Ecological science, the Biosphere Books

Book SynopsisThis richly-illustrated book presents the information necessary for fiber analysis in the field of pulp and paper. A discussion of raw-material structure and the features used for species identification in pulp is followed up by the description of 117 fiber species. Of these, 83 are wood fibers and 34 are of nonwood origin. The tree species range across all five continents, 29 from Eurasia, 38 from North America and 16 from the southern hemisphere and the tropics. Informative micrographs, identification tables, and distribution maps aid species differentiation, making this atlas ideal for everyone interested in fiber identification.Table of ContentsBotanical Classification.- 1 Wood Fibers.- 1 Geographic Distribution of Tree Species.- 2 Structure of Wood.- 3 Identification of Wood Species in Pulp.- 4 Descriptions of Softwoods.- 5 Descriptions of Hardwoods.- 2 Nonwood Fibers.- 6 Groups of Nonwood Fibers.- 7 Grass Fibers (Including Papyrus and Palms).- 8 Bast Fibers.- 9 Leaf Fibers.- 10 Fruit Fibers.- 11 Descriptions of Nonwood Plant Fibers.- 12 Descriptions of Nonplant Fibers.- Appendix: Distribution Maps of Tree Genera.- References.- Index to Common Names of Species Described.- Index to Scientific Names of Species Described.

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Book SynopsisMost birds cannot cover the distance between their breeding and winter quarters in one hop. They have to make multiple flights alternated with stopovers. Which factors govern the birds’ decisions to stop, to stop for how long, when to resume flight? What is better – to accumulate much fuel and to make long flights for many hundreds of kilometres, or to travel in small steps? Is it necessary to find habitats similar to the breeding ones or other habitats would do? Are long migratory flights indeed so costly energetically as usually assumed? This monograph summarizes our current knowledge on the ecology of songbird migrants during migratory stopovers and on their behaviour.​Table of ContentsForeword.- Introduction.- 1. Stopover duration, 1.1. Methods of estimating stopover duration, 1.2. Estimates based on re-encounters of marked birds, 1.3. Estimates based on radio-tagging, 1.4. Within-species variance in stopover duration: ‘transients’ and ‘non-transients’, 1.5. Concluding remarks.- 2. Fuel deposition rate and energy efficiency of stopovers, 2.1. Energy stores of migrants, 2.2. Methods of estimating fuel deposition rate, 2 .3. Empirical FDR values, 2.4. Factors that influence FDR, 2.5. Low initial FDR: an artefact or real phenomenon?.- 3. Optimal migration theory, 3.1. General remarks, 3.2. Time minimisation, 3.3. Minimisation of energy cost of migration, 3.4. Predation risk minimisation, 3.5. Basic equations, 3.6. Concluding remarks.- 4. Habitat selection and use by migrants, 4.1. Introductory remarks, 4.2. Scales of habitat selection at stopover, 4.3. Role of individual experience, 4.4. Termination of migratory flights, 4.5. Search for home range and settling, 4.6. Habitat exploitation,4.7. Fuel deposition in oases, 4.8. Fuel deposition on islands.- 5. Spatial behaviour at stopovers, 5.1. Introductory remarks, 5.2. Range and direction of daytime movements of nocturnal migrants, 5.3. Restricted home ranges vs. broad movements:visual observations and recapture analysis, 5.4. Spatial behaviour at stopovers: radio-tracking data, 5.5. Impact of fuel stores on spatial behaviour, 5.6. Spatial behaviour of songbird migrants at stopover and spatial distribution of food.- 6. Temporal pattern and energy cost of migratory flight, 6.1. Time of nocturnal migratory departures, 6.2. Body mass and fuel stores at nocturnal migratory departure, 6.3. Nocturnal departures of lean birds and reverse migration at night, 6.4. Relationship between fuel stores and take-off time, 6.5. Time of ceasing flight, 6.6. Body mass at arrival after migratory flights, 6.7. Estimates of energy costs of migratory flight.- 7. Migratory flights and stopovers: organisation of migration, 7.1. Theoretically possible fuel deposition rate, 7.2. Factors that influence departure decisions, 7.3. Series of migratory flights and waves of passage, 7.4. Spring vs. autumn migration, 7.5. Migration of a typical long-distance passerine nocturnal migrant.- Conclusions.- References ​

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Book SynopsisWith today’s ever growing economic and ecological problems, wood as a raw material takes on increasing significance as the most important renewable source of energy and as industrial feedstock for numerous products. Its chemical and anatomical structure and the excellent properties that result allow wood to be processed into the most diverse products; from logs to furniture and veneers, and from wood chippings to wooden composites and paper. The aim of this book is to review advances in research on the cellular aspects of cambial growth and wood formation in trees over recent decades. The book is divided into two major parts. The first part covers the basic process of wood biosynthesis, focusing on five major steps that are involved in this process: cell division, cell expansion, secondary cell wall formation, programmed cell death and heartwood formation. The second part of the book deals with the regulation of wood formation by endogenous and exogenous factors. On the endogenous level the emphasis is placed on two aspects: control of wood formation by phytohormones and by molecular mechanisms. Apart from endogenous factors, various exogenous effects (such as climate factors) are involved in wood formation. Due to modern microscopic as well as molecular techniques, the understanding of wood formation has progressed significantly over the last decade. Emphasizing the cellular aspects, this book first gives an overview of the basic process of wood formation, before it focuses on factors involved in the regulation of this process.Table of ContentsPart I: Basic Processes of Wood Formation.- Xylem Development in Trees: From Cambial Divisions to Mature Wood Cells.- Topochemical and Electron Microscopic Analyses on the Lignification of Individual Cell Wall Layers During Wood Formation and Secondary Changes.- New Insights into Heartwood and Heartwood Formation.- Part II: Control of Wood Formation by Endogenous and Exogenous Factors.- The Role of Hormones in Controlling Vascular Differentiation.- Transcriptional Regulation of Wood Formation in Tree Species.- Climate Control of Wood Formation.- Wood Formation Under Drought Stress and Salinity.- Biology and Chemistry of Tension Wood.- Formation and Structure of Compression Wood.

