Earth sciences Books

Book SynopsisMicrostructural Geochronology Geochronology techniques enable the study of geological evolution and environmental change over time. This volume integrates two aspects of geochronology: one based on classical methods of orientation and spatial patterns, and the other on ratios of radioactive isotopes and their decay products. The chapters illustrate how material science techniques are taking this field to the atomic scale, enabling us to image the chemical and structural record of mineral lattice growth and deformation, and sometimes the patterns of radioactive parent and daughter atoms themselves, to generate a microstructural geochronology from some of the most resilient materials in the solar system. First compilation of research focusing on the crystal structure, material properties, and chemical zoning of the geochronology mineral archive down to nanoscale Novel comparisons of mineral time archives from different rocky planets and asterTable of ContentsContributors vii Preface xi Part I: Chemical Microstructure/Zoning 1 Zircon as Magma Monitor: Robust, Temperature]Dependent Partition Coefficients from Glass and Zircon Surface and Rim Measurements from Natural SystemsLily L. Claiborne, Calvin F. Miller, Guillherme A. R. Gualda, Tamara L. Carley, Aaron K. Covey, Joseph L. Wooden, and Marc A. Fleming 3 2 Petrology and Geochronology of Metamorphic ZirconMatthew J. Kohn and Nigel M. Kelly 35 3 Origins of Textural, Compositional, and Isotopic Complexity in Monazite and Its Petrochronological AnalysisCallum J. Hetherington, Ethan L. Backus, Christopher R. M. McFarlane, Christopher M. Fisher, and D. Graham Pearson 63 4 Application of Single]Shot Laser Ablation Split]Stream Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry to Accessory Phase PetrochronologyJohn M. Cottle and Michael A. Stearns 91 5 Comparing Chemical Microstructures of Some Early Solar System Zircon from Differentiated Asteroids, Mars and EarthJulia Roszjar, Desmond E. Moser, Brendt C. Hyde, Chutimun Chanmuang, and Kimberly Tait 113 6 Crystallization of Baddeleyite in Basaltic Rocks from Mars, and Comparisons with the Earth, Moon, and VestaChristopher D. K. Herd, Desmond E. Moser, Kimberly Tait, James R. Darling, Barry J. Shaulis, and Timothy J. McCoy 137 Part II: Orientation Microstructure 7 Strength and Deformation of Zircon at Crustal and Mantle PressuresIevgeniia Morozova, Sean R. Shieh, Desmond E. Moser, Ivan R. Barker, and John M. Hanchar 169 8 Role of Elastic Anisotropy in the Development of Deformation Microstructures in ZirconNicholas E. Timms, David Healy, Timmons M. Erickson, Alexander A. Nemchin, Mark A. Pearce, and Aaron J. Cavosie 183 9 The Rietputs Formation in South Africa: A Pleistocene Fluvial Archive of Meteorite Impact Unique to the Kaapvaal CratonAaron J. Cavosie, Timmons M. Erickson, Pedro E. Montalvo, Diana C. Prado, Nadja O. Cintron, and Ryan J. Gibbon 203 10 Deciphering the Effects of Zircon Deformation and Recrystallization to Resolve the Age and Heritage of an Archean Mafic Granulite ComplexNicole M. Rayner, Mary Sanborn]Barrie, and Desmond E. Moser 225 11 Alpha Recoil Loss of Pb from Baddeleyite Evaluated by High]Resolution Ion Microprobe (SHRIMP II) Depth Profiling and Numerical Modeling: Implications for the Interpretation of U]Pb Ages in Small Baddeleyite CrystalsWilliam J. Davis and Donald W. Davis 247 12 Transmission Electron Microscope Imaging Sharpens Geochronological Interpretation of Zircon and MonaziteAnne]Magali Seydoux]Guillaume, Bernard Bingen, Valerie Bosse, Emilie Janots, and Antonin T. Laurent 261 Part III: 3D Nanostructure 13 Detecting Micro] and Nanoscale Variations in Element Mobility in High]Grade Metamorphic Rocks: Implication for Precise U]Pb Dating of ZirconMonika A. Kusiak, Simon A. Wilde, Richard Wirth, Martin J. Whitehouse, Daniel J. Dunkley, Ian Lyon, Steven M. Reddy, Andrew Berry, and Martin de Jonge 279 14 The Optimization of Zircon Analyses by Laser]Assisted Atom Probe Microscopy: Insights from the 91500 Zircon StandardDavid W. Saxey, Steven M. Reddy, Denis Fougerouse, and William D. A. Rickard 293 15 Atom Probe Tomography of Phalaborwa Baddeleyite and Reference Zircon BR266David A. Reinhard, Desmond E. Moser, Isabelle Martin, Katherine P. Rice, Yimeng Chen, David Olson, Daniel Lawrence, Ty J. Prosa, and David J. Larson 315 16 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis for Spatial and Spectral Processing of Pb Isotopes in Zircon by Atom Probe TomographyTyler B. Blum, David A. Reinhard, Yimeng Chen, Ty J. Prosa, David J. Larson, and John W. Valley 327 17 Complex Nanostructures in Shocked, Annealed, and Metamorphosed Baddeleyite Defined by Atom Probe TomographyLee F. White, James R. Darling, Desmond E. Moser, David A. Reinhard, Joseph Dunlop, David J. Larson, Daniel Lawrence, and Isabelle Martin 351 18 Best Practices for Reporting Atom Probe Analysis of Geological MaterialsTyler B. Blum, James R. Darling, Thomas F. Kelly, David J. Larson, Desmond E. Moser, Alberto Perez]Huerta, Ty J. Prosa, Steven M. Reddy, David A. Reinhard, David W. Saxey, Robert M. Ulfig, and John W. Valley 369 Index 375

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Book SynopsisThe Carboniferous Shannon Basin of Western Ireland has become one of the most visited field areas in the world. It provides an ideal opportunity for examining a wide range of ancient sedimentary environments, including carbonate shelf, reefs and mud mounds, black shales and phosphates, and a spectrum of deep sea, shallow marine, fluvio-deltaic and alluvial siliciclastic sediments. The area boasts extensive outcrops and some of the most renowned sections through turbidites, large-scale soft sediment deformation features and sediments that display a response to tectonic and sea-level controls. This field guide provides the first synthesis of the principal localities in this area of Western Ireland, and presents an easily accessible handbook that will guide the reader to, and within, a wide range of sedimentary facies, allowing an understanding of the evolving nature of the fill of this Carboniferous basin and the context of its sedimentary and tectonic evolution. The guide summTable of ContentsContributors, vii Acknowledgements, ix About the Companion Website, xi 1 Introduction to the Field Guide, 1Jim Best & Paul B. Wignall 2 The Shannon Basin: Structural Setting and Evolution, 16John Graham 3 Basin Models, 35Paul B. Wignall & Jim Best 4 Lower Carboniferous of the Shannon Basin Region, 48Ian D. Somerville 5 Viséan Coral Biostromes and Karsts of the Burren, 79Ian D. Somerville 6 The Clare Shales, 97Paul B. Wignall, Ian D. Somerville & Karen Braithwaite 7 Architecture of a Distributive Submarine Fan: The Ross Sandstone Formation, 112David R. Pyles & Lorna J. Strachan 8 Evolving Depocentre and Slope: The Gull Island Formation, 174Lorna J. Strachan & David R. Pyles 9 The Tullig and Kilkee Cyclothems in Southern County Clare, 240Jim Best, Paul B. Wignall, Eleanor J. Stirling, Eric Obrock & Alex Bryk 10 The Tullig and Kilkee Cyclothems of Northern County Clare, 329Paul B. Wignall, Jim Best, Jeff Peakall & Jessica Ross 11 The Younger Namurian Cyclothems around Spanish Point, 350Paul B. Wignall & Jim Best Appendix: List of GigaPan Images, 361 References, 362 Index, 371

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Book SynopsisSeismic inversion aims to reconstruct a quantitative model of the Earth subsurface, by solving an inverse problem based on seismic measurements. There are at least three fundamental issues to be solved simultaneously: non-linearity, non-uniqueness, and instability. This book covers the basic theory and techniques used in seismic inversion, corresponding to these three issues, emphasising the physical interpretation of theoretical concepts and practical solutions. This book is written for master and doctoral students who need to understand the mathematical tools and the engineering aspects of the inverse problem needed to obtain geophysically meaningful solutions. Building on the basic theory of linear inverse problems, the methodologies of seismic inversion are explained in detail, including ray-impedance inversion and waveform tomography etc. The application methodologies are categorised into convolutional and wave-equation based groups. This systematic presentation simplifiTable of ContentsPreface viii Chapter 1 Basics of seismic inversion 1 1.1 The linear inverse problem 1 1.2 Data, model and mapping 3 1.3 General solutions 4 1.4 Regularisation 5 Chapter 2 Linear systems for inversion 11 2.1 A governing equation and its solution 11 2.2 Seismic scattering 14 2.3 Seismic imaging 16 2.4 Seismic downward continuation 18 2.5 Seismic data processing 20 Chapter 3 Least-squares solutions 23 3.1 Determinant and rank 23 3.2 The inverse of a square matrix 27 3.3 LU decomposition and Cholesky factorisation 28 3.4 Least-squares solutions 34 3.5 Least-squares solution for a nonlinear system 37 3.6 Least-squares solution by QR decomposition 37 Chapter 4 Singular value analysis 41 4.1 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 41 4.2 Singular value concept 44 4.3 Generalised inverse solution by SVD 46 4.4 SVD applications 48 Chapter 5 Gradient-based methods 53 5.1 The step length 54 5.2 The steepest descent method 55 5.3 Conjugate gradient method 59 5.4 Biconjugate gradient method 61 5.5 The subspace gradient method 64 Chapter 6 Regularisation 67 6.1 Regularisation versus conditional probability 67 6.2 The Lp-norm constraint 70 6.3 The maximum entropy constraint 73 6.4 The Cauchy constraint 76 6.5 Comparison of various regularisations 79 Chapter 7 Localised average solutions 83 7.1 The average solution 84 7.2 The deltaness 85 7.3 The spread criterion 86 7.4 The Backus-Gilbert stable solution 88 Chapter 8 Seismic wavelet estimation 93 8.1 Wavelet extraction from seismic-to-well correlation 94 8.2 Constant-phase wavelet by kurtosis matching 98 8.3 Mixed-phase wavelet by cumulant matching 102 8.4 Generalised seismic wavelets 106 Chapter 9 Seismic reflectivity inversion 111 9.1 The least-squares problem with a Gaussian constraint 111 9.2 Reflectivity inversion with an Lp-norm constraint 113 9.3 Reflectivity inversion with the Cauchy constraint 115 9.4 Multichannel inversion scheme 118 9.5 Multichannel conjugate gradient method 121 Chapter 10 Seismic ray-impedance inversion 125 10.1 Acoustic and elastic impedances 125 10.2 Ray impedance 129 10.3 Workflow of ray-impedance inversion 132 10.4 Ray-impedance inversion with a model constraint 136 Chapter 11 Seismic tomography based on ray theory 137 11.1 Seismic tomography 137 11.2 Velocity-depth ambiguity in tomography 138 11.3 Ray tracing by a path bending method 141 11.4 Geometrical spreading of curved interfaces 144 11.5 Joint inversion of traveltime and amplitude data 147 Chapter 12 Waveform tomography for the velocity model 153 12.1 Inverse theory for seismic waveform tomography 154 12.2 The optimal step length 157 12.3 Strategy for reflection seismic tomography 159 12.4 Multiple attenuation and partial compensation 162 12.5 Waveform tomography 166 Chapter 13 Waveform tomography with irregular topography 169 13.1 Body-fitted grids for finite-difference modelling 169 13.2 Modification of boundary points 172 13.3 Pseudo-orthogonality and smoothness 173 13.4 Wave equation and absorbing boundary condition 176 13.5 Waveform tomography with irregular topography 180 Chapter 14 Waveform tomography for seismic impedance 183 14.1 Wave equation and model parameterisation 185 14.2 The impedance inversion method 187 14.3 Inversion strategies and the inversion flow 188 14.4 Application to field seismic data 193 14.5 Conclusions 196 Appendices 197 A Householder transform for QR decomposition 197 B Singular value decomposition 200 C Iterative methods for solving a linear system 206 D Biconjugate gradient method for complex systems 209 Exercises and solutions 211 References 231 Author index 238 Subject index 240

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Book SynopsisAlthough bioenergy is a renewable energy source, it is not without impact on the environment. Both the cultivation of crops specifically for use as biofuels and the use of agricultural byproducts to generate energy changes the landscape, affects ecosystems, and impacts the climate. Bioenergy and Land Use Change focuses on regional and global assessments of land use change related to bioenergy and the environmental impacts. This interdisciplinary volume provides both high level reviews and in-depth analyses on specific topics. Volume highlights include: Land use change concepts, economics, and modelingRelationships between bioenergy and land use changeImpacts on soil carbon, soil health, water quality, and the hydrologic cycleImpacts on natural capital and ecosystem servicesEffects of bioenergy on direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissionsBiogeochemical and biogeophysical climate regulationUncertainties and challenges associated with land use change quantification and environmentalTable of ContentsPart I: Bioenergy and Land Use Change 1 Bioenergy and Land Use Change: An OverviewPankaj Lal, Aditi Ranjan, Bernabas Wolde, Pralhad Burli, Renata Blumberg 2 An Exploration of Agricultural Land Use Change at the Intensive and Extensive Margins: Implications for Biofuels Induced Land Use Change ModelingFarzad Taheripour, Hao Cui, Wallace E. Tyner 3 Effects of Sugarcane Ethanol Expansion in The Brazilian Cerrado: Land Use Response in the New FrontierMarcellus M. Caldas, Gabriel Granco, Christopher Bishop, Jude Kastens, J. Brown 4 Biofuel Expansion and the Spatial Economy: Implications for the Amazon Basin in the 21st CenturyEugenio Y. Arima, Peter Richards, Robert T. Walker Part II: Impacts on Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services 5 Towards Life Cycle Analysis on Land Use Change and Climate Impacts from Bioenergy Production: A ReviewZhangcai Qin, Christina E Canter, Hao Cai 6 Bio-energies Impact on Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services Compared to Other Energy TechnologiesAstley Hastings 7 Empirical Evidence of Soil Carbon Changes in Bioenergy Cropping SystemsMarty Schmer, Kathleen Stewart, Virginia Jin 8 Role of crop residues in maintaining soil organic carbon in agroecosystemsDavid E. Clay, Umakant Mishra 9 Incorporating Conservation Practices into the Future Bioenergy Landscape: Water Quality and HydrologyMay Wu, Mi-Ae Ha Part III: Data, Modeling and Uncertainties 10 Uncertainty in Estimates of Bioenergy-induced Land-use Change: The Impact of Inconsistent Land-cover DatasetsNagendra Singh, Keith Kline, Rebecca Efroymson, Budhendra Bhaduri, Bridget O’Banion 11 Challenges in Quantifying and Regulating Indirect Emissions of BiofuelsDeepak Rajagopal 12 Biofuels, Land Use Change, and the Limits of Life Cycle AnalysisRichard. J. Plevin 13 Lost Momentum of Biofuels: What Went Wrong?Govinda Timilsina

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Book SynopsisThe only book that offers a comprehensive and fully up-to-date coverage of hydroacoustic ocean exploration, this work deals with the diagnostics of non-uniformities in a water medium using the hydroacoustic parametric antenna. The non-uniformities of the water medium in the study are of geometrically regular shape, i.e., the shape of a sphere, a cylinder, and a spheroid. An account is given of theoretical and experimental studies of wave processes that occur in the event of the scattering of non-linearly interacting acoustic waves at a sphere, a cylinder, and a spheroid. Scattering problems are formulated; solutions to the inhomogeneous wave equation are found in the first and second approximations using the successive approximations method. For the first time, high-frequency asymptotic expressions of acoustic pressure for all spectral components of the secondary field are obtained for the nonlinear scattering problem. The scattering diagrams are calculated and plotted, and tTable of ContentsIntroduction 1 1 Scattering of Nonlinear Interacting Plane Acoustic Waves by a Sphere 7 1.1 Review of Studies Dealing with the Scattering of Plane Acoustic Waves by a Sphere 7 1.2 Problem Statement 10 1.3 Solving via the Inhomogeneous Equation with the Successive Approximations Method 13 1.4 Investigation of Acoustic Field of Difference Frequency 16 1.5 Investigation of Acoustical Field of the Sum Frequency Wave 34 1.6 Investigation of Acoustical Field of the Second Harmonics 36 1.7 Experimental Investigation Scattering of the Field of Acoustic Parametric Antenna by a Hard Sphere 48 1.7.1 Experimental Setup and Metrological Support for the Experiment 48 1.7.2 Results of the Experiments 52 1.7.3 Analysis of Combined Scattering Diagrams of the Nonlinear Interacting Plane Acoustic Waves by a Hard Sphere 61 1.8 A Comparative Analysis of Assumption and Experimental Scattering Diagrams for Secondary Field Waves 65 1.9 Conclusion 68 2 Scattering of Nonlinear Interacting Plane Acoustic Waves by a Cylinder 71 2.1 Review of Plane Acoustic Waves Scattering by a Cylinder 71 2.2 Statement of Problem 75 2.3 Investigation of Acoustic Field of Difference Frequency 79 2.4 Investigation of Acoustic Field of Sum Frequency 93 2.5 Investigation of Acoustic Field of the Second Harmonic 96 2.6 Discussion and Comparison of Results 108 2.7 Conclusion 113 3 Research of the Scattering of Nonlinear Interacting Plane Acoustic Waves by an Elongated Spheroid 115 3.1 Review of Plane Acoustic Waves Scattering by an Elongated Spheroid 115 3.2 Wave problems in Elongated Spheroidal Coordinates 118 3.3 Statement of Problem 120 3.4 Investigation of the Acoustic Field of Difference Frequency Wave 124 3.5 Investigation of the Acoustic Field of Sum Frequency 142 3.6 Investigation of the Acoustic Field of Second Harmonics 148 3.7 Discussion and Comparison of Results 160 3.8 Conclusion 164 References 165 Index 173

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Book SynopsisA guide to environmental and communication issues related to fracking and the best approach to protect communities Environmental Considerations Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing Operations offers a much-needed resource that explores the complex challenges of fracking by providing an understanding of the environmental and communication issues that are inherent with hydraulic fracturing. The book balances the current scientific knowledge with the uncertainty and risks associated with hydraulic fracking. In addition, the authors offer targeted approaches for helping to keep communities safe. The authors include an overview of the historical development of hydraulic fracturing and the technology currently employed. The book also explores the risk, prevention, and mitigation factors that are associated with fracturing. The authors also include legal cases, regulatory issues, and data on the cost of recovery. The volume presents audit checklists for gatherinTable of ContentsList of Figures xvii List of Tables xxvii Foreword xxxi Acknowledgments xxxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Energy and the Shale Revolution 1 1.2 Cultural Influences 3 1.3 Conventional Versus Unconventional Resources 4 1.4 Well Simulation 5 1.5 Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States 16 1.6 Environmental Considerations 17 1.7 Exercises 22 References 22 Suggested Reading 23 2 Historical Development from Fracturing to Hydraulic Fracturing 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Explosives and Guns (1820s–1930s) 26 2.3 The Birth of the Petroleum Engineer (1940s–1950s) 38 2.4 Going Nuclear During Peak Oil (1960s to Mid‐1970s) 39 2.5 The Rise of the Unconventionals (Mid‐1970s to Present) 45 2.6 Exercises 49 References 50 Suggested Reading 51 3 Geology of Unconventional Resources 53 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Oil Shale Nomenclature 54 3.3 Oil Shale Classification 54 3.4 Types of Shale Formations Based on Production 56 3.5 Geology of United States Shale Deposits 60 3.6 The Role of Natural Fractures 75 3.7 Exercises 76 References 77 Suggested Reading 79 4 Overview of Drilling and Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Techniques for Tight Oil and Gas Shale Formations 81 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Phase 1: Prospect Generation for Unconventional Oil and Gas Targets 85 4.3 Phase 2: Planning Phase 92 4.4 Phase 3: Drilling 94 4.5 Brief Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing 109 4.6 Operators and Contractors 111 4.7 Phase 4: Completion 111 4.8 Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing Process 115 4.9 Single‐Stage Treatment 119 4.10 Fluid Recovery and Waste Management 123 4.11 Oil and Gas Production 123 4.12 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) 126 4.13 Workshop #1: Gas Well Economic Limit 128 4.14 Workshop #2: Oil Well Economics 129 4.15 Well Destruction 129 4.16 Summary 131 4.17 Exercises 131 References 132 Suggested Reading 134 5 Overview of Impacts from Tight Oil and Shale Gas Resource Development 137 5.1 Introduction 137 5.2 Potential Impacts and Risks of Spills 137 5.3 Significance of Impacts 137 5.4 Overview of the Five Main Resource Categories 138 5.5 Primary Wastes Generated 146 5.6 Site‐specific Impact Analysis 146 5.7 Summary of Resources and Issues 163 5.8 Summary 174 5.9 Exercises 176 References 177 Suggested Reading 179 6 Surface and Groundwater Risks, Resource Quality Management, and Impacts 183 6.1 Introduction 183 6.2 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle 183 6.3 Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Resources 188 6.4 Public Water System (PWS) Sources 189 6.5 Underground Injection Control 190 6.6 Case Histories 196 6.7 Exercises 198 References 198 Suggested Reading 199 7 Induced Seismicity 203 7.1 Introduction 203 7.2 Measuring Earthquake Severity 204 7.3 Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes 208 7.4 Mechanics of Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes 210 7.5 Induced Microseismicity and Microseismic Monitoring 212 7.6 Exercises 212 References 213 Suggested Reading 213 8 Air Quality Resources and Mitigation Measures 215 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Unconventional Resource Extraction and Air Quality 215 8.3 Sources of Air Emissions 215 8.4 Worker Safety 220 8.5 Gas Leaks and Vapor Sampling 230 8.6 Biogenic and Thermogenic Hydrocarbon Gases 232 8.7 Gas Leaks 233 8.8 Soil Vapor Intrusion Overview 234 8.9 General Approach to Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion 237 8.10 Summary 248 8.11 Exercises 249 References 249 Suggested Reading 253 9 Land Use Resources and Socioeconomics 255 9.1 Introduction 255 9.2 Community Concerns and Land Use Planning 255 9.3 Environmental Justice 259 9.4 Land Disturbance 259 9.5 Light Pollution 261 9.6 Noise 263 9.7 Odor 270 9.8 Socioeconomics 271 9.9 Transportation and Traffic 272 9.10 Visual Aesthetics 277 9.11 Worker Safety 278 9.12 Cumulative Impacts 278 9.13 Exercises 279 References 279 Suggested Reading 281 10 Ecological Resources 283 10.1 Introduction 283 10.2 Ecosystem Resources 283 10.3 Ecosystem Resources 283 10.4 Interim Reclamation 286 10.5 Summary 295 10.6 Exercises 295 References 296 Suggested Reading 297 11 Legislative Trends Associated with Well Stimulation and Hydraulic Fracturing 299 11.1 Introduction 299 11.2 Federal Laws and Regulations 300 11.3 State Legislation and Regulations 304 11.4 Bans and Moratoriums 311 11.5 Exercises 313 References 313 Suggested Reading 314 12 Sampling, Exposure Pathways, and Site Conceptual Models 315 12.1 Introduction 315 12.2 Hypothetical Scenario 317 12.3 Overview of Sampling Procedures 322 12.4 Soil and Water Sampling 327 12.5 Field Screening and Analysis 329 12.6 Other Considerations 332 12.7 Fate and Transport 339 12.8 Summary 342 12.9 Exercises 342 References 345 Suggested Reading 347 13 Financial Issues: Real Estate Values and Selected Contracting Costs of Repairs, Assessment, or Mitigation Activities for Unconventional Oil and Gas Production Areas 351 13.1 Introduction 351 13.2 Valuation of Real Estate 351 13.3 Water Supplies 357 13.4 Other Mitigating Costs 358 13.5 Mitigation of Subsurface Impacts 362 13.6 Remediation Strategies 365 13.7 Budgeting for Costs 369 13.8 Summary 372 13.9 Exercises 373 References 374 Suggested Reading 375 14 Legal Considerations and Case Law 377 14.1 Introduction 377 14.2 Environmental Tort Litigation 382 14.3 Environmental/Citizen Action and Industry Challenges Litigation 383 14.4 Infrastructure‐Related Litigation 384 14.5 Traditional Oil and Gas Issues in Nontraditional Forums 384 14.6 Fracking Bans and Moratoriums 384 14.7 Summary 386 14.8 Exercises 387 Reference 387 Suggested Reading 387 15 Spills, Forensic Evaluation, and Case Studies 389 15.1 Introduction 389 15.2 Spill Studies 389 15.3 Spill Settlement Case Study 392 15.3.1 Rail Case Studies 393 15.3.2 Bakken Crude Oil Characteristics: Two Studies 394 15.3.3 Summary of Bakken Crude Oil Spill Incidents 394 15.3.4 Fate and Transport of Spilled Crude 394 15.3.5 Combustion 398 15.3.6 DOT‐117 Tank Car Design 398 15.4 Violations 399 15.5 Forensic Analysis 399 15.5.1 Gas Chromatograms 400 15.5.2 Tentatively Identified Compounds (TICs) 401 15.5.3 Piper Diagrams 401 15.5.4 Biomarkers 403 15.5.5 Chemical and Biological Transformations 404 15.5.6 Chemical Ratios 406 15.5.7 Geochemical Tracers 406 15.5.8 Isotopes 407 15.5.9 Forensic Isotope Analysis 408 15.5.10 Boron and Strontium Isotope Ratios 409 15.5.11 Radioactive Isotopes 410 15.5.12 Case Studies 411 15.6 Prospective and Retrospective Case Studies 413 15.6.1 US EPA Retrospective Case Study 414 15.6.2 US EPA Retrospective Study Approach and Sampling Activities 415 15.6.3 Main Findings 420 15.6.4 Summary of US EPA Retrospective Studies 438 15.7 Exercises 439 References 440 Suggested Reading 446 16 Conclusions 453 Appendix A Selected University Studies, State, and Federal Reports 455 Appendix B Glossary 461 Appendix C List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 467 Appendix D Conversions 473 Appendix E Summary of Potential Job Hazards During Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Process 477 Appendix F Chemical Additives Used in the High‐Volume Hydraulic Fracturing Operations 481 Appendix G Exposure Planning, Emergency Response, and Toxicity Tables 485 Appendix H Selected Sampling Methods and Documentation 493 Appendix I Environmental Checklists 503 Appendix J Metric Conversion of Table 3.4 (Metric Units in Bold italics) 523 Appendix K US Crude Oil Prices 1859–2016 525 Index 527

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive guide to managing and mitigating natural disasters Recent years have seen a surge in the number, frequency, and severity of natural disasters, with further increases expected as the climate continues to change. However, advanced computational and geospatial technologies have enabled the development of sophisticated early warning systems and techniques to predict, manage, and mitigate disasters.Techniques for Disaster Risk Management and Mitigation explores different approaches to forecasting disasters and provides guidance on mitigation and adaptation strategies. Volume highlights include: Review of current and emerging technologies for disaster predictionDifferent approaches to risk management and mitigationStrategies for implementing disaster plans and infrastructure improvementsGuidance on integrating artificial intelligence with GIS and earth observation dataExamination of the regional and global impacts of disasters under climate variabilityTable of ContentsContributors ix Preface xiii Section I: Introduction 1. Concepts and Methodologies of Environmental Hazards and Disasters 3Nicolas R. Dalezios, George P. Petropoulos, and Ioannis N. Faraslis 2. Indigenous Knowledge for Disaster Solutions in the Hilly State of Mizoram, Northeast India 23Kewat Sanjay Kumar, Awadhesh Kumar, Vinod Prasad Khanduri, and Sudhir Kumar Singh 3. Urban Risk and Resilience to Climate Change and Natural Hazards: A Perspective from Million‐Plus Cities on the Indian Subcontinent 33Amit Kumar, Diksha, A. C. Pandey, and M. L. Khan 4. The Contribution of Earth Observation in Disaster Prediction, Management, and Mitigation: A Holistic View 47Varsha Pandey, Prashant K. Srivastava, and George P. Petropoulos Section II: Atmospheric Hazards and Disasters 5. Tropical Cyclones Over the North Indian Ocean in Changing Climate 65R. Bhatla, Raveena Raj, R. K. Mall, and Shivani 6. Simulation of Intensity and Track of Tropical Cyclones Over the Arabian Sea Using the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) Modeling System with Different Initial Conditions (ICs) 77Sushil Kumar, Ashish Routray, Prabhjot Singh Chawla, and Shilpi Kalra 7. Development of a Soft Computing Model from the Reanalyzed Atmospheric Data to Detect Severe Weather Conditions 85Devajyoti Dutta, Ashish Routray, and Prashant K. Srivastava 8. Lightning, the Global Electric Circuit, and Climate 93N. Jeni Victor, Sagarika Chandra, and Devendraa Siingh 9. An Exploration of the Panther Mountain Crater Impact Using Spatial Data and GIS Spatial Correlation Analysis Techniques 111Sawyer Reid Stippa, Konstantinos P. Ferentinos, and George P. Petropoulos Section III: Land Hazards and Disasters 10. Satellite Radar Interferometry Processing and Elevation Change Analysis for Geoenvironmental Hazard Assessment 127Sergey Stankevich, Iryna Piestova, Anna Kozlova, Olga Titarenko, and Sudhir Kumar Singh 11. Assessing the Use of Sentinel‐2 in Burnt Area Cartography: Findings from a Case Study in Spain 141Craig Amos, Konstantinos P. Ferentinos, George P. Petropoulos, and Prashant K. Srivastava 12. Assimilating SEVIRI Satellite Observation into the Name‐III Dispersion Model to Improve Volcanic Ash Forecast 151Prajakta Patil, I. M. Watson, Shona Mackie, Prashant K. Srivastava, Tanvir Islam, and Sourabh Sakhare 13. Geoinformation Technology for Drought Assessment 171Arnab Kundu, D. M. Denis, N. R. Patel, R. K. Mall, and Dipanwita Dutta 14. Introduction to Landslides 181H. K. Pandey 15. Probabilistic Landslide Hazard Assessment using Statistical Information Value (SIV) and GIS Techniques: A Case Study of Himachal Pradesh, India 197Ankit Sharma, Ujjwal Sur, Prafull Singh, Praveen Kumar Rai, and Prashant K. Srivastava 16. One-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Modeling of the River Tapi: The 2006 Flood, Surat, India 209Dhruvesh P. Patel, Prashant K. Srivastava, Sudhir Kumar Singh, Cristina Prieto, and Dawei Han Section IV: Ocean Hazards and Disasters 17. Tropical Cyclone–Induced Storm Surges and Wind Waves in the Bay of Bengal 239Prasad K. Bhaskaran, A. D. Rao, and Tad Murty 18. Space‐Based Measurement of Rainfall Over India and Nearby Oceans Using Remote Sensing Application 295Anoop Kumar Mishra and Kishan Singh Rawat 19. Modeling Tsunami Attenuation and Impacts on Coastal Communities 309S. Piché, I. Nistor, and T. Murty Index 325

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Book SynopsisCompiled from a conference on this important subject by three of the most well-known and respected editors in the industry, this volume provides some of the latest technologies related to carbon capture, utilization and, storage (CCUS). Of the 36 billon tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) being emitted into Earth''s atmosphere every year, only 40 million tons are able to be captured and stored. This is just a fraction of what needs to be captured, if this technology is going to make any headway in the global march toward reversing, or at least reducing, climate change. CO2 capture and storage has long been touted as one of the leading technologies for reducing global carbon emissions, and, even though it is being used effectively now, it is still an emerging technology that is constantly changing. This volume, a collection of papers presented during the Cutting-Edge Technology for Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CETCCUS), held in Clermont-Ferrand, FranTable of ContentsPreface xv Introduction xvii Part I: Carbon Capture and Storage 1 1 Carbon Capture Storage Monitoring (“CCSM”) 3E.D. Rode, L.A. Schaerer, Stephen A. Marinello and G. v. Hantelmann 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 State of the Art Practice 5 1.3 Marmot’s CCSM Technology 6 1.4 Principles of Information Analysis 10 1.5 Operating Method 12 1.6 Instrumentation and Set up 14 Abbreviations 16 References 16 2 Key Technologies of Carbon Dioxide Flooding and Storage in China 19Hao Mingqiang and Hu Yongle 2.1 Background 20 2.2 Key Technologies of Carbon dioxide Flooding and Storage 21 2.2.1 CO2 Miscible Flooding Theory in Continental Sedimentary Reservoirs 21 2.2.2 The Storage Mechanism of CO2 in Reservoirs and Salt Water Layers 22 2.2.3 Reservoir Engineering Technology of CO2 Flooding and Storage 22 2.2.4 High Efficiency Technology of Injection and Production for CO2 Flooding 23 2.2.5 CO2 Long-Distance Pipeline Transportation and Supercritical Injection Technology 23 2.2.6 Fluid Treatment and Circulating Gas Injection Technology of CO2 Flooding 24 2.2.7 Reservoir Monitoring and Dynamic Analysis and Evaluation Technology of CO2 Flooding 24 2.3 Existing Problems and Technical Development Direction 25 2.3.1 The Vital Communal Troubles & Challenges 25 2.3.2 Further Orientation of Technology Development 25 3 Mapping CCUS Technological Trajectories and Business Models: The Case of CO2-Dissolved 27X. Galiègue, A. Laude and N. Béfort 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 CCS and Roadmaps: From Expectations to Reality ... 29 3.3 CCS Project Portfolio: Between Diversity and Replication 30 3.3.1 Demonstration Process: Between Diversity and Replication 30 3.3.2 Diversity of the Current Project Portfolio 32 3.4 Going Beyond EOR: Other Business Models for Storage? 36 3.4.1 The EOR Legacy 36 3.4.2 From EOR to a CCS Wide-Scale Deployment 37 3.5 Coupling CCS and Geothermal Energy: Lessons from the CO2-DISSOLVED Project Study 39 3.5.1 CO2-DISSOLVED Concept 39 3.5.2 Techno-Economic Analysis of CO2-DISSOLVED 41 3.5.3 Business Models and the Replication/Diversity Dilemma 42 3.6 Conclusion 42 Acknowledgements 43 References 43 4 Feasibility of Ex-Situ Dissolution for Carbon Dioxide Sequestration 47Yuri Leonenko 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Methods to Accelerate Dissolution 50 4.2.1 In-situ 50 4.2.2 Ex-situ 52 4.3 Discussion and Conclusions 56 Acknowledgments 57 References 57 Part II: EOR 59 5 CO2 Gas Injection as an EOR Technique – Phase Behavior Considerations 61Henrik Sørensen and Jawad Azeem Shaikh 5.1 Introduction 61 5.2 Features of CO2 62 5.3 Miscible CO2 Drive 63 5.4 Immiscible CO2 Drives and Density Effects 68 5.5 Asphaltene Precipitation Caused by Gas Injection 72 5.6 Gas Revaporization as EOR Technique 75 5.7 Conclusions 76 List of Symbols 76 References 77 Appendix A Reservoir Fluid Compositions and Key Property Data 78 6 Study on Storage Mechanisms in CO2 Flooding for Water-Flooded Abandoned Reservoirs 83Rui Wang, Chengyuan Lv, Yongqiang Tang, Shuxia Zhao, Zengmin Lun and Maolei Cui 6.1 Introduction 83 6.2 CO2 Solubility in Coexistence of Crude Oil and Brine 85 6.3 Mineral Dissolution Effect 88 6.4 Relative Permeability Hysteresis 90 6.5 Effect of CO2 Storage Mechanisms on CO2 Flooding 92 6.6 Conclusions 93 References 93 7 The Investigation on the Key Hydrocarbons of Crude Oil Swelling via Supercritical CO2 95Haishui Han, Shi Li, Xinglong Chen, Ke Zhang, Hongwei Yu and Zemin Ji 7.1 Introduction 96 7.2 Hydrocarbon Selection 97 7.3 Experiment Section 97 7.3.1 Principle 97 7.3.2 Apparatus and Samples 99 7.3.3 Experimental Scheme Design 100 7.3.4 Procedures 100 7.4 Results and Discussion 101 7.4.1 Results and Data Processing 101 7.4.2 Volume Swelling Influenced by the Hydrocarbon Property 103 7.4.3 A New Parameter of Molar Density for Evaluating Hydrocarbon Volume Swelling 104 7.4.4 Advantageous Hydrocarbons 105 7.5 Conclusions 109 Acknowledgments 109 Nomenclature 109 References 110 8 Pore-Scale Mechanisms of Enhanced Oil Recovery by CO2 Injection in Low-Permeability Heterogeneous Reservoir 113Ze-min Ji, Shi Li and Xing-long Chen 8.1 Introduction 114 8.2 Experimental Device and Samples 114 8.3 Experimental Procedure 115 8.3.1 Experimental Results 117 8.4 Quantitative Analysis of Oil Recovery in Different Scale Pores 118 8.5 Conclusions 120 Acknowledgments 120 References 120 Part III: Data – Experimental and Correlation 123 9 Experimental Measurement of CO2 Solubility in a 1 mol/kgw CaCl2 Solution at Temperature from 323.15 to 423.15 K and Pressure up to 20 MPa 125M. Poulain, H. Messabeb, F. Contamine, P. Cézac, J.P. Serin, J.C. Dupin and H. Martinez 9.1 Introduction 125 9.2 Literature Review 126 9.3 Experimental Section 127 9.3.1 Chemicals 127 9.3.2 Apparatus 128 9.3.3 Operating Procedure 128 9.3.4 Analysis 129 9.4 Results and Discussion 130 9.5 Conclusion 130 Acknowledgments 132 References 132 10 Determination of Dry-Ice Formation during the Depressurization of a CO2 Re-Injection System 135J.A. Feliu, M. Manzulli and M.A. Alós 10.1 Introduction 136 10.2 Thermodynamics 137 10.3 Case Study 139 10.3.1 System Description 139 10.3.2 Objectives 141 10.3.3 Scenarios 141 10.3.4 Simulation Runs Conclusions 145 10.4 Conclusions 146 11 Phase Equilibrium Properties Aspects of CO2 and Acid Gases Transportation 147A. Chapoy, and C. Coquelet 11.1 Introduction 148 11.1.1 State of the Art and Phase Diagrams 150 11.2 Experimental Work and Description of Experimental Setup 151 11.3 Models and Correlation Useful for the Determination of Equilibrium Properties 157 11.4 Presentation of Some Results 159 11.5 Conclusion 165 Acknowledgments 166 References 166 12 Thermodynamic Aspects for Acid Gas Removal from Natural Gas 169Tianyuan Wang, Elise El Ahmar and Christophe Coquelet 12.1 Introduction 169 12.2 Thermodynamic Models 171 12.3 Results and Discussion 173 12.3.1 Hydrocarbons and Mercaptans Solubilities in Aqueous Alkanolamine Solution 173 12.3.2 Acid Gases (CO2/H2S) Solubilities in Aqueous Alkanolamine Solution 174 12.3.3 Multi-component Systems Containing CO2-H2S-Alkanolamine-Water-Methane-Mercaptan 177 12.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 178 Acknowledgements 179 References 179 13 Speed of Sound Measurements for a CO2 Rich Mixture 181P. Ahmadi and A. Chapoy 13.1 Experimental Section 182 13.1.1 Material 182 13.1.2 Experimental Setup 182 13.2 Results and Discussion 183 13.3 Conclusion 184 References 185 14 Mutual Solubility of Water and Natural Gas with Different CO2 Content 187H.M. Tu, P. Guo, J.F. Du, Shao-fei Wang, Ya-ling Zhang, Yan-kui Jiao and Zhou-hua Wang 14.1 Introduction 188 14.2 Experimental 190 14.2.1 Materials 190 14.2.2 Experimental Apparatus 190 14.2.3 Experimental Procedures 192 14.3 Thermodynamic Model 193 14.3.1 The Cubic-Plus-Association Equation of State 193 14.3.2 Parameterization of the Model 195 14.4 Results and Discussion 196 14.4.1 Phase Behavior of CO2-Water 196 14.4.2 The Mutual Solubility of Water-Natural Gas 198 14.5 Conclusion 207 Acknowledgement 211 References 211 15 Effect of SO2 Traces on Metal Mobilization in CCS 215A. Martínez-Torrents, S. Meca, F. Clarens, M. Gonzalez-Riu and M. Rovira 15.1 Introduction 215 15.2 Experimental 216 15.2.1 Sample Preparation 216 15.2.1.1 Sandstone 216 15.2.1.2 Brine 217 15.2.2 Experimental Set-up 217 15.2.3 Experimental Methodology 217 15.3 Results and Discussion 219 15.3.1 Major Components 219 15.3.2 Trace Metals 222 15.3.2.1 Strontium 224 15.3.2.2 Manganese 225 15.3.2.3 Copper 226 15.3.2.4 Zinc 226 15.3.2.5 Vanadium 227 15.3.2.6 Lead 227 15.3.3 Metal Mobilization 228 15.4 Conclusions 230 Acknowledgements 231 References 232 16 Experiments and Modeling for CO2 Capture Processes Understanding 235Yohann Coulier, William Ravisy, J-M. Andanson, Jean-Yves Coxam and Karine Ballerat-Busserolles 16.1 Introduction 236 16.2 Chemicals and Materials 240 16.3 Vapor-Liquid Equilibria 241 16.3.1 Experimental VLE of Pure Amine 241 16.3.2 Experimental VLE of {Amine – H2O} System 243 16.3.3 Modeling VLE 243 16.4 Speciation at Equilibrium 245 16.4.1 Equilibrium Measurements 1H and 13C NMR 246 16.4.2 Modeling of Species Concentration 249 Acknowledgment 252 References 252 Part IV: Molecular Simulation 255 17 Kinetic Monte Carlo Molecular Simulation of Chemical Reaction Equilibria 257Braden D. Kelly and William R. Smith References 261 18 Molecular Simulation Study on the Diffusion Mechanism of Fluid in Nanopores of Illite in Shale Gas Reservoir 263P. Guo, M.H. Zhang and H.M. Tu 18.1 Introduction 264 18.2 Models and Simulation Details 265 18.2.1 Models and Simulation Parameters 265 18.2.2 Data Processing and Computing Methods 266 18.3 Results and Discussion 268 18.3.1 Variation Law of Self Diffusion Coefficient 268 18.3.2 Density Distribution 270 18.3.3 Radial Distribution Function 271 18.4 Conclusions 273 Acknowledgements 274 References 275 19 Molecular Simulation of Reactive Absorption of CO2 in Aqueous Alkanolamine Solutions 277Weikai Qi and William R. Smith References 279 Part V: Processes 281 20 CO2 Capture from Natural Gas in LNG Production. Comparison of Low-Temperature Purification Processes and Conventional Amine Scrubbing 283Laura A. Pellegrini, Giorgia De Guido, Gabriele Lodi and Saeid Mokhatab 20.1 Introduction 284 20.2 Description of Process Solutions 286 20.2.1 The Ryan-Holmes Process 288 20.2.2 The Dual Pressure Low-Temperature Distillation Process 290 20.2.3 The Chemical Absorption Process 292 20.3 Methods 295 20.4 Results and Discussion 298 20.5 Conclusions 303 Nomenclature 304 Abbreviations 304 Symbols 305 Subscripts 305 Superscripts 306 Greek Symbols 306 References 306 21 CO2 Capture Using Deep Eutectic Solvent and Amine (MEA) Solution 309Mohammed-Ridha Mahi, Ilham Mokbel, Latifa Négadi and Jacques Jose 21.1 Experimental Section 309 21.2 Results and Discussion 310 21.2.1 Validation of the Experimental Method 310 21.2.2 Solubility of CO2 in the Solvent DES/MEA 311 21.2.3 Solubility of CO2 – Comparison Between DES + MEA and DES Solvent 313 21.2.4 Solubility of CO2 – Comparison Between (DES + MEA) and (H2O + MEA) Solvent 313 21.5 Conclusion 315 References 315 22 The Impact of Thermodynamic Model Accuracy on Sizing and Operating CCS Purification and Compression Units 317S. Lasala, R. Privat and J.-N. Jaubert 22.1 Introduction 318 22.2 Thermodynamic Systems in CCUS Technologies 319 22.2.1 Compositional Characteristics of CO2 Captured Flows 319 22.2.2 Post-Combustion 320 22.2.3 Oxy-Fuel Combustion 321 22.2.4 Pre-Combustion 324 22.3 Operating Conditions of Purification and Compression Units 329 22.4 Quality Specifications of CO2 Capture Flows 332 22.5 Cubic Equations of State for CCUS Fluids 334 22.6 Influence of EoS Accuracy on Purification and Compression Processes 340 22.7 Purification by Liquefaction 340 22.8 Purification by Stripping 347 22.9 Compression 351 22.10 Conclusions 354 Nomenclature and Acronyms 355 References 357 Index 361

