Veterinary medicine Books

Book SynopsisThe Ichneumonoidea is a vast and important superfamily of parasitic wasps, with some 60,000 described species and estimated numbers far higher, especially for small-bodied tropical taxa. The superfamily comprises two cosmopolitan families - Braconidae and Ichneumonidae - that have largely attracted separate groups of researchers, and this, to a considerable extent, has meant that understanding of their adaptive features has often been considered in isolation. This book considers both families, highlighting similarities and differences in their adaptations. The classification of the whole of the Ichneumonoidea, along with most other insect orders, has been plagued by typology whereby undue importance has been attributed to particular characters in defining groups. Typology is a common disease of traditional taxonomy such that, until recently, quite a lot of taxa have been associated with the wrong higher clades. The sheer size of the group, and until the last 30 orTrade Review"Overall, this is a highly valuable compendium of known information, as well as currently unanswered questions, concerning ichneumonoid wasps.... Quicke is to be congratulated for producing a standard work that I, for one, will be consulting for a long time." (American Entomologist, 2016) "This is certainly a field with many pitfalls, but there is hardly a better guide through it than Professor Quicke." (International Journal of Environmental Studies, 9 March December 2015) "It sounds like a backhanded compliment to say that this is the best book of its kind, when I have already said that it is the only book of its kind. However, The Braconid and Ichneumonid Parasitoid Wasps goes beyond being the best of a limited field – it is a truly impressive assemblage of information on an intriguing and important group of insects. I hope that it inspires more people to work in the field." (Bulletin de la Société d'entomologie du Canada, 2015)Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv 1 Introduction 1 Life history 5 Systematics 6 Part 1 Morphology and Biology 7 2 Adult External Morphology 9 Head 10 Antennal sensilla 12 Antennal glands and tyloids 14 Palps 15 Mesosoma 15 Legs 17 Wings wing venation and wing cells 18 Confusing and sometimes erroneously applied vein names 26 Wing flexion lines 27 Metasoma 29 Sexual dimorphism 30 Male external genitalia 32 3 The Ovipositor and Ovipositor Sheaths 35 The act of oviposition 39 Functional morphology of wood-drillers 41 Ovipositor stabilisation guides and buckling force 43 Ovipositor notches and endoparasitism 44 Ovipositor steering mechanisms 44 Proposed evolutionary and related ovipositor transitions 48 Number position and possible functions of ovipositor valvilli 50 Venom retention and delivery 52 Ovipositor secretory pores 53 Ovipositor sensilla 54 Ovipositor sheaths 55 4 Internal and Reproductive Anatomy 57 Nervous system 58 Digestive tract 58 Female internal reproductive system 59 Ovaries 59 Time scale of egg maturation 60 Spermatheca 61 Common oviduct and vaginal gland 62 Venom gland and reservoir 63 Dufour’s gland 64 Cuticular hydrocarbons 66 Sex pheromones 67 Male internal reproductive system 68 Sperm ultrastructure 69 Spermatogeny index 70 5 Immature Stages 71 Eggs and oögenesis 72 Hydropic and anhydropic eggs 72 Embryogenesis 73 Embryonic membranes 75 Larva 76 Larval feeding and nutrition 81 Larval food consumption and dietary efficiency 82 Lipid metabolism 82 Respiration in endoparasitoids 83 Larval secretions 83 The pupal stage 84 Cocoons 84 6 Idiobionts Koinobionts and Other Life History Traits 87 Parasitoidism 88 Idiobiont and koinobiont strategies 88 Generalists and specialists 89 Ecto- and endoparasitism 90 Permanent host paralysis 91 Gregarious development 91 Superparasitism 92 Larval combat and physiological suppression 93 Adaptive superparasitism 95 Multiparasitism 96 Obligate and preferential multiparasitism 99 Hyperparasitism and pseudohyperparasitism 99 Kleptoparasitism 100 Evolution of life history strategies 100 7 Sex Courtship and Mating 107 Sex determination 108 Local mate competition and avoidance of inbreeding 110 Sex allocation 110 Protandry and virginity 112 Thelytoky and cytoplasmic incompatibility 113 Mate location 117 Courtship 119 Swarming and lekking 120 Mating position 121 Multiple mating and sperm competition 121 Sex-related scent glands 123 Genome size and recombination 125 Cytogenetics 125 8 Host Location Associative Learning and Host Assessment 127 Tritrophic interactions 129 Host acceptance 130 Associative learning 130 Biosensors 134 Patch use 134 9 Overcoming Host Immune Reaction and Physiological Interactions With Host 137 Overcoming host immunity in endoparasitoids 138 Passive evasion of encapsulation by parasitoid eggs 139 Avoiding encapsulation by physical means 139 Effect of host age and haemocyte number 141 Other host defence mechanisms 141 Venoms 141 Neurophysiological venom actions 143 Venom effects on host immune response 144 Polydnaviruses 145 Effects of polydnaviruses on hosts 152 Other reproductive viruses 155 Improving host quality 156 Host castration and similar effects 156 Teratocytes 158 Intraspecific variation in resistance to parasitoids 159 Effects on host moulting pattern 160 Parasitoid-induced changes in host behaviour 160 10 Convergent Adaptations 163 Antennal hammers and vibrational sounding 164 Enlarged mandibles 167 Chisel-like mandibles 168 Concealed nectar extraction apparatus 168 Reduced number of palpal segments 169 ‘Facial’ protruberances 169 Frontal depressions 170 Dorsal ridges on head or mesosoma 170 Brachyptery and aptery 170 Dorso-ventral flattening 171 Postpectal carina 173 Propodeal spines 173 ‘Fossorial’ legs 173 Fore tibial spines 174 Fore tibial apical tooth 174 Expanded hind basitarsi 174 Toothed hind femur 174 Distitarsal scraper 175 Pectinate claws and claws with angular basal lobes 175 Glabrous wing patches and wing membrane scleromes 176 Carapacisation 177 Petiolate metasomas 177 Modifications to the posterior metasomal margin 178 Spermathecal colour 179 Compression of apical part of metasoma 179 The ‘ophionoid facies’ 179 White antennal stripes and tips 180 White ovipositor sheath stripes and tips 181 Number of larval instars 182 Egg-larval parasitism 182 Disc-like larval antennae 182 Reduction of larval hypostomal spur 183 Wide and heavily sclerotised larval epistoma 184 Suspended cocoons 184 Polyembryony 184 Phytophagy and cecidogenesis 184 Part 2 Taxonomic and Systematic Treatment 187 11 Overview of Ichneumonoidea: Relationships and Systematics 189 Monophyly of Ichneumonoidea Ichneumonidae and Braconidae 190 Relationship of Ichneumonoidea to other Hymenoptera 190 Fossil history and family-level phylogeny 192 Brief history of classification 194 Ancestral biology of Ichneumonoidea 196 Separating ichneumonids from braconids 197 Identifying specimens 198 12 Phylogeny and Systematics of The Braconidae 201 Historical perspective 202 Morphophylogenetic hypotheses 202 Molecular phylogenetics 204 Braconid classification 205 Eoichneumoninae† 205 Trachypetiformes