors 3 1.2.1 Can any algorithm benefit from a multicore processor? 3 1.2.2 How many cores do I need for my application? 5 1.3 Key applications of high-performance multicore devices 6 1.4 FPGAs, Multicore DSPs, GPUs and Multicore CPUs 8 1.5 Challenges faced for programming a multicore processor 9 1.6 Texas Instruments DSP roadmap 10 1.7 Conclusion 11 References 12 2 The TMS320C66x architecture overview 14 2.1 Overview 14 2.2 The CPU 15 2.2.1 Cross paths 16 2.2.1.1 Data cross paths 17 2.2.1.2 Address cross paths 18 2.2.2 Register file A and file B 20 2.2.2.1 Operands 20 2.2.3 Functional units 21 2.2.3.1 Condition registers 21 2.2.3.2 .L units 22 2.2.3.3 .M units 22 2.2.3.4 .S units 23 2.2.3.5 .D units 23 2.3 Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) instructions 24 2.3.1 Control registers 24 2.4 The KeyStone memory 24 2.4.1 Using the internal memory 27 2.4.2 Memory protection and extension 29 2.4.3 Memory throughput 29 2.5 Peripherals 30 2.5.1 Navigator 32 2.5.2 Enhanced Direct Memory Access (EDMA) Controller 32 2.5.3 Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) 32 2.5.4 General purpose input–output (GPIO) 32 2.5.5 Internal timers 32 2.6 Conclusion 33 References 33 3 Software development tools and the TMS320C6678 EVM 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Software development tools 37 3.2.1 Compiler 38 3.2.2 Assembler 39 3.2.3 Linker 40 3.2.3.1 Linker command file 40 3.2.4 Compile, assemble and link 42 3.2.5 Using the Real-Time Software Components (RTSC) tools 42 3.2.5.1 Platform update using the XDCtools 42 3.2.6 KeyStone Multicore Software Development Kit 47 3.3 Hardware development tools 47 3.3.1 EVM features 47 3.4 Laboratory experiments based on the C6678 EVM: introduction to Code Composer Studio (CCS) 51 3.4.1 Software and hardware requirements 51 3.4.1.1 Key features 52 3.4.1.2 Download sites 53 3.4.2 Laboratory experiments with the CCS6 53 3.4.2.1 Introduction to CCS 55 3.4.2.2 Implementation of a DOTP algorithm 63 3.4.3 Profiling using the clock 65 3.4.4 Considerations when measuring time 67 3.5 Loading different applications to different cores 67 3.6 Conclusion 72 References 72 4 Numerical issues 74 4.1 Introduction 74 4.2 Fixed- and floating-point representations 75 4.2.1 Fixed-point arithmetic 76 4.2.1.1 Unsigned integer 76 4.2.1.2 Signed integer 77 4.2.1.3 Fractional numbers 77 4.2.2 Floating-point arithmetic 78 4.2.2.1 Special numbers for the 32-bit and 64-bit floating-point formats 81 4.3 Dynamic range and accuracy 82 4.4 Laboratory exercise 83 4.5 Conclusion 85 References 85 5 Software optimisation 86 5.1 Introduction 86 5.2 Hindrance to software scalability for a multicore processor 88 5.3 Single-core code optimisation procedure 88 5.3.1 The C compiler options 90 5.4 Interfacing C with intrinsics, linear assembly and assembly 91 5.4.1 Intrinsics 91 5.4.2 Interfacing C and assembly 92 5.5 Assembly optimisation 97 5.5.1 Parallel instructions 98 5.5.2 Removing the NOPs 99 5.5.3 Loop unrolling 99 5.5.4 Double-Word Access 100 5.5.5 Optimisation summary 100 5.6 Software pipelining 101 5.6.1 Software-pipelining procedure 105 5.6.1.1 Writing linear assembly code 105 5.6.1.2 Creating a dependency graph 105 5.6.1.3 Resource allocation 108 5.6.1.4 Scheduling table 108 5.6.1.5 Generating assembly code 109 5.7 Linear assembly 111 5.7.1 Hand optimisation of the dotp function using linear assembly 112 5.8 Avoiding memory banks 118 5.9 Optimisation using the tools 118 5.10 Laboratory experiments 123 5.11 Conclusion 126 References 126 6 The TMS320C66x interrupts 127 6.1 Introduction 127 6.1.1 Chip-level interrupt controller 129 6.2 The interrupt controller 135 6.3 Laboratory experiment 140 6.3.1 Experiment 1: Using the GIPIOs to trigger some functions 140 6.3.2 Experiment 2: Using the console to trigger an interrupt 140 6.4 Conclusion 143 References 144 7 Real-time operating system: TI-RTOS 145 7.1 Introduction 146 7.2 TI-RTOS 146 7.3 Real-time scheduling 148 7.3.1 Hardware interrupts (Hwis) 148 7.3.1.1 Setting an Hwi 149 7.3.1.2 Hwi hook functions 149 7.3.2 Software interrupts (Swis), including clock, periodic or single-shot functions 155 7.3.3 Tasks 155 7.3.3.1 Task hook functions 157 7.3.4 Idle functions 158 7.3.5 Clock functions 158 7.3.6 Timer functions 158 7.3.7 Synchronisation 158 7.3.7.1 Semaphores 159 7.3.7.2 Semaphore_pend 159 7.3.7.3 Semaphore_post 159 7.3.7.4 How to configure the semaphores 159 7.3.8 Events 159 7.3.9 Summary 163 7.4 Dynamic memory management 163 7.4.1 Stack allocation 165 7.4.2 Heap allocation 165 7.4.3 Heap implementation 165 7.4.3.1 HeapMin implementation 165 7.4.3.2 HeapMem implementation 165 7.4.3.3 HeapBuf implementation 167 7.4.3.4 HeapMultiBuf implementation 171 7.5 Laboratory experiments 172 7.5.1 Lab 1: Manual setup of the clock (part 1) 172 7.5.2 Lab 2: Manual setup of the clock (part 2) 172 7.5.3 Lab 3: Using Hwis, Swis, tasks and clocks 174 7.5.4 Lab 4: Using events 187 7.5.5 Lab 5: Using the heaps 189 7.6 Conclusion 190 References 191 References (further reading) 191 8 Enhanced Direct Memory Access (EDMA3) controller 192 8.1 Introduction 192 8.2 Type of DMAs available 193 8.3 EDMA controllers architecture 194 8.3.1 The EDMA3 Channel Controller (EDMA3CC) 194 8.3.2 The EDMA3 transfer controller (EDMA3TC) 201 8.3.3 EDMA prioritisation 201 8.3.3.1 Trigger source priority 202 8.3.3.2 Channel priority 203 8.3.3.3 Dequeue priority 203 8.3.3.4 System (transfer controller) priority 203 8.4 Parameter RAM (PaRAM) 203 8.4.1 Channel options parameter (OPT) 203 8.5 Transfer synchronisation dimensions 203 8.5.1 A – Synchronisation 204 8.5.2 AB – Synchronisation 204 8.6 Simple EDMA transfer 204 8.7 Chaining EDMA transfers 208 8.8 Linked EDMAs 208 8.9 Laboratory experiments 210 8.9.1 Laboratory 1: Simple EDMA transfer 211 8.9.2 Laboratory 2: EDMA chaining transfer 211 8.9.3 Laboratory 3: EDMA link transfer 213 8.10 Conclusion 213 References 213 9 Inter-Processor Communication (IPC) 214 9.1 Introduction 215 9.2 Texas Instruments IPC 217 9.3 Notify module 219 9.3.1 Laboratory experiment 222 9.4 MessageQ 222 9.4.1 MessageQ protocol 224 9.4.2 Message priority 229 9.4.3 Thread synchronisation 229 9.5 ListMP module 233 9.6 GateMP module 234 9.6.1 Initialising a GateMP parameter structure 234 9.6.1.1 Types of gate protection 235 9.6.2 Creating a GateMP instance 236 9.6.3 Entering a GateMP 236 9.6.4 Leaving a gate 236 9.6.5 The list of functions that can be used by GateMP 237 9.7 Multi-processor Memory Allocation: HeapBufMP, HeapMemMP and HeapMultiBufMP 237 9.7.1 HeapBuf_Params 238 9.7.2 HeapMem_Params 239 9.7.3 HeapMultiBuf_Params 239 9.7.4 Configuration example for HeapMultiBuf 239 9.8 Transport mechanisms for the IPC 241 9.9 Laboratory experiments with KeyStone I 241 9.9.1 Laboratory 1: Using MessageQ with multiple cores 241 9.9.1.1 Overview 242 9.9.2 Laboratory 2: Using ListMP, ShareRegion and GateMP 243 9.10 Laboratory experiments with KeyStone II 249 9.10.1 Laboratory experiment 1: Transferring a block of data 249 9.10.1.1 Set the connection between the host (PC) and the KeyStone 249 9.10.1.2 Explore the ARM code 250 9.10.1.3 Explore the DSP code 259 9.10.1.4 Compile and run the program 263 9.10.2 Laboratory experiment 2: Transferring a pointer 267 9.10.2.1 Explore the ARM code 267 9.10.2.2 Explore the DSP code 271 9.10.2.3 Compile and run the program 278 9.11 Conclusion 278 References 278 10 Single and multicore debugging 280 10.1 Introduction 281 10.2 Software and hardware debugging 282 10.3 Debug architecture 282 10.3.1 Trace 282 10.3.1.1 Standard trace 282 10.3.1.2 Event trace 283 10.3.1.3 System trace 285 10.4 Advanced Event Triggering 286 10.4.1 Advanced Event Triggering logic 289 10.4.2 Unified Breakpoint Manager 294 10.5 Unified Instrumentation Architecture 295 10.5.1 Host-side tooling 295 10.5.2 Target-side tooling 295 10.5.2.1 Software instrumentation APIs 297 10.5.2.2 Predefined software events and metadata 297 10.5.2.3 Event loggers 297 10.5.2.4 Transports 297 10.5.2.5 SYS/BIOS event capture and transport 297 10.5.2.6 Multicore support 297 10.6 Debugging with the System Analyzer tools 298 10.6.1 Target-side coding with UIA APIs and the XDCtools 299 10.6.2 Logging events with Log_write() functions 300 10.6.3 Advance debugging using the diagnostic feature 301 10.6.4 LogSnapshot APIs for logging state information 302 10.7 Instrumentation with TI-RTOS and CCS 302 10.7.1 Using RTOS Object Viewer 302 10.7.2 Using the RTOS Analyzer and the System Analyzer 303 10.7.2.1 RTOS Analyzer 303 10.7.2.2 System Analyzer 303 10.8 Laboratory sessions 305 10.8.1 Laboratory experiment 1: Using the RTOS ROV 305 10.8.2 Laboratory experiment 2: Using the RTOS Analyzer 305 10.8.3 Laboratory experiment 3: Using the System Analyzer 312 10.8.4 Laboratory experiment 4: Using diagnosis features 314 10.8.5 Laboratory experiment 5: Using a diagnostic feature with filtering 317 10.9 Conclusion 321 References 322 Further reading 323 11 Bootloader for KeyStone I and KeyStone II 324 11.1 Introduction 324 11.2 How to start the boot process 325 11.3 The boot process 325 11.4 ROM Bootloader (RBL) 328 11.4.1 The boot configuration format 336 11.4.1.1 Creating the boot parameter table 336 11.4.1.2 Creating the boot table 338 11.4.1.3 The boot configuration table 338 11.5 Boot process 340 11.5.1 Initialisation stage for the KeyStone I 340 11.5.2 Second-level bootloader 341 11.5.2.1 Intermediate bootloader 341 11.5.2.2 How to use the IBL 342 11.6 Laboratory experiment 1 345 11.6.1 Initialisation stage for the KeyStone II 350 11.6.1.1 Bootloader initialisation after power-on reset 350 11.6.1.2 Bootloader initialisation process after hard or soft reset 350 11.6.2 Second bootloader for the KeyStone II 350 11.6.2.1 U-Boot 351 11.7 Laboratory experiment 2 352 11.7.1 Printing the U-Boot environment 360 11.7.2 Using the help for U-Boot 362 11.8 TFTP boot with a host-mounted Network File System (NFS) server – NFS booting 363 11.8.1 Laboratory experiment 3 364 11.9 Conclusion 372 References 372 12 Introduction to OpenMP 374 12.1 Introduction to OpenMP 375 12.2 Directive formats 376 12.3 Forking region 377 12.3.1 omp parallel – parallel region construct 377 12.3.1.1 Clause descriptions 378 12.4 Work-sharing constructs 382 12.4.1 omp for 382 12.4.1.1 OpenMP loop scheduling 383 12.4.2 omp sections 385 12.4.3 omp single 386 12.4.4 omp master 386 12.4.5 omp task 387 12.5 Environment variables and library functions 390 12.6 Synchronisation constructs 392 12.6.1 atomic 393 12.6.1.1 Clauses 393 12.6.2 barrier 395 12.6.3 critical 396 12.7 OpenMP accelerator model 397 12.7.1 Supported OpenMP device constructs 397 12.7.1.1 #pragma omp target 397 12.7.1.2 #pragma omp target data 399 12.7.1.3 #pragma omp target update 400 12.7.1.4 #pragma omp declare target 401 12.8 Laboratory experiments 402 12.8.1 Laboratory experiment 1 402 12.8.2 Laboratory experiment 2 402 12.8.3 Laboratory experiment 3 404 12.8.4 Laboratory experiment 4 405 12.8.5 Laboratory experiment 5 405 12.9 Conclusion 417 References 419 13 Introduction to OpenCL for the KeyStone II 420 13.1 Introduction 421 13.2 Operation of OpenCL 421 13.3 Command queue 424 13.3.1 Creating a command queue 427 13.3.1.1 Command-queue properties 429 13.3.2 Enqueueing a kernel 430 13.4 Kernel declaration 431 13.5 How do the kernels access data? 431 13.6 OpenCL memory model for the KeyStone 432 13.6.1 Creating a buffer 433 13.6.1.1 Cl_mem_flags 434 13.7 Synchronisation 435 13.7.1 Event with a callback function 436 13.7.2 User event 439 13.7.3 Waiting for one command or all commands to finish 439 13.7.4 wait_group_events 440 13.7.5 Barrier 440 13.8 Basic debugging profiling 440 13.9 OpenMP dispatch from OpenCL 443 13.9.1 OpenMP for the kernel code 443 13.9.2 OpenMP for the ARM code 443 13.10 Building the OpenCL project 444 13.11 Laboratory experiments 445 13.11.1 Laboratory experiment 1: Hello World 446 13.11.2 Laboratory experiment 2: dotp functions 454 13.11.2.1 Explore the main.cpp function 454 13.11.2.2 Explore the kernel dotp.cl 459 13.11.2.3 Run the dotp program 460 13.11.3 Laboratory experiment 3: USE_HOST_PTR 460 13.11.4 Laboratory experiment 4: ALLOC_HOST_PTR 463 13.11.5 Laboratory experiment 5: COPY_HOST_PTR 465 13.11.6 Laboratory experiment 6: Synchronisation 467 13.11.7 Laboratory experiment 7: Local buffer 473 13.11.8 Laboratory experiment 8: Barrier 477 13.11.9 Laboratory experiment 9: Profiling 479 13.11.10 Laboratory experiment 10: OpenMP in kernel 484 13.11.11 Laboratory experiment 11: OpenMP in ARM 487 13.12 Conclusion 489 References 490 14 Multicore Navigator 491 14.1 Introduction 491 14.2 Navigator architecture 492 14.2.1 The PKDMA 494 14.2.1.1 PKDMA transmit side 495 14.2.1.2 PKDMA receive side 495 14.2.1.3 Infrastructure PKDMA 497 14.2.2 Descriptors 497 14.2.2.1 Host packet descriptors 498 14.2.2.2 Monolithic packet descriptor 498 14.2.2.3 Setting up the memory regions for the descriptors 498 14.2.3 Queue Manager Subsystem 500 14.2.4 Queue Manager 503 14.2.4.1 Queue peek registers 503 14.2.4.2 Link RAM 504 14.2.5 Accumulator packet data structure processors 504 14.2.5.1 Accumulation 506 14.2.5.2 Quality of service 506 14.2.5.3 Event management (resource sharing and job load balancing) 506 14.2.6 Interrupt distributor module 506 14.3 Complete functionality of the Navigator 506 14.4 Laboratory experiment 511 14.5 Conclusion 513 References 514 15 FIR filter implementation 515 15.1 Introduction 515 15.2 Properties of an FIR filter 516 15.2.1 Filter coefficients 516 15.2.2 Frequency response of an FIR filter 516 15.2.3 Phase linearity of an FIR filter 517 15.3 Design procedure 518 15.3.1 Specifications 518 15.3.2 Coefficients calculation 519 15.3.2.1 Window method 519 15.3.3 Realisation structure 522 15.3.3.1 Direct structure 525 15.3.3.2 Linear phase structures 525 15.3.3.3 Cascade structures 527 15.4 Laboratory experiments 528 15.4.1 Filter implementation 529 15.4.2 Synchronisation 530 15.4.3 Building and running the DSP project 532 15.4.4 Building and running the PC project 534 15.5 Conclusion 540 References 540 16 IIR filter implementation 542 16.1 Introduction 542 16.2 Design procedure 543 16.3 Coefficients calculation 543 16.3.1 Pole–zero placement approach 543 16.3.2 Analogue-to-digital filter design 543 16.3.3 Bilinear transform (BZT) method 544 16.3.3.1 Practical example of the bilinear transform method 547 16.3.3.2 Coefficients calculation 547 16.3.3.3 Realisation structures 548 16.3.4 Impulse invariant method 552 16.3.4.1 Practical example of the impulse invariant method 553 16.4 IIR filter implementation 556 16.5 Laboratory experiment 561 16.6 Conclusion 561 Reference 562 17 Adaptive filter implementation 563 17.1 Introduction 563 17.2 Mean square error 564 17.3 Least mean square 565 17.4 Implementation of an adaptive filter using the LMS algorithm 565 17.5 Implementation using linear assembly 567 17.6 Implementation in C language with compiler switches 572 17.7 Laboratory experiment 572 17.8 Conclusion 573 References 573 18 FFT implementation 574 18.1 Introduction 574 18.2 FFT algorithm 574 18.2.1 Fourier series 574 18.2.2 Fourier transform 575 18.2.3 Discrete Fourier transform 575 18.2.4 Fast Fourier transform 576 18.2.4.1 Splitting the DFT into two DFTs 576 18.2.4.2 Exploiting the periodicity and symmetry of the twiddle factors 577 18.3 FFT implementation 579 18.4 Laboratory experiment 582 18.4.1 Part 1: Implementation of DIF FFT 582 18.4.2 Part 2: Using ping-pong EDMA 585 18.5 Conclusion 590 References 590 19 Hough transform 591 19.1 Introduction 591 19.2 Theory 591 19.3 Limits of r and θ 593 19.4 Hough transform implementation 595 19.5 Laboratory experiment 596 19.6 Conclusion 603 References 603 20 Stereo vision implementation 604 20.1 Introduction 604 20.2 Algorithm for performing depth calculation 605 20.3 Cost functions 606 20.4 Implementation 607 20.4.1 Laboratory experiment 610 20.4.1.1 SAD implementation 610 20.4.1.2 NCC implementation 611 20.4.1.3 ZNCC implementation 611 20.5 Conclusion 613 References 616 Index 617

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Book SynopsisIn this original book on model predictive control (MPC) for power electronics, the focus is put on high-power applications with multilevel converters operating at switching frequencies well below 1 kHz, such as medium-voltage drives and modular multi-level converters.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xix List of Abbreviations xxi About the Companion Website xxvii Part I Introduction 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Industrial Power Electronics 3 1.1.1 Medium-Voltage, Variable-Speed Drives 3 1.1.2 Market Trends 5 1.1.3 Technology Trends 6 1.2 Control and Modulation Schemes 7 1.2.1 Requirements 7 1.2.2 State-of-the-Art Schemes 8 1.2.3 Challenges 9 1.3 Model Predictive Control 11 1.3.1 Control Problem 11 1.3.2 Control Principle 12 1.3.3 Advantages and Challenges 16 1.4 Research Vision and Motivation 19 1.5 Main Results 19 1.6 Summary of this Book 21 1.7 Prerequisites 25 References 26 2 Industrial Power Electronics 29 2.1 Preliminaries 29 2.1.1 Three-Phase Systems 29 2.1.2 Per Unit System 31 2.1.3 Stationary Reference Frame 33 2.1.4 Rotating Reference Frame 36 2.1.5 Space Vectors 40 2.2 Induction Machines 42 2.2.1 Machine Model in Space Vector Notation 42 2.2.2 Machine Model in Matrix Notation 44 2.2.3 Machine Model in the Per Unit System 45 2.2.4 Machine Model in State-Space Representation 48 2.2.5 Harmonic Model of the Machine 50 2.3 Power Semiconductor Devices 51 2.3.1 Integrated-Gate-Commutated Thyristors 51 2.3.2 Power Diodes 53 2.4 Multilevel Voltage Source Inverters 54 2.4.1 NPC Inverter 54 2.4.2 Five-Level ANPC Inverter 62 2.5 Case Studies 68 2.5.1 NPC Inverter Drive System 68 2.5.2 NPC Inverter Drive System with Snubber Restrictions 70 2.5.3 Five-Level ANPC Inverter Drive System 71 2.5.4 Grid-Connected NPC Converter System 72 References 75 3 Classic Control and Modulation Schemes 77 3.1 Requirements of Control and Modulation Schemes 77 3.1.1 Requirements Relating to the Electrical Machine 77 3.1.2 Requirements Relating to the Grid 80 3.1.3 Requirements Relating to the Converter 83 3.1.4 Summary 83 3.2 Structure of Control and Modulation Schemes 84 3.3 Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation 85 3.3.1 Single-Phase Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation 86 3.3.2 Three-Phase Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation 94 3.3.3 Summary and Properties 101 3.4 Optimized Pulse Patterns 103 3.4.1 Pulse Pattern and Harmonic Analysis 104 3.4.2 Optimization Problem for Three-Level Converters 107 3.4.3 Optimization Problem for Five-Level Converters 112 3.4.4 Summary and Properties 117 3.5 Performance Trade-Off for Pulse Width Modulation 117 3.5.1 Current TDD versus Switching Losses 118 3.5.2 Torque TDD versus Switching Losses 120 3.6 Control Schemes for Induction Machine Drives 121 3.6.1 Scalar Control 122 3.6.2 Field-Oriented Control 123 3.6.3 Direct Torque Control 130 Appendix 3.A: Harmonic Analysis of Single-Phase Optimized Pulse Patterns 139 Appendix 3.B: Mathematical Optimization 141 3.B.1 General Optimization Problems 142 3.B.2 Mixed-Integer Optimization Problems 142 3.B.3 Convex Optimization Problems 143 References 145 Part II Direct Model Predictive Control With Reference Tracking 4 Predictive Control with Short Horizons 153 4.1 Predictive Current Control of a Single-Phase RL Load 153 4.1.1 Control Problem 153 4.1.2 Prediction of Current Trajectories 154 4.1.3 Optimization Problem 156 4.1.4 Control Algorithm 156 4.1.5 Performance Evaluation 158 4.1.6 Prediction Horizons of more than 1 Step 161 4.1.7 Summary 163 4.2 Predictive Current Control of a Three-Phase Induction Machine 164 4.2.1 Case Study 164 4.2.2 Control Problem 165 4.2.3 Controller Model 166 4.2.4 Optimization Problem 167 4.2.5 Control Algorithm 168 4.2.6 Performance Evaluation 170 4.2.7 About the Choice of Norms 175 4.2.8 Delay Compensation 178 4.3 Predictive Torque Control of a Three-Phase Induction Machine 183 4.3.1 Case Study 183 4.3.2 Control Problem 184 4.3.3 Controller Model 184 4.3.4 Optimization Problem 185 4.3.5 Control Algorithm 186 4.3.6 Analysis of the Cost Function 187 4.3.7 Comparison of the Cost Functions for the Torque and Current Controllers 188 4.3.8 Performance Evaluation 191 4.4 Summary 193 References 194 5 Predictive Control with Long Horizons 195 5.1 Preliminaries 196 5.1.1 Case Study 196 5.1.2 Controller Model 197 5.1.3 Cost Function 197 5.1.4 Optimization Problem 198 5.1.5 Control Algorithm based on Exhaustive Search 200 5.2 Integer Quadratic Programming Formulation 201 5.2.1 Optimization Problem in Vector Form 201 5.2.2 Solution in Terms of the Unconstrained Minimum 202 5.2.3 Integer Quadratic Program 202 5.2.4 Direct MPC with a Prediction Horizon of 1 203 5.3 An Efficient Method for Solving the Optimization Problem 204 5.3.1 Preliminaries and Key Properties 205 5.3.2 Modified Sphere Decoding Algorithm 205 5.3.3 Illustrative Example with a Prediction Horizon of 1 207 5.3.4 Illustrative Example with a Prediction Horizon of 2 209 5.4 Computational Burden 211 5.4.1 Offline Computations 211 5.4.2 Online Preprocessing 211 5.4.3 Sphere Decoding 212 Appendix 5.A: State-Space Model 213 Appendix 5.B: Derivation of the Cost Function in Vector Form 214 References 216 6 Performance Evaluation of Predictive Control with Long Horizons 217 6.1 Performance Evaluation for the NPC Inverter Drive System 218 6.1.1 Framework for Performance Evaluation 218 6.1.2 Comparison at the Switching Frequency 250 Hz 220 6.1.3 Closed-Loop Cost 223 6.1.4 Relative Current TDD 225 6.1.5 Operation during Transients 231 6.2 Suboptimal MPC via Direct Rounding 232 6.3 Performance Evaluation for the NPC Inverter Drive System with an LC Filter 234 6.3.1 Case Study 235 6.3.2 Controller Model 237 6.3.3 Optimization Problem 237 6.3.4 Steady-State Operation 239 6.3.5 Operation during Transients 243 6.4 Summary and Discussion 245 6.4.1 Performance at Steady-State Operating Conditions 245 6.4.2 Performance during Transients 246 6.4.3 Cost Function 246 6.4.4 Control Objectives 247 6.4.5 Computational Complexity 247 Appendix 6.A: State-Space Model 248 Appendix 6.B: Computation of the Output Reference Vector 248 6.B.1 Step 1: Stator Frequency 248 6.B.2 Step 2: Inverter Voltage 249 6.B.3 Step 3: Output Reference Vector 250 References 251 Part III Direct Model Predictive Control With Bounds 7 Model Predictive Direct Torque Control 255 7.1 Introduction 255 7.2 Preliminaries 257 7.2.1 Case Study 257 7.2.2 Control Problem 259 7.2.3 Controller Model 259 7.2.4 Switching Effort 262 7.3 Control Problem Formulation 263 7.3.1 Naive Optimization Problem 263 7.3.2 Constraints 264 7.3.3 Cost Function 265 7.4 Model Predictive Direct Torque Control 266 7.4.1 Definitions 267 7.4.2 Simplified Optimization Problem 268 7.4.3 Concept of the Switching Horizon 268 7.4.4 Search Tree 274 7.4.5 MPDTC Algorithm with Full Enumeration 275 7.5 Extension Methods 277 7.5.1 Analysis of the State and Output Trajectories 278 7.5.2 Linear Extrapolation 279 7.5.3 Quadratic Extrapolation 280 7.5.4 Quadratic Interpolation 282 7.6 Summary and Discussion 284 Appendix 7.A: Controller Model of the NPC Inverter Drive System 286 References 287 8 Performance Evaluation of Model Predictive Direct Torque Control 289 8.1 Performance Evaluation for the NPC Inverter Drive System 289 8.1.1 Simulation Setup 290 8.1.2 Steady-State Operation 290 8.1.3 Operation during Transients 298 8.2 Performance Evaluation for the ANPC Inverter Drive System 300 8.2.1 Controller Model 301 8.2.2 Modified MPDTC Algorithm 303 8.2.3 Simulation Setup 304 8.2.4 Steady-State Operation 305 8.2.5 Operation during Transients 312 8.3 Summary and Discussion 314 Appendix 8.A: Controller Model of the ANPC Inverter Drive System 315 References 316 9 Analysis and Feasibility of Model Predictive Direct Torque Control 318 9.1 Target Set 319 9.2 The State-Feedback Control Law 320 9.2.1 Preliminaries 321 9.2.2 Control Law for a Given Rotor Flux Vector 322 9.2.3 Control Law along an Edge of the Target Set 331 9.3 Analysis of the Deadlock Phenomena 331 9.3.1 Root Cause Analysis of Deadlocks 332 9.3.2 Location of Deadlocks 335 9.4 Deadlock Resolution 337 9.5 Deadlock Avoidance 340 9.5.1 Deadlock Avoidance Strategies 340 9.5.2 Performance Evaluation 343 9.6 Summary and Discussion 347 9.6.1 Derivation and Analysis of the State-Feedback Control Law 347 9.6.2 Deadlock Analysis, Resolution, and Avoidance 347 References 348 10 Computationally Efficient Model Predictive Direct Torque Control 350 10.1 Preliminaries 351 10.2 MPDTC with Branch-and-Bound 352 10.2.1 Principle and Concept 352 10.2.2 Properties of Branch-and-Bound 354 10.2.3 Limiting the Maximum Number of Computations 356 10.2.4 Computationally Efficient MPDTC Algorithm 357 10.3 Performance Evaluation 359 10.3.1 Case Study 359 10.3.2 Performance Metrics during Steady-State Operation 359 10.3.3 Computational Metrics during Steady-State Operation 363 10.4 Summary and Discussion 367 References 368 11 Derivatives of Model Predictive Direct Torque Control 369 11.1 Model Predictive Direct Current Control 370 11.1.1 Case Study 370 11.1.2 Control Problem 372 11.1.3 Formulation of the Stator Current Bounds 373 11.1.4 Controller Model 376 11.1.5 Control Problem Formulation 378 11.1.6 MPDCC Algorithm 379 11.1.7 Performance Evaluation 380 11.1.8 Tuning 388 11.2 Model Predictive Direct Power Control 389 11.2.1 Case Study 391 11.2.2 Control Problem 392 11.2.3 Controller Model 393 11.2.4 Control Problem Formulation 394 11.2.5 Performance Evaluation 395 11.3 Summary and Discussion 401 11.3.1 Model Predictive Direct Current Control 401 11.3.2 Model Predictive Direct Power Control 403 11.3.3 Target Sets 403 Appendix 11.A: Controller Model used in MPDCC 405 Appendix 11.B: Real and Reactive Power 407 Appendix 11.C: Controller Model used in MPDPC 409 References 410 Part IV Model Predictive Control Based On Pulse Width Modulation 12 Model Predictive Pulse Pattern Control 415 12.1 State-of-the-Art Control Methods 415 12.2 Optimized Pulse Patterns 416 12.2.1 Summary, Properties, and Computation 416 12.2.2 Relationship between Flux Magnitude and Modulation Index 418 12.2.3 Relationship between Time and Angle 419 12.2.4 Stator Flux Reference Trajectory 420 12.2.5 Look-Up Table 422 12.3 Stator Flux Control 422 12.3.1 Control Objectives 422 12.3.2 Control Principle 422 12.3.3 Control Problem 423 12.3.4 Control Approach 424 12.4 MP3C Algorithm 425 12.4.1 Observer 426 12.4.2 Speed Controller 428 12.4.3 Torque Controller 428 12.4.4 Flux Controller 428 12.4.5 Pulse Pattern Loader 429 12.4.6 Flux Reference 429 12.4.7 Pulse Pattern Controller 429 12.5 Computational Variants of MP3C 433 12.5.1 MP3C based on Quadratic Program 433 12.5.2 MP3C based on Deadbeat Control 437 12.6 Pulse Insertion 438 12.6.1 Definitions 439 12.6.2 Algorithm 439 Appendix 12.A: Quadratic Program 443 Appendix 12.B: Unconstrained Solution 444 Appendix 12.C: Transformations for Deadbeat MP3C 445 References 446 13 Performance Evaluation of Model Predictive Pulse Pattern Control 447 13.1 Performance Evaluation for the NPC Inverter Drive System 447 13.1.1 Simulation Setup 447 13.1.2 Steady-State Operation 448 13.1.3 Operation during Transients 455 13.2 Experimental Results for the ANPC Inverter Drive System 462 13.2.1 Experimental Setup 462 13.2.2 Hierarchical Control Architecture 463 13.2.3 Steady-State Operation 465 13.3 Summary and Discussion 468 13.3.1 Differences to the State of the Art 469 13.3.2 Discussion 471 References 472 14 Model Predictive Control of a Modular Multilevel Converter 474 14.1 Introduction 474 14.2 Preliminaries 475 14.2.1 Topology 475 14.2.2 Nonlinear Converter Model 477 14.3 Model Predictive Control 479 14.3.1 Control Problem 479 14.3.2 Controller Structure 480 14.3.3 Linearized Prediction Model 481 14.3.4 Cost Function 481 14.3.5 Hard and Soft Constraints 483 14.3.6 Optimization Problem 484 14.3.7 Multilevel Carrier-Based Pulse Width Modulation 485 14.3.8 Balancing Control 486 14.4 Performance Evaluation 486 14.4.1 System and Control Parameters 486 14.4.2 Steady-State Operation 488 14.4.3 Operation during Transients 491 14.5 Design Parameters 496 14.5.1 Open-Loop Prediction Errors 496 14.5.2 Closed-Loop Performance 498 14.6 Summary and Discussion 499 Appendix 14.A: Dynamic Current Equations 501 Appendix 14.B: Controller Model of the Converter System 501 References 503 Part V Summary 15 Summary and Conclusion 507 15.1 Performance Comparison of Direct Model Predictive Control Schemes 507 15.1.1 Case Study 508 15.1.2 Performance Trade-Off Curves 508 15.1.3 Summary and Discussion 515 15.2 Assessment of the Control and Modulation Methods 519 15.2.1 FOC and VOC with SVM 519 15.2.2 DTC and DPC 519 15.2.3 Direct MPC with Reference Tracking 520 15.2.4 Direct MPC with Bounds 521 15.2.5 MP3C based on OPPs 521 15.2.6 Indirect MPC 523 15.3 Conclusion 524 15.4 Outlook 525 References 525

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Book SynopsisThe definitive international reference work on how communication technology and media phenomena affect human psychology. The International Encyclopedia of Media Psychology provides a thorough guide to the foundational theories and the exciting new developments within this dynamic fielda growing area of study that investigates how and why human behavior is influenced by interacting with media and technology. Covering a wide range of interdisciplinary methodologies, this comprehensive reference work explores how media affects psychological responses, the ways these responses interact with media variables, and the various methods of empirical analysis for developing models of users' processing of their media experience. Edited by an internationally-recognized expert in the field, the Encyclopedia contains more than 300 entries written by leading figures and promising young researchers alike, exploring flow theory, media aggression, the Reinforcing Spirals MoTable of ContentsVolume I The International Communication Association vii About the Editors ix Contributors xi Alphabetical List of Entries xxv Thematic List of Entries xxxi Introduction xxxvii Media Psychology A–? 1 Volume II Media Psychology ?–? 000 Volume III Media Psychology ?–Y 000 Index 1987

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Book SynopsisThis book covers the design and optimization of computer networks applying a rigorous optimization methodology, applicable to any network technology. It is organized into two parts. In Part 1 the reader will learn how to model network problems appearing in computer networks as optimization programs, and use optimization theory to give insights on them. Four problem types are addressed systematically traffic routing, capacity dimensioning, congestion control and topology design. Part 2 targets the design of algorithms that solve network problems like the ones modeled in Part 1. Two main approaches are addressed gradient-like algorithms inspiring distributed network protocols that dynamically adapt to the network, or cross-layer schemes that coordinate the cooperation among protocols; and those focusing on the design of heuristic algorithms for long term static network design and planning problems. Following a hands-on approach, the reader will have access to a large sTrade Review�This is an exceptional textbook smoothly linking optimization theory with practical issues of computer network design�Almost all chapters contain a special section entitled �Notes and Sources� reviewing the key literature, a set of exercises for students, and a comprehensive list of references. The book is full of useful design hints, lists of potential problems facing designers, as well as illustrative examples. Unlike many textbooks on optimization, this work smartly combines the depth of mathematical analysis with a very good understanding of practical engineering issues. One of the important added values of this book is that the code of the devised algorithms implemented in the Net2Plan tool is accessible and algorithm convergence of the case studies is illustrated in empirical tests. To sum it up, this is an excellent textbook not only for engineering students but also for researchers and practicing engineers working in the area of computer and telecommunication network design.� - Andrzej Jajszczyk, AGH University of Science and Technology in Krakow, PolandTable of ContentsAbout the Author xv Preface xvii Acknowledgments xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is a Communication Network? 1 1.2 Capturing the Random User Behavior 4 1.3 Queueing Theory and Optimization Theory 5 1.4 The Rationale and Organization of this Book 6 1.4.1 Part I: Modeling 6 1.4.2 Part II: Algorithms 7 1.4.3 Basic Optimization Requisites: Appendices I, II, and III 10 1.4.4 Net2Plan Tool: Appendix IV 11 Part I MODELING 2 Definitions and Notation 15 2.1 Notation for Sets, Vectors and Matrices 15 2.1.1 Norm Basics 15 2.1.2 Set Basics 16 2.2 Network Topology 17 2.3 Installed Capacities 19 2.4 Traffic Demands 19 2.4.1 Unicast, Anycast, and Multicast Demands 20 2.4.2 Elastic versus Inelastic Demands 21 2.5 Traffic Routing 21 References 22 3 Performance Metrics in Networks 23 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Delay 23 3.2.1 Link Delay 23 3.2.2 End-to-End Delay 27 3.2.3 Average Network Delay 27 3.2.4 Convexity Properties 27 3.3 Blocking Probability 28 3.3.1 Link Blocking Probability 28 3.3.2 Demand and Network Blocking Probability 30 3.3.3 Other Blocking Estimations 31 3.3.4 Convexity Properties 34 3.4 Average Number of Hops 34 3.5 Network Congestion 36 3.6 Network Cost 36 3.7 Network Resilience Metrics 37 3.7.1 Shared Risk Groups 40 3.7.2 Simplified Availability Calculations 41 3.7.3 General Model 41 3.8 Network Utility and Fairness in Resource Allocation 44 3.8.1 Fairness in Resource Allocation 44 3.8.2 Fairness and Utility Functions 45 3.8.3 Convexity Properties 47 3.9 Notes and Sources 47 3.10 Exercises 49 References 51 4 Routing Problems 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Flow-Path Formulation 54 4.2.1 Optimality Analysis 55 4.2.2 Candidate Path List Pre-Computation 58 4.2.3 Ranking of Paths Elaboration 58 4.2.4 Candidate Path List Augmentation (CPLA) 59 4.3 Flow-Link Formulation 61 4.3.1 Flow Conservation Constraints 62 4.3.2 Obtaining the Routing from xde Variables 63 4.3.3 Optimality Analysis 64 4.4 Destination-Link Formulation 65 4.4.1 Obtaining the Routing Tables from xte Variables 67 4.4.2 Some Properties of the Routing Table Representation 67 4.4.3 Comparing Flow-Based and Destination-Based Routing 71 4.5 Convexity Properties of Performance Metrics 71 4.6 Problem Variants 72 4.6.1 Anycast Routing 72 4.6.2 Multicast Routing 74 4.6.3 Non-Bifurcated Routing 75 4.6.4 Integral Routing 77 4.6.5 Destination-Based Shortest Path Routing 77 4.6.6 SRG-Disjoint 1+1 Dedicated Protection Routing 79 4.6.7 Shared Restoration Routing 80 4.6.8 Multi-Hour Routing 81 4.7 Notes and Sources 83 4.8 Exercises 83 References 86 5 Capacity Assignment Problems 88 5.1 Introduction 88 5.2 Long-Term Capacity Planning Problem Variants 89 5.2.1 Capacity Planning for Concave Costs 89 5.2.2 Capacity Planning with Modular Capacities 94 5.2.3 Multi-Period Capacity Planning 97 5.3 Fast Capacity Allocation Problem Variants: Wireless Networks 98 5.3.1 The Wireless Channel 99 5.3.2 Wireless Networks 100 5.3.3 Modeling Wireless Networks 101 5.4 MAC Design in Hard-Interference Scenarios 104 5.4.1 Optimization in Random Access Networks 105 5.4.2 Optimization in Carrier-Sense Networks 109 5.5 Transmission Power Optimization in Soft Interference Scenarios 113 5.6 Notes and Sources 116 5.7 Exercises 117 References 118 6 Congestion Control Problems 120 6.1 Introduction 120 6.2 NUM Model 121 6.2.1 Utility Functions for Elastic and Inelastic Traffic 121 6.2.2 Fair Congestion Control 122 6.2.3 Optimality Conditions 123 6.3 Case Study: TCP 124 6.3.1 Window-Based Flow Control 125 6.3.2 TCP Reno 126 6.3.3 TCP Vegas 131 6.4 Active Queue Management (AQM) 134 6.4.1 A Simplified Model of the TCP-AQM Interplay 135 6.5 Notes and Sources 136 6.6 Exercises 137 References 139 7 Topology Design Problems 141 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Node Location Problems 142 7.2.1 Problem Variants 143 7.2.2 Results 144 7.3 Full Topology Design Problems 146 7.3.1 Problem Variants 148 7.3.2 Results 150 7.4 Multilayer Network Design 152 7.5 Notes and Sources 154 7.6 Exercises 154 References 157 Part II ALGORITHMS 8 Gradient Algorithms in Network Design 161 8.1 Introduction 161 8.2 Convergence Rates 163 8.3 Projected Gradient Methods 164 8.3.1 Basic Gradient Projection Algorithm 165 8.3.2 Scaled Projected Gradient Method 165 8.3.3 Singular and Ill-Conditioned Problems 168 8.4 Asynchronous and Distributed Algorithm Implementations 169 8.5 Non-Smooth Functions 172 8.6 Stochastic Gradient Methods 174 8.7 Stopping Criteria 176 8.8 Algorithm Design Hints 177 8.8.1 Dimensioning the Step Size 177 8.8.2 Discrete Step Length 178 8.8.3 Heavy-Ball Methods 179 8.9 Notes and Sources 181 8.10 Exercises 181 References 182 9 Primal Gradient Algorithms 184 9.1 Introduction 184 9.2 Penalty Methods 185 9.2.1 Interior Penalty Methods 185 9.2.2 Exterior Penalty Methods 186 9.3 Adaptive Bifurcated Routing 188 9.3.1 Removing Equality Constraints 189 9.3.2 Optimality and Stability 190 9.3.3 Implementation Example 192 9.4 Congestion Control using Barrier Functions 197 9.4.1 Implementation Example 198 9.4.2 Exterior Penalty 200 9.5 Persistence Probability Adjustment in MAC Protocols 201 9.5.1 Implementation Example 203 9.6 Transmission Power Assignment in Wireless Networks 205 9.6.1 Implementation Example 207 9.7 Notes and Sources 210 9.8 Exercises 211 References 213 10 Dual Gradient Algorithms 214 10.1 Introduction 214 10.2 Adaptive Routing in Data Networks 217 10.2.1 Optimality and Stability 219 10.2.2 Implementation Example 219 10.3 Backpressure (Center-Free) Routing 221 10.3.1 Relation between 𝛾, ΔP, and Average Queue Sizes, Qnd 224 10.3.2 Implementation Example 225 10.4 Congestion Control 228 10.4.1 Optimality and Stability Conditions 229 10.4.2 Implementation Example 230 10.5 Decentralized Optimization of CSMA Window Sizes 231 10.5.1 Implementation Example 234 10.6 Notes and Sources 236 10.7 Exercises 236 References 238 11 Decomposition Techniques 240 11.1 Introduction 240 11.2 Theoretical Fundamentals 241 11.2.1 Primal Decomposition 241 11.2.2 Dual Decomposition 244 11.2.3 Other Decompositions 246 11.3 Cross-Layer Congestion Control and QoS Capacity Allocation 247 11.3.1 Implementation Example 249 11.4 Cross-Layer Congestion Control and Backpressure Routing 249 11.4.1 Implementation Example 252 11.5 Cross-Layer Congestion Control and Power Allocation 253 11.5.1 Implementation Example 254 11.6 Multidomain Routing 256 11.6.1 Implementation Example 258 11.7 Dual Decomposition in Non-Convex Problems 259 11.7.1 Implementation Example 261 11.8 Notes and Sources 261 11.9 Exercises 263 References 265 12 Heuristic Algorithms 266 12.1 Introduction 266 12.1.1 What Complexity Theory Tells us that We cannot Do 266 12.1.2 Our Options 267 12.1.3 Organization and Rationale of this Chapter 268 12.2 Heuristic Design Keys 270 12.2.1 Heuristic Types 270 12.2.2 Intensification versus Diversification 271 12.2.3 How to Assess the Solution Quality 271 12.2.4 Stop Conditions 272 12.2.5 Defining the Cost or Fitness Function 272 12.2.6 Coding the Solution 273 12.3 Local Search Algorithms 273 12.3.1 Design Hints 274 12.4 Simulated Annealing 276 12.4.1 Design hints 277 12.5 Tabu Search 278 12.5.1 Design Hints 280 12.6 Greedy Algorithms 281 12.7 GRASP 282 12.8 Ant Colony Optimization 283 12.8.1 Design Hints 286 12.9 Evolutionary Algorithms 288 12.9.1 Design Hints 289 12.10 Case Study: Greenfield Plan with Recovery Schemes Comparison 291 12.10.1 Case Study Description 291 12.10.2 Algorithm Description 293 12.10.3 Combining Heuristics and ILPs 295 12.10.4 Results 296 12.11 Notes and Sources 297 12.12 Exercises 297 References 299 A Convex Sets. Convex Functions 301 A.1 Convex Sets 301 A.2 Convex and Concave Functions 303 A.2.1 Convexity in Differentiable Functions 303 A.2.2 Strong Convexity/Concavity 306 A.2.3 Convexity in Non-Differentiable Functions 306 A.2.4 Determining the Curvature of a Function 307 A.2.5 Sub-level Sets 310 A.2.6 Epigraphs 311 A.3 Notes and Sources 311 Reference 312 B Mathematical Optimization Basics 313 B.1 Optimization Problems 313 B.2 A Classification of Optimization Problems 315 B.2.1 Linear Programming 315 B.2.2 Convex Programs 318 B.2.3 Nonlinear Programs 320 B.2.4 Integer Programs 321 B.3 Duality 324 B.3.1 Dual Function 324 B.4 Optimality Conditions 330 B.4.1 Optimality Conditions in Problems with Strong Duality 330 B.4.2 Graphical Interpretation of KKT Conditions 333 B.4.3 Optimality Conditions in Problems Without Strong Duality 336 B.5 Sensitivity Analysis 337 B.6 Notes and Sources 339 References 340 C Complexity Theory 341 C.1 Introduction 341 C.2 Deterministic Machines and Deterministic Algorithms 342 C.2.1 Complexity of a Deterministic Algorithm 342 C.2.2 Worst-Case Algorithm Complexity 343 C.2.3 Asymptotic Algorithm Complexity 343 C.2.4 Complexity is a Real Barrier 345 C.3 Non-Deterministic Machines and Non-Deterministic Algorithms 346 C.3.1 Complexity of a Non-Deterministic Algorithm 347 C.4 N and NP Complexity Classes 347 C.5 Polynomial Reductions 349 C.5.1 A Polynomial Time Reduction Example 350 C.6 NP-Completeness 351 C.6.1 An Example Proving NP-Completeness for a Problem 352 C.7 Optimization Problems and Approximation Schemes 352 C.7.1 The NPʘ Class 353 C.7.2 Approximation Algorithms 354 C.7.3 PTAS Reductions 356 C.7.4 NPʘ-Complete Problems 356 C.8 Complexity of Network Design Problems 357 C.9 Notes and Sources 357 References 358 D Net2Plan 359 D.1 Net2Plan 359 D.2 On the Role of Net2Plan in this Book 360 Index 363

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Book SynopsisThis book introduces various coverage control problems for mobile sensor networks including barrier, sweep and blanket. Unlike many existing algorithms, all of the robotic sensor and actuator motion algorithms developed in the book are fully decentralized or distributed, computationally efficient, easily implementable in engineering practice and based only on information on the closest neighbours of each mobile sensor and actuator and local information about the environment. Moreover, the mobile robotic sensors have no prior information about the environment in which they operation. These various types of coverage problems have never been covered before by a single book in a systematic way. Another topic of this book is the study of mobile robotic sensor and actuator networks. Many modern engineering applications include the use of sensor and actuator networks to provide efficient and effective monitoring and control of industrial and environmental processes. Such mobile sensor and Table of ContentsPreface ix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Distributed Coverage Control of Mobile Sensor and Actuator Networks 1 1.2 Overview of the Book 4 1.3 Some Other Remarks 6 2 Barrier Coverage between Two Landmarks 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Problem of Barrier Coverage between Two Landmarks 10 2.3 Distributed SelfDeployment Algorithm for Barrier Coverage 12 2.4 Illustrative Examples 14 3 Multi-level Barrier Coverage 17 3.1 Introduction 17 3.2 Problem of KBarrier Coverage 18 3.3 Distributed Algorithm for KBarrier Coverage 22 3.4 Mathematical Analysis of the KBarrier Coverage Algorithm 25 3.5 Illustrative Examples 28 4 Problems of Barrier and Sweep Coverage in Corridor Environments 33 4.1 Introduction 33 4.2 Corridor Coverage Problems 34 4.2.1 Barrier Coverage 35 4.2.2 Sweep Coverage 37 4.3 Barrier Coverage in 1D Space 38 4.4 Corridor Barrier Coverage 39 4.5 Corridor Sweep Coverage 42 4.6 Illustrative Examples 43 5 Sweep Coverage along a Line 57 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 Problem of Sweep Coverage along a Line 60 5.3 Sweep Coverage along a Line 63 5.4 Assumptions and the Main Results 68 5.5 Illustrative Examples 72 5.5.1 StraightLine Sweeping Paths 73 5.5.2 Comparison with the Potential Field Approach 73 5.5.3 Sweep Coverage along Nonstraight Lines 74 5.5.4 Scalability 75 5.5.5 Measurement Noises 76 5.5.6 Sea Exploration 77 5.6 Proofs of the Technical Facts Underlying Theorem 5.1 79 6 Optimal Distributed Blanket Coverage Problem 87 6.1 Introduction 87 6.2 Blanket Coverage Problem Formulation 88 6.3 Randomized Coverage Algorithm 90 6.4 Illustrative Examples 93 7 Distributed Self-Deployment for Forming a Desired Geometric Shape 97 7.1 Introduction 97 7.2 SelfDeployment on a Square Grid 98 7.3 Illustrative Examples: Square Grid Deployment 103 7.4 SelfDeployment in a Desired Geometric Shape 104 7.5 Illustrative Examples: Various Geometric Shapes 105 7.5.1 Circular Formation 106 7.5.2 Ellipse Formation 106 7.5.3 Rectangular Formation 108 7.5.4 Ring Formation 108 7.5.5 Regular Hexagon Formation 112 8 Mobile Sensor and Actuator Networks: Encircling, Termination and Hannibal’s Battle of Cannae Maneuver 113 8.1 Introduction 113 8.2 Encircling Coverage of a Moving Region 115 8.3 Randomized Encircling Algorithm 117 8.4 Termination of a Moving Region by a Sensor and Actuator Network 119 8.5 Illustrative Examples 120 9 Asymptotically Optimal Blanket Coverage between Two Boundaries 129 9.1 Introduction 129 9.2 Problem of Blanket Coverage between Two Lines 133 9.3 Blanket Coverage Algorithm 137 9.3.1 Description 138 9.3.2 Control Laws 138 9.3.3 Algorithm Convergence 144 9.4 Triangular Blanket Coverage between Curves 145 9.5 Illustrative Examples 148 9.6 Proof of Theorem 9.2 149 10 Distributed Navigation for Swarming with a Given Geometric Pattern 157 10.1 Introduction 157 10.2 Navigation for Swarming Problem 159 10.3 Distributed Navigation Algorithm 161 10.3.1 First Stage 161 10.3.2 Second Stage 165 10.3.3 Behavior of the Proposed Algorithm 168 10.4 Illustrative Examples and Computer Simulation Results 168 10.5 Theoretical Analysis of the Algorithm 171 References 181 Index 191