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Book SynopsisComprehensive coverage of the whole Earth system throughout its entire existence and beyond Complete with a new introduction by the authors, this updated edition helps provide an understanding of the past, present, and future processes that occur on and in our Earththe fascinating, yet potentially lethal, set of atmospheric, surface, and internal processes that interact to produce our living environment. It introduces students to our planet's four key interdependent systems: the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, focusing on their key components, the interactions between them, and environmental change. The book also uses geological case studies throughout, in addition to the modern processes. Topics covered in the Second Edition of Earth Environments: Past, Present and Future include: an Earth systems model; components systems and processes; atmospheric systems; oceanography; surface and internal geological systems; biogeography; aTable of ContentsAbout the Companion Website xxiii Introduction xxv Section I Introduction to Earth Systems 1 1 Introduction to Earth Systems 3 1.1 Introduction to Earth’s Formation 4 1.2 Introduction to Earth Spheres 5 1.3 Scales in Space and Time 7 1.4 Systems and Feedback 8 1.5 Open and Closed Flow Systems 9 1.6 Equilibrium in Systems 11 1.7 Time Cycles in Systems 13 Section II Atmospheric and Ocean Systems 17 2 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 19 2.1 Structure of the Atmosphere 20 2.2 Composition of the Atmosphere 21 2.3 Carbon Dioxide and Methane 23 2.4 Water Vapour 24 3 Energy in the Atmosphere and the Earth Heat Budget 27 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Solar Radiation 28 4 Moisture in the Atmosphere 41 4.1 Introduction 42 4.2 The Global Hydrological Cycle 42 4.3 Air Stability and Instability 46 4.4 Clouds 48 4.5 Precipitation 49 5 Atmospheric Motion 55 5.1 Introduction 56 5.2 Atmospheric Pressure 56 5.3 Winds and Pressure Gradients 58 5.4 The Global Pattern of Atmospheric Circulation 62 6 Weather Systems 67 6.1 Introduction 68 6.2 Macroscale Synoptic Systems 68 6.3 Meso‐Scale: local Winds 81 6.4 Microclimates 83 6.5 Weather Observation and Forecasting 89 7 World Climates 99 7.1 Introduction 100 7.2 Classification of Climate 100 8 Ocean Structure and Circulation Patterns 113 8.1 Introduction 114 8.2 Physical Structure of the Oceans 114 8.3 Temperature Structure of the Oceans 117 8.4 Ocean Circulation 117 8.5 Sea‐Level Change 121 9 Atmospheric Evolution 125 9.1 Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 126 10 Principles of Climate Change 131 10.1 Introduction 132 10.2 Evidence for Climate Change 133 10.3 Causes of Climate Change 145 Section III Endogenic Geological Systems 159 11 Earth Materials: Mineralogy, Rocks and the Rock Cycle 161 11.1 What is a Mineral? 162 11.2 Rocks and the Rock Cycle 173 11.3 Vulcanicity and Igneous Rocks 175 11.4 Sedimentary Rocks, Fossils and Sedimentary Structures 176 11.5 Metamorphic Rocks 187 12 The Internal Structure of the Earth 191 12.1 Introduction 192 12.2 Evidence of Earth’s Composition from Drilling 192 12.3 Evidence of Earth’s Composition from Volcanoes 193 12.4 Evidence of Earth’s Composition from Meteorites 194 12.5 Using Earthquake Seismic Waves as Earth Probes 194 13 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism: Processes, Products, and Landforms 199 13.1 Introduction 200 13.2 Global Tectonics: how Plates, Basins, and Mountains are Created 200 13.3 Volcanic Processes and the Global Tectonic Model 204 13.4 Magma Eruption 215 13.5 Explosive Volcanism 220 13.6 Petrographic Features of Volcaniclastic Sediments 228 13.7 Transport and Deposition of Pyroclastic Materials 228 13.8 The Relationship Between Volcanic Processes and the Earth’s Atmosphere and Climate 238 13.9 Plate Tectonics, Uniformitarianism and Earth History 245 14 Geotectonics: Processes, Structures, and Landforms 255 14.1 Introduction 256 14.2 Tectonic Structures 256 14.3 Tectonic Structures as Lines of Weakness in Landscape Evolution 263 Section IV Exogenic Geological Systems 265 15 Weathering Processes and Products 267 15.1 Introduction 268 15.2 Physical or Mechanical Weathering 270 15.3 Chemical Weathering 281 15.4 Measuring Weathering Rates 293 15.5 Weathering Landforms 295 16 Slope Processes and Morphology 299 16.1 Introduction 300 16.2 Slopes: Mass Movement 300 16.3 Hillslope Hydrology and Slope Processes 329 16.4 Slope Morphology and its Evolution 336 17 Fluvial Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 349 17.1 Introduction 350 17.2 Loose Boundary Hydraulics 350 17.3 The Energy of a River and Its Ability to Do Work 353 17.4 Transport of the Sediment Load 353 17.5 Types of Sediment Load 355 17.6 River Hydrology 356 17.7 The Drainage Basin 358 17.8 Drainage Patterns and their Interpretation 362 17.9 Fluvial Channel Geomorphology 362 18 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Karst Processes and Landforms 411 18.1 Introduction 412 18.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Carbonate Rock Characteristics 412 18.3 Evaporites 430 18.4 Carbonate Facies Models 430 18.5 Karst Processes 435 19 Coastal Processes, Landforms, and Sediments 467 19.1 Introduction to the Coastal Zone 468 19.2 Sea Waves, Tides, and Tsunamis 470 19.3 Tides 476 19.4 Tsunamis 480 19.5 Coastal Landsystems 485 19.6 Distribution of Coastal Land systems 527 19.7 The Impact of Climatic Change on Coastal Landsystems: What Lies in the Future? 530 20 Glacial Processes and Land Systems 535 20.1 Introduction 536 20.2 Mass Balance and Glacier Formation 538 20.3 Mass Balance and Glacier Flow 546 20.4 Surging Glaciers 548 20.5 Processes of Glacial Erosion and Deposition 552 20.6 Glacial Landsystems 574 21 Periglacial Processes and Landform‐Sediment Assemblages 605 21.1 Introduction to the Term ‘Periglacial’ 606 21.2 Permafrost 606 21.3 Periglacial Processes and Landforms 609 21.4 Frost Heaving and Frost Thrusting 612 21.5 Landforms Associated with Frost Sorting 614 21.6 Needle Ice Development 615 21.7 Frost Cracking and the Development of Ice Wedges 615 21.8 Growth of Ground Ice and Its Decay, and the Development of Pingos, Thufurs, and Palsas 620 21.9 Processes Associated with Snowbanks (Nivation Processes) 626 21.10 Cryoplanation or Altiplanation Processes and Their Resultant Landforms 628 21.11 The Development of Tors 633 21.12 Slope Processes Associated with the Short Summer Melt Season 638 21.13 Cambering and Associated Structures 645 21.14 Wind Action in a Periglacial Climate 645 21.15 Fluvial Processes in a Periglacial Environment 648 21.16 Alluvial Fans in a Periglacial Region 650 21.17 An Overview of the Importance of Periglacial Processes in Shaping the Landscape of Upland Britain 652 21.18 The Periglaciation of Lowland Britain 654 22 Aeolian (Wind) Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 655 22.1 Introduction 656 22.2 Current Controls on Wind Systems 657 22.3 Sediment Entrainment and Processes of Sand Movement 657 22.4 Processes of Wind Transport 659 22.5 Aeolian Bedforms 661 22.6 Dune and Aeolian Sediments 677 22.7 Dust and Loess Deposition 678 22.8 Wind Erosion Landforms 682 Section V The Biosphere 687 23 Principles of Ecology and Biogeography 689 23.1 Introduction 690 23.2 Why Do Organisms Live Where They Do? 690 23.3 Components of Ecosystems 694 23.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 699 23.5 Food Chains and Webs 704 23.6 Pathways of Mineral Matter (Biogeochemical Cycling) 707 23.7 Vegetation Succession and Climaxes 714 23.8 Concluding Remarks 732 24 Soil-forming Processes and Products 733 24.1 Introduction 734 24.2 Controls on Soil Formation 735 24.3 Soils as Systems 738 24.4 Soil Profile Development 739 24.5 Soil Properties 744 24.6 Key Soil Types, with a Description and Typical Profile 752 24.7 Podsolization: Theories 756 24.8 Soil Classification 757 24.9 Regional and Local Soil Distribution 759 24.10 The Development of Dune Soils: An Example from the Sefton Coast 768 24.11 The Development of Woodland Soils in Delamere Forest 770 24.12 Intrazonal Soils Caused by Topographic Change 770 24.13 Palaeosols 771 25 World Ecosystems 775 25.1 Introduction 776 25.2 The Tundra Ecozone 778 25.3 The Tropical (Equatorial) Rain Forest, or Humid Tropics Sensu Stricto, Ecozone 786 25.4 The Seasonal Tropics or Savanna Ecozone 793 25.5 Potential Effects of Global Warming on the World’s Ecozones 800 Section VI Global Environmental Change: Past, Present and Future 807 26 The Earth as a Planet: Geological Evolution and Change 809 26.1 Introduction 810 26.2 How Unique is the Earth as a Planet? 810 26.3 What Do We Really Know About the Early Earth? 811 26.4 The Early Geological Record 811 26.5 The First Earth System 815 26.6 How Did the Earth’s Core Form? 817 26.7 Evolution of the Earth’s Mantle 818 26.8 Evolution of the Continental Crust 827 27 Atmospheric Evolution and Climate Change 831 27.1 Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 832 27.2 Future Climate Change 833 28 Future Change in Ocean Circulation and the Hydrosphere 843 28.1 Introduction 844 28.2 Sea‐Level Change and the Supercontinental Cycle 844 28.3 Projected Long‐Term Changes in the Ocean 849 28.4 Future Changes in the Water Cycle 850 29 Biosphere Evolution and Change 855 29.1 Introduction 856 29.2 Mechanisms of Evolution in the Fossil Record 856 29.3 The Origins of Life 860 29.4 An Outline History of the Earth’s Biospheric Evolution 862 29.5 Mass Extinctions and Catastrophes in the History of Life on Earth 887 30 Environmental Change: Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth Phases and Climates Prior to Recent Changes 899 30.1 Introduction 900 30.2 Early Glaciations in the Proterozoic Phase of the Pre‐Cambrian (the Snowball Earth Hypothesis) 900 30.3 Examples of Changes from Greenhouse to Icehouse Climates in the Earth’s Past 908 30.4 Late Cenozoic Ice Ages: Rapid Climate Change in the Quaternary 922 30.5 Late Glacial Climates and Evidence for Rapid Change 932 30.6 The Medieval Warm Period (MWP) or Medieval Climate Optimum and the LIA 942 31 Global Environmental Change in the Future 951 31.1 Introduction 952 31.2 Future Climate Change 952 31.3 Change in the Geosphere 955 31.4 Change in the Oceans and Hydrosphere 958 31.5 Change in the Biosphere 959 31.6 A Timeline for Future Earth 960 31.7 Causes for Future Optimism? 961 31.8 Concluding Remarks 965 Index 967

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Book SynopsisElements move through Earth''s critical zone along interconnected pathways that are strongly influenced by fluctuations in water and energy. The biogeochemical cycling of elements is inextricably linked to changes in climate and ecological disturbances, both natural and man-made. Biogeochemical Cycles: Ecological Drivers and Environmental Impact examines the influences and effects of biogeochemical elemental cycles in different ecosystems in the critical zone. Volume highlights include: Impact of global change on the biogeochemical functioning of diverse ecosystems Biological drivers of soil, rock, and mineral weathering Natural elemental sources for improving sustainability of ecosystems Links between natural ecosystems and managed agricultural systems Non-carbon elemental cycles affected by climate change Subsystems particularly vulnerable to global change The American Geophysical UTable of ContentsContributors vii Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii Part I: Biological Weathering 1. Biological Weathering in the Terrestrial System: An Evolutionary Perspective 3Dragos G. Zaharescu, Carmen I. Burghelea, Katerina Dontsova, Christopher T. Reinhard, Jon Chorover, and Rebecca Lybrand 2. Plants as Drivers of Rock Weathering 33Katerina Dontsova, Zsuzsanna Balogh‐Brunstad, and Jon Chorover 3. Microbial Weathering of Minerals and Rocks in Natural Environments 59Toby Samuels, Casey Bryce, Hanna Landenmark, Claire Marie-Loudon, Natasha Nicholson, Adam H. Stevens, and Charles Cockell 4. Micro‐ and Nanoscale Techniques to Explore Bacteria and Fungi Interactions with Silicate Minerals 81Zsuzsanna Balogh‐Brunstad, Kyle Smart, Alice Dohnalkova, Loredana Saccone, and Mark M. Smits 5. Modeling Microbial Dynamics and Heterotrophic Soil Respiration: Effect of Climate Change 103Elsa Abs and Régis Ferrière Part II: Elemental Cycles 6. Critical Zone Biogeochemistry: Linking Structure and Function 133Bryan Moravec and Jon Chorover 7. Tracking the Fate of Plagioclase Weathering Products: Pedogenic and Human Influences 151Scott W. Bailey 8. Small Catchment Scale Molybdenum Isotope Balance and its Implications for Global Molybdenum Isotope Cycling 163Thomas Nӓgler, Marie‐Claire Pierret, Andrea Voegelin, Thomas Pettke, Lucas Aschwanden, and Igor Villa 9. Trace Metal Legacy in Mountain Environments: A View from the Pyrenees Mountains 191Gaël Le Roux, Sophia V. Hansson, Adrien Claustres, Stéphane Binet, François De Vleeschouwer, Laure Gandois, Florence Mazier, Anaelle Simonneau, Roman Teisserenc, Deonie Allen, Thomas Rosset, Marilen Haver, Luca Da Ros, Didier Galop, Pilar Durantez, Anne Probst, Jose Miguel Sánchez-Pérez, Sabine Sauvage, Pascal Laffaille, Séverine Jean, Dirk S. Schmeller, Lluis Camarero, Laurent Marquer, and Stephen Lofts 10. Poised to Hindcast and Earthcast the Effect of Climate on the Critical Zone: Shale Hills as a Model 207Pamela L. Sullivan, Li Li, Yves Goddéris, and Susan L. Brantley Part III: Frontier and Managed Ecosystems 11. Importance of the Collection of Abundant Ground‐Truth Data for Accurate Detection of Spatial and Temporal Variability of Vegetation by Satellite Remote Sensing 225Shin Nagai, Kenlo Nishida Nasahara, Tomoko Kawaguchi Akitsu, Taku M. Saitoh, and Hiroyuki Muraoka 12. Biogeochemical Cycling of Redox‐Sensitive Elements in Permafrost‐Affected Ecosystems 245Elizabeth Herndon, Lauren Kinsman‐Costello, and Sarah Godsey 13. Anthropogenic Interactions with Rock Varnish 267Ronald I. Dorn 14. Cycling of Natural Sources of Phosphorus and Potassium for Environmental Sustainability 285Biraj B. Basak, Ashis Maity, and Dipak R. Biswas 15. Ecological Drivers and Environmental Impacts of Biogeochemical Cycles: Challenges and Opportunities 301Katerina Dontsova, Zsuzsanna Balogh‐Brunstad, and Gaël Le Roux Index 307

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Book SynopsisAn authoritative volume focusing on multidisciplinary methods to estimate the impacts of climate-related extreme eventsto society As the intensity and frequency of extreme events related to climate change continue to increase, there is an urgent need for clear and cohesive analysis that integrates both climatological and socioeconomic impacts. Extreme Events and Climate Change provides a timely, multidisciplinary examination of the impacts of extreme weather under a warming climate. Offering wide-ranging coverage of the methods and analysis that relate changes in extreme events to their societal impacts, this volume helps readers understand and overcome the methodological challenges associated with extreme event analysis. Contributions from leading experts from across disciplines describe the theoretical requirements for analyzing the complex interactions between meteorological phenomena and the resulting outcomes, discuss new approaches for analyzing theTable of ContentsContributors vii Preface xi Acknowledgments xiv 1 Synthesizing Observed Impacts of Extreme Weather Events Across Systems 1Dáithí A. Stone 2 The Impact of Heat Waves on Agricultural Labor Productivity and Output 11Federico Castillo, Armando Sánchez Vargas, J. K. Gilless, and Michael Wehner 3 Weather Extremes That Affect Various Agricultural Commodities 21Richard Grotjahn 4 Economics of the Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture 49Xuemei Lu, Jesse Buchsbaum, and David Zilberman 5 Agricultural Losses in a Telecoupled World: Modeling the Impacts of Regional Crop Failures on Global Land Use 67John P. Casellas Connors, Anthony Janetos, and Yasmin Romitti 6 Perceptions of Extreme Weather Events and Adaptation Decisions: A Case Study of Maize and Bean Farmers in Guatemala and Honduras 89Milagro Saborío-Rodríguez, Francisco Alpízar, Leyla Aguilar-Solano, M. Ruth Martínez-Rodríguez, Raffaele Vignola, Bárbara Viguera, and Celia A. Harvey 7 Simulation Model Based on Agents for Land Use Change and Cost-Benefit Analysis of Land Management Policies 107Armando Sánchez Vargas, D. Martínez Ventura, C. Gay García, A. L. Herrera Merino, and Bernardo Olvera 8 Climate Extremes, Political Participation, and Migration Intentions of Farmers: A Case Study in Western China 115Yan Tan and Xuchun Liu 9 Effects of Extreme Weather Events on Internal Migration in Rural Guatemala 135Deicy Lozano Sivisaca, Juan Robalino, Adriana Chacón Cascante, Pablo Imbach, and Catalina Sandoval 10 Extreme Heat Exposure and Occupational Health in a Changing Climate 147Jennifer Vanos, Sally Moyce, Bruno Lemke, and Tord Kjellstrom 11 Tropical Cyclone Impacts 167Jennifer M. Collins and Charles H. Paxton 12 On the Relationship Between Heat Waves and Extreme Precipitation in a Warming Climate 183Ajay Raghavendra and Shawn M. Milrad 13 Evaluating Economic Output at Risk to Climate Change: A Sectoral Comparison of Economic Sensitivity to Weather 205Colin Shaw, Samuel G. Evans, and Joshua Turner Index 219

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive textbook presenting techniques for the analysis and characterization of shale plays Significant reserves of hydrocarbons cannot be extracted using conventional methods. Improvements in techniques such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing have increased access to unconventional hydrocarbon resources, ushering in the shale boom and disrupting the energy sector. Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources: Techniques for Reservoir Engineering Analysiscovers the geochemistry, petrophysics, geomechanics, and economics of unconventional shale oil plays. The text uses a step-by-step approach to demonstrate industry-standard workflows for calculating resource volume and optimizing the extraction process. Volume highlights include: Methods for rock and fluid characterization of unconventional shale plays A workflow for analyzing wells with stimulated reservoir volume regions An unconventional approach to unTable of ContentsContributors xiii Preface xv 1 Introduction to Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources 1Mustafa M. Alhubail and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Overview of Shale Revolution 2 1.2.1 What Led to the Shale Phenomenon? 3 1.2.2 Importance of Recent Unconventional Resource Discoveries 4 1.3 Basic Definitions and Classifications 5 1.3.1 Conventional and Unconventional Resources 5 1.3.2 Unconventional Oil-Bearing Sediments 6 1.3.3 Unconventional Natural Gas Resources 6 1.4 Global Description of Unconventional Plays 8 1.4.1 North America Unconventional Plays 9 1.4.2 South America Unconventional Plays 20 1.4.3 Europe Unconventional Plays 24 1.4.4 Middle East Unconventional Plays 30 1.4.5 Africa Unconventional Plays 31 1.4.6 Asia Unconventional Plays 33 1.4.7 Australia Unconventional Plays 36 1.5 Unconventional Resources Interpretation Workflow 37 1.5.1 Workflow of Unconventional Reservoirs 37 1.6 Future Projection and Challenges 38 1.7 General Remarks 39 1.8 Problems 39 Additional Reading 40 References 40 2 Petrophysical Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 45Negar Nazari, Mustafa M. Alhubail, Sherifa E. Cudjoe, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 2.1 Background 45 2.2 Petrophysics 45 2.2.1 Evaluation of Rock Properties 46 2.2.2 Shale Volume 46 2.2.3 Gamma Ray Spectroscopy 48 2.3 Lithology Evaluation 51 2.3.1 Lithology Measurements Using Cross-Plots 52 2.3.2 Lithology Measurements Using a Combination of Logs 53 2.3.3 Lithology Measurements Using the Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy Techniques 57 2.4 Porosity 58 2.4.1 Porosity Measurement 60 2.4.2 NMR Core Porosity for Shales 71 2.5 Pore-Size Distribution 75 2.5.1 Pore-Size Distribution Using NMR Logging 75 2.5.2 Pore-Size Distribution Using Nitrogen Adsorption 78 2.6 Permeability 80 2.6.1 Unsteady-State Permeability Measurement Methods 81 2.6.2 Single Phase Permeability Measurements 89 2.6.3 NMR Permeability 91 2.6.4 Relative Permeability 95 2.6.5 NMR Capillary Pressure 99 2.6.6 Relative Permeability from NMR Pseudocapillary Pressure 99 2.7 Saturation 100 2.7.1 Techniques for Calculating Water Saturation 100 2.7.2 Resistivity Logs 100 2.7.3 NMR Saturation Estimation 104 2.8 Wettability 105 2.8.1 Wettability Measurement 105 2.9 Hydrocarbon Pore Volume and Reserve Estimation 110 2.9.1 Volumetric Analysis Theory 110 2.10 Problems 115 Additional Reading 117 References 117 3 Petroleum Geochemistry in Organic-Rich Shale Reservoirs 131Sherifa E. Cudjoe, Mustafa M. Alhubail, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 3.1 Background 131 3.2 Evolution of Organic Matter 131 3.2.1 Diagenesis 132 3.2.2 Catagenesis 132 3.2.3 Metagenesis 133 3.3 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 133 3.4 Kerogen, Bitumen, and/or Pyrobitumen 134 3.4.1 Classification of Kerogen 136 3.5 Vitrinite Reflectance 138 3.6 Solid Bitumen Reflectance 139 3.7 Organic Porosity 140 3.8 Methods of Determining Source Rock Potential 142 3.8.1 Direct Combustion 143 3.8.2 Indirect Method 143 3.8.3 Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Method 143 3.8.4 In-Situ Measurements 151 3.9 Original TOC and Hydrocarbon Yield Determinations 160 3.9.1 Organic Porosity from Rock-Eval Parameters 163 3.10 Thermal Maturity and Source Rock Assessment 165 3.10.1 Biological Markers (Biomarkers) 165 3.10.2 Diamondoids 168 3.11 Raman Spectroscopy Analysis of Thermal Maturity in Kerogen 170 3.11.1 Thermal Maturity Controls of Organic Matter Types in LEF Samples 171 3.11.2 Maturity-Related Changes 176 3.12 Drifts Analysis of Kerogen Maturity 176 3.13 Problems 179 Additional Reading 182 References 182 4 Application of Imaging Techniques in the Characterization of Organic-Rich Shales 189Sherifa E. Cudjoe and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 4.1 Background 189 4.2 X-ray Microcomputed Tomography (X-ray Micro-CT) 190 4.2.1 Operation of X-Ray Micro-CT 192 4.2.2 Sample Preparation 194 4.2.3 X-ray Micro-CT Scanning Procedure 196 4.2.4 Image Reconstruction 198 4.2.5 Application of X-ray Micro-CT on Shale Samples 200 4.2.6 Image Visualization and Processing 203 4.2.7 Estimating Porosity from CT number (CTN) of CT Images 209 4.2.8 Permeability Estimation from CT scanner 212 4.2.9 Two-Phase Fluid Saturations 212 4.3 X-Ray Nano-CT 213 4.3.1 Sample Preparation for X-Ray Nano-CT 214 4.3.2 In-Situ Wettability and Spontaneous Imbibition at Nanoscale 214 4.4 Electron Microscopy 217 4.4.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 217 4.4.2 SEM/BSE Images of Various Ultratight, Organic-Rich Formations 220 4.4.3 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry (EDS/EDX) 228 4.4.4 Quantitative Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electron Microscopy (QEMSCAN) 235 4.4.5 Focused Ion Beam-Scanning Electron Microscopy (FIB-SEM) 241 4.4.6 Three-Dimensional (3D) Rock Model 243 4.4.7 Pore Network Model (PNM) and Pore Size Distribution (PSD) 245 4.4.8 Permeability Estimation 249 4.5 Broad Ion Beam-Scanning Electron Microscopy (BIB-SEM) 249 4.5.1 Sample Preparation, BIB-SEM Acquisition and Processing 250 4.6 Acknowledgment 251 4.7 Problems on Micro-CT and Nano-CT 252 4.8 Problems on Electron Microscopy 252 Additional Reading 257 References 257 5 Geomechanical Properties of Unconventional Reservoirs 265Mustafa M. Alhubail, Anil Misra, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 5.1 Background 265 5.2 Basic Concepts and Definitions 265 5.2.1 Stress 265 5.2.2 Strain 266 5.2.3 Elastic Constants 266 5.2.4 Poisson’s Ratio 267 5.3 Stresses and Pressure Gradients 269 5.3.1 Vertical Stress and Overburden Pressure 269 5.3.2 Effective Vertical Stress 270 5.3.3 Effective Horizontal Stress 271 5.3.4 Biot’s Poroelastic Constant 271 5.3.5 Horizontal Stresses and Fracturing Pressure 272 5.4 Well-Logging Measurements to Determine the Elastic Parameters 277 5.4.1 Calculating the Dynamic Moduli 277 5.4.2 Correlations for Static Moduli 281 5.5 Identifying the Geomechanical Sweet Spots 282 5.5.1 Brittleness Index 283 5.6 General Remarks 290 5.7 Problems 291 Additional Reading 294 References 294 6 Hydraulic Fracturing 299Mustafa M. Alhubail and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 6.1 Background 299 6.2 Fundamentals of Hydraulic Fracturing 300 6.2.1 Fracture Geometry 301 6.2.2 Fracture Conductivity 301 6.2.3 Folds of Increase 305 6.2.4 Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing 307 6.2.5 Stress Shadow 310 6.2.6 Zipper Fracturing 311 6.2.7 Fracture Hits 312 6.2.8 Surface Pumps 315 6.2.9 Minifrac and DFIT Tests 316 6.2.10 Microseismic Monitoring 320 6.2.11 Stimulated Reservoir Volume 321 6.3 Fracturing Fluids 323 6.3.1 Purpose 323 6.3.2 Fracturing Fluid Types, Properties and Selection Process 324 6.3.3 Rheology of Fracturing Fluids 326 6.3.4 Damage of Fracturing Fluid and Fracture Cleanup 329 6.3.5 Fracturing Fluids Additives 329 6.4 Proppant 333 6.4.1 Purpose 334 6.4.2 Proppant Characteristics and Selection Process 334 6.4.3 Proppant Types 337 6.4.4 Proppant Flowback 339 6.4.5 Proppant Transport 340 6.4.6 Proppant Schedule 341 6.5 Modeling of Hydraulic Fractures 341 6.5.1 Importance of Modeling 342 6.5.2 Governing Processes of the Models 342 6.5.3 Modeling History 342 6.6 Problems 351 Additional Reading 352 References 352 7 Phase Behavior of Shale Oil and Gas 359Xiaoli Li, Jyun-Syung Tsau, Qinwen Fu, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 7.1 Background 359 7.2 Compositional Analyses of Shale Fluids 359 7.2.1 Subsurface Sampling 360 7.2.2 Surface Sampling 363 7.3 Phase Behavior and PVT Experiments 368 7.3.1 Phase Diagrams 368 7.3.2 PVT Experiments and Data Quality Check 372 7.4 Equation of State (EOS) 379 7.4.1 Cubic Equation of State 379 7.4.2 Stability Analysis 381 7.4.3 Confinement/Pore Proximity Effect on Phase Behavior 382 7.4.4 Phase Diagrams of Bakken, Eagle Ford, and Wolfcamp Fluids 390 7.4.5 Diffusion Coefficient 393 7.5 EOS Regression to Experimental Data 393 7.6 Minimum Miscibility Pressure 395 7.6.1 Experimental Methods 396 7.6.2 Analytical Methods 402 7.6.3 Numerical Methods 403 7.6.4 Correlation Methods 403 7.7 Problems 403 Additional Reading 408 References 408 8 Fluid Flow Through Nanosized Pores 413Mohammad Kazemi, Ali Takbiri-Borujeni, Sherifa E. Cudjoe, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 8.1 Background 413 8.2 Pore Size Distribution 414 8.3 Adsorption 414 8.4 Flow Regimes 418 8.5 Modeling Techniques 421 8.5.1 Fluid Transport in Confined Enclosures 421 8.5.2 Apparent Permeability of Shale 421 8.5.3 Transport in Organic Nanopores 423 8.5.4 Molecular Simulations 424 8.5.5 Molecular Structure of Kerogen 424 8.5.6 Multiscale Modeling Techniques 427 8.6 Lattice Boltzmann Model (LBM) 428 8.6.1 LBM Simulation 431 8.6.2 Implementation of LBM Simulation in Organic Nanopores 432 8.6.3 Apparent Permeability 433 8.7 Problems 434 Additional Reading 434 References 434 Appendix 439 9 Decline Curve and Rate Transient Analysis 445Mustafa M. Alhubail, Mojdeh Rasoulzadeh, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 9.1 Background 445 9.2 Purpose of Decline Curves 445 9.3 Decline Curve Assumptions and Limitations 446 9.4 Traditional Decline Curve Models 447 9.5 Arps’s Models 447 9.5.1 Exponential Decline Model 448 9.5.2 Determination of Exponential Decline Graphically 448 9.5.3 Harmonic Decline Model 451 9.5.4 Determination of Harmonic Decline Graphically 451 9.5.5 Hyperbolic Decline Model 452 9.5.6 Determination of Hyperbolic Decline Parameters 454 9.6 Modern Decline Curve Models 456 9.6.1 Modified Hyperbolic Model 457 9.6.2 Power-Law Exponential Model 459 9.6.3 Stretched Exponential Model 460 9.6.4 Logistic Growth Model 462 9.6.5 Duong Model 462 9.7 Rate Transient Analysis 464 9.7.1 Purpose and Features of RTA 464 9.7.2 RTA Concept 465 9.7.3 Type Curves 466 9.7.4 Type Curve Methods 467 9.7.5 Square Root Time and Flowing Material Balance Plots 471 9.7.6 Flow Regimes 472 9.8 Problems 478 Additional Reading 494 References 494 10 Petroleum Economics of Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 499Mustafa M. Alhubail, Hajar Aghababa, and Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi 10.1 Background 499 10.2 Effect of Shale Oil/Gas Developments on Economics and Energy Security 499 10.3 Fundamentals of Petroleum Economics 503 10.3.1 Business Expenditures 503 10.3.2 Basic Cash Flow 504 10.3.3 Interest Rate 508 10.3.4 Future Value 509 10.3.5 Present Value 509 10.3.6 Net Present Value (NPV) 510 10.3.7 Rate of Return (ROR) 511 10.3.8 Payout 512 10.4 Fiscal Regimes and Contracts 513 10.4.1 The Concessionary System (Royalty/Tax System) 513 10.4.2 The Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs) 513 10.4.3 Service Contracts 515 10.5 Decision, Uncertainty, and Risk Analysis 516 10.6 Chapter Project 517 10.6.1 Project Data 518 10.6.2 Project Calculations 518 10.7 Problems 525 Additional Reading 526 References 526 11 Environmental Aspects of Shale Hydrocarbon Reservoir Developments 527Reza Barati Ghahfarokhi, Stephen Randtke, and Edward Peltier 11.1 Background 527 11.2 Water Management and Reuse 527 11.2.1 Basic Terminology Related to Water Management and Reuse 527 11.2.2 Water Cycle in Oil and Gas Production 529 11.2.3 Water Acquisition for Hydraulic Fracturing 531 11.2.4 Flowback and Produced Water Quantity and Quality 533 11.2.5 Flowback and Produced Water Reuse 535 11.3 Chemicals used in Fracturing Fluids 539 11.4 Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Resources 546 11.5 Induced Seismicity 549 11.6 Air Pollution 551 11.7 Problems 552 Additional Reading 552 References 552 Index 555

