Earth sciences Books

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Book SynopsisEvery rock is a tangible trace of the earth’s past. This book tells the fascinating stories behind the discoveries that shook the foundations of geology. In twenty-five chapters—each about a particular rock, outcrop, or geologic phenomenon—Donald R. Prothero recounts the scientific detective work that shaped our understanding of geology.Trade ReviewA natural follow-up to the author’s The Story of Life in 25 Fossils . . . [A] useful introduction to geology. * Kirkus Reviews *In 25 short and enjoyable chapters, [Prothero] explores issues that have been at the center of geology since long before geology was a science... Prothero provides thought-provoking historical context for each subject and presents information about the individuals responsible for advancing geological knowledge—including James Hutton, Charles Lyell, and Alfred Wegener—while explaining the underlying science in an accessible manner. * Publishers Weekly *Geologist Donald Prothero has crafted a rock-solid premise for this delightful book. -- Barbara Kiser * Nature *I learned something and gained a deeper appreciation for the history of Earth science from reading The Story of the Earth in 25 Rocks. I recommend it to anyone interested in tales of scientific discovery and natural marvels. * Physics Today *Skillfully presents a vast array of facts that should appeal to readers newly acquainted with Earth science who are interested in learning a bit more. * Choice *The Story of the Earth in 25 Rocks provides twenty-five well-lit doorways into the sometimes dark and imposing edifice of the geologic past. Colorful characters welcome the reader in, revealing the very human nature of scientific inquiry and our long and complicated relationship with rocks. -- Marcia Bjornerud, author of Reading the Rocks: The Autobiography of EarthTable of ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgments 1. Volcanic Tuff: Vulcan’s Wrath: The Eruption of Vesuvius2. Native Copper: The Iceman and the Island of Copper3. Cassiterite: The “Isles of Tin” and the Bronze Age4. Angular Unconformity: “No Vestige of a Beginning”: The Immensity of Geologic Time5. Igneous Dikes: The “Earth’s Great Heat Engine”: The Origin of Magmas6. Coal: The Rock That Burns Fires the Industrial Revolution7. Jurassic World: The Map That Changed the World: William Smith and the Rocks of Britain8. Radioactive Uranium: Clocks in Rocks: Arthur Holmes and the Age of the Earth9. Chondritic Meteorites: Messengers From Space: The Origin of the Solar System10. Iron-Nickel Meteorites: The Cores of Other Planets 11. Moon Rocks: Green Cheese or Anorthosite: The Origin of the Moon12. Zircons: Early Oceans and Life? Evidence in a Grain of Sand13. Stromatolites: Microbial Condos: Cyanobacteria and the Oldest Life14. Banded Iron Formation: Mountains of Iron: The Earth’s Early Atmosphere15. Turbidites: Archean Sediments and Submarine Landslides16. Diamictites: Tropical Glaciers and the Snowball Earth17. Exotic Terranes: Paradox in Rocks: Wandering Fossils and Traveling Landmasses18. Jigsaw-Puzzle Bedrock: Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift19. Chalk: The Cretaceous Seaway and Greenhouse Planet20. The Iridium Layer: The Death of the Dinosaurs21. Lodestones: How Paleomagic Launched Plate Tectonics22. Blueschists: The Puzzle of Subduction Zones23. Transform Faults: Earthquake! The San Andreas Fault24. Messinian Evaporites: The Mediterranean Was a Desert25. Glacial Erraticts: A Poet, a Professor, a Politician, a Janitor, and the Discovery of the Ice AgesIndex

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Book SynopsisNatural Disasters, 12th edition focuses on explaining how the normal processes of Earth concentrate their energies and deal heavy blows to humans and their structures. Students have a natural curiosity about natural disasters and why they occur. This text explains why natural disasters occur by interweaving the themes of Energy sources, Plate tectonics, Climate change, Earth Processes, Geologic time, the complexities of multiple variables operating simultaneously throughout the text. Table of ContentsPrologue: Energy FlowsChapter 1: Natural Disasters and the Human PopulationChapter 2: Internal Energy and Plate TectonicsChapter 3: Earthquake Geology and SeismologyChapter 4: Plate Tectonics and EarthquakesChapter 5: Earthquakes throughout the United States and CanadaChapter 6: Volcanic Eruptions: Plate Tectonics and MagmasChapter 7: Volcano Case Histories: Killer EventsChapter 8: Tsunami versus Wind-Caused WavesChapter 9: External Energy Fuels Weather and ClimateChapter 10: Tornadoes, Lightning, Heat, and ColdChapter 11: HurricanesChapter 12: Climate ChangeChapter 13: FloodsChapter 14: WildfireChapter 15: Mass MovementsChapter 16: Coastal Processes and HazardsChapter 17: Impacts with Space ObjectsChapter 18: The Great Dyings

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsTable of Contents 1: Introduction to Earth ScienceUnit 1 Earth Minerals2: Matter and Minerals3: Rocks: Materials of the Solid EarthUnit 2 Sculpturing Earth’s Surface4: Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting5: Running Water and Ground Water6: Glaciers, Deserts, and WindUnit 3 Forces Within7: Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds8: Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior9: Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity10: Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building Unit 4 Deciphering Earth’s History11: Geologic Time12: Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic TimeUnit 5 The Global Ocean13: The Ocean Floor14: Ocean Water and Ocean Life15: The Dynamic OceanUnit 6 Earth’s Dynamic Atmosphere16: The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature17: Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation18: Air Pressure and Wind19: Weather Patterns and Severe Storms20: World Climates and Global Climate ChangeUnit 7 Earth’s Place in the Universe21: Origins of Modern Astronomy22: Touring Our Solar System23: Light, Astronomical Observations, and The Sun24: Beyond Our Solar System:

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Book SynopsisA groundbreaking look at Gaia theory’s intersections with neocybernetic systems theory Often seen as an outlier in science, Gaia has run a long and varied course since its formulation in the 1970s by atmospheric chemist James Lovelock and microbiologist Lynn Margulis. Gaian Systems is a pioneering exploration of the dynamic and complex evolution of Gaia’s many variants, with special attention to Margulis’s foundational role in these developments.Bruce Clarke assesses the different dialects of systems theory brought to bear on Gaia discourse. Focusing in particular on Margulis’s work—including multiple pieces of her unpublished Gaia correspondence—he shows how her research and that of Lovelock was concurrent and conceptually parallel with the new discourse of self-referential systems that emerged within neocybernetic systems theory. The recent Gaia writings of Donna Haraway, Isabelle Stengers, and Bruno Latour contest its cybernetic status. Clarke engages Latour on the issue of Gaia’s systems description and extends his own systems-theoretical synthesis under what he terms “metabiotic Gaia.” This study illuminates current issues in neighboring theoretical conversations—from biopolitics and the immunitary paradigm to NASA astrobiology and the Anthropocene. Along the way, he points to science fiction as a vehicle of Gaian thought. Delving into many issues not previously treated in accounts of Gaia, Gaian Systems describes the history of a theory that has the potential to help us survive an environmental crisis of our own making.Trade Review"Where William Blake found the world in a grain of sand, Gaia finds the planet in a bacterial cell. Bruce Clarke, eminent scholar of literature and science, leads us through the evolution and elaboration of the notion—where complex systems can easily get complicated and cybernetics loopy—with sustained precision and clarity. The necessity to understand is evident throughout."—Douglas Kahn, author of Earth Sound Earth Signal: Energies and Earth Magnitude in the Arts"Gaian Systems is a brilliant labor of love. Intellectual love for a major system of thought and for those who have built it, especially the towering figure of Lynn Margulis. But also profound love for our living planet as a whole, for the complexity and subtlety of the complex assemblages that compose it. Combining rigor with generosity, Bruce Clarke explores the genealogy, the key concepts, and the major implications of a symbiogenetic vision of our planetary system. Humble and yet visionary, this remarkable study instructs, illuminates, and gives us hope."—Rosi Braidotti, Utrecht UniversityTable of ContentsContentsIntroduction: An Epistemological TransitionPart I. Gaia Discourse1. A Paradigm Shift2. Thinkers of Gaia3. Neocybernetics of GaiaPart II. The Systems Counterculture4. The Whole Earth Network5. The Lindisfarne Connection6. Margulis and AutopoiesisPart III. Gaian Enquiries7. The Planetary Imaginary8. Planetary Immunity9. Astrobiology and the AnthropoceneAcknowledgmentsNotesBibliographyIndex

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Book SynopsisIn a dynamic treatment of planets of the Solar System from a unified perspective Planetary Geology deals with the origin of planetary bodies, the forces that fashion their surfaces, the rise and fall of icecaps and oceans, and the role of life in planetary history.

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Book Synopsis'A fizzingly entertaining and enlightening book' Daily Telegraph 'Mesmerising' Geographical Magazine 'A fascinating delve into uncharted, forgotten lost places. But it's not just a trivia-tastic anthology of remote destinations but a nifty piece of psycho-geography, explaining our human need for these cartographical conundrums.' Wanderlust In a world of Google Earth, in which it is easy to believe that every discovery has been made and every adventure already had, Off the Map is a stunning testament to how mysterious our planet still is. From forgotten enclaves to floating islands, from hidden villages to New York gutter spaces, Off the Map charts the hidden corners of our planet. And while these are not necessarily places you would choose to visit on holiday - Hobyo, the pirate capital of Somalia, or Zheleznogorsk, a secret military town in Russia - they each carry a story about the strangeness of place and our need for a geography that understands our hunger for the fantastic and the unexpected. But it also shows us that topophilia, the love of place, is a fundamental part of what it is to be human. Whether you are an urban explorer or an armchair traveller, Off the Map will inspire and enchant. You'll never look at a map in quite the same way again. Trade Review'An absorbing book packed with remarkable facts… a joy to read’‘Alastair Bonnett’s high-speed world tour of places and non-places whose stories would bring the most somnolent class to life. Bonnett zooms effortlessly around far-off spots – sometimes in person, more often via the internet – but he does not ignore those closer to home. Fizzingly entertaining and enlightening book.’ "Bonnett dares us to rethink exploration in a world that has been fully charted, taking us from micronation Sealand - a forsaken sea fort claimed by a Brit as his own sovereign nation - to Arne, a Second World War decoy city that saved thousands of lives. Forty-seven fascinating essays prove why "our topophilia can never be extinguished or sated" and how these locations over insights into our history and society." "A fascinating delve into uncharted, forgotten and lost places. But it’ s not just a trivia-tastic anthology of remote destinations but a nifty piece of psycho-geography, explaining our human need for these cartographical conundrums." "Bonnett dares us to rethink exploration in a world that has been fully charted, taking us from micronation Sealand - a forsaken sea fort claimed by a Brit as his own sovereign nation - to Arne, a Second World War decoy city that saved thousands of lives. Forty-seven fascinating essays prove why "our topophilia can never be extinguished or sated" and how these locations over insights into our history and society." ‘ Alastair Bonnett’ s high-speed world tour of places and non-places whose stories would bring the most somnolent class to life. Bonnett zooms effortlessly around far-off spots – sometimes in person, more often via the internet – but he does not ignore those closer to home. Fizzingly entertaining and enlightening book.’ ‘ Fearlessly explores the dark side of humanity while constantly challenging our conceptions of place, borders and boundaries, and how we as humans use locations and geography to define ourselves and the world around us. Importantly, Bonnett’ s careful research and fascinating theories are complemented with passages of wonderfully written prose. A thought provoking triumph.’ ‘ A mesmerising study of ambiguous temporary places.’ 'An absorbing book packed with remarkable facts… a joy to read’

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Book SynopsisThis thought-provoking book introduces a way to study ecosystems that is resonant with current thinking in the fields of earth system science, geobiology, and planetology. Instead of organizing the subject around a hierarchical series of entities (e.g. genes, individuals, populations, species, communities, and the biosphere), the book provides an alternative process-based approach and proposes a truly planetary view of ecological science. It demonstrates how the idea of fundamental ecological processes can be developed at the systems level, specifically their involvement in control and feedback mechanisms. This enables the reader to reconsider fundamental ecological processes such as energy flow, guilds, trade-offs, carbon cycling, and photosynthesis, and to put them in a global (and even planetary) context. In so doing, the book places a much stronger emphasis on microorganisms. Since publication of the first edition in 2006, ever growing societal concern about environmental sustainability has ensured that the earth system science/Gaian approach has steadily gained traction. Its integration with ecology is now more important than ever if ecological science is to effectively contribute to the massive problems and future challenges associated with global environmental change. The Fundamental Processes in Ecology is an accessible text for senior undergraduates, graduate student seminar courses, and researchers in the fields of ecology, environmental sustainability, earth system science, evolutionary biology, palaeontology, history of life, astrobiology, planetology, climatology, geology, and physical geography.Table of ContentsPreface Part I: Introduction 1: Introducing the Thought Experiment Part II: The Fundamental Processes 2: Energy Flow 3: Multiple Guilds 4: Trade-offs and Biodiversity 5: Dispersal 6: Ecological Hypercycles: Covering a Planet with Life 7: Merging of Organismal and Ecological Physiology 8: Photosynthesis 9: Carbon Sequestration Part III: Emerging Systems 10: Nutrient Cycling as an Emergent Property 11: Historical Contingency and the Development of Planetary Ecosystems 12: From Processes to Systems

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Book SynopsisEarth has been witness to mammoths and dinosaurs, global ice ages, continents colliding or splitting apart, and comets and asteroids crashing catastrophically to the surface, as well as the birth of humans who are curious to understand it. But how was all this discovered? How was the evidence for it collected and interpreted? And what kinds of people have sought to reconstruct this past that no human witnessed or recorded? In this sweeping and accessible book, Martin J. S. Rudwick, the premier historian of the Earth sciences, tells the gripping human story of the gradual realization that the Earth's history has not only been unimaginably long but also astonishingly eventful. Rudwick begins in the seventeenth century with Archbishop James Ussher, who famously dated the creation of the cosmos to 4004 BC. His narrative later turns to the crucial period of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when inquisitive intellectuals, who came to call themselves geologists, began to in

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Book SynopsisBeneath the Arctic ice, the Methanaur is awakening. If this deadly methane monster breaks free, it spells the end of civilization as we know it.Meet Professor Katelyn, Leon, and Mo - also known as The Renegades. Professor Kateyln is a whip-smart scientist who uses her scientific knowledge to develop spectacles that can catch glimpses of the future. Wrestling with his anger at the naysayers who don''t seem to care about the environment, Leon has the ability to become invisible - the perfect spy! And then there''s Mo who, in the wake of his brother''s death in a cyclone, manages to wield a solar shield strong enough to fight the deadliest of foes. Our superheroes grapple with multiple environmental threats, most deadly of all a monster that lurks beneath the melting Arctic ice. If it escapes, this creature of chaos will release huge plumes of methane gas into the atmosphere, changing the balance of our planet''s climate forever. Can the Renegades work to