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Book SynopsisProvides coverage of Motor Current Signature Analysis (MCSA) for cage induction motors This book is primarily for industrial engineers. It has 13 chapters and contains a unique data base of 50 industrial case histories on the application of MCSA to diagnose broken rotor bars or unacceptable levels of airgap eccentricity in cage induction motors with ratings from 127 kW (170 H.P.) up to 10,160 kW (13,620 H.P.). There are also unsuccessful case histories, which is another unique feature of the book. The case studies also illustrate the effects of mechanical load dynamics downstream of the motor on the interpretation of current signatures. A number of cases are presented where abnormal operation of the driven load was diagnosed. Chapter 13 presents a critical appraisal of MCSA including successes, failures and lessons learned via industrial case histories. The case histories are presented in a step by step format, with predictions and outcomes supported by cuTable of ContentsABOUT THE AUTHORS xiii OBITUARY TO IAN CULBERT xv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii FOREWORD xix PREFACE xxiii NOMENCLATURE xxvii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xxxiii RELEVANT UNITS OF EQUIVALENCE USEFUL FOR THIS BOOK xxxv CHAPTER 1 MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYSIS FOR INDUCTION MOTORS 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Development of MCSA and Goals of This Book 4 1.2 Basic Theory of Operation of the 3-Phase Induction Motor 6 1.3 Starting and Run-Up Characteristics of SCIMs 20 1.4 Illustrations of Construction of a Large HV SCIM 29 1.5 Questions 33 References 34 CHAPTER 2 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND MANUFACTURE OF SQUIRREL CAGE ROTORS 39 2.0 Introduction 39 2.1 Aluminum and Copper Die-Cast Windings 40 2.2 Fabricated Squirrel Cage Windings 43 2.3 Design and Manufacturing Features of Squirrel Cage Rotor Windings to Minimize Failures 52 2.4 Questions 53 References 54 CHAPTER 3 CAUSES OF BREAKS IN SQUIRREL CAGE WINDINGS DURING DIRECT-ON-LINE STARTS AND STEADY-STATE OPERATION 55 3.0 Introduction 55 3.1 Mechanical Stresses and Consequential Forces on Rotor Bars and End Rings 56 3.2 Thermal Stresses in the Rotor Bars and End Rings 57 3.3 Broken Bars and End Rings Due to Combined Mechanical and Thermal Stresses When Starting High Inertia Loads 59 3.4 Rotor Bar Stresses Resulting from a Loose Slot Fit 60 3.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Certain Bar and End Ring Shapes and Types of Joints 62 3.6 Pulsating Loads Due to Crushers and Compressors 62 3.7 Direct-On-Line Starting of Large Induction Motors Driving High Inertia Fans 63 3.8 Direct-On-Line Starting of Large Induction Motors Driving Centrifugal Pumps 66 3.9 Limitations on Repetitive Motor Starts 68 3.10 Criteria for Design of Squirrel Cage Rotor Windings 69 3.11 Samples of Breaks in Squirrel Cage Rotor Windings 72 3.12 Questions 77 References 77 Further Reading 78 CHAPTER 4 MOTOR CURRENT SIGNATURE ANALYSIS (MCSA) TO DETECT CAGE WINDING DEFECTS 79 4.0 Summary 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Derivation of Current Component at f (1 − 2s) 82 4.3 Reasons for Current Component at f (1 + 2s) 83 4.4 Spectrum Analysis of Current 85 4.5 Severity Indicators for Assessing Condition of Cage Windings at Full-Load 93 4.6 The dB Broken Bar Severity Chart 110 4.7 Influence of Number of Rotor Bars and Pole Number on the Equivalent Broken Bar Factor with Measured dB Difference Values 111 4.8 Questions 116 References 118 CHAPTER 5 MCSA INDUSTRIAL CASE HISTORIES—DIAGNOSIS OF CAGE WINDING DEFECTS IN SCIMs DRIVING STEADY LOADS 119 5.0 Introduction and Summary of Case Histories 119 5.1 Case History (2000–2014)—Summary and Key Features 120 5.2 Case History (1983)—Summary and Key Features 122 5.3 Case History (1982)—Summary and Key Features 125 5.4 Case History (2002)—Summary and Key Features 128 5.5 Case History (1985–1987)—Summary and Key Features 133 5.6 Case History (2006)—Summary and Key Features 136 5.7 MCSA Case History (2004)—Summary and Key Features 139 5.8 MCSA Case History (2004)—Summary and Key Features 141 5.9 Questions 143 References 144 CHAPTER 6 MCSA CASE HISTORIES—DIAGNOSIS OF CAGE WINDING DEFECTS IN SCIMs FITTED WITH END RING RETAINING RINGS 147 6.0 Introduction and Summary of Case Histories 147 6.1 Case History (2006)—Summary 148 6.2 Concluding Remarks on this Challenging Case History 160 6.3 Case History (1990)—Summary and Key Features 161 6.4 Summary and Lessons Learned from Industrial Case Histories in Chapters 5 and 6 166 6.5 Questions 170 References 172 CHAPTER 7 MCSA CASE HISTORIES—CYCLIC LOADS CAN CAUSE FALSE POSITIVES OF CAGE WINDING BREAKS 173 7.1 Introduction and Summary of Case Histories 173 7.2 Case History (2006)—Effect of Gas Recycling in a Centrifugal Gas Compressor and the Detection of Broken Rotor Bars 179 7.3 Case History: False Positive of Broken Rotor Bars Due to Recycling of Gas in a Centrifugal Compressor 180 7.4 Two Case Histories (2002 and 2013)—Broken Rotor Bars in the Same SCIM without and with Gas Recycling in a Gas Compressor 185 7.5 Case History 1986–Fluid Coupling Dynamics Caused a False Positive of a Cage Winding Break 193 7.6 Questions 198 References 200 CHAPTER 8 MCSA CASE HISTORIES—SCIM DRIVES WITH SLOW SPEED GEARBOXES AND FLUCTUATING LOADS CAN GIVE FALSE POSITIVES OF BROKEN ROTOR BARS 201 8.1 Introduction and Summary of Case Histories 201 8.2 Case History (1989)—Slow Speed Coal Conveyor, Load Fluctuations, and Gearbox in the Drive Train 213 8.3 MCSA Case History (1990)—Possible False Positive of Broken Rotor Bars in a SCIM Driving a Coal Conveyor Via a Slow Speed Gearbox 216 8.4 Case History (1992)—Impossible to Analyze MCSA Data Due to Severe Random Current Fluctuations from The Mechanical Load Dynamics from the Coal Crusher 217 8.5 Case History (1995)—Successful Assessment of Cage Windings When the Load Current Fluctuations are Normal from a SCIM Driving Coal Crusher 221 8.6 Two Case Histories (2015)—False Positive of Broken Bars in One of the SCIMs Driving Thrusters on an FPSO If Influence of Drive Dynamics is Discounted 227 8.7 Questions 237 References 238 CHAPTER 9 MISCELLANEOUS MCSA CASE HISTORIES 241 9.0 Introduction and Summary of Case Histories 241 9.1 Possible False Positives of Cage Winding Breaks in Two 1850 kW SCIMs, Due to Number of Poles (2p) Equal to Number of Spider Support Arms (Sp) on Shaft (1991) 242 9.2 Case History (2007)—SCIM with Number of Poles Equal to Number of Kidney Shaped Axial Ducts in the Rotor—False Positive of Broken Bars Prevented by Load Changes 251 9.3 Two Case Histories (2005–2008)—Normal and Abnormal Pumping Dynamics in Two SCIM Seawater Lift Pump Drive Trains 253 9.4 MCSA Case History (2006–2007)—Slack and Worn Belt Drives in Two SCIM Cooling Fan Drives in a Cement Factory 259 9.5 Application of MCSA to Inverter-FED LV and HV SCIMs 263 9.6 Case History (1990)—Assessment of the Mechanical Operational Condition of an Electrical Submersible Pump (ESP) Driven by a SCIM Used in Artificial Oil Lift 267 9.7 Questions 270 References 271 CHAPTER 10 MCSA TO ESTIMATE THE OPERATIONAL AIRGAP ECCENTRICITY IN SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS 273 10.0 Summary and Introduction 273 10.1 Definition of Airgap Eccentricity 274 10.2 Causes and Associated Types of Airgap Eccentricity 276 10.3 Unbalanced Magnetic Pull (UMP) and Rotor Pull-Over 281 10.4 Current Signature Pattern due to Airgap Eccentricity 284 10.5 Questions 294 References 295 CHAPTER 11 CASE HISTORIES—SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL APPLICATION OF MCSA TO ESTIMATE OPERATIONAL AIRGAP ECCENTRICITY IN SCIMS 299 11.0 Summary and List of Case Histories 299 11.1 Flow Chart of MCSA Procedure to Estimate Operational Airgap Eccentricity 300 11.2 Case History (1989)—Low Level of Airgap Eccentricity in a SCIM Driving a Centrifugal Air Compressor 302 11.3 Two Case Histories (2004)—Operational Airgap Eccentricity in Nominally Identical SCIMs Driving Pumps in a CCGT Power Station 307 11.4 Four Case Histories (2005)—Abnormal Level of Airgap Eccentricity in a Large, Low Speed, HV Motor Driving a Cooling Water Pump in a Power Station 310 11.5 Case History (1988)—High Level of Airgap Eccentricity in an HV SCIM Driving a Pump in a Large Oil Storage Tank Facility 318 11.6 Case History (2001)—High Airgap Eccentricity in a Cooling Water Pump Motor that Caused Severe Mechanical Damage to HV Stator Coils 324 11.7 Case History (2008)—Unsuccessful Application of MCSA Applied to a Large (6300 kW), Inverter-FED, 6600 V SCIM During a No-Load Run to Assess Its Operational Airgap Eccentricity 332 11.8 Case History (2008)—Successful Application of MCSA Applied to a Large (4500 kW), Inverter-Fed, 3300 V SCIM to Assess its Operational Airgap Eccentricity 335 11.9 Case History (2007)—Advanced MCSA Interpretation of Current Spectra Was Required to Verify High Airgap Eccentricity in an HV SCIM Driving a Primary Air (PA) Fan in a Power Station 339 11.10 Case History (1990)—Unsuccessful MCSA Case History to Assess Operational Airgap Eccentricity in an HV SCIM Driving a Slow Speed Reciprocating Compressor 343 11.11 Case History (2002)—Predict Number of Rotor Slots and Assessment of Operational Airgap Eccentricity in a Large 6600 V, 6714 kW/9000 HP SCIM Driving a Centrifugal Compressor 347 11.12 Questions 353 References 357 CHAPTER 12 CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF MCSA TO DIAGNOSE SHORT CIRCUITED TURNS IN LV AND HV STATOR WINDINGS AND FAULTS IN ROLLER ELEMENT BEARINGS IN SCIMS 359 12.1 Summary 359 12.2 Shorted Turns in HV Stator Winding Coils 361 12.3 Detection of Shorted Turns Via MCSA under Controlled Experimental Conditions 364 12.4 Detection of Defects in Roller Element Bearings Via MCSA 368 12.5 Questions 371 References 372 CHAPTER 13 APPRAISAL OF MCSA INCLUDING LESSONS LEARNED VIA INDUSTRIAL CASE HISTORIES 375 13.1 Summary of MCSA in Industry to Diagnose Cage Winding Breaks 375 13.2 Flow Chart for Measurement and Analysis of Current to Diagnose Cage Winding Breaks 375 13.3 MCSA to Diagnose Broken Rotor Bars in SCIMs Driving Steady Loads 379 13.4 Number of Rotor Bars, External Constraints, and Lessons Learned 380 13.5 Effect of End Ring Retaining Rings (ERRS) on Diagnosis of Broken Rotor Bars 381 13.6 MCSA Applied to SCIMs Driving Complex Mechanical Plant, Lessons Learned, and Recommendations 382 13.7 Double Cage Rotors—Classical MCSA can only Detect Cage Winding Breaks in Inner Run Winding 382 13.8 MCSA to Diagnose Operational Levels of Airgap Eccentricity in SCIMs 383 13.9 Recommendations to End Users 385 13.10 Suggested Research and Development Projects 386 References 388 Appendix 13.A Commentary on Interpretation of LV and HV Used in SCIMs 388 LIST OF EQUATIONS 389 INDEX 393

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Book SynopsisProvides insight on both classical means and new trends in the application of power electronic and artificial intelligence techniques in power system operation and control This book presents advanced solutions for power system controllability improvement, transmission capability enhancement and operation planning.Table of ContentsContributors xxi Foreword xxiii Acknowledgments xxv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Mircea Eremia, Chen-Ching Liu, and Abdel-Aty Edris Part I HVDC Transmission Mircea Eremia Chapter 2 Power Semiconductor Devices for HVDC and Facts Systems 11 Remus Teodorescu and Mircea Eremia 2.1 Power Semiconductor Overview 12 2.2 Converter Types 21 2.3 HVDC Evolution 23 2.4 FACTS Evolution 30 References 33 Chapter 3 CSC–HVDC Transmission 35 Mircea Eremia and Constantin Bulac 3.1 Structure and Configurations 35 3.2 Converter Bridge Modeling 47 3.3 Control of CSC–HVDC Transmission 59 3.4 Reactive Power and Harmonics 78 3.5 Load Flow in Mixed HVAC/HVDC-CSC Systems 91 3.6 Interaction Between AC and DC Systems 96 3.7 Comparison Between DC and AC Transmission 101 3.8 Application on a CSC–HVDC Link 109 Appendix 3.1 CSC–HVDC Systems in the World 118 References 123 Chapter 4 VSC–HVDC Transmission 125 Mircea Eremia, Jos´e Antonio Jardini, Guangfu Tang, and Lucian Toma 4.1 VSC Converter Structures 126 4.2 Modulation Techniques 151 4.3 DC/AC Converter Analysis 166 4.4 VSC Transmission Scheme and Operation 188 4.5 Multiterminal VSC–HVDC Systems and HVDC Grids 203 4.6 Load Flow and Stability Analysis 221 4.7 Comparison of CSC–HVDC Versus VSC–HVDC Transmission 246 4.8 Forward to Supergrid 249 Appendix 4.1 VSC–HVDC Projects Around the World 261 Appendix 4.2 Examples of VSC–HVDC One-Line Diagrams 263 References 263 Part II Facts Technologies Abdel-Aty Edris and Mircea Eremia Chapter 5 Static VAr Compensator (SVC) 271 Mircea Eremia, Aniruddha Gole, and Lucian Toma 5.1 Generalities 271 5.2 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor 273 5.3 Thyristor-Switched Capacitor 284 5.4 Configurations of SVC 287 5.5 Control of SVC Operation 294 5.6 SVC Modeling 296 5.7 Placement of SVC 312 5.8 Applications of SVC 314 5.9 SVC Installations Worldwide 324 References 337 Chapter 6 Series Capacitive Compensation 339 Mircea Eremia and Stig Nilsson 6.1 Generalities 339 6.2 Mechanical Commutation-Based Series Devices 339 6.3 Static-Controlled Series Capacitive Compensation 342 6.4 Control Schemes for the TCSC 365 6.5 TCSC Modeling 370 6.6 Applications of TSSC/TCSC Installations 382 6.7 Series Capacitors Worldwide 387 Appendix 6.1 TCSC Systems Around the World 404 References 405 Chapter 7 Phase Shifting Transformer: Mechanical and Static Devices 409 Mylavarapu Ramamoorty and Lucian Toma 7.1 Introduction 409 7.2 Mechanical Phase Shifting Transformer 410 7.3 Thyristor-Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer 428 7.4 Applications of the Phase Shifting Transformers 439 7.5 Phase Shifting Transformer Projects Around the World 450 References 456 Chapter 8 Static Synchronous Compensator – Statcom 459 Rafael Mihalic, Mircea Eremia, and Bostjan Blazic 8.1 Principles and Topologies of Voltage Source Converter 459 8.2 STATCOM Operation 473 8.3 STATCOM Modeling 476 8.4 STATCOM Applications 506 8.5 STATCOM Installations in Operation 515 References 524 Chapter 9 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) 527 Laszlo Gyugyi, Abded-Aty Edris, and Mircea Eremia 9.1 Introduction 527 9.2 Architecture and Operating Principles 528 9.3 Comparison of SSSC with Other Technologies 533 9.4 Components of an SSSC 540 9.5 SSSC Modeling 546 9.6 Applications 551 9.7 SSSC Installation 552 References 556 Chapter 10 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 559 Laszlo Gyugyi 10.1 Introduction 559 10.2 Basic Characteristics of the UPFC 567 10.3 UPFC Versus Conventional Power Flow Controllers 571 10.4 UPFC Control System 575 10.5 Equipment Structural and Rating Considerations 584 10.6 Protection Considerations 596 10.7 Application Example: UPFC at AEP’s INEZ Station 600 10.8 Modeling of the UPFC Device 613 References 627 Chapter 11 Interline Power Flow Controller (Ipfc) 629 Laszlo Gyugyi 11.1 Generalities 629 11.2 Basic Operating Principles and Characteristics of the IPFC 630 11.3 Generalized Interline Power Flow Controller for Multiline Systems 636 11.4 Basic Control System 638 11.5 Equipment Structural and Rating Considerations 640 11.6 Protection Considerations 642 11.7 Application Example: IPFC at NYPA’s Marcy Substation 643 References 649 Chapter 12 Sen Transformer: A Power Regulating Transformer 651 Kalyan K. Sen 12.1 Background 651 12.2 The Sen Transformer Concept 656 References 679 Chapter 13 Medium Voltage Power Electronics Devices for Distribution Grids 681 Ion Etxeberria-Otadui, David Frey, Seddik Bacha, and Bertrand Raison 13.1 Introduction 681 13.2 High Power Switching Valves: Association of Semiconductor Components 683 13.3 Topologies Used in High Power Converters 694 13.4 Power Electronic Converter Control 697 References 717 Part III Artificial Intelligence Techniques Chen-Ching Liu and Mircea Eremia Chapter 14 Artificial Intelligence and Computational Intelligence: A Challenge for Power System Engineers 721 Chen-Ching Liu, Alexandru Stefanov, and Junho Hong References 729 Chapter 15 Expert Systems 731 Mircea Eremia, Kevin Tomsovic, and Gheorghe Cârțină 15.1 Fundamental Concepts 731 15.2 Architecture of Expert Systems 735 15.3 Expert Systems Application 745 References 753 Chapter 16 Neural Networks 755 Dagmar Niebur, Ganesh Kumar Venayagamoorthy, and Ekrem Gursoy 16.1 Introduction 755 16.2 Neural Network Architectures 755 16.3 Adaptive Critic Designs 759 16.4 Independent Component Analysis 760 16.5 Learning Algorithms: The Determination of Weights 760 16.6 Examples of Neural Network Applications for Power System Monitoring and Control 763 References 781 Chapter 17 Fuzzy Systems 785 Germano Lambert-Torres, Luiz Eduardo Borges da Silva, Carlos Henrique Valerio de Moraes, and Yvo Marcelo Chiaradia Masselli 17.1 Introduction 785 17.2 Fundamental Notions 787 17.3 Fuzzy Logic 797 17.4 Fuzzy Model 801 17.5 An Application of Fuzzy Logic in Control System 811 17.6 Final Remarks 816 Acknowledgments 817 References 817 Chapter 18 Decision Trees 819 Constantin Bulac and Adrian Bulac 18.1 Introduction 819 18.2 Decision Trees 820 18.3 Oblique Decision Trees 829 18.4 Applications of Decision Trees in Power Systems 833 18.5 Case Study 836 References 843 Chapter 19 Genetic Algorithms 845 Anastasios Bakirtzis and Spyros Kazarlis 19.1 Introduction to Evolutionary Computation 845 19.2 Genetic Algorithms 859 19.3 On The Optimal Location and Operation of FACTS Devices by Genetic Algorithms 897 References 898 Chapter 20 Multiagent Systems 903 Nan-Peng Yu and Chen-Ching Liu 20.1 Overview 903 20.2 Multiagent Technology Overview 909 20.3 Applications of Multiagent Systems in Power Engineering 917 20.4 Electricity Markets Modeling and Simulation with Multiagent Systems 920 Simulation 922 References 927 Chapter 21 Heuristic Optimization Techniques 931 Kwang Y. Lee, Malihe M. Farsangi, Jong-Bae Park, and John G. Vlachogiannis 21.1 Introduction 931 21.2 Evolutionary Algorithms for Reactive Power Planning 932 21.3 Genetic Algorithm for Generation Planning 943 21.4 Particle Swarm Optimization for Economic Dispatch 951 21.5 Ant Colony System for Constrained Load Flow Problem 961 21.6 Immune Algorithm for Damping of Interarea Oscillation 968 21.7 Simulated Annealing and Tabu Search for Optimal Allocation of Static VAr Compensators 974 21.8 Conclusions 980 References 981 Chapter 22 Unsupervised Learning and Hybrid Methods 985 Nikos Hatziargyriou and Manolis Voumvoulakis 22.1 Generalities 985 22.2 Supervised Learning Methods 988 22.3 Unsupervised Learning Methods 996 22.4 Som Variants 1000 22.5 Combined Use of Unsupervised with Supervised Learning Methods 1007 22.6 Applications to Power Systems 1007 References 1030 Index 1033

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Book SynopsisImpedance Source Power Electronic Converters brings together state of the art knowledge and cutting edge techniques in various stages of research related to the ever more popular impedance source converters/inverters.Trade Review"Power engineers developing Z-source converters, and those who want to learn about this new topology, will find this book to be a very useful resource. It is very well written, clearly explains the technical details of the Z-source convert­er, and incorporates many circuit designs and applications." (IEEE Electrical Insulation magazine 04/05/2017)Table of ContentsPreface xii Acknowledgment xiv Bios xv 1 Background and Current Status 1 1.1 General Introduction to Electrical Power Generation 1 1.1.1 Energy Systems 1 1.1.2 Existing Power Converter Topologies 5 1.2 Z‐Source Converter as Single‐Stage Power Conversion System 10 1.3 Background and Advantages Compared to Existing Technology 11 1.4 Classification and Current Status 13 1.5 Future Trends 15 1.6 Contents Overview 15 Acknowledgment 16 References 16 2 Voltage‐Fed Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverters 20 2.1 Topologies of Voltage‐Fed Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverters 20 2.2 Modeling of Voltage‐Fed qZSI 23 2.2.1 Steady‐State Model 23 2.2.2 Dynamic Model 25 2.3 Simulation Results 30 2.3.1 Simulation of qZSI Modeling 30 2.3.2 Circuit Simulation Results of Control System 31 2.4 Conclusion 33 References 33 3 Current‐Fed Z‐Source Inverter 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Topology Modification 37 3.3 Operational Principles 39 3.3.1 Current‐Fed Z‐Source Inverter 39 3.3.2 Current‐Fed Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverter 41 3.4 Modulation 44 3.5 Modeling and Control 46 3.6 Passive Components Design Guidelines 47 3.7 Discontinuous Operation Modes 48 3.8 Current‐Fed Z‐Source Inverter/Current‐Fed Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverter Applications 51 3.9 Summary 52 References 52 4 Modulation Methods and Comparison 54 4.1 Sinewave Pulse‐Width Modulations 54 4.1.1 Simple Boost Control 55 4.1.2 Maximum Boost Control 55 4.1.3 Maximum Constant Boost Control 56 4.2 Space Vector Modulations 57 4.2.1 Traditional SVM 57 4.2.2 SVMs for ZSI/qZSI 57 4.3 Pulse‐Width Amplitude Modulation 63 4.4 Comparison of All Modulation Methods 63 4.4.1 Performance Analysis 64 4.4.2 Simulation and Experimental Results 64 4.5 Conclusion 72 References 72 5 Control of Shoot‐Through Duty Cycle: An Overview 74 5.1 Summary of Closed‐Loop Control Methods 74 5.2 Single‐Loop Methods 75 5.3 Double‐Loop Methods 76 5.4 Conventional Regulators and Advanced Control Methods 76 References 77 6 Z‐Source Inverter: Topology Improvements Review 78 6.1 Introduction 78 6.2 Basic Topology Improvements 79 6.2.1 Bidirectional Power Flow 79 6.2.2 High‐Performance Operation 80 6.2.3 Low Inrush Current 80 6.2.4 Soft‐Switching 80 6.2.5 Neutral Point 82 6.2.6 Reduced Leakage Current 82 6.2.7 Joint Earthing 82 6.2.8 Continuous Input Current 82 6.2.9 Distributed Z‐Network 85 6.2.10 Embedded Source 85 6.3 Extended Boost Topologies 87 6.3.1 Switched Inductor Z‐Source Inverter 87 6.3.2 Tapped‐Inductor Z‐Source Inverter 93 6.3.3 Cascaded Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverter 94 6.3.4 Transformer‐Based Z‐Source Inverter 97 6.3.5 High Frequency Transformer Isolated Z‐Source Inverter 103 6.4 L‐Z‐Source Inverter 103 6.5 Changing the ZSI Topology Arrangement 105 6.6 Conclusion 109 References 109 7 Typical Transformer‐Based Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverters 113 7.1 Fundamentals of Trans‐ZSI 113 7.1.1 Configuration of Current‐Fed and Voltage‐Fed Trans‐ZSI 113 7.1.2 Operating Principle of Voltage‐Fed Trans‐ZSI 116 7.1.3 Steady‐State Model 117 7.1.4 Dynamic Model 119 7.1.5 Simulation Results 121 7.2 LCCT‐ZSI/qZSI 122 7.2.1 Configuration and Operation of LCCT‐ZSI 122 7.2.2 Configuration and Operation of LCCT‐qZSI 124 7.2.3 Simulation Results 126 7.3 Conclusion 127 Acknowledgment 127 References 127 8 Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source AC‐DC Rectifiers 128 8.1 Topologies of Voltage‐Fed Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source Rectifiers 128 8.2 Operating Principle 129 8.3 Dynamic Modeling 130 8.3.1 DC‐Side Dynamic Model of qZSR 130 8.3.2 AC‐Side Dynamic Model of Rectifier Bridge 132 8.4 Simulation Results 134 8.5 Conclusion 137 References 137 9 Z‐Source DC‐DC Converters 138 9.1 Topologies 138 9.2 Comparison 140 9.3 Example Simulation Model and Results 141 References 147 10 Z‐Source Matrix Converter 148 10.1 Introduction 148 10.2 Z‐Source Indirect Matrix Converter (All‐Silicon Solution) 151 10.2.1 Different Topology Configurations 151 10.2.2 Operating Principle and Equivalent Circuits 153 10.2.3 Parameter Design of the QZS‐Network 156 10.2.4 QZSIMC (All‐Silicon Solution) Applications 157 10.3 Z‐Source Indirect Matrix Converter (Not All‐Silicon Solution) 158 10.3.1 Different Topology Configurations 158 10.3.2 Operating Principle and Equivalent Circuits 160 10.3.3 Parameter Design of the QZS Network 164 10.3.4 ZS/QZSIMC (Not All‐Silicon Solution) Applications 164 10.4 Z‐Source Direct Matrix Converter 167 10.4.1 Alternative Topology Configurations 167 10.4.2 Operating Principle and Equivalent Circuits 170 10.4.3 Shoot‐Through Boost Control Method 171 10.4.4 Applications of the QZSDMC 175 10.5 Summary 177 References 177 11 Energy Stored Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverters 179 11.1 Energy Stored Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z Source Inverters 179 11.1.1 Modeling of qZSI with Battery 180 11.1.2 Controller Design 182 11.2 Example Simulations 188 11.2.1 Case 1: SOCmin < SOC < SOCmax 188 11.2.2 Case 2: Avoidance of Battery Overcharging 190 11.3 Conclusion 192 References 193 12 Z‐Source Multilevel Inverters 194 12.1 Z‐Source NPC Inverter 194 12.1.1 Configuration 194 12.1.2 Operating Principles 195 12.1.3 Modulation Scheme 200 12.2 Z‐Source/Quasi‐Z‐Source Cascade Multilevel Inverter 206 12.2.1 Configuration 206 12.2.2 Operating Principles 208 12.2.3 Modulation Scheme 209 12.2.4 System‐Level Modeling and Control 213 12.2.5 Simulation Results 219 12.3 Conclusion 224 Acknowledgment 224 References 224 13 Design of Z‐Source and Quasi‐Z‐Source Inverters 226 13.1 Z‐Source Network Parameters 226 13.1.1 Inductance and Capacitance of Three‐Phase qZSI 226 13.1.2 Inductance and Capacitance of Single‐Phase qZSI 227 13.2 Loss Calculation Method 233 13.2.1 H‐bridge Device Power Loss 233 13.2.2 qZS Diode Power Loss 236 13.2.3 qZS Inductor Power Loss 236 13.2.4 qZS Capacitor Power Loss 237 13.3 Voltage and Current Stress 237 13.4 Coupled Inductor Design 239 13.5 Efficiency, Cost, and Volume Comparison with Conventional Inverter 239 13.5.1 Efficiency Comparison 239 13.5.2 Cost and Volume Comparison 240 13.6 Conclusion 242 References 243 14 Applications in Photovoltaic Power Systems 244 14.1 Photovoltaic Power Characteristics 244 14.2 Typical Configurations of Single‐Phase and Three‐Phase Systems 245 14.3 Parameter Design Method 245 14.4 MPPT Control and System Control Methods 248 14.5 Examples Demonstration 249 14.5.1 Single‐Phase qZS PV System and Simulation Results 249 14.5.2 Three‐Phase qZS PV Power System and Simulation Results 249 14.5.3 1 MW/11 kV qZS CMI Based PV Power System and Simulation Results 250 14.6 Conclusion 253 References 255 15 Applications in Wind Power 256 15.1 Wind Power Characteristics 256 15.2 Typical Configurations 257 15.3 Parameter Design 257 15.4 MPPT Control and System Control Methods 259 15.5 Simulation Results of a qZS Wind Power System 261 15.6 Conclusion 264 References 265 16 Z‐Source Inverter for Motor Drives Application: A Review 266 16.1 Introduction 266 16.2 Z‐Source Inverter Feeding a Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor 269 16.3 Z‐Source Inverter Feeding a Switched Reluctance Motor 270 16.4 Z‐Source Inverter Feeding a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor 273 16.5 Z‐Source Inverter Feeding an Induction Motor 276 16.5.1 Scalar Control (V/F) Technique for ZSI‐IM Drive System 276 16.5.2 Field Oriented Control Technique for ZSI‐IM Drive System 279 16.5.3 Direct Torque Control (DTC) Technique for ZSI‐IM Drive System 279 16.5.4 Predictive Torque Control for ZSI‐IM Drive System 283 16.6 Multiphase Z‐Source Inverter Motor Drive System 283 16.7 Two‐Phase Motor Drive System with Z‐Source Inverter 286 16.8 Single‐Phase Induction Motor Drive System Using Z‐Source Inverter 286 16.9 Z‐Source Inverter for Vehicular Applications 286 16.10 Conclusion 289 References 290 17 Impedance Source Multi‐Leg Inverters 295 17.1 Impedance Source Four‐Leg Inverter 295 17.1.1 Introduction 295 17.1.2 Unbalanced Load Analysis Based on Fortescue Components 296 17.1.3 Effects of Unbalanced Load Condition 297 17.1.4 Inverter Topologies for Unbalanced Loads 300 17.1.5 Z‐Source Four‐Leg Inverter 302 17.1.6 Switching Schemes for Three‐Phase Four‐Leg Inverter 310 17.1.7 Buck/Boost Conversion Modes Analysis 316 17.2 Impedance Source Five‐Leg (Five‐Phase) Inverter 319 17.2.1 Five‐Phase VSI Model 319 17.2.2 Space Vector PWM for a Five‐Phase Standard VSI 322 17.2.3 Space Vector PWM for Five‐Phase qZSI 323 17.2.4 Discontinuous Space Vector PWM for Five‐Phase qZSI 324 17.3 Summary 326 References 326 18 Model Predictive Control of Impedance Source Inverter 329 18.1 Introduction 329 18.2 Overview of Model Predictive Control 330 18.3 Mathematical Model of the Z‐Source Inverters 331 18.3.1 Overview of Topologies 331 18.3.2 Three‐Phase Three‐Leg Inverter Model 333 18.3.3 Three‐Phase Four‐Leg Inverter Model 335 18.3.4 Multiphase Inverter Model 338 18.4 Model Predictive Control of the Z‐Source Three‐Phase Three‐Leg Inverter 342 18.5 Model Predictive Control of the Z‐Source Three‐Phase Four‐Leg Inverter 349 18.5.1 Discrete‐Time Model of the Output Current for Four‐Leg Inverter 349 18.5.2 Control Algorithm 350 18.6 Model Predictive Control of the Z‐Source Five‐Phase Inverter 350 18.6.1 Discrete‐Time Model of the Five‐Phase Load 352 18.6.2 Cost Function for the Load Current 353 18.6.3 Control Algorithm 353 18.7 Performance Investigation 353 18.8 Summary 359 References 359 19 Grid Integration of Quasi‐Z Source Based PV Multilevel Inverter 362 19.1 Introduction 362 19.2 Topology and Modeling 363 19.3 Grid Synchronization 364 19.4 Power Flow Control 365 19.4.1 Proportional Integral Controller 366 19.4.2 Model Predictive Control 372 19.5 Low Voltage Ride‐Through Capability 379 19.6 Islanding Protection 381 19.6.1 Active Frequency Drift (AFD) 383 19.6.2 Sandia Frequency Shift (SFS) 383 19.6.3 Slip‐Mode Frequency Shift (SMS) 383 19.6.4 Simulation Results 384 19.7 Conclusion 387 References 387 20 Future Trends 390 20.1 General Expectation 390 20.1.1 Volume and Size Reduction by Wide Band‐Gap Devices 390 20.1.2 Parameters Minimization for Single‐Phase qZS Inverter 391 20.1.3 Novel Control Methods 392 20.1.4 Future Applications 392 20.2 Illustration of Using Wide Band Gap Devices 393 20.2.1 Impact on Z‐Source Network 394 20.2.2 Analysis and Evaluation of SiC Device Based qZSI 395 20.3 Conclusion 398 References 398 Index 401

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Book SynopsisIntroducing up-to-date coverage of research in electron field emission from nanostructures, Vacuum Nanoelectronic Devices outlines the physics of quantum nanostructures, basic principles of electron field emission, and vacuum nanoelectronic devices operation, and offers as insight state-of-the-art and future researches and developments. This book also evaluates the results of research and development of novel quantum electron sources that will determine the future development of vacuum nanoelectronics. Further to this, the influence of quantum mechanical effects on high frequency vacuum nanoelectronic devices is also assessed. Key features: In-depth description and analysis of the fundamentals of Quantum Electron effects in novel electron sources. Comprehensive and up-to-date summary of the physics and technologies for THz sources for students of physical and engineering specialties and electronics engineers. Unique coverage of quantum physical Table of ContentsPreface xi Part I THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS OF QUANTUM ELECTRON SOURCES 1 Transport through the Energy Barriers: Transition Probability 3 1.1 Transfer Matrix Technique 3 1.2 Tunneling through the Barriers and Wells 7 1.2.1 The Particle Moves on the Potential Step 7 1.2.2 The Particle Moves above the Potential Barrier 13 1.2.3 The Particle Moves above the Well 16 1.2.4 The Particle Moves through the Potential Barrier 18 1.3 Tunneling through Triangular Barrier at Electron Field Emission 22 1.4 Effect of Trapped Charge in the Barrier 24 1.5 Transmission Probability in Resonant Tunneling Structures: Coherent Tunneling 28 1.6 Lorentzian Approximation 32 1.7 Time Parameters of Resonant Tunneling 34 1.8 Transmission Probability at Electric Fields 38 1.9 Temperature Effects 42 1.9.1 One Barrier 42 1.9.2 Double-Barrier Resonance Tunneling Structure 45 2 Supply Function 48 2.1 Effective Mass Approximation 48 2.2 Electron in Potential Box 49 2.3 Density of States 52 2.3.1 Three-Dimension (3D) Case 52 2.3.2 Two-Dimension (2D) Case 58 2.3.3 One-Dimension (1D) Case 62 2.3.4 Zero Dimension (0D) Case 64 2.4 Fermi Distribution Function and Electron Concentration 66 2.4.1 Electron Concentration for 3D Structures 67 2.4.2 Electron Concentration for 2D Structures 71 2.5 Supply Function at Electron Field Emission 71 2.6 Electron in Potential Well 73 2.6.1 Quantum Well with Parabolic Shape of the Potential 76 2.7 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas in Heterojunction GaN-AlGaN 79 2.8 Electron Properties of Quantum-Size Semiconductor Films 82 3 Band Bending and Work Function 87 3.1 Surface Space-Charge Region 87 3.2 Quantization of the Energy Spectrum of Electrons in Surface Semiconductor Layer 91 3.3 Image Charge Potential 96 3.4 Work Function 99 3.4.1 Energy of Ionic Cores (εion) 102 3.4.2 Exchange-Correlation Potential (Uxc) 103 3.4.3 Dipole Term (ΔΦ) 104 3.4.4 Work Function of Semiconductor 106 3.4.5 Work Function of Cathode with Coating 107 3.5 Field and Temperature Dependences of Barrier Height 109 3.6 Influence of Surface Adatoms on Work Function 110 4 Current through the Barrier Structures 119 4.1 Current through One Barrier Structure 119 4.1.1 Case 1: High Bias 122 4.1.2 Case 2: High Bias and Low Temperature 122 4.1.3 Case 3: Small Bias: Linear Response 122 4.1.4 Case 4: Small Bias and Low Temperature 123 4.2 Field Emission Current 123 4.3 Electron Field Emission from Semiconductors 127 4.4 Current through Double Barrier Structures 134 4.4.1 Coherent Resonant Tunneling 134 4.4.2 Sequential Tunneling 139 4.5 Electron Field Emission from Multilayer Nanostructures and Nanoparticles 142 4.5.1 Resonant Tunneling at Electron Field Emission from Nanostructures 142 4.5.2 Two-Step Electron Tunneling through Electronic States in a Nanoparticle 150 4.5.3 Single-Electron Field Emission 159 5 Electron Energy Distribution 172 5.1 Theory of Electron Energy Distribution 172 5.2 Experimental Set Up 175 5.3 Peculiarities of Electron Energy Distribution Spectra at Emission from Semiconductors 177 5.3.1 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons Emitted from Semiconductors 179 5.4 Electron Energy Distribution at Emission from Spindt-Type Metal Microtips 180 5.5 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons Emitter from Silicon 185 5.5.1 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons from Silicon Tips and Arrays 185 5.5.2 Electron Energy Distribution of Electrons from Nanocrystalline Silicon 193 Part II NOVEL ELECTRON SOURCES WITH QUANTUM EFFECTS 6 Si Based Quantum Cathodes 201 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Electron Field Emission from Porous Silicon 202 6.3 Electron Field Emission from Silicon with Multilayer Coating 207 6.4 Peculiarities of Electron Field Emission from Si Nanoparticles 208 6.4.1 Electron Field Emission from Nanocomposite SiOx(Si) and SiO2(Si) Films 208 6.4.2 Electron Field Emission from Si Nanocrystalline Films 212 6.4.3 Laser Produced Silicon Tips with SixOyNz(Si) Nanocomposite Film 215 6.5 Formation of Conducting Channels in SiOx Coating Film 217 6.6 Electron Field Emission from Si Nanowires 222 6.7 Metal-Insulator-Metal Emitters 227 6.7.1 Effect of the Top Electrode 237 6.8 Conclusion 240 7 GaN Based Quantum Cathodes 246 7.1 Introduction 246 7.2 Electron Sources with Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Films 247 7.2.1 AlGaN Based Electron Sources 249 7.2.2 Solid-State Field Controlled Emitter 255 7.2.3 Polarization Field Emission Enhancement Model 257 7.2.4 Emission from Nanocrystalline GaN Films 258 7.2.5 Graded Electron Affinity Electron Source 262 7.3 Resonant Tunneling of Field Emitted Electrons through Nanostructured Cathodes 263 7.3.1 Resonant-Tunneling AlxGa1−xN-GaN Structures 263 7.3.2 Multilayer Planar Nanostructured Solid-State Field-Controlled Emitter 266 7.3.3 Geometric Nanostructured AlGaN/GaN Quantum Emitter 270 7.3.4 AlN/GaN Multiple-Barrier Resonant-Tunneling Electron Emitter 273 7.4 Field Emission from GaN Nanorods and Nanowires 277 7.4.1 Intervalley Carrier Redistribution at EFE from Nanostructured Semiconductors 277 7.4.2 Electron Field Emission from GaN Nanowire Film 288 7.4.3 Electron Field Emission from Patterned GaN Nanowire Film 293 7.4.4 Electron Field Emission Properties of Individual GaN Nanowires 295 7.4.5 Photon-Assisted Field Emission from GaN Nanorods 299 7.5 Conclusions 305 8 Carbon-Based Quantum Cathodes 314 8.1 Introduction 314 8.2 Diamond and Diamond Film Emitters 315 8.2.1 Negative Electron Affinity 315 8.2.2 Emission from Diamond and Diamond Films 318 8.2.3 Models of EFE from Diamond 322 8.3 Diamond-Like Carbon Film Emitters 324 8.3.1 Electrically Nanostructured Heterogeneous Emitters 324 8.3.2 Nanostructured Diamond-Like Carbon Films 326 8.3.3 Electron Field Emission from DLC Films 328 8.3.4 Model of EFE from Si Tips Coated with DLC Film 330 8.3.5 Electron Field Emission from Tips Coated with Ultrathin DLC Films 334 8.3.6 Formation of Conductive Nanochannels in DLC Film 336 8.4 Carbon Nanotube Emitters 340 8.4.1 The Peculiarities of Electron Field Emission from CNTs 341 8.4.2 Stability of Electron Field Emission from CNTs 346 8.4.3 Models of Field Emission from CNTs 350 8.5 Electron Emission from Graphene and Nanocarbon 352 8.5.1 Electron Emission from Graphene 352 8.5.2 Electron Emission from CNT-Graphene Composites 355 8.5.3 Electron Emission from Nanocarbon 358 8.6 Conclusion 362 9 Quantum Electron Sources for High Frequency Applications 375 9.1 Introduction 375 9.2 High Frequency Application of Resonant Tunneling Diode 376 9.3 Field Emission Resonant Tunneling Diode 380 9.3.1 Direct Emission Current 381 9.3.2 Microwave Characteristics 383 9.3.3 Calculation of the Direct Emission Current 385 9.3.4 Calculation of Microwave Parameters 386 9.4 Generation of THz Signals in Field Emission Vacuum Devices 391 9.5 AlGaN/GaN Superlattice for THz Generation 398 9.6 Gunn Effect at Electron Field Emission 415 9.7 Field Emission Microwave Sources 420 9.7.1 Modulation of Gated FEAs 422 9.7.2 Current Density 432 9.7.3 CNT FEAs 436 9.8 Conclusion 440 Index 447

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Book SynopsisPresents recent significant and rapid development in the field of 2D and 3D image analysis 2D and 3D Image Analysis by Moments, is a unique compendium of moment-based image analysis which includes traditional methods and also reflects the latest development of the field.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgements xxi 1 Motivation 1 1.1 Image analysis by computers 1 1.2 Humans, computers, and object recognition 4 1.3 Outline of the book 5 References 7 2 Introduction to Object Recognition 8 2.1 Feature space 8 2.1.1 Metric spaces and norms 9 2.1.2 Equivalence and partition 11 2.1.3 Invariants 12 2.1.4 Covariants 14 2.1.5 Invariant-less approaches 15 2.2 Categories of the invariants 15 2.2.1 Simple shape features 16 2.2.2 Complete visual features 18 2.2.3 Transformation coefficient features 20 2.2.4 Textural features 21 2.2.5 Wavelet-based features 23 2.2.6 Differential invariants 24 2.2.7 Point set invariants 25 2.2.8 Moment invariants 26 2.3 Classifiers 27 2.3.1 Nearest-neighbor classifiers 28 2.3.2 Support vector machines 31 2.3.3 Neural network classifiers 32 2.3.4 Bayesian classifier 34 2.3.5 Decision trees 35 2.3.6 Unsupervised classification 36 2.4 Performance of the classifiers 37 2.4.1 Measuring the classifier performance 37 2.4.2 Fusing classifiers 38 2.4.3 Reduction of the feature space dimensionality 38 2.5 Conclusion 40 References 41 3 2D Moment Invariants to Translation, Rotation, and Scaling 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.1.1 Mathematical preliminaries 45 3.1.2 Moments 47 3.1.3 Geometric moments in 2D 48 3.1.4 Other moments 49 3.2 TRS invariants from geometric moments 50 3.2.1 Invariants to translation 50 3.2.2 Invariants to uniform scaling 51 3.2.3 Invariants to non-uniform scaling 52 3.2.4 Traditional invariants to rotation 54 3.3 Rotation invariants using circular moments 56 3.4 Rotation invariants from complex moments 57 3.4.1 Complex moments 57 3.4.2 Construction of rotation invariants 58 3.4.3 Construction of the basis 59 3.4.4 Basis of the invariants of the second and third orders 62 3.4.5 Relationship to the Hu invariants 63 3.5 Pseudoinvariants 67 3.6 Combined invariants to TRS and contrast stretching 68 3.7 Rotation invariants for recognition of symmetric objects 69 3.7.1 Logo recognition 75 3.7.2 Recognition of shapes with different fold numbers 75 3.7.3 Experiment with a baby toy 77 3.8 Rotation invariants via image normalization 81 3.9 Moment invariants of vector fields 86 3.10 Conclusion 92 References 92 4 3D Moment Invariants to Translation, Rotation, and Scaling 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Mathematical description of the 3D rotation 98 4.3 Translation and scaling invariance of 3D geometric moments 100 4.4 3D rotation invariants by means of tensors 101 4.4.1 Tensors 101 4.4.2 Rotation invariants 102 4.4.3 Graph representation of the invariants 103 4.4.4 The number of the independent invariants 104 4.4.5 Possible dependencies among the invariants 105 4.4.6 Automatic generation of the invariants by the tensor method 106 4.5 Rotation invariants from 3D complex moments 108 4.5.1 Translation and scaling invariance of 3D complex moments 112 4.5.2 Invariants to rotation by means of the group representation theory 112 4.5.3 Construction of the rotation invariants 115 4.5.4 Automated generation of the invariants 117 4.5.5 Elimination of the reducible invariants 118 4.5.6 The irreducible invariants 118 4.6 3D translation, rotation, and scale invariants via normalization 119 4.6.1 Rotation normalization by geometric moments 120 4.6.2 Rotation normalization by complex moments 123 4.7 Invariants of symmetric objects 124 4.7.1 Rotation and reflection symmetry in 3D 124 4.7.2 The influence of symmetry on 3D complex moments 128 4.7.3 Dependencies among the invariants due to symmetry 130 4.8 Invariants of 3D vector fields 131 4.9 Numerical experiments 131 4.9.1 Implementation details 131 4.9.2 Experiment with archeological findings 133 4.9.3 Recognition of generic classes 135 4.9.4 Submarine recognition – robustness to noise test 137 4.9.5 Teddy bears – the experiment on real data 141 4.9.6 Artificial symmetric bodies 142 4.9.7 Symmetric objects from the Princeton Shape Benchmark 143 4.10 Conclusion 147 Appendix 4.A 148 Appendix 4.B 156 Appendix 4.C 158 References 160 5 Affine Moment Invariants in 2D and 3D 163 5.1 Introduction 163 5.1.1 2D projective imaging of 3D world 164 5.1.2 Projective moment invariants 165 5.1.3 Affine transformation 167 5.1.4 2D Affine moment invariants – the history 168 5.2 AMIs derived from the Fundamental theorem 170 5.3 AMIs generated by graphs 171 5.3.1 The basic concept 172 5.3.2 Representing the AMIs by graphs 173 5.3.3 Automatic generation of the invariants by the graph method 173 5.3.4 Independence of the AMIs 174 5.3.5 The AMIs and tensors 180 5.4 AMIs via image normalization 181 5.4.1 Decomposition of the affine transformation 182 5.4.2 Relation between the normalized moments and the AMIs 185 5.4.3 Violation of stability 186 5.4.4 Affine invariants via half normalization 187 5.4.5 Affine invariants from complex moments 187 5.5 The method of the transvectants 190 5.6 Derivation of the AMIs from the Cayley-Aronhold equation 195 5.6.1 Manual solution 195 5.6.2 Automatic solution 198 5.7 Numerical experiments 201 5.7.1 Invariance and robustness of the AMIs 201 5.7.2 Digit recognition 201 5.7.3 Recognition of symmetric patterns 204 5.7.4 The children’s mosaic 208 5.7.5 Scrabble tiles recognition 210 5.8 Affine invariants of color images 214 5.8.1 Recognition of color pictures 217 5.9 Affine invariants of 2D vector fields 218 5.10 3D affine moment invariants 221 5.10.1 The method of geometric primitives 222 5.10.2 Normalized moments in 3D 224 5.10.3 Cayley-Aronhold equation in 3D 225 5.11 Beyond invariants 225 5.11.1 Invariant distance measure between images 225 5.11.2 Moment matching 227 5.11.3 Object recognition as a minimization problem 229 5.11.4 Numerical experiments 229 5.12 Conclusion 231 Appendix 5.A 232 Appendix 5.B 233 References 234 6 Invariants to Image Blurring 237 6.1 Introduction 237 6.1.1 Image blurring – the sources and modeling 237 6.1.2 The need for blur invariants 239 6.1.3 State of the art of blur invariants 239 6.1.4 The chapter outline 246 6.2 An intuitive approach to blur invariants 247 6.3 Projection operators and blur invariants in Fourier domain 249 6.4 Blur invariants from image moments 252 6.5 Invariants to centrosymmetric blur 254 6.6 Invariants to circular blur 256 6.7 Invariants to N-FRS blur 259 6.8 Invariants to dihedral blur 265 6.9 Invariants to directional blur 269 6.10 Invariants to Gaussian blur 272 6.10.1 1D Gaussian blur invariants 274 6.10.2 Multidimensional Gaussian blur invariants 278 6.10.3 2D Gaussian blur invariants from complex moments 279 6.11 Invariants to other blurs 280 6.12 Combined invariants to blur and spatial transformations 282 6.12.1 Invariants to blur and rotation 282 6.12.2 Invariants to blur and affine transformation 283 6.13 Computational issues 284 6.14 Experiments with blur invariants 285 6.14.1 A simple test of blur invariance property 285 6.14.2 Template matching in satellite images 286 6.14.3 Template matching in outdoor images 291 6.14.4 Template matching in astronomical images 291 6.14.5 Face recognition on blurred and noisy photographs 292 6.14.6 Traffic sign recognition 294 6.15 Conclusion 302 Appendix 6.A 303 Appendix 6.B 304 Appendix 6.C 306 Appendix 6.D 308 Appendix 6.E 310 Appendix 6.F 310 Appendix 6.G 311 References 315 7 2D and 3D Orthogonal Moments 320 7.1 Introduction 320 7.2 2D moments orthogonal on a square 322 7.2.1 Hypergeometric functions 323 7.2.2 Legendre moments 324 7.2.3 Chebyshev moments 327 7.2.4 Gaussian-Hermite moments 331 7.2.5 Other moments orthogonal on a square 334 7.2.6 Orthogonal moments of a discrete variable 338 7.2.7 Rotation invariants from moments orthogonal on a square 348 7.3 2D moments orthogonal on a disk 351 7.3.1 Zernike and Pseudo-Zernike moments 352 7.3.2 Fourier-Mellin moments 358 7.3.3 Other moments orthogonal on a disk 361 7.4 Object recognition by Zernike moments 363 7.5 Image reconstruction from moments 365 7.5.1 Reconstruction by direct calculation 367 7.5.2 Reconstruction in the Fourier domain 369 7.5.3 Reconstruction from orthogonal moments 370 7.5.4 Reconstruction from noisy data 373 7.5.5 Numerical experiments with a reconstruction from OG moments 373 7.6 3D orthogonal moments 377 7.6.1 3D moments orthogonal on a cube 380 7.6.2 3D moments orthogonal on a sphere 381 7.6.3 3D moments orthogonal on a cylinder 383 7.6.4 Object recognition of 3D objects by orthogonal moments 383 7.6.5 Object reconstruction from 3D moments 387 7.7 Conclusion 389 References 389 8 Algorithms for Moment Computation 398 8.1 Introduction 398 8.2 Digital image and its moments 399 8.2.1 Digital image 399 8.2.2 Discrete moments 400 8.3 Moments of binary images 402 8.3.1 Moments of a rectangle 402 8.3.2 Moments of a general-shaped binary object 403 8.4 Boundary-based methods for binary images 404 8.4.1 The methods based on Green’s theorem 404 8.4.2 The methods based on boundary approximations 406 8.4.3 Boundary-based methods for 3D objects 407 8.5 Decomposition methods for binary images 410 8.5.1 The "delta" method 412 8.5.2 Quadtree decomposition 413 8.5.3 Morphological decomposition 415 8.5.4 Graph-based decomposition 416 8.5.5 Computing binary OG moments by means of decomposition methods 420 8.5.6 Experimental comparison of decomposition methods 422 8.5.7 3D decomposition methods 423 8.6 Geometric moments of graylevel images 428 8.6.1 Intensity slicing 429 8.6.2 Bit slicing 430 8.6.3 Approximation methods 433 8.7 Orthogonal moments of graylevel images 435 8.7.1 Recurrent relations for moments orthogonal on a square 435 8.7.2 Recurrent relations for moments orthogonal on a disk 436 8.7.3 Other methods 438 8.8 Conclusion 440 Appendix 8.A 441 References 443 9 Applications 448 9.1 Introduction 448 9.2 Image understanding 448 9.2.1 Recognition of animals 449 9.2.2 Face and other human parts recognition 450 9.2.3 Character and logo recognition 453 9.2.4 Recognition of vegetation and of microscopic natural structures 454 9.2.5 Traffic-related recognition 455 9.2.6 Industrial recognition 456 9.2.7 Miscellaneous applications 457 9.3 Image registration 459 9.3.1 Landmark-based registration 460 9.3.2 Landmark-free registration methods 467 9.4 Robot and autonomous vehicle navigation and visual servoing 470 9.5 Focus and image quality measure 474 9.6 Image retrieval 476 9.7 Watermarking 481 9.8 Medical imaging 486 9.9 Forensic applications 489 9.10 Miscellaneous applications 496 9.10.1 Noise resistant optical flow estimation 496 9.10.2 Edge detection 497 9.10.3 Description of solar flares 498 9.10.4 Gas-liquid flow categorization 499 9.10.5 3D object visualization 500 9.10.6 Object tracking 500 9.11 Conclusion 501 References 501 10 Conclusion 518 10.1 Summary of the book 518 10.2 Pros and cons of moment invariants 519 10.3 Outlook to the future 520 Index 521

