Alternative and renewable energy sources Books

Book SynopsisExamines what the United States can do to help prevent climate devastation. This title explores advances made by climate scientists and addresses the various political and economic issues associated with global warming, including the practicality of reducing emissions from automobiles, and the efficacy of taxing energy consumption.Trade ReviewHis lively, clear reporting of both the science and politics of climate change... Make the book a pleasure to read. -- Doug Macdougall The Chronicle Review Sweet knows what he is talking about... Kicking the Carbon Habit is a great place to kick-start the debate and cool down the rhetoric. -- William Tucker Wall Street Journal An important contribution to the debate. Globe and Mail The book is extremely well written... Highly recommended. Choice Clearly written and very well-informed. Future Survey A must-read for anyone who wants a good summary of our current understanding of global warming and the options before us. -- Andrew C. Kadak Physics Today Sweet's book is a readable, compelling and hard-nosed analysis of this vast and complicated subject. The Exeter Bulletin [An] excellent survey perfect for both school and public libraries. The Midwest Book ReviewTable of ContentsPreface 1. The Case for Sharply Cutting U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Part I. Coal: A Faustian Bargain with Payments Coming Due 2. Basis of It All: Pennsylvania in the Pennsylvanian 3. The Air We Breathe: The Human Costs of Coal Combustion 4. From Outer Space: Asia's Brown Cloud, and More Part II. Climate: The Lockstep Relationship Between Carbon Dioxide and Temperature 5. The Drillers 6. The Modelers 7. The Synthesizers Part III. Choices: The Low-Carbon and Zero-Carbon Technologies We Can Deploy Right Now 8. Breaking the Carbon Habit 9. Going All Out for Renewables, Conservation, and Green Design 10. Natural Gas, Gasoline, and the Vision of a Hydrogen Economy 11. A Second Look at Nuclear Energy Conclusion: How to Reduce Greenhouse Gases Now, Using Today's Technology Acknowledgments Notes Bibliography Index

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Book SynopsisTwo environmental reporters tell the fascinating story behind Texas’s unlikely triumph in the clean-energy marketplace through wind farming.Trade ReviewGalbraith and Price understand the wonky side of energy policy, but they also know how to tell a story…The Great Texas Wind Rush is a thoughtful, valuable story for anyone who cares about renewable energy or climate change, because while many people protest the impact of nuclear power, coal power and natural gas fracking, in the end, that's not enough. Vast new sources of power actually have to be built, not just talked about. That won't be cheap, easy or quick, but The Great Texas Wind Rush suggests that over the long haul, it's possible. * The Associated Press *The authors craft the story well, pulling from legendary tales of the Wild West, romantic literary and artistic accounts from the likes of Cormac McCarthy and Woody Guthrie and the gubernatorial regimes of Ann Richards and George W. Bush. * Environmental Defense Fund's Texas Clean Air Matters blog *Table of Contents Acknowledgments Introduction 1. Following a Glider 2. The Tinkerers 3. The Oil Embargo 4. The 1980s: Boom—Then Bust 5. Ann Richards—and a Big Wind Farm at Last 6. Windcatters 7. A Wind Requirement 8. The Next Decade: Takeoff 9. The Future 10. The Lessons of Texas Wind Postscript Notes Bibliography Index

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Book SynopsisDistributed power generation is a technology that could help to enable efficient, renewable energy production both in the developed and developing world. It includes all use of small electric power generators, whether located on the utility system, at the site of a utility customer, or at an isolated site not connected to the power grid. Induction generator (IG) is the most commonly used and cheapest technology, compatible with renewable energy resources. Permanent magnet (PM) generators have traditionally been avoided due to high fabrication costs; however, compared with IGs they are more reliable and productive. Distributed Generation thoroughly examines the principles, possibilities and limitations of creating energy with both IGs and PM generators. It takes an electrical engineering approach in the analysis and testing of these generators, and includes diagrams and extensive case study examples to better demonstrate how the integration of energy sources can be accoTable of ContentsForeword xi Preface xiii Acknowledgements xvii About the Authors xix 1 Distributed Generation 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Reasons for DG 1 1.3 Technical Impacts of DG 3 1.3.1 DG Technologies 3 1.3.2 Thermal Issues 5 1.3.3 Voltage Profile Issues 5 1.3.4 Fault-Level Contributions 7 1.3.5 Harmonics and Interactions with Loads 7 1.3.6 Interactions Between Generating Units 8 1.3.7 Protection Issues 8 1.4 Economic Impact of DG 9 1.5 Barriers to DG Development 10 1.6 Renewable Sources of Energy 11 1.7 Renewable Energy Economics 12 1.8 Interconnection 15 1.8.1 Interconnection Standardization 15 1.8.2 Rate Design 15 1.9 Recommendations and Guidelines for DG Planning 16 1.10 Summary 18 2 Generators 21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Synchronous Generator 21 2.2.1 Permanent Magnet Materials 22 2.2.2 Permanent Magnet Generator 23 2.3 Induction Generator 28 2.3.1 Three-Phase IGs and SEIGs 29 2.3.2 Single-Phase IGs and SEIGs 30 2.4 Doubly Fed Induction Generator 31 2.4.1 Operation 31 2.4.2 Recent Work 33 2.5 Summary 34 3 Three-Phase IG Operating on a Single-Phase Power System 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Phase Balancing using Passive Circuit Elements 41 3.2.1 Analysis of IG with Phase Converters 41 3.2.2 Phase Balancing Schemes 43 3.2.3 Case Study 45 3.2.4 System Power Factor 47 3.2.5 Power and Efficiency 49 3.2.6 Operation with Fixed Phase Converters 50 3.2.7 Summary 51 3.3 Phase Balancing using the Smith Connection 52 3.3.1 Three-Phase IG with the Smith Connection 52 3.3.2 Performance Analysis 54 3.3.3 Balanced Operation 55 3.3.4 Case Study 58 3.3.5 Effect of Phase Balancing Capacitances 61 3.3.6 Dual-Mode Operation 65 3.3.7 Summary 66 3.4 Microcontroller-Based Multi-Mode Control of SMIG 67 3.4.1 Phase Voltage Consideration 67 3.4.2 Control System 67 3.4.3 Practical Implementation 71 3.4.4 Experimental Results 72 3.4.5 Summary 75 3.5 Phase Balancing using a Line Current Injection Method 77 3.5.1 Circuit Connection and Operating Principle 77 3.5.2 Performance Analysis 78 3.5.3 Balanced Operation 80 3.5.4 Case Study 82 3.5.5 Summary 91 4 Finite Element Analysis of Grid-Connected IG with the Steinmetz Connection 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Steinmetz Connection and Symmetrical Components Analysis 94 4.3 Machine Model 95 4.4 Finite Element Analysis 96 4.4.1 Basic Field Equations 96 4.4.2 Stator Circuit Equations 97 4.4.3 Stator EMFs 99 4.4.4 Rotor Circuit Model 99 4.4.5 Comments on the Proposed Method 102 4.5 Computational Aspects 103 4.6 Case Study 104 4.7 Summary 109 5 SEIGs for Autonomous Power Systems 111 5.1 Introduction 111 5.2 Three-Phase SEIG with the Steinmetz Connection 111 5.2.1 Circuit Connection and Analysis 111 5.2.2 Solution Technique 114 5.2.3 Capacitance Requirement 115 5.2.4 Computed and Experimental Results 117 5.2.5 Capacitance Requirement on Load 121 5.2.6 Summary 123 5.3 SEIG with Asymmetrically Connected Impedances and Excitation Capacitances 123 5.3.1 Circuit Model 124 5.3.2 Performance Analysis 124 5.3.3 Computed and Experimental Results 125 5.3.4 Modified Steinmetz Connection 126 5.3.5 Simplified Steinmetz Connection 133 5.3.6 Summary 135 5.4 Self-regulated SEIG for Single-Phase Loads 136 5.4.1 Circuit Connection and Analysis 136 5.4.2 Effect of Series Compensation Capacitance 138 5.4.3 Experimental Results and Discussion 143 5.4.4 Effect of Load Power Factor 147 5.4.5 Summary 149 5.5 SEIG with the Smith Connection 150 5.5.1 Circuit Connection and Operating Principle 150 5.5.2 Performance Analysis 151 5.5.3 Balanced Operation 152 5.5.4 Results and Discussion 153 5.5.5 Summary 159 6 Voltage and Frequency Control of SEIG with Slip-Ring Rotor 161 6.1 Introduction 161 6.2 Performance Analysis of SESRIG 162 6.3 Frequency and Voltage Control 165 6.4 Control with Variable Stator Load 166 6.5 Practical Implementation 168 6.5.1 Chopper-Controlled Rotor External Resistance 168 6.5.2 Closed-Loop Control 169 6.5.3 Tuning of PI Controller 170 6.5.4 Dynamic Response 170 6.6 Summary 173 7 PMSGs For Autonomous Power Systems 175 7.1 Introduction 175 7.2 Principle and Construction of PMSG with Inset Rotor 175 7.3 Analysis for Unity-Power-Factor Loads 177 7.3.1 Analysis Using the Two-Axis Model 177 7.3.2 Design Considerations 180 7.3.3 Computed Results 182 7.3.4 Experimental Results 183 7.3.5 Summary 184 7.4 A Comprehensive Analysis 185 7.4.1 Basic Equations and Analysis 185 7.4.2 Conditions for Zero Voltage Regulation 188 7.4.3 Extremum Points in the Load Characteristic 190 7.4.4 Power–Load Angle Relationship 191 7.4.5 The Saturated Two-Axis Model 192 7.4.6 Summary 194 7.5 Computation of Synchronous Reactances 194 7.5.1 Analysis Based on FEM 194 7.5.2 Computation of Xd and Xq 196 7.5.3 Computed Results 197 7.5.4 Summary 201 7.6 Analysis using Time-Stepping 2-D FEM 201 7.6.1 Machine Model and Assumptions 201 7.6.2 Coupled Circuit and Field Analysis 202 7.6.3 Magnetic Saturation Consideration 205 7.6.4 Computed Results 207 7.6.5 Experimental Verification 211 7.6.6 Summary 212 8 Conclusions 215 8.1 Accomplishments of the Book 215 8.2 Future Work 217 AppendixA Analysis for IG and SEIG 219 A.1 Symmetrical Components Equations for IG 219 A.2 Positive-Sequence and Negative-Sequence Circuits of IG 220 A.3 Vp and Vn for IG with Dual-Phase Converters 221 A.4 Derivation of Angular Relationship 223 A.5 Input Impedance of SEIG with the Steinmetz Connection 224 Appendix B The Method of Hooke and Jeeves 227 AppendixC A Note on the Finite Element Method [1] 229 C.1 Energy Functional and Discretization 229 C.2 Shape Functions 230 C.3 Functional Minimization and Global Assembly 233 Reference 234 AppendixD Technical Data of Experimental Machines 235 D.1 Machine IG1 235 D.2 Machine IG2 236 D.3 Prototype PMSG with Inset Rotor 236 Index 239

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Book Synopsis* Provides practical oriented system analysis and synthesis that is instructional and inspiring for engineers. * Topics cover major power conversion applications that tend to help professionals from a variety of industries. * Includes well designed and class tested homework and project assignments.Table of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgments xi 1 Smart Grid Distributed Generation Systems 1 2 Inverter Control Voltage and Current in Distributed Generation Systems 26 3 Parallel Operation of Inverters in Distributed Generation Systems 71 4 Power Converter Topologies for Distributed Generation Systems 105 5 Voltage and Current Control of a Three-Phase Four-Wire Distributed Generation (DG) Inverter in Island Mode 119 6 Power Flow Control of a Single Distributed Generation Unit 179 7 Robust Stability Analysis of Voltage and Current Control for Distributed Generation Systems 203 8 PWM Rectifier Control for Three-Phase Distributed Generation System 224 9 MATLAB Simulink Simulation Testbed 234 Appendix A: Simulink Model Dsimservo.Mdl 250 Appendix B: File Ssmode.M 267 Bibliography 293 Index 310

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Book SynopsisRANDOM DATA A TIMELY UPDATE OF THE CLASSIC BOOK ON THE THEORY AND APPLICATION OF RANDOM DATA ANALYSIS First published in 1971, Random Data served as an authoritative book on the analysis of experimental physical data for engineering and scientific applications. This Fourth Edition features coverage of new developments in random data management and analysis procedures that are applicable to a broad range of applied fields, from the aerospace and automotive industries to oceanographic and biomedical research. This new edition continues to maintain a balance of classic theory and novel techniques. The authors expand on the treatment of random data analysis theory, including derivations of key relationships in probability and random process theory. The book remains unique in its practical treatment of nonstationary data analysis and nonlinear system analysis, presenting the latest techniques on modern data acquisition, storage, conversion, and qualifiTable of ContentsPreface xv Preface to the Third Edition xvii Glossary of Symbols xix 1. Basic Descriptions and Properties 1 1.1. Deterministic Versus Random Data 1 1.2. Classifications of Deterministic Data 3 1.2.1. Sinusoidal Periodic Data 3 1.2.2. Complex Periodic Data 4 1.2.3. Almost-Periodic Data 6 1.2.4. Transient Nonperiodic Data 7 1.3. Classifications of Random Data 8 1.3.1. Stationary Random Data 9 1.3.2. Ergodic Random Data 11 1.3.3. Nonstationary Random Data 12 1.3.4. Stationary Sample Records 12 1.4. Analysis of Random Data 13 1.4.1. Basic Descriptive Properties 13 1.4.2. Input/Output Relations 19 1.4.3. Error Analysis Criteria 21 1.4.4. Data Analysis Procedures 23 2. Linear Physical Systems 25 2.1. Constant-Parameter Linear Systems 25 2.2. Basic Dynamic Characteristics 26 2.3. Frequency Response Functions 28 2.4. Illustrations of Frequency Response Functions 30 2.4.1. Mechanical Systems 30 2.4.2. Electrical Systems 39 2.4.3. Other Systems 41 2.5. Practical Considerations 41 3. Probability Fundamentals 45 3.1. One Random Variable 45 3.1.1. Probability Density and Distribution Functions 46 3.1.2. Expected Values 49 3.1.3. Change of Variables 50 3.1.4. Moment-Generating and Characteristic Functions 52 3.1.5. Chebyshev’s Inequality 53 3.2. Two Random Variables 54 3.2.1. Expected Values and Correlation Coefficient 55 3.2.2. Distribution for Sum of Two Random Variables 56 3.2.3. Joint Moment-Generating and Characteristic Functions 57 3.3. Gaussian (Normal) Distribution 59 3.3.1. Central Limit Theorem 60 3.3.2. Joint Gaussian (Normal) Distribution 62 3.3.3. Moment-Generating and Characteristic Functions 63 3.3.4. N-Dimensional Gaussian (Normal) Distribution 64 3.4. Rayleigh Distribution 67 3.4.1. Distribution of Envelope and Phase for Narrow Bandwidth Data 67 3.4.2. Distribution of Output Record for Narrow Bandwidth Data 71 3.5. Higher Order Changes of Variables 72 4. Statistical Principles 79 4.1. Sample Values and Parameter Estimation 79 4.2. Important Probability Distribution Functions 82 4.2.1. Gaussian (Normal) Distribution 82 4.2.2. Chi-Square Distribution 83 4.2.3. The t Distribution 84 4.2.4. The F Distribution 84 4.3. Sampling Distributions and Illustrations 85 4.3.1. Distribution of Sample Mean with Known Variance 85 4.3.2. Distribution of Sample Variance 86 4.3.3. Distribution of Sample Mean with Unknown Variance 87 4.3.4. Distribution of Ratio of Two Sample Variances 87 4.4. Confidence Intervals 88 4.5. Hypothesis Tests 91 4.5.1. Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test 94 4.5.2. Nonparametric Trend Test 96 4.6. Correlation and Regression Procedures 99 4.6.1. Linear Correlation Analysis 99 4.6.2. Linear Regression Analysis 102 5. Stationary Random Processes 109 5.1. Basic Concepts 109 5.1.1. Correlation (Covariance) Functions 111 5.1.2. Examples of Autocorrelation Functions 113 5.1.3. Correlation Coefficient Functions 115 5.1.4. Cross-Correlation Function for Time Delay 116 5.2. Spectral Density Functions 118 5.2.1. Spectra via Correlation Functions 118 5.2.2. Spectra via Finite Fourier Transforms 126 5.2.3. Spectra via Filtering–Squaring–Averaging 129 5.2.4. Wavenumber Spectra 132 5.2.5. Coherence Functions 134 5.2.6. Cross-Spectrum for Time Delay 135 5.2.7. Location of Peak Value 137 5.2.8. Uncertainty Relation 138 5.2.9. Uncertainty Principle and Schwartz Inequality 140 5.3. Ergodic and Gaussian Random Processes 142 5.3.1. Ergodic Random Processes 142 5.3.2. Sufficient Condition for Ergodicity 145 5.3.3. Gaussian Random Processes 147 5.3.4. Linear Transformations of Random Processes 149 5.4. Derivative Random Processes 151 5.4.1. Correlation Functions 151 5.4.2. Spectral Density Functions 154 5.5. Level Crossings and Peak Values 155 5.5.1. Expected Number of Level Crossings per Unit Time 155 5.5.2. Peak Probability Functions for Narrow Bandwidth Data 159 5.5.3. Expected Number and Spacing of Positive Peaks 161 5.5.4. Peak Probability Functions for Wide Bandwidth Data 162 5.5.5. Derivations 164 6. Single-Input/Output Relationships 173 6.1. Single-Input/Single-Output Models 173 6.1.1. Correlation and Spectral Relations 173 6.1.2. Ordinary Coherence Functions 180 6.1.3. Models with Extraneous Noise 183 6.1.4. Optimum Frequency Response Functions 187 6.2. Single-Input/Multiple-Output Models 190 6.2.1. Single-Input/Two-Output Model 191 6.2.2. Single-Input/Multiple-Output Model 192 6.2.3. Removal of Extraneous Noise 194 7. Multiple-Input/Output Relationships 201 7.1. Multiple-Input/Single-Output Models 201 7.1.1. General Relationships 202 7.1.2. General Case of Arbitrary Inputs 205 7.1.3. Special Case of Mutually Uncorrelated Inputs 206 7.2. Two-Input/One-Output Models 207 7.2.1. Basic Relationships 207 7.2.2. Optimum Frequency Response Functions 210 7.2.3. Ordinary and Multiple Coherence Functions 212 7.2.4. Conditioned Spectral Density Functions 213 7.2.5. Partial Coherence Functions 219 7.3. General and Conditioned Multiple-Input Models 221 7.3.1. Conditioned Fourier Transforms 223 7.3.2. Conditioned Spectral Density Functions 224 7.3.3. Optimum Systems for Conditioned Inputs 225 7.3.4. Algorithm for Conditioned Spectra 226 7.3.5. Optimum Systems for Original Inputs 229 7.3.6. Partial and Multiple Coherence Functions 231 7.4. Modified Procedure to Solve Multiple-Input/Single-Output Models 232 7.4.1. Three-Input/Single-Output Models 234 7.4.2. Formulas for Three-Input/Single-Output Models 235 7.5. Matrix Formulas for Multiple-Input/Multiple-Output Models 237 7.5.1. Multiple-Input/Multiple-Output Model 238 7.5.2. Multiple-Input/Single-Output Model 241 7.5.3. Model with Output Noise 243 7.5.4. Single-Input/Single-Output Model 245 8. Statistical Errors in Basic Estimates 249 8.1. Definition of Errors 249 8.2. Mean and Mean Square Value Estimates 252 8.2.1. Mean Value Estimates 252 8.2.2. Mean Square Value Estimates 256 8.2.3. Variance Estimates 260 8.3. Probability Density Function Estimates 261 8.3.1. Bias of the Estimate 263 8.3.2. Variance of the Estimate 264 8.3.3. Normalized rms Error 265 8.3.4. Joint Probability Density Function Estimates 265 8.4. Correlation Function Estimates 266 8.4.1. Bandwidth-Limited Gaussian White Noise 269 8.4.2. Noise-to-Signal Considerations 270 8.4.3. Location Estimates of Peak Correlation Values 271 8.5. Autospectral Density Function Estimates 273 8.5.1. Bias of the Estimate 274 8.5.2. Variance of the Estimate 278 8.5.3. Normalized rms Error 278 8.5.4. Estimates from Finite Fourier Transforms 280 8.5.5. Test for Equivalence of Autospectra 282 8.6. Record Length Requirements 284 9. Statistical Errors in Advanced Estimates 289 9.1. Cross-Spectral Density Function Estimates 289 9.1.1. Variance Formulas 292 9.1.2. Covariance Formulas 293 9.1.3. Phase Angle Estimates 297 9.2. Single-Input/Output Model Estimates 298 9.2.1. Bias in Frequency Response Function Estimates 300 9.2.2. Coherent Output Spectrum Estimates 303 9.2.3. Coherence Function Estimates 305 9.2.4. Gain Factor Estimates 308 9.2.5. Phase Factor Estimates 310 9.3. Multiple-Input/Output Model Estimates 312 10. Data Acquisition and Processing 317 10.1. Data Acquisition 318 10.1.1. Transducer and Signal Conditioning 318 10.1.2. Data Transmission 321 10.1.3. Calibration 322 10.1.4. Dynamic Range 324 10.2. Data Conversion 326 10.2.1. Analog-to-Digital Converters 326 10.2.2. Sampling Theorems for Random Records 328 10.2.3. Sampling Rates and Aliasing Errors 330 10.2.4. Quantization and Other Errors 333 10.2.5. Data Storage 335 10.3. Data Qualification 335 10.3.1. Data Classification 336 10.3.2. Data Validation 340 10.3.3. Data Editing 345 10.4. Data Analysis Procedures 349 10.4.1. Procedure for Analyzing Individual Records 349 10.4.2. Procedure for Analyzing Multiple Records 351 11. Data Analysis 359 11.1. Data Preparation 359 11.1.1. Data Standardization 360 11.1.2. Trend Removal 361 11.1.3. Digital Filtering 363 11.2. Fourier Series and Fast Fourier Transforms 366 11.2.1. Standard Fourier Series Procedure 366 11.2.2. Fast Fourier Transforms 368 11.2.3. Cooley–Tukey Procedure 374 11.2.4. Procedures for Real-Valued Records 376 11.2.5. Further Related Formulas 377 11.2.6. Other Algorithms 378 11.3. Probability Density Functions 379 11.4. Autocorrelation Functions 381 11.4.1. Autocorrelation Estimates via Direct Computations 381 11.4.2. Autocorrelation Estimates via FFT Computations 381 11.5. Autospectral Density Functions 386 11.5.1. Autospectra Estimates by Ensemble Averaging 386 11.5.2. Side-Lobe Leakage Suppression Procedures 388 11.5.3. Recommended Computational Steps for Ensemble-Averaged Estimates 395 11.5.4. Zoom Transform Procedures 396 11.5.5. Autospectra Estimates by Frequency Averaging 399 11.5.6. Other Spectral Analysis Procedures 403 11.6. Joint Record Functions 404 11.6.1. Joint Probability Density Functions 404 11.6.2. Cross-Correlation Functions 405 11.6.3. Cross-Spectral Density Functions 406 11.6.4. Frequency Response Functions 407 11.6.5. Unit Impulse Response (Weighting) Functions 408 11.6.6. Ordinary Coherence Functions 408 11.7. Multiple-Input/Output Functions 408 11.7.1. Fourier Transforms and Spectral Functions 409 11.7.2. Conditioned Spectral Density Functions 409 11.7.3. Three-Input/Single-Output Models 411 11.7.4. Functions in Modified Procedure 414 12. Nonstationary Data Analysis 417 12.1. Classes of Nonstationary Data 417 12.2. Probability Structure of Nonstationary Data 419 12.2.1. Higher Order Probability Functions 420 12.2.2. Time-Averaged Probability Functions 421 12.3. Nonstationary Mean Values 422 12.3.1. Independent Samples 424 12.3.2. Correlated Samples 425 12.3.3. Analysis Procedures for Single Records 427 12.4. Nonstationary Mean Square Values 429 12.4.1. Independent Samples 429 12.4.2. Correlated Samples 431 12.4.3. Analysis Procedures for Single Records 432 12.5. Correlation Structure of Nonstationary Data 436 12.5.1. Double-Time Correlation Functions 436 12.5.2. Alternative Double-Time Correlation Functions 437 12.5.3. Analysis Procedures for Single Records 439 12.6. Spectral Structure of Nonstationary Data 442 12.6.1. Double-Frequency Spectral Functions 443 12.6.2. Alternative Double-Frequency Spectral Functions 445 12.6.3. Frequency Time Spectral Functions 449 12.6.4. Analysis Procedures for Single Records 456 12.7. Input/Output Relations for Nonstationary Data 462 12.7.1. Nonstationary Input and Time-Varying Linear System 463 12.7.2. Results for Special Cases 464 12.7.3. Frequency–Time Spectral Input/Output Relations 465 12.7.4. Energy Spectral Input/Output Relations 467 13. The Hilbert Transform 473 13.1. Hilbert Transforms for General Records 473 13.1.1. Computation of Hilbert Transforms 476 13.1.2. Examples of Hilbert Transforms 477 13.1.3. Properties of Hilbert Transforms 478 13.1.4. Relation to Physically Realizable Systems 480 13.2. Hilbert Transforms for Correlation Functions 484 13.2.1. Correlation and Envelope Definitions 484 13.2.2. Hilbert Transform Relations 486 13.2.3. Analytic Signals for Correlation Functions 486 13.2.4. Nondispersive Propagation Problems 489 13.2.5. Dispersive Propagation Problems 495 13.3. Envelope Detection Followed by Correlation 498 14. Nonlinear System Analysis 505 14.1. Zero-Memory and Finite-Memory Nonlinear Systems 505 14.2. Square-Law and Cubic Nonlinear Models 507 14.3. Volterra Nonlinear Models 509 14.4. SI/SO Models with Parallel Linear and Nonlinear Systems 510 14.5. SI/SO Models with Nonlinear Feedback 512 14.6. Recommended Nonlinear Models and Techniques 514 14.7. Duffing SDOF Nonlinear System 515 14.7.1. Analysis for SDOF Linear System 516 14.7.2. Analysis for Duffing SDOF Nonlinear System 518 14.8. Nonlinear Drift Force Model 520 14.8.1. Basic Formulas for Proposed Model 521 14.8.2. Spectral Decomposition Problem 523 14.8.3. System Identification Problem 524 Bibliography 527 Appendix A: Statistical Tables 533 Appendix B: Definitions for Random Data Analysis 545 List of Figures 557 List of Tables 565 List of Examples 567 Answers to Problems in Random Data 571 Index 599

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Book SynopsisWith the widespread use of EHV equipment in winter environments, winter flashovers at air temperature close to melting point have become a critical design constraint.Trade Review"This is one of the most authoritative reference books available on the subject of insulator flashover under icing and contaminated conditions. It also provides a good introduction to high voltage surface breakdown, insulation coordination, and environmental electrochemistry. It is indispensable reading for those responsible for designing reliable power systems exposed to environmental icing and contamination." (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 2011) "Readers who finish this well-written book will be prepared to understand and face a sizeable fraction of the current problems involved in learning to correct icing and pollution problems in electrical line insulation. The book provides clear insight on how they can best position themselves for coping with situations that arise in icing ad polluted environments." (Current Engineering Practice, 1 November 2010)Table of ContentsPREFACE. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Scope and Objectives. 1.2. Power System Reliability. 1.3. The Insulation Coordination Process: What Is Involved? 1.4. Organization of the Book. 1.5. Précis. 2. INSULATORS FOR ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS. 2.1. Terminology for Insulators. 2.2. Classification of Insulators. 2.3. Insulator Construction. 2.4. Electrical Stresses on Insulators. 2.5. Environmental Stresses on Insulators. 2.6. Mechanical Stresses. 3. ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE OF INSULATORS. 3.1. Pollution: What It Is. 3.2. Pollution Deposits on Power System Insulators. 3.3. Nonsoluble Electrically Inert Deposits. 3.4. Soluble Electrically Conductive Pollution. 3.5. Effects of Temperature on Electrical Conductivity. 3.6. Conversion to Equivalent Salt Deposit Density. 3.7. Self-Wetting of Contaminated Surfaces. 3.8. Surface Wetting by Fog Accretion. 3.9. Surface Wetting by Natural Precipitation. 3.10. Surface Wetting by Artificial Precipitation. 4. INSULATOR ELECTRICAL PERFORMANCE IN POLLUTION CONDITIONS. 4.1. Terminology for Electrical Performance in Pollution Conditions. 4.2. Air Gap Breakdown. 4.3. Breakdown of Polluted Insulators. 4.4. Outdoor Exposure Test Methods. 4.5. Indoor Test Methods for Pollution Flashovers. 4.6. Salt-Fog Test. 4.7. Clean-Fog Test Method. 4.8. Other Test Procedures. 4.9. Salt-Fog Test Results. 4.10. Clean-Fog Test Results. 4.11. Effects of Insulator Parameters. 4.12. Effects of Nonsoluble Deposit Density. 4.13. Pressure Effects on Contamination Tests. 4.14. Temperature Effects on Pollution Flashover. 5. CONTAMINATION FLASHOVER MODELS. 5.1. General Classifi cation of Partial Discharges. 5.2. Dry-Band Arcing on Contaminated Surfaces. 5.3. Electrical Arcing on Wet, Contaminated Surfaces. 5.4. Residual Resistance of Polluted Layer. 5.5. dc Pollution Flashover Modeling. 5.6. ac Pollution Flashover Modeling. 5.7. Theoretical Modeling for Cold-Fog Flashover. 5.8. Future Directions for Pollution Flashover Modeling. 6. MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE IN POLLUTION CONDITIONS. 6.1. Monitoring for Maintenance. 6.2. Cleaning of Insulators. 6.3. Coating of Insulators. 6.4. Adding Accessories. 6.5. Adding More Insulators. 6.6. Changing to Improved Designs. 6.7. Changing to Semiconducting Glaze. 6.8. Changing to Polymer Insulators. 7. ICING FLASHOVERS. 7.1. Terminology for Ice. 7.2. Ice Morphology. 7.3. Electrical Characteristics of Ice. 7.4. Ice Flashover Experience. 7.5. Ice Flashover Processes. 7.6. Icing Test Methods. 7.7. Ice Flashover Test Results. 7.8. Empirical Models for Icing Flashovers. 7.9. Mathematical Modeling of Flashover Process on Ice-Covered Insulators. 7.10. Environmental Corrections for Ice Surfaces. 7.11. Future Directions for Icing Flashover Modeling. 8. SNOW FLASHOVERS. 8.1. Terminology for Snow. 8.2. Snow Morphology. 8.3. Snow Electrical Characteristics. 8.4. Snow Flashover Experience. 8.5. Snow Flashover Process and Test Methods. 8.6. Snow Flashover Test Results. 8.7 Empirical Model for Snow Flashover. 8.8. Mathematical Modeling of Flashover Process on Snow-Covered Insulators. 8.9. Environmental Corrections for Snow Flashover. 8.10. Case Studies of Snow Flashover. 9. MITIGATION OPTIONS FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE IN ICE AND SNOW CONDITIONS. 9.1. Options for Mitigating Very Light and Light Icing. 9.2. Options for Mitigating Moderate Icing. 9.3. Options for Mitigating Heavy Icing. 9.4. Options for Mitigating Snow and Rime. 9.5. Alternatives for Mitigating Any Icing. 10. INSULATION COORDINATION FOR ICING AND POLLUTED ENVIRONMENTS. 10.1. The Insulation Coordination Process. 10.2. Deterministic and Probabilistic Methods. 10.3. IEEE 1313.2 Design Approach for Contamination. 10.4. IEC 60815 Design Approach for Contamination. 10.5. CIGRE Design Approach for Contamination. 10.6. Characteristics of Winter Pollution. 10.7. Winter Fog Events. 10.8. Freezing Rain and Freezing Drizzle Events. 10.9. Snow Climatology. 10.10. Deterministic Coordination for Leakage Distance. 10.11. Probabilistic Coordination for Leakage Distance. 10.12. Deterministic Coordination for Dry Arc Distance. 10.13. Probabilistic Coordination for Dry Arc Distance. 10.14. Case Studies. APPENDIX A: MEASUREMENT OF INSULATOR CONTAMINATION LEVEL. APPENDIX B: STANDARD CORRECTIONS FOR HUMIDITY, TEMPERATURE, AND PRESSURE. APPENDIX C: TERMS RELATED TO ELECTRICAL IMPULSES. INDEX.

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Book SynopsisReliable power distribution systems are essential to maintain a functioning society. This book covers the fundamentals of reliability analysis as they apply to the planning and design of utility, industrial, and commercial electric power distribution systems.Trade Review“Using numerous examples and case studies, they thoroughly describe the determination of failure rates and associated outage timing for various systems including the radial, primary selective, and secondary selective versions.” (Electrical Apparatus, 1 August 2012)Table of ContentsPreface. 1 OUTLINE OF THE BOOK. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Reliability Assessment of Power Systems. 1.3 Organization of the Chapters. 1.4 Conclusions. References. 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS. 2.1 Concept of Frequency. 2.2 Important Parameters of Frequency Distribution. 2.3 Theory of Probability. 2.4 Probability Distribution Model. 2.5 Sampling Theory. 2.6 Statistical Decision Making. 2.7 Conclusions. References. 3 RELIABILITY PRINCIPLES. 3.1 Failure Rate Model. 3.2 Concept of Reliability of Population. 3.3 Mean Time to Failures. 3.4 Reliability of Complex Systems. 3.5 Standby System Modeling. 3.6 Concepts of Availability and Dependability. 3.7 Reliability Measurement. 3.8 Conclusions. References. 4 APPLICATIONS OF SIMPLE RELIABILITY MODELS. 4.1 Equipment Failure Mechanism. 4.2 Availability of Equipment. 4.3 Oil Circuit Recloser (OCR) Maintenance Issues. 4.4 Distribution Pole Maintenance Practices. 4.5 Procedures for Ground Testing. 4.6 Insulators Maintenance. 4.7 Customer Service Outages. 4.8 Conclusions. References. 5 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Concept of Interest and Equivalent. 5.3 Common Terms. 5.4 Formulas for Computing Interest. 5.5 Annual Cost. 5.6 Present Value (PV) Concept. 5.7 Theory of Rate of Return. 5.8 Cost–Benefit Analysis Approach. 5.9 Financial Risk Assessment. 5.10 Conclusions. References. 6 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 State Enumeration Methodologies. 6.3 Network Reduction Methods. 6.4 Bayes. Theorem in Reliability. 6.5 Construction of Fault Tree Diagram. 6.6 The Application of Conditional Probability Theory to System Operating Configurations. 6.7 Conclusions. References. 7 DESIGNING RELIABILITY INTO INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER SYSTEMS. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Example 1: Simple Radial Distribution System. 7.3 Example 2: Reliability Analysis of a Primary Selective System to the 13.8 kV Utility Supply. 7.4 Example 3: A Primary Selective System to the Load Side of a 13.8 kV Circuit Breaker. 7.5 Example 4: Primary Selective System to the Primary of the Transformer. 7.6 Example 5: A Secondary Selective System. 7.7 Example 6: A Simple Radial System with Spares. 7.8 Example 7: A Simple Radial System with Cogeneration. 7.9 Reliability Evaluation of Miscellaneous System Configurations. 7.10 Conclusions. References. 8 ZONE BRANCH RELIABILITY METHODOLOGY. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Zone Branch Concepts. 8.3 Industrial System Study. 8.4 Application of Zone Branch Methodology: Case Studies. .4.5 Case 5: Design .E.—Dual Supply Primary Selective. 8.4.6 Case 6: Design .F.—Double Bus/Double Breaker Radial. 8.4.7 Case 7: Design .G.—Double Bus/Double Breaker Loop. 8.4.8 Case 8: Design .H.—Double Bus/Breaker Primary Selective. 8.5 Conclusions. References. 9 EQUIPMENT OUTAGE STATISTICS. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Interruption Data Collection Scheme. 9.3 Typical Distribution Equipment Outage Statistics. 9.4 Conclusions. References. 10 HISTORICAL ASSESSMENT. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Automatic Outage Management System. 10.3 Historical Assessment. 10.4 Crew Center-Level Analysis. 10.5 Development of a Composite Index for Reliability Performance Analysis at the Circuit Level. 10.6 Conclusions. References. 11 DETERMINISTIC CRITERIA. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Current Distribution Planning and Design Criteria. 11.3 Reliability Cost Versus Reliability Benefit Trade-Offs in Distribution System Planning. 11.4 Alternative Feed Requirements for Overhead Distribution Systems. 11.5 Examples of Deterministic Planning Guidelines for Alternative Feed Requirements. 11.6 Value-Based Alternative Feeder Requirements Planning. 11.7 Conclusions. References. 12 IMPORTANT FACTORS RELATED TO DISTRIBUTION STANDARDS. 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Relevant Issues and Factors in Establishing Distribution Reliability Standards. 12.3 Performance Indices at Different System Levels of a Utility. 12.4 Performance Indices for Different Utility Types. 12.5 Conclusions. References. 13 STANDARDS FOR REREGULATED DISTRIBUTION UTILITY. 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Cost of Service Regulation versus Performance-Based Regulation. 13.3 A Reward/Penalty Structure in the Performance-Based Rates. 13.4 Historical SAIFI and SAIDI Data and their Distributions. 13.5 Computation of System Risks Based on Historical Reliability Indices. 13.6 Cause Contributions to SAIFI and SAIDI Indices. 13.7 Conclusions. References. 14 CUSTOMER INTERRUPTION COST MODELS FOR LOAD POINT RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT. 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 Customer Interruption Cost. 14.3 Series and Parallel System Model Equations. 14.4 Dedicated Distribution Radial Feeder Configuration. 14.5 Distribution Radial Feeder Configuration Serving Multiple Customers. 14.6 Distribution Radial Feeder Configuration Serving Multiple Customers with Manual Sectionalizing. 14.7 Distribution Radial Feeder Configuration Serving Multiple Customers with Automatic Sectionalizing. 14.8 Distribution System Looped Radial Feeders. 14.9 Conclusions. References. 15 VALUE-BASED PREDICTIVE RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT. 15.1 Introduction. 15.2 Value-Based Reliability Planning. 15.3 Distribution System Configuration Characteristics. 15.4 Case Studies. 15.5 Illustrative Example System Problem and Its Reliability Calculations. 15.6 Conclusions. References. 16 ISOLATION AND RESTORATION PROCEDURES. 16.1 Introduction. 16.2 Distribution System Characteristics. 16.3 Case Studies. 16.4 Major Substation Outages. 16.5 Summary of Load Point Interruption Costs. 16.6 Conclusions. References. 17 MESHED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RELIABILITY. 17.1 Introduction. 17.2 Value-Based Reliability Assessment in a Deregulated Environment. 17.3 The Characteristics of the Illustrative Urban Distribution System. 17.4 Discussion of Results. 17.5 Feeder and Transformer Loading Levels. 17.6 Bus and Feeder Tie Analysis. 17.7 Maintenance. 17.8 Feeders with Nonfused (Lateral) Three-Phase Branches. 17.9 Feeder Tie Placement. 17.10 Finding Optimum Section Length. 17.11 Feeder and Transformer Loading. 17.12 Feeder Tie Cost Calculation. 17.13 Effects of Tie Maintenance. 17.14 Additional Ties for Feeders with Three-Phase Branches. 17.15 Conclusions. References. 18 RADIAL FEEDER RECONFIGURATION ANALYSIS. 18.1 Introduction. 18.2 Predictive Feeder Reliability Analysis. 18.3 Reliability Data and Assumptions. 18.4 Reliability Assessment for an Illustrative Distribution Feeder. 18.5 Alternative Improvement Options Analysis. 18.6 Summary of the Illustrative Feeder Reliability Performance Improvement Alternatives. 18.7 Conclusions. References. 19 DISTRIBUTED GENERATION. 19.1 Introduction. 19.2 Problem Definition. 19.3 Illustrative Distribution System Configuration Characteristics. 19.4 Reliability Assessment Model. 19.5 Discussion of Results. 19.6 Conclusions. References. 20 MODELS FOR SPARE EQUIPMENT. 20.1 Introduction. 20.2 Development of Probabilistic Models for Determining Optimal Number of Transformer Spares. 20.3 Optimal Transformer Spares for Illustrative 72 kV Distribution Transformer Systems. 20.4 Conclusions. References. 21 VOLTAGE SAGS AND SURGES AT INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SITES. 21.1 Introduction. 21.2 ANSI/IEEE Standard 446—IEEE Orange Book. 21.3 IEEE Standard 493-2007—IEEE Gold Book. 21.4 Frequency of Voltage Sags. 21.5 Example Voltage Sag Problem: Voltage Sag Analysis of Utility and Industrial Distribution Systems. 21.6 Frequency and Duration of Voltage Sags and Surges at Industrial Sites: Canadian National Power Quality Survey. 21.7 Scatter Plots of Voltage Sag Levels as a Function of Duration. 21.8 Scatter Plots of Voltage Surge Levels as a Function of Duration. 21.9 Primary and Secondary Voltage Sages Statistical Characteristics. 21.10 Primary and Secondary Voltage Surges Statistical Characteristics. 21.11 Conclusions. References. SELECTED PROBLEMS AND ANSWERS. Index.

