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Book SynopsisThis book has been designed as a result of the author's teaching experiences; students in the courses came from various disciplines and it was very difficult to prescribe a suitable textbook, not because there are no books on these topics, but because they are either too exhaustive or very elementary. This book, therefore, includes only relevant topics in the fundamentals of the physics of semiconductors and of electrochemistry needed for understanding the intricacy of the subject of photovoltaic solar cells and photoelectrochemical (PEC) solar cells. The book provides the basic concepts of semiconductors, p:n junctions, PEC solar cells, electrochemistry of semiconductors, and photochromism. Researchers, engineers and students engaged in researching/teaching PEC cells or knowledge of our sun, its energy, and its distribution to the earth will find essential topics such as the physics of semiconductors, the electrochemistry of semiconductors, p:n junctions, Schottky junctions,Table of ContentsForeword xv Preface xvii 1 Our Universe and the Sun 1 1.1 Formation of the Universe 1 1.2 Formation of Stars 2 1.2.1 Formation of Energy in the Sun 3 1.2.2 Description of the Sun 6 1.2.3 Transfer of Solar Rays through the Ozone Layer 6 1.2.4 Transfer of Solar Layers through Other Layers 7 1.2.5 Effect of Position of the Sun vis-à-vis the Earth 8 1.2.6 Distribution of Solar Energy 8 1.2.7 Solar Intensity Calculation 8 1.3 Summary 12 Reference 12 2 Solar Energy and Its Applications 13 2.1 Introduction to a Semiconductor 14 2.2 Formation of a Compound 14 2.2.1 A Classical Approach 14 2.2.2 Why Call It a Band and Not a Level? 15 2.2.3 Quantum Chemistry Approach 17 2.2.3.1 Wave Nature of an Electron in a Fixed Potential 17 2.2.3.2 Wave Nature of an Electron under a Periodically Changing Potential 19 2.2.3.3 Bloch’s Solution to the Wave Function of Electrons under Variable Potentials 20 2.2.3.3 Concept of a Forbidden Gap in a Material 22 2.2.4 Band Model to Explain Conductivity in Solids 25 2.2.4.1 Which of the Total Electrons Will Accept the External Energy for Their Excitation? 26 2.2.4.2 Density of States 28 2.2.4.3 How Do We Find the Numbers of Electrons in These Bands? 29 2.2.5 Useful Deductions 31 2.2.5.1 Extrinsic Semiconductor 33 2.2.5.2 Role of Dopants in the Semiconductor 36 2.3 Quantum Theory Approach to Explain the Effect of Doping 37 2.3.1 A Mathematical Approach to Understanding This Problem 39 2.3.2 Representation of Various Energy Levels in a Semiconductor 40 2.4 Types of Carriers in a Semiconductor 42 2.4.1 Majority and Minority Carriers 42 2.4.2 Direction of Movement of Carriers in a Semiconductor 42 2.5 Nature of Band Gaps in Semiconductors 44 2.6 Can the Band Gap of a Semiconductor Be Changed? 45 2.7 Summary 47 Further Reading 47 3 Theory of Junction Formation 49 3.1 Flow of Carriers across the Junction 49 3.1.1 Why Do Carriers Flow across an Interface When n- and p-Type Semiconductors Are Joined Together with No Air Gap? 49 3.1.2 Does the Vacuum Level Remain Unaltered, and What Is the Significance of Showing a Bend in the Diagram? 52 3.1.3 Why Do We Draw a Horizontal or Exponential Line to Represent the Energy Level in the Semiconductor with a Long Line? 52 3.1.4 What Are the Impacts of Migration of Carriers toward the Interface? 52 3.2 Representing Energy Levels Graphically 54 3.3 Depth of Charge Separation at the Interface of n- and p-Type Semiconductors 56 3.4 Nature of Potential at the Interface 56 3.4.1 Does Any Current Flow through the Interface? 56 3.4.2 Effect of Application of External Potential to the p:n Junction Formed by the Two Semiconductors 58 3.4.2.1 Flow of Carriers from n-Type to p-Type 59 3.4.2.2 Flow of Carriers from p-Type to n-Type 60 3.4.2.3 Flow of Current due to Holes 60 3.4.2.4 Flow of Current due to Electrons 61 3.4.3 What Would Happen If Negative Potential Were Applied to a p-Type Semiconductor? 62 3.4.3.1 Flow of Majority Carriers from p- to n-Type Semiconductors 63 3.4.3.2 Flow of Majority Carriers from n- to p-Type 63 3.4.3.3 Flow of Minority Carrier from p- to n-Type Semiconductors 64 3.4.3.3 Flow of Minority Carriers from n- to p-Type Semiconductors 64 3.5 Expression for Saturation (or Exchange) Current I0 67 3.5.1 Factors on Which Diffusion Length Depends 70 3.6 Contact Potential θ 71 3.7 Width of the Space Charge Region 75 3.8 Metal–Schottky Junction 81 3.8.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics for Metal–Schottky Junctions 84 3.8.2 Saturation Current for Metal–Schottky Junctions 87 3.9 Effect of Light on p:n Junctions 90 3.10 Factors to Be Considered in Illuminating the p:n Junction 94 3.10.1 Grids for Collecting the Charges 95 3.10.2 Ohmic Contact on the Back Side of the Junction 96 3.11 Types of p:n Junctions 97 3.12 A Photoelectrochemical Cell 97 3.13 Summary 100 Further Reading 100 4 Effect of Illumination of a PEC Cell 101 4.1 Effect of Light on the Depletion Layer of the Semiconductor—Electrolyte Junction 101 4.1.1 Origin of Photopotential 102 4.1.2 Origin of Photocurrent 104 4.2 The Fate of Photogenerated Carriers 105 4.3 Magnitude of the Photocurrent 106 4.4 Gartner Model for Photocurrent 108 4.4.1 Photocurrent due to Photogenerated Carriers in the Space Charge Region 109 4.4.2 Photocurrent due to Photogenerated Carriers in the Diffusion Region 109 4.4.3 Application of the Gartner Model 111 4.4.4 