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Book SynopsisIntroduces digital mobile communications with an emphasis on digital transmission methods This book presents mathematical analyses of signals, mobile radio channels, and digital modulation methods. The new edition covers the evolution of wireless communications technologies and systems. The major new topics are OFDM (orthogonal frequency domain multiplexing), MIMO (multi-input multi-output) systems, frequency-domain equalization, the turbo codes, LDPC (low density parity check code), ACELP (algebraic code excited linear predictive) voice coding, dynamic scheduling for wireless packet data transmission and nonlinearity compensating digital pre-distorter amplifiers. The new systems using the above mentioned technologies include the second generation evolution systems, the third generation systems with their evolution systems, LTE and LTE-advanced systems, and advanced wireless local area network systems. The second edition of Digital Mobile Communication:Table of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition xiii Preface to the First Edition xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Digital Mobile Radio Communication System 1 1.2 The Purpose of Digitization of Mobile Radio Communications 5 1.2.1 Data Communication 5 1.2.2 Voice Scrambling 6 1.2.3 Spectrum Efficiency 6 1.2.4 System Cost 7 2 Signal and Systems 9 2.1 Signal Analysis 9 2.1.1 Delta Function 9 2.1.2 Fourier Analysis 15 2.1.3 Signals 26 2.1.4 Digital Signals 31 2.1.5 Modulated Signals 34 2.1.6 The Equivalent Base‐Band Complex Expression 36 2.2 Noise Analysis 37 2.2.1 Noise in Communication System 37 2.2.2 Statistics of Noise 39 2.2.3 Power Spectral Density of Noise 42 2.2.4 Autocorrelation Function of Filtered Noise 43 2.2.5 Bandpass Noise 44 2.2.6 Envelope and Phase of a Sinusoidal Signal in Bandpass Noise 48 2.2.7 Generation of Correlated Noises and its Probability Density Function 49 2.2.8 Sums of Random Variables and the Central Limit Theorem 51 2.3 Linear System 55 2.3.1 Linear Time‐Invariant System 55 2.3.2 Response of Linear System 55 2.3.3 System Description with Differential Equations 63 2.3.4 Examples of Linear Systems 66 2.4 Discrete‐time System 75 2.4.1 Sampling and the Sampling Theorem 75 2.4.2 The Energy, Power, and Correlation of Discrete-Time Signals 78 2.4.3 The Fourier Transform of Discrete‐Time Signals 79 2.4.4 Response of Discrete‐Time System 85 2.4.5 Description with Difference Equation 92 2.4.6 Digital Filter 94 2.4.7 Downsampling, Upsampling, and Subsampling 98 2.4.8 Inverse Circuit 101 2.4.9 Window Function 101 2.4.10 Discrete Fourier Transform 102 2.4.11 The Fast Fourier Transform 106 2.5 Optimization and Adaptive Signal Processing 108 2.5.1 Solution of Optimization Problem 108 2.5.2 Adaptive Signal Processing 112 Appendix 2.A limΩ→∞ (sinΩt/πt) = δ (t) 124 Appendix 2.B Conditions for a Test Function for the Delta Function, limT , Ω→∞ ⌠TƐ g(t) (sinΩtdt)=0 125 Appendix 2.C Formulae for the Trigonometric Functions 126 References 126 3 The Elements of Digital Communication System 127 3.1 Pulse Shaping 127 3.1.1 Nyquist’s First Criterion 128 3.1.2 Nyquist’s Second Criterion 132 3.1.3 Nyquist’s Third Criterion 134 3.1.4 Other Pulse‐Shaping Methods 135 3.2 Line Coding 137 3.2.1 Unipolar (On–Off) Code and Polar Codes 137 3.2.2 Multilevel Codes 137 3.2.3 The Gray Codes 138 3.2.4 Manchester (Split‐Phase) Code 139 3.2.5 Synchronized Frequency Shift Keying Code 141 3.2.6 Correlative Coding 141 3.2.7 Differential Encoding 148 3.3 Signal Detection 149 3.3.1 C/N, S/N, and Eb/N0 149 3.3.2 Bit Error Rate 150 3.3.3 NRZ Signaling with Integrate‐and‐Dump Filter Detection 156 3.3.4 Nyquist‐I Signaling System 157 3.3.5 The Matched Filter 157 3.3.6 Joint Optimization of the Transmit and the Receive Filters 162 3.3.7 The Optimum Receiver 164 3.3.8 The Maximum‐Likelihood Receiver and the Viterbi Algorithm 170 3.3.9 The Optimum Receiver for Signals without Intersymbol Interference 174 3.4 Synchronization 175 3.4.1 Symbol Timing Recovery 175 3.4.2 Frame Synchronization 176 3.5 Scrambling 177 3.6 Public Key Cryptosystem 180 3.7 Multiplexing and Multiple Access 182 3.8 The Channel Capacity 183 Appendix 3.A Fermat’s Theorem and the Chinese Remainder Theorem 185 References 187 4 Mobile Radio Channels 189 4.1 Path Loss 190 4.2 Shadowing 193 4.3 Fast Fading 193 4.3.1 RF Power Spectrum Spread due to Fast Fading 195 4.3.2 Correlations Between the In‐phase and Quadrature Components 196 4.3.3 Correlation of the Envelope 197 4.3.4 Spatial Correlation of the Envelope 198 4.3.5 Random Frequency Modulation 198 4.4 Delay Spread and Frequency‐Selective Fading 200 4.4.1 Coherence Bandwidth 202 4.4.2 Frequency‐Selective Fading 203 4.5 The Near–Far Problem 204 4.6 Cochannel Interference 205 4.6.1 Rayleigh Fading 206 4.6.2 Shadowing 206 4.6.3 Combined Fading and Shadowing 207 4.6.4 Discussion 207 4.7 Receive Power Distribution and Radio Channel Design 207 4.7.1 Receive Power Distribution 209 4.7.2 Channel Link Design 210 Appendix 4.A Propagation Loss Formula 214 Appendix 4.B Interference Probability under Shadowing 216 Appendix 4.C Interference Probability under Combined Fading and Shadowing 217 References 217 5 Elements of Digital Modulation 219 5.1 Digitally Modulated Signals 219 5.2 Linear Modulation Versus Constant Envelope Modulation 220 5.3 Digital Modulations 221 5.3.1 Phase Shift Keying 221 5.3.2 Frequency Shift Keying 226 5.3.3 Constant Envelope PSK 228 5.3.4 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 229 5.4 Power Spectral Density of Digitally Modulated Signals 229 5.4.1 Linear Modulation 231 5.4.2 Digital FM 231 5.5 Demodulation 233 5.5.1 Coherent Detection 233 5.5.2 Envelope Detection 245 5.5.3 Differential Detection 246 5.5.4 Frequency Discriminator Detection 250 5.5.5 Error Rates in Fading Channels 264 5.6 Computer Simulation of Transmission Systems 270 Appendix 5.A Distortion of Modulated Signal Applied to a Nonlinear Circuit 275 Appendix 5.B Derivation of the Expected Gaussian Noise Power for Frequency Discriminator 276 Appendix 5.C M–Sequence Generator 277 References 278 6 Digital Modulation/Demodulation for Mobile Radio Communication 281 6.1 Digital Modulation for Analog FM Mobile Radio Systems 282 6.2 Constant Envelope Modulation 282 6.2.1 MSK 283 6.2.2 Partial‐Response Digital FM 294 6.2.3 Nyquist‐Filtered Digital FM 306 6.2.4 Performance Comparison 310 6.3 Linear Modulation 313 6.3.1 π/4‐Shifted QPSK 315 6.3.2 Eight‐Level PSK 320 6.3.3 16QAM 322 6.4 Spread‐Spectrum System 322 6.5 Multicarrier Transmission 329 6.5.1 Orthogonal Frequency‐Division Multiplexing 329 6.5.2 Generation of Multicarrier Digital Signal 337 6.5.3 Demodulation of Multicarrier Signals 341 6.6 Single‐Carrier Frequency‐Division Modulation 343 Appendix 6.A Mathematical Principles of Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing 346 6.A.1 Band‐Limited System 347 6.A.2 Nonband‐Limited System 348 References 349 7 Other Topics in Digital Mobile Radio Transmission 355 7.1 Diversity Transmission System 355 7.1.1 Probability Density Function of SNR for Diversity System 357 7.1.2 Average Error Rate for Diversity Systems 360 7.1.3 Multiple Transmitter Diversity System 367 7.1.4 Antenna Selection Diversity System 370 7.2 Multi‐Input Multi‐Output Systems 375 7.2.1 Maximal Ratio Combining Diversity Systems 375 7.2.2 Space–Time Codes 385 7.2.3 SDM in MIMO Systems 386 7.3 Adaptive Automatic Equalizer 401 7.3.1 Linear Equalizer 402 7.3.2 Performance Criteria for Equalization 405 7.3.3 Decision Feedback Equalizer 409 7.3.4 The Viterbi Equalizer 410 7.3.5 Adaptation and Prediction Algorithm 411 7.3.6 Preequalization 411 7.3.7 Frequency‐Domain Equalizer 418 7.3.8 Turbo Equalizer 419 7.3.9 Discussions on Equalization 419 7.3.10 Applications to a Mobile Radio Channel 421 7.4 Error Control Techniques 422 7.4.1 Linear Block Codes 424 7.4.2 Cyclic Codes 426 7.4.3 Convolutional Codes 429 7.4.4 Concatenated Codes 430 7.4.5 Turbo Codes 430 7.4.6 LDPC Code 444 7.4.7 A Phenomenological Expression of the a Priori Probability and Error Rates 449 7.4.8 ARQ 452 7.4.9 Applications to Mobile Radio Channels 453 7.5 Trellis‐Coded Modulation 453 7.6 Adaptive Interference Cancellation 456 7.6.1 Adaptive Array Antenna 457 7.6.2 Adaptive Interference Suppression 466 7.6.3 Discussion 467 7.7 Voice Coding 469 7.7.1 Pulse Code Modulation 470 7.7.2 Delta Modulation 471 7.7.3 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation 472 7.7.4 Adaptive Predictive Coding 473 7.7.5 Multipulse Coding 476 7.7.6 Code‐Excited Linear Predictive (CELP) Coding 477 7.7.7 LPC Vocoder 482 7.7.8 Application to Mobile Radio Communications 482 Appendix 7.A Average Error Rate for Maximal Ratio Combiner with Coherent Detector 484 Appendix 7.B Average Error Rate of Maximal Ratio Combining System with Coherent Detector with Use of Approximate Probability Density Function 485 References 486 8 Equipment and Circuits for Digital Mobile Radio 493 8.1 Base Station 493 8.2 Mobile Station 494 8.3 Superheterodyne and Direct Conversion Receivers 495 8.3.1 Image Rejection Downconverter 497 8.4 Transmit and Receive Duplexing 501 8.5 Frequency Synthesizer 501 8.6 Transmitter Circuits 503 8.6.1 Digital Signal Waveform Generator 503 8.6.2 Modulator 504 8.6.3 Linear Power Amplifier 507 8.6.4 Transmit Power Control 525 8.7 Receiver Circuits 527 8.7.1 AGC Circuit 527 8.7.2 Signal Processing with Logic Circuits 529 8.7.3 Demodulator 532 8.8 Countermeasures Against dc Blocking and dc Offset 535 Appendix 8.A Quarter‐wavelength Line 538 References 539 9 Digital Mobile Radio Communication Systems 543 9.1 Fundamental Concepts 543 9.1.1 The Cellular Concept 543 9.1.2 Multiple Access 551 9.1.3 Channel Assignment 554 9.1.4 Multiple‐Access System 563 9.1.5 Intercell Interference Suppression 566 9.1.6 Repeater System 566 9.1.7 A Performance Analysis of Digital Cellular System 567 9.2 Digital Transmission in Analog Mobile Communication Systems 577 9.3 Paging Systems 578 9.4 Two‐Way Digital Mobile Radio 579 9.5 Mobile Data Service Systems 580 9.5.1 MOBITEX 580 9.5.2 Teleterminal System 580 9.5.3 Mobile Data Systems in Analog Cellular Systems 580 9.6 Digital Cordless Telephone 581 9.6.1 Second‐Generation Cordless Telephone 581 9.6.2 Digital European Cordless Telecommunications 582 9.6.3 Personal Handy System 582 9.7 Digital Mobile Telephone Systems 583 9.7.1 The GSM System 584 9.7.2 Digital Cellular Systems in North America 587 9.7.3 Digital Cellular Systems in Japan 591 9.7.4 Evolution of the Second‐Generation Systems 592 9.7.5 The Third‐Generation System 592 9.7.6 Evolution of 3G Systems 595 9.7.7 WiMAX 599 9.7.8 The Fourth-Generation System 600 9.8 Wireless Local Area Network 600 9.8.1 IEEE 802.11 Series 600 9.8.2 Bluetooth 605 9.8.3 UWB 605 9.8.4 ZigBee 606 9.8.5 BWN 606 9.8.6 MBWA 608 Appendix 9.A Poisson Arrival Rates 608 References 609 Index 613

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Book SynopsisOptical computers and photonic integrated circuits in high capacity optical networks are hot topics, attracting the attention of expert researchers and commercial technology companies. Optical packet switching and routing technologies promise to provide a more efficient source of power, and footprint scaling with increased router capacity; integrating more optical processing elements into the same chip to increase on-chip processing capability and system intelligence has become a priority. This book is an in-depth look at modelling techniques and the simulation of a wide range of liquid crystal based modern photonic devices with enhanced high levels of flexible integration and enhanced power processing. It covers the physics of liquid crystal materials; techniques required for modelling liquid crystal based devices; the state-of-the art liquid crystal photonic based applications for telecommunications such as couplers, polarization rotators, polarization splitters and multiplTrade Review"...anyone concerned with liquid-crystal photonics will profit from reading it." (The Optical Society/OPN 09/05/2017)Table of ContentsPreface xv Part I Basic Principles 1 1 Principles of Waveguides 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Basic Optical Waveguides 4 1.3 Maxwell’s Equations 6 1.4 The Wave Equation and Its Solutions 7 1.5 Boundary Conditions 9 1.6 Phase and Group Velocity 10 1.6.1 Phase Velocity 10 1.6.2 Group Velocity 11 1.7 Modes in Planar Optical Waveguide 12 1.7.1 Radiation Modes 13 1.7.2 Confinement Modes 13 1.8 Dispersion in Planar Waveguide 13 1.8.1 lntermodal Dispersion 14 1.8.2 lntramodal Dispersion 14 1.9 Summary 15 References 15 2 Fundamentals of Photonic Crystals 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Types of PhCs 18 2.2.1 1D PhCs 18 2.2.2 2D PhCs 19 2.2.3 3D PhCs 21 2.3 Photonic Band Calculations 21 2.3.1 Maxwell’s Equations and the PhC 22 2.3.2 Floquet–Bloch Theorem, Reciprocal Lattice, and Brillouin Zones 23 2.3.3 Plane Wave Expansion Method 26 2.3.4 FDTD Method 29 2.3.4.1 Band Structure 29 2.3.4.2 Transmission Diagram 30 2.3.5 Photonic Band for Square Lattice 30 2.4 Defects in PhCs 31 2.5 Fabrication Techniques of PhCs 32 2.5.1 Electron-Beam Lithography 32 2.5.2 Interference Lithography 33 2.5.3 Nano-Imprint Lithography 33 2.5.4 Colloidal Self-Assembly 34 2.6 Applications of PhCs 34 2.7 Photonic Crystal Fiber 35 2.7.1 Construction 35 2.7.2 Modes of Operation 36 2.7.2.1 High Index Guiding Fiber 36 2.7.2.2 PBG Fibers 36 2.7.3 Fabrication of PCF 37 2.7.4 Applications of PCF 37 2.8 Summary 37 References 37 3 Fundamentals of Liquid Crystals 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Molecular Structure and Chemical Composition of an LC Cell 42 3.3 LC Phases 42 3.3.1 Thermotropic LCs 44 3.3.1.1 Nematic Phase 44 3.3.1.2 Smectic Phase 44 3.3.1.3 Chiral Phases 45 3.3.1.4 Blue Phases 46 3.3.1.5 Discotic Phases 46 3.3.2 Lyotropic LCs 47 3.3.3 Metallotropic LCs 48 3.4 LC Physical Properties in External Fields 48 3.4.1 Electric Field Effect 48 3.4.2 Magnetic Field Effect 49 3.4.2.1 Frederiks Transition 49 3.5 Theortitcal Tratment of LC 50 3.5.1 LC Parameters 50 3.5.1.1 Director 50 3.5.1.2 Order Parameter 50 3.5.2 LC Models 51 3.5.2.1 Onsager Hard-Rod Model 51 3.5.2.2 Maier–Saupe Mean Field Theory 52 3.5.2.3 McMillan’s Model 52 3.6 LC Sample Preparation 52 3.7 LCs for Display Applications 53 3.8 LC Thermometers 54 3.9 Optical Imaging 54 3.10 LC into Fiber Optics and LC Planar Photonic Crystal 54 3.11 LC Solar Cell 55 References 55 Part II N umerical Techniques 57 4 Full-Vectorial Finite-Difference Method 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Overview of Modeling Methods 59 4.3 Formulation of the FVFDM 60 4.3.1 Maxwell’s Equations 60 4.3.2 Wave Equation 61 4.3.3 Boundary Conditions 63 4.3.4 Maxwell’s Equations in Complex Coordinate 64 4.3.5 Matrix Solution 65 4.3.5.1 Power Method 65 4.3.5.2 Inverse Power Method 66 4.3.5.3 Shifted Inverse Power Method 66 4.4 Summary 66 References 66 5 Assessment of the Full-Vectorial Finite-Difference Method 69 5.1 Introduction 69 5.2 Overview of the LC-PCF 69 5.3 Soft Glass 70 5.4 Design of Soft Glass PCF with LC Core 71 5.5 Numerical Results 73 5.5.1 FVFDM Validation 73 5.5.2 Modal Hybridness 74 5.5.3 Effective Index 75 5.5.4 Effective Mode Area 76 5.5.5 Nonlinearity 76 5.5.6 Birefringence 77 5.5.7 Effect of the NLC Rotation Angle 80 5.5.8 Effect of the Temperature 81 5.5.9 Elliptical SGLC-PCF 83 5.6 Experimental Results of LC-PCF 84 5.6.1 Filling Temperature 84 5.6.2 Filling Time 84 5.7 Summary 85 References 85 6 Full-Vectorial Beam Propagation Method 89 6.1 Introduction 89 6.2 Overview of the BPMs 89 6.3 Formulation of the FV-BPM 90 6.3.1 Slowly Varying Envelope Approximation 91 6.3.2 Paraxial and Wide-Angle Approximation 92 6.4 Numerical Assessment 93 6.4.1 Overview of Directional Couplers 93 6.4.2 Design of the NLC-PCF Coupler 94 6.4.3 Effect of the Structural Geometrical Parameters 94 6.4.4 Effect of Temperature 97 6.4.5 Effect of the NLC Rotation Angle 98 6.4.6 Elliptical NLC-PCF Coupler 98 6.4.7 Beam Propagation Analysis of the NLC-PCF Coupler 101 6.5 Experimental Results of LC-PCF Coupler 102 6.6 Summary 103 References 103 7 Finite-Difference Time Domain Method 105 7.1 Introduction 105 7.2 Numerical Derivatives 106 7.3 Fundamentals of FDTD 106 7.3.1 1D Problem in Free Space 107 7.3.2 1D Problem in a Lossless Medium 109 7.3.3 1D Problem in a Lossy Medium 109 7.3.4 2D Problem 110 7.3.5 3D Problem 112 7.4 Stability for FDTD 115 7.5 Feeding Formulation 116 7.6 Absorbing Boundary Conditions 116 7.6.1 Mur’s ABCs 117 7.6.2 Perfect Matched Layer 117 7.7 1D FDTD Sample Code 120 7.7.1 Source Simulation 120 7.7.2 Structure Simulation 121 7.7.3 Propagation Simulation 122 7.8 FDTD Formulation for Anisotropic Materials 124 7.9 Summary 126 References 126 Part III Applications of LC Devices 129 8 Polarization Rotator Liquid Crystal Fiber 131 8.1 Introduction 131 8.2 Overview of PRs 132 8.3 Practical Applications of PRs 133 8.4 Operation Principles of PRs 134 8.5 Numerical Simulation Strategy 135 8.6 Design of NLC-PCF PR 136 8.7 Numerical Results 138 8.7.1 Hybridness 138 8.7.2 Operation of the NLC-PCF PR 139 8.7.3 Effect of Structure Geometrical Parameters 142 8.7.3.1 Effect of the d/Λ Ratio 142 8.7.3.2 Effect of the Hole Pitch Λ 143 8.7.4 Tolerance of the NLC Rotation Angle 143 8.7.5 Tolerance of Structure Geometrical Parameters 144 8.7.5.1 Tolerance of the d/Λ Ratio 144 8.7.5.2 Tolerance of the Hole Shape 145 8.7.5.3 Tolerance of the Hole Position 146 8.7.6 Tolerance of the Temperature 148 8.7.7 Tolerance of the Operating Wavelength 150 8.8 Ultrashort Silica LC-PCF PR 150 8.9 Fabrication Aspects of the NLC-PCF PR 155 8.10 Summary 156 References 156 9 Applications of Nematic Liquid Crystal-Photonic Crystal Fiber Coupler 159 9.1 Introduction 159 9.2 Multiplexer–Demultiplexer 159 9.2.1 Analysis of NLC-PCF MUX–DEMUX 159 9.2.2 Beam Propagation Study of the NLC-PCF MUX–DEMUX 161 9.2.3 CT of the NLC-PCF MUX–DEMUX 162 9.2.4 Feasibility of the NLC-PCF MUX–DEMUX 163 9.3 Polarization Splitter 164 9.3.1 Analysis of the NLC-PCF Polarization Splitter 164 9.3.2 Beam Propagation Study of the NLC-PCF Polarization Splitter 164 9.3.3 CT of the NLC-PCF Splitter 166 9.3.4 Feasibility of the NLC-PCF Polarization Splitter 168 9.4 Summary 169 References 169 10 Coupling Characteristics of a Photonic Crystal Fiber Coupler with Liquid Crystal Cores 171 10.1 Introduction 171 10.2 Design of the PCF Coupler with LC Cores 172 10.3 Numerical Results 173 10.3.1 Effect of the Structural Geometrical Parameters 173 10.3.2 Effect of Temperature 177 10.3.3 Polarization Splitter Based on PCF Coupler with LC Cores 178 10.3.3.1 Analysis of the Polarization Splitter 178 10.3.3.2 Beam Propagation Analysis 179 10.3.3.3 Crosstalk 181 10.3.3.4 Feasibility of the Polarization Splitter 182 10.4 Summary 183 References 183 11 Liquid Crystal Photonic Crystal Fiber Sensors 185 11.1 Introduction 185 11.2 LC-PCF Temperature Sensor 186 11.2.1 Design Consideration 186 11.2.2 Effects of the Structural Geometrical Parameters 189 11.2.3 Effect of the Temperature 191 11.2.4 Effect of the LC Rotation Angle 191 11.2.5 Sensitivity Analysis 192 11.3 Design of Single Core PLC-PCF 192 11.3.1 Design Consideration 192 11.3.2 Effect of the LC Rotation Angle 197 11.3.3 Effect of the Structural Geometrical Parameters 197 11.3.4 Effect of the Temperature 201 11.4 Summary 202 References 202 12 Image Encryption Based on Photonic Liquid Crystal Layers 205 12.1 Introduction to Optical Image Encryption systems 205 12.2 Symmetric Encryption Using PhC Structures 207 12.2.1 Design Concept 207 12.2.2 Encryptor/Decryptor Design 211 12.2.3 Simulation Results 212 12.3 Multiple Encryption System Using Photonic LC Layers 216 12.3.1 Proposed Encryption System 217 12.3.1.1 PBG Structure 217 12.3.1.2 Liquid Crystals 217 12.3.1.3 Phase Modulator/Photodetector 219 12.3.1.4 System Operation 219 12.3.2 Simulation Results 219 12.4 Summary 226 References 227 13 Optical Computing Devices Based on Photonic Liquid Crystal Layers 229 13.1 Introduction to Optical Computing 229 13.2 All-Optical Router Based on Photonic LC Layers 231 13.2.1 Device Architecture 231 13.2.1.1 PBG Structure 231 13.2.1.2 Liquid Crystals 232 13.2.1.3 System Operation 233 13.2.2 Simulation Results 233 13.2.3 Fabrication Tolerance 236 13.3 Optical Logic Gates Based on Photonic LC Layers 237 13.3.1 OR Logic Gate Based on PhC Platform 237 13.3.1.1 PhC Platform 238 13.3.1.2 Optical OR Gate Architecture 239 13.3.1.3 Results and Discussion for OR Gate 239 13.3.2 AND Logic Gate Based on a PhC Platform 241 13.3.2.1 Optical AND Gate Architecture 242 13.3.2.2 Results and Discussion for AND Gate 242 13.3.3 Reconfigurable Gate Based on Photonic NLC Layers 245 13.3.3.1 Device Architecture 245 13.3.3.2 Bandgap Analysis of Photonic Crystal Platform 246 13.3.3.3 Simulation Results of the Reconfigurable Gate 247 13.4 Optical Memory Based on Photonic LC Layers 252 13.4.1 PhC Platform 253 13.4.2 Tunable Switch 253 13.4.3 Simulation Results 255 13.4.4 Fabrication Challenges 255 13.5 Summary 256 References 257 Index 259

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Book SynopsisNanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics Rogerio Atem de Carvalho, Instituto Federal Fluminense, Brazil Jaime Estela, Spectrum Aerospace Group, Germany and Peru Martin Langer, Technical University of Munich, Germany Covering the latest research on nanosatellites Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics comprehensively presents the latest research on the fast-developing area of nanosatellites. Divided into three distinct sections, the book begins with a brief history of nanosatellites and introduces nanosatellites technologies and payloads, also explaining how these are deployed into space. The second section provides an overview of the ground segment and operations, and the third section focuses on the regulations, policies, economics, and future trends. Key features: Payloads for nanosatellites Nanosatellites components design ETable of ContentsList of Contributors xxiii Foreword: Nanosatellite Space Experiment xxix Introduction by the Editors xxxv 1 I-1 A Brief History of Nanosatellites 1Siegfried W. Janson 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Historical Nanosatellite Launch Rates 1 1.3 The First Nanosatellites 3 1.4 The Large Space Era 8 1.5 The New Space Era 12 1.6 Summary 23 References 24 2 I-2a On-board Computer and Data Handling 31Jaime Estela and Sergio Montenegro 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 History 31 2.3 Special Requirements for Space Applications 34 2.4 Hardware 35 2.5 Design 41 References 49 3 I-2b Operational Systems 51Lucas Ramos Hissa and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 RTOS Overview 51 3.3 RTOS on On-board Computers (OBCs): Requirements for a Small Satellite 52 3.4 Example Projects 55 3.5 Conclusions 56 References 59 4 I-2c Attitude Control and Determination 61Willem H. Steyn and Vaios J. Lappas 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 ADCS Fundamentals 61 4.3 ADCS Requirements and Stabilization Methods 62 4.4 ADCS Background Theory 65 4.5 Attitude and Angular Rate Determination 66 4.6 Attitude and Angular Rate Controllers 72 4.7 ADCS Sensor and Actuator Hardware 75 References 83 5 I-2d Propulsion Systems 85Flavia Tata Nardini, Michele Coletti, Alexander Reissner, and David Krejci 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 Propulsion Elements 86 5.3 Key Elements in the Development of Micropropulsion Systems 87 5.4 Propulsion System Technologies 90 5.5 Mission Elements 98 5.6 Survey of All Existing Systems 101 5.7 Future Prospect 113 References 113 6 I-2e Communications 115Nicolas Appel, Sebastian Rückerl, Martin Langer, and Rolf-Dieter Klein 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Regulatory Considerations 116 6.3 Satellite Link Characteristics 117 6.4 Channel Coding 123 6.5 Data Link Layer 126 6.6 Hardware 128 6.7 Testing 138 References 140 7 I-2f Structural Subsystem 143Kenan Y. Sanl𝚤türk, Murat Süer, and A. Rüstem Aslan 7.1 Definition and Tasks 143 7.2 Existing State-of-the-Art Structures for CubeSats 145 7.3 Materials and Thermal Considerations for Structural Design 150 7.4 Design Parameters and Tools 152 7.5 Design Challenges 162 7.6 Future Prospects 163 References 164 8 I-2g Power Systems 167Marcos Compadre, Ausias Garrigós, and Andrew Strain 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Power Source: Photovoltaic Solar Cells and Solar Array 170 8.3 Energy Storage: Lithium-ion Batteries 172 8.4 SA-battery Power Conditioning: DET and MPPT 175 8.5 Battery Charging Control Loops 178 8.6 Bus Power Conditioning and Distribution: Load Converters and Distribution Switches 179 8.7 Flight Switch Subsystem 183 8.8 DC/DC Converters 183 8.9 Power System Sizing: Power Budget, Solar Array, and Battery Selection 187 8.10 Conclusions 191 References 191 9 I-2h Thermal Design, Analysis, and Test 193Philipp Reiss, Matthias Killian, and Philipp Hager 9.1 Introduction 193 9.2 Typical Thermal Loads 194 9.3 Active and Passive Designs 200 9.4 Design Approach and Tools 204 9.5 Thermal Tests 208 References 212 10 I-2i Systems Engineering and Quality Assessment 215Lucas Lopes Costa, Geilson Loureiro, Eduardo Escobar Bürger, and Franciele Carlesso 10.1 Introduction 215 10.2 Systems Engineering Definition and Process 216 10.3 Space Project Management: Role of Systems Engineers 222 10.4 ECSS and Other Standards 225 10.5 Document, Risk Control, and Resources 228 10.6 Changing Trends in SE and Quality Assessment for Nanosatellites 233 References 233 11 I-2j Integration and Testing 235Eduardo Escobar Bürger, Geilson Loureiro, and Lucas Lopes Costa 11.1 Introduction 235 11.2 Overall Tasks 236 11.3 Typical Flow 241 11.4 Test Philosophies 242 11.5 Typical System Integration Process 244 11.6 Typical Test Parameters and Facilities 244 11.7 Burden of Integration and Testing 245 11.8 Changing Trends in Nanosatellite Testing 249 References 250 12 I-3a Scientific Payloads 251Anna Gregorio 12.1 Introduction 251 12.2 Categorization 252 12.3 Imagers 254 12.4 X-ray Detectors 256 12.5 Spectrometers 259 12.6 Photometers 262 12.7 GNSS Receivers 265 12.8 Microbolometers 267 12.9 Radiometers 269 12.10 Radar Systems 270 12.11 Particle Detectors 274 12.12 PlasmaWave Analyzers 277 12.13 Biological Detectors 280 12.14 Solar Sails 283 12.15 Conclusions 283 References 283 13 I-3b In-orbit Technology Demonstration 291Jaime Estela 13.1 Introduction 291 13.2 Activities of Space Agencies 292 13.3 Nanosatellites 295 13.4 Microsatellites 298 13.5 ISS 301 References 306 14 I-3c Nanosatellites as Educational Projects 309Merlin F. Barschke 14.1 Introduction 309 14.2 Satellites and Project-based Learning 309 14.3 University Satellite Programs 312 14.4 Outcome and Success Criteria 316 14.5 Teams and Organizational Structure 318 14.6 Challenges and Practical Experiences 318 14.7 From Pure Education to Powerful Research Tools 321 References 321 15 I-3d Formations of Small Satellites 327Klaus Schilling 15.1 Introduction 327 15.2 Constellations and Formations 327 15.3 Orbit Dynamics 328 15.4 Satellite Configurations 331 15.5 Relevant Specific Small Satellite Technologies to Enable Formations 332 15.6 Application Examples 334 15.7 Test Environment for Multisatellite Systems 336 15.8 Conclusions for Distributed Nanosatellite Systems 337 Acknowledgments 338 References 338 16 I-3e Precise, Autonomous Formation Flight at Low Cost 341Niels Roth, Ben Risi, Robert E. Zee, Grant Bonin, Scott Armitage, and Josh Newman 16.1 Introduction 341 16.2 Mission Overview 342 16.3 System Overview 343 16.4 Launch and Early Operations 350 16.5 Formation Control Results 353 16.6 Conclusion 360 Acknowledgments 360 References 360 17 I-4a Launch Vehicles—Challenges and Solutions 363Kaitlyn Kelley 17.1 Introduction 363 17.2 Past Nanosatellite Launches 365 17.3 Launch Vehicles Commonly Used by Nanosatellites 367 17.4 Overview of a Typical Launch Campaign 368 17.5 Launch Demand 371 17.6 Future Launch Concepts 372 References 374 18 I-4b Deployment Systems 375A. Rüstem Aslan, Cesar Bernal, and Jordi Puig-Suari 18.1 Introduction 375 18.2 Definition and Tasks 375 18.3 Basics of Deployment Systems 376 18.4 State of the Art 377 18.5 Future Prospects 395 Acknowledgments 396 References 396 19 I-4c Mission Operations 399Chantal Cappelletti 19.1 Introduction 399 19.2 Organization of Mission Operations 400 19.3 Goals and Functions of Mission Operations 401 19.4 Input and Output of Mission Operations 404 19.5 MOP 406 19.6 Costs and Operations 409 References 414 Further Reading 415 20 I-5 Mission Examples 417Kelly Antonini, Nicolò Carletti, Kevin Cuevas, Matteo Emanuelli, Per Koch, Laura León Pérez, and Daniel Smith 20.1 Introduction 417 20.2 Mission Types 418 20.3 Mission Examples 420 20.4 Constellations 433 20.5 Perspective 437 References 438 21 II-1 Ground Segment 441Fernando Aguado Agelet and Alberto González Muíño 21.1 Introduction 441 21.2 Ground Segment Functionalities 441 21.3 Ground Segment Architecture 442 21.4 Ground Station Elements 444 21.5 Ground Segment Software 449 21.6 Ground Segment Operation 451 21.7 Future Prospects 452 References 455 22 II-2 Ground Station Networks 457Lucas Rodrigues Amaduro and Rogerio Atem de Carvalho 22.1 Introduction 457 22.2 Technological Challenges 457 22.3 Visibility Clash Problems of Stations and Satellites 458 22.4 The Distributed Ground Station Network 459 22.5 Infrastructure 459 22.6 Planning and Scheduling 460 22.7 Generic Software Architecture 460 22.8 Example Networks 462 22.9 Traditional Ground Station Approach 462 22.10 Heterogeneous Ground Station Approach 464 22.11 Homogeneous Ground Station Approach 466 22.12 Conclusions 469 References 469 23 II-3 Ground-based Satellite Tracking 471Enrico Stoll, Jürgen Letschnik, and Christopher Kebschull 23.1 Introduction 471 23.2 Orbital Element Sets 472 23.3 Tracklet Generation from Ground Measurements 475 23.4 Tracking CubeSats with Ground Stations 481 23.5 Orbit Propagation 485 23.6 Principle of Operations of Ground Stations 487 23.7 Summary 492 References 493 24 II-4a AMSAT 495Andrew Barron (ZL3DW) 24.1 Introduction 495 24.2 Project OSCAR 496 24.3 AMSAT Satellite Designations 499 24.4 Other Notable AMSAT and OSCAR Satellites 500 24.5 The Development of CubeSats 503 24.6 FUNcube Satellites 504 24.7 Fox Satellites 505 24.8 GOLF Satellites 505 24.9 The IARU and ITU Resolution 659 506 References 507 24 II-4b New Radio Technologies 508Andrew Barron (ZL3DW) 24.10 Introduction 508 24.11 SDR Space Segment 509 24.12 SDR Ground Segment 510 24.13 Modern Transmitter Design 511 Reference 513 25 III-1a Cost Breakdown for the Development of Nanosatellites 515Katharine Brumbaugh Gamble 25.1 Introduction 515 25.2 Recurring Costs 517 25.3 Nonrecurring Costs 521 25.4 Satellite Cost-estimating Models 523 25.5 Risk Estimation and Reduction 528 25.6 Conclusions 530 References 530 26 III-1b Launch Costs 533Merlin F. Barschke 26.1 Introduction 533 26.2 Launching Nanosatellites 533 26.3 Launch Sites 539 26.4 Launch Milestones 539 26.5 Launch Cost 540 References 541 27 III-2a Policies and Regulations in Europe 545Neta Palkovitz 27.1 Introduction 545 27.2 International Space Law 545 27.3 National Laws and Practices in EU Member States 550 27.4 Future Regulation and Prospects 554 References 555 28 III-2b Policies and Regulations in North America 557Mike Miller and Kirk Woellert 28.1 Introduction 557 28.2 Governing Treaties and Laws 558 28.3 Orbital Debris Mitigation 561 28.4 Space Traffic Management 563 28.5 Licensing of Radio Transmission from Space 566 28.6 Licensing for Remote Sensing Activities from Space 570 28.7 Export Control Laws 571 28.8 Conclusion 575 References 577 29 III-2c International Organizations and International Cooperation 583Jean-Francois Mayence 29.1 Introduction 583 29.2 The United Nations and Affiliated Organizations 584 29.3 International Telecommunications Union 589 29.4 Other United Nations Agencies and Bodies 590 29.5 Non-UN Organizations 593 29.6 Main Non-European Spacefaring Nations 597 29.7 Conclusions 600 References 601 30 III-3a Economy of Small Satellites 603Richard Joye 30.1 Introduction 603 30.2 Rethinking the Value Chain 603 30.3 A Hybrid Small Satellite Value Chain 604 30.4 Evolution, Not Revolution? 611 30.5 The Economics at Play 612 30.6 Satellite Manufacturers 612 30.7 Launch Service Providers 614 30.8 Satellite Operators 615 30.9 Satellite Servicing Providers 616 30.10 Data and Solution Providers 616 30.11 A Shift Toward New Models 617 References 618 Further Reading 618 31 III-3b Economics and the Future 621Richard Joye 31.1 Introduction 621 31.2 Themes Shaping the Space Industry 622 31.3 Megatrends 624 31.4 Conclusion: The Space Industry is in Mutation 632 Further Reading 632 32 III-3c Networks of Nanosatellites 635Richard Joye 32.1 Introduction 635 32.2 Why Networks? 635 32.3 Opportunities for Networks of Nanosatellites 641 32.4 Challenges and Issues 646 Reference 648 Further Reading 648 List of Existing and Upcoming Networks of Satellites – January 2018, Updated March 2019 649 Index 663

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Book SynopsisProvides easy learning and understanding of DWT from a signal processing point of view Presents DWT from a digital signal processing point of view, in contrast to the usual mathematical approach, making it highly accessible Offers a comprehensive coverage of related topics, including convolution and correlation, Fourier transform, FIR filter, orthogonal and biorthogonal filters Organized systematically, starting from the fundamentals of signal processing to the more advanced topics of DWT and Discrete Wavelet Packet Transform. Written in a clear and concise manner with abundant examples, figures and detailed explanations Features a companion website that has several MATLAB programs for the implementation of the DWT with commonly used filters This well-written textbook is an introduction to the theory of discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and its applications in digital signal and image processing.Trade Review"Doubtless, this nice book will stimulate the practical education in the theory of DWT and its applications." (Zentralblatt MATH, 2016)Table of ContentsPreface xi List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Organization of This Book 2 2 Signals 5 2.1 Signal Classifications 5 2.1.1 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals 5 2.1.2 Even and Odd Signals 6 2.1.3 Energy Signals 7 2.1.4 Causal and Noncausal Signals 9 2.2 Basic Signals 9 2.2.1 Unit-Impulse Signal 9 2.2.2 Unit-Step Signal 10 2.2.3 The Sinusoid 10 2.3 The Sampling Theorem and the Aliasing Effect 12 2.4 Signal Operations 13 2.4.1 Time Shifting 13 2.4.2 Time Reversal 14 2.4.3 Time Scaling 14 2.5 Summary 17 Exercises 17 3 Convolution and Correlation 21 3.1 Convolution 21 3.1.1 The Linear Convolution 21 3.1.2 Properties of Convolution 24 3.1.3 The Periodic Convolution 25 3.1.4 The Border Problem 25 3.1.5 Convolution in the DWT 26 3.2 Correlation 28 3.2.1 The Linear Correlation 28 3.2.2 Correlation and Fourier Analysis 29 3.2.3 Correlation in the DWT 30 3.3 Summary 31 Exercises 31 4 Fourier Analysis of Discrete Signals 37 4.1 Transform Analysis 37 4.2 The Discrete Fourier Transform 38 4.2.1 Parseval’s Theorem 43 4.3 The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform 44 4.3.1 Convolution 48 4.3.2 Convolution in the DWT 48 4.3.3 Correlation 50 4.3.4 Correlation in the DWT 50 4.3.5 Time Expansion 52 4.3.6 Sampling Theorem 52 4.3.7 Parseval’s Theorem 54 4.4 Approximation of the DTFT 55 4.5 The Fourier Transform 56 4.6 Summary 56 Exercises 57 5 Thez-Transform 59 5.1 The z-Transform 59 5.2 Properties of the z-Transform 60 5.2.1 Linearity 60 5.2.2 Time Shift of a Sequence 61 5.2.3 Convolution 61 5.3 Summary 62 Exercises 62 6 Finite Impulse Response Filters 63 6.1 Characterization 63 6.1.1 Ideal Lowpass Filters 64 6.1.2 Ideal Highpass Filters 65 6.1.3 Ideal Bandpass Filters 66 6.2 Linear Phase Response 66 6.2.1 Even-Symmetric FIR Filters with Odd Number of Coefficients 67 6.2.2 Even-Symmetric FIR Filters with Even Number of Coefficients 68 6.3 Summary 69 Exercises 69 7 Multirate Digital Signal Processing 71 7.1 Decimation 72 7.1.1 Downsampling in the Frequency-Domain 72 7.1.2 Downsampling Followed by Filtering 75 7.2 Interpolation 77 7.2.1 Upsampling in the Frequency-Domain 77 7.2.2 Filtering Followed by Upsampling 78 7.3 Two-Channel Filter Bank 79 7.3.1 Perfect Reconstruction Conditions 81 7.4 Polyphase Form of the Two-Channel Filter Bank 84 7.4.1 Decimation 84 7.4.2 Interpolation 87 7.4.3 Polyphase Form of the Filter Bank 91 7.5 Summary 94 Exercises 94 8 The Haar Discrete Wavelet Transform 97 8.1 Introduction 97 8.1.1 Signal Representation 97 8.1.2 The Wavelet Transform Concept 98 8.1.3 Fourier and Wavelet Transform Analyses 98 8.1.4 Time-Frequency Domain 99 8.2 The Haar Discrete Wavelet Transform 100 8.2.1 The Haar DWT and the 2-Point DFT 102 8.2.2 The Haar Transform Matrix 103 8.3 The Time-Frequency Plane 107 8.4 Wavelets from the Filter Coefficients 111 8.4.1 Two Scale Relations 116 8.5 The 2-D Haar Discrete Wavelet Transform 118 8.6 Discontinuity Detection 126 8.7 Summary 127 Exercises 128 9 Orthogonal Filter Banks 131 9.1 Haar Filter 132 9.2 Daubechies Filter 135 9.3 Orthogonality Conditions 146 9.3.1 Characteristics of Daubechies Lowpass Filters 149 9.4 Coiflet Filter 150 9.5 Summary 154 Exercises 155 10 Biorthogonal Filter Banks 159 10.1 Biorthogonal Filters 159 10.2 5/3 Spline Filter 163 10.2.1 Daubechies Formulation 170 10.3 4/4 Spline Filter 170 10.3.1 Daubechies Formulation 177 10.4 CDF 9/7 Filter 178 10.5 Summary 183 Exercises 184 11 Implementation of the Discrete Wavelet Transform 189 11.1 Implementation of the DWT with Haar Filters 190 11.1.1 1-Level Haar DWT 190 11.1.2 2-Level Haar DWT 191 11.1.3 1-Level Haar 2-D DWT 193 11.1.4 The Signal-Flow Graph of the Fast Haar DWT Algorithms 194 11.1.5 Haar DWT in Place 196 11.2 Symmetrical Extension of the Data 198 11.3 Implementation of the DWT with the D4 Filter 200 11.4 Implementation of the DWT with Symmetrical Filters 203 11.4.1 5/3 Spline Filter 203 11.4.2 CDF 9/7 Filter 205 11.4.3 4/4 Spline Filter 208 11.5 Implementation of the DWT using Factorized Polyphase Matrix 210 11.5.1 Haar Filter 211 11.5.2 D4 Filter 213 11.5.3 5/3 Spline Filter 216 11.6 Summary 219 Exercises 219 12 The Discrete Wavelet Packet Transform 223 12.1 The Discrete Wavelet Packet Transform 223 12.1.1 Number of Representations 226 12.2 Best Representation 227 12.2.1 Cost Functions 230 12.3 Summary 233 Exercises 233 13 The Discrete Stationary Wavelet Transform 235 13.1 The Discrete Stationary Wavelet Transform 235 13.1.1 The SWT 235 13.1.2 The ISWT 236 13.1.3 Algorithms for Computing the SWT and the ISWT 238 13.1.4 2-D SWT 243 13.2 Summary 244 Exercises 244 14 The Dual-Tree Discrete Wavelet Transform 247 14.1 The Dual-Tree Discrete Wavelet Transform 248 14.1.1 Parseval’s Theorem 248 14.2 The Scaling and Wavelet Functions 252 14.3 Computation of the DTDWT 253 14.4 Summary 262 Exercises 263 15 Image Compression 265 15.1 Lossy Image Compression 266 15.1.1 Transformation 266 15.1.2 Quantization 268 15.1.3 Coding 270 15.1.4 Compression Algorithm 273 15.1.5 Image Reconstruction 277 15.2 Lossless Image Compression 284 15.3 Recent Trends in Image Compression 289 15.3.1 The JPEG2000 Image Compression Standard 290 15.4 Summary 290 Exercises 291 16 Denoising 295 16.1 Denoising 295 16.1.1 Soft Thresholding 296 16.1.2 Statistical Measures 297 16.2 VisuShrink Denoising Algorithm 298 16.3 Summary 303 Exercises 303 Bibliography 305 Answers to Selected Exercises 307 Index 319

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Book SynopsisThe first microcontroller textbook to provide complete and systemic introductions to all components and materials related to the ARM Cortex-M4 microcontroller system, including hardware and software as well as practical applications with real examples.This book covers both the fundamentals, as well as practical techniques in designing and building microcontrollers in industrial and commercial applications. Examples included in this book have been compiled, built, and tested Includes Both ARM assembly and C codes Direct Register Access (DRA) model and the Software Driver (SD) model programming techniques and discussed If you are an instructor and adopted this book for your course, please email ieeeproposals@wiley.com to get access to theinstructor files for this book.Table of ContentsPreface xxix Acknowledgments xxxi Trademarks and Copyrights xxxiii Copyright Permissions xxxv About the Companion Website xxxix Chapter 1 Introduction to Microcontrollers and This Book 1 1.1 Microcontroller Configuration and Structure 2 1.2 The ARM® Cortex®M4 Microcontroller System 3 1.3 The TM4C123GH6PM Microcontroller Development Tools and Kits 4 1.4 Outstanding Features About This Book 5 1.5 Who This Book Is For 5 1.6 What This Book Covers 6 1.7 How This Book Is Organized and How to Use This Book 8 1.8 How to Use the Source Code and Sample Projects 9 1.9 Instructors and Customers Supports 11 Chapter 2 ARM® Microcontroller Architectures 13 2.1 Overview and Introduction 13 2.2 Introduction to ARM® Cortex®-M4 MCU 15 2.2.1 The Architecture of ARM® Cortex®-M4 MCU 17 2.3 The Memory Architecture 27 2.3.1 The Memory Map 28 2.3.2 The Stack Memory 29 2.3.3 The Program Models and States 32 2.3.4 The Memory Protection Unit (MPU) 33 2.4 The Nested Vectored Interrupt Controller (NVIC) Architecture 34 2.4.1 The Nested Vectored Interrupt Controller (NVIC) Features 35 2.4.2 Exception and Interrupt Sources 35 2.4.3 Exception Priority Levels and Mask Registers 35 2.4.4 Respond and Process Exceptions and Interrupts 36 2.4.5 Exception and Interrupt Vector Table 37 2.5 The Debug Architecture 37 2.6 Introduction to TivaTM C Series ARM® Cortex®-M4 MCU-TM4C123GH6PM 38 2.6.1 TM4C123GH6PM Microcontroller Overview 39 2.6.2 TM4C123GH6PM Microcontroller On-Chip Memory Map 40 2.6.3 TM4C123GH6PM Microcontroller General-Purpose Input–Output (GPIO) Module 44 2.6.4 TM4C123GH6PM Microcontroller System Controls 57 2.7 Introduction to TivaTM C Series LaunchPadTM TM4C123GXL Evaluation Board 72 2.8 Introduction to EduBASE ARM® Trainer 77 2.9 Chapter Summary 77 Homework 79 Chapter 3 ARM® Microcontroller Development Kits 83 3.1 Overview and Introduction 83 3.2 The Entire TivaTM TM4C123G-based Development System 84 3.3 Download and Install Development Suite and Specified Firmware 86 3.4 Introduction to the Integrated Development Environment—Keil® MDK μVersion5 87 3.4.1 The Keil® MDK-ARM® for the MDK-Cortex-M Family 88 3.4.2 General Development Flow with MDK-ARM® 89 3.4.3 Warming Up Keil® MDK Cortex-M Kit with Example Projects 91 3.4.4 The Functions of the Keil® MDK-ARM® μVersion®5 GUI 95 3.5 Embedded Software Development Procedure 127 3.6 The Keil® ARM® -MDK μVision5 Debugger and Debug Process 128 3.6.1 The ARM® μVision5 Debug Architecture 129 3.6.2 The ARM® Debug Adaptor and Debug Adaptor Driver 130 3.6.3 TivaTMCSeries LaunchPadTM Debug Adaptor and Debug Adaptor Driver 132 3.6.4 The ARM® μVersion5 Debug Process 133 3.6.5 The ARM® Trace Feature 134 3.6.6 The ARM® Instruction Set Simulator 136 3.6.7 The ARM® Programs Running from SRAM 137 3.6.8 ARM® Optimizations 139 3.7 The TivaWareTM for C Series Software Suite 140 3.7.1 The TivaWareTM C Series Software Package 142 3.7.2 TivaWareTM C Series for TM4C123G LaunchPadTM Evaluation Kit 145 3.8 The TivaWareTM for C Series Utilities and Other Supports 147 3.8.1 Additional Utilities Provided by TivaWareTM for C Series 148 3.9 Program Examples 151 3.10 Chapter Summary 152 Homework 152 Chapter 4 ARM® Microcontroller Software and Instruction Set 155 4.1 Overview and Introduction 155 4.2 Introduction to ARM® Cortex® -M4 Software Development Structure 156 4.3 Introduction to ARM® Cortex® -M4 Assembly Instruction Set 157 4.3.1 The ARM®Cortex®-M4 Assembly Language Syntax 158 4.3.2 The ARM® Cortex®-M4 Pseudo Instructions 160 4.3.3 The ARM® Cortex®-M4 Addressing Modes 161 4.3.4 The ARM® Cortex®-M4 Instruction Set Categories 172 4.4 ARM® Cortex®-M4 Software Development Procedures 196 4.5 Using C Language to Develop ARM® Cortex®-M4 Microcontroller Applications 197 4.5.1 The Standard Data Types Used in Intrinsic Functions 198 4.5.2 The CMSIS-Core-Specific Intrinsic Functions 200 4.5.3 The Keil® ARM® Compiler-Specific Intrinsic Functions 202 4.5.4 Inline Assembler 204 4.5.5 Idiom Recognition 205 4.5.6 C Programming Development Guideline and Procedure 206 4.5.7 The TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 213 4.6 Chapter Summary 243 Homework 244 Chapter 5 ARM® Microcontroller Interrupts and Exceptions 261 5.1 Overview and Introduction 261 5.2 Exceptions and Interrupts in the ARM® Cortex®-M4 MCU System 263 5.2.1 Exception and Interrupt Types 265 5.2.2 Exceptions and Interrupts Management 265 5.2.3 Exception and Interrupt Processing 268 5.3 Exceptions and Interrupts in the TM4C123GH6PM Microcontroller System 273 5.3.1 Local Interrupt Configurations and Controls for GPIO Pins 273 5.3.2 Local Interrupt Configurations and Controls for GPIO Ports 276 5.3.3 Global Interrupt Configurations and Controls 281 5.3.4 The Vector Table and Vectors Used in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU 282 5.3.5 The GPIO Interrupt Handling and Processing Procedure 284 5.4 Developing GPIO Port Interrupt Projects to Handle GPIO Interrupts 285 5.4.1 Two Software Packages Used in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 286 5.4.2 Using DRA Programming Model to Handle GPIO Interrupts 290 5.4.3 Using CMSIS Core Macros for NVIC Registers to Handle GPIO Interrupts 294 5.4.4 Using TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library API Functions to Handle GPIO Interrupts 306 5.4.5 Using CMSIS Core Access Functions to Handle GPIO Interrupts 313 5.5 Comparison Among Four Interrupt Programming Methods 317 5.6 Chapter Summary 318 Homework 319 Chapter 6 ARM® Microcontroller Memory System 333 6.1 Overview and Introduction 333 6.2 Memory Architecture in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 334 6.2.1 Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) 336 6.2.2 Flash Memory 336 6.2.3 Flash Memory Protection Control 349 6.2.4 Internal Read-Only Memory (ROM) 351 6.2.5 Electrical Erased Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) 354 6.3 Memory Map in TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 361 6.4 Bit-Band Operations 362 6.4.1 The Mapping Relationship Between the Bit-Band Region and the Bit-Band Alias Region 365 6.4.2 The Advantages of Using the Bit-Band Operations 365 6.4.3 An Illustration Example of Using Bit-Band Alias Addresses 367 6.4.4 Bit-Band Operations for Different Data Sizes 369 6.4.5 Bit-Band Operations Built in C Programs 369 6.5 Memory Requirements and Memory Properties 370 6.5.1 Memory Requirements 371 6.5.2 Memory Access Attributes 372 6.5.3 Memory Endianness 373 6.6 Memory System Programming Methods 375 6.6.1 The API Functions Used for Flash Memory Programming 376 6.6.2 The API Functions Used for EEPROM Programming 378 6.7 Memory System Programming Projects 380 6.7.1 Flash Memory Programming 380 6.7.2 EEPROM Programming 401 6.7.3 Three Kinds of System Header Files in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 405 6.7.4 Build Example EEPROM Programming Projects 408 6.8 Chapter Summary 420 Homework 421 Chapter 7 ARM® Cortex®-M4 Parallel I/O Ports Programming 433 7.1 Overview and Introduction 433 7.2 GPIO Module Architecture and GPIO Port Configuration 434 7.3 GPIO Port Control Registers 437 7.3.1 GPIO Port Initialization and Configuration 438 7.4 On-Board Keypad Interface Programming Project 440 7.4.1 The Keypad Interfacing Programming Structure 441 7.4.2 Create the Keypad Interfacing Programming Project (Polling-Driven) 442 7.4.3 Set Up the Environment to Build and Run the Project 446 7.5 Analog-to-Digital Converter Programming Project 446 7.5.1 ADC Modules in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 446 7.5.2 ADC Module Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 447 7.5.3 ADC Module Components and Signal Descriptions 448 7.5.4 Analog-to-Digital Converter 470 7.5.5 Initialization and Configuration 473 7.5.6 Build the Analog-to-Digital Converter Programming Project 475 7.5.7 ADC Module API Functions Provided in the TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 480 7.6 PWM-Controlled DC and Step Motors Programming Project 486 7.6.1 The PWM Principle and Implementations 487 7.6.2 PWM Modules in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 487 7.6.3 PWM Generator Functional Block Diagram 490 7.6.4 PWM Module Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 502 7.6.5 PWM Module Components and Signal Descriptions 509 7.6.6 PWM Module Initialization and Configuration 513 7.6.7 PWM Module Architecture in the EduBASE ARM® Trainer 515 7.6.8 Build an Example PWM Programming Project 516 7.7 The PWM API Functions in the TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 521 7.7.1 PWM Modules and Generators Configuration and Set Up Control Functions 521 7.7.2 PWM Output Control Functions 523 7.7.3 PWM Interrupt and Fault Control Functions 523 7.8 Chapter Summary 525 Homework 527 Chapter 8 ARM® Cortex®-M4 Serial I/O Ports Programming 547 8.1 Overview and Introduction 547 8.2 GPIO Module Architecture and GPIO Port Configuration 548 8.3 Synchronous Serial Interface (SSI) 551 8.3.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous Communication Protocols and Data Framing 552 8.3.2 Synchronous Serial Interface Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 555 8.3.3 The Synchronous Data Transmission Format and Frame 556 8.3.4 SSI Module Components and Signal Descriptions 560 8.3.5 Build the On-Board LCD Interface Programming Project 572 8.3.6 Build On-Board 7-Segment LED Interface Programming Project 589 8.3.7 Build Digital-to-Analog Converter Programming Project 595 8.3.8 SSI API Functions Provided by TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 604 8.4 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) Interface 611 8.4.1 I2C Module Bus Configuration and Operational Status 612 8.4.2 I2C Module Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 613 8.4.3 I2C Module Data Transfer Format and Frame 614 8.4.4 I2C Module Operational Sequence 614 8.4.5 I2C Module Major Operational Components and Control Signals 618 8.4.6 I2C Module Running Speeds (Clock Rates) and Interrupts 620 8.4.7 I2C Interface Control Signals and GPIO I2C Control Registers 622 8.4.8 I2C Module Control Registers and Their Functions 623 8.4.9 I2C Module Initializations and Configurations 630 8.4.10 Build an Example I2C Module Project 631 8.4.10.1 The BQ32000 Real Time Clock (RTC) 631 8.4.10.2 The Interface Between the BQ32000 and EduBASE ARM® Trainer 633 8.4.10.3 Create a DRA Model I2C Project DRAI2C 634 8.4.10.4 Create the Source File DRAI2C 634 8.4.10.5 Set Up the Environment to Build and Run the Project 638 8.4.11 I2C API Functions Provided by TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 639 8.4.11.1 Master Operations 639 8.4.11.2 I2C Module Status and Initialization API Functions 640 8.4.11.3 I2C Module Sending and Receiving Data API Functions 641 8.5 Universal Asynchronous Receivers/Transmitters (UARTs) 642 8.5.1 Asynchronous Serial Communication Protocols and Data Framing 642 8.5.2 Asynchronous Serial Interface Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 643 8.5.3 UART Module Operations and Control Registers 645 8.5.4 UART Module Control Signals and Related GPIO Pins 658 8.5.5 UART Module Initializations and Configurations 659 8.5.6 Build an Example UART Module Project 660 8.5.7 The UART API Functions Provided by the TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 664 8.6 Chapter Summary 668 Homework 669 Chapter 9 ARM® Cortex®-M4 Timer and USB Programming 691 9.1 Overview and Introduction 691 9.2 General-Purpose Timers 692 9.2.1 The GPTM Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 693 9.2.2 The General-Purpose Timer Module Components 694 9.2.3 The General-Purpose Timer Module Operational Modes 695 9.2.4 The General-Purpose Timer Module Registers 704 9.2.5 The General-Purpose Timer Module GPIO-Related Control Signals 712 9.2.6 The General-Purpose Timer Module Initializations and Configurations 713 9.2.7 Build an Example General Purpose Timer Project 717 9.2.8 Popular Implementations on GPTM Modules 718 9.2.9 The API Functions Used for General-Purpose Timer Module 727 9.3 Watchdog Timers 732 9.3.1 The Watchdog Timer Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 734 9.3.2 The Watchdog Timer Operational Sequence and Timing Access 735 9.3.3 The Watchdog Timer Registers 735 9.3.4 The Watchdog Timer Module Initializations and Configurations 738 9.3.5 Build an Example Watchdog Timer Project 739 9.3.6 The API Functions Used for Watchdog Timer Modules 739 9.4 Universal Serial Bus (USB) Controller 743 9.4.1 The Hardware Configuration of the USB Devices 744 9.4.2 The USB Components and Operational Sequence 745 9.4.3 The Serial Interface Protocol of the USB Communications 747 9.4.4 The USB Interface Used in the Embedded System 748 9.4.5 The USB in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 749 9.4.6 The USB Registers 761 9.4.7 The USB Initializations and Configurations 774 9.4.8 A USB Implementation Example Project 775 9.4.9 The USB API Functions Provided by the TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 780 9.4.10 Build a USB Implementation Example Project Using the API Functions 788 9.5 Chapter Summary 788 Homework 790 Chapter 10 ARM® Cortex®-M4 Other Peripherals Programming 805 10.1 Overview and Introduction 805 10.2 The Controller Area Network (CAN) 805 10.2.1 CAN Standard Frame 806 10.2.2 CAN Extended Frame 807 10.2.3 Detecting and Signaling Errors 808 10.2.4 The CAN Functional Block Diagram in the TM4C123GH6PM System 809 10.2.5 The CAN Components and Operational Procedures 810 10.2.6 The CAN Module Registers 823 10.2.7 The CAN Module Interfacing and External Control Signals 833 10.2.8 The CAN API Functions Provided by TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 834 10.2.9 A CAN Module Implementation Example Project 838 10.3 The Quadrature Encoder Interface (QEI) 847 10.3.1 Introduction to Quadrature Encoder 847 10.3.2 The Working Principle of the Increment Rotary Encoder 849 10.3.3 The Increment Rotary Encoder Applied in the Closed-Loop Control System 850 10.3.4 The Increment Rotary Encoder Applied in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 851 10.3.5 The QEI Module Registers 852 10.3.6 The QEI Interfacing Signals and Related GPIO Pins 856 10.3.7 The QEI Initialization and Configuration Process 856 10.3.8 QEI API Functions Provided by the TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 857 10.3.9 An Implementation of Using Rotary Encoder for a Closed-Loop Control System 860 10.4 The Continuous and Discrete PID Closed-Loop Control System 871 10.4.1 Identify the Dynamic Model for the Motor Plant 873 10.4.2 Design the PID Controller Using the MATLAB®Control System ToolboxTM 878 10.4.3 Simulate the PID Control System Using the MATLAB® SIMULINK® 881 10.4.4 Build the Control Software to Implement the PID Controller 883 10.5 The Fuzzy Logic Closed-Loop Control System 887 10.5.1 The Fuzzification Process 887 10.5.2 Design of Control Rules 889 10.5.3 The Defuzzification Process 889 10.5.4 Apply the Fuzzy Logic Controller to the DC Motor Control System 891 10.5.5 Build the Fuzzy Logic Control Project Fuzzy-Control 894 10.6 The Analog Comparators 899 10.6.1 The Analog Comparator Architecture and Functional Block Diagram 899 10.6.2 The Control Registers Used in the Analog Comparator Modules 899 10.6.3 The Voltage Reference Registers Used in the Analog Comparator Modules 900 10.6.4 The Interrupt Processing Registers Used in the Analog Comparator Modules 903 10.6.5 The Input and Output Control Signals Used in the Analog Comparators 903 10.6.6 The Initialization and Configuration Process for the Analog Comparator 904 10.6.7 Build a Project to Test the Functions of the Analog Comparator Module 904 10.6.8 Set Up the Environments to Build and Run the Project 907 10.7 Chapter Summary 908 Homework 909 Chapter 11 ARM® Floating Point Unit (FPU) 927 11.1 Overview and Introduction 927 11.2 Three Types of the Floating-Point Data 928 11.2.1 The Half-Precision Floating-Point Data 928 11.2.2 The Single-Precision Floating-Point Data 930 11.2.3 The Double-Precision Floating-Point Data 932 11.3 The FPU in the Cortex®-M4 MCU 934 11.3.1 The Architecture of the Floating-Point Registers 934 11.3.2 The FPU Operational Modes 937 11.4 Implementing the Floating-Point Unit 938 11.4.1 Floating-Point Support in CMSIS-Core 938 11.4.2 Floating-Point Programming in the TM4C123GH6PM MCU System 939 11.4.3 An FPU Example Project Using the Direct Register Access Model 942 11.5 Chapter Summary 946 Homework 946 Chapter 12 ARM® Memory Protection Unit (MPU) 951 12.1 Overview and Introduction 951 12.2 Implementation of the MPU 952 12.2.1 Memory Regions, Types, and Attributes 953 12.2.2 MPU Configuration and Control Registers 953 12.3 Initialization and Configuration of the MPU 959 12.4 Building A Practical Example MPU Project 960 12.4.1 Create a New DRA Model MPU Project DRAMPU 960 12.4.2 Set Up the Environment to Build and Run the Project 963 12.5 The API Functions Provided by the TivaWareTM Peripheral Driver Library 964 12.5.1 The MPU Set Up and Status API Functions 965 12.5.2 The MPU Enable and Disable API Functions 967 12.5.3 The MPU Interrupt Handler Control API Functions 968 12.6 Chapter Summary 969 Homework 970 Index 975 About the Author 987