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Book SynopsisDiscusses the growth mechanisms of tin whiskers and the effective mitigation strategies necessary to reduce whisker growth risks This book covers key tin whisker topics, ranging from fundamental science to practical mitigation strategies. The text begins with a review of the characteristic properties of local microstructures around whisker and hillock grains to identify why these particular grains and locations become predisposed to forming whiskers and hillocks. The book discusses the basic properties of tin-based alloy finishes and the effects of various alloying elements on whisker formation, with a focus on potential mechanisms for whisker suppression or enhancement for each element. Tin whisker risk mitigation strategies for each tier of the supply chain for high reliability electronic systems are also described. Discusses whisker formation factors including surface grain geometry, crystallographic orientation-dependent surface grain boundary structurTable of ContentsTechnical Reviewers. Preface. Introduction. Contributors. 1. Regulatory and Voluntary Drivers for Environmental Improvement: Hazardous Substances, Lifecycle Design and End of Life (John Hawley). 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Substances of Environmental Concern. 1.3 Design for Environment/Energy Efficiency. 1.4 Recycling and Take-back. 1.5 Summary. 1.6 References. 2. Lead-free Surface Mount Technology (Jasbir Bath, Jennifer Nguyen and Sundar Sethuraman). 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 No-clean and Water-soluble Lead-free Pastes. 2.3 Solder Paste Handling. 2.4 Board and Stencil Design. 2.5 Screen Printing and Printability of Lead-free Solder Pastes. 2.6 Paste inspection. 2.7 Component Placement (Paste Tackiness). 2.8 Reflow Soldering and the Reflow Profile. 2.9 Effect of Nitrogen versus Air Atmosphere during Lead-free Reflow. 2.10 Head-in-Pillow Component Soldering Defect. 2.11 Solder Joint Visual Inspection. 2.12 AOI (Automated Optical Inspection). 2.13 X-ray Inspection. 2.14 ICT/Functional Testing. 2.15 Conclusions. 2.16 Future Work. 2.17 Acknowledgements. 2.18 References. 3. Lead-free Wave Soldering (Dennis Barbini and Jasbir Bath). 3.0 Introduction. 3.1 Wave soldering process boundaries. 3.2 Soldering temperatures on the chip and main soldering waves. 3.3 Alloys for Lead-free Wave Soldering. 3.4 The function of nitrogen in wave soldering. 3.5 The effect of PCB Design on wave solder joint formation. 3.6 Standards related to wave soldering. 3.7 Conclusions. 3.8 Future work. 3.9 Acknowledgements. 3.10 References. 4. Lead-free Rework (Alan Donaldson). 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Hand Soldering/Touch-up. 4.3 BGA/CSP Rework. 4.4 BGA Socket Rework. 4.5 X-ray. 4.6 Through-hole Hand Soldering Rework. 4.7 Through-hole Mini-pot/Solder Fountain Rework. 4.8 Best Practices and Rework Equipment Calibrations. 4.9 Conclusions. 4.10 Future Work. 4.11 References. 5 Lead-Free Alloys for BGA/CSP Components (Gregory A. Henshall). 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Overview of New Lead-Free Alloys. 5.3 Benefits of New Alloys for BGAs and CSPs. 5.4 Technical Concerns . 5.5 Management of New Alloys. 5.6 Future Work. 5.7 Summary and Conclusions. 5.8 Acknowledgements. 5.9 References. 6 Growth Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies of Tin Whisker Growth (Peng Su). 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Role of stress in whisker growth. 6.3 Understanding standard acceleration tests. 6.4 Plating process optimization and other mitigation strategies. 6.5 Whisker growth on board-mounted components. 6.6 Summary. 6.7 References. 7. Testability of Lead-Free Printed Circuit Assemblies (Rosa D.Reinosa and Aileen M. Allen). 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Contact Repeatability of Lead-Free Boards. 7.3 Probe Wear and Contamination. 7.4 Board Flexure. 7.5 Conclusions. 7.6 Acknowledgments. 7.7 References. 8. Board-Level Solder Joint Reliability of High Performance Computers under Mechanical Loading (Keith Newman). 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Establishing PWB Strain Limits for Manufacturing. 8.3. SMT Component Fracture Strength Characterization. 8.4 PWB Fracture Strength Characterization. 8.5 PWB Strain Characterization. 8.6. Solder Joint Fracture Prediction – Modeling. 8.7. Fracture Strength Optimization. 8.8 Conclusions. 8.9 Acknowledgments. 8.10 References. 9. Lead-Free Reliability in Aerospace/Military Environments (Thomas A. Woodrow and Jasbir Bath). 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Aerospace/Military Consortia. 9.3 Lead-Free Control Plans for Aerospace/Military Electronics. 9.4 Aerospace/Military Lead-Free Reliability Concerns. 9.5 Summary and Conclusions. 9.6 References. 10. Lead-Free Reliability in Automotive Environments (Richard D. Parke). 10.1 Introduction to Electronics in Automotive Environments. 10.2 Performance Risks and Issues. 10.3 Legislation Driving Lead-Free Automotive Electronics. 10.4 Reliability Requirements for Automotive Environments. 10.5 Failure Modes of Lead-free Joints. 10.6 Impact to Lead-free Component Procurement and Management. 10.7 Change versus Risks. 10.8 Summary and Conclusions. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisFocusing on challenges to the billion-ton renewable fuels vision, this book discusses the technological and business developments needed to industrialize biofuels on a global scale. Technological issues addressed include fermentation and downstream processing technologies, as compared to current industrial practice and process economics.Trade Review"The Physical quality of Wiley's books is never in doubt, and this volume is no different. It proclaims itself as ‘a valuable handbook for scientists and policy makers working in the biofuels industry,' a fairly true assertion." (Enagri eMagazine, July 2010) Table of ContentsForeword. Preface. Contributors. PART I STRUCTURE OF THE BIOEVERGY BUSINESS. 1 Characteristics of Biofuels and Renewable Fuel Standards (Alan C. Hansen, Dimitrios C. Kyritsis, and Chia fon F. Lee). 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Molecular Structure. 1.3 Physical Properties. 1.4 Chemical Properties. 1.5 Biofuel Standards. 1.6 Perspective. References. 2 The Global Demand for Biofuels: Technologies, Markets and Policies (Jürgen Scheffran). 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Motivation and Potential of Renewable Fuels. 2.3 Renewable Fuels in the Transportation Sector. 2.4 Status and Potential of Major Biofuels. 2.5 Biofuel Policies and Markets in Selected Countries. 2.6 Perspective. References. 3 Biofuel Demand Realization (Stephen R. Hughes and Nasib Qureshi). 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Availability of Renewable Resources to Realize Biofuel Demand. 3.3 Technology Improvements to Enhance Biofuel Production Economics. 3.4 US Regulatory Requirements for Organisms Engineered to Meet Biofuel Demand. 3.5 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 4 Advanced Biorefineries for the Production of Fuel Ethanol (Stephen R. Hughes, William Gibbons, and Scott Kohl). 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Ethanol Production Plants Using Sugar Feedstocks. 4.3 Dedicated Dry-Grind and Dry-Mill Starch Ethanol Production Plants. 4.4 Dedicated Wet-Mill Starch Ethanol Production Plants. 4.5 Dedicated Cellulosic Ethanol Production Plants. 4.6 Advanced Combined Biorefineries. 4.7 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. PART II DIESEL FROM BIOMASS. 5 Biomass Liquefaction and Gasification (Nicolaus Dahmen, Edmund Henrich, Andrea Kruse, and Klaus Raffelt). 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Direct Liquefaction. 5.3 Biosynfuels from Biosyngas. 5.4 Perspective. References. 6 Diesel from Syngas (Yong-Wang Li, Jian Xu, and Yong Yang). 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Overview of Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis. 6.3 Historical Development of the Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis Process. 6.4 Modern Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis Processes. 6.5 Economics. 6.6 Perspective. Acknowledgements. References. 7 Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils (Jon Van Gerpen). 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Use of Vegetable Oils as Diesel Fuels. 7.3 Renewable Diesel. 7.4 Properties. 7.5 Biodiesel Production. 7.6 Transesteritication. 7.7 Biodiesel Purification. 7.8 Perspective. References. 8 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds (Michael Huesemann, G. Roesjadi, John Benemann, and F. Blaine Metting). 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Biofuels from Microalgae: Products, Processes, and Limitations. 8.3 Biofuels from Seaweeds: Products, Processes, and Limitations. 8.4 Perspective. References. PART III ETHANOL AND BUTANOL. 9 Improvements in Corn to Ethanol Production Technology Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Vijay Singh, David B. Johnston, Kent D. Rausch, and M.E. Tumbleson). 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Current Industrial Ethanol Production Technology. 9.3 Granular Starch Hydrolysis. 9.4 Corn Fractionation. 9.5 Simultaneous SSF and Distillation. 9.6 Dynamic Control of SSF Processes. 9.7 Cost of Ethanol. 9.8 Perspective. References. 10 Advanced Technologies for Biomass Hydrolysis and Saccharification Using Novel Enzymes (Margret E. Berg Miller, Jennifer M. Brulc, Edward A. Bayer, Raphael Lamed, Harry J. Flint, and Bryan A. White). 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 The Substrate. 10.3 Glycosyl Hydrolases. 10.4 The Cellulosome Concept. 10.5 New Approaches for the Identification of Novel Glycoside Hydrolases. 10.6 Perspective. References. 11 Mass Balances and Analytical Methods for Biomass Pretreatment Experiments (Bruce S. Dien). 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Analysis of Feedstocks for Composition and Potential Ethanol Yield. 11.3 Pretreatment. 11.4 Enzymatic Extraction of Sugars. 11.5 Fermentation of Pretreated Hydrolysates to Ethanol. 11.6 Feedstock and Process Integration. 11.7 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 12 Biomass Conversion Inhibitors and In Situ Detoxification (Z. Lewis Liu and Hans P. Blaschek). 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Inhibitory Compounds Derived from Biomass Pretreatment. 12.3 Inhibitory Effects. 12.4 Removal of Inhibitors. 12.5 Inhibitor-Tolerant Strain Development. 12.6 Inhibitor Conversion Pathways. 12.7 Molecular Mechanisms of In Situ Detoxification. 12.8 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 13 Fuel Ethanol Production From Lignocellulosic Raw Materials Using Recombinant Yeasts (Grant Stanley and Barbel Hahn-Hägerdal). 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Consolidated Bioprocessing and Ethanol Production. 13.3 Pentose-Fermenting S. cerevisiae Strains. 13.4 Lignocellulose Fermentation and Ethanol Inhibition. 13.5 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 14 Conversion of Biomass to Ethanol by Other Organisms (Siqing Liu). 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 Desired Biocatalysts for Biomass to Bioethanol. 14.3 Gram-Negative Bacteria. 14.4 Gram-Positive Bacteria. 14.5 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 15 Advanced Fermentation Technologies (Masayuki Inui, Alain A. Vertès and Hideaki Yukawa). 15.1 Introduction. 15.2 Batch Processes. 15.3 Fed-Batch Processes. 15.4 Continuous Processes. 15.5 Immobilized Cell Systems. 15.6 Growth-Arrested Process. 15.7 Integrated Bioprocesses. 15.8 Consolidated Bioprocessing (CBP). 15.9 Perspective. References. 16 Advanced Product Recovery Technologies (Thaddeus C Ezeji and Yebo Li). 16.1 Introduction. 16.2 Membrane Separation. 16.3 Advanced Technologies for Biofuel Recovery: Industrially Relevant Processes. 16.4 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 17 Clostridia and Process Engineering for Energy Generation (Nasib Qureshi and Hans P. Blaschek). 17.1 Introduction. 17.2 Substrates, Cultures, and Traditional Technologies. 17.3 Agricultural Residues as Substrates for the Future. 17.4 Butanol-Producing Microbial Cultures. 17.5 Regulation of Butanol Production and Microbial Genetics. 17.6 Novel Fermentation Technologies. 17.7 Novel Product Recovery Technologies. 17.8 Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Substrates in Integrated Systems. 17.9 Integrated or Consolidated Processes. 17.10 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. PART IV: HYDROGEN, METHANE, AND METHANOL. 18 Hydrogen Generation by Microbial Cultures (Anja Hemschemeier, Katrin Müllner, Thilo Rühle, and Thomas Happe). 18.1. Introduction: Why Biological Hydrogen Production? 18.2. Biological Hydrogen Production. 18.3. Metabolic Basics for Hydrogen Production: Fermentation and Photosynthesis. 18.4. H2 Production in Application: Cases in Point. 18.5. Perspective. References. 19 Engineering Photosynthesis for H2 Production from H2O: Cyanobacteria as Design Organisms (Nadine Waschewski, Gábor Bernát, and Matthias Rögner). 19.1 The Basic Idea: Why Hydrogen from Water? 19.2 Realization: Three Mutually Supporting Strategies. 19.3 The Biological Strategy: How to Design a Hydrogen-Producing (Cyano-) Bacterial Cell. 19.4 Engineering the Environment of the Cells: Reactor Design. 19.5 How Much Can We Expect? The Limit of Natural Systems. 19.6 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 20 Production and Utilization of Methane Biogas as Renewable Fuel (Zhongtang Yu, Mark Morrison, and Floyd L. Schanbacher). 20.1 Introduction. 20.2 The Microbes and Metabolisms Underpinning Biomethanation. 20.3 Potential Feedstocks Used for Methane Biogas Production. 20.4 Biomethanation Technologies for Production of Methane Biogas. 20.5 Utilization of Methane Biogas as a Fuel. 20.6 Perspective. 20.7 Concluding Remarks. 20.8 Disclaimer. References. 21 Methanol Production and Utilization (Gregory A. Dolan). 21.1 Introduction. 21.2 Biomass Gasification: Mature and Immature. 21.3 Feedstocks: Diverse and Plentiful. 21.4 Biomethanol: ICEs, FFVs, and FCVs. 21.5 Case Study: Waste Wood Biorefinery. 21.6 Case Study: Two-Step Thermochemical Conversion Process. 21.7 Case Study: Mobile Methanol Machine. 21.8 Case Study: Scandinavia Leading the Way with Black Liquor Methanol Production. 21.9 Case Study: Methanol Fermentation through Anaerobic Digestion. References. PART V PERSPECTIVES. 22 Enhancing Primary Raw Materials for Biofuels (Takahisa Hayashi, Rumi Kaida, Nobutaka Mitsuda, Masaru Ohme-Takagi, Nobuyuki Nishikuba, Shin-ichiro Kidou, and Kouki Yoshida). 22.1 Introduction. 22.2 In-Fibril Modification. 22.3 In-Wall Modifications. 22.4 In-Planta Modifications. 22.5 In-CRES-T Modification. 22.6 A Catalogue of Gene Families for Glycan Synthases and Hydrolases. 22.7 Perspective. Acknowledgments. References. 23 Axes of Development in Chemical and Process Engineering for Converting Biomass to Energy (Alain A. Vertés). 23.1 Global Outlook. 23.2 Enhancement of Raw Material Biomass. 23.3 Conversion of Biomass to Fuels and Chemicals. 23.4 Chemical Engineering Development. 23.5 Perspective. References. 24 Financing Strategies for Industrial-Scale Biofuel Production and Technology Development Start-Ups (Alain A. Vertés and Sarit Soccary Ben Yochanan). 24.1 Background: The Financial Environment. 24.2 Biofuels Project: Steps in Value Creation and Required Funding at Each Stage. 24.3 Governmental Incentives to Support the Nascent Biofuel and Biomaterial Industry. 24.4 Perspective: What is the Best Funding Source for Each Step in a Company’s Development? References. Index.

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Book SynopsisSystem reliability, availability and robustness are often not well understood by system architects, engineers and developers. They often don''t understand what drives customer''s availability expectations, how to frame verifiable availability/robustness requirements, how to manage and budget availability/robustness, how to methodically architect and design systems that meet robustness requirements, and so on. The book takes a very pragmatic approach of framing reliability and robustness as a functional aspect of a system so that architects, designers, developers and testers can address it as a concrete, functional attribute of a system, rather than an abstract, non-functional notion.Trade Review"Thus, I highly recommend this book to undergraduate students and junior researchers entering the reliability studies field. Though experts may not find the book to be very interesting, they will likely find it useful as a basis for lecturing, and as a good source of insightful, fundamental ideas." (Computing Reviews, 16 May 2011) "The book takes a very pragmatic approach of framing reliability and robustness as a functional aspect of a system so that architects, designers, developers and testers can address it as a concrete, functional attribute of a system, rather than an abstract, non-functional notion." (Forums Digital Media Net, 16 March 2011) Table of ContentsFigures. Tables. Preface. Acknowledgements. PART ONE RELIABILITY BASICS. 1 Reliability and Availability Concepts. 1.1 Reliability and Availability. 1.2 Faults, Errors and Failures. 1.3 Error Severity. 1.4 Failure Recovery. 1.5 Highly Available Systems. 1.6 Quantifying Availability. 1.7 Outage Attributability. 1.8 Hardware Reliability. 1.9 Software Reliability. 1.10 Problems. 1.11 For Further Study. 2 System Basics. 2.1 Hardware and Software. 2.2 External Entities. 2.3 System Management. 2.4 System Outages. 2.5 Service Quality. 2.6 Total Cost of Ownership. 2.7 Problems. 3 What Can Go Wrong. 3.1 Failures in the Real World. 3.2 Eight-Ingredient Framework. 3.3 Mapping Ingredients to Error Categories. 3.4 Applying Error Categories. 3.5 Error Category: Field Replaceable Unit (FRU) Hardware. 3.6 Error Category: Programming Errors. 3.7 Error Category: Data Error. 3.8 Error Category: Redundancy. 3.9 Error Category: System Power. 3.10 Error Category: Network. 3.11 Error Category: Application Protocol. 3.12 Error Category: Procedures. 3.13 Summary. 3.14 Problems. 3.15 For Further Study. PART TWO RELIABILITY CONCEPTS. 4 Failure Containment and Redundancy. 4.1 Units of Design. 4.2 Failure Recovery Groups. 4.3 Redundancy. 4.4 Summary. 4.5 Problems. 4.6 For Further Study. 5 Robust Design Principles. 5.1 Robust Design Principles. 5.2 Robust Protocols. 5.3 Robust Concurrency Controls. 5.4 Overload Control. 5.5 Process, Resource and Throughput Monitoring. 5.6 Data Auditing. 5.7 Fault Correlation. 5.8 Failed Error Detection, Isolation or Recovery. 5.9 Geographic Redundancy. 5.10 Security, Availability and System Robustness. 5.11 Procedural Considerations. 5.12 Problems. 5.13 For Further Study. 6 Error Detection. 6.1 Detecting Field Replaceable Unit (FRU) Hardware Faults. 6.2 Detecting Programming and Data Faults. 6.3 Detecting Redundancy Failures. 6.4 Detecting Power Failures. 6.5 Detecting Networking Failures. 6.6 Detecting Application Protocol Failures. 6.7 Detecting Procedural Failures. 6.8 Problems. For Further Study. 7 Analyzing and Modeling Reliability and Robustness. 7.1 Reliability Block Diagrams. 7.2 Qualitative Model of Redundancy. 7.3 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis. 7.4 Availability Modeling. 7.5 Planned Downtime. 7.6 Problems. 7.7 For Further Study. PART THREE DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY. 8 Reliability Requirements. 8.1 Background. 8.2 Defining Service Outages. 8.3 Service Availability Requirements. 8.4 Detailed Service Availability Requirements. 8.5 Service Reliability Requirements. 8.6 Triangulating Reliability Requirements. 8.7 Problems. 9 Reliability Analysis. 9.1 Step 1: Enumerate Recoverable Modules. 9.2 Step 2: Construct Reliability Block Diagrams. 9.3 Step 3: Characterize Impact of Recovery. 9.4 Step 4: Characterize Impact of Procedures. 9.5 Step 5: Audit Adequacy of Automatic Failure Detection and Recovery. 9.6 Step 6: Consider Failures of Robustness Mechanisms. 9.7 Step 7: Prioritizing Gaps. 9.8 Reliability of Sourced Modules and Components. 9.9 Problems. 10 Reliability Budgeting and Modeling. 10.1 Downtime Categories. 10.2 Service Downtime Budget. 10.3 Availability Modeling. 10.4 Update Downtime Budget. 10.5 Robustness Latency Budgets. 10.6 Problems. 11 Robustness and Stability Testing. 11.1 Robustness Testing. 11.2 Context of Robustness Testing. 11.3 Factoring Robustness Testing. 11.4 Robustness Testing in the Development Process. 11.5 Robustness Testing Techniques. 11.6 Selecting Robustness Test Cases. 11.7 Analyzing Robustness Test Results. 11.8 Stability Testing. 11.9 Release Criteria. 11.10 Problems. 12 Closing the Loop. 12.1 Analyzing Field Outage Events. 12.2 Reliability Roadmapping. 12.3 Problems. 13 Design for Reliability Case Study. 13.1 System Context. 13.2 System Reliability Requirements. 13.3 Reliability Analysis. 13.4 Downtime Budgeting. 13.5 Availability Modeling. 13.6 Reliability Roadmap. 13.7 Robustness Testing. 13.8 Stability Testing. 13.9 Reliability Review. 13.10 Reliability Report. 13.11 Release Criteria. 13.12 Field Data Analysis. 14 Conclusion. 14.1 Overview of Design for Reliability. 14.2 Concluding Remarks. 14.3 Problems. 15 Appendix: Assessing Design for Reliability Diligence. 15.1 Assessment Methodology. 15.2 Reliability Requirements. 15.3 Reliability Analysis. 15.4 Reliability Modeling and Budgeting. 15.5 Robustness Testing. 15.6 Stability Testing. 15.7 Release Criteria. 15.8 Field Availability. 15.9 Reliability Roadmap. 15.10 Hardware Reliability. Abbreviations. References. Photo Credits. About the Author. Index.

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Book SynopsisSets the stage for the development of sustainable, environmentally friendly fuels, chemicals, and materials Taking millions of years to form, fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources; it is estimated that they will be depleted by the end of this century.Trade Review“By providing interesting outlooks on a subject of such high debate and importance in both industry and research, the work of the editors sets itself as foundation for all those interested in development of new and sustainable means of bioresources processing.” (Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 1 March 2013)Table of ContentsForeword vii Preface xi Contributors xiii About the Editors xvii 1 Introduction of Biomass and Biorefineries 1 Birgit Kamm 2 Recent Advances in Green Chemistry 27 Nicholas Gathergood 3 Biorefinery with Ionic Liquids 75 Haibo Xie, Wujun Liu, Ian Beadham, and Nicholas Gathergood 4 Biorefinery with Water 135 X. Philip Ye, Leming Cheng, Haile Ma, Biljana Bujanovic, Mangesh J. Goundalkar, and Thomas E. Amidon 5 Supercritical CO2 as an Environmentally Benign Medium for Biorefinery 181 Ray Marriott and Emily Sin 6 Dissolution and Application of Cellulose in NaOH/Urea Aqueous Solution 205 Xiaopeng Xiong and Jiangjiang Duan 7 Organosolv Biorefining Platform for Producing Chemicals, Fuels, and Materials from Lignocellulose 241 Xuejun Pan 8 Pyrolysis Oils from Biomass and Their Upgrading 263 Qirong Fu, Haibo Xie, and Dimitris S. Argyropoulos 9 Microwave Technology for Lignocellulosic Biorefinery 281 Takashi Watanabe and Tomohiko Mitani 10 Biorefinery with Microbes 293 Cuimin Hu and Zongbao K. Zhao 11 Heterogeneous Catalysts for Biomass Conversion 313 Aiqin Wang, Changzhi Li, Mingyuan Zheng, and Tao Zhang 12 Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol 349 Jie Xu, Weiqiang Yu, Hong Ma, Feng Wang, Fang Lu, Mukund Ghavre, and Nicholas Gathergood 13 Ultrasonics for Enhanced Fluid Biofuel Production 375 David Grewell and Melissa Montalbo-Lomboy 14 Advanced Membrane Technology for Products Separation in Biorefinery 407 Shenghai Li, Suobo Zhang, and Weihui Bi 15 Assessment of the Ecotoxicological and Environmental Effects of Biorefineries 435 Kerstin Bluhm, Sebastian Heger, Matthew T. Agler, Sibylle Maletz, Andreas Sch€affer, Thomas-Benjamin Seiler, Largus T. Angenent, and Henner Hollert Index 469

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Book SynopsisProvides a complete overview of low energy cooling systems for buildings. An excellent data source on cooling performance for a wide range of sustainable energy technologies, such as energy reduction and thermal protection. It will appeal to a wide audience of engineers.Table of ContentsPreface. About the Author. 1 Energy Demand of Buildings. 1.1 Residential Buildings. 1.1.1 Heating Energy. 1.1.2 Domestic Hot Water. 1.1.3 Electricity Consumption. 1.2 Office Buildings. 1.2.1 Heating Energy. 1.2.2 Electricity Consumption. 1.2.3 Air Conditioning. 1.3 Conclusions. 2 Façades and Summer Performance of Buildings. 2.1 Review of Façade Systems and Energy Performance. 2.1.1 Single Façades. 2.1.2 Double Façades. 2.1.3 Modelling of Ventilated Façades. 2.2 Experimental Results on Total Energy Transmittance. 2.2.1 Laboratory Experiments. 2.2.2 Building Experiments. 2.3 Cooling Loads through Ventilation Gains. 2.3.1 Double Façade Experiments. 2.3.2 Parameter Study Using Simulation. 2.4 Energy Production from Active Façades. 2.4.1 Thermal and Electrical Energy Balance of the Façade. 2.5 Conclusions on Façade Performance. 3 Passive Cooling Strategies. 3.1 Building Description and Cooling Concepts. 3.1.1 Lamparter Building, Weilheim. 3.1.2 Rehabilitated Office Building in Tübingen. 3.1.3 Low-energy Office Building in Freiburg. 3.2 Passive Night Ventilation Results. 3.2.1 Internal Loads and Temperature Levels. 3.2.2 Air Changes and Thermal Building Performance. 3.2.3 Simulation of Passive Cooling Potential. 3.2.4 Active Night Ventilation. 3.3 Summary of Passive Cooling. 4 Geothermal Cooling. 4.1 Earth Heat Exchanger Performance. 4.1.1 Earth to Air Heat Exchanger in a Passive Standard Office Building. 4.1.2 Performance of Horizontal Earth Brine to Air Heat Exchanger in the ebök Building. 4.1.3 Performance of Vertical Earth Brine to Air Heat Exchanger in the SIC Building. 4.1.4 Modelling of Geothermal Heat Exchangers. 4.1.5 Conclusions on Geothermal Heat Exchangers for Cooling. 5 Active Thermal Cooling Technologies. 5.1 Absorption Cooling. 5.1.1 Absorption Cycles. 5.1.2 Solar Cooling with Absorption Chillers. 5.2 Desiccant Cooling. 5.2.1 Desiccant Cooling System in the Mataró Public Library. 5.2.2 Desiccant Cooling System in the Althengstett Factory. 5.2.3 Monitoring Results in Mataró. 5.2.4 Monitoring Results in Althengstett. 5.2.5 Simulation of Solar-Powered Desiccant Cooling Systems. 5.2.6 Cost Analysis. 5.2.7 Summary of Desiccant Cooling Plant Performance. 5.3 New Developments in Low-Power Chillers. 5.3.1 Development of a Diffusion–Absorption Chiller. 5.3.2 Liquid Desiccant Systems. 6 Sustainable Building Operation Using Simulation. 6.1 Simulation of Solar Cooling Systems. 6.1.1 Component and System Models. 6.1.2 Building Cooling Load Characteristics. 6.1.3 System Simulation Results. 6.1.4 Influence of Dynamic Building Cooling Loads. 6.1.5 Economic Analysis. 6.1.6 Summary of Solar Cooling Simulation Results. 6.2 Online Simulation of Buildings. 6.2.1 Functions and Innovations in Building Management Systems. 6.2.2 Communication Infrastructure for the Implementation of Model-Based Control Systems. 6.2.3 Building Online Simulation in the POLYCITY Project. 6.3 Online Simulation of Renewable Energy Plants. 6.3.1 Photovoltaic System Simulation. 6.3.2 Communication Strategies for Simulation-Based Remote Monitoring. 6.3.3 Online Simulation for the Commissioning and Operation of Photovoltaic Power Plants. 6.3.4 Summary of Renewable Energy Plant Online Simulation. 7 Conclusions. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisFirst book focusing on tidal stream power systems Reviews the tidal resources around the world Complete analysis of tidal stream power systems Includes historical information on tidal science and biographical information on major figures Concentrates on engineering physical geography rather than engineering specifics.Table of ContentsPreface. Website contents. Origin of online images. Copyright acknowledgements. Symbols. Part I Theory. 1 History of tidal and turbine science. 1.1 Introduction. Part 1 Tidal science. 1.2 Antiquity: Aristotle and Ptolemy. 1.3 Middle Ages: Copernicus to Galileo. 1.4 Isaac Newton and the equilibrium theory. 1.5 Measurement after Moray. 1.6 Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: Laplace to Kelvin. 1.7 Tide-predicting machines. 1.8 Tidal currents. Part 2 Turbine science. 1.9 Antiquity: the Romans and Chinese. 1.10 Middle Ages: the Syrians and Agricola. 1.11 Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries: Smeaton to Kaplan. 1.12 Modern turbines. 1.13 Summary. 1.14 Bibliography. 2 Tidal hydraulics. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Elementary fluid flow. 2.3 Hydraulic power. 2.4 Turbulence and the Reynolds number. 2.5 Critical flow and the Froude number. 2.6 Bernoulli’s equation. 2.7 von Kármán’s equation. 2.8 Properties of the Airy wave. 2.9 Tides in estuaries. 2.10 Harmonic prediction of tidal currents. 2.11 Turbulent characteristics of tidal currents. 2.12 Redundancy and intermittency. 2.13 Summary. 2.14 Bibliography. 3 Principles of tidal power devices. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Tidal wheels, mills, and barrages. 3.3 Efficiency, capacity factor, and solidity ratio. 3.4 Hydraulic processes, Part I: Tidal stream power. 3.5 Hydraulic processes, Part II: Ducts and diffusers. 3.6 Turbine processes, Part I: Drag and lift forces. 3.7 Turbine processes, Part II: Shaft power. 3.8 Electrical processes, Part I: Overview and generators. 3.9 Electrical processes, Part II: Cabling and grid connection. 3.10 Categories of turbines. 3.11 Horizontal-axis devices. 3.12 Vertical-axis devices (crossflow turbines). 3.13 Summary. 3.14 Bibliography. 4 Tidal power technologies. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Blue Energy. 4.3 Clean Current. 4.4 Engineering Business. 4.5 Gorlov helical turbine. 4.6 Hammerfest Strøm. 4.7 Lunar Energy. 4.8 Marine Current Turbines. 4.9 Neptune Renewable Energy. 4.10 OpenHydro. 4.11 Ponte di Archimede (Kobold). 4.12 Pulse Generation. 4.13 SeaPower. 4.14 SMD Hydrovision. 4.15 Underwater electric kite. 4.16 Verdant Power. 4.17 Other proposals. 4.18 Early-stage proposals. 4.19 Bibliography. 5 Modelling tidal stream power. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Global tidal streams. 5.3 Tidal datum and tidal heights. 5.4 British Admiralty tidal diamonds. 5.5 Harmonic decomposition. 5.6 STEM display screen. 5.7 Running STEM. 5.8 Case study at Flat Holm in the Bristol Channel. 5.9 Case study at Hull St Andrews in the Humber Estuary. 5.10 Summary. 5.11 Bibliography. Part II Practice. 6 Economics and finance. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 The Renewable Energy Business. 6.3 Costs. 6.4 Revenue. 6.5 Economic result. 6.6 Conclusions. 6.7 Bibliography. 7 North-west Europe. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Geography of north-west Europe. 7.3 Oceanography of north-west Europe. 7.4 Mediterranean. 7.5 Spain and Portugal. 7.6 France. 7.7 Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany. 7.8 Denmark and Norway. 7.9 United Kingdom. 7.10 The estuaries. 7.11 Bibliography. 7.12 Appendix: STEM outputs for north-west Europe. 8 North America. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Geography of North America. 8.3 Oceanography of North America. 8.4 East coast of Canada. 8.5 East coast of the United States. 8.6 West coast of Canada. 8.7 West coast of the United States. 8.8 Bibliography. 8.9 Appendix. 9 Australia and New Zealand. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Timor Sea. 9.3 Arafura Sea. 9.4 Coral Sea. 9.5 Bass Strait. 9.6 New Zealand. 9.7 Bibliography. 9.8 Appendix: STEM outputs for Australia and New Zealand. 10 Rest of the world. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Barents Sea. 10.3 Western South Atlantic. 10.4 Western Indian Ocean. 10.5 East Arabian Sea. 10.6 Indonesia and the Java Sea. 10.7 East China and Yellow Seas. 10.8 Bibliography. 10.9 Appendix. Glossary. Index.