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Book SynopsisA global exploration of coal geology, from production and use to chemical properties and coal petrology Coal Geology, 3rd Edition, offers a revised and updated edition of this popular book which provides a comprehensive overview of the field of coal geology including coal geophysics, hydrogeology and mining. Also covered in this volume are fully revised coverage of resource and reserve definitions, equipment and recording techniques together with the use of coal as an alternative energy source as well as environmental implications. This third edition provides a textbook ideally suited to anyone studying, researching or working in the field of coal geology, geotechnical engineering and environmental science. Fills the gap between academic aspects of coal geology and the practical role of geology in the coal industry Examines sedimentological and stratigraphical geology, together with mining, geophysics, hydrogeology, environmental issTable of ContentsPreface to Third Edition xv Preface to Second Edition xvii Preface to First Edition xix List of Acronyms xxi 1 Preview 1 1.1 Scope 1 1.2 Coal Geology 1 1.3 Coal Use 2 1.4 Background 2 2 Origin of Coal 5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 Sedimentation of Coal and Coal-Bearing Sequences 5 2.2.1 Depositional Models 5 2.2.2 The Traditional Model 6 2.2.2.1 Prodelta and Delta Front Facies 8 2.2.2.2 Lower Delta Plain Facies 8 2.2.2.3 Upper Delta Plain Facies 11 2.2.2.4 Fluvial Facies 11 2.2.3 Modern Peat Analogues 11 2.2.3.1 Palaeobotanical Composition of Ancient Mires 19 2.2.3.2 Case Studies 24 2.2.4 Sequence Stratigraphy 25 2.2.5 Facies Correlation 27 2.2.6 Facies Maps 29 2.2.6.1 Seam Splitting 31 2.2.6.2 Washouts 34 2.2.6.3 Floor Rolls 34 2.2.6.4 Coal Seam Thickness Variations 35 2.2.6.5 Interburden/Overburden Thickness 37 2.2.6.6 Coal Seam Quality Variations 38 2.3 Structural Effects on Coal 40 2.3.1 Syndepositional Effects 40 2.3.1.1 Microstructural Effects 40 2.3.1.2 Macrostructural Effects 41 2.3.2 Post-Depositional Effects 44 2.3.2.1 Jointing/Cleats in Coal 44 2.3.2.2 Faulting 45 2.3.2.3 Folding 50 2.3.2.4 Igneous Associations 52 2.3.2.5 Mineral Precipitates 53 3 Age and Occurrence of Coal 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Plate Tectonics 57 3.3 Stratigraphy 61 3.4 Age and Geographical Distribution of Coal 64 3.4.1 United States of America 67 3.4.2 Canada 74 3.4.3 Europe 75 3.4.3.1 Albania 75 3.4.3.2 Austria 75 3.4.3.3 Belgium 75 3.4.3.4 Bosnia 75 3.4.3.5 Bulgaria 75 3.4.3.6 Czech Republic 75 3.4.3.7 Denmark 76 3.4.3.8 France 76 3.4.3.9 Germany 76 3.4.3.10 Georgia 76 3.4.3.11 Greece 77 3.4.3.12 Greenland 77 3.4.3.13 Holland 77 3.4.3.14 Hungary 77 3.4.3.15 Ireland 77 3.4.3.16 Italy 77 3.4.3.17 Kosovo 77 3.4.3.18 Montenegro 78 3.4.3.19 Poland 78 3.4.3.20 Portugal 78 3.4.3.21 Romania 78 3.4.3.22 Serbia 78 3.4.3.23 Spain 79 3.4.3.24 Spitzbergen 79 3.4.3.25 Sweden 79 3.4.3.26 Turkey 79 3.4.3.27 United Kingdom 79 3.4.4 Africa 80 3.4.4.1 Angola 80 3.4.4.2 Botswana 80 3.4.4.3 Cameroon 81 3.4.4.4 Egypt 81 3.4.4.5 Ethiopia 81 3.4.4.6 Malagasy Republic 81 3.4.4.7 Malawi 81 3.4.4.8 Mali 81 3.4.4.9 Morocco 81 3.4.4.10 Mozambique 82 3.4.4.11 Namibia 82 3.4.4.12 Niger 82 3.4.4.13 Nigeria 82 3.4.4.14 South Africa 82 3.4.4.15 Swaziland 83 3.4.4.16 Tanzania 83 3.4.4.17 Zaire 83 3.4.4.18 Zambia 83 3.4.4.19 Zimbabwe 83 3.4.5 The Indian Subcontinent 84 3.4.5.1 Afghanistan 84 3.4.5.2 Bangladesh 84 3.4.5.3 India 84 3.4.5.4 Iran 85 3.4.5.5 Pakistan 85 3.4.6 Central and South America 85 3.4.6.1 Argentina 85 3.4.6.2 Bolivia 86 3.4.6.3 Brazil 86 3.4.6.4 Chile 86 3.4.6.5 Colombia 87 3.4.6.6 Costa Rica 87 3.4.6.7 Ecuador 87 3.4.6.8 Mexico 87 3.4.6.9 Peru 87 3.4.6.10 Uruguay 88 3.4.6.11 Venezuela 88 3.4.7 Commonwealth of Independent States 88 3.4.7.1 Kazakhstan 88 3.4.7.2 Russian Federation 88 3.4.7.3 Tajikistan 89 3.4.7.4 Ukraine 89 3.4.7.5 Uzbekistan 89 3.4.8 Far East 89 3.4.8.1 Brunei 89 3.4.8.2 Democratic Republic of (North) Korea 90 3.4.8.3 Indonesia 90 3.4.8.4 Japan 91 3.4.8.5 Laos 91 3.4.8.6 Malaysia 91 3.4.8.7 Mongolia 91 3.4.8.8 Myanmar (Burma) 92 3.4.8.9 People’s Republic of China 92 3.4.8.10 People’s Republic of Vietnam 93 3.4.8.11 Philippines 93 3.4.8.12 Republic of (South) Korea 94 3.4.8.13 Taiwan 94 3.4.8.14 Thailand 94 3.4.9 Australasia 95 3.4.9.1 Australia 95 3.4.9.2 New Zealand 96 3.4.9.3 Antarctica 96 4 Coal as a Substance 97 4.1 Physical Description of Coal 97 4.1.1 Macroscopic Description of Coal 97 4.1.1.1 Humic Coals 97 4.1.1.2 Sapropelic Coals 101 4.1.2 Microscopic Description of Coal 102 4.1.3 Mineral Content of Coals 106 4.1.4 Coal Petrography 113 4.2 Coalification (Rank) 116 4.2.1 Coalification 116 4.2.2 Causes of Coalification 118 4.2.2.1 Temperature 120 4.2.2.2 Time 120 4.2.2.3 Pressure 120 4.2.2.4 Radioactivity 121 4.3 Coal Quality 121 4.3.1 Chemical Properties of Coal 122 4.3.1.1 Basis of Analytical Data 122 4.3.1.2 Proximate Analysis 123 4.3.1.3 Ultimate Analysis 125 4.3.1.4 Other Analysis 126 4.3.2 Combustion Properties of Coal 127 4.3.2.1 Calorific Value 127 4.3.2.2 Ash Fusion Temperatures 128 4.3.2.3 Caking Tests 128 4.3.2.4 Coking Tests 129 4.3.3 Physical Properties of Coal 131 4.3.3.1 Mechanical Strength 131 4.3.3.2 Density 132 4.3.3.3 Hardness and Grindability 132 4.3.3.4 Abrasion Index 133 4.3.3.5 Particle Size Distribution 133 4.3.3.6 Float–Sink Tests 133 4.3.4 Coal Oxidation 135 4.4 Classification of Coals 136 4.4.1 North America 136 4.4.2 United Kingdom 136 4.4.3 Europe 137 4.4.4 Australia 146 4.4.5 South Africa 146 4.4.6 United Nations 146 4.4.7 Russia 148 4.4.8 People’s Republic of China 149 5 Coal Sampling and Analysis 151 5.1 Coal Sampling 151 5.1.1 In-Situ Coal Sampling 151 5.1.1.1 Grab Samples 151 5.1.1.2 Channel Samples 151 5.1.1.3 Pillar Samples 154 5.1.1.4 Core Samples 154 5.1.1.5 Cuttings Samples 155 5.1.1.6 Specimen Samples 155 5.1.1.7 Bulk Samples 156 5.1.1.8 Sample Storage 156 5.1.2 Ex-Situ Sampling 157 5.2 Coal Analysis 162 5.2.1 Outcrop/Core Samples 162 5.2.2 Bulk Samples 162 5.2.3 Ex-Situ Samples 162 6 Coal Exploration and Data Collection 169 6.1 Introduction 169 6.2 Field Techniques 169 6.2.1 Outcrop Mapping 172 6.2.2 Global Positioning System 179 6.2.3 Portable Personal Computers 179 6.2.4 Remote Sensing 180 6.2.4.1 Satellite Imagery 180 6.2.4.2 Airborne Imagery 181 6.3 Drilling 183 6.3.1 Openhole Drilling 184 6.3.2 Core Drilling 188 6.3.3 Portable Drilling 189 6.3.4 Core and Openhole Logging 190 6.3.4.1 Core Logging 190 6.3.4.2 Openhole Logging 193 6.4 Geotechnical Properties 194 6.4.1 Strength 195 6.4.2 Weathering 196 6.4.3 Texture and Structure 196 6.4.4 Colour 196 6.4.5 Grain Size 198 6.4.6 Total Core Recovery 198 6.4.7 Solid Core Recovery 198 6.4.8 Rock Quality Designation 198 6.4.9 Fracture Spacing Index 198 6.4.10 Fracture Logging 199 6.4.11 Rock Mass Rating 201 6.5 Computer Applications 201 7 Coal Resources and Reserves 207 7.1 Introduction 207 7.2 Coal Resources and Reserves Classification 208 7.2.1 Australia 209 7.2.1.1 Coal Resources 209 7.2.1.2 Coal Reserves 211 7.2.2 Canada 211 7.2.3 Europe (Including the UK) 212 7.2.4 South Africa 213 7.2.5 United Nations 213 7.2.6 United States of America 216 7.2.7 Russian Federation 219 7.2.8 People’s Republic of China 222 7.2.9 India 222 7.2.10 Other Countries 224 7.3 Reporting of Resources/Reserves 225 7.3.1 Coal Resources and Reserves 225 7.3.2 Coal Resources and Reserves Maps 226 7.3.3 Calculation of Coal Resources 227 7.3.3.1 In-Situ Tonnage Calculations 227 7.3.3.2 Geostatistics and Computer Modelling 229 7.3.3.3 Opencast Coal Mining 232 7.3.3.4 Geological Losses 233 7.3.3.5 Reserves Reporting 235 7.3.3.6 Reserve Economics 235 7.4 World Coal Reserves and Production 235 7.4.1 World Coal Reserves 235 7.4.2 World Coal Production 237 7.4.2.1 Coal Production Statistics 237 7.4.2.2 Regional Production and Consumption 241 7.4.2.3 Reserves/Production Ratio 242 8 Geophysics of Coal 243 8.1 Introduction 243 8.2 Physical Properties of Coal-Bearing Sequences 244 8.2.1 Density 244 8.2.2 Seismic Velocity 244 8.2.3 Seismic Reflection Coefficients 245 8.2.4 Magnetic Susceptibility 245 8.2.5 Electrical Conductivity 245 8.2.6 Radiometric Properties 245 8.3 Surface Geophysical Methods 246 8.3.1 Seismic Surveys 246 8.3.1.1 Seismic Reflection Surveys 246 8.3.1.2 Seismic Refraction Surveys 256 8.3.1.3 Passive Seismic Surveys 257 8.3.2 Gravity Surveys 257 8.3.3 Magnetic Surveys 259 8.3.4 Electrical Methods 262 8.3.4.1 Electrical Resistivity Methods 262 8.3.4.2 Ground-Penetrating Radar Methods 262 8.3.4.3 Electromagnetic Surveys 263 8.3.5 Radioactive Methods 264 8.4 Underground Geophysical Methods 264 8.4.1 In-Seam Seismic Surveys 264 8.4.2 Underground Gravity Surveys 269 8.4.3 Ground-Penetrating Radar Techniques 269 8.5 Geophysical Borehole Logging 269 8.5.1 Radiation Logs 271 8.5.1.1 Gamma-Ray Log 271 8.5.1.2 Density Log 273 8.5.1.3 Neutron Log 274 8.5.1.4 Gamma Spectrometry 276 8.5.2 Calliper Log 276 8.5.3 Electric Logs 277 8.5.4 Dipmeter Log 277 8.5.5 Sonic Log 278 8.5.6 Acoustic Scanning Tools 279 8.5.7 Temperature Log 280 8.5.8 Advanced Interpretation 282 9 Hydrogeology of Coal 289 9.1 Introduction 289 9.2 The Nature of Groundwater and Surface Flow 289 9.2.1 Surface Water 289 9.2.2 Groundwater 290 9.3 Hydrogeological Characteristics of Coals and Coal-Bearing Sequences 292 9.4 Collection and Handling of Hydrogeological Data 295 9.4.1 Surface Water 295 9.4.2 Groundwater 295 9.5 Groundwater Inflows in Mines 298 9.5.1 Dewatering of Open-pit Mines 299 9.5.2 Dewatering of Underground Mines 306 9.5.3 Water Quality 307 9.6 Groundwater Rebound 307 10 Geology and Coal Mining 311 10.1 Introduction 311 10.2 Underground Mining 312 10.2.1 Geological Factors 313 10.2.2 Mining Methods 314 10.2.2.1 Longwall Mining 314 10.2.2.2 Room-and-Pillar Mining 316 10.2.2.3 Stress Fields 318 10.2.2.4 Coal Bursts 326 10.2.2.5 Strata and Air Temperatures 327 10.2.2.6 Spontaneous Combustion 328 10.3 Surface Mining 328 10.3.1 Geological Factors 328 10.3.2 Mining Equipment 330 10.3.2.1 Dragline 330 10.3.2.2 Powered Shovels 331 10.3.2.3 Bucketwheel Excavators 334 10.3.3 Surface Mining Methods 335 10.3.3.1 Strip Mining 335 10.3.3.2 Opencast or Open-pit Mining 335 10.3.3.3 Highwall Mining 338 10.4 Coal Production 339 10.4.1 Underground Coal Production 340 10.4.2 Surface Coal Production 340 11 Coal as an Alternative Energy Source 343 11.1 Introduction 343 11.2 Gas in Coal 343 11.2.1 Coal-bed Methane 345 11.2.1.1 Coal-bed Methane Generation 345 11.2.1.2 Coal-bed Methane Retention 346 11.2.1.3 Coal-bed Methane Production 349 11.3 Underground Coal Gasification 365 11.3.1 Underground Coal Gasification: The Case For and Against 365 11.3.2 Underground Coal Gasification Technology 366 11.3.2.1 Coal Gasification Reactions 366 11.3.3 Global Development of Underground Coal Gasification 373 11.4 Coal as a Liquid Fuel 375 11.4.1 Petroleum Potential of Coal 375 11.4.2 Coal Properties as an Oil-Source Rock 375 11.4.3 Coal Liquefaction Technology 378 11.4.4 Future Development of Coal Liquefaction 379 11.4.5 Coal-Sourced Oil and Gas Occurrences 381 12 Coal Use and the Environment 385 12.1 Introduction 385 12.2 Coalmining 386 12.2.1 Effects on Water Supply 387 12.2.1.1 Surface Water 387 12.2.1.2 Underground Water 387 12.2.2 Contamination of Mine Waters 387 12.2.3 Other Water Pollution 391 12.2.4 Run-off, Erosion, and Sedimentation 391 12.2.5 Spoil Dumping 392 12.2.6 Spontaneous Combustion 396 12.2.7 Dust Suppression 397 12.2.8 Subsidence 398 12.3 Coal Use 401 12.3.1 Electricity Generation 404 12.3.1.1 Emissions 405 12.3.1.2 Flue Gas Desulfurisation 409 12.3.1.3 Other Emission Controls 410 12.3.1.4 Fluidised-Bed Combustion 411 12.3.2 Other Major Users 413 12.3.2.1 Iron and Steel Production 413 12.3.2.2 Industrial Use 414 12.3.2.3 Domestic Use 415 12.3.3 Coal Transportation 415 12.4 Health 415 12.5 Carbon Capture and Storage 416 12.6 Environmental Regulations 418 12.6.1 Introduction 418 12.6.2 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Conventions 419 12.6.3 European Union 420 12.6.4 World Bank 420 12.6.5 Kyoto Protocol 420 12.6.6 Copenhagen Accord 421 12.6.7 Durban Platform for Enhanced Action 421 12.6.8 Paris Agreement 421 12.7 Future Implications 422 13 Coal Marketing 423 13.1 Introduction 423 13.2 Coal Quality 423 13.3 Transportation 425 13.3.1 Land Transportation 425 13.3.1.1 Conveyors 426 13.3.1.2 Road 426 13.3.1.3 Rail 427 13.3.2 Water Transportation 428 13.3.2.1 Barges 428 13.3.2.2 Bulk Carriers 429 13.4 Coal Markets 430 13.5 Coal Contracts 431 13.5.1 Spot Purchases 431 13.5.2 Term Contracts 431 13.5.3 Indexed Contracts 432 13.6 Coal Price and Indexing 433 Appendix A List of International and National Standards Used in Coal and Coke Analysis and Evaluation 435 A.1 British Standards Institution (BS) 435 A.2 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 438 A.3 ASTM International, Formerly Known as American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 441 A.4 Standards Association of Australia (AS) 444 A.5 National Standards of People’s Republic of China 446 A.6 Bureau of Indian Standards 449 A.7 State Standards of Russia – GOST (GOST = Gosudarstvennyy Standart) 451 Appendix B Tables of True and Apparent Dip, Slope Angles, Gradients, and Percentage Slope 455 Appendix C Calorific Values Expressed in Different Units 457 Appendix D Coal Statistics 463 Appendix E Methane Units Converter 465 Glossary 467 Bibliography 475 Index 497

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Book SynopsisPeople have been interested in caves for a very long time. Our distant ancestors used them for shelter, as sources of water, and as places in which to conduct essential rituals. They adorned their walls with quite sophisticated artwork depicting both their existential and spiritual concerns. Caves feature in our mythology, they are used as places of worship in many cultures, and they are used throughout the world as places in which to store prized foodstuffs and wine. For at least two hundred years they have attracted scientists, artists, photographers, and recreational cavers. This book aims examines how caves form, the light they shed on past environments and climates, and the values, both environmental and cultural, that they provide to humanity. This second edition of Caves: Processes, Development,?and Management?is a welcome revision of the author''s earlier treatment released over twenty years ago. It has been updated, significantly expanded, and largely rewritteTable of ContentsPreface and Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Some Basic Propositions 1 1.2 Now the Details… 3 2 Caves and Karst 6 2.1 What Is a Cave? 6 2.2 What Is Karst? 7 2.3 Caves as Systems 9 2.4 Where Are the Deepest and Longest Caves? 14 3 Cave Hydrology 18 3.1 Basic Concepts in Karst Drainage Systems 18 3.2 Porosity and Permeability 20 3.4 Defining the Catchment of a Cave 30 3.5 Analysis of Karst Drainage Systems 32 3.6 Structure and Function of Karst Drainage Systems 41 3.7 Karst Hydrology of the Mammoth Cave Plateau, Kentucky 47 4 Processes of Rock Dissolution 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Karst Rocks 55 4.3 Processes of Dissolution of Karst Rocks 66 4.4 Hydrothermal Solution of Limestone 73 4.5 Solution of Evaporites 74 4.6 Solution of Silicates in MeteoricWaters 75 4.7 Caves in Quaternary Limestone in Southern Australia 77 5 Speleogenesis 86 5.1 Classifying Cave Systems 86 5.2 Controls of Rock Structure on Cave Development 89 5.3 Meteoric Speleogenesis, Unconfined and Confined 96 5.4 Hypogene Speleogenesis 115 5.5 Flank Margin Speleogenesis 120 5.6 Caves Formed in Gypsum 122 5.7 Lava Tubes, Weathering Caves, and Pseudokarst 123 5.8 Life History and Antiquity of Caves 126 5.9 Geological Control and theWorld’s Longest Cave 127 6 Cave Interior Deposits 138 6.1 Introduction 138 6.2 Carbonates 144 6.3 Controls over Carbonate Mineralogy 148 6.4 Other Cave Deposits Formed by Carbonate Minerals 149 6.5 Growth Rates of Speleothems 151 6.6 Important Non-carbonate Minerals 153 6.7 Ice in Caves 157 6.8 Other Minerals 158 6.9 Cave Deposits of the Nullarbor Plain, Australia 158 7 Cave Sediments 171 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Clastic Sediment Types 171 7.3 Processes of Sedimentation 172 7.4 Sediment Transport and Particle Size 185 7.5 Diagenesis of Cave Sediments 188 7.6 Stratigraphy and its Interpretation 189 7.7 Provenance Studies 190 7.8 Cave Sediments and Environmental History at Zhoukoudian, China 191 8 Dating Cave Deposits 198 8.1 The Importance of Dating Cave Deposits 198 8.2 Dating Techniques and the Quaternary Timescale 199 8.3 Palaeomagnetism 200 8.4 Uranium Series; Uranium-Thorium, Uranium-Lead 203 8.5 Radiocarbon 211 8.6 Other Dating Methods: Cosmogenic Radionuclides, and Tephrochronology 213 8.7 Timing Glacial and Interglacial Events in New Zealand 215 9 Cave Deposits and Past Climates 225 9.1 Introduction 225 9.2 Oxygen Isotope Analysis 226 9.3 The Last Glacial-Interglacial Temperature Record 228 9.4 Carbon Isotopes and Environmental Changes 234 9.5 Cyclone History in the Indo-Pacific Region 235 9.6 Other Proxy Records (Trace Elements, Annual Laminae, Pollen, Lipid iomarkers) 239 9.7 The Long Environmental History of the Nullarbor Plain, Australia 240 9.8 Some Speculations on the Future 245 10 Cave Ecology 248 10.1 Introduction 248 10.2 Classification of Cave Life and its Function 248 10.3 Adaptations and Modifications to Life in Darkness 249 10.4 Life Zones within Caves 252 10.5 The Cave as a Habitat 255 10.6 Energy Flows in Cave Ecosystems 261 10.7 Cave Microbiology 264 10.8 Origin and Dispersal of Cave-Dwelling Animals 267 10.9 Threats to Cave Fauna 270 10.10 Conservation of Biological Diversity in Caves 275 10.11 Caves and Ecosystem Services 277 10.12 White Nose Syndrome 280 10.13 Unravelling the Secrets of the Carrai Bat Cave 283 11 Cave Archaeology 292 11.1 Introduction 292 11.2 Prehistoric Uses of Caves 293 11.3 Cave Faunas and Hominids 294 11.4 Cave Art in Context 300 11.5 Depositional Environments in Caves 304 11.6 Cave Deposits and Biological Conservation 305 11.7 Taphonomy of Cave Deposits 306 11.8 Archaeology of Liang Bua Cave, Flores (the Hobbit Cave) 309 12 Historic Uses of Caves 318 12.1 Introduction 318 12.2 Caves as Shelter 318 12.3 Caves as Sacred Spaces 321 12.4 Caves as Sources of Raw Materials 324 12.5 Cave Tourism 333 12.6 Cave Dwellings in Turkey 335 13 Cave Management 342 13.1 Introduction -- Caves as Contested Spaces 344 13.2 Interpretation and Guide Training 345 13.3 Cave Lighting 348 13.4 Some Engineering Issues in Caves 349 13.5 Impacts of Visitors and Infrastructure on Show Caves 352 13.6 Radon Risk in Caves 358 13.7 Cave Cleaning and its Impacts 362 13.8 Impacts of Recreational Caving on Caves 362 13.9 Cave Rescue 367 13.10 Cave Inventories and Alternative Management Concepts 371 13.11 Rehabilitation and Restoration of Caves 374 13.12 Cave Classification and Management 376 13.13 Policy Approaches to Cave and Karst Protection 378 13.14 Management of the Gunung MuluWorld Heritage Area, Sarawak, Malaysia 379 14 Catchment Management in Karst 393 14.1 Introduction 393 14.2 Basic Concepts in Karst Management 393 14.3 Defining Karst Catchments 395 14.4 Vegetation and Caves 398 14.5 Accelerated Soil Loss in Karst 400 14.6 Agricultural Impacts 402 14.7 Fire Management in Karst 412 14.8 Conservation Issues in Karst 414 14.9 Assessing Vulnerability in Karst Management 415 14.10 Understanding Disputes Over Cave and Karst Resources 421 14.11 The IUCN Guidelines for Cave and Karst Protection 423 15 Documentation of Caves 432 15.1 Geoheritage Assessment 432 15.2 Cave Mapping 436 15.3 Cave Photography 442 15.4 3D Scanning of Caves 449 15.5 Drones 453 15.6 MappingWorld Heritage Caves in Gunung Mulu National Park, Malaysia 454 References 457 Glossary of Cave and Karst Terminology 461 Further Reading 474 Index 475

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Book SynopsisContemporary soil science and conservation methods of effective forestry Forests and the soils that serve as their foundation cover almost a third of the world's land area. Soils influenced by forest cover have different properties than soils cultivated for agricultural use. Ecology and Management of Forest Soils provides a clear and comprehensive overview of the composition, structure, processes, and management of the largest terrestrial ecosystem. From composition and biogeochemistry to dynamics and management, this essential text enables readers to understand the vital components of sustainable, long-term forest soil fertility. The interaction of trees, animals, microbes, and vegetation alter the biology and chemistry of forest soilsthese dynamics are also subject to human management, requiring conservationists to be conversant in the philosophy and methods of soil science. Now in its fifth edition, this classic text includes new coverage of uptake of Table of ContentsPreface vii Dedication ix In Memoriam: Richard F. Fisher xi 1 Soil Foundations 1 2 Forest Soils Across Space and Time 13 3 Minerals in Forest Soils 45 4 Organic Matter in Forest Soils 59 5 Physics in Forest Soils: Soil Structure, Water, and Temperature 83 6 Life in Forest Soils 109 7 Chemistry of Soil Surfaces and Solutions 139 8 Biogeochemistry 163 9 Tree Species Influences 205 10 Characterizing Soils Across Space and Time 237 11 Soil Management: Harvesting, Site Preparation, Conversion, and Drainage 265 12 Fire Influences 293 13 Nutrition Management 319 14 Managing Forest Soils for Carbon Sequestration 351 15 Evidence‐Based Approaches 373 References 393 Index 435

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Book SynopsisApplying tools for data analysis to the rapidly increasing volume of data about the Earth An ever-increasing volume of Earth data is being gathered. These data are big not only in size but also in their complexity, different formats, and varied scientific disciplines. As such, big data are disrupting traditional research. New methods and platforms, such as the cloud, are tackling these new challenges. Big Data Analytics in Earth, Atmospheric, and Ocean Sciences explores new tools for the analysis and display of the rapidly increasing volume of data about the Earth. Volume highlights include: An introduction to the breadth of big earth data analytics Architectures developed to support big earth data analytics Different analysis and statistical methods for big earth data Current applications of analytics to Earth science data Challenges to fully implementing big data analytics Table of ContentsContributors vii Preface xiii 1 An Introduction to Big Data Analytics 1Erik Hoel Part I: Big Data Analytics Architecture 29 2 Introduction to Big Data Analytics Architecture 31Thomas Huang 3 Scaling Big Earth Science Data Systems Via Cloud Computing 35Hook Hua, Gerald Manipon, and Sujen Shah 4 NOAA Open Data Dissemination (Formerly NOAA Big Data Project/Program) 65Adrienne Simonson, Otis Brown, Jenny Dissen, Edward J. Kearns, Kate Szura, and Jonathan Brannock 5 A Data Cube Architecture for Cloud-Based Earth Observation Analytics 95Peter Wang, Robert Woodcock, Ronnie Taib, Matt Paget, and Alex Held 6 Open Source Exploratory Analysis of Big Earth Data With Nexus 115Thomas Huang, Edward M. Armstrong, Nga T. Chung, Eamon Ford, rank R. Greguska III, Joseph C. Jacob, Brian D. Wilson, Elizabeth Yam, and Alice Yepremyan 7 Benchmark Comparison of Cloud Analytics Methods Applied to Earth Observations 137Christopher Lynnes, Michael M. Little, Thomas Huang, Joseph Charles Jacob, Chaowei Phil Yang, Mahabaleshwara Hegde, and Hailiang Zhang Part II: Analysis Methods for Big Earth Data 153 8 Introduction to Analysis Methods for Big Earth Data 155Christopher Lynnes 9 Spatial Statistics for Big Data Analytics in the Ocean and Atmosphere: Perspectives, Challenges, and Opportunities 159Kevin A. Butler and Tiffany C. Vance 10 Giving Scientists Back Their Flow: Analyzing Big Geoscience Data Sets in the Cloud 177Niall Robinson, Theo McCaie, Jacob Tomlinson, Alex Hilson, Tom Powell, Rachel Prudden, Megan Fitzsimon, and Alberto Arribas 11 The Distributed Oceanographic Match-Up Service 195Shawn R. Smith, Mark A. Bourassa, Jocelyn Elya, Thomas Huang, Kevin Michael Gill, Frank R. Greguska III, Nga Chung, Vardis Tsontos, Benjamin Holt, Thomas Cram, and Zaihua Ji Part III: Big Earth Data Applications 221 12 Introduction to Big Earth Data Applications 223Christopher Lynnes and Tiffany C. Vance 13 Topological Methods for Pattern Detection in Climate Data 227Grzegorz Muszynski, Vitaliy Kurlin, Dmitriy Morozov, Michael Wehner, Karthik Kashinath, and Prabhat Ram 14 Exploring Large Scale Data Analysis and Visualization for Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Data Discovery Using NoSQL Technologies 243Bhargavi Krishna, Kyle Dumas, and Giri Prakash 15 Demonstrating Condensed Massive Satellite Data Sets for Rapid Data Exploration: The MODIS Land Surface Temperatures of Antarctica 259G. E. Grant, D. W. Gallaher, and Q. Lv 16 Developing Big Data Infrastructure for Analyzing AIS Vessel Tracking Data on a Global Scale 279Rob Bochenek, Jessica Austin, John-Marc Dunaway, and Tiffany C. Vance 17 Future of Big Earth Data Analytics 299Christopher Lynnes and Thomas Huang Index 311

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Book SynopsisThe most comprehensive and in-depth study of the formation, practical applications, history, and natural recycling of salt, including the global and geological implications of its formative process, natural movement, and development in the Earth''s subsurface. Like water, salt is one of the most commonplace items in our everyday lives. From the omnipresent shaker that you see on every table in every restaurant, to the ocean water we swim in, salt is something that we rarely think about. But there is much more to the story of salt than most people think. Not only is salt a natural resource that must be captured and refined for public consumption, but salt domes, large deposits of salt that form under the ground, are important for finding and drilling for petroleum and natural gas. Salt is so important that, in ancient times, it was sometimes used as a currency in various cultures around the world, and it has been used as a food preservative, long before refrigeration waTable of ContentsAbstract vii Introduction 1 PART 1 Salts in Earth’s Crust: Composition, Tectonic and Kinematic History, Salt-Naphthide Parakinesis 11 1 Geological-Tectonic Review of World Salt-Bearing Basins 13 1.1 Introduction 13 1.2 Salt-Bearing Basins of Eurasia 25 1.2.1 Geotectonic and Mineragenic Review 25 1.2.2 Brief Geological-Mineragenic Description of the Largest Salt-Bearing Basins 31 1.2.2.1 Salt-Bearing Basins of Europe 31 1.2.2.2 Asian Salt-Bearing Basins 72 1.3 Salt-Bearing Basin of North America 105 1.3.1 Geotectonic and Mineragenic Review 105 1.3.2 Brief Geological-Mineragenic Description of the Largest Salt-Bearing Basins 107 1.4 Salt-Bearing Basins of South America 128 1.4.1 Geotectonic and Mineragenic Review 128 1.4.2 Brief Geological-Mineragenic Description of the Largest Salt-Bearing Basins 129 1.5 Salt-Bearing Basins of Africa and Arabia 136 1.5.1 Geotectonic and Mineragenic Review 136 1.5.2 Brief Geological-Mineragenic Description of the Largest Salt-Bearing Basins 138 1.6 Salt-Bearing Basins of Australia 154 1.6.1 Geotectonic and Mineragenic Review 154 1.6.2 Brief Geological-Mineragenic Description of the Largest Salt-Bearing Basins 156 1.7 Conclusion 162 2 Historical-Geodynamic Analysis of the Spatial and Temporal Distribution of the World’s Salt-Bearing Basins 163 2.1 Introduction 163 2.2 Fundamentals of the Geodynamic Analysis 164 2.2.1 Terminology 165 2.2.2 Geodynamic Classification 166 2.2.3 Geodynamic Types of Salt-Bearing Basins, their Diagnostic Indications and Lithogeodynamic Models 171 2.3 On the Preservation of Salt Bodies and Information Value of the Geologic Record 175 2.4 Neo-Geodynamic Salt-Bearing Basins of the World 177 2.4.1 Overview and Analysis 177 2.4.2 The General Picture of Placing Neo-Geodynamic Salt-Bearing Basins in the Recent Kinematic Structure of Earth (Analysis Results) 198 2.5 Geodynamic History of the Salt Accumulation 201 2.6 Patterns in the Geodynamic Placement of Salt-Bearing Basins 213 2.6.1 Salt Accumulation Periodicity 213 2.6.2 Orderliness in the Spatial Placement of Salt-Bearing Objects 214 2.6.3 Regional Features of the Salt-Bearing Objects’ Age Distribution 215 2.6.4 Geodynamic “Specialization” of Salt Accumulation Epochs 218 2.6.5 Geochemical “Specialization” of Salt Accumulation Epochs 219 2.6.6 Inheritance in the Placement of Salt-Bearing Objects 220 2.7 Conclusions 222 3 Kinematic History of the Salts in Earth’s Crust 227 3.1 Morpho-Kinematic Groups of Salt Bodies 227 3.2 Salt Bodies of the Salt-Tectonic Group 229 3.3 Salt Bodies of the Orthotectonic Group 236 3.3.1 Salt Behavior Under Conditions of Active Tectonics 236 3.3.2 Morphotectonic Features of Salt Bodies in the Nappe-Folded Areas 239 3.3.3 The Salt Prevalence in Folded Areas of Various Ages 242 3.4 Kinematic Evolution of Salt Bodies in the Processes of Tectonic Development 247 3.5 Problems Associated with the Formation of Nappe-Like Salt Bodies 249 3.6 Conclusions 253 PART 2 Salt in the System of Injection Formations. A Recycling Model of the Salt- and Naphthide-Accumulation 257 4 Earth’s Ascending Injection Systems and Injection Sedimentary Formations 259 4.1 Participation Problem of the Ascending Discharges in the Sedimentation 259 4.2 Ascending Discharges in Sedimentation Areas: Objects, Typification 265 4.2.1 System of Injection Discharges 265 4.2.2 Fluids, their Discharge Foci, Influence Aureoles (The Fluid Group Proper) 267 4.2.3 Flowing Rock Masses and their Discharge Foci (Lithokinetic Group) 275 4.2.4 Parakineses of the Injection Discharges 278 4.3 The Recent Picture of Ascending Discharge Distribution 282 4.3.1 Occurrence of Recent Discharges 282 4.3.2 The Scale of a Recent Input of Injection Material in the Depositional Environments 284 4.3.3 Geodynamic Environments of Recent Discharge Foci Placement and their Endogenous Parameters 291 4.3.4 The Environment-Forming Role of Ascending Discharges 295 4.4 Ecological and Sedimentary Consequences of the Recent Ascending Discharges 304 4.4.1 The Consequences of Fluid Discharges 305 4.4.2 The Consequences of Lithokinetic Discharges 311 4.4.3 General Model of the Injection-Depositional Processes 313 4.4.4 A Coordinated Typification of Injection Discharges and of their Injection-Depositional Derivatives 318 4.5 Sedimentary Consequences of Past Ascending Discharges 319 4.5.1 Sedimentary Derivatives and Indications of the Fluid Paleo-Discharges 320 4.5.2 Sedimentary Derivatives and Features of Lithokinetic Paleo-Discharges 326 4.5.3 Injection-Depositional Parageneses 327 4.5.4 Regional Examples of the Injection-Depositional Formations 328 4.6 Combination of the Injection-Depositional Sediment Types with Background Ones 335 4.7 Conclusions. Expanded Option of a Classification of Sedimentogenesis Types 335 5 Regeneration (Recycling) Salt Accumulation Model 341 5.1 Status of the Salt Origin Problem 341 5.2 The Substance of the Regeneration Model and Examples of its Implementation 346 5.3 Geological Prerequisites of the Model Implementation 348 5.3.1 The Material Prerequisites 349 5.3.2 The Geodynamic and Landscape Prerequisites 351 5.4 The Tectono-Kinematic Succession and the Brine-Salt Discharge Types 353 5.5 Sedimentation-Accumulation Consequences of Brine-Salt Discharges 356 5.5.1 General Succession of Processes in Sedimentation Basins 356 5.5.2 Chemogenic-Accumulative Processes (Interaction between Brines and the Basin Water) 360 5.5.3 Extrusive-Accumulative Processes (Consequences of the Salt Mass Discharge) 364 5.5.4 Discharge Consequences in Continental Environments 367 5.6 Discussion of the Regeneration Model 369 5.6.1 Evaluation of the Model’s Genetic Positions and the Correspondence of the Real Salt-Bearing Bodies Features with the Sedimentation Consequences of the Model 369 5.6.2 Mineragenic Aspects of the Model 373 5.6.3 Evidence of the Regeneration Processes’ Participation in the Formation of Salt Bodies 374 5.6.4 On the Causes of Underestimating the Role of Regeneration Processes in the Salt Accumulation 376 5.6.5 The Salt Dating Problem 378 5.6.6 On Some Contradictions of the Evaporite Salt Accumulation Models 379 5.6.7 On the Role of Exhalation Processes in the Salt Accumulation 380 5.7 On the Evolution of the Salt Accumulation Scale and Mechanism in Earth’s Geologic History 381 5.7.1 The Stratigraphic Placement of Salt 381 5.7.2 On the Interrelations of Various Salt Accumulation Mechanisms and Their Evolution in Earth’s Geologic History 383 5.8 Conclusions 386 PART 3 Natural Salt Accumulation Belts and Nodes (Examples) 389 6 Belts of Salt-Dome Basins along the Margins of Young Oceans 391 6.1 Introduction 391 6.2 Arrangement of Salt-Dome Basins along the Margins of Young Oceans 392 6.3 Geological Features of Marginal Oceanic Salt-Dome Basins 397 6.4 Geodynamic Position and History of Marginal Oceanic Salt-Dome Basins 398 6.5 Morphokinematic Features of Salt Tectonics in Marginal Oceanic Basins 403 6.6 Specific Conditions and Mechanisms of Salt Tectonics in Marginal Oceanic Basins 405 6.7 Geodynamic Settings of Salt Tectonics in Marginal Oceanic Basins 407 6.8 The Salt Tectonics Influence on the Structure of Sedimentary Sequences of Marginal Oceanic Basins 409 6.9 Petroleum Resource Potential of Marginal Oceanic Salt-Dome Basins 410 6.10 Conclusions 411 7 The Mexican Salt-Oil Node and Center of Natural and Geo-Technogenic Oil Catastrophes 413 7.1 Introduction 413 7.2 Geologic, Petroleum and Fluid-Dynamic Particulars of the Mexican Basin 414 7.3 Salt and Petroleum-Bearing Subsurface of the Mexican Basin 418 7.4 Live Floor of the Gulf of Mexico 422 7.5 Accidents on the Oil Wells as Geotechnogenic Phenomenon 428 7.6 Emergency Oil Spills and Naphtha Sedimentogenesis 432 7.7 Largest Salt-Petroleum Basins as Global Centers of Hope and Hazard 434 7.8 On the Elimination of Oil Spills’ Ecologic Consequences 436 7.9 Conclusions 439 8 Mediterranean Salt-Bearing Super-Giant.The Messinian Salinity Crisis Enigma 441 8.1 Introduction 441 8.2 Key Features of the Geology and Paleogeodynamic History 443 8.2.1 Major Geology Features 443 8.2.2 Paleogeodynamic History 447 8.3 Salt Bearing of the Subsurface. Current Distribution of the Messinian and Triassic Salts 449 8.3.1 The Messinian Salt Sequences 450 8.3.2 The Triassic Salts (Modern Distribution) 455 8.3.3 The Current Spatial Interrelations between the Triassic and Miocene Salts 461 8.4 The Kinematic History of the Triassic Salts an their Distribution in the Pre-Messinian Time 465 8.5 The Messinian Crisis of Salinity. Existing Concepts of the Messinian Salts Origin 469 8.6 The Messinian Events as a Realization of the Regeneration Model 473 8.6.1 The Geological Events of the Messinian Time 475 8.6.2 The Processes of the Brine-Salt Masses Discharge 479 8.6.3 The Processes of Salt Accumulation 479 8.6.4 Analysis of Prerequisites and Events that had Facilitated the Realization of the Regeneration Model 480 8.7 A discussion of the Events and “Paradoxes” of the Messinian Salt Accumulation from the Perspective of the Regeneration and Evaporite Models (A Comparative Analysis) 481 8.7.1 The Messinian Time Events 482 8.7.2 “Paradoxes” and Contradictions of the Messinian Salt Accumulation 483 8.7.3 Results of the Comparative Analysis 488 8.7.4 About the Indications of the Regeneration Processes’ Participation in the Messinian Salt Bodies 489 8.7.5 About the Causes of Disregard of the Injection Processes’ Possible Role in the Messinian Salt Accumulation 490 8.8 Conclusions 490 9 The Dead Sea: A Small Naphtho-Salt Node and Discharge Focus 493 9.1 Introduction 493 9.2 Key Features of Geology and Fluid-Dynamics of the Dead Sea Graben 495 9.2.1 Structural-Tectonic Situation 495 9.2.2 The Dead Sea Graben Salt Subsurface 499 9.2.3 Fluid-Dynamic Tensions in the Dead Sea Subsurface and the Ways of its Discharge 502 9.3 The “Salt-Bearing Miracle” of the Globe 503 9.3.1 The Dead Sea and its “Unusual” Features 503 9.3.2 The Dead Sea Features as Reflected in its Names 511 9.4 Origin and History of the Dead Sea Salts, Diapirs and Brines 515 9.4.1 Existing Concepts of the Origin of the Dead Sea Salt Graben 515 9.4.2 An Allochthonous Model of Formation of Salts Filling-Up the Dead Sea Graben 520 9.4.3 The Origin of the Dead Sea Brines: Why is the Sea Salty? 528 9.4.4 The Dead Sea Salts, Diapirs and Brines Formation History 534 9.5 Оn the Natural Analogues of the Dead Sea 538 9.6 Fluctuation in the Dead Sea Brine Level as a Reflection of “Life” in the Salt-Bearing Subsurface 548 9.6.1 On the Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Brine Level 548 9.6.2 Factors Affecting the Fluctuations of Brine Lakes Levels 553 9.6.3 Pulsation of the Dead Sea Brine Level as a Natural Manifestation of the “Life” of Hydrocarbon-Brine-Salt Subsurface Systems 557 9.7 Myths as Reflections of Natural Events in the Dead Sea “Life” 559 9.7.1 Sodom Events: Testimonies by the Bible, Historians, Geographers, Archeologists 560 9.7.2 Sodom Events: Geologic Interpretation 563 9.7.3 Salt or Halo-Volcanism: Geologic Script of the “Sodom Events” 565 9.7.4 Natural and Geotechnogenic Analogues of the “Sodom Events” 571 9.8 Conclusions 577 PART 4 Oil and Gas Occurrence Issues in the Salts-Bearing Basins 583 Introduction 583 10 Salts and Naphthids: Spatial, Kinetic, Geochemical Interrelations as Forecast Factors 587 10.1 On the Role of Salts in Placement of Hydrocarbon Accumulations 587 10.1.1 General Nature of Spatial Interrelation between Salts and Hydrocarbons 587 10.1.2 The Association with Various Geodynamic Types of Salt-Bearing Basins 591 10.1.3 The Role of Salts Various Morpho-Kinetic Types 596 10.2 Salt-Naphthide Nodes 598 10.3 Geological Features of Salt-Naphthide Nodes as the Factors of Petroleum Occurrence Forecast (Salt-Naphthide Nodes as Geological Models) 603 10.4 Salt-Naphthide Nodes as Centers of Salt, Brines and Hydrocarbons Ascending Migration and Discharge 606 10.5 On the Salt and Naphthide Crust Recycling 610 10.6 Conclusion. The Utilization of the Salt-Naphthide Interconnections in the Forecast Evaluation of Petroleum Occurrences in Salt-Bearing Basins 611 11 Placement Patterns and Criteria of the Hydrogen Sulfide-Containing Natural Gas Field Forecast Evaluation 615 11.1 Introduction 615 11.2 Distribution 616 11.3 The Origin 620 11.4 Factors Controlling the Placement Hydrogen Sulfide Containing Gas Accumulations 622 11.4.1 Formation-Lithological Features 622 11.4.2 Stratigraphic Position 625 11.4.3 Structural-Tectonic Conditions 626 11.4.4 Conditions of Petroleum Occurrence and Gas Reserves 627 11.4.5 Trap Types 628 11.4.6 Thermobaric Conditions 628 11.4.7 Hydrogeological Conditions 629 11.4.8 Microbiological Parameters 629 11.4.9 Phase-Type of Accumulations 629 11.4.10 Properties of Accumulations’ Chemical Composition 630 11.4.11 Sulfur Isotope Composition 631 11.4.12 Complexity and Zoning of the Mineral-Geochemical Sulfur Shows 632 11.4.13 The Destruction, Migration and Discharge Parameters 635 11.5 Conclusions. Criteria of the Petroleum Territories Forecast Evaluation for Hydrogen Sulfide Containing Raw Materials 636 11.6 Conclusions 638 References 647 Index 673 About the Author 693