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Book SynopsisDesigned to complement a range of power electronics study resources, this unique lab manual helps students to gain a deep understanding of the operation, modeling, analysis, design, and performance of pulse-width modulated (PWM) DC-DC power converters. Exercises focus on three essential areas of power electronics: open-loop power stages; small-signal modeling, design of feedback loops and PWM DC-DC converter control schemes; and semiconductor devices such as silicon, silicon carbide and gallium nitride. Meeting the standards required by industrial employers, the lab manual combines programming language with a simulation tool designed for proficiency in the theoretical and practical concepts. Students and instructors can choose from an extensive list of topics involving simulations on MATLAB, SABER, or SPICE-based platforms, enabling readers to gain the most out of the prelab, inlab, and postlab activities. The laboratory exercises have been taught and continuously imprTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgments xiii List of Symbols xv Part I Open-Loop Pulse-Width Modulated DC–DC Converters—Steady-State and Performance Analysis and Simulation of Converter Topologies 1 Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 3 2 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM 7 3 Boost DC–DC Converter in DCM—Steady-State Simulation 11 4 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Boost DC–DC Converter in DCM 15 5 Open-Loop Boost AC–DC Power Factor Corrector—Steady-State Simulation 19 6 Buck DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 23 7 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Buck DC–DC Converter in CCM 27 8 Buck DC–DC Converter in DCM—Steady-State Simulation 31 9 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Buck DC–DC Converter in DCM 35 10 High-Side Gate-Drive Circuit for Buck DC–DC Converter 39 11 Quadratic Buck DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 41 12 Buck–Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 45 13 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Buck–Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM 49 14 Buck–Boost DC–DC Converter in DCM—Steady-State Simulation 53 15 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Buck–Boost DC–DC Converter in DCM 57 16 Flyback DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 61 17 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Flyback DC–DC Converters in CCM 65 18 Multiple-Output Flyback DC–DC Converter in CCM 69 19 Flyback DC–DC Converter in DCM—Steady-State Simulation 73 20 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Flyback DC–DC Converter in DCM 77 21 Forward DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 81 22 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Forward DC–DC Converter in CCM 85 23 Forward DC–DC Converter in DCM—Steady-State Simulation 89 24 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Forward DC–DC Converter in DCM 93 25 Half-Bridge DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 97 26 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Half-Bridge DC–DC Converter in CCM 101 27 Full-Bridge DC–DC Converter in CCM—Steady-State Simulation 105 28 Efficiency and DC Voltage Transfer Function of PWM Full-Bridge DC–DC Converters in CCM 109 Part II Closed-Loop Pulse-Width Modulated DC–DC Converters—Transient Analysis, Small-Signal Modeling, and Control 29 Design of the Pulse-Width Modulator and the PWM Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM 115 30 Dynamic Analysis of the Open-Loop PWM Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM for Step Change in the Input Voltage, Load Resistance, and Duty Cycle 119 31 Open-Loop Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function of the Boost Converter in CCM 123 32 Root Locus and 3D Plot of the Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function 129 33 Open-Loop Input-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function of the Boost Converter in CCM 133 34 Open-Loop Small-Signal Input and Output Impedances of the Boost Converter in CCM 137 35 Feedforward Control of the Boost DC–DC Converter in CCM 141 36 P, PI, and PID Controller Design 145 37 P, PI, and PID Controllers: Bode and Transient Analysis 149 38 Transfer Functions of the Pulse-Width Modulator, Boost Converter Power Stage, and Feedback Network 153 39 Closed-Loop Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function with Unity-Gain Control 157 40 Simulation of the Closed-Loop Boost Converter with Proportional Control 161 41 Voltage-Mode Control of Boost DC–DC Converter with Integral-Double-Lead Controller 165 42 Control-to-Output Voltage Transfer Function of the Open-Loop Buck DC–DC Converter 169 43 Voltage-Mode Control of Buck DC–DC Converter 173 44 Feedforward Control of the Buck DC–DC Converter in CCM 179 Part III Semiconductor Materials and Power Devices 45 Temperature Dependence of Si and SiC Semiconductor Materials 187 46 Dynamic Characteristics of the PN Junction Diode 191 47 Characteristics of the Silicon and Silicon-Carbide PN Junction Diodes 195 48 Analysis of the Output and Switching Characteristics of Power MOSFETs 199 49 Short-Channel Effects in MOSFETs 201 50 Gallium-Nitride Semiconductor: Material Properties 205 Appendices 209 A Design Equations for Continuous-Conduction Mode 211 B Design Equations for Discontinuous-Conduction Mode 215 C Simulation Tools 219 D MOSFET Parameters 231 E Diode Parameters 233 F Selected MOSFETs Spice Models 235 G Selected Diodes Spice Models 237 H Physical Constants 239 I Format of Lab Report 241 Index 245

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Book SynopsisThe essential guide to the entire process behind performing a complete characterization and benchmarking of cameras through image quality analysis Camera Image Quality Benchmarking contains the basic information and approaches for the use of subjectively correlated image quality metrics and outlines a framework for camera benchmarking. The authors show how to quantitatively compare image quality of cameras used for consumer photography. This book helps to fill a void in the literature by detailing the types of objective and subjective metrics that are fundamental to benchmarking still and video imaging devices. Specifically, the book provides an explanation of individual image quality attributes and how they manifest themselves to camera components and explores the key photographic still and video image quality metrics. The text also includes illustrative examples of benchmarking methods so that the practitioner can design a methodology appropriate to the photographic usage in considerTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xv Series Preface xvii Preface xix List of Abbreviations xxiii About the CompanionWebsite xxvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Image Content and Image Quality 2 1.1.1 Color 3 1.1.2 Shape 8 1.1.3 Texture 10 1.1.4 Depth 11 1.1.5 Luminance Range 12 1.1.6 Motion 15 1.2 Benchmarking 18 1.3 Book Content 22 Summary of this Chapter 24 References 25 2 Defining Image Quality 27 2.1 What is Image Quality? 27 2.2 Image Quality Attributes 29 2.3 Subjective and Objective Image Quality Assessment 31 Summary of this Chapter 32 References 33 3 Image Quality Attributes 35 3.1 Global Attributes 35 3.1.1 Exposure, Tonal Reproduction, and Flare 35 3.1.2 Color 39 3.1.3 Geometrical Artifacts 40 3.1.3.1 Perspective Distortion 40 3.1.3.2 Optical Distortion 42 3.1.3.3 Other Geometrical Artifacts 42 3.1.4 Nonuniformities 43 3.1.4.1 Luminance Shading 45 3.1.4.2 Color Shading 45 3.2 Local Attributes 45 3.2.1 Sharpness and Resolution 45 3.2.2 Noise 49 3.2.3 Texture Rendition 50 3.2.4 Color Fringing 50 3.2.5 Image Defects 51 3.2.6 Artifacts 51 3.2.6.1 Aliasing and Demosaicing Artifacts 52 3.2.6.2 Still Image Compression Artifacts 53 3.2.6.3 Flicker 53 3.2.6.4 HDR Processing Artifacts 55 3.2.6.5 Lens Ghosting 55 3.3 Video Quality Attributes 56 3.3.1 Frame Rate 56 3.3.2 Exposure and White Balance Responsiveness and Consistency 58 3.3.3 Focus Adaption 58 3.3.4 Audio-Visual Synchronization 58 3.3.5 Video Compression Artifacts 59 3.3.6 Temporal Noise 60 3.3.7 Fixed Pattern Noise 60 3.3.8 Mosquito Noise 60 Summary of this Chapter 60 References 61 4 The Camera 63 4.1 The Pinhole Camera 63 4.2 Lens 64 4.2.1 Aberrations 64 4.2.1.1 Third-Order Aberrations 65 4.2.1.2 Chromatic Aberrations 66 4.2.2 Optical Parameters 67 4.2.3 Relative Illumination 69 4.2.4 Depth of Field 70 4.2.5 Diffraction 71 4.2.6 Stray Light 73 4.2.7 Image Quality Attributes Related to the Lens 74 4.3 Image Sensor 75 4.3.1 CCD Image Sensors 75 4.3.2 CMOS Image Sensors 77 4.3.3 Color Imaging 81 4.3.4 Image Sensor Performance 82 4.3.5 CCD versus CMOS 89 4.3.6 Image Quality Attributes Related to the Image Sensor 90 4.4 Image Signal Processor 91 4.4.1 Image Processing 91 4.4.2 Image Compression 98 4.4.2.1 Chroma Subsampling 98 4.4.2.2 Transform Coding 98 4.4.2.3 Coefficient Quantization 99 4.4.2.4 Coefficient Compression 100 4.4.3 Control Algorithms 101 4.4.4 Image Quality Attributes Related to the ISP 101 4.5 Illumination 102 4.5.1 LED Flash 103 4.5.2 Xenon Flash 103 4.6 Video Processing 103 4.6.1 Video Stabilization 103 4.6.1.1 Global Motion Models 104 4.6.1.2 Global Motion Estimation 105 4.6.1.3 Global Motion Compensation 106 4.6.2 Video Compression 107 4.6.2.1 Computation of Residuals 107 4.6.2.2 Video Compression Standards and Codecs 109 4.6.2.3 Some Significant Video Compression Standards 110 4.6.2.4 A Note On Video Stream Structure 111 4.7 System Considerations 111 Summary of this Chapter 112 References 113 5 Subjective Image Quality Assessment—Theory and Practice 117 5.1 Psychophysics 118 5.2 Measurement Scales 120 5.3 PsychophysicalMethodologies 122 5.3.1 Rank Order 123 5.3.2 Category Scaling 123 5.3.3 Acceptability Scaling 124 5.3.4 Anchored Scaling 125 5.3.5 Forced-Choice Comparison 125 5.3.6 Magnitude Estimation 125 5.3.7 Methodology Comparison 126 5.4 Cross-Modal Psychophysics 126 5.4.1 Example Research 127 5.4.2 Image Quality-Related Demonstration 128 5.5 Thurstonian Scaling 129 5.6 Quality Ruler 131 5.6.1 Ruler Generation 134 5.6.2 Quality Ruler Insights 135 5.6.2.1 Lab Cross-Comparisons 135 5.6.2.2 SQS2 JND Validation 136 5.6.2.3 Quality Ruler Standard Deviation Trends 139 5.6.2.4 Observer Impact 141 5.6.3 Perspective from Academia 142 5.6.4 Practical Example 144 5.6.5 Quality Ruler Applications to Image Quality Benchmarking 147 5.7 Subjective Video Quality 148 5.7.1 Terminology 149 5.7.2 Observer Selection 149 5.7.3 Viewing Setup 150 5.7.4 Video Display and Playback 151 5.7.5 Clip Selection 152 5.7.6 Presentation Protocols 154 5.7.7 Assessment Methods 156 5.7.8 Interpreting Results 158 5.7.9 ITU Recommendations 159 5.7.9.1 The Double-Stimulus Impairment Scale Method 160 5.7.9.2 The Double-Stimulus Continuous Quality Scale Method 160 5.7.9.3 The Simultaneous Double-Stimulus for Continuous Evaluation Method 160 5.7.9.4 The Absolute Category Rating Method 161 5.7.9.5 The Single Stimulus Continuous Quality Evaluation Method 161 5.7.9.6 The Subjective Assessment of Multimedia Video Quality Method 161 5.7.9.7 ITU Methodology Comparison 162 5.7.10 Other Sources 162 Summary of this Chapter 162 References 163 6 Objective Image Quality Assessment—Theory and Practice 167 6.1 Exposure and Tone 168 6.1.1 Exposure Index and ISO Sensitivity 168 6.1.2 Optoelectronic Conversion Function 169 6.1.3 Practical Considerations 170 6.2 Dynamic Range 170 6.3 Color 171 6.3.1 Light Sources 171 6.3.2 Scene 174 6.3.3 Observer 176 6.3.4 Basic Color Metrics 178 6.3.5 RGB Color Spaces 180 6.3.6 Practical Considerations 181 6.4 Shading 181 6.4.1 Practical Considerations 182 6.5 Geometric Distortion 182 6.5.1 Practical Considerations 184 6.6 Stray Light 184 6.6.1 Practical Considerations 185 6.7 Sharpness and Resolution 185 6.7.1 The Modulation Transfer Function 186 6.7.2 The Contrast Transfer Function 191 6.7.3 Geometry in Optical Systems and the MTF 193 6.7.4 Sampling and Aliasing 194 6.7.5 System MTF 195 6.7.6 Measuring the MTF 198 6.7.7 Edge SFR 198 6.7.8 Sine Modulated Siemens Star SFR 201 6.7.9 Comparing Edge SFR and Sine Modulated Siemens SFR 203 6.7.10 Practical Considerations 204 6.8 Texture Blur 204 6.8.1 Chart Construction 206 6.8.2 Practical Considerations 206 6.8.3 AlternativeMethods 207 6.9 Noise 207 6.9.1 Noise and Color 207 6.9.2 Spatial Frequency Dependence 209 6.9.3 Signal to Noise Measurements in Nonlinear Systems and Noise Component Analysis 211 6.9.4 Practical Considerations 212 6.10 Color Fringing 213 6.11 Image Defects 214 6.12 Video Quality Metrics 214 6.12.1 Frame Rate and Frame Rate Consistency 215 6.12.2 Frame Exposure Time and Consistency 215 6.12.3 Auto White Balance Consistency 216 6.12.4 Autofocusing Time and Stability 216 6.12.5 Video Stabilization Performance 217 6.12.6 Audio-Video Synchronization 218 6.13 Related International Standards 218 Summary of this Chapter 221 References 221 7 Perceptually Correlated Image Quality Metrics 227 7.1 Aspects of Human Vision 227 7.1.1 Physiological Processes 227 7.2 HVS Modeling 232 7.3 Viewing Conditions 232 7.4 Spatial Image Quality Metrics 234 7.4.1 Sharpness 235 7.4.1.1 Edge Acutance 235 7.4.1.2 Mapping Acutance to JND Values 237 7.4.1.3 Other Perceptual Sharpness Metrics 239 7.4.2 Texture Blur 239 7.4.3 Visual Noise 240 7.5 Color 244 7.5.1 Chromatic Adaptation Transformations 244 7.5.2 Color Appearance Models 245 7.5.3 Color and Spatial Content—Image Appearance Models 247 7.5.4 Image Quality Benchmarking and Color 249 7.6 Other Metrics 251 7.7 Combination of Metrics 252 7.8 Full-Reference Digital Video Quality Metrics 252 7.8.1 PSNR 253 7.8.2 Structural Similarity (SSIM) 256 7.8.3 VQM 260 7.8.4 VDP 262 7.8.4.1 Further Considerations 263 7.8.5 Discussion 265 Summary of this Chapter 267 References 267 8 Measurement Protocols—Building Up a Lab 273 8.1 Still Objective Measurements 273 8.1.1 Lab Needs 274 8.1.1.1 Lab Space 274 8.1.1.2 Lighting 275 8.1.1.3 Light Booths 278 8.1.1.4 Transmissive Light Sources 279 8.1.1.5 Additional Lighting Options 280 8.1.1.6 Light Measurement Devices 281 8.1.2 Charts 282 8.1.2.1 Printing Technologies for Reflective Charts 282 8.1.2.2 Technologies for Transmissive Charts 286 8.1.2.3 Inhouse Printing 286 8.1.2.4 Chart Alignment and Framing 287 8.1.3 Camera Settings 289 8.1.4 Supplemental Equipment 289 8.1.4.1 RealWorld Objects 290 8.2 Video Objective Measurements 293 8.2.0.2 Visual Timer 293 8.2.0.3 Motion 294 8.3 Still Subjective Measurements 297 8.3.1 Lab Needs 297 8.3.2 Stimuli 298 8.3.2.1 Stimuli Generation 298 8.3.2.2 Stimuli Presentation 301 8.3.3 Observer Needs 302 8.3.3.1 Observer Selection and Screening 302 8.3.3.2 Experimental Design and Duration 303 8.4 Video Subjective Measurements 304 Summary of this Chapter 305 References 305 9 The Camera Benchmarking Process 309 9.1 Objective Metrics for Benchmarking 309 9.2 Subjective Methods for Benchmarking 311 9.2.1 Photospace 312 9.2.2 Use Cases 313 9.2.3 Observer Impact 314 9.3 Methods of Combining Metrics 315 9.3.1 Weighted Combinations 316 9.3.2 Minkowski Summation 316 9.4 Benchmarking Systems 317 9.4.1 GSMArena 317 9.4.2 FNAC 318 9.4.3 VCX 318 9.4.4 Skype Video Capture Specification 319 9.4.5 VIQET 320 9.4.6 DxOMark 321 9.4.7 IEEE P1858 323 9.5 Example Benchmark Results 324 9.5.1 VIQET 324 9.5.2 IEEE CPIQ 325 9.5.2.1 CPIQ Objective Metrics 327 9.5.2.2 CPIQ Quality Loss Predictions from Objective Metrics 337 9.5.3 DxOMark Mobile 338 9.5.4 Real-World Images 339 9.5.5 High-End DSLR Objective Metrics 339 9.6 Benchmarking Validation 345 Summary of this Chapter 348 References 349 10 Summary and Conclusions 353 References 357 Index 359

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Book SynopsisHANDBOOK OF WIND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Useful reference text underpinning the theory behind wind resource assessment along with its practical application Handbook of Wind Resource Assessment provides a comprehensive description of the background theory, methods, models, applications, and analysis of the discipline of wind resource assessment, covering topics such as climate variability, measurement, wind distributions, numerical modeling, statistical modeling, reanalysis datasets, applications in different environments (onshore and offshore), wind atlases, and future climate. The text provides an up-to-date assessment of the tools available for wind resource assessment and their application in different environments. It also summarizes our present understanding of the wind climate and its variability, with a particular focus on its relevance to wind resource assessment. Written by a highly qualified professional in the fields of wind resource assessment, wind turbine condition moniTable of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgements xi About the Author xiii 1 Introduction 1 2 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 11 3 Measurement 33 4 Wind Speed Variability and Distributions 85 5 Numerical Modelling 111 6 Wind Resource Estimation in Complex Terrain, Offshore, and in Urban Areas 157 7 Orographic Test Cases 179 8 Statistical Methods 199 9 Atmospheric Reanalyses and Wind Atlases 227 10 Mesoscale Phenomena 263 11 Long-term Wind Climate Trends 281 Index 291

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Book SynopsisA guide to common control principles and how they are used to characterize a variety of physiological mechanisms The second edition of Physiological Control Systems offers an updated and comprehensive resource that reviews the fundamental concepts of classical control theory and how engineering methodology can be applied to obtain a quantitative understanding of physiological systems. The revised text also contains more advanced topics that feature applications to physiology of nonlinear dynamics, parameter estimation methods, and adaptive estimation and control. The authora noted expert in the fieldincludes a wealth of worked examples that illustrate key concepts and methodology and offers in-depth analyses of selected physiological control models that highlight the topics presented. The author discusses the most noteworthy developments in system identification, optimal control, and nonlinear dynamical analysis and targets recent bioengineering advances.Table of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Preliminary Considerations, 1 1.2 Historical Background, 2 1.3 Systems Analysis: Fundamental Concepts, 4 1.4 Physiological Control Systems Analysis: A Simple Example, 6 1.5 Differences Between Engineering and Physiological Control Systems, 8 1.6 The Science (and Art) of Modeling, 11 1.7 “Systems Physiology” Versus “Systems Biology”, 12 Problems, 13 Bibliography, 15 2 Mathematical Modeling 17 2.1 Generalized System Properties, 17 2.2 Models with Combinations of System Elements, 21 2.3 Linear Models of Physiological Systems: Two Examples, 24 2.4 Conversions Between Electrical and Mechanical Analogs, 27 2.5 Distributed-Parameter Versus Lumped-Parameter Models, 29 2.6 Linear Systems and the Superposition Principle, 31 2.7 Zero-Input and Zero-State Solutions of ODEs, 33 2.8 Laplace Transforms and Transfer Functions, 34 2.8.1 Solving ODEs with Laplace Transforms, 36 2.9 The Impulse Response and Linear Convolution, 38 2.10 State-Space Analysis, 40 2.11 Computer Analysis and Simulation: MATLAB and SIMULINK, 43 Problems, 49 Bibliography, 53 3 Static Analysis of Physiological Systems 55 3.1 Introduction, 55 3.2 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Systems, 56 3.3 Determination of the Steady-State Operating Point, 59 3.4 Steady-State Analysis Using SIMULINK, 63 3.5 Regulation of Cardiac Output, 66 3.5.1 The Cardiac Output Curve, 67 3.5.2 The Venous Return Curve, 69 3.5.3 Closed-Loop Analysis: Heart and Systemic Circulation Combined, 73 3.6 Regulation of Glucose Insulin, 74 3.7 Chemical Regulation of Ventilation, 78 3.7.1 The Gas Exchanger, 80 3.7.2 The Respiratory Controller, 82 3.7.3 Closed-Loop Analysis: Lungs and Controller Combined, 82 Problems, 86 Bibliography, 91 4 Time-Domain Analysis of Linear Control Systems 93 4.1 Linearized Respiratory Mechanics: Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop, 93 4.2 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Transient Responses: First-Order Model, 96 4.2.1 Impulse Response, 96 4.2.2 Step Response, 97 4.3 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Transient Responses: Second-Order Model, 98 4.3.1 Impulse Responses, 98 4.3.2 Step Responses, 103 4.4 Descriptors of Impulse and Step Responses, 107 4.4.1 Generalized Second-Order Dynamics, 107 4.4.2 Transient Response Descriptors, 111 4.5 Open-Loop Versus Closed-Loop Dynamics: Other Considerations, 114 4.5.1 Reduction of the Effects of External Disturbances, 114 4.5.2 Reduction of the Effects of Parameter Variations, 115 4.5.3 Integral Control, 116 4.5.4 Derivative Feedback, 118 4.5.5 Minimizing Effect of External Disturbances by Feedforward Gain, 119 4.6 Transient Response Analysis Using MATLAB, 121 4.7 SIMULINK Application 1: Dynamics of Neuromuscular Reflex Motion, 122 4.7.1 A Model of Neuromuscular Reflex Motion, 122 4.7.2 SIMULINK Implementation, 126 4.8 SIMULINK Application 2: Dynamics of Glucose–Insulin Regulation, 127 4.8.1 The Model, 127 4.8.2 Simulations with the Model, 131 Problems, 131 Bibliography, 135 5 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Linear Control Systems 137 5.1 Steady-State Responses to Sinusoidal Inputs, 137 5.1.1 Open-Loop Frequency Response, 137 5.1.2 Closed-Loop Frequency Response, 141 5.1.3 Relationship between Transient and Frequency Responses, 143 5.2 Graphical Representations of Frequency Response, 145 5.2.1 Bode Plot Representation, 145 5.2.2 Nichols Charts, 147 5.2.3 Nyquist Plots, 148 5.3 Frequency-Domain Analysis Using MATLAB and SIMULINK, 152 5.3.1 Using MATLAB, 152 5.3.2 Using SIMULINK, 154 5.4 Estimation of Frequency Response from Input–Output Data, 156 5.4.1 Underlying Principles, 156 5.4.2 Physiological Application: Forced Oscillation Technique in Respiratory Mechanics, 157 5.5 Frequency Response of a Model of Circulatory Control, 159 5.5.1 The Model, 159 5.5.2 Simulations with the Model, 160 5.5.3 Frequency Response of the Model, 162 Problems, 164 Bibliography, 165 6 Stability Analysis: Linear Approaches 167 6.1 Stability and Transient Response, 167 6.2 Root Locus Plots, 170 6.3 Routh–Hurwitz Stability Criterion, 174 6.4 Nyquist Criterion for Stability, 176 6.5 Relative Stability, 181 6.6 Stability Analysis of the Pupillary Light Reflex, 184 6.6.1 Routh–Hurwitz Analysis, 186 6.6.2 Nyquist Analysis, 187 6.7 Model of Cheyne–Stokes Breathing, 190 6.7.1 CO2 Exchange in the Lungs, 190 6.7.2 Transport Delays, 192 6.7.3 Controller Responses, 193 6.7.4 Loop Transfer Functions, 193 6.7.5 Nyquist Stability Analysis Using MATLAB, 194 Problems, 196 Bibliography, 198 7 Digital Simulation of Continuous-Time Systems 199 7.1 Preliminary Considerations: Sampling and the Z-Transform, 199 7.2 Methods for Continuous-Time to Discrete-Time Conversion, 202 7.2.1 Impulse Invariance, 202 7.2.2 Forward Difference, 203 7.2.3 Backward Difference, 204 7.2.4 Bilinear Transformation, 205 7.3 Sampling, 207 7.4 Digital Simulation: Stability and Performance Considerations, 211 7.5 Physiological Application: The Integral Pulse Frequency Modulation Model, 216 Problems, 221 Bibliography, 224 8 Model Identification and Parameter Estimation 225 8.1 Basic Problems in Physiological System Analysis, 225 8.2 Nonparametric and Parametric Identification Methods, 228 8.2.1 Numerical Deconvolution, 228 8.2.2 Least-Squares Estimation, 230 8.2.3 Estimation Using Correlation Functions, 233 8.2.4 Estimation in the Frequency Domain, 235 8.2.5 Optimization Techniques, 237 8.3 Problems in Parameter Estimation: Identifiability and Input Design, 243 8.3.1 Structural Identifiability, 243 8.3.2 Sensitivity Analysis, 244 8.3.3 Input Design, 248 8.4 Identification of Closed-Loop Systems: “Opening the Loop”, 252 8.4.1 The Starling Heart–Lung Preparation, 253 8.4.2 Kao’s Cross-Circulation Experiments, 253 8.4.3 Artificial Brain Perfusion for Partitioning Central and Peripheral Chemoreflexes, 255 8.4.4 The Voltage Clamp, 256 8.4.5 Opening the Pupillary Reflex Loop, 257 8.4.6 Read Rebreathing Technique, 259 8.5 Identification Under Closed-Loop Conditions: Case Studies, 260 8.5.1 Minimal Model of Blood Glucose Regulation, 262 8.5.2 Closed-Loop Identification of the Respiratory Control System, 267 8.5.3 Closed-Loop Identification of Autonomic Control Using Multivariate ARX Models, 273 8.6 Identification of Physiological Systems Using Basis Functions, 276 8.6.1 Reducing Variance in the Parameter Estimates, 276 8.6.2 Use of Basis Functions, 277 8.6.3 Baroreflex and Respiratory Modulation of Heart Rate Variability, 279 Problems, 283 Bibliography, 285 9 Estimation and Control of Time-Varying Systems 289 9.1 Modeling Time-Varying Systems: Key Concepts, 289 9.2 Estimation of Models with Time-Varying Parameters, 293 9.2.1 Optimal Estimation: The Wiener Filter, 293 9.2.2 Adaptive Estimation: The LMS Algorithm, 294 9.2.3 Adaptive Estimation: The RLS Algorithm, 296 9.3 Estimation of Time-Varying Physiological Models, 300 9.3.1 Extending Adaptive Estimation Algorithms to Other Model Structures, 300 9.3.2 Adaptive Estimation of Pulmonary Gas Exchange, 300 9.3.3 Quantifying Transient Changes in Autonomic Cardiovascular Control, 304 9.4 Adaptive Control of Physiological Systems, 307 9.4.1 General Considerations, 307 9.4.2 Adaptive Buffering of Fluctuations in Arterial PCO2, 308 Problems, 313 Bibliography, 314 10 Nonlinear Analysis of Physiological Control Systems 317 10.1 Nonlinear Versus Linear Closed-Loop Systems, 317 10.2 Phase-Plane Analysis, 320 10.2.1 Local Stability: Singular Points, 322 10.2.2 Method of Isoclines, 325 10.3 Nonlinear Oscillators, 329 10.3.1 Limit Cycles, 329 10.3.2 The van der Pol Oscillator, 329 10.3.3 Modeling Cardiac Dysrhythmias, 336 10.4 The Describing Function Method, 342 10.4.1 Methodology, 342 10.4.2 Application: Periodic Breathing with Apnea, 345 10.5 Models of Neuronal Dynamics, 348 10.5.1 The Hodgkin–Huxley Model, 349 10.5.2 The Bonhoeffer–van der Pol Model, 352 10.6 Nonparametric Identification of Nonlinear Systems, 359 10.6.1 Volterra–Wiener Kernel Approach, 360 10.6.2 Nonlinear Model of Baroreflex and Respiratory Modulated Heart Rate, 364 10.6.3 Interpretations of Kernels, 367 10.6.4 Higher Order Nonlinearities and Block-Structured Models, 369 Problems, 370 Bibliography, 374 11 Complex Dynamics in Physiological Control Systems 377 11.1 Spontaneous Variability, 377 11.2 Nonlinear Control Systems with Delayed Feedback, 380 11.2.1 The Logistic Equation, 380 11.2.2 Regulation of Neutrophil Density, 384 11.2.3 Model of Cardiovascular Variability, 387 11.3 Coupled Nonlinear Oscillators: Model of Circadian Rhythms, 397 11.4 Time-Varying Physiological Closed-Loop Systems: Sleep Apnea Model, 401 11.5 Propagation of System Noise in Feedback Loops, 409 Problems, 415 Bibliography, 416 Appendix A Commonly Used Laplace Transform Pairs 419 Appendix B List of MATLAB and SIMULINK Programs 421 Index 425

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Book SynopsisPresents strategies to designing platform agnostic mobile apps connected to cloud based services that can handle heavy loads of modern computing Provides development patterns for platform agnostic app development and technologiesIncludes recommended standards and structures for easy adoptionCovers portable and modular back-end architectures to support service agility and rapid developmentTable of ContentsLIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF TABLES xiii PREFACE xv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvii CHAPTER 1 THE MOBILE LANDSCAPE 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Previous Attempts at Cross-Platform 2 1.2.1 Java 2 1.2.2 Early Web Apps 5 1.2.3 Multiple Codebases 7 1.3 Breadth Versus Depth 9 1.4 The Multi-Platform Targets 10 1.4.1 Traditional 10 1.4.2 Mobile 11 1.4.3 Wearables 12 1.4.4 Embedded 13 CHAPTER 2 PLATFORM-INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT TECHNOLOGIES 15 The Golden Rule 15 2.1 Vendor Lock-In 16 2.2 Recommended Standards and Guidelines 18 2.2.1 Respecting the Device 18 2.2.2 Respecting the Network 19 2.2.3 Communication Protocols 21 2.2.4 Data Formats 31 2.2.5 Mobile User Experience Guidelines 40 2.2.6 Authentication 45 2.2.7 Dealing with Offline and Partially Connected Devices 47 2.3 Wrapping Up 63 CHAPTER 3 PLATFORM-INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 64 3.1 High-Level App Development Flow 64 3.2 Five-Layer Architecture 65 3.3 Five-Layer Architecture Detail 66 3.3.1 The User Interface Layer 66 3.3.2 The Service Interface Layer 68 3.3.3 The Service Layer 69 3.3.4 The Data Abstraction Layer 70 3.3.5 The Data Layer 70 CHAPTER 4 THE USER INTERFACE LAYER 72 4.1 Porting Versus Wrapping 72 4.2 Multi-Client Development Tools 73 4.2.1 PhoneGap (http://phonegap.com/) 73 4.2.2 Xamarin (http://xamarin.com/) 74 4.2.3 Unity (http://www.unity3d.com) 75 4.2.4 Visual Studio 76 4.3 Cross-Platform Languages 76 4.4 Avoid Writing for the Least Common Denominator 77 4.5 Wrapping Up 78 CHAPTER 5 THE SERVICE INTERFACE LAYER 79 5.1 Message Processing 79 5.1.1 Push versus Pull 80 5.1.2 Partially Connected Scenarios 81 5.2 Message Processing Patterns 82 5.3 High-Volume Messaging Patterns 85 5.3.1 Queue Services and Microsoft Azure Event Hubs 86 5.3.2 Web Sockets 89 5.4 High-Volume Push Notifications 91 5.4.1 Third Party Notification Hubs 93 5.5 Message Translation and Routing 97 5.5.1 Message Translation 97 5.5.2 Message Routing 103 5.5.3 Handling Large Amounts of Data 108 5.6 Wrapping Up 111 CHAPTER 6 THE SERVICE LAYER 114 6.1 Thinking in Nodes 114 6.1.1 Scale Out and Scale Up 114 6.1.2 Scale Out versus Scale Up 114 6.2 Planning for Horizontal Scaling 117 6.2.1 Node Sizing 117 6.2.2 Statelessness 120 6.3 Designing Service Layers for Mobile Computing 121 6.3.1 Service Componentization 122 6.4 Implementation Abstraction 124 6.4.1 Service Interface Abstraction 124 6.5 Using CQRS/ES for Service Implementation 127 6.5.1 CQRS Overview 127 6.5.2 Why CQRS 129 6.5.3 Being Able to Separate Data Models 129 6.5.4 Aggregates and Bounded Contexts 131 6.5.5 The Read and Write Sides 132 6.5.6 CQRS Communications 132 6.6 Side by Side Multi-Versioning 140 6.7 Service Agility 141 6.8 Consumer, Business, and Partner Services 141 6.9 Portable and Modular Service Architectures 142 6.9.1 Designing Pluggable Services 145 6.9.2 Swapping Services 147 6.9.3 Deployment and Hosting Strategies 151 6.10 Wrapping up 152 CHAPTER 7 THE DATA ABSTRACTION LAYER 154 7.1 Objects to Data 154 7.2 Using the DAL with External Services 157 7.3 Components of a DAL 159 7.3.1 Data Mapper 160 7.3.2 Query Mapper 161 7.3.3 Repository 166 7.3.4 Serializers 168 7.3.5 Storage Consideration 169 7.3.6 Cache 172 7.4 Wrapping Up 174 CHAPTER 8 THE DATA LAYER 176 8.1 Overview 177 8.2 Business Rules in the Data Layer 178 8.3 Relational Databases 178 8.4 NoSQL Databases 181 8.4.1 Key Value Database 183 8.4.2 Document Database 186 8.4.3 Column Family Databases 189 8.4.4 Graph Database 194 8.4.5 How to Choose? 197 8.5 File Storage 197 8.6 Blended Approach 200 8.6.1 The Polyglot Data Layer 201 8.7 Wrapping up 203 CHAPTER 9 STRATEGIES FOR ONGOING IMPROVEMENT 204 9.1 Feature Expansion 204 9.1.1 User Interface 206 9.1.2 Service Interface Layer 206 9.1.3 Service Layer 206 9.1.4 Data Abstraction Layer 206 9.1.5 Data Layer 207 9.2 Data Collection Matters 207 9.3 Multi-Versioning 209 9.4 Version Retirement 212 9.4.1 Scale Back 214 9.5 Client Upgrades 216 9.6 Wrapping Up 220 CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION 221 REFERENCES 225 INDEX 229

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Book SynopsisDIGITAL SPEECH TRANSMISSION AND ENHANCEMENT Enables readers to understand the latest developments in speech enhancement/transmission due to advances in computational power and device miniaturization The Second Edition of Digital Speech Transmission and Enhancement has been updated throughout to provide all the necessary details on the latest advances in the theory and practice in speech signal processing and its applications, including many new research results, standards, algorithms, and developments which have recently appeared and are on their way into state-of-the-art applications. Besides mobile communications, which constituted the main application domain of the first edition, speech enhancement for hearing instruments and man-machine interfaces has gained significantly more prominence in the past decade, and as such receives greater focus in this updated and expanded second edition. Readers can expect to find information and novel methods on: Low-latency spectral analysis-synthesis, single-channel and dual-channel algorithms for noise reduction and dereverberationMulti-microphone processing methods, which are now widely used in applications such as mobile phones, hearing aids, and man-computer interfacesAlgorithms for near-end listening enhancement, which provide a significantly increased speech intelligibility for users at the noisy receiving side of their mobile phoneFundamentals of speech signal processing, estimation and machine learning, speech coding, error concealment by soft decoding, and artificial bandwidth extension of speech signals Digital Speech Transmission and Enhancement is a single-source, comprehensive guide to the fundamental issues, algorithms, standards, and trends in speech signal processing and speech communication technology, and as such is an invaluable resource for engineers, researchers, academics, and graduate students in the areas of communications, electrical engineering, and information technology.Table of ContentsPreface xv 1 Introduction 1 2 Models of Speech Production and Hearing 5 2.1 Sound Waves 5 2.2 Organs of Speech Production 7 2.3 Characteristics of Speech Signals 9 2.4 Model of Speech Production 10 2.4.1 Acoustic Tube Model of the Vocal Tract 12 2.4.2 Discrete Time All-Pole Model of the Vocal Tract 19 2.5 Anatomy of Hearing 25 2.6 Psychoacoustic Properties of the Auditory System 27 2.6.1 Hearing and Loudness 27 2.6.2 Spectral Resolution 29 2.6.3 Masking 31 2.6.4 Spatial Hearing 32 2.6.4.1 Head-Related Impulse Responses and Transfer Functions 33 2.6.4.2 Law of The First Wavefront 34 References 35 3 Spectral Transformations 37 3.1 Fourier Transform of Continuous Signals 37 3.2 Fourier Transform of Discrete Signals 38 3.3 Linear Shift Invariant Systems 41 3.3.1 Frequency Response of LSI Systems 42 3.4 The z-transform 42 3.4.1 Relation to Fourier Transform 43 3.4.2 Properties of the ROC 44 3.4.3 Inverse z-Transform 44 3.4.4 z-Transform Analysis of LSI Systems 46 3.5 The Discrete Fourier Transform 47 3.5.1 Linear and Cyclic Convolution 48 3.5.2 The DFT of Windowed Sequences 51 3.5.3 Spectral Resolution and Zero Padding 54 3.5.4 The Spectrogram 55 3.5.5 Fast Computation of the DFT: The FFT 56 3.5.6 Radix-2 Decimation-in-Time FFT 57 3.6 Fast Convolution 60 3.6.1 Fast Convolution of Long Sequences 60 3.6.2 Fast Convolution by Overlap-Add 61 3.6.3 Fast Convolution by Overlap-Save 61 3.7 Analysis–Modification–Synthesis Systems 64 3.8 Cepstral Analysis 66 3.8.1 Complex Cepstrum 67 3.8.2 Real Cepstrum 69 3.8.3 Applications of the Cepstrum 70 3.8.3.1 Construction of Minimum-Phase Sequences 70 3.8.3.2 Deconvolution by Cepstral Mean Subtraction 71 3.8.3.3 Computation of the Spectral Distortion Measure 72 3.8.3.4 Fundamental Frequency Estimation 73 References 75 4 Filter Banks for Spectral Analysis and Synthesis 79 4.1 Spectral Analysis Using Narrowband Filters 79 4.1.1 Short-Term Spectral Analyzer 83 4.1.2 Prototype Filter Design for the Analysis Filter Bank 86 4.1.3 Short-Term Spectral Synthesizer 87 4.1.4 Short-Term Spectral Analysis and Synthesis 88 4.1.5 Prototype Filter Design for the Analysis–Synthesis filter bank 90 4.1.6 Filter Bank Interpretation of the DFT 92 4.2 Polyphase Network Filter Banks 94 4.2.1 PPN Analysis Filter Bank 95 4.2.2 PPN Synthesis Filter Bank 101 4.3 Quadrature Mirror Filter Banks 104 4.3.1 Analysis–Synthesis Filter Bank 104 4.3.2 Compensation of Aliasing and Signal Reconstruction 106 4.3.3 Efficient Implementation 109 4.4 Filter Bank Equalizer 112 4.4.1 The Reference Filter Bank 112 4.4.2 Uniform Frequency Resolution 113 4.4.3 Adaptive Filter Bank Equalizer: Gain Computation 117 4.4.3.1 Conventional Spectral Subtraction 117 4.4.3.2 Filter Bank Equalizer 118 4.4.4 Non-uniform Frequency Resolution 120 4.4.5 Design Aspects & Implementation 122 References 123 5 Stochastic Signals and Estimation 127 5.1 Basic Concepts 127 5.1.1 Random Events and Probability 127 5.1.2 Conditional Probabilities 128 5.1.3 Random Variables 129 5.1.4 Probability Distributions and Probability Density Functions 129 5.1.5 Conditional PDFs 130 5.2 Expectations and Moments 130 5.2.1 Conditional Expectations and Moments 131 5.2.2 Examples 131 5.2.2.1 The Uniform Distribution 132 5.2.2.2 The Gaussian Density 132 5.2.2.3 The Exponential Density 132 5.2.2.4 The Laplace Density 133 5.2.2.5 The Gamma Density 134 5.2.2.6 χ2-Distribution 134 5.2.3 Transformation of a Random Variable 135 5.2.4 Relative Frequencies and Histograms 136 5.3 Bivariate Statistics 137 5.3.1 Marginal Densities 137 5.3.2 Expectations and Moments 137 5.3.3 Uncorrelatedness and Statistical Independence 138 5.3.4 Examples of Bivariate PDFs 139 5.3.4.1 The Bivariate Uniform Density 139 5.3.4.2 The Bivariate Gaussian Density 139 5.3.5 Functions of Two Random Variables 140 5.4 Probability and Information 141 5.4.1 Entropy 141 5.4.2 Kullback–Leibler Divergence 141 5.4.3 Cross-Entropy 142 5.4.4 Mutual Information 142 5.5 Multivariate Statistics 142 5.5.1 Multivariate Gaussian Distribution 143 5.5.2 Gaussian Mixture Models 144 5.6 Stochastic Processes 145 5.6.1 Stationary Processes 145 5.6.2 Auto-Correlation and Auto-Covariance Functions 146 5.6.3 Cross-Correlation and Cross-Covariance Functions 147 5.6.4 Markov Processes 147 5.6.5 Multivariate Stochastic Processes 148 5.7 Estimation of Statistical Quantities by Time Averages 150 5.7.1 Ergodic Processes 150 5.7.2 Short-Time Stationary Processes 150 5.8 Power Spectrum and its Estimation 151 5.8.1 White Noise 152 5.8.2 The Periodogram 152 5.8.3 Smoothed Periodograms 153 5.8.3.1 Non Recursive Smoothing in Time 153 5.8.3.2 Recursive Smoothing in Time 154 5.8.3.3 Log-Mel Filter Bank Features 154 5.8.4 Power Spectra and Linear Shift-Invariant Systems 156 5.9 Statistical Properties of Speech Signals 157 5.10 Statistical Properties of DFT Coefficients 157 5.10.1 Asymptotic Statistical Properties 158 5.10.2 Signal-Plus-Noise Model 159 5.10.3 Statistics of DFT Coefficients for Finite Frame Lengths 160 5.11 Optimal Estimation 162 5.11.1 MMSE Estimation 163 5.11.2 Estimation of Discrete Random Variables 164 5.11.3 Optimal Linear Estimator 164 5.11.4 The Gaussian Case 165 5.11.5 Joint Detection and Estimation 166 5.12 Non-Linear Estimation with Deep Neural Networks 167 5.12.1 Basic Network Components 168 5.12.1.1 The Perceptron 168 5.12.1.2 Convolutional Neural Network 170 5.12.2 Basic DNN Structures 170 5.12.2.1 Fully-Connected Feed-Forward Network 171 5.12.2.2 Autoencoder Networks 171 5.12.2.3 Recurrent Neural Networks 172 5.12.2.4 Time Delay, Wavenet, and Transformer Networks 175 5.12.2.5 Training of Neural Networks 175 5.12.2.6 Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) 176 5.12.2.7 Adaptive Moment Estimation Method (ADAM) 176 References 177 6 Linear Prediction 181 6.1 Vocal Tract Models and Short-Term Prediction 181 6.1.1 All-Zero Model 182 6.1.2 All-Pole Model 183 6.1.3 Pole-Zero Model 183 6.2 Optimal Prediction Coefficients for Stationary Signals 187 6.2.1 Optimum Prediction 187 6.2.2 Spectral Flatness Measure 190 6.3 Predictor Adaptation 192 6.3.1 Block-Oriented Adaptation 192 6.3.1.1 Auto-Correlation Method 193 6.3.1.2 Covariance Method 194 6.3.1.3 Levinson–Durbin Algorithm 196 6.3.2 Sequential Adaptation 201 6.4 Long-Term Prediction 204 References 209 7 Quantization 211 7.1 Analog Samples and Digital Representation 211 7.2 Uniform Quantization 212 7.3 Non-uniform Quantization 219 7.4 Optimal Quantization 227 7.5 Adaptive Quantization 228 7.6 Vector Quantization 232 7.6.1 Principle 232 7.6.2 The Complexity Problem 235 7.6.3 Lattice Quantization 236 7.6.4 Design of Optimal Vector Code Books 236 7.6.5 Gain–Shape Vector Quantization 239 7.7 Quantization of the Predictor Coefficients 240 7.7.1 Scalar Quantization of the LPC Coefficients 241 7.7.2 Scalar Quantization of the Reflection Coefficients 241 7.7.3 Scalar Quantization of the LSF Coefficients 243 References 246 8 Speech Coding 249 8.1 Speech-Coding Categories 249 8.2 Model-Based Predictive Coding 253 8.3 Linear Predictive Waveform Coding 255 8.3.1 First-Order DPCM 255 8.3.2 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Prediction 258 8.3.3 Quantization of the Residual Signal 259 8.3.3.1 Quantization with Open-Loop Prediction 259 8.3.3.2 Quantization with Closed-Loop Prediction 261 8.3.3.3 Spectral Shaping of the Quantization Error 262 8.3.4 ADPCM with Sequential Adaptation 266 8.4 Parametric Coding 268 8.4.1 Vocoder Structures 268 8.4.2 LPC Vocoder 271 8.5 Hybrid Coding 272 8.5.1 Basic Codec Concepts 272 8.5.1.1 Scalar Quantization of the Residual Signal 274 8.5.1.2 Vector Quantization of the Residual Signal 276 8.5.2 Residual Signal Coding: RELP 279 8.5.3 Analysis by Synthesis: CELP 282 8.5.3.1 Principle 282 8.5.3.2 Fixed Code Book 283 8.5.3.3 Long-Term Prediction, Adaptive Code Book 287 8.6 Adaptive Postfiltering 289 8.7 Speech Codec Standards: Selected Examples 293 8.7.1 GSM Full-Rate Codec 295 8.7.2 EFR Codec 297 8.7.3 Adaptive Multi-Rate Narrowband Codec (AMR-NB) 299 8.7.4 ITU-T/G.722: 7 kHz Audio Coding within 64 kbit/s 301 8.7.5 Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband Codec (AMR-WB) 301 8.7.6 Codec for Enhanced Voice Services (EVS) 303 8.7.7 Opus Codec IETF RFC 6716 306 References 307 9 Concealment of Erroneous or Lost Frames 313 9.1 Concepts for Error Concealment 314 9.1.1 Error Concealment by Hard Decision Decoding 315 9.1.2 Error Concealment by Soft Decision Decoding 316 9.1.3 Parameter Estimation 318 9.1.3.1 MAP Estimation 318 9.1.3.2 MS Estimation 318 9.1.4 The A Posteriori Probabilities 319 9.1.4.1 The A Priori Knowledge 320 9.1.4.2 The Parameter Distortion Probabilities 320 9.1.5 Example: Hard Decision vs. Soft Decision 321 9.2 Examples of Error Concealment Standards 323 9.2.1 Substitution and Muting of Lost Frames 323 9.2.2 AMR Codec: Substitution and Muting of Lost Frames 325 9.2.3 EVS Codec: Concealment of Lost Packets 329 9.3 Further Improvements 330 References 331 10 Bandwidth Extension of Speech Signals 335 10.1 BWE Concepts 337 10.2 BWE using the Model of Speech Production 339 10.2.1 Extension of the Excitation Signal 340 10.2.2 Spectral Envelope Estimation 342 10.2.2.1 Minimum Mean Square Error Estimation 344 10.2.2.2 Conditional Maximum A Posteriori Estimation 345 10.2.2.3 Extensions 345 10.2.2.4 Simplifications 346 10.2.3 Energy Envelope Estimation 346 10.3 Speech Codecs with Integrated BWE 349 10.3.1 BWE in the GSM Full-Rate Codec 349 10.3.2 BWE in the AMR Wideband Codec 351 10.3.3 BWE in the ITU Codec G.729.1 353 References 355 11 NELE: Near-End Listening Enhancement 361 11.1 Frequency Domain NELE (FD) 363 11.1.1 Speech Intelligibility Index NELE Optimization 364 11.1.1.1 SII-Optimized NELE Example 367 11.1.2 Closed-Form Gain-Shape NELE 368 11.1.2.1 The NoiseProp Shaping Function 370 11.1.2.2 The NoiseInverse Strategy 371 11.1.2.3 Gain-Shape Frequency Domain NELE Example 372 11.2 Time Domain NELE (TD) 374 11.2.1 NELE Processing using Linear Prediction Filters 374 References 378 12 Single-Channel Noise Reduction 381 12.1 Introduction 381 12.2 Linear MMSE Estimators 383 12.2.1 Non-causal IIR Wiener Filter 384 12.2.2 The FIR Wiener Filter 386 12.3 Speech Enhancement in the DFT Domain 387 12.3.1 The Wiener Filter Revisited 388 12.3.2 Spectral Subtraction 390 12.3.3 Estimation of the A Priori SNR 391 12.3.3.1 Decision-Directed Approach 392 12.3.3.2 Smoothing in the Cepstrum Domain 392 12.3.4 Quality and Intelligibility Evaluation 393 12.3.4.1 Noise Oversubtraction 396 12.3.4.2 Spectral Floor 396 12.3.4.3 Limitation of the A Priori SNR 396 12.3.4.4 Adaptive Smoothing of the Spectral Gain 396 12.3.5 Spectral Analysis/Synthesis for Speech Enhancement 397 12.4 Optimal Non-linear Estimators 397 12.4.1 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 398 12.4.2 Maximum A Posteriori Estimation 400 12.4.3 MMSE Estimation 400 12.4.3.1 MMSE Estimation of Complex Coefficients 401 12.4.3.2 MMSE Amplitude Estimation 401 12.5 Joint Optimum Detection and Estimation of Speech 405 12.6 Computation of Likelihood Ratios 407 12.7 Estimation of the A Priori and A Posteriori Probabilities of Speech Presence 408 12.7.1 Estimation of the A Priori Probability 409 12.7.2 A Posteriori Speech Presence Probability Estimation 409 12.7.3 SPP Estimation Using a Fixed SNR Prior 410 12.8 VAD and Noise Estimation Techniques 411 12.8.1 Voice Activity Detection 411 12.8.1.1 Detectors Based on the Subband SNR 412 12.8.2 Noise Power Estimation Based on Minimum Statistics 413 12.8.3 Noise Estimation Using a Soft-Decision Detector 416 12.8.4 Noise Power Tracking Based on Minimum Mean Square Error Estimation 417 12.8.5 Evaluation of Noise Power Trackers 419 12.9 Noise Reduction with Deep Neural Networks 420 12.9.1 Processing Model 421 12.9.2 Estimation Targets 422 12.9.3 Loss Function 423 12.9.4 Input Features 423 12.9.5 Data Sets 423 References 425 13 Dual-Channel Noise and Reverberation Reduction 435 13.1 Dual-Channel Wiener Filter 435 13.2 The Ideal Diffuse Sound Field and Its Coherence 438 13.3 Noise Cancellation 442 13.3.1 Implementation of the Adaptive Noise Canceller 444 13.4 Noise Reduction 445 13.4.1 Principle of Dual-Channel Noise Reduction 446 13.4.2 Binaural Equalization–Cancellation and Common Gain Noise Reduction 447 13.4.3 Combined Single- and Dual-Channel Noise Reduction 449 13.5 Dual-Channel Dereverberation 449 13.6 Methods Based on Deep Learning 452 References 453 14 Acoustic Echo Control 457 14.1 The Echo Control Problem 457 14.2 Echo Cancellation and Postprocessing 462 14.2.1 Echo Canceller with Center Clipper 463 14.2.2 Echo Canceller with Voice-Controlled Soft-Switching 463 14.2.3 Echo Canceller with Adaptive Postfilter 464 14.3 Evaluation Criteria 465 14.3.1 System Distance 466 14.3.2 Echo Return Loss Enhancement 466 14.4 The Wiener Solution 467 14.5 The LMS and NLMS Algorithms 468 14.5.1 Derivation and Basic Properties 468 14.6 Convergence Analysis and Control of the LMS Algorithm 470 14.6.1 Convergence in the Absence of Interference 471 14.6.2 Convergence in the Presence of Interference 473 14.6.3 Filter Order of the Echo Canceller 476 14.6.4 Stepsize Parameter 477 14.7 Geometric Projection Interpretation of the NLMS Algorithm 479 14.8 The Affine Projection Algorithm 481 14.9 Least-Squares and Recursive Least-Squares Algorithms 484 14.9.1 The Weighted Least-Squares Algorithm 484 14.9.2 The RLS Algorithm 485 14.9.3 NLMS- and Kalman-Algorithm 488 14.9.3.1 NLMS Algorithm 490 14.9.3.2 Kalman Algorithm 490 14.9.3.3 Summary of Kalman Algorithm 492 14.9.3.4 Remarks 492 14.10 Block Processing and Frequency Domain Adaptive Filters 493 14.10.1 Block LMS Algorithm 494 14.10.2 Frequency Domain Adaptive Filter (FDAF) 495 14.10.2.1 Fast Convolution and Overlap-Save 496 14.10.2.2 FLMS Algorithm 499 14.10.2.3 Improved Stepsize Control 502 14.10.3 Subband Acoustic Echo Cancellation 502 14.10.4 Echo Canceller with Adaptive Postfilter in the Frequency Domain 503 14.10.5 Initialization with Perfect Sequences 505 14.11 Stereophonic Acoustic Echo Control 506 14.11.1 The Non-uniqueness Problem 508 14.11.2 Solutions to the Non-uniqueness Problem 508 References 510 15 Microphone Arrays and Beamforming 517 15.1 Introduction 517 15.2 Spatial Sampling of Sound Fields 518 15.2.1 The Near-field Model 518 15.2.2 The Far-field Model 519 15.2.3 Sound Pickup in Reverberant Spaces 521 15.2.4 Spatial Correlation Properties of Acoustic Signals 522 15.2.5 Uniform Linear and Circular Arrays 522 15.2.6 Phase Ambiguity in Microphone Signals 523 15.3 Beamforming 524 15.3.1 Delay-and-Sum Beamforming 525 15.3.2 Filter-and-Sum Beamforming 526 15.4 Performance Measures and Spatial Aliasing 528 15.4.1 Array Gain and Array Sensitivity 528 15.4.2 Directivity Pattern 529 15.4.3 Directivity and Directivity Index 531 15.4.4 Example: Differential Microphones 531 15.5 Design of Fixed Beamformers 534 15.5.1 Minimum Variance Distortionless Response Beamformer 535 15.5.2 MVDR Beamformer with Limited Susceptibility 537 15.5.3 Linearly Constrained Minimum Variance Beamformer 538 15.5.4 Max-SNR Beamformer 539 15.6 Multichannel Wiener Filter and Postfilter 540 15.7 Adaptive Beamformers 542 15.7.1 The Frost Beamformer 542 15.7.2 Generalized Side-Lobe Canceller 544 15.7.3 Generalized Side-lobe Canceller with Adaptive Blocking Matrix 546 15.7.4 Model-Based Parsimonious-Excitation-Based GSC 547 15.8 Non-linear Multi-channel Noise Reduction 550 References 551 Index 555