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Book SynopsisA unique book that describes the practical processes necessary to achieve failure free equipment performance, for quality and reliability engineers, design, manufacturing process and environmental test engineers. This book studies the essential requirements for successful product life cycle management. It identifies key contributors to failure in product life cycle management and particular emphasis is placed upon the importance of thorough Manufacturing Process Capability reviews for both in-house and outsourced manufacturing strategies. The readers? attention is also drawn to the many hazards to which a new product is exposed from the commencement of manufacture through to end of life disposal. Revolutionary in focus, as it describes how to achieve failure free performance rather than how to predict an acceptable performance failure rate (reliability technology rather than reliability engineering) Author has over 40 years experience in the field, and Table of ContentsForeword by Michael Pecht. Series Editor’s Preface. Preface. About the Author. Acknowledgements. 1 The Origins and Evolution of Quality and Reliability. 1.1 Sixty Years of Evolving Electronic Equipment Technology. 1.2 Manufacturing Processes – From Manual Skills to Automation. 1.3 Soldering Systems. 1.4 Component Placement Machines. 1.5 Automatic Test Equipment. 1.6 Lean Manufacturing. 1.7 Outsourcing. 1.8 Electronic System Reliability – Folklore versus Reality. 1.9 The ‘Bathtub’ Curve. 1.10 The Truth about Arrhenius. 1.11 The Demise of MIL-HDBK-217. 1.12 The Benefits of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Products. 1.13 The MoD SMART Procurement Initiative. 1.14 Why do Items Fail? 1.15 The Importance of Understanding Physics of Failure (PoF). Summary and Questions. References. 2 Product Lifecycle Management. 2.1 Overview. 2.2 Project Management. 2.3 Project Initiation. 2.4 Project Planning. 2.5 Project Execution. 2.6 Project Closure. 2.7 A Process Capability Maturity Model. 2.8 When and How to Define The Distribution Strategy. 2.9 Transfer of Design to Manufacturing – The High-Risk Phase. 2.10 Outsourcing – Understanding and Minimising the Risks. 2.11 How Product Reliability is Increasingly Threatened in the Twenty-First Century. Summary and Questions. References. 3 The Physics of Failure. 3.1 Overview. 3.2 Background. 3.3 Potential Failure Mechanisms in Materials and Components. 3.4 Techniques for Failure Analysis of Components and Assemblies. 3.5 Transition from Tin-Lead to Lead-Free Soldering. 3.6 High-Temperature Electronics and Extreme-Temperature Electronics. 3.7 Some Illustrations of Failure Mechanisms. Summary and Questions. References. 4 Heat Transfer – Theory and Practice. 4.1 Overview. 4.2 Conduction. 4.3 Convection. 4.4 Radiation. 4.5 Thermal Management. 4.6 Principles of Temperature Measurement. 4.7 Temperature Cycling and Thermal Shock. Summary and Questions. References. 5 Shock and Vibration – Theory and Practice. 5.1 Overview. 5.2 Sources of Shock Pulses in the Real Environment. 5.3 Response of Electronic Equipment to Shock Pulses. 5.4 Shock Testing. 5.5 Product Shock Fragility. 5.6 Shock and Vibration Isolation Techniques. 5.7 Sources of Vibration in the Real Environment. 5.8 Response of Electronic Equipment to Vibration. 5.9 Vibration Testing . 5.10 Vibration-Test Fixtures. Summary and Questions. References. 6 Achieving Environmental-Test Realism. 6.1 Overview. 6.2 Environmental-Testing Objectives. 6.3 Environmental-Test Specifications and Standards. 6.4 Quality Standards. 6.5 The Role of the Test Technician. 6.6 Mechanical Testing. 6.7 Climatic Testing. 6.8 Chemical and Biological Testing. 6.9 Combined Environment Testing. 6.10 Electromagnetic Compatibility. 6.11 Avoiding Misinterpretation of Test Standards and Specifications. Summary and Questions. References. 7 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Design. 7.1 Overview. 7.2 Robust Design and Quality Loss Function. 7.3 Six Sigma Quality. 7.4 Concept, Parameter and Tolerance Design. 7.5 Understanding Product Whole Lifecycle Environment. 7.6 Defining User Requirement for Failure-Free Operation. 7.7 Component Anatomy, Materials and Mechanical Architecture. 7.8 Design for Testability. 7.9 Design for Manufacturability. 7.10 Define Product Distribution Strategy. Summary and Questions. References. 8 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Development. 8.1 Overview. 8.2 Understanding and Achieving Test Realism. 8.3 Qualification Testing. 8.4 Stress Margin Analysis and Functional Performance Stability. 8.5 Premature Failure Stimulation. 8.6 Accelerated Ageing vs. Accelerated Life Testing. 8.7 Design and Proving of Distribution Packaging. Summary and Questions. References. 9 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Manufacturing. 9.1 Overview. 9.2 Manufacturing Planning. 9.3 Manufacturing Process Capability. 9.4 Manufacturing Process Management and Control. 9.5 Non-invasive Inspection Techniques. 9.6 Manufacturing Handling Procedures. 9.7 Lead-Free Soldering – A True Perspective. 9.8 Conformal Coating. 9.9 Production Reliability Acceptance Testing. Summary and Questions. References. 10 Environmental-Stress Screening. 10.1 Overview. 10.2 The Origins of ESS. 10.3 Thermal-Stress Screening. 10.4 Developing a Thermal-Stress Screen. 10.5 Vibration-Stress Screening. 10.6 Developing a Vibration-Stress Screen. 10.7 Combined Environment-Stress Screening. 10.8 Other Stress Screening Methodologies. 10.9 Estimating Product Life Consumed by Stress Screening. 10.10 An Environmental-Stress Screening Case Study. Summary and Questions. References. 11 Some Worked Examples. 11.1 Overview. 11.2 Thermal Expansion Stresses Generated within a PTH Due to Temperature Cycling. 11.3 Shear Tear-Out Stresses in Through-Hole Solder Joints. 11.4 Axial Forces on a Through-Hole Component Lead Wire. 11.5 SMC QFP – Solder-Joint Shear Stresses. 11.6 Frequency and Peak Half-Amplitude Displacement Calculations. 11.7 Random Vibration – Converting G2/Hz to GRMS. 11.8 Accelerated Ageing – Temperature Cycling and Vibration. 11.9 Stress Screening – Production Vibration Fixture Design. References. Appendix 1: Physical Properties of Materials. Appendix 2: Unit Conversion Tables. Index.

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Book SynopsisBiofuel Crop Sustainability brings together the basic principles of agricultural sustainability and special stipulations for biofuels, from the economic and ecological opportunities and challenges of sustainable biofuel crop production to the unique characteristics of particular crops which make them ideal for biofuel applications.Table of ContentsContributors vii Preface xi 1 Biofuel Crop Sustainability Paradigm 3B.P. Singh 2 Sustainable Production of Grain Crops for Biofuels 31A.A. Jaradat 3 Sugarcane as an Energy Crop: Its Role in Biomass Economy 53R. van Antwerpen, S.D. Berry, T. van Antwerpen, J. Smithers, S. Joshi, and M. van der Laan 4 Sustainable Cellulosic Grass Crop Production 109J.H. Fike, D.J. Parrish, and W.B. Fike 5 Sustainable Oil Crops Production 165C. Eynck, D. Shrestha, J. Vollmann, K.C. Falk, W. Friedt, H.P. Singh, and E. Obeng 6 Short-rotation Woody Crop Biomass Production for Bioenergy 205L.C. Kiser and T.R. Fox 7 Biomass Feedstock Production Impact on Water Resource Availability 239K.C. Stone, P.G. Hunt, K.B. Cantrell, and K.S. Ro 8 Biofuel Crops and Soil Quality and Erosion 261D. Chatskikh, A. Ovchinnikova, B. Seshadri, and N. Bolan 9 Nutrient Management in Biofuel Crop Production 301R. Lemus 10 Food, Farming, and Biofuels 325J. Popp 11 Biofuel Crops, Ecosystem Services, and Biodiversity 357A. Fieldsend and H.P. Singh 12 Biofuel Crops and Greenhouse Gases 383A. Hastings, J. Yeluripati, J. Hillier, and P. Smith 13 Economics of Biomass Feedstocks and Biofuels 407T.A. Maung, C. Gustafson, B. McCarl, D. Ripplinger, and D. Saxowsky 14 Geospatial Modeling Applications for Biofuel Sustainability Assessment 431S.S. Panda Appendix I: Botanical Names 449 Index 451

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Book SynopsisSeparation and purification processes play a critical role in biorefineries and their optimal selection, design and operation to maximise product yields and improve overall process efficiency. Separations and purifications are necessary for upstream processes as well as in maximising and improving product recovery in downstream processes. These processes account for a significant fraction of the total capital and operating costs and also are highly energy intensive. Consequently, a better understanding of separation and purification processes, current and possible alternative and novel advanced methods is essential for achieving the overall techno-economic feasibility and commercial success of sustainable biorefineries. This book presents a comprehensive overview focused specifically on the present state, future challenges and opportunities for separation and purification methods and technologies in biorefineries. Topics covered include: EqTable of ContentsList of Contributors xix Preface xxiii PART I INTRODUCTION 1 1 Overview of Biomass Conversion Processes and Separation and Purification Technologies in Biorefineries 3 Hua-Jiang Huang and Shri Ramaswamy 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Biochemical conversion biorefineries 4 1.3 Thermo-chemical and other chemical conversion biorefineries 8 1.4 Integrated lignocellulose biorefineries 14 1.5 Separation and purification processes 15 1.6 Summary 27 References 28 PART II EQUILIBRIUM-BASED SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES 37 2 Distillation 39 Zhigang Lei and Biaohua Chen 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Ordinary distillation 40 2.3 Azeotropic distillation 45 2.4 Extractive distillation 48 2.5 Molecular distillation 54 2.6 Comparisons of different distillation processes 55 2.7 Conclusions and future trends 58 Acknowledgement 58 References 58 3 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) 61 Jianguo Zhang and Bo Hu 3.1 Introduction to LLE: Literature review and recent developments 61 3.2 Fundamental principles of LLE 62 3.3 Categories of LLE design 65 3.4 Equipment for the LLE process 67 3.5 Applications in biorefineries 70 3.6 The future development of LLE for the biorefinery setting 74 References 75 4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 79 Casimiro Mantell, Lourdes Casas, Miguel Rodríguez and Enrique Martínez de la Ossa 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Principles of supercritical fluids 81 4.3 Market and industrial needs 83 4.4 Design and modeling of the process 84 4.4.1 Film theory 88 4.5 Specific examples in biorefineries 89 4.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 93 4.7 Conclusions and future trends 96 References 96 PART III AFFINITY-BASED SEPARATION TECHNOLOGIES 101 5 Adsorption 103 Saravanan Venkatesan 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 Essential principles of adsorption 104 5.3 Adsorbent selection criteria 110 5.4 Commercial and new adsorbents and their properties 111 5.5 Adsorption separation processes 116 5.6 Adsorber modeling 123 5.7 Application of adsorption in biorefineries 124 5.8 A case study: Recovery of 1-butanol from ABE fermentation broth using TSA 136 5.9 Research needs and prospects 142 5.10 Conclusions 143 Acknowledgement 143 References 143 6 Ion Exchange 149 M. Berrios, J. A. Siles, M. A. Martín and A. Martín 6.1 Introduction 149 6.1.1 Ion exchangers: Operational conditions—sorbent selection 150 6.2 Essential principles 151 6.3 Ion-exchange market and industrial needs 153 6.4 Commercial ion-exchange resins 154 6.5 Specific examples in biorefineries 156 6.6 Conclusions and future trends 164 References 164 7 Simulated Moving-Bed Technology for Biorefinery Applications 167 Chim Yong Chin and Nien-Hwa Linda Wang 7.1 Introduction 167 7.2 Essential SMB design principles and tools 171 7.3 Simulated moving-bed technology in biorefineries 191 7.4 Conclusions and future trends 197 References 197 PART IV MEMBRANE SEPARATION 203 8 Microfiltration, Ultrafiltration and Diafiltration 205 Ann-Sofi Jönsson 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 Membrane plant design 207 8.3 Economic considerations 210 8.4 Process design 213 8.5 Operating parameters 216 8.6 Diafiltration 222 8.7 Fouling and cleaning 224 8.8 Conclusions and future trends 226 References 226 9 Nanofiltration 233 Mika Mänttäri, Bart Van der Bruggen and Marianne Nyström 9.1 Introduction 233 9.2 Nanofiltration market and industrial needs 235 9.3 Fundamental principles 236 9.4 Design and simulation 238 9.5 Membrane materials and properties 241 9.6 Commercial nanofiltration membranes 245 9.7 Nanofiltration examples in biorefineries 246 9.8 Conclusions and challenges 256 References 256 10 Membrane Pervaporation 259 Yan Wang, Natalia Widjojo, Panu Sukitpaneenit and Tai-Shung Chung 10.1 Introduction 259 10.2 Membrane pervaporation market and industrial needs 260 10.3 Fundamental principles 261 10.4 Design principles of the pervaporation membrane 265 10.5 Pervaporation in the current integrated biorefinery system 283 10.6 Conclusions and future trends 288 Acknowledgements 289 References 289 11 Membrane Distillation 301 M. A. Izquierdo-Gil 11.1 Introduction 301 11.2 Membrane distillation market and industrial needs 304 11.3 Basic principles of membrane distillation 308 11.4 Design and simulation 313 11.5 Examples in biorefineries 315 11.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 317 11.7 Comparisons with other membrane-separation technologies 319 11.8 Conclusions and future trends 321 References 322 PART V SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATIONS 327 12 Filtration-Based Separations in the Biorefinery 329 Bhavin V. Bhayani and Bandaru V. Ramarao 12.1 Introduction 329 12.2 Biorefinery 330 12.3 Solid–liquid separations in the biorefinery 335 12.4 Introduction to cake filtration 336 12.5 Basics of cake filtration 336 12.6 Designing a dead-end filtration 340 12.7 Model development 346 12.8 Conclusions 348 References 348 13 Solid–Liquid Extraction in Biorefinery 351 Zurina Zainal Abidin, Dayang Radiah Awang Biak, Hamdan Mohamed Yusoff and Mohd Yusof Harun 13.1 Introduction 351 13.2 Principles of solid–liquid extraction 352 13.3 State of the art technology 356 13.4 Design and modeling of SLE process 357 13.5 Industrial extractors 363 13.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 368 13.7 Conclusions 371 References 371 PART VI HYBRID/INTEGRATED REACTION-SEPARATION SYSTEMS—PROCESS INTENSIFICATION 375 14 Membrane Bioreactors for Biofuel Production 377 Sara M. Badenes, Frederico Castelo Ferreira and Joaquim M. S. Cabral 14.1 Introduction 377 14.2 Basic principles 381 14.2.1 Biofuels: Production principles and biological systems 381 14.3 Examples of membrane bioreactors for biofuel production 390 14.4 Conclusions and future trends 403 References 404 15 Extraction-Fermentation Hybrid (Extractive Fermentation) 409 Shang-Tian Yang and Congcong Lu 15.1 Introduction 409 15.2 The market and industrial needs 410 15.3 Basic principles of extractive fermentation 412 15.4 Separation technologies for integrated fermentation product recovery 413 15.5 Examples in biorefineries 426 15.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 428 15.7 Conclusions and future trends 431 References 431 16 Reactive Distillation for the Biorefinery 439 Aspi K. Kolah, Carl T. Lira and Dennis J. Miller 16.1 Introduction 439 16.2 Column internals for reactive distillation 441 16.3 Simulation of reactive distillation systems 446 16.4 Reactive distillation for the biorefinery 451 16.5 Recently commercialized reactive distillation processes for the biorefinery 458 16.6 Conclusions 458 References 459 17 Reactive Absorption 467 Anton A. Kiss and Costin Sorin Bildea 17.1 Introduction 467 17.2 Market and industrial needs 468 17.3 Basic principles of reactive absorption 468 17.4 Modelling, design and simulation 469 17.5 Case study: Biodiesel production by catalytic reactive absorption 470 17.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 482 17.7 Conclusions and future trends 482 References 482 PART VII CASE STUDIES OF SEPARATION AND PURIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN BIOREFINERIES 485 18 Cellulosic Bioethanol Production 487 Mats Galbe, Ola Wallberg and Guido Zacchi 18.1 Introduction: The market and industrial needs 487 18.2 Separation procedures and their integration within a bioethanol plant 488 18.3 Importance and challenges of separation processes 490 18.4 Pilot and demonstration scale 498 18.5 Conclusions and future trends 500 References 500 19 Dehydration of Ethanol using Pressure Swing Adsorption 503 Marian Simo 19.1 Introduction 503 19.2 Ethanol dehydration process using pressure swing adsorption 504 19.3 Future trends and industrial challenges 510 19.4 Conclusions 511 References 511 20 Separation and Purification of Lignocellulose Hydrolyzates 513 G. Peter van Walsum 20.1 Introduction 513 20.2 The market and industrial needs 516 20.3 Operation variables and conditions 517 20.4 The hydrolyzates detoxification and separation processes 519 20.5 Separation performances and results 524 20.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 525 20.7 Conclusions 527 References 527 21 Case Studies of Separation in Biorefineries—Extraction of Algae Oil from Microalgae 533 Michael Cooney 21.1 Introduction 533 21.2 The market and industrial needs 534 21.3 The algae oil extraction process 539 21.4 Extraction 540 21.5 Separation performance and results 546 21.6 Economic importance and industrial challenges 548 21.7 Conclusions and future trends 549 References 550 22 Separation Processes in Biopolymer Production 555 Sanjay P. Kamble, Prashant P. Barve, Imran Rahman and Bhaskar D. Kulkarni 22.1 Introduction 555 22.2 The market and industrial needs 556 22.3 Lactic acid recovery processes 559 22.4 Separation performance and results of autocatalytic counter current reactive distillation of lactic acid with methanol and hydrolysis of methyl lactate into highly pure lactic acid using 3-CSTRs in series 561 22.5 Economic importance and industrial challenges 564 22.6 Conclusions and future trends 565 Acknowledgements 566 References 566 Index 569

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Book SynopsisThis book explores how developing solutions with heuristic tools offers two major advantages: shortened development time and more robust systems. It begins with an overview of modern heuristic techniques and goes on to cover specific applications of heuristic approaches to power system problems, such as security assessment, optimal power flow, power system scheduling and operational planning, power generation expansion planning, reactive power planning, transmission and distribution planning, network reconfiguration, power system control, and hybrid systems of heuristic methods.Trade ReviewThis text provides excellent, expert level, treatment of a very important systems engineering topic that will benefit students and practicing engineers. (IEEE Power Electronics Society Newsletter, 3rd Quarter, 2008)Table of ContentsPreface xxi Contributors xxvii Part 1 Theory of Modern Heuristic Optimization 1 1 Introduction to Evolutionary Computation 3 David B. Fogel 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Advantages of Evolutionary Computation 4 1.2.1 Conceptual Simplicity 4 1.2.2 Broad Applicability 6 1.2.3 Outperform Classic Methods on Real Problems 7 1.2.4 Potential to Use Knowledge and Hybridize with Other Methods 8 1.2.5 Parallelism 8 1.2.6 Robust to Dynamic Changes 9 1.2.7 Capability for Self-Optimization 10 1.2.8 Able to Solve Problems That Have No Known Solutions 11 1.3 Current Developments 12 1.3.1 Review of Some Historical Theory in Evolutionary Computation 12 1.3.2 No Free Lunch Theorem 12 1.3.3 Computational Equivalence of Representations 14 1.3.4 Schema Theorem in the Presence of Random Variation 16 1.3.5 Two-Armed Bandits and the Optimal Allocation of Trials 17 1.4 Conclusions 19 Acknowledgments 20 References 20 2 Fundamentals of Genetic Algorithms 25 Alexandre P. Alves da Silva and Djalma M. Falcao 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Modern Heuristic Search Techniques 25 2.3 Introduction to GAs 27 2.4 Encoding 28 2.5 Fitness Function 30 2.5.1 Premature Convergence 32 2.5.2 Slow Finishing 32 2.6 Basic Operators 33 2.6.1 Selection 33 2.6.2 Crossover 36 2.6.3 Mutation 38 2.6.4 Control Parameters Estimation 38 2.7 Niching Methods 38 2.8 Parallel Genetic Algorithms 39 2.9 Final Comments 40 Acknowledgments 41 References 41 3 Fundamentals of Evolution Strategies and Evolutionary Programming 43 Vladimiro Miranda 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Evolution Strategies 46 3.2.1 The General (µ, κ, λ, ρ) Evolution Strategies Scheme 47 3.2.2 Some More Basic Concepts 50 3.2.3 The Early (1 + 1)ES and the 1/5 Rule 51 3.2.4 Focusing on the Optimum 53 3.2.5 The (1, λ)ES and σSA Self-Adaptation 54 3.2.6 How to Choose a Value for the Learning Parameter? 56 3.2.7 The (µ, l)ES as an Extension of (1, λ)ES 57 3.2.8 Self-Adaptation in (µ, λ)ES 58 3.3 Evolutionary Programming 60 3.3.1 The (µ + λ) Bridge to ES 60 3.3.2 A Scheme for Evolutionary Programming 61 3.3.3 Other Evolutionary Programming Variants 63 3.4 Common Features 63 3.4.1 Enhancing the Mutation Process 63 3.4.2 Recombination as a Major Factor 65 3.4.3 Handling Constraints 67 3.4.4 Starting Point 67 3.4.5 Fitness Function 67 3.4.6 Computing 68 3.5 Conclusions 68 References 69 4 Fundamentals of Particle Swarm Optimization Techniques 71 Yoshikazu Fukuyama 4.1 Introduction 71 4.2 Basic Particle Swarm Optimization 72 4.2.1 Background of Particle Swarm Optimization 72 4.2.2 Original PSO 72 4.3 Variations of Particle Swarm Optimization 76 4.3.1 Discrete PSO 76 4.3.2 PSO for MINLPs 77 4.3.3 Constriction Factor Approach (CFA) 77 4.3.4 Hybrid PSO (HPSO) 78 4.3.5 Lbest Model 79 4.3.6 Adaptive PSO (APSO) 79 4.3.7 Evolutionary PSO (EPSO) 81 4.4 Research Areas and Applications 82 4.5 Conclusions 83 References 83 5 Fundamentals of Ant Colony Search Algorithms 89 Yong-Hua Song, Haiyan Lu, Kwang Y. Lee, and I. K. Yu 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Ant Colony Search Algorithm 90 5.2.1 Behavior of Real Ants 90 5.2.2 Ant Colony Algorithms 91 5.2.3 Major Characteristics of Ant Colony Search Algorithms 98 5.3 Conclusions 99 References 99 6 Fundamentals of Tabu Search 101 Alcir J. Monticelli, Rubén Romero, and Eduardo Nobuhiro Asada 6.1 Introduction 101 6.1.1 Overview of the Tabu Search Approach 101 6.1.2 Problem Formulation 103 6.1.3 Coding and Representation 104 6.1.4 Neighborhood Structure 105 6.1.5 Characterization of the Neighborhood 108 6.2 Functions and Strategies in Tabu Search 110 6.2.1 Recency-Based Tabu Search 110 6.2.2 Basic Tabu Search Algorithm 112 6.2.3 The Use of Long-Term Memory in Tabu Search 115 6.3 Applications of Tabu Search 119 6.4 Conclusions 120 References 120 7 Fundamentals of Simulated Annealing 123 Alcir J. Monticelli, Rubén Romero, and Eduardo Nobuhiro Asada 7.1 Introduction 123 7.2 Basic Principles 125 7.2.1 Metropolis Algorithm 125 7.2.2 Simulated Annealing Algorithm 126 7.3 Cooling Schedule 127 7.3.1 Determination of the Initial Temperature T0 128 7.3.2 Determination of Nk 129 7.3.3 Determination of Cooling Rate 130 7.3.4 Stopping Criterion 130 7.4 SA Algorithm for the Traveling Salesman Problem 131 7.4.1 Problem Coding 131 7.4.2 Evaluation of the Cost Function 132 7.4.3 Cooling Schedule 133 7.4.4 Comments on the Results for the TSP 134 7.5 SA for Transmission Network Expansion Problem 134 7.5.1 Problem Coding 136 7.5.2 Determination of the Initial Solution 136 7.5.3 Neighborhood Structure 138 7.5.4 Variation of the Objective Function 139 7.5.5 Cooling Schedule 140 7.6 Parallel Simulated Annealing 140 7.6.1 Division Algorithm 141 7.6.2 Clustering Algorithm 142 7.7 Applications of Simulated Annealing 143 7.8 Conclusions 144 References 144 8 Fuzzy Systems 147 Germano Lambert-Torres 8.1 Motivation and Definitions 147 8.1.1 Introduction 147 8.1.2 Typical Actions in Fuzzy Systems 148 8.2 Integration of Fuzzy Systems with Evolutionary Techniques 150 8.2.1 Integration Types of Hybrid Systems 150 8.2.2 Hybrid Systems in Evolutionary Techniques 151 8.2.3 Evolutionary Algorithms and Fuzzy Logic 152 8.3 An Illustrative Example of a Hybrid System 152 8.3.1 Parking Conditions 153 8.3.2 Creation of the Fuzzy Control 154 8.3.3 First Simulations 156 8.3.4 Problem Presentation 156 8.3.5 Genetic Training Modulus Description 158 8.3.6 The Option to Define the Starting Positions 158 8.3.7 The Option Genetic Training 158 8.3.8 Tests 163 8.4 Conclusions 167 References 168 9 Differential Evolution, an Alternative Approach to Evolutionary Algorithm 171 Kit Po Wong and ZhaoYang Dong 9.1 Introduction 171 9.2 Evolutionary Algorithms 172 9.2.1 Basic EAs 172 9.2.2 Virtual Population-Based Acceleration Techniques 174 9.3 Differential Evolution 176 9.3.1 Function Optimization Formulation 176 9.3.2 DE Fundamentals 177 9.4 Key Operators for Differential Evolution 181 9.4.1 Encoding 181 9.4.2 Mutation 181 9.4.3 Crossover 183 9.4.4 Other Operators 183 9.5 An Optimization Example 184 9.6 Conclusions 186 Acknowledgments 186 References 186 10 Pareto Multiobjective Optimization 189 Patrick N. Ngatchou, Anahita Zarei, Warren L. J. Fox, and Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi 10.1 Introduction 189 10.2 Basic Principles 190 10.2.1 Generic Formulation of MO Problems 191 10.2.2 Pareto Optimality Concepts 191 10.2.3 Objectives of Multiobjective Optimization 193 10.3 Solution Approaches 194 10.3.1 Classic Methods 194 10.3.2 Intelligent Methods 196 10.4 Performance Analysis 202 10.4.1 Objective of Performance Assessment 202 10.4.2 Comparison Methodologies 203 10.5 Conclusions 205 Acknowledgments 205 References 205 11 Trust-Tech Paradigm for Computing High-Quality Optimal Solutions: Method and Theory 209 Hsiao-Dong Chiang and Jaewook Lee 11.1 Introduction 209 11.2 Problem Preliminaries 210 11.3 A Trust-Tech Paradigm 213 11.3.1 Phase I 213 11.3.2 Phase II 214 11.4 Theoretical Analysis of Trust-Tech Method 218 11.5 A Numerical Trust-Tech Method 221 11.5.1 Computing Another Local Optimal Solution 222 11.5.2 Computing Tier-One Local Optimal Solutions 223 11.5.3 Computing Tier-N Solutions 224 11.6 Hybrid Trust-Tech Methods 225 11.7 Numerical Schemes 227 11.8 Numerical Studies 228 11.9 Conclusions Remarks 231 References 232 Part 2 Selected Applications of Modern Heuristic Optimization In Power Systems 235 12 Overview of Applications in Power Systems 237 Alexandre P. Alves da Silva, Djalma M. Falcão, and Kwang Y. Lee 12.1 Introduction 237 12.2 Optimization 237 12.3 Power System Applications 238 12.4 Model Identification 239 12.4.1 Dynamic Load Modeling 239 12.4.2 Short-Term Load Forecasting 240 12.4.3 Neural Network Training 241 12.5 Control 242 12.5.1 Examples 243 12.6 Distribution System Applications 244 12.6.1 Network Reconfiguration for Loss Reduction 245 12.6.2 Optimal Protection and Switching Devices Placement 246 12.6.3 Prioritizing Investments in Distribution Networks 247 12.7 Conclusions 249 References 250 13 Application of Evolutionary Technique to Power System Vulnerability Assessment 261 Mingoo Kim, Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi, Robert J. Marks, and Ioannis N. Kassabalidis 13.1 Introduction 261 13.2 Vulnerability Assessment and Control 263 13.3 Vulnerability Assessment Challenges 264 13.3.1 Complexity of Power System 264 13.3.2 VA On-line Speed 265 13.3.3 Feature Selection 265 13.3.4 Vulnerability Border 270 13.3.5 Selection of Vulnerability Index 276 13.4 Conclusions 281 References 281 14 Applications to System Planning 285Eduardo Nobuhiro Asada, Youngjae Jeon, Kwang Y. Lee, Vladimiro Miranda, Alcir J. Monticelli, Koichi Nara, Jong-Bae Park, Rubén Romero, and Yong-Hua Song 14.1 Introduction 285 14.2 Generation Expansion 286 14.2.1 A Coding Strategy for an Improved GA for the Least-Cost GEP 288 14.2.2 Fitness Function 288 14.2.3 Creation of an Artificial Initial Population 289 14.2.4 Stochastic Crossover Elitism and Mutation 291 14.2.5 Numerical Examples 292 14.2.6 Parameters for GEP and IGA 293 14.2.7 Numerical Results 295 14.3 Transmission Network Expansion 297 14.3.1 Overview of Static Transmission Network Planning 297 14.3.2 Solution Techniques for the Transmission Expansion Planning Problem 300 14.3.3 Coding, Problem Representation, and Test Systems 302 14.3.4 Complexity of the Test Systems 304 14.3.5 Simulated Annealing 306 14.3.6 Genetic Algorithms in Transmission Network Expansion Planning 307 14.3.7 Tabu Search in Transmission Network Expansion Planning 309 14.3.8 Hybrid TS/GA/SA Algorithm in Transmission Network Expansion Planning 310 14.3.9 Comments on the Performance of Meta-heuristic Methods in Transmission Network Expansion Planning 311 14.4 Distribution Network Expansion 311 14.4.1 Dynamic Planning of Distribution System Expansion: A Complete GA Model 312 14.4.2 Dynamic Planning of Distribution System Expansion: An Efficient GA Application 316 14.4.3 Application of TS to the Design of Distribution Networks in FRIENDS 317 14.5 Reactive Power Planning at Generation–Transmission Level 320 14.5.1 Benders Decomposition of the Reactive Power Planning Problem 321 14.5.2 Solution Algorithm 323 14.5.3 Results for the IEEE 30-Bus System 324 14.6 Reactive Power Planning at Distribution Level 326 14.6.1 Modeling Chromosome Repair Using an Analytical Model 326 14.6.2 Evolutionary Programming/Evolution Strategies Under Test 327 14.7 Conclusions 330 References 330 15 Applications to Power System Scheduling 337 Koay Chin Aik, Loi Lei Lai, Kwang Y. Lee, Haiyan Lu, Jong-Bae Park, Yong-Hua Song, Dipti Srinivasan, John G. Vlachogiannis, and I. K. Yu 15.1 Introduction 337 15.2 Economic Dispatch 337 15.2.1 Economic Dispatch Problem 337 15.2.2 GA Implementation to ED 339 15.2.3 PSO Implementation to ED 346 15.2.4 Numerical Example 348 15.2.5 Summary 354 15.3 Maintenance Scheduling 354 15.3.1 Maintenance Scheduling Problem 354 15.3.2 GA, PSO, and ES Implementation 355 15.3.3 Simulation Results 365 15.3.4 Summary 366 15.4 Cogeneration Scheduling 366 15.4.1 Cogeneration Scheduling Problem 367 15.4.2 IGA Implementation 370 15.4.3 Case Study 373 15.4.4 Summary 374 15.4.5 Nomenclature 379 15.5 Short-Term Generation Scheduling of Thermal Units 380 15.5.1 Short-Term Generation Scheduling Problem 380 15.5.2 ACSA Implementation 382 15.5.3 Experimental results 385 15.6 Constrained Load Flow Problem 385 15.6.1 Constrained Load Flow Problem 385 15.6.2 Heuristic Ant Colony Search Algorithm Implementation 386 15.6.3 Test Examples 390 15.6.4 Summary 399 References 399 16 Power System Controls 403 Yoshikazu Fukuyama, Hamid Ghezelayagh, Kwang Y. Lee, Chen-Ching Liu, Yong-Hua Song, and Ying Xiao 16.1 Introduction 403 16.2 Power System Controls: Particle Swarm Technique 404 16.2.1 Problem Formulation of VVC 405 16.2.2 Expansion of PSO for MINLP 406 16.2.3 Voltage Security Assessment 407 16.2.4 VVC Using PSO 408 16.2.5 Numerical Examples 409 16.2.6 Summary 416 16.3 Power Plant Controller Design with GA 417 16.3.1 Overview of the GA 417 16.3.2 The Boiler-Turbine Model 419 16.3.3 The GA Control System Design 420 16.3.4 GA Design Results 423 16.4 Evolutionary Programming Optimizer and Application in Intelligent Predictive Control 427 16.4.1 Structure of the Intelligent Predictive Controller 428 16.4.2 Power Plant Model 430 16.4.3 Control Input Optimization 431 16.4.4 Self-Organized Neuro-Fuzzy Identifier 435 16.4.5 Rule Generation and Tuning 438 16.4.6 Controller Implementation 442 16.4.7 Summary 444 16.5 An Interactive Compromise Programming-Based MO Approach to FACTS Control 444 16.5.1 Review of MO Optimization Techniques 446 16.5.2 Formulated MO Optimization Model 449 16.5.3 Power Flow Control Model of FACTS Devices 450 16.5.4 Proposed Interactive DWCP Method 453 16.5.5 Proposed Interactive Procedure with Worst Compromise Displacement 455 16.5.6 Implementation 457 16.5.7 Numerical Results 457 16.5.8 Summary 462 References 464 17 Genetic Algorithms for Solving Optimal Power Flow Problems 471 Loi Lei Lai and Nidul Sinha 17.1 Introduction 471 17.2 Genetic Algorithms 473 17.2.1 Terms Used in GA 473 17.3 Load Flow Problem 478 17.4 Optimal Power Flow Problem 483 17.4.1 Application Examples 485 17.5 OPF with FACTS Devices 488 17.5.1 FACTS Model 492 17.5.2 Problem Formulation 495 17.5.3 Numerical Results 496 17.6 Conclusions 499 References 499 18 An Interactive Compromise Programming-Based Multiobjective Approach to FACTS Control 501 Ying Xiao, Yong-Hua Song, and Chen-Ching Liu 18.1 Introduction 501 18.2 Review of Multiobjective Optimization Techniques 503 18.2.1 Weighting Method 503 18.2.2 Goal Programming 504 18.2.3 1-Constraint Method 504 18.2.4 Compromise Programming 504 18.2.5 Fuzzy Set Theory Applications 505 18.2.6 Genetic Algorithm 505 18.2.7 Interactive Procedure 506 18.3 Formulated MO Optimization Model 506 18.3.1 Formulated MO Optimization Model for FACTS Control 507 18.3.2 Power Flow Control Model of FACTS Devices 508 18.4 Proposed Interactive Displaced Worst Compromise Programming Method 511 18.4.1 Applied Fuzzy CP 511 18.4.2 Operation Cost Minimization 512 18.4.3 Local Power Flow Control 512 18.5 Proposed Interactive Procedure with WC Displacement 513 18.5.1 Phase 1: Model Formulation 513 18.5.2 Phase 2: Noninferior Solution Calculation 514 18.5.3 Phase 3: Scenario Evaluation 514 18.6 Implementation 516 18.7 Numerical Results 516 18.8 Conclusions 521 References 521 19 Hybrid Systems 525 Vladimiro Miranda 19.1 Introduction 525 19.2 Capacitor Sizing and Location and Analytical Sensitivities 527 19.2.1 From Darwin to Lamarck: Three Models 528 19.2.2 Building a Lamarckian Acquisition of Improvements 529 19.2.3 Analysis of a Didactic Example 531 19.3 Unit Commitment Fuzzy Sets and Cleverer Chromosomes 538 19.3.1 The Deceptive Characteristics of Unit Commitment Problems 538 19.3.2 Similarity Between the Capacitor Placement and the Unit Commitment Problems 539 19.3.3 The Need for Cleverer Chromosomes 540 19.3.4 A Biological Touch: The Chromosome as a Program 541 19.3.5 A Real-World Example: The CARE Model in Crete Greece 542 19.3.6 Fitness Evaluation: Reliability (Spinning Reserve as a Fuzzy Constraint) 547 19.3.7 Illustrative Results 547 19.4 Voltage/Var Control and Loss Reduction in Distribution Networks with an Evolutionary Self-Adaptive Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm: EPSO 550 19.4.1 Justifying a Hybrid Approach 550 19.4.2 The Principles of EPSO: Reproduction and Movement Rule 551 19.4.3 Mutating Strategic Parameters 552 19.4.4 The Merits of EPSO 553 19.4.5 Experiencing with EPSO: Basic EPSO Model 554 19.4.6 EPSO in Test Functions 554 19.4.7 EPSO in Loss Reduction and Voltage/VAR Control: Definition of the Problem 557 19.4.8 Applying EPSO in the Management of Networks with Distributed Generation 558 19.5 Conclusions 559 References 560 Index 563

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Book SynopsisThis work provides coverage of the relationship between the design and cost issues of large wind turbines. Using simple principles of engineering science, the authors develop a model for quantifying the weight and cost of variable machine sizes, enabling quantitative comparisons to be made.Trade Review"This is a necessary book for all libraries supporting realistic engineering design for commercial development. Moreover many individuals will wish to have it on their shelves for reference and stimulation..." (Wind Engineering, 2001)Table of ContentsPreface. Glossary of Symbols. Development of Large Wind Turbines. Wind Turbine Technology and Design Concepts. Design Factors Affecting Weight and Costs. Modelling of Wind Turbine Weight and Costs. Weight and Costs of Different Turbine Concepts. Economic Prospects of Large Wind Turbines. Offshore Developments. Index.