When α Is Constant 112 4.4.5 When w Is Kept Constant 115 4.4.6 Lifetime of Carriers and Their Mobility 118 4.5 Carrier Recombination 118 4.5.1 Significance of the Lifetime of Carriers 119 4.5.2 Effect of Recombination Center on the Magnitude of Photocurrent 120 4.5.3 Origin of Recombination Centers 121 4.6 A Mathematical Treatment for the Lifetime of Carriers 122 4.7 Effect of Illumination on Fermi Level-Quasi Fermi Level 124 4.8 Solar Cell Performance 130 4.9 Current—Voltage Characteristics of a Solar Cell 135 4.10 The Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell 138 4.11 Solar Cell Efficiency 139 4.11.1 Absorption Efficiency αλ 141 4.11.2 Generation Efficiency gλ 141 4.11.3 Collection Efficiency Cλ 141 4.11.4 Current Efficiency Qλ 142 4.11.5 Voltage Factor and Fill Factor 142 4.11.6 Analytical Methods for J-V Characteristics of a Solar Cell 144 4.11.7 Back Wall Cell 145 4.12 Ohmic Contact 147 4.13 Defects in Solids 148 4.13.1 Bulk Defects 150 4.13.2 Surface Structure 150 4.14 Summary 153 Further Reading 153 References 154 5 Electrochemistry of the Metal–Electrolyte Interface 157 5.1 What Is a Metal? 158 5.2 What Is the Structure of Electrolyte and Water Molecules in an Aqueous Solution? 158 5.3 What Happens When a Metal Is Immersed in Solution? 160 5.4 Existence of a Double Layer Near the Metal–Electrolyte Interface 160 5.5 Influence of Concentration of Electrolyte on Helmholtz and Diffusion Potentials 166 5.6 Impact of Charge Accumulation at Various Regions 166 5.7 Electron Transfer and Its Impact on Potential Barrier 171 5.8 Butler–Volmer Approach to Electrochemical Reaction 181 5.9 Significance of Symmetry Factor β 191 5.10 Electrochemical Corrosion at the Metal–Electrolyte Interface 194 5.11 Summary 199 Further Reading 199 References 199 6 Electrochemistry of the Semiconductor–Electrolyte Interface 201 6.1 Difference between Metal and Semiconductor 201 6.1.1 Hydration of Electrolytes 202 6.1.2 Effect of Hydrogen Bond 203 6.2 Gaussian Distribution of the Potential Energy of Electrolytes 203 6.3 Capacitance at the Semiconductor–Electrolyte Interface 212 6.4 Stability of the Semiconductor 216 6.5 Modifying the Surface of Low Band Gap Materials 223 6.6 Summary 225 References 225 7 Impedance Studies 227 7.1 Types of AC Circuits 228 7.2 Significance of Vector Analysis 230 7.3 Impedance Measurement Techniques 234 7.3.1 Audio Frequency Bridges 234 7.3.2 Transformer Ratio Arms Bridge 236 7.3.3 Berberian–Cole Bridge Technique 237 7.3.4 Potentiostatic Measurement 238 7.3.5 Oscilloscope Technique 239 7.4 AC Impedance Plots and Data Analysis 242 7.4.1 Nyquist Plot 242 7.4.2 Bode Plot 243 7.4.3 Randles Plot 244 7.5 Equivalent Circuit Representation of a Simple System 245 7.6 Equivalent Circuit Representation for Electro-chemical Systems 246 7.7 Procedure for Running an Experiment 248 7.8 Semiconductor Interface 250 7.9 Summary 253 Further Reading 254 References 254 8 Photoelectrochemical Solar Cell 257 8.1 Classification of Photoelectrochemical Cells Based on the Energetics of the Reactions 263 8.2 Solar Chargeable Battery 264 8.3 Electrolyte-(Ohmic)-Semiconductor-Electrolyte (Schottky) Junction 273 8.3.1 On the Illuminated Side of Fe2O3 275 8.3.2 On the Dark Side of the Semiconductor—Compartment II 276 8.4 Synthesis of Value-Added Products 280 8.5 Summary 283 References 283 9 Photoeletrochromism 285 9.1 Photochromic Glasses 287 9.2 Electrochromism 291 9.2.1 Types of Chromogenic Materials 292 9.2.2 Electrolytes 294 9.2.3 Electrode Materials 294 9.2.4 Reservoir 294 9.3 Electrochromic Devices and Their Applications 295 9.4 Imaging Employing a Semiconductor Photo-electrode 301 9.4.1 Image-Forming Step 302 9.4.2 Image-Vanishing Step 302 9.5 Summary 303 References 303 10 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 305 10.1 The Dye-Sensitized Cell 306 10.2 Flexible Polymer Solar Cell 308 10.3 Summary 310 References 310 Index 313

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Book SynopsisDescribing the fundamental physical properties of materials used in electronics, the thorough coverage of this book will facilitate an understanding of the technological processes used in the fabrication of electronic and photonic devices. The book opens with an introduction to the basic applied physics of simple electronic states and energy levels. Silicon and copper, the building blocks for many electronic devices, are used as examples. Next, more advanced theories are developed to better account for the electronic and optical behavior of ordered materials, such as diamond, and disordered materials, such as amorphous silicon. Finally, the principal quasi-particles (phonons, polarons, excitons, plasmons, and polaritons) that are fundamental to explaining phenomena such as component aging (phonons) and optical performance in terms of yield (excitons) or communication speed (polarons) are discussed.Table of ContentsForeword xiii Introduction xv Chapter 1. Introduction: Representations of Electron-Lattice Bonds 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Quantum mechanics: some basics 2 1.3. Bonds in solids: a free electron as the zero order approximation for a weak bond; and strong bonds 6 1.4. Complementary material: basic evidence for the appearance of bands in solids 10 Chapter 2. The Free Electron and State Density Functions 17 2.1. Overview of the free electron 17 2.2. Study of the stationary regime of small scale (enabling the establishment of nodes at extremities) symmetric wells (1D model) 19 2.3. Study of the stationary regime for asymmetric wells (1D model) with L a favoring the establishment of a stationary regime with nodes at extremities 23 2.4. Solutions that favor propagation: wide potential wells where L 1 mm, i.e. several orders greater than inter-atomic distances 24 2.5. State density function represented in energy space for free electrons in a 1D system 27 2.6. From electrons in a 3D system (potential box) 32 2.7. Problems 40 Chapter 3. The Origin of Band Structures within the Weak Band Approximation 55 3.1. Bloch function 55 3.2. Mathieu’s equation 59 3.3. The band structure 66 3.4. Alternative presentation of the origin of band systems via the perturbation method 70 3.5. Complementary material: the main equation 79 3.6. Problems 81 Chapter 4. Properties of Semi-Free Electrons, Insulators, Semiconductors, Metals and Superlattices 87 4.1. Effective mass (m*) 87 4.2. The concept of holes 93 4.3. Expression for energy states close to the band extremum as a function of the effective mass 96 4.4. Distinguishing insulators, semiconductors, metals and semi-metals 97 4.5. Semi-free electrons in the particular case of super lattices 107 4.6. Problems 116 Chapter 5. Crystalline Structure, Reciprocal Lattices and Brillouin Zones 123 5.1. Periodic lattices 123 5.2. Locating reciprocal planes 125 5.3. Conditions for maximum diffusion by a crystal (Laue conditions) 128 5.4. Reciprocal lattice 133 5.5. Brillouin zones 135 5.6. Particular properties 137 5.7. Example determinations of Brillouin zones and reduced zones 141 5.8. Importance of the reciprocal lattice and electron filling of Brillouin zones by electrons in insulators, semiconductors and metals 146 5.9. The Fermi surface: construction of surfaces and properties 149 5.10. Conclusion. Filling Fermi surfaces and the distinctions between insulators, semiconductors and metals 154 5.11. Problems 156 Chapter 6. Electronic Properties of Copper and Silicon 173 6.1. Introduction 173 6.2. Direct and reciprocal lattices of the fcc structure 173 6.3. Brillouin zone for the fcc structure 178 6.4. Copper and alloy formation 181 6.5. Silicon 185 6.6. Problems 190 Chapter 7. Strong Bonds in One Dimension 199 7.1. Atomic and molecular orbitals 199 7.2. Form of the wave function in strong bonds: Floquet’s theorem 210 7.3. Energy of a 1D system 215 7.4. 1D and distorted AB crystals 224 7.5. State density function and applications: the Peierls metal-insulator transition 228 7.6. Practical example of a periodic atomic chain: concrete calculations of wave functions, energy levels, state density functions and band filling 233 7.7. Conclusion 239 7.8. Problems 241 Chapter 8. Strong Bonds in Three Dimensions: Band Structure of Diamond and Silicon 249 8.1. Extending the permitted band from 1D to 3D for a lattice of atoms associated with single s-orbital nodes (basic cubic system, centered cubic, etc.) 250 8.2. Structure of diamond: covalent bonds and their hybridization 258 8.3. Molecular model of a 3D covalent crystal (atoms in sp3-hybridization states at lattice nodes) 268 8.4. Complementary in-depth study: determination of the silicon band structure using the strong bond method 275 8.5. Problems 287 Chapter 9. Limits to Classical Band Theory: Amorphous Media 301 9.1. Evolution of the band scheme due to structural defects (vacancies, dangling bonds and chain ends) and localized bands 301 9.2. Hubbard bands and electronic repulsions. The Mott metal–insulator transition 303 9.3. Effect of geometric disorder and the Anderson localization 311 9.4. Conclusion 322 9.5. Problems 324 Chapter 10. The Principal Quasi-Particles in Material Physics 335 10.1. Introduction 335 10.2. Lattice vibrations: phonons 336 10.3. Polarons 352 10.4. Excitons 364 10.5. Plasmons 368 10.6. Problems 373 Bibliography 385 Index 387

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Book SynopsisModel-based development methods, and supporting technologies, can provide the techniques and tools needed to address the dilemma between reducing system development costs and time, and developing increasingly complex systems. This book provides the information needed to understand and apply model-drive engineering (MDE) and model-drive architecture (MDA) approaches to the development of embedded systems. Chapters, written by experts from academia and industry, cover topics relating to MDE practices and methods, as well as emerging MDE technologies. Much of the writing is based on the presentations given at the Summer School “MDE for Embedded Systems” held at Brest, France, in September 2004.Table of ContentsChapter Summary xi Chapter 1. Model Transformation: A Survey of the State of the Art 1 Tom MENS 1.1. Model-driven engineering 1 1.2. Model transformation 2 1.3. Model transformation languages 5 1.4. Model transformation activities 8 1.5. Conclusion 14 1.6. Acknowledgements 14 1.7. Bibliography 15 Chapter 2. Model-Based Code Generation 21 Chris RAISTRICK 2.1. Introduction 21 2.2. The model-driven architecture (MDA) process 22 2.3. The automated approach to code generation 23 2.4. Domain modeling 25 2.5. The executable UML (xUML) formalism 29 2.6. System generation 31 2.7. Executable UML to code mappings 34 2.8. Conclusions 41 2.9. Bibliography 42 Chapter 3. Testing Model Transformations: A Case for Test Generation from Input Domain Models 