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Book Synopsis20 step-by-step eco-projects for budding preschool ecologists! Calling all mini eco-warriors and their parents! This fun and exciting book is filled with nature-themed eco-projects for kids. It''s a gentle introduction to topical issues in the world today, such as climate change, conservation, and recycling - ideal for curious kids who want to make a difference.Look, I''m an Ecologist allows young readers to do what they do best: imagine, create, learn, problem-solve, and play their way to a greener planet. Inside you''ll find: - A wide range of activities with an environmental focus supported by simple information, so young readers understand the issues faced by our planet in a play-based, hands-on, and child-friendly context - Easy to find and internationally available materials and resources- Projects designed to be shared and enjoyed by children and parents or carers- Visual step-by-step instructions allow young children t

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Book SynopsisExplore and understand the natural and human wonders of our planet.Now, in its third edition, this landmark encyclopedia celebrates our planet and explains the science underpinning the forces and processes that have made and shaped it. Artworks, photographs, terrain models, and maps are combined to capture the power of landscapes and natural events and show their hidden sides, explaining, for example, how an earthquake is triggered and how burning fossil fuels is driving a climate emergency.In this earth book, you will find: -More than 3,000 photographs, artworks, and maps-A 40-page timeline of Earth''s history includes human evolution and the story of human colonisation of the planet-Sections which explore human impact features - on subjects from deforestation to population growth-An atlas section includes original maps centred on Earth''s seven major tectonic platesParts of the book lay out systematic and in-dep

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Book SynopsisLandslides are a component of those agents of nature that transport rock and soil from mountains or hillsides to streams, lakes and seas, where new sedimentary rocks begin to form. This title addresses the US Geological Survey's proposal for a national landslide hazards mitigation strategy.Table of Contents1 Front Matter; 2 Executive Summary; 3 Introduction; 4 Commentary on Characteristics and Implementation of a National Landslide Hazards Mitigation Strategy; 5 Summary Observations; 6 Appendix A: Attendees and Presentations at Meetings; 7 Appendix B: Committee Biographies; 8 Appendix C: Acronyms

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Book SynopsisPart of The Geological Field Guide Series, Basic Geological Mapping, 5 th Edition is an essential basic guide to field techniques in mapping geology. Now completely revised and updated the book retains the concise clarity which has made it an indispensable instant reference in its previous editions.Trade Review“In summary, the book is written for geology students mapping in the U.K., as opposed to the professional geoscientist. At its best, the book conveys the advice of experienced geology instructors to novice field mapping students as they struggle to learn the fundamentals of geologic observation and interpretation.” (Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, 2 May 2013) “No field geoscientist should be without this handy, unparalleled guide. Summing Up: Highly recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through professionals; two-year technical program students.” (Choice, 1 August 2012) "This is a "how to do it" book and excels in being a good straight-forward read, packed with detailed information and advice, spiced with a little humour here and there." (Geomatics World, 1 March 2012) Table of ContentsPreface to the Fourth Edition ix Preface to the Fifth Edition xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Outline and Approach 1 1.2 Safety 2 1.3 Field Behaviour 4 1.4 A Few Words of Comfort 5 2 Field Equipment 6 2.1 Hammers and Chisels 6 2.2 Compasses and Clinometers 8 2.3 Hand Lenses 13 2.4 Tapes 14 2.5 Map Cases 14 2.6 Field Notebooks 15 2.7 Scales 16 2.8 Protractors 16 2.9 Pencils, Erasers and Mapping Pens 17 2.10 Acid Bottles 18 2.11 Global Positioning System (GPS) and Mobile Phones 19 2.12 Other Instruments 23 2.13 Field Clothing 26 3 Topographic Base Maps 27 3.1 Types of Geological Map 27 3.2 Topographic Base Maps 29 3.3 Geographic Coordinates and Metric Grids 30 3.4 Grid Magnetic Angle 33 3.5 Position Finding on Maps 34 3.6 Use of Air Photography as a Mapping Tool 43 3.7 Suitability of Images for Geological Mapping 48 4 Methods of Geological Mapping 50 4.1 Strategy for the Mapping Programme 50 4.2 Mapping by Following Contacts 51 4.3 Traversing 52 4.4 Exposure Mapping 55 4.5 Mapping in Poorly Exposed Regions 57 4.6 Superficial Deposits 62 4.7 Drilling 66 4.8 Geophysical Aids to Mapping 67 4.9 Large-Scale Maps of Limited Areas 71 4.10 Underground Mapping 74 4.11 Photogeology 76 5 Technological Aids to Mapping 80 5.1 Digital Terrain Models 80 5.2 Topographic Surveying Techniques 86 6 Field Measurements and Techniques 95 6.1 Measuring Strike and Dip of Planar Structures 95 6.2 Plotting Strike and Dip 101 6.3 Recording Strike and Dip 101 6.4 Measuring Linear Features 102 6.5 Folds 105 6.6 Faults 110 6.7 Thrusts 112 6.8 Joints 112 6.9 Unconformities 114 6.10 Map Symbols 114 6.11 Specimen Collecting 116 6.12 Field Photography 118 6.13 Panning 124 7 Mappable Rock Units and Lithology 126 7.1 Lithostratigraphy and Sedimentary Rocks 126 7.2 Sedimentary Formations 127 7.3 Rock Descriptions 128 7.4 Identifying and Naming Rocks in the Field 129 7.5 Fossils 133 7.6 Phaneritic Igneous Rocks 134 7.7 Aphanitic Igneous Rocks 135 7.8 Veins and Pegmatites 135 7.9 Igneous Rocks in General 136 7.10 Pyroclastic Rocks 138 7.11 Metamorphic Rocks 138 7.12 Economic Geology 140 8 Field Maps and Field Notebooks 146 8.1 Field Maps 146 8.2 Field Notebooks 154 9 Fair Copy Maps and Other Illustrations 162 9.1 Fair Copy Maps 162 9.2 Transferring Topography 163 9.3 Transferring Geology 163 9.4 Lettering and Symbols 164 9.5 Formation Letters 165 9.6 Layout 165 9.7 Colouring 167 9.8 Stratigraphic Column 167 9.9 Overlays 168 9.10 Computer Drafting of the Fair Copy Map 169 10 Cross-Sections and 3D Illustrations 171 10.1 Cross-Sections 171 10.2 Method of Apparent Dips 175 10.3 Down-Plunge Projection Method 177 10.4 Balanced Cross-Sections 179 10.5 Columnar Sections 179 10.6 Block Diagrams 180 10.7 Models 183 11 Geological Reports 185 11.1 Preparation 186 11.2 Revising and Editing 186 11.3 Layout 186 11.4 The ‘Introduction’ 188 11.5 Main Body of the Report 188 11.6 The ‘Conclusions’ Section 191 11.7 Text Illustrations 191 11.8 References 192 11.9 Appendices 193 11.10 Some Final Thoughts 193 Appendix A: Adjustment of a Closed Compass Traverse 195 Appendix B: Field Equipment Checklist 197 Appendix C: Indicators of Stratigraphical Way-Up 202 Appendix D: Useful Chart and Tables 203 References 205 Index 209

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Book SynopsisThe Atmosphere and Ocean is a fully revised and updated student friendly physical introduction to the atmosphere and ocean. Now in its Third Edition, the book continues to provide students with an accessible description of the atmosphere and ocean with emphasis on their physical properties and inter-dependence.Trade Review“This book is commendable for attempting such an approach to educate a new generation of scientists armed with a unifying view of the ocean and atmosphere. It is a unique book for those who seek knowledge of not only ocean or atmosphere but also their commonality, distinction, and interaction.” (Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 1 November 2012) "I highly recommend the comprehensive and readily understandable book The Atmosphere and Ocean: A Physical Introduction, 3rd Edition by Neil C. Wells, to any advanced undergraduate students in meteorology, climatology, oceanography, and earth sciences. The book is valuable as well as to any business leaders and public policy makers seeking an approachable book on the topic of the interdependency between the ocean and atmosphere. This book is an excellent and accessible textbook on the topic and should be given priority for anyone interested in learning and understanding the principles of the interrelationship between the planet's atmosphere and its ocean." (Blog Business World, 26 February 2012) Table of ContentsSeries Foreword ix Preface to the Third Edition xi 1 The Earth within the Solar System 1 1.1 The Sun and its constancy 1 1.2 Orbital variations in solar radiation 4 1.3 Radiative equilibrium temperature 8 1.4 Thermal inertia of the atmosphere 10 1.5 Albedo 14 1.6 The topography of the Earth’s surface 18 2 Composition and Physical Properties of the Ocean and Atmosphere 25 2.1 Evolution of the atmosphere and ocean 25 2.2 Present-day composition of sea water 29 2.3 Introduction to gases and liquids 31 2.4 Hydrostatic equilibrium 39 2.5 Adiabatic changes and potential temperature 41 2.6 Vertical stability of the ocean and atmosphere 46 3 Radiation, Temperature and Stability 53 3.1 Vertical variation of atmospheric constituents 53 3.2 The attenuation of solar radiation 58 3.3 Absorption of planetary radiation 65 3.4 Vertical temperature profile and its relation to radiation 67 3.5 The absorption of solar radiation in the ocean 75 3.6 Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles in the ocean 78 4 Water in the Atmosphere 83 4.1 Introduction 83 4.2 The moist atmosphere 84 4.3 Measurement and observation of water vapour 86 4.4 Stability in a moist atmosphere 88 4.5 Processes of precipitation and evaporation: The formation of clouds 94 4.6 Macroscopic processes in cloud formation 106 5 Global Budgets of Heat, Water and Salt 111 5.1 The measurement of heat budgets at the surface 111 5.2 Observations of surface heat fluxes and budgets 117 5.3 The measurement of the water budget 126 5.4 Observations of the water budget 127 5.5 The salt budget of the ocean 131 5.6 Temperature and salinity relationships in the ocean 134 5.7 Tracers in the ocean 141 6 Observations of Winds and Currents 147 6.1 Measurement of winds and currents 147 6.2 Scales of motion in the atmosphere and ocean 159 6.3 Time averaged circulation 164 6.4 Time-dependent motion 175 7 The Influence of the Earth’s Rotation on Fluid Motion 181 7.1 An introduction to the Earth’s rotation 181 7.2 Inertial motion 184 7.3 Pressure gradients and geostrophic motion 187 7.4 Vorticity and circulation 197 7.5 The atmosphere and ocean boundary layers 206 7.6 Equatorial winds and currents 210 8 Waves and Tides 219 8.1 The spectrum of surface waves 219 8.2 Wind waves and swell 223 8.3 Long waves 230 8.4 Internal waves 234 8.5 Ocean tides 237 8.6 Storm surges 244 8.7 Atmospheric waves and tides 249 9 Energy Transfer in the Ocean-Atmosphere System 253 9.1 Modes of energy in the ocean–atmosphere system 253 9.2 The kinetic energy of the atmosphere and ocean 259 9.3 Mechanisms of kinetic energy transfer 262 9.4 General circulation of the atmosphere 271 9.5 General circulation of the ocean 277 10 Mathematical Modelling of the Ocean and Atmosphere 283 10.1 Introduction 283 10.2 Scientific modelling: A simple model of the surface layer of the ocean 284 10.3 A dynamical model of the ocean surface layer 288 10.4 Numerical solutions of mathematical models 291 10.5 Numerical solutions for momentum on a rotating Earth 293 10.6 Atmospheric and climate general circulation models 295 10.7 Global ocean models 301 10.8 Observations of the ocean and atmosphere 305 11 Atmosphere-Ocean Interaction 315 11.1 Air-sea interaction: An introduction 315 11.2 Seasonal anomalies of the ocean-land-atmosphere system 322 11.3 Interannual fluctuations in the ocean-atmosphere system 326 11.4 Decadal variations in the ocean-atmosphere system 332 12 Climate Change 337 12.1 Past climate observations 337 12.2 Mechanisms of climate change 341 12.3 Current climate change 346 12.4 Understanding recent climate change 350 12.5 Predicting future climate 351 Problems 353 Glossary 369 General Reading 377 Further Reading and References 379 Figure Sources 385 Appendices A Standard International (SI) Units 391 B SI Unit Prefixes 391 Index 393

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Book SynopsisMesoscale Meteorology in Mid-Latitudes presents the dynamics of mesoscale meteorological phenomena in a highly accessible student- friendly way, with mathematical treatments complemented by eye-catching photographs an illustrations. Topics include boundary layer convection, nocturnal low-level jets, air mass boundaries (e.g.Trade Review"In summary, I highly recommend this book for use in courses in mesoscale meteorology at the advanced undergraduate and graduate level. It will serve as an important reference for researchers, instructors, and practitioners, and I look forward to using it in even more depth in my future teaching." (Bulletin of the American Met Society, 2012) "Markowski and Richardson (both meteorology, Penn State U.) deliver a very accessible advanced text on the dynamics of mesoscale meteorological phenomena, including boundary layer mesoscale phenomena, orographic phenomena and deep convection . . . an eye-pleasing design and extensive use of color photographs and illustrations make this book especially usable as both an undergraduate text and as a reference for graduate students, researchers, and meteorologists." (Booknews, 1 April 2011)Table of ContentsSeries Foreward xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv List of Symbols xvii PART I General Principles 1 1 What is the Mesoscale? 3 1.1 Space and time scales 3 1.2 Dynamical distinctions between the mesoscale and synoptic scale 5 2 Basic Equations and Tools 11 2.1 Thermodynamics 11 2.2 Mass conservation 16 2.3 Momentum equations 17 2.4 Vorticity and circulation 21 2.5 Pressure perturbations 25 2.6 Thermodynamic diagrams 32 2.7 Hodographs 34 3 Mesoscale Instabilities 41 3.1 Static instability 41 3.2 Centrifugal instability 48 3.3 Inertial instability 49 3.4 Symmetric instability 53 3.5 Shear instability 58 PART II Lower Tropospheric Mesoscale Phenomena 71 4 The Boundary Layer 73 4.1 The nature of turbulent fluxes 73 4.2 Surface energy budget 82 4.3 Structure and evolution of the boundary layer 83 4.4 Boundary layer convection 88 4.5 Lake-effect convection 93 4.6 Urban boundary layers 103 4.7 The nocturnal low-level wind maximum 105 5 Air Mass Boundaries 115 5.1 Synoptic fronts 117 5.2 Drylines 132 5.3 Outflow boundaries 140 5.4 Mesoscale boundaries originating from differential surface heating 149 6 Mesoscale Gravity Waves 161 6.1 Basic wave conventions 161 6.2 Internal gravity wave dynamics 165 6.3 Wave reflection 170 6.4 Critical levels 172 6.5 Structure and environments of ducted mesoscale gravity waves 173 6.6 Bores 175 PART III Deep Moist Convection 181 7 Convection Initiation 183 7.1 Requisites for convection initiation and the role of larger scales 183 7.2 Mesoscale complexities of convection initiation 189 7.3 Moisture convergence 195 7.4 Elevated convection 197 8 Organization of Isolated Convection 201 8.1 Role of vertical wind shear 201 8.2 Single-cell convection 206 8.3 Multicellular convection 209 8.4 Supercellular convection 213 9 Mesoscale Convective Systems 245 9.1 General characteristics 245 9.2 Squall line structure 249 9.3 Squall line maintenance 253 9.4 Rear inflow and bow echoes 260 9.5 Mesoscale convective complexes 265 10 Hazards Associated with Deep Moist Convection 273 10.1 Tornadoes 273 10.2 Nontornadic, damaging straight-line winds 292 10.3 Hailstorms 306 10.4 Flash floods 309 PART IV Orographic Mesoscale Phenomena 315 11 Thermally Forced Winds in Mountainous Terrain 317 11.1 Slope winds 317 11.2 Valley winds 320 12 Mountain Waves and Downslope Windstorms 327 12.1 Internal gravity waves forced by two-dimensional terrain 327 12.2 Gravity waves forced by isolated peaks 332 12.3 Downslope windstorms 333 12.4 Rotors 342 13 Blocking of the Wind by Terrain 343 13.1 Factors that govern whether air flows over or around a terrain obstacle 343 13.2 Orographically trapped cold-air surges 346 13.3 Lee vortices 351 13.4 Gap flows 358 PART V Appendix 367 A Radar and Its Applications 369 A.1 Radar basics 369 A.2 Doppler radar principles 371 A.3 Applications 374 References 389 Index 399