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Book SynopsisStatistical Intervals is a guide for practitioners and researchers--providing a detailed, comprehensive, modernized treatment of this important subject. With numerous examples, it presents and differentiates in an easy-to-apply manner the use of confidence intervals (e.g.Table of ContentsPreface to Second Edition iii Preface to First Edition vii Acknowledgments x 1 Introduction, Basic Concepts, and Assumptions 1 1.1 Statistical Inference 2 1.2 Different Types of Statistical Intervals: An Overview 2 1.3 The Assumption of Sample Data 3 1.4 The Central Role of Practical Assumptions Concerning Representative Data 4 1.5 Enumerative Versus Analytic Studies 5 1.6 Basic Assumptions for Enumerative Studies 7 1.7 Considerations in the Conduct of Analytic Studies 10 1.8 Convenience and Judgment Samples 11 1.9 Sampling People 12 1.10 Infinite Population Assumptions 13 1.11 Practical Assumptions: Overview 14 1.12 Practical Assumptions: Further Example 14 1.13 Planning the Study 17 1.14 The Role of Statistical Distributions 17 1.15 The Interpretation of Statistical Intervals 18 1.16 Statistical Intervals and Big Data 19 1.17 Comment Concerning Subsequent Discussion 19 2 Overview of Different Types of Statistical Intervals 21 2.1 Choice of a Statistical Interval 21 2.2 Confidence Intervals 23 2.3 Prediction Intervals 24 2.4 Statistical Tolerance Intervals 26 2.5 Which Statistical Interval Do I Use? 27 2.6 Choosing a Confidence Level 28 2.7 Two-Sided Statistical Intervals Versus One-Sided Statistical Bounds 29 2.8 The Advantage of Using Confidence Intervals Instead of Significance Tests 30 2.9 Simultaneous Statistical Intervals 31 3 Constructing Statistical Intervals Assuming a Normal Distribution Using Simple Tabulations 33 3.1 Introduction 34 3.2 Circuit Pack Voltage Output Example 35 3.3 Two-Sided Statistical Intervals 36 3.4 One-Sided Statistical Bounds 38 4 Methods for Calculating Statistical Intervals for a Normal Distribution 43 4.1 Notation 44 4.2 Confidence Interval for the Mean of a Normal Distribution 45 4.3 Confidence Interval for the Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution 45 4.4 Confidence Interval for a Normal Distribution Quantile 46 4.5 Confidence Interval for the Distribution Proportion Less (Greater) Than a Specified Value 47 4.6 Statistical Tolerance Intervals 48 4.7 Prediction Interval to Contain a Single Future Observation or the Mean of m Future Observations 50 4.8 Prediction Interval to Contain at least k of m Future Observations 51 4.9 Prediction Interval to Contain the Standard Deviation of m Future Observations 52 4.10 The Assumption of a Normal Distribution 53 4.11 Assessing Distribution Normality and Dealing with Nonnormality 54 4.12 Data Transformations and Inferences from Transformed Data 57 4.13 Statistical Intervals for Linear Regression Analysis 60 4.14 Statistical Intervals for Comparing Populations and Processes 62 5 Distribution-Free Statistical Intervals 65 5.1 Introduction 66 5.2 Distribution-Free Confidence Intervals and One-Sided Confidence Bounds for a Quantile 68 5.3 Distribution-Free Tolerance Intervals and Bounds to Contain a Specified Proportion of a Distribution 78 5.4 Prediction Intervals to Contain a Specified Ordered Observation in a Future Sample 81 5.5 Distribution-Free Prediction Intervals and Bounds to Contain at Least k of m Future Observations 84 6 Statistical Intervals for a Binomial Distribution 89 6.1 Introduction to Binomial Distribution Statistical Intervals 90 6.2 Confidence Intervals for the Actual Proportion Nonconforming in the Sampled Distribution 92 6.3 Confidence Interval for the Proportion of Nonconforming Units in a Finite Population 102 6.4 Confidence Intervals for the Probability that the Number of Nonconforming Units in a Sample is Less than or Equal to (or Greater than) a Specified Number 104 6.5 Confidence Intervals for the Quantile of the Distribution of the Number of Nonconforming Units 105 6.6 Tolerance Intervals and One-Sided Tolerance Bounds for the Distribution of the Number of Nonconforming Units 107 6.7 Prediction Intervals for the Number Nonconforming in a Future Sample 108 7 Statistical Intervals for a Poisson Distribution 115 7.1 Introduction 116 7.2 Confidence Intervals for the Event-Occurrence Rate of a Poisson Distribution 117 7.3 Confidence Intervals for the Probability that the Number of Events in a Specified Amount of Exposure is Less than or Equal to (or Greater than) a Specified Number 124 7.4 Confidence Intervals for the Quantile of the Distribution of the Number of Events in a Specified Amount of Exposure 125 7.5 Tolerance Intervals and One-Sided Tolerance Bounds for the Distribution of the Number of Events in a Specified Amount of Exposure 127 7.6 Prediction Intervals for the Number of Events in a Future Amount of Exposure 128 8 Sample Size Requirements for Confidence Intervals on Distribution Parameters 135 8.1 Basic Requirements for Sample Size Determination 136 8.2 Sample Size for a Confidence Interval for a Normal Distribution Mean 137 8.3 Sample Size to Estimate a Normal Distribution Standard Deviation 141 8.4 Sample Size to Estimate a Normal Distribution Quantile 143 8.5 Sample Size to Estimate a Binomial Proportion 143 8.6 Sample Size to Estimate a Poisson Occurrence Rate 144 9 Sample Size Requirements for Tolerance Intervals, Tolerance Bounds, and Related Demonstration Tests 148 9.1 Sample Size for Normal Distribution Tolerance Intervals and One-Sided Tolerance Bounds148 9.2 Sample Size to Pass a One-Sided Demonstration Test Based on Normally Distributed Measurements 150 9.3 Minimum Sample Size For Distribution-Free Two-Sided Tolerance Intervals and One-Sided Tolerance Bounds 152 9.4 Sample Size for Controlling the Precision of Two-Sided Distribution-Free Tolerance In-tervals and One-Sided Distribution-Free Tolerance Bounds 153 9.5 Sample Size to Demonstrate that a Binomial Proportion Exceeds (is Exceeded by) a Specified Value 154 10 Sample Size Requirements for Prediction Intervals 164 10.1 Prediction Interval Width: The Basic Idea 164 10.2 Sample Size for a Normal Distribution Prediction Interval 165 10.3 Sample Size for Distribution-Free Prediction Intervals for k of m Future Observations 170 11 Basic Case Studies 172 11.1 Demonstration that the Operating Temperature of Most Manufactured Devices will not Exceed a Specified Value 173 11.2 Forecasting Future Demand for Spare Parts 177 11.3 Estimating the Probability of Passing an Environmental Emissions Test 180 11.4 Planning a Demonstration Test to Verify that a Radar System has a Satisfactory Prob-ability of Detection 182 11.5 Estimating the Probability of Exceeding a Regulatory Limit 184 11.6 Estimating the Reliability of a Circuit Board 189 11.7 Using Sample Results to Estimate the Probability that a Demonstration Test will be Successful 191 11.8 Estimating the Proportion within Specifications for a Two-Variable Problem 194 11.9 Determining the Minimum Sample Size for a Demonstration Test 195 12 Likelihood-Based Statistical Intervals 197 12.1 Introduction to Likelihood-Based Inference 198 12.2 Likelihood Function and Maximum Likelihood Estimation 200 12.3 Likelihood-Based Confidence Intervals for Single-Parameter Distributions 203 12.4 Likelihood-Based Estimation Methods for Location-Scale and Log-Location-Scale Distri-butions 206 12.5 Likelihood-Based Confidence Intervals for Parameters and Scalar Functions of Parameters212 12.6 Wald-Approximation Confidence Intervals 216 12.7 Some Other Likelihood-Based Statistical Intervals 224 13 Nonparametric Bootstrap Statistical Intervals 226 13.1 Introduction 227 13.2 Nonparametric Methods for Generating Bootstrap Samples and Obtaining Bootstrap Estimates 227 13.3 Bootstrap Operational Considerations 231 13.4 Nonparametric Bootstrap Confidence Interval Methods 233 14 Parametric Bootstrap and Other Simulation-Based Statistical Intervals 245 14.1 Introduction 246 14.2 Parametric Bootstrap Samples and Bootstrap Estimates 247 14.3 Bootstrap Confidence Intervals Based on Pivotal Quantities 250 14.4 Generalized Pivotal Quantities 253 14.5 Simulation-Based Tolerance Intervals for Location-Scale or Log-Location-Scale Distribu-tions 258 14.6 Simulation-Based Prediction Intervals and One-Sided Prediction Bounds for k of m Fu-ture Observations from Location-Scale or Log-Location-Scale Distributions 260 14.7 Other Simulation and Bootstrap Methods and Application to Other Distributions and Models 263 15 Introduction to Bayesian Statistical Intervals 270 15.1 Bayesian Inference: Overview 271 15.2 Bayesian Inference: an Illustrative Example 274 15.3 More About Specification of a Prior Distribution 283 15.4 Implementing Bayesian Analyses Using Markov Chain Monte Carlo Simulation 286 15.5 Bayesian Tolerance and Prediction Intervals 291 16 Bayesian Statistical Intervals for the Binomial, Poisson and Normal Distributions 297 16.1 Bayesian Intervals for the Binomial Distribution 298 16.2 Bayesian Intervals for the Poisson Distribution 306 16.3 Bayesian Intervals for the Normal Distribution 311 17 Statistical Intervals for Bayesian Hierarchical Models 321 17.1 Bayesian Hierarchical Models and Random Effects 322 17.2 Normal Distribution Hierarchical Models 323 17.3 Binomial Distribution Hierarchical Models 325 17.4 Poisson Distribution Hierarchical Models 328 17.5 Longitudinal Repeated Measures Models 329 18 Advanced Case Studies 335 18.1 Confidence Interval for the Proportion of Defective Integrated Circuits 336 18.2 Confidence Intervals for Components of Variance in a Measurement Process 339 18.3 Tolerance Interval to Characterize the Distribution of Process Output in the Presence of Measurement Error 344 18.4 Confidence Interval for the Proportion of Product Conforming to a Two-Sided Specification345 18.5 Confidence Interval for the Treatment Effect in a Marketing Campaign 348 18.6 Confidence Interval for the Probability of Detection with Limited Hit-Miss Data 349 18.7 Using Prior Information to Estimate the Service-Life Distribution of a Rocket Motor 353 Epilogue 357 A Notation and Acronyms 360 B Generic Definition of Statistical Intervals and Formulas for Computing Coverage Probabilities 367 B.1 Introduction 367 B.2 Two-sided Confidence Intervals and One-sided Confidence Bounds for Distribution Pa-rameters or a Function of Parameters 368 B.3 Two Sided Control-the-Center Tolerance Intervals to Contain at Least a Specified Pro-portion of a Distribution 371 B.4 Two Sided Tolerance Intervals to Control Both Tails of a Distribution 374 B.5 One-Sided Tolerance Bounds 377 B.6 Two-sided Prediction Intervals and One-Sided Prediction Bounds for Future Observations378 B.7 Two-Sided Simultaneous Prediction Intervals and One-Sided Simultaneous Prediction Bounds 381 B.8 Calibration of Statistical Intervals 383 C Useful Probability Distributions 384 C.1 Probability Distribution and R Computations 384 C.2 Important Characteristics of Random Variables 385 C.3 Continuous Distributions 388 C.4 Discrete Distributions 398 D General Results from Statistical Theory and Some Methods Used to Construct Sta-tistical Intervals 404 D.1 cdfs and pdfs of Functions of Random Variables 405 D.2 Statistical Error Propagation—The Delta Method 409 D.3 Likelihood and Fisher Information Matrices 410 D.4 Convergence in Distribution 413 D.5 Outline of General ML Theory 415 D.6 The CDF pivotal method for constructing confidence intervals 419 D.7 Bonferroni approximate statistical intervals 424 E Pivotal Methods for Constructing Parametric Statistical Intervals 427 E.1 General definition and examples of pivotal quantities 428 E.2 Pivotal Quantities for the Normal Distribution 428 E.3 Confidence intervals for a Normal Distribution Based on Pivotal Quantities 429 E.4 Confidence Intervals for Two Normal Distributions Based on Pivotal Quantities 432 E.5 Tolerance Intervals for a Normal Distribution Based on Pivotal Quantities 432 E.6 Normal Distribution Prediction Intervals Based on Pivotal Quantities 434 E.7 Pivotal Quantities for Log-Location-Scale Distributions 436 F Generalized Pivotal Quantities 440 F.1 Definition of Generalized Pivotal Quantities 440 F.2 A Substitution Method to Obtain GPQs 441 F.3 Examples of GPQs for Functions of Location-Scale Distribution Parameters 441 F.4 Conditions for Exact Intervals Derived from GPQs 443 G Distribution-Free Intervals Based on Order Statistics 446 G.1 Basic Statistical Results Used in this Appendix 446 G.2 Distribution-Free Confidence Intervals and Bounds for a Distribution Quantile 447 G.3 Distribution-Free Tolerance Intervals to Contain a Given Proportion of a Distribution 448 G.4 Distribution-Free Prediction Interval to Contain a Specified Ordered Observation From a Future Sample 449 G.5 Distribution-Free Prediction Intervals and Bounds to Contain at Least k of m Future Observations From a Future Sample 451 H Basic Results from Bayesian Inference Models 455 H.1 Basic Statistical Results Used in this Appendix 455 H.2 Bayes’ Theorem 456 H.3 Conjugate Prior Distributions 456 H.4 Jeffreys Prior Distributions 459 H.5 Posterior Predictive Distributions 463 H.6 Posterior Predictive Distributions Based on Jeffreys Prior Distributions 465 I Probability of Successful Demonstration 468 I.1 Demonstration Tests Based on a Normal Distribution Assumption 468 I.2 Distribution-Free Demonstration Tests 469 J Tables 471 References 508 Subject Index 525

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Book SynopsisExplores the creation and history of fossil fuels, their impact on the environment, and how they have become critical to our society. This title shows how adopting sustainable biofuels will be key to the future of energy stability and discuss a renewable energy options and biofuel feedstocks that are replacements for petroleum-based products.Table of ContentsACKNOWLEDGMENTS PREFACE 1 OVERVIEW OF ENERGY USAGE IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE WORLD 2 WHY FOSSIL FUELS ENERGIZE OUR SOCIETY 3 THE IMPACT OF ENERGY USAGE ON CLIMATE 4 METHODS FOR REDUCING OUR FOSSIL FUEL USAGE: RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES AND USES 5 LINKING FOOD AND FUEL: THE IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE 6 THE PAST AND PRESENT OF BIOETHANOL: CORN, SUGARCANE, AND CELLULOSICS 7 BIOFUELS FROM FATS AND OILS: BIODIESEL 8 GASEOUS BIOFUELS: BIOGAS AND BIOHYDROGEN 9 AQUATIC VERSATILITY FOR BIOFUELS: CYANOBACTERIA, DIATOMS, AND ALGAE 10 BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS DEVELOPMENT 11 THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES 12 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF BIOFUELS: WATER, LAND, AND NUTRIENTS BIOFUELS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 13 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENTS FOR EVALUATING BIOFUELS PRODUCTION 14 ECONOMICS AND POLITICS OF BIOFUELS 15 OUR ENERGY FUTURE: THE PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPING AND USING SUSTAINABLE BIOFUELS VOCABULARY REFERENCES INDEX

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Book SynopsisComputer systems, whether hardware or software, are subject to failure. Precisely, what is a failure? It is defined as: The inability of a system or system component to perform a required function within specified limits. Afailure may be produced when a fault is encountered and a loss of the expected service to the user results [IEEE/AIAA P1633].

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Book SynopsisNick Lambert is co-founder and director of NLA, a Blue Economy solutions company, which specializes in the Blue Economy and tech innovation in associated domains. He advises corporates on a wide range of marine and maritime issues, and regularly hosts and delivers keynote speeches at high-profile conferences.Andy Hamflett is co-founder and director of NLA and a journalist, researcher and innovation expert on new technologies. He leads innovative research projects that explore the emerging potential of Big Data for social impact. Jonathan Turner is co-founder and director of NLA and specializes in customer-focused organizational process design, lean methodology and performance measurement through analytical skills and practical use of data.Trade Review"Revealing and insightful, this book shares inspiring examples of innovations applied across a broad spectrum of Blue Economy sectors. These ideas are real and impactful and underline the importance of technology and creativity as an enabler for sustainable environments and economic growth." * David Loosley, Chief Executive, The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology *"A fascinating guide to how technology will shape the future of the Blue Economy, this book is essential reading for those looking to understand how the smart use of our oceans can support sustainable development." * Professor Dickon Howell, Director, Howell Marine Consulting, UK *"This book presents a compelling overview of the impressive range of technology innovation underpinning progress in sectors as diverse as sustainable fisheries, ocean tourism, smart port cities, shipping and seabed mapping. Start-ups and tech developers in all sectors could learn from the up-to-the-minute case studies presented in this thoroughly researched and well written book." * Tony Hughes, Dealmaker, Global Entrepreneur Programme – the UK’s Department for International Trade *"Here, at last, is a book that sets out the scale of challenges and opportunities that our oceans present, by three authors bringing enormous knowledge to the domain. The Blue Economy is so much more diverse than the traditional marine and maritime sectors, and this book is a must-read for anyone interested to understand where the Blue Economy is heading." * Dr. Jonathan Williams, CEO, Marine South East, UK *"The breadth of innovation across the blue economy is extraordinary. Andy, Nick and Jonathan have explored, sector by sector, to reveal insights and applications that are revolutionising industries and opening doors for new commercial opportunities in the seas and oceans." * Aidan Thorn, Maritime Innovation Expert *Table of Contents Chapter - 01: An introduction to the blue economy; Chapter - 02: Shipping; Chapter - 03: Ports and harbours; Chapter - 04: Offshore renewables; Chapter - 05: The cruise industry; Chapter - 06: Maritime surveillance; Chapter - 07: Aquaculture; Chapter - 08: Hydrography and bathymetry; Chapter - 09: Ocean observation; Chapter - 10: Sustainable fisheries; Chapter - 11: Subsea monitoring; Chapter - 12: Safety of life at sea; Chapter - 13: Conclusion

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Book SynopsisThis revealing analysis of Canada's electrical power co-operatives challenges our understanding of their history and shines a light on their potential within the nation's electricity sector.Trade ReviewEmpowering Electricity is an empirically-grounded contribution to the literature on citizen engagement and energy policy in Canada. In particular, it provides a fresh take on BC energy politics that gets beyond the entrenched public/private dichotomy to explore one possible middle ground. While MacArthur implies that electricity co-operatives have the potential to erode public power in BC, her suggestion of co-operatives partnering with municipalities and First Nations may actually offer a new, politically viable approach to public power develpment that is both more democratic and locally acceptable than the current model. -- Nichole Dusyk * BC Studies *Table of ContentsPreface and AcknowledgmentsAbbreviations1 A Climate for Change2 Governing Sustainability: From Crisis to Empowerment3 Co-operatives in Canadian Political Economy4 International Forces for Power-Sector Restructuring5 Continental, Private, and Green(er)? Canadian Electricity Restructuring6 Electricity Co-operatives: The Power of Public Policy7 Off the Ground and on the Grid: New Electricity Co-operative Development8 Co-operative Networks and the Politics of Community Power9 Empowering ElectricityAppendicesNotesGlossaryReferencesIndex

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Book SynopsisWe don't have an energy crisis. We have a consumption crisis.Trade Review"A bold look at the downside of green technologies and a host of refreshingly simple substitute solutions."—Kirkus"What set Zehner's work apart from the glut of other environment-related titles are his fresh ideas and superlatively engaging prose."—Carl Hays, Booklist Online"With chapter subtitles like "Step Away From the Pom-Poms" and epigraphs from the likes of Dr. Seuss, Zehner is a delightful apostate in the church of green energy."—Sarah Rothbard, slate.com"This book is a must read for anyone concerned with sustainable living."—Daniel J. Benor, International Journal of Healing and Caring"All Americans should read this book."—K. J. White, Choice"As a nation, we have hard decisions before us. We need to find actual, tangible solutions that will make a real difference. Our path begins with critical thinking and informed choices. This book helps us get started."—Jonathan Hladik, Great Plains ResearchTable of ContentsList of IllustrationsList of FiguresAcknowledgmentsIntroduction: Unraveling the Spectacle Part I: Seductive Futures1. Solar Cells and other Fairy Tales2. Wind Power's Flurry of Limitations3. Biofuels and the Politics of Big Corn4. The Nuclear-Military-Industrial Risk Complex 5. The Hydrogen Zombie6. Conjuring Clean Coal7. Hydropower, Hybrids, and other Hydras Part II: From Here to There8. The Alternative-Energy Fetish9. The First Step Part III: The Future of Environmentalism10. Women's Rights11. Improving Consumption12. The Architecture of Community13. Efficiency Culture14. Asking Questions Epilogue: A Grander Narrative?Resources for Future EnvironmentalismNotesIndex

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Book SynopsisChelsea Schelly uses ethnographic research, participant observation, and numerous in-depth interviews to examine four alternative U.S. communities where individuals use electricity, water, heat, waste, food, and transportation technologies that differ markedly from those used by the vast majority of modern American residential dwellers. Trade Review"Dwelling in Resistance accomplishes the difficult task of being extremely informative and intellectual while at the same time remaining down to earth, lively, and amusing. Schelly provides a welcome addition to the literature on social practices, technology studies, and community studies in this engaging work." -- Debbie Kasper * Associate Professor of Environmental Studies and Sociology, Hiram College *"This theoretically and empirically rich book illuminates technological systems that are often invisible, yet fundamentally shape everyday practices and ideas. In showing us how people live with alternative technologies, Schelly also generates deep insights into those who do not." -- John M. Meyer * author of Engaging the Everyday: Environmental Social Criticism and the Resonance Dilemma *New Books Network interview with Chelsea Schelly * New Books Network *Table of Contents1 What Does it Mean to Dwell in Resistance? 2 What “Normal” Dwelling Looks Like: The History of Home Technologies 3 Custodians of the Earth, Witnesses to Transition: The Story of the Farm 4 The Abundance of the Commons: Twin Oaks and the Plentitude Ethic 5 Individualism and Symbiosis: The Dance at Dancing Rabbit 6 Self-Sufficiency as Social Justice: The Case of Earthship Biotecture 7 Dwelling in Resistance Appendix: Reflections and Lessons on Method Acknowledgements References Index

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Book SynopsisChelsea Schelly uses ethnographic research, participant observation, and numerous in-depth interviews to examine four alternative U.S. communities where individuals use electricity, water, heat, waste, food, and transportation technologies that differ markedly from those used by the vast majority of modern American residential dwellers. Trade Review"Dwelling in Resistance accomplishes the difficult task of being extremely informative and intellectual while at the same time remaining down to earth, lively, and amusing. Schelly provides a welcome addition to the literature on social practices, technology studies, and community studies in this engaging work." -- Debbie Kasper * Associate Professor of Environmental Studies and Sociology, Hiram College *"This theoretically and empirically rich book illuminates technological systems that are often invisible, yet fundamentally shape everyday practices and ideas. In showing us how people live with alternative technologies, Schelly also generates deep insights into those who do not." -- John M. Meyer * author of Engaging the Everyday: Environmental Social Criticism and the Resonance Dilemma *New Books Network interview with Chelsea Schelly * New Books Network *Table of Contents1 What Does it Mean to Dwell in Resistance? 2 What “Normal” Dwelling Looks Like: The History of Home Technologies 3 Custodians of the Earth, Witnesses to Transition: The Story of the Farm 4 The Abundance of the Commons: Twin Oaks and the Plentitude Ethic 5 Individualism and Symbiosis: The Dance at Dancing Rabbit 6 Self-Sufficiency as Social Justice: The Case of Earthship Biotecture 7 Dwelling in Resistance Appendix: Reflections and Lessons on Method Acknowledgements References Index

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Book SynopsisA whole host of motivations are driving the development of the renewables industry- ranging from the desire to develop sustainable energy resources to the reduction of dangerous greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.Trade Review"Overall it gives very good insights on biomass feedstocks for all uses of biomass as well as fermentation technologies mainly for biofuels." (Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, 30 August 2011) Table of ContentsContributors xi Preface xiii 1 The Bioeconomy: A New Era of Products Derived from Renewable Plant-Based Feedstocks 3Peter Nelson, Elizabeth Hood, and Randall Powell 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Market Opportunity for Biofuels and Biobased Products 5 1.3 Feedstocks 6 1.3.1 Biobased Feedstock Availability and Issues 6 1.3.2 Characterization of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 8 1.3.3 The Role of Agricultural Biotechnology 9 1.3.4 Biomass Agricultural Equipment Development 11 1.4 The Biochemical Technology Platform 11 1.5 Investment and Major Players 12 1.6 The Role of the Farmer 14 1.7 Opportunities for Rural Development 16 1.8 Environmental Benefits 17 1.9 Economic Comparison of the Biochemical and Thermochemical Technology Platforms 17 1.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 18 References 19 2 Agricultural Residues 21James Hettenhaus 2.1 Introduction 21 2.1.1 Key Issues 22 2.2 Feedstock Supply 23 2.2.1 Residue Markets 26 2.2.2 Harvest Window 27 2.2.3 Residue Removal 27 2.2.4 Residue Management 28 2.2.5 Ag Equipment Needs 29 2.2.6 Operating Costs 33 2.2.7 Residue Nutrient Value 33 2.2.8 Land for Energy Crops 33 2.2.9 Farmer Outlook 34 2.2.10 Crop Research and Development 34 2.3 Feedstock Logistics 34 2.3.1 Bulk Density 35 2.3.2 Storage 36 2.3.3 Regional Biomass Processing Centers 43 2.4 Conclusion 48 Endnotes 49 References 49 3 Growing Systems for Traditional and New Forest-Based Materials 51Randall Rousseau, Janet Hawkes, Shijie Liu, and Tom Amidon 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Natural Regeneration 54 3.3 Overall Growing Systems 54 3.3.1 The Beginnings of Biomass Plantation Production 55 3.3.2 Short Rotation Woody Crops 56 3.3.3 Other Types of Hardwood Plantations 59 3.3.4 Southern Pine 61 3.4 New Genetic Tools 62 3.5 Agroforestry 63 3.6 Products from Woody Biomass 67 3.6.1 Hemicellulosic Products 69 3.6.2 Biorefineries Using Woody Biomass 71 3.6.3 Hot-Water Extraction of Hemicellulose 73 3.6.4 Wood Extracts: Processing and Conversion 75 3.6.5 Residual Solid Wood Biomass: Processing and Conversion of the wood mass after extraction, an example 78 3.7 Summary 78 References 78 4 Dedicated Herbaceous Energy Crops 85Keat (Thomas) Teoh, Shivakumar Pattada Devaiah, Deborah Vicuna Requesens, and Elizabeth E. Hood 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Miscanthus 85 4.2.1 Characteristics That Make Miscanthus a Potential Biomass Crop 87 4.2.2 Agronomy 87 4.3 Sweet Sorghum 90 4.3.1 Biology of Sweet Sorghum 92 4.3.2 Production 92 4.3.3 Potential Yields 94 4.3.4 Economic and Environmental Advantages of Sweet Sorghum 94 4.3.5 Production Challenges 96 4.4 Switchgrass 97 4.4.1 Physiology 97 4.4.2 Switchgrass Ecotypes 98 4.4.3 Advantages 98 4.4.4 Disadvantages 99 4.4.5 Yields 100 4.4.6 Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop 101 4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 101 References 104 5 Municipal Solid Waste as a Biomass Feedstock 109David J. Webster 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Definitions 110 5.2.1 Second-Generation Conversion Technologies for Biofuels 110 5.3 Disposal Infrastructure and Transfer Stations 110 5.3.1 Collection Practices 112 5.3.2 Cost Parameters 112 5.4 Waste Generation 113 5.5 Waste Characterization 114 5.5.1 Composition of Generated MSW Prior to Disposal or Processing 114 5.5.2 Landfilled Waste Compared to Waste Generation 115 5.5.3 Water in MSW 116 5.5.4 Heavy Metals in MSW 117 5.6 Preparing MSW for Conversion Processing—Mixed Waste Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) 119 5.6.1 Presorting 121 5.6.2 Mechanical Sorting Operations 122 5.6.3 Manual Sorting Operations 123 5.6.4 Recovery Rates of the MRF System 123 5.7 Cellulosic Content of MSW 124 5.7.1 Glucose and Ethanol Yields from MSW 124 5.8 Framing the Potential 125 References 126 6 Water Sustainability in Biomass Cropping Systems 129Jennifer L. Bouldin and Rodney E. Wright 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 Water Use in Bioenergy Production 130 6.3 Water Quality Issues in Bioenergy Crops 133 6.3.1 AGNPS Watershed Model 135 6.3.2 Water Quality and the Gulf Hypoxic Zone 138 6.4 Conclusions—Water Quantity and Quality 138 References 139 7 Soil Sustainability Issues in Energy Crop Production 143V. Steven Green 7.1 Soil Sustainability Concepts 143 7.2 Bioenergy Crops and Soil Sustainability 145 7.2.1 Crop Residues 145 7.2.2 Dedicated Energy Crops 146 7.3 Resource Use in Biomass Production 149 7.3.1 Water and Soil 149 7.3.2 Land Use 150 7.4 Soil Sustainability Solutions 150 7.5 Conclusion 154 References 154 8 Fermentation Organisms for 5- and 6-Carbon Sugars 157Nicholas Dufour, Jeffrey Swana, and Reeta P. Rao 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Fermentation 159 8.3 Metabolic Pathways 160 8.4 Fermenting Species 161 8.4.1 Brief Description of Major Species 175 8.5 Other Relevant Products 180 8.6 Summary 183 Endnotes 183 References 184 9 Pretreatment Options 199Bradley A. Saville 9.1 Overview of Pretreatment Technologies 199 9.1.1 History 199 9.1.2 Mechanistic Assessment of Pretreatment 200 9.1.3 Severity Factor Concept 203 9.2 Pretreatment Classification 205 9.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment Processes 206 9.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment Processes 206 9.2.3 Thermochemical Pretreatment Processes 209 9.2.4 Impact on Moisture Content and Hydraulic Load 210 9.3 Laboratory vs. Commercial Scale Pretreatment—What Do We Really Know? 211 9.3.1 Laboratory Studies 211 9.3.2 Pilot/Demonstration Scale Studies 211 9.3.3 Limitations of Laboratory-Scale Comparisons of Pretreatment Methods 214 9.4 Process Issues and Trade-Offs 215 9.4.1 Inhibitors 215 9.4.2 Hydrolysis Efficiency and Enzyme Loadings 218 9.4.3 Solvent/Catalyst Recovery 218 9.4.4 Viscosity Reduction and Hydraulic Load 218 9.5 Economics 220 9.6 Conclusions 224 References 224 10 Enzyme Production Systems for Biomass Conversion 227John A. Howard, Zivko Nikolov, and Elizabeth E. Hood 10.1 Introduction 227 10.2 The Challenge: Volume and Cost of Enzymes Required 227 10.3 Theoretical Ways to Address the Challenge of Quantity of Enzyme and Cost Requirements 228 10.3.1 Increase Susceptibility for Biomass Deconstruction 229 10.3.2 Decrease Exogenous Enzyme Load 231 10.3.3 Increase Accumulation of Enzymes in Production Host 236 10.4 Cost of Producing Exogenous Enzymes 240 10.4.1 Cost Analysis 242 10.5 Summary and Future Prospects 245 References 246 11 Fermentation-Based Biofuels 255Randy Kramer and Helene Belanger 11.1 Introduction 255 11.2 First-Generation Biofuels 256 11.2.1 Starch-Based Ethanol—United States 256 11.2.2 Sugar-Based Ethanol—Brazil 257 11.2.3 Biodiesel 258 11.3 Policy and Biofuel Implementation Status 260 11.3.1 North America 260 11.3.2 South America 262 11.3.3 Europe 262 11.3.4 Asia 263 11.4 Second-Generation Biofuels 265 11.4.1 Cellulosic Ethanol 265 11.4.2 Biobutanol 268 11.5 Issues for Biofuels Commercial Success 269 11.5.1 Transport by Pipeline 269 11.5.2 Decentralized Production and Local Distribution 270 11.5.3 Optimized Engine Performance 271 11.5.4 Value of Biorefinery Co-products 272 11.6 Summary 272 References 272 12 Biobased Chemicals and Polymers 275Randall W. Powell, Clare Elton, Ross Prestidge, and Helene Belanger 12.1 Introduction 275 12.2 Biobased Feedstock Components 276 12.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies 277 12.3.1 Technology Platforms Overview 277 12.3.2 Lignocellulose Fractionation Overview 279 12.4 Biobased Products 287 12.4.1 Oil-Based Products 287 12.4.2 Sugar/Starch-Based Products 289 12.4.3 Polymer Products 293 12.4.4 Lignin Products 299 12.5 Summary 303 References 304 13 Carbon Offset Potential of Biomass-Based Energy 311Gauri-Shankar Guha 13.1 Emerging Public Interest in Carbon 311 13.1.1 Overview 311 13.1.2 Initiatives to Address Anthropogenic Climate Change 311 13.1.3 GHG Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration Strategies 314 13.2 Theory of Carbon Markets 314 13.2.1 Tradable Permits and the Market for Emissions 314 13.2.2 Concept of Carbon Markets 315 13.2.3 Demand and Supply of Carbon Credits 316 13.3 Creation of Carbon Markets 317 13.3.1 Carbon Credits 317 13.3.2 Global Carbon Trade 318 13.3.3 Carbon Trading in the United States 318 13.3.4 The CCX Offset Program 318 13.4 Role of Biomass-Based Energy in Carbon Markets 319 13.4.1 Economic Significance of Bioenergy 319 13.4.2 Bioenergy Policies, Practices, and Trends 321 13.4.3 Carbon Offset Opportunities for Biofuels 323 13.5 Prognosis of Carbon Markets 324 References 325 14 Biofuel Economics 329Daniel Klein-Marcuschamer, Brad Holmes, Blake A. Simmons, and Harvey W. Blanch 14.1 Introduction 329 14.2 Production Processes 330 14.3 Biomass Transportation and Handling 331 14.4 Conversion of Biomass into Sugars 332 14.5 Conversion of Sugars into Biofuels 335 14.6 Separation and Purification 337 14.7 Co-product Handling 337 14.8 Major Cost Drivers 338 14.8.1 Biomass-Associated Costs 338 14.8.2 Capital Expenses 340 14.8.3 Operating Costs 342 14.9 Risks 343 14.10 Policy Support 345 14.11 Infrastructure and Vehicle Modifications 346 14.12 Conclusions 347 14.13 Acknowledgments 348 References 348 Index 355

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Book SynopsisRecent concerns about energy security in the US have drawn greater attention to agriculture's role as a producer and consumer of energy. Agriculturally-derived energy sources such as ethanol, biodiesel, biomass, and windpower presently supply between 0.3% and 0.5% of the energy consumed in the US. Organized into two parts, the first section of this book examines agriculture's role as a producer and consumer of energy, the integration of biomass energy into the US energy systems, a policy overview, and outlooks for energy production and consumption. The second section is a compendium of current research including the economic viability of ethanol and biodiesel; energy conservation and efficiency in agriculture; new methods and technologies; and environmental impacts and considerations.Table of ContentsPart I: Survey of Current Knowledge 1.1: Energy and Agriculture at the Crossroads of a New Future 1.2: Agriculture as a Producer of Energy 1.3: Energy Consumption in US Agriculture 1.4: Energy Systems Integration: Fitting Biomass Energy from Agriculture into US Energy Systems 1.5: US Oil and Gas Markets: A Scenario for Future Strong Inter-fuel Competition Part II: Current Research about Agriculture and Energy Section 1: The Economics of Ethanol and Biodiesel from Grain 2.1.1: Dry-Grind Ethanol Plant Economics and Sensitivity 2.1.2: An Econometric Analysis of the Impact of the Expansion in the US Production of Ethanol from Maize and Biodiesel from Soyabeans on Major Agricultural Variables, 2005-2015 2.1.3: Ethanol Policies, Programs and Production in Canada Section 2: The Economics of Ethanol from Lignocellulosic Sources 2.2.1: Economic Analysis of Alternative Lignocellulosic Sources for Ethanol Production 2.2.2: The Supply of Maize Stover in the Midwestern United States 2.2.3: Economic Modelling of a Lignocellulosic Biomass Biorefining Industry 2.2.4: Economic Impacts of Ethanol Production from Maize Stover in Selected Midwestern States Section 3: Energy Conservation and Efficiency in Agriculture 2.3.1: Livestock Watering with Renewable Energy Systems 2.3.2: Trends in US Poultry Housing for Energy Conservation Section 4: New Methods and Technologies 2.4.1: Experiences Co-firing Grasses in Existing Coal-fired Power Plants 2.4.2: Animal Waste as a Source of Renewable Energy 2.4.3: Development of Genetically Engineered Stress Tolerant Ethanologenic Yeasts using Integrated Functional Genomics for Effective Biomass Conversion to Ethanol 2.4.4: Case Studies of Rural Electric Cooperatives’ Experiences with Bioenergy Section 5: Environmental Impacts and Considerations 2.5.1: Potential for Biofuel-based Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Rationale and Potential 2.5.2: Life Cycle Assessment of Integrated Biorefinery-Cropping Systems: All Biomass is Local 3: Glossary