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Book SynopsisBringing together the perspectives of more than 40 internationally acclaimed authors, The Handbook of Global Media Research explores competing methodologies in the dynamic field of transnational media and communications, providing valuable insight into research practice in a globalized media landscape.Table of ContentsNotes on Contributors viii Introduction 1 Ingrid Volkmer Part I History of Transnational Media Research 7 1 Comparative Research and the History of Communication Studies 9 John D.H. Downing 2 Global Media Research and Global Ambitions: The Case of UNESCO 28 Cees J. Hamelink 3 Global Media Research: Can We Know Global Audiences? A View from a BBC Perspective 40 Graham Mytton Part II Re-conceptualizing Research across Globalized Network Cultures 55 4 Media and Hegemonic Populism: Representing the Rise of the Rest 57 Jan Nederveen Pieterse 5 Digitization and Knowledge Systems of the Powerful and the Powerless 74 Saskia Sassen 6 Media Cultures in a Global Age: A Transcultural Approach to an Expanded Spectrum 92 Nick Couldry and Andreas Hepp 7 Deconstructing the “Methodological Paradox”: Comparative Research between National Centrality and Networked Spaces 110 Ingrid Volkmer 8 Footprints of the Global South: Venesat-1 and RascomQAF/1R as Counter-hegemonic Satellites 123 Lisa Parks 9 Securitization and Legitimacy in Global Media Governance: Spaces, Jurisdictions, and Tensions 143 Katharine Sarikakis 10 Emerging Transnational News Spheres in Global Crisis Reporting: A Research Agenda 156 Maria Hellman and Kristina Riegert 11 The “Global Public Sphere”: A Critical Reappraisal 175 Kai Hafez Part III Supra- and Sub-national Spheres: Researching Transnational Spaces 193 12 Middle East Media Research: Problems and Approaches 195 Dina Matar and Ehab Bessaiso 13 Media Industries and Policy in Digital Times: A Latin American Perspective of Notes and Methods 212 Rodrigo Gómez García 14 Methodological Pluralism: Interrogating Ethnic Identity and Diaspora Issues in Southeast Asia 227 Umi Khattab 15 “Citizen Access to Information”: Capturing the Evidence across Zambia, Ghana, and Kenya 245 Gerry Power, Samia Khatun, and Klara Debeljak 16 India and a New Cartography of Global Communication 276 Daya Kishan Thussu 17 What Is Governance? Citizens’ Perspectives on Governance in Sierra Leone and Tanzania 289 Vipul Khosla and Kavita Abraham Dowsing 18 Forced Migrants, New Media Practices, and the Creation of Locality 312 Saskia Witteborn Part IV Identifying Spheres of Comparison in Globalized Contexts 331 19 Researching the News Agencies 333 Oliver Boyd-Barrett 20 Global Internets: Media Research in the New World 352 Gerard Goggin 21 Media, Diaspora, and the Transnational Context: Cosmopolitanizing Cross-National Comparative Research? 365 Myria Georgiou 22 Post-colonial Interventions on Media, Audiences, and National Politics 381 Ramaswami Harindranath 23 Media Research and Satellite Cultures: Comparative Research among Arab Communities in Europe 397 Christina Slade and Ingrid Volkmer 24 Stardust in the Audience’s Eyes: Weddings as Media Events in Visual Media and the Construction of Gender 411 Eva Flicker Part V Comparative Research and Contexts of Challenges 433 25 Lost, Found, and Made: Qualitative Data in the Study of Three-Step Flows of Communication 435 Klaus Bruhn Jensen 26 Finding Yourself in the Past, the Present, the Local, and the Global: Potentialities of Mediated Cosmopolitanism as a Research Methodology 451 Ruth Teer-Tomaselli and Lauren Dyll-Myklebust 27 Europe: A Laboratory for Comparative Communication Research 470 Claes H. de Vreese and Rens Vliegenthart 28 The Global–Local in News Production Tales from the Field in the “Shoes” of Journalists 485 Lisbeth Clausen 29 “Africa Talks Climate”: Comparing Audience Understandings of Climate Change in Ten African Countries 504 Anna Godfrey, Miriam Burton, and Emily LeRoux-Rutledge 30 Organizing and Managing Comparative Research Projects across Nations: Models and Challenges of Coordinated Collaboration 521 Frank Esser and Thomas Hanitzsch 31 Benefits and Pitfalls of Comparative Research on News: Production, Content, and Audiences 533 Akiba A. Cohen Index 547

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Book SynopsisLINEAR and NONLINEAR INSTABILITIES in MECHANICAL SYSTEMS An in-depth insight into nonlinear analysis and control As mechanical systems become lighter, faster, and more flexible, various nonlinear instability phenomena can occur in practical systems. The fundamental knowledge of nonlinear analysis and control is essential to engineers for analysing and controlling nonlinear instability phenomena. This book bridges the gap between the mathematical expressions of nonlinear dynamics and the corresponding practical phenomena. Linear and Nonlinear Instabilities in Mechanical Systems: Analysis, Control and Application provides a detailed and informed insight into the fundamental methods for analysis and control for nonlinear instabilities from the practical point of view. Key features: Refers to the behaviours of practical mechanical systems such as aircraft, railway vehicle, robot manipulator, micro/nano sensor Enhances the rigorousTable of ContentsPreface 1 References 8 1 Equilibrium States and their Stability 11 1.1 Equilibrium states 11 1.1.1 Spring-mass system 12 1.1.2 Magnetically levitated system 16 1.1.3 Simple pendulum 20 1.2 Work and potential energy 23 1.3 Stability of the equilibrium state in conservative systems 27 1.4 Stability of mechanical systems 29 1.4.1 Stability of spring-mass system 29 1.4.2 Stability of magnetically levitated system 31 1.4.3 Pendulum 32 1.4.4 Stabilization control of magnetically levitated system 32 References 34 2 Linear Dynamical Systems 35 2.1 Vector field and phase space 35 2.2 Stability of equilibrium states 40 2.3 Linearization and local stability 41 2.4 Eigenvalues of linear operators and phase portraits in a single-degree-offreedom system 44 2.4.1 Description of the solution by matrix exponential function 44 2.4.2 Case with distinct eigenvalues 45 2.4.3 Case with repeated eigenvalues 49 2.4.4 Case with complex eigenvalues 54 2.5 Invariant subspaces 60 2.6 Change of stability due to the variation of system parameters 61 References 67 3 Dynamic Instability of Two-Degree-of-Freedom-Systems 69 3.1 Positional forces and velocity-dependent forces 69 3.2 Total energy and its time-variation 71 3.2.1 Kinetic energy 71 3.2.2 Potential energy due to conservative force FK 72 3.2.3 Effect of velocity dependent damping force FD 76 3.2.4 Effect of circulatory force FN 78 3.2.5 Effect of gyroscopic force FG 81 References 83 4 Modal Analysis of Systems Subject to Conservative and Circulatory Forces 85 4.1 Decomposition of the matrix M 86 4.2 Characteristic equation and modal vector 89 4.3 Modal analysis in case without circulatory force 90 4.4 Modal analysis in case with circulatory force 97 4.4.1 Case study 1: _i are real 100 4.4.2 Case study 2: _i are complex 103 4.5 Synchronous and nonsynchronous motions in a fluid-conveying pipe (video) 114 References 115 5 Static Instability and Practical Examples 117 5.1 Two-link model for a slender straight elastic rod subject to compressive forces 117 5.1.1 Static instability due to compressive forces 117 5.1.2 Effect of a spring attached in the longitudinal direction 122 5.2 Spring-mass-damper models in MEMS 125 5.2.1 Comb-type MEMS actuator devices 125 5.2.2 Cantilever-type MEMS switch 129 References 131 6 Dynamic Instability and Practical Examples 135 6.1 Self-excited oscillation of belt-driven mass-spring-damper system 135 6.2 Flutter of wing 139 6.2.1 Static destabilization in case when the mass center is located in front of the elastic center 145 6.2.2 Static and dynamic destabilization in case when the mass center is located behind the elastic center 146 6.3 Hunting motion in a railway vehicle 149 6.4 Dynamic instability in Jeffcott rotor due to internal damping 161 6.4.1 Fundamental rotor dynamics 161 6.4.2 Effects of the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force on static stability 166 6.4.3 Effect of external damping 170 6.4.4 Dynamics instability due to internal damping 174 6.5 Dynamic instability in fluid-conveying pipe due to follower force 178 References 180 7 Local Bifurcations 183 7.1 Nonlinear analysis of a two-link-model subjected to compressive forces 184 7.1.1 Nonlinearity of equivalent spring stiffness 184 7.1.2 Equilibrium states and their stability 186 7.2 Reduction of dynamics near a critical point 190 7.3 Pitchfork bifurcation 196 7.4 Other codimension one bifurcations 197 7.4.1 Saddle-node bifurcation 197 7.4.2 Transcritical bifurcation 199 7.4.3 Hopf bifurcation 200 7.5 Perturbation of pitchfork bifurcation 204 7.5.1 Bifurcation diagram 204 7.5.2 Analysis of bifurcation point 207 7.5.3 Equilibrium surface and bifurcation diagrams 209 7.6 Effect of Coulomb friction on pitchfork bifurcation 211 7.6.1 Linear analysis 212 7.6.2 Nonlinear analysis 214 7.7 Nonlinear characteristics of static Instability in spring-mass-damper models of MEMS 217 7.7.1 Pitchfork bifurcation in comb-type MEMS actuator device 218 7.7.2 Saddle-node bifurcation in MEMS switch 220 References 222 8 Reduction Methods of Nonlinear Dynamical Systems 225 8.1 Reduction of the dimension of state space by center manifold theory 226 8.1.1 Nonlinear stability analysis at pitchfork bifurcation point 226 8.1.2 Reduction of nonlinear dynamics near bifurcation point 229 8.2 Reduction of degree of nonlinear terms by the method of normal forms 233 8.2.1 Reduction by nonlinear coordinate transformation: Method of normal forms 233 8.2.2 Case in which the linear part has distinct real eigenvaules 235 8.2.3 Nonlinear term remaining in normal form 238 8.2.4 Reduction in the neighborhood of Hopf bifurcation point 240 References 246 9 Method of Multiple Scales 247 9.1 Spring-mass system with small damping 248 9.2 Introduction of multiple time scales 251 9.3 Method of multiple scales 253 9.4 Slow time scale variation of amplitude and stability of periodic solutions 256 References 256 10 Nonlinear Characteristics of Dynamic Instability 259 10.1 Effect of nonlinearity on dynamic instability due to negative damping force 260 10.1.1 Cubic nonlinear damping (Rayleigh type and van der Pol type) 260 10.1.2 Self-excited oscillation produced through Hopf bifurcation 261 10.1.3 Self-excited oscillation by linear feedback and its amplitude control by nonlinear feedback 269 10.2 Effect of nonlinearity on dynamic instability due to circulatory force 271 10.2.1 Derivation of amplitude equations by solvability condition 272 10.2.2 Effect of cubic nonlinear stiffness on steady state response 278 References 281 11 Parametric Resonance and Pitchfork Bifurcation 283 11.1 Parametric resonance of vertically-excited inverted pendulum 284 11.1.1 Equation of motion 284 11.2 Dynamics in case without excitation 285 11.2.1 Dimensionless equation of motion subject to vertical excitation 286 11.2.2 Trivial equilibrium state and its stability 290 11.2.3 Nontrivial steady state amplitude and its stability 291 References 295 12 Stabilization of Inverted Pendulum under High-Frequency Excitation 297 12.1 Equation of motion 298 12.2 Analysis by the method of multiple scales 299 12.2.1 Scaling of some parameters 299 12.2.2 Averaging by the method of multiple scales 300 12.3 Bifurcation analysis of inverted pendulum under high-frequency excitation 302 12.3.1 Subcritical pitchfork bifurcation and stabilization of inverted pendulum 302 12.3.2 Global stability of equilibrium states 305 12.4 Experiments 307 12.5 Effects of the excitation direction on the bifurcation 308 12.5.1 Averaging by the method of multiple scales 309 12.5.2 Excitation inclined from the vertical direction and perturbed subcritical pitchfork bifurcation 310 12.5.3 Supercritical pitchfork bifurcation in horizontal excitation and its perturbation due to inclination of the excitation direction 311 12.6 Stabilization of statically unstable equilibrium states by high-frequency excitation 311 References 312 13 Self-excited Resonator in Atomic Force Microscopy (Utilization of Dynamic Instability) 315 13.1 Principle of frequency modulation atomic force microscope (FM-AFM) 316 13.2 Detection of frequency shift based on external excitation 322 13.3 Detection of frequency shift based on self-excitation 325 13.4 Amplitude control for self-excited microcantilever probe 327 References 328 14 High-Sensitive Mass Sensing by Eigenmode Shift 331 14.1 Conventional mass sensing by frequency shift of resonator 332 14.2 High-sensitive mass sensing by coupled resonators 333 14.3 Solution of equations of motion 335 14.4 Mode shift due to measured mass 336 14.5 Experimental detection methods for mode shift 337 14.5.1 Use of eternal excitation 338 14.6 Use of self-excitation 339 References 344 15 Motion Control of Underactuated Manipulator without State Feedback Control 345 15.1 What is an underactuated manipulator 345 15.2 Equation of motion 346 15.3 Averaging by the method of multiple scales and bifurcation analysis 348 15.4 Motion control of free link 352 15.5 Experimental results 354 References 355 16 Experimental Observations 359 16.1 Experiments of a single degree-of-freedom system (Chapters 2 and 6) 359 16.1.1 Stability of spring-mass-damper system depending on the stiffness k and the damping c 359 16.1.2 Self-excited oscillation of a window shield wiper blade around the reversal 362 16.2 Buckling of a slender beam under a compressive force 362 16.2.1 Observation of pitchfork bifurcation (sections 5.1 and 7.1) 362 16.2.2 Observation of perturbed pitchfork bifurcation (section 7.5) 363 16.2.3 Effect of Coulomb friction on pitchfork bifurcation (section 7.6) 364 16.3 Hunting motion of a railway vehicle wheelset (section 6.3) 365 16.4 Stabilization of hunting motion by gyroscopic damper (section 6.3) 367 16.5 Self-excited oscillation of fluid-conveying pipe (section 6.5) 368 16.6 Realization of self-excited oscillation in a practical cantilever (section 10.1.3) 369 16.7 Parametric resonance (Chapter 11) 373 16.8 Stabilization of an inverted pendulum under high-frequency vertical excitation (Chapter 12) 374 16.9 Self-excited coupled cantilever beams for ultrasensitive mass sensing (section 14.6) 375 16.10Motion control of an underactuated manipulator by bifurcation control (Chapter 15) 375 References 376 A Cubic Nonlinear Characteristics 379 A.1 Symmetric and nonsymmetric nonlinearities 380 A.2 Nonsymmetric nonlinearity due to the shift of the equilibrium state 381 A.3 Effect of harmonic external excitation 383 B Nondimensionalization and Scaling Nonlinearity 385 B.1 Nondimensionalization of equations of motion 385 B.2 Scaling of nonlinearity 389 B.3 Nondimensionalization of the governing equation of a nonlinear oscillator 391 B.4 Effect of harmonic external excitation 392 References 394 C Occurrence Prediction for Some Types of Resonances 395 C.1 Dynamics of a linear spring-mass-damper system subject to harmonic external excitation 396 C.1.1 Case with viscous damping 396 C.1.2 Case under no viscous damping 399 C.2 Occurrence prediction of some types of resonances in a nonlinear springmass-damper system 401 References 405 D Order Estimation of Responses 407 D.1 Order symbol 407 D.2 Asymptotic expression of solution 408 D.3 Linear oscillator under harmonic external excitation 409 D.3.1 Non-resonant case 410 D.3.2 Resonant case 411 D.3.3 Near-resonant case 411 D.4 Cubic nonlinear oscillator under external harmonic excitation 412 D.4.1 Large damping case ( = O(1)) 412 D.4.2 Relatively small damping case ( = O(_2=3)) 413 D.4.3 Small damping case ( = O(_)) 414 D.5 Linear oscillator with negative damping 415 D.6 Van der Pol oscillator 416 D.6.1 Large response case (_0(_) = 1) 417 D.6.2 Small but finite response case (_0(_) = o(1)) 417 D.7 Parametrically excited oscillator 418 D.7.1 Large damping case ( = O(1)) 419 D.7.2 Small damping case ( = O(_)) 420 D.7.3 Case with cubic nonlinear component of restoring force 422 D.7.4 Near-resonant case 423 References 425 E Free Oscillation of Spring-Mass System under Coulomb Friction and its Dead Zone 427 E.1 Characteristics of friction 427 E.2 Free oscillation under Coulomb friction 429 E.3 Variation of the final rest position with decrease in the stiffness 434 References 436 F Projection by Adjoint Vector 439 G Solvability Condition 441 G.1 Kernel and image of linear transformation 441 G.2 Solvability condition 443 H Effect of Contact Force on the Dynamics of Railway Vehicle Wheelset 451 H.1 A slip at the contact point of rolling disk on a plane 452

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Book SynopsisPresents the origins and evolution of the systems engineering discipline and helps readers gain a personal familiarity with systems engineering experts: their experience, opinions and attitudes in this field. This book is based on a qualitative study that includes dozens of in-depth interviews with experts in the systems engineering field.Table of ContentsWORDS FROM INCOSE PRESIDENT ix WORDS FROM THE HEAD OF THE BERNARD M. GORDON CENTER FOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING, TECHNION xi WORDS FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE ISRAELI SOCIETY FOR SYSTEMS ENGINEERING INCOSE−IL xiii WORDS FROM THE WRITERS xv PREFACE xix LIST OF INTERVIEWEES (ALPHABETICAL ORDER) xxiii PART I SYSTEMS ENGINEERING – A GENERAL OVERVIEW 1 1.1 The Origins, History, and Uniqueness of Systems Engineering 3 1.1.1 On The Essence of Systems Engineering, 5 1.1.2 The Different Types of Systems Engineering, 6 1.2 A Multidisciplinary, Systemic View 8 1.2.1 The Boundaries of a System, 9 1.2.2 Systems of Systems, 10 1.2.3 Managing the Human Factor, 11 1.2.4 Traits Derived From an Interdisciplinary, Systemic View, 11 1.3 The Systems Engineer as Manager and Leader 14 1.3.1 Systems Engineering and Technological Project Management, 17 1.4 The Evolution of a Systems Engineer 19 1.4.1 The Main Paths of Development of Systems Engineers, 20 1.4.2 The Evolution of Software Engineers Into Systems Engineers, 22 1.4.3 The Training of Systems Engineers, 23 1.5 Systems Engineering in Various Organizations 25 1.5.1 Who is a Systems Engineer? – A Question of Terminology, 28 1.6 The Future of Systems Engineering 29 PARTII AWORLD OF COMPLEX PROJECTS – THEN AND NOW 33 2.1 The IAI Lavi Project – The Dream and Downfall 35 2.1.1 The Feasibility Study, 36 2.1.2 The Project, 39 2.1.3 The End of the Project and Further Insights, 49 2.2 The Iron Dome Project – Development Under Fire 52 2.2.1 Background and Preparations, 53 PARTIII THE INTERVIEWS 69 3.1 Developments in a Complex, Technological World – The Aviation and Space Industries 71 3.1.1 Structured, Multidisciplinary Methods of Resolving Lateral Problems, 71 3.1.2 Planning Systems that Fit the Needs of Both Clients and Users, 79 3.1.3 Seeing Beyond Technology – Understanding the Mission, 86 3.1.4 Simplification Capabilities in a Complex Environment, 95 3.1.5 Complex Mega-Systems That Cannot be Supervised, 104 3.2 Developments in Industry and Commerce and in Complex Civilian Systems 111 3.2.1 The Ability to Identify Bottlenecks and Eliminate Them, 111 3.2.2 Well-Organized Work is Always Needed; the Problem is People Don’t Always Want to Make the Effort, 118 3.2.3 Management-Oriented Systems Engineers Also See The Business Aspects, 126 3.3 The Influence of the Accelerated Progress in the Computing World 139 3.3.1 When a Critical Mass of Processes and Methods is Formed, A New Profession is Born, 139 3.3.2 Looking at a Problem From Different Angles, 145 3.3.3 Venturing Beyond the Core-Subjects to Study New Areas, 152 3.3.4 The Abstract Level of Discussion is of Great Value, 157 3.3 Systems Engineering and Academia 166 3.3.1 Applying Holistic Thinking, 166 3.3.2 A Powerful Natural Curiosity and an Ability to Truly Like People, 171 3.3.3 Expanding the Boundaries of the System, 175 References, 188 3.5 Systems Engineering in the World of Training and Consulting 189 3.5.1 Combining Engineering and Management Skills, 189 3.5.2 Model-Based Systems Engineering, 195 3.5.3 The Main Requirement: Keeping Up With Schedules, 200 INDEX 207

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Book SynopsisThe essential guide to state-of-the art mobile positioning and tracking techniquesfully updated for new and emerging trends in the field Mobile Positioning and Tracking, Second Edition explores state-of-the-art mobile positioning solutions applied on top of current wireless communication networks. Application areas covered include positioning, data fusion and filtering, tracking, error mitigation, both conventional and cooperative positioning technologies and systems, and more. The authors fill the gap between positioning and communication systems, showing how features of wireless communications systems can be used for positioning purposes and how the retrieved location information can be used to enhance the performance of wireless networks. Unlike other books on the subject, Mobile Positioning and Tracking: From Conventional to Cooperative Techniques, 2nd Edition covers the entire positioning and tracking value chain, starting from the measurementTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xv List of Contributors xvii Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi List of Abbreviations xxiii Notations xxxi 1 Introduction 1Joaõ Figueiras, Francescantonio Della Rosa and Simone Frattasi 1.1 Application Areas of Positioning (Chapter 2) 5 1.2 Basics of Wireless Communications for Positioning (Chapter 3) 5 1.3 Fundamentals of Positioning (Chapter 4) 5 1.4 Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques (Chapter 5) 6 1.5 Fundamentals of Tracking (Chapter 6) 6 1.6 Error Mitigation Techniques (Chapter 7) 7 1.7 Positioning Systems and Technologies (Chapter 8) 7 1.8 Ultrawideband Positioning and Tracking (Chapter 9) 8 1.9 Indoor Positioning in WLAN (Chapter 10) 8 1.10 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization in RFID Systems (Chapter 11) 9 1.11 Cooperative Mobile Positioning (Chapter 12) 9 2 Application Areas of Positioning 11Simone Frattasi 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Localization Framework 11 2.3 Location-based Services 13 2.3.1 LBS Ecosystem 13 2.3.2 Taxonomies 15 2.3.3 Context Awareness 26 2.3.4 Privacy 29 2.4 Location-based Network Optimization 32 2.4.1 Radio Network Planning 32 2.4.2 Radio Resource Management 32 2.5 Patent Trends 35 2.6 Conclusions 39 3 Basics of Wireless Communications for Positioning 43Gilberto Berardinelli and Nicola Marchetti 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Radio Propagation 44 3.2.1 Path Loss 45 3.2.2 Shadowing 48 3.2.3 Small-scale Fading 49 3.2.4 Radio Propagation and Mobile Positioning 52 3.2.5 RSS-based Positioning 54 3.3 Multiple-antenna Techniques 55 3.3.1 Spatial Diversity 55 3.3.2 Spatial Multiplexing 56 3.3.3 Gains Obtained by Exploiting the Spatial Domain 57 3.3.4 MIMO and Mobile Positioning 59 3.4 Duplexing Methods 59 3.4.1 Simplex Systems 59 3.4.2 Half-duplex 59 3.4.3 Full Duplex 60 3.5 Modulation and Multiple-access Techniques 61 3.5.1 Modulation Techniques 61 3.5.2 Multiple-access Techniques 65 3.5.3 OFDMA and Mobile Positioning 67 3.6 Radio Resource Management and Mobile Positioning 67 3.6.1 Handoff, Channel Reuse and Interference Adaptation 67 3.6.2 Power Control 69 3.7 Synchronization 70 3.7.1 Centralized Synchronization 70 3.7.2 Distributed Synchronization 71 3.8 Cooperative Communications 72 3.8.1 Cooperative MIMO 73 3.8.2 Clustering 74 3.8.3 Cooperative Routing 75 3.8.4 RSS-based Cooperative Positioning 75 3.9 Cognitive Radio and Mobile Positioning 75 3.10 Conclusions 78 4 Fundamentals of Positioning 81João Figueiras 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Classification of Positioning Infrastructures 81 4.2.1 Positioning-system Topology 82 4.2.2 Physical Coverage Range 83 4.2.3 Integration of Positioning Solutions 84 4.3 Types of Measurements and Methods for their Estimation 85 4.3.1 Cell ID 85 4.3.2 Signal Strength 85 4.3.3 Time of Arrival 86 4.3.4 Time Difference of Arrival 87 4.3.5 Angle of Arrival 88 4.3.6 Personal-information Identification 89 4.4 Positioning Techniques 89 4.4.1 Proximity Sensing 89 4.4.2 Triangulation 91 4.4.3 Fingerprinting 95 4.4.4 Dead Reckoning 98 4.4.5 Hybrid Approaches 98 4.5 Error Sources in Positioning 100 4.5.1 Propagation 100 4.5.2 Geometry 104 4.5.3 Equipment and Technology 105 4.6 Metrics of Location Accuracy 106 4.6.1 Circular Error Probability 106 4.6.2 Dilution of Precision 106 4.6.3 Cramér–Rao Lower Bound 107 4.7 Conclusions 107 5 Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques 109João Figueiras 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Least-squares Methods 110 5.2.1 Linear Least Squares 111 5.2.2 Recursive Least Squares 112 5.2.3 Weighted Nonlinear Least Squares 113 5.2.4 The Absolute/Local-minimum Problem 117 5.3 Bayesian Filtering 117 5.3.1 The Kalman Filter 118 5.3.2 The Particle Filter 124 5.3.3 Grid-based Methods 126 5.4 Estimating Model Parameters and Biases in Observations 126 5.4.1 Precalibration 127 5.4.2 Joint Parameter and State Estimation 127 5.5 Alternative Approaches 128 5.5.1 Fingerprinting 128 5.5.2 Time Series Data 131 5.6 Conclusions 132 6 Fundamentals of Tracking 135João Figueiras 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Impact of User Mobility on Positioning 136 6.2.1 Localizing Static Devices 136 6.2.2 Added Complexity in Tracking 136 6.2.3 Additional Knowledge in Cooperative Environments 136 6.3 Mobility Models 137 6.3.1 Conventional Models 137 6.3.2 Models Based on Stochastic Processes 137 6.3.3 Geographical-restriction Models 144 6.3.4 Group Mobility Models 146 6.3.5 Social-based Models 147 6.4 Tracking Moving Devices 150 6.4.1 Mitigating Obstructions in the Propagation Conditions 150 6.4.2 Tracking Nonmaneuvering Targets 151 6.4.3 Tracking Maneuvering Targets 152 6.4.4 Learning Position and Trajectory Patterns 155 6.5 Conclusions 160 7 Error Mitigation Techniques 163Ismail Guvenc 7.1 Introduction 163 7.2 System Model 165 7.2.1 Maximum-likelihood Algorithm for LOS Scenarios 166 7.2.2 Cramér–Rao Lower Bounds for LOS Scenarios 167 7.3 NLOS Scenarios: Fundamental Limits and Maximum-likelihood Solutions 170 7.3.1 ML-based Algorithms 170 7.3.2 Cramér–Rao Lower Bound 173 7.4 Least-squares Techniques for NLOS Localization 175 7.4.1 Weighted Least Squares 175 7.4.2 Residual-weighting Algorithm 176 7.5 Constraint-based Techniques for NLOS Localization 178 7.5.1 Constrained LS Algorithm and Quadratic Programming 178 7.5.2 Linear Programming 178 7.5.3 Geometry-constrained Location Estimation 180 7.5.4 Interior-point Optimization 181 7.6 Robust Estimators for NLOS Localization 182 7.6.1 Huber M-estimator 182 7.6.2 Least Median Squares 183 7.6.3 Other Robust Estimation Options 184 7.7 Identify and Discard Techniques for NLOS Localization 184 7.7.1 Residual Test Algorithm 184 7.8 Conclusions 188 8 Positioning Systems and Technologies 189Andreas Waadt, Guido Bruck and Peter Jung 8.1 Introduction 189 8.2 Satellite Positioning 190 8.2.1 Overview 190 8.2.2 Basic Principles 191 8.2.3 Satellite Positioning Systems 194 8.2.4 Accuracy and Reliability 195 8.2.5 Drawbacks When Applied to Mobile Positioning 195 8.3 Cellular Positioning 196 8.3.1 Overview 196 8.3.2 GSM 197 8.3.3 UMTS 206 8.3.4 LTE 208 8.3.5 Emergency Applications in Cellular Networks 211 8.3.6 Drawbacks When Applied to Mobile Positioning 213 8.4 Wireless Local/Personal Area Network Positioning 213 8.4.1 Solutions on Top of Wireless Local Networks 213 8.4.2 Dedicated Solutions 217 8.5 Ad hoc Positioning 220 8.6 Hybrid Positioning 220 8.6.1 Heterogeneous Positioning 220 8.6.2 Cellular and WLAN 221 8.6.3 Assisted GPS 221 8.7 Conclusions 223 Acknowledgements 223 9 Ultra-wideband Positioning and Tracking 225Davide Dardari 9.1 Introduction 225 9.2 UWB Technology 226 9.2.1 History and Definitions 226 9.2.2 Theory 226 9.2.3 Regulations 228 9.3 The UWB Radio Channel 230 9.3.1 Path Loss 231 9.3.2 Multipath 231 9.3.3 UWB Channel Models for Positioning 232 9.4 UWB Standards 233 9.4.1 IEEE 802.15.4a Standard 233 9.4.2 IEEE 802.15.4f Standard 235 9.4.3 Other Standards 237 9.5 Time-of-arrival Measurements 237 9.5.1 Two-way Ranging 237 9.5.2 Time Difference of Arrival 238 9.5.3 Fundamental Limits in TOA Estimation 238 9.5.4 Main Issues in TOA Estimation 240 9.5.5 Clock Drift 242 9.6 Ranging Algoritms in Real Conditions 243 9.6.1 ML TOA Estimation in the Presence of a Multipath 243 9.6.2 Clock Drift Mitigation 248 9.6.3 Localization and Tracking with UWB 250 9.7 Passive UWB Localization 253 9.7.1 UWB-RFID 253 9.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 258 Acknowledgments 260 10 Indoor Positioning in WLAN 261Francescantonio Della Rosa, Mauro Pelosi and Jari Nurmi 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 Potential and Limitations of WLAN 262 10.3 Empirical Approaches 263 10.3.1 Probe Requests and Beacon Frames 264 10.3.2 Positioning Methods 265 10.3.3 Evaluation Criteria for Indoor Positioning Systems Based on WLANs 272 10.4 Error Sources in RSS Measurements 274 10.4.1 Heterogeneous WiFi Cards 275 10.4.2 Device Orientation 277 10.4.3 Channel in the Presence of the User and Body Loss 278 10.4.4 The Hand Grip 278 10.5 Experimental Activities 279 10.6 Conclusions 281 11 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization in RFID Systems: Exploiting Multiplicity, Diversity and Polarization of Tags 283Tanveer Bhuiyan and Simone Frattasi 11.1 Introduction 283 11.2 RFID Positioning Systems 285 11.2.1 Single-tag Localization 285 11.3 Cooperative Multi-tag Localization 286 11.3.1 Multi-tagged Objects and Persons 286 11.3.2 Localization of Mobile RFID Readers: CoopAOA 290 11.3.3 Performance Evaluation 297 11.3.4 Experimental Activity for Tag Localization 309 11.4 Conclusions 314 12 Cooperative Mobile Positioning 315Simone Frattasi, Joaõ Figueiras and Francescantonio Della Rosa 12.1 Introduction 315 12.2 Cooperative Localization 316 12.2.1 Robot Networks 316 12.2.2 Wireless Sensor Networks 317 12.2.3 Wireless Mobile Networks 321 12.3 Cooperative Data Fusion and Filtering Techniques 323 12.3.1 Coop-WNLLS: Cooperative Weighted Nonlinear Least Squares 323 12.3.2 Coop-EKF: Cooperative Extended Kalman Filter 326 12.4 COMET: A Cooperative Mobile Positioning System 328 12.4.1 System Architecture 328 12.4.2 Data Fusion Methods 330 12.4.3 Performance Evaluation 337 12.5 Experimental Activity in a Cooperative WLAN Scenario 349 12.5.1 Scenario 350 12.5.2 Results 350 12.6 Conclusions 352 References 353 Index 373

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Book SynopsisPresents thedevelopments in microelectronic-related fields, with comprehensive insight from a number of leading industry professionals The book presents the future developments and innovations in the developing field of microelectronics. The book's chapters contain contributions from various authors, all of whom are leading industry professionals affiliated either with top universities, major semiconductor companies, or government laboratories, discussing the evolution of their profession. A wide range of microelectronic-related fields are examined, including solid-state electronics, material science, optoelectronics, bioelectronics, and renewable energies. The topics covered range from fundamental physical principles, materials and device technologies, and major new market opportunities. Describes the expansion of the field into hot topics such as energy (photovoltaics) and medicine (bio-nanotechnology) Provides contributions from leading industrTable of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Preface xixS. Luryi, J. M. Xu, and A. Zaslavsky Acknowledgments xxiii I FUTURE OF DIGITAL SILICON 1.1 Prospects of Future Si Technologies in the Data-Driven World 3Kinam Kim and Gitae Jeong 1. Introduction 3 2. Memory – DRAM 4 3. Memory – NAND 6 4. Logic technology 8 5. CMOS image sensors 11 6. Packaging technology 13 7. Silicon photonics technology 16 8. Concluding remarks 18 Acknowledgments 18 References 18 1.2 How Lithography Enables Moore’s Law 23J. P. H. Benschop 1. Introduction 23 2. Moore’s Law and the contribution of lithography 23 3. Lithography technology: past and present 24 4. Lithography technology: future 26 5. Summary 31 6. Conclusion 31 Acknowledgments 31 References 32 1.3 What Happened to Post-CMOS? 35P. M. Solomon 1. Introduction 35 2. General constraints on speed and energy 35 3. Guidelines for success 38 4. Benchmarking and examples 40 5. Discussion 46 6. Conclusion 47 Acknowledgments 47 References 47 1.4 Three-Dimensional Integration of Ge and Two-Dimensional Materials for One-Dimensional Devices 51M. Östling, E. Dentoni Litta, and P.-E. Hellström 1. Introduction 51 2. FEOL technology and materials for 3D integration 54 3. Integration of “more than Moore” functionality 57 4. Implications of 3D integration at the system level 59 5. Conclusion 61 Acknowledgments 62 References 63 1.5 Challenges to Ultralow-Power Semiconductor Device Operation 69Francis Balestra 1. Introduction 69 2. Ultimate MOS transistors 70 3. Small slope switches 76 4. Conclusion 77 Acknowledgments 78 References 78 1.6 A Universal Nonvolatile Processing Environment 83T. Windbacher, A. Makarov, V. Sverdlov, and S. Selberherr 1. Introduction 83 2. Universal nonvolatile processing environment 84 3. Bias-field-free spin-torque oscillator 87 4. Summary 90 Acknowledgments 90 References 90 1.7 Can MRAM (Finally) Be a Factor? 93Jean-Pierre Nozières 1. Introduction 93 2. What is MRAM? 93 3. Current limitations for stand-alone memories 96 4. Immediate opportunities: embedded memories 98 5. Conclusion 101 References 101 1.8 Nanomanufacturing for Electronics or Optoelectronics 103M. J. Kelly 1. Introduction 103 2. Nano-LEGO® 104 3. Tunnel devices 105 4. Split-gate transistors 106 5. Other nanoscale systems 108 6. Conclusion 108 Acknowledgments 109 References 109 II NEW MATERIALS AND NEW PHYSICS 2.1 Surface Waves Everywhere 113M. I. Dyakonov 1. Introduction 113 2. Water waves 113 3. Surface acoustic waves 116 4. Surface plasma waves and polaritons 117 5. Plasma waves in two-dimensional structures 117 6. Electronic surface states in solids 119 7. Dyakonov surface waves (DSWs) 121 References 123 2.2 Graphene and Atom-Thick 2D Materials: Device Application Prospects 127Sungwoo Hwang, Jinseong Heo, Min-Hyun Lee, Kyung-Eun Byun, Yeonchoo Cho, and Seongjun Park 1. Introduction 127 2. Conventional low-dimensional systems 127 3. New atomically thin material systems 129 4. Device application of new material systems 133 5. Components in Si technology 137 6. Graphene on Ge 142 7. Conclusion 142 References 142 2.3 Computing with Coupled Relaxation Oscillators 147N. Shukla, S. Datta, A. Parihar, and A. Raychowdhury 1. Introduction 147 2. Vanadium dioxide-based relaxation oscillators 148 3. Experimental demonstration of pairwise coupled HVFET oscillators 150 4. Computing with pairwise coupled HVFET oscillators 150 5. Associative computing using pairwise coupled oscillators 153 6. Conclusion 155 References 156 2.4 On the Field-Induced Insulator–Metal Transition in VO2 Films 157Serge Luryi and Boris Spivak 1. Introduction 157 2. Electron concentration-induced transition 159 3. Field-induced transition in a film 161 4. Need for a ground plane 163 5. Conclusion 163 References 164 2.5 Group IV Alloys for Advanced Nano- and Optoelectronic Applications 167Detlev Grützmacher 1. Introduction 167 2. Epitaxial growth of GeSn layers by reactive gas source epitaxy 168 3. Optically pumped GeSn laser 172 4. Potential of GeSn alloys for electronic devices 175 5. Conclusion 178 Acknowledgments 178 References 178 2.6 High Sn-Content GeSn Light Emitters for Silicon Photonics 181D. Stange, C. Schulte-Braucks, N. von den Driesch, S. Wirths, G. Mussler, S. Lenk, T. Stoica, S. Mantl, D. Grützmacher, D. Buca, R. Geiger, T. Zabel, H. Sigg, J. M. Hartmann, and Z. Ikonic 1. Introduction 181 2. Experimental details of the GeSn material system 183 3. Direct bandgap GeSn light emitting diodes 185 4. Group IV GeSn microdisk laser on Si(100) 188 5. Conclusion and outlook 191 References 191 2.7 Gallium Nitride-Based Lateral and Vertical Nanowire Devices 195Y.-W. Jo, D.-H. Son, K.-S. Im, and J.-H. Lee 1. Introduction 195 2. Crystallographic study of GaN nanowires using TMAH wet etching 196 3. Ω-shaped-gate lateral AlGaN/GaN FETs 199 4. Gate-all-around vertical GaN FETs 200 5. Conclusion 203 Acknowledgments 204 References 204 2.8 Scribing Graphene Circuits 207N. Rodriguez, R. J. Ruiz, C. Marquez, and F. Gamiz 1. Introduction 207 2. Graphene oxide from graphite 208 3. GO exfoliation 209 4. Selective reduction of graphene oxide 210 5. Raman spectroscopy 211 6. Electrical properties of graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide 212 7. Future perspectives 214 Acknowledgments 215 References 215 2.9 Structure and Electron Transport in Irradiated Monolayer Graphene 217I. Shlimak, A.V. Butenko, E. Zion, V. Richter, Yu. Kaganovskii, L. Wolfson, A. Sharoni, A. Haran, D. Naveh, E. Kogan, and M. Kaveh 1. Introduction 217 2. Samples 217 3. Raman scattering (RS) spectra 218 4. Sample resistance 220 5. Hopping magnetoresistance 225 References 229 2.10 Interplay of Coulomb Blockade and Luttinger-Liquid Physics in Disordered 1D InAs Nanowires with Strong Spin–Orbit Coupling 233R. Hevroni, V. Shelukhin, M. Karpovski, M. Goldstein, E. Sela, A. Palevski, and Hadas Shtrikman 1. Introduction 233 2. Sample preparation and the experimental setup 234 3. Experimental results 234 4. Conclusion 240 Acknowledgments 240 References 240 III MICROELECTRONICS IN HEALTH, ENERGY HARVESTING, AND COMMUNICATIONS 3.1 Image-Guided Intervention and Therapy: The First Time Right 245B. H. W. Hendriks, D. Mioni, W. Crooijmans, and H. van Houten 1. Introduction 245 2. Societal challenge: Rapid rise of cardiovascular diseases 246 3. Societal challenge: Rapid rise of cancer 252 4. Drivers of change in healthcare 256 5. Conclusion 257 Acknowledgments 257 References 257 3.2 Rewiring the Nervous System, Without Wires 259D. A. Borton 1. Introduction 259 2. Why go wireless? 260 3. One wireless recording solution used to explore primary motor cortex control of locomotion 262 4. Writing into the nervous system with epidural electrical stimulation of spinal circuits effectively modulates gait 265 5. Genetic technology brings a better model to neuroscience 267 6. The wireless bridge for closed-loop control and rehabilitation 268 7. Conclusion 269 Acknowledgments 270 References 270 3.3 Nanopower-Integrated Electronics for Energy Harvesting, Conversion, and Management 275A. Romani, M. Dini, M. Filippi, M. Tartagni, and E. Sangiorgi 1. Introduction 275 2. Commercial ICs for micropower harvesting 276 3. State-of-the-art integrated nanocurrent power converters for energy-harvesting applications 278 4. A multisource-integrated energy-harvesting circuit 281 5. Conclusion 286 Acknowledgments 286 References 286 3.4 Will Composite Nanomaterials Replace Piezoelectric Thin Films for Energy Transduction Applications? 291R. Tao, G. Ardila, R. Hinchet, A. Michard, L. Montès, and M. Mouis 1. Introduction 291 2. Thin film piezoelectric materials and applications 292 3. Individual ZnO and GaN piezoelectric nanowires: experiments and simulations 293 4. Piezoelectric composite materials using nanowires 295 5. Conclusion 303 Acknowledgments 304 References 304 3.5 New Generation of Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers for Optical Interconnects 309N. Ledentsov Jr, V. A. Shchukin, N. N. Ledentsov, J.-R. Kropp, S. Burger, and F. Schmidt 1. Introduction 309 2. VCSEL requirements 310 3. Optical leakage 312 4. Experiment 313 5. Simulation 316 6. Conclusion 323 Acknowledgments 323 References 323 3.6 Reconfigurable Infrared Photodetector Based on Asymmetrically Doped Double Quantum Wells for Multicolor and Remote Temperature Sensing 327X. Zhang, V. Mitin, G. Thomain, T. Yore, Y. Li, J. K. Choi, K. Sablon, and A. Sergeev 1. Introduction 327 2. Fabrication of DQWIP with asymmetrical doping 328 3. Optoelectronic characterization of DQWIPs 329 4. Temperature sensing 333 5. Conclusion 334 Acknowledgments 335 References 335 3.7 Tunable Photonic Molecules for Spectral Engineering in Dense Photonic Integration 337M. C. M. M. Souza, G. F. M. Rezende, A. A. G. von Zuben, G. S. Wiederhecker, N. C. Frateschi, and L. A. M. Barea 1. Introduction 337 2. Photonic molecules and their spectral features 338 3. Coupling-controlled mode-splitting: GHz-operation on a tight footprint 340 4. Reconfigurable spectral control 341 5. Toward reconfigurable mode-splitting control 343 6. Conclusion 346 Acknowledgments 346 References 347 INDEX 349