43 Benoit BAUDRY 3.1. Introduction 43 3.2. Challenges for testing systems with large input domains 46 3.3. Selecting test data in large domains 52 3.4. Metamodel-based test input generation 58 3.5. Conclusion 67 3.6. Acknowledgements 68 3.7. Bibliography 68 Chapter 4. Symbolic Execution-Based Techniques for Conformance Testing 73 Christophe GASTON, Pascale LE GALL, Nicolas RAPIN and Assia TOUIL 4.1. Context 73 4.2. Input output symbolic transition systems 79 4.3. Symbolic execution 84 4.4. Conformance testing for IOSTS 87 4.5. Concluding remarks 96 4.6. Bibliography 101 Chapter 5. Using MARTE and SysML for Modeling Real-Time Embedded Systems 105 Huascar ESPINOZA, Daniela CANCILA, Sébastien GÉRARD and Bran SELIC 5.1. Introduction 105 5.2. Background 108 5.3. Scenarios of combined usage 113 5.4. Combination Strategies 125 5.5. Related work 130 5.6. Conclusion 133 5.7. Acknowledgements 134 5.8. Bibliography 134 Chapter 6. Software Model-based Performance Analysis 139 Dorina C. PETRIU 6.1. Introduction 139 6.2. Performance models 142 6.3. Software model with performance annotations 148 6.4. Mapping from software to performance model 155 6.5. Using a pivot language: Core Scenario Model (CSM) 158 6.6. Case study performance model 160 6.7. Conclusions 162 6.8. Acknowledgements 163 6.9. Bibliography 163 Chapter 7. Model Integration for Formal Qualification of Timing-Aware Software Data Acquisition Components 167 Jean-Philippe BABAU, Philippe DHAUSSY and Pierre-Yves PILLAIN 7.1. Introduction 167 7.2. System modeling 170 7.3. Variation points modeling 182 7.4. Experiments and results 189 7.5. Conclusion 194 7.6. Bibliography 195 Chapter 8. SoC/SoPC Development using MDD and MARTE Profile 201 Denis AULAGNIER, Ali KOUDRI, Stéphane LECOMTE, Philippe SOULARD, Joël CHAMPEAU, Jorgiano VIDAL, Gilles PERROUIN and Pierre LERAY 8.1. Introduction 201 8.2. Related works 203 8.3. MOPCOM process and models 206 8.4. Application 210 8.5. System analysis 211 8.6. Abstract modeling level 214 8.7. Execution modeling level 216 8.8. Detailed modeling level 220 8.9. Tooling Support 223 8.10. HDL Code Generation 225 8.11. Conclusion 228 8.12. Acknowledgements 229 8.13. Bibliography 229 List of Authors 233 Index 237

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Book SynopsisThe emergence of nanoelectronics has led us to renew the concepts of transport theory used in semiconductor device physics and the engineering community. It has become crucial to question the traditional semi-classical view of charge carrier transport and to adequately take into account the wave-like nature of electrons by considering not only their coherent evolution but also the out-of-equilibrium states and the scattering effects. This book gives an overview of the quantum transport approaches for nanodevices and focuses on the Wigner formalism. It details the implementation of a particle-based Monte Carlo solution of the Wigner transport equation and how the technique is applied to typical devices exhibiting quantum phenomena, such as the resonant tunnelling diode, the ultra-short silicon MOSFET and the carbon nanotube transistor. In the final part, decoherence theory is used to explain the emergence of the semi-classical transport in nanodevices.Table of ContentsSymbols ix Abbreviations xiii Introduction xv Acknowledgements xxi Chapter 1. Theoretical Framework of Quantum Transport in Semiconductors and Devices 1 1.1. The fundamentals: a brief introduction to phonons, quasi-electrons and envelope functions 2 1.2. The semi-classical approach of transport 11 1.3. The quantum treatment of envelope functions 16 1.4. The two main problems of quantum transport 29 Chapter 2. Particle-based Monte Carlo Approach to Wigner-Boltzmann Device Simulation 57 2.1. The particle Monte Carlo technique to solve the BTE 59 2.2. Extension of the particle Monte Carlo technique to the WBTE: principles 71 2.3. Simple validations via two typical cases 83 2.4. Conclusion 86 Chapter 3. Application of the Wigner Monte Carlo Method to RTD, MOSFET and CNTFET 89 3.1. The resonant tunneling diode (RTD) 90 3.2. The double-gate metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (DG-MOSFET) 99 3.3. The carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNTFET) 134 3.4. Conclusion 148 Chapter 4. Decoherence and Transition from Quantum to Semi-classical Transport 151 4.1. Simple illustration of the decoherence mechanism 152 4.2. Coherence and decoherence of Gaussian wave packets in GaAs 157 4.3. Coherence and decoherence in RTD: transition between semi-classical and quantum regions 171 4.4. Quantum coherence and decoherence in DG-MOSFET 175 4.5. Conclusion 180 Conclusion 183 Appendix A. Average Value of Operators in the Wigner Formalism 187 Appendix B. Boundaries of the Wigner Potential 189 Appendix C. Hartree Wave Function 191 Appendix D. Asymmetry Between Phonon Absorption and Emission Rates 193 Appendix E. Quantum Brownian Motion 195 Appendix F. Purity in the Wigner formalism 201 Appendix G. Propagation of a Free Wave Packet Subject to Quantum Brownian Motion 203 Appendix H. Coherence Length at Thermal Equilibrium 205 Bibliography 207 Index 241