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Book SynopsisMajor contemporary issues and debates relating to the sustainable use of energy are addressed in this far-reaching Handbook. The contributing authors discuss the ongoing debates about sustainability and energy use, energy economics, renewable energy, efficiency and climate policy.Trade Review'...was impressed by the scope of the contributions and their clarity. All appear to have been written specifically for this ''Handbook'' and all are readily comprehensible without a large amount of assumed previous knowledge. . . a very useful source document and many of the chapters represent a good starting point for student research projects.' --Tony Owen, Economics of Energy and Environmental Policy'In today's modern world where energy resources are increasingly scarce, climate change is a hot-button issue, and population growth continues to push the need to promote sustainable living, Handbook of Sustainable Energy is highly recommended as an absolutely invaluable contribution to graduate school libraries and the pool of literature available to professionals in the field.' --The Midwest Book ReviewTable of ContentsContents: Introduction Ibon Galarraga and Mikel González-Eguino PART I: SUSTAINABLE USE OF ENERGY 1. The Sustainability of ‘Sustainable’ Energy Use: Historical Evidence on the Relationship between Economic Growth and Renewable Energy Roger Fouquet 2. Sustainability Criteria for Energy Resources and Technologies Geoffrey P. Hammond and Craig I. Jones 3. Economic Growth, Energy Consumption and Climate Policy M. Carmen Gallastegui, Alberto Ansuategi, Marta Escapa and Sabah Abdullah 4. The Linkages between Energy Efficiency and Security of Energy Supply in Europe Andrea Bigano, Ramon Arigoni Ortiz, Anil Markandya, Emanuela Menichetti and Roberta Pierfederici 5. Governing a Low Carbon Energy Transition: Lessons from UK and Dutch Approaches Timothy J. Foxon PART II: ENERGY AND ECONOMICS 6. How Energy Works: Gas and Electricity Markets in Europe Monica Bonacina, Anna Creti and Susanna Dorigoni 7. Transmission and Distribution Networks for a Sustainable Electricity Supply Ignacio Pérez-Arriaga, Tomás Gómez, Luis Olmos and Michel Rivier 8. Energy–Economic–Environmental Models: A Survey Renato Rodrigues, Antonio G. Gómez-Plana and Mikel González-Eguino 9. Energy Supply and the Sustainability of Endogenous Growth Karen Pittel and Dirk Rübbelke 10. Consumer Behavior and the Use of Sustainable Energy Reinhard Madlener and Marjolein J.W. Harmsen-van Hout PART III: RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY 11. Multicriteria Diversity Analysis: Theory, Method and an Illustrative Application Go Yoshizawa, Andy Stirling and Tatsujiro Suzuki 12. Review of the World and European Renewable Energy Resource Potentials Helena Cabal, Maryse Labriet and Yolanda Lechón 13. The Cost of Renewable Energy: Past and Future Kirsten Halsnæs and Kenneth Karlsson 14. Valuing Efficiency Gains in EU Coal-based Power Generation Luis María Abadie and José Manuel Chamorro 15. Energy Use in the Transport Sector: Ways to Improve Efficiency Kenneth Button PART IV: OTHER ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 16. Nuclear Power in the Twenty-first Century Geoffrey P. Hammond 17. Carbon Capture Technology: Status and Future Prospects Edward John Anthony and Paul S. Fennell 18. Environmental, Economic and Policy Aspects of Biofuels Peter B.R. Hazell and Martin Evans PART IV: ENERGY AND CLIMATE POLICY 19. The European Carbon Market (2005–07): Banking, Pricing and Risk-hedging Strategies Julien Chevallier 20. The Clean Development Mechanism: A Stepping Stone Towards World Carbon Markets? Julien Chevallier 21. Second-best Instruments for Energy and Climate Policy Xavier Labandeira and Pedro Linares 22. Addressing Fields of Rationality: A Policy for Reducing Household Energy Consumption? Hege Westskog, Tanja Winther and Einar Strumse 23. The Role of R&D+i in the Energy Sector Alessandro Lanza and Elena Verdolini PART VI: OTHER DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY 24. Energy and Poverty: The Perspective of Poor Countries Rob Bailis 25. The Role of Regions in the Energy Sector: Past and Future Thomas Reisz 26. California’s Energy-related Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Policies David R. Heres and C.-Y. Cynthia Lin 27. Regional Experiences: The Past, Present and Future of the Energy Policy in the Basque Region Jose Ignacio Hormaeche, Ibon Galarraga and Jose Luis Sáenz de Ormijana Epilogue Anil Markandya Index

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Book SynopsisExplores the social, cultural and political changes needed to make possible a full-scale transition from fossil fuels to new forms of energy. Written collectively by participants in the first After Oil School, After Oil explains why the adoption of renewable, ecologically sustainable energy sources is only the first step of energy transition.

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStatistical Methods for Reliability Data i Preface to the Second Edition iii Preface to First Edition viii Acknowledgments xii 1 Reliability Concepts and an Introduction to Reliability Data 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Examples of Reliability Data 3 1.3 General Models for Reliability Data 11 1.4 Models for Time to Event Versus Models for Recurrences in a Sequence of Events 13 1.5 Strategy for Data Collection, Modeling, and Analysis 15 2 Models, Censoring, and Likelihood for Failure-Time Data 19 2.1 Models for Continuous Failure-Time Processes 19 2.2 Models for Discrete Data from a Continuous Process 25 2.3 Censoring 27 2.4 Likelihood 28 3 Nonparametric Estimation for Failure-Time Data 37 3.1 Estimation from Complete Data 38 3.2 Estimation from Singly-Censored Interval Data 38 3.3 Basic Ideas of Statistical Inference 40 3.4 Confidence Intervals from Complete or Singly-Censored Data 41 3.5 Estimation from Multiply-Censored Data 43 3.6 Pointwise Confidence Intervals from Multiply-Censored Data 45 3.7 Estimation from Multiply-Censored Data with Exact Failures 47 3.8 Nonparametric Simultaneous Confidence Bands 49 3.9 Arbitrary Censoring 52 4 Some Parametric Distributions Used in Reliability Applications 60 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Quantities of Interest in Reliability Applications 61 4.3 Location-Scale and Log-Location-Scale Distributions 62 4.4 Exponential Distribution 63 4.5 Normal Distribution 64 4.6 Lognormal Distribution 65 4.7 Smallest Extreme Value Distribution 67 4.8 Weibull Distribution 68 4.9 Largest Extreme Value Distribution 70 4.10 Frechet Distribution 71 4.11 Logistic Distribution 73 4.12 Loglogistic Distribution 74 4.13 Generalized Gamma Distribution 75 4.14 Distributions with a Threshold Parameter 76 4.15 Other Methods of Deriving Failure-Time Distributions 78 4.16 Parameters and Parameterization 80 4.17 Generating Pseudorandom Observations from a Specified Distribution 80 5 System Reliability Concepts and Methods 87 5.1 Non-Repairable System Reliability Metrics 88 5.2 Series Systems 88 5.3 Parallel Systems 91 5.4 Series-Parallel Systems 93 5.5 Other System Structures 94 5.6 Multistate System Reliability Models 96 6 Probability Plotting 102 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 Linearizing Location-Scale-Based Distributions 103 6.3 Graphical Goodness of Fit 105 6.4 Probability Plotting Positions 106 6.5 Notes on the Application of Probability Plotting 111 7 Parametric Likelihood Fitting Concepts: Exponential Distribution 119 7.1 Introduction 120 7.2 Parametric Likelihood 122 7.3 Likelihood Confidence Intervals for θ 123 7.4 Wald (Normal-Approximation) Confidence Intervals for θ 125 7.5 Confidence Intervals for Functions of θ 126 7.6 Comparison of Confidence Interval Procedures 127 7.7 Likelihood for Exact Failure Times 128 7.8 Effect of Sample Size on Confidence Interval Width and the Likelihood Shape 130 7.9 Exponential Distribution Inferences with No Failures 131 8 Maximum Likelihood Estimation for Log-Location-Scale Distributions 138 8.1 Likelihood Definition 139 8.2 Likelihood Confidence Regions and Intervals 142 8.3 Wald Confidence Intervals 146 8.4 The ML Estimate May Not Go Through the Points 151 8.5 Estimation with a Given Shape Parameter 152 9 Parametric Bootstrap and Other Simulation-Based Confidence Interval Methods 164 9.1 Introduction 165 9.2 Methods for Generating Bootstrap Samples and Obtaining Bootstrap Estimates 165 9.3 Bootstrap Confidence Interval Methods 171 9.4 Bootstrap Confidence Intervals Based on Pivotal Quantities 176 9.5 Confidence Intervals Based on Generalized Pivotal Quantities 181 10 An Introduction to Bayesian Statistical Methods for Reliability 189 10.1 Bayesian Inference: Overview 190 10.2 Bayesian Inference: an Illustrative Example 194 10.3 More About Prior Information and Specification of a Prior Distribution 202 10.4 Implementing Bayesian Analyses Using MCMC Simulation 205 10.5 Using Prior Information to Estimate the Service-Life Distribution of a Rocket Motor 210 11 Special Parametric Models 219 11.1 Extending ML Methods 219 11.2 Fitting the Generalized Gamma Distribution 220 11.3 Fitting the Birnbaum–Saunders Distribution 223 11.4 The Limited Failure Population Model 225 11.5 Truncated Data and Truncated Distributions 227 11.6 Fitting Distributions that Have a Threshold Parameter 232 12 Comparing Failure-Time Distributions 243 12.1 Background and Motivation 243 12.2 Nonparametric Comparisons 244 12.3 Parametric Comparison of Two Groups by Fitting Separate Distributions 247 12.4 Parametric Comparison of Two Groups by Fitting Separate Distributions With Equal σ values 248 12.5 Parametric Comparison of More than Two Groups 250 13 Planning Life Tests for Estimation 261 13.1 Introduction 261 13.2 Simple Formulas to Determine the Needed Sample Size 263 13.3 Use of Simulation in Test Planning 267 13.4 Approximate Variance of ML Estimators and Computing Variance Factors 274 13.5 Variance Factors for (Log-)Location-Scale Distributions 275 13.6 Some Extensions 278 14 Planning Reliability Demonstration Tests 282 14.1 Introduction to Demonstration Testing 282 14.2 Finding the Required Sample Size n or Test-Length Factor k 284 14.3 Probability of Successful Demonstration 288 15 Prediction of Failure Times and the Number of Future Field Failures 293 15.1 Basic Concepts of Statistical Prediction 294 15.2 Probability Prediction Intervals (_ Known) 295 15.3 Statistical Prediction Intervals (_ Estimated) 296 15.4 Plug-In Prediction and Calibration 297 15.5 Computing and Using Predictive Distributions 301 15.6 Prediction of the Number of Future Failures from a Single Group of Units in the Field 304 15.7 Predicting the Number of Future Failures from Multiple Groups of Units in the Field with Staggered Entry into the Field 307 15.8 Bayesian Prediction Methods 311 15.9 Choosing a Distribution for Making Predictions 313 16 Analysis of Data with More than One Failure Mode 321 16.1 An Introduction to Multiple Failure Modes 321 16.2 Model for Multiple Failure Modes Data 323 16.3 Competing-Risk Estimation 324 16.4 The Effect of Eliminating a Failure Mode 328 16.5 Subdistribution Functions and Prediction for Individual Failure Modes 331 16.6 More About the Non-Identifiability of Dependence Among Failure Modes 332 17 Failure-Time Regression Analysis 340 17.1 Introduction 341 17.2 Simple Linear Regression Models 342 17.3 Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Regression Models 345 17.4 Regression Model with Quadratic μ and Nonconstant σ 347 17.5 Checking Model Assumptions 351 17.6 Empirical Regression Models and Sensitivity Analysis 354 17.7 Models with Two or More Explanatory Variables 359 18 Analysis of Accelerated Life Test Data 369 18.1 Introduction to Accelerated Life Tests 369 18.2 Overview of ALT Data Analysis Methods 371 18.3 Temperature-Accelerated Life Tests 372 18.4 Bayesian Analysis of a Temperature-Accelerated Life Test 380 18.5 Voltage-Accelerated Life Test 381 19 More Topics on Accelerated Life Testing 396 19.1 ALTs with Interval-Censored Data 396 19.2 ALTs with Two Accelerating Variables 401 19.3 Multifactor Experiments with a Single Accelerating Variable 405 19.4 Practical Suggestions for Drawing Conclusions from ALT Data 409 19.5 Pitfalls of Accelerated Life Testing 410 19.6 Other Kinds of Accelerated Tests 412 20 Degradation Modeling and Destructive Degradation Data Analysis 421 20.1 Degradation Reliability Data and Degradation Path Models: Introduction and Background422 20.2 Description and Mechanistic Motivation for Degradation Path Models 423 20.3 Models Relating Degradation and Failure 427 20.4 DDT Background, Motivating Examples, and Estimation 427 20.5 Failure-Time Distributions Induced from DDT Models and Failure-Time Inferences 431 20.6 ADDT Model Building 433 20.7 Fitting an Acceleration Model to ADDT Data 435 20.8 ADDT Failure-Time Inferences 437 20.9 ADDT Analysis Using an Informative Prior Distribution 438 20.10 An ADDT with an Asymptotic Model 439 21 Repeated-Measures Degradation Modeling and Analysis 448 21.1 RMDT Models and Data 448 21.2 RMDT Parameter Estimation 451 21.3 The Relationship Between Degradation and Failure-Time for RMDT Models 454 21.4 Estimation of a Failure-Time cdf from RMDT Data 457 21.5 Models for ARMDT Data 458 21.6 ARMDT Estimation 459 21.7 ARMDT with Multiple Accelerating Variables 462 22 Analysis of Repairable System and Other Recurrent Events Data 469 22.1 Introduction 469 22.2 Nonparametric Estimation of the MCF 471 22.3 Comparison of Two Samples of Recurrent Events Data 474 22.4 Recurrent Events Data with Multiple Event Types 475 23 Case Studies and Further Applications 481 23.1 Analysis of Hard Drive Field Data 481 23.2 Reliability in the Presence of Stress-Strength Interference 484 23.3 Predicting Field Failures with a Limited Failure Population 487 23.4 Analysis of Accelerated Life Test Data When There is a Batch Effect 494 Epilogue 499 A Notation and Acronyms 503 B Other Useful Distributions and Probability Distribution Computations 509 B.1 Important Characteristics of Distribution Functions 509 B.2 Distributions and R Computations 511 B.3 Continuous Distributions 511 B.4 Discrete Distributions 519 B.4.1 Binomial Distribution 519 C Some Results from Statistical Theory 522 C.1 The cdfs and pdfs of Functions of Random Variables 522 C.2 Statistical Error Propagation—The Delta Method 527 C.3 Likelihood and Fisher Information Matrices 528 C.4 Regularity Conditions 529 C.5 Convergence in Distribution 530 C.6 Convergence in Probability 531 C.7 Outline of General ML Theory 532 C.8 Inference with Zero or Few Failures 534 C.9 The Bonferroni Inequality 536 D Tables 538 References 549

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Book SynopsisComprehensive coverage on the growing science and technology of producing ethanol from the world's abundant cellulosic biomass The inevitable decline in petroleum reserves and its impact on gasoline prices, combined with climate change concerns, have contributed to current interest in renewable fuels.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1 Introduction to Cellulosic Ethanol 1 1 Renewable Fuels 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Renewable Energy 6 1.3 Biofuels 7 1.4 Renewable Energy in the United States 14 1.5 Renewable Fuel Legislature in the United States 20 References 25 2 Bioethanol as a Transportation Fuel 29 2.1 Introduction — History of Bioethanol as a Transportation Fuel 29 2.2 Alcohol Fuels 31 2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Ethanol 31 2.4 Corn and Sugarcane Ethanol 34 2.5 Advantages of Cellulosic Ethanol 35 References 40 3 Feedstocks for Cellulosic Ethanol Production 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Cellulosic Ethanol Feedstock Types 46 3.3 Potential of Agricultural Wastes 46 3.4 Major Crop Residue Feedstock 50 3.5 Forestry Residue, Logging and Mill Residue 68 3.6 Grass Feedstocks 70 3.7 Purpose-Grown Trees as Feedstock 92 3.8 Municipal and Other Waste as Feedstock for Cellulosic Ethanol 101 References 108 Part 2 Aqueous Phase Biomass Hydrolysis Route 131 4 Challenges in Aqueous-Phase Biomass Hydrolysis Route: Recalcitrance 133 4.1 Introduction – Two Ways to Produce Cellulosic Ethanol 133 4.2 Challenges in Aqueous-Phase Biomass Hydrolysis 134 4.3 Structure of Plant Cells and Lignocellulosic Biomass 135 4.4 Major Components of Lignocellulosic Biomass 137 4.5 Cellulose Recalcitrance 140 References 143 5 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 147 5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 Different Categories of Pretreatment Methods 150 5.3 Physical Pretreatment 150 5.4 Physicochemical Pretreatment 153 5.5 Chemical Pretreatment 177 5.6 Biological Pretreatment 190 5.7 Conclusion 191 References 197 6 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose and Hemicellulose 219 6.1 Introduction 219 6.2 Enzymatic Actions on Lignocellulosic Biomass 220 6.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose 221 6.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Hemicellulose 233 6.5 Future Directions in Enzymatic Cellulose Hydrolysis Research 237 References 239 7 Acid Hydrolysis of Cellulose and Hemicellulose 247 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis 248 7.3 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis 252 7.4 Ionic Liquid-Based Direct Acid Hydrolysis 262 7.5 Solid Acid Hydrolysis 269 References 275 8 Fermentation I – Microorganisms 283 8.1 Introduction 283 8.2 Detoxification of Lignocellulosic Hydrolyzate 284 8.3 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF) 288 8.4 Microorganisms Used in the Fermentation 288 8.5 Fermentation Using Yeasts 289 8.6 Fermentation Using Bacteria 294 8.7 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) 300 8.8 Immobilization of Yeast 317 References 322 9 Fermentation II – Fermenter Configuration and Design 339 9.1 Introduction 339 9.2 Batch Fermentation 340 9.2.1 Examples of Batch Fermentation 340 9.3 Fed-Batch Fermentation 340 9.4 Continuous Fermentation 346 9.5 New Directions in Fermenter Configuration and Design 352 References 353 10 Separation and Uses of Lignin 357 10.1 Introduction 357 10.2 Structure of Lignin 359 10.3 Separation of Lignin in the Cellulosic Ethanol Process 360 10.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lignin 363 10.5 Applications of Lignin 365 10.5.1 Lignin-Based Phenol Formaldehyde Resins 365 References 373 Part 3 Biomass Gasification Route 381 11 Biomass Pyrolysis and Gasifier Designs 383 11.1 Introduction 383 11.2 Chemistry of the Conversion of Biomass to Syngas 384 11.3 Classifications of Biomass Gasifiers 387 11.4 Fixed-Bed Gasifier 388 11.5 Fluidized-Bed Gasifier 389 11.6 Bubbling Fluidized-Bed (BFB) Gasifier 390 11.7 Circulating Fluidized-Bed (CFB) Gasifier 392 11.8 Allothermal Dual Fluidized-Bed (DFB) Gasifier 392 11.9 Entrained-Flow Gasifier 395 11.10 Syngas Cleaning 396 11.11 Tar Control and Treatment Methods 403 References 403 12 Conversion of Syngas to Ethanol Using Microorganisms 407 12.1 Introduction 407 12.2 Metabolic Pathways 410 12.3 Microorganisms Used in Syngas Fermentation 414 12.4 Biochemical Reactions in Syngas Fermentation 414 12.5 The Effects of Operation Parameters on Ethanol Yield 416 12.6 Syngas Fermentation Reactors 424 12.7 Industrial-Scale Syngas Fermentation and Commercialization 426 References 427 13 Conversion of Syngas to Ethanol Using Chemical Catalysts 433 13.1 Introduction 433 13.2 Homogeneous Catalysts 434 13.3 Introduction to Heterogeneous Catalysts 437 13.4 Heterogeneous Catalyst Types 437 13.5 Rhodium-Based Catalysts 438 13.6 Copper-Based Modified Methanol Synthesis Catalysts 449 13.7 Modified Fischer-Tropsch-Type Catalysts 455 13.8 Molybdenum-Based Catalysts 456 13.9 Catalyst Selection 459 References 461 Part 4 Processing of Cellulosic Ethanol 467 14 Distillation of Ethanol 469 14.1 Introduction 469 14.2 Distillation of the Beer 470 14.3 How Distillation Works 470 14.4 Conventional Ethanol Distillation System 472 14.5 Steam Generation for Distillation Process 475 14.6 Studies on Development of Hybrid Systems for Ethanol Distillation 476 References 479 15 Dehydration to Fuel Grade Ethanol 481 15.1 Introduction 481 15.2 Dehydration Methods 482 15.3 Adsorption Method 482 15.4 Azeotropic Distillation Method 488 15.5 Extractive Distillation Methods 491 15.6 Membrane-Based Pervaporation Methods 494 15.7 Other Dehydration Methods 498 15.8 Comparisons of Common Dehydration Methods 498 References 500 Part 5 Fuel Ethanol Standards and Process Evaluation 507 16 Fuel Ethanol Standards, Testing and Blending 509 16.1 Introduction 509 16.2 Fuel Grade Ethanol Standards in the United States 510 16.3 Quality Assurance and Test Methods 514 16.4 European Fuel Ethanol Standards 517 16.5 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for Denatured Fuel Ethanol 518 16.6 Gasoline Ethanol Blends 520 16.7 Engine Performance Using Gasoline Ethanol Blends 524 References 528 17 Techno-Economic Analysis and Future of Cellulosic Ethanol 531 17.1 Introduction 531 17.2 Techno-Economic Aspects of Biomass Hydrolysis Process 532 17.3 Techno-Economic Aspects of Biomass Gasification Process 533 17.4 Comparison of Biomass Hydrolysis and Gasification Processes 539 17.5 Some Cellulosic Plants around the World 540 17.6 Challenges in Cellulosic Ethanol 550 17.7 Future Prospects of Cellulosic Ethanol 553 References 554 Appendix 1 557 Index

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Book SynopsisFeaturing practical approaches to various reliability theory applications, this book the first of three in a series helps readers to understand and properly utilize statistical methods and optimal resource allocation to solve everyday engineering problems.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acronyms and Notations xv 1 What Is Reliability? 1 1.1 Reliability as a Property of Technical Objects, 1 1.2 Other “Ilities”, 2 1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Analyzed Objects, 5 1.4 How Can Reliability Be Measured?, 5 1.5 Software Reliability, 7 1.5.1 Case Study: Avalanche of Software Failures, 8 2 Unrecoverable Objects 9 2.1 Unit, 9 2.1.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 9 2.1.2 Mean Time to Failure, 10 2.2 Series Systems, 11 2.2.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 11 2.2.2 Mean Time to Failure, 13 2.3 Parallel System, 14 2.3.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 14 2.3.2 Mean Time to Failure, 18 2.4 Structure of Type “k-out-of-n”, 20 2.5 Realistic Models of Loaded Redundancy, 22 2.5.1 Unreliable Switching Process, 23 2.5.2 Non-Instant Switching, 23 2.5.3 Unreliable Switch, 24 2.5.4 Switch Serving as Interface, 25 2.5.5 Incomplete Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 26 2.5.6 Periodical Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 28 2.6 Reducible Structures, 28 2.6.1 Parallel-Series and Series-Parallel Structures, 28 2.6.2 General Case of Reducible Structures, 29 2.7 Standby Redundancy, 30 2.7.1 Simple Redundant Group, 30 2.7.2 Standby Redundancy of Type “k-out-of-n”, 33 2.8 Realistic Models of Unloaded Redundancy, 34 2.8.1 Unreliable Switching Process, 34 2.8.2 Non-Instant Switching, 35 2.8.3 Unreliable Switch, 35 2.8.4 Switch Serving as Interface, 37 2.8.5 Incomplete Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 38 3 Recoverable Systems: Markov Models 40 3.1 Unit, 40 3.1.1 Markov Model, 41 3.2 Series System, 47 3.2.1 Turning Off System During Recovery, 47 3.2.2 System in Operating State During Recovery: Unrestricted Repair, 49 3.2.3 System in Operating State During Recovery: Restricted Repair, 51 3.3 Dubbed System, 53 3.3.1 General Description, 53 3.3.2 Nonstationary Availability Coefficient, 54 3.3.3 Stationary Availability Coefficient, 58 3.3.4 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 59 3.3.5 Stationary Coefficient of Interval Availability, 62 3.3.6 Mean Time to Failure, 63 3.3.7 Mean Time Between Failures, 63 3.3.8 Mean Recovery Time, 65 3.4 Parallel Systems, 65 3.5 Structures of Type “m-out-of-n”, 66 4 Recoverable Systems: Heuristic Models 72 4.1 Preliminary Notes, 72 4.2 Poisson Process, 75 4.3 Procedures over Poisson Processes, 78 4.3.1 Thinning Procedure, 78 4.3.2 Superposition Procedure, 80 4.4 Asymptotic Thinning Procedure over Stochastic Point Process, 80 4.5 Asymptotic Superposition of Stochastic Point Processes, 82 4.6 Intersection of Flows of Narrow Impulses, 84 4.7 Heuristic Method for Reliability Analysis of Series Recoverable Systems, 87 4.8 Heuristic Method for Reliability Analysis of Parallel Recoverable Systems, 87 4.8.1 Influence of Unreliable Switching Procedure, 88 4.8.2 Influence of Switch’s Unreliability, 89 4.8.3 Periodical Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 90 4.8.4 Partial Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 91 4.9 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 93 5 Time Redundancy 95 5.1 System with Possibility of Restarting Operation, 95 5.2 Systems with “Admissibly Short Failures”, 98 5.3 Systems with Time Accumulation, 99 5.4 Case Study: Gas Pipeline with an Underground Storage, 100 5.5 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 102 6 “Aging” Units and Systems of “Aging” Units 103 6.1 Chebyshev Bound, 103 6.2 “Aging” Unit, 104 6.3 Bounds for Probability of Failure-Free Operations, 105 6.4 Series System Consisting of “Aging” Units, 108 6.4.1 Preliminary Lemma, 108 6.5 Series System, 110 6.5.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 110 6.5.2 Mean Time to Failure of a Series System, 112 6.6 Parallel System, 114 6.6.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 114 6.6.2 Mean Time to Failure, 117 6.7 Bounds for the Coefficient of Operational Availability, 119 6.8 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 121 7 Two-Pole Networks 123 7.1 General Comments, 123 7.1.1 Method of Direct Enumeration, 125 7.2 Method of Boolean Function Decomposition, 127 7.3 Method of Paths and Cuts, 130 7.3.1 Esary–Proschan Bounds, 130 7.3.2 “Improvements” of Esary–Proschan Bounds, 133 7.3.3 Litvak–Ushakov Bounds, 135 7.3.4 Comparison of the Two Methods, 139 7.4 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 140 8 Performance Effectiveness 143 8.1 Effectiveness Concepts, 143 8.2 General Idea of Effectiveness Evaluation, 145 8.2.1 Conditional Case Study: Airport Traffic Control System, 147 8.3 Additive Type of System Units’ Outcomes, 150 8.4 Case Study: ICBM Control System, 151 8.5 Systems with Intersecting Zones of Action, 153 8.6 Practical Recommendation, 158 8.7 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 160 9 System Survivability 162 9.1 Illustrative Example, 166 9.2 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 167 10 Multistate Systems 169 10.1 Preliminary Notes, 169 10.2 Generating Function, 169 10.3 Universal Generating Function, 172 10.4 Multistate Series System, 174 10.4.1 Series Connection of Piping Runs, 174 10.4.2 Series Connection of Resistors, 177 10.4.3 Series Connections of Capacitors, 179 10.5 Multistate Parallel System, 181 10.5.1 Parallel Connection of Piping Runs, 181 10.5.2 Parallel Connection of Resistors, 182 10.5.3 Parallel Connections of Capacitors, 182 10.6 Reducible Systems, 183 10.7 Conclusion, 190 10.8 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 190 Appendix A Main Distributions Related to Reliability Theory 195 A.1 Discrete Distributions, 195 A.1.1 Degenerate Distribution, 195 A.1.2 Bernoulli Distribution, 196 A.1.3 Binomial Distribution, 197 A.1.4 Poisson Distribution, 198 A.1.5 Geometric Distribution, 200 A.2 Continuous Distributions, 201 A.2.1 Intensity Function, 201 A.2.2 Continuous Uniform Distribution, 202 A.2.3 Exponential Distribution, 203 A.2.4 Erlang Distribution, 204 A.2.5 Hyperexponential Distribution, 205 A.2.6 Normal Distribution, 207 A.2.7Weibull–Gnedenko Distribution, 207 Appendix B Laplace Transformation 209 Appendix C Markov Processes 214 C.1 General Markov Process, 214 C.1.1 Nonstationary Availability Coefficient, 216 C.1.2 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 218 C.1.3 Stationary Availability Coefficient, 220 C.1.4 Mean Time to Failure and Mean Time Between Failures, 221 C.1.5 Mean Recovery Time, 222 C.2 Birth–Death Process, 223 Appendix D General Bibliography 227 Index 231

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Book SynopsisSustainable Energy Conversion for Electricity and Coproducts Comprehensive and a fundamental approach to the study of sustainable fuel conversion for the generation of electricity and for coproducing synthetic fuels and chemicals Both electricity and chemicals are critical to maintain our modern way of life; however, environmental impacts have to be factored in to sustain this type of lifestyle. Sustainable Energy Conversion for Electricity and Coproducts provides a unified, comprehensive, and a fundamental approach to the study of sustainable fuel conversion in order to generate electricity and optionally coproduce synthetic fuels and chemicals. The book starts with an introduction to energy systems and describes the various forms of energy sources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, biomass, and other renewables and nuclear. Their distribution is discussed in order to emphasize the uneven availability and finiteness of some of these resources. Each topic in Table of ContentsPreface xi About the Book xiv About the Author xv 1 Introduction to Energy Systems 1 1.1 Energy Sources and Distribution of Resources 2 1.1.1 Fossil Fuels 2 1.1.2 Nuclear 16 1.1.3 Renewables 17 1.2 Energy and the Environment 21 1.2.1 Criteria and Other Air Pollutants 22 1.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Capture, and Storage 26 1.2.3 Water Usage 28 1.3 Holistic Approach 29 1.3.1 Supply Chain and Life Cycle Assessment 29 1.4 Conclusions 31 References 31 2 Thermodynamics 33 2.1 First Law 34 2.1.1 Application to a Combustor 36 2.1.2 Efficiency Based on First Law 45 2.2 Second Law 46 2.2.1 Quality Destruction and Entropy Generation 51 2.2.2 Second Law Analysis 53 2.2.3 First and Second Law Efficiencies 57 2.3 Combustion and Gibbs Free Energy Minimization 58 2.4 Nonideal Behavior 60 2.4.1 Gas Phase 60 2.4.2 Vapor–Liquid Phases 62 References 64 3 Fluid Flow Equipment 66 3.1 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 66 3.1.1 Flow Regimes 67 3.1.2 Extended Bernoulli Equation 68 3.2 Single-Phase Incompressible Flow 69 3.2.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes 69 3.2.2 Pressure Drop in Fittings 70 3.3 Single-Phase Compressible Flow 71 3.3.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 72 3.3.2 Choked Flow 72 3.4 Two-Phase Fluid Flow 72 3.4.1 Gas–Liquid Flow Regimes 73 3.4.2 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 74 3.4.3 Droplet Separation 74 3.5 Solid Fluid Systems 77 3.5.1 Flow Regimes 77 3.5.2 Pressure Drop 78 3.5.3 Pneumatic Conveying 80 3.6 Fluid Velocity in Pipes 80 3.7 Turbomachinery 81 3.7.1 Pumps 81 3.7.2 Compressors 90 3.7.3 Fans and Blowers 97 3.7.4 Expansion Turbines 98 References 99 4 Heat Transfer Equipment 101 4.1 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 101 4.1.1 Conduction 102 4.1.2 Convection 103 4.1.3 Radiation 112 4.2 Heat Exchange Equipment 117 4.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 118 4.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers 124 4.2.3 Air-Cooled Exchangers 127 4.2.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 128 4.2.5 Boilers and Fired Heaters 129 References 130 5 Mass Transfer and Chemical Reaction Equipment 131 5.1 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 131 5.1.1 Molecular Diffusion 132 5.1.2 Convective Transport 133 5.1.3 Adsorption 134 5.2 Gas–Liquid Systems 135 5.2.1 Types of Mass Transfer Operations 135 5.2.2 Types of Columns 144 5.2.3 Column Sizing 146 5.2.4 Column Diameter and Pressure Drop 157 5.3 Fluid–Solid Systems 159 5.3.1 Adsorbers 159 5.3.2 Catalytic Reactors 162 References 167 6 Prime Movers 169 6.1 Gas Turbines 170 6.1.1 Principles of Operation 171 6.1.2 Combustor and Air Emissions 176 6.1.3 Start-Up and Load Control 177 6.1.4 Performance Characteristics 177 6.1.5 Fuel Types 179 6.1.6 Technology Developments 182 6.2 Steam Turbines 185 6.2.1 Principles of Operation 185 6.2.2 Load Control 186 6.2.3 Performance Characteristics 187 6.2.4 Technology Developments 189 6.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 190 6.3.1 Principles of Operation 190 6.3.2 Air Emissions 193 6.3.3 Start-up 193 6.3.4 Performance Characteristics 194 6.3.5 Fuel Types 194 6.4 Hydraulic Turbines 195 6.4.1 Process Industry Applications 195 6.4.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant Applications 196 References 196 7 Systems Analysis 198 7.1 Design Basis 198 7.1.1 Fuel or Feedstock Specifications 200 7.1.2 Mode of Heat Rejection 200 7.1.3 Ambient Conditions 200 7.1.4 Other Site-Specific Considerations 201 7.1.5 Environmental Emissions Criteria 202 7.1.6 Capacity Factor 203 7.1.7 Off-Design Requirements 204 7.2 System Configuration 205 7.3 Exergy and Pinch Analyses 207 7.3.1 Exergy Analysis 207 7.3.2 Pinch Analysis 208 7.4 Process Flow Diagrams 212 7.5 Dynamic Simulation and Process Control 215 7.5.1 Dynamic Simulation 215 7.5.2 Automatic Process Control 219 7.6 Cost Estimation and Economics 220 7.6.1 Total Plant Cost 220 7.6.2 Economic Analysis 225 7.7 Life Cycle Assessment 227 References 228 8 Rankine Cycle Systems 230 8.1 Basic Rankine Cycle 231 8.2 Addition of Superheating 233 8.3 Addition of Reheat 236 8.4 Addition of Economizer and Regenerative Feedwater Heating 238 8.5 Supercritical Rankine Cycle 241 8.6 The Steam Cycle 241 8.7 Coal-Fired Power Generation 244 8.7.1 Coal-Fired Boilers 244 8.7.2 Emissions and Control 245 8.7.3 Description of a Large Supercritical Steam Rankine Cycle 251 8.8 Plant-Derived Biomass-Fired Power Generation 255 8.8.1 Feedstock Characteristics 255 8.8.2 Biomass-Fired Boilers 256 8.8.3 Cofiring Biomass in Coal-Fired Boilers 256 8.8.4 Emissions 257 8.9 Municipal Solid Waste Fired Power Generation 258 8.9.1 MSW-Fired Boilers 258 8.9.2 Emissions Control 259 8.10 Low-Temperature Cycles 260 8.10.1 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) 260 References 262 9 Brayton–Rankine Combined Cycle Systems 264 9.1 Combined Cycle 264 9.1.1 Gas Turbine Cycles for Combined Cycles 265 9.1.2 Steam Cycles for Combined Cycles 266 9.2 Natural Gas-Fueled Plants 267 9.2.1 Description of a Large Combined Cycle 267 9.2.2 No X Control 272 9.2.3 CO and Volatile Organic Compounds Control 272 9.2.4 CO 2 Emissions Control 273 9.2.5 Characteristics of Combined Cycles 276 9.3 Coal and Biomass Fueled Plants 279 9.3.1 Gasification 280 9.3.2 Gasifier Feedstocks 282 9.3.3 Key Technologies in IGCC Systems 283 9.3.4 Description of an IGCC 287 9.3.5 Advantages of an IGCC 291 9.3.6 Economies of Scale and Biomass Gasification 291 9.4 Indirectly Fired Cycle 291 References 294 10 Coproduction and Cogeneration 296 10.1 Types of Coproducts and Synergy in Coproduction 297 10.2 Syngas Generation for Coproduction 298 10.2.1 Gasifiers 298 10.2.2 Reformers 299 10.2.3 Shift Reactors 300 10.3 Syngas Conversion to Some Key Coproducts 302 10.3.1 Methanol 302 10.3.2 Urea 305 10.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Liquids 309 10.4 Hydrogen Coproduction from Coal and Biomass 315 10.4.1 Current Technology Plant 315 10.4.2 Advanced Technology Plant 318 10.5 Combined Heat and Power 322 10.5.1 LiBr Absorption Refrigeration 325 References 328 11 Advanced Systems 330 11.1 High Temperature Membrane Separators 330 11.1.1 Ceramic Membranes 331 11.1.2 Application of Membranes to Air Separation 333 11.1.3 Application of Membranes to H 2 Separation 334 11.2 Fuel Cells 334 11.2.1 Basic Electrochemistry and Transport Phenomena 337 11.2.2 Real Fuel Cell Behavior 339 11.2.3 Overall Cell Performance 342 11.2.4 A Fuel Cell Power Generation System 345 11.2.5 Major Fuel Cell Type Characteristics 347 11.2.6 Hybrid Cycles 351 11.2.7 A Coal-Fueled Hybrid System 354 11.3 Chemical Looping 354 11.4 Magnetohydrodynamics 356 References 357 12 Renewables and Nuclear 359 12.1 Wind 360 12.1.1 Wind Resources and Plant Siting 361 12.1.2 Key Equipment 363 12.1.3 Economics 364 12.1.4 Environmental Issues 365 12.2 Solar 365 12.2.1 Solar Resources and Plant Siting 366 12.2.2 Key Equipment 366 12.2.3 Economics 368 12.2.4 Environmental Issues 369 12.3 Geothermal 371 12.3.1 Geothermal Resources and Plant Siting 371 12.3.2 Key Equipment 372 12.3.3 Economics 376 12.3.4 Environmental Issues 377 12.4 Nuclear 378 12.4.1 Nuclear Fuel Resources and Plant Siting 379 12.4.2 Key Equipment 380 12.4.3 Economics 381 12.4.4 Environmental Issues 382 12.5 Electric Grid Stability and Dependence on Fossil Fuels 383 12.5.1 Super and Micro Grids 385 References 385 Appendix: Acronyms and Abbreviations, Symbols and Units 387 Index 396