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Book SynopsisThis book gives a coherent development of the current understanding of the fluid dynamics of the middle latitude atmosphere. It is primarily aimed at post-graduate and advanced undergraduate level students and does not assume any previous knowledge of fluid mechanics, meteorology or atmospheric science. The book will be an invaluable resource for any quantitative atmospheric scientist who wishes to increase their understanding of the subject. The importance of the rotation of the Earth and the stable stratification of its atmosphere, with their implications for the balance of larger-scale flows, is highlighted throughout.Clearly structured throughout, the first of three themes deals with the development of the basic equations for an atmosphere on a rotating, spherical planet and discusses scale analyses of these equations. The second theme explores the importance of rotation and introduces vorticity and potential vorticity, as well as turbulence. In the third theme, the conTable of ContentsSeries foreword ix Preface xi Select bibliography xv The authors xix 1 Observed flow in the Earth’s midlatitudes 1 1.1 Vertical structure 1 1.2 Horizontal structure 4 1.3 Transient activity 11 1.4 Scales of motion 14 1.5 The Norwegian frontal model of cyclones 15 Theme 1 Fluid dynamics of the midlatitude atmosphere 25 2 Fluid dynamics in an inertial frame of reference 27 2.1 Definition of fluid 27 2.2 Flow variables and the continuum hypothesis 29 2.3 Kinematics: characterizing fluid flow 30 2.4 Governing physical principles 35 2.5 Lagrangian and Eulerian perspectives 36 2.6 Mass conservation equation 38 2.7 First Law of Thermodynamics 40 2.8 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 41 2.9 Bernoulli’s Theorem 45 2.10 Heating and water vapour 47 3 Rotating frames of reference 53 3.1 Vectors in a rotating frame of reference 53 3.2 Velocity and Acceleration 55 3.3 The momentum equation in a rotating frame 56 3.4 The centrifugal pseudo-force 57 3.5 The Coriolis pseudo-force 59 3.6 The Taylor–Proudman theorem 61 4 The spherical Earth 65 4.1 Spherical polar coordinates 65 4.2 Scalar equations 67 4.3 The momentum equations 68 4.4 Energy and angular momentum 70 4.5 The shallow atmosphere approximation 73 4.6 The beta effect and the spherical Earth 74 5 Scale analysis and its applications 77 5.1 Principles of scaling methods 77 5.2 The use of a reference atmosphere 79 5.3 The horizontal momentum equations 81 5.4 Natural coordinates, geostrophic and gradient wind balance 83 5.5 Vertical motion 87 5.6 The vertical momentum equation 89 5.7 The mass continuity equation 91 5.8 The thermodynamic energy equation 92 5.9 Scalings for Rossby numbers that are not small 95 6 Alternative vertical coordinates 97 6.1 A general vertical coordinate 97 6.2 Isobaric coordinates 100 6.3 Other pressure-based vertical coordinates 103 6.4 Isentropic coordinates 106 7 Variations of density and the basic equations 109 7.1 Boussinesq approximation 109 7.2 Anelastic approximation 111 7.3 Stratification and gravity waves 113 7.4 Balance, gravity waves and Richardson number 115 7.5 Summary of the basic equation sets 121 7.6 The energy of atmospheric motions 122 Theme 2 Rotation in the atmosphere 125 8 Rotation in the atmosphere 127 8.1 The concept of vorticity 127 8.2 The vorticity equation 129 8.3 The vorticity equation for approximate sets of equations 131 8.4 The solenoidal term 132 8.5 The expansion/contraction term 134 8.6 The stretching and tilting terms 135 8.7 Friction and vorticity 138 8.8 The vorticity equation in alternative vertical coordinates 144 8.9 Circulation 145 9 Vorticity and the barotropic vorticity equation 149 9.1 The barotropic vorticity equation 149 9.2 Poisson’s equation and vortex interactions 151 9.3 Flow over a shallow hill 155 9.4 Ekman pumping 159 9.5 Rossby waves and the beta plane 160 9.6 Rossby group velocity 166 9.7 Rossby ray tracing 170 9.8 Inflexion point instability 172 10 Potential vorticity 177 10.1 Potential vorticity 177 10.2 Alternative derivations of Ertel’s theorem 180 10.3 The principle of invertibility 182 10.4 Shallow water equation potential vorticity 186 11 Turbulence and atmospheric flow 189 11.1 The Reynolds number 189 11.2 Three-dimensional flow at large Reynolds number 194 11.3 Two-dimensional flow at large Reynolds number 196 11.4 Vertical mixing in a stratified fluid 201 11.5 Reynolds stresses 203 Theme 3 Balance in atmospheric flow 209 12 Quasi-geostrophic flows 211 12.1 Wind and temperature in balanced flows 211 12.2 The quasi-geostrophic approximation 215 12.3 Quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity 219 12.4 Ertel and quasi-geostrophic potential vorticities 221 13 The omega equation 225 13.1 Vorticity and thermal advection form 225 13.2 Sutcliffe Form 231 13.3 Q-vector form 233 13.4 Ageostrophic flow and the maintenance of balance 238 13.5 Balance and initialization 240 14 Linear theories of baroclinic instability 245 14.1 Qualitative discussion 245 14.2 Stability analysis of a zonal flow 247 14.3 Rossby wave interpretation of the stability conditions 256 14.4 The Eady model 264 14.5 The Charney and other quasi-geostrophic models 271 14.6 More realistic basic states 275 14.7 Initial value problem 281 15 Frontogenesis 291 15.1 Frontal scales 291 15.2 Ageostrophic circulation 294 15.3 Description of frontal collapse 299 15.4 The semi-geostrophic Eady model 305 15.5 The confluence model 307 15.6 Upper-level frontogenesis 309 16 The nonlinear development of baroclinic waves 311 16.1 The nonlinear domain 311 16.2 Semi-geostrophic baroclinic waves 312 16.3 Nonlinear baroclinic waves on realistic jets on the sphere 320 16.4 Eddy transports and zonal mean flow changes 323 16.5 Energetics of baroclinic waves 332 17 The potential vorticity perspective 337 17.1 Setting the scene 337 17.2 Potential vorticity and vertical velocity 340 17.3 Life cycles of some baroclinic waves 342 17.4 Alternative perspectives 346 17.5 Midlatitude blocking 350 17.6 Frictional and heating effects 352 18 Rossby wave propagation and potential vorticity mixing 361 18.1 Rossby wave propagation 361 18.2 Propagation of Rossby waves into the stratosphere 363 18.3 Propagation through a slowly varying medium 365 18.4 The Eliassen–Palm flux and group velocity 370 18.5 Baroclinic life cycles and Rossby waves 372 18.6 Variations of amplitude 373 18.7 Rossby waves and potential vorticity steps 375 18.8 Potential vorticity steps and the Rhines scale 381 Appendices 389 Appendix A: Notation 389 Appendix B: Revision of vectors and vector calculus 393 B.1 Vectors and their algebra 393 B.2 Products of vectors 394 B.3 Scalar fields and the grad operator 396 B.4 The divergence and curl operators 397 B.5 Gauss’ and Stokes’ theorems 398 B.6 Some useful vector identities 401 Index 403

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Book Synopsis* Inclusion of new techniques: thermal imaging and radioactivity methods * New section on case histories of multi-method environmental geophysical investigations * Improved artwork quality and layout .Table of ContentsPreface to the 2nd Edition xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What are ‘applied’ and ‘environmental’ geophysics? 1 1.2 Geophysical methods 3 1.3 Matching geophysical methods to applications 5 1.4 Planning a geophysical survey 5 1.5 Geophysical survey design 9 2 Gravity Methods 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Physical basis 19 2.3 Measurement of gravity 24 2.4 Gravity meters 26 2.5 Corrections to gravity observations 34 2.6 Interpretation methods 45 2.7 Applications and case histories 59 3 Geomagnetic Methods 83 3.1 Introduction 83 3.2 Basic concepts and units of geomagnetism 83 3.3 Magnetic properties of rocks 87 3.4 The Earth’s magnetic field 89 3.5 Magnetic instruments 95 3.6 Magnetic surveying 100 3.7 Qualitative interpretation 103 3.8 Quantitative interpretation 107 3.9 Applications and case histories 123 4 Applied Seismology: Introduction and Principles 143 4.1 Introduction 143 4.2 Seismic waves 144 4.3 Raypath geometry in layered ground 149 4.4 Loss of seismic energy 152 4.5 Seismic energy sources 154 4.6 Detection and recording of seismic waves 169 5 Seismic Refraction Surveying 179 5.1 Introduction 179 5.2 General principles of refraction surveying 179 5.3 Geometry of refracted raypaths 182 5.4 Interpretational methods 186 5.5 Applications and case histories 193 5.6 Shear wave methods 208 6 Seismic Reflection Surveying 217 6.1 Introduction 217 6.2 Reflection surveys 217 6.3 Reflection data processing 228 6.4 Correlating seismic data with borehole logs and cones 246 6.5 Interpretation 250 6.6 Applications 257 7 Electrical Resistivity Methods 289 7.1 Introduction 289 7.2 Basic principles 289 7.3 Electrode configurations and geometric factors 293 7.4 Modes of deployment 301 7.5 Interpretation methods 311 7.6 ERT applications and case histories 326 7.7 Mise-`a-la-masse (MALM) method 336 7.8 Leak detection through artificial membranes 346 8 Spontaneous (Self) Potential Methods 349 8.1 Introduction 349 8.2 Occurrence of self-potentials 349 8.3 Origin of self-potentials 349 8.4 Measurement of self-potentials 353 8.5 Corrections to SP data 354 8.6 Interpretation of self-potential anomalies 354 8.7 Applications and case histories 357 8.8 Electrokinetic (EK) surveying 371 9 Induced Polarisation 373 9.3 Measurement of induced polarisation 376 9.4 Applications and case histories 384 10 Electromagnetic Methods: Introduction and Principles 403 10.1 Introduction 403 10.2 Principles of EM surveying 407 10.3 Airborne EM surveying 411 10.4 Seaborne EM surveying 418 10.5 Borehole EM surveying 426 11 Electromagnetic Methods: Systems and Applications 431 11.1 Introduction 431 11.2 Continuous-wave (CW) systems 431 11.3 Pulse-transient (TEM) or time-domain (TDEM) EM systems 467 12 Electromagnetic Methods: Systems and Applications II 495 12.1 Very-low-frequency (VLF) methods 495 12.2 The telluric method 502 12.3 The magnetotelluric (MT) method 505 12.4 Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) 519 13 Introduction to Ground-Penetrating Radar 535 13.1 Introduction 535 13.2 Principles of operation 537 13.3 Propagation of radiowaves 539 13.4 Dielectric properties of earth materials 546 13.5 Modes of data acquisition 552 13.6 Data processing 554 13.7 Interpretation techniques 560 14 Ground-Penetrating Radar: Applications and Case Histories 565 14.1 Geological mapping 565 14.2 Hydrogeology and groundwater contamination 571 14.3 Glaciological applications 578 14.4 Engineering applications on manmade structures 587 14.5 Voids within manmade structures 599 14.6 Archaeological investigations 603 14.7 Forensic uses of GPR 607 14.8 Wide-aperture radar mapping and migration processing 607 14.9 Borehole radar 609 14.10 UXO and landmine detection 617 14.11 Animals 618 15 Radiometrics 625 15.1 Introduction 625 15.2 Natural radiation 625 15.3 Radioactivity of rocks 628 15.4 Radiation detectors 628 15.5 Data correction methods 633 15.6 Radiometric data presentation 635 15.7 Case histories 636 Appendix 645 References 649 Index 681

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Book SynopsisA joint venture between SCOR and IUPAC, this book reviews the current state of knowledge of the biogeochemistry of iron in seawater. The review covers chemical speciation, analytical techniques, transformation of iron, and the evidence for iron limitation of primary production of High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll (HNLC) areas in the ocean.Trade Review"Describes the growing consensus that low iron concentrations in the Antarctic and the equatorial Pacific oceans are the cause of reduced chlorophyll for phytoplankton production...." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 26, No. 2, June 2002)Table of ContentsList of Contributors. Series Preface. Preface. Introduction (D.R. Turner, K.A. Hunter and H.J.W. de Baar). Iron Limitation in the Oceans (A.J. Watson). Bioavailability and Bioaccumulation of Iron in the Sea (W.G. Sunda). Atmospheric Iron Inputs to the Oceans (T.D. Jickells and L.J. Spokes). Distributions, Sources and Sinks of Iron in Seawater (H.J.W. de Baar and J.T.M de Jong). Analytical Methods for the Determination of Concentrations and Speciation of Iron (K.W. Bruland and E.L. Rue). Thermodynamics of the Iron System in Seawater (T.D. Waite). Transformations Among Different Forms of Iron in the Ocean (J.W. Moffett). Summary and Recommendations (K.A. Hunter, P.W. Boyd, K.W. Bruland, J. Buffle, P. Buat-Menard, H.J.W. de Baar, R.A. Duce, W.J. Sunda, T.D. Jickells, J.W. Moffett, E.L. Rue, L.J. Spokes, B. Sulzberger, D.R. Turner, T.D. Waite, A.J. Watson and M. Whitfield). Index.