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Book SynopsisApplying machine learning to the interpretation of seismic data Seismic data gathered on the surface can be used to generate numerous seismic attributes that enable better understanding of subsurface geological structures and stratigraphic features. With an ever-increasing volume of seismic data available, machine learning augments faster data processing and interpretation of complex subsurface geology. Meta-Attributes and Artificial Networking: A New Tool for Seismic Interpretation explores how artificial neural networks can be used for the automatic interpretation of 2D and 3D seismic data. Volume highlights include: Historic evolution of seismic attributes Overview of meta-attributes and how to design them Workflows for the computation of meta-attributes from seismic data Case studies demonstrating the application of meta-attributes Sets of exercises with solutions provided Sample Table of ContentsPreface About the Authors Abbreviations List of Symbols and Operators PART I: SEISMIC ATTRIBUTES 1. An Overview of Seismic Attributes 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Historical evolution of seismic attributes 1.3 Characteristics of Seismic Attributes 1.4 A glance at seismic characteristics 1.4.1 Amplitude 1.4.2 Phase 1.4.3 Frequency 1.4.4 Bandwidth 1.4.5 Amplitude Change 1.4.6 Slope Dip and Azimuth 1.4.7 Curvature 1.4.8 Seismic Discontinuity 1.5 Summary References 2. Complex Trace, Structural and Stratigraphic Attributes 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Complex Trace Attributes: Mathematical Formulations and Derivations 2.3 Other Derived Complex Trace Attributes 2.3.1 Instantaneous Frequency 2.3.2 Sweetness 2.3.3 Relative Amplitude Change and Instantaneous Bandwidth 2.3.4 RMS Frequency 2.3.5 Q-factor 2.4 Structural and Stratigraphic Attributes 2.4.1 Dip and Azimuth Attributes Slope and Dip Exaggeration Dip-steering 2.4.2 Coherence Attribute 2.4.3 Similarity Attribute 2.4.4 Curvature Attribute 2.4.5 Advanced structural attributes Ridge Enhancement Filter (REF) attribute Thin Fault Likelihood (TFL) attribute Pseudo Relief attribute 2.4.6 Amplitude Variance 2.4.7 Reflection Spacing 2.4.8 Reflection Divergence 2.4.9 Reflection Parallelism 2.4.10 Spectral Decomposition 2.4.11 Velocity, Reflectivity and Attenuation attributes 2.5 A glance on interpretation pitfalls 2.6 Summary References 3. Be an Interpreter: Brainstorming Session 3.1 Task 1 3.2 Task 2 3.3 Task 3 3.4 Task 4 3.5 Task 5 3.6 Task 6 3.7 Task 7 3.8 Task 8 3.9 Task 9 3.10 Task 10 PART II: META-ATTRIBUTES 4. An Overview of Meta-attributes 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Meta-attributes 4.3 Types of Meta-attributes 4.3.1 Hydrocarbon Probability meta-attribute 4.3.2 Chimney Cube meta-attribute 4.3.3 Fault Cube meta-attribute 4.3.4 Intrusion Cube meta-attribute 4.3.5 Sill Cube meta-attribute 4.3.6 Mass Transport Deposit Cube meta-attribute 4.3.7 Lithology meta-attribute 4.4 Summary References 5. An Overview of Artificial Neural Networks 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Historical Evolution 5.3 Biological Neuron Vs Mathematical Neuron 5.3.1 Biological Neuron 5.3.2 Mathematical Neuron 5.4 Activation or Transfer Function 5.5 Types of Learning 5.6 Multi-layer Perceptron (MLP) and the Backpropagation Algorithm 5.7 Different Types of ANNs 5.7.1 Radial Basis Function (RBF) Network 5.7.2 Probabilistic Neural Network (PNN) 5.7.3 Generalized Regression Neural Network (GRNN) 5.7.4 Modular Neural Network (MNN) 5.7.5 Self Organizing Maps (SOM) 5.8 Summary References 6. How to Design Meta-attributes 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Meta-attribute design 6.2.1 Seismic Data conditioning Mean Filter (or Running-Average filter) Median Filter Alpha-Trimmed Mean Filter 6.2.2 Selection and Extraction of Seismic Attributes 6.2.3 Example Location 6.2.4 NN operation Evaluation of intelligent neural model 6.2.5 Validation 6.3 RGB Blending and Geo-body Extraction 6.4 Summary References PART III: CASE STUDIES OF META-ATTRIBUTES 7. Chimney interpretation using meta-attribute 7.1 Gas Chimneys: a clue for hydrocarbon exploration 7.2 Research Methodology 7.3 Chimney Validation 7.3.1 Geological Validation 7.3.2 Petrophysical Validation 7.3.3 Soft sediment deformation anomalies 7.4 Interpretation using Chimney Cube 7.5 Summary References 8. Fault Interpretation Using Meta-attribute 8.1 Fault meta-attribute: a motivation 8.2 Research Methodology 8.3 Results and Interpretation 8.4 Efficiency of the optimized TFC 8.5 Summary References 9. Fault and Fluid Migration Interpretation Using Meta-attribute 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Geophysical Data 9.3 Results and Interpretation 9.3.1 Thinned Fault Cube (TFC) and Fluid Cube (FlC) 9.3.2 Neural Design for the TFC and FlC 9.3.3 Interpretation using TFC and FlC 9.4 Summary References 10. Magmatic Sill Interpretation Using Meta-attribute (Part 1: Taranaki Basin example) 10.1 Magmatic Sills: Interpretation techniques 10.2 Research Methods 10.2.1 Structural conditioning 10.2.2 Selection of attributes 10.2.3 Example Locations 10.2.4 Neural Network 10.2.5 Validation 10.3 Results and Interpretation 10.4 Discussion 10.4.1 Sill cube an efficient interpretation tool for magmatic sills 10.4.2 Limitations of the Sill Cube automated approach 10.5 Conclusions References 11. Magmatic Sill Interpretation Using Meta-attribute (Part 2: Vøring Basin example) 11.1 Introduction: The Vøring Basin case 11.2 Description of the Data 11.3 Interpretation based on SC meta-attribute computation 11.4 Summary References 12. Magmatic Sill and Fluid Plumbing Interpretation Using Meta-attribute (Canterbury Basin example) 12.1 Introduction: The Canterbury Basin case 12.2 Description of the Data 12.3 Results and Interpretation 12.3.1 Data Enhancement, Attribute Analysis and Neural Operation 12.3.2 Interpretation through Sill Cube (SC) and Fluid Cube (FlC) meta-attributes 12.3.3 Limitation of the automated approach 12.4 Summary References 13. Volcanic System Interpretation Using Meta-attribute 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Research Workflow 13.3 Results and Interpretation 13.3.1 Seismic Data Enhancement 13.3.2 Neural Networks: Analysis and Optimization 13.3.3 Geologic interpretation using IC meta-attribute 13.3.4 Validation of the IC meta-attribute 13.4 Summary References 14. Interpretation of Mass Transport Deposits Using Meta-attribute 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Data and Research Workflow 14.3 Results and Interpretation 14.4 Summary References Appendix A A.1 Mathematical formulation of some common series and transformation A.1.1 Fourier Series A.1.2 Fourier and Inverse Fourier Transforms A.1.3 Hilbert Transform A.1.4 Convolution A.2 Dip-Steering Appendix B B.1 Answers to seismic cross-section interpretation (Tasks 1-6) B.2 Answers to numerical tasks (Tasks 7-10) Glossary

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Book SynopsisDedicated to the unique developments of hydroacoustical equipment to monitor the sea coastal shelf environment, this groundbreaking unique study presents a survey of modern methods and technical monitoring facilities, including the diagnostics of underwater engineering when monitoring offshore. There is still so much about the oceans that scientists do not know, and exploring the continental shelves of the world is a huge part of finding out more about these underwater environments. Further to that, it is extremely important that, while scientists and engineers explore and monitor the continental shelf, no damage is done to these precious environments. That is the needle that this study intends to thread, giving scientists and engineers a better method and processes for exploring these underwater mysteries, while protecting the environment and wildlife thriving beneath. Written by a proven scientist in this area, this book is dedicated to the unique developments of hydroacousticaTable of ContentsAbstract xiii Preface xv 1 Monitoring of Aqueous Environment of the Continental Shelf: The Current State 1Iftikhar B. Abbasov 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 General Monitoring Tasks 3 1.3 Remote Monitoring with the Help of Satellites 4 1.4 Monitoring of Underwater Seismic Activity 6 1.5 Fish Stock Monitoring 6 1.6 Monitoring in the Marine Archeology 7 1.7 The Use of Underwater Vehicles for Geological Exploration 7 1.8 Use of Underwater Vehicles for Monitoring of Ecosystems 8 1.9 Modern Underwater Vehicles for Monitoring of Ecosystems 11 1.10 Hydro Acoustical Shelf Monitoring Systems 18 1.11 Conclusion 22 References 22 2 Parametric Antennas in the Mediums with Hydrophysical Inhomogeneities: Theory and Experiment 25Igor А. Kirichenko 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Assignment of the Task of Theoretical and Experiment Research of the Parametric Antennas in the Mediums with Hydro Physical Inhomogeneities 27 2.3 Methods of Solution of KhZK Equations Considering Hydrophysical Inhomogeneities 31 2.4 Measurement Procedure of the Field Characteristics of the Parametric Antenna and Backward Volume Scattering at Models of the Hydrophysical Inhomogeneities 34 2.5 The Results of Experimental Measurements of Characteristics of the Parametric Antenna Field and Backward Volume Scattering at Models of Hydrophysical Inhomogeneities 41 2.6 Discussion of the Results of the Theoretical and Experimental Research 54 2.7 Conclusion 54 References 55 3 Research of the Phase Characteristics of Parametrical Radiators for Measuring Purposes 57Vladimir V. Grivtsov 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Measurement Procedure of the Phase Structure of the Acoustic Field 58 3.3 Phase Portrait of the Field of the Parametric Antenna with Planar Transformer of Pumping 62 3.4 Phase Distributions in the Spherically Diverging Waves of the Parametrical Antenna 68 3.5 Parametrical Radiator Use for Hydro Acoustical Measurements in the Limited Size Tanks 72 3.6 Conclusion 79 References 79 4 Influence of Layer-Discrete Areas on the Formation of the Direction Acoustic Parametric Antenna at the Diagnostic of the Water Environment 81Nicolai P. Zagrai 4.1 Limitations of the Nonlinear Interaction Region 82 4.1.1 Statement of the Problem 82 4.1.2 Limitation of the Nonlinear Interaction Region by the General Surface of Round Piston Transformer of the Acoustic Parametric Antenna 84 4.1.3 Limitation of the Nonlinear Interaction Region by the General Surface of Rectangular Piston Transformer of the Acoustic Parametric Antenna 86 4.1.4 Limitation by the Incident Flat Surface 87 4.1.5 Limitation with Curved Surfaces 89 4.1.6 The Field of Acoustic Parametric Antenna with Layered-Non-Homogeneous Nonlinear Interaction Region 92 4.2 Nonlinear Interaction Region as a System of the Normal (Orthogonal) Discrete Plane-Parallel Layers. Statement of the Problem 94 4.3 Experimental Studies of the Field of Acoustic Parametric Antenna at Presence of the Layer, Plate and System of Layers in the Nonlinear Interaction Region 102 4.3.1 Liquid Layer 102 4.3.2 Plate 105 4.3.3 Incident Plate 109 4.3.4 System of Plates 114 4.4 Layers with Diffused Boundaries in the Nonlinear Interaction Region 118 4.4.1 On the Formation of the Field of an Acoustic Parametric Antenna in a Periodic Structure with Diffuse Boundaries 118 4.4.2 Application of the Immersion Method to Consider a System of Layers with Blurred Boundaries 119 4.5 Conclusion 123 References 125 5 Experimental Research of Penetration of the Acoustic Inhomogeneous Plane Waves from Water into Air 129Alexander P. Voloshchenko and Sergey P. Tarasov 5.1 Introduction 129 5.2 Statement of the Problem 132 5.3 Method of Investigation 143 5.4 Results of the Study 147 5.5 Discussion 157 5.6 Conclusion 164 References 164 6 Study of Nonlinear Interaction of Acoustic Waves Driven by Parametric Radiating Antenna During Sounding of Bottom Sediments 167Yuri V. Dushenin and Mikhail S. Rybachek 6.1 Introduction 167 6.2 Statement of the Problem 173 6.3 Research Technique of the Basic PA Characteristics in BS at Normal Incidence to the Interface with Subsequent Excitation in BS of Longitudinal Waves 173 6.4 Results of Research of the Basic PA Characteristics in BS at Normal Incidence to the Interface with Subsequent Excitation of P-Waves in BS 184 6.5 Research Technique of the Basic PA Characteristics in BS at Incidence to the Interface at Angles Close to Critical, with Subsequent Excitation in BS of Shear Waves 191 6.6 The Results of Research of the Basic PA Characteristics in BS, at Incidence to the Interface at Angles, Close to Critical, with Subsequent Excitation of Shear Waves in BS 198 6.7 Discussion 204 6.8 Conclusion 206 References 207 7 The Underwater Ultrasonic Equipment with the Nonlinear Acoustics Effect’s Application 211Vadim Yu. Voloshchenko and Elizaveta V. Voloshchenko 7.1 Introduction 212 7.2 The Navigation System with Short Based Length 214 7.3 An Impulse Method for Broadband Acoustical Measurements 219 7.4 The Nonlinear Hydroacoustic Wavegraph 223 7.5 Conclusion 231 References 232 8 The Research of Waters Eutrophication of the Gulf of Taganrog of the Sea of Azov for Ecological Monitoring Purposes 235Alena Yu. Zhidkova, Natalia V. Gusakova and Viktor V. Petrov 8.1 Introduction 236 8.2 Problem Statement 237 8.3 Methods 239 8.4 Results 243 8.5 Discussion 261 8.6 Conclusion 262 References 262 9 The Application Features of Sonar Systems for Control of Underwater Engineering Structures and Monitoring Area 2679.1 Introduction 267 9.2 Procedure of Detailed Investigation of the Objects with the Help of Side Scan Sonar 270 9.3 Ecological Monitoring of the Water Bottom with Side Scan Sonar 274 9.4 Investigation of the Vertical Walls and Supports of Underwater Part of the Engineering Structures 276 9.5 Complexation of Side Scan Sonar with Parametric Profile Recorder 280 9.6 Extension of Antenna Bandwidths of Side Scan Sonar and Antennas of Pumping of the Parametric Profile Recorders 285 9.7 Conclusion 290 References 290 Index 293

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Book SynopsisEcohydrological Interfaces Comprehensive overview of the process dynamics and interactions governing ecohydrological interfaces Summarizing the interdisciplinary investigation of ecohydrological interface functioning, Ecohydrological Interfaces advances the understanding of their dynamics across traditional subject boundaries. It offers a detailed explanation of the underlying mechanisms and process interactions governing ecohydrological interface functioning from the micro scale to the ecosystem and regional scale. The multidisciplinary team of authors integrates and synthesises the current understanding of process dynamics at different ecohydrological interfaces to develop a unifying concept of their ecosystem functions. The work introduces novel experimental and model-based methods for characterizing and quantifying ecohydrological interface processes, taking account of innovative sensing and tracing technologies as well as microbial and molecular biology approaches. Key questionsTable of ContentsPreface vii List of Contributors ix Section 1 1 1 Ecohydrological Interfaces as Hotspots of Ecosystem Processes 3 Stefan Krause, Jörg Lewandowski, Nancy B. Grimm, David M. Hannah, Gilles Pinay, Karlie McDonald, Eugènia Martí, Alba Argerich, Laurent Pfister, Julian Klaus, Tom Battin, Scott T. Larned, Jacob Schelker, Jan Fleckenstein, Christian Schmidt, Michael O Rivett, Glenn Watts, Francesc Sabater, Albert Sorolla, and Valentina Turk 2 Biological Activity as a Trigger of Enhanced Ecohydrological Interface Activity 29 Julian Klaus, Viktor Baranov, Jörg Lewandowski, Anne Zangerlé, and Loes van Schaik Section 2 41 3 The Four Interfaces’ Components of Riparian Zones 43 Gilles Pinay, S. Bernal, Jake Diamond, Hanieh Sayedhashemi, Benjamin Abbott, and Florentina Moatar 4 Organizational Principles of Hyporheic Exchange Flow and Biogeochemical Cycling in River Networks across Scales 63 Stefan Krause, Benjamin W. Abbott, Viktor Baranov, Susana Bernal, Phillip Blaen, Thibault Datry, Jennifer Drummond, Jan H. Fleckenstein, Jesus Gomez Velez, David M. Hannah, Julia L. A. Knapp, Marie Kurz, Jörg Lewandowski, Eugènia Martí, Clara Mendoza-Lera, Alexander Milner, Aaron Packman, Gilles Pinay, Adam S. Ward, and Jay P. Zarnetzke 5 Groundwater–Lake Interfaces 103 Jörg Lewandowski, Donald O. Rosenberry, and Karin Meinikmann 6 Coastal–Groundwater Interfaces (Submarine Groundwater Discharge) 123 Michael E. Böttcher, Ulf Mallast, Gudrun Massmann, Nils Moosdorf, Mike Müller-Petke, and Hannelore Waska Section 3 149 7 Identifying and Quantifying Water Fluxes at Ecohydrological Interfaces 151 Christian Schmidt and Jan Fleckenstein 151 8 Heat as a Hydrological Tracer 167 Christian Schmidt, Jörg Lewandowski, J. N. Galloway, Athena Chalari, Francesco Ciocca, Stefan Krause, Laurant Pfister, and M. Antonelli 9 Sampling at Groundwater–Surface Water Interfaces 191 Jörg Lewandowski, Jonas Schaper, Michael Rivett, and Stefan Krause 10 Automated Sensing Methods for Dissolved Organic Matter and Inorganic Nutrient Monitoring in Freshwater Systems 213 Phillip J. Blaen, Kieran Khamis, Charlotte E.M. Lloyd, Chris Bradley, David Hannah, and Stefan Krause 11 Tracing Hydrological Connectivity with Aerial Diatoms 235 L. Pfister, J. Klaus, C.E. Wetzel, M. Antonelli, and N. Martínez-Carreras 12 Measurement of Metabolic Rates at the Sediment–Water Interface Using Experimental Ecosystems 245 Alba Argerich and Janine Rüegg 13 Using Diel Solute Signals to Assess Ecohydrological Processing in Lotic Systems 265 Marie J. Kurz and Julia L.A. Knapp 14 Evolving Molecular Methodologies for Monitoring Pathogenic Viruses in Ecohydrological Interfaces 297 Katarina Kovač, Mukundh N. Balasubramanian, Matjaž Hren, Ion Gutierrez Aguirre, and Valentina Turk Section 4 331 15 Global Environmental Pressures 333 Glenn Watts 333 16 Restoring the Liver of the River: Actionable Research Insights to Guide the Restoration of the Hyporheic Zone for the Improvement of Water Quality 355 Ben Christopher Howard, Ian Baker, Mike Blackmore, Nicholas Kettridge, Sami Ullah, and Stefan Krause Index 391

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Book SynopsisAn examination of ancient and contemporary submarine landslides and their impact Landslides are common in every subaqueous geodynamic context, from passive and active continental margins to oceanic and continental intraplate settings. They pose significant threats to both offshore and coastal areas due to their frequency, dimensions, and terminal velocity, capacity to travel great distances, and ability to generate potentially destructive tsunamis. Submarine Landslides: Subaqueous Mass Transport Deposits from Outcrops to Seismic Profiles examines the mechanisms, characteristics, and impacts of submarine landslides. Volume highlights include: Use of different methodological approaches, from geophysics to field-based geologyData on submarine landslide deposits at various scalesWorldwide collection of case studies from on- and off-shorePotential risks to human society and infrastructureImpacts on the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphereTable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv Part I: Submarine Landslide Deposits in Orogenic Belts 1. Submarine Landslide Deposits in Orogenic Belts: Olistostromes and Sedimentary Melanges 3Kei Ogata, Andrea Festa, Gian Andrea Pini, and Juan Luis Alonso 2. Mass-Transport Deposits in the Foredeep Basin of the Miocene Cervarola Sandstones Formation (Northern Apennines, Italy) 27Alberto Piazza and Roberto Tinterri 3. Late Miocene Olistostrome in the Makran Accretionary Wedge (Baluchistan, SE Iran): A Short Review 45Jean‐Pierre Burg 4. Spatial Distribution of Mass-Transport Deposits Deduced From High‐Resolution Stratigraphy: The Pleistocene Forearc Basin (Boso Peninsula, Central Japan) 57Masayuki Utsunomiya and Yuzuru Yamamoto 5. Mass‐Transport Deposits as Markers of Local Tectonism in Extensional Basins 71Tiago M. Alves and Davide Gamboa 6. Block Generation, Deformation, and Interaction of Mass-Transport Deposits with the Seafloor: An Outcrop‐Based Study of the Carboniferous Paganzo Basin (Cerro Bola, NW Argentina) 91Matheus S. Sobiesiak, Victoria Valdez Buso, Ben Kneller, G. Ian Alsop, and Juan Pablo Milana 7. The Carboniferous MTD Complex at La Pena Canyon, Paganzo Basin (San Juan, Argentina) 105Victoria Valdez Buso, Juan Pablo Milana, Matheus S. Sobiesiak, and Ben Kneller 8. Mass-Transport Complexes of the Marnoso‐arenacea Foredeep Turbidite System (Northern Apennines, Italy): A Reappraisal After Twenty‐Years 117Gian Andrea Pini, Claudio Corrado Lucente, Sonia Venturi, and Kei Ogata 9. Fold and Thrust Systems in Mass‐Transport Deposits Around the Dead Sea Basin 139G.Ian Alsop, Rami Weinberger, Shmuel Marco, and Tsafrir Levi 10. Eocene Mass-Transport Deposits in the Basque Basin (Western Pyrenees, Spain): Insights Into Mass‐Flow Transformation and Bulldozing Processes 155Aitor Payros and Victoriano Pujalte 11. Neogene and Quaternary Mass-Transport Deposits From the Northern Taranaki Basin (North Island, New Zealand): Morphologies, Transportation Processes, and Depositional Controls 171Suzanne Bull, Malcolm Arnot, Greg Browne, Martin Crundwell, Andy Nicol, and Lorna Strachan Part II: Submarine Landslide Deposits in Current Active and Passive Margins 12. Modern Submarine Landslide Complexes: A Short Review 183Katrin Huhn, Marcos Arroyo, Antonio Cattaneo, Mike A. Clare, Eulàlia Gràcia, Carl B. Harbitz, Sebastian Krastel, Achim Kopf, Finn Løvholt, Marzia Rovere, Michael Strasser, Peter J. Talling, and Roger Urgeles 13. An Atlas of Mass‐Transport Deposits in Lakes 201Maddalena Sammartini, Jasper Moernaut, Flavio S. Anselmetti, Michael Hilbe, Katja Lindhorst, Nore Praet, and Michael Strasser 14. Style and Morphometry of Mass-Transport Deposits Across the Espirito Santo Basin (Offshore SE Brazil) 227Davide Gamboa, Tiago M. Alves, and Kamaldeen Olakunle Omosanya 15. Submarine Landslides on the Nankai Trough Accretionary Prism (Offshore Central Japan) 247Gregory F. Moore, Jason K. Lackey, Michael Strasser, and Mikiya Yamashita 16. Seismic Examples of Composite Slope Failures (Offshore North West Shelf, Australia) 261Nicola Scarselli, Ken McClay, and Chris Elders 17. Submarine Landslides Around Volcanic Islands: A Review of What Can Be Learned From the Lesser Antilles Arc 277Anne Le Friant, Elodie Lebas, Morgane Brunet, Sara Lafuerza, Matt Hornbach, Maya Coussens, Sebastian Watt, Michael Cassidy, Peter J. Talling, and IODP 340 Expedition Science Party 18. Submarine Landslides in an Upwelling System: Climatically Controlled Preconditioning of the Cap Blanc Slide Complex (Offshore NW Africa) 299Morelia Urlaub, Sebastian Krastel, and Tilmann Schwenk 19. Submarine Landslides Along the Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Margin of the Great Barrier Reef (Offshore Australia) 313Ángel Puga‐Bernabéu, Jody Michael Webster, Robin Jordan Beaman, Amanda Thran, Javier Lopez‐Cabrera, Gustavo Hinestrosa, and James Daniell 20. Submarine Landslides on the Seafloor: Hints on Subaqueous Mass‐Transport Processes From the Italian Continental Margins (Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas, Offshore Italy) 339Fabiano Gamberi, Giacomo Dalla Valle, Federica Foglini, Marzia Rovere, and Fabio Trincardi Index 357

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Book SynopsisThis book is Open Access. A digital copy can be downloaded for free from Wiley Online Library. Exploring the links between Large Igneous Provinces and dramatic environmental impact An emerging consensus suggests that Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) and Silicic LIPs (SLIPs) are a significant driver of dramatic global environmental and biological changes, including mass extinctions. Environmental changes caused by LIPs and SLIPs include rapid global warming, global cooling (''Snowball Earth''), oceanic anoxia events, mercury poisoning, atmospheric and oceanic acidification, and sea level changes. Continued research to characterize the effects of these extremely large and typically short duration igneous events on atmospheric and oceanic chemistry through Earth history can provide lessons for understanding and mitigating modern climate change. Large Igneous Provinces: A Driver of Global Environmental and Biotic Changes describes the interTable of ContentsList of Contributors vii Preface xi Part I: The Temporal Record of Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) 1. Large Igneous Province Record Through Time and Implications for Secular Environmental Changes and Geological Time-Scale Boundaries 3Richard E. Ernst, David P. G. Bond, Shuan-Hong Zhang, Kenneth L. Buchan, Stephen E. Grasby, Nasrrddine Youbi, Hafida El Bilali, Andrey Bekker, and Luc S. Doucet 2. Radiometric Constraints on the Timing, Tempo, and Effects of Large Igneous Province Emplacement 27Jennifer Kasbohm, Blair Schoene, and Seth Burgess Part II: Environmental Impacts of LIP Emplacement 3. Global Warming and Mass Extinctions Associated With Large Igneous Province Volcanism 85David P. G. Bond and Yadong Sun 4. Environmental Effects of Volcanic Volatile Fluxes From Subaerial Large Igneous Provinces 103Tamsin A. Mather and Anja Schmidt 5. Assessing the Environmental Consequences of the Generation and Alteration of Mafic Volcaniclastic Deposits During Large Igneous Province Emplacement 117Benjamin Black, Tushar Mittal, Francesca Lingo, Kristina Walowski, and Andres Hernandez 6. Environmental Impact of Silicic Magmatism in Large Igneous Province Events 133Scott E. Bryan 7. Evaluating the Relationship Between the Area and Latitude of Large Igneous Provinces and Earth's Long-Term Climate State 153Yuem Park, Nicholas L. Swanson-Hysell, Lorraine E. Lisiecki, and Francis A. Macdonald 8. Preliminary Appraisal of a Correlation Between Glaciations and Large Igneous Provinces Over the Past 720 Million Years 169Nasrrddine Youbi, Richard E. Ernst, Ross N. Mitchell, Moulay A. Boumehdi, Warda El Moume, Abdelhak Ait Lahna, Mohamed K. Bensalah, Ulf Soderlund, Miguel Doblas, and Colombo C. G.Tassinari 9. Phanerozoic Large Igneous Province, Petroleum System, and Source Rock Links 191Steven C. Bergman, James S. Eldrett, and Daniel Minisini Part III: Geochemical Proxies for the Environmental Effects of LIPs 10. The Osmium Isotope Signature of Phanerozoic Large Igneous Provinces 231Alexander J. Dickson, Anthony S. Cohen, and Marc Davies 11. Sedimentary Mercury Enrichments as a Tracer of Large Igneous Province Volcanism 247Lawrence M. E. Percival, Bridget A. Bergquist, Tamsin A. Mather, and Hamed Sanei 12. Platinum Group Element Traces of CAMP Volcanism Associated With Low-Latitude Environmental and Biological Disruptions 263Jessica H. Whiteside, Paul E. Olsen, Sean T. Kinney, and Mohammed Et-Touhami 13. Assessing the Effect of Large Igneous Provinces on Global Oceanic Redox Conditions Using Non-traditional Metal Isotopes (Molybdenum, Uranium, Thallium) 305Brian Kendall, Morten B. Andersen, and Jeremy D. Owens 14. Marine Anoxia and Ocean Acidification During the End-Permian Extinction: An Integrated View From Delta238U and Delta44/40Ca Proxies and Earth System Modeling 325Ying Cui, Feifei Zhang, Jiuyuan Wang, Shijun Jiang, and Shuzhong Shen 15. Trends in Ocean S-Isotopes May Be Influenced by Major LIP Events 341Ross. R. Large, Jeffrey A. Steadman, Indrani Mukherjee, Ross Corkrey, Patrick Sack, and Trevor R. Ireland 16. Marcasite at the Permian-Triassic Transition: A Potential Indicator of Hydrosphere Acidification 377Elena Lounejeva, Jeffrey A. Steadman, Thomas Rodemann, Ross R. Large, Leonid Danyushevsky, Daniel Mantle, Kliti Grice, and Thomas J. Algeo Part IV: Phanerozoic and Proterozoic Case Histories 17. The Monterey Event and the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: Two Contrasting Oceanic Carbonate System Responses to LIP Emplacement and Eruption 403Tali L. Babila and Gavin L. Foster 18. Permian Large Igneous Provinces and Their Paleoenvironmental Effects 417Jun Chen and Yi-Gang Xu 19. Was the Kalkarindji Continental Flood Basalt Province a Driver of Environmental Change at the Dawn of the Phanerozoic? 435Peter E. Marshall, Luke E. Faggetter, and Mike Widdowson 20. Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) and Anoxia Events in "The Boring Billion" 449Shuan-Hong Zhang, Richard E. Ernst, Jun-Ling Pei, Yue Zhao, and Guo-Hui Hu 21. Breaking the Boring Billion: A Case for Solid-Earth Processes as Drivers of System-Scale Environmental Variability During the Mid-Proterozoic 487Charles W. Diamond, Richard E. Ernst, Shuan-Hong Zhang, and Timothy W. Lyons Index 503

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Book SynopsisExploring the processes and phenomena of Earth's dayside magnetosphere Energy and momentum transfer, initially taking place at the dayside magnetopause, is responsible for a variety of phenomenon that we can measure on the ground. Data obtained from observations of Earth's dayside magnetosphere increases our knowledge of the processes by which solar wind mass, momentum, and energy enter the magnetosphere. Dayside Magnetosphere Interactions outlines the physics and processes of dayside magnetospheric phenomena, the role of solar wind in generating ultra-low frequency waves, and solar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling. Volume highlights include: Phenomena across different temporal and spatial scalesDiscussions on dayside aurora, plume dynamics, and related dayside reconnectionResults from spacecraft observations, ground-based observations, and simulationsDiscoveries from the Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission and Van Allen Probes eraExploration of foreshock, bow shock, magnetosTable of ContentsContributors vii Preface xi 1. A Brief History of Dayside Magnetospheric Physics 1A. Otto Part I: Physics of Dayside Magnetospheric Response to Solar Wind Discontinuities 2. Transient Phenomena at the Magnetopause and Bow Shock and Their Ground Signatures: Summary of the Geospace Environment Modeling (GEM) Focus Group Findings Between 2012 and 2016 13Hui Zhang and Qiugang Zong 3. Transient Solar Wind–Magnetosphere–Ionosphere Interaction Associated with Foreshock and Magnetosheath Transients and Localized Magnetopause Reconnection 39Y. Nishimura, B. Wang, Y. Zou, E. F. Donovan, V. Angelopoulos, J. I. Moen, L. B. Clausen, and T. Nagatsuma 4. Dayside Magnetospheric Interactions Inferred from Dayside Diffuse Aurora and Throat Aurora 55De‐Sheng Han 5. Magnetosphere Response to Solar Wind Dynamic Pressure Change: Vortices, ULF Waves, and Aurorae 77Q. Q. Shi, X.‐C. Shen, A. M. Tian, A. W. Degeling, Qiugang Zong, S. Y. Fu, Z. Y. Pu, H. Y. Zhao, Hui Zhang, and S. T. Yao Part II: Structure and Dynamics of Dayside Boundaries 6. Cluster Mission’s Recent Highlights at Dayside Boundaries 101Philippe Escoubet, A. Masson, H. Laakso, and M. L. Goldstein 7. Structure and Dynamics of the Magnetosheath 117Katariina Nykyri 8. An Examination of the Magnetopause Position and Shape Based Upon New Observations 135Z. Němeček, J. Šafránková, and J. Šimůnek 9. Methods for Finding Magnetic Nulls and Reconstructing Field Topology: A Review 153H. S. Fu, Z. Wang, Qiugang Zong, X. H. Chen, J. S. He, A. Vaivads, and V. Olshevsky Part III: The Roles of Solar Wind Sources on Wave Generations and Dynamic Processes in the Inner Magnetosphere 10. Theoretical Studies of Standing Toroidal Alfvén Waves in Dipole‐Like Magnetosphere 175A. S. Leonovich and D. A. Kozlov 11. Ultra-Low-Frequency Wave–Particle Interactions in Earth’s Outer Radiation Belt 189R. Rankin, C. R. Wang, Y. F. Wang, Qiugang Zong, X. Z. Zhou, A. W. Degeling, D. Sydorenko, and G. Whittall-Scherfee 12. Recent Advances in Understanding Radiation Belt Electron Dynamics Due to Wave–Particle Interactions 207W. Li, Q. Ma, J. Bortnik, and R. M. Thorne 13. Current Status of Inner Magnetosphere and Radiation Belt Modeling 231Mei‐Ching Fok Part IV: Cold Plasmas of Ionospheric Origin and Their Role in Coupling Different Regions in Geospace 14. Multi‐Point Observations of the Geospace Plume 245J. C. Foster, P. J. Erickson, B. M. Walsh, J. R. Wygant, A. J. Coster, and Qing‐He Zhang 15. Interactions Between ULF Waves and Cold Plasmaspheric Particles 265Qiugang Zong, Jie Ren, and X. Z. Zhou 16. Formation and Evolution of Polar Cap Ionospheric Patches and Their Associated Upflows and Scintillations: A Review 285Qing‐He Zhang, Zan‐Yang Xing, Yong Wang, and Yu‐Zhang Ma 17. Dayside Magnetosphere Interactions: Progress in Our Understanding and Outstanding Questions 303Qiugang Zong, Philippe Escoubet, David Sibeck, Guan Le, and Hui Zhang Index 307