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Book SynopsisBiorenewable Resources: Engineering New Products from Agriculture, 2nd Edition will provide comprehensive coverage of engineering systems that convert agricultural crops and residues into bioenergy and biobased products. This edition is thoroughly updated and revised to better serve the needs of the professional and research fields working with biorenewable resource development and production. Biorenewable resources is a rapidly growing field that forms at the interface between agricultural and plant sciences and process engineering. Biorenewable Resources will be an indispensable reference for anyone working in the production of biomass or biorenewable resources.Table of ContentsPREFACE vii ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 11 3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 43 4 THE BIORENEWABLE RESOURCE BASE 75 5 PRODUCTION OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 103 6 PRODUCTS FROM BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 137 7 BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSING OF CARBOHYDRATE-RICH BIOMASS 171 8 THERMOCHEMICAL PROCESSING OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS 195 9 PROCESSING OF OLEAGINOUS BIOMASS 237 10 PROCESSING OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES INTO NATURAL FIBERS 251 11 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE BIOECONOMY 261 12 ECONOMICS OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 287 13 BIORENEWABLE POLICY 327 Appendix A DESCRIPTIONS OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 341 Appendix B CONVERSION FACTORS 367 INDEX 369

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Book SynopsisRecent advances in science and technology have made modern computing and engineering systems more powerful and sophisticated than ever. The increasing complexity and scale imply that system reliability problems not only continue to be a challenge but also require more efficient models and solutions.Table of ContentsPreface xiiiNomenclature xix1 Introduction 11.1 Historical Developments 11.2 Reliability and Safety Applications 42 Basic Reliability Theory and Models 72.1 Probabiltiy Concepts 72.2 Reliability Measures 142.3 Fault Tree Analysis 173 Fundamentals of Binary Decision Diagrams 333.1 Preliminaries 343.2 Basic Concepts 343.3 BDD Construction 353.4 BDD Evaluation 423.5 BDD-Based Software Package 444 Application of BDD to Binary-State Systems 454.1 Network Reliability Analysis 454.2 Event Tree Analysis 474.3 Failure Frequency Analysis 504.4 Importance Measures and Analysis 544.5 Modularization Methods 604.6 Non-Coherent Systems 604.7 Disjoint Failures 654.8 Dependent Failures 685 Phased-Mission Systems 735.1 System Description 745.2 Rules of Phase Algebra 755.3 BDD-Based Method for PMS Analysis 765.4 Mission Performance Analysis 816 Multi-State Systems 856.1 Assumptions 866.2 An Illustrative Example 866.3 MSS Representation 876.4 Multi-State BDD (MBDD) 906.5 Logarithmically-Encoded BDD (LBDD) 946.6 Multi-State Multi-Valued Decision Diagrams (MMDD) 986.7 Performance Evaluation and Benchmarks 1026.8 Summary 1177 Fault Tolerant Systems and Coverage Models 1197.1 Basic Types 1207.2 Imperfect Coverage Model 1227.3 Applications to Binary-State Systems 1237.4 Applications to Multi-State Systems 1297.5 Applications to Phased-Mission Systems 1337.6 Summary 1398 Shared Decision Diagrams 1438.1 Multi-Rooted Decision Diagrams 1448.2 Multi-Terminal Decision Diagrams 1488.3 Performance Study on Multi-State Systems 1518.4 Application to Phased-Mission Systems 1638.5 Application to Multi-State k-out-of-n Systems 1688.6 Importance Measures 1768.7 Failure Frequency Based Measures 1808.8 Summary 183Conclusions 185References 187Index 205

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Book SynopsisA practical, step-by-step guide to designing world-class, high availability systems using both classical and DFSS reliability techniques Whether designing telecom, aerospace, automotive, medical, financial, or public safety systems, every engineer aims for the utmost reliability and availability in the systems he, or she, designs. But between the dream of world-class performance and reality falls the shadow of complexities that can bedevil even the most rigorous design process. While there are an array of robust predictive engineering tools, there has been no single-source guide to understanding and using them . . . until now. Offering a case-based approach to designing, predicting, and deploying world-class high-availability systems from the ground up, this book brings together the best classical and DFSS reliability techniques. Although it focuses on technical aspects, this guide considers the business and market constraints that require that systems be designTable of ContentsPreface xiii List of Abbreviations xvii 1. Introduction 1 2. Initial Considerations for Reliability Design 3 2.1 The Challenge 3 2.2 Initial Data Collection 3 2.3 Where Do We Get MTBF Information? 5 2.4 MTTR and Identifying Failures 6 2.5 Summary 7 3. A Game of Dice: An Introduction to Probability 8 3.1 Introduction 8 3.2 A Game of Dice 10 3.3 Mutually Exclusive and Independent Events 10 3.4 Dice Paradox Problem and Conditional Probability 15 3.5 Flip a Coin 21 3.6 Dice Paradox Revisited 23 3.7 Probabilities for Multiple Dice Throws 24 3.8 Conditional Probability Revisited 27 3.9 Summary 29 4. Discrete Random Variables 30 4.1 Introduction 30 4.2 Random Variables 31 4.3 Discrete Probability Distributions 33 4.4 Bernoulli Distribution 34 4.5 Geometric Distribution 35 4.6 Binomial Coeffi cients 38 4.7 Binomial Distribution 40 4.8 Poisson Distribution 43 4.9 Negative Binomial Random Variable 48 4.10 Summary 50 5. Continuous Random Variables 51 5.1 Introduction 51 5.2 Uniform Random Variables 52 5.3 Exponential Random Variables 53 5.4 Weibull Random Variables 54 5.5 Gamma Random Variables 55 5.6 Chi-Square Random Variables 59 5.7 Normal Random Variables 59 5.8 Relationship between Random Variables 60 5.9 Summary 61 6. Random Processes 62 6.1 Introduction 62 6.2 Markov Process 63 6.3 Poisson Process 63 6.4 Deriving the Poisson Distribution 64 6.5 Poisson Interarrival Times 69 6.6 Summary 71 7. Modeling and Reliability Basics 72 7.1 Introduction 72 7.2 Modeling 75 7.3 Failure Probability and Failure Density 77 7.4 Unreliability, F(t) 78 7.5 Reliability, R(t) 79 7.6 MTTF 79 7.7 MTBF 79 7.8 Repairable System 80 7.9 Nonrepairable System 80 7.10 MTTR 80 7.11 Failure Rate 81 7.12 Maintainability 81 7.13 Operability 81 7.14 Availability 82 7.15 Unavailability 84 7.16 Five 9s Availability 85 7.17 Downtime 85 7.18 Constant Failure Rate Model 85 7.19 Conditional Failure Rate 88 7.20 Bayes’s Theorem 94 7.21 Reliability Block Diagrams 98 7.22 Summary 107 8. Discrete-Time Markov Analysis 110 8.1 Introduction 110 8.2 Markov Process Defined 112 8.3 Dynamic Modeling 116 8.4 Discrete Time Markov Chains 116 8.5 Absorbing Markov Chains 123 8.6 Nonrepairable Reliability Models 129 8.7 Summary 140 9. Continuous-Time Markov Systems 141 9.1 Introduction 141 9.2 Continuous-Time Markov Processes 141 9.3 Two-State Derivation 143 9.4 Steps to Create a Markov Reliability Model 147 9.5 Asymptotic Behavior (Steady-State Behavior) 148 9.6 Limitations of Markov Modeling 154 9.7 Markov Reward Models 154 9.8 Summary 155 10. Markov Analysis: Nonrepairable Systems 156 10.1 Introduction 156 10.2 One Component, No Repair 156 10.3 Nonrepairable Systems: Parallel System with No Repair 165 10.4 Series System with No Repair: Two Identical Components 172 10.5 Parallel System with Partial Repair: Identical Components 176 10.6 Parallel System with No Repair: Nonidentical Components 183 10.7 Summary 192 11. Markov Analysis: Repairable Systems 193 11.1 Repairable Systems 193 11.2 One Component with Repair 194 11.3 Parallel System with Repair: Identical Component Failure and Repair Rates 204 11.4 Parallel System with Repair: Different Failure and Repair Rates 217 11.5 Summary 239 12. Analyzing Confidence Levels 240 12.1 Introduction 240 12.2 pdf of a Squared Normal Random Variable 240 12.3 pdf of the Sum of Two Random Variables 243 12.4 pdf of the Sum of Two Gamma Random Variables 245 12.5 pdf of the Sum of n Gamma Random Variables 246 12.6 Goodness-of-Fit Test Using Chi-Square 249 12.7 Confidence Levels 257 12.8 Summary 264 13. Estimating Reliability Parameters 266 13.1 Introduction 266 13.2 Bayes’ Estimation 268 13.3 Example of Estimating Hardware MTBF 273 13.4 Estimating Software MTBF 273 13.5 Revising Initial MTBF Estimates and Tradeoffs 274 13.6 Summary 277 14. Six Sigma Tools for Predictive Engineering 278 14.1 Introduction 278 14.2 Gathering Voice of Customer (VOC) 279 14.3 Processing Voice of Customer 281 14.4 Kano Analysis 282 14.5 Analysis of Technical Risks 284 14.6 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) or House of Quality 284 14.7 Program Level Transparency of Critical Parameters 287 14.8 Mapping DFSS Techniques to Critical Parameters 287 14.9 Critical Parameter Management (CPM) 287 14.10 First Principles Modeling 289 14.11 Design of Experiments (DOE) 289 14.12 Design Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (DFMEA) 289 14.13 Fault Tree Analysis 290 14.14 Pugh Matrix 290 14.15 Monte Carlo Simulation 291 14.16 Commercial DFSS Tools 291 14.17 Mathematical Prediction of System Capability instead of “Gut Feel” 293 14.18 Visualizing System Behavior Early in the Life Cycle 297 14.19 Critical Parameter Scorecard 297 14.20 Applying DFSS in Third-Party Intensive Programs 298 14.21 Summary 300 15. Design Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 302 15.1 Introduction 302 15.2 What Is Design Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (DFMEA)? 302 15.3 Definitions 303 15.4 Business Case for DFMEA 303 15.5 Why Conduct DFMEA? 305 15.6 When to Perform DFMEA 305 15.7 Applicability of DFMEA 306 15.8 DFMEA Template 306 15.9 DFMEA Life Cycle 312 15.10 The DFMEA Team 324 15.11 DFMEA Advantages and Disadvantages 327 15.12 Limitations of DFMEA 328 15.13 DFMEAs, FTAs, and Reliability Analysis 328 15.14 Summary 330 16. Fault Tree Analysis 331 16.1 What Is Fault Tree Analysis? 331 16.2 Events 332 16.3 Logic Gates 333 16.4 Creating a Fault Tree 335 16.5 Fault Tree Limitations 339 16.6 Summary 339 17. Monte Carlo Simulation Models 340 17.1 Introduction 340 17.2 System Behavior over Mission Time 344 17.3 Reliability Parameter Analysis 344 17.4 A Worked Example 348 17.5 Component and System Failure Times Using Monte Carlo Simulations 359 17.6 Limitations of Using Nontime-Based Monte Carlo Simulations 361 17.7 Summary 365 18. Updating Reliability Estimates: Case Study 367 18.1 Introduction 367 18.2 Overview of the Base Station Controller—Data Only (BSC-DO) System 367 18.3 Downtime Calculation 368 18.4 Calculating Availability from Field Data Only 371 18.5 Assumptions Behind Using the Chi-Square Methodology 372 18.6 Fault Tree Updates from Field Data 372 18.7 Summary 376 19. Fault Management Architectures 377 19.1 Introduction 377 19.2 Faults, Errors, and Failures 378 19.3 Fault Management Design 381 19.4 Repair versus Recovery 382 19.5 Design Considerations for Reliability Modeling 383 19.6 Architecture Techniques to Improve Availability 383 19.7 Redundancy Schemes 384 19.8 Summary 395 20 Application of DFMEA to Real-Life Example 397 20.1 Introduction 397 20.2 Cage Failover Architecture Description 397 20.3 Cage Failover DFMEA Example 399 20.4 DFMEA Scorecard 401 20.5 Lessons Learned 402 20.6 Summary 403 21. Application of FTA to Real-Life Example 404 21.1 Introduction 404 21.2 Calculating Availability Using Fault Tree Analysis 404 21.3 Building the Basic Events 405 21.4 Building the Fault Tree 406 21.5 Steps for Creating and Estimating the Availability Using FTA 408 21.6 Summary 416 22. Complex High Availability System Analysis 420 22.1 Introduction 420 22.2 Markov Analysis of the Hardware Components 420 22.3 Building a Fault Tree from the Hardware Markov Model 427 22.4 Markov Analysis of the Software Components 427 22.5 Markov Analysis of the Combined Hardware and Software Components 433 22.6 Techniques for Simplifying Markov Analysis 437 22.7 Summary 446 References 447 Index 450

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Book SynopsisAssesses the engineering of renewable sources for commercial power generation and discusses the safety, operation, and control aspects of nuclear electric power From an expert who advised the European Commission and UK government in the aftermath of Three Mile Island and Chernobyl comes a book that contains experienced engineering assessments of the options for replacing the existing, aged, fossil-fired power stations with renewable, gas-fired, or nuclear plants. From geothermal, solar, and wind to tidal and hydro generation, Nuclear Electric Power: Safety, Operation, and Control Aspects assesses the engineering of renewable sources for commercial power generation and discusses the important aspects of the design, operation, and safety of nuclear stations. Nuclear Electric Power offers: Novel, practical engineering assessments for geothermal, hydro, solar, tidal, and wind generation in terms of the available data on cost, safetyTable of ContentsPreface ix Glossary xiii Principal Nomenclature xv 1. Energy Sources, Grid Compatibility, Economics, and the Environment 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Geothermal Energy 3 1.3 Hydroelectricity 5 1.4 Solar Energy 7 1.5 Tidal Energy 8 1.6 Wind Energy 13 1.7 Fossil-Fired Power Generation 17 1.8 Nuclear Generation and Reactor Choice 20 1.9 A Prologue 30 2. Adequacy of Linear Models and Nuclear Reactor Dynamics 34 2.1 Linear Models, Stability, and Nyquist Theorems 34 2.2 Mathematical Descriptions of a Neutron Population 44 2.3 A Point Model of Reactor Kinetics 45 2.4 Temperature and Other Operational Feedback Effects 49 2.5 Reactor Control, its Stable Period and Re-equilibrium 51 3. Some Power Station and Grid Control Problems 56 3.1 Steam Drum Water-Level Control 56 3.2 Flow Stability in Parallel Boiling Channels 59 3.3 Grid Power Systems and Frequency Control 63 3.4 Grid Disconnection for a Nuclear Station with Functioning “Scram” 71 4. Some Aspects of Nuclear Accidents and Their Mitigation 79 4.1 Reactor Accident Classification by Probabilities 79 4.2 Hazards from an Atmospheric Release of Fission Products 82 4.3 Mathematical Risk, Event Trees, and Human Attitudes 84 4.4 The Farmer-Beattie Siting Criterion 87 4.5 Examples of Potential Severe Accidents in Fast Reactors and PWRs with their Consequences 93 5. Molten Fuel Coolant Interactions: Analyses and Experiments 101 5.1 A History and a Mixing Analysis 101 5.2 Coarse Mixtures and Contact Modes in Severe Nuclear Accidents 105 5.3 Some Physics of a Vapor Film and its Interface 110 5.4 Heat Transfer from Contiguous Melt 115 5.5 Mass Transfer at a Liquid–Vapor Interface and the Condensation Coefficient 121 5.6 Kinetics, Heat Diffusion, a Triggering Simulation, and Reactor Safety 124 5.7 Melt Fragmentation, Heat Transfer, Debris Sizes, and MFCI Yield 131 5.8 Features of the Bubex Code and an MFTF Simulation 140 6. Primary Containment Integrity and Impact Studies 148 6.1 Primary Containment Integrity 148 6.2 The Pi-Theorem, Scale Models, and Replicas 155 6.3 Experimental Impact Facilities 160 6.4 Computational Techniques and an Aircraft Impact 165 7. Natural Circulation, Passive Safety Systems, and Debris-Bed Cooling 173 7.1 Natural Convection in Nuclear Plants 173 7.2 Passive Safety Systems for Water Reactors 179 7.3 Core Debris-Bed Cooling in Water Reactors 181 7.4 An Epilogue 186 References 192 Index 207

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Book SynopsisAs naturally occurring and abundant sources of non-fossil carbon, lignin and lignans offer exciting possibilities as a source of commercially valuable products, moving away from petrochemical-based feedstocks in favour of renewable raw materials. Lignin can be used directly in fields such as agriculture, livestock, soil rehabilitation, bioremediation and the polymer industry, or it can be chemically modified for the fabrication of specialty and high-value chemicals such as resins, adhesives, fuels and greases. Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials presents a multidisciplinary overview of the state-of-the-art and future prospects of lignin and lignans. The book discusses the origin, structure, function and applications of both types of compounds, describing the main resources and values of these products as carbon raw materials. Topics covered include: Structure and physicochemical propertiesLignin detection methodsBiosynthesis of ligninTable of ContentsSeries PrefacePreface xiiiAcronyms xviiList of Symbols xxiPart One Introduction 11 Background and overview 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Lignin: economical aspects and sustainability 41.3 Structure of the book 5References 8Part Two What is lignin? 92 Structure and physicochemical properties 112.1 Introduction 112.2 Monolignols, the basis of a complex architecture 122.3 Chemical classification of lignins 152.4 Lignin linkages 192.5 Structural models of native lignin 222.6 Lignin-carbohydrate complex 372.7 Physical and chemical properties of lignins 44References 483 Detection and determination 533.1 Introduction 533.2 The detection of lignin (colour-forming reactions) 533.3 Determination of lignin 593.4 Direct methods for the determination of lignin 613.5 Indirect methods for the determination of lignin 653.6 Comparison of the different determination methods 72References 754 Biosynthesis of lignin 814.1 Introduction 814.2 The biological function of lignins 824.3 The shikimic acid pathway 824.4 The phenylpropanoid pathway 854.5 The biosynthesis of lignin precursors (the monolignol specific pathway) 864.6 The dehydrogenation of the precursors 924.7 Peroxidases and laccases 924.8 The radical polymerisation 954.9 The lignin-cabohydrate connectivity 1094.10 Location of lignins (cell walls lignification) 1114.11 Lignins from hybrids 1124.12 Differences between Angiosperm and Gymnosperm lignins 115References 119Part Three Sources and Characterization of Lignin 1275 Isolation of lignins 1295.1 Introduction 1295.2 Methods for lignin isolation from wood and grass for laboratory purposes 1305.3 Commercial lignins 143References 1546 Functional and spectroscopic characterization of lignins 1616.1 Introduction 1616.2 Elemental analysis and empirical formula 1616.3 Determination of molecular weight 1636.4 Functional group analyses 1676.5 Frequencies of functional groups and linkage types in lignins 1766.6 Characterization by spectroscopic methods 1826.7 Raman spectroscopy 186References 1957 Chemical characterization and modification of lignins 2077.1 Introduction 2077.2 Characterization by chemical degradation methods 2077.3 Other chemical transformations of lignins 2387.4 Other chemical modifications of lignins 2477.5 Thermolysis (pyrolysis) 2497.6 Biochemical transformations of lignins 250References 252Part Four Lignins Applications 2678 Applications of modified and unmodified lignins 2698.1 Introduction 2698.2 Lignin as fuel 2728.3 Lignin as a binder 2738.4 Lignin as chelant agent 2758.5 Lignin in biosciences and medicine 2768.6 Lignin in agriculture 2788.7 Polymers with unmodified lignin 2798.8 Other applications of unmodified lignins 2888.9 New polymeric materials derived from modified lignins and related biomass derivatives 2948.10 Polymers derived from chemicals obtainable from lignin decomposition 3048.11 Other applications of modified lignins 305References 3089 High-value chemical products 3139.1 Introduction 3139.2 Gasification: syngas from lignin 3159.3 Thermolysis of lignin 3169.4 Hydrodeoxygenation (hydrogenolysis) 3179.5 Hydrothermal hydrolysis 3199.6 Chemical depolymerisation 3219.7 Oxidative transformation of lignin 3249.8 High-value chemicals from lignin 328References 335Part Five Lignans 33910 Structure and chemical properties of lignans 34110.1 Introduction 34110.2 Structure and classification of lignans 34110.3 Nomenclature of lignans 34610.4 Lignan occurrence in plants 34910.5 Methods of isolation of lignans from plants 35410.6 Structure determination of lignans 35610.7 The chemical synthesis of lignans 357References 38711 Biological properties of lignans 40111.1 Introduction 40111.2 Biosynthesis of lignans 40211.3 Metabolism of lignans 41311.4 Plant physiology and plant defence 41811.5 Podophyllotoxin 42211.6 Biological activity of different lignan structures 435References 466Part Six Outcome and Challenges 49112 Summary, conclusions, and perspectives on lignin chemistry 49312.1 Sources of lignin 49312.2 On the structure of lignin 49412.3 Biosynthesis and biological function 49512.4 Applications of lignin 49512.5 Lignans 49712.6 Perspectives 498References 499General index 500Author index 501

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Book SynopsisA concise and accessible introduction to the topical issue of biomass utilization. Presents an overview of the use of biorenewable resources in the 21st century for the manufacture of chemical products, materials and energy.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv 1 The Biorefinery Concept: An Integrated Approach 1James Clark and Fabien Deswarte 1.1 Sustainability for the Twenty-First Century 1 1.2 Renewable Resources: Nature and Availability 2 1.3 The Challenge of Waste 4 1.3.1 Waste Policy and Waste Valorisation 6 1.3.2 The Food Supply Chain Waste Opportunity 7 1.3.3 Case Study: Citrus Waste 8 1.4 Green Chemistry 9 1.5 The Biorefinery Concept 11 1.5.1 Definition 11 1.5.2 Different Types of Biorefinery 12 1.5.3 Challenges and Opportunities 20 1.5.4 Biorefinery Size 24 1.6 Conclusions 24 1.7 Acknowledgement 25 References 25 2 Biomass as a Feedstock 31Thomas M. Attard, Andrew J. Hunt, Avtar S. Matharu, Joseph A. Houghton and Igor Polikarpov 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 32 2.3 Food Supply Chain Waste 40 2.4 Mango Waste: A Case Study 44 2.5 Concluding Remarks 46 References 47 3 Pretreatment and Thermochemical and Biological Processing of Biomass 53Wan Chi Lam, Tsz Him Kwan, Vitaliy L. Budarin, Egid B. Mubofu, Jiajun Fan and Carol Sze Ki Lin 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Biomass Pretreatments 54 3.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment of Biomass 54 3.2.2 Physical Pretreatment of Biomass 57 3.2.3 Chemical Pretreatment of Biomass 60 3.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Biomass Treatment 63 3.2.5 Biological Pretreatment 65 3.2.6 Summary 66 3.3 Thermochemical Processing of Biomass 66 3.3.1 Direct Liquefaction 66 3.3.2 Direct Combustion 70 3.3.3 Gasification 72 3.3.4 Pyrolysis 73 3.3.5 Torrefaction 74 3.4 Biological Processing 78 3.4.1 Fermentation 78 3.4.2 Anaerobic Digestion 79 3.5 Summary 83 References 83 4 Platform Molecules 89Thomas J. Farmer and Mark Mascal 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Fossil-Derived Base Chemicals 91 4.3 Definition of a Platform Molecule 93 4.4 Where Platform Molecules Come From 96 4.4.1 Saccharides 97 4.4.2 Lignin 103 4.4.3 Protein 105 4.4.4 Extracts 109 4.5 Process Technologies: Biomass to Platform Molecules 114 4.6 Bio-Derived v. Fossil-Derived: Changing Downstream Chemistry 117 4.7 List of Platform Molecules 119 4.8 Example Platform Molecules 130 4.8.1 Synthesis Gas Platform: Thermal Treatment 130 4.8.2 5-(Chloromethyl)furfural: Chemical-Catalytic Treatment 133 4.8.3 n-Butanol (Biobutanol): Biological Treatment 135 4.8.4 Triglyceride Platform: Extraction 137 4.9 Conclusion 142 References 143 5 Monomers and Resulting Polymers from Biomass 157James A. Bergman and Michael R. Kessler 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2 Polymers from Vegetable Oils 159 5.2.1 Isolation of Vegetable Oil 163 5.2.2 Thermosets of Vegetable Oils and Comonomers 163 5.2.3 Epoxidized and Acrylated Epoxidized Vegetable Oil 164 5.2.4 Polyurethanes from Vegetable Oil 165 5.2.5 Polyesters 167 5.2.6 Polyamides 168 5.2.7 Vegetable Oil Conclusion 168 5.3 Furan Chemistry 169 5.3.1 Production of Furfural and HMF 169 5.3.2 Second-Generation Derivatives 171 5.3.3 Addition Polymerizations 171 5.3.4 Furfuryl Alcohol 172 5.3.5 Polyesters 172 5.3.6 Polyamides 173 5.3.7 Other Polymers 175 5.3.8 Furan Conclusion 176 5.4 Terpenes 176 5.4.1 Production of Turpentine 177 5.4.2 Cationic Polymerization of Pinenes 178 5.4.3 Copolymerization of Pinenes 178 5.4.4 Polymerization of Non-Pinene Terpenes 179 5.4.5 Terpenoids 180 5.4.6 Terpene Conclusion 181 5.5 Rosin 181 5.5.1 Production and Chemistry of Rosin 181 5.5.2 Epoxy Resins from Rosin 183 5.5.3 Polyesters and Polyurethanes from Rosin 184 5.5.4 Thermoplastic Polymers from Rosin: Controlled Radical Techniques 184 5.5.5 Rosin Conclusion 185 5.6 The Potential of Tannins 186 5.6.1 Recent Work with Tannin Polycondensation 187 5.6.2 Tannins Conclusion 189 5.7 Alpha-Hydroxy Acids 189 5.7.1 Production of PLA 190 5.7.2 Properties of PLA 192 5.7.3 Applications of PLA 193 5.8 Conclusion 193 References 193 6 Bio-based Materials 205Antoine Rouilly and Carlos Vaca-Garcia 6.1 Introduction 205 6.2 Wood and Natural Fibres 206 6.2.1 Molecular Constitution 206 6.2.2 Hierarchical Structure of Wood and Timber 208 6.2.3 Plant Fibres 214 6.3 Isolated and Modified Biopolymers as Biomaterials 219 6.3.1 Cellulose 220 6.3.2 Cellulose Derivatives 224 6.3.3 Starch 228 6.3.4 Starch Derivatives 230 6.3.5 Chitin and Chitosan 230 6.3.6 Proteins 231 6.4 Agromaterials, Blends and Composites 236 6.4.1 Agromaterials 236 6.4.2 Blends of Synthetic Polymers and Starch 239 6.4.3 Composites with Natural Fibres 240 6.4.4 Wood-Based Boards 243 6.4.5 Materials for Construction 244 6.5 Conclusion 245 References 245 7 Biomass-Based Energy Production 249Mehrdad Arshadi and Anita Sellstedt 7.1 Introduction 249 7.2 Physical Upgrading Processes 250 7.2.1 Refinement of Biomass into Solid Fuels 250 7.2.2 Wood Powder 250 7.2.3 Briquette Production 251 7.2.4 Pellet Production 252 7.2.5 Storage of Solid Biomass 255 7.2.6 Torrefaction Technology 256 7.3 Microbiological Processes 257 7.3.1 Organisms and Processes 257 7.3.2 Hydrogen Production 257 7.3.3 Classification of Hydrogen-Forming Processes 258 7.3.4 Butanol Production Using Bacteria as Biocatalysts 259 7.3.5 Microbiological Ethanol Production 260 7.3.6 Production of Biodiesel from Plants and Algae 262 7.3.7 Biogas Production 263 7.4 Thermochemical Processes 265 7.4.1 Thermal Processing Equipment 266 7.4.2 Gasification 269 7.4.3 Pyrolysis 271 7.4.4 Liquefaction 272 7.4.5 Combustion 273 7.5 Chemical Processes 274 7.5.1 Dimethyl Ether (DME) 274 7.5.2 Biodiesel 274 7.6 Primary Alcohols 276 7.6.1 Methanol 276 7.6.2 Ethanol 277 7.6.3 Butanol 280 7.7 Conclusions 280 References 281 8 Policies and Strategies for Delivering a Sustainable Bioeconomy: A European Perspective 285David Turley 8.1 Introduction 285 8.2 Drivers for Change 287 8.3 The Starting Point: Strategies for Change 288 8.4 Direct Measures 289 8.4.1 Integrated Development 290 8.4.2 Policy Mechanisms 291 8.4.3 Preferential Purchasing Policies 293 8.5 Supporting Measures 294 8.5.1 Supply-Side Drivers 294 8.5.2 Demand-Side Drivers 297 8.6 Bioeconomy Definitions 298 8.6.1 Biobased Content 298 8.6.2 Biodegradability 301 8.6.3 Composting Standards 302 8.6.4 Material Recycling 303 8.7 Life-Cycle Analysis 303 8.8 Ecolabels 304 8.9 Concluding Remarks 307 References 308 Index 311