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Book SynopsisAn up-to-date compilation of the theoretical background and practical procedures involved in lignin characterization. Whenever possible, the procedures are presented in sufficient detail to enable the reader to perform the analysis solely by following the step-by-step description. The advantages and limitations of individual methods are discussed and, more importantly, illustrated by typical analytical data in comparison to results obtained from other methods. This handbook serves the need of researchers and other professionals in academia, the pulp and paper industry as well as allied industries. It is equally useful for those with no previous experience in lignin or lignocellulosics.Table of Contents1 Introduction.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 General Structural Features of Lignin.- 1.2 Variations in Concentration and Composition of Lignin in Xylem.- 1.3 Isolation and Recovery of Lignin.- 1.4 Physical Properties of Lignin.- 1.5 Structure-Modifying Reactions.- 1.5.1 Modification of the Aromatic Ring.- 1.5.1.1 Electrophilic Substitution.- 1.5.1.2 Conversion of Aromatic Rings to Nonaromatic Cyclic Structures.- 1.5.1.3 Conversion of Cyclic to Acyclic Structures.- 1.5.1.4 Ring Coupling and Condensation Reactions.- 1.5.2 Modification of the Propanoid Side Chain.- 1.5.2.1 Cleavage of Ether Bonds.- 1.5.2.2 Cleavage of Carbon-Carbon Bonds.- 1.5.2.3 Substitution Reactions.- 1.5.2.4 Formation and Elimination of Multiple Bond Functionalities.- 1.5.3 Future Analytical Needs.- References.- 2 Detection and Determination.- 2.1 The Detection of Lignin.- 2.1.1 Introduction.- 2.1.2 Reagents for the Detection of Lignin.- 2.1.2.1 Aliphatic Compounds.- 2.1.2.2 Phenols and Aromatic Amines.- 2.1.2.3 Heterocyclic Compounds.- 2.1.2.4 Inorganic Reagents.- 2.1.2.5 Unclassified Reagents.- 2.1.3 Color-Forming Reaction Sequences.- 2.1.4 Procedures for the Detection of Lignin.- 2.1.4.1 Color Reaction with Phloroglucinol-Hydrochloric Acid.- 2.1.4.2 The Mäule Color Reaction.- 2.1.4.3 The Cross and Bevan Color Reaction.- 2.1.4.4 Color Reaction with Tosyl Chloride/Pyridine, p-Nitrosodimethylaniline/Potassium Cyanide.- 2.1.4.5 Color Reaction with Quinone Monochlorimide.- 2.1.4.6 Color Reaction with Potassium Nitrosodisulfonate.- 2.1.4.7 Color Reaction Based on the Formation of Nitrosophenols (Pearl-Benson Method).- References.- 2.2 The Determination of Lignin.- 2.2.1 Introduction.- 2.2.2 Direct Methods.- 2.2.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis of Wood and Pulp.- 2.2.2.2 Determination of Acid-Insoluble (Klason) Lignin in Wood and Pulp.- 2.2.2.3 Determination of Acid-Soluble Lignin in Wood and Pulp.- 2.2.2.4 Acid Hydrolysis of Annual Plants, Developing Wood, and Forage.- 2.2.2.5 Determination of Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Annual Plants, Developing Wood, and Forage.- 2.2.3 Indirect Methods.- 2.2.3.1 Spectrophotometric Methods.- 2.2.3.2 Determination of Lignin in Wood and Pulp by the Acetyl Bromide Method.- 2.2.3.3 Methods Based on Oxidant Consumption.- 2.2.3.4 Determination of the Kappa Number of Pulp.- 2.2.4 Determination of Lignin in Solution.- 2.2.4.1 Determination of Dissolved Lignin by the Modified Pearl-Benson (Nitrosation) Method.- References.- 3 Isolation and Purification.- 3.1 Wood.- 3.1.1 Introduction.- 3.1.2 Preferred Method for Isolation and Purification of Lignin.- 3.1.2.1 Isolation.- 3.1.2.2 Purification.- 3.1.3 Discussion.- 3.1.3.1 Modifications of and Comments on the Preferred Method.- 3.1.3.2 Milled Wood Lignin as a Representative of the Lignin in Wood.- 3.1.3.3 Milled Wood Lignin Compared with Brauns Lignin.- 3.1.3.4 Milled Wood Lignin Compared with Cellulolytic Enzyme Lignin.- References.- 3.2 Isolation of Lignin from Pulp.- 3.2.1 Introduction.- 3.2.2 Procedures.- 3.2.2.1 Preparation of Pulp Samples and Enzyme Solution.- 3.2.2.2 Isolation of Residual Lignins in Unbleached Pulps.- 3.2.2.3 Isolation of Residual Lignins from Semi-Bleached Pulps.- 3.2.2.4 Purification of the Residual Lignins.- 3.2.3 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 3.3 Commercial Spent Pulping Liquors.- 3.3.1 Introduction.- 3.3.2 Principle.- 3.3.2.1 Kraft (Sulfate) Lignin.- 3.3.2.2 Lignosulfonate (Sulfite Lignin).- 3.3.3 Methods.- 3.3.3.1 Isolation Procedure for Kraft Lignin.- 3.3.3.2 Isolation Procedure for Lignosulfonates.- 3.3.4 Composition of Isolated Lignin.- 3.3.4.1 Kraft Lignin Fractions.- 3.3.4.2 Lignosulfonate Fractions.- 3.3.5 Discussion.- References.- 4 Characterization in Solid State.- 4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy.- 4.1.1 Principles and Instrumental Techniques.- 4.1.1.1 Introduction.- 4.1.1.2 Scope of FTIR Spectroscopic Applications.- 4.1.1.3 Description of a Standard FTIR Instrument.- 4.1.1.4 Advantages of FTIR Spectroscopy.- 4.1.2 Method.- 4.1.2.1 FTIR Spectroscopy in Practice.- 4.1.2.2 Procedures.- 4.1.3 Lignin Characterization in the Mid-Infrared Region (4000?500 cm?1).- 4.1.3.1 Band Assignment and Classification of Lignin IR Spectra.- 4.1.3.2 Influence of Carbonyl Groups.- 4.1.3.3 Mathematical Resolution of Spectra.- 4.1.3.4 Effect of Acetylation.- 4.1.3.5 Quantitative Evaluation.- 4.1.4 Lignin Spectra in the Near-Infrared Region (4000?10000 cm?1).- 4.1.5 Lignin Spectra in the Far-Infrared Region (50?500 cm?1).- 4.1.6 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 4.2 Ultraviolet Microscopy.- 4.2.1 Introduction.- 4.2.2 Information Obtained by UV Microscopy.- 4.2.2.1 Photomicrographs.- 4.2.2.2 Lignin Concentration.- 4.2.2.3 UV Absorption Spectra.- 4.2.3 Experimental Methods.- 4.2.3.1 Specimen Preparation.- 4.2.3.2 Photography.- 4.2.3.3 Quantitative Analysis.- 4.2.4 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 4.3 Interference Microscopy.- 4.3.1 Introduction.- 4.3.2 Principle.- 4.3.3 Method.- 4.3.3.1 Specimen Preparation.