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Book SynopsisHelps both engineers and students improve their writing skills by learning to analyze target audience, tone, and purpose in order to effectively write technical documents This book introduces students and practicing engineers to all the components of writing in the workplace. It teaches readers how considerations of audience and purpose govern the structure of their documents within particular work settings. The IEEE Guide to Writing in the Engineering and Technical Fields is broken up into two sections: Writing in Engineering Organizations and What Can You Do With Writing? The first section helps readers approach their writing in a logical and persuasive way as well as analyze their purpose for writing. The second section demonstrates how to distinguish rhetorical situations and the generic forms to inform, train, persuade, and collaborate. The emergence of the global workplace has brought with it an increasingly important role for effective technical communication. Engineers more Table of ContentsA Note from the Series Editor, ix About the Authors, xi PART I A TECHNIQUE FOR WRITING LIKE A PROFESSIONAL 1 Introduction, 3 1 The Social Situation of Text 7 The Social Contexts for Technical Writing, 8 Models of the Writing Environment, 9 Transmission Models, 10 Correctness Models, 11 Cognitive/Behavioral Models, 13 Social/Rhetorical Models, 14 This Guide's Approach, 16 The Rhetorical Situation: Purpose, 18 The Rhetorical Situation: Audience, 21 The Rhetorical Situation: Identity, 26 The Rhetorical Situation: Context, 28 The Pragmatic Situation: Community and Genre, 29 2 Making Writing Decisions 33 Introduction, 34 Document Structure and Granularity, 35 Arranging Text at the Macro Level, 37 Sectioning and Heading Sections, 39 Aids for Navigating and Understanding Document Structure, 43 Creating Effects with Lexis and Syntax at the Micro Level, 45 Lexical Technique: Word Choice, Technical Terms, and Hedges and Boosters, 47 Syntactic Technique: Modification, Clausal Arrangement, and Discursive Cueing, 53 Intermediate Structural Units and Argumentative Movement, 68 Paragraph Cohesion and Paragraphs as Structural Units of a Document, 69 Structures Other than Paragraphs, 72 Citations and Other Intertextual Statements, 73 Implications for the Process of Writing, 75 Additional Reading, 77 PART 2 WRITING DOCUMENTS 79 Introduction 81 3 Writing to Know: Informative Documents 85 Introduction, 86 The Purposes of Informative Documents, 86 Occasions for Preparing an Informative Document, 88 Audiences for an Informative Document, 88 Key Communication Strategies When Writing to Know, 90 Understanding What Constitutes Sufficient Evidence to Support a Claim, 90 Structuring Evidence in Your Document, 91 Establishing Expertise, 92 Questions for Analyzing Existing Documents, 93 Some Typical Informative Documents, 93 Reports, 93 Specifications, 104 4 Writing to Enable: Instructions and Guidance 109 Introduction, 110 The Purposes of Enabling Documents, 110 Occasions for Preparing an Enabling Document, 112 Audiences for an Enabling Document, 112 Key Communication Strategies When Writing to Enable, 113 Anticipating a Document's Use Context, 113 Deciding How Much Background Is Warranted, 115 Testing the Document with Users, 116 Questions for Analyzing Existing Documents, 119 Characteristic Enabling Documents, 119 Manuals/Guides and Other Documents That Primarily Contain Instructions/Directions/Procedures, 119 Tutorials/Training Materials, 128 Policies, 130 5 Writing to Convince: Persuasive Documents 133 Introduction, 134 The Purposes of Persuasive Documents, 134 Occasions for Preparing a Persuasive Document, 135 Audiences for the Persuasive Document, 136 Key Communication Strategies When Writing to Convince, 137 Designing Your Argument to Consider the Audience's Preexisting Beliefs, 137 Using the Terms and Values of the Audience to Articulate a Shared Goal, 140 Assuring Outcomes and Benefits without Seeming Unrealistic, 142 Questions for Analyzing Existing Documents, 143 Typical Examples of Persuasive Documents, 145 Proposals, 145 Business Plans, 149 6 Correspondence: Medium of Workplace Collaboration 155 Introduction, 156 The Purposes of Correspondence, 157 Occasions for Preparing Correspondence, 158 Audiences for Correspondence, 158 Key Communication Strategies When Corresponding, 160 Consider Workplace Roles and Official and Unofficial Relationships and Responsibilities, 160 Evaluate Target Size and Frequency of Communication for a Relationship, 162 Pause to Reconsider Composition, Time, and Tone before Sending, 163 Characteristics of Correspondence Documents, 165 Letters, Memoranda, and E-mails, 165 Types of Correspondence, 167 Pre- and Post-meeting Documents: Announcements, Agendas, and Minutes, 170 Social Media, 171 Appendix: IEEE Style for References, 173 Index, 183

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Book SynopsisMicrowave and radiofrequency (RF) elements play an important role in communication systems, and, due to the proliferation of radar, satellite and mobile wireless systems, there is a need for the study of electromagnetism.Table of ContentsForeword vii Preface ix Acknowledgments xiii 1 Microwave Amplifier Fundamentals 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Scattering Parameters and Signal Flow Graphs 2 1.3 Reflection Coefficients 5 1.4 Gain Expressions 7 1.5 Stability 9 1.6 Noise 10 1.7 ABCD Matrix 14 1.7.1 ABCD Matrix of a Series Impedance 14 1.7.2 ABCD Matrix of a Parallel Admittance 15 1.7.3 Input Impedance of Impedance Loaded Two-Port 15 1.7.4 Input Admittance of Admittance Loaded Two-Port 16 1.7.5 ABCD Matrix of the Cascade of Two Systems 16 1.7.6 ABCD Matrix of the Parallel Connection of Two Systems 17 1.7.7 ABCD Matrix of the Series Connection of Two Systems 17 1.7.8 ABCD Matrix of Admittance Loaded Two-Port Connected in Parallel 17 1.7.9 ABCD Matrix of Impedance Loaded Two-Port Connected in Series 19 1.7.10 Conversion Between Scattering and ABCD Matrices 19 1.8 Distributed Network Elements 20 1.8.1 Uniform Transmission Line 20 1.8.2 Unit Element 21 1.8.3 Input Impedance and Input Admittance 22 1.8.4 Short-Circuited Stub Placed in Series 23 1.8.5 Short-Circuited Stub Placed in Parallel 24 1.8.6 Open-Circuited Stub Placed in Series 24 1.8.7 Open-Circuited Stub Placed in Parallel 25 1.8.8 Richard’s Transformation 25 1.8.9 Kuroda Identities 28 References 35 2 Introduction to the Real Frequency Technique: Multistage Lumped Amplifier Design 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Multistage Lumped Amplifier Representation 38 2.3 Overview of the RFT 40 2.4 Multistage Transducer Gain 41 2.5 Multistage VSWR 43 2.6 Optimization Process 44 2.6.1 Single-Valued Error and Target Functions 44 2.6.2 Levenberg–Marquardt–More Optimization 46 2.7 Design Procedures 48 2.8 Four-Stage Amplifier Design Example 49 2.9 Transistor Feedback Block for Broadband Amplifiers 57 2.9.1 Resistive Adaptation 57 2.9.2 Resistive Feedback 57 2.9.3 Reactive Feedback 57 2.9.4 Transistor Feedback Block 58 2.10 Realizations 59 2.10.1 Three-Stage Hybrid Amplifier 59 2.10.2 Two-Stage Monolithic Amplifier 62 2.10.3 Single-Stage GaAs Technology Amplifier 64 References 64 3 Multistage Distributed Amplifier Design 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Multistage Distributed Amplifier Representation 68 3.3 Multistage Transducer Gain 70 3.4 Multistage VSWR 71 3.5 Multistage Noise Figure 73 3.6 Optimization Process 74 3.7 Transistor Bias Circuit Considerations 75 3.8 Distributed Equalizer Synthesis 78 3.8.1 Richard’s Theorem 78 3.8.2 Stub Extraction 80 3.8.3 Denormalization 82 3.8.4 UE Impedances Too Low 83 3.8.5 UE Impedances Too High 85 3.9 Design Procedures 88 3.10 Simulations and Realizations 92 3.10.1 Three-Stage 2–8 GHz Distributed Amplifier 92 3.10.2 Three-Stage 1.15–1.5 GHz Distributed Amplifier 94 3.10.3 Three-Stage 1.15–1.5 GHz Distributed Amplifier (Noncommensurate) 94 3.10.4 Three-Stage 5.925–6.425 GHz Hybrid Amplifier 96 References 99 4 Multistage Transimpedance Amplifiers 101 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Multistage Transimpedance Amplifier Representation 102 4.3 Extension to Distributed Equalizers 104 4.4 Multistage Transimpedance Gain 106 4.5 Multistage VSWR 109 4.6 Optimization Process 110 4.7 Design Procedures 111 4.8 Noise Model of the Receiver Front End 114 4.9 Two-Stage Transimpedance Amplifier Example 116 References 118 5 Multistage Lossy Distributed Amplifiers 121 5.1 Introduction 121 5.2 Lossy Distributed Network 122 5.3 Multistage Lossy Distributed Amplifier Representation 127 5.4 Multistage Transducer Gain 130 5.5 Multistage VSWR 132 5.6 Optimization Process 133 5.7 Synthesis of the Lossy Distributed Network 135 5.8 Design Procedures 141 5.9 Realizations 144 5.9.1 Single-Stage Broadband Hybrid Realization 144 5.9.2 Two-Stage Broadband Hybrid Realization 145 References 149 6 Multistage Power Amplifiers 151 6.1 Introduction 151 6.2 Multistage Power Amplifier Representation 152 6.3 Added Power Optimization 154 6.3.1 Requirements for Maximum Added Power 154 6.3.2 Two-Dimensional Interpolation 156 6.4 Multistage Transducer Gain 159 6.5 Multistage VSWR 162 6.6 Optimization Process 163 6.7 Design Procedures 164 6.8 Realizations 166 6.8.1 Realization of a One-Stage Power Amplifier 166 6.8.2 Realization of a Three-Stages Power Amplifier 167 6.9 Linear Power Amplifiers 172 6.9.1 Theory 172 6.9.2 Arborescent Structures 175 6.9.3 Example of an Arborescent Linear Power Amplifier 176 References 179 7 Multistage Active Microwave Filters 181 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 Multistage Active Filter Representation 182 7.3 Multistage Transducer Gain 184 7.4 Multistage VSWR 186 7.5 Multistage Phase and Group Delay 187 7.6 Optimization Process 188 7.7 Synthesis Procedures 189 7.8 Design Procedures 195 7.9 Simulations and Realizations 198 7.9.1 Two-Stage Low-Pass Active Filter 198 7.9.2 Single-Stage Bandpass Active Filter 200 7.9.3 Single-Stage Bandpass Active Filter MMIC Realization 202 References 206 8 Passive Microwave Equalizers for Radar Receiver Design 207 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Equalizer Needs for Radar Application 208 8.3 Passive Equalizer Representation 209 8.4 Optimization Process 212 8.5 Examples of Microwave Equalizers for Radar Receivers 213 8.5.1 Sixth-Order Equalizer with No Transmission Zeros 213 8.5.2 Sixth-Order Equalizer with Two Transmission Zeros 214 References 217 9 Synthesis of Microwave Antennas 219 9.1 Introduction 219 9.2 Antenna Needs 219 9.3 Antenna Equalizer Representation 221 9.4 Optimization Process 222 9.5 Examples of Antenna-Matching Network Designs 223 9.5.1 Mid-Band Star Antenna 223 9.5.2 Broadband Horn Antenna 224 References 227 Appendix A: Multistage Transducer Gain 229 Appendix B: Levenberg–Marquardt–More Optimization Algorithm 239 Appendix C: Noise Correlation Matrix 245 Appendix D: Network Synthesis Using the Transfer Matrix 253 Index 271

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Book SynopsisNew method for the characterization of electromagnetic wave dynamics Modern Characterization of Electromagnetic Systems introduces a new method of characterizing electromagnetic wave dynamics and measurements based on modern computational and digital signal processing techniques. ?The techniques are described in terms of both principle and practice, so readers understand what they can achieve by utilizing them. Additionally, modern signal processing algorithms are introduced in order to enhance the resolution and extract information from electromagnetic systems, including where it is not currently possible. For example, the author addresses the generation of non-minimum phase or transient response when given amplitude-only data. Presents modern computational concepts in electromagnetic system characterization Describes a solution to the generation of non-minimum phase from amplitude-only data Covers model-based parameter estTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xxi Tribute to Tapan K. Sarkar – Magdalena Salazar Palma, Ming Da Zhu, and Heng Chen xxiii 1 Mathematical Principles Related to Modern System Analysis 1 Summary 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Reduced-Rank Modelling: Bias Versus Variance Tradeoff 3 1.3 An Introduction to Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) and the Theory of Total Least Squares (TLS) 6 1.3.1 Singular Value Decomposition 6 1.3.2 The Theory of Total Least Squares 15 1.4 Conclusion 19 References 20 2 Matrix Pencil Method (MPM) 21 Summary 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Development of the Matrix Pencil Method for Noise Contaminated Data 24 2.2.1 Procedure for Interpolating or Extrapolating the System Response Using the Matrix Pencil Method 26 2.2.2 Illustrations Using Numerical Data 26 2.2.2.1 Example 1 26 2.2.2.2 Example 2 29 2.3 Applications of the MPM for Evaluation of the Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line 32 2.4 Application of MPM for the Computation of the S-Parameters Without any A Priori Knowledge of the Characteristic Impedance 37 2.5 Improving the Resolution of Network Analyzer Measurements Using MPM 44 2.6 Minimization of Multipath Effects Using MPM in Antenna Measurements Performed in Non-Anechoic Environments 57 2.6.1 Application of a FFT-Based Method to Process the Data 61 2.6.2 Application of MPM to Process the Data 64 2.6.3 Performance of FFT and MPM Applied to Measured Data 67 2.7 Application of the MPM for a Single Estimate of the SEM-Poles When Utilizing Waveforms from Multiple Look Directions 74 2.8 Direction of Arrival (DOA) Estimation Along with Their Frequency of Operation Using MPM 81 2.9 Efficient Computation of the Oscillatory Functional Variation in the Tails of the Sommerfeld Integrals Using MPM 85 2.10 Identification of Multiple Objects Operating in Free Space Through Their SEM Pole Locations Using MPM 91 2.11 Other Miscellaneous Applications of MPM 95 2.12 Conclusion 95 Appendix 2A Computer Codes for Implementing MPM 96 References 99 3 The Cauchy Method 107 Summary 107 3.1 Introduction 107 3.2 Procedure for Interpolating or Extrapolating the System Response Using the Cauchy Method 112 3.3 Examples to Estimate the System Response Using the Cauchy Method 112 3.3.1 Example 1 112 3.3.2 Example 2 116 3.3.3 Example 3 118 3.4 Illustration of Extrapolation by the Cauchy Method 120 3.4.1 Extending the Efficiency of the Moment Method Through Extrapolation by the Cauchy Method 120 3.4.2 Interpolating Results for Optical Computations 123 3.4.3 Application to Filter Analysis 125 3.4.4 Broadband Device Characterization Using Few Parameters 127 3.5 Effect of Noise Contaminating the Data and Its Impact on the Performance of the Cauchy Method 130 3.5.1 Perturbation of Invariant Subspaces 130 3.5.2 Perturbation of the Solution of the Cauchy Method Due to Additive Noise 131 3.5.3 Numerical Example 136 3.6 Generating High Resolution Wideband Response from Sparse and Incomplete Amplitude-Only Data 138 3.6.1 Development of the Interpolatory Cauchy Method for Amplitude-Only Data 139 3.6.2 Interpolating High Resolution Amplitude Response 142 3.7 Generation of the Non-minimum Phase Response from Amplitude-Only Data Using the Cauchy Method 148 3.7.1 Generation of the Non-minimum Phase 149 3.7.2 Illustration Through Numerical Examples 151 3.8 Development of an Adaptive Cauchy Method 158 3.8.1 Introduction 158 3.8.2 Adaptive Interpolation Algorithm 159 3.8.3 Illustration Using Numerical Examples 160 3.8.4 Summary 171 3.9 Efficient Characterization of a Filter 172 3.10 Extraction of Resonant Frequencies of an Object from Frequency Domain Data 176 3.11 Conclusion 180 Appendix 3A MATLAB Codes for the Cauchy Method 181 References 187 4 Applications of the Hilbert Transform – A Nonparametric Method for Interpolation/Extrapolation of Data 191 Summary 191 4.1 Introduction 192 4.2 Consequence of Causality and Its Relationship to the Hilbert Transform 194 4.3 Properties of the Hilbert Transform 195 4.4 Relationship Between the Hilbert and the Fourier Transforms for the Analog and the Discrete Cases 199 4.5 Methodology to Extrapolate/Interpolate Data in the Frequency Domain Using a Nonparametric Methodology 200 4.6 Interpolating Missing Data 203 4.7 Application of the Hilbert Transform for Efficient Computation of the Spectrum for Nonuniformly Spaced Data 213 4.7.1 Formulation of the Least Square Method 217 4.7.2 Hilbert Transform Relationship 221 4.7.3 Magnitude Estimation 223 4.8 Conclusion 229 References 229 5 The Source Reconstruction Method 235 Summary 235 5.1 Introduction 236 5.2 An Overview of the Source Reconstruction Method (SRM) 238 5.3 Mathematical Formulation for the Integral Equations 239 5.4 Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation Using an Equivalent Magnetic Current Approach 240 5.4.1 Description of the Proposed Methodology 241 5.4.2 Solution of the Integral Equation for the Magnetic Current 245 5.4.3 Numerical Results Utilizing the Magnetic Current 249 5.4.4 Summary 268 5.5 Near-Field to Near/Far-Field Transformation for Arbitrary Near-Field Geometry Utilizing an Equivalent Electric Current 276 5.5.1 Description of the Proposed Methodology 278 5.5.2 Numerical Results Using an Equivalent Electric Current 281 5.5.3 Summary 286 5.6 Evaluating Near-Field Radiation Patterns of Commercial Antennas 297 5.6.1 Background 297 5.6.2 Formulation of the Problem 301 5.6.3 Results for the Near-field To Far-field Transformation 304 5.6.3.1 A Base Station Antenna 304 5.6.3.2 NF to FF Transformation of a Pyramidal Horn Antenna 307 5.6.3.3 Reference Volume of a Base Station Antenna for Human Exposure to EM Fields 310 5.6.4 Summary 311 5.7 Conclusions 313 References 314 6 Planar Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation Using a Single Moving Probe and a Fixed Probe Arrays 319 Summary 319 6.1 Introduction 320 6.2 Theory 322 6.3 Integral Equation Formulation 323 6.4 Formulation of the Matrix Equation 325 6.5 Use of an Magnetic Dipole Array as Equivalent Sources 328 6.6 Sample Numerical Results 329 6.7 Summary 337 6.8 Differences between Conventional Modal Expansion and the Equivalent Source Method for Planar Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation 337 6.8.1 Introduction 337 6.8.2 Modal Expansion Method 339 6.8.3 Integral Equation Approach 341 6.8.4 Numerical Examples 344 6.8.5 Summary 351 6.9 A Direct Optimization Approach for Source Reconstruction and NF-FF Transformation Using Amplitude-Only Data 352 6.9.1 Background 352 6.9.2 Equivalent Current Representation 354 6.9.3 Optimization of a Cost Function 356 6.9.4 Numerical Simulation 357 6.9.5 Results Obtained Utilizing Experimental Data 358 6.9.6 Summary 359 6.10 Use of Computational Electromagnetics to Enhance the Accuracy and Efficiency of Antenna Pattern Measurements Using an Array of Dipole Probes 361 6.10.1 Introduction 362 6.10.2 Development of the Proposed Methodology 363 6.10.3 Philosophy of the Computational Methodology 363 6.10.4 Formulation of the Integral Equations 365 6.10.5 Solution of the Integro-Differential Equations 367 6.10.6 Sample Numerical Results 369 6.10.6.1 Example 1 369 6.10.6.2 Example 2 373 6.10.6.3 Example 3 377 6.10.6.4 Example 4 379 6.10.7 Summary 384 6.11 A Fast and Efficient Method for Determining the Far Field Patterns Along the Principal Planes Using a Rectangular Probe Array 384 6.11.1 Introduction 385 6.11.2 Description of the Proposed Methodology 385 6.11.3 Sample Numerical Results 387 6.11.3.1 Example 1 387 6.11.3.2 Example 2 393 6.11.3.3 Example 3 397 6.11.3.4 Example 4 401 6.11.4 Summary 406 6.12 The Influence of the Size of Square Dipole Probe Array Measurement on the Accuracy of NF-FF Pattern 406 6.12.1 Illustration of the Proposed Methodology Utilizing Sample Numerical Results 407 6.12.1.1 Example 1 407 6.12.1.2 Example 2 411 6.12.1.3 Example 3 416 6.12.1.4 Example 4 419 6.12.2 Summary 428 6.13 Use of a Fixed Probe Array Measuring Amplitude-Only Near-Field Data for Calculating the Far-Field 428 6.13.1 Proposed Methodology 429 6.13.2 Sample Numerical Results 430 6.13.2.1 Example 1 430 6.13.2.2 Example 2 434 6.13.2.3 Example 3 437 6.13.2.4 Example 4 437 6.13.3 Summary 441 6.14 Probe Correction for Use with Electrically Large Probes 442 6.14.1 Development of the Proposed Methodology 443 6.14.2 Formulation of the Solution Methodology 446 6.14.3 Sample Numerical Results 447 6.15 Conclusions 449 References 449 7 Spherical Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation 453 Summary 453 7.1 An Analytical Spherical Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation 453 7.1.1 Introduction 453 7.1.2 An Analytical Spherical Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation 454 7.1.3 Numerical Simulations 464 7.1.3.1 Synthetic Data 464 7.1.3.2 Experimental Data 465 7.1.4 Summary 468 7.2 Radial Field Retrieval in Spherical Scanning for Current Reconstruction and NF–FF Transformation 468 7.2.1 Background 468 7.2.2 An Equivalent Current Reconstruction from Spherical Measurement Plane 470 7.2.3 The Radial Electric Field Retrieval Algorithm 472 7.2.4 Results Obtained Using This Formulation 473 7.2.4.1 Simulated Data 473 7.2.4.2 Using Measured Data 475 7.3 Conclusion 482 Appendix 7A A Fortran Based Computer Program for Transforming Spherical Near-Field to Far-Field 483 References 489 8 Deconvolving Measured Electromagnetic Responses 491 Summary 491 8.1 Introduction 491 8.2 The Conjugate Gradient Method with Fast Fourier Transform for Computational Efficiency 495 8.2.1 Theory 495 8.2.2 Numerical Results 498 8.3 Total Least Squares Approach Utilizing Singular Value Decomposition 501 8.3.1 Theory 501 8.3.2 Total Least Squares (TLS) 502 8.3.3 Numerical Results 506 8.4 Conclusion 516 References 516 9 Performance of Different Functionals for Interpolation/Extrapolation of Near/Far-Field Data 519 Summary 519 9.1 Background 520 9.2 Approximating a Frequency Domain Response by Chebyshev Polynomials 521 9.3 The Cauchy Method Based on Gegenbauer Polynomials 531 9.3.1 Numerical Results and Discussion 537 9.3.1.1 Example of a Horn Antenna 537 9.3.1.2 Example of a 2-element Microstrip Patch Array 539 9.3.1.3 Example of a Parabolic Antenna 541 9.4 Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation of a Zenith-Directed Parabolic Reflector Using the Ordinary Cauchy Method 543 9.5 Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation of a Rotated Parabolic Reflector Using the Ordinary Cauchy Method 552 9.6 Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation of a Zenith-Directed Parabolic Reflector Using the Matrix Pencil Method 558 9.7 Near-Field to Far-Field Transformation of a Rotated Parabolic Reflector Using the Matrix Pencil Method 564 9.8 Conclusion 569 References 569 10 Retrieval of Free Space Radiation Patterns from Measured Data in a Non-Anechoic Environment 573 Summary 573 10.1 Problem Background 573 10.2 Review of Pattern Reconstruction Methodologies 575 10.3 Deconvolution Method for Radiation Pattern Reconstruction 578 10.3.1 Equations and Derivation 578 10.3.2 Steps Required to Implement the Proposed Methodology 584 10.3.3 Processing of the Data 585 10.3.4 Simulation Examples 587 10.3.4.1 Example I: One PEC Plate Serves as a Reflector 587 10.3.4.2 Example II: Two PEC Plates Now Serve as Reflectors 594 10.3.4.3 Example III: Four Connected PEC Plates Serve as Reflectors 598 10.3.4.4 Example IV: Use of a Parabolic Reflector Antenna as the AUT 604 10.3.5 Discussions on the Deconvolution Method for Radiation Pattern Reconstruction 608 10.4 Effect of Different Types of Probe Antennas 608 10.4.1 Numerical Examples 608 10.4.1.1 Example I: Use of a Yagi Antenna as the Probe 608 10.4.1.2 Example II: Use of a Parabolic Reflector Antenna as the Probe 612 10.4.1.3 Example III: Use of a Dipole Antenna as the Probe 613 10.5 Effect of Different Antenna Size 619 10.6 Effect of Using Different Sizes of PEC Plates 626 10.7 Extension of the Deconvolution Method to Three-Dimensional Pattern Reconstruction 632 10.7.1 Mathematical Characterization of the Methodology 632 10.7.2 Steps Summarizing for the Methodology 635 10.7.3 Processing the Data 636 10.7.4 Results for Simulation Examples 638 10.7.4.1 Example I: Four Wide PEC Plates Serve as Reflectors 640 10.7.4.2 Example II: Four PEC Plates and the Ground Serve as Reflectors 643 10.7.4.3 Example III: Six Plates Forming an Unclosed Contour Serve as Reflectors 651 10.7.4.4 Example IV: Antenna Measurement in a Closed PEC Box 659 10.7.4.5 Example V: Six Dielectric Plates Forming a Closed Contour Simulating a Room 662 10.8 Conclusion 673 Appendix A: Data Mapping Using the Conversion between the Spherical Coordinate System and the Cartesian Coordinate System 675 Appendix B: Description of the 2D-FFT during the Data Processing 677 References 680 Index 683

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Book SynopsisThe fabrication of MEMS has been predominately achieved by etching the polysilicon material. However, new materials are in large demands that could overcome the hurdles in fabrication or manufacturing process.Table of Contents1 Carbon as a MEMS Material 1 Amritha Rammohan and Ashutosh Sharma 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Structure and Properties of Glassy Carbon 3 1.3 Fabrication of C-MEMS Structures 4 1.4 Integration of C-MEMS Structures with Other Materials 15 1.5 Conclusion 18 2 Intelligent Model-Based Fault Diagnosis of MEMS 21 Afshin Izadian 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Model-Based Fault Diagnosis 29 2.3 Self-Tuning Estimation 49 3 MEMS Heat Exchangers 63 B. Mathew and L. Weiss 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Fundamentals of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer 67 3.3 MEMS Heat Sinks 86 3.4 MEMS Heat Pipes 92 3.6 Need for Microscale Internal Flow Passages 113 4 Application of Porous Silicon in MEMS and Sensors Technology 121 L. Sujatha, Chirasree Roy Chaudhuri and Enakshi Bhattacharya 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Porous Silicon in Biosensors 131 4.3 Porous Silicon for Pressure Sensors 155 4.4 Conclusion 165 5 MEMS/NEMS Switches with Silicon to Silicon (Si-to-Si) Contact Interface 173 Chengkuo Lee, Bo Woon Soon and You Qian 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 Bi-Stable CMOS Front End Silicon Nanofin (SiNF) Switch for Non-volatile Memory Based On Van Der Waals Force 175 5.3 Vertically Actuated U-Shape Nanowire NEMS Switch 184 5.4 A Vacuum Encapsulated Si-to-Si MEMS Switch for Rugged Electronics 187 5.5 Summary 197 6 On the Design, Fabrication, and Characterization of cMUT Devices 201 J. Jayapandian, K. Prabakar, C.S. Sundar and Baldev Raj 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 cMUT Design and Finite Element Modeling Simulation 203 6.3 cMUT Fabrication and Characterization 205 6.4 Summary and Conclusions 216 7 Inverse Problems in the MEMS/NEMS Applications 219 Yin Zhang 7.1 Introduction 219 7.2 Inverse Problems in the Micro/Nanomechanical Resonators 222 7.3 Inverse Problems in the MEMS Stiction Test 231 8 Ohmic RF-MEMS Control 239 M. Spasos and R. Nilavalan 8.1 Introduction 239 8.2 Charge Drive Control (Resistive Damping) 251 8.3 Hybrid Drive Control 255 8.4 Control Under High-Pressure Gas Damping 258 8.5 Comparison between Different Control Modes 258 9 Dynamics of MEMS Devices 263 Vamsy Godthi, K. Jayaprakash Reddy and Rudra Pratap 9.1 Introduction 263 9.2 Modeling and Simulation 266 9.3 Fabrication Methods 273 9.4 Characterization 276 9.5 Device Failures 280 10 Buckling Behaviors and Interfacial Toughness of a Micron-Scale Composite Structure with a Metal Wire on a Flexible Substrate 285 Qinghua Wang, Huimin Xie and Yanjie Li 10.1 Introduction 285 10.2 Buckling Behaviors of Constantan Wire under Electrical Loading 289 10.3 Interfacial Toughness between Constantan Wire and Polymer Substrate 305 10.4 Buckling Behaviors of Polymer Substrate Restricted by Constantan Wire 310 10.5 Conclusions 321 11 Microcantilever-Based Nano-Electro-Mechanical Sensor Systems: Characterization, Instrumentation, and Applications 325 Sheetal Patil and V. Ramgopal Rao 11.1 Introduction 325 11.2 Operation Principle and Fundamental Models 327 11.3 Microcantilever Sensor Fabrication 330 11.4 Mechanical and Electrical Characterization of Microcantilevers 335 11.5 Readout Principles 339 11.6 Application of Microcantilever Sensors 344 11.7 Energy Harvesting for Sensor Networks 349 11.8 Conclusion 351 12 CMOS MEMS Integration 361 Thejas and Navakanta Bhat 12.1 Introduction 361 12.2 State-of-the-Art inertial Sensor 362 12.3 Capacitance Sensing Techniques 366 12.4 Capacitance Sensing Architectures 367 12.5 Continuous Time Voltage Sensing Circuit 368 12.6 CMOS ASIC Design 371 12.7 Test Results of CMOS–MEMS Integration 377 12.8 Electrical Reliability Issues 378 13 Solving Quality and Reliability Optimization Problems for MEMS with Degradation Data 381 Yash Lundia, Kunal Jain, Mamanduru Vamsee Krishna, Manoj Kumar Tiwari and Baldev Raj 13.1 Introduction 382 13.2 Notations and Assumptions 384 13.3 Reliability Model 385 13.4 Numerical Example 395 13.5 Conclusions 397 References 397

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Book SynopsisThis book describes the current and most probable future wireless security solutions. The focus is on the technical discussion of existing systems and new trends like Internet of Things (IoT).Table of ContentsAbout the Author xii Preface xiii Acknowledgements xv Abbreviations xvi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Wireless Security 2 1.2.1 Background and Advances 2 1.2.2 Statistics 2 1.2.3 Wireless Threats 4 1.2.4 M2M Environment 9 1.3 Standardization 10 1.3.1 The Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) 10 1.3.2 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 12 1.3.3 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 14 1.3.4 The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) 14 1.3.5 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 15 1.3.6 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) 16 1.3.7 The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) 16 1.3.8 The 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) 25 1.3.9 The GlobalPlatform 25 1.3.10 The SIMalliance 26 1.3.11 The Smartcard Alliance 27 1.3.12 The GSM Association (GSMA) 27 1.3.13 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 28 1.3.14 The National Highway Transportation and Safety Administration (NHTSA) 28 1.3.15 Other Standardization and Industry Forums 28 1.3.16 The EMV Company (EMVCo) 29 1.3.17 The Personal Computer/Smartcard (PC/SC) 29 1.3.18 The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) 29 1.3.19 The Common Criteria (CC) 29 1.3.20 The Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL) 30 1.3.21 The Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) 31 1.3.22 Biometric Standards 31 1.3.23 Other Related Entities 32 1.4 Wireless Security Principles 32 1.4.1 General 32 1.4.2 Regulation 33 1.4.3 Security Architectures 33 1.4.4 Algorithms and Security Principles 33 1.5 Focus and Contents of the Book 36 References 38 2 Security of Wireless Systems 42 2.1 Overview 42 2.1.1 Overall Security Considerations in the Mobile Environment 42 2.1.2 Developing Security Threats 43 2.1.3 RF Interferences and Safety 45 2.2 Effects of Broadband Mobile Data 46 2.2.1 Background 46 2.2.2 The Role of Networks 47 2.2.3 The Role of Apps 50 2.2.4 UE Application Development 52 2.2.5 Developers 55 2.2.6 The Role of the SIM/UICC 56 2.2.7 Challenges of Legislation 57 2.2.8 Updating Standards 58 2.2.9 3GPP System Evolution 58 2.3 GSM 59 2.3.1 The SIM 60 2.3.2 Authentication and Authorization 62 2.3.3 Encryption of the Radio Interface 63 2.3.4 Encryption of IMSI 65 2.3.5 Other GSM Security Aspects 65 2.4 UMTS/HSPA 66 2.4.1 Principles of 3G Security 66 2.4.2 Key Utilization 68 2.4.3 3G Security Procedures 69 2.5 Long Term Evolution 71 2.5.1 Protection and Security Principles 71 2.5.2 X.509 Certificates and Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) 71 2.5.3 IPsec and Internet Key Exchange (IKE) for LTE Transport Security 72 2.5.4 Traffic Filtering 73 2.5.5 LTE Radio Interface Security 74 2.5.6 Authentication and Authorization 78 2.5.7 LTE/SAE Service Security – Case Examples 79 2.5.8 Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Service (MBMS) and enhanced MBMS (eMBMS) 83 2.6 Security Aspects of Other Networks 91 2.6.1 CDMA (IS‐95) 91 2.6.2 CDMA2000 93 2.6.3 Broadcast Systems 94 2.6.4 Satellite Systems 94 2.6.5 Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA) 95 2.6.6 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) 96 2.7 Interoperability 102 2.7.1 Simultaneous Support for LTE/SAE and 2G/3G 102 2.7.2 VoLTE 105 2.7.3 CS Fallback 105 2.7.4 Inter‐operator Security Aspects 106 2.7.5 Wi‐Fi Networks and Offload 106 2.7.6 Femtocell Architecture 108 References 109 3 Internet of Things 112 3.1 Overview 112 3.2 Foundation 113 3.2.1 Definitions 113 3.2.2 Security Considerations of IoT 115 3.2.3 The Role of IoT 115 3.2.4 IoT Environment 117 3.2.5 IoT Market 120 3.2.6 Connectivity 121 3.2.7 Regulation 122 3.2.8 Security Risks 123 3.2.9 Cloud 128 3.2.10 Cellular Connectivity 129 3.2.11 WLAN 133 3.2.12 Low‐Range Systems 133 3.3 Development of IoT 140 3.3.1 GSMA Connected Living 140 3.3.2 The GlobalPlatform 141 3.3.3 Other Industry Forums 141 3.4 Technical Description of IoT 142 3.4.1 General 142 3.4.2 Secure Communication Channels and Interfaces 143 3.4.3 Provisioning and Key Derivation 144 3.4.4 Use Cases 144 References 148 4 Smartcards and Secure Elements 150 4.1 Overview 150 4.2 Role of Smartcards and SEs 151 4.3 Contact Cards 153 4.3.1 ISO/IEC 7816‐1 154 4.3.2 ISO/IEC 7816‐2 155 4.3.3 ISO/IEC 7816‐3 155 4.3.4 ISO/IEC 7816‐4 157 4.3.5 ISO/IEC 7816‐5 157 4.3.6 ISO/IEC 7816‐6 157 4.3.7 ISO/IEC 7816‐7 157 4.3.8 ISO/IEC 7816‐8 157 4.3.9 ISO/IEC 7816‐9 158 4.3.10 ISO/IEC 7816‐10 158 4.3.11 ISO/IEC 7816‐11 158 4.3.12 ISO/IEC 7816‐12 158 4.3.13 ISO/IEC 7816‐13 158 4.3.14 ISO/IEC 7816‐15 158 4.4 The SIM/UICC 159 4.4.1 Terminology 159 4.4.2 Principle 159 4.4.3 Key Standards 160 4.4.4 Form Factors 161 4.5 Contents of the SIM 164 4.5.1 UICC Building Blocks 164 4.5.2 The SIM Application Toolkit (SAT) 167 4.5.3 Contents of the UICC 168 4.6 Embedded SEs 168 4.6.1 Principle 168 4.6.2 M2M Subscription Management 169 4.6.3 Personalization 172 4.6.4 M2M SIM Types 173 4.7 Other Card Types 174 4.7.1 Access Cards 174 4.7.2 External SD Cards 175 4.8 Contactless Cards 175 4.8.1 ISO/IEC Standards 175 4.8.2 NFC 176 4.9 Electromechanical Characteristics of Smartcards 178 4.9.1 HW Blocks 178 4.9.2 Memory 178 4.9.3 Environmental Classes 179 4.10 Smartcard SW 181 4.10.1 File Structure 181 4.10.2 Card Commands 183 4.10.3 Java Card 184 4.11 UICC Communications 184 4.11.1 Card Communications 184 4.11.2 Remote File Management 185 References 186 5 Wireless Payment and Access Systems 188 5.1 Overview 188 5.2 Wireless Connectivity as a Base for Payment and Access 188 5.2.1 Barcodes 189 5.2.2 RFID 191 5.2.3 NFC 192 5.2.4 Secure Element 196 5.2.5 Tokenization 198 5.3 E‐commerce 200 5.3.1 EMV 200 5.3.2 Google Wallet 200 5.3.3 Visa 201 5.3.4 American Express 201 5.3.5 Square 201 5.3.6 Other Bank Initiatives 201 5.3.7 Apple Pay 201 5.3.8 Samsung Pay 202 5.3.9 MCX 202 5.3.10 Comparison of Wallet Solutions 202 5.4 Transport 203 5.4.1 MiFare 204 5.4.2 CiPurse 204 5.4.3 Calypso 204 5.4.4 FeliCa 205 5.5 Other Secure Systems 205 5.5.1 Mobile ID 205 5.5.2 Personal Identity Verification 205 5.5.3 Access Systems 206 References 206 6 Wireless Security Platforms and Functionality 208 6.1 Overview 208 6.2 Forming the Base 208 6.2.1 Secure Service Platforms 209 6.2.2 SEs 209 6.3 Remote Subscription Management 210 6.3.1 SIM as a Basis for OTA 210 6.3.2 TSM 212 6.3.3 TEE 213 6.3.4 HCE and the Cloud 216 6.3.5 Comparison 219 6.4 Tokenization 219 6.4.1 PAN Protection 219 6.4.2 HCE and Tokenization 221 6.5 Other Solutions 221 6.5.1 Identity Solutions 221 6.5.2 Multi‐operator Environment 222 References 222 7 Mobile Subscription Management 223 7.1 Overview 223 7.2 Subscription Management 223 7.2.1 Development 223 7.2.2 Benefits and Challenges of Subscription Management 225 7.3 OTA Platforms 226 7.3.1 General 226 7.3.2 Provisioning Procedure 227 7.3.3 SMS‐based SIM OTA 227 7.3.4 HTTPS‐based SIM OTA 230 7.3.5 Commercial Examples of SIM OTA Solutions 231 7.4 Evolved Subscription Management 232 7.4.1 GlobalPlatform 233 7.4.2 SIMalliance 233 7.4.3 OMA 233 7.4.4 GSMA 235 References 240 8 Security Risks in the Wireless Environment 242 8.1 Overview 242 8.2 Wireless Attack Types 243 8.2.1 Cyber‐attacks 243 8.2.2 Radio Jammers and RF Attacks 244 8.2.3 Attacks against SEs 245 8.2.4 IP Breaches 245 8.2.5 UICC Module 246 8.3 Security Flaws on Mobile Networks 247 8.3.1 Potential Security Weaknesses of GSM 247 8.3.2 Potential Security Weaknesses of 3G 254 8.4 Protection Methods 254 8.4.1 LTE Security 254 8.4.2 Network Attack Types in LTE/SAE 255 8.4.3 Preparation for the Attacks 256 8.5 Errors in Equipment Manufacturing 259 8.5.1 Equipment Ordering 259 8.5.2 Early Testing 260 8.6 Self‐Organizing Network Techniques for Test and Measurement 264 8.6.1 Principle 264 8.6.2 Self‐configuration 265 8.6.3 Self‐optimizing 266 8.6.4 Self‐healing 266 8.6.5 Technical Issues and Impact on Network Planning 266 8.6.6 Effects on Network Installation, Commissioning and Optimization 267 8.6.7 SON and Security 268 References 268 9 Monitoring and Protection Techniques 270 9.1 Overview 270 9.2 Personal Devices 271 9.2.1 Wi‐Fi Connectivity 271 9.2.2 Firewalls 271 9.3 IP Core Protection Techniques 272 9.3.1 General Principles 272 9.3.2 LTE Packet Core Protection 272 9.3.3 Protection against Roaming Threats 275 9.4 HW Fault and Performance Monitoring 276 9.4.1 Network Monitoring 277 9.4.2 Protection against DoS/DDoS 277 9.4.3 Memory Wearing 277 9.5 Security Analysis 278 9.5.1 Post‐processing 278 9.5.2 Real‐time Security Analysis 278 9.6 Virus Protection 279 9.7 Legal Interception 281 9.8 Personal Safety and Privacy 283 9.8.1 CMAS 283 9.8.2 Location Privacy 285 9.8.3 Bio‐effects 286 References 287 10 Future of Wireless Solutions and Security 288 10.1 Overview 288 10.2 IoT as a Driving Force 288 10.3 Evolution of 4G 289 10.4 Development of Devices 291 10.4.1 Security Aspects of Smartcards 291 10.4.2 Mobile Device Considerations 291 10.4.3 IoT Device Considerations 292 10.4.4 Sensor Networks and Big Data 293 10.5 5G Mobile Communications 294 10.5.1 Standardization 294 10.5.2 Concept 295 10.5.3 Industry and Investigation Initiatives 297 10.5.4 Role of 5G in IoT 297 References 297 Index 299

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a scientific modeling approach for conducting metrics-based quantitative risk assessments of cybersecurity vulnerabilities and threats. This book provides a scientific modeling approach for conducting metrics-based quantitative risk assessments of cybersecurity threats. The author builds from a common understanding based on previous class-tested works to introduce the reader to the current and newly innovative approaches to address the maliciously-by-human-created (rather than by-chance-occurring) vulnerability and threat, and related cost-effective management to mitigate such risk. This book is purely statistical data-oriented (not deterministic) and employs computationally intensive techniques,such as Monte Carlo and Discrete Event Simulation. The enriched JAVA ready-to-go applications and solutions to exercises provided by the author at the book's specifically preserved website will enable readers to utilize the course related problems. EnTable of ContentsPrologue xiv Reviews xv Preface xxi Acknowledgments and Dedication xxix About the Author xxxi 1 Metrics, Statistical Quality Control, and Basic Reliability in Cyber-Risk 1 1.1 Deterministic and Stochastic Cyber-Risk Metrics 1 1.2 Statistical Risk Analysis 2 1.2.1 Introduction to Statistical Hypotheses 2 1.2.2 Decision Rules 3 1.2.3 One-Tailed Tests 4 1.2.4 Two-Tailed Tests 4 1.2.5 Decision Errors 6 1.2.6 Applications to One-Tailed Tests Associated with Both Type I and Type II Errors 7 1.2.7 Applications to Two-Tailed Tests (Normal Distribution Assumption) 11 1.3 Acceptance Sampling in Quality Control 16 1.3.1 Introduction 16 1.3.2 Definition of an Acceptance Sampling Plan 16 1.3.3 The OC Curve 16 1.4 Poisson and Normal Approximation to Binomial in Quality Control 19 1.4.1 Approximations to Binomial Distribution 19 1.4.2 Approximation of Binomial to Poisson Distribution 19 1.4.3 Approximation to Normal Distribution 20 1.4.4 Comparisons of Normal and Poisson Approximations to the Binomial 21 1.5 Basic Statistical Reliability Concepts and Mc Simulators 21 1.5.1 Fundamental Equations for Reliability, Hazard, and Statistical Notions 23 1.5.2 Fundamentals for Reliability Block Diagramming and Redundancy 27 1.5.3 Solving Basic Reliability Questions by Using Student-Friendly Pedagogical Examples 30 1.5.4 MC Simulators for Commonly Used Distributions in Reliability 47 1.6 Discussions and Conclusion 52 1.7 Exercises 52 References 60 2 Complex Network Reliability Evaluation and Estimation in Cyber-Risk 61 2.1 Introduction 61 2.2 Overlap Technique to Calculate Complex Network Reliability 62 2.2.1 Network State Enumeration and Example 1 63 2.2.2 Generating Minimal Paths and Example 2 64 2.2.3 Overlap Method Algorithmic Rules and Example 3 68 2.3 The Overlap Method: Monte Carlo and Discrete Event Simulation 70 2.4 Multistate System Reliability Evaluation 71 2.4.1 Simple Series System with Single Derated States 73 2.4.2 Active Parallel System 73 2.4.3 Simple Series–Parallel System 74 2.4.4 A Simple Series–Parallel System with Multistate Components 75 2.4.5 A Combined System: Power Plant Example 76 2.4.6 Large Network Examples Using Multistate Overlap Technique 77 2.5 Weibull Time Distributed Reliability Evaluation 78 2.5.1 Motivation behind Weibull Probability Modeling 78 2.5.2 Weibull Parameter Estimation Methodology 79 2.5.3 Overlap Algorithm Applied to Weibull Distributed Components 80 2.5.4 Estimating Weibull Parameters 80 2.5.5 Fifty-Two-Node Weibull Example for Estimating Weibull Parameters 85 2.5.6 A Weibull Network Example from an Oil Rig System 90 2.6 Discussions and Conclusion 90 Appendix 2.A Overlap Algorithm and Example 93 2.A.1 Algorithm 93 2.A.2 Example 95 2.7 Exercises 101 References 103 3 Stopping Rules for Reliability and Security Tests in Cyber-Risk 105 3.1 Introduction 105 3.2 Methods 107 3.2.1 Lgm by Verhulst 108 3.2.2 Compound Poisson Model 110 3.3 Examples Merging Both Stopping Rules: Lgm and Cpm 114 3.3.1 The DR5 Data Set Example 114 3.3.2 The Dr4 Data Set Example 118 3.3.3 The Supercomputing Cloud Historical Failure Data—Case Study 119 3.3.4 Appendix for Section 3.3 121 3.4 Stopping Rule for Testing in the Time Domain 131 3.4.1 Review of Compound Poisson Process and Stopping Rule 131 3.4.2 Empirical Bayes Analysis for the Poisson^Geometric Stopping Rule 132 3.4.3 Howden’s Model for Stopping Rule 135 3.4.4 Computational Example for Stopping-Rule Algorithm in Time Domain 136 3.5 Discussions and Conclusion 139 3.6 Exercises 143 References 144 4 Security Assessment and Management in Cyber-Risk 147 4.1 Introduction 147 4.1.1 What Other Scoring Methods Are Available? 148 4.2 Security Meter (Sm) Model Design 152 4.3 Verification of the Probabilistic Security Meter (Sm) Method by Monte Carlo Simulation and Math-Statistical Triple-Product Rule 154 4.3.1 The Triple-Product Rule of Uniforms 156 4.3.2 Data Analysis on the Total Residual Risk of the Security Meter Design 158 4.3.3 Triple-Product Rule Discussions 169 4.4 Modifying the SM Quantitative Model for Categorical, Hybrid, and Nondisjoint Data 170 4.5 Maintenance Priority Determination for 3 × 3 × 2 Sm 178 4.6 Privacy Meter (PM): How to Quantify Privacy Breach 183 4.6.1 Methodology 184 4.6.2 Privacy Risk-Meter Assessment and Management Examples 185 4.7 Polish Decoding (Decompression) Algorithm 187 4.8 Discussions and Conclusion 189 4.9 Exercises 190 References 199 5 Game-Theoretic Computing in Cyber-Risk 201 5.1 Historical Perspective to Game Theory’s Origins 201 5.2 Applications of Game Theory to Cyber-Security Risk 203 5.3 Intuitive Background: Concepts, Definitions, and Nomenclature 204 5.3.1 A Price War Example 205 5.4 Random Selection for Nash Mixed Strategy 208 5.4.1 Random Probabilistic Selection 208 5.4.2 Does Nash Equilibrium (NE) Exist for the Company A/B Problem in Table 5.1? 209 5.4.3 An Example: Matching Pennies 210 5.4.4 Another Game: The Prisoner’s Dilemma 210 5.4.5 Games with Multiple NE (Terrorist Game: Bold Strategy Result in Domination) 211 5.5 Adversarial Risk Analysis Models by Banks, Rios, and Rios 213 5.6 An Alternative Model: Sahinoglu’s Security Meter for Neumann and Nash Mixed Strategy 215 5.7 Other Interdisciplinary Applications of Risk Meters 220 5.8 Mixed Strategy for Risk Assessment and Management-University Server and Social Network Examples 221 5.8.1 University Server’s Security Risk-Meter Example 221 5.8.2 Social Networks’ Privacy and Security Risk-Meter (RM) Example 222 5.8.3 Clarification of Risk Assessment and Management Algorithm for Social Networks 224 5.9 Application to Hospital Healthcare Service Risk 226 5.10 Application to Environmetrics and Ecology Risk 229 5.11 Application to Digital Forensics Security Risk 234 5.12 Application to Business Contracting Risk 239 5.13 Application to National Cybersecurity Risk 245 5.14 Application to Airport Service Quality Risk 253 5.15 Application to Offshore Oil-Drilling Spill and Security Risk 257 5.16 Discussions and Conclusion 264 5.17 Exercises 266 References 271 6 Modeling and Simulation in Cyber-Risk 277 6.1 Introduction and a Brief History to Simulation 277 6.2 Generic Theory: Case Studies on Goodness of Fit for Uniform Numbers 278 6.3 Why Crucial to Manufacturing and Cyber Defense 279 6.4 A Cross Section of Modeling and Simulation in Manufacturing Industry 280 6.4.1 Modeling and Simulation of Multistate Production Units and Systems in Manufacturing 281 6.4.2 Two-State SL Probability Model of Units with Closed-Form Solution 283 6.4.3 Extended Three-State SL Probability Model of Up–Down –Derated Units with Mc Simulation 284 6.4.4 Statistical Simulation of Three-State Units to Estimate the Density of Up–Down –Der 289 6.4.5 How to Generate Random Numbers from Sl pdf to Simulate Component and System Behavior 296 6.4.6 Example of Sl Simulation for Modeling Network of 2-in-Simple-Series Two-State (Up–Dn) Units 297 6.4.7 Example of Sl Simulation for Modeling a Network of 7-in-Complex-Topology Two-State (Up–Dn) Units 300 6.5 A Review of Modeling and Simulation in Cyber-Security 301 6.5.1 MC Value-at-Risk Approach by Kim et al. in Cloud Computing 301 6.5.2 MC and DES in Security Meter (Sm) Risk Model 302 6.6 Application of Queuing Theory and Multichannel Simulation to Cyber-Security 306 6.6.1 Example 1: One Recovery-Crew Case for Cyber-Security Queuing Simulation 306 6.6.2 Example 2: Two Recovery-Crew Case for Cyber-Security Queuing Simulation 308 6.7 Discussions and Conclusion 308 Appendix 6.A 311 6.8 Exercises 315 References 335 7 Cloud Computing in Cyber-Risk 339 7.1 Introduction and Motivation 339 7.2 Cloud Computing Risk Assessment 342 7.3 Motivation and Methodology 343 7.3.1 History of Theoretical Developments on CLOUD Modeling 343 7.3.2 Notation 344 7.3.3 Objectives 344 7.3.4 Frequency and Duration Method for the Loss of Load or Service 345 7.3.5 Nbd as a Compound Poisson Model 346 7.3.6 Nbd for the Loss of Load or Loss of Cloud Service Expected 348 7.4 Various Applications to Cyber Systems 349 7.4.1 Small Sample Experimental Systems 349 7.4.2 Large Cyber Systems 353 7.5 Large Cyber Systems Using Statistical Methods 357 7.6 Repair Crew and Product Reserve Planning to Manage Risk Cost Effectively Using Cyberrisksolver Cloud Management Java Tool 359 7.6.1 Cloud Resource Management Planning for Employment of Repair Crews 360 7.6.2 Cloud Resource Management Planning by Production Deployment 365 7.7 Remarks for “Physical Cloud” Employing Physical Products (Servers, Generators, Communication Towers, Etc.) 368 7.8 Applications to “Social (Human Resources) Cloud” 372 7.8.1 Numerical Example for Social Cloud (200 Employees Performing) 376 7.8.2 Input Wizard Example for Social Cloud (200 Employees Performing) 379 7.9 Stochastic Cloud System Simulation 379 7.9.1 Introduction and Methodology 381 7.9.2 Numerical Applications for Ss to Verify Non-Ss 385 7.9.3 Details of Probability Distributions Used in Stochastic Simulation 387 7.9.4 Varying Product Repair and Failure Date with Empirical Bayesian Posterior Gamma Approach 393 7.9.5 Varying Link Repair and Failure Using Gamma Distribution 393 7.9.6 Ss Applied to a Power or Cyber Grid 394 7.9.7 Error Checking or Flagging 396 7.10 Cloud Risk Meter Analysis 397 7.10.1 Risk Assessment and Management Clarifications for Figures 7.72 and 7.73 402 7.11 Discussions and Conclusion 405 7.12 Exercises 407 References 416 8 Software Reliability Modeling and Metrics in Cyber-Risk 421 8.1 Introduction, Motivation, and Methodology 421 8.2 History and Classification of Software Reliability Models 422 8.2.1 Time-between-Failures Models 422 8.2.2 Failure-Counting Models 422 8.2.3 Bayesian Model 423 8.2.4 Static (Nondynamic) Models 423 8.2.5 Others 424 8.3 Software Reliability Models in Time Domain 424 8.4 Software Reliability Growth Models 425 8.4.1 Negative Exponential Class of Failure Times 425 8.4.2 J–M De-eutrophication Model (Binomial Type) 425 8.4.3 Moranda’s Geometric Model (Poisson Type) 426 8.4.4 Goel–Okumoto Nonhomogeneous Poisson Process (Poisson Type) 427 8.4.5 Musa’s Basic Execution Time Model (Poisson Type) 428 8.4.6 Musa–Okumoto Logarithmic Poisson Execution Time Model (Poisson Type) 429 8.4.7 L–V Bayesian Model 431 8.4.8 Sahinoglu’s Compound Poisson^Geometric and Poisson^Logarithmic Series Models 433 8.4.9 Gamma, Weibull, and Other Classes of Failure Times 435 8.4.10 Duane Model (Poisson Type) 439 8.5 Numerical Examples Using Pedagogues 440 8.5.1 Example 1 440 8.5.2 Example 2 441 8.6 Recent Trends in Software Reliability 441 8.7 Discussions and Conclusion 442 8.8 Exercises 444 References 445 9 Metrics for Software Reliability Failure-Count Models in Cyber-Risk 451 9.1 Introduction and Methodology on Failure-Count Estimation in Software Reliability 451 9.1.1 Statistical Estimation Models, Computational Formulas, and Examples 452 9.1.2 Interpretations of Numerical Examples and Discussions 464 9.2 Predictive Accuracy to Compare Failure-Count Models 466 9.2.1 Classical Distribution Approach 468 9.2.2 Prior Distribution Approach 469 9.2.3 Applications to Data Sets and Comparisons 472 9.3 Discussions and Conclusion 473 appendix 9.A 477 9.4 Exercises 478 References 482 10 Practical Hands-On Lab Topics in Cyber-Risk 483 10.1 System Hardening 483 10.1.1 General 483 10.1.2 Windows Servers 484 10.1.3 Wireless 484 10.1.4 Firewalls, Routers, and Switches 485 10.2 Email Security 486 10.2.1 Identifying Fake Emails 486 10.2.2 Emotion Responses 486 10.3 MS-DOS Commands 487 10.3.1 Mapping Intel 488 10.4 Logging 492 10.4.1 Policy 493 10.4.2 Understanding Logs 494 10.5 Firewall 495 10.5.1 Traditional Firewalls 495 10.5.2 Ngfs 496 10.5.3 Host-Based Firewalls 496 10.6 Wireless Networks 496 10.7 Discussions and Conclusion 499 Appendix 10.A 500 10.8 Exercises 501 10.8.1 System Hardening 501 10.8.2 Email 501 10.8.3 Ms-Dos 502 10.8.4 Logging 503 10.8.5 Firewall 503 10.8.6 Wireless 505 10.8.7 Comprehensive Exercises 505 10.8.8 Cryptology Projects 507 References 509 What the Cyber-Risk Informatics Textbook and the Author are About? 511 Index 513