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Book SynopsisEarth Materials Earth materials encompass the minerals, rocks, soil and water that constitute our planet and the physical, chemical and biological processes that produce them. Since the expansion of computer technology in the last two decades of the twentieth century, many universities have compressed or eliminated individual course offerings such as mineralogy, optical mineralogy, igneous petrology, sedimentology and metamorphic petrology and replaced them with Earth materials courses. Earth materials courses have become an essential curricular component in the fields of geology, geoscience, Earth science, and many related areas of study. This textbook is designed to address the needs of a one- or two-semester Earth materials course, as well as individuals who want or need an expanded background in minerals, rocks, soils and water resources. Earth Materials, Second Edition, provides: Comprehensive descriptive analysis of Earth materials Color grapTable of ContentsPreface iv Acknowledgments vi About the Companion Website viii 1 Earth materials and the geosphere 1 2 Atoms, elements, bonds, and coordination polyhedra 22 3 Atomic substitution, phase diagrams, and isotopes 50 4 Crystallography 83 5 Mineral properties and rock-forming minerals 120 6 Optical identification of minerals 160 7 Igneous rock texture, composition, and classification 199 8 Magma and intrusive structures 235 9 Volcanic features and landforms 262 10 Igneous rock associations 300 11 Weathering, sediment production, and soils 342 12 The sedimentary cycle: erosion, transportation, deposition, sedimentary structures, and environments 381 13 Detrital sediments and sedimentary rocks 418 14 Biochemical sedimentary rocks 454 15 Metamorphism 503 16 Metamorphism: stress, deformation, and structures 524 17 Texture and classification of metamorphic rocks 554 18 Metamorphic zones, facies, and facies series 578 19 Mineral resources and hazards 619 Index 663

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Book SynopsisEnlightens readers on the realities of global atmospheric change, including global warming and poor air quality Climate change and air pollution are two of the most pressing issues facing Mankind. This book gives undergraduate and graduate students, researchers and professionals working in the science and policy of pollution, climate change and air quality a broad and up-to-date account of the processes that occur in the atmosphere, how these are changing as Man's relentless use of natural resources continues, and what effects these changes are having on the Earth's climate and the quality of the air we breathe. Written by an international team of experts, Atmospheric Science for Environmental Scientists, 2nd Edition provides an excellent overview of our current understanding of the state of the Earth's atmosphere and how it is changing. The first half of the book covers: the climate of the Earth; chemical evolution of the atmosphere; atmospherTable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xi Abbreviations, Constants, and Nomenclature xiii 1 The Climate of the Earth 1 John Lockwood 1.1 Basic Climatology 1 1.2 General Atmospheric Circulation 3 1.3 Palaeoclimates 6 1.4 Polar Climates 12 1.5 Temperate Latitude Climates 16 1.6 Tropical Climates 20 Questions 28 References 28 Further Reading 30 2 Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere 31 Richard Wayne 2.1 Creation of the Planets and Their Earliest Atmospheres 34 2.2 Earth’s Atmosphere before Life Began 37 2.3 Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars 38 2.4 Life and Earth’s Atmosphere 41 2.5 Carbon Dioxide in Earth’s Atmosphere 47 2.6 The Rise of Oxygen Concentrations 50 2.7 Protection of Life from Ultraviolet Radiation 60 2.8 The Great Oxidation Event and Related Issues 64 2.9 The Future 68 Questions 68 References 69 Further Reading 74 3 Atmospheric Energy and the Structure of the Atmosphere 75 Hugh Coe 3.1 The Vertical Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere 75 3.2 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation 77 3.3 Solar Radiation, Ozone, and the Stratospheric Temperature Profile 82 3.4 Trapping of Longwave Radiation 85 3.5 A Simple Model of Radiation Transfer 85 3.6 Light Scattering 90 3.7 Conduction, Convection, and Sensible and Latent Heat 96 3.8 Energy Budget for Earth’s Atmosphere 103 3.9 Aerosols, Clouds, and Climate 106 3.10 Solar Radiation and the Biosphere 109 3.11 Summary 111 Questions 112 References 112 Further Reading 114 4 Biogeochemical Cycles 115 Dudley Shallcross and Anwar Khan 4.1 Sources 119 4.2 Sinks 119 4.3 Carbon 124 4.4 Nitrogen 132 4.5 Sulphur 134 4.6 Halogens 142 4.7 Hydrogen 152 4.8 Summary 153 Questions 153 References 154 Further Reading 157 5 Tropospheric Chemistry and Air Pollution 159 Paul Monks and Joshua Vande Hey 5.1 Sources of Trace Gases in the Atmosphere 159 5.2 Key Processes in Tropospheric Chemistry 164 5.3 Initiation of Photochemistry by Light 165 5.4 Tropospheric Oxidation Chemistry 166 5.5 Night-Time Oxidation Chemistry 178 5.6 Halogen Chemistry 182 5.7 Air Pollution and Urban Chemistry 187 5.8 Summary 195 Questions 197 References 199 Further Reading 202 6 Cloud Formation and Chemistry 203 Peter Brimblecombe 6.1 Clouds 203 6.2 Cloud Formation 204 6.3 Particle Size and Water Content 207 6.4 Dissolved Solids in Cloud Water and Rainfall 209 6.5 Dissolution of Gases 211 6.6 Reactions and Photochemistry 219 6.7 Radical and Photochemical Reactions 224 6.8 Summary 227 References 228 Further Reading 231 Websites 231 7 Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere 233 Paul I. Williams 7.1 Aerosol Properties 235 7.2 Aerosol Sources 245 7.3 The Role of Atmospheric Particles 254 7.4 Aerosol Measurements 262 7.5 Summary 265 Acknowledgement 266 Questions 266 References 267 8 Stratospheric Chemistry and Ozone Depletion 271 Martyn P. Chipperfield and A. Rob MacKenzie 8.1 Ozone Column Amounts 272 8.2 Physical Structure of the Stratosphere 275 8.3 Gas-Phase Chemistry of the Stratosphere 282 8.4 Aerosols and Clouds in the Stratosphere 287 8.5 Heterogeneous Chemistry of the Stratosphere 290 8.6 Future Perturbations to the Stratosphere 291 8.7 Summary 295 Questions 295 References 296 9 Boundary Layer Meteorology and Atmospheric Dispersion 299 Janet Barlow and Natalie Theeuwes 9.1 The Atmospheric Boundary Layer 299 9.2 Flow over Vegetation 307 9.3 The Urban Boundary Layer 312 9.4 Dispersion of Pollutants 319 9.5 Summary 326 Questions 327 References 327 Further Reading 329 10 Urban Air Pollution 331 Zongbo Shi 10.1 Introduction 331 10.2 Urban Air Pollution – A Brief History 331 10.3 Scale of Urban Air Pollution 333 10.4 Air Pollutants and Their Sources in the Urban Atmosphere 334 10.5 From Emissions to Airborne Concentrations 339 10.6 Urban-Scale Impacts 343 10.7 Means of Mitigation 349 10.8 Summary 361 Acknowledgement 363 Questions 363 References 364 Further Reading 365 11 Global Warming and Climate Change Science 367 Atul Jain, Xiaoming Xu, and Nick Hewitt 11.1 Historical Evidence of the Impact of Human Activities on Climate 369 11.2 Future Outlook of Climate Change 379 11.3 The Integrated Science Assessment Modelling (ISAM) 386 11.4 Potential Impacts of Climate Change 393 11.5 Summary 395 Acknowledgement 396 Questions 396 References 396 Appendix: Suggested Web Resources 399 Index 401

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Book SynopsisExplores the complex physico-chemical processes involved in active volcanism and dynamic magmatism Understanding the magmatic processes responsible for the chemical and textural signatures of volcanic products and igneous rocks is crucial for monitoring, forecasting, and mitigating the impacts of volcanic activity. Dynamic Magma Evolution is a compilation of recent geochemical, petrological, physical, and thermodynamic studies. It combines field research, experimental results, theoretical approaches, unconventional and novel techniques, and computational modeling to present the latest developments in the field. Volume highlights include: Crystallization and degassing processes in magmatic environmentsBubble and mineral nucleation and growth induced by cooling and decompressionKinetic processes during magma ascent to the surfaceMagma mixing, mingling, and recharge dynamicsGeo-speedometer measurement of volcanic eventsChanges in magma rheology induced by mineral and volatile contenTable of ContentsContributors vii Preface ix Part I: Timescales and Time Sensor 1. Rates and Timescales of Magma Transfer, Storage, Emplacement, and Eruption 3 Maurizio Petrelli and Georg F. Zellmer 2. Boundary-Layer Melts Entrapped as Melt Inclusions? The Case of Phosphorus‐ and CO2‐Rich Spinel‐Hosted Melt Inclusions from El Hierro, Canary Islands 43 Marc‐Antoine Longpré, John Stix, and Nobumichi Shimizu 3. Apatite as a Monitor of Dynamic Magmatic Evolution at Torfajökull Volcanic Center, Iceland 61 Lissie Connors, Tamara L. Carley, and Adrian Fiege 4. Control of Magma Plumbing Systems on Long‐Term Eruptive Behavior of Sakurajima Volcano, Japan: Insights from Crystal‐Size‐Distribution Analysis 89 Shunsuke Yamashita and Atsushi Toramaru Part II: Physical Properties in Magma 5. Dynamics of Volcanic Systems: Physical and Chemical Models Applied to Equilibrium Versus Disequilibrium Solidification of Magmas 101 Letizia Giuliani, Gianluca Iezzi, and Silvio Mollo 6. Architecture of the Magmatic System in the Main Ethiopian Rift 133 Sabrina Nazzareni, Stefano Rossi, Maurizio Petrelli, and Luca Caricchi 7. Rheological Behavior of Partly Crystallized Silicate Melts Under Variable Shear Rate 153 Francesco Vetere and François Holtz 8. Investigating the Crystallization Kinetics Via Time‐Resolved Neutron Diffraction 169 Marco Zanatta, Caterina Petrillo, and Francesco Sacchetti 9. Axial Melt‐Lens Dynamics at Fast Spreading Midocean Ridges 179 Jürgen Koepke and Chao Zhang Index 207

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Book SynopsisImproving weather and climate prediction with better representation of fast processes in atmospheric models Many atmospheric processes that influence Earth's weather and climate occur at spatiotemporal scales that are too small to be resolved in large scale models. They must be parameterized, which means approximately representing them by variables that can be resolved by model grids. Fast Processes in Large-Scale Atmospheric Models: Progress, Challenges and Opportunities explores ways to better investigate and represent multiple parameterized processes in models and thus improve their ability to make accurate climate and weather predictions. Volume highlights include: Historical development of the parameterization of fast processes in numerical models Different types of major sub-grid processes and their parameterizations Efforts to unify the treatment of individual processes and their interactions ToTable of ContentsList of contributors vii Preface xi 1 Progress in Understanding and Parameterizing Fast Physics in Large-Scale Atmospheric Models 1 Yangang Liu and Pavlos Kollias Part I Processes and Parameterizations 2 Radiative Transfer and Atmospheric Interactions 13 Yu Gu and Kuo-Nan Liou 3 AerosolsandClimateEffects 53 Xiaohong Liu 4 Entrainment, Mixing, and Their Microphysical Influences 87 Chunsong Lu, Yangang Liu, Xiaoqi Xu, Sinan Gao, and Cheng Sun 5 Deep Convection and Convective Clouds 121 Leo J. Donner 6 Stratus, Stratocumulus, and Remote Sensing 141 Xiquan Dong and Patrick Minnis 7 Planetary Boundary Layer and Processes 201 Virendra P. Ghate and David B. Mechem 8 Human Impacts on Land Surface-Atmosphere Interactions 213 Michael Barlage and Fei Chen 9 Gravity Wave Drag Parameterizations for Earth’s Atmosphere 229 Christopher G. Kruse, Jadwiga H. Richter, M. Joan Alexander, Julio T. Bacmeister, Christopher Heale, and Junhong Wei Part II Unifying Efforts 10 Higher-Order Equations Closed by the Assumed PDF Method: Suitability for Parameterizing Cumulus Convection 259 Vincent E. Larson 11 An Introduction to the Eddy–Diffusivity/Mass–Flux (EDMF) Approach: A Unified Turbulence and ConvectionParameterization 271 João Teixeira, Kay Suselj, and Marcin J. Kurowski 12 Application of Machine Learning to Parameterization Emulation and Development 283 Vladimir Krasnopolsky and Alexei Belochitski 13 Top-DownApproachestotheStudyofCloudSystems 313 Graham Feingold and Ilan Koren Part III Measurements, Model Evaluation, and Model-measurement Integration 14 Ground-Based Remote-Sensing of Key Properties 329 Katia Lamer, Pavlos Kollias, Vassilis Amiridis, Eleni Marinou, Ulrich Loehnert, Sabrina Schnitt, and Allison McComiskey 15 Satellite and Airborne Remote Sensing of Clouds and Aerosols 361 Alexander Marshak and Anthony B. Davis 16 In Situ and Laboratory Measurements of Cloud Microphysical Properties 399 Kamal Kant Chandrakar and Raymond A. Shaw 17 Frameworks for Testing and Evaluating Fast Physics: Parameterizations in Climate and Weather Forecasting Models 425 Wuyin Lin and Shaocheng Xie 18 Future Research Outlook: Challenges and Opportunities 445 Yangang Liu and Pavlos Kollias Index 451

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Book SynopsisSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS & SYNTHESIS STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS & SYNTHESIS A LABORATORY COURSE IN STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY Structural Analysis and Synthesis is the best-selling laboratory manual of its kind. Specifically designed to support the laboratory work of undergraduates in structural geology courses, the book helps students analyze the various aspects of geological structures, and to combine their analyses into an overarching synthesis. This book is intended for use in the laboratory portion of a first course in structural geology. As is explicit in the book's title, it is concerned with both the analysis and synthesis of structural features. In this fourth edition, the has been broadened to include a range of new content and features, including: Video content that demonstrates how to perform some of the more challenging structural geology techniques An acknowledgment of the increasing importance of environmental applications of strucTable of ContentsPreface vii About the Companion Website ix 1 Attitudes of Lines and Planes 1 Objectives 1 Definitions 2 Structural Elements 4 Structural Grain 5 2 Outcrop Patterns and Structure Contours 9 Objectives 9 Structure Contours 12 The Three‐Point Problem 13 Drawing a Topographic Profile 14 Drawing Cross Sections of Structure Contour Maps 15 Determining Outcrop Patterns with Structure Contours 15 Gently Bent Layers 17 Determining Exact Attitudes from Outcrop Patterns 18 Determining Stratigraphic Thickness in Flat Terrain 19 Determining Stratigraphic Thickness on Slopes 20 Determining Stratigraphic Thickness by Orthographic Projection 20 3 Stereographic Projection 31 Objective 31 Plotting a Plane 33 Plotting a Line 33 Plotting the Pole to a Plane 34 Line of Intersection of Two Planes 35 Angles of Lines within a Plane 36 Determining True Dip from Strike and Apparent Dip 37 Determining Strike and Dip from Two Apparent Dips 38 4 Folds and Cross Sections 43 Objectives 43 Glossary of Fold Terms 43 Classification by Shape 45 Classification by Orientation 45 Fold Classification Based on Dip Isogons 47 Outcrop Patterns of Folds 48 Cross or Structure Sections of Folded Layers 49 The Arc Method 50 Down‐Plunge Projection 50 5 Stereographic Analysis of Folded Rocks 67 Objectives 67 Beta (β) Diagrams 67 Pi (π) Diagrams 68 Pole Plotter 68 Determining the Orientation of the Axial Plane Using Fold Trace 69 Constructing the Profile of a Fold Exposed in Flat Terrain 69 Determining the Orientation of the Axial Plane Without a Fold Trace 70 Simple Equal‐Area Diagrams of Fold Orientation 71 Contour Diagrams 71 Determining the Fold Style and Interlimb Angle from Contoured Pi Diagrams 75 6 Rotations and Determining Original Directions in Folded Rocks 87 Objectives 87 Rotation of Lines 87 The Two‐Tilt Problem 89 Cones: The Drill‐Hole Problem 90 Unfolding Folds 93 7 Foliations, Parasitic Folds, and Superposed Folds 95 Objectives 95 Foliations 95 Parasitic Folds 97 Superposed Folds 99 8 Strain Measurements in Ductile Rocks 107 Objectives 107 Longitudinal Strain 107 Shear Strain 108 The Strain Ellipse 108 Strain Fields 108 The Coaxial Total Strain Ellipse 109 Measuring Strain in Deformed Objects 110 Strain in Folds 111 Deformed Fossils as Strain Indicators 111 Mohr Circle for Sheared Fossils 112 Mohr Circle for Boudinage 113 9 Advanced Strain Measurements 125 Objectives 125 Fry Method 126 Rf/φ Method 127 10 Brittle Failure 131 Objective 131 Quantifying Two‐Dimensional Stress 131 The Mohr Diagram 133 The Mohr Circle of Stress 134 Rules for Going Between Mohr Space and Real Space 135 The Failure Envelope 135 The Importance of Pore Pressure 138 11 Analysis of Fracture Systems 147 Objectives 147 Data Collection 148 Rose Diagram 148 Length vs Strike Graphs 149 Interpreting Joint Strike Diagrams 150 Contouring Joint Density 150 Accounting for Dip in Joints 152 12 Faults 157 Objectives 157 Measuring Slip 159 Rotational (Scissor) Faulting 161 Map Patterns of Faults 162 Timing of Faults 163 13 Dynamic and Kinematic Analysis of Faults 169 Objectives 169 Dynamic Analysis 169 Kinematic Analysis 174 14 Structural Synthesis 191 Objective 191 Structural Synthesis 191 Some Suggestions for Writing Style 193 Common Errors in Geologic Reports 193 15 Deformation Mechanisms in Mylonites 197 Objectives 197 Deformation Mechanisms 197 Fault Rocks 200 Kinematic Indicators 202 S‐C Fabrics 202 Asymmetric Porphyroclasts 202 Oblique Grain Shapes in Recrystallized Quartz Aggregates 203 Antithetic Shears 203 Strain and Offset in Shear Zones 204 Potential Sources of Error 205 16 Construction of Balanced Cross Sections 213 Objectives 213 Thrust‐Belt “Rules” 213 Recognizing Ramps and Flats 214 Relations Between Folds and Thrusts 215 Requirements of a Balanced Cross Section 218 Constructing a Restored Cross Section 219 Constructing a Balanced Cross Section 220 17 Introduction to Plate Tectonics 233 Objectives 233 Fundamental Principles 233 Plate Boundaries 234 Triple Junctions 235 Focal‐Mechanism Solutions (“Beach‐Ball” Diagrams) 236 Earth Magnetism 240 Apparent Polar Wander 242 18 Virtual Field Trip 253 Objective 253 Newfoundland Folds Field Trip 254 Ramapo Fault Field Trip 255 References 257 Further Reading 259 Index 265

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Book SynopsisApplying Earth science knowledge to sustainable development, disaster risk reduction, and climate action Data and insights from Earth observations are critical for assessing the health of our planet, monitoring change, and addressing societal challenges from the local to the global scale. Earth Observation Applications and Global Policy Frameworks presents case studies of Earth science information integrated with statistics and socioeconomic data for managing development targets, improving disaster resilience, and mitigating and adapting to climate change. It also showcases open collaboration among researchers, United Nations and government officials, entrepreneurs, and the public. Volume highlights include: Case studies of projects working with local and national governments, and through public-private partnerships, to make the most of the large volume of complex and diverse Earth science information sourcesApplications from diverse disciplines including wetland preservation, fTable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Foreword xv Glossary xvii 1 Introduction to Global Sustainability Frameworks and the Role of Earth Observations 1 Argyro Kavvada, Douglas Cripe, and Lawrence Friedl Part I Case Studies of Earth Observation Applications for Global Policy Frameworks 2 Observations to Underpin Policy: Examples of Ocean and Coastal Observations in Support of the Sendai Framework, the Paris Agreement, and Sustainable Development Goal 14 15 Emily A. Smail, Louis Celliers, María Máñez Costa, Laura Friedrich, Kirsten Isensee, Laura Lorenzoni, Katherina Schoo, Claas Teichmann, Leah M. Segui, Jillian Campbell, Daniel Takaki, and Kwame Adu Agyekum 3 A Bird’s-Eye View of Monitoring and Management of Marine and Coastal Protected Areas 43 Ghada El Serafy, Dimitris Poursanidis, Pablo F. Méndez, and Antonello Provenzale 4 Earth Observation in Support of SDG 6.3.2/6.6.1: Reporting Surface Water Quality 67 Nima Pahlevan, Steven Greb, and Arnold G. Dekker 5 The Fate of Wetlands: Can the View From Space Help Us to Stop and Reverse Their Global Decline? 85 Adrian Strauch, Pete Bunting, Jillian Campbell, Natalie Cornish, Jonas Eberle, Temilola Fatoyinbo, Jonas Franke, Konrad Hentze, David Lagomasino, Richard Lucas, Marc Paganini, Lisa-Maria Rebelo, Michael Riffler, Ake Rosenqvist, Stefanie Steinbach, Frank Thonfeld, and Christian Tottrup 6 Land Under Stress: Earth Observation-Based Drought Risk Monitoring for Sustainable Development 105 Valerie Graw, Jonas Schreier, Gohar Ghazaryan, Daniel Tsegai, Olena Dubovyk, Nicolas Gerber, Fabian Löw, Adrian Strauch, and Yvonne Walz 7 Building Risk-Informed Communities: Case Studies on the Applications of Earth Observation Data 119 Shanna McClain, Andrew Kruczkiewicz, Robert Ndugwa, Christian Braneon, Daniel Bader, Juan Bazo, and Michael Owen 8 Satellite Analysis Ready Data for the Sustainable Development Goals 133 Brian D. Killough Part II GEO Initiatives in Support of Global Policy Frameworks 9 EO4SDG: A GEO Initiative on Earth Observations for Sustainable Development Goals 147 Argyro Kavvada, Chu Ishida, Jimena Juárez, Steven Ramage, Paloma Merodio, and Lawrence Friedl 10 GEO Global Agricultural Monitoring and Global Policy Frameworks 159 Alyssa K. Whitcraft, Inbal Becker-Reshef, Christopher O. Justice, and Ian Jarvis 11 The Global Observation System for Mercury (GOS4M): Earth Observation Applications for the Minamata Convention on Mercury 177 Nicola Pirrone, Sergio Cinnirella, Francesca Sprovieri, Ian Michael Hedgecock, Francesco D’Amore, Mariantonia Bencardino, and Francesco De Simone 12 The Group on Earth Observations Carbon and Greenhouse Gas Initiative 187 Han Dolman, Werner Kutsch, Hiroyuki Muraoka, Antonio Bombelli, Nobuko Saigusa, Joerg Schultz, David Crisp, Mauro Facchini, Mark Dowell, Carolin Richter, Phil DeCola, Pep Canadell, Robert J. Scholes, Oksana Tarasova, André Obregón, Joanna Post, and Jouni Heiskanen 13 The GEO-DARMA Framework as a Mechanism for Future Increased Use of Satellite Data in Pursuit of Global Domestic Resource Mobilization Goals 197 Ivan Petiteville, Andrew Eddy, Peeranan Towashiraporn, Keran Wang, and Denis Macharia Index 209

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Book SynopsisExplores how two coastal ecosystems are responding to the pressures of human expansion The Northern Adriatic Sea, a continental shelf ecosystem in the Northeast Mediterranean Sea, and the Chesapeake Bay, a major estuary of the mid-Atlantic coast of the United States, are semi-enclosed, river-dominated ecosystems with urbanized watersheds that support extensive industrial agriculture. Coastal Ecosystems in Transition: A Comparative Analysis of the Northern Adriatic and Chesapeake Bay presents an update of a study published two decades ago. Revisiting these two ecosystems provides an opportunity to assess changing anthropogenic pressures in the context of global climate change. The new insights can be used to inform ecosystem-based approaches to sustainable development of coastal environments. Volume highlights include: Effects of nutrient enrichment and climate-driven changes on critical coastal habitats Patterns of stratificatTable of ContentsList of Contributors vii Preface xi 1. Introduction: Coastal Ecosystem Services at Risk 1Thomas C. Malone, Alenka Malej, and Jadran Faganeli 2. Recent Status and Long-Term Trends in Freshwater Discharge and Nutrient Inputs 7Qian Zhang, Stefano Cozzi, Cindy Palinkas, and Michele Giani 3. Sea State: Recent Progress in the Context of Climate Change 21William C. Boicourt, Matjaž Ličer, Ming Li, Martin Vodopivec, and Vlado Malačič 4. Phytoplankton Dynamics in a Changing Environment 49Mark J. Brush, Patricija Mozetič, Janja Francé, Fabrizio Bernardi Aubry, Tamara Djakovac, Jadran Faganeli, Lora A. Harris, and Meghann Niesen 5. Eutrophication, Harmful Algae, Oxygen Depletion, and Acidification 75Mark J. Brush, Michele Giani, Cecilia Totti, Jeremy M. Testa, Jadran Faganeli, Nives Ogrinc, W. Michael Kemp, and Serena Fonda Umani 6. Mesozooplankton and Gelatinous Zooplankton in the Face of Environmental Stressors 105James Pierson, Elisa Camatti, Raleigh Hood, Tjaša Kogovšek, Davor Lučić,́ Valentina Tirelli, and Alenka Malej 7. Ecological Role of Microbes: Current Knowledge and Future Prospects 129Valentina Turk, Sairah Malkin, Mauro Celussi, Tinkara Tinta, Jacob Cram, Francesca Malfatti, and Feng Chen 8. Advances in Our Understanding of Pelagic–Benthic Coupling 147Jeremy M. Testa, Jadran Faganeli, Michele Giani, Mark J. Brush, Cinzia De Vittor, Walter R. Boynton, Stefano Covelli, Ryan J. Woodland, Nives Kovač, and W. Michael Kemp 9. Status of Critical Habitats and Invasive Species 177Cindy Palinkas, Michele Mistri, Lorie Staver, Lovrenc Lipej, Petar Kružic,́ J. Court Stevenson, Mario Tamburri, Cristina Munari, and Martina Orlando-Bonaca 10. Status of Fish and Shellfish Stocks 203Victor S. Kennedy, Luca Bolognini, Jakov Dulčić,́ Ryan J. Woodland, Michael J. Wilberg, and Lora A. Harris 11. Ecosystem-Based Management of Multiple Pressures: Summary and Conclusions 229Alenka Malej, Jadran Faganeli, and Thomas C. Malone Index 233

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Book SynopsisEARTH'S FURY Natural disasters are any catastrophic loss of life and/or property caused by a natural event or situation. This definition could include biologic issues such as contagion, injurious bacterial colonization, invasion of dangerous plants and infestations of insects and other vermin. However, the popular understanding of what constitutes a natural disaster still focuses on disasters involving the physical properties of the earth and its atmosphere: earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, avalanches, tropical storms, tornadoes, floods and wildfires. Earth's Fury: The Science of Natural Disasters attempts to combine the best features of a scientific textbook and an encyclopedia. It retains the organization of a textbook and adopts the highly illustrative graphics of some of the newer and more effective textbooks. The book's unique approach is evident in its plethora of case studies: short, self-contained and well-illustrated stories of specific natural disTable of ContentsPreface Chapter 1: Introduction to Natural Disasters Chapter 2: Moving Continents Chapter 3: How Does Rock Melt? Chapter 4: Types of Volcanoes Chapter 5: Volcanic Hazards Chapter 6: Causes of Earthquakes Chapter 7: Earthquakes 101 Chapter 8: Earthquake Hazards Chapter 9: Killer Tsunamis Chapter 10: Predicting Earthquakes and Reducing Hazards Chapter 11: Avalanches and Landslides Chapter 12: Weather and Storms Chapter 13: Ocean Circulation and Coastal Systems Chapter 14: Hurricanes, Cyclones, and Typhoons Chapter 15: Tornadoes and Supercells: Terrors of the Plains Chapter 16: Devastating Floods and Their Aftermath Chapter 17: Droughts and Desertification Chapter 18: Impacts: Collisions from Space Chapter 19: Climate Change Dynamics

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Book SynopsisComprehensive and up-to-date information on Earth's most dominant year-to-year climate variation The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Pacific Ocean has major worldwide social and economic consequences through its global scale effects on atmospheric and oceanic circulation, marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and other natural systems. Ongoing climate change is projected to significantly alter ENSO''s dynamics and impacts. El Niño Southern Oscillation in a Changing Climate presents the latest theories, models, and observations, and explores the challenges of forecasting ENSO as the climate continues to change. Volume highlights include: Historical background on ENSO and its societal consequences Review of key El Niño (ENSO warm phase) and La Niña (ENSO cold phase) characteristics Mathematical description of the underlying physical processes that generate ENSO variations Conceptual framework for undersTable of ContentsList of Contributors vii Acknowledgments xiii Preface xv Section I: Introduction 1. Introduction to El Niño Southern Oscillation in a Changing Climate 3 Michael J. McPhaden, Agus Santoso, and Wenju Cai 2. ENSO in the Global Climate System 21Kevin E. Trenberth Section II: Observations 3. ENSO Observations 41Michael J. McPhaden, Tong Lee, Severine Fournier, and Magdalena A. Balmaseda 4. ENSO Diversity 65Antonietta Capotondi, Andrew T. Wittenberg, Jong-Seong Kug, Ken Takahashi, and Michael J. McPhaden 5. Past ENSO Variability: Reconstructions, Models, and Implications 87Julien Emile-Geay, Kim M. Cobb, Julia E. Cole, Mary Elliot, and Feng Zhu Section III: Theories and Dynamics 6. Simple ENSO Models 121Fei-Fei Jin, Han-Ching Chen, Sen Zhao, Michiya Hayashi, Christina Karamperidou, Malte F. Stuecker, Ruihuang Xie, and Licheng Geng 7. ENSO Irregularity and Asymmetry 153Soon-Il An, Eli Tziperman, Yuko M. Okumura, and Tim Li 8. ENSO Low‐frequency Modulation and Mean State Interactions 173Alexey V. Fedorov, Shineng Hu, Andrew T. Wittenberg, Aaron F. Z. Levine, and Clara Deser Section IV: Modeling and Prediction 9. ENSO Modelling: History, Progress and Challenges 201Eric Guilyardi, Antonietta Capotondi, Matthieu Lengaigne, Sulian Thual, and Andrew T. Wittenberg 10. ENSO Prediction 227Michelle L. L’Heureux, Aaron F. Z. Levine, Matthew Newman, Catherine Ganter, Jing-Jia Luo, Michael K. Tippett, and Timothy N. Stockdale Section V: Remote and External Forcing 11. ENSO Remote Forcing: Influence of Climate Variability Outside the Tropical Pacific 249Jong-Seong Kug, Jerome Vialard, Yoo-Geun Ham, Jin-Yi Yu, and Matthieu Lengaigne 12. The Effect of Strong Volcanic Eruptions on ENSO 267Shayne McGregor, Myriam Khodri, Nicola Maher, Masamichi Ohba, Francesco S. R. Pausata, and Samantha Stevenson 13. ENSO Response to Greenhouse Forcing 289Wenju Cai, Agus Santoso, Guojian Wang, Lixin Wu, Mat Collins, Matthieu Lengaigne, Scott Power, and Axel Timmermann Section VI: Teleconnections and Impacts 14. ENSO Atmospheric Teleconnections 311Andréa S. Taschetto, Caroline C. Ummenhofer, Malte F. Stuecker, Dietmar Dommenget, Karumuri Ashok, Regina R. Rodrigues, and Sang-Wook Yeh 15. ENSO Oceanic Teleconnections 337Janet Sprintall, Sophie Cravatte, Boris Dewitte, Yan Du, and Alexander Sen Gupta 16. Impact of El Nino on Weather and Climate Extremes 361Lisa Goddard and Alexander Gershunov 17. ENSO and Tropical Cyclones 377I-I Lin, Suzana J. Camargo, Christina M. Patricola, Julien Boucharel, Savin Chand, Phil Klotzbach, Johnny C. L. Chan, Bin Wang, Ping Chang, Tim Li, and Fei-Fei Jin 18. ENSO-Driven Ocean Extremes and Their Ecosystem Impacts 409Neil J. Holbrook, Danielle C. Claar, Alistair J. Hobday, Kathleen L. McInnes, Eric C. J. Oliver, Alex Sen Gupta, Matthew J. Widlansky, and Xuebin Zhang 19. ENSO Impact on Marine Fisheries and Ecosystems 429Patrick Lehodey, Arnaud Bertrand, Alistair J. Hobday, Hidetada Kiyofuji, Sam McClatchie, Christophe E. Menkès, Graham Pilling, Jeffrey Polovina, and Desiree Tommasi 20. ENSO and the Carbon Cycle 453Richard A. Betts, Chantelle A. Burton, Richard A. Feely, Mat Collins, Chris D. Jones, and Andy J. Wiltshire Section VII: Closing 21. ENSO in a Changing Climate: Challenges, Paleo‐Perspectives, and OutlookChristina Karamperidou, Malte F. Stuecker, Axel Timmermann, Kyung-Sook Yun, Sun-Seon Lee, Fei-Fei Jin, Agus Santoso, Michael J. McPhaden, and Wenju Cai Glossary 485 Index 491