- 4.3.3.2 Measurement of Refractive Index.- 4.3.3.3 Calculation of Lignin Concentration from Refractive Index.- 4.3.3.4 Measurement of Porosity.- 4.3.3.5 Calculation of Lignin Concentration from Porosity.- 4.3.4 Discussion.- 4.3.4.1 Comparison with Other Techniques.- 4.3.4.2 Types of Specimen that Can be Examined.- 4.3.4.3 Accuracy and Precision.- References.- 4.4 Electron Microscopy.- 4.4.1 Introduction.- 4.4.2 Principles.- 4.4.2.1 Glossary.- 4.4.2.2 Principles of SEM-EDXA and TEM-EDXA.- 4.4.3 Methods.- 4.4.3.1 Specimen Thickness.- 4.4.3.2 Procedure for Bromination-EDXA.- 4.4.4 Lignin Distribution in Cell Walls.- 4.4.4.1 Softwoods.- 4.4.4.2 Hardwoods.- 4.4.4.2.1 Distribution of Lignin.- 4.4.4.2.2 Distribution of Guaiacyl and Syringyl Lignins.- 4.4.5 Comparisons of Bromination-EDXA with Other Methods.- References.- 4.5 Cross Polarization/Magic Angle Spinning Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (CP/MAS NMR) Spectroscopy.- 4.5.1 Introduction.- 4.5.2 Principle of CP/MAS NMR.- 4.5.2.1 Cross Polarization.- 4.5.2.2 Magic Angle Spinning.- 4.5.3 Description of Methods for CP/MAS NMR Spectroscopy.- 4.5.3.1 Choice of Spectrometer.- 4.5.3.2 Sample Preparation.- 4.5.3.3 Determination of Lignin in Wood and Pulp.- 4.5.3.4 Interrupted Decoupling.- 4.5.3.5 Estimation of Syringyl/Guaiacyl Ratios.- 4.5.3.6 Estimation of the Degree of Etherification.- 4.5.3.7 Resolution Enhancement.- 4.5.4 Discussion.- 4.5.5 Future Developments.- References.- 4.6 Raman Spectroscopy.- 4.6.1 Introduction.- 4.6.2 Principle.- 4.6.3 Method.- 4.6.3.1 Raman System.- 4.6.3.2 Scattering Geometries.- 4.6.3.3 Specimens and Sampling.- 4.6.4 Spectral Information.- 4.6.4.1 Identification of Native Lignin Features.- 4.6.4.2 Quantitative Analysis of Lignin in Wood.- 4.6.4.3 Orientation and Composition Studies of Lignin in Woody Tissue.- 4.6.5 Discussion.- 4.6.5.1 Comparison with Other Techniques.- 4.6.5.2 Future Development.- References.- 4.7 Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.- 4.7.1 Introduction.- 4.7.2 Principle and Methods of Analytical Pyrolysis.- 4.7.2.1 Combination of Pyrolysis with Other Instruments.- 4.7.2.2 Pyrolysis Techniques.- 4.7.2.2.1 Induction Heating (Curie-Point Pyrolysis).- 4.7.2.2.2 Resistance Heating.- 4.7.2.3 Sample Preparation, Size, Geometry, and Contamination: General Considerations.- 4.7.3 Gas Chromatography.- 4.7.3.1 Operating Conditions.- 4.7.4 Mass Spectrometry.- 4.7.4.1 Instrumentation.- 4.7.4.2 Ionization.- 4.7.4.3 Data Handling.- 4.7.5 Evaluation of Pyrograms and Spectra.- 4.7.6 Utility of the Method.- References.- 4.8 Thermal Analysis.- 4.8.1 Introduction.- 4.8.2 General Principles and Techniques of Thermal Analysis.- 4.8.2.1 Thermogravimetry.- 4.8.2.1.1 Apparatus.- 4.8.2.1.2 TG Curve.- 4.8.2.1.3 Factors Affecting TG Measurements.- 4.8.2.2 DTA and DSC.- 4.8.2.2.1 Apparatus.- 4.8.2.2.2 DTA and DSC Curves.- 4.8.2.2.3 Factors Affecting DTA and DSC Measurements.- 4.8.3 Applications of Thermal Analysis to Lignin.- 4.8.3.1 Kinetic Study of the Thermal Degradation of Lignin.- 4.8.3.2 Glass Transition of Lignin.- 4.8.3.3 Heat Capacity of Lignin.- 4.8.4 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Characterization in Solution: Spectroscopic Methods.- 5.1 Ultraviolet Spectrophotometry.- 5.1.1 Introduction.- 5.1.2 Principle of Measurement.- 5.1.3 Method.- 5.1.3.1 Solvent Selection.- 5.1.3.2 Preparation of Solutions for Spectral Measurements.- 5.1.3.3 Procedure for Quantitative Determination (Neutral Spectra).- 5.1.3.4 Procedure for Measurement of Ionization Difference Spectra.- 5.1.3.5 Second Derivative Photometry.- 5.1.4 Ultraviolet Absorption Characteristics of Lignins and Lignin-Related Model Compounds.- 5.1.4.1 Solvent Effect.- 5.1.4.2 Absorption Bands.- 5.1.4.3 Ionization Difference Spectra.- 5.1.4.4 NaBH4 Reduction Difference Spectra.- 5.1.4.5 Second Derivative Photometry.- 5.1.4.6 The Effect of Chemical Modification on Ultraviolet Absorption.- 5.1.5 Discussion.- References.- 5.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy.- 5.2.1 Introduction.- 5.2.2 Method.- 5.2.2.1 Transmission Cells.- 5.2.2.2 Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR).- 5.2.2.3 Circular Attenuated Total Reflection (CATR).- 5.2.3 Liquid State FTIR Spectroscopy of Lignins.- 5.2.3.1 Acetylated Lignins in Chloroform.- 5.2.3.2 Lignosulfonates in Water.- 5.2.3.3 Lignins in Alkaline Solutions.- 5.2.3.4 FTIR Spectra of Pulping Liquors.- References.- 5.3 Proton (1H) NMR Spectroscopy.- 5.3.1 Introduction.- 5.3.2 Description of Preferred Method.- 5.3.2.1 Acetylation.- 5.3.2.2 Purification of the Acetate Derivative.- 5.3.2.3 NMR Examination.- 5.3.3 Discussion.- 5.3.3.1 Comments on the Preferred Method.- 5.3.3.2 Alternative Conditions for the Recording of Spectra.- References.- 5.4 Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry.- 5.4.1 Introduction.- 5.4.2 Principles of Pulsed Fourier Transform 13C NMR.- 5.4.2.1 Glossary of Terms and Symbols.- 5.4.2.2 Basic Principles and Elements of an NMR Experiment.- 5.4.2.3 Pulsed NMR in the Rotating Frame of Reference.- 5.4.2.4 Relaxation Times.- 5.4.2.5 Acquisition of the Free Induction Decay (FID) and Fourier Transformation (FT) of the FID.- 5.4.2.6 Chemical Shifts.- 5.4.2.7 Spin-Spin Couplings: Scalar and Dipolar.- 5.4.2.8 Signal Intensities.- 5.4.2.9 One- and Two-Dimensional NMR Experiments.- 5.4.3 Experimental Procedures.- 5.4.3.1 Preparation of Samples.- 5.4.3.2 Spectrometer Specifications.- 5.4.3.3 Recording of 13C NMR Spectra: Summary of Acquisition Parameters.- 5.4.3.3.1 Routine Spectra.- 5.4.3.3.2 Spectra for Quantitative Analysis.- 5.4.3.3.3 DEPT (Distortionless Enhancement by Polarization Transfer) Spectra.- 5.4.3.4 Integration of NMR Signals.- 5.4.4 Results and Discussion.- 5.4.4.1 Qualitative Analysis.- 5.4.4.2 13C NMR DEPT Spectra.- 5.4.4.3 Quantitative Analysis.