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Book SynopsisSignificant advances have been made in mapping and monitoring our environment from Earth Observation satellites, but now, in the 1990s, remote sensing has reached a new technological and scientific frontier.Trade Review"..there is much good, highly practical material in this book, and the ways ahead are signposted..."--Progress in Physical GeographyTable of ContentsPartial table of contents: Advances in Remote Sensing Technology (S. Plummer, et al.). Advances in Field Spectroscopy (E. Milton, et al.). Developments in the Remote Sensing of Forest Canopy Structure (F.Danson). Imaging Spectrometry: A New Tool for Ecology (P. Curran & J.Kupiec). Recent Advances in Understanding SAR Imagery (S. Quegan). Remote Sensing of Geomorphological Processes and Surficial MaterialGeochemistry in Drylands (A. Millington, et al.). The Remote Sensing of Inland Water Quality (A. Dekker, etal.). Advances in Crop Monitoring by Remote Sensing (M. Steven & K.Jaggard). Remote Sensing and the Information Extraction Problem (F. Danson,et al.). Index.

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Book SynopsisWidely regarded as the most authoritative and comprehensive book in its field, the fourth edition of Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics includes new and substantially updated chapters to this highly praised text.Trade Review"An excellent book, very well presented, and is a must for the shelves of serious engineers and scientists active or interested in the fields of rock mechanics and rock engineering.... Highly recommended." (South African Geographical Journal, 2008) "...I consider this book to be an invaluable reference for studying and understanding the fundamental science at the base of rock mechanics. I believe this to be a must-have textbook and I strongly recommend it to anyone, student or professional, interested in the subject." (Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering)Table of Contents1. Rock as a Material. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Joints and faults. 1.3 Rock-forming minerals. 1.4 The fabric of rocks. 1.5 The mechanical nature of rock. 2. Analysis of Stress and Strain. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Definition of traction and stress. 2.3 Analysis of stress in two dimensions. 2.4 Graphical representations of stress in two dimensions. 2.5 Stresses in three dimensions. 2.6 Stress transformations in three dimensions. 2.7 Mohr’s representation of stress in three dimensions. 2.8 Stress invariants and stress deviation. 2.9 Displacement and strain. 2.10 Infinitesimal strain in two dimensions. 2.11 Infinitesimal strain in three dimensions. 2.12 Determination of principle stresses or strains from measurements. 2.13 Compatibility equations. 2.14 Stress and strain in polar and cylindrical coordinates. 2.15 Finite strain. 3. Friction on Rock Surfaces. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Amonton’s law. 3.3 Friction on rock surfaces. 3.4 Stick-slip oscillations. 3.5 Sliding on a plane of weakness. 3.6 Effects of time and velocity. 4. Deformation and Failure of Rock. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 The stress-strain curve. 4.3 Effects of confining stress and temperature. 4.4 Types of fracture. 4.5 Coulomb failure criterion. 4.6 Mohr’s hypothesis. 4.7 Effects of pore fluids. 4.8 Failure under true-triaxial conditions. 4.9 The effect of anisotropy on strength. 5. Linear Elasticity. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Stress-strain relations for an isotropic linear elastic solid. 5.3 Special cases. 5.4 Hooke’s law in terms of deviatoric stresses and strains. 5.5 Equations of stress equilibrium. 5.6 Equations of stress equilibrium in cylindrical and spherical coordinates. 5.7 Airy stress functions. 5.8 Elastic strain energy and related principles. 5.9 Uniqueness theorem for elasticity problems. 5.10 Stress-strain relations for anisotropic materials. 6. Laboratory Testing of Rocks. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Hydrostatic tests. 6.3 Uniaxial compression. 6.4 Triaxial tests. 6.5 Stability and stiff testing machines. 6.6 True-triaxial tests. 6.7 Diametral compression of cylinders. 6.8 Torsion of circular cylinders. 6.9 Bending tests. 6.10 Hollow cylinders. 7. Poroelasticity and Thermoelasticity. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Hydrostatic poroelasticity. 7.3 Undrained compression. 7.4 Constitutive equations of poroelasticity. 7.5 Equations of stress equilibrium and fluid flow. 7.6 One-dimensional consolidation. 7.7 Applications of poroelasticity. 7.8 Thermoelasticity. 8. Stresses around Cavities and Excavations. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Complex variable method for two-dimensional elasticity problems. 8.3 Homogeneous state of stress. 8.4 Pressurised hollow cylinder. 8.5 Circular hole in a rock mass with given far-field principal stresses. 8.6 Stresses applied to a circular hole in an infinite rock mass. 8.7 Stresses applied to the surface of a solid cylinder. 8.8 Inclusions in an infinite region. 8.9 Elliptical hole in an infinite rock mass. 8.10 Stresses near a crack tip. 8.11 Nearly rectangular hole. 8.12 Spherical cavities. 8.13 Penny-shaped cracks. 8.14 Interactions between nearby cavities. 9. Inelastic Behavior. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Plasticity and yield. 9.3 Elastic-plastic hollow cylinder. 9.4 Circular hole in an elastic-brittle-plastic rock mass. 9.5 Perfectly plastic behavior. 9.6 Flow between flat surfaces. 9.7 Flow rules and hardening. 9.8 Creep. 9.9 Simple rheological models. 9.10 Theory of viscoelasticity. 9.11 Some simple viscoelastic problems. 10. Micromechanical Models. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Effective moduli of heterogeneous rocks. 10.3 Effect of pores on compressibility. 10.4 Crack closure and elastic nonlinearity. 10.5 Effective medium theories. 10.6 Sliding crack friction and hysteresis. 10.7 Griffith cracks and the Griffith locus. 10.8 Griffith theory of failure. 10.9 Linear elastic fracture mechanics. 11. Wave Propagation in Rocks. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 One-dimensional elastic wave propagation. 11.3 Harmonic waves and group velocity. 11.4 Elastic waves in unbounded media. 11.5 Reflection and refraction of waves at an interface. 11.6 Surface and interface waves. 11.7 Transient waves. 11.8 Effects of fluid saturation. 11.9 Attenuation. 11.10 Inelastic waves. 12. Hydromechanical Behavior of Fractures. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Geometry of rock fractures. 12.3 Normal stiffness of rock fractures. 12.4 Behaviour of rock fractures under shear. 12.5 Hydraulic transmissivity of rock fractures. 12.6 Coupled hydro-mechanical behavior. 12.7 Seismic response of rock fractures. 12.8 Fractured rock masses. 13. State of Stress Underground. 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Simple models for the state of stress in the subsurface. 13.3 Measured values of subsurface stresses. 13.4 Surface loads on a half-space: two-dimensional theory. 13.5 Surface loads on a half-space: three-dimensional theory. 13.6 Hydraulic fracturing. 13.7 Other stress measurement methods. 14. Geological Applications. 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 Stresses and faulting. 14.3 Overthrust faulting and sliding under gravity. 14.4 Stresses around faults. 14.5 Mechanics of intrusion. 14.6 Beam models for crustal folding. 14.7 Earthquake mechanics. References

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Book SynopsisThe renowned seismologists C.P. Rajendran and Kusala Rajendran offer a riveting story of the Indian earthquakes, their science, history and impact. Like all other natural phenomena, earthquakes are part of life-sustaining forcesthe creators of the mountains, valleys and springs or even deserts on Eartha theatre where the show never ends. The book takes the readers to some exciting parts of India to show how earthquakes change the topography where a sea existed not far in the pastnow a salt marsh, affecting the social life, trade and livelihood. The book discusses the likelihood of the next big earthquake in the Himalayas against the backdrop of the devastating earlier ones revealed by archaeology, history and geology. It probes the causes and aftermath of the devastating Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 and gives a glimpse of the past. The high-impact earthquakes will happen, but they need not always end up as human catastrophes. The authors have spent much of their professional lives stud

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Book SynopsisReveals the roots of our biodiversity crisis, why we failed to meet targets set over a decade ago, and what we must do now to protect and preserve nature’s wondersTrade Review‘If you have any doubts about the meaning of the term biodiversity or its importance to the world, here is a book that explains it in an interesting and accessible way and challenges us to protect it better.’ -- Professor Sir Ghillean Prance FRS, FLS, FRSB, botanist and former director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew‘A stimulating, authoritative and deeply rewarding read that makes you think about the natural world in a novel way.’ -- Dr Ahmed Djoghlaf, former executive secretary of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity‘Spicer spells out the chilling message…the findings of which have been backed by respected scientists from the United Nations, Yale University and the Eden Project.’ * Herald *‘Will appeal to intelligent non-specialists and may provide the incentive to study the subject in greater depth.’ * Journal of Biological Education *‘This is science for the general reader at its very best – clear, committed, fascinating and laser-focused on the crisis we face.’ -- Randal Keynes, great-great-grandson of Charles Darwin and author of Creation: The True Story of Charles Darwin‘His gift for the telling analogy and his clear, lively writing make Biodiversity a pleasure to read.’ -- Stephen C. Stearns, Edward P. Bass Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale UniversityTable of Contents1 The pandemic of wounded biodiversity Biodiversity – what was that again? A long, leisurely trip to La Jolla Directions 2 Teeming boisterous life The big picture The volleyball on Mission Beach ‘A rose by any other name’…what’s a species? Morphological species Identifying species without ever seeing them Biological species Evolutionary species Naming species How many living species…and what are they? 1) To the nearest approximation (almost) every organism is an arthropod…? 2) Greenery: The Plantae 3) Fungi: Mushrooms, moulds and yeasts – The Fungi 4) Mollusca: Shell life 5) Chordata: Animals with backbones…mostly 6) Protozoa or Protista? 7) Nematoda: The roundworm that’s the fly in the ointment? 8) Bacteria and Archaea: Microbial life Remaining animal groupings Viruses: All the world’s a phage… or nearly New species Planting and growing the ‘tree of life’ The great chain of being Linnaeus’s hierarchical classification Influence of evolutionary ideas Chatton’s two-domain idea Whittaker’s five-kingdom approach Woese and the three-domain model A new twist to the three-domain model …and when is a tree a bush? Designs on life The phylum and the Bauplan Most phyla are not very species rich An unequal distribution of life 3 Where on Earth is biodiversity? From Berkeley, south to the Sea of Cortez More is more Back to Bird Rock The species–area relationship Those who go down to the sea in ships Hotspots: A tale of two definitions Big-scale biodiversity: Biogeographical and political regions On land Sea Biodiversity by country Latitude for life? The land The sea Genetic diversity and latitude Why is there a latitudinal gradient? Altitude Lessons from the tops of Scottish mountains Biodiversity takes the hump with altitude Mountains as islands? Aerial plankton and organisms in flight Depth The short-lived azoic theory Out of our depth A journey to the centre of the Earth Staying close to home Congruence: The holy grail of diversity? 4 A world that was old when we came into it: Diversity, deep time and extinction One every twenty minutes? A life in the year of… Precambrian – before life? A schoolgirl changes our understanding of life before life – but no one believes her The garden of Ediacara A world of chemical energy, not driven by sunlight? How familiar is the Ediacaran fauna? Explosive Cambrian Cambrian forms Archaeocyatha: The only extinct phylum? Why diversify now? Cambrian explosion or short fuse? Cambrian biodiversity: Good designs… or just lucky? How a small quarry in British Columbia changed our understanding of biodiversity ‘It’s a Wonderful Life’ To conclude Post-Cambrian: Tinkering with successful designs? Palaeozoic – ‘first life’ Middle and modern life The present – not set in stone Beginnings of evolution: The origin of species End of evolution: Extinction The ‘big five’ Causes of extinction Extinctions as routine events in the history of life Early humans and biodiversity Extinctions post-1600s Proving extinction? The Red Data Book Other takes on extinction To conclude 5 Swept away and changed Threatening behaviour Living beyond our means Top five direct (or proximate) causes of biodiversity loss 1) Habitat loss and degradation 2) Direct exploitation Home economics Food, glorious food Industrial materials Medicine sans frontiers Ecotourism Controlling the natural world 3) Climate change 4) Introduced species The domino effect: Extinction cascades Some light relief: Complete elimination of biodiversity by extraterrestrial means The ultimate cause of biodiversity loss: You and me Once upon a time there were two people…now look how many Not just population size but where people live Not just population size but what people do It’s the poor that do the suffering To conclude 6 Are the most beautiful things the most useless? ‘…and for everything else there’s Mastercard’ Costing a small planet Use now, pay when? What bees do for free is expensive Costing the Earth – literally How Biosphere 1 works – as one Earth, the Goldilocks planet – just right Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis Critiques of Gaia How bits of Biosphere 1 work Build your own biosphere: Not-so-silent running The home marine aquarium Mysteries and hazards Valuable for what, and to whom? Keeping options open Bequest and bequeathal Full-on philosophers and laid-back religion? Value bestowed, not intrinsic Intrinsic value Valued as an object of worship or through kinship A creator gives biodiversity value To conclude 7 Our greatest hazard and our only hope? Saving private land Antecedents Oh, Rio Large brushstrokes Louder than words Arks in parks Out of place – but alive Buzzword for the twenty-first century Responses to Rio Millennium Assessment Aichi (2010) and ‘Pathway for Humanity’ (2015) Strategic plan for biodiversity and Aichi biodiversity targets ‘Pathway for Humanity’: UN Sustainable Development Goals (2015) Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (2019) Aichi Target 11: Increasing protected areas Goal 16: Nagoya protocol in force Sustainability goals No room for the individual? Epilogue 8 No one is too small to make a difference Going further: Suggestions for wider reading Index