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Book SynopsisHydraulic fracturing (or fracking) has been a source of both achievement and controversy for years, and it continues to be a hot-button issue all over the world. It has made the United States an energy exporting country once again and kept the price of gasoline low, for consumers and companies. On the other hand, it has been potentially a dangerous and destructive practice that has led to environmental problems and health issues. It is a deeply important subject for the petroleum engineer to explore as much as possible. This collection of papers is the first in the series, Sustainable Energy Engineering, tackling this very complex process of hydraulic fracturing and its environmental and economic ramifications. Born out of the journal by the same name, formerly published by Scrivener Publishing, most of the articles in this volume have been updated, and there are some new additions, as well, to keep the engineer abreast of any updates and new methods in the industry. TTable of ContentsForeword xiii Part 1: Introduction 1 1 Hydraulic Fracturing, An Overview 3 Fred Aminzadeh 1.1 What is Hydraulic Fracturing? 4 1.2 Why Hydraulic Fracturing is Important 5 1.3 Fracture Characterization 8 1.4 Geomechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing 11 1.5 Environmental Aspects of Hydraulic Fracturing 14 1.6 Induced Seismicity 18 1.7 Case Study: Fracturing Induced Seismicity in California 23 1.8 Assessment of Global Oil and Gas Resources Amenable for Extraction via Hydraulic Fracturing 27 1.9 Economics of HF 27 1.10 Conclusions 28 Acknowledgement 30 References 30 Part 2: General Concepts 35 2 Evolution of Stress Transfer Mechanisms During Mechanical Interaction Between Hydraulic Fractures and Natural Fractures 37 Birendra Jha 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Physical Model 39 2.3 Mathematical Formulation 40 2.4 Numerical Model 43 2.5 Simulation Results 44 2.6 Effect of Hydraulic Fracturing on Natural Fractures 46 2.7 Conclusion 49 References 50 3 Primer on Hydraulic Fracturing Concerning Initiatives on Energy Sustainability 53 Michael Holloway and Oliver Rudd 3.1 Hydraulic Fracturing 54 3.1.1 Environmental Impact – Reality vs. Myth 54 3.1.2 The Tower of Babel and How it Could be the Cause of Much of the Fracking Debate 55 3.1.3 Frac Fluids and Composition 57 3.1.4 Uses and Needs for Frac Fluids 57 3.1.5 Common Fracturing Additives 58 3.1.6 Typical Percentages of Commonly Used Additives 60 3.1.6.1 Proppants 61 3.1.6.2 Silica Sand 63 3.1.6.3 Resin Coated Proppant 65 3.1.6.4 Manufactured Ceramics Proppants 65 3.2 Additional Types 66 3.3 Other Most Common Objections to Drilling Operations 66 3.3.1 Noise 67 3.4 Changes in Landscape and Beauty of Surroundings 68 3.5 Increased Traffic 69 3.6 Chemicals and Products on Locations 70 3.6.1 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) 72 3.6.1.1 Contents of an MSDS 73 3.6.1.2 Product Identification 73 3.6.1.3 Hazardous Ingredients of Mixtures 74 3.6.1.4 Physical Data 74 3.6.1.5 Fire & Explosion Hazard Data 75 3.6.1.6 Health Hazard Data 76 3.6.1.7 Reactivity Data 76 3.6.1.8 Personal Protection Information 77 3.7 Conclusion 77 Bibliography 78 4 A Graph Theoretic Approach for Spatial Analysis of Induced Fracture Networks 79 Deborah Glosser and Jennifer R. Bauer 4.1 Background and Rationale 80 4.2 Graph-Based Spatial Analysis 83 4.2.1 Acquire Geologic Data and Define Regional Bounding Lithology 84 4.2.2 Details of the Topological Algorithm 85 4.2.2.1 Data Acquisition, Conditioning and Quanta 85 4.2.2.2 Details of the k-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm 86 4.2.3 The Value of the Topological Approach Algorithm 86 4.3 Real World Applications of the Algorithm 87 4.3.1 Bradford Field: Contrasting the Graph-Based Approaches; k Sensitivity 87 4.3.1.1 Data Sources 88 4.3.1.2 Results 88 4.3.2 Armstrong PA: Testing the Algorithms Against a Known Leakage Scenario 88 4.3.2.1 Data Sources 90 4.3.2.2 Results 90 4.4 Discussion 91 4.4.1 Uses for Industry and Regulators 93 4.5 Conclusions 93 Acknowledgements 94 References 94 Part 3: Optimum Design Parameters 99 5 Fracture Spacing Design for Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing Completions for Improved Productivity 101 D. Maity, J. Ciezobka and I. Salehi 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Method 103 5.2.1 Impact of Natural Fractures 104 5.2.2 Workflow 107 5.2.3 Model Fine-Tuning 108 5.2.4 Need for Artificial Intelligence 109 5.3 Data 110 5.4 Results 114 5.4.1 Applicability Considerations 120 5.5 Concluding Remarks 121 Acknowledgement 122 References 122 6 Clustering-Based Optimal Perforation Design Using Well Logs 125 Andrei S. Popa, Steve Cassidy and Sinisha Jikich 6.1 Introduction 126 6.2 Objective and Motivation 127 6.3 Technology 128 6.4 Clustering Analysis 129 6.4.1 C-Means (FCM) Algorithm 130 6.5 Methodology and Analysis 131 6.5.1 Available Data 131 6.6 Applying the FCM Algorithm 134 6.7 Results and Discussion 136 6.8 Conclusions 139 Acknowledgements 139 References 139 7 Horizontal Well Spacing and Hydraulic Fracturing Design Optimization: A Case Study on Utica-Point Pleasant Shale Play 141 Alireza Shahkarami and Guochang Wang 7.1 Introduction 142 7.2 Methodology 143 7.2.1 The Base Reservoir Simulation Model 143 7.3 Optimization Scenarios 147 7.4 Results and Discussion 148 7.4.1 Base Reservoir Model – A Single Well Case 148 7.4.2 Multi-Lateral Depletion – Finding the Optimum Number of Wells 148 7.4.3 Completion Parameters 151 7.4.4 Second Economic Scenario, Reducing the Cost of Completion 153 7.5 Conclusion 154 Acknowledgments 156 Part 4: Fracture Reservoir Characterization 159 Ahmed Ouenes Introduction 159 References 161 8 Geomechanical Modeling of Fault Systems Using the Material Point Method – Application to the Estimation of Induced Seismicity Potential to Bolster Hydraulic Fracturing Social License 163 Nicholas M. Umholtz and Ahmed Ouenes 8.1 Introduction 164 8.2 The Social License to Operate (SLO) 165 8.3 Regional Faults in Oklahoma, USA and Alberta, Canada used as Input in Geomechanical Modeling 166 8.4 Modeling Earthquake Potential using Numerical Material Models 168 8.5 A New Workflow for Estimating Induced Seismicity Potential and its Application to Oklahoma and Alberta 173 8.6 The Benefits of a Large Scale Predictive Model and Future Research 178 8.7 Conflict of Interest 179 Acknowledgements 179 References 179 9 Correlating Pressure with Microseismic to Understand Fluid-Reservoir Interactions During Hydraulic Fracturing 181 Debotyam Maity 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Method 182 9.2.1 Pressure Data Analysis 182 9.2.2 Microseismic Data Analysis 186 9.3 Data 187 9.4 Results 188 9.4.1 Pitfalls in Analysis 196 9.5 Conclusions 196 9.6 Acknowledgements 197 References 197 10 Multigrid Fracture Stimulated Reservoir Volume Mapping Coupled with a Novel Mathematical Optimization Approach to Shale Reservoir Well and Fracture Design 199 Ahmed Alzahabi, Noah Berlow, M.Y. Soliman and Ghazi AlQahtani 10.1 Introduction 200 10.2 Problem Definition and Modeling 203 10.2.1 Geometric Interpretation 203 10.2.1.1 Fracture Geometry 203 10.2.2 The Developed Model Flow Chart 204 10.2.3 Well and Fracture Design Vector Components 204 10.3 Development of a New Mathematical Model 204 10.3.1 Methodology 207 10.3.2 Objective Function 207 10.3.3 Assumptions and Constraints Considered in the Mathematical Model 207 10.3.3.1 Sets 208 10.3.3.2 Variables 208 10.3.3.3 Decision Variables 208 10.3.3.4 Extended Sets 208 10.3.3.5 Constant Parameters 209 10.3.3.6 Constraints 209 10.3.4 Stimulated Reservoir Volume Representation 210 10.3.5 Optimization Procedure 211 10.4 Model Building 212 10.4.1 Simulation Model of Well Pad and SRV’s Evaluation 214 10.5 Results and Discussions 216 10.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 216 References 218 Appendix A: Abbreviations 220 Appendix B: Definition of the Fracturability Index Used in the Well Placement Process 220 Appendix C: Geometric Interpretation of Parameters Used in Building the Model 221 11 A Semi-Analytical Model for Predicting Productivity of Refractured Oil Wells with Uniformly Distributed Radial Fractures 227 Xiao Cai, Boyun Guo and Gao li 11.1 Introduction 228 11.2 Mathematical Model 229 11.3 Model Verification 231 11.4 Sensitivity Analysis 231 11.5 Conclusions 233 Acknowledgements 234 References 234 Appendix A: Derivation of Inflow Equation for Wells with Radial Fractures under Pseudo-Steady State Flow Conditions 235 Part 5: Environmental Issues of Hydraulic Fracturing 243 Introduction 243 References 245 12 The Role of Human Factors Considerations and Safety Culture in the Safety of Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) 247 Jamie Heinecke, Nima Jabbari and Najmedin Meshkati 12.1 Introduction 248 12.2 Benefits of Hydraulic Fracturing 250 12.3 Common Criticisms 250 12.4 Different Steps of Hydraulic Fracturing and Proposed Human Factors Considerations 252 12.5 Hydraulic Fracturing Process: Drilling 254 12.6 Hydraulic Fracturing Process: Fluid Injection 257 12.7 Fracking Fluid 258 12.8 Wastewater 258 12.9 Human Factors and Safety Culture Considerations 259 12.9.1 Human Factors 259 12.9.1.1 Microergonomics 260 12.9.1.2 Macroergonomics 260 12.9.2 Safety Culture 261 12.10 Examples of Recent Incidents 263 12.11 Conclusion and Recommendations 265 Acknowledgment 266 References 266 13 Flowback of Fracturing Fluids with Upgraded Visualization of Hydraulic Fractures and Its Implications on Overall Well Performance 271 Khush Desai and Fred Aminzadeh 13.1 Introduction 272 13.2 Assumptions 272 13.3 Upgraded Visualization of Hydraulic Fracturing 273 13.3.1 Concept 273 13.3.2 Results 274 13.4 Reasons for Partial Flowback 275 13.4.1 Fracture Modelling 275 13.4.2 Depth of Penetration 276 13.4.3 Closing of Fractures 277 13.4.4 Chemical Interaction of Fracturing Fluids 277 13.5 Impact of Parameters under Control 278 13.6 Loss in Incremental Oil Production 279 13.7 Conclusions 280 13.8 Limitations 281 References 281 Appendix A 282 14 Assessing the Groundwater Contamination Potential from a Well in a Hydraulic Fracturing Operation 285 Nima Jabbari, Fred Aminzadeh and Felipe P. J. de Barros 14.1 Introduction 286 14.2 Risk Pathways to the Shallow Groundwater 288 14.3 Problem Statement 289 14.4 Mathematical Formulation 290 14.5 Hypothetical Case Description and the Numerical Method 291 14.6 Results and Discussion 294 14.7 Conclusion 297 References 298 Index 303

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Book SynopsisRESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION The second volume in the series, Sustainable Energy Engineering, written by some of the foremost authorities in the world on reservoir engineering, this groundbreaking new volume presents the most comprehensive and updated new processes, equipment, and practical applications in the field. Long thought of as not being sustainable, newly discovered sources of petroleum and newly developed methods for petroleum extraction have made it clear that not only can the petroleum industry march toward sustainability, but it can be made greener and more environmentally friendly. Sustainable energy engineering is where the technical, economic, and environmental aspects of energy production intersect and affect each other. This collection of papers covers the strategic and economic implications of methods used to characterize petroleum reservoirs. Born out of the journal by the same name, formerly published by Scrivener Publishing, most of the artiTable of ContentsForeword xix Preface xxiii Part 1: Introduction 1 1 Reservoir Characterization: Fundamental and Applications - An Overview 3 Fred Aminzadeh 1.1 Introduction to Reservoir Characterization? 3 1.2 Data Requirements for Reservoir Characterization 5 1.3 SURE Challenge 7 1.4 Reservoir Characterization in the Exploration, Development and Production Phases 10 1.4.1 Exploration Stage/Development Stage 10 1.4.2 Primary Production Stage 11 1.4.3 Secondary/Tertiary Production Stage 11 1.5 Dynamic Reservoir Characterization (DRC) 12 1.5.1 4D Seismic for DRC 13 1.5.2 Microseismic Data for DRC 14 1.6 More on Reservoir Characterization and Reservoir Modeling for Reservoir Simulation 15 1.6.1 Rock Physics 16 1.6.2 Reservoir Modeling 17 1.7 Conclusion 20 References 20 Part 2: General Reservoir Characterization and Anomaly Detection 23 2 A Comparison Between Estimated Shear Wave Velocity and Elastic Modulus by Empirical Equations and that of Laboratory Measurements at Reservoir Pressure Condition 25 Haleh Azizia, Hamid Reza Siahkoohi, Brian Evans, Nasser Keshavarz Farajkhah and Ezatollah KazemZadeh 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Methodology 28 2.1.2 Estimating the Shear Wave Velocity 28 2.2.2 Estimating Geomechanical Parameters 31 2.3 Laboratory Set Up and Measurements 32 2.3.1 Laboratory Data Collection 34 2.4 Results and Discussion 35 2.5 Conclusions 41 2.6 Acknowledgment 43 References 43 3 Anomaly Detection within Homogenous Geologic Area 47 Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, George Chilingar and Leonid Khilyuk 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Anomaly Detection Methodology 49 3.3 Basic Anomaly Detection Classifiers 50 3.4 Prior and Posterior Characteristics of Anomaly Detection Performance 52 3.5 ROC Curve Analysis 55 3.6 Optimization of Aggregated AD Classifier Using Part of the Anomaly Identified by Universal Classifiers 58 3.7 Bootstrap Based Tests of Anomaly Type Hypothesis 61 3.8 Conclusion 64 References 65 4 Characterization of Carbonate Source-Derived Hydrocarbons Using Advanced Geochemical Technologies 69 Hossein Alimi 4.1 Introduction 70 4.2 Samples and Analyses Performed 71 4.3 Results and Discussions 72 4.4 Summary and Conclusions 79 References 80 5 Strategies in High-Data-Rate MWD Mud Pulse Telemetry 81 Yinao Su, Limin Sheng, Lin Li, Hailong Bian, Rong Shi, Xiaoying Zhuang and Wilson Chin 5.1 Summary 82 5.1.1 High Data Rates and Energy Sustainability 82 5.1.2 Introduction 83 5.1.3 MWD Telemetry Basics 85 5.1.4 New Telemetry Approach 87 5.2 New Technology Elements 88 5.2.1 Downhole Source and Signal Optimization 89 5.2.2 Surface Signal Processing and Noise Removal 92 5.2.3 Pressure, Torque and Erosion Computer Modeling 93 5.2.4 Wind Tunnel Analysis: Studying New Approaches 96 5.2.5 Example Test Results 108 5.3 Directional Wave Filtering 111 5.3.1 Background Remarks 111 5.3.2 Theory 112 5.3.3 Calculations 116 5.4 Conclusions 132 Acknowledgments 133 References 133 6 Detection of Geologic Anomalies with Monte Carlo Clustering Assemblies 135 Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, George Chilingar, Leonid Khilyuk and Matin Lockpour 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Analysis of Inhomogeneity of the Training and Test Sets and Instability of Clustering 136 6.3 Formation of Multiple Randomized Test Sets and Construction of the Clustering Assemblies 138 6.4 Irregularity Index of Individual Clusters in the Cluster Set 139 6.5 Anomaly Indexes of Individual Records and Clustering Assemblies 141 6.6 Prior and Posterior True and False Discovery Rates for Anomalous and Regular Records 142 6.7 Estimates of Prior False Discovery Rates for Anomalous Cluster Sets, Clusters, and Individual Records. Permeability Dataset 142 6.8 Posterior Analysis of Efficiency of Anomaly Identification. High Permeability Anomaly 144 6.9 Identification of Records in the Gas Sand Dataset as Anomalous, using Brine Sand Dataset as Data with Regular Records 146 6.10 Notations 149 6.11 Conclusions 149 References 150 7 Dissimilarity Analysis of Petrophysical Parameters as Gas-Sand Predictors 151 Simon Katz, George Chilingar, Fred Aminzadeh and Leonid Khilyuk 7.1 Introduction 152 7.2 Petrophysical Parameters for Gas-Sand Identification 152 7.3 Lithologic and Fluid Content Dissimilarities of Values of Petrophysical Parameters 154 7.4 Parameter Ranking and Efficiency of Identification of Gas-Sands 155 7.5 ROC Curve Analysis with Cross Validation 159 7.6 Ranking Parameters According to AUC Values 161 7.7 Classification with Multidimensional Parameters as Gas Predictors 163 7.8 Conclusions 164 Definitions and Notations 166 References 166 8 Use of Type Curve for Analyzing Non-Newtonian Fluid Flow Tests Distorted by Wellbore Storage Effects 169 Fahd Siddiqui and Mohamed Y. Soliman 8.1 Introduction 170 8.2 Objective 173 8.3 Problem Analysis 173 8.3.1 Model Assumptions 174 8.3.2 Solution Without the Wellbore Storage Distortion 175 8.3.3 Wellbore Storage and Skin Effects 175 8.3.4 Solution by Mathematical Inspection 175 8.3.5 Solution Verification 176 8.4 Use of Finite Element 176 8.5 Analysis Methodology 177 8.5.1 Finding the n Value 177 8.5.2 Dimensionless Wellbore Storage 178 8.5.3 Use of Type Curves 178 8.5.4 Match Point 179 8.5.5 Uncertainty in Analysis 180 8.6 Test Data Examples 180 8.6.1 Match Point 182 8.6.2 Match Point 183 8.6.3 Analysis Recommendations 185 8.6.4 Match Point 185 8.6.5 Analysis Recommendations 186 8.6.6 Match point 186 8.7 Conclusion 188 Nomenclature 188 References 189 Appendix A: Non-Linear Boundary Condition and Laplace Transform 189 Appendix B: Type Curve Charts for Various Power Law Indices 191 Part 3: Reservoir Permeability Detection 195 9 Permeability Prediction Using Machine Learning, Exponential, Multiplicative, and Hybrid Models 197 Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, George Chilingar and M. Lackpour 9.1 Introduction 197 9.2 Additive, Multiplicative, Exponential, and Hybrid Permeability Models 198 9.3 Combination of Basis Function Expansion and Exhaustive Search for Optimum Subset of Predictors 200 9.4 Outliers in the Forecasts Produced with Four Permeability Models 201 9.5 Additive, Multiplicative, and Exponential Committee Machines 203 9.6 Permeability Forecast with First Level Committee Machines. Sandstone Dataset 206 9.7 Permeability Prediction with First Level Committee Machines. Carbonate Reservoirs 210 9.8 Analysis of Accuracy of Outlier Replacement by The First and Second Level Committee Machines. Sandstone Dataset 212 9.9 Conclusion 214 Notations and Definitions 215 References 216 10 Geological and Geophysical Criteria for Identifying Zones of High Gas Permeability of Coals (Using the Example of Kuzbass CBM Deposits) 217 A.G. Pogosyan 10.1 Introduction 217 10.2 Physical Properties and External Load Conditions on a Coal Reservoir 219 10.3 Basis for Evaluating Physical and Mechanical Coalbed Properties in the Borehole Environment 225 10.4 Conclusions 228 Acknowledgement 228 References 229 11 Rock Permeability Forecasts Using Machine Learning and Monte Carlo Committee Machines 231 Simon Katz, Fred Aminzadeh, Wennan Long, George Chilingar and Matin Lackpour 11.1 Introduction 232 11.2 Monte Carlo Cross Validation and Monte Carlo Committee Machines 233 11.3 Performance of Extended MC Cross Validation and Construction MC Committee Machines 236 11.4 Parameters of Distribution of the Number of Individual Forecasts in Monte Carlo Cross Validation 237 11.5 Linear Regression Permeability Forecast with Empirical Permeability Models 238 11.6 Accuracy of the Forecasts with Machine Learning Methods 242 11.7 Analysis of Instability of the Forecast 244 11.8 Enhancement of Stability of the MC Committee Machines Forecast Via Increase of the Number of Individual Forecasts 246 11.9 Conclusions 247 Nomenclature 247 Appendix 1- Description of Permeability Models from Different Fields 248 Appendix 2- A Brief Overview of Modular Networks or Committee Machines 249 References 251 Part 4: Reserves Evaluation/Decision Making 253 12 The Gulf of Mexico Petroleum System – Foundation for Science-Based Decision Making 255 Corinne Disenhof, MacKenzie Mark-Moser and Kelly Rose Introduction 256 Basin Development and Geologic Overview 257 Petroleum System 259 Reservoir Geology 259 Hydrocarbons 261 Salt and Structure 262 Conclusions 263 Acknowledgments and Disclaimer 264 References 265 13 Forecast and Uncertainty Analysis of Production Decline Trends with Bootstrap and Monte Carlo Modeling 269 Simon Katz, George Chilingar and Leonid Khilyuk 13.1 Introduction 270 13.2 Simulated Decline Curves 271 13.3 Nonlinear Least Squares for Decline Curve Approximation 273 13.4 New Method of Grid Search for Approximation and Forecast of Decline Curves 273 13.5 Iterative Minimization of Least Squares with Multiple Approximating Models 275 13.6 Grid Search Followed by Iterative Minimization with Levenberg-Marquardt Algorithm 276 13.7 Two Methods for Aggregated Forecast and Analysis of Forecast Uncertainty 277 13.8 Uncertainty Quantile Ranges Obtained Using Monte Carlo and Bootstrap Methods 279 13.9 Monte Carlo Forecast and Analysis of Forecast Uncertainty 280 13.10 Block Bootstrap Forecast and Analysis of Forecast Uncertainty 284 13.11 Comparative Analysis of Results of Monte Carlo and Bootstrap Simulations 285 13.12 Conclusions 287 References 288 14 Oil and Gas Company Production, Reserves, and Valuation 289 Mark J. Kaiser 14.1 Introduction 290 14.2 Reserves 292 14.2.1 Proved Reserves 292 14.2.2 Proved Reserves Categories 292 14.2.3 Reserves Reporting 293 14.2.4 Probable and Possible Reserves 293 14.2.5 Contractual Differences 294 14.3 Production 294 14.4 Factors that Impact Company Value 295 14.4.1 Ownership 295 14.4.1.1 International Oil Companies 295 14.4.1.2 National Oil Companies 296 14.4.1.3 Government Sponsored Entities 296 14.4.1.4 Independents and Juniors 297 14.4.2 Degree of Integration 297 14.4.3 Product mix 298 14.4.4 Commodity Price 298 14.4.5 Production Cost 299 14.4.6 Finding Cost 299 14.4.7 Assets 300 14.4.8 Capital Structure 300 14.4.9 Geologic Diversification 301 14.4.10 Geographic Diversification 301 14.4.11 Unobservable Factors 302 14.5 Summary Statistics 303 14.5.1 Sample 303 14.5.2 Variables 303 14.5.3 Data Source 305 14.5.4 International Oil Companies 305 14.5.5 Independents 308 14.6 Market Capitalization 309 14.6.1 Functional Specification 309 14.6.2 Expectations 309 14.7 International Oil Companies 310 14.8 U.S. Independents 312 14.8.1 Large vs. Small Cap, Oil vs. Gas 312 14.8.2 Consolidated Small-Caps 314 14.8.3 Multinational vs. Domestic 314 14.8.4 Conventional vs. Unconventional 315 14.8.5 Production and Reserves 316 14.8.6 Regression Models 316 14.9 Private Companies 318 14.10 National Oil Companies of OPEC 320 14.11 Government Sponsored Enterprises and Other International Companies 320 14.12 Conclusions 323 References 324 Part 5: Unconventional Reservoirs 337 15 An Analytical Thermal-Model for Optimization of Gas-Drilling in Unconventional Tight-Sand Reservoirs 339 Boyun Guo, Gao Li and Jinze Song 15.1 Introduction 340 15.2 Mathematical Model 341 15.3 Model Comparison 346 15.4 Sensitivity Analysis 348 15.5 Model Applications 349 15.6 Conclusions 351 Nomenclature 352 Acknowledgements 353 References 353 Appendix A: Steady Heat Transfer Solution for Fluid Temperature in Counter-Current Flow 355 Assumptions 355 Governing Equation 355 Boundary Conditions 360 Solution 360 16 Development of an Analytical Model for Predicting the Fluid Temperature Profile in Drilling Gas Hydrates Reservoirs 363 Liqun Shan, Boyun Guo and Xiao Cai 16.1 Introduction 364 16.2 Mathematical Model 365 16.3 Case Study 373 16.4 Sensitivity Analysis 374 16.5 Conclusions 377 Acknowledgements 378 Nomenclature 378 References 379 17 Distinguishing Between Brine-Saturated and Gas-Saturated Shaly Formations with a Monte-Carlo Simulation of Seismic Velocities 383 Simon Katz, George Chilingar and Leonid Khilyuk 17.1 Introduction 384 17.2 Random Models for Seismic Velocities 385 17.3 Variability of Seismic Velocities Predicted by Random Models 387 17.4 The Separability of (Vp , Vs ) Clusters for Gas- and Brine-Saturated Formations 388 17.5 Reliability Analysis of Identifying Gas-Filled Formations 389 17.5.1 Classification with K-Nearest Neighbor 391 17.5.2 Classification with Recursive Partitioning 392 17.5.3 Classification with Linear Discriminant Analysis 394 17.5.4 Comparison of the Three Classification Techniques 395 17.6 Conclusions 396 References 397 18 Shale Mechanical Properties Influence Factors Overview and Experimental Investigation on Water Content Effects 399 Hui Li, Bitao Lai and Shuhua Lin 18.1 Introduction 400 18.2 Influence Factors 400 18.2.1 Effective Pressure 401 18.2.2 Porosity 402 18.2.3 Water Content 403 18.2.4 Salt Solutions 405 18.2.5 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 406 18.2.6 Clay Content 407 18.2.7 Bedding Plane Orientation 408 18.2.8 Mineralogy 411 18.2.9 Anisotropy 413 18.2.10 Temperature 413 18.3 Experimental Investigation of Water Saturation Effects on Shale’s Mechanical Properties 414 18.3.1 Experiment Description 414 18.3.2 Results and Discussion 414 18.3.3 Error Analysis of Experiments 417 18.4 Conclusions 418 Acknowledgements 420 References 420 Part 6: Enhance Oil Recovery 427 19 A Numerical Investigation of Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Hydrophilic Nanofuids 429 Yin Feng, Liyuan Cao and Erxiu Shi 19.1 Introduction 430 19.2 Simulation Framework 432 19.2.1 Background 432 19.2.2 Two Essential Computational Components 433 19.2.2.1 Flow Model 433 19.2.2.2 Nanoparticle Transport and Retention Model 435 19.3 Coupling of Mathematical Models 437 19.4 Verification Cases 439 19.4.1 Effect of Time Steps on the Performance of the in House Simulator 439 19.4.2 Comparison with Eclipse 440 19.4.3 Comparison with Software MNM1D 442 19.5 Results 443 19.5.1 Continuous Injection 445 19.5.1.1 Effect of Injection Time on Oil Recovery and Nanoparticle Adsorption 445 19.5.1.2 Effect of Injection Rate on Oil Recovery and Nanoparticle Adsorption 447 19.5.2 Slug Injection 449 19.5.2.1 Effect of Injection Time on Oil Recovery and Nanoparticle Adsorption 449 19.5.2.2 Effect of Slug Size on Oil Recovery and Nanoparticle Adsorption 451 19.5.3 Water Postflush 452 19.5.3.1 Effect of Injection Time Length 452 19.5.3.2 Effect of Flow Rate Ratio Between Water and Nanofuids on Oil and Nanoparticle Recovery 452 19.5.4 3D Model Showcase 455 19.6 Discussions 457 19.7 Conclusions and Future Work 459 References 461 20 3D Seismic-Assisted CO2 -EOR Flow Simulation for the Tensleep Formation at Teapot Dome, USA 463 Payam Kavousi Ghahfarokhi, Thomas H. Wilson and Alan Lee Brown 20.1 Presentation Sequence 464 20.2 Introduction 464 20.3 Geological Background 468 20.4 Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) 469 20.5 Petrophysical Modeling 473 20.6 PVT Analysis 473 20.7 Streamline Analysis 479 20.8 Co2 -EOR 479 20.9 Conclusions 483 Acknowledgement 483 References 484 Part 7: New Advances in Reservoir Characterization-Machine Learning Applications 487 21 Application of Machine Learning in Reservoir Characterization 489 Fred Aminzadeh 21.1 Brief Introduction to Reservoir Characterization 489 21.2 Artificial Intelligence and Machine (Deep) Learning Review 491 21.2.1 Support Vector Machines 492 21.2.2 Clustering (Unsupervised Classification) 492 21.2.3 Ensemble Methods 497 21.2.4 Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)- Based Methods 498 21.3 Artificial Intelligence and Machine (Deep) Learning Applications to Reservoir Characterization 502 21.3.1 3D Structural Model Development 503 21.3.2 Sedimentary Modeling 506 21.3.3 3D Petrophysical Modeling 508 21.3.4 Dynamic Modeling and Simulations 512 21.4 Machine (Deep) Learning and Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 513 21.4.1 ANNs for EOR Performance and Economics 514 21.4.2 ANNs for EOR Screening 516 21.5 Conclusion 517 Acknowledgement 518 References 518 Index 525

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Book SynopsisFossils and Strata is an international series of monographs and memoirs in palaeontology and biostratigraphy, owned by, and published on behalf of, The Lethaia Foundation in cooperation between the Scandinavian countries. Fossils and Strata forms part of the same structured publishing programme as the international journal Lethaia and provides a complementary outlet for more comprehensive systematic and regional monographs, including taxonomic descriptions. Fossils and Strata also offers the publication of thematic special issues comprising a series of shorter contributions.

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Book SynopsisEnvironmental and Low-Temperature Geochemistry presents conceptual and quantitative principles of geochemistry in order to foster understanding of natural processes at and near the earth's surface, as well as anthropogenic impacts and remediation strategies. It provides the reader with principles that allow prediction of concentration, speciation, mobility and reactivity of elements and compounds in soils, waters, sediments and air, drawing attention to both thermodynamic and kinetic controls. The scope includes atmosphere, terrestrial waters, marine waters, soils, sediments and rocks in the shallow crust; the temporal scale is present to Precambrian, and the spatial scale is nanometers to local, regional and global. This second edition of Environmental and Low-Temperature Geochemistry provides the most up-to-date status of the carbon cycle and global warming, including carbon sources, sinks, fluxes and consequences, as well as emerging evidence for (and effectsTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv 1 Background and Basic Chemical Principles: Elements, Ions, Bonding, Reactions 1 1.1 An Overview of Environmental Geochemistry – History, Scope, Questions, Approaches, Challenges for the Future 1 1.2 The Naturally Occurring Elements – Origins and Abundances 3 1.3 Atoms, Isotopes, and Valence Electrons 6 1.4 Measuring Concentrations 8 1.5 Periodic Table 12 1.6 Ions, Molecules, Valence, Bonding, Chemical Reactions 13 1.7 Acid–Base Equilibria, PH, K Values 18 1.8 Fundamentals of Redox Chemistry 20 1.9 Chemical Reactions 22 1.10 Equilibrium, Thermodynamics, and Driving Forces for Reactions: Systems, Gibbs Energies, Enthalpy and Heat Capacity, Entropy, Volume 23 1.11 Kinetics and Reaction Rates 31 Questions 35 References 36 2 Surficial and Environmental Mineralogy 39 2.1 Introduction to Minerals and Unit Cells 39 2.2 Ion Coordination, Pauling’s Rules, and Ionic Substitution 41 2.3 Silicates 46 2.4 Clay Minerals (1 : 1 and 2 : 1 Minerals, Interstratified Clays) 55 2.5 Crystal Chemistry of Adsorption and Cation Exchange 60 2.6 Low-Temperature Non-Silicate Minerals: Carbonates, Oxides and Hydroxides, Sulfides, Sulfates, Salts 64 2.7 Mineral Growth and Dissolution 68 2.8 Biomineralization 72 Questions 72 References 73 3 Organic Compounds in the Environment 75 3.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry: Chains and Rings, Single, Double, and Triple Bonds, Functional Groups, Classes of Organic Compounds, Organic Nomenclature 75 3.2 Natural Organic Compounds at the Earth Surface 87 3.3 Fate and Transport of Organic Pollutants, Controls on Bioavailability, Behavior of DNAPLS and LNAPLS, Biodegradation, Remediation 88 3.4 Summary 96 Questions 96 References 97 4 Aqueous Systems and Water Chemistry 99 4.1 Introduction to the Geochemistry of Natural Waters 99 4.2 The Structure of Water – Implications of Geometry and Polarity 103 4.3 Dissolved versus Particulate, Solutions, and Suspensions 104 4.4 Speciation: Simple Ions, Polyatomic Ions, and Aqueous Complexes 106 4.5 Controls on the Solubility of Inorganic Elements and Ions 106 4.6 Ion Activities, Ionic Strength, TDS 113 4.7 Solubility Products, Saturation 115 4.8 Coprecipitation 116 4.9 Behavior of Selected Elements in Aqueous Systems 117 4.10 Eh–pH Diagrams 119 4.11 Silicon in Solution 123 4.12 Effect of Adsorption and Ion Exchange on Water Chemistry 123 4.13 Other Graphical Representations of Aqueous Systems: Piper and Stiff Diagrams 128 4.14 Summary 131 Questions 131 References 131 5 Carbonate Geochemistry and the Carbon Cycle 133 5.1 Inorganic Carbon in the Atmosphere and Hydrosphere 133 5.2 The Carbon Cycle 141 Questions 154 References 155 6 Biogeochemical Systems and Cycles (N, P, S) 157 6.1 Systems and Elemental Cycles 157 6.2 Elemental Cycles 159 Questions 178 References 178 7 The Global Atmosphere: Composition, Evolution, and Anthropogenic Change 181 7.1 Atmospheric Structure, Circulation, and Composition 181 7.2 Evaporation, Distillation, CO2 Dissolution, and the Composition of Natural Precipitation 190 7.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum, Greenhouse Gases, and Climate 191 7.4 Greenhouse Gases: Structures, Sources, Sinks, and Effects on Climate 194 Questions 198 References 199 8 Air Quality: Urban and Regional Pollutants 201 8.1 Air Pollution: Definitions and Scope 201 8.2 Oxygen and its Impact on Atmospheric Chemistry 202 8.3 Free Radicals 202 8.4 Sulfur Dioxide 204 8.5 Nitrogen Oxides 206 8.6 Carbon Monoxide 209 8.7 Particulate Matter 209 8.8 Lead (Pb) 210 8.9 Hydrocarbons and Air Quality: Tropospheric Ozone and Photochemical Smog 211 8.10 Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry 213 8.11 Sulfur and Nitrogen and Acid Deposition 215 8.12 Organochlorine Pesticides, Mercury, and Other Trace Constituents in the Atmosphere 219 Questions 222 References 222 9 Chemical Weathering, Soils, and Hydrology 225 9.1 Chemical Weathering of Primary Minerals in Soils 225 9.2 Products and Consequences of Chemical Weathering 231 9.3 Soil Profiles, Nomenclature, Soil-Forming Factors 239 9.4 Soils and the Geochemistry of Paleoclimate Analysis 243 9.5 Effects of Acid Deposition on Soils and Aquatic Ecosystems 245 9.6 Soils and Plant Nutrients 248 9.7 Saline and Sodic Soils 249 9.8 Toxic Metals and Metalloids 251 9.9 Organic Soil Pollutants and Remediation (Fuels, Insecticides, Solvents) 254 Questions 256 References 256 10 Stable Isotope Geochemistry 259 10.1 Stable Isotopes – Mass Differences and the Concept of Fractionation 259 10.2 Delta (δ) Notation 261 10.3 Fractionation: Vibrational Frequencies, Mass, and Temperature Dependence 263 10.4 δ18O and δD 267 10.5 δ15N 273 10.6 δ13C 275 10.7 δ34S 278 10.8 Nontraditional Stable Isotopes 280 10.9 Summary 285 Questions 285 References 286 11 Radioactive and Radiogenic Isotopegeochemistry 289 11.1 Radioactive Decay 289 11.2 Radionuclide Tracers in Environmental Geochemistry 294 11.3 Radionuclides as Environmental Contaminants 295 11.4 Geochronology 301 11.5 Radioactive Decay Methods of Dating Sediments and Minerals 309 Questions 315 References 315 Appendix I Case Study on the Relationships among Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS), Microbial Activity, Redox Reactions, Remediation, and Arsenic Mobility in Groundwater 319 I.1 Site Information, Contaminant Delineation 319 I.2 Remediation Efforts 320 I.3 Sources of PCE and ARSENIC 320 I.4 Mobilization of Arsenic 322 References 323 Appendix II Case Study of PFOA Migration in a Fractured Rock Aquifer: Using Geochemistry to Decipher Causes of Heterogeneity 325 II.1 Geologic Framework 326 II.2 Inorganic Chemistry of Groundwater 326 II.3 Stable Isotope Compositions of Groundwater 327 II.4 Groundwater Age-Dating 328 II.5 Conceptual Model for the Groundwater System 328 References 329 Appendix III Instrumental Analysis 331 III.1 Analysis of Minerals and Crystal Chemistry 331 III.2 Chemical Analysis of Rocks and Sediments: XRF 337 III.3 Elements or Compounds in Solution 338 III.4 Isotopic Analysis: Mass Spectrometry 339 References 340 Appendix IV Table of Thermodynamic Data of Selected Species at 1 ATM and 25 ∘C 341 References 344 Index 345