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in the development of new and innovative materials, and of advanced modeling and characterization methods for nanoscale CMOS devices. Leading global industry bodies including the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) have created a forecast of performance improvements that will be delivered in the foreseeable future – in the form of a roadmap that will lead to a substantial enlargement in the number of materials, technologies and device architectures used in CMOS devices. This book addresses the field of materials development, which has been the subject of a major research drive aimed at finding new ways to enhance the performance of semiconductor technologies. It covers three areas that will each have a dramatic impact on the development of future CMOS devices: global and local strained and alternative materials for high speed channels on bulk substrate and insulator; very low access resistance; and various high dielectric constant gate stacks for power scaling. The book also provides information on the most appropriate modeling and simulation methods for electrical properties of advanced MOSFETs, including ballistic transport, gate leakage, atomistic simulation, and compact models for single and multi-gate devices, nanowire and carbon-based FETs. Finally, the book presents an in-depth investigation of the main nanocharacterization techniques that can be used for an accurate determination of transport parameters, interface defects, channel strain as well as RF properties, including capacitance-conductance, improved split C-V, magnetoresistance, charge pumping, low frequency noise, and Raman spectroscopy.Trade Review"All illustrations including half-tone impressions, graphs, tables and mathematical equations are presented in a manner the design and execution of which are as excellent as the material they go to serve and illustrate." (Current Engineering Practice, 2011)Table of ContentsIntroduction xv F. BALESTRA PART 1. NOVEL MATERIALS FOR NANOSCALE CMOS 1 Chapter 1. Introduction to Part 1 3 D. LEADLEY, A. DOBBIE, V. SHAH and J. PARSONS 1.1. Nanoscale CMOS requirements 3 1.2. The gate stack – high-_ dielectrics 5 1.3. Strained channels 7 1.4. Source-drain contacts 16 1.5. Bibliography 17 Chapter 2. Gate Stacks 23 O. ENGSTRÖM, I. Z. MITROVIC, S. HALL, P. K. HURLEY, K. CHERKAOUI, S. MONAGHAN, H. D. B. GOTTLOB and M. C. LEMME 2.1. Gate-channel coupling in MOSFETs 23 2.2. Properties of dielectrics 24 2.3. Interfaces states and bulk oxide traps 29 2.4. Two ternary compounds: GdSiO and LaSiO 39 2.5. Metal gate technology 50 2.6. Future outlook 56 2.7. Bibliography 58 Chapter 3. Strained Si and Ge Channels 69 D. LEADLEY, A. DOBBIE, M. MYRONOV, V. SHAH and E. PARKER 3.1. Introduction 69 3.2. Relaxation of strained layers 74 3.3. High Ge composition Si1–xGex buffers 83 3.4. Ge channel devices 105 3.5. Acknowledgements 115 3.6. Bibliography 115 Chapter 4. From Thin Si/SiGe Buffers to SSOI 127 S. MANTL and D. BUCA 4.1. Introduction 128 4.2. Nucleation of dislocations 129 4.3. Strain relaxation and strain transfer mechanisms 131 4.4. Overgrowth of strained Si and layer optimization 134 4.5. Characterization of the elastic strain 137 4.6. SSOI wafer fabrication 141 4.7. SSOI as channel material for MOSFET devices 145 4.8. Summary 152 4.9. Bibliography 153 Chapter 5. Introduction to Schottky-Barrier MOS Architectures: Concept, Challenges, Material Engineering and Device Integration 157 E. DUBOIS, G. LARRIEU, R VALENTIN, N. BREIL and F. DANNEVILLE 5.1. Introduction 157 5.2. Challenges associated with the source/drain extrinsic contacts 158 5.3. Extraction of low Schottky barriers 166 5.4. Modulation of Schottky barrier height using low temperature dopant segregation 177 5.5. State-of-the-art device integration 191 5.6. Conclusion 195 5.7. Acknowledgements 197 5.8. Bibliography 197 PART 2. ADVANCED MODELING AND SIMULATION FOR NANO-MOSFETS AND BEYOND-CMOS DEVICES 205 Chapter 6. Introduction to Part 2 207 E. SANGIORGI 6.1. Modeling and simulation approaches for gate current computation 208 6.2. Modeling and simulation approaches for drain current computation 209 6.3. Modeling of end of the roadmap nMOSFET with alternative channel material 209 6.4. NEGF simulations of nanoscale CMOS in the effective mass approximation 210 6.5. Compact models for advanced CMOS devices 211 6.6. Beyond CMOS 211 6.7. Bibliography 212 Chapter 7. Modeling and Simulation Approaches for Gate Current Computation 213 B. MAJKUSIAK, P. PALESTRI, A. SCHENK, A. S. SPINELLI, C. M. COMPAGNONI and M. LUISIER 7.1. Introduction 213 7.2. Calculation of the tunneling probability 216 7.3. Tunneling in nonconventional devices 228 7.4. Trap-assisted tunneling 237 7.5. Models for gate current computation in commercial TCAD 243 7.6. Comparison between modeling approaches 249 7.7. Bibliography 251 Chapter 8. Modeling and Simulation Approaches for Drain Current Computation 259 M. VASICEK, D. ESSENI, C. FIEGNA and T. GRASSER 8.1. Boltzmann transport equation for MOS transistors 260 8.2. Method of moments 262 8.3. Subband macroscopic transport models 276 8.4. Comparison with device-SMC 278 8.5. Conclusions 282 8.6. Bibliography 283 Chapter 9. Modeling of End of the Roadmap nMOSFET with Alternative Channel Material 287 Q. RAFHAY, R. CLERC, G. GHIBAUDO, P. PALESTRI and L. SELMI 9.1. Introduction: replacing silicon as channel material 287 9.2. State-of-the-art in the modeling of alternative channel material devices 290 9.3. Critical analysis of the literature using analytical models 297 9.4. Conclusions 327 9.5. Bibliography 328 Chapter 10. NEGF for 3D Device Simulation of Nanometric Inhomogenities 335 A. MARTINEZ, A. ASENOV and M. PALA 10.1. Introduction 335 10.2. Variabilities for nanoscale CMOS 343 10.3. Full quantum treatment of spatial fluctuations in ultra-scaled devices 361 10.4. Bibliography 377 Chapter 11. Compact Models for Advanced CMOS Devices 381 B. IÑIGUEZ, F. LIME, A. LÁZARO and T. A. FJELDLY 11.1. Introduction 381 11.2. Electrostatics modeling issues 385 11.3. Transport modeling issues 388 11.4. 