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Book SynopsisThis textbook provides an overview of the origin and preservation of carbonate sedimentary rocks. The focus is on limestones and dolostones and the sediments from which they are derived.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv PART I: CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW 1 1 CARBONATE ROCKS AND PLATFORMS 5 What are carbonate sedimentary rocks? 6 Why should we care about studying these rocks? 6 What is the scientific approach? 6 The carbonate continuum 7 How do carbonate sediments form? 9 Where are carbonates produced and where do they accumulate? 10 Tectonic settings and the nature of carbonate platforms 11 How do we study carbonate sediments and rocks? 14 Further reading 14 2 CARBONATE CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY 15 Introduction 16 Chemistry 16 Carbonate precipitation and dissolution in the ocean 19 Further reading 21 3 THE CARBONATE FACTORY 22 Introduction 23 Sediment production 23 Component modification 28 Karst and carbonate spring precipitates 36 Further reading 37 4 MARINE CARBONATE FACTORIES AND ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS 38 Introduction 39 Environmental controls 39 Benthic marine factories 46 Pelagic marine factories 47 Limestone classification schemes 47 Further reading 50 5 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: MICROBES AND ALGAE 51 Introduction 52 Microbes and carbonates 52 Microbialites 52 Modern stromatolites 54 Calcimicrobes 60 Calcareous algae 60 Further reading 66 6 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: SINGLE CELLS AND SHELLS 67 Introduction 68 Single]cell microfossils 68 Macrofossils 71 Further reading 78 7 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: ECHINODERMS AND COLONIAL INVERTEBRATES 79 Introduction 80 Echinoderms 80 Sponges 82 Bryozoans 85 Corals 89 Further reading 93 Part II: CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS: AN OVERVIEW 95 8 LACUSTRINE CARBONATES 99 Introduction 100 Modern lakes: Zonation and classification 100 Controls on lake sedimentation 101 Lake sedimentation 103 Lacustrine microbialites 107 Classification of ancient lake deposits 108 Further reading 108 9 CARBONATE SPRINGS 110 Introduction 111 Spring systems 111 Classification of springs 112 Tufa, travertine, or sinter? 113 Biota of spring systems 114 Carbonate precipitation in spring systems 114 Spring architecture 115 Calcareous spring carbonate facies 117 Further reading 122 10 WARM]WATER NERITIC CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 123 Introduction 124 The carbonate factory 124 Depositional systems 125 Further reading 134 11 THE COOL]WATER NERITIC REALM 135 Introduction 136 The Carbonate Factory 136 Depositional settings 139 Warm]temperate carbonates 141 Cool]temperate carbonates 144 Cold]water, polar carbonate systems 144 The rock record 145 Further reading 148 12 MUDDY PERITIDAL CARBONATES 150 Introduction 151 Andros Island: The Bahamas 152 Shark Bay: Western Australia 154 The United Arab Emirates: Persian Gulf 155 Stratigraphy 158 The shallowing]upward peritidal cycle 158 How do numerous peritidal cycles form? 158 Temporal variations on the peritidal cycle theme 162 Further reading 163 13 NERITIC CARBONATE TIDAL SAND BODIES 165 Introduction 166 Tides and tidal currents 166 Tidal sand bodies 167 Bahamian platform ooid sand bodies 169 Types of Bahamian platform sand bodies 170 Some examples of Bahamian sand bodies 171 Inter]island tidal ooid sand bodies (tidal deltas) 173 Platform interior Bahamian ooid sand bodies 174 Carbonate ramp tidal ooid sand bodies 175 Carbonate sand bodies in straits and seaways 175 Carbonate sands in flooded incised valleys 176 Carbonate sands in hypersaline basins 177 The rock record of tidal ooid sands 177 Ancient sand body geometries 178 Further reading 178 14 MODERN REEFS 179 Introduction 180 The reef mosaic 180 The coral reef growth window 182 Shallow]water reefs 184 Deep]water reefs 189 Further reading 191 15 ANCIENT REEFS 192 Introduction 193 The ancient reef factory 193 Microbes, calcimicrobes, and calcareous algae 194 Internal cavities 195 Lithification 195 Boring and bioerosion 196 Reef stratigraphic nomenclature 196 The spectrum of ancient reefs 198 Reefs 198 Reef mounds 199 Reef geohistory 202 Reef rock classification 206 Further reading 217 16 CARBONATE SLOPES 212 Introduction 213 Depositional bathymetry 213 The deposits 213 Contourites 217 Slope types 218 Temporal and spatial variability 220 Further reading 222 17 DEEP]WATER PELAGIC CARBONATES 223 Introduction 224 Universal controls 224 Depositional controls 225 Universal attributes 226 Old pelagic sediments 226 Young pelagic sediments 228 The pelagic factory 228 Chalk 229 Associated sediments 233 Ocean anoxia 233 Further reading 233 18 PRECAMBRIAN CARBONATES 234 Introduction 235 Precambrian carbonate systems 235 The carbonate factory 235 Reefs 242 Further reading 246 19 CARBONATE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 247 Introduction 248 Carbonate sequence stratigraphy 249 Shallow]water reef sequence stratigraphy 250 Photozoan rimmed platforms 252 Evaporites and siliciclastics 255 Heterozoan unrimmed carbonate platforms 255 Ramps 257 Higher]order cycles (parasequences) 259 Depositional cycles 259 Further reading 259 20 THE TIME MACHINE 261 Introduction 262 Carbonates and plate tectonics 262 Paleoclimate and paleoceanography 265 Carbonates and the evolving biosphere 268 Ocean acidification 271 Further reading 271 Part III: CARBONATE DIAGENESIS: AN OVERVIEW 273 21 THE PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENTS OF DIAGENESIS 277 Introduction to the processes 278 Carbonate dissolution 278 Carbonate precipitation 278 The environments 281 Synsedimentary marine diagenetic environment 282 Meteoric diagenetic environment 282 Burial diagenetic environment 284 Dolomite and dolostone 285 Further reading 285 22 ANALYTICAL METHODS 286 Introduction 287 Petrography 288 X]ray diffraction analysis 291 Scanning electron microscopy 292 Electron microprobe analysis 294 Chemical analyses 294 Further reading 296 23 THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE DIAGENESIS 297 Introduction 298 Trace elements and element ratios 298 Stable isotopes 301 Oxygen isotopes 301 Carbon isotopes 303 Stable isotope values for modern biogenic carbonates 304 Carbonate stable isotope values through geologic time 305 Strontium isotopes 307 Further reading 309 24 LIMESTONE: THE SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENT 311 Introduction 312 The setting 312 Dissolution 312 Precipitation 313 Alteration 315 Synsedimentary limestone 316 Spatial distribution of early lithification 318 Strandline diagenesis 319 The rock record 323 Isotopic composition of ancient marine cements 324 Further reading 325 25 METEORIC DIAGENESIS OF YOUNG LIMESTONES 326 Introduction 327 Processes 327 Cements and cementation 330 Diagenesis of calcite sediments 333 Importance of grain size 333 Diagenesis in different meteoric settings 334 Importance of climate 335 How long does it take? 335 The ultimate product 336 Geochemistry 337 Further reading 339 26 KARST AND WATER]CONTROLLED DIAGENESIS 341 Introduction 342 Surficial processes and products 342 Surface karst facies 342 Calcrete facies 346 Subsurface karst facies 348 Surface and subsurface carbonate geochemistry 355 Further reading 356 27 BURIAL DIAGENESIS OF LIMESTONE 357 Introduction 358 The setting 358 Controlling factors 358 Processes and products 359 Burial cementation 362 Burial diagenetic models 365 Paragenesis via cement stratigraphy 368 Further reading 369 28 DOLOMITE AND DOLOMITIZATION 370 Introduction 371 Scientific approach 371 Dolomite: the mineral 371 Dolostone: the rock 373 The limestone to dolostone transition 376 Early diagenetic alteration of dolomite 376 Dolomite geochemistry 380 Further reading 382 29 DOLOMITIZATION PROCESSES AND SYNSEDIMENTARY DOLOMITE 383 Introduction 384 What limits dolomite formation? 384 How to form extensive dolomite 385 The different types of dolomite and dolostone 386 Synsedimentary (authigenic) dolomite 386 Further reading 390 30 SUBSURFACE DOLOMITIZATION AND DOLOSTONE PARAGENESIS 392 Introduction 393 Shallow]burial early]diagenetic dolomites 393 Deep]burial late]diagenetic dolomites 396 Synthesis 399 Dolomite paragenesis 399 Further reading 402 31 DIAGENESIS AND GEOHISTORY 403 Introduction 404 Eogenetic diagenesis 404 Approach 406 Lowstand systems tract 406 Transgressive systems tract 408 Highstand systems tract 410 Post]eogenetic diagenesis 411 Further reading 413 32 CARBONATE POROSITY 414 Introduction 415 Porosity 415 Porosity measurement 415 Permeability 416 Types of porosity 416 Porosity classification 421 Porosity evolution through time 422 Porosity and dolomitization 423 The evolution of porosity 423 Integration 425 Further reading 426 GLOSSARY 427 INDEX 000

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Book SynopsisThe Alps, with their outstanding outcrop conditions, represent a superb natural laboratory for many geological processes, and have played a crucial role in the history of geology. This book gives an up-to-date and holistic overview of the key aspects of Alpine geology.Trade Review“The paperback price seems remarkable for a volume with so much in it.” (The Open University Geological Society Journal, 1 October 2014)Table of ContentsPreface viii 1 The Alps in their Plate Tectonic Framework 1 1.1 Older Mountain Chains in Europe 2 1.2 Break-up of Pangaea and Opening of the Alpine Tethys 8 1.3 The Alpine System in Europe 12 1.4 Structure of the Alps 14 References 20 2 The pre-Triassic Basement of the Alps 23 2.1 The pre-Triassic Basement in the Black Forest and Vosges 25 2.2 The pre-Triassic Basement of the External Massifs 29 External Massifs in the Western Alps 30 External Massifs in the Central Alps 32 External Massifs in the Eastern Alps 37 2.3 The pre-Triassic Basement of the Penninic Nappes 39 2.4 The pre-Triassic Basement of the Austroalpine Nappes 40 2.5 The pre-Triassic Basement of the Southern Alps 43 2.6 Palaeozoic Sediments in the Eastern and Southern Alps 49 The Palaeozoic in the Carnic Alps 49 The Palaeozoic of the Greywacke Zone 51 The Palaeozoic of the Innsbruck Quartz Phyllite 51 2.7 The Variscan Orogen at the Close of the Palaeozoic 54 2.8 Post-Variscan Sediments and Volcanics of the Permian 58 The North Swiss Permo-Carboniferous Trough 58 The Permo-Carboniferous in the Helvetic Nappe Complex 59 The Permo-Carboniferous in the Penninic Nappe Complex 62 The Permo-Carboniferous in the Austroalpine Nappe Complex 64 The Permo-Carboniferous in the Southalpine Nappe System 66 References 68 3 The Alpine Domain in the Mesozoic 71 3.1 The Mesozoic Rock Suites 72 The European Continental Margin 72 Oceanic Arms between the Baltic and Africa 81 The Adriatic Continental Margin 90 3.2 Plate Tectonic Evolution 95 Triassic: Epicontinental Platforms 95 Jurassic: Opening up of Oceanic Arms 97 Cretaceous: Opening and Closing of Oceanic Arms 116 References 125 4 The Alpine Domain in the Cenozoic 129 4.1 The Cenozoic Sedimentary Sequences 131 4.2 Late Cretaceous and Paleogene Flyschs 136 4.3 Eocene–Oligocene Flyschs 140 4.4 Oligocene–Miocene Molasse in the Northalpine Foreland Basin 143 4.5 Oligocene–Pliocene Sediments in the Po Basin 147 4.6 The Jura Mountains 148 4.7 Intramontane Basins 149 4.8 Plutonic and Volcanic Rocks 149 4.9 Tectonic and Palaeogeographical Evolution 154 References 165 5 Tectonic Structure of the Alps 169 5.1 The Western Alps 173 The Jura Mountains 178 The Subalpine Chains of the Dauphinois 179 The Penninic Nappes and their Contact with the Adriatic Continental Margin 186 5.2 The Central Alps 192 The Jura Mountains 200 The Molasse Basin 204 The Helvetic Nappe System 209 The Penninic Nappe System 231 The Austroalpine Nappe System 240 The Southalpine Nappe System 242 5.3 The Eastern Alps 245 The Molasse Basin 251 The Helvetic Nappe System 255 The Penninic Nappe System 257 The Austroalpine Nappe System 258 The Southalpine Nappe System and Dolomites 264 5.4 The Deep Structure of the Alps 265 References 275 6 Tectonic Evolution of the Alps 281 6.1 Alpine Metamorphism 283 Regional Distribution of Alpine Metamorphism 283 High-Pressure Metamorphism 286 Temperature-Dominated Regional Metamorphism 290 Contact Metamorphism 291 6.2 The Cretaceous Orogeny 294 6.3 The Cenozoic Orogeny 296 6.4 Uplift and Erosion 322 References 330 7 The Latest Steps in the Evolution of the Alps 335 7.1 Miocene and Pliocene Drainage Patterns 337 7.2 Pleistocene Glaciations 342 7.3 Recent Movements and Seismicity 348 7.4 Rockslides, Creeping Slopes, Erosion by Modern Rivers 355 References 364 Index 367

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Book SynopsisGlobal Environmental Careers Global Environmental Careers The Worldwide Green Jobs Resource This book is the ideal guide to equipping you with the tools and know-how to develop an environmental career. It is filled with practical advice, case studies, personal profiles and top tips across the global environment sector. An essential resource for anyone, from school students to those who are already in work but dreaming of a more meaningful career. This new book comes at exactly the right moment. There has never been a more critical time for effective, international action on our common ecological crisis, and success in that work requires a new generation of 21st Century environmental professionals.'Kevin Doyle, Executive Director, Office of Career and Professional Development, Yale School of the Environment As an experienced green career coach, the top questions I hear from green job seekers are, What are the green jobs out there, which ones would be a good match, how do I get my foot in the door, and where do I find these jobs? Taberham's book answers all of these in a refreshingly approachable way.'Lisa Yee-Litzenberg, President, Green Career Advisor LLC One of the biggest challenges environmental career seekers face is understanding and muddling through the opportunities available to them based on their experience, education, and interest. Taberham's book is a great resource to help people navigate their options and grab some tips for the career journey.'Laura Thorne, The Environmental Career Coach A fantastic book for those who are interested in pursuing a role in sustainability. Jam-packed with helpful resources, career insights, and real-life case studies this is a go-to resource for professionals who are launching their careers.'Sharmila Singh, New Lens Consulting Justin Taberham provides an impressive global overview of a multifaceted, ever-changing sector that continues to evolve rapidly due to advances in technology and knowledge, changes in funding and incentives, and shifts in priorities and laws.'Carol L. McClelland, PhD, Author of Green Careers for DummiesTable of ContentsAcknowledgements ix 1 Introduction 1 2 Environmental Consultancy 51 3 Integrated Water Resources Management 80 4 Environmental Law 100 5 Environmental Policy, Legislation and Regulation 121 6 Conservation and Ecology 129 7 Greening Companies, Corporate Sustainability 154 8 Air Quality 176 9 Fisheries Management 189 10 Marine Science and Conservation 207 11 Protected Area Planning and Management 219 12 Waste and Resource Management and Contaminated Land 232 13 Renewables and Energy 246 14 Journalism and Writing/Blogging 264 15 Emerging and Other Sectors 276 16 Contributors 282 Index 000