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Book SynopsisPraise for the Third Edition: This new third edition has been substantially rewritten and updated with new topics and material, new examples and exercises, and to more fully illustrate modern applications of RSM. - Zentralblatt Math Featuring a substantial revision, the Fourth Edition of Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments presents updated coverage on the underlying theory and applications of response surface methodology (RSM). Providing the assumptions and conditions necessary to successfully apply RSM in modern applications, the new edition covers classical and modern response surface designs in order to present a clear connection between the designs and analyses in RSM. With multiple revised sections with new topics and expanded coverage, Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments, Fourth EditionTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Response Surface Methodology, 1 1.1.1 Approximating Response Functions, 2 1.1.2 The Sequential Nature of RSM, 7 1.1.3 Objectives and Typical Applications of RSM, 9 1.1.4 RSM and the Philosophy of Quality Improvement, 11 1.2 Product Design and Formulation (Mixture Problems), 11 1.3 Robust Design and Process Robustness Studies, 12 1.4 Useful References on RSM, 12 2 Building Empirical Models 13 2.1 Linear Regression Models, 13 2.2 Estimation of the Parameters in Linear Regression Models, 14 2.3 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators and Estimation of 𝜎2, 22 2.4 Hypothesis Testing in Multiple Regression, 24 2.4.1 Test for Significance of Regression, 24 2.4.2 Tests on Individual Regression Coefficients and Groups of Coefficients, 27 2.5 Confidence Intervals in Multiple Regression, 31 2.5.1 Confidence Intervals on the Individual Regression Coefficients β, 32 2.5.2 A Joint Confidence Region on the Regression Coefficients β, 32 2.5.3 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response, 33 2.6 Prediction of New Response Observations, 35 2.7 Model Adequacy Checking, 36 2.7.1 Residual Analysis, 36 2.7.2 Scaling Residuals, 38 2.7.3 Influence Diagnostics, 42 2.7.4 Testing for Lack of Fit, 43 2.8 Fitting a Second-Order Model, 47 2.9 Qualitative Regressor Variables, 55 2.10 Transformation of the Response Variable, 61 Exercises, 66 3 Two-Level Factorial Designs 81 3.1 Introduction, 81 3.2 The 22 Design, 82 3.3 The 23 Design, 94 3.4 The General 2k Design, 103 3.5 A Single Replicate of the 2k Design, 108 3.6 2k Designs are Optimal Designs, 125 3.7 The Addition of Center Points to the 2k Design, 130 3.8 Blocking in the 2k Factorial Design, 135 3.8.1 Blocking in the Replicated Design, 135 3.8.2 Confounding in the 2k Design, 137 3.9 Split-Plot Designs, 141 Exercises, 146 4 Two-Level Fractional Factorial Designs 161 4.1 Introduction, 161 4.2 The One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design, 162 4.3 The One-Quarter Fraction of the 2k Design, 174 4.4 The General 2k−p Fractional Factorial Design, 184 4.5 Resolution III Designs, 188 4.6 Resolution IV and V Designs, 197 4.7 Alias Structures in Fractional Factorial and Other Designs, 198 4.8 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs, 200 4.8.1 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs for 6, 7, and 8 Factors in 16 Runs, 203 4.8.2 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs for 9 Through 14 Factors in 16 Runs, 209 4.8.3 Analysis of Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs, 213 4.9 Fractional Factorial Split-Plot Designs, 216 4.10 Summary, 219 Exercises, 220 5 Process Improvement with Steepest Ascent 233 5.1 Determining the Path of Steepest Ascent, 234 5.1.1 Development of the Procedure, 234 5.1.2 Practical Application of the Method of Steepest Ascent, 237 5.2 Consideration of Interaction and Curvature, 241 5.2.1 What About a Second Phase?, 244 5.2.2 What Happens Following Steepest Ascent?, 244 5.3 Effect of Scale (Choosing Range of Factors), 245 5.4 Confidence Region for Direction of Steepest Ascent, 247 5.5 Steepest Ascent Subject to a Linear Constraint, 250 5.6 Steepest Ascent in a Split-Plot Experiment, 254 Exercises, 262 6 The Analysis of Second-Order Response Surfaces 273 6.1 Second-Order Response Surface, 273 6.2 Second-Order Approximating Function, 274 6.2.1 The Nature of the Second-Order Function and Second-Order Surface, 274 6.2.2 Illustration of Second-Order Response Surfaces, 276 6.3 A Formal Analytical Approach to the Second-Order Model, 277 6.3.1 Location of the Stationary Point, 278 6.3.2 Nature of the Stationary Point (Canonical Analysis), 278 6.3.3 Ridge Systems, 282 6.3.4 Role of Contour Plots, 286 6.4 Ridge Analysis of the Response Surface, 289 6.4.1 Benefits of Ridge Analysis, 290 6.4.2 Mathematical Development of Ridge Analysis, 291 6.5 Sampling Properties of Response Surface Results, 296 6.5.1 Standard Error of Predicted Response, 296 6.5.2 Confidence Region on the Location of the Stationary Point, 299 6.5.3 Use and Computation of the Confidence Region on the Location of the Stationary Point, 300 6.5.4 Confidence Intervals on Eigenvalues in Canonical Analysis, 304 6.6 Further Comments Concerning Response Surface Analysis, 307 Exercises, 307 7 Multiple Response Optimization 325 7.1 Balancing Multiple Objectives, 325 7.2 Strategies for Multiple Response Optimization, 338 7.2.1 Overlaying Contour Plots, 339 7.2.2 Constrained Optimization, 340 7.2.3 Desirability Functions, 341 7.2.4 Pareto Front Optimization, 343 7.2.5 Other Options for Optimization, 349 7.3 A Sequential Process for Optimization—DMRCS, 350 7.4 Incorporating Uncertainty of Response Predictions into Optimization, 352 Exercises, 357 8 Design of Experiments for Fitting Response Surfaces—I 369 8.1 Desirable Properties of Response Surface Designs, 369 8.2 Operability Region, Region of Interest, and Metrics for Desirable Properties, 371 8.2.1 Metrics for Desirable Properties, 372 8.2.2 Model Inadequacy and Model Bias, 373 8.3 Design of Experiments for First-Order Models and First-Order Models with Interactions, 375 8.3.1 The First-Order Orthogonal Design, 376 8.3.2 Orthogonal Designs for Models Containing Interaction, 378 8.3.3 Other First-Order Orthogonal Designs—The Simplex Design, 381 8.3.4 Definitive Screening Designs, 385 8.3.5 Another Variance Property—Prediction Variance, 389 8.4 Designs for Fitting Second-Order Models, 393 8.4.1 The Class of Central Composite Designs, 393 8.4.2 Design Moments and Property of Rotatability, 399 8.4.3 Rotatability and the CCD, 403 8.4.4 More on Prediction Variance—Scaled, Unscaled, and Estimated, 406 8.4.5 The Face-Centered Cube in Cuboidal Regions, 408 8.4.6 Choosing between Spherical and Cuboidal Regions, 411 8.4.7 The Box–Behnken Design, 413 8.4.8 Definitive Screening Designs for Fitting Second-Order Models, 417 8.4.9 Orthogonal Blocking in Second-Order Designs, 422 Exercises, 434 9 Experimental Designs for Fitting Response Surfaces—II 451 9.1 Designs that Require a Relatively Small Run Size, 452 9.1.1 The Hoke Designs, 452 9.1.2 Koshal Design, 454 9.1.3 Hybrid Designs, 455 9.1.4 The Small Composite Design, 458 9.1.5 Some Saturated or Near-Saturated Cuboidal Designs, 462 9.1.6 Equiradial Designs, 463 9.2 General Criteria for Constructing, Evaluating, and Comparing Designed Experiments, 465 9.2.1 Practical Design Optimality, 467 9.2.2 Use of Design Efficiencies for Comparison of Standard Second-Order Designs, 474 9.2.3 Graphical Procedure for Evaluating the Prediction Capability of an RSM Design, 477 9.3 Computer-Generated Designs in RSM, 488 9.3.1 Important Relationship Between Prediction Variance and Design Augmentation for D-Optimality, 491 9.3.2 Algorithms for Computer-Generated Designs, 494 9.3.3 Comparison of D-, G-, and I-Optimal Designs, 497 9.3.4 Illustrations Involving Computer-Generated Design, 499 9.3.5 Computer-Generated Designs Involving Qualitative Variables, 508 9.4 Multiple Objective Computer-Generated Designs for RSM, 517 9.4.1 Pareto Front Optimization for Selecting a Design, 518 9.4.2 Pareto Aggregating Point Exchange Algorithm, 519 9.4.3 Using DMRCS for Design Optimization, 520 9.5 Some Final Comments Concerning Design Optimality and Computer-Generated Design, 525 Exercises, 527 10 Advanced Topics in Response Surface Methodology 543 10.1 Effects of Model Bias on the Fitted Model and Design, 543 10.2 A Design Criterion Involving Bias and Variance, 547 10.2.1 The Case of a First-Order Fitted Model and Cuboidal Region, 550 10.2.2 Minimum Bias Designs for a Spherical Region of Interest, 556 10.2.3 Simultaneous Consideration of Bias and Variance, 558 10.2.4 How Important Is Bias?, 558 10.3 Errors in Control of Design Levels, 560 10.4 Experiments with Computer Models, 563 10.4.1 Design for Computer Experiments, 567 10.4.2 Analysis for Computer Experiments, 570 10.4.3 Combining Information from Physical and Computer Experiments, 574 10.5 Minimum Bias Estimation of Response Surface Models, 575 10.6 Neural Networks, 579 10.7 Split-Plot Designs for Second-Order Models, 581 10.8 RSM for Non-Normal Responses—Generalized Linear Models, 591 10.8.1 Model Framework: The Link Function, 592 10.8.2 The Canonical Link Function, 593 10.8.3 Estimation of Model Coefficients, 593 10.8.4 Properties of Model Coefficients, 595 10.8.5 Model Deviance, 595 10.8.6 Overdispersion, 597 10.8.7 Examples, 598 10.8.8 Diagnostic Plots and Other Aspects of the GLM, 605 Exercises, 609 11 Robust Parameter Design and Process Robustness Studies 619 11.1 Introduction, 619 11.2 What is Parameter Design?, 619 11.2.1 Examples of Noise Variables, 620 11.2.2 An Example of Robust Product Design, 621 11.3 The Taguchi Approach, 622 11.3.1 Crossed Array Designs and Signal-to-Noise Ratios, 622 11.3.2 Analysis Methods, 625 11.3.3 Further Comments, 630 11.4 The Response Surface Approach, 631 11.4.1 The Role of the Control × Noise Interaction, 631 11.4.2 A Model Containing Both Control and Noise Variables, 635 11.4.3 Generalization of Mean and Variance Modeling, 638 11.4.4 Analysis Procedures Associated with the Two Response Surfaces, 642 11.4.5 Estimation of the Process Variance, 651 11.4.6 Direct Variance Modeling, 655 11.4.7 Use of Generalized Linear Models, 657 11.5 Experimental Designs For RPD and Process Robustness Studies, 661 11.5.1 Combined Array Designs, 661 11.5.2 Second-Order Designs, 663 11.5.3 Other Aspects of Design, 665 11.6 Dispersion Effects in Highly Fractionated Designs, 672 11.6.1 The Use of Residuals, 673 11.6.2 Further Diagnostic Information from Residuals, 674 11.6.3 Further Comments Concerning Variance Modeling, 680 Exercises, 684 12 Experiments with Mixtures 693 12.1 Introduction, 693 12.2 Simplex Designs and Canonical Mixture Polynomials, 696 12.2.1 Simplex Lattice Designs, 696 12.2.2 The Simplex-Centroid Design and Its Associated Polynomial, 704 12.2.3 Augmentation of Simplex Designs with Axial Runs, 707 12.3 Response Trace Plots, 716 12.4 Reparameterizing Canonical Mixture Models to Contain A Constant Term (𝛽0), 716 Exercises, 720 13 Other Mixture Design and Analysis Techniques 731 13.1 Constraints on the Component Proportions, 731 13.1.1 Lower-Bound Constraints on the Component Proportions, 732 13.1.2 Upper-Bound Constraints on the Component Proportions, 743 13.1.3 Active Upper- and Lower-Bound Constraints, 747 13.1.4 Multicomponent Constraints, 758 13.2 Mixture Experiments Using Ratios of Components, 759 13.3 Process Variables in Mixture Experiments, 763 13.3.1 Mixture-Process Model and Design Basics, 763 13.3.2 Split-Plot Designs for Mixture-Process Experiments, 767 13.3.3 Robust Parameter Designs for Mixture-Process Experiments, 778 13.4 Screening Mixture Components, 783 Exercises, 785 Appendix 1 Moment Matrix of a Rotatable Design 797 Appendix 2 Rotatability of a Second-Order Equiradial Design 803 References 807 Index 821

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Book SynopsisMaintaining a stable level of power quality in the distribution network is a growing challenge due to increased use of power electronics converters in domestic, commercial and industrial sectors. Power quality deterioration is manifested in increased losses; poor utilization of distribution systems; mal-operation of sensitive equipment and disturbances to nearby consumers, protective devices, and communication systems. However, as the energy-saving benefits will result in increased AC power processed through power electronics converters, there is a compelling need for improved understanding of mitigation techniques for power quality problems. This timely book comprehensively identifies, classifies, analyses and quantifies all associated power quality problems, including the direct integration of renewable energy sources in the distribution system, and systematically delivers mitigation techniques to overcome these problems. Key features: Emphasis on in-depth leTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Companion Website xiv 1 Power Quality: An Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 State of the Art on Power Quality 2 1.3 Classification of Power Quality Problems 3 1.4 Causes of Power Quality Problems 4 1.5 Effects of Power Quality Problems on Users 4 1.6 Classification of Mitigation Techniques for Power Quality Problems 6 1.7 Literature and Resource Material on Power Quality 6 1.8 Summary 7 1.9 Review Questions 8 References 8 2 Power Quality Standards and Monitoring 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 State of the Art on Power Quality Standards and Monitoring 11 2.3 Power Quality Terminologies 12 2.4 Power Quality Definitions 15 2.5 Power Quality Standards 16 2.6 Power Quality Monitoring 18 2.7 Numerical Examples 20 2.8 Summary 39 2.9 Review Questions 39 2.10 Numerical Problems 40 2.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 43 References 46 3 Passive Shunt and Series Compensation 48 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 State of the Art on Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 48 3.3 Classification of Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 49 3.4 Principle of Operation of Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 51 3.5 Analysis and Design of Passive Shunt Compensators 51 3.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 62 3.7 Numerical Examples 63 3.8 Summary 85 3.9 Review Questions 85 3.10 Numerical Problems 87 3.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 89 References 93 4 Active Shunt Compensation 96 4.1 Introduction 96 4.2 State of the Art on DSTATCOMs 96 4.3 Classification of DSTATCOMs 97 4.4 Principle of Operation and Control of DSTATCOMs 108 4.5 Analysis and Design of DSTATCOMs 133 4.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of DSTATCOMs 136 4.7 Numerical Examples 141 4.8 Summary 158 4.9 Review Questions 158 4.10 Numerical Problems 159 4.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 162 References 167 5 Active Series Compensation 170 5.1 Introduction 170 5.2 State of the Art on Active Series Compensators 171 5.3 Classification of Active Series Compensators 171 5.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Active Series Compensators 178 5.5 Analysis and Design of Active Series Compensators 183 5.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Active Series Compensators 185 5.7 Numerical Examples 190 5.8 Summary 216 5.9 Review Questions 217 5.10 Numerical Problems 218 5.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 220 References 226 6 Unified Power Quality Compensators 229 6.1 Introduction 229 6.2 State of the Art on Unified Power Quality Compensators 230 6.3 Classification of Unified Power Quality Compensators 231 6.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Unified Power Quality Compensators 237 6.5 Analysis and Design of Unified Power Quality Compensators 246 6.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of UPQCs 249 6.7 Numerical Examples 252 6.8 Summary 292 6.9 Review Questions 292 6.10 Numerical Problems 293 6.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 297 References 303 7 Loads That Cause Power Quality Problems 306 7.1 Introduction 306 7.2 State of the Art on Nonlinear Loads 307 7.3 Classification of Nonlinear Loads 308 7.4 Power Quality Problems Caused by Nonlinear Loads 313 7.5 Analysis of Nonlinear Loads 314 7.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Nonlinear Loads 314 7.7 Numerical Examples 314 7.8 Summary 327 7.9 Review Questions 328 7.10 Numerical Problems 329 7.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 330 References 334 8 Passive Power Filters 337 8.1 Introduction 337 8.2 State of the Art on Passive Power Filters 338 8.3 Classification of Passive Filters 338 8.4 Principle of Operation of Passive Power Filters 344 8.5 Analysis and Design of Passive Power Filters 349 8.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Passive Power Filters 350 8.7 Limitations of Passive Filters 353 8.8 Parallel Resonance of Passive Filters with the Supply System and Its Mitigation 355 8.9 Numerical Examples 360 8.10 Summary 387 8.11 Review Questions 387 8.12 Numerical Problems 388 8.13 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 391 References 395 9 Shunt Active Power Filters 397 9.1 Introduction 397 9.2 State of the Art on Shunt Active Power Filters 398 9.3 Classification of Shunt Active Power Filters 398 9.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Shunt Active Power Filters 405 9.5 Analysis and Design of Shunt Active Power Filters 413 9.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Shunt Active Power Filters 417 9.7 Numerical Examples 421 9.8 Summary 438 9.9 Review Questions 438 9.10 Numerical Problems 439 9.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 442 References 447 10 Series Active Power Filters 452 10.1 Introduction 452 10.2 State of the Art on Series Active Power Filters 453 10.3 Classification of Series Active Power Filters 453 10.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Series Active Power Filters 456 10.5 Analysis and Design of Series Active Power Filters 462 10.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Series Active Power Filters 465 10.7 Numerical Examples 467 10.8 Summary 492 10.9 Review Questions 492 10.10 Numerical Problems 493 10.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 496 References 501 11 Hybrid Power Filters 504 11.1 Introduction 504 11.2 State of the Art on Hybrid Power Filters 505 11.3 Classification of Hybrid Power Filters 506 11.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Hybrid Power Filters 519 11.5 Analysis and Design of Hybrid Power Filters 527 11.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Hybrid Power Filters 528 11.7 Numerical Examples 534 11.8 Summary 559 11.9 Review Questions 559 11.10 Numerical Problems 561 11.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 563 References 569 Index 579

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Book SynopsisA unique approach to the study of geothermal energy systems This book takes a unique, holistic approach to the interdisciplinary study of geothermal energy systems, combining low, medium, and high temperature applications into a logical order. The emphasis is on the concept that all geothermal projects contain common elements of a thermal energy reservoir that must be properly designed and managed. The book is organized into four sections that examine geothermal systems: energy utilization from resource and site characterization; energy harnessing; energy conversion (heat pumps, direct uses, and heat engines); and energy distribution and uses. Examples are provided to highlight fundamental concepts, in addition to more complex system design and simulation. Key features: Companion website containing software tools for application of fundamental principles and solutions to real-world problems. Balance of theory, fundamental prinTable of ContentsSeries Preface xiv Preface xv About the Companion Website xviii 1 Geothermal Energy Project Considerations 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Renewable/Clean Energy System Analysis 1 1.3 Elements of Renewable/Clean Energy Systems 4 1.4 Geothermal Energy Utilization and Resource Temperature 5 1.5 Geothermal Energy Project History and Development 5 1.6 Chapter Summary 18 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 19 Part I Geothermal Energy – Utilization and Resource Characterization 21 2 Geothermal Process Loads 23 2.1 Overview 23 2.2 Weather Data 24 2.3 Space Heating and Cooling Loads 26 2.4 Hot Water Process Loads 38 2.5 Swimming Pool and Small Pond Heating Loads 40 2.6 Snow-Melting Loads 46 2.7 Chapter Summary 53 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 54 3 Characterizing the Resource 553.1 Overview 55 3.2 Origin and Structure of the Earth 56 3.3 Geology and Drilling Basics for Energy Engineers 59 3.4 Earth Temperature Regime and Global Heat Flows: Why is the Center of the Earth Hot? 62 3.5 Shallow Earth Temperatures 64 3.6 The Geothermal Reservoir Concept 66 3.7 Geothermal Site Suitability Analysis 68 3.8 Chapter Summary 79 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 80 Part II Harnessing the Resource 81 4 Groundwater Heat Exchange Systems 83 4.1 Overview 83 4.2 Why Groundwater? 84 4.3 Theoretical Considerations 85 4.4 Practical Considerations 108 4.5 Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 123 4.6 Chapter Summary 134 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 135 5 Borehole Heat Exchangers 138 5.1 Overview of Borehole Heat Exchangers (BHEs) 138 5.2 What is a Borehole Heat Exchanger? 139 5.3 Brief Historical Overview of BHEs 140 5.4 Installation of BHEs 141 5.5 Thermal and Mathematical Considerations for BHEs 142 5.6 Thermal Response Testing 169 5.7 Pressure Considerations for Deep Vertical Boreholes 175 5.8 Special Cases 176 5.9 Chapter Summary 178 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 179 6 Multi-Borehole Heat Exchanger Arrays 181 6.1 Overview 181 6.2 Vertical GHX Design Length Equation and Design Parameters 184 6.3 Vertical GHX Simulation 198 6.4 Hybrid Geothermal Heat Pump Systems 199 6.5 Modeling Vertical GHXs with Software Tools 200 6.6 Chapter Summary 216 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 217 7 Horizontal Ground Heat Exchangers 219 7.1 Overview 219 7.2 Horizontal GHX Design Length Equation and Design Parameters 221 7.3 Modeling Horizontal GHXs with Software Tools 232 7.4 Simulation of Horizontal GHXs 237 7.5 Earth Tubes 2387.6 Chapter Summary 244 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 244 8 Surface Water Heat Exchange Systems 246 8.1 Overview 246 8.2 Thermal Processes in Surface Water Bodies 247 8.3 Open-Loop Systems 250 8.4 Closed-Loop Systems 251 8.5 Chapter Summary 266 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 266 9 Opportunistic Heat Sources and Sinks 267 9.1 Overview 267 9.2 Use of Existing Water Wells 267 9.3 Heat Exchange With Building Foundations 268 9.4 Utilization of Infrastructure from Other Energy Sectors 268 9.5 Cascaded Loads and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 271 9.6 Integrated Loads and Load Sharing with Heat Pumps 273 9.7 Chapter Summary 278 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 279 10 Piping and Pumping Systems 280 10.1 Overview 280 10.2 The Fluid Mechanics of Internal Flows 281 10.3 Pipe System Design 286 10.4 Configuring a Closed-Loop Ground Heat Exchanger 289 10.5 Circulating Pumps 298 10.6 Chapter Summary 305 Exercise Problems 305 Part III Geothermal Energy Conversion 307 11 Heat Pumps and Heat Engines: A Thermodynamic Overview 309 11.1 Overview 309 11.2 Fundamental Theory of Operation of Heat Pumps and Heat Engines 309 11.3 The Carnot Cycle 311 11.4 Real-World Considerations: Entropy and Exergy 312 11.5 Practical Heat Engine and Heat Pump Cycles 317 11.6 The Working Fluids: Refrigerants 320 11.7 Chapter Summary 322 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 323 12 Mechanical Vapor Compression Heat Pumps 324 12.1 Overview 324 12.2 The Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle 325 12.3 The Non-Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle 328 12.4 General Source-Sink Configurations 342 12.5 Mechanics of Operation 347 12.6 Transcritical Cycles 366 12.7 Vapor Compression Heat Pump Performance Standards and Manufacturer’s Catalog Data 370 12.8 Chapter Summary 373 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 374 13 Thermally Driven Heat Pumps 376 13.1 Overview 376 13.2 Cycle Basics 377 13.3 Absorption Cycles 378 13.4 Adsorption Cycles 396 13.5 Thermally Driven Heat Pump Performance Standards and Manufacturer’s Catalog Data 397 13.6 Chapter Summary 397 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 398 14 Organic Rankine Cycle (Binary) Geothermal Power Plants 399 14.1 Overview 399 14.2 The Ideal Rankine Cycle 400 14.3 The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle 402 14.4 Organic Rankine Cycle Performance Modeling 410 14.5 Chapter Summary 416 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 416 Part IV Energy Distribution 419 15 Inside the Building 421 15.1 Overview 421 15.2 Heat Pump Piping Configurations 421 15.3 Hydronic Heating and Cooling Systems 425 15.4 Forced-Air Heating and Cooling Systems 425 15.5 Ventilation Air and Heat Pumps 426 15.6 Chapter Summary 431 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 431 16 Energy Economics and Environmental Impact 433 16.1 Overview 433 16.2 Simple Payback Period and Rate of Return 434 16.3 Time Value of Money 435 16.4 Cost Considerations for Geothermal Energy Systems 437 16.5 Uncertainty in Economic Analyses 439 16.6 Environmental Impact 441 16.7 Chapter Summary 444 Appendix A: Software Used in this Book 445 A.1 The GHX Tool Box 445 A.2 Engineering Equation Solver (EES) 445 A.3 Installing and Using the Excel Solver for Optimization Problems 446 What is the Excel Solver? 446 Installing the Excel Solver 446 Using the Excel Solver 446 Appendix B: Hydraulic and Thermal Property Data 448 Appendix C: Solar Utilizability Method 450 Nomenclature 454 References 459 Index 464

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Book SynopsisPraised for its visual appeal, conversational style and clear explanation of complex ideas with minimal mathematics, Electricity from Sunlight has been thoroughly revised and updated to reflect advances in the global PV market, economics and installed capacity. Key features of the 2nd edition include: A timely update of the advances of photovoltaics (PV), with major new material on grid-connected systems. More in-depth treatment of PV scientific principles, solar cells, modules, and systems. Up-to-date coverage of the PV market including conversion efficiencies and the expansion of grid-friendly power plants. End-of-chapter problems with solutions manual available to instructors via companion website. Additional end-of-chapter questions and answers to support students through guided self-study. New chapters on manufacturing processes and on materials and other resources availability. New large-scale PV section covering the growthTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xi Foreword xiii Preface to the First Edition xv Preface to the Second Edition xvii Acknowledgment to the First Edition xix Acknowledgment to the Second Edition xxiii About the Companion Website xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Energy and Sustainable Development 1 1.2 The Sun, Earth, and Renewable Energy 2 1.3 The Solar Resource 6 1.4 The Magic of Photovoltaics 11 1.5 A Piece of History 13 1.6 Coming Up to Date 17 Appendix 1.A Energy Units and Conversions 22 CO2 Emissions per Fuel Type 22 CO2 Emissions in Transportation 23 Self]Assessment Questions 23 Problems 24 Answers to Questions 25 References 25 2 Solar Cells 27 2.1 Setting the Scene 27 2.2 Crystalline Silicon 30 2.2.1 The Ideal Crystal 30 2.2.2 The p–n Junction 32 2.2.3 Monocrystalline Silicon 35 2.2.3.1 Photons in Action 35 2.2.3.2 Generating Power 37 2.2.3.3 Sunlight, Silicon, and Quantum Mechanics 41 2.2.3.4 Refining the Design 45 2.2.4 Multicrystalline Silicon 51 2.3 Second]Generation Photovoltaics 52 2.3.1 Amorphous and Thin]Film Silicon 53 2.3.2 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS) 57 2.3.3 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 60 2.4 Cell Efficiency and Module Cost 61 2.5 Third]Generation Solar Cells 64 2.5.1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Multi]Junctions 65 2.5.2 Dye]Sensitized Cells 67 2.5.3 Organic Solar Cells 69 2.5.4 Perovskites 72 Self]Assessment Questions 73 Problems 75 Answers to Questions 76 References 77 3 PV Modules and Arrays 79 3.1 Introduction 79 3.2 Electrical Performance 82 3.2.1 Connecting Cells and Modules 82 3.2.2 Module Parameters 85 3.3 Capturing Sunlight 88 3.3.1 Aligning the Array 92 3.3.2 Sunshine and Shadow 98 3.4 One]Axis Tracking 101 3.5 Concentration and Two]Axis Tracking 102 Appendix 3.A 107 3.A.1 Converting Global Horizontal Irradiation Data to Tilted and Sun]Tracking Surfaces 107 3.A.1.1 Solar Data Collection 108 3.A.1.2 Calculation of Extraterrestrial Radiation 108 3.A.1.3 Determining the Diffuse and the Direct Components of the Global Horizontal Irradiation 110 3.A.1.4 Using a Model to Calculate the Energy Incident on the Inclined Surface per Time Increment 111 3.A.1.5 Comparisons of Different Configurations 114 Self]Assessment Questions 114 Problems 115 Answers to Questions 119 References 120 4 Grid]Connected PV Systems 121 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 From DC to AC 122 4.3 Completing the System 128 4.4 Building]Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) 130 4.4.1 Engineering and Architecture 130 4.4.2 PV Outside, PV Inside 132 4.5 The Growth of Global PV Markets 140 4.6 Current Status of the PV Industry 144 4.7 Large PV Power Plants 145 4.7.1 Commercial and Industrial Installations 147 4.7.2 Utility]Scale PV 147 4.8 PV Grid Connection and Integration 155 4.8.1 The Electricity Grid 155 4.8.2 Grid]Friendly PV Power Plants 157 4.9 Electricity Markets and Types of Power Generators 160 4.10 The Variability Challenge and Solutions 164 4.10.1 Long]Distance Transmission Lines 167 4.10.2 Grid Flexibility 168 4.11 Energy Storage 170 4.11.1 Power]Quality Storage Technologies 171 4.11.1.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 171 4.11.1.2 Electric Double]Layer Capacitors 172 4.11.1.3 Flywheels 173 4.11.2 Bridging Power 173 4.11.2.1 Lead]Acid Batteries 173 4.11.2.2 Lithium]Ion Batteries 175 4.11.2.3 Flow Batteries 176 4.11.3. Energy Management Storage Technologies 178 4.11.3.1 Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 178 4.11.3.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage 179 Self]Assessment Questions 182 Problems 183 Answers to Questions 184 References 185 5 Stand]Alone PV Systems 187 5.1 Remote and Independent 187 5.2 System Components 189 5.2.1 Batteries 189 5.2.2 Charge Controllers 193 5.2.3 Inverters 198 5.3 Hybrid Systems 202 5.4 System Sizing 204 5.4.1 Assessing the Problem 204 5.4.2 PV Arrays and Battery Banks 207 5.5 Applications 211 5.5.1 PV in Space 212 5.5.2 Island Electricity 215 5.5.3 PV Water Pumping 219 5.5.4 Solar]Enabled Water Desalination 223 5.5.5 Solar]Powered Boats 225 5.5.6 Far and Wide 230 Self]Assessment Questions 233 Problems 234 Answers to Questions 235 References 235 6 Photovoltaic Manufacturing 237 6.1 Production of Crystalline Si Solar Cells 237 6.1.1 Production of Metallurgical Silicon 237 6.1.2 Production of Polysilicon (Silicon Purification) 238 6.1.3 Production of Crystalline Silicon 243 6.1.3.1 Single]Crystal Silicon 244 6.1.3.2 Multicrystalline Silicon 245 6.1.4 Ingot Wafering 246 6.1.5 Doping/Forming the p–n Junction 248 6.1.6 Cleaning Etch 249 6.1.7 Surface Texturing to Reduce Reflection 249 6.1.8 Antireflection Coatings and Fire]Through Contacts 249 6.1.9 Edge Isolation 249 6.1.10 Rear Contact 249 6.1.11 Encapsulation 249 6.2 Opportunities and Challenges in Si PV Manufacturing 250 6.3 Thin]Film PV Manufacturing 253 6.3.1 CIGS Thin]Film Manufacturing 254 6.3.1.1 Co]evaporation 257 6.3.1.2 Metal Selenization/Sulfurization 257 6.3.1.3 Non]Vacuum Particle or Solution Processing 258 6.3.2 CdTe PV Manufacturing 258 Self]Assessment Questions 261 Problems 262 Answers to Questions 263 References 263 7 PV Growth and Sustainability 265 7.1 Affordability 266 7.1.1 Costs and Markets 266 7.1.2 Financial Incentives 272 7.1.2.1 Capital Grants 272 7.1.2.2 Special Tariffs 274 7.1.2.3 Financing Options 275 7.1.2.4 Renewable Portfolio Standards 276 7.1.2.5 Carbon Fees/Programs 276 7.1.3 Rural Electrification 279 7.1.4 External Costs and Benefits 283 7.1.5 Policy Recommendations for Further Growing Solar Energy 284 7.1.5.1 R&D Funding 284 7.1.5.2 Solar Financing Flexibility 284 7.2 Resource Availability 285 7.2.1 Raw Materials 285 7.2.2 Land Use 290 7.2.3 Water Use 293 7.3 Life]Cycle Environmental Impacts 295 7.3.1 Life]Cycle Analysis 295 7.3.2 Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) in PV Manufacturing 306 7.3.3 Recycling Programs 311 7.4 The Growth of PV is Sustainable and Greatly Needed 315 Self]Assessment Questions 316 Problems 316 Answers to Questions 317 References 318 Index 321