- 5.4.5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 5.5 Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Spectroscopy.- 5.5.1 Introduction.- 5.5.2 Principle of ESR.- 5.5.3 Spectral Parameters.- 5.5.3.1 The g-Value.- 5.5.3.2 Intensity.- 5.5.3.3 Line Shape.- 5.5.3.4 Hyperfine Structure.- 5.5.4 Methods.- 5.5.4.1 Sample Preparation.- 5.5.4.2 ESR Measurements.- 5.5.4.3 ESR Operation.- 5.5.5 ESR of Lignin.- 5.5.5.1 Detection of Mechanoradicals in Lignin.- 5.5.5.2 Detection of Free Radicals in Photoirradiated Lignin.- 5.5.5.3 Detection of Free Radicals in a Photoirradiated Lignin Model Compound.- 5.5.6 Discussion.- References.- 6 Characterization in Solution: Chemical Degradation Methods.- 6.1 Acidolysis.- 6.1.1 Introduction.- 6.1.2 Characterization of Lignins by Analysis of Low-Molecular Weight Acidolysis Products.- 6.1.3 Applications of the Acidolysis Method.- 6.1.4 Preferred Acidolysis Procedure.- 6.1.4.1 Preparation of the Acidolysis Reagent.- 6.1.4.2 Acidolysis Reaction.- 6.1.4.3 Work-Up of Acidolysis Mixture.- 6.1.4.4 Analysis of Acidolysis Products.- 6.1.5 Discussion of Procedure.- 6.1.6 Dimeric Acidolysis Products.- References.- 6.2 Nitrobenzene and Cupric Oxide Oxidations.- 6.2.1 Introduction.- 6.2.1.1 Nitrobenzene Oxidation.- 6.2.1.2 Cupric Oxide Oxidation.- 6.2.1.3 Nitrobenzene and Cupric Oxide Oxidations of Lignins in Grass Tissues.- 6.2.2 Experimental Procedures.- 6.2.2.1 Sample Preparation.- 6.2.2.2 Nitrobenzene Oxidation.- 6.2.2.3 Cupric Oxide Oxidation.- 6.2.2.4 Qualitative Determination of Oxidation Products.- 6.2.2.4.1 Gas Chromatography (GC).- 6.2.2.4.2 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).- 6.2.2.5 Quantitative Determination of Oxidation Products.- 6.2.2.5.1 Gas Chromatography (GC).- 6.2.2.5.2 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).- 6.2.2.6 Determination of p-Hydroxycinnamic Acid and Ferulic Acid Ester Units in Grass Lignins.- 6.2.2.7 Interpretation of Mass Spectra.- 6.2.3 Discussion of the Methods.- References.- 6.3 Chemical Degradation Methods: Permanganate Oxidation.- 6.3.1 Introduction.- 6.3.2 Experimental Procedure.- 6.3.2.1 Preparation of Samples.- 6.3.2.2 Alkylation.- 6.3.2.3 Oxidation with Potassium Permanganate.- 6.3.2.4 Oxidation with Hydrogen Peroxide.- 6.3.2.5 Esterification.- 6.3.2.6 Gas Chromatographic Analysis.- 6.3.3 Discussion of Method.- 6.3.3.1 Reaction Selectivity.- 6.3.3.2 Identification and Estimation of Structural Unit Types.- 6.3.3.3 Estimation of Phenolic Hydroxyl Groups.- References.- 6.4 Thioacidolysis.- 6.4.1 Introduction.- 6.4.2 Thioacidolysis Reactions of Lignin.- 6.4.3 Description of Method.- 6.4.3.1 Reagents.- 6.4.3.2 Treatment of Lignin with Thioacidolysis Reagent.- 6.4.3.3 GC Analysis of Monomeric Products.- 6.4.3.4 Quantitative Determination of the Main Monomeric Products.- 6.4.4 Discussion of Method.- 6.4.4.1 Sensitivity and Reproducibility.- 6.4.4.2 Identification of the Major Thioacidolysis Products.- 6.4.4.3 Quantitative Aspects of the Thioacidolysis Method.- References.- 6.5 Hydrogenolysis.- 6.5.1 Introduction.- 6.5.2 Proposed Sequence for Hydrogenolysis.- 6.5.3 Hydrogenolysis and Hydrogenation Reactions.- 6.5.3.1 Cleavage of Interunitary Linkages.- 6.5.3.2 Hydrogenation of Side Chain and Aromatic Ring.- 6.5.4 Factors Affecting Hydrogenolysis.- 6.5.4.1 Catalyst Activity.- 6.5.4.2 Catalyst Amount.- 6.5.4.3 Hydrogen Pressure.- 6.5.4.4 Solvent.- 6.5.5 Hydrogenolysis to Monomeric Products.- 6.5.6 Hydrogenolysis to Dimeric and Trimeric Products.- References.- 6.6 Nucleus Exchange Reaction.- 6.6.1 Introduction.- 6.6.2 Reaction Mechanism.- 6.6.2.1 Phenolation.- 6.6.2.2 Nucleus Exchange.- 6.6.2.3 Demethylation.- 6.6.2.4 The Response of Various Structural Units in Lignins to the NE Treatment.- 6.6.3 Description of the NE Method.- 6.6.3.1 Sample Preparation.- 6.6.3.2 Preparation of Reagent.- 6.6.3.3 Description of Procedure.- 6.6.3.4 Quantitative Analysis of Products by Gas Chromatography.- 6.6.4 Quantitative Determination of Noncondensed and Condensed Guaiacyl Nuclei in Softwood Protolignins.- 6.6.5 Quantitative Determination of Noncondensed and Condensed Phenyl Nuclei in Hardwood Protolignins.- 6.6.6 Discussion of Method.- 6.6.6.1 Confirmation of the Quantitative Nature of the NE Reaction.- 6.6.6.2 Use of the NE Method.- References.- 6.7 Ozonation.- 6.7.1 Introduction.- 6.7.2 Mechanism of Ozonation.- 6.7.3 Factors Involved in the Design of an Ozonation Procedure.- 6.7.3.1 Conditions Used for the Reaction with Ozone.- 6.7.3.2 Work-Up of Ozonation Product Mixtures.- 6.7.3.3 Procedures for Separation and Identification of Ozonation Products.- 6.7.3.4 Procedures for Quantitative Determination of Ozonation Products.- 6.7.4 Ozonation Procedure.- 6.7.4.1 Ozonation, Saponification, and Derivatization.- 6.7.4.2 Gas Chromatography and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.- 6.7.5 Information on the Structure of the Lignin Side Chain.- 6.7.6 Conclusion.- References.- 7 Functional Group Analysis.- 7.1 Determination of Total and Aliphatic Hydroxyl Groups.- 7.1.1 Introduction.- 7.1.2 Determination of Total Hydroxyl Groups.- 7.1.2.1 Acetylation of the Lignin Preparation.- 7.1.2.2 Determination of Total O-Acetyl Groups.- 7.1.2.2.1 The Kuhn-Roth Procedure.- 7.1.2.2.2 The Modified Bethge-Lindström Procedure.- 7.1.2.3 Total Hydroxyl Content.- 7.1.2.4 Total Aliphatic Hydroxyl Content.- 7.1.3 Discussion of the Methods.- 7.1.3.1 Precision and Accuracy of the Methods.- 7.1.3.2 In-House as Opposed to Commercial O-Acetyl Analysis.- References.- 7.2 Determination of Phenolic Hydroxyl Groups.- 7.2.1 Significance of the Analysis.- 7.2.2 Survey of Analytical Approaches.- 7.2.3 Description of Procedures.- 7.2.3.1 Aminolysis.- 7.2.3.1.1 Instrumentation and Chemicals.- 7.2.3.1.2 Calibration of Internal Standard.- 7.2.3.1.3 Procedure.- 7.2.3.2 Periodate Oxidation.- 7.2.3.2.1 Instrumentation and Chemicals.- 7.2.3.2.2 Calibration of Internal Standard.- 7.2.3.2.3 Procedure.