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Book SynopsisThe Periglacial Environment, Fourth Edition, is an authoritative overview of the world s cold, non-glacial environments. First published in 1976 and subsequently revised in 1996 and 2007, the text has been the international standard for nearly 40 years.Table of ContentsPreface to Fourth Edition xv Preface to Third Edition xvii Preface to Second Edition xix Preface to First Edition xxi Acknowledgments xxiii Part I The Periglacial Domain 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 The Periglacial Concept 3 1.2 Diagnostic Criteria 4 1.3 Periglacial Environments 5 1.4 The Periglacial Domain 6 1.5 The Periglacial Domain and the Cryosphere 9 1.6 Disciplinary Considerations 10 1.6.1 The Growth of Geocryology 10 1.6.2 The Challenge of Quaternary Science 11 1.6.3 Periglacial Geomorphology or Cold-Region Geomorphology? 12 1.7 Societal Considerations 12 1.8 The Growth of Periglacial Knowledge 13 2 Periglacial Climates 17 2.1 Boundary Conditions 17 2.2 Cold Deserts 17 2.3 Regional Climates 19 2.3.1 High Arctic Climates 22 2.3.2 Continental Climates 24 2.3.3 Alpine Climates 24 2.3.4 Montane Climates 25 2.3.5 Climates of Low Annual Temperature Range 25 2.3.6 Antarctica: A Special Case 26 2.4 Snow and Ice 26 2.5 Wind 28 2.6 Ground Climates 28 2.6.1 The ‘n’-Factor 28 2.6.2 TheThermal Offset 29 2.6.3 The Ground Temperature Regime 31 2.7 Periglacial Climates and Global Climate Change 35 2.7.1 Basic Facts 37 2.7.2 Why Climate–Cryosphere Interactions Accelerate ClimateWarming 38 3 Periglacial Ecosystems 41 3.1 General Statement 41 3.2 Biogeographic Zonation and Major Vegetation Types 41 3.3 Adaptations to Cold, Snow,Wind and Aridity 44 3.4 The Effect of Vegetation 44 3.5 The Polar Deserts 47 3.5.1 High Polar Deserts 47 3.5.2 The Polar Semi-Deserts 47 3.6 The Polar Desert–Tundra Transition 49 3.7 The Low-Arctic Tundra 49 3.8 The Forest–Tundra Bioclimatic Boundary (The Tree Line) 53 3.9 The Boreal Forest 56 3.10 The Alpine and Montane Ecosystems 58 3.11 Antarctica – A Special Case 60 3.12 Periglacial Ecosystems and Climate Change 61 Part II Frozen Ground and Permafrost 63 4 Ground Freezing, Permafrost and the Active Layer 65 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Ground Freezing 65 4.2.1 Basic Concepts 65 4.2.2 Ice Segregation 67 4.2.3 ‘The Frozen Fringe’ 69 4.2.4 Frost Heave 69 4.3 Perennially-Frozen Ground (Permafrost) 70 4.4 Moisture and IceWithin Permafrost 72 4.5 Thermal and Physical Properties 73 4.5.1 The Geothermal Regime 73 4.5.2 The TTOP Model 76 4.5.3 Physical Properties 77 4.5.4 Thermal Properties 78 4.6 Permafrost Hydrology 78 4.6.1 Aquifers 79 4.6.2 Hydrochemistry 80 4.6.3 Groundwater Icings 81 4.7 The Active Layer 82 4.7.1 Terminology 82 4.7.2 The Active-LayerThermal Regime 83 4.7.3 The Transient Layer 83 4.7.4 The Stefan Equation 84 5 Permafrost Distribution and Stability 87 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Controls over Permafrost Distribution 87 5.2.1 Relief and Aspect 87 5.2.2 Rock Type 88 5.2.3 Vegetation 90 5.2.4 Snow Cover 90 5.2.5 Fire 92 5.2.6 Lakes and SurfaceWater Bodies 92 5.3 Spatial Extent of Permafrost and Frozen Ground 93 5.3.1 Latitudinal Permafrost 93 5.3.2 Alpine (Mountain) Permafrost 95 5.3.3 Montane Permafrost 98 5.3.4 Seasonally-Frozen Ground 100 5.4 Sub-Sea and Relict Permafrost 101 5.4.1 Sub-Sea Permafrost 101 5.4.2 Relict (Terrestrial) Permafrost 101 5.5 Permafrost and Ecosystems 102 5.6 Permafrost Monitoring and Mapping 104 5.6.1 CALM and GTN-P (TSP) 104 5.6.2 BTS and Mountain Permafrost Probability Mapping 106 5.7 ClimateWarming and Permafrost 106 5.7.1 Evidence forWarming Permafrost 107 5.7.2 Evidence for Thawing Permafrost 109 6 Ground Ice and Cryostratigraphy 111 6.1 Introduction 111 6.2 Quantitative Parameters 111 6.3 Epigenetic, Syngenetic and Polygenetic Permafrost 112 6.4 Classification 113 6.4.1 The Russian Approach 113 6.4.2 The North American Approach 114 6.5 Main Ground Ice Types 115 6.5.1 Pore Ice 115 6.5.2 Segregated Ice 116 6.5.3 Intrusive Ice 117 6.5.4 Vein Ice 118 6.5.5 Other Types of Ice 118 6.6 Ice Distribution 118 6.6.1 Amounts 118 6.6.2 Distribution with Depth 120 6.6.3 Ice in Bedrock 120 6.6.4 Ice in Poorly-Lithified Sediments 121 6.7 Cryostratigraphy and Cryolithology 124 6.7.1 Cryostructural Analysis 125 6.7.2 Cryostructures of Epigenetic and Syngenetic Permafrost 128 6.7.3 Thaw Unconformities 129 6.7.4 Aggradational Ice 131 6.7.5 Icy Bodies and Ice, Sand and Soil Pseudomorphs 131 6.8 Ice Crystallography 132 6.9 Ice Geochemistry 133 6.10 Massive Ice and Massive-Icy Bodies 133 6.10.1 Nature and Extent 134 6.10.2 Intra-Sedimental Ice 135 6.10.3 Buried Glacier Ice 136 6.11 Cryostratigraphy and Past Environments 136 7 Aggradational Permafrost Landforms 139 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 How Does Permafrost Aggrade? 139 7.2.1 The Illisarvik Drained-Lake Experiment 139 7.3 Thermal-Contraction-Crack Polygons 141 7.3.1 Coefficients ofThermal Expansion and Contraction 141 7.3.2 Ice, Sand and Soil (‘Ground’)Wedges 144 7.3.3 Development of the Polygon Net 144 7.3.4 Polygon Morphology 145 7.3.5 Controls over Cracking 147 7.3.6 Climatic Significance 150 7.4 Ice and SandWedges 151 7.4.1 EpigeneticWedges 154 7.4.2 SyngeneticWedges 154 7.4.3 Anti-SyngeneticWedges 156 7.4.4 Growth and Deformation ofWedges 156 7.5 Organic Terrain 156 7.5.1 Palsas 157 7.5.2 Peat Plateaus 158 7.6 Frost Mounds 158 7.6.1 Perennial-FrostMounds 158 7.6.2 Hydraulic (Open) System Pingos 159 7.6.3 Hydrostatic (Closed) System Pingos 161 7.6.4 Other Perennial-FrostMounds 165 7.6.5 Seasonal-Frost Mounds 165 7.6.6 Hydrolaccoliths and Other Frost-Induced Mounds 165 8 Thermokarst Processes and Landforms 169 8.1 Introduction 169 8.2 Thawing Ground 169 8.2.1 Thaw Strain andThaw Settlement 169 8.2.2 Potential Depths of Soil Freezing andThawing 170 8.2.3 The Development of Thermokarst 170 8.3 Causes ofThermokarst 171 8.3.1 General Comments 172 8.3.2 Specific Causes 174 8.4 Thaw-Related Processes 176 8.4.1 Thermokarst Subsidence (Thaw Settlement) 176 8.4.2 Thermal Erosion 176 8.4.3 Other Processes 176 8.5 Thermokarst Sediments and Structures 177 8.5.1 Involuted Sediments 177 8.5.2 Retrogressive-Thaw-Slumps and Debris-Flow Deposits 178 8.5.3 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs and Composite-Wedge Casts 179 8.5.4 Ice, Silt, Sand and Gravel Pseudomorphs 180 8.6 Thermokarst Landscapes 181 8.6.1 The Alas-Thermokarst Relief of Central Yakutia 182 8.6.2 TheWestern North American Arctic 185 8.6.3 The Ice-Fee Areas of Continental Antarctica 185 8.7 Ice-Wedge Thermokarst Relief 186 8.7.1 Low-Centred Polygons 186 8.7.2 High-Centred Polygons 186 8.7.3 BadlandThermokarst Relief 186 8.8 Thaw Lakes and Depressions 187 8.8.1 Lakes and Táliks 189 8.8.2 Morphology 189 8.8.3 Growth and Drainage 189 8.8.4 OrientedThaw Lakes 191 Part III Periglacial Geomorphology 193 9 Cold-ClimateWeathering 195 9.1 Introduction 195 9.2 GeneralWeathering Facts 195 9.3 Freezing and Thawing Indices 196 9.4 Rock (Frost?) Shattering 197 9.4.1 Frost Action and Ice Segregation 197 9.4.2 Insolation and Thermal Shock 200 9.4.3 Perspective 202 9.5 ChemicalWeathering 204 9.5.1 Karkevagge 204 9.5.2 Solution and Karstification 205 9.5.3 SaltWeathering 208 9.6 CryogenicWeathering 208 9.6.1 Cryogenic Disintegration 210 9.6.2 The Coefficient of Cryogenic Contrast 210 9.6.3 Physico-Chemical Changes 212 9.6.4 Problematic Phenomena 212 9.7 CryobiologicalWeathering 213 9.8 Rates of Cold-Climate BedrockWeathering 214 9.9 Cryosols and Cryopedology 215 9.9.1 Cryosols 215 9.9.2 Classification 216 9.9.3 Cryosolic Micromorphology 216 10 Mass-Wasting Processes and Active-Layer Phenomena 219 10.1 Introduction 219 10.2 Slow Mass-Wasting Processes 219 10.2.1 Solifluction 219 10.2.2 Frost Creep 221 10.2.3 Gelifluction 223 10.2.4 Solifluction Deposits and Phenomena 223 10.3 Rapid Mass-Wasting Processes 226 10.3.1 Active-Layer-Detachment Slides 226 10.3.2 Debris Flows, Slush Flows and Avalanches 226 10.3.3 Rockfall 230 10.4 Snow Hydrology and Slopewash Processes 232 10.4.1 Snow Hydrology and Snowbanks 233 10.4.2 Surface and SubsurfaceWash 233 10.5 Active-Layer Phenomena 235 10.5.1 Frost Heaving 235 10.5.2 Bedrock Heave 235 10.5.3 Upward Heaving of Stones and Objects 235 10.5.4 Stone Tilting 237 10.5.5 Needle Ice 239 10.5.6 Frost Sorting 239 10.5.7 Cryoturbation 240 10.6 Patterned Ground 240 10.6.1 Sorted and Non-Sorted Circles 240 10.6.2 Mud Boils 243 10.6.3 Nets and Stripes 246 11 Azonal Processes and Landforms 247 11.1 Introduction 247 11.2 Fluvial Processes and Landforms 247 11.2.1 Major Rivers 248 11.2.2 Freeze-Up and Break-Up 251 11.2.3 Basin Hydrology 252 11.2.4 Sediment Flow, Surface Transport and Denudation 255 11.2.5 Channel Morphology 256 11.3 Lakes and Lake Ice 259 11.3.1 Lake Ice and Climate Change 259 11.3.2 Perennially-Frozen Lakes 260 11.4 Coastal Processes and Landforms 260 11.4.1 Sea Ice 260 11.4.2 Sea Ice,Wave Generation and Sediment Transport 261 11.4.3 Ice on the Beach and the Near-Shore 262 11.4.4 The Influence of Permafrost 264 11.4.5 Cold-Climate Deltas 266 11.5 Aeolian Processes, Sediments and Landforms 267 11.5.1 Wind Abrasion 268 11.5.2 Wind Deflation 271 11.5.3 Sand Dunes and Sand Sheets 271 11.5.4 Niveo-Aeolian Sediments 273 11.5.5 Loess-Like Silt 274 12 Slope Development and Landscape Evolution 275 12.1 Introduction 275 12.2 Slope Morphology 275 12.2.1 The Free-Face Slope 275 12.2.2 Rectilinear Debris-Mantled Slopes 278 12.2.3 Convexo-Concavo Debris-Mantled Slopes 278 12.2.4 Pediment-Like Slopes and Inselberg-Like Hills 280 12.2.5 Stepped Profiles 281 12.3 Slope and Valley Development 284 12.3.1 Slope Asymmetry 284 12.4 Frozen and Thawing Slopes 287 12.4.1 Frozen Ground (Permafrost) Creep 287 12.4.2 Rock Glaciers 288 12.4.3 Thaw Consolidation and the Stability of Thawing Slopes 290 12.5 Periglacial Slope Evolution 293 12.5.1 The Davisian (Peltier)Model 293 12.5.2 Cryoplanation 295 12.5.3 Richter Denudation Slopes 295 12.6 Landscape Inheritance 296 12.6.1 The Uplands of Northern Interior Yukon 296 12.6.2 A Perspective 298 Part IV Pleistocene Periglacial Environments 299 13 The Pleistocene Periglacial Domain 301 13.1 Introduction 301 13.2 The Time Scale and Climatic Fluctuations 301 13.3 Global (Eustatic) Considerations 304 13.3.1 Sea-Level Changes 304 13.3.2 Uplift of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau 304 13.4 Past Glaciations, Permafrost and Frozen Ground 305 13.4.1 Extent of Past Glaciations 305 13.4.2 Relict Permafrost 306 13.5 Pleistocene Periglacial Environments 307 13.5.1 General Considerations 307 13.5.2 Problems of Palaeo-Environmental Reconstruction 308 13.5.3 Ice Age Mammals and Ecosystems 309 13.6 The Pleistocene Periglacial Domain in the Northern Hemisphere 312 13.6.1 Extent of LPM Permafrost 313 13.6.2 Western, Central and Southern Europe 313 13.6.3 Eastern Europe and Kazakhstan 315 13.6.4 Southern, Central and Northern Siberia 317 13.6.5 Western and North-Eastern China 317 13.6.6 North America 319 13.7 The Pleistocene Periglacial Domain in the Southern Circumpolar Region 321 14 Previously-Frozen Ground 323 14.1 Introduction 323 14.2 Past Permafrost Aggradation 323 14.2.1 The Palaeo-Active Layer and AssociatedWeathering Characteristics 323 14.2.2 Fragipans and the Palaeo-Permafrost Table 326 14.2.3 Secondary Precipitates and Clay Minerals 326 14.3 Frost-Fissure Pseudomorphs and Casts 327 14.3.1 Terminology Relevant to Pleistocene-Age Structures in Unfrozen Sediments 327 14.3.2 Ice-Wedge Pseudomorphs 329 14.3.3 Sand Veins, Sand-Wedge Casts and Composite-Wedge Casts 331 14.3.4 Frost Cracking: Seasonal or Perennial? 332 14.4 Frost-Mound Remnants 333 14.5 Past Permafrost Degradation 335 14.5.1 Thermokarst Depressions 335 14.5.2 Thermokarst Involutions and ‘Sediment-Filled Pots’ 336 14.5.3 Large-Scale Soft-Sediment Deformations 338 14.5.4 Non-Diastrophic Structures in Bedrock 339 14.6 Summary 341 15 Pleistocene Periglaciation 343 15.1 Introduction 343 15.2 Intense Frost Action 343 15.2.1 Frost-Disturbed Bedrock 343 15.2.2 Mountain-Top Detritus (‘Blockfields’) 344 15.2.3 Tors 347 15.2.4 Stratified Slope Deposits 347 15.2.5 Frost-Disturbed Soils, Periglacial Involutions and Patterned Ground 347 15.3 MassWasting and Aeolian-Linked Sediment Deposition 351 15.3.1 Geological ‘Time Travellers’ 351 15.3.2 Head or Solifluction Deposits 353 15.3.3 ‘Yedoma’ and ‘Muck’ deposits 353 15.3.4 Loess and Aeolian Silt 355 15.4 Wind Abrasion and Aeolian Sediment Transport 358 15.4.1 Wind-Abraded Rocks 359 15.4.2 Aeolian Sand Deposition 360 15.5 DrainageModification 360 15.5.1 Ice-Marginal Drainage 361 15.5.2 River and Valley Incision in Ice-Free Areas 362 15.5.3 Enlargement of the Drainage Network 364 15.5.4 Asymmetrical Valley Development 364 15.6 Planation and Cryopedimentation 366 15.7 A Perspective on Periglaciation 366 15.7.1 The Example of Central and Southern England 367 15.7.2 General Conclusions 369 Part V Human Occupance and The Periglacial Environment 371 16 Urban and Social Infrastructure 373 16.1 Introduction 373 16.2 Human Occupance 373 16.3 Human-Induced Thermokarst 375 16.3.1 Early Siberian and North American Experience 375 16.3.2 The Rapidity of Change 376 16.4 Cold-Regions Engineering 378 16.4.1 General Principles 378 16.4.2 General Solutions 379 16.5 Provision of Municipal Infrastructure in Northern Canada 384 16.5.1 Inuvik, NWT 384 16.5.2 Dawson City, Yukon Territory 384 16.5.3 Yellowknife, NWT 387 16.5.4 Thompson, Northern Manitoba 390 16.6 The Alaskan Experience: The Example of Fairbanks 390 16.7 Water-Supply Problems 392 16.8 Urban Infrastructure and Climate Change 392 16.8.1 The Russian North 392 16.8.2 Other Areas 394 16.8.3 Related Socio-Economic Changes 396 17 Transportation and Resource Development 399 17.1 Introduction 399 17.2 Rivers as Highways 399 17.3 Roads and Highways 401 17.3.1 Winter Roads 401 17.3.2 All-Season Roads 401 17.4 Railways 405 17.4.1 The Hudson Bay Railway, Canada 405 17.4.2 The Qinghai-Tibet Railway (QTR), China 406 17.5 Bridge Construction 406 17.6 Runways and Airstrips 410 17.7 Oil and Gas Development 411 17.7.1 Exploration Problems 411 17.7.2 Exploratory Drilling andWaste-Drilling-Fluid Disposal Problems 414 17.7.3 Pipelines and Permafrost 415 17.8 Mining Activities 419 17.8.1 Placer Gold Mining Operations 419 17.8.2 Opencast Mining 420 17.8.3 Containment andWaste Disposal 420 References 423 Index 503