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Book SynopsisThis is the eighth volume in the series, Advances in Natural Gas Engineering, focusing on gas injection into geological formations and other related topics, very important areas of natural gas engineering. This volume includes information for both upstream and downstream operations, including chapters detailing the most cutting-edge techniques in acid gas injection, carbon capture, chemical and thermodynamic models, and much more. Written by some of the most well-known and respected chemical and process engineers working with natural gas today, the chapters in this important volume represent the most state-of-the-art processes and operations being used in the field. Not available anywhere else, this volume is a must-have for any chemical engineer, chemist, or process engineer in the industry. Advances in Natural Gas Engineering is an ongoing series of books meant to form the basis for the working library of any engineer working in natural gas today.Table of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Modifying Effects of Hydrogen Sulfide When Contemplating Subsurface Injection of Sulfur 1Mitchell J. Stashick, Gabriel O. Sofekun and Robert A. Marriott 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Experimental 3 1.2.1 Materials 3 1.2.2 Rheometer 4 1.3 Results and Discussion 5 1.4 Conclusions 7 References 8 2 Experimental Determination of CO2 Solubility in Brines At High Temperatures and High Pressures and Induced Corrosion of Materials in Geothermal Equipment 9Marie Poulain, Jean-Charles Dupin, Hervé Martinez and Pierre Cézac 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Experimental Section 11 2.2.1 Chemicals 11 2.2.2 Test Solutions 11 2.2.3 Metals 11 2.2.4 CO2 Solubility Measurements 12 2.2.5 Material Corrosion Study 13 2.3 Results and Discussion 15 2.3.1 CO2 Solubility Measurements 15 2.3.2 Material Corrosion Study 16 2.4 Conclusion 19 2.5 Acknowledgments 19 References 19 3 Experimental Study of the Liquid Vapour Equilibrium of the System Water-CO2-O2-NOx Under Pressure at 298 K 21Esther Neyrolles, Georgio Bassil, François Contamine, Pierre Cézac and Philippe Arpentinier 3.1 Introduction 22 3.2 Literature Review 23 3.2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Water System 23 3.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides and Water System 24 3.2.3 Nitric Oxide Henry Constant at 298 K 25 3.3 Experimental Section 26 3.3.1 Chemicals 26 3.3.2 Apparatus 26 3.3.3 Operating Procedure 27 3.3.4 Experimental Analysis 29 3.3.4.1 Aqueous Analysis 29 3.3.4.2 Gas Phase Analysis 30 3.3.5 Estimation of the Concentrations of All the Species in the Aqueous Phase 31 3.3.6 Uncertainties 32 3.4 Results and Discussion 33 3.4.1 Solubility of Carbon Dioxide 33 3.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides Repartition in the Aqueous Phase 35 3.4.3 Nitric Oxide Henry Constant at 298 K 37 3.5 Conclusion 38 3.6 Acknowledgments 38 References 38 4 The Use of IR Spectroscopy to Follow the Absorption of CO2 in Amine Media – Evaluation of the Speciation with Time 41E. Brugere, J-M. Andanson and K. Ballerat-Busserolles 4.1 Introduction 41 4.2 Materials and Methods 44 4.2.1 Chemicals 44 4.2.2 Sample Preparation 44 4.3 Experimental Device 44 4.4 Results and Discussion 46 4.4.1 Kinetic of Absorption 46 4.4.2 Calibration of Speciation 46 4.4.2.1 Sample Preparation 46 4.4.2.2 Spectra and Results 48 4.4.2.3 Physisorption 49 4.4.2.4 Full Curve Speciation 51 4.5 Conclusion 52 4.6 Acknowledgments 53 References 53 5 Solubility of Methane, Nitrogen, Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide in Mixtures of Dimethyl Ethers of Polyethylene Glycol 55Alan E. Mather and Kurt A. G. Schmidt 5.1 Introduction 56 5.2 Experimental 56 5.3 Equation of State Development 57 5.4 EoS Model Results 62 5.5 Krichevsky-Ilinskaya Equation 67 5.6 Conclusions 70 5.7 Nomenclature 71 References 72 6 Water Content of Hydrogen Sulfide – A Review 77Eugene Grynia and Bogdan Ambrożek 6.1 Introduction 77 6.2 Literature Review 78 6.2.1 Wright and Maass (1932) 79 6.2.2 Selleck et al. (1951, 1952) 82 6.2.3 Kozintseva (1964) 84 6.2.4 Clarke and Glew (1971) 88 6.2.5 Lee and Mather (1977) 89 6.2.6 Gillespie and Wilson (1982) 92 6.2.7 Carroll and Mather (1989) 94 6.2.8 Suleimenov and Krupp (1994) 96 6.2.9 Chapoy et al. (2005) 97 6.2.10 Marriott et al. (2012) 100 6.3 Discussion of the Results 102 6.4 Conclusions 108 References 112 7 Acid Gas Injection at SemCAMS Kaybob Amalgamated (KA) Gas Plant Operational Design Considerations 115Rinat Yarmukhametov, James R. Maddocks and Jason Lui 7.1 Project Drivers 116 7.2 Process Design Basis 117 7.2.1 Acid Gas Inlet Design Conditions 117 7.2.2 Acid Gas Compositions 117 7.2.3 Acid Gas Compressor Discharge 118 7.2.3.1 Acid Gas Conditions 118 7.2.3.2 Acid Gas Composition 118 7.3 Acid Gas Compression Description 120 7.4 AGI System Capacity Control 120 7.5 Project Execution 123 7.6 Risk Assessment Strategy 125 7.7 Utilities & Tie-Ins 126 7.8 Relief System Design 127 7.8.1 KA Gas Plant Flare System 127 7.8.2 AGI System Flare System 128 7.8.3 Evaluation of Existing Plant Blowdowns Concurrent with the AGI Compressors Blowdown 128 7.8.4 Inherently Safer Design (ISD) Strategies in Pressure Relief System Design for AGI Systems 129 7.8.5 MDMT Evaluation 131 7.8.6 Drain Management 132 7.9 Discussion 133 7.10 Start-Up 133 7.11 Conclusions 135 8 Reciprocating Compressors in Acid Gas Service 137Dan Hannon 8.1 Introduction 138 8.2 Reactivity 138 8.3 Safety 138 8.4 Design 139 8.5 Materials 140 8.6 Condensate/Dewpoint 141 8.7 Compressor Selection 142 8.8 Conclusion 144 9 Case Study: Wellbore Thermodynamic Analysis of Erhao Acid Gas Injection Project 145Zhu Zhu and Shouxi Wang 9.1 Introduction 145 9.2 Erhao Station Process and Injection Basic Data 147 9.3 Acid Gas Injection Well and Reservoir 148 9.3.1 Injection Well 148 9.3.1.1 Basic Data 149 9.3.1.2 Characteristics 149 9.3.2 Injection Reservoir 150 9.4 Thermodynamic Analysis and Injection Pressure 151 9.4.1 Comprehensive Model 151 9.4.2 Initial Acid Gas 152 9.4.3 Compressed and Dehydrated Acid Gas 155 9.4.4 Comparison of Different Acid Gas Composition 158 9.4.5 Comparison of Different Wellhead Temperature 158 9.5 Conclusion 159 References 159 10 Selecting CO2 Sinks CCUS Deployment in South Mid-West Kansas 161Eugene Holubnyak, Martin Dubois and Jennifer Hollenbach 10.1 Introduction 161 10.2 Process for Determining Potential Phase II Sites 165 10.2.1 Geologic Setting 165 10.3 Oil Production History and CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery Potential in the Region 170 10.4 Estimating CO2 Storage Volume—Building the Static Model 171 10.4.1 Workflow for Building 3-D Static Model 171 10.4.2 Well Data 172 10.4.3 Petrophysics 173 10.4.4 Three-Dimensional Static Model 174 10.5 Estimating CO2 Storage Volume—Running the Dynamic Model 175 10.5.1 Initial Reservoir Conditions and Simulation Constraints 176 10.5.2 Simulation Results 177 10.6 Summary/Discussion 179 References 180 11 Salt Precipitation at an Active CO2 Injection Site 183Stephen Talman, Alireza Rangriz Shokri, Rick Chalaturnyk and Erik Nickel 11.1 Introduction 184 11.2 Laboratory and Field Data 186 11.2.1 Data Sources 186 11.2.2 Chemical Composition of Formation Water 186 11.2.3 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Recovered Salt Samples 187 11.2.4 Downhole Video Analysis and Image Sizing 188 11.2.4.1 Material Fixed to the Wellbore 188 11.2.4.2 Lowest Reaches of the Well 190 11.2.4.3 Dislodged Materials 191 11.3 Implication and Interpretation 193 11.4 Conclusions and Remarks 196 11.5 Acknowledgments 198 References 198 12 The Development Features and Cost Analysis of CCUS Industry in China 201Hao Mingqiang, Hu Yongle, Wang Shiyu and Song Lina 12.1 Introduction 202 12.2 Characteristics of CCUS Project 202 12.2.1 Distribution and Characteristics of CCUS Project 202 12.2.2 Types and Scales of CCUS Emission Sources 202 12.2.3 Emission Scales and Composition of CO2 Emission Enterprises in China 204 12.2.4 Distributions of CO2 Sources in China 204 12.2.5 Characteristic Comparison Between Projects in China and Abroad 205 12.3 Industry Patterns & Driving Modes 209 12.3.1 CCUS Industry Patterns at Home and Aboard 209 12.3.2 Driving Modes of CCUS Industry 210 12.4 Composition & Factors of CO2 Source Cost 213 12.5 Conclusions 215 References 216 13 CO2 Movement Monitoring and Verification in a Fractured Mississippian Carbonate Reservoir during EOR at Wellington Field in South Kansas 217Yevhen Holubnyak, Eric Mackay, Oleg Ishkov and Willard Watney 13.1 Introduction 218 13.2 Wellington Field Faults and Fractures 219 13.3 EOR Field Operations and Production/Injection History 220 13.4 Geochemical Monitoring Survey Setup 221 13.5 Geochemical Monitoring Survey Observations 222 13.6 Conclusions 225 13.7 Acknowledgements 225 13.8 Disclaimer 225 References 226 14 Simulation Study On Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery 227Maojie Chai and Zhangxin Chen 14.1 Introduction 227 14.2 Phase Behavior Study 229 14.3 Simulation Study 230 14.3.1 Fluid Sample Properties 230 14.3.2 Phase Behavior Simulation 230 14.3.3 Lab Scale Core Flooding Simulation 235 14.3.4 Sensitivity Analysis of Uncertain Parameters 240 14.3.5 Updated Relative Permeability Through History Match 241 14.4 Conclusions 243 References 243 15 Blowout Recovery for Acid Gas Injection Wells 245Ray Mireault 15.1 Introduction 246 15.2 Methodology 247 15.3 Wellbore Behaviour 247 15.4 Acid Gas Flammability and Toxicity 249 15.5 Escape Plume Behaviour 250 15.6 Blowout Recovery Operations 252 15.6.1 Initial Reconnaissance 253 15.6.2 Heavy Equipment for AG Recovery Operations 253 15.7 Recommendations for Further Investigation 254 15.7.1 Acid Gas Escape Cloud Modelling 254 15.7.2 Personnel Training 255 15.7.3 Development of Recovery Equipment and Procedures 256 15.8 Acknowledgments 256 References 257 16 The Comprehensive Considerations of Leak Detection Solutions for Acid Gas Injection Pipelines 259Shouxi Wang, John Carroll, Fan Ye, Lirong Yao, Jianqiang Teng and Haifeng Qiu 16.1 Introduction 260 16.2 Flowing and Layout Features, Leak Detection Strategies of the Acid Gas Pipelines 260 16.3 The Behavior of the Acid Gas Flows with Leakages 261 16.3.1 Leak Experiments on Liquid Pipeline 261 16.3.2 Leak Experiments on Gas Pipeline 262 16.3.3 Summary of Leak Responses 265 16.4 Specification, Measurement Requirements and Features of the Available Pipeline Leak Detection Methods 267 16.4.1 Mass Balance (MB) 267 16.4.2 Pressure Point Analysis (PPA) 268 16.4.3 Real-Time Model (RTM) 269 16.4.4 Data Requirements of the CPM Leak Detection Methods 270 16.4.5 Matrix Features of the Pipeline LDS 271 16.5 Evaluation of the Erhaolian AGI LDS System 271 16.5.1 Erhaolian AGI System 271 16.5.2 Measurement Responses to Different Leak Size and Location 271 16.5.3 The Performances of CPM Leak Detection Methods 278 16.6 Conclusion 281 16.7 Acknowledgments 281 References 282 17 Injection of Non-Condensable Gas in SAGD Using Modified Well Configurations - A Simulation Study 283Yushuo Zhang and Brij Maini 17.1 Introduction 284 17.1.1 Background 284 17.1.2 Project Objectives 284 17.2 Relevant Field History 285 17.2.1 Depositional History 285 17.3 Reservoir Characterization 285 17.3.1 Geology Overview 285 17.3.1.1 Core Analysis 285 17.3.1.2 Log Analysis 285 17.3.1.3 Shale Volume Calculations 286 17.3.1.4 Porosity Calculations 286 17.3.1.5 Water and Oil Saturation 286 17.3.2 Permeability Data 287 17.3.3 PVT Data 287 17.3.4 Reservoir Values 288 17.4 Analytical Production Forecast 288 17.4.1 Butler Model 288 17.4.2 Reservoir Performance with NCG Co-Injection 291 17.5 Reservoir Simulation 291 17.5.1 Geological Model 291 17.5.2 Reservoir Property 292 17.5.3 Well Location 292 17.5.4 Initial Reservoir Simulation Inputs 293 17.5.5 Relative Permeability Data 293 17.5.6 Well Operational Parameters 294 17.5.7 History Match 295 17.5.7.1 Flowing Boundary Condition 295 17.5.7.2 Final History Match Results 295 17.5.8 SAGD Production Forecasts 297 17.5.8.1 Base Case HZ Well Production with Steam Only (Flowing Boundary) 298 17.5.8.2 Forecast Results: Production Rate 299 17.5.8.3 Forecast Results: Steam-to-Oil Ratio 299 17.5.9 Modified Well Simulation Forecast 299 17.5.9.1 Modified Well Configuration with Non-Flowing Boundary 299 17.5.9.2 Perforating Below Top Water Zone 299 17.5.9.3 Forecast Results: Production Rate 302 17.5.9.4 Forecast Results: Steam-to-Oil Ratio 302 17.5.9.5 Steam Chamber Development without NCG 303 17.5.9.6 Steam Chamber Development with NCG 304 17.5.9.7 Simulation Sensitivity Analysis in Non-Flowing Boundary 304 17.5.9.8 Summary of Simulation Results 306 17.6 Conclusion 306 References 308 18 The Study on the Gas Override Phenomenon in Condensate Gas Reservoir 311Kun Huang, Weiyao Zhu, Qitao Zhang, Jing Xia and Kai Luo 18.1 Introduction 311 18.2 Experimental 312 18.2.1 Pressure-Volume-Temperature Tests 312 18.2.2 Pressure-Volume-Temperature Tests Design 313 18.3 Results and Discussion 313 18.3.1 Phase Behavior During the Injection Process 313 18.3.2 The Effect of Mass Transfer on the Phase Behavior 315 18.3.3 Composition of the Mixture in the Cylinder 317 18.4 Conclusions 319 References 319 19 Study on Characteristics of Water-Gas Flow in Tight Gas Reservoir with High Water Saturation 321Qitao Zhang, Weiyao Zhu, Wenchao Liu, Yunqing Shi and Jin Yan 19.1 Introduction 322 19.2 Experiments 322 19.2.1 Materials 322 19.2.2 Experimental Procedure 323 19.2.3 Experimental Results and Analysis 324 19.3 Numerical Simulation for Tight Gas Reservoir with Low Gas Saturation 327 19.3.1 Model Description 327 19.3.2 Model Validation 328 19.3.3 Effect of Threshold Pressure Gradient 329 19.4 Conclusions 331 References 331 20 The Description and Modeling of Gas Override in Condensate Gas Reservoir 333Weiyao Zhu, Kun Huang, Yan Sun and Qitao Zhang 20.1 Introduction 333 20.2 Mathematical Formulation 335 20.2.1 Numerical Scheme 337 20.3 Results and Discussion 337 20.3.1 The Development and Assessment of Gas Override 337 20.3.2 Sensitivity Analysis 339 20.3.2.1 The Influence of Density Difference on Gas Override 340 20.4 Conclusions 341 References 342 21 Research on the Movable Water in the Pores of Tight Sandstone Gas Reservoirs 343Guodong Zou, Weiyao Zhu, Wenchao Liu, Yunqing Shi and Jin Yan 21.1 Introduction 343 21.2 Experimental 344 21.2.1 Experimental Equipment 344 21.2.2 Experimental Procedure 345 21.3 Results and Discussion 346 21.3.1 Change of the Saturated Water 346 21.3.2 Test of the Movable Water 348 21.4 Conclusion 349 References 350 22 Probabilistic Petroleum Portfolio Options Evaluation Model (POEM) 351Darryl Burns 22.1 Project Economic Evaluation Tool (PEET) 351 22.2 Portfolio Options Evaluation Tool (POET) 352 22.3 Program Calculation Procedures 352 22.3.1 General Cash Flow Calculation and Profitability Indicators 352 22.3.1.1 General Cash Flow Calculation 352 22.4 General Calculation Steps 353 Index 361

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Book SynopsisThis is not just the story of the origin, evolution, and production of diamonds, but a story about the evolution of the Earth's geology in general. Important to geologists, geophysicists, and engineers across multiple disciplines, written by an expert in the field and an expert on the Earth's geological evolution, this volume represents the state-of-the-art in major Earth geological processes. Of particular importance to mining engineers and petroleum engineers, it is also a practical guide for those who work in the mining or petroleum industry. Valuable as either a learning tool for the student or as a reference or refresher for the veteran scientist or engineer, the author explains important geological processes, such as the Earth's origin, composition, and structure, the Earth's energy balance, continental drift, tectonic activity, the evolution of the Earth's crust, and others. It is within this geological framework that the author offers practical guidance for engineers and sciTable of ContentsForeword xi Introduction xii 1 Major Parameters of Diamond-Bearing and Affine Rocks 1 2 Issues of the Diamond-Bearing Rocks’ Origin 7 3 Existing Concepts of the Diamond-Bearing Rocks Origin 11 4 Earth’s Origin, Composition and Structure 19 4.1 Energy and Heat Regimes of Young Earth 33 4.2 The Gadeyan Stage of Earth’s Evolution 35 5 The Earth’s Core Formation Process 41 5.1 Delayed Earth’s Core Separation Process 41 5.2 Earth’s Core Separation 45 5.3 Mechanism of Earth’s Matter Zonal Differentiation 50 5.4 Earth’s Matter Barodiffusion Differentiation 63 5.5 Earth’s Core Growth 75 5.6 Evolution of the Mantle Chemical Composition 82 5.7 Geologic Data About Earth’s Core Separation Time 93 6 Earth’s Energy Balance 103 6.1 The Accretion and Differentiation Earth’s Energy 104 6.2 Radioactive Elements and their Decay Energy 110 6.3 Earth’s Deceleration Tidal Energy 123 6.4 Earth’s Heat Losses 129 6.5 Earth’s Energy Balance and Tectonic Activity 134 6.6 Сalculation Parameters of Earth’s Tectonic Activity 138 6.7 Convecting Mantle Temperature Evolution 141 7 The Nature of Earth’s Tectonic Activity 145 7.1 Possible Causes of Earth’s Tectonic Activity 145 7.2 Possible Mechanisms of Lithospheric Plates Drift 149 7.3 The Nature of the Mantle Convection 156 7.4 Evolution of Earth’s Tectonic Activity Parameters 171 8 Earth’s Crust Evolution 175 8.1 Patterns in the Formation of Oceanic Lithospheric Plates 175 8.2 Formation of the Continental Crust in Archaean 181 8.3 The Continental Crust Growth 185 8.4 Major Features in the Composition of the Continental Crust in Archaean 190 8.5 Tectonic Regimes of the Continental Lithosphere Formation in Early Precambrian 196 8.6 Early Pre-Cambrian Continental Lithosphere Formation Mechanisms 201 8.7 Formation Mechanism of Lithospheric Plates and the Origin of Mid-Oceanic Ridges 219 8.8 Structure of Lithospheric Plate Subduction Zones 231 8.9 Geodynamics of the Plate Subduction Zones 237 8.10 The Mechanism of Pulling Oceanic Deposits in Subduction Zones 240 9 Continental Drift in Earth’s Geological History 249 9.1 Continental Shields’ Evolution in Archaean 249 9.2 Formation of Monogea Supercontinent at the End Archaean 252 9.3 Monogea Disintegration and the Formation of Megagea Supercontinent in Early Proterozoic 254 9.4 Disintegration of Megagea and Formation of Mesogea (Rodinia) Supercontinent in Middle Riphaean 258 9.5 Mesogea Disintegration in Late Riphaean and Formation of Pangea Supercontinent at the End Paleozoic – Early Mesozoic 263 10 Mantle Degassing and the Formation of Earth’s Hydrosphere and Atmosphere 271 10.1 The Primary Mantle Degassing 271 10.2 Seas and Oceans Formation on Earth Surface 275 10.3 Hydrothermal Processes on the Ocean Floor 282 10.4 The Nature of Global Marine Transgressions on Continents 289 10.5 Earth’s Tectonic Activity vs. Fluctuations of the World Ocean Level 291 10.6 Earth’s Primordial Atmosphere 294 10.7 Evolution of the Degassing Process of Carbon Dioxide Gas 295 10.8 Evolution of Nitrogen Partial Pressure 303 10.9 Evolution of Oxygen’s Partial Pressure 307 10.10 Abiogenous Methane Generation Patterns 312 10.11 The Evolution of Earth Atmosphere Composition and Pressure 321 11 Some Patterns of Economic Minerals’ Formation in Earth’s History 325 11.1 Mechanisms of Riftogenic Earth’s Crust Benefication with Ore and Lithophilic Elements 326 11.2 The Subduction Zone Metallogeny 330 11.3 Metallogeny of Early Stage in Earth Evolution and the Nature of a Unique Early Proterozoic Ore Formation Epoch 356 11.4 The Influence of the Ocean and of Earth Climates on the Formation of Sedimentary Commercial Minerals in Early Proterozoic, the Major Iron Ore Accumulation Epoch 361 12 Diamond Origin and the Formation of Kimberlite and their Affine Rocks 369 13 Carbon’s Depth Cycle 397 14 Isotopic Geochemistry of Diamonds and Kimberlites 411 15 Kimberlite Magma Rise Mechanism to Earth’s Surface 433 16 The Forecast Criteria of Diamond Magmatism Localization Zones and the Evolution of Some Diamond-Bearing Provinces 443 16.1 Some Formation Examples of World Diamond-Bearing Provinces 445 16.2 Geodynamical Evolution of the Western Part of the Russian Arctic and its Diamond-Bearing 450 16.3 The Zoning of Alkali-Ultramafic and Kimberlite Magmatism Localization Areas in the Northeastern Part of the Baltic Shield 470 Conclusions 477 References 483 Index 509

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Book SynopsisUsing isotopes as a tool for understanding Earth processes From establishing the absolute age of the Earth to providing a stronger understanding of the nexus between geology and life, the careful measurement and quantitative interpretation of minor variations in the isotopic composition of Earth's materials has provided profound insight into the origins and workings of our planet. Isotopic Constraints on Earth System Processes presents examples of the application of numerous different isotope systems to address a wide range of topical problems in Earth system science. Volume highlights include: examination of the natural fractionation of non-traditional stable isotopesutilizing isotopes to understand the origin of magmas and evolution of volcanic systemsapplication of isotopes to interrogate and understand Earth's Carbon and Oxygen cyclesexamination of the geochemical and hydrologic processes that lead to isotopic fractionationapplication of isotopic reactive transport models to Table of ContentsList of Contributors vii Preface ix About the Companion Website xii Dedication xiii Part I High-Temperature/Deep Earth Processes 1 High-Temperature Kinetic Isotope Fractionation of Silicate Materials 3 Frank M. Richter 2 Ca and K Isotope Fractionation by Diffusion in Molten Silicates: Large Concentration Gradients Are Not Required to Induce Large Diffusive Isotope Effects 27 James M. Watkins, John N. Christensen, Donald J. DePaolo, and Frederick J. Ryerson 3 Calcium Isotope Constraints on Recycled Carbonates in Subduction- Related Magmas 43 Justin I. Simon 4 Reassessing the Role of Continental Lithospheric Mantle in Cenozoic Magmatism, Southwestern North America 57 G. Lang Farmer 5 Rhyolite Ignimbrite Generation in the Northern Andes: The Chalupas Caldera, Ecuador 87 Lisa Hammersley, Donald J. DePaolo, Bernardo Beate, and Alan L. Deino 6 Xenolith Constraints on “Self-Assimilation” and the Origin of Low δ18O Values in Mauna Kea Basalts 133 John C. Lassiter, Danny W. Anderson, Daniel Villanueva-Lascurain, Edward W. Marshall, and Jaime D. Barnes 7 Monitoring Volcanic Activity Through Combined Measurements of CO2 Efflux and (222Rn) and (220Rn) in Soil Gas: An Application to Mount Etna, Italy 167 Salvatore Giammanco and Kenneth W. W. Sims Part II Low-Temperature/Shallow Earth Processes 8 The Carbon Isotope Record and Earth Surface Oxygenation 205 Thomas A. Laakso and Daniel P. Schrag 9 Detrital Garnet Geochronology: A New Window into Ancient Tectonics and Sedimentary Provenance 217 Kathryn A. Maneiro, Michelle K. Jordan, and Ethan F. Baxter 10 A Review of the Development of Cr, Se, U, Sb, and Te Isotopes as Indicators of Redox Reactions, Contaminant Fate, and Contaminant Transport in Aqueous Systems 237 Thomas M. Johnson, Jennifer L. Druhan, Anirban Basu, Noah E. Jemison, Xiangli Wang, Kathrin Schilling, and Naomi L. Wasserman 11 The Effects of Reactive Transport on Sulfur Isotopic Compositions in Natural Environments 271 Alexandra V. Turchyn and Jennifer L. Druhan 12 A Reactive Transport Framework Describing Covariation in the Isotopic Ratios of Multiple Elements in Natural Systems 285 Jennifer L. Druhan and Alexandra V. Turchyn 13 Stable Ca Isotope Fractionation in Cenozoic Marine Mammals: Beyond Biomineralization and Trophic Positioning 301 Cole M. Messa, Kenneth W.W. Sims, Sean R. Scott, and Mark T. Clementz Index 329

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface xiv 1 Introduction to Karst 1 1.1 The Term Karst. Definition and Origin 1 1.2 Classification of Karst 2 1.3 Global Distribution of Karst 8 1.4 Karst Terminology 12 2 Karst Rocks 15 2.1 Karst Rocks Within the Rock Classifications 15 2.2 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 17 2.2.1 Carbonate Minerals 20 2.2.2 Depositional Environments and Components of Marine Limestones 23 2.2.3 Limestone Classification Schemes 28 2.2.4 Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy 30 2.2.5 Limestone Diagenesis 32 2.2.6 Dolomite and Dolomitization 35 2.2.7 Terrestrial Carbonates 39 2.2.8 Porosity of Carbonate Rocks 44 2.2.9 Other Carbonate Rocks 46 2.2.9.1 Carbonate Conglomerates and Sandstones 46 2.2.9.2 Carbonate Breccias 47 2.2.9.3 Marbles 50 2.2.9.4 Carbonatites 51 2.3 Evaporite Rocks and Minerals 52 2.3.1 Gypsum and Anhydrite 56 2.3.2 Halite 62 2.3.3 Other Salts 65 2.4 Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 67 3 Dissolution of Karst Rocks 76 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Basic Concepts and Parameters 80 3.2.1 Water, an Exceptional Dipolar Molecule and Solvent 80 3.2.2 Concentration Units and Related Parameters 82 3.2.3 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction 86 3.2.4 Activity 88 3.2.5 Saturation Index 89 3.2.6 pH and the Acidity of Karst Waters 90 3.3 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 91 3.3.1 Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere 92 3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide in Soils 94 3.3.3 Dissolved Carbon Dioxide in Water and the Carbonic Acid System 97 3.3.4 The Dissolution of Calcite and Dolomite 99 3.3.5 The Solubility of Carbonate Minerals 101 3.3.6 Open and Closed CO 2 - Dissolution Systems 102 3.4 The Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks by Sulfuric Acid 105 3.5 The Dissolution of Gypsum and Halite 111 3.6 The Dissolution of Silica 115 3.7 Factors that Influence the Solubility and Saturation State 117 3.7.1 Effects Related to Temperature and Pressure Changes 118 3.7.2 Common-Ion Effect 122 3.7.3 Ionic-Strength Effect 123 3.7.4 Ion-Pair Effect 123 3.7.5 Water Mixing 124 3.7.6 Exotic Inorganic Acids 127 3.7.7 Acid Rain 127 3.8 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Minerals 130 3.8.1 Dissolution Kinetics of Calcite, Aragonite, and Dolomite 133 3.8.2 Dissolution Kinetics of Gypsum and Halite 141 3.9 Geological Controls on Karst Development 143 3.9.1 Rock Composition and Purity 143 3.9.2 Grain Size and Texture 147 3.9.3 Porosity 148 3.9.4 Bedding Planes and Stratigraphic Contacts 150 3.9.5 Joints 153 3.9.6 Faults 159 3.9.7 Folds 163 3.9.8 Interbedded Non- soluble Rocks 167 3.10 Biokarst Processes 169 3.10.1 Biokarst Processes Associated with the Surface Environment 170 3.10.2 Biokarst Processes in Caves 173 4 Denudation in Karst. Rates and Spatial Distribution 195 4.1 Basic Concepts 195 4.2 Controlling Factors and the Influence of Climate 198 4.3 Methods for Measuring Denudation Rates and the Carbonate Karst Experience 203 4.3.1 Hydrochemical Measurements 203 4.3.2 Weight Loss of Standard Tablets 208 4.3.3 Micro- erosion Meter 210 4.3.4 High- Resolution 3d Surface Models 211 4.3.5 Long- term Surface Lowering around Pedestals, Dikes, and Siliceous Nodules 213 4.3.6 Long- term Erosion Rates Derived from Cosmogenic Chlorine- 36 in Calcite 217 4.4 Denudation Rates in Gypsum and Salt 219 4.5 Solutional Denudation of Quartz Sandstones and Quartzites 228 4.6 Interpretation and Integration of Denudation Rates 233 4.6.1 Vertical and Spatial Distribution of Karst Denudation and Deposition 235 4.6.2 Long- term Rates of Base- Level Lowering and Downcutting 242 5 Karst Hydrogeology 260 5.1 Introduction 260 5.2 Brief Historical Overview on Karst Hydrogeology (<1900) 260 5.3 Definitions 262 5.4 Groundwater Flow Fundamentals 267 5.4.1 Laminar Flow Through Granular Media 267 5.4.2 Turbulent Flow Through Conduits 269 5.4.3 Flow Through Fractured Media 271 5.5 Groundwater Flow in Karst Aquifers 271 5.5.1 The Hydrological and Geological Water Cycle 272 5.5.2 The Energy and Forces Involved in Groundwater Flow in Karst 275 5.5.3 Inputs 276 5.5.4 Outputs 279 5.5.5 Throughput 280 5.5.6 Lithological and Structural Control on Groundwater Flow 283 5.5.7 Karst Groundwater Basins 287 5.5.8 Hydrological Role of the Epikarst and the Transmission Zone 287 5.5.9 The Water Table in Karst 289 5.5.10 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 291 5.6 Analysis of Karst Groundwater Basins 292 5.6.1 Defining Karst Aquifers 292 5.6.2 Complementary Approaches in Karst Aquifer Studies 293 5.6.3 Groundwater Basin Definition and Water Balance 295 5.6.4 Precipitation and Recharge 296 5.6.5 Flow Measurements 296 5.6.6 Boreholes 299 5.6.7 Spring Hydrographs and Chemographs 304 5.6.8 Water Tracing 311 5.6.9 Isotopes 319 5.6.10 Remote Sensing and Geophysical Techniques 322 5.6.11 Karst Aquifer Modeling 325 6 Karren and Sinkholes 336 6.1 Karst. A Special Geomorphic System 336 6.2 Karren 337 6.2.1 Bare Karren 341 6.2.2 Covered Karren 358 6.2.3 Bare and Covered Structural Karren 361 6.2.4 Coastal Karren 368 6.3 Sinkholes (Dolines) 374 6.3.1 General Aspects and Classification 374 6.3.2 Solution Sinkholes and Polygonal Karst 380 6.3.3 Collapse Sinkholes 387 6.3.4 Suffosion Sinkholes 400 6.3.5 Sagging Sinkholes 402 6.3.6 Factors that Control Subsidence Sinkholes and Human-Induced Sinkholes 407 6.3.7 Sinkhole Mapping 416 6.3.8 Sinkhole Morphometry and Spatial Distribution 424 7 Other Karst Landforms 466 7.1 Poljes 466 7.1.1 General Aspects and Distribution 466 7.1.2 Geomorphological, Hydrological and Geological Features of Poljes 468 7.1.3 Origin and Classification 475 7.2 Corrosion Plains, Rejuvenation, and Submergence 477 7.3 Residual Hills. Fenglin and Fengcong 484 7.4 Valleys in Karst 489 7.4.1 Through Valleys 490 7.4.2 Blind Valleys 493 7.4.3 Pocket Valleys 495 7.4.4 Cave- Collapse Valleys 495 7.4.5 Dry Valleys 497 7.5 Constructional Features. Calcareous Tufas and Travertines 498 8 Special Features Associated with Evaporites 517 8.1 Interstratal Evaporite Karst 519 8.2 Covered Evaporite Karst 538 8.3 Bare Evaporite Karst 541 8.4 Salt Tectonics and Karst in Salt Extrusions 546 8.4.1 The Special Rheology of Rock Salt. An Exceptional Mobile Bedrock 546 8.4.2 Salt Structures and the Geomorphic Impact of Salt Flow 548 8.4.3 The Morphological Evolution of Salt Extrusions and the Role of Dissolution 551 9 Cave Geomorphology 574 9.1 Introduction 574 9.1.1 Definition of Cave 574 9.1.2 Cave- Forming Processes 575 9.1.3 Cave Classifications 577 9.1.3.1 Solution Caves 577 9.1.3.2 Caves Related to Mechanical Movement and Accumulation 588 9.1.3.3 Caves Related to Mechanical Weathering and Erosion 589 9.1.3.4 Depositional Caves 594 9.1.3.5 Caves Related to Melting 595 9.1.3.6 Caves Related to Solidification 596 9.2 Macromorphology 598 9.2.1 Cave Surveying 599 9.2.2 Cave Entrances 600 9.2.3 Cave Passages 603 9.2.3.1 Shafts 604 9.2.3.2 Canyons 607 9.2.3.3 Tubes 609 9.2.3.4 Fissures 610 9.2.3.5 Mixed Phreatic- Vadose Forms 611 9.2.3.6 Phantom (Ghost- Rock) Passages 611 9.2.4 Cave Rooms 613 9.2.5 Cave and Passage Terminations 614 9.2.6 Cave Ground Plans 615 9.2.7 Cave Profile and Cave Storeys 618 9.3 Speleogens: Small- Scale Passage Morphologies 621 10 Cave Deposits 654 10.1 Introduction 654 10.2 Classification of Cave Sediments 655 10.3 Clastic Sediments 657 10.3.1 The Cave Sedimentary System 657 10.3.2 The Origin and Flux of Clastic Sediments in Caves 657 10.3.3 Fluvial Erosion and Transport 659 10.3.4 The Cave Sedimentary Facies 661 10.3.5 Other Allogenic Clastic Sediments 664 10.3.6 Provenance of Allogenic Clastic Cave Sediments 666 10.3.7 Autogenic Clastic Sediments 667 10.3.8 Anthropic Waste 671 10.3.9 Sedimentary Structures 672 10.4 Organic Sediments 675 10.4.1 Vegetal and Animal Debris 676 10.4.2 Autogenic Organic Sediments 678 10.5 Transported Chemical Deposits 679 10.6 Chemical Deposits 679 10.6.1 Minerogenetic Mechanisms in Caves 680 10.6.2 Carbonates 683 10.6.3 Other Cave Minerals 687 10.6.3.1 Halides 690 10.6.3.2 Sulfates 690 10.6.3.3 Phosphates and Nitrates 693 10.6.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides 694 10.6.3.5 Silica and Silicates 696 10.6.4 Secondary Ice 696 10.7 Speleothems 698 10.7.1 Speleothems Formed by Dripping and Flowing Water 702 10.7.2 Speleothems Formed in Vadose Standing Water Bodies 712 10.7.3 Speleothems Formed in Phreatic (Thermal) Water Bodies 718 10.7.4 Speleothems Formed by Dominant Evaporation 718 10.7.5 Speleothems Formed by Capillary Water 725 10.7.6 Speleothems Formed by Microorganisms 728 10.7.7 The Color of Speleothems 731 10.7.8 Speleothem Growth Rate 732 10.7.9 Decay of Speleothems 733 10.7.10 Dating Clastic and Chemical Cave Sediments 736 10.7.10.1 Radiocarbon 736 10.7.10.2 Uranium–Thorium 738 10.7.10.3 Uranium- Lead and Other Methods 740 10.7.10.4 Aluminum–Beryllium 741 10.7.10.5 Potassium–Argon 742 10.7.10.6 Electron Spin Resonance, Optically Stimulated Luminescence, and Thermoluminescence 742 10.7.10.7 Amino Acid Racemization 743 10.7.10.8 Paleomagnetism 743 10.7.10.9 Lamina Counting- Fluorescence- Trace Elements 744 10.8 Cave Sediments as Paleoclimate and Paleo- Environmental Archives 745 11 Speleogenesis: How Solutional Caves Form 762 11.1 The Growth of Ideas about Cave Genesis 762 11.2 Geological Controls on Cave Genesis in Carbonate Rocks 765 11.2.1 Influence of Lithology 765 11.2.1.1 Influence of Rock Purity 765 11.2.1.2 Influence of Grain Size and Texture 766 11.2.1.3 Influence of Matrix Porosity 766 11.2.2 Influence of Stratigraphic Position of Soluble Rocks 766 11.2.3 Influence of Geological Structures 768 11.2.3.1 Influence of Bedding Planes 769 11.2.3.2 Influence of Joints 771 11.2.3.3 Influence of Faults 771 11.2.3.4 Influence of Folds 772 11.2.3.5 Inception Horizons 772 11.2.4 Topography, Base- Level and Climate 773 11.3 Simple Models of Initial Cave Development 775 11.3.1 Hardware Models of a Single Input 776 11.3.2 Computer Modeling of a Single Fissure 777 11.3.3 Hardware Modeling of Multiple Inputs 779 11.3.4 Computer Modeling of Two- and Three- Dimensional Fissure Networks 782 11.4 Hydrogeological Controls on Cave Genesis 784 11.4.1 Multiple- Point Recharge 785 11.4.2 Concentrated Recharge 786 11.4.3 Diffuse Recharge from Above 792 11.4.4 Diffuse Recharge from Below 794 11.4.5 Rising Thermal Fluids 797 11.4.6 Sulfuric Acid Fluids 805 11.4.7 Coastal Mixing 814 11.5 Caves in Non- Carbonate Rocks 823 11.5.1 Halite Caves 823 11.5.2 Gypsum–Anhydrite Caves 824 11.5.3 Quartzite Caves 830 11.5.4 Iron Formation Caves 832 11.6 Condensation–Corrosion 834 11.7 A Summary: Life Cycle of Solution Caves 839 11.7.1 Initiation of a Cave 839 11.7.2 Rapid Cave Enlargement 840 11.7.3 Cave Maturation 841 11.7.4 Cave Abandonment and Decay 842 Index 857