- 7.2.3.2.4 Calculation.- 7.2.4 Discussion of Methods.- References.- 7.3 Determination of Ethylenic Groups.- 7.3.1 Ethylenic Structures in Lignin.- 7.3.2 Survey of Methods.- 7.3.3 Determination of Total Cinnamaldehyde and Cinnamyl Alcohol Units.- 7.3.3.1 Pre-Reduction of Carbonyl Groups with Lithium Aluminum Hydride.- 7.3.3.2 Catalytic Hydrogenation.- 7.3.3.3 Measurement of Hydrogenation Difference Spectrum.- 7.3.4 Determination of Stilbenoid Units.- 7.3.4.1 Pre-Reduction of Carbonyl Groups with Lithium Aluminum Hydride (LiAlH4).- 7.3.4.2 Measurement of Ionization Difference Spectrum.- 7.3.5 Discussion of Procedures.- References.- 7.4 Determination of Carbonyl Groups.- 7.4.1 Introduction.- 7.4.2 Proposed Methods for the Determination of Carbonyl Groups.- 7.4.3 Determination of Total Carbonyl Content of Lignins by Reaction with Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride.- 7.4.4 Determination of Conjugated Carbonyl Groups by UV Spectroscopy.- 7.4.4.1 Preparation of Lignin Sample Stock Solution.- 7.4.4.2 UV Spectrum of Lignin in Alkaline Solution.- 7.4.4.3 UV Spectrum of Sodium Borohydride-Reduced Lignin in Alkaline Solution.- 7.4.4.4 Reduction Difference (??r) Spectrum.- 7.4.4.5 Calculation of the Conjugated Carbonyl Contents.- 7.4.5 Discussion of the Methods.- 7.4.5.1 Comparison of the Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride and Borohydride Methods.- 7.4.5.2 Accuracy of the Procedure for Determining Conjugated Carbonyl Groups.- References.- 7.5 Determination of Carboxyl Groups.- 7.5.1 Introduction.- 7.5.2 Determination of Carboxyl Groups by Nonaqueous Potentiometric Titration.- 7.5.2.1 Instrumentation and Chemicals.- 7.5.2.2 Standardization of Titrant.- 7.5.2.3 Procedure for Carboxyl Group Determination.- 7.5.2.4 Calculation.- 7.5.3 Discussion of Method.- References.- 7.6 Determination of Methoxyl Groups.- 7.6.1 Introduction.- 7.6.2 Sample Preparation.- 7.6.3 Determination of Methoxyl Content by the Vieböck Schwappach Procedure.- 7.6.4 Discussion of Method.- References.- 7.7 Determination of Sulfonate Groups and Total Sulfur.- 7.7.1 Significance of the Analysis.- 7.7.2 Survey of Available Methods.- 7.7.3 Sulfonate Group Determination.- 7.7.3.1 Principle of Conductometric Titration.- 7.7.3.2 Description of Conductometric Titration of Pulp.- 7.7.4 Total Sulfur Determination.- 7.7.4.1 Principle of Combustion/Ion Chromatography.- 7.7.4.2 Description of Combustion/Ion Chromatography.- 7.7.5 Discussion of Methods.- References.- 8 Determination of Molecular Weight, Size, and Distribution.- 8.1 Gel Permeation Chromatography.- 8.1.1 Introduction.- 8.1.1.1 Chromatography of Lignins on Sephadex Gels.- 8.1.1.2 Modified Sephadex Gels.- 8.1.2 High-Performance Size Exclusion Chromatography (HPSEC).- 8.1.3 Experimental.- 8.1.3.1 Equipment.- 8.1.3.2 Sample Preparation.- 8.1.3.3 Acetylation.- 8.1.3.4 Methylation.- 8.1.4 Discussion of Method.- 8.1.4.1 Problems Encountered in Gel Permeation Chromatography.- 8.1.4.2 HPSEC on Styragel.- References.- 8.2 Light Scattering.- 8.2.1 Introduction.- 8.2.2 Principle.- 8.2.2.1 Optical Anisotropy Correction.- 8.2.2.2 Absorbance Correction.- 8.2.2.3 Influence of Fluorescence.- 8.2.3 Method.- 8.2.3.1 Instrument Description.- 8.2.3.2 Procedure.- 8.2.3.2.1 Solvents and Solutions.- 8.2.3.2.2 Measurements.- 8.2.3.2.3 Determination of Rayleigh Factors.- 8.2.3.2.4 Specific Retractive Index Increment, dn/dc.- 8.2.3.3 Data Processing.- 8.2.4 Discussion.- 8.2.4.1 Clarification of Solvents and Solutions.- 8.2.4.2 Influence of Fluorescence.- 8.2.4.3 Influence of Anisotropy.- 8.2.4.4 Typical Analytical Data.- 8.2.4.5 Accuracy of the Method.- References.- 8.3 Vapor Pressure Osmometry.- 8.3.1 Introduction.- 8.3.2 Principle.- 8.3.3 Method.- 8.3.3.1 Instrument Description.- 8.3.3.2 Procedure.- 8.3.3.2.1 Selection of Solvents.- 8.3.3.2.2 Measurement Steps.- 8.3.3.3 Evaluation of Results.- 8.3.3.3.1 Calibration Factor.- 8.3.3.3.2 Number-Average Molecular Weight.- 8.3.4 Discussion.- 8.3.4.1 Drop Size Effects.- 8.3.4.2 Response Time.- 8.3.4.3 Purity of Solvents and Lignin.- 8.3.4.4 Constancy of the Calibration Factor.- 8.3.4.5 Typical Analytical Data.- References.- 8.4 Ultrafiltration.- 8.4.1 Introduction.- 8.4.2 Principle.- 8.4.3 Method.- 8.4.3.1 UF Equipment and Membranes.- 8.4.3.2 Preparation of Feed Solution.- 8.4.3.3 Procedure.- 8.4.3.4 Data Presentation.- 8.4.4 Discussion of Method.- References.- 9 Separation of Identification of Low-Molecular Weight Fragments and Model Compounds.- 9.1 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).- 9.1.1 Introduction.- 9.1.2 Sample Preparation.- 9.1.2.1 Extraction of Mixtures of Chemical Degradation Products.- 9.1.2.2 Extraction of Spent Pulping Liquors and Bleaching Effluents.- 9.1.2.3 Derivatization.- 9.1.2.4 Preparation of Sample Solution.- 9.1.3 GC-MS Analysis.- 9.1.3.1 Selection of Capillary Column for GC Analysis.- 9.1.3.2 Selection of Optimum Conditions for GC Operation.- 9.1.3.3 Selection of Most Suitable Mode for MS Operation.- 9.1.3.4 GC-MS Operation.- 9.1.3.5 Retrieval and Editing of Mass Spectral Data.- 9.1.4 Discussion of Method.- 9.1.4.1 Validity of Structural Assignments.- 9.1.4.2 Mass Spectra Quality.- 9.1.4.3 Interpretation of Mass Spectra.- References.- 9.2 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).- 9.2.1 Significance of the Analysis.- 9.2.2 Survey of Available Methods.- 9.2.3 Principle of the Preferred Method.- 9.2.3.1 Adsorption Chromatography.- 9.2.3.2 Reversed Phase Chromatography.- 9.2.3.3 Chromatographic Theory.- 9.2.4 Description of the Preferred Method.- 9.2.4.1 Mobile Phase and Pump Considerations.- 9.2.4.2 HPLC Column: Attachment, Equilibration, and Performance Checks.- 9.2.4.3 E/Z Monolignols — Separation and Calibration.- 9.2.5 Discussion of Methods.- 9.2.5.1 Monomers.- 9.2.5.2 Dimers.- 9.2.5.3 Trimers and Higher Oligomers (Lignin Model Compounds).- References.