1D compact models 390 11.5. Ultimate MuGFET modeling issues: ballistic current and quantum confinement 405 11.6. Velocity saturation and channel length modulation modeling 409 11.7. Hydrodynamic transport model 411 11.8. Charge and capacitance modeling 413 11.9. Short-channel effects 420 11.10. RF and noise modeling 434 11.11. Acknowledgements 437 11.12. Bibliography 438 Chapter 12. Beyond CMOS 443 G. IANNACCONE, G. FIORI, S. REGGIANI and M. PALA 12.1. Introduction 443 12.2. Atomistic modeling of carbon-based FETs 444 12.3. Numerical simulation of CNT-FETs 447 12.4. Effective mass modeling of carbon nanotube FETs 451 12.5. CNT versus graphene nanoribbon FETs 459 12.6. Full-quantum treatment of elastic and inelastic scattering in Si and SiC GAA nanowire FETs 461 12.7. Conclusions 467 12.8. Bibliography 468 PART 3. NANOCHARACTERIZATION METHODS 471 Chapter 13. Introduction to Part 3 473 D. FLANDRE Chapter 14. Accurate Determination of Transport Parameters in Sub-65 nm MOS Transistors 475 M. MOUIS and G. GHIBAUDO 14.1. Impact of transport on device performance in the drift-diffusion regime 476 14.2. Standard extraction techniques and their adaptation to short channel transistors 482 14.3. Alternative extraction techniques 518 14.4. Out of equilibrium transport 531 14.5. Conclusions 537 14.6. Bibliography 539 Chapter 15. Characterization of Interface Defects 545 P. HURLEY, O. ENGSTRÖM, D. BAUZA and G. GHIBAUDO 15.1. Characterization using the capacitance-voltage (C-V) response 545 15.2. Characterization using the conductance-voltage (G-V) response 550 15.3. Charge pumping 553 15.4. Low frequency noise 561 15.5. Bibliography 566 Chapter 16. Strain Determination 575 A. O’NEILL, S. OLSEN, P. DOBROSZ, R. AGAIBY and Y. TSANG 16.1. Introduction 575 16.2. Characterization requirements 575 16.3. Characterization techniques 579 16.4. Strain description 592 16.5. Bibliography 598 Chapter 17. Wide Frequency Band Characterization 603 D. FLANDRE, J.-P. RASKIN and V. KILCHYTSKA 17.1. Modified split-CV technique for reliable mobility extraction 604 17.2. Small-signal electrical characterization of FinFETs: impact of access resistances and capacitances 610 17.3. Substrate-related output conductance degradation 619 17.4. Small-signal electrical characterization of Schottky barrier MOSFETs 626 17.5. Bibliography 632 List of Authors 639 Index 649

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Book SynopsisThis book concerns the analysis and design of induction heating of poor electrical conduction materials. Some innovating applications such as inductive plasma installation or transformers, thermo inductive non-destructive testing and carbon-reinforced composite materials heating are studied. Analytical, semi-analytical and numerical models are combined to obtain the best modeling technique for each case. Each model has been tested with experimental results and validated. The principal aspects of a computational package to solve these kinds of coupled problems are described. In the first chapter, the mathematical tools for coupled electromagnetic and thermal phenomena are introduced. In Chapter 2, these tools are used to analyze a radio frequency inductive plasma installation. The third chapter describes the methodology of designing a low frequency plasma transformer. Chapter 4 studies the feasibility of the thermo inductive technique for non-destructive testing and the final chapter is dedicated to the use of induction heating in the lifecycle of carbon-reinforced composite materials. Contents 1. Thermal and Electromagnetic Coupling, Javad Fouladgar, Didier Trichet and Brahim Ramdane.2. Simplified Model of a Radiofrequency Inductive Thermal Plasma Installation, Javad Fouladgar and Jean-Pierre Ploteau.3. Design Methodology of A Very Low-Frequency Plasma Transformer, Javad Fouladgar and Souri Mohamed Mimoune.4. Non Destructive Testing by Thermo-Inductive Method, Javad Fouladgar, Brahim Ramdane, Didier Trichet and Tayeb Saidi.5. Induction Heating of Composite Materials, Javad Fouladgar, Didier Trichet, Samir Bensaid and Guillaume WasselynckTable of ContentsIntroduction xiii Javad FOULADGAR Chapter 1. Thermal and Electromagnetic Coupling 1 Javad FOULADGAR, Didier TRICHET and Brahim RAMDANE 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Electromagnetic problem 2 1.3. Thermal problem 15 1.4. Magnetothermal coupling 16 1.5. Solving the electromagnetic and thermal equations 18 1.6. Conclusion 35 1.7. Bibliography 36 Chapter 2. Simplified Model of a Radiofrequency Inductive Thermal Plasma Installation 39 Javad FOULADGAR and Jean-Pierre PLOTEAU 2.1. Introduction 39 2.2. Plasma and its characteristics 40 2.3. Modeling a plasma installation 49 2.4. Calculating charge impedance 57 2.5. Generator model 64 2.6. Conclusion 80 2.7. Bibliography 81 Chapter 3. Design Methodology of A Very Low-Frequency Plasma Transformer 85 Javad FOULADGAR and Souri Mohamed MIMOUNE 3.1. Introduction 85 3.2. Different types of very low-frequency