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Book SynopsisSustainable management of natural resources is an urgent need, given the changing climatic conditions of Earth systems. The ability to monitor natural resources precisely and accurately is increasingly important. New and advanced remote sensing tools and techniques are continually being developed to monitor and manage natural resources in an effective way. Remote sensing technology uses electromagnetic sensors to record, measure and monitor even small variations in natural resources. The addition of new remote sensing datasets, processing techniques and software makes remote sensing an exact and cost-effective tool and technology for natural resource monitoring and management. Advances in Remote Sensing for Natural Resources Monitoring provides a detailed overview of the potential applications of advanced satellite data in natural resource monitoring. The book determines how environmental and - ecological knowledge and satellite-based information can be effectively combined to addreTable of ContentsList of Abbreviations xix List of Contributors xxix List of Editors xxxv Preface xxxvii Section I General Section 1 1 Introduction to Natural Resource Monitoring Using Remote Sensing Technology 3Prem Chandra Pandey and Laxmi Kant Sharma 1.1 Introduction 3 References 6 2 Spectroradiometry: Types, Data Collection, and Processing 9Prem Chandra Pandey, Manish Kumar Pandey, Ayushi Gupta, Prachi Singh, and Prashant K. Srivastava 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Literature Review 10 2.3 The Types of Spectroradiometry 12 2.3.1 Spectroradiometry 13 2.3.2 Photometry and Colorimetry 13 2.4 Principle of the Spectroradiometer 13 2.5 Radiance Measurement 16 2.5.1 Factors Affecting Spectral Reflectance Measurements 17 2.5.2 Data Processing 18 2.5.2.1 Radiometric Calibration 18 2.5.2.2 Reflectance/Transmittance 19 2.5.2.3 Radiance/Irradiance/Emissivity 20 2.5.2.4 1st Derivative 20 2.5.2.5 2nd Derivative 20 2.5.2.6 Parabolic Correction 20 2.5.2.7 Other Methods 21 2.6 Data Collection 21 2.7 Generation of the Metadata 21 2.7.1 Continuum Removal 22 2.8 Applications of ASD in Agriculture and Forestry 23 2.9 Future Importance, Limitations, and Recommendations 23 Acknowledgment 24 References 24 3 Geometric-Optical Modeling of Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function for Trees and Forest Stands 28Nour El Islam Bachari, Salim Lamine, and Khaled Meharrar 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Model Description 29 3.2.1 Sunlit Surfaces 31 3.2.2 Shaded Surfaces 31 3.2.3 Forest Stand Modeling 32 3.3 General Shape of the Apparent Luminance 33 3.4 Simulation and Discussion 35 References 39 Section II Vegetation Resource Monitoring (Forest and Agriculture) 43 4 Mapping Stand Age of Indonesian Rubber Plantation Using Fully Polarimetric L-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar 45Bambang H. Trisasongko 4.1 Introduction 45 4.2 Methodology 46 4.2.1 Test Site and Dataset 46 4.2.2 Processing 47 4.3 Results and Discussion 48 4.3.1 Scattering Behavior 48 4.3.2 Classification Using Backscatter Coefficients 50 4.3.3 Classification Using Model-Based Decomposition 51 4.3.4 The Role of Combining Datasets 51 4.3.5 The Best Subset 52 4.4 Conclusion 55 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 5 Responses of Multi-Frequency Remote Sensing to Forest Biomass 58Suman Sinha, A. Santra, Laxmi Kant Sharma, Anup Kumar Das, C. Jeganathan, Shiv Mohan, S.S. Mitra, and M.S. Nathawat 5.1 Background 58 5.1.1 Optical Remote Sensing 59 5.1.2 Microwave Remote Sensing 62 5.1.3 LiDAR Remote/Sensing 63 5.1.4 Synergic Use of Multi-Sensor Data 65 5.2 A Case Study in the Mixed Tropical Deciduous Forest of India 66 5.2.1 Study Area 66 5.2.2 Datasets 67 5.2.3 Methodology 67 5.2.4 Results 67 5.2.5 Conclusion 67 5.3 Uncertainties and Future Scope of Research in Biomass Estimation 71 5.3.1 Summary 71 Acknowledgment 72 References 72 6 Crop Water Requirements Analysis Using Geoinformatics Techniques in the Water-Scarce Semi-Arid Watershed 81K. Ibrahim-Bathis, S.A. Ahmed, V. Nischitha, and M.A. Mohammed-Aslam 6.1 Introduction 81 6.1.1 Crop Calendar 82 6.1.2 Crop Type Classification 83 6.1.3 Crop Water Requirements 86 6.1.4 CROPWAT Model 86 6.1.5 Meteorological Data 86 6.2 Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) 86 6.2.1 Effective Rainfall 88 6.2.2 Crop Coefficient (Kc) 89 6.3 Soil Data 89 6.4 Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) 90 6.5 Irrigation Water Requirement 90 6.6 Conclusion 91 Acknowledgment 92 References 92 7 Biophysical Characterization and Monitoring Large-Scale Water and Vegetation Anomalies by Remote Sensing in the Agricultural Growing Areas of the Brazilian Semi-Arid Region 94Antônio Heriberto de Castro Teixeira, Janice Freitas Leivas, Edson Patto Pacheco, Edlene Aparecida Monteiro Garçon, and Celina Maki Takemura 7.1 Introduction 94 7.2 Material and Methods 96 7.3 Results and Discussion 99 7.4 Conclusions 104 Acknowledgments 105 References 105 Section III Soil and Land Resource Monitoring 111 8 SMOS L4 Downscaled Soil Moisture Product Evaluation Over a Two Year – Period in a Mediterranean Setting 113Patrick N.L. Lamptey, George P. Petropoulos, and Prashant K. Srivastava 8.1 Introduction 113 8.2 Experimental Setup 116 8.3 Datasets Description 116 8.3.1 SMOS L4 SM Product (1 km) 116 8.3.2 In-situ Soil Moisture Data 118 8.4 Methodology 119 8.4.1 SSM Extraction from SMOS 119 8.4.2 Pre-Processing of SMOS 119 8.4.3 Agreement Evaluation 119 8.5 Results 120 8.5.1 Station ES-CPA 120 8.5.2 Station N9 122 8.5.3 Station M5 123 8.5.4 Station H7 123 8.5.5 Station K9 124 8.6 Discussion 126 8.7 Conclusions 127 Acknowledgments 128 References 128 9 Estimating Urban Population Density Using Remotely Sensed Imagery Products 132Dimitris Triantakonstantis, Demetris Stathakis, and Zoi Papadopoulou 9.1 Introduction 132 9.2 Spatial Data Disaggregation–MAUP Problem 134 9.2.1 Spatial Interpolation 135 9.3 Materials and Methods 136 9.3.1 Study Area and Data Sources 136 9.3.2 Areal Interpolation Using Cokriging 137 9.4 Areal Interpolation Using Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) 138 9.5 Results and Discussion 139 9.6 Conclusions 144 References 145 10 Impact of Land Cover Change on Surface Runoff 150Apoorv Sood, S.K. Ghosh, and Priyadarshi Upadhyay 10.1 Introduction 150 10.2 Literature 151 10.3 Methodology 152 10.3.1 Supervised Classification 152 10.3.2 SWAT Model 153 10.3.3 SWAT Inputs 153 10.3.4 SWAT Outputs 154 10.4 Methodology 154 10.5 Study Area 154 10.5.1 Justification for Study Area Selection 154 10.6 Data Used 155 10.6.1 Weather Data 156 10.6.2 Satellite Data 158 10.6.2.1 LANDSAT Dataset 158 10.6.3 Digital Elevation Model 158 10.6.4 Soil Map 158 10.7 Results and Discussion 158 10.7.1 LU/LC Classification 158 10.7.2 LU/LC Map 1987 161 10.7.3 LU/LC Map 1997 161 10.7.4 LU/LC Map 2007 161 10.7.5 LU/LC Map 2017 161 10.7.6 Watershed Delineation 163 10.8 SWAT Results 164 10.8.1 HRU Analysis Report 164 10.8.2 Runoff Generated in Sub Basins 164 10.9 Conclusion 167 Acknowledgment 168 References 168 11 Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zone and Site Suitability of Rainwater Harvesting Structures Using Remote Sensing and In Situ Geophysical Measurements 170Prachi Singh, Akash Anand, Prashant K. Srivastava, Arjun Singh, and Prem Chandra Pandey 11.1 Introduction 170 11.2 Study Area 171 11.3 Data Used and Methodology 172 11.3.1 Data Used 172 11.3.2 Methodology 173 11.3.3 Vertical Electrical Sounding 173 11.3.4 Weightage Calculation 174 11.4 Results and Discussion 175 11.4.1 Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) 175 11.4.2 Soil 175 11.4.3 Hydro-Geomorphology 176 11.4.4 Lithology 176 11.4.5 Drainage Density 178 11.4.6 Lineament Density 178 11.5 Resistivity Survey 179 11.5.1 VES Survey and Cross Section 179 11.5.2 Interpolated Subsurface Soil Profile 181 11.5.3 Groundwater Potential Zone 181 11.5.4 Suitable Sites for Rainwater Harvesting Structures 182 11.6 Conclusions 185 Acknowledgment 186 References 186 12 Structural Control on the Landscape Evolution of Son Alluvial Fan System in Ganga Foreland Basin 189Manish Pandey, Yogesh Ray, Aman Arora, U.K. Shukla, and Shyam Ranjan 12.1 Introduction 189 12.2 Study Area 192 12.2.1 Geomorphological Setting of SAFS 192 12.2.2 Geology of the Son Valley and SAFS 196 12.2.3 Drainage 196 12.2.4 Climate 197 12.3 Materials and Methods 198 12.3.1 Data Used 198 12.3.2 Preprocessing of DEM 199 12.3.3 DEM Derived Parameters 199 12.3.4 Conceptual Background 199 12.3.4.1 Quantitative Measure of River Basin Dynamics/Reorganization 200 12.3.4.2 X (χ)-Metrics and Cross-Divide χ-Anomaly 200 12.3.4.3 Rationale Behind Experimental Use of χ-Transform for Alluvial Stream Long Profiles 203 12.3.5 Normalized Channel Steepness Index (ksn) and Channel Concavity Index (θ) Computation 205 12.3.6 Stream Sinuosity 205 12.3.7 Hypsometric Curve (HC) 206 12.4 Results and Discussion 206 12.4.1 Zones of (dis)equilibrium Over SAFS in Ganga Foreland Basin (GFB) 206 12.4.2 Sinuosity of Streams and Drainage Behavior Over SAFS 211 12.4.3 Extent of SAFS vis-à-vis Evolution of Ganga Plain 212 12.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 214 Acknowledgments 215 References 215 12.A Appendix A: Supplementary Figures 226 12.B Field Evidences of Neotectonic Activity (Source: Google Earth Pro) 240 12.C Longitudinal Profile of the Ganga and its Right Bank Tributaries Flowing over SAFS 242 12.D Lines of Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Profiles 244 12.E SAFS Profiles from Pandey 2014 245 Section IV Water Resource Monitoring 247 13 Managing the Blue Carbon Ecosystem: A Remote Sensing and GIS Approach 249Parul Maurya, Anup Kumar Das, and Rina Kumari 13.1 Introduction 249 13.2 Blue Carbon Ecosystem 249 13.2.1 Distribution 250 13.2.2 Mangrove 251 13.2.3 Seagrass 251 13.2.4 Salt Marshes 252 13.3 Factors Affecting Carbon Storage in Blue Carbon Ecosystems 253 13.4 Carbon Storage in the Blue Carbon Ecosystem 254 13.5 Pathways of Carbon in the Blue Carbon Ecosystem 254 13.6 Evaluation of Long-Term Carbon Deposition in Sediments 255 13.7 Ecosystem Services 256 13.8 Threats to Coastal Blue Carbon Ecosystems 256 13.9 Economy of Blue Carbon Ecosystems 257 13.10 Management 258 13.11 Conservation of Blue Carbon Ecosystem: A Remote Sensing Approach 258 13.11.1 Role of Optical Remote Sensing 259 13.11.2 Mapping the Mangrove Cover and Change Detection 259 13.12 Quantification of Biophysical Variables 260 13.12.1 Phenology 260 13.12.2 Role of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 260 13.12.3 Mangrove-Mapping and Dynamics Studies Using Radar Data 261 13.12.4 Dependence on Frequency 261 13.12.5 Species Identification 261 13.13 Conclusion 262 Acknowledgment 262 References 262 14 Appraising the Changing Climate and Extent of Snow in the Kashmir Himalaya Using MODIS Data 269Seema Rani 14.1 Introduction 269 14.2 Study Area 270 14.3 Materials and Methods 271 14.4 Results and Discussions 273 14.4.1 Trend in Air Temperature 273 14.4.2 Trend in Snow Cover Area 275 14.4.3 Variations in SCA Under Elevation Zones 278 14.5 Conclusion 282 Acknowledgments 283 References 283 15 Knowledge-Based Mapping of Debris-Covered Glaciers in the Greater Himalayan Range 287Swagata Ghosh and Raaj Ramsankaran 15.1 Introduction 287 15.1.1 Overview of Ablation Pattern of Glaciers in the Western Himalaya 288 15.1.2 Overview of Glacier Mapping Techniques 288 15.2 Study Area 290 15.3 Data Sources 291 15.4 Methodology 292 15.4.1 Pre-Processing of Satellite Data 293 15.4.2 Knowledge-Based Approach 295 15.4.2.1 Segregation of Snow and Ice from Other Land Covers Using Spectral Index 295 15.4.2.2 Segregation Between Snow and Ice Types Using Spectral Indices 298 15.4.2.3 Segregation of Supraglacial Debris Types from Non-Glacier Area 298 15.5 Results and Discussions 299 15.5.1 Accuracy Assessment of Supraglacial Covers Mapping of Pensilungpa Glacier 303 15.5.2 Knowledge-Based Approach Versus Manual Digitization for Mapping Pensilungpa Glacier 304 15.5.3 Uncertainty Analysis 306 15.5.4 Knowledge-Based Approach Versus Supervised Classification for Mapping Pensilungpa Glacier 307 15.5.5 Evaluation of Spatiotemporal Application Potential of the Knowledge-Based Approach 311 15.6 Summary and Conclusions 312 15.7 Future Scope 315 References 315 16 Seawater Intrusion and Salinity Mapping in Coastal Aquifers: A Geospatial Approach 323Tanushree and Rina Kumari 16.1 Introduction 323 16.1.1 Water Stress in Coastal Aquifers Due to Salinity: A Global Concern 323 16.1.2 Salinization of Aquifers in Semiarid Regions 324 16.1.3 Seawater Intrusion: Basic Concept 324 16.1.4 Various Approaches to Study Seawater Intrusion 325 16.2 Aquifer Vulnerability Concept 326 16.2.1 Vulnerability Types 327 16.2.1.1 Intrinsic Vulnerability 327 16.2.1.2 Specific Vulnerability 327 16.2.2 Aquifer Vulnerability Due to Seawater Intrusion 327 16.2.3 Methods to Assess Vulnerability 327 16.2.3.1 Sensitivity Analysis 328 16.2.4 Significance 331 16.2.5 Geophysical Approaches 332 16.2.5.1 Electromagnetic Surveys 332 16.2.5.2 Time Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) 333 16.2.5.3 Frequency Domain Electromagnetic (FEM) 333 16.2.5.4 Self-Potential 333 16.2.5.5 Ground Penetrating Radar 333 16.2.6 Numerical Model for Explaining Seawater Intrusion 334 16.2.7 Remote Sensing for Salinity Mapping 334 16.2.7.1 Optical Remote Sensing for Salinity Mapping 334 16.2.7.2 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 335 16.2.7.3 Microwave Remote Sensing for Salinity Mapping 335 16.3 Conclusion 336 Acknowledgments 337 References 337 17 Wetland-Inundated Area Modeling and Monitoring Using Supervised and Machine Learning Classifiers 346Swapan Talukdar, Sakshi Mankotia, Md Shamimuzzaman, Shahfahad, and Susanta Mahato 17.1 Introduction 346 17.2 Study Area 348 17.3 Data Sources and Methods 349 17.3.1 Data Sources 349 17.3.2 Methods for Wetland-Inundated Area Mapping 349 17.3.2.1 Methods for Machine Learning Classifiers 350 17.3.2.2 Method for Supervised Classifiers 352 17.3.3 Methods for Accuracy Assessment of Wetland-Inundation Area Mapping 352 17.3.4 Methods of Modeling Wetland Landscape Transformation 353 17.4 Results and Discussion 353 17.4.1 Wetland Mapping Using Different Classifiers 353 17.4.2 Validation of the Methods 354 17.4.3 Spatiotemporal Analysis of Hydrological Variability of the Wetlands 356 17.4.4 Fragmentation Analysis of the Hydrological Variability 357 17.5 Conclusion 360 Acknowledgment 360 References 360 18 A Focus on Reaggregation of Playa Wetland scapes in the Face of Global Ecological Disconnectivity 366Laxmi Kant Sharma, Rajashree Naik, and Prem Chandra Pandey 18.1 Introduction 366 18.2 Global Ecological Disconnectivity 367 18.3 Playa Wetland scapes 367 18.3.1 Importance 368 18.3.2 Threats 368 18.3.3 Playas of India 370 18.4 Indian Playa Wetland scapes for Global Ecological Connectivity 371 18.5 Reaggregation of Playa Wetland scapes 374 18.6 Recent Approaches Used for Wetland scape Studies 375 18.7 Limitations of Current Wetland scape Studies 377 18.8 Scope of Integrated Playa Wetland scape Modeling 380 Acknowledgment 381 References 381 Section V Disaster Monitoring of Natural Resources 389 19 Flood Damage Assessment in a Part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain Region, India 391Rajesh Kumar 19.1 Introduction 391 19.2 Study Area 393 19.3 Materials and Methods 393 19.4 Results and Discussion 395 19.4.1 Flood-Prone and Flooded Areas 395 19.4.2 Flood Damage and Flood Protection Works 396 19.4.3 Trends in Flood Damage and Peak Flood Discharge 398 19.5 Conclusions 400 Acknowledgments 401 Declaration 401 References 401 20 Texture-Based Riverine Feature Extraction and Flood Mapping Using Satellite Images 405Kuldeep, P.K. Garg, and R.D. Garg 20.1 Introduction 405 20.2 Related Work 406 20.3 The Study Area and Data Resources 408 20.4 Methodology 408 20.4.1 Geometric Correction and Image Enhancement 408 20.4.2 Texture Feature Extraction and Optimal Feature Selection 409 20.4.3 Texture-Based Classification 411 20.4.4 Flood Hazard Mapping for Identification of Safe Islands 411 20.4.4.1 Flood Inundation Mapping 411 20.4.4.2 Validation of Flood Extent 412 20.4.4.3 Damage Assessment 412 20.5 Results and Discussions 413 20.5.1 Feature Selection and Classification 413 20.5.2 Flood Hazard Mapping 418 20.5.3 HEC-RAS Processing and Model Validation 419 20.5.4 Flood Damage Assessment 421 20.6 Conclusion 424 Acknowledgment 426 References 426 21 Numerical Simulation and Comparison of Tsunami Inundation for Different Satellite-Derived Datasets for the Gujarat Coast of India 431Shafique Matin and S.S. Praveen 21.1 Introduction 431 21.2 Study Area 432 21.3 Methodology 432 21.3.1 Extraction of Different Satellite-Derived Datasets 432 21.3.2 Numerical Modeling 434 21.4 Results and Discussion 436 21.4.1 Analysis of Datasets 439 21.4.2 Parallel Transects 440 21.4.3 Perpendicular Transects 440 21.5 Conclusions 442 Acknowledgments 442 References 443 Section VI Future Aspect of Natural Resource Monitoring 445 22 Future Aspects and Potential of the Remote Sensing Technology to Meet the Natural Resource Needs 447Laxmi Kant Sharma, Rajit Gupta, and Prem Chandra Pandey 22.1 Introduction 447 22.2 Advances in Remote Sensing for Natural Resources Monitoring 449 22.3 Potential Applications in Natural Resource Monitoring 451 22.4 Challenges and Future Aspects 453 22.5 Conclusion 455 Acknowledgment 456 References 456 Index 465

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Book SynopsisReservoir management is fundamental to the efficient and responsible means of extracting hydrocarbons, and maximising the economic benefit to the operator, licence holders and central government. All stakeholders have a social responsibility to protect the local population and environment. The process of managing an oil or gas reservoir begins after discovery and continues through appraisal, development, production and abandonment; there is cost associated with each phase and a series of decision gates should be in place to ensure that an economic benefit exists before progress is made. To correctly establish potential value at each stage it is necessary to acquire and analyse data from the subsurface, the planned surface facilities and the contractual obligations to the end-user of the hydrocarbons produced. This is especially true of any improved recovery methods proposed or plans to extend field life. To achieve all the above requires a multi-skilled team of professionals working together with a clear set of objectives and associated rewards. The team's make-up will change over time, as different skills are required, as will the management of the team, with geoscientists, engineers and commercial analysts needed to address the issues as they arise. This book is designed as a guide for non-specialists involved in the process of reservoir management, which is often treated as a task for reservoir engineers alone: it is a task for all the disciplines involved in turning a exploration success into a commercial asset. Most explorers earn their bonus based on the initial estimates of in-place hydrocarbons, regardless of the ultimate cost of production; the explorers have usually moved on to a new basin before the first oil or gas is produced! This book is not a deeply academic tome, rather the description of a process enlivened by a number of stories and case studies from the author's forty years of experience in the oil-patch.Table of ContentsPreface xi List of Abbreviations xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Basics 3 1.2 Field Appraisal 5 1.3 Volumetrics 7 1.4 Drive Mechanism 8 1.5 Field Development 9 1.6 Reservoir Simulation 11 1.7 Field Production 12 1.8 Reservoir Monitoring and Surveillance 13 1.9 Improved Hydrocarbon Recovery 14 1.10 Cessation of Production: Field Abandonment 15 1.11 Summary 15 2 Reservoir Management Process 17 2.1 Field Appraisal 19 2.2 Field Development 22 2.3 Field Production 27 2.4 An Integrated Team Structure for Reservoir Management 30 2.5 Summary 34 3 Reservoir Description 35 3.1 Multi-scale Data 36 3.2 Reservoir Structure 37 3.3 Reservoir Framework 44 3.4 Depositional Environment 46 3.5 Static Reservoir Properties 47 3.6 Dynamic Reservoir Properties 53 3.7 Reservoir Hydrocarbon Fluids 59 3.8 Summary 63 4 Building an Integrated Reservoir Model 65 4.1 Simulation Model Design 67 4.2 Designing the Modeling Grid 73 4.3 Facies Modeling 87 4.4 Property Modeling 97 4.5 Upscaling 108 4.6 Model Analysis and Uncertainty 109 4.7 Summary 110 5 Performance, Monitoring, and Forecasting 111 5.1 Natural Drive Mechanisms 112 5.2 Reservoir Monitoring 120 5.3 Production System 122 5.4 Resource and Reserves Estimation 126 5.5 Petroleum Resources Management System (PRMS) 136 5.6 Summary 141 6 Improving Hydrocarbon Recovery 143 6.1 Primary Recovery 145 6.2 Secondary Recovery 148 6.3 Tertiary Oil Recovery 153 6.4 Summary 158 7 Development Economics 159 7.1 Key Economic Criteria 160 7.2 Risk and Uncertainty 165 7.3 Summary 171 8 Tales of the Unexpected 173 8.1 Laggan and Tormore, Flett Basin, West of Shetland, UKCS 173 8.2 Dación Field, Maturín Basin, Venezuela 176 8.3 As-Sarah Field, East Sirt Basin, Libya 177 8.4 Ceiba Field, Rio Muni Basin, Equatorial Guinea 178 8.5 Glenn Pool Field, Cherokee Basin, Oklahoma, USA 181 8.6 Schiehallion Field, Faroe–Shetland Basin, West of Shetland 184 8.7 North Burbank Field, Cherokee Basin, Oklahoma, USA 187 8.8 Nakhla Field, Hameimat Trough, East Sirt Basin, Libya 192 8.9 Forties Field, Central North Sea, UKCS 196 8.10 Leman Field, Southern North Sea, UKCS 201 8.11 Summary 204 Appendix 1 Guide to Reservoir Simulation 205 A.1 Phases of a Reservoir Simulation Study 206 A.2 Data Gathering 209 A.3 Upscaling 229 A.4 History Matching 243 A.5 Summary 251 References 253 Bibliography 261 Index 263

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Book SynopsisDemystifies the academic career path with practical advice With the number of people being awarded PhDs growing far more rapidly than the supply of academic jobs, those at an early-career stage must think strategically in order to be competitive and successful. Navigating an Academic Career: A Brief Guide for PhD students, Post docs, and New Faculty is a concise and conversational manual that guides readers through starting their academic journey, surviving the demands of their first academic position, and thriving in academia and beyond. Volume highlights include: Firsthand perspective on the characteristics of a successful academic Guidance on interviewing, negotiating, branding, and other essential soft skills Tips for effective time management and writing high-impact research papers Insights into developing leadership skills and mentoring others The American Geophysical Union promotes discovTable of ContentsPreface vii About the Author ix Part I: The PhD Student and Postdoc Years 1 1 An Academic Career 3 2 Traits of Successful Scientists 7 3 Avoiding a PhD in Anxiety 11 4 Getting Your First Academic Job 15 5 The Academic Matthew Effect 19 Part II: Surviving and Thriving in the First Few Years 23 6 Paper Writing Gone Hollywood 25 7 The Perfect Department 27 8 Ethics in the Real World 31 9 Research Brand Identity 35 10 The 1‐Hour Workday 39 11 Orchestrating a Powerful Research Group 41 12 Proposal Writing Hacks 43 Part III: Tenure and Beyond 47 13 Mentoring the Middle 49 14 Research Visits and Academic Growth Spurts 53 15 On Leadership 57 16 The Sustainable Professor 61 17 A Scientist Looks at 60 63 Postface 67 Acknowledgments 69 Notes 73 Further Reading 77 Index 81

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Book SynopsisASTROBIOLOGY This unique book advances the frontier discussion of a wide spectrum of astrobiological issues on scientific advances, space ethics, social impact, religious meaning, and public policy formulation. Astrobiology is an exploding discipline in which not only the natural sciences, but also the social sciences and humanities converge. Astrobiology: Science, Ethics, and Public Policy is a multidisciplinary book that presents different perspectives and points of view by its contributing specialists. Epistemological, moral and political issues arising from astrobiology, convey the complexity of challenges posed by the search for life elsewhere in the universe. We ask: if a convoy of colonists from Earth make the trip to Mars, should their genomes be edited to adapt to the Red Planet's environment? If scientists discover a biosphere with microbial life within our solar system, will it possess intrinsic value or merely utilitarian value? If astronomers discover an intelligent civiliTable of ContentsÜber die Autoren 9 Einführung 19 Über dieses Buch 19 Törichte Annahmen über die Leser 20 Wie dieses Buch aufgebaut ist 21 Teil I: Bedeutung von Homeoffice 21 Teil II: Ich im Homeoffice 21 Teil III: Wir im Homeoffice 22 Teil IV: Der Top-Ten-Teil 22 Symbole, die in diesem Buch verwendet werden 22 Wie es weitergeht 23 Teil I: Was bedeutet »Homeoffice« eigentlich? 25 Kapitel 1 Bedeutung von »Homeoffice« und Abgrenzung 27 »Homeoffice« und »Telearbeit« 27 Abgrenzung zu »mobilem Arbeiten« oder »mobile working« 28 Die Arbeitsstättenverordnung 28 Rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen 29 Arbeitszeiten 29 Erreichbarkeit als Arbeitnehmer und Kollege 29 Ausstattung und Nutzung des privaten Wohnraums 29 Einbindung des Betriebsrats 30 Homeoffice und Mietvertrag 30 Mögliche Steuervorteile 31 Versicherungsschutz 31 Unfallversicherung 32 Haftpflicht-und Hausratversicherung 32 Kapitel 2 Trends und Studien 33 Die Gesellschaft ändert sich 35 Nachhaltigkeit 35 Demografischer Wandel 35 Veränderte Rollenbilder 37 Digitalisierung 38 Unternehmen ändern sich 41 Immobilienflächennutzung 42 Büroflächen 42 Coworking 43 Flächenumwandlung und Landflucht 43 Arbeitgeberattraktivität 44 Was braucht der Mensch? 44 Gesundheit und Wohlbefinden 44 Einflussfaktoren auf die Leistung 46 Psychische Gesundheit 47 Teil II: Ich im Homeoffice 49 Kapitel 3 Wie gestalte ich mein Arbeitszimmer? 51 Den geeigneten Platz finden 51 Raumgröße Arbeitszimmer 53 Arbeiten unter der Dachschräge 53 Im Keller 53 Im Gäste-,Kinder-oder Schlafzimmer 54 Bedarfsermittlung – was brauchen Sie wirklich? 55 Ihr typischer Alltag im Homeoffice 56 Haupt-oder Zusatzarbeitsplatz? 57 Beschaffenheit des Raums 57 Raumklima 57 Tageslicht 57 Planung der Ausstattung 58 (Schreib-) Tisch 58 Stuhl oder Steh-Sitz-Möglichkeit 59 Ergonomie 64 Ablage (Regale, Schränke und Rollcontainer) 67 Whiteboard, Flipchart & Co. 67 Künstliche Lichtquellen 68 Technik 70 Gestaltung 77 Wenn mehrere Personen im Homeoffice arbeiten 80 Kapitel 4 Auf das eigene Wohlbefinden achten 81 Körperliche Einflussfaktoren 82 Das Gehirn und sein Umgang mit Stress 82 Hormone 85 Biorhythmus 88 Persönlichkeitstypen 88 Die Organisierte (gewissenhaft) 89 Die Workaholikerin (dynamisch) 89 Die Bequeme (vorhersehbar) 89 Die Kommunikative (extrovertiert) 89 Die Scheue (gewissenhaft-vorhersehbar) 90 Eltern 90 Psychisches Wohlbefinden 90 Tagesstruktur und Ziele 91 Meditation 92 Körperliche Aktivitäten 92 Lachen 93 Musik 94 Tageslicht 95 Ernährung 96 Vereinbarkeit von Beruf-und Privatleben 97 Belohnungen 105 Der Arbeitsplatz 105 Professionelle Hilfe bei psychischer Belastung 105 Teil III: Wir im Homeoffice 107 Kapitel 5 Zusammenarbeit im Team 109 Der Mensch als soziales Wesen 110 Evolutionsbiologie und Hirnforschung 110 Bedürfnis nach sozialer Bindung 111 Theorien zur Motivation 111 Unternehmenskultur 116 Grundlagen einer gemeinschaftlichen Führungs-und Unternehmenskultur 117 Vertrauen und Kontrolle 120 Führen auf Distanz 125 Methoden und Tools 127 Werkzeuge für virtuelle Zusammenarbeit 127 Einsatz künstlicher Intelligenz (KI) 130 Ein Blick auf den Istzustand … 131 … und in die Zukunft 132 Kapitel 6 Ökosystem der Arbeit – mehr als Homeoffice 135 Hybrides Arbeiten 136 Verteiltes Arbeiten – »distributed work« 136 Checkliste zur Einführung von verteiltem Arbeiten 137 Fünf Ebenen verteilten Arbeitens 138 Weitere Begriffe beim verteilten Arbeiten 139 Weiterentwicklung von Arbeitsprozessen und selbstorganisierten Teams 141 Prozesse und Agilität 141 Selbstorganisation von Teams 142 Erfolgshebel für selbstorganisierte Teams 145 Homeoffice und sein Platz im zukünftigen Ökosystem der Arbeit 147 Zukunft des Ökosystems 148 Zusammenarbeiten mit virtuellen Realitäten 149 Augmented Reality, Augmented Virtuality und Virtual Reality 150 Teil IV: Der Top-Ten-Teil 151 Kapitel 7 Die zehn wichtigsten Trends 153 Digitalisierung und Breitbandausbau 153 Flexibilisierung von Arbeitszeit und -ort 153 Sinn und Wertebewusstsein 153 Vielfalt digitaler Tools 154 Hybride Zusammenarbeit 154 Veränderte Büroflächennutzung 154 Nachhaltigkeit und Mobilität 154 Corporate Coworking 155 Führung und Zusammenarbeit 155 Flexibilisierung der Arbeit 155 Kapitel 8 Die zehn größten Vorteile des Homeoffice 157 Zeitgewinn 157 Vereinbarung von Privat-und Berufsleben 157 Wahlfreiheit der Arbeitsmöglichkeiten 157 Unterstützung individueller Biorhythmus 158 Förderung der Gesundheit 158 Persönliches Wohlfühlen 158 Arbeitgeberattraktivität 158 Verbesserung des CO2-Footprint 158 Qualitativ höherwertigere Büros 159 Globales Rekrutieren 159 Kapitel 9 Die zehn größten Nachteile des Homeoffice 161 Fehlende Präsenz 161 Zu wenig Platz zum Arbeiten und Leben 161 Alternativlose Arbeitsumgebung 161 Fehlende mentale Abgrenzung 162 Weniger Bewegung 162 Fehlende räumliche Rückzugsmöglichkeit 162 Mangelndes Vertrauen von Führungskräften 162 Reduzierte Aufstiegschancen 163 Mangelhafte Büroausstattung 163 Unvollständige Gestik und Körperhaltung 163 Kapitel 10 Die zehn wichtigsten Tipps 165 Kamera an 165 Tagesstruktur und Wochenplan 165 Regelmäßig Pausen 165 Bestmögliche Ausstattung 166 Organisation und Agenda 166 Techniktraining 166 Bewegung und Abwechslung 166 Nachfragen 167 Virtuelle Veranstaltungen 167 Raumklima 167 Stichwortverzeichnis 171

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Book SynopsisISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY Provides a thorough and up-to-date overview of radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry Now in its second edition, Isotope Geochemistry presents a comprehensive introduction to radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry. The first five chapters cover fundamentals including the physics of nuclei, radioactive decay, nucleosynthesis, geochronology, and the theory of stable isotope fractionation. The next chapter focuses on the isotope geochemistry of meteorites and their constraints on the formation of the solar system and the Earth. The subsequent three chapters cover radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry evolution of the Earth's mantle and crust. Three more chapters are devoted to the Earth's surface, the exogene, including the hydrologic system, the biosphere, and climate. A new chapter in this edition focuses on the use of isotopes in paleontology and archeology. The final chapter is devoted to the isotope geochemistry of the noble gases. Illustrated in full color throughout, Isotope Geochemistry is intended primarily as a textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate students. It is also intended as a reference for earth science professionals, reflecting the impact that isotope geochemistry has on virtually every aspect of the earth sciences, from climate change and geomorphology to geodynamics.Table of Contents 1: Atoms and Nuclei: Their Physics and Origins 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Physics of the nucleus 1.3 Radioactive Decay 1.4 Nucleosynthesis 2: Decay Systems and Geochronology I 2.1 Basics of Radioactive Isotope Geochemistry 2.2 Fundamentals of Geochronology 2.3 The K-Ar-Ca system 2.4 The Rb-Sr System 2.5 Rare Earth Decay Systems 2.6 The Re-Os-Pt System 3: Decay Systems and Geochronology II: U and Th 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pb-Pb Ages and Isochrons 3.3 Zircon Dating 3.4 U-Decay Series Dating 4: Geochronology III: Other Dating Methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Cosmogenic Nuclides 4.3 Thermochronology 5: Fractionation of isotopes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Notation, definitions, and standards 5.3 Theory of Equilibrium isotopic fractionations 5.4 Kinetic fractionation 5.5 Mass dependent versus mass dependent fractionation 6: Isotope Cosmochemistry 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Star Birth 6.3 Meteorites 6.4 Cosmochronology 6.5 Stardust 6.6 Isotopic variations in bulk meteorites 6.7 Cosmic ray exposure ages of meteorites 7: Isotope Geochemistry of the Mantle 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Composition of the Earth's Mantle 7.3 Radiogenic isotopes in oceanic basalts 7.4 Inferences on mantle structure and evolution 7.5 The Subcontinental Lithosphere 7.6 U-Series Isotopes and Melt Generation 8: Isotope geochemistry of the continental crust 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Mechanisms of crustal growth 8.3 The earliest continental crust 8.4 The continental crust through time 8.5 Isotopic composition of the continental crust 8.6 Subduction Zones 9: Stable Isotopes in the solid Earth 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Equilibrium Fractionations Among Minerals 9.3 Geothermometry 9.4 Stable Isotope Composition of the Mantle 9.5 Oxygen Isotopes in Hydrothermal Systems 9.6 Sulfur Isotopes in magmatic and hydrothermal systems 9.7 Copper isotopes in ore deposits 10: Light Stable Isotopes in the exogene 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The hydrologic system 10.3 isotope ratios in the biosphere 10.4 isotope ratios in the atmosphere 11: Non-traditional stable and radiogenic isotopes in the exogene 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Radiogenic isotopes in the modern ocean 11.3 Stable isotope ratios of conservative elements 11.4 Stable isotope ratios of nutrient elements 11.5 Stable isotope ratios of transition metals 12: Paleoclimate, paleoceanography, and atmospheric history 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Pleistocene Climate Record in Deep Sea Sediments 12.3 Isotopes in paleoceanography 12.4 Climate in the Cenozoic 12.5 Carbon isotopes, atmospheric carbon dioxide, and climate 12.6 Tracing the evolution of atmospheric oxygen 13: Life, Paleoecology, and Human History 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Isotopes in evolution 13.3 Isotopes and diet: you are what you eat 13.4 Paleoecology of grasslands 13.5 Paleoecology of the Pleistocene Tundra Steppe 13.6.1 Domestication of maize 13.7 The metallurgical revolution 14: Noble Gas Isotope Geochemistry 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Noble Gas Chemistry 14.2 Noble Gases in the Solar System 14.3 Helium 14.4 Neon 14.5 Argon 14.6 Krypton 14.7 Xenon 14.8 Implications of Noble Gas Isotope Ratios for the Origin and Evolution of the Earth 14.9 Noble gas constraints on formation and evolution of the Earth

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Book SynopsisMechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing Comprehensive single-volume reference work providing an overview of experimental results and predictive methods for hydraulic fracture growth in rocks Mechanics of Hydraulic Fracturing: Experiment, Model, and Monitoring provides a summary of the research in mechanics of hydraulic fractures during the past two decades, plus new research trends to look for in the future. The book covers the contributions from theory, modeling, and experimentation, including the application of models to reservoir stimulation, mining preconditioning, and the formation of geological structures. The four expert editors emphasize the variety of diverse methods and tools in hydraulic fracturing and help the reader understand hydraulic fracture mechanics in complex geological situations. To aid in reader comprehension, practical examples of new approaches and methods are presented throughout the book. Key topics covered in the book include: Prediction of fracture shapes, sizes, and distributions in sedimentary basins, plus their importance in petroleum industry Real-time monitoring methods, such as micro-seismicity and trace tracking How to uncover geometries of fractures like dikes and veins Fracture growth of individual foundations and its applications Researchers and professionals working in the field of fluid-driven fracture growth will find immense value in this comprehensive reference on hydraulic fracturing mechanics.Table of ContentsPart I. Experimental and Monitoring Observations 1. Hydraulic Fracture Geometry from Mineback Mapping 2. Measurements of the Evolution of the Fluid Lag in Laboratory Hydraulic Fracture Experiments in Rocks 3. Mapping Hydraulic Fracture Growth Using Tiltmeter Monitoring Technique 4. Experimental Observations of Hydraulic Fracturing 5. A Field Trial and Experimental Studies on scCO2 Fracturing Part II. Theoretical and Numerical Methods 6. An Unstructured Moving Element Mesh for Hydraulic Fracture Modelling 7. Study of Hydraulic Fracture Interference with a Lattice Model 8. The Tipping Point: How Tip Asymptotics Can Enhance Numerical Modeling of Hydraulic Fracture Evolution 9. Plasticity: A Mechanism for Hydraulic Fracture Height Containment 10. Turbulent Flow Effects in Hydraulic Fracture Propagation in Permeable Rock 11. Analysis of a Constant Height Hydraulic Fracture 12. Discrete Element Modelling of Hydraulic Fracturing Part III. Applications and Engineering Approaches 13. Interaction of a Hydraulic Fracture with Natural Fractures of Lesser Height and Weak Bedding Interfaces as a Possible Mechanism for Fracture Swarms 14. Hydraulic Fracturing Mechanisms Leading to Self-Organization within Dyke Swarms 15. Numerical Simulation of Thermal Fracturing During Heat Extraction from a Closed-Loop Circulation Enhanced Geothermal System 16. Multiple Hydraulic Fractures from a Highly Deviated Well: A XFEM Study 17. Hydraulic Fracturing-Induced Slip on a Permeable Fault

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Book SynopsisA transdisciplinary approach to investigating relationships between biomass burning and human health outcomes Where and when wildfires occur, what pollutants they emit, how the chemistry of smoke changes in the atmosphere, and what impact this air pollution has on human health and well-being are questions explored across different scientific disciplines. Landscape Fire, Smoke, and Health: Linking Biomass Burning Emissions to Human Well-Being is designed to create a foundational knowledge base allowing interdisciplinary teams to interact more effectively in addressing the impacts of air pollution from biomass burning on human health. Volume highlights include: Core concepts, principles, and terminology related to smoke and air quality used in different disciplinesObservational and modeling tools and approaches in fire scienceMethods to sense, model, and map smoke in the atmosphereImpacts of biomass burning smoke on the health and well-being of children and adultsPerspectives from researchers, modelers, and practitionersCase studies from different countriesInformation to support decision-making and policy The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researchers, students, and professionals.Table of ContentsList of Contributors vii Preface xi Acronyms and Abbreviations xiii 1 Bridging Geophysical and Health Sciences to Study the Impacts of Biomass Burning on Human Well- Being Tatiana V Loboda, Nancy H F French, and Robin C Puett 1 Part I From Fires to Emissions 2 Biomass Burning as an Integral Force Amber J Soja, Emily M Gargulinski, and Elizabeth B Wiggins 9 3 Mapping and Characterizing Fire Louis Giglio, David P Roy, Michael L Humber, Evan Ellicott, Maria Zubkova, and Christopher O Justice 37 4 Wildland Fuel Characterization Across Space and Time Susan J Prichard, Eric Rowell, Robert E Keane, Andrew T Hudak, Duncan Lutes, and E Louise Loudermilk 53 5 Biomass Burning Fuel Consumption and Emissions for Air Quality Nancy H F French and Andrew T Hudak 69 Part II From Emissions to Concentrations 6 Surface Monitoring of Fire Pollution Allison E Bredder 91 7 Data Assimilation for Numerical Smoke Prediction Edward J Hyer, Christopher P Camacho, David A Peterson, Elizabeth A Satterfield, and Pablo E Saide 105 8 A Review of Modeling Approaches Used to Simulate Smoke Transport and Dispersion Derek V Mallia and Adam K Kochanski 127 9 Profiles of Operational and Research Forecasting of Smoke and Air Quality Around the World Susan M O’Neill, Peng Xian, Johannes Flemming, Martin Cope, Alexander Baklanov, Narasimhan K Larkin, Joseph K Vaughan, Daniel Tong, Rosie Howard, Roland Stull, Didier Davignon, Ravan Ahmadov, M Talat Odman, John Innis, Merched Azzi, Christopher Gan, Radenko Pavlovic, Boon Ning Chew, Jeffrey S Reid, Edward J Hyer, Zak Kipling, Angela Benedetti, Peter R Colarco, Arlindo Da Silva, Taichu Tanaka, Jeffrey McQueen, Partha Bhattacharjee, Jonathan Guth, Nicole Asencio, Oriol Jorba, Carlos Perez Garcia- Pando, Rostislav Kouznetsov, Mikhail Sofiev, Melissa E Brooks, Jack Chen, Eric James, Fabienne Reisen, Alan Wain, Kerryn McTaggart, and Angus MacNeil 149 Part III From Concentrations to Health Outcomes 10 Assessing Smoke Exposure in Space and Time Patricia D Koman and Nancy H F French 195 11 Wildfire Smoke Toxicology and Health Luke Montrose, Adam Schuller, Savannah M D’Evelyn, and Christopher Migliaccio 217 12 Wildfire Smoke Exposures and Adult Health Outcomes Miriam E Marlier, Natalie Crnosija, and Tarik Benmarhnia 233 13 Health Effects of Wildfire Smoke During Pregnancy and Childhood Amy M Padula and Camille Raynes- Greenow 249 14 State of the Science and Future Directions: From Biomass Fire to Health Outcomes Robin C Puett, Nancy H F French, and Tatiana V Loboda 265 Index 269

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Book Synopsis

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