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Book SynopsisThe results, published in this book, present the outcome of a cooperative research between plant ecologists, physiologists and population geneticists. The project received generous financial support from the Foundation for Bio­ logical Research, which is subsidized by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. During the course of the Project the value of the in­ tegrative approach on a limited number of Plantago species and populations became evident and it was decided that the results should be published as a book. The start of the preparation of the "plantago" book was done by Dr. P. J. M. van der Aart and Dr. H. Lambers but due to their appointment as full professor of the University of Utrecht they were both unable to continue. We are greatly indebted to Van der Aart and Lambers for the groundwork they have laid. The book presents a sample of results obtained over a period of more than 10 years. Research on Plantago is still continuing, as evident from a number of publications and doctoral theses. We want to thank the authors for their pa­ tience and assistance to complete the job. The editorial assistance of Mrs. I. Cameron-Doornbos was extremely valuable, as well as the help of Mr. E. Leeuwinga und Mrs. N. Tolmeijer with the drawings and the help of Mrs. T. E. Stuit with the list of references.Table of Contents1 Introduction.- 2 General Biology of Plantago.- 2.1 Evolutionary Status.- 2.2 Biogeography and Human Effects.- 2.3 General Ecology.- 2.4 General Morphology.- 2.5 Flowering Biology.- 2.6 Breeding Systems in Plantago.- 2.7 Questions Arising from Variation in General Biology.- 3 Distribution of Plantago Species: Characterization of Sites.- 3.1 Phytosociology of Plantago Habitats in The Netherlands and the Relation with Habitat Characteristics.- 3.2 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of the Soil of Plantago Sites.- 3.3 Micrometeorological Characterization of Plantago Species.- 3.4 Interactions with Organisms Other than Plants.- 4 Ecology of Plantago Populations.- 4.1 The Demographic Structure of Populations.- 4.2 Germination and Establishment.- 4.3 Photosynthesis of Plantago lanceolata Populations in the Field.- 4.4 Nitrogen Nutrition in Plantago Species.- 5 Ecophysiology of Plantago Species.- 5.1 Carboxylate Production and Proton Excretion.- 5.2 Mineral Nutrient Concentrations in the Soil and in the Plant.- 5.3 Acquisition and Utilization of Nitrogen.- 5.4 Salinity and Plantago.- 5.5 Low Temperature Tolerance of Plantago coronopus and Plantago maritima as Affected by Salt (NaCl).- 5.6 Seed Germination of Plantago major ssp. major and Plantago lanceolata.- 5.7 Phenotypic Plasticity in Plantago Species.- 6 Genetic Variation Within Plantago Populations.- 6.1 Allozyme Variation and Genetic Structure in Plantago Species.- 6.2 Polymorphism for Caffeic Acid Esters in Populations of Plantago major ssp. pleiosperma.- 6.3 Selection for the Maintenance of Sex Polymorphism in Plantago.- 6.4 Gene Flow Characters and Population Structure in Plantago lanceolata.- 6.5 Ploidy Polymorphism in Plantago media and in Some Other Plantago Species.- 7 Genotypic and Phenotypic Variation Between Plantago Populations and the Relation with the Habitat.- 7.1 Phenotypic Plasticity in Plantago maritima.- 7.2 Ecotypic Differentiation in Plantago major.- 7.3 Ecotypic Differentiation in Plantago lanceolata.- 7.4 The Seed Bank in Relation to Distribution, Abundance and Life History of Plantago Species.- 8 Genetic Strategies in Plantago.- 8.1 The Genetics of Plantago Species.- 8.2 A Population Biological Model of Plantago major: an Attempt to Integrate Genetic, Demographic and Physiological Knowledge.- 9 Conclusions.- 9.1 Comparison of Species.- 9.2 Comparison of Populations.- 9.3 Comparison of Individual Plants and Subpopulations.- References.