applicators 87 3.3. Simplified analytical model for analysis and preliminary design 88 3.4. Nonlinear model 97 3.5. Plasma stability in the transitory and sinusoidal states 100 3.6. Advanced inductive plasma transformer model 103 3.7. Plasma initialization 111 3.8. Conclusion 114 3.9. Bibliography 114 Chapter 4. Non Destructive Testing by Thermo-Inductive Method 117 Javad FOULADGAR, Brahim RAMDANE, Didier TRICHET and Tayeb SAIDI 4.1. Introduction 117 4.2. Principles of the thermo-inductive method 119 4.3. Basic thermo-inductive technique theory 126 4.4. Application of the thermo-inductive method to inspect massive magnetic steel components 145 4.5. Comparison with infrared thermography 164 4.6. Applications on composite materials 168 4.7. Conclusion and general instructions 185 4.8. Bibliography 190 Chapter 5. Induction Heating of Composite Materials 195 Javad FOULADGAR, Didier TRICHET, Samir BENSAID and Guillaume WASSELYNCK 5.1. Introduction 195 5.2. Composite materials 197 5.3. Lifecycle of composite materials 202 5.4. Induction and the lifecycle of composite materials 203 5.5. Identifying the physical properties of composite materials by experimental methods 207 5.6. Homogenization techniques 224 5.7. Heating composite materials by induction 251 5.8. Setup model 253 5.9. Influence of the folds’ orientation 260 5.10. Difficulty of the electrothermal coupling 262 5.11. Validating the electrothermal model 262 5.12. Conclusion 267 5.13. Bibliography 268 List of Authors 273 Index 275

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Book SynopsisThis book describes up-to-date technology applied to high-K materials for More Than Moore applications, i.e. microsystems applied to microelectronics core technologies. After detailing the basic thermodynamic theory applied to high-K dielectrics thin films including extrinsic effects, this book emphasizes the specificity of thin films. Deposition and patterning technologies are then presented. A whole chapter is dedicated to the major role played in the field by X-Ray Diffraction characterization, and other characterization techniques are also described such as Radio frequency characterization. An in-depth study of the influence of leakage currents is performed together with reliability discussion. Three applicative chapters cover integrated capacitors, variables capacitors and ferroelectric memories. The final chapter deals with a reasonably new research field, multiferroic thin films.Table of ContentsChapter 1. The Thermodynamic Approach 1 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 1.1. Background 1 1.2. The functions of state 2 1.3. Linear equations, piezoelectricity 6 1.4. Nonlinear equations, electrostriction 8 1.5. Thermodynamic modeling of the ferroelectric–paraelectric phase transition 9 1.6. Conclusion 24 1.7. Bibliography 25 Chapter 2. Stress Effect on Thin Films 27 Pierre-Eymeric JANOLIN 2.1. Introduction 27 2.2. Modeling the system under consideration 27 2.3. Temperature–misfit strain phase diagrams for monodomain films 28 2.4. Domain stability map 35 2.5. Temperature–misfit strain phase diagram for polydomain films 48 2.6. Discussion of the nature of the “misfit strain” 50 2.7. Conclusion 52 2.8. Experimental validation of phase diagrams: state of the art 52 2.9. Case study 53 2.10. Results 53 2.11. Comparison between the experimental data and the temperature–misfit strain phase diagrams 60 2.12. Conclusion 65 2.13. Bibliography 66 Chapter 3. Deposition and Patterning Technologies 71 Chrystel DEGUET, Gwenaël LE RHUN, Bertrand VILQUIN and Emmanuel DEFAŸ 3.1. Deposition method 71 3.2. Etching 86 3.3. Contamination 86 3.4. Monocrystalline thin-film transfer 87 3.5. Design of experiments 96 3.6. Conclusion 107 3.7. Bibliography 108 Chapter 4. Analysis Through X-ray Diffraction of Polycrystalline Thin Films 111 Patrice GERGAUD 4.1. Introduction 111 4.2. Some reminders of x-ray diffraction and crystallography 112 4.3. Application to powder or polycrystalline thin-films 122 4.4. Phase analysis by X-ray diffraction 126 4.5. Identification of coherent domain sizes of diffraction and micro-strains 132 4.6. Identification of crystallographic textures by X-ray diffraction 139 4.7. Determination of strains/stresses by X-ray diffraction 146 4.8. Bibliography 156 Chapter 5. Physicochemical and Electrical Characterization 159 Gwenaël LE RHUN, Brahim DKHIL and Pascale GEMEINER 5.1. Introduction 159 5.2. Useful characterization techniques 159 5.3. Ferroelectric measurement 170 5.4. Dielectric measurement 177 5.5. Bibliography 180 Chapter 6. Radio-Frequency Characterization 183 Thierry LACREVAZ 6.1. Introduction 183 6.2. Notions and basic concepts associated with HF 184 6.3. Frequency analysis: HF characterization of materials 204 6.4. Bibliography 211 Chapter 7. Leakage Currents in PZT Capacitors 213 Emilien BOUYSSOU 7.1. Introduction 213 7.2. Leakage current in metal/insulator/metal structures 215 7.3. Problem of leakage current measurement 225 7.4. Characterization of the relaxation current 233 7.5. Literature review of true leakage current in PZT 237 7.6. Dynamic characterization of true leakage current: I(t, T) 239 7.7. Static characterization of the true leakage current: I(V,T) 263 7.8. Conclusion 273 7.9. Bibliography 275 Chapter 8. Integrated Capacitors 281 Emmanuel DEFAŸ 8.1. Introduction 281 8.2. Potentiality of perovskites for RF devices: permittivity and losses 