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Book SynopsisThe latest developments in the field of hybrid electric vehicles Hybrid Electric Vehicles provides an introduction to hybrid vehicles, which include purely electric, hybrid electric, hybrid hydraulic, fuel cell vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric, and off-road hybrid vehicular systems. It focuses on the power and propulsion systems for these vehicles, including issues related to power and energy management. Other topics covered include hybrid vs. pure electric, HEV system architecture (including plug-in & charging control and hydraulic), off-road and other industrial utility vehicles, safety and EMC, storage technologies, vehicular power and energy management, diagnostics and prognostics, and electromechanical vibration issues. Hybrid Electric Vehicles, Second Edition is a comprehensively updated new edition with four new chapters covering recent advances in hybrid vehicle technology. New areas covered include battery modelling, charger design, and wTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xvii Preface to the First Edition xxi Preface to the Second Edition xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Sustainable Transportation 2 1.1.1 Population, Energy, and Transportation 3 1.1.2 Environment 4 1.1.3 Economic Growth 7 1.1.4 New Fuel Economy Requirement 7 1.2 A Brief History of HEVs 7 1.3 Why EVs Emerged and Failed in the 1990s, and What We Can Learn 10 1.4 Architectures of HEVs 11 1.4.1 Series HEVs 12 1.4.2 Parallel HEVs 13 1.4.3 Series–Parallel HEVs 14 1.4.4 Complex HEVs 15 1.4.5 Diesel Hybrids 15 1.4.6 Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization 16 1.4.7 Hybridization Ratio 16 1.5 Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs 17 1.6 State of the Art of HEVs 17 1.6.1 Toyota Prius 21 1.6.2 The Honda Civic 21 1.6.3 The Ford Escape 21 1.6.4 The Two]Mode Hybrid 21 1.7 Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs 24 1.8 The Invisible Hand–Government Support 25 1.9 Latest Development in EV and HEV, China’s Surge in EV Sales 27 References 29 2 Concept of Hybridization of the Automobile 31 2.1 Vehicle Basics 31 2.1.1 Constituents of a Conventional Vehicle 31 2.1.2 Vehicle and Propulsion Load 31 2.1.3 Drive Cycles and Drive Terrain 34 2.2 Basics of the EV 36 2.2.1 Why EV? 36 2.2.2 Constituents of an EV 36 2.2.3 Vehicle and Propulsion Loads 38 2.3 Basics of the HEV 39 2.3.1 Why HEV? 39 2.3.2 Constituents of an HEV 40 2.4 Basics of Plug]In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) 40 2.4.1 Why PHEV? 40 2.4.2 Constituents of a PHEV 41 2.4.3 Comparison of HEV and PHEV 42 2.5 Basics of Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs) 42 2.5.1 Why FCV? 42 2.5.2 Constituents of a FCV 43 2.5.3 Some Issues Related to Fuel Cells 43 Reference 43 3 HEV Fundamentals 45 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Vehicle Model 46 3.3 Vehicle Performance 49 3.4 EV Powertrain Component Sizing 52 3.5 Series Hybrid Vehicle 55 3.6 Parallel Hybrid Vehicle 60 3.6.1 Electrically Peaking Hybrid Concept 61 3.6.2 ICE Characteristics 66 3.6.3 Gradability Requirement 66 3.6.4 Selection of Gear Ratio from ICE to Wheel 67 3.7 Wheel Slip Dynamics 68 References 71 4 Advanced HEV Architectures and Dynamics of HEV Powertrain 73 4.1 Principle of Planetary Gears 73 4.2 Toyota Prius and Ford Escape Hybrid Powertrain 76 4.3 GM Two]Mode Hybrid Transmission 80 4.3.1 Operating Principle of the Two]Mode Powertrain 80 4.3.2 Mode 0: Vehicle Launch and Backup 81 4.3.3 Mode 1: Low Range 82 4.3.4 Mode 2: High Range 83 4.3.5 Mode 3: Regenerative Braking 84 4.3.6 Transition between Modes 0, 1, 2, and 3 84 4.4 Dual]Clutch Hybrid Transmissions 87 4.4.1 Conventional DCT Technology 87 4.4.2 Gear Shift Schedule 87 4.4.3 DCT]Based Hybrid Powertrain 88 4.4.4 Operation of DCT]Based Hybrid Powertrain 90 4.4.4.1 Motor]Alone Mode 90 4.4.4.2 Combined Mode 90 4.4.4.3 Engine]Alone Mode 90 4.4.4.4 Regenerative Braking Mode 90 4.4.4.5 Power Split Mode 91 4.4.4.6 Standstill Charge Mode 91 4.4.4.7 Series Hybrid Mode 92 4.5 Hybrid Transmission Proposed by Zhang et al. 92 4.5.1 Motor]Alone Mode 92 4.5.2 Combined Power Mode 93 4.5.3 Engine]Alone Mode 94 4.5.4 Electric CVT Mode 94 4.5.5 Energy Recovery Mode 94 4.5.6 Standstill Mode 94 4.6 Renault IVT Hybrid Transmission 95 4.7 Timken Two]Mode Hybrid Transmission 96 4.7.1 Mode 0: Launch and Reverse 96 4.7.2 Mode 1: Low]Speed Operation 97 4.7.3 Mode 2: High]Speed Operation 97 4.7.4 Mode 4: Series Operating Mode 97 4.7.5 Mode Transition 98 4.8 Tsai’s Hybrid Transmission 99 4.9 Hybrid Transmission with Both Speed and Torque Coupling Mechanism 100 4.10 Toyota Highlander and Lexus Hybrid, E]Four]Wheel Drive 102 4.11 CAMRY Hybrid 103 4.12 Chevy Volt Powertrain 104 4.13 Non]Ideal Gears in the Planetary System 106 4.14 Dynamics of the Transmission 107 4.15 Conclusions 108 References 108 5 Plug]In Hybrid Electric Vehicles 111 5.1 Introduction to PHEVs 111 5.1.1 PHEVs and EREVs 111 5.1.2 Blended PHEVs 112 5.1.3 Why PHEV? 112 5.1.4 Electricity for PHEV Use 114 5.2 PHEV Architectures 115 5.3 Equivalent Electric Range of Blended PHEVs 115 5.4 Fuel Economy of PHEVs 116 5.4.1 Well]to]Wheel Efficiency 116 5.4.2 PHEV Fuel Economy 117 5.4.3 Utility Factor 118 5.5 Power Management of PHEVs 119 5.6 PHEV Design and Component Sizing 121 5.7 Component Sizing of EREVs 122 5.8 Component Sizing of Blended PHEVs 123 5.9 HEV to PHEV Conversions 123 5.9.1 Replacing the Existing Battery Pack 123 5.9.2 Adding an Extra Battery Pack 125 5.9.3 Converting Conventional Vehicles to PHEVs 126 5.10 Other Topics on PHEVs 126 5.10.1 End]of]Life Battery for Electric Power Grid Support 126 5.10.2 Cold Start Emissions Reduction in PHEVs 126 5.10.3 Cold Weather/Hot Weather Performance Enhancement in PHEVs 127 5.10.4 PHEV Maintenance 127 5.10.5 Safety of PHEVs 128 5.11 Vehicle]to]Grid Technology 129 5.11.1 PHEV Battery Charging 129 5.11.2 Impact of G2V 131 5.11.3 The Concept of V2G 135 5.11.4 Advantages of V2G 136 5.11.5 Case Studies of V2G 137 5.12 Conclusion 140 References 140 6 Special Hybrid Vehicles 143 6.1 Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles 143 6.1.1 Regenerative Braking in HHVs 146 6.2 Off]Road HEVs 148 6.2.1 Hybrid Excavators 151 6.2.2 Hybrid Excavator Design Considerations 157 6.3 Diesel HEVs 163 6.4 Electric or Hybrid Ships, Aircraft, and Locomotives 164 6.4.1 Ships 164 6.4.2 Aircraft 167 6.4.3 Locomotives 170 6.5 Other Industrial Utility Application Vehicles 172 References 173 Further Reading 174 7 HEV Applications for Military Vehicles 175 7.1 Why HEVs Can Be Beneficial for Military Applications 175 7.2 Ground Vehicle Applications 176 7.2.1 Architecture – Series, Parallel, Complex 176 7.2.2 Vehicles that Are of Most Benefit 178 7.3 Non]Ground]Vehicle Military Applications 180 7.3.1 Electromagnetic Launchers 181 7.3.2 Hybrid]Powered Ships 181 7.3.3 Aircraft Applications 183 7.3.4 Dismounted Soldier Applications 183 7.4 Ruggedness Issues 185 References 186 Further Reading 187 8 Diagnostics, Prognostics, Reliability, EMC, and Other Topics Related to HEVs 189 8.1 Diagnostics and Prognostics in HEVs and EVs 189 8.1.1 Onboard Diagnostics 189 8.1.2 Prognostics Issues 192 8.2 Reliability of HEVs 195 8.2.1 Analyzing the Reliability of HEV Architectures 196 8.2.2 Reliability and Graceful Degradation 199 8.2.3 Software Reliability Issues 201 8.3 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Issues 203 8.4 Noise Vibration Harshness (NVH), Electromechanical, and Other Issues 205 8.5 End]of]Life Issues 207 References 208 Further Reading 209 9 Power Electronics in HEVs 211 9.1 Introduction 211 9.2 Principles of Power Electronics 212 9.3 Rectifiers Used in HEVs 214 9.3.1 Ideal Rectifier 214 9.3.2 Practical Rectifier 215 9.3.3 Single]Phase Rectifier 216 9.3.4 Voltage Ripple 218 9.4 Buck Converter Used in HEVs 221 9.4.1 Operating Principle 221 9.4.2 Nonlinear Model 222 9.5 Non]Isolated Bidirectional DC–DC Converter 223 9.5.1 Operating Principle 223 9.5.2 Maintaining Constant Torque Range and Power Capability 225 9.5.3 Reducing Current Ripple in the Battery 226 9.5.4 Regenerative Braking 228 9.6 Voltage Source Inverter 229 9.7 Current Source Inverter 229 9.8 Isolated Bidirectional DC–DC Converter 231 9.8.1 Basic Principle and Steady State Operations 231 9.8.1.1 Heavy Load Conditions 232 9.8.1.2 Light Load Condition 234 9.8.1.3 Output Voltage 234 9.8.1.4 Output Power 236 9.8.2 Voltage Ripple 236 9.9 PWM Rectifier in HEVs 242 9.9.1 Rectifier Operation of Inverter 242 9.10 EV and PHEV Battery Chargers 243 9.10.1 Forward/Flyback Converters 244 9.10.2 Half]Bridge DC–DC Converter 245 9.10.3 Full]Bridge DC–DC Converter 245 9.10.4 Power Factor Correction Stage 246 9.10.4.1 Decreasing Impact on the Grid 246 9.10.4.2 Decreasing the Impact on the Switches 247 9.10.5 Bidirectional Battery Chargers 247 9.10.6 Other Charger Topologies 249 9.10.7 Contactless Charging 249 9.10.8 Wireless Charging 250 9.11 Modeling and Simulation of HEV Power Electronics 251 9.11.1 Device]Level Simulation 251 9.11.2 System]Level Model 252 9.12 Emerging Power Electronics Devices 253 9.13 Circuit Packaging 254 9.14 Thermal Management of HEV Power Electronics 254 9.15 Conclusions 257 References 257 10 Electric Machines and Drives in HEVs 261 10.1 Introduction 261 10.2 Induction Motor Drives 262 10.2.1 Principle of Induction Motors 262 10.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor 265 10.2.3 Speed Control of Induction Machine 267 10.2.4 Variable Frequency, Variable Voltage Control of Induction Motors 269 10.2.5 Efficiency and Losses of Induction Machine 270 10.2.6 Additional Loss in Induction Motors Due to PWM Supply 271 10.2.7 Field]Oriented Control of Induction Machine 278 10.3 Permanent Magnet Motor Drives 287 10.3.1 Basic Configuration of PM Motors 287 10.3.2 Basic Principle and Operation of PM Motors 290 10.3.3 Magnetic Circuit Analysis of IPM Motors 295 10.3.3.1 Unsaturated Motor 300 10.3.3.2 Saturated Motor 301 10.3.3.3 Operation under Load 303 10.3.3.4 Flux Concentration 303 10.3.4 Sizing of Magnets in PM Motors 304 10.3.4.1 Input Power 306 10.3.4.2 Direct]Axis Armature Reaction Factor 306 10.3.4.3 Magnetic Usage Ratio and Flux Leakage Coefficient 306 10.3.4.4 Maximum Armature Current 307 10.3.4.5 Inner Power Angle 307 10.3.5 Eddy Current Losses in the Magnets of PM Machines 308 10.4 Switched Reluctance Motors 310 10.5 Doubly Salient Permanent Magnet Machines 311 10.6 Design and Sizing of Traction Motors 315 10.6.1 Selection of A and B 315 10.6.2 Speed Rating of the Traction Motor 316 10.6.3 Determination of the Inner Power 316 10.7 Thermal Analysis and Modeling of Traction Motors 316 10.7.1 The Thermal Resistance of the Air Gap, Rag 317 10.7.2 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of the Rotor Core, Rrs 318 10.7.3 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of the Poles, Rmr 319 10.7.4 The Thermal Resistance of the Shaft, Rshf 319 10.7.5 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of Stator Teeth, Rst 320 10.7.6 The Radial Conduction Thermal Resistance of the Stator Yoke, Rsy 320 10.7.7 The Conduction Thermal Resistance between the Windings and Stator, Rws 320 10.7.8 Convective Thermal Resistance Between Windings External to the Stator and Adjoining Air, Rwa 321 10.8 Conclusions 323 References 323 11 Electric Energy Sources and Storage Devices 333 11.1 Introduction 333 11.2 Characterization of Batteries 335 11.2.1 Battery Capacity 335 11.2.2 Energy Stored in a Battery 335 11.2.3 State of Charge in Battery (SOC) and Measurement of SOC 335 11.2.3.1 SOC Determination 336 11.2.3.2 Direct measurement 336 11.2.3.3 Amp]hr Based Measurement 337 11.2.3.4 Some Better Methods 337 11.2.3.5 Initialization Process 338 11.2.4 Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a Battery 339 11.2.5 Specific Power and Energy Density 339 11.2.6 Ampere]Hour (Charge and Discharge) Efficiency 339 11.2.7 Number of Deep Cycles and Battery Life 340 11.2.8 Some Practical Issues About Batteries and Battery Life 341 11.2.8.1 Acronyms and Definitions 344 11.2.8.2 State of Health Issue in Batteries 348 11.2.8.3 Two]Pulse Load Method to Evaluate State of Health of a Battery [4, 6] 349 11.2.8.4 Battery Management Implementation 352 11.2.8.5 What to Do with All the Above Information 353 11.3 Comparison of Energy Storage Technologies 355 11.3.1 Lead Acid Battery 355 11.3.2 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery 356 11.3.3 Lithium]Ion Battery 356 11.4 Ultracapacitors 356 11.5 Electric Circuit Model for Batteries and Ultracapacitors 358 11.5.1 Battery Modeling 358 11.5.2 Electric Circuit Models for Ultracapacitors 359 11.6 Flywheel Energy Storage System 361 11.7 Fuel Cell Based Hybrid Vehicular Systems 364 11.7.1 Introduction to Fuel Cells 364 11.7.1.1 Types of Fuel Cells 364 11.7.2 System Level Applications 364 11.7.3 Fuel Cell Modeling 366 11.8 Summary and Discussion 368 References 369 Further Reading 369 12 Battery Modeling 371 12.1 Introduction 371 12.2 Modeling of Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery 372 12.2.1 Chemistry of an NiMH Battery 372 12.3 Modeling of Lithium]Ion (Li]Ion) Battery 374 12.3.1 Chemistry in Li]Ion Battery 374 12.4 Parameter Estimation for Battery Models 375 12.5 Example Case of Using Battery Model in an EV System 377 12.6 Summary and Observations on Modeling and Simulation for Batteries 382 References 383 Further Reading 383 13 EV and PHEV Battery Charger Design 385 13.1 Introduction 385 13.2 Main Features of the LLC Resonant Charger 387 13.2.1 Analysis in the Time Domain 387 13.2.2 Operation Modes and Distribution Analysis 389 13.3 Design Considerations for an LLC Converter for a PHEV Battery Charger 393 13.4 Charging Trajectory Design 396 13.4.1 Key Design Parameters 396 13.4.2 Design Constraints 399 13.5 Design Procedures 401 13.6 Experimental Results 401 13.7 Conclusions 407 References 407 14 Modeling and Simulation of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles 409 14.1 Introduction 409 14.2 Fundamentals of Vehicle System Modeling 410 14.3 HEV Modeling Using ADVISOR 412 14.4 HEV Modeling Using PSAT 416 14.5 Physics]Based Modeling 416 14.5.1 RCF Modeling Technique 417 14.5.2 Hybrid Powertrain Modeling 418 14.5.3 Modeling of a DC Machine 418 14.5.4 Modeling of DC–DC Boost Converter 419 14.5.5 Modeling of Vehicle Dynamics 420 14.5.6 Wheel Slip Model 421 14.6 Bond Graph and Other Modeling Techniques 424 14.6.1 Bond Graph Modeling for HEVs 424 14.6.2 HEV Modeling Using PSIM 425 14.6.3 HEV Modeling Using Simplorer and V]Elph 427 14.7 Consideration of Numerical Integration Methods 428 14.8 Conclusion 428 References 428 15 HEV Component Sizing and Design Optimization 433 15.1 Introduction 433 15.2 Global Optimization Algorithms for HEV Design 434 15.2.1 DIRECT 434 15.2.2 Simulated Annealing 438 15.2.2.1 Algorithm Description 438 15.2.2.2 Tunable Parameters 439 15.2.2.3 Flow Chart 440 15.2.3 Genetic Algorithms 441 15.2.3.1 Flow Chart 441 15.2.3.2 Operators and Selection Method 441 15.2.3.3 Tunable Parameters 443 15.2.4 Particle Swarm Optimization 443 15.2.4.1 Algorithm Description 443 15.2.4.2 Flow Chart 444 15.2.5 Advantages/Disadvantages of Different Optimization Algorithms 444 15.2.5.1 DIRECT 444 15.2.5.2 SA 445 15.2.5.3 GA 445 15.2.5.4 PSO 446 15.3 Model]in]the]Loop Design Optimization Process 446 15.4 Parallel HEV Design Optimization Example 447 15.5 Series HEV Design Optimization Example 452 15.5.1 Control Framework of a Series HEV Powertrain 454 15.5.2 Series HEV Parameter Optimization 454 15.5.3 Optimization Results 456 15.6 Conclusion 459 References 459 16 Wireless Power Transfer for Electric Vehicle Applications 461 16.1 Introduction 461 16.2 Fundamental Theory 464 16.3 Magnetic Coupler Design 468 16.3.1 Coupler for Stationary Charging 469 16.3.2 Coupler for Dynamic Charging 471 16.4 Compensation Network 473 16.5 Power Electronics Converters and Power Control 475 16.6 Methods of Study 477 16.7 Additional Discussion 479 16.7.1 Safety Concerns 479 16.7.2 Vehicle to Grid Benefits 481 16.7.3 Wireless Communications 481 16.7.4 Cost 481 16.8 A Double]Sided LCC Compensation Topology and its Parameter Design 482 16.8.1 The Double]Sided LCC Compensation Topology 482 16.8.2 Parameter Tuning for Zero Voltage Switching 486 16.8.3 Parameter Design 491 16.8.4 Simulation and Experiment Results 495 16.8.4.1 Simulation Results 495 16.8.4.2 Experimental Results 497 16.9 An LCLC Based Wireless Charger Using Capacitive Power Transfer Principle 502 16.9.1 Circuit Topology Design 504 16.9.2 Capacitance Analysis 506 16.9.3 A 2.4 kW CPT System Design 506 16.9.4 Experiment 507 16.10 Summary 511 References 511 17 Vehicular Power Control Strategy and Energy Management 521 17.1 A Generic Framework, Definition, and Needs 521 17.2 Methodology to Implement 523 17.2.1 Methodologies for Optimization 528 17.2.2 Cost Function Optimization 531 17.3 Benefits of Energy Management 536 References 536 Further Reading 537 18 Commercialization and Standardization of HEV Technology and Future Transportation 539 18.1 What Is Commercialization and Why Is It Important for HEVs? 539 18.2 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Enablers of Commercialization 539 18.3 Standardization and Commercialization 540 18.4 Commercialization Issues and Effects on Various Types of Vehicles 541 18.5 Commercialization of HEVs for Trucks and Off]Road Applications 542 18.6 Commercialization and Future of HEVs and Transportation 543 Further Reading 543 19 A Holistic Perspective on Vehicle Electrification 545 19.1 Vehicle Electrification – What Does it Involve? 545 19.2 To What Extent Should Vehicles Be Electrified? 545 19.3 What Other Industries Are Involved or Affected in Vehicle Electrification? 547 19.4 A More Complete Picture Towards Vehicle Electrification 548 19.5 The Ultimate Issue: To Electrify Vehicles or Not? 551 Further Reading 553 Index 555

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive text covering all aspects of wave and tidal energy Wave and Tidal Energy provides a comprehensive and self-contained review of the developing marine renewable energy sector, drawing from the latest research and from the experience of device testing.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xviii Foreword xx Acknowledgements xxi 1 Introduction 1Deborah Greaves and Gregorio Iglesias 1.1 Background 1 1.2 History of Wave and Tidal Energy 3 1.3 Unknowns and Challenges Remaining for Wave and Tidal Energy 5 1.4 Synopsis 11 References 12 2 The Marine Resource 15Gregorio Iglesias 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 The Wave Resource 15 2.3 The Tidal Stream Resource 31 Acknowledgements 47 References 47 3 Wave Energy Technology 52Deborah Greaves 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Fundamentals 56 3.3 Hydrodynamics of Wave Energy Conversion 64 3.4 Classification of Wave Energy Converters 73 3.5 Oscillating Water Columns 76 3.6 Overtopping Systems 83 3.7 Oscillating Bodies 85 3.8 Other Technologies 95 3.9 The Wave Energy Array 95 References 97 4 Tidal Energy Technology 105Tim O’Doherty, Daphne M. O’Doherty and Allan Mason]Jones 4.1 General Introduction 105 4.2 Location of Operation 105 4.3 Environmental Impacts 106 4.4 Tides 107 4.5 Tidal Range Generation 108 4.6 Tidal Stream 111 4.7 Types of Devices 126 4.8 Oscillating Hydrofoils 129 4.9 Venturi Effect Devices 130 4.10 Other Devices 130 4.11 Computational Fluid Dynamics 132 4.12 Security, Installation and Maintenance 138 4.13 Worked Examples 141 References 146 5 Device Design 151Lars Johanning, Sam D. Weller, Phillip R. Thies, Brian Holmes and John Griffiths 5.1 Standards and Certification in Marine Energy 151 5.2 Reliability 161 5.3 Moorings and Anchors 169 5.4 Foundations 178 References 185 6 Power Systems 191Andrew R. Plummer, Andrew J. Hillis and Carlos Perez]Collazo 6.1 Introduction to Power Take]Off Systems 191 6.2 Electrical Generators 194 6.3 Turbines for WEC Power Take]Off 200 6.4 Hydraulic Power Transmission Systems 206 6.5 Hydraulic PTO Designs for WECs 212 6.6 Direct Mechanical Power Take]Off 214 6.7 Control for Maximum Energy Capture 215 6.8 Electrical Infrastructure and Grid Integration 221 6.9 Summary of Challenges for PTO Design and Development 229 References 230 7 Physical Modelling 233Martyn Hann and Carlos Perez]Collazo 7.1 Introduction 233 7.2 Device Development and Test Planning 234 7.3 Scaling and Similitude 234 7.3.1 Scaling MRE Devices 239 7.3.2 Common Problems Scaling MRE Devices 240 7.4 Model Design and Construction 241 7.5 Fixing and Mooring 247 7.6 Instrumentation 248 7.7 Model Calibration 258 7.8 Modelling the Environment 264 7.9 Test Facilities 271 7.10 Recommended Tests 274 References 283 8 Numerical Modelling 289Thomas Vyzikas and Deborah Greaves 8.1 Introduction 289 8.2 Review of Hydrodynamics 292 8.3 Numerical Modelling Techniques 310 8.4 Numerical Modelling of Water Waves 325 8.5 Commonly Used Open]Source Software 331 8.6 Applicability of Numerical Models in MRE 346 References 351 9 Environmental Effects 364Gregorio Iglesias, Javier Abanades Tercero, Teresa Simas, Inês Machado and Erica Cruz 9.1 Introduction364 9.2 Wave Farm Effects on the Wave Field 364 9.3 Wave Farm Effects on Coastal Processes 391 9.4 Tidal Stream Farm Effects on Hydrodynamics and Sedimentary Processes 414 9.5 Marine Biota 415 9.6 The Environmental Impact Assessment 425 References 443 10 Consenting and Legal Aspects 455Anne Marie O’Hagan 10.1 Introduction 455 10.2 International Law 456 10.3 Regional Law 462 10.4 EU Law and Policy 464 10.5 National Consenting Systems 478 10.6 Gaps and Opportunities 499 Acknowledgement 504 References 504 11 The Economics of Wave and Tidal Energy 513Gregorio Iglesias, Sharay Astariz and Angela Vazquez 11.1 Individual Costs 513 11.2 Levelised Cost 518 11.3 Externalities 522 References 526 12 Project Development 533Paul Vigars, Kwangsoo Lee, Sungwon Shin, Boel Ekergard, Mats Leijon, Yago Torre]Enciso, Dorleta Marina and Deborah Greaves 12.1 Introduction 533 12.2 Alstom Ocean Energy OCEADE™ Tidal Stream Turbine: The Route to Commercial Readiness 533 12.3 Seabased Wave Energy Converter 544 12.4 Lake Sihwa Tidal Power Plant, Korea 549 12.5 Mutriku Wave Power Plant 563 References 584 13 Regional Activities 587Deborah Greaves, Carlos Perez]Collazo, Curran Crawford, Bradley Buckham, Vanesa Magar, Francisco Acuña, Sungwon Shin, Hongda Shi and Chenyu 13.1 Europe 587 13.2 North America 601 13.3 Latin America 616 13.4 Asia]Pacific 626 13.5 China 630 References 647 Epilogue: The Future of Wave and Tidal Energy 659Deborah Greaves Index 662

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Production of Bioenergy in the Framework of Circular Economy: A Sustainable Circular System in Ecuador 1Vega-Quezada Cristhian, Blanco María and Romero Hugo 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Energy and Bioenergy 2 1.1.2 Ecuadorian Case 4 1.2 A Sustainable Circular System in Ecuador 5 1.2.1 Biogas 5 1.2.1.1 CO2 Emissions 8 1.2.1.2 Potential Electricity Power 12 1.2.2 Biodiesel 14 1.2.2.1 Biodiesel in Ecuador 15 1.2.3 Microalgae Biodiesel 16 1.2.3.1 Biomass Production 18 1.2.3.2 Lipid Extraction 18 1.3 Microalgae versus Palm Oil in Ecuador 19 1.3.1 Palm Oil 20 1.3.2 Microalgae Oil 21 1.3.2.1 Microalgae in Open Ponds 23 1.3.2.2 Microalgae in Laminar Photobioreactor 24 1.4 Discussion 27 1.5 Conclusion 29 Acknowledgements 29 References 30 2 The Impact of Biomass Feedstock Composition and Pre-treatments on Tar Formation during Biomass Gasification 33John Corton, Paula Blanco-Sanchez P., Zakir Khan, Jon Paul McCalmont, Xi Yu, George Fletcher, Steve Croxton, James Sharp, Manosh C. Paul, Ian A. Watson I. and Iain S. Donnison 2.1 Introduction 34 2.2 Tar Composition 35 2.3 Tar Formation Cell Wall Polymers and Ash Composition 37 2.3.1 The Impact of Plant Type and Blending Upon Tar Production 38 2.3.2 Blending 39 2.3.3 Ash Composition 40 2.4 Thermochemical Pre-treatments for Gasification 41 2.4.1 Torrefaction 41 2.4.2 Slow Pyrolysis 42 2.4.3 Intermediate Pyrolysis 43 2.4.4 Fast Pyrolysis 43 2.5 Processing Options that Exploit Conversion Route Integration 45 2.6 Conclusion 48 Acknowledgements 50 References 50 3 Key Pretreatment Technologies for An Efficient Bioethanol Production from Lignocellulosics 55Archana Mishra and Sanjoy Ghosh 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Pretreatment Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass 58 3.2.1 Parameters for Effective Pretreatment of Lignocellulosics 59 3.2.2 Important Pretreatment Methods 61 3.2.2.1 Physical or Mechanical Methods 61 3.2.2.2 Physico-chemical Methods 62 3.2.2.3 Chemical Methods 67 3.2.2.4 Biological Methods 74 3.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 75 References 78 4 Present Status on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioethanol Production 85Arindam Kuila, Vinay Sharma, Vijay Kumar Garlapati, Anshu Singh, Lakshmishri Roy and Rintu Banerjee 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 Hydrolysis/Saccharification 87 4.2.1 Cellulase 87 4.2.2 Screening of Cellulase-producing Microorganisms 88 4.2.3 Cellulase Production 90 4.2.4 Factors Affecting the Cellulase Mediated Hydrolysis 90 4.3 Future prospects of enzymatic hydrolysis 93 References 93 5 Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomaterials 97Sandeep Kaur Saggi, Geetika Gupta and Pinaki Dey 5.1 Introduction 97 5.1.1 Different Source for Bioethanol Production 99 5.1.2 Lignocellulosic Materials 100 5.1.3 Cellulose 101 5.1.4 Hemicellulose 102 5.1.5 Xylan 103 5.1.6 Lignin 104 5.1.7 Lignin Carbohydrate Interactions 106 5.2 Pretreatment 106 5.2.1 Pretreatment 106 5.3 Microbial Pretreatment Process 107 5.3.1 Fungi 107 5.3.2 Bacteria 112 5.4 Conclusion 113 References 113 6 Anaerobic Digestion and the Use of Pre-treatments on Lignocellulosic Feedstocks to Improve Biogas Production and Process Economics 121Laura Williams, Joe Gallagher, David Bryant and Sreenivas Rao Ravella 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Feedstocks Available for AD 124 6.2.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstock Analysis and Substrate Suitability 124 6.2.2 Substrate Parameters and Co-digestion 129 6.3 Feedstock Pre-treatment to Improve AD 130 6.3.1 Available Pre-treatment Processes 131 6.3.2 Pre-treatment Effects on Substrate 133 6.3.3 Effects of Pre-treatment on Methane Yields 134 6.4 Pre-treatment and Optimizing AD 136 6.4.1 Advances in Pre-treatment Methods and AD Conditions 136 6.4.2 Value-added Products and AD 138 6.5 Conclusion 140 Acknowledgments 141 References 141 7 Algae: The Future of Bioenergy 149Nivas Manohar Desai 7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Technological Innovations for Algae Cultivation, Harvesting and Drying 151 7.2.1 Cultivation Practices 152 7.2.1.1 Open Cultivation Systems 152 7.2.1.2 Closed Cultivation Systems (Photobioreactors) 153 7.2.1.3 Algal Turf Scrubber (ATS) 154 7.2.1.4 Sea-based Cultivation Systems 157 7.2.2 Harvesting of Biomass 158 7.2.2.1 Settling Ponds 159 7.2.2.2 Filtration 159 7.2.2.3 Centrifugation 159 7.2.2.4 Flotation 160 7.2.2.5 Flocculation 160 7.2.2.6 Electrolytic Coagulation 161 7.2.3 Energy Efficiencies of Harvesting Processes 161 7.2.4 Algal Drying 162 7.3 Algae-based Bioenergy Products 162 7.3.1 Biofuel and Biodiesel 163 7.3.2 Biogas (Biomethane Production) 164 7.3.3 Bioethanol 165 7.3.4 Biohydrogen 167 7.3.4.1 Direct Biophotolysis 167 7.3.4.2 Indirect Biophotolysis 168 7.3.4.3 Photo Fermentation 168 7.4 Concluding Remarks 168 Acknowledgement 169 References 169 Index 173

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Book SynopsisComprehensive reference covering the design of foundations for offshore wind turbines As the demand for green energy increases the offshore wind power industry is expanding at a rapid pace around the world. Design of Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines is a comprehensive reference which covers the design of foundations for offshore wind turbines, and includes examples and case studies. It provides an overview of a wind farm and a wind turbine structure, and examines the different types of loads on the offshore wind turbine structure. Foundation design considerations and the necessary calculations are also covered. The geotechnical site investigation and soil behavior/soil structure interaction are discussed, and the final chapter takes a case study of a wind turbine and demonstrates how to carry out step by step calculations. Key features: New, important subject to the industry. Includes calculations and case studies. Accompanied by a website hosting software and data fileTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Companion Website xv 1 Overview of a Wind Farm and Wind Turbine Structure 1 1.1 Harvesting Wind Energy 1 1.2 Current Scenario 2 1.2.1 Case Study: Fukushima Nuclear Plant and Near-Shore Wind Farms during the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake 5 1.2.2 Why Did the Wind Farms Survive? 6 1.3 Components of Wind Turbine Installation 8 1.3.1 Betz Law: A Note on Cp 11 1.4 Control Actions of Wind Turbine and Other Details 11 1.4.1 Power Curves for a Turbine 14 1.4.2 What Are the Requirements of a Foundation Engineer from the Turbine Specification? 15 1.4.3 Classification of Turbines 15 1.5 Foundation Types 16 1.5.1 Gravity-Based Foundation System 18 1.5.1.1 Suction Caissons or Suction Buckets 19 1.5.1.2 Case Study: Use of Bucket Foundation in the Qidong Sea (Jiangsu Province, China) 22 1.5.1.3 Dogger Bank Met Mast Supported on Suction Caisson 22 1.5.2 Pile Foundations 22 1.5.3 Seabed Frame or Jacket Supported on Pile or Caissons 23 1.5.4 Floating Turbine System 25 1.6 Foundations in the Future 27 1.6.1 Scaled Model Tests 33 1.6.2 Case Study of a Model Tests for Initial TRL Level (3–4) 34 1.7 On the Choice of Foundations for a Site 35 1.8 General Arrangement of a Wind Farm 36 1.8.1 Site Layout, Spacing of Turbines, and Geology of the Site 37 1.8.2 Economy of Scales for Foundation 40 1.9 General Consideration for Site Selection 42 1.10 Development of Wind Farms and the Input Required for Designing Foundations 44 1.11 Rochdale Envelope Approach to Foundation Design (United Kingdom Approach) 46 1.12 Offshore Oil and Gas Fixed Platform and Offshore Wind Turbine Structure 48 1.13 Chapter Summary and Learning Points 50 2 Loads on the Foundations 51 2.1 Dynamic Sensitivity of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures 51 2.2 Target Natural Frequency of a Wind Turbine Structure 53 2.3 Construction of Wind Spectrum 58 2.3.1 Kaimal Spectrum 60 2.4 Construction of Wave Spectrum 61 2.4.1 Method to Estimate Fetch 63 2.4.2 Sea Characteristics for Walney Site 63 2.4.3 Walney 1Wind Farm Example 63 2.5 Load Transfer from Superstructure to the Foundation 64 2.6 Estimation of Loads on a Monopile-Supported Wind Turbine Structure 66 2.6.1 Load Cases for Foundation Design 67 2.6.2 Wind Load 70 2.6.2.1 Comparisons with Measured Data 72 2.6.2.2 Spectral Density of Mudline Bending Moment 76 2.6.3 Wave Load 76 2.6.4 1P Loading 79 2.6.5 Blade Passage Loads (2P/3P) 80 2.6.6 Vertical (Deadweight) Load 81 2.7 Order of Magnitude Calculations of Loads 81 2.7.1 Application of Estimations of 1P Loading 82 2.7.2 Calculation for 3P Loading 82 2.7.3 Typical Moment on a Monopile Foundation for Different-Rated Power Turbines 84 2.8 Target Natural Frequency for Heavier and Higher-Rated Turbines 85 2.9 Current Loads 86 2.10 Other Loads 87 2.11 Earthquake Loads 87 2.11.1 Seismic Hazard Analysis (SHA) 90 2.11.2 Criteria for Selection of Earthquake Records 91 2.11.2.1 Method 1: Direct Use of Strong Motion Record 91 2.11.2.2 Method 2: Scaling of Strong Motion Record to Expected Peak Bedrock Acceleration 91 2.11.2.3 Method 3: Intelligent Scaling or Code Specified Spectrum Compatible Motion 91 2.11.3 Site Response Analysis (SRA) 93 2.11.4 Liquefaction 94 2.11.5 Analysis of the Foundation 95 2.12 Chapter Summary and Learning Points 101 3 Considerations for Foundation Design and the Necessary Calculations 103 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Modes of Vibrations of Wind Turbine Structures 104 3.2.1 Sway-Bending Modes of Vibration 105 3.2.1.1 Example Numerical Application of Modes of Vibration of Jacket Systems 106 3.2.1.2 Estimation of Natural Frequency of Monopile-Supported Strctures 106 3.2.2 Rocking Modes of Vibration 109 3.2.3 Comparison of Modes of Vibration of Monopile/Mono-Caisson and Multiple Modes of Vibration 115 3.2.4 Why Rocking Must Be Avoided 116 3.3 Effect of Resonance: A Study of an Equivalent Problem 117 3.3.1 Observed Resonance in German North Sea Wind Turbines 119 3.3.2 Damping of Structural Vibrations of Offshore Wind Turbines 119 3.4 Allowable Rotation and Deflection of a Wind Turbine Structure 120 3.4.1 Current Limits on the Rotation at Mudline Level 120 3.5 Internationals Standards and Codes of Practices 122 3.6 Definition of Limit States 124 3.6.1 Ultimate Limit State (ULS) 124 3.6.2 Serviceability Limit State (SLS) 125 3.6.3 Fatigue Limit State (FLS) 126 3.6.4 Accidental Limit States (ALS) 126 3.7 Other Design Considerations Affecting the Limit States 126 3.7.1 Scour 127 3.7.2 Corrosion 129 3.7.3 Marine Growth 129 3.8 Grouted Connection Considerations for Monopile Type Foundations 129 3.9 Design Consideration for Jacket-Supported Foundations 130 3.10 Design Considerations for Floating Turbines 131 3.11 Seismic Design 132 3.12 Installation, Decommission, and Robustness 132 3.12.1 Installation of Foundations 132 3.12.1.1 Pile Drivability Analysis 133 3.12.1.2 Predicting the Increase in Soil Resistance at the Time of Driving (SRD) Due to Delays (Contingency Planning) 134 3.12.1.3 Buckling Considerations in Pile Design 134 3.12.2 Installation of Suction Caissons 138 3.12.2.1 First Stage 138 3.12.2.2 Second Stage 138 3.12.3 Assembly of Blades 138 3.12.4 Decommissioning 139 3.13 Chapter Summary and Learning Points 141 3.13.1 Monopiles 142 3.13.2 Jacket on Flexible Piles 146 3.13.3 Jackets on Suction Caissons 146 4 Geotechnical Site Investigation and Soil Behaviour under Cyclic Loading 147 4.1 Introduction 147 4.2 Hazards that Needs Identification Through Site Investigation 148 4.2.1 Integrated Ground Models 148 4.2.2 Site Information Necessary for Foundation Design 149 4.2.3 Definition of Optimised Site Characterisation 151 4.3 Examples of Offshore Ground Profiles 151 4.3.1 Offshore Ground Profile from North Sea 151 4.3.2 Ground Profiles from Chinese Development 152 4.4 Overview of Ground Investigation 157 4.4.1 Geological Study 157 4.4.2 Geophysical Survey 157 4.4.3 Geotechnical Survey 158 4.5 Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 160 4.6 Minimum Site Investigation for Foundation Design 164 4.7 Laboratory Testing 164 4.7.1 Standard/Routine Laboratory Testing 165 4.7.2 Advanced Soil Testing for Offshore Wind Turbine Applications 165 4.7.2.1 Cyclic Triaxial Test 166 4.7.2.2 Cyclic Simple Shear Apparatus 170 4.7.2.3 Resonant Column Tests 172 4.7.2.4 Test on Intermediate Soils 174 4.8 Behaviour of Soils under Cyclic Loads and Advanced Soil Testing 174 4.8.1 Classification of Soil Dynamics Problems 175 4.8.2 Important Characteristics of Soil Behaviour 177 4.9 Typical Soil Properties for Preliminary Design 179 4.9.1 Stiffness of Soil from Laboratory Tests 179 4.9.2 Practical Guidance for Cyclic Design for Clayey Soil 181 4.9.3 Application to Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations 183 4.10 Case Study: Extreme Wind and Wave Loading Condition in Chinese Waters 184 4.10.1 Typhoon-Related Damage in the Zhejiang Province 186 4.10.2 Wave Conditions 187 5 Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI) 191 5.1 Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI) for Offshore Wind Turbines 192 5.1.1 Discussion on Wind–Wave Misalignment and the Importance of Load Directionality 193 5.2 Field Observations of SSI and Lessons from Small-Scale Laboratory Tests 195 5.2.1 Change in Natural Frequency of the Whole System 195 5.2.2 Modes of Vibration with Two Closely Spaced Natural Frequencies 195 5.2.3 Variation of Natural Frequency with Wind Speed 196 5.2.4 Observed Resonance 197 5.3 Ultimate Limit State (ULS) Calculation Methods 197 5.3.1 ULS Calculations for Shallow Foundations for Fixed Structures 197 5.3.1.1 Converting (V, M, H) Loading into (V, H) Loading Through Effective Area Approach 200 5.3.1.2 Yield Surface Approach for Bearing Capacity 200 5.3.1.3 Hyper Plasticity Models 201 5.3.2 ULS Calculations for Suction Caisson Foundation 201 5.3.2.1 Vertical Capacity of Suction Caisson Foundations 202 5.3.2.2 Tensile Capacity of Suction Caissons 203 5.3.2.3 Horizontal Capacity of Suction Caissons 203 5.3.2.4 Moment Capacity of Suction Caissons 204 5.3.2.5 Centre of Rotation 206 5.3.2.6 Caisson Wall Thickness 207 5.3.3 ULS Calculations for Pile Design 207 5.3.3.1 Axial Pile Capacity (Geotechnical) 208 5.3.3.2 Axial Capacity of the Pile (Structural) 211 5.3.3.3 Structural Sections of the Pile 212 5.3.3.4 Lateral Pile Capacity 214 5.4 Methods of Analysis for SLS, Natural Frequency Estimate, and FLS 216 5.4.1 Simplified Method of Analysis 216 5.4.2 Methodology for Fatigue Life Estimation 223 5.4.3 Closed-Form Solution for Obtaining Foundation Stiffness of Monopiles and Caissons 223 5.4.3.1 Closed-Form Solution for Piles (Rigid Piles or Monopiles) 224 5.4.3.2 Closed-Form Solutions for Suction Caissons 227 5.4.3.3 Vertical Stiffness of Foundations (Kv) 228 5.4.4 Standard Method of Analysis (Beam on Nonlinear Winkler Foundation) or p-y Method 228 5.4.4.1 Advantage of p-y Method, and Why This Method Works 230 5.4.4.2 API Recommended p-y Curves for Standard Soils 231 5.4.4.3 p-y Curves for Sand Based on API 232 5.4.4.4 p-y Curves for Clay 232 5.4.4.5 Cyclic p-y Curves for Soft Clay 235 5.4.4.6 Modified Matlock Method 236 5.4.4.7 ASIDE: Note on the API Cyclic p-y Curves 237 5.4.4.8 Why API p-y Curves Are Not Strictly Applicable 237 5.4.4.9 References for p-y Curves for Different Types of Soils 238 5.4.4.10 What Are the Requirements of p-y Curves for Offshore Wind Turbines? 238 5.4.4.11 Scaling Methods for Construction of p-y Curves 238 5.4.4.12 p-y Curves for Partially Liquefied Soils 240 5.4.4.13 p-y Curves for Liquefied Soils Based on the Scaling Method 241 5.4.5 Advanced Methods of Analysis 241 5.4.5.1 Obtaining KL, KR, and KLR from Finite Element Results 243 5.5 Long-Term Performance Prediction for Monopile Foundations 245 5.5.1 Estimation of Soil Strain around the Foundation 247 5.5.2 Numerical Example of Strains in the Soil around the Pile 15 Wind Turbines 249 5.6 Estimating the Number of Cycles of Loading over the Lifetime 253 5.6.1 Calculation of the Number of Wave Cycles 256 5.6.1.1 Sub-step 1. Obtain 50-Year Significant Wave Height 256 5.6.1.2 Sub-step 2. Calculate the Corresponding Range of Wave Periods 257 5.6.1.3 Sub-step 3. Calculate the Number of Waves in a Three-Hour Period 257 5.6.1.4 Sub-step 4. Calculate the Ratio of the Maximum Wave Height to the Significant Wave Height 257 5.6.1.5 Sub-step 5. Calculate the Range of Wave Periods Corresponding to the Maximum Wave Height 257 5.7 Methodologies for Long-Term Rotation Estimation 258 5.7.1 Simple Power Law Expression Proposed by Little and Briaud (1988) 259 5.7.2 Degradation Calculation Method Proposed by Long and Vanneste (1994) 260 5.7.3 Logarithmic Method Proposed by Lin and Liao (1999) 260 5.7.4 Stiffness Degradation Method Proposed by Achmus et al. (2009) 261 5.7.5 Accumulated Rotation Method Proposed by Leblanc et al. (2010) 261 5.7.6 Load Case Scenarios Conducted by Cuéllar (2011) 262 5.8 Theory for Estimating Natural Frequency of the Whole System 262 5.8.1 Model of the Rotor-Nacelle Assembly 263 5.8.2 Modelling the Tower 263 5.8.3 Euler-Bernoulli Beam – Equation of Motion and Boundary Conditions 264 5.8.4 Timoshenko Beam Formulation 264 5.8.5 Natural Frequency versus Foundation Stiffness Curves 266 5.8.6 Understanding Micromechanics of SSI 268 6 Simplified Hand Calculations 273 6.1 Flow Chart of a Typical Design Process 273 6.2 Target Frequency Estimation 274 6.3 Stiffness of a Monopile and Its Application 276 6.3.1 Comparison with SAP 2000 Analysis 287 6.4 Stiffness of a Mono-Suction Caisson 287 6.5 Mudline Moment Spectra for Monopile Supported Wind Turbine 291 6.6 Example for Monopile Design 299 Appendix A Natural Frequency of a Cantilever Beam with Variable Cross Section 333 Appendix B Euler-Bernoulli Beam Equation 337 Appendix C Tower Idealisation 341 Appendix D Guidance on Estimating the Vertical Stiffness of Foundations 345 Appendix E Lateral Stiffness KL of Piles 347 Appendix F Lateral Stiffness KL of Suction Caissons 349 Bibliography 351 Index 369

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