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Book SynopsisThe honeybee (Apis melli/era L. ) is one of the better studied organisms on this planet. There are plenty of books on the biology of the honeybee for all, the scientist, the beekeeper, and the layman. In view of this flood of publications one is tempted to ask: why does it require another one? The answer is simple: a new one is not required and we do not intend to present a new book on "the honeybee". This would really just add some more inches to the already overloaded bookshelf without sub­ stantial new information. Instead, we intend to present a book on the honeybee colony. This of course immediately releases the next question: so what is the difference? Although the difference may look insignificant at first glance, we try to guide the reader with a fundamentally different approach through the biology of honeybees and eusocial insect societies in general. The biology of individual colony members is only addressed when it is necessary to explain colonial mechanisms, and the colony as a whole, as a biological unit, which is the main focus of this treatise. Both of us felt that all current textbooks on bee biology put too much emphasis on the individual worker, queen or drone in the colony. Often it is com­ pletely neglected that the colony is a very significant (if not the most significant) biological structure in bee biology.Table of Contents1 What Is a Superorganism?.- 1.1 From Cells to Metazoan Organisms.- 1.2 What Makes a Social Group a Superorganism?.- 1.3 Diversity of Superorganisms.- 1.3.1 Termites.- 1.3.2 Superorganismic Ants.- 1.3.3 Bees.- 1.3.4 The Naked Mole Rat.- 1.4 What Not to Expect from Superorganisms.- 2 Evolution of Superorganisms.- 2.1 From Solitary Individuals to Superorganisms: The Theories.- 2.1.1 Darwin’s Dilemma.- 2.1.2 Individual Selection Models.- 2.1.2.1 Kin Selection.- 2.1.2.2 Assured Fitness Returns.- 2.1.2.3 Parental Manipulation.- 2.1.2.4 Mutualism and Reciprocal Altruism.- 2.1.2.5 Testing Theories.- 2.1.3 Group Selection.- 2.1.3.1 Classical Group Selection.- 2.1.3.2 Competitive Group Selection.- 2.1.3.3 Colony-Level Selection.- 2.1.3.4 Testing Theories of Group Selection.- 2.2 From Solitary Individuals to Superorganisms: The Evidence.- 2.2.1 Sociality in Bees.- 2.2.2 Solitary and Subsocial Bees.- 2.2.2.1 Megachile rotundata: The Individualist.- 2.2.2.2 Carpenter Bees: The Hierarchists.- 2.2.3 Primitively Social Bees.- 2.2.3.1 Exoneura bicolor Smith: The Mutualist.- 2.2.3.2 Halictine Bees: Getting Social.- 2.2.3.3 Bombus: Controlling Environment.- 2.2.4 Superorganismic Bees.- 2.2.4.1 Stingless Bees.- 2.2.4.2 Evolution Within the Genus Apis.- 3 Physiology.- 3.1 Development.- 3.1.1 From Egg to Adult.- 3.1.2 Caste.- 3.1.3 Birth, Aging, and Death of a Superorganism.- 3.1.3.1 Birth.- 3.1.3.2 Aging and Age Variation.- 3.1.3.3 Death and Immortality.- 3.2 Glands and Secretions.- 3.2.1 Endocrine System.- 3.2.2 Exocrine System.- 3.3 Feeding and Digestion.- 3.3.1 Nutrition.- 3.3.2 Food Exchange and the Meniscus Effect.- 3.3.3 Pollen Stores.- 3.3.4 Making Honey.- 3.4 Respiration.- 3.4.1 Respiration in Individuals.- 3.4.2 Respiration in Colonies.- 3.5 Circulation.- 3.5.1 Haemolymph Circulation.- 3.5.2 Circulation in the Colony.- 3.6 Colonial Excretion and Water Balance.- 3.7 Metabolic Physiology.- 3.7.1 Temperature Control.- 3.7.1.1 Cooling.- 3.7.1.2 Heating.- 3.7.1.3 Maintenance of Nest Temperature.- 3.7.1.4 Optimal Environmental Temperature and Nest Choice.- 3.7.2 Mass-Metabolism Relationships and Colony Fitness.- 3.7.3 Seasonal Relationships.- 3.8 Neurophysiology.- 3.8.1 Vision.- 3.8.2 Chemical Sense.- 3.8.3 Acoustic and Mechanical Reception.- 3.8.4 Special Sense, Learning and Integration.- 3.9 Muscle Function.- 3.9.1 Locomotion and Flight.- 3.9.2 Stinging and Biting.- 3.10 Circadian Rhythms and Sleep.- 3.10.1 Cyclic Metabolism.- 3.10.2 Cyclic Locomotion.- 3.10.3 Cyclic Ventilation.- 3.10.4 Sleep.- 4 Communication Network of the Superorganism.- 4.1 The Analysis of Communication Networks.- 4.2 Division of Labour.- 4.3 Food Procurement and Temperature Regulation.- 4.3.1 The Search for Food.- 4.3.1.1 Individual Search Pattern of a Scout.- 4.3.1.2 Foraging a Patch of Flowers.- 4.3.2 Communication Mechanisms.- 4.3.2.1 Round Dance.- 4.3.2.2 Waggle Dance.- 4.3.2.3 Acoustic Signals.- 4.3.2.4 Odour Signals.- 4.3.2.5 Dorsoventral Abdominal Vibration (DVAV) Dance.- 4.3.3 Central Food Handling and Social Integration.- 4.3.3.1 Amoeboid Foraging Pattern.- 4.3.3.2 Nectar Storage.- 4.3.3.3 Queueing.- 4.3.3.4 Comb Utilization.- 4.3.3.5 Water Handling.- 4.4 Search for Housing.- 4.4.1 Nest Site Selection.- 4.4.2 Swarm Orientation.- 4.4.3 Migration.- 4.5 Pheromones.- 4.5.1 Superorganismal Control.- 4.5.2 Queen Pheromones Inside the Nest.- 4.5.2.1 Queen Retinue Behaviour.- 4.5.2.2 Colony Stabilization and Ovary Suppression in Workers.- 4.5.3 Queen Pheromones Outside the Nest.- 4.5.3.1 Swarm Attraction.- 4.5.3.2 Sex Attractant.- 4.5.4 Worker Pheromones.- 4.5.4.1 Orientation.- 4.5.4.2 Colony Defence.- 4.5.5 Other Pheromones and Odours.- 4.6 Learning.- 4.7 Social Intelligence and Network Analysis.- 4.7.1 Social Intelligence.- 4.7.2 Network Analysis.- 5 Ecology.- 5.1 Demography of Natural Populations.- 5.1.1 Life History Strategies.- 5.1.1.1 Sessile Phase.- 5.1.1.2 Mobile Phase.- 5.1.1.3 Life Cycle.- 5.1.2 Spatial and Temporal Distribution.- 5.1.2.1 Colony Defence.- 5.1.2.2 Removal of Debris and the Dead.- 5.1.2.3 Home Range.- 5.1.2.4 Mating Distance.- 5.1.2.5 Overdispersion of Colonies.- 5.1.3 Distribution of Honeybees.- 5.1.4 Intracolonial Structure.- 5.2 Community Structure.- 5.2.1 Plant/Bee Symbioses.- 5.2.1.1 Foraging and Pollination.- 5.2.1.2 Energy Flow and Material Turnover.- 5.2.1.3 Honeydew.- 5.2.2 Selective Forces and Diversity.- 5.2.2.1 Intraspecific Competition.- 5.2.2.2 Interspecific Competition Among Superorganisms.- 5.2.2.3 Competition with Individual Organisms.- 5.2.3 Diseases, Parasites, and Predators.- 5.2.3.1 Superorganism Pathology.- 5.2.3.2 Specific Examples.- 5.3 Superorganism Size.- 5.3.1 Temporal Variation in Group Size.- 5.3.1.1 Environmental Determinants of Group Size.- 5.3.1.2 Intrinsic Determinants of Group Size.