283 8.3. Bi-dielectric capacitors with high linearity 294 8.4. STO capacitors integrated on CMOS substrate by AIC technology 298 8.5. Bibliography 303 Chapter 9. Reliability of PZT Capacitors 305 Emilien BOUYSSOU 9.1. Introduction 305 9.2. Accelerated aging of metal/insulator/metal structures 307 9.3. Accelerated aging of PZT capacitors through CVS tests 316 9.4. Lifetime extrapolation of PZT capacitors 325 9.5. Conclusion 335 9.6. Bibliography 336 Chapter 10. Ferroelectric Tunable Capacitors 341 Benoit GUIGUES 10.1. Introduction 341 10.2. Overview of the tunable capacitors 342 10.3. Types of actual tunable capacitors 355 10.4. Toward new tunable capacitors 366 10.5. Bibliography 375 Chapter 11. FRAM Ferroelectric Memories: Basic Operations, Limitations, Innovations and Applications 379 Christophe MULLER 11.1. Taxonomy of non-volatile memories 379 11.2. FRAM memories: basic operations and limitations 383 11.3. Technologies available in 2011 387 11.4. Technological innovations 388 11.5. Some application areas of FRAM technology 394 11.6. Conclusion 396 11.7. Bibliography 397 Chapter 12. Integration of Multiferroic BiFeO3 Thin Films into Modern Microelectronics 403 Xiaohong ZHU 12.1. Introduction 403 12.2. Preparation methods 407 12.3. Ferroelectricity and magnetism 416 12.4. Device applications 427 12.5. Bibliography 436 List of Authors 443 Index 445

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Book SynopsisA review of the principles of the safety of software-based equipment, this book begins by presenting the definition principles of safety objectives. It then moves on to show how it is possible to define a safety architecture (including redundancy, diversification, error-detection techniques) on the basis of safety objectives and how to identify objectives related to software programs. From software objectives, the authors present the different safety techniques (fault detection, redundancy and quality control). “Certifiable system” aspects are taken into account throughout the book. Contents 1. Safety Management. 2. From System to Software. 3. Certifiable Systems. 4. Risk and Safety Levels. 5. Principles of Hardware Safety. 6. Principles of Software Safety. 7. Certification. About the Authors Jean-Louis Boulanger is currently an Independent Safety Assessor (ISA) in the railway domain focusing on software elements. He is a specialist in the software engineering domain (requirement engineering, semi-formal and formal method, proof and model-checking). He also works as an expert for the French notified body CERTIFER in the field of certification of safety critical railway applications based on software (ERTMS, SCADA, automatic subway, etc.). His research interests include requirements, software verification and validation, traceability and RAMS with a special focus on SAFETY.Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION ix CHAPTER 1. SAFETY MANAGEMENT 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Dependability 1 1.3. Conclusion 8 1.4. Bibliography 8 CHAPTER 2. FROM SYSTEM TO SOFTWARE 9 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Systems of command and control 10 2.3 System 13 2.4 Software implementation 14 2.5. Conclusion 16 2.6. Bibliography 17 2.7. Glossary 17 CHAPTER 3. CERTIFIABLE SYSTEMS 19 3.1. Introduction 19 3.2. Normative context 20 3.3. Conclusion 37 3.4. Bibliography 38 3.5. Glossary 41 CHAPTER 4. RISK AND SAFETY LEVELS 43 4.1. Introduction 43 4.2. Basic definitions 43 4.3. Safety implementation 48 4.4. In standards IEC 61508 and IEC 61511 70 4.5. Conclusions 74 4.6. Bibliography 74 4.7. Acronyms 77 CHAPTER 5. PRINCIPLES OF HARDWARE SAFETY 79 5.1. Introduction 79 5.2. Safe and/or available hardware 79 5.3. Reset of a processing unit 80 5.4. Presentation of safety control techniques 81 5.5. Conclusion 117 5.6. Bibliography 118 5.7. Glossary 119 CHAPTER 6. PRINCIPLES OF SOFTWARE SAFETY 121 6.1. Introduction 121 6.2. Techniques to make software application safe 121 6.3. Other forms of diversification 149 6.4. Overall summary 150 6.5. Quality management 150 6.6. Conclusion 155 6.7. Bibliography 156 6.8. Glossary 157 CHAPTER 7. CERTIFICATION 159 7.1. Introduction 159 7.2. Independent assessment 159 7.3. Certification 160 7.4. Certification in the rail sector 161 7.5. Automatic systems 171 7.6. Aircraft 171 7.7. Nuclear 171 7.8. Automotive 172 7.9. Spacecraft 172 7.10 Safety case 172 7.11 Conclusion 173 7.12 Bibliography 174 7.13 Glossary 176 CONCLUSION 177 INDEX 179

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisThis book showcases the state of the art in the field of sensors and microsystems, revealing the impressive potential of novel methodologies and technologies. It covers a broad range of aspects, including: bio-, physical and chemical sensors; actuators; micro- and nano-structured materials; mechanisms of interaction and signal transduction; polymers and biomaterials; sensor electronics and instrumentation; analytical microsystems, recognition systems and signal analysis; and sensor networks, as well as manufacturing technologies, environmental, food and biomedical applications. The book gathers a selection of papers presented at the 20th AISEM National Conference on Sensors and Microsystems, held in Naples, Italy in February 2019, the event brought together researchers, end users, technology teams and policy makers.

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