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Book SynopsisUnderstanding gemstones in a geological context Gemstones are colorful treasures of the Earth that have captivated humans for thousands of years. The physical and chemical characteristics of each type of gem provide insights into the geological processes that created them. Geology and Mineralogy of Gemstones is a textbook aimed at upper-level undergraduate and graduate students. It presents the basic mineralogical and geological knowledge needed to understand gemstones and examines the characteristics and geological origins of different types of gemstone. Volume highlights include: Concepts in mineralogyStructure and chemical composition of mineralsGeological processes that lead to the formation and movement of gemstonesEquipment and tools used to examine gemstones and their physical properties The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgements xiii Part I Developing Base Knowledge 1 1 Minerals and Mineralogy 3 1.1 Minerals and Rocks 3 1.2 What is a Gemstone? 3 1.3 Atoms, Elements, and Bonding 4 1.3.1 Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 4 1.3.2 Atomic Mass 5 1.3.3 Atomic Structure, Electrical Charges, and Ions 5 1.3.4 Elements 6 1.3.5 Element Groups 6 1.3.6 Elemental Abundance in the Earth’s Crust 7 1.3.7 Compounds and Mixtures 8 1.3.8 Chemical Bonds 8 1.4 Physical Properties of Minerals 9 References 11 2 Basics of Rocks and Geology 13 2.1 Earth System Science 13 2.2 The Earth’s Structure and Plate Tectonics 13 2.3 General Rock Types and the Rock Cycle 19 2.4 Metasomatism and Hydrothermal Fluids 23 2.5 Geological Structures 24 2.6 Important Rock Types for Gemstone Deposits 24 2.7 Weathering, Sedimentation, and Secondary Gem Deposits 26 References 28 3 Intermediate Mineralogy 29 3.1 Structure and Chemistry of Minerals 29 3.1.1 Crystallography and Symmetry 29 3.1.2 Mineral Classes 32 3.1.3 Mineral Formulae 32 3.1.4 Element Substitutions 33 3.2 Light 34 3.2.1 Reflection and Refraction 34 3.2.2 Illumination 39 3.2.3 Dispersion 41 3.2.4 Optic Class 42 3.2.5 Color in Minerals 43 3.2.6 Pleochroism 44 3.2.7 Transparency 46 References 47 4 Concepts of Gemmology and Tools 49 4.1 Concepts of Gemmology 49 4.1.1 Gemmological Properties for Testing, Faceting, and Treatments 49 4.2 Tools 51 4.2.1 Collecting and Field Tools 51 4.2.2 Gemmological Tools 52 4.2.3 Advanced Tools 57 References 60 Part II Gemstones and Their Origins 63 5 Diamond 65 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 Basic Qualities of Diamond 67 5.2.1 Crystal Structure 68 5.2.2 Crystal Chemistry and Type Classification of Diamond 69 5.2.3 Diamond Crystal Forms 71 5.2.4 Colored Diamonds 74 5.3 Common Diamond Treatments 76 5.4 Synthetic Diamond 79 5.5 Geology of Diamond and Kimberlite 79 5.5.1 Diamond Growth 81 5.5.2 Kimberlite Volcanoes 82 5.5.3 Lamproite 83 5.6 Global Distribution and Production of Diamond 84 5.7 Diamonds from Canada 92 5.8 The 4 Cs 95 5.8.1 Cut 95 5.8.2 Clarity 95 5.8.3 Color 96 5.8.4 Carat 98 5.9 Diamond Shapes 98 5.10 Diamond Valuation 99 5.11 Kimberley Process: A 5th C? 100 References 100 6 Corundum 103 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 Basic Qualities of Corundum 104 6.2.1 Chemistry and Crystal Structure of Corundum 104 6.2.2 Corundum Crystal Forms 104 6.2.3 Colors of Corundum 104 6.3 Faceted Gem Corundum 107 6.4 Corundum Valuation 107 6.5 Corundum Treatments, Synthetics, and Imitations 110 6.6 Geology of Gem Corundum: Three Main Genetic Models 113 6.6.1 Metamorphic Corundum in Silica-Deficient Gneisses, Mafic-Ultramafic Rocks and Marbles 114 6.6.2 Xenocrysts in Alkali Basalts and Lamprophyres 118 6.6.3 Secondary Accumulation in Placers 120 6.7 Rarity of Gem Corundum 124 6.8 Global Distribution and Production of Corundum 124 References 127 7 Beryl 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Basic Qualities of Beryl 132 7.2.1 Chemistry and Crystal Structure of Beryl 132 7.2.2 Colors of Beryl and Gem Varieties 134 7.3 Beryl Valuation 138 7.4 Common Treatments, Synthetics, and Imitations 140 7.5 Geology of Gem Beryl: Three Main Genetic Models 141 7.5.1 Pegmatitic 141 7.5.2 Magmatic 141 7.5.3 Metamorphic 146 7.6 Large Beryl Crystals 149 7.7 Global Distribution of Beryl 149 References 150 8 Pegmatites 153 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Pegmatite Mineralogy 153 8.3 Pegmatite Genesis 154 8.4 Geochemical Families of Pegmatites 155 8.5 Pegmatite Morphology 157 8.6 Corrosion 161 8.7 Rarity of Gem-Bearing Pegmatites 162 8.8 Tourmaline 162 8.8.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Tourmaline 162 8.8.2 Chemistry and Crystal Structure of Tourmaline 165 8.8.3 Colors and Gem Varieties of Tourmaline 166 8.8.4 Tourmaline Recognition, Value and Treatments 168 8.9 Spodumene 172 8.9.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Spodumene 172 8.9.2 Colors and Gem Varieties of Spodumene 173 8.9.3 Spodumene Recognition, Value, and Treatments 173 8.10 Topaz 175 8.10.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Topaz 175 8.10.2 Geology of Gem Topaz 176 8.10.3 Colors and Gem Varieties of Topaz 179 8.10.4 Topaz Recognition, Value, and Treatments 181 References 181 9 Chrysoberyl 185 9.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Chrysoberyl 185 9.2 Geology of Gem Chrysoberyl 185 References 189 10 Spinel 191 10.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Spinel 191 10.2 Geology of Gem Spinel 192 References 195 11 Tanzanite 197 11.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Tanzanite 197 11.2 Geology of Tanzanite 197 References 200 12 The Garnet Group 201 12.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of the Garnet Group 201 12.2 Geology of Gem Garnet 201 References 207 13 Jade: Jadeite and Nephrite 209 13.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Jade 209 13.2 Geology of Jade 209 References 217 14 Quartz and Silica Gems 219 14.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Quartz and Silica Gem Varieties 219 14.2 Quartz 219 14.3 Amethyst 220 14.4 Agate 221 14.5 Opal 222 References 228 15 Other Gems 231 15.1 Olivine 231 15.1.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Olivine 231 15.1.2 Geology of Gem Peridot 231 15.2 Turquoise 236 15.2.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Turquoise 236 15.2.2 Geology of Turquoise 237 15.3 Lapis Lazuli 238 15.3.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Lapis Lazuli 238 15.3.2 Geology of Lapis Lazuli 238 15.4 Zircon 243 15.4.1 Introduction and Basic Qualities of Zircon 243 15.4.2 Geology of Gem Zircon 244 References 247 16 Organic Gems 251 16.1 Amber 251 16.2 Ammolite 251 References 257 Index 259

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Book SynopsisISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY Provides a thorough and up-to-date overview of radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry Now in its second edition, Isotope Geochemistry presents a comprehensive introduction to radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry. The first five chapters cover fundamentals including the physics of nuclei, radioactive decay, nucleosynthesis, geochronology, and the theory of stable isotope fractionation. The next chapter focuses on the isotope geochemistry of meteorites and their constraints on the formation of the solar system and the Earth. The subsequent three chapters cover radiogenic and stable isotope geochemistry evolution of the Earth's mantle and crust. Three more chapters are devoted to the Earth's surface, the exogene, including the hydrologic system, the biosphere, and climate. A new chapter in this edition focuses on the use of isotopes in paleontology and archeology. The final chapter is devoted to the isotope geochemistry of the noble gases. Illustrated in full color throughout, Isotope Geochemistry is intended primarily as a textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate students. It is also intended as a reference for earth science professionals, reflecting the impact that isotope geochemistry has on virtually every aspect of the earth sciences, from climate change and geomorphology to geodynamics.Table of Contents 1: Atoms and Nuclei: Their Physics and Origins 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Physics of the nucleus 1.3 Radioactive Decay 1.4 Nucleosynthesis 2: Decay Systems and Geochronology I 2.1 Basics of Radioactive Isotope Geochemistry 2.2 Fundamentals of Geochronology 2.3 The K-Ar-Ca system 2.4 The Rb-Sr System 2.5 Rare Earth Decay Systems 2.6 The Re-Os-Pt System 3: Decay Systems and Geochronology II: U and Th 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pb-Pb Ages and Isochrons 3.3 Zircon Dating 3.4 U-Decay Series Dating 4: Geochronology III: Other Dating Methods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Cosmogenic Nuclides 4.3 Thermochronology 5: Fractionation of isotopes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Notation, definitions, and standards 5.3 Theory of Equilibrium isotopic fractionations 5.4 Kinetic fractionation 5.5 Mass dependent versus mass dependent fractionation 6: Isotope Cosmochemistry 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Star Birth 6.3 Meteorites 6.4 Cosmochronology 6.5 Stardust 6.6 Isotopic variations in bulk meteorites 6.7 Cosmic ray exposure ages of meteorites 7: Isotope Geochemistry of the Mantle 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Composition of the Earth's Mantle 7.3 Radiogenic isotopes in oceanic basalts 7.4 Inferences on mantle structure and evolution 7.5 The Subcontinental Lithosphere 7.6 U-Series Isotopes and Melt Generation 8: Isotope geochemistry of the continental crust 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Mechanisms of crustal growth 8.3 The earliest continental crust 8.4 The continental crust through time 8.5 Isotopic composition of the continental crust 8.6 Subduction Zones 9: Stable Isotopes in the solid Earth 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Equilibrium Fractionations Among Minerals 9.3 Geothermometry 9.4 Stable Isotope Composition of the Mantle 9.5 Oxygen Isotopes in Hydrothermal Systems 9.6 Sulfur Isotopes in magmatic and hydrothermal systems 9.7 Copper isotopes in ore deposits 10: Light Stable Isotopes in the exogene 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The hydrologic system 10.3 isotope ratios in the biosphere 10.4 isotope ratios in the atmosphere 11: Non-traditional stable and radiogenic isotopes in the exogene 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Radiogenic isotopes in the modern ocean 11.3 Stable isotope ratios of conservative elements 11.4 Stable isotope ratios of nutrient elements 11.5 Stable isotope ratios of transition metals 12: Paleoclimate, paleoceanography, and atmospheric history 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Pleistocene Climate Record in Deep Sea Sediments 12.3 Isotopes in paleoceanography 12.4 Climate in the Cenozoic 12.5 Carbon isotopes, atmospheric carbon dioxide, and climate 12.6 Tracing the evolution of atmospheric oxygen 13: Life, Paleoecology, and Human History 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Isotopes in evolution 13.3 Isotopes and diet: you are what you eat 13.4 Paleoecology of grasslands 13.5 Paleoecology of the Pleistocene Tundra Steppe 13.6.1 Domestication of maize 13.7 The metallurgical revolution 14: Noble Gas Isotope Geochemistry 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Noble Gas Chemistry 14.2 Noble Gases in the Solar System 14.3 Helium 14.4 Neon 14.5 Argon 14.6 Krypton 14.7 Xenon 14.8 Implications of Noble Gas Isotope Ratios for the Origin and Evolution of the Earth 14.9 Noble gas constraints on formation and evolution of the Earth