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Book SynopsisThis book is a contemporary overview of selected topics in fiber optics. It focuses on the latest research results on light wave manipulation using nonlinear optical fibers, with the aim of capturing some of the most innovative developments on this topic.Table of ContentsContents List of Contributors xiii Preface xvii 1 Modulation Instability, Four-Wave Mixing and their Applications 1 Tobias Hansson, Alessandro Tonello, Stefano Trillo, and Stefan Wabnitz 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Modulation Instability 2 1.2.1 Linear and Nonlinear Theory of MI 2 1.2.2 Polarization MI (PMI) in Birefringent Fibers 7 1.2.3 Collective MI of Four-Wave-Mixing 9 1.2.4 Induced MI Dynamics, Rogue Waves, and Optimal Parametric Amplification 11 1.2.5 High-Order Induced MI 13 1.2.6 MI Recurrence Break-Up and Noise 14 1.3 Four-Wave Mixing Dynamics 17 1.3.1 FWM Processes with Two Pumps 17 1.3.2 Bragg Scattering FWM 18 1.3.3 Applications of BS-FWM to Quantum Frequency Conversion 20 1.4 Fiber Cavity MI and FWM 20 1.4.1 Dynamics of MI in a Passive Fiber Cavity 20 1.4.2 Parametric Resonances and Period Doubling Phenomena 23 1.4.3 FWM in a Fiber Cavity for Optical Buffer Applications 25 References 27 2 Phase-Sensitive Amplification and Regeneration 35 Francesca Parmigiani 2.1 Introduction to Phase-Sensitive Amplifiers 35 2.2 Operation Principles and Realization of Phase-Sensitive Parametric Devices 36 2.3 One-Mode Parametric Processes 40 2.4 Two-Mode Parametric Processes 54 2.5 Four-Mode Parametric Processes 56 2.6 Conclusion 58 Acknowledgments 59 References 60 3 Novel Nonlinear Optical Phenomena in Gas-Filled Hollow-Core Photonic Crystal Fibers 65 Mohammed F. Saleh and Fabio Biancalana 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Nonlinear Pulse Propagation in Guided Kerr Media 66 3.3 Ionization Effects in Gas-Filled HC-PCFs 67 3.3.1 Short Pulse Evolution 68 3.3.2 Long-Pulse Evolution 72 3.4 Raman Effects in Gas-Filled HC-PCFs 76 3.4.1 Density Matrix Theory 76 3.4.2 Strong Probe Evolution 82 3.5 Interplay Between Ionization and Raman Effects in Gas-Filled HC-PCFs 85 3.6 Conclusion 89 Acknowledgments 89 References 89 4 Modulation Instability in Periodically Modulated Fibers 95 Arnaud Mussot, Matteo Conforti, and Alexandre Kudlinski 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Basic Theory of Modulation Instability in Periodically Modulated Waveguides 96 4.2.1 Piecewise Constant Dispersion 100 4.3 Fabrication of Periodically Modulated Photonic Crystal Fibers 101 4.3.1 Fabrication Principles 101 4.3.2 Typical Example 101 4.4 Experimental Results 104 4.4.1 Experimental Setup 104 4.4.2 First Observation of Multiple Simultaneous MI Side Bands in Periodically Modulated Fibers 104 4.4.3 Impact of the Curvature of the Dispersion 105 4.4.4 Other Modulation Formats 107 4.5 Conclusion 111 Acknowledgments 111 References 111 5 Pulse Generation and Shaping Using Fiber Nonlinearities 115 Christophe Finot and Sonia Boscolo 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 Picosecond Pulse Propagation in Optical Fibers 116 5.3 Pulse Compression and Ultrahigh-Repetition-Rate Pulse Train Generation 117 5.3.1 Pulse Compression 117 5.3.2 High-Repetition-Rate Sources 121 5.4 Generation of Specialized Temporal Waveforms 124 5.4.1 Pulse Evolution in the Normal Regime of Dispersion 124 5.4.2 Generation of Parabolic Pulses 125 5.4.3 Generation of Triangular and Rectangular Pulses 127 5.5 Spectral Shaping 128 5.5.1 Spectral Compression 129 5.5.2 Generation of Frequency-Tunable Pulses 132 5.5.3 Supercontinuum Generation 133 5.6 Conclusion 137 Acknowledgments 138 References 138 6 Nonlinear-Dispersive Similaritons of Passive Fibers: Applications in Ultrafast Optics 147 Levon Mouradian and Alain Barth´el´emy 6.1 Introduction 147 6.2 Spectron and Dispersive Fourier Transformation 150 6.3 Nonlinear-Dispersive Similariton 15 1 6.3.1 Spectronic Nature of NL-D Similariton: Analytical Consideration 152 6.3.2 Physical Pattern of Generation of NL-D Similariton, Its Character and Peculiarities on the Basis of Numerical Studies 153 6.3.3 Experimental Study of NL-D Similariton by Spectral Interferometry (and also Chirp Measurements by Spectrometer and Autocorrelator) 155 6.3.4 Bandwidth and Duration of NL-D Similariton 158 6.3.5 Wideband NL-D Similariton 159 6.4 Time Lens and NL-D Similariton 160 6.4.1 Concept of Time Lens: Pulse Compression—Temporal Focusing, and Spectral Compression—“Temporal Beam” Collimation/Spectral Focusing 160 6.4.2 Femtosecond Pulse Compression 161 6.4.3 Classic and “All-Fiber” Spectral Compression 163 6.4.4 Spectral Self-Compression: Spectral Analogue of Soliton-Effect Compression 165 6.4.5 Aberration-Free Spectral Compression with a Similariton-Induced Time Lens 167 6.4.6 Frequency Tuning Along with Spectral Compression in Similariton-Induced Time Lens 168 6.5 Similariton for Femtosecond Pulse Imaging and Characterization 172 6.5.1 Fourier Conversion and Spectrotemporal Imaging in SPM/XPM-Induced Time Lens 173 6.5.2 Aberration-Free Fourier Conversion and Spectrotemporal Imaging in Similariton-Induced Time Lens: Femtosecond Optical Oscilloscope 177 6.5.3 Similariton-Based Self-Referencing Spectral Interferometry 181 6.5.4 Simple Similaritonic Technique for Measurement of Femtosecond Pulse Duration, an Alternative to the Autocorrelator 185 6.5.5 Reverse Problem of NL-D Similariton Generation 187 6.5.6 Pulse Train Shaped by Similaritons’ Superposition 188 6.6 Conclusion 190 References 191 7 Applications of Nonlinear Optical Fibers and Solitons in Biophotonics And Microscopy 199 Esben R. Andresen and Herv´e Rigneault 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Soliton Generation 200 7.2.1 Fundamental Solitons 200 7.2.2 A Sidenote on Dispersive Wave Generation 202 7.2.3 Spatial Properties of PCF Output 204 7.3 TPEF Microscopy 204 7.4 SHG Microscopy 205 7.5 Coherent Raman Scattering 206 7.6 MCARS Microscopy 207 7.7 ps-CARS Microscopy 210 7.8 SRS Microscopy 211 7.9 Pump-Probe Microscopy 213 7.10 Increasing the Soliton Energy 215 7.10.1 SC-PBG Fibers 216 7.10.2 Multiple Soliton Generation 217 7.11 Conclusion 218 References 218 8 Self-Organization of Polarization State in Optical Fibers 225 Julien Fatome and Massimiliano Guasoni 8.1 Introduction 225 8.2 Principle of Operation 227 8.3 Experimental Setup 229 8.4 Theoretical Description 230 8.5 Bistability Regime and Related Applications 234 8.6 Alignment Regime 238 8.7 Chaotic Regime and All-Optical Scrambling for WDM Applications 241 8.8 Future Perspectives: Towards an All-Optical Modal Control in Fibers 247 8.9 Conclusion 250 Acknowledgments 251 References 251 9 All-Optical Pulse Shaping in the Sub-Picosecond Regime Based on Fiber Grating Devices 257 Maria R. Fern´andez-Ruiz, Alejandro Carballar, Reza Ashrafi, Sophie LaRochelle, and Jos´e Aza˜na 9.1 Introduction 257 9.2 Non-Fiber-Grating-Based Optical Pulse Shaping Techniques 258 9.3 Motivation of Fiber-Grating Based Optical Pulse Shaping 260 9.3.1 Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) 264 9.3.2 Long Period Gratings (LPGs) 267 9.4 Recent Work on Fiber Gratings-Based Optical Pulse Shapers: Reaching the Sub-Picosecond Regime 268 9.4.1 Recent Findings on FBGs 268 9.4.2 Recent Findings on LPGs 276 9.5 Advances towards Reconfigurable Schemes 284 9.6 Conclusion 285 References 285 10 Rogue Breather Structures in Nonlinear Systems with an Emphasis on Optical Fibers as Testbeds 293 Bertrand Kibler 10.1 Introduction 293 10.2 Optical Rogue Waves as Nonlinear Schr¨odinger Breathers 295 10.2.1 First-Order Breathers 295 10.2.2 Second-Order Breathers 301 10.3 Linear-Nonlinear Wave Shaping as Rogue Wave Generator 303 10.3.1 Experimental Configurations 304 10.3.2 Impact of Initial Conditions 306 10.3.3 Higher-Order Modulation Instability 308 10.3.4 Impact of Linear Fiber Losses 309 10.3.5 Noise and Turbulence 311 10.4 Experimental Demonstrations 311 10.4.1 Peregrine Breather 312 10.4.2 Periodic First-Order Breathers 313 10.4.3 Higher-Order Breathers 315 10.5 Conclusion 317 Acknowledgments 318 References 318 11 Wave-Breaking and Dispersive Shock Wave Phenomena in Optical Fibers 325 Stefano Trillo and Matteo Conforti 11.1 Introduction 325 11.2 Gradient Catastrophe and Classical Shock Waves 326 11.2.1 Regularization Mechanisms 327 11.3 Shock Formation in Optical Fibers 329 11.3.1 Mechanisms of Wave-Breaking in the Normal GVD Regime 330 11.3.2 Shock in Multiple Four-Wave Mixing 333 11.3.3 The Focusing Singularity 335 11.3.4 Control of DSW and Hopf Dynamics 336 11.4 Competing Wave-Breaking Mechanisms 337 11.5 Resonant Radiation Emitted by Dispersive Shocks 338 11.5.1 Phase Matching Condition 339 11.5.2 Step-Like Pulses 340 11.5.3 Bright Pulses 341 11.5.4 Periodic Input 342 11.6 Shock Waves in Passive Cavities 343 11.7 Conclusion 345 Acknowledgments 345 References 345 12 Optical Wave Turbulence in Fibers 351 Antonio Picozzi, Josselin Garnier, Gang Xu, and Guy Millot 12.1 Introduction 351 12.2 Wave Turbulence Kinetic Equation 354 12.2.1 Supercontinuum Generation 354 12.2.2 Breakdown of Thermalization 360 12.2.3 Turbulence in Optical Cavities 365 12.3 Weak Langmuir Turbulence Formalism 371 12.3.1 NLS Model 372 12.3.2 Short-Range Interaction: Spectral Incoherent Solitons 372 12.3.3 Long-Range Interaction: Incoherent Dispersive Shock Waves 375 12.4 Vlasov Formalism 378 12.4.1 Incoherent Modulational Instability 380 12.4.2 Incoherent Solitons in Normal Dispersion 381 12.5 Conclusion 384 Acknowledgments 385 References 385 13 Nonlocal Disordered Media and Experiments in Disordered Fibers 395 Silvia Gentilini and Claudio Conti 13.1 Introduction 395 13.2 Nonlinear Behavior of Light in Transversely Disordered Fiber 396 13.3 Experiments on the Localization Length in Disordered Fibers 399 13.4 Shock Waves in Disordered Systems 403 13.5 Experiments on Shock Waves in Disordered Media 407 13.5.1 Experimental Setup 407 13.5.2 Samples 407 13.5.3 Measurements 409 13.6 Conclusion 412 Acknowledgments 413 References 413 14 Wide Variability of Generation Regimes in Mode-Locked Fiber Lasers 415 Sergey V. Smirnov, Sergey M. Kobtsev, and Sergei K. Turitsyn 14.1 Introduction 415 14.2 Variability of Generation Regimes 417 14.3 Phenomenological Model of Double-Scale Pulses 425 14.4 Conclusion 428 Acknowledgments 429 References 429 15 Ultralong Raman Fiber Lasers and Their Applications 435 Juan Diego Ania-Casta˜n´on and Paul Harper 15.1 Introduction 435 15.2 Raman Amplification 436 15.3 Ultralong Raman Fiber Lasers Basics 439 15.3.1 Theory of Ultralong Raman Lasers 439 15.3.2 Amplification Using URFLs 444 15.4 Applications of Ultralong Raman Fiber Lasers 452 15.4.1 Applications in Telecommunications 453 15.4.2 Applications in Sensing 455 15.4.3 Supercontinuum Generation 455 15.5 Conclusion 456 References 456 16 Shaping Brillouin Light in Specialty Optical Fibers 461 Jean-Charles Beugnot and Thibaut Sylvestre 16.1 Introduction 461 16.2 Historical Background 462 16.3 Theory 463 16.3.1 Elastodynamics Equation 463 16.4 Tapered Optical Fibers 465 16.4.1 Principles 465 16.4.2 Experiments 466 16.4.3 Numerical Simulations 467 16.4.4 Photonic Crystal Fibers 469 16.5 Conclusion 473 References 474 Index 477

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Book SynopsisThe practical and comprehensive guide to the creation and application of holograms Written by Martin Richardson (an acclaimed leader and pioneer in the field) and John Wiltshire, The Hologram: Principles and Techniques is an important book that explores the various types of hologram in their multiple forms and explains how to create and apply the technology. The authors offer an insightful overview of the currently available recording materials, chemical formulas, and laser technology that includes the history of phase imaging and laser science. Accessible and comprehensive, the text contains a step-by-step guide to the production of holograms. In addition, The Hologram outlines the most common problems encountered in producing satisfactory images in the laboratory, as well as dealing with the wide range of optical and chemical techniques used in commercial holography. The Hologram is a well-designed instructive tool, involving three distincTable of ContentsForeword xi Preface xiii Dedications and Acknowledgements xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 What is a Hologram? 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Gabor’s Invention of Holography 1 1.3 The Work of Lippmann 5 1.4 Amplitude and Phase Holograms 5 1.5 Transmission Holograms 6 1.6 Reflection Holograms 7 1.7 Edge-lit Holograms 9 1.8 “Fresnel” and “Fraunhofer” Holograms 10 1.9 Display Holograms 12 1.10 Security Holograms 15 1.11 What is Not a Hologram? 16 1.11.1 Dot-matrix Holograms 17 1.11.2 Other Digital Image Types 18 1.11.3 Holographic Optical Element (HOE) 18 1.11.4 Pepper’s Ghost 18 1.11.5 Anaglyph Method 20 1.11.6 Lenticular Images 21 1.11.7 Scrambled Indicia 22 1.11.8 Hand-drawn “Holograms” 23 1.11.9 “Magic Eye” 24 Notes 25 2 Important Optical Principles and their Occurrence in Nature 27 2.1 Background 27 2.2 The Wave/Particle Duality of Light 29 2.3 Wavelength 30 2.4 Representation of the Behaviour of Light 32 2.4.1 A Ray of Light 32 2.4.2 A Wave Front 32 2.5 The Laws of Reflection 32 2.6 Refraction 34 2.7 Refractive Index 34 2.7.1 Refractive Index of Relevant Materials 34 2.8 Huygens’ Principle 34 2.9 The Huygens–Fresnel Principle 35 2.10 Snells Law 36 2.11 Brewster’s Law 38 2.12 The Critical Angle 40 2.13 TIR in Optical Fibres 42 2.14 Dispersion 42 2.15 Diffraction and Interference 43 2.16 Diffraction Gratings 45 2.17 The Grating Equation 45 2.18 Bragg’s Law 47 2.19 The Bragg Equation for the Recording of a Volume Hologram 50 2.20 The Bragg Condition in Lippmann Holograms 52 2.21 The Practical Preparation of Holograms 54 Notes 54 3 Conventional Holography and Lasers 55 3.1 Historical Aspect 55 3.2 Choosing a Laser for Holography 56 3.3 Testing a Candidate Laser 58 3.4 The Race for the Laser 59 3.5 Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (LASER) 60 3.6 The Ruby Laser 61 3.7 Laser Beam Quality 63 3.8 Photopic and Scotopic Response of the Human Eye 65 3.9 Eye Safety I 65 3.10 The Helium–Neon Laser 66 3.11 TheInert Gas Ion Lasers 68 3.12 Helium–Cadmium Lasers 69 3.13 Diode]pumped Solid]state Lasers 70 3.14 Fibre Lasers – A Personal Lament! 71 3.15 Eye Safety II 72 3.16 The Efficiency Revolution in Laser Technology 73 3.17 Laser Coherence 73 Notes 75 4 Digital Image Holograms 77 4.1 Why is There Such Desire to Introduce Digital Imaging into Holography? 77 4.2 The Kinegram 78 4.3 E]beam Lithographic Gratings 80 4.4 Grading Security Features 81 4.5 The Common “Dot]matrix” Technique 83 4.6 Case History: Pepsi Cola 88 4.7 Other Direct Methods of Producing Digital Holograms 88 4.8 Simian – The Ken Haines Approach to Digital Holograms 90 4.9 Zebra Reflection Holograms 90 Notes 92 5 Recording Materials for Holography 93 5.1 Silver Halide Recording Materials 93 5.2 Preparation of Silver Bromide Crystals 94 5.3 The Miraculous Photographic Application of Gelatin 95 5.4 Why Has it Taken so Long to Arrive at Today’s Excellent Standard of Recording Materials for Holography? 96 5.5 Controlled Growth Emulsions 97 5.6 Unique Requirements of Holographic Emulsions 100 5.7 Which Parameters Control Emulsion Speed? 101 5.8 Sensitisation 103 5.8.1 Chemical Sensitisation 103 5.8.2 Spectral Sensitisation 103 5.9 Developer Restrictions 104 5.10 The Coated Layer 105 5.11 The Non]typical Use of Silver Halides for Holography 106 5.12 Photopolymer 108 5.13 Photoresist 111 5.14 Dichromated Gelatin 112 5.14.1 Principle of Operation of DCG 113 5.14.2 Practical Experimentation with DCG 113 5.15 Photo]thermoplastics 114 Notes 115 6 Processing Techniques 117 6.1 Processing Chemistry for Silver Halide Materials 117 6.2 Pre]treatment of Emulsion 120 6.3 “Pseudo]colour” Holography 121 6.4 How Does Triethanolamine Treatment Work? 122 6.5 Wetting Emulsion Prior to Development 123 6.6 Development 124 6.7 Filamental and Globular Silver Grains 125 6.8 The H&D Curve 126 6.9 Chemical Development Mechanism 129 6.10 Pyro Developer Formulation 131 6.11 Ascorbic Acid Developers 131 6.11.1 Ascorbic Acid Developer Formulation 132 6.12 “Stop” Bath 133 6.12.1 “Stop” Bath Formulation 133 6.13 Fixing 134 6.13.1 Fixer Bath Formulation 135 6.14 Bleaching Solutions 135 6.15 Re]halogenating Bleaches 139 6.15.1 Ferric Re]halogenating Bleach Formulation 141 6.15.2 Cupric Re]halogenating Bleach Formulation 142 6.15.3 Re]halogenating Bleaching in Coarse]grain Emulsions such as “Holotest” 143 6.15.4 Re]halogenating Bleach Formulations for Coarse]grain Recording Materials 144 6.16 Post]process Conditioning Baths 144 6.17 Silver Halide Sensitised Gelatin (SHSG) 146 6.18 Surface]relief Effects by Etching Bleaches 147 6.18.1 Kodak EB4 Formulation 147 6.19 Photoresist Development Technique 148 Notes 150 7 Infrastructure of a Holography Studio and its Principal Components 153 7.1 Setting Up a Studio 153 7.2 Ground Vibration 154 7.3 Air Movement 155 7.4 Local Temperature Change 156 7.5 Safe Lighting 156 7.6 Organising Your Chemistry Laboratory 159 7.7 The Optical Table: Setting Up the Vital Components 159 7.8 Spatial Filtration 160 7.8.1 Mode of Operation of a Spatial Filter 160 7.8.2 Setting Up a Spatial Filter 161 7.8.3 Selection of Pinhole Diameter 163 7.8.4 Aligning the Spatial Filter in the Laser Beam 163 7.8.5 Centring the Pinhole 164 7.9 Filtering a “White” Laser Beam 166 7.10 Collimators 167 7.10.1 Mirror Collimators 168 7.10.2 Lens Collimation 171 7.10.3 Establishing the Approximate Focal Length of a Collimator 172 7.10.4 Finding the Precise Focal Point of a Collimator 172 7.10.5 Plano]convex Lens Alignment 173 7.10.6 Spherical Mirror Collimator Alignment 174 7.11 Organising Suitable Plate Holders for Holography 174 7.12 Hot Glue – The Holographer’s Disreputable Friend 175 7.13 Mirror Surfaces 176 7.13.1 Dielectric Mirrors 177 7.13.2 Metallic Coatings 177 7.14 Beam Splitters 178 7.14.1 Metallised Beam Splitters 179 7.14.2 Dielectric Beam Splitters 180 7.15 Shutters 181 7.16 Fringe Lockers 181 7.17 Optics Stands 182 7.18 Safety – Reprise 182 Notes 183 8 Making Conventional Denisyuk, Transmission and Reflection Holograms in the Studio 185 8.1 Introduction 185 8.2 The Denisyuk Configuration 186 8.3 The Realism of Denisyuk Holograms 186 8.4 The Limitations of Denisyuk Holograms 187 8.5 The Denisyuk Set]up 188 8.6 “Recording Efficiency” 189 8.7 Diffraction Efficiency 191 8.8 Spectrum of the Viewing Illumination 192 8.9 Other Factors Influencing Apparent Hologram Brightness 194 8.10 Problems Faced in the Production of High]quality Holograms 196 8.11 Selecting a Reference Angle 198 8.12 Index]matching Safety 200 8.13 Vacuum Chuck Method to Hold Film During Exposure 200 8.14 Setting the Plane of Polarisation 201 8.15 Full]colour “Denisyuk” Holograms 203 8.16 Perfect Alignment of Multiple Laser Beams 204 8.17 “Burn Out” 208 8.18 Hybrid (Boosted) Denisyuks 209 8.19 Contact Copying 211 8.20 The Rainbow Hologram Invention 212 8.21 A Laser Transmission Master Hologram 213 8.22 Laser Coherence Length 215 8.23 The Second Generation H2 Transmission Rainbow (Benton) Hologram 217 8.24 Developments of the Rainbow Hologram Technique 222 8.25 Using the α]Angle Theory to Produce Better Colour Rainbow Images 225 8.26 Aligning the Master Hologram with the α]Angle 228 8.27 Producing an α]Angle H2 Transfer 231 8.28 Utilising the Full Gamut of Rainbow Colours 232 8.29 Reflection Hologram Transfers 232 8.30 “Pseudo]colour” Holograms 235 8.31 Real]colour Holograms 237 Notes 237 9 Sources of Holographic Imagery 239 9.1 The Methods for Incorporation of 3D Artwork into Holograms 239 9.2 Making Holograms of Models and Real Objects 239 9.3 Models Designed for Multi]colour Rainbow Holograms 240 9.4 Supporting the Model 240 9.5 Pulse Laser Origination 242 9.6 The“2D/3D” Technique 244 9.7 The Rationale Behind Holographic Stereograms 246 9.8 Various Configurations for Holographic Stereograms 249 9.9 The Embossed Holographic Stereogram 250 9.10 Stereographic Film Recording Configuration 252 9.11 Shear Camera Recording 253 9.12 The Number of Image Channels for a Holographic Stereogram 256 9.13 Process Colours and Holography – An Uncomfortable Partnership 257 9.14 Assimilating CMYK Artwork with Holography 260 9.15 Interpretation of CMYK Separations in the RGB Format 261 Notes 262 10 A Personal View of the History of Holography 263 Notes 293 Epilogue: An Overview of the Impact of Holography in the World of Imaging 295 Notes 301 Index 303

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Book SynopsisThe transportation of multimedia over the network requires timely and errorless transmission much more strictly than other data. This had led to special protocols and to special treatment in multimedia applications (telephony, IP-TV, streaming) to overcome network issues. This book begins with an overview of the vast market combined with the user's expectations. The base mechanisms of the audio/video coding (H.26x etc.) are explained to understand characteristics of the generated network traffic. Further chapters treat common specialized underlying IP network functions which cope with multimedia data in conjunction which special time adaption measures. Based on those standard functions these chapters can treat uniformly SIP, H.248, High-End IP-TV, Webcast, Signage etc. A special section is devoted to home networks which challenge high-end service delivery due to possibly unreliable management. The whole book treats concepts described in accessible IP-based standards and which are impleTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xiii About the Authors xv Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Types of Networks 2 1.1.1 Internet 2 1.1.2 Telecommunication Provider Networks 2 1.1.3 Company Networks 3 1.1.4 University Networks 3 1.1.5 Home Networks 3 1.1.6 Overview 4 1.2 Standard Organizations 4 1.3 Market 5 2 Requirements 7 2.1 Telephony 7 2.2 Streaming 10 2.3 IPTV 11 2.4 High-End Videoconferences 12 2.5 Webcast 15 2.6 Requirement Summary 16 3 Audio, Image, Video Coding, and Transmission 19 3.1 Audio 19 3.1.1 Companding 21 3.1.2 Differential Quantization 23 3.1.3 Vocoders 26 3.2 Basics of Video Coding 30 3.2.1 Simple Compression 34 3.2.2 Motion Estimation 35 3.2.3 Statistical Compression 36 3.2.4 Transform Functions 40 3.3 JPEG 43 3.4 MPEG/H.26x Video Compression 45 3.4.1 MPEG Data Streams 47 3.4.2 H.261 49 3.4.3 MPEG-4 52 3.4.4 H.264 52 3.4.5 Scalable Video Codec 58 3.4.6 H.265 59 3.5 Other Video Compression Standards 62 3.6 Three-Dimensional Video 64 3.7 Error Resilience 66 3.8 Transcoder 68 4 Underlying Network Functions 71 4.1 Real-Time Protocol (RTP) 71 4.1.1 Elements of RTP 73 4.1.2 Details of RTP 73 4.1.3 RTP Payload 74 4.1.4 Details of RTCP 79 4.2 Session Description Protocol (SDP) 86 4.2.1 SDP Overview 86 4.2.2 Extending SDP 89 4.2.3 Javascript Session Establishment Protocol (JSEP) 89 4.3 Streaming 90 4.3.1 Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) 90 4.4 Multicast 96 4.4.1 Multicast Overview 96 4.4.2 Multicast Addressing 97 4.4.3 Types of Multicast 98 4.4.4 Multicast End Delivery 99 4.4.5 Multicast Routing Protocols 102 4.4.6 Protocol Independent Multicast – Sparse Mode 103 4.4.7 Application Layer Multicast 107 4.5 Quality of Service 108 4.5.1 Integrated Services (Intserv) 109 4.5.2 Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) 110 4.5.3 Differentiated Services (DiffServ) 111 4.5.4 QoS on the LAN 116 4.5.5 QoS in the Real World 117 4.6 NTP 118 4.7 Caching 120 4.7.1 Caching Elements 120 4.7.2 Web Cache Communications Protocol (WCCP) 122 4.7.3 Content Delivery Networks 122 4.7.4 Use of Cache Servers in Private Networks 123 5 Synchronization and Adaptation 125 5.1 End-to-End Model 125 5.2 Jitter 128 5.3 Packet Loss 129 5.4 Play-Out Time 130 5.4.1 Hypothetical Decoder 131 5.4.2 Multiple Streams 132 5.4.3 Adaptive Play-Out 133 5.5 Congestion Control 133 5.6 Delay 135 5.7 Queuing 138 5.8 Media Player 140 5.9 Storage and Retrieval 141 5.10 Integration Scripting Languages 143 5.11 Optimization 144 6 Session Initiation Protocol 147 6.1 SIP Basics 148 6.1.1 First Steps with SIP 148 6.1.2 SIP Servers 152 6.1.3 More SIP Methods 156 6.2 PSTN Interconnection 158 6.3 Conferencing 161 6.4 Presence 166 6.5 Network Address Translation 169 6.6 APIs and Scripting 172 6.7 Security and Safety 172 6.8 Planning a VoIP Company Telephony System 175 6.8.1 Dial Plan 177 6.8.2 Emergency 178 6.8.3 VoIP Network Planning 179 7 Other Standard VoIP Protocols 183 7.1 H.323 VoIP Family 183 7.1.1 H.225 185 7.1.2 H.245 189 7.1.3 Comparing SIP and H.323 191 7.2 T.120 Data Applications 192 7.3 Gateway Control 194 7.3.1 H.248 195 7.3.2 Signal Control 198 7.4 Mobile VoIP 202 7.4.1 IP Multimedia Subsystem 202 7.4.2 VoLTE 208 7.5 Skype 211 8 WebRTC 213 8.1 WebRTC Transport 215 8.1.1 ICE Revisited 217 8.2 RTP/SDP Adaptations 219 8.3 Interworking 220 9 Streaming and Over-the-Top TV 223 9.1 HTTP Live Streaming – Apple 224 9.2 Smooth Streaming – Microsoft 226 9.3 HTTP Dynamic Streaming – Adobe 227 9.4 Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP – DASH 229 9.4.1 History of MPEG-DASH 229 9.4.2 Description of MPEG-DASH 229 9.5 DASH and Network Interaction 233 9.5.1 Player Reaction to Network Conditions 234 9.5.2 Fairness, Efficiency, and Stability 234 9.5.3 Bufferbloat 235 9.6 Content Delivery Networks 237 9.6.1 CDN Technology 237 9.6.2 Akamai 240 9.6.3 The Future of CDNs 240 9.7 Providers 242 9.7.1 Amazon Instant Video 242 9.7.2 YouTube 242 9.7.3 Netflix 243 9.7.4 Hulu 243 9.7.5 Common Issues for all Providers 244 10 Home Networks 245 10.1 IETF Home Standards 246 10.1.1 IP Address Assignment 247 10.1.2 Name Resolution 247 10.1.3 Service Discovery – Zeroconf and Others 249 10.1.4 Zeroconf Implementations 251 10.2 UPnP 251 10.2.1 Service Discovery – UPnP 253 10.2.2 AV Architecture and its Elements 254 10.3 DLNA 260 10.4 Residential Gateway 261 10.4.1 IMS Integration 262 10.4.2 Network Separation 262 11 High-End IPTV 265 11.1 Overview of DVB IPTV 266 11.2 Live Media Broadcast 268 11.2.1 Retransmission 268 11.2.2 Channel Switch 271 11.3 Datacast Protocols 274 11.3.1 Flute 274 11.3.2 DVB SD&S Transport Protocol 276 11.3.3 Digital Storage Media – Command and Control 278 11.4 Management Functions 279 11.4.1 Service Discovery and Selection 279 11.4.2 Broadband Content Guide 280 11.4.3 Remote and Firmware Management 280 11.5 Content Download Service 282 11.6 Deployments 283 11.7 Companion Screen Application 285 11.8 Set-Top-Box Functions 288 11.9 Integration into Other Systems 289 11.9.1 IPTV and IMS 289 11.9.2 IPTV and IMS and WebRTC 290 11.9.3 IPTV and Home Network 290 12 Solutions and Summary 291 12.1 Global Webcast 291 12.2 Digital Signage Broadcasting 295 12.3 Call Center 297 12.3.1 Functional Components 297 12.3.2 Technical Components 299 12.4 Videoconference and TelePresence 303 12.4.1 Cisco’s Telepresence 305 12.4.2 Cisco’s Telepresence Transport Specifics 306 12.4.3 Cisco’s Telepresence Network Setup 308 12.5 Summary of Requirements versus Solutions 310 References 313 Index 345

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Book SynopsisThis is a modern textbook on digital communications and is designed for senior undergraduate and graduate students, whilst also providing a valuable reference for those working in the telecommunications industry. It provides a simple and thorough access to a wide range of topics through use of figures, tables, examples and problem sets.Table of ContentsPreface xiv List of Abbreviations xviii About the Companion Website xxi 1 Signal Analysis 1 1.1 Relationship Between Time and Frequency Characteristics of Signals 2 1.2 Power Spectal Density (PSD) and Energy Spectral Density (ESD) 15 1.3 Random Signals 18 1.4 Signal Transmission Through Linear Systems 27 References 31 Problems 31 2 Antennas 33 2.1 Hertz Dipole 34 2.2 Linear Dipole Antenna 40 2.3 Aperture Antennas 43 2.4 Isotropic and Omnidirectional Antennas 47 2.5 Antenna Parameters 48 References 78 Problems 78 3 Channel Modeling 82 3.1 Wave Propagation in Low- and Medium-Frequency Bands (Surface Waves) 83 3.2 Wave Propagation in the HF Band (Sky Waves) 84 3.3 Wave Propagation in VHF and UHF Bands 85 3.4 Wave Propagation in SHF and EHF Bands 106 3.5 Tropospheric Refraction 118 3.6 Outdoor Path-Loss Models 123 3.7 Indoor Propagation Models 129 3.8 Propagation in Vegetation 134 References 137 Problems 137 4 Receiver System Noise 145 4.1 Thermal Noise 146 4.2 Equivalent Noise Temperature 147 4.3 Noise Figure 150 4.4 External Noise and Antenna Noise Temperature 153 4.5 System Noise Temperature 167 4.6 Additive White Gaussian Noise Channel 174 References 175 Problems 175 5 Pulse Modulation 184 5.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 185 5.2 Time-Division Multiplexing 209 5.3 Pulse-Code Modulation (PCM) Systems 212 5.4 Differential Quantization Techniques 220 References 236 Problems 236 6 Baseband Transmission 245 6.1 The Channel 245 6.2 Matched Filter 249 6.3 Baseband M-ary PAM Transmission 263 6.4 Intersymbol Interference 268 6.5 Nyquist Criterion for Distortionless Baseband Binary Transmission In a ISI Channel 272 6.6 Correlative-Level Coding (Partial-Response Signalling) 278 6.7 Equalization in Digital Transmission Systems 283 References 287 Problems 287 7 Optimum Receiver in AWGN Channel 298 7.1 Introduction 298 7.2 Geometric Representation of Signals 300 7.3 Coherent Demodulation in AWGN Channels 302 7.4 Probability of Error 311 References 319 Problems 319 8 Passband Modulation Techniques 323 8.1 PSD of Passband Signals 324 8.2 Synchronization 327 8.3 Coherently Detected Passband Modulations 332 8.4 Noncoherently Detected Passband Modulations 367 8.5 Comparison of Modulation Techniques 374 References 378 Problems 379 9 Error Control Coding 386 9.1 Introduction to Channel Coding 386 9.2 Maximum Likelihood Decoding (MLD) with Hard and Soft Decisions 390 9.3 Linear Block Codes 396 9.4 Cyclic Codes 415 9.5 Burst Error Correction 429 9.6 Convolutional Coding 436 9.7 Concatenated Coding 454 9.8 Turbo Codes 456 9.9 Automatic Repeat-Request (ARQ) 459 Appendix 9A Shannon Limit For Hard-Decision and Soft-Decision Decoding 471 References 473 Problems 473 10 Broadband Transmission Techniques 479 10.1 Spread Spectrum 481 10.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 519 Appendix 10A Frequency Domain Analysis of DSSS Signals 545 Appendix 10B Time Domain Analysis of DSSS Signals 547 Appendix 10C SIR in OFDM systems 548 References 551 Problems 552 11 Fading Channels 557 11.1 Introduction 558 11.2 Characterisation of Multipath Fading Channels 559 11.3 Modeling Fading and Shadowing 582 11.4 Bit Error Probability in Frequency-Nonselective Slowly Fading Channels 604 11.5 Frequency-Selective Slowly-Fading Channels 614 11.6 Resource Allocation in Fading Channels 622 References 626 Problems 626 12 Diversity and Combining Techniques 638 12.1 Antenna Arrays in Non-Fading Channels 640 12.2 Antenna Arrays in Fading Channels 650 12.3 Correlation Effects in Fading Channels 654 12.4 Diversity Order, Diversity Gain and Array Gain 657 12.5 Ergodic and Outage Capacity in Fading Channels 660 12.6 Diversity and Combining 664 References 691 Problems 692 13 MIMO Systems 701 13.1 Channel Classification 702 13.2 MIMO Channels with Arbitrary Number of Transmit and Receive Antennas 703 13.3 Eigenvalues of the Random Wishart Matrix HHH 707 13.4 A 2 × 2 MIMO Channel 718 13.5 Diversity Order of a MIMO System 722 13.6 Capacity of a MIMO System 723 13.7 MIMO Beamforming Systems 730 13.8 Transmit Antenna Selection (TAS) in MIMO Systems 734 13.9 Parasitic MIMO Systems 740 13.10 MIMO Systems with Polarization Diversity 748 References 753 Problems 755 14 Cooperative Communications 758 14.1 Dual-Hop Amplify-and-Forward Relaying 759 14.2 Relay Selection in Dual-Hop Relaying 767 14.3 Source and Destination with Multiple Antennas in Dual-Hop AF Relaying 776 14.4 Dual-Hop Detect-and-Forward Relaying 787 14.5 Relaying with Multiple Antennas at Source, Relay and Destination 796 14.6 Coded Cooperation 798 Appendix 14A CDF of γeq and γeq,0 800 Appendix 14B Average Capacity of γeq,0 801 Appendix 14C Rayleigh Approximation for Equivalent SNR with Relay Selection 802 Appendix 14D CDF of γeq,a 804 References 806 Problems 807 Appendix A: Vector Calculus in Spherical Coordinates 810 Appendix B: Gaussian Q Function 811 Appendix C: Fourier Transforms 819 Appendix D: Mathematical Tools 821 Appendix E: The Wishart Distribution 834 Appendix F: Probability and Random Variables 844 Index 871

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Book SynopsisThis book presents programming by demonstration for robot learning from observations with a focus on the trajectory level of task abstraction Discusses methods for optimization of task reproduction, such as reformulation of task planning as a constrained optimization problemFocuses on regression approaches, such as Gaussian mixture regression, spline regression, and locally weighted regressionConcentrates on the use of vision sensors for capturing motions and actions during task demonstration by a human task expertTable of ContentsPreface xi List of Abbreviations xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Robot Programming Methods 2 1.2 Programming by Demonstration 3 1.3 Historical Overview of Robot PbD 4 1.4 PbD System Architecture 6 1.4.1 Learning Interfaces 8 1.4.1.1 Sensor-Based Techniques 10 1.4.2 Task Representation and Modeling 13 1.4.2.1 Symbolic Level 14 1.4.2.2 Trajectory Level 16 1.4.3 Task Analysis and Planning 18 1.4.3.1 Symbolic Level 18 1.4.3.2 Trajectory Level 19 1.4.4 Program Generation and Task Execution 20 1.5 Applications 21 1.6 Research Challenges 25 1.6.1 Extracting the Teacher’s Intention from Observations 26 1.6.2 Robust Learning from Observations 27 1.6.2.1 Robust Encoding of Demonstrated Motions 27 1.6.2.2 Robust Reproduction of PbD Plans 29 1.6.3 Metrics for Evaluation of Learned Skills 29 1.6.4 Correspondence Problem 30 1.6.5 Role of the Teacher in PbD 31 1.7 Summary 32 References 33 2 Task Perception 432.1 Optical Tracking Systems 43 2.2 Vision Cameras 44 2.3 Summary 46 References 46 3 Task Representation 49 3.1 Level of Abstraction 50 3.2 Probabilistic Learning 51 3.3 Data Scaling and Aligning 51 3.3.1 Linear Scaling 52 3.3.2 Dynamic Time Warping (DTW) 52 3.4 Summary 55 References 55 4 Task Modeling 57 4.1 Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) 57 4.2 Hidden Markov Model (HMM) 59 4.2.1 Evaluation Problem 61 4.2.2 Decoding Problem 62 4.2.3 Training Problem 62 4.2.4 Continuous Observation Data 63 4.3 Conditional Random Fields (CRFs) 64 4.3.1 Linear Chain CRF 65 4.3.2 Training and Inference 66 4.4 Dynamic Motion Primitives (DMPs) 68 4.5 Summary 70 References 70 5 Task Planning 73 5.1 Gaussian Mixture Regression 73 5.2 Spline Regression 74 5.2.1 Extraction of Key Points as Trajectories Features 75 5.2.2 HMM-Based Modeling and Generalization 80 5.2.2.1 Related Work 80 5.2.2.2 Modeling 81 5.2.2.3 Generalization 83 5.2.2.4 Experiments 87 5.2.2.5 Comparison with Related Work 100 5.2.3 CRF Modeling and Generalization 107 5.2.3.1 Related Work 107 5.2.3.2 Feature Functions Formation 107 5.2.3.3 Trajectories Encoding and Generalization 109 5.2.3.4 Experiments 111 5.2.3.5 Comparisons with Related Work 115 5.3 Locally Weighted Regression 117 5.4 Gaussian Process Regression 121 5.5 Summary 122 References 123 6 Task Execution 129 6.1 Background and Related Work 129 6.2 Kinematic Robot Control 132 6.3 Vision-Based Trajectory Tracking Control 134 6.3.1 Image-Based Visual Servoing (IBVS) 134 6.3.2 Position-Based Visual Servoing (PBVS) 135 6.3.3 Advanced Visual Servoing Methods 141 6.4 Image-Based Task Planning 141 6.4.1 Image-Based Learning Environment 141 6.4.2 Task Planning 142 6.4.3 Second-Order Conic Optimization 143 6.4.4 Objective Function 144 6.4.5 Constraints 146 6.4.5.1 Image-Space Constraints 146 6.4.5.2 Cartesian Space Constraints 149 6.4.5.3 Robot Manipulator Constraints 150 6.4.6 Optimization Model 152 6.5 Robust Image-Based Tracking Control 156 6.5.1 Simulations 157 6.5.1.1 Simulation 1 158 6.5.1.2 Simulation 2 161 6.5.2 Experiments 162 6.5.2.1 Experiment 1 166 6.5.2.2 Experiment 2 173 6.5.2.3 Experiment 3 173 6.5.3 Robustness Analysis and Comparisons with Other Methods 173 6.6 Discussion 183 6.7 Summary 185 References 185 Index 000

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Book SynopsisAntennas From Theory to Practice Comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals and latest developments in antennas and antenna design In the newly revised Second Edition of Antennas: From Theory to Practice, renowned researcher, engineer, and author Professor Yi Huang delivers comprehensive and timely coverage of issues in modern antenna design and theory. Practical and accessible, the book is written for engineers, researchers, and students who work with radio frequency/microwave engineering, radar, and radio communications. The book details the basics of transmission lines, radiowaves and propagation, antenna theory, antenna analysis and design using industrial standard design software tools and the theory of characteristic modes, antenna measurement equipment, facilities, and techniques. It also covers the latest developments in special topics, like small and mobile antennas, wide- and multi-band antennas, automotive antennas, RFID, UWB, metamaterials, recTable of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition List of Acronyms and Constants About the Author 1. Introduction 1.1 A Brief History of Antennas 1.2 Radio Systems and Antennas 1.3 Necessary Mathematics 1.3.1 Complex Numbers 1.3.2 Vectors and Vector Operation 1.3.3 Coordinates 1.4 Basics of Electromagnetics 1.4.1 Electric Field 1.4.2 Magnetic Field 1.4.3 Maxwell's Equations 1.4.4 Boundary Conditions Summary References Problems 2. Circuit Concepts and Transmission Lines 2.1 Circuit Concepts 2.1.1 Lumped and Distributed Element Systems 2.2 Transmission Line Theory 2.2.1 Transmission Line Model 2.2.2 Solutions and Analysis 2.2.3 Terminated Transmission Line 2.3 The Smith Chart and Impedance Matching 2.3.1 The Smith Chart 2.3.2 Impedance Matching 2.3.3 Quality Factor and Bandwidth 2.4 Various Transmission Lines 2.4.1 Two-wire Transmission Line 2.4.2 Coaxial Cable 2.4.3 Microstrip Line 2.4.4 Stripline 2.4.5 Co-planar Waveguide (CPW) 2.4.6 Waveguide 2.4.7 New Transmission Lines (SIW, Gap Wave… 2.5 Connectors Summary References Problems 3. Field Concepts and Radiowaves 3.1 Wave Equation and Solutions 3.1.1 Discussion on Wave Solutions 3.2 Plane Wave, Intrinsic Impedance and Polarisa… 3.2.1 Plane Wave and Intrinsic Impedance 3.2.2 Polarisation 3.3 Radiowave Propagation Mechanisms 3.3.1 Reflection and Transmission 3.3.2 Diffraction and Huygens' Principle 3.3.3 Scattering 3.4 Radiowave Propagation Characteristics in Me… 3.4.1 Media Classification and Attenuation 3.5 Radiowave Propagation Models 3.5.1 Free Space Model 3.5.2 Two-ray Model/Plane Earth Model 3.5.3 Multipath Models 3.6 Comparison of Circuit Concepts and Field C… 3.6.1 Skin Depth Summary References Problems 4. Antenna Basics 4.1 Antennas to Radiowaves 4.1.1 Near Field and Far Field 4.1.2 Radiation Pattern 4.1.3 Directivity, Gain/Realised Gain and Radia… 4.1.4 Effective Aperture and Aperture Efficiency 4.1.5 Other Parameters from the Field Point o… 4.2 Antennas to Transmission Lines 4.2.1 Input Impedance and Radiation Resistan… 4.2.2 Reflection Coefficient, Return Loss and… 4.2.3 Other Parameters from the Circuit Point… Summary References Problems 5. Popular Antennas 5.1 Wire-Type Antennas 5.1.1 Dipoles 5.1.2 Monopoles and Image Theory 5.1.3 Loops and Duality Principle 5.1.4 Helical Antennas 5.1.5 Yagi-Uda Antennas 5.1.6 Log-periodic Antennas and Frequency In… 5.2 Aperture-Type Antennas 5.2.1 Fourier Transform and Radiated Field 5.2.2 Horn Antennas 5.2.3 Reflector and Lens Antennas 5.2.4 Slot Antennas and Babinet’s Principle 5.2.5 Microstrip Antennas 5.3 Antenna Arrays 5.3.1 Basic Concept 5.3.2 Isotropic Linear Arrays 5.3.3 Pattern Multiplication Principle 5.3.4 Element Mutual Coupling 5.4 Some Practical Considerations 5.4.1 Transmitting and Receiving Antennas: Re… 5.4.2 Balun and Impedance Matching 5.4.3 Antenna Polarisation 5.4.4 Radomes, Housings and Supporting Struc… Summary References Problems 6. Computer Aided Antenna Design and Analysis 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Computational Electromagnetics for Antennas 6.2.1 Method of Moments (MoM) 6.2.2 Finite Element Method (FEM) 6.2.3 Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) M… 6.2.4 Transmission Line Modelling (TIM) Met… 6.2.5 Comparison of Numerical Methods 6.2.6 High Frequency Methods 6.3 Computer Simulation Software 6.3.1 Simple Simulation Tools 6.3.2 Advanced Simulation Tools 6.4 Examples of Computer Aided Design 6.4.1 Wire-type Antenna Design and Analysis 6.4.2 General Antenna Design and Analysis 6.5 Theory of Characteristic Modes for Antenna… 6.5.1 Mathematical Formulation of Characteri… 6.5.2 Physical Interpretation of Characteristic… 6.5.3 Examples of Using TCM for Antenna Des… Summary References Problems 7. Antenna Materials, Fabrication, and Measurements 7.1 Materials for Antennas 7.1.1 Conducting Materials 7.1.2 Dielectric Materials 7.1.3 Composites 7.1.4 Metamaterials and Metasurfaces 7.2 Antenna Fabrication 7.2.1 PCB Based Fabrication 7.2.2 MEMS 7.2.3 LTCC 7.2.4 LCP 7.2.5 LDS 7.2.6 Printing 7.3 Antenna Measurement Basics 7.3.1 Scattering Parameters 7.3.2 Network Analysers 7.4 Antenna Measurement Facilities 7.4.1 Op en-Area Test Site 7.4.2 Anechoic Chamber 7.4.3 Compact Antenna Test Range (CATR)/PI… 7.4.4 Near Field Systems 7.4.5 Reverberation Chamber 7.5 Impedance, S11, and VSWR Measurements 7.6 Radiation Pattern Measurements 7.7 Gain Measurements 7.7.1 Gain Comparison Measurements 7.7.2 Two-antenna Measurement 7.7.3 Three-antenna Measurement 7.8 Efficiency Measurements 7.9 Miscellaneous Topics 7.9.1 Impedance De-embedding Techniques 7.9.2 MIMO Over-the-Air Testing 7.9.3 Probe Array in Near Field Systems Summary References Problems 8. Special Topics 8.1 Electrically Small Antennas 8.1.1 The Basics and Impedance Bandwidth Li… 8.1.2 Antenna Size Reduction Techniques 8.1.3 Summary 8.2 Mobile Antennas 8.2.1 Introduction 8.2.2 Mobile Terminal Antennas 8.2.3 Multipath and Antenna Diversity 8.2.4 User Interaction 8.2.5 Mobile Base-Station Antennas 8.2.6 Summary 8.3 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Ant… 8.3.1 MIMO Basics 8.3.2 MIMO Antennas and Key Parameters 8.3.3 MIMO Antenna Designs 8.3.4 Summary 8.4 Multi-band and Wideband Antennas 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Multi-band Antennas 8.4.3 Wideband Antennas 8.4.4 Summary 8.5 RFID Antennas 8.5.1 Introduction 8.5.2 Near Field Systems 8.5.3 Far Field Systems 8.5.4 Summary 8.6 Reconfigurable Antennas 8.6.1 Introduction 8.6.2 Switch and Variable Component Technol… 8.6.3 Resonant Mode Switching/Tuning 8.6.4 Feed Network Switching/Tuning 8.6.5 Mechanical Reconfiguration 8.6.6 Liquid Reconfiguration Antennas 8.6.7 Discussion and Summary 8.7 Automotive Antennas 8.7.1 Introduction 8.7.2 Antenna Designs 8.7.3 Summary 8.8 Reflector Antennas 8.8.1 Fundamentals of Reflector Design 8.8.2 Feed Design 8.8.3 Dual and Multiple Reflector Designs 8.8.4 Blockage Effects 8.8.5 Overview of Reflector Analysis 8.8.6 Summary Summary

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Book SynopsisPresents applied theory and advanced simulation techniques for electric machines and drives This book combines the knowledge of experts from both academia and the software industry to present theories of multiphysics simulation by design for electrical machines, power electronics, and drives. The comprehensive design approach described within supports new applications required by technologies sustaining high drive efficiency. The highlighted framework considers the electric machine at the heart of the entire electric drive. The book also emphasizes the simulation by design concepta concept that frames the entire highlighted design methodology, which is described and illustrated by various advanced simulation technologies. Multiphysics Simulation by Design for Electrical Machines, Power Electronics and Drives begins with the basics of electrical machine design and manufacturing tolerances. It also discusses fundamental aspects of the state of the art desigTable of ContentsPREFACE vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv CHAPTER 1 BASICS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES 1Marius Rosu, Mircea Popescu, and Dan M. Ionel 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Generic Design Flow 3 1.3 Basic Design and How to Start 4 1.4 Efficiency Map 16 1.5 Thermal Constraints 19 1.6 Robust Design and Manufacturing Tolerances 22 References 42 CHAPTER 2 FEM-BASED ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN 45Ping Zhou and Dingsheng Lin 2.1 T–Ω Formulation 45 2.2 Field-Circuit Coupling 56 2.3 Fast AC Steady-State Algorithm 70 2.4 High Performance Computing—Time Domain Decomposition 82 2.5 Reduced Order Modeling 93 References 106 CHAPTER 3 MAGNETIC MATERIAL MODELING 109Dingsheng Lin and Ping Zhou 3.1 Shape Preserving Interpolation of B–H Curves 109 3.2 Nonlinear Anisotropic Model 115 3.3 Dynamic Core Loss Analysis 125 3.4 Vector Hysteresis Model 137 3.5 Demagnetization of Permanent Magnets 150 References 162 CHAPTER 4 THERMAL PROBLEMS IN ELECTRICAL MACHINES 165Mircea Popescu and David Staton 4.1 Introduction 165 4.2 Heat Extraction Through Conduction 167 4.3 Heat Extraction Through Convection 170 4.4 Heat Extraction Through Radiation 186 4.5 Cooling Systems Summary 188 4.6 Thermal Network Based on Lumped Parameters 188 4.7 Analytical Thermal Network Analysis 192 4.8 Thermal Analysis Using Finite Element Method 193 4.9 Thermal Analysis Using Computational Fluid Dynamics 195 4.10 Thermal Parameters Determination 200 4.11 Losses in Brushless Permanent Magnet Machines 202 4.12 Cooling Systems 210 4.13 Cooling Examples 214 References 218 CHAPTER 5 AUTOMATED OPTIMIZATION FOR ELECTRIC MACHINES 223Dan M. Ionel and Vandana Rallabandi 5.1 Introduction 223 5.2 Formulating an Optimization Problem 224 5.3 Optimization Methods 226 5.4 Design of Experiments and Response Surface Methods 228 5.5 Differential Evolution 233 5.6 First Example: Optimization of an Ultra High Torque Density PM Motor for Formula E Racing Cars: Selection of Best Compromise Designs 234 5.7 Second Example: Single Objective Optimization of a Range of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine (PMSMS) Rated Between 1 kW and 1 MW Derivation of Design Proportions and Recommendations 238 5.8 Third Example: Two- and Three-Objective Function Optimization of a Synchronous Reluctance (SYNREL) and PM Assisted Synchronous Reluctance Motor 241 5.9 Fourth Example: Multi-Objective Optimization of PM Machines Combining DOE and DE Methods 245 5.10 Summary 248 References 248 CHAPTER 6 POWER ELECTRONICS AND DRIVE SYSTEMS 251Frede Blaabjerg, Francesco Iannuzzo, and Lorenzo Ceccarelli 6.1 Introduction 251 6.2 Power Electronic Devices 253 6.3 Circuit-Level Simulation of Drive Systems 264 6.4 Multiphysics Design Challenges 274 References 281 INDEX 283