- 5.3.2 Fitness and Group Size.- 5.3.2.1 r and K Selection.- 5.3.2.2 Queen Fecundity.- 5.3.2.3 Periods of Dearth.- 5.3.2.4 Defence and Group Size.- 5.3.3 Optimization Model of Group Size.- 5.4 Ecological Impact of Superorganismic Honeybees.- 5.4.1 Natural Areas.- 5.4.2 Agricultural Land.- 6 Reproduction.- 6.1 Individual Reproduction.- 6.1.1 Sexual Reproduction.- 6.1.1.1 Sex Determination and Sex Ratios.- 6.1.1.2 The Queen.- 6.1.1.3 The Drones.- 6.1.1.4 Mating Behaviour.- 6.1.2 Parthenogenesis.- 6.1.2.1 Production of Drones by the Queen.- 6.1.2.2 Production of Drones by Workers.- 6.1.2.3 Production of Females by Workers.- 6.1.3 Negative Reproduction.- 6.1.3.1 Brood Cannibalism.- 6.1.3.2 Worker Policing.- 6.2 Colonial Reproduction.- 6.2.1 The Seasonal Development of a Colony.- 6.2.1.1 The Yearly Life Cycle in a Temperate Climate.- 6.2.1.2 Somatic Growth and Worker Force Dynamics.- 6.2.2 Sexual Reproduction of Colonies.- 6.2.2.1 Production of Gametes and the Zygote.- 6.2.2.2 The Sex of a Colony.- 6.2.3 Asexual Reproduction of Colonies.- 6.2.3.1 Swarming Behaviour.- 6.2.3.2 How Many Swarms?.- 6.2.3.3 The Primary Swarm: Join the Old or the New Queen?.- 6.2.3.4 The Afterswarms: Join the Super or Half Sister?.- 6.2.3.5 Is Swarming = Colony Budding?.- 7 Genetics.- 7.1 Gene Expression vs Genotype Expression.- 7.1.1 The Limbs and the Stomach Model.- 7.1.2 Intraorganismic Genetic Variation — the Principal Difference.- 7.1.3 Gametes — the Functional Difference.- 7.2 Genetic Basis of Honeybees.- 7.2.1 Male Haploidy.- 7.2.2 Sex Determination.- 7.2.2.1 The Sex Locus.- 7.2.2.2 Diploid Males.- 7.2.3 The Terminology Problem.- 7.2.3.1 What Is a Generation?.- 7.2.3.2 Who Is Who in a Honeybee Family?.- 7.3 Genetic Variation in Honeybee Colonies.- 7.3.1 Origins for Intracolonial Genetic Variance.- 7.3.2 Measures of Genetic Relationship.- 7.3.2.1 Coefficients of Relationship Based on Pedigree Information.- 7.3.2.2 Relationships in Natural Populations.- 7.3.2.3 Weighted Coefficients of Relatedness.- 7.3.3 Genetic Relationship Between the Members of a Colony.- 7.3.3.1 Relationship Between Queen and Her Offspring.- 7.3.3.2 Relationship Between Workers and Drones.- 7.3.4 Relationship Between Groups.- 7.3.4.1 Average Individual Relationship.- 7.3.4.2 Group Relationship.- 7.4 Quantitative Genetics.- 7.4.1 The Problems in Analyzing Social Characters.- 7.4.2 The Classical Parameters.- 7.4.2.1 Repeatability.- 7.4.2.2 Selectability.- 7.4.2.3 Non-Linear Interactions.- 7.4.3 Similarities Between Colony Members.- 7.4.3.1 Genetic Covariance Among Workers.- 7.4.3.2 Genetic Covariance Among Drones.- 7.4.3.3 Covariance Between Queen and Offspring.- 7.4.3.4 Covariance Between Drone and Offspring.- 7.4.3.5 Covariance Between Mid-Parent and Offspring.- 7.4.4 Similarities Between Related Colonies.- 7.4.4.1 Worker Effects.- 7.4.4.2 Combined Effects.- 7.4.5 Selection Index.- 7.4.6 Empirical Examples.- 7.4.6.1 Analysis of Individual Characters.- 7.4.6.2 Analysis of Social Traits of Small Worker Groups.- 7.5 Behavioural Genetics.- 7.5.1 Analysis of Individual Behaviour.- 7.5.1.1 Learning Behaviour.- 7.5.1.2 Trophallactic Behaviour.- 7.5.1.3 Reproductive Dominance.- 7.5.2 Analysis of Social Behaviour.- 7.5.2.1 Hoarding Behaviour.- 7.5.2.2 Hygienic Behaviour.- 7.5.2.3 Defensive Behaviour.- 7.5.2.4 Division of Labour.- 7.6 Population Genetics.- 7.6.1 The Effective Population Size of Superorganisms.- 7.6.2 Polymorphisms in Nuclear Genome.- 7.6.2.1 Isozyme Polymorphism.- 7.6.2.2 Molecular DNA Markers.- 7.6.3 Inbreeding.- 7.6.3.1 Inbreeding and Practical Breeding Schemes.- 7.6.3.2 Inbred Superorganisms.- 7.6.4 Variation of Mitochondrial Genes.- 7.6.4.1 Mitochondrial DNA of Honeybees.- 7.6.4.2 Cyto-Nuclear Disequilibrium.- 8 Natural Selection.- 8.1 Selection at the Individual Level.- 8.1.1 Selection of Sexual Reproductives.- 8.1.2 Intracolonial Selection Among Laying Workers.- 8.2 Kin Selection.- 8.2.1 Discrimination Among Queens.- 8.2.2 Kin Discrimination Among Workers.- 8.3 Selection on Phenotypes of Superorganisms.- 8.3.1 Genetic Analysis of Division of Labour.- 8.3.2 Genetic Variability and Task Specialization.- 8.3.3 Non-Linear Worker Interactions.- 8.4 Africanized Honeybees: A Large-Scale Evolutionary Experiment.- 8.4.1 The History of Africanization.- 8.4.2 Reproductive Advantage of Africanized Honeybees.- 8.4.3 Genetic Evidence from Field Studies.- 8.5 Selection in Superorganisms: Too Complex to Study?.- References.

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Book Synopsis"From one man's persistent and elegant probing of the temperature biology of bees, we have been led to a deeper understanding of the whole biology of many insect taxa, and of their interactions with ecological and environmental stresses: all who work at the interfaces of physiology, ecology and behaviour have cause to be grateful, and all should certainly read this book." (Trends in Ecology & Evolution) "An outstanding source of information, and can be read with profit and satisfaction by the professional biologist and interested amateur alike." (Nature)Trade Review"From one man's persistent and elegant probing of the temperature biology of bees, we have been led to a deeper understanding of the whole biology of many insect taxa, and of their interactions with ecological and environmental stresses: all who work at the interfaces of physiology, ecology and behaviour have cause to be grateful, and all should certainly read this book." (Trends in Ecology & Evolution) "An outstanding source of information, and can be read with profit and satisfaction by the professional biologist and interested amateur alike." (Nature)Table of ContentsPrologue.- 1 Night-Flying Moths.- 2 Butterflies and Wings.- 3 Dragonflies Now and Then.- 4 Grasshoppers and Other Orthoptera.- 5 Beetles Large and Small.- 6 Bumblebees Out in the Cold.- 7 Tropical Bees.- 8 Hot-Headed Honeybees.- 9 The Tolerance of Ants.- 10 Wasps and the Heat of Battle.- 11 Flies of All Kinds.- 12 Sweating Cicadas.- 13 Warm Caterpillars and Hot Maggots.- 14 Fever.- 15 Cold Jumpers.- 16 Social Thermoregulation.- Summary.- References.- Acknowledgments.- Index of Authors Cited.- General Index.

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