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Book SynopsisWhat in the world is going on up there? Look up! It's a bird; it's a plane; it's a Polar mesosphericcloud!When you look to the sky, do youwonder whythe Sun is so bright or why the clouds are whiteor whythe sky is blue?Then,WeatherForDummiesis yourresourcetofuel your curiosity about the weather. Ittakes you on anexciting journey through the Earth's atmosphereand theways it behaves. You'll get an overview ofrain,Sun, clouds,stormsandother phenomena. With helpfulphotographs and illustrations, you caneasily visualizedifferentweathertypesandrelatethem intothe world around you.The scientific words and phrases are explained in detail(what is barometric pressure?), your curious questions are answered (why do we have seasons?),andthe roots ofweather myths, proverbs, and sayings arerevealed(early thunder, early spring). Discover how weatherforecastsare made, and what constitutes a weather emergencyFind out what causes change in weather,such ashow air pressure drives windsLearn how climate changeis affecting today'sweatherDiscoverhow light plays tricks on our eyes to create effects like rainbows, sun dogs, and halosHave fun with at-home weather experiments, including setting up your own weather station Perfect for any weather amateur, you can have your head in the cloudswhileyour feetareon the ground.Next time you're outside, takeWeatherForDummiesalong with you, look at the sky, and discover something new about the environment you live in. Table of ContentsIntroduction 1 Part 1: What’s Going On Up There? 5 Chapter 1: What in the World Is Weather? 7 Chapter 2: Forecasts and Forecasting 13 Chapter 3: Behind the Air Wars 35 Chapter 4: Land, Sea, and Precipitation: Is This Any Way to Run a Planet? 59 Part 2: Braving the Elements 77 Chapter 5: Blowing in the Winds 79 Chapter 6: Getting Cirrus 101 Chapter 7: The Greatest Storms on Earth 123 Part 3: Some Seasonable Explanations 145 Chapter 8: The Ways of Winter 147 Chapter 9: Twists and Turns of Spring 177 Chapter 10: Extremely Summer 209 Chapter 11: Falling for Autumn 231 Part 4: The Long Run 239 Chapter 12: Climate Is What You Expect; Weather Is What You Get 241 Chapter 13: Weathering Our Changing Atmosphere 265 Chapter 14: Taking Care of the Air 277 Part 5: The Special Effects 293 Chapter 15: Up in the Sky! Look! 295 Chapter 16: Tools of the Trade 311 Chapter 17: Try This at Home 327 Part 6: The Part of Tens 337 Chapter 18: Ten (or So) Most Deadly World Weather Disasters 339 Chapter 19: Ten Weatherwise Critters 345 Chapter 20: Ten Grand Old Weather Proverbs 351 Appendix: Internet Resource Directory 357 Index 365

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPart I Planet Earth Chapter 1 Humans and the EnvironmentChapter 2 Environmental JusticeChapter 3 Architecture of the Earth and Atmosphere Chapter 4 Climate Change Chapter 5 Natural Pollution Chapter 6 Environmental Perspective on Rocks and MineralsChapter 7 Natural Hazards and Pollution Part II Pollution of the Earth Chapter 8 Pollution of GroundwaterChapter 9 Pollution of Rivers and Surface Waters Chapter 10 Pollution of SoilChapter 11 Ecosystem PollutionChapter 12 Ocean PollutionChapter 13 Air Pollution and Weather Part III Development and Resource Usage Chapter 14 Mining and Earth ResourcesChapter 15 Military and PollutionChapter 16 Agricultural Pollution Chapter 17 Nuclear Energy and Dangers Part IV Remediation of the Environment Chapter 18 Waste Disposal Chapter 19 Environmental Industry and Clean upChapter 20 Is It Too Late?

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Book SynopsisAlthough upwards of 50,000 environmental assessments (EAs) are prepared annuallycompared to some 500 environmental impact statements (EISs)the focus of U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) regulations is on defining requirements for preparing EISs. Written by Charles Eccleston and J. Peyton Doub, who have established themselves among the top environmental experts in the world, Preparing NEPA Environmental Assessments: A User's Guide to Best Professional Practices fills the need for an authoritative and comprehensive guide on how to prepare EAs.Bridging the regulatory gap, this book identifies relevant EIS regulatory requirements that can be logically interpreted to also apply to EAs. It compiles and synthesizes information scattered throughout NEPA's regulations, executive orders, and guidance documents, and incorporates case law to provide additional clarification. The authors also draw on the professional experiences and best profeTrade ReviewPraise for the previous book, Effective Environmental Assessments: How to Manage and Write NEPA Assessments (CRC Press, 2001):"Mr. Eccleston has written a most thorough guide to managing and preparing EAs that puts NEPA back into its original perspective—a planning and decision-making tool … comprehensively covers the EA process … provides practical guidance for effectively preparing an analysis …"—Mr. Russell W. Peterson, Former Governor of Delaware and Former Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)"NEPA is the cornerstone of our environmental statutory structure and provides a strategic look for long-range planning. By explaining the environmental assessment process in a scholarly, yet easily understandable way, Charles Eccleston has performed an enormous service for all who care about the protection of our country's—and indeed the world's—environment."—Michael R. Deland, Former Chairman, Council on Environmental Quality"Charles Eccleston has performed a real service in authoring Effective Environmental Assessments: How to Manage and Write NEPA Assessments. The book fills a void and concentrates on environmental assessments, a critical but underemphasized part of the NEPA process. It is, furthermore, both useful and user-friendly."—Nicholas C. Yost, Sonnenschein Nath & Rosenthal, former General Counsel of the CEQ charged with responsibility for writing the 1978 CEQ NEPA RegulationsTable of ContentsThe NEPA Environmental Assessment Process: Overview and Historical Development of NEPA. General Concepts and Requirements. NEPA and Environmental Impact Analysis. The Threshold Question: Determining Whether an EA or an EIS is Required. The Environmental Assessment Process. The Environmental Impact Assessment. Writing the Environmental Assessment. Assessing Significance. The Finding of No Significant Impacts. NEPA Case Law and Non-NEPA Environmental Assessment Documents: An Overview of NEPA Law and Litigation. Specialized Non-NEPA Environmental Assessment Documents. Summary. Index.

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Book SynopsisPart of a monograph series on fossilsThe publication,New Middle and Late Anisian (Middle Triassic) Ammonoid Faunas from Northwestern Nevada - Taxonomy and Biochronology details proceedings from the Fifth International Brachiopod Congress in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2005. Congress topics included various aspects of the study of brachiopods.

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Book SynopsisGroundbreaking book that examines the essential contribution of the social sciences to understanding and conserving biodiversity across the globe Authored by leading scholars at the nexus of social science and biodiversity conservation, Conservation Social Science addresses the growing realization that biodiversity conservation is, at heart, a social phenomenon. Threats to biological diversity are influenced by a wide range of political, economic and cultural factors. The conservation of biodiversity is conceived and carried out by people. Biodiversity conservation is a manifestation of human beliefs and values. Choices about which species and habitats to conserve, how to prioritize efforts, and how to conserve them are inherently social - with consequences not just for wildlife but also human lives and livelihoods. Key topics covered in this thought-provoking text include: An introduction to key social science disciplines and how each field specificallyTable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Foreword xi Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations and Acronyms xv 1 Introduction: Biodiversity Conservation and the Social Sciences 1Ivan R. Scales, Daniel C. Miller, and Michael B. Mascia 2 Social Science Foundations 21Katie Moon and Deborah Blackman 3 Anthropology and Conservation 49Diane Russell and C. Anne Claus 4 Economics and Conservation 99Stephen Polasky 5 Human Geography and Conservation 139Ivan R. Scales and William M. Adams 6 Political Science and Conservation 185Daniel C. Miller and Arun Agrawal 7 Psychology and Conservation 233Olin Eugene Myers Jr. 8 Sociology and Conservation 289Jennifer Swanson, Steven R. Brechin, and J. Timmons Roberts 9 Conclusion: Toward Better Conversations about Conservation 335Daniel C. Miller, Ivan R. Scales, and Michael B. Mascia Glossary 349 Index 353

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Book SynopsisThis book is part of the International Association of Sedimentologists (IAS) Special Publications. The Special Publications from the IAS are a set of thematic volumes edited by specialists on subjects of central interest to sedimentologists. Papers are reviewed and printed to the same high standards as those published in the journal Sedimentology and several of these volumes have become standard works of reference. This volume commemorates the eclectic research of Douglas James Shearman into evaporites, which was initiated by his studies of the prograding UAE coastal sabkhas or salt flats that incorporate evaporite minerals which displace and replace earlier carbonate sediments. His subsequent proselytization of the study of ancient evaporites in sedimentary sections all over the world led to fundamental advances in our understanding of arid zone carbonate sedimentology. Trade Review"Overall, this is a very nicely presented volume with some wonderful colour images and very useful process-orientated diagrams. For anyone interested in understanding more about the nature, character and controls on the geomorphology and sedimentology of modern carbonate-evaporite environments this volume is highly recommended. Overall, this is a very nicely presented volume with some wonderful colour images and very useful process-orientated diagrams. For anyone interested in understanding more about the nature, character and controls on the geomorphology and sedimentology of modern carbonate-evaporite environments this volume is highly recommended." (Holocene book reviews, 18 January 2012) Table of ContentsDedication Douglas James Shearman (1918–2003): Father of the sabkha model (Evans, G.). Introduction to Quaternary carbonate and evaporite sedimentary facies and their ancient analogues (Alsharhan, A.S. and Kendall, C.G.St.C.). Part 1 Recent carbonate and evaporate sediments. An historical review of the Quaternary sedimentology of the Gulf (Arabian/Persian Gulf) and its geological impact (Evans, G.). Holocene geomorphology and recent carbonate-evaporite sedimentation of the coastal region of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Kendall, C.G.St.C. and Alsharhan, A.S.). The impact of sea-level change on ramp margin deposition: lessons from the Holocene sabkhas of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Park, R.K.). Holocene evolution of Arabian coastal sabkhas: a re-evaluation based on stable-isotope analysis, forty years after Shearman’s first view of the sabkha (Gunatilaka, A.). Interplay between Holocene sedimentation and diagenesis, and implications for hydrocarbon exploitation: return to the sabkha of Ras Umm Said, Qatar (Shinn, E.A.). Facies stacking patterns in a modern arid environment: a case study of the Abu Dhabi sabkha in the vicinity of Al Qanatir Island, United Arab Emirates (Strohmenger, C.J., Shebl, H., Al-Mansoori, A., Al-Mehsin, K.,Al-Jeelani, O., Al-Hosani, I., Al-Shamry,A. and Al-Baker, S.). Coastal and continental sabkhas of Barr Al Hikman, Sultanate of Oman (Mettraux, M., Homewood, P.W., Kwarteng, A.Y. and Mattner, J.). Coastal Holocene carbonates of Abu Dhabi, UAE: depositional setting, sediment distribution, and role of cyanobacteria in micritization (Kendall, C.G.St.C. and Alsharhan, A.S.). Engineering properties of the carbonate sediments along the Abu Dhabi coast, United Arab Emirates (Epps, R.J.). Part 2 Geochemistry of recent carbonate and evaporite sediments. An historical odyssey: the origin of solutes in the coastal sabkha of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Wood, W.W.). Geochemistry and nature of organic matterof the Pleistocene–Holocene carbonate evaporate sediments of Al-Khiran, southeastern Kuwait (Qabazard, S., Abdullah, F.H. and Al-Temeemi, A.). Halite, sulphates, sabkhat and salinas of the coastal regions and Sabkha Matti of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Kirkham, A.). Distribution of organic matter in the transgressive and regressive Holocene sabkha sediments of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Kenig, F.). The role of bacterial sulphate reduction in carbonate replacement of vanished evaporites: examples from the Holocene, Jurassic and Neoarchaean (Wright, D. and Kirkham, A.). Part 3 Ancient carbonates and evaporites. Evaporitic source rocks: mesohaline responses to cycles of ‘‘famine or feast’’ in layered brines (Warren, J.K.). Coupled passive extension and compression on salt-based passive margins analyzed by physical models (Costa, E., Cavozzi, C. and Doglioni, N.). Salt tectonics and structural styles of the western High Atlas and the intersecting Essaouira-Cap Tafelney segments of the Moroccan Atlantic margin (Hafid, M., Bally, A.W., Ait Salem, A and Toto, E.). Carbonates and evaporites of the Upper Jurassic Arab Formation, Abu Dhabi: a petroleum exploration challenge (Al Suwaidi, A.S., El Hami, M., Hagiwara, H., Aziz, S.K. and Al Habshi, A.R.). Selenite facies in marine evaporites: a review (Orti, F.). Index.

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Book SynopsisA richly-illustrated full colour volume, which takes readers on a journey around 100 of the most remarkable scenic locations in Wales, with an explanatory text by experienced author and leader of guided walks Dyfed Elis-Gruffydd.

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Book SynopsisThe definitive analysis of one of UK''s most beloved nature spots, written by an expert with 50 years'' experience in the field and a long-standing connection with the island. Hundreds of stunning colour photographs throughout. Forewords by Iolo Williams and Professor Chris Perrins, FRS.

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Book SynopsisACCOMPANIES THE LANDMARK SERIES NARRATED BY DAVID ATTENBOROUGHFind a world of wonder beyond the ice. 'Looking down at our planet from space it may come as a surprise how much of it is blanketed in snow and ice. These vast frozen wildernesses cover more than a fifth of the earth ... From the highest peaks to snow-bound deserts to alien worlds deep beneath the ice, they are home to an astonishing array of animals found nowhere else on earth.'David Attenborough, from the series.Frozen Planet II celebrates the surprisingly diverse worlds of ice - a world that is disappearing before our very eyes. Previously undiscovered stories, from chameleons giving birth on the frosty slopes of Mount Kenya to endangered Amur leopards in the Russian forest and killer whales hunting Weddell seals on ice floes in the Antarctic, shed new light on the beauty and the peril of the world's most fragile ecosystems. Behind-the-scenes insights explore the unique challenges of filming in these frozen worlds, where camera crew and wildlife alike brave the extreme conditions.With over 250 stunning full-colour photographs, Frozen Planet II reveals the wonders of the fastest-changing part of our planet, as we may never see them again.

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Book SynopsisUnearthing the Underworld reveals the hidden world of rocks - the secret-keepers of past environments, of changing climates and the pulse of life over billions of years. Even the most seemingly ordinary stone can tell us much about the history of this planet, opening vistas of ancient worlds of ice, raging floods, strange, unbreathable atmospheres and prehistoric worlds teeming with life. Remarkably, many types of rock owe their existence to living organisms, from the remains of dead animals to rotting ancient forests, or even the activity of fungi, bacteria and viruses. Anything but dull and uninteresting, rocks are intriguing portals that illuminate the secret underworld upon which we live.

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