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Book SynopsisComprehensive coverage of all aspects of space application oriented fault tolerance techniques Experienced expert author working on fault tolerance for Chinese space program for almost three decades Initiatively provides a systematic texts for the cutting-edge fault tolerance techniques in spacecraft control computer, with emphasis on practical engineering knowledge Presents fundamental and advanced theories and technologies in a logical and easy-to-understand manner Beneficial to readers inside and outside the area of space applicationsTable of ContentsBrief Introduction xiii Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Fault-tolerance Techniques 1 1.1.1 Fundamental Concepts 1 1.1.2 Reliability Principles 4 1.1.2.1 Reliability Metrics 4 1.1.2.2 Reliability Model 6 1.2 The Space Environment and Its Hazards for the Spacecraft Control Computer 9 1.2.1 Introduction to Space Environment 9 1.2.1.1 Solar Radiation 9 1.2.1.2 Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) 10 1.2.1.3 Van Allen Radiation Belt 10 1.2.1.4 Secondary Radiation 12 1.2.1.5 Space Surface Charging and Internal Charging 12 1.2.1.6 Summary of Radiation Environment 13 1.2.1.7 Other Space Environments 14 1.2.2 Analysis of Damage Caused by the Space Environment 14 1.2.2.1 Total Ionization Dose (TID) 14 1.2.2.2 Single Event Effect (SEE) 15 1.2.2.3 Internal/surface Charging Damage Effect 20 1.2.2.4 Displacement Damage Effect 20 1.2.2.5 Other Damage Effect 20 1.3 Development Status and Prospects of Fault Tolerance Techniques 21 References 25 2 Fault-Tolerance Architectures and Key Techniques 29 2.1 Fault- tolerance Architecture 29 2.1.1 Module-level Redundancy Structures 30 2.1.2 Backup Fault-tolerance Structures 32 2.1.2.1 Cold-backup Fault-tolerance Structures 32 2.1.2.2 Hot-backup Fault-tolerance Structures 34 2.1.3 Triple-modular Redundancy (TMR) Fault-tolerance Structures 36 2.1.4 Other Fault-tolerance Structures 40 2.2 Synchronization Techniques 40 2.2.1 Clock Synchronization System 40 2.2.1.1 Basic Concepts and Fault Modes of the Clock Synchronization System 40 2.2.1.2 Clock Synchronization Algorithm 41 2.2.2 System Synchronization Method 52 2.2.2.1 The Real-time Multi-computer System Synchronization Method 52 2.2.2.2 System Synchronization Method with Interruption 56 2.3 Fault-tolerance Design with Hardware Redundancy 60 2.3.1 Universal Logic Model and Flow in Redundancy Design 60 2.3.2 Scheme Argumentation of Redundancy 61 2.3.2.1 Determination of Redundancy Scheme 61 2.3.2.2 Rules Obeyed in the Scheme Argumentation of Redundancy 62 2.3.3 Redundancy Design and Implementation 63 2.3.3.1 Basic Requirements 63 2.3.3.2 FDMU Design 63 2.3.3.3 CSSU Design 64 2.3.3.4 IPU Design 65 2.3.3.5 Power Supply Isolation Protection 67 2.3.3.6 Testability Design 68 2.3.3.7 Others 68 2.3.4 Validation of Redundancy by Analysis 69 2.3.4.1 Hardware FMEA 69 2.3.4.2 Redundancy Switching Analysis (RSA) 69 2.3.4.3 Analysis of the Common Cause of Failure 69 2.3.4.4 Reliability Analysis and Checking of the Redundancy Power 70 2.3.4.5 Analysis of the Sneak Circuit in the Redundancy Management Circuit 72 2.3.5 Validation of Redundancy by Testing 73 2.3.5.1 Testing by Failure Injection 73 2.3.5.2 Specific Test for the Power of the Redundancy Circuit 74 2.3.5.3 Other Things to Note 74 References 74 3 Fault Detection Techniques 77 3.1 Fault Model 77 3.1.1 Fault Model Classified by Time 78 3.1.2 Fault Model Classified by Space 78 3.2 Fault Detection Techniques 80 3.2.1 Introduction 80 3.2.2 Fault Detection Methods for CPUs 81 3.2.2.1 Fault Detection Methods Used for CPUs 82 3.2.2.2 Example of CPU Fault Detection 83 3.2.3 Fault Detection Methods for Memory 87 3.2.3.1 Fault Detection Method for ROM 88 3.2.3.2 Fault Detection Methods for RAM 91 3.2.4 Fault Detection Methods for I/Os 95 References 96 4 Bus Techniques 99 4.1 Introduction to Space-borne Bus 99 4.1.1 Fundamental Concepts 99 4.1.2 Fundamental Terminologies 99 4.2 The MIL-STD-1553B Bus 100 4.2.1 Fault Model of the Bus System 101 4.2.1.1 Bus-level Faults 103 4.2.1.2 Terminal Level Faults 104 4.2.2 Redundancy Fault-tolerance Mechanism of the Bus System 106 4.2.2.1 The Bus-level Fault-tolerance Mechanism 107 4.2.2.2 The Bus Controller Fault-tolerance Mechanism 108 4.2.2.3 Fault-tolerance Mechanism of Remote Terminals 113 4.3 The CAN Bus 116 4.3.1 The Bus Protocol 117 4.3.2 Physical Layer Protocol and Fault-tolerance 117 4.3.2.1 Node Structure 117 4.3.2.2 Bus Voltage 118 4.3.2.3 Transceiver and Controller 119 4.3.2.4 Physical Fault-tolerant Features 119 4.3.3 Data Link Layer Protocol and Fault-tolerance 120 4.3.3.1 Communication Process 120 4.3.3.2 Message Sending 120 4.3.3.3 The President Mechanism of Bus Access 120 4.3.3.4 Coding 121 4.3.3.5 Data Frame 121 4.3.3.6 Error Detection 122 4.4 The SpaceWire Bus 124 4.4.1 Physical Layer Protocol and Fault-tolerance 126 4.4.1.1 Connector 126 4.4.1.2 Cable 126 4.4.1.3 Low Voltage Differential Signal 126 4.4.1.4 Data Filter (DS) Coding 128 4.4.2 Data Link Layer Protocol and Fault-tolerance 129 4.4.2.1 Packet Character 129 4.4.2.2 Packet Parity Check Strategy 131 4.4.2.3 Packet Structure 131 4.4.2.4 Communication Link Control 131 4.4.3 Networking and Routing 136 4.4.3.1 Major Technique used by the SpaceWire Network 136 4.4.3.2 SpaceWire Router 138 4.4.4 Fault-tolerance Mechanism 139 4.5 Other Buses 141 4.5.1 The IEEE 1394 Bus 141 4.5.2 Ethernet 143 4.5.3 The I2C Bus 145 References 148 5 Software Fault-Tolerance Techniques 151 5.1 Software Fault-tolerance Concepts and Principles 151 5.1.1 Software Faults 151 5.1.2 Software Fault-tolerance 152 5.1.3 Software Fault Detection and Voting 153 5.1.4 Software Fault Isolation 154 5.1.5 Software Fault Recovery 155 5.1.6 Classification of Software Fault-tolerance Techniques 156 5.2 Single-version Software Fault-tolerance Techniques 156 5.2.1 Checkpoint and Restart 157 5.2.2 Software-implemented Hardware Fault-tolerance 160 5.2.2.1 Control Flow Checking by Software Signatures (CFCSS) 161 5.2.2.2 Error Detection by Duplicated Instructions (EDDI) 164 5.2.3 Software Crash Trap 165 5.3 Multiple-version Software Fault-tolerance Techniques 165 5.3.1 Recovery Blocks (RcB) 165 5.3.2 N-version Programming (NVP) 167 5.3.3 Distributed Recovery Blocks (DRB) 168 5.3.4 N Self-checking Programming (NSCP) 169 5.3.5 Consensus Recovery Block (CRB) 172 5.3.6 Acceptance Voting (AV) 172 5.3.7 Advantage and Disadvantage of Multiple-version Software 172 5.4 Data Diversity Based Software Fault-tolerance Techniques 173 5.4.1 Data Re-expression Algorithm (DRA) 173 5.4.2 Retry Blocks (RtB) 174 5.4.3 N-copy Programming (NCP) 174 5.4.4 Two-pass Adjudicators (TPA) 175 References 177 6 Fault-Tolerance Techniques for FPGA 179 6.1 Effect of the Space Environment on FPGAs 180 6.1.1 Single Event Transient Effect (SET) 181 6.1.2 Single Event Upset (SEU) 181 6.1.3 Single Event Latch-up (SEL) 182 6.1.4 Single Event Burnout (SEB) 182 6.1.5 Single Event Gate Rupture (SEGR) 182 6.1.6 Single Event Functional Interrupt (SEFI) 183 6.2 Fault Modes of SRAM-based FPGAs 183 6.2.1 Structure of a SRAM-based FPGA 183 6.2.2 Faults Classification and Fault Modes Analysis of SRAM-based FPGAs 186 6.2.2.1 Faults Classification 186 6.2.2.2 Fault Modes Analysis 186 6.3 Fault-tolerance Techniques for SRAM-based FPGAs 190 6.3.1 SRAM-based FPGA Mitigation Techniques 191 6.3.1.1 The Triple Modular Redundancy (TMR) Design Technique 191 6.3.1.2 The Inside RAM Protection Technique 193 6.3.1.3 The Inside Register Protection Technique 194 6.3.1.4 EDAC Encoding and Decoding Technique 195 6.3.1.5 Fault Detection Technique Based on DMR and Fault Isolation Technique Based on Tristate Gate 198 6.3.2 SRAM-based FPGA Reconfiguration Techniques 199 6.3.2.1 Single Fault Detection and Recovery Technique Based on ICAP+FrameECC 199 6.3.2.2 Multi-fault Detection and Recovery Technique Based on ICAP Configuration Read-back+RS Coding 205 6.3.2.3 Dynamic Reconfiguration Technique Based on EAPR 210 6.3.2.4 Fault Recovery Technique Based on Hardware Checkpoint 216 6.3.2.5 Summary of Reconfiguration Fault-tolerance Techniques 217 6.4 Typical Fault-tolerance Design of SRAM-based FPGA 219 6.5 Fault-tolerance Techniques of Anti-fuse Based FPGA 227 References 230 7 Fault-Injection Techniques 233 7.1 Basic Concepts 233 7.1.1 Experimenter 234 7.1.2 Establishing the Fault Model 234 7.1.3 Conducting Fault-injection 235 7.1.4 Target System for Fault-injection 235 7.1.5 Observing the System’s Behavior 235 7.1.6 Analyzing Experimental Findings 235 7.2 Classification of Fault-injection Techniques 236 7.2.1 Simulated Fault-injection 236 7.2.1.1 Transistor Switch Level Simulated Fault-injection 237 7.2.1.2 Logic Level Simulated Fault-injection 237 7.2.1.3 Functional Level Simulated Fault-injection 237 7.2.2 Hardware Fault-injection 238 7.2.3 Software Fault-injection 240 7.2.3.1 Injection During Compiling 240 7.2.3.2 Injection During Operation 241 7.2.4 Physical Fault-injection 242 7.2.5 Mixed Fault-injection 244 7.3 Fault-injection System Evaluation and Application 245 7.3.1 Injection Controllability 245 7.3.2 Injection Observability 246 7.3.3 Injection Validity 246 7.3.4 Fault-injection Application 247 7.3.4.1 Verifying the Fault Detection Mechanism 247 7.3.4.2 Fault Effect Domain Analysis 247 7.3.4.3 Fault Restoration 247 7.3.4.4 Coverage Estimation 247 7.3.4.5 Delay Time 247 7.3.4.6 Generating Fault Dictionary 248 7.3.4.7 Software Testing 248 7.4 Fault-injection Platform and Tools 248 7.4.1 Fault-injection Platform in Electronic Design Automation (EDA) Environment 249 7.4.2 Computer Bus-based Fault-injection Platform 252 7.4.3 Serial Accelerator Based Fault-injection Case 254 7.4.4 Future Development of Fault-injection Technology 256 References 258 8 Intelligent Fault-Tolerance Techniques 261 8.1 Evolvable Hardware Fault-tolerance 261 8.1.1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles 261 8.1.2 Evolutionary Algorithm 266 8.1.2.1 Encoding Methods 270 8.1.2.2 Fitness Function Designing 272 8.1.2.3 Genetic Operators 273 8.1.2.4 Convergence of Genetic Algorithm 277 8.1.3 Programmable Devices 277 8.1.3.1 ROM 278 8.1.3.2 PAL and GAL 279 8.1.3.3 FPGA 281 8.1.3.4 VRC 282 8.1.4 Evolvable Hardware Fault-tolerance Implementation Methods 285 8.1.4.1 Modeling and Organization of Hardware Evolutionary Systems 286 8.1.4.2 Reconfiguration and Its Classification 289 8.1.4.3 Evolutionary Fault-tolerance Architectures and Methods 291 8.1.4.4 Evolutionary Fault-tolerance Methods at Various Layers of the Hardware 293 8.1.4.5 Method Example 298 8.2 Artificial Immune Hardware Fault-tolerance 302 8.2.1 Fundamental Concepts and Principles 302 8.2.1.1 Biological Immune System and Its Mechanism 304 8.2.1.2 Adaptive Immunity 305 8.2.1.3 Artificial Immune Systems 307 8.2.1.4 Fault-tolerance Principle of Immune Systems 310 8.2.2 Fault-tolerance Methods with Artificial Immune System 314 8.2.2.1 Artificial Immune Fault-tolerance System Architecture 316 8.2.2.2 Immune Object 318 8.2.2.3 Immune Control System 321 8.2.2.4 Working Process of Artificial Immune Fault-tolerance System 325 8.2.3 Implementation of Artificial Immune Fault-tolerance 328 8.2.3.1 Hardware 328 8.2.3.2 Software 330 References 334 Acronyms 337 Index 343

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Book SynopsisHelps readers understand the physics behind MOS devices for low-voltage and low-energy applications Based on timely published and unpublished work written by expert authors Discusses various promising MOS devices applicable to low-energy environmental and biomedical uses Describes the physical effects (quantum, tunneling) of MOS devices Demonstrates the performance of devices, helping readers to choose right devices applicable to an industrial or consumer environment Addresses some Ge-based devices and other compound-material-based devices for high-frequency applications and future development of high performance devices. Seemingly innocuous everyday devices such as smartphones, tablets and services such as on-line gaming or internet keyword searches consume vast amounts of energy. Even when in standby mode, all these devices consume energy. The upcoming ''Internet of Things'' (IoT) is expected to deploy 60 billioTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xvi Part I INTRODUCTION TO LOW‐VOLTAGE AND LOW‐ENERGY DEVICES 1 1 Why Are Low‐Voltage and Low‐Energy Devices Desired? 3 References 4 2 History of Low‐Voltage and Low‐Power Devices 5 2.1 Scaling Scheme and Low‐Voltage Requests 5 2.2 Silicon‐on‐Insulator Devices and Real History 8 References 10 3 Performance Prospects of Subthreshold Logic Circuits 12 3.1 Introduction 12 3.2 Subthreshold Logic and its Issues 12 3.3 Is Subthreshold Logic the Best Solution? 13 References 13 Part II SUMMARY OF PHYSICS OF MODERN SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 15 4 Overview 17 References 18 5 Bulk MOSFET 19 5.1 Theoretical Basis of Bulk MOSFET Operation 19 5.2 Subthreshold Characteristics: “OFF State” 19 5.2.1 Fundamental Theory 19 5.2.2 Influence of BTBT Current 23 5.2.3 Points to Be Remarked 24 5.3 Post‐Threshold Characteristics: “ON State” 24 5.3.1 Fundamental Theory 24 5.3.2 Self‐Heating Effects 26 5.3.3 Parasitic Bipolar Effects 27 5.4 Comprehensive Summary of Short‐Channel Effects 27 References 28 6 SOI MOSFET 29 6.1 Partially Depleted Silicon‐on‐Insulator Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field‐Effect Transistors 29 6.2 Fully Depleted (FD) SOI MOSFET 30 6.2.1 Subthreshold Characteristics 30 6.2.2 Post‐Threshold Characteristics 36 6.2.3 Comprehensive Summary of Short‐Channel Effects 41 6.3 Accumulation‐Mode (AM) SOI MOSFET 41 6.3.1 Aspects of Device Structure 41 6.3.2 Subthreshold Characteristics 42 6.3.3 Drain Current Component (I) – Body Current (ID,body) 43 6.3.4 Drain Current Component (II) – Surface Accumulation Layer Current (ID,acc) 45 6.3.5 Optional Discussions on the Accumulation Mode SOI MOSFET 45 6.4 FinFET and Triple‐Gate FET 46 6.4.1 Introduction 46 6.4.2 Device Structures and Simulations 46 6.4.3 Results and Discussion 47 6.4.4 Summary 49 6.5 Gate‐all‐Around MOSFET 50 References 51 7 Tunnel Field‐Effect Transistors (TFETs) 53 7.1 Overview 53 7.2 Model of Double‐Gate Lateral Tunnel FET and Device Performance Perspective 53 7.2.1 Introduction 53 7.2.2 Device Modeling 54 7.2.3 Numerical Calculation Results and Discussion 61 7.2.4 Summary 65 7.3 Model of Vertical Tunnel FET and Aspects of its Characteristics 65 7.3.1 Introduction 65 7.3.2 Device Structure and Model Concept 65 7.3.3 Comparing Model Results with TCAD Results 69 7.3.4 Consideration of the Impact of Tunnel Dimensionality on Drivability 72 7.3.5 Summary 75 7.4 Appendix Integration of Eqs. (7.14)–(7.16) 76 References 78 Part III POTENTIAL OF CONVENTIONAL BULK MOSFETs 81 8 Performance Evaluation of Analog Circuits with Deep Submicrometer MOSFETs in the Subthreshold Regime of Operation 83 8.1 Introduction 83 8.2 Subthreshold Operation and Device Simulation 84 8.3 Model Description 85 8.4 Results 86 8.5 Summary 90 References 90 9 Impact of Halo Doping on the Subthreshold Performance of Deep‐Submicrometer CMOS Devices and Circuits for Ultralow Power Analog/Mixed‐Signal Applications 91 9.1 Introduction 91 9.2 Device Structures and Simulation 92 9.3 Subthreshold Operation 93 9.4 Device Optimization for Subthreshold Analog Operation 95 9.5 Subthreshold Analog Circuit Performance 98 9.6 CMOS Amplifiers with Large Geometry Devices 105 9.7 Summary 106 References 107 10 Study of the Subthreshold Performance and the Effect of Channel Engineering on Deep Submicron Single‐Stage CMOS Amplifiers 108 10.1 Introduction 108 10.2 Circuit Description 108 10.3 Device Structure and Simulation 110 10.4 Results and Discussion 110 10.5 PTAT as a Temperature Sensor 116 10.6 Summary 116 References 116 11 Subthreshold Performance of Dual‐Material Gate CMOS Devices and Circuits for Ultralow Power Analog/Mixed‐Signal Applications 117 11.1 Introduction 117 11.2 Device Structure and Simulation 118 11.3 Results and Discussion 120 11.4 Summary 126 References 127 12 Performance Prospect of Low‐Power Bulk MOSFETs 128 Reference 129 Part IV POTENTIAL OF FULLY‐DEPLETED SOI MOSFETs 131 13 Demand for High‐Performance SOI Devices 133 14 Demonstration of 100 nm Gate SOI CMOS with a Thin Buried Oxide Layer and its Impact on Device Technology 134 14.1 Introduction 134 14.2 Device Design Concept for 100 nm Gate SOI CMOS 134 14.3 Device Fabrication 136 14.4 Performance of 100‐nm‐ and 85‐nm Gate Devices 137 14.4.1 Threshold and Subthreshold Characteristics 137 14.4.2 Drain Current (ID)‐Drain Voltage (VD) and ID‐Gate Voltage (VG) Characteristics of 100‐nm‐Gate MOSFET/SIMOX 138 14.4.3 ID–VD and ID–VG Characteristics of 85‐nm‐Gate MOSFET/SIMOX 142 14.4.4 Switching Performance 142 14.5 Discussion 142 14.5.1 Threshold Voltage Balance in Ultrathin CMOS/SOI Devices 142 14.6 Summary 144 References 145 15 Discussion on Design Feasibility and Prospect of High‐Performance Sub‐50 nm Channel Single‐Gate SOI MOSFET Based on the ITRS Roadmap 147 15.1 Introduction 147 15.2 Device Structure and Simulations 148 15.3 Proposed Model for Minimum Channel Length 149 15.3.1 Minimum Channel Length Model Constructed using Extract A 149 15.3.2 Minimum Channel Length Model Constructed using Extract B 150 15.4 Performance Prospects of Scaled SOI MOSFETs 152 15.4.1 Dynamic Operation Characteristics of Scaled SG SOI MOSFETs 152 15.4.2 Tradeoff and Optimization of Standby Power Consumption and Dynamic Operation 157 15.5 Summary 162 References 162 16 Performance Prospects of Fully Depleted SOI MOSFET‐Based Diodes Applied to Schenkel Circuits for RF‐ID Chips 164 16.1 Introduction 164 16.2 Remaining Issues with Conventional Schenkel Circuits and an Advanced Proposal 165 16.3 Simulation‐Based Consideration of RF Performance of SOI‐QD 172 16.4 Summary 176 16.5 Appendix: A Simulation Model for Minority Carrier Lifetime 177 16.6 Appendix: Design Guideline for SOI‐QDs 177 References 178 17 The Potential and the Drawbacks of Underlap Single‐Gate Ultrathin SOI MOSFET 180 17.1 Introduction 180 17.2 Simulations 181 17.3 Results and Discussion 183 17.3.1 DC Characteristics and Switching Performance: Device A 183 17.3.2 RF Analog Characteristics: Device A 184 17.3.3 Impact of High‐κ Gate Dielectric on Performance of USU SOI MOSFET Devices: Devices B and C 185 17.3.4 Impact of Simulation Model on Simulation Results 189 17.4 Summary 192 References 192 18 Practical Source/Drain Diffusion and Body Doping Layouts for High‐Performance and Low‐Energy Triple‐Gate SOI MOSFETs 194 18.1 Introduction 194 18.2 Device Structures and Simulation Model 195 18.3 Results and Discussion 196 18.3.1 Impact of S/D‐Underlying Layer on ION, IOFF, and Subthreshold Swing 196 18.3.2 Tradeoff of Short‐Channel Effects and Drivability 196 18.4 Summary 201 References 201 19 Gate Field Engineering and Source/Drain Diffusion Engineering for High‐Performance Si Wire Gate‐All‐Around MOSFET and Low‐Power Strategy in a Sub‐30 nm‐Channel Regime 203 19.1 Introduction 203 19.2 Device Structures Assumed and Physical Parameters 204 19.3 Simulation Results and Discussion 206 19.3.1 Performance of Sub‐30 nm‐Channel Devices and Aspects of Device Characteristics 206 19.3.2 Impact of Cross‐Section of Si Wire on Short‐Channel Effects and Drivability 212 19.3.3 Minimizing Standby Power Consumption of GAA SOI MOSFET 216 19.3.4 Prospective Switching Speed Performance of GAA SOI MOSFET 217 19.3.5 Parasitic Resistance Issues of GAA Wire MOSFETs 218 19.3.6 Proposal for Possible GAA Wire MOSFET Structure 220 19.4 Summary 221 19.5 Appendix: Brief Description of Physical Models in Simulations 221 References 225 20 Impact of Local High‐κ Insulator on Drivability and Standby Power of Gate‐All‐Around SOI MOSFET 228 20.1 Introduction 228 20.2 Device Structure and Simulations 229 20.3 Results and Discussion 230 20.3.1 Device Characteristics of GAA Devices with Graded‐Profile Junctions 230 20.3.2 Device Characteristics of GAA Devices with Abrupt Junctions 235 20.3.3 Behaviors of Drivability and Off‐Current 237 20.3.4 Dynamic Performance of Devices with Graded‐Profile Junctions 239 20.4 Summary 239 References 240 Part V POTENTIAL OF PARTIALLY DEPLETED SOI MOSFETs 241 21 Proposal for Cross‐Current Tetrode (XCT) SOI MOSFETs: A 60 dB Single‐Stage CMOS Amplifier Using High‐Gain Cross‐Current Tetrode MOSFET/SIMOX 243 21.1 Introduction 243 21.2 Device Fabrication 244 21.3 Device Characteristics 245 21.4 Performance of CMOS Amplifier 247 21.5 Summary 249 References 249 22 Device Model of the XCT‐SOI MOSFET and Scaling Scheme 250 22.1 Introduction 250 22.2 Device Structure and Assumptions for Modeling 251 22.2.1 Device Structure and Features of XCT Device 251 22.2.2 Basic Assumptions for Device Modeling 253 22.2.3 Derivation of Model Equations 254 22.3 Results and Discussion 258 22.3.1 Measured Characteristics of XCT Devices 258 22.4 Design Guidelines 261 22.4.1 Drivability Control 261 22.4.2 Scaling Issues 262 22.4.3 Potentiality of Low‐Energy Operation of XCT CMOS Devices 265 22.5 Summary 267 22.6 Appendix: Calculation of MOSFET Channel Current 267 22.7 Appendix: Basic Condition for Drivability Control 271 References 271 23 Low‐Power Multivoltage Reference Circuit Using XCT‐SOI MOSFET 274 23.1 Introduction 274 23.2 Device Structure and Assumptions for Simulations 274 23.2.1 Device Structure and Features 274 23.2.2 Assumptions for Simulations 277 23.3 Proposal for Voltage Reference Circuits and Simulation Results 278 23.3.1 Two‐Reference Voltage Circuit 278 23.3.2 Three‐Reference Voltage Circuit 283 23.4 Summary 283 References 284 24 Low‐Energy Operation Mechanisms for XCT‐SOI CMOS Devices: Prospects for a Sub‐20 nm Regime 285 24.1 Introduction 285 24.2 Device Structure and Assumptions for Modeling 286 24.3 Circuit Simulation Results of SOI CMOS and XCT‐SOI CMOS 288 24.4 Further Scaling Potential of XCT‐SOI MOSFET 291 24.5 Performance Expected from the Scaled XCT‐SOI MOSFET 292 24.6 Summary 296 References 296 Part VI QUANTUM EFFECTS AND APPLICATIONS – 1 297 25 Overview 299 References 299 26 Si Resonant Tunneling MOS Transistor 301 26.1 Introduction 301 26.2 Configuration of SRTMOST 302 26.2.1 Structure and Electrostatic Potential 302 26.2.2 Operation Principle and Subthreshold Characteristics 304 26.3 Device Performance of SRTMOST 307 26.3.1 Transistor Characteristics of SRTMOST 307 26.3.2 Logic Circuit Using SRTMOST 310 26.4 Summary 312 References 312 27 Tunneling Dielectric Thin‐Film Transistor 314 27.1 Introduction 314 27.2 Fundamental Device Structure 315 27.3 Experiment 315 27.3.1 Experimental Method 315 27.3.2 Calculation Method 317 27.4 Results and Discussion 320 27.4.1 Evaluation of SiNx Film 320 27.4.2 Characteristics of the TDTFT 320 27.4.3 TFT Performance at Low Temperatures 324 27.4.4 TFT Performance at High Temperatures 324 27.4.5 Suppression of the Hump Effect by the TDTFT 330 27.5 Summary 336 References 336 28 Proposal for a Tunnel‐Barrier Junction (TBJ) MOSFET 339 28.1 Introduction 339 28.2 Device Structure and Model 339 28.3 Calculation Results 340 28.4 Summary 343 References 343 29 Performance Prediction of SOI Tunneling‐Barrier‐Junction MOSFET 344 29.1 Introduction 344 29.2 Simulation Model 345 29.3 Simulation Results and Discussion 349 29.3.1 Fundamental Properties of TBJ MOSFET 349 29.3.2 Optimization of Device Parameters and Materials 349 29.4 Summary 357 References 357 30 Physics‐Based Model for TBJ‐MOSFETs and High‐Frequency Performance Prospects 358 30.1 Introduction 358 30.2 Device Structure and Device Model for Simulations 359 30.3 Simulation Results and Discussion 360 30.3.1 Current Drivability 361 30.3.2 Threshold Voltage Issue 362 30.3.3 Subthreshold Characteristics 363 30.3.4 Radio‐Frequency Characteristics 363 30.4 Summary 365 References 365 31 Low‐Power High‐Temperature‐Operation‐Tolerant (HTOT) SOI MOSFET 367 31.1 Introduction 367 31.2 Device Structure and Simulations 368 31.3 Results and Discussion 371 31.3.1 Room‐Temperature Characteristics 371 31.3.2 High‐Temperature Characteristics 373 31.4 Summary 377 References 379 Part VII QUANTUM EFFECTS AND APPLICATIONS – 2 381 32 Overview of Tunnel Field‐Effect Transistor 383 References 385 33 Impact of a Spacer Dielectric and a Gate Overlap/Underlap on the Device Performance of a Tunnel Field‐Effect Transistor 386 33.1 Introduction 386 33.2 Device Structure and Simulation 387 33.3 Results and Discussion 387 33.3.1 Effects of Variation in the Spacer Dielectric Constant 387 33.3.2 Effects of Variation in the Spacer Width 391 33.3.3 Effects of Variation in the Source Doping Concentration 392 33.3.4 Effects of a Gate‐Source Overlap 394 33.3.5 Effects of a Gate‐Channel Underlap 394 33.4 Summary 397 References 397 34 The Impact of a Fringing Field on the Device Performance of a P‐Channel Tunnel Field‐Effect Transistor with a High‐κ Gate Dielectric 399 34.1 Introduction 399 34.2 Device Structure and Simulation 399 34.3 Results and Discussion 400 34.3.1 Effects of Variation in the Gate Dielectric Constant 400 34.3.2 Effects of Variation in the Spacer Dielectric Constant 408 34.4 Summary 410 References 410 35 Impact of a Spacer‐Drain Overlap on the Characteristics of a Silicon Tunnel Field‐Effect Transistor Based on Vertical Tunneling 412 35.1 Introduction 412 35.2 Device Structure and Process Steps 413 35.3 Simulation Setup 414 35.4 Results and Discussion 416 35.4.1 Impact of Variation in the Spacer‐Drain Overlap 416 35.4.2 Influence of Drain on the Device Characteristics 424 35.4.3 Impact of Scaling 426 35.5 Summary 429 References 430 36 Gate‐on‐Germanium Source Tunnel Field‐Effect Transistor Enabling Sub‐0.5‐V Operation 431 36.1 Introduction 431 36.2 Proposed Device Structure 431 36.3 Simulation Setup 432 36.4 Results and Discussion 434 36.4.1 Device Characteristics 434 36.4.2 Effects of Different Structural Parameters 435 36.4.3 Optimization of Different Structural Parameters 436 36.5 Summary 445 References 445 Part VIII PROSPECTS OF LOW‐ENERGY DEVICE TECHNOLOLGY AND APPLICATIONS 447 37 Performance Comparison of Modern Devices 449 References 450 38 Emerging Device Technology and the Future of MOSFET 452 38.1 Studies to Realize High‐Performance MOSFETs based on Unconventional Materials 452 38.2 Challenging Studies to Realize High‐Performance MOSFETs based on the Nonconventional Doctrine 453 References 454 39 How Devices Are and Should Be Applied to Circuits 456 39.1 Past Approach 456 39.2 Latest Studies 456 References 457 40 Prospects for Low‐Energy Device Technology and Applications 458 References 459 Bibliography 460 Index 463

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Book SynopsisReviews the fundamental concepts behind the theory and computation of electromagnetic fields The book is divided in two parts. The first part covers both fundamental theories (such as vector analysis, Maxwell's equations, boundary condition, and transmission line theory) and advanced topics (such as wave transformation, addition theorems, and fields in layered media) in order to benefit students at all levels. The second part of the book covers the major computational methods for numerical analysis of electromagnetic fields for engineering applications. These methods include the three fundamental approaches for numerical analysis of electromagnetic fields: the finite difference method (the finite difference time-domain method in particular), the finite element method, and the integral equation-based moment method. The second part also examines fast algorithms for solving integral equations and hybrid techniques that combine different numerical methods to seek more effiTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xxi Part I Electromagnetic Field Theory 1 1 Basic Electromagnetic Theory 3 1.2 Maxwell’s Equations in Terms of Total Charges and Currents 11 1.3 Constitutive Relations 18 1.4 Maxwell’s Equations in Terms of Free Charges and Currents 25 1.5 Boundary Conditions 27 1.6 Energy Power and Poynting’s Theorem 31 1.7 Time-Harmonic Fields 33 References 46 Problems 46 2 Electromagnetic Radiation in Free Space 53 2.1 Scalar and Vector Potentials 53 2.2 Solution of Vector Potentials in Free Space 61 2.3 Electromagnetic Radiation in Free Space 69 2.4 Radiation by Surface Currents and Phased Arrays 78 References 84 Problems 85 3 Electromagnetic Theorems and Principles 89 3.1 Uniqueness Theorem 90 3.2 Image Theory 94 3.3 Reciprocity Theorems 101 3.4 Equivalence Principles 107 3.5 Duality Principle 120 3.6 Aperture Radiation and Scattering 121 References 128 Problems 129 4 Transmission Lines and Plane Waves 135 4.1 Transmission Line Theory 135 4.2 Wave Equations and General Solutions 144 4.3 Plane Waves Generated by a Current Sheet 156 4.4 Reflection and Transmission 159 4.5 Plane Waves in Anisotropic and Bi-Isotropic Media 174 References 190 Problems 191 5 Fields and Waves in Rectangular Coordinates 199 5.1 Uniform Waveguides 199 5.2 Uniform Cavities 220 5.3 Partially Filled Waveguides and Dielectric Slab Waveguides 229 5.4 Field Excitation in Waveguides 241 5.5 Fields in Planar Layered Media 245 References 257 Problems 257 6 Fields and Waves in Cylindrical Coordinates 261 6.1 Solution of Wave Equation 261 6.2 Circular and Coaxial Waveguides and Cavities 266 6.3 Circular Dielectric Waveguide 279 6.4 Wave Transformation and Scattering Analysis 287 6.5 Radiation by Infinitely Long Currents 300 References 319 Problems 320 7 Fields and Waves in Spherical Coordinates 325 7.1 Solution of Wave Equation 325 7.2 Spherical Cavity 331 7.3 Biconical Antenna 335 7.4 Wave Transformation and Scattering Analysis 341 7.5 Addition Theorem and Radiation Analysis 360 References 377 Problems 377 Part II Electromagnetic Field Computation 383 8 The Finite Difference Method 385 8.1 Finite Differencing Formulas 385 8.2 One-Dimensional Analysis 387 8.3 Two-Dimensional Analysis 393 8.4 Yee’s FDTD Scheme 397 8.5 Absorbing Boundary Conditions 402 8.6 Modeling of Dispersive Media 417 8.7 Wave Excitation and Far-Field Calculation 422 8.8 Summary 427 References 428 Problems 429 9 The Finite Element Method 433 9.1 Introduction to the Finite Element Method 434 9.2 Finite Element Analysis of Scalar Fields 439 9.3 Finite Element Analysis of Vector Fields 450 9.4 Finite Element Analysis in the Time Domain 465 9.5 Discontinuous Galerkin Time-Domain Method 472 9.6 Absorbing Boundary Conditions 483 9.7 Some Numerical Aspects 494 9.8 Summary 497 References 497 Problems 499 10 The Method of Moments 505 10.1 Introduction to the Method of Moments 506 10.2 Two-Dimensional Analysis 510 10.3 Three-Dimensional Analysis 523 10.4 Analysis of Periodic Structures 544 10.5 Analysis of Microstrip Antennas and Circuits 551 10.6 The Moment Method in the Time Domain 561 10.7 Summary 568 References 568 Problems 571 11 Fast Algorithms and Hybrid Techniques 575 11.1 Introduction to Fast Algorithms 576 11.2 Conjugate Gradient–FFT Method 578 11.3 Adaptive Integral Method 591 11.4 Fast Multipole Method 602 11.5 Adaptive Cross-Approximation Algorithm 614 11.6 Introduction to Hybrid Techniques 623 11.7 Hybrid Finite Difference–Finite Element Method 624 11.8 Hybrid Finite Element–Boundary Integral Method 630 11.9 Summary 642 References 643 Problems 649 12 Concluding Remarks on Computational Electromagnetics 651 12.1 Overview of Computational Electromagnetics 651 12.2 Applications of Computational Electromagnetics 659 12.3 Challenges in Computational Electromagnetics 670 References 671 Appendix A Vector Identities Integral Theorems and Coordinate Transformation 681 A.1 Vector Identities 681 A.2 Integral Theorems 682 A.3 Coordinate Transformation 682 Appendix B Bessel Functions 683 B.1 Definition 683 B.2 Series Expressions 683 B.3 Integral Representation 685 B.4 Asymptotic Expressions 685 B.5 Recurrence and Derivative Relations 685 B.6 Symmetry Relations 686 B.7 Wronskian Relation 686 B.8 Useful Integrals 686 Appendix C Modified Bessel Functions 687 C.1 Definition 687 C.2 Series Expressions 687 C.3 Integral Representations 688 C.4 Asymptotic Expressions 688 C.5 Recurrence and Derivative Relations 689 C.6 Symmetry Relations 690 C.7 Wronskian Relation 690 C.8 Useful Integrals 690 Appendix D Spherical Bessel Functions 691 D.1 Definition 691 D.2 Series Expressions 692 D.3 Asymptotic Expressions 693 D.4 Recurrence and Derivative Relations 693 D.5 Symmetry Relations 694 D.6 Wronskian Relation 695 D.7 Riccati–Bessel Functions 695 D.8 Modified Spherical Bessel Functions 695 Appendix E Associated Legendre Polynomials 697 E.1 Definition 697 E.2 Series Expression 698 E.3 Special Values 700 E.4 Symmetry Relations 701 E.5 Recurrence and Derivative Relations 701 E.6 Orthogonal Relations 702 E.7 Fourier–Legendre Series 702 Index 703

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Book SynopsisWritten by two experts in the field who deal with QOS predicaments every day and now in this 2nd edition give special attention to the realm of Data Centers, QoS Enabled Networks: Tools and Foundations, 2nd Edition provides a lucid understanding of modern QOS theory mechanisms in packet networks and how to apply them in practice. This book is focuses on the tools and foundations of QoS providing the knowledge to understand what benefits QOS offers and what can be built on top of it.Trade Review"My long-time friends Miguel Barreiros and Peter Lundqvist have deep experience designing modern QoS strategies, and they share that experience in this book, from modern QoS building blocks to applied case studies. They’ll equip you well for designing the best QoS approach for your own network."—Jeff Doyle "An excellent overview of the fundamentals of QoS tools and their application, "QoS-enabled Networks" can serve both as an introduction and as a reference. Free from vendor-specific implementation details and configuration knobs, the book focuses on core concepts and on how to apply them to real-world scenarios, making this complex topic come into sharp focus"—Ina Minei, Network Architect, Google "This book addresses the real world scenarios faced by many telcos across the globe. Prioritisation and scheduling at the forefront of network design is key to every telco’s utopia of a fully converged, multiservice network. A great resource in the designers tool kit"—Phill Magill, Head of Network Innovation at Talk Talk Group "This is the first book about QOS that I actually enjoyed reading precisely because the authors focused on real-life QoS and not in academic discussions about it."—Per Nihlen, IP Network Manager, NORDUnet "This book provides a new approach of the complex realm which is the QoS . It offers a detailed theoretical explanation of QoS mechanisms but also great case studies of concrete QoS applications. This book allowed me to better grasp complex QoS configurations such as the hierarchical CoS in BNG environment."—David Roy, IP/MPLS NOC engineer - Orange France "This book contains useful scenarios and real world case studies which expertly convert theoretical knowledge in practical application"—Matheu Leonards, Head of Architecture, Finance and Risk, Thomson Reuters "Mercifully, this book is not a dry academic dissertation on QoS. Rather, it offers an accessibly written and useful insight into the concepts and mechanisms of QoS that augment the tool kit of today’s Network Engineer"—Russell Thompson, Network Engineer, TelstraTable of ContentsAbout the Authors x Foreword xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations xvi Part I THE QOS REALM 1 1 The QOS World 3 1.1 Operation and Signaling 4 1.2 Standards and Per]Hop Behavior 5 1.3 Traffic Characterization 8 1.4 A Router without QOS 11 1.5 Conclusion 12 References 12 Further Reading 12 2 The QOS Tools 13 2.1 Classifiers and Classes of Service 13 2.2 Metering and Coloring—CIR/PIR Model 15 2.3 The Policer Tool 16 2.4 The Shaper Function 17 2.5 Comparing Policing and Shaping 18 2.6 Queue 19 2.7 The Scheduler 21 2.8 The Rewrite Tool 21 2.9 Example of Combining Tools 23 2.10 Delay and Jitter Insertion 27 2.11 Packet Loss 31 2.12 Conclusion 32 Reference 33 3 Challenges 34 3.1 Defining the Classes of Service 35 3.2 Classes of Service and Queues Mapping 37 3.3 Inherent Delay Factors 40 3.4 Congestion Points 46 3.5 Trust Borders 49 3.6 Granularity Levels 51 3.7 Control Traffic 53 3.8 Trust, Granularity, and Control Traffic 54 3.9 Conclusion 56 Further Reading 56 4 Special Traffic Types and Networks 57 4.1 Layer 4 Transport Protocols: UDP and TCP 58 4.1.1 The TCP Session 61 4.1.2 TCP Congestion Mechanism 64 4.1.3 TCP Congestion Scenario 65 4.1.4 TCP and QOS 66 4.2 Data Center 67 4.2.1 SAN Traffic 68 4.2.2 Lossless Ethernet Networks 69 4.2.3 Virtualization 71 4.2.4 Software Defined Networks 73 4.2.5 DC and QOS 74 4.3 Real]Time Traffic 74 4.3.1 Control and Data Traffic 75 4.3.2 Voice over IP 76 4.3.3 IPTV 78 4.3.4 QOS and Real]Time Traffic 79 Reference 80 Further Reading 80 Part II TOOLS 81 5 Classifiers 83 5.1 Packet QOS Markings 84 5.2 Inbound Interface Information 85 5.3 Deep Packet Inspection 87 5.4 Selecting Classifiers 88 5.5 The QOS Network Perspective 89 5.6 MPLS DiffServ]TE 92 5.7 Mixing Different QOS Realms 94 5.8 Conclusion 99 References 100 6 Policing and Shaping 101 6.1 Token Buckets 101 6.2 Traffic Bursts 106 6.3 Dual]Rate Token Buckets 109 6.4 Shapers and Leaky Buckets 110 6.5 Excess Traffic and Oversubscription 112 6.6 Comparing and Applying Policer and Shaper Tools 113 6.7 Conclusion 116 Reference 116 7 Queuing and Scheduling 117 7.1 Queuing and Scheduling Concepts 117 7.2 Packets and Cellification 119 7.3 Different Types of Queuing Disciplines 121 7.4 FIFO 121 7.5 FQ 123 7.6 PQ 125 7.7 WFQ 127 7.8 WRR 128 7.9 DWRR 131 7.10 PB]DWRR 137 7.11 Conclusions about the Best Queuing Discipline 141 Further Reading 142 8 Advanced Queuing Topics 143 8.1 Hierarchical Scheduling 143 8.2 Queue Lengths and Buffer Size 146 8.3 Dynamically Sized versus Fixed]Size Queue Buffers 149 8.4 RED 150 8.5 Using RED with TCP Sessions 152 8.6 Differentiating Traffic inside a Queue with WRED 154 8.7 Head versus Tail RED 156 8.8 Segmented and Interpolated RED Profiles 158 8.9 Conclusion 160 Reference 161 Further Reading 161 Part III CASE STUDIES 163 9 The VPLS Case Study 165 9.1 High]Level Case Study Overview 166 9.2 Virtual Private Networks 167 9.3 Service Overview 168 9.4 Service Technical Implementation 170 9.5 Network Internals 171 9.6 Classes of Service and Queue Mapping 172 9.7 Classification and Trust Borders 174 9.8 Admission Control 175 9.9 Rewrite Rules 176 9.10 Absorbing Traffic Bursts at the Egress 179 9.11 Queues and Scheduling at Core]Facing Interfaces 179 9.12 Queues and Scheduling at Customer]Facing Interfaces 182 9.13 Tracing a Packet through the Network 183 9.14 Adding More Services 186 9.15 Multicast Traffic 188 9.16 Using Bandwidth Reservations 190 9.17 Conclusion 191 Further Reading 191 10 Case Study QOS in the Data Center 192 10.1 The New Traffic Model for Modern Data Centers 192 10.2 The Industry Consensus about Data Center Design 196 10.3 What Causes Congestion in the Data Center? 199 10.3.1 Oversubscription versus Microbursts 199 10.3.2 TCP Incast Problem 202 10.4 Conclusions 205 Further Reading 207 11 Case Study IP RAN and Mobile Backhaul QOS 208 11.1 Evolution from 2G to 4G 208 11.2 2G Network Components 209 11.3 Traffic on 2G Networks 211 11.4 3G Network Components 211 11.5 Traffic on 3G Networks 215 11.6 LTE Network Components 216 11.7 LTE Traffic Types 219 11.8 LTE Traffic Classes 220 11.9 Conclusion 224 References 227 Further Reading 227 12 Conclusion 228 Index 230

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Book SynopsisSystematically introduces self-healing control theory for distribution networks, rigorously supported by simulations and applications A comprehensive introduction to self-healing control for distribution networks Details the construction of self-healing control systems with simulations and applications Provides key principles for new generation protective relay and network protection Demonstrates how to monitor and manage system performance Highlights practical implementation of self-healing control technologies, backed by rigorous research data and simulationsTable of ContentsForeword ix Preface xi 1 Overview 1 1.1 Proposal of Smart Grid 1 1.2 Development Status of China’s Power Distribution Network Automation 2 1.3 Development of Self‐healing Control Theory 3 2 Architecture of Self‐healing Control System for Distribution Network 7 2.1 Characteristics 7 2.2 Structure of Self‐healing Control System 8 3 Advanced Application Software of Smart Dispatching and Self‐healing Control for Power Distribution Network 11 3.1 Design Principles of Application Software for Smart Dispatching Platform 11 3.2 Overall Structure of Automation System for Power Distribution Network 13 3.2.1 Supporting Platform Layer 13 3.2.1.1 Integration Bus Layer 13 3.2.1.2 Data Bus Layer 15 3.2.1.3 Public Service Layer 15 3.2.2 Application System Layer 16 3.3 Smart Dispatching Platform Functions 16 3.3.1 Supporting Platform 16 3.3.2 Operation Monitoring of Power Distribution Network 17 3.3.3 Information Interaction with Other Systems 19 3.3.4 Advanced Application Software of Self‐healing Control 21 4 A New Generation of Relay Protection for Distribution Networks 27 4.1 Principles and Application of Network Protection for Distribution Networks 27 4.2 Adaptive Protection 28 4.2.1 Development History and Features of Adaptive Protection 29 4.2.2 Realization Mode of Adaptive Protection 31 4.2.2.1 Local Adaptive Protection (Non‐channel Adaptive Protection) 32 4.2.2.2 Area/Wide‐Area Adaptive Protection 34 4.3 Networking Protection for Distribution Network 36 4.3.1 Concept of Networking Protection for Distribution Network 37 4.3.1.1 Networking Protection 37 4.3.1.2 Area/Wide‐Area Adaptive Protection Based on Networking – Networking Protection for Distribution Network 38 4.3.1.3 Distribution Network Automation System – Fundamental Framework of Networking Protection 39 4.3.1.4 Networking: An Effective Method for Realizing Area/Wide‐Area Adaptive Protection for Distribution Networks 42 4.3.2 Realization of Networking Protection for Distribution Network 44 4.3.2.1 System Framework of Networking Protection for Distribution Network 44 4.3.2.2 Dispatching Control Layer of Distribution Network 44 4.3.2.3 Substation Layer 44 4.3.2.4 Networking Bus Protection 46 4.3.2.5 Network Backup Automatic Switching 47 4.3.2.6 Network Adaptive Current Protection 49 5 Distribution Network Communication Technology and Networking 57 5.1 Introduction to Distribution Communications 57 5.2 Backbone Communication Network 59 5.2.1 SDH Technology 59 5.2.2 MSTP Technology 59 5.3 Distribution Communication Technology 60 5.3.1 EPON 60 5.3.1.1 EPON Technology and Characteristics 60 5.3.1.2 EPON Interface 63 5.3.1.3 EPON Transmission System 63 5.3.2 Industrial Ethernet 64 5.3.3 Wireless Communication 65 5.3.4 Power‐Line Carrier 66 5.4 Communication Networking Method of Power Distribution 68 5.4.1 Basic Topology 68 5.4.1.1 Networking Application 70 5.4.2 Industrial Ethernet 72 5.4.3 Wireless Communication 72 5.4.3.1 Short‐Distance Communication 72 5.4.3.2 TD‐LTE 73 5.4.4 Hybrid Networking 74 5.4.4.1 Optical Fiber + Power‐Line Carrier 77 5.4.4.2 Optical Fiber + Wireless 77 5.4.4.3 Power‐Line Carrier + Wireless 77 6 Detection Management System for Distribution Network Devices 81 6.1 Significance of Distribution Equipment Condition‐Based Monitoring and Maintenance 81 6.1.1 Equipment Condition Monitoring Technology 83 6.1.1.1 Common Sensors 83 6.1.1.2 Distribution Transformer Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis Technology 84 6.1.1.3 HV Breaker Condition‐Based Monitor 94 6.1.1.4 Lighting Arrester Condition Monitoring 105 6.1.1.5 Capacitive Equipment Status‐Detection System 119 6.2 Distribution Network Device Monitoring System and Network Monitoring Management System 128 6.2.1 Distribution Network Equipment Supervisory Terminal and Distribution Network System Terminal Layer 129 6.2.2 Condition Monitoring System Relies on Automation System Communication Channel 130 6.2.3 Primary Station for Distribution Equipment Condition‐Based Maintenance and Integration of DMS 131 6.2.4 Geological Information‐Based Distribution Network Condition Monitoring and Maintenance 132 6.2.4.1 Integration Mode 133 6.2.4.2 Information Interaction 134 6.2.5 Distribution Equipment Assessment and Condition Maintenance 135 6.2.5.1 Information Support 136 6.2.5.2 Distribution Device Condition Assessment 138 6.2.5.3 Device Risk Assessment 140 6.2.5.4 Fault Diagnosis 143 6.2.5.5 Condition Improvement and Maintenance 144 7 Implementation of Self‐healing Control Technology 147 7.1 Principle of Implementation of Self‐healing Control 147 7.1.1 Characteristics of Self‐healing Function 147 7.1.2 Basic Principle of Self‐healing Control 147 7.2 Self‐healing Control Method 149 7.2.1 Urban Distribution Network Self‐healing Control Method Based on Quantity of State 149 7.2.2 Self‐healing Control Method for Distribution Network Based on Distributed Power and Micro‐grid 151 7.2.3 Distribution Network Self‐healing Control Based on Coordination Control Model 151 7.3 Implementation of Distribution Network Self‐healing 159 7.3.1 Self‐adaptive Relay Protection Units 160 7.3.2 Relay Protection 161 7.3.2.1 Basic Requirements 161 7.3.2.2 Self‐adaption 161 7.3.3 SCADA/RTU 163 7.3.3.1 History of SCADA 163 7.3.3.2 Development of SCADA 164 7.3.4 Wide‐Area Measuring System and Phasor Measuring Unit 165 7.3.4.1 WAMS System 167 7.3.4.2 PMU/WAMS and SCADA/EMS 167 7.3.4.3 Application of PMU or WAMS 168 7.3.5 Smart Grid and WAMS 169 8 Pilot Project 171 8.1 Simulation Analysis 171 8.1.1 Components 171 8.1.2 Test Items 171 8.1.3 Information Flow of Simulation System 171 8.1.4 Test Results 171 8.1.4.1 System States 171 8.1.4.2 System Management 171 8.1.4.3 Self‐healing Control 171 8.1.4.4 Simulation Analysis 172 8.1.4.5 History Query 172 8.1.5 Simulation Cases 174 8.1.5.1 Simulation Case 1 174 8.1.5.2 Simulation Case 2 174 8.1.5.3 Simulation Case 3 175 8.2 Pilot Application 177 8.2.1 Requirements for Pilot Power Grid 177 8.2.2 Contents of Demonstration Project 178 8.2.3 Distribution Network of Pilot Project 178 9 Development Progress of Smart Grid in the World 189 9.1 Introduction 189 9.2 Current Situation of Chinese Smart Grid: China’s National Strategy 190 9.2.1 Distribution Network Automation 190 9.2.2 Standards Release 190 9.2.3 Research and Demonstration 190 9.3 Current Situation of Foreign Countries’ Smart Grid 193 9.3.1 United States 193 9.3.2 Europe 193 9.3.3 The Americas 194 9.3.4 Multinational Cooperation 194 9.3.5 EPRI USA Smart Grid Demonstration Initiative: 5 Year Update on Multinational Cooperation 195 9.4 Energy Network 196 9.5 Opportunities and Challenges 196 References 199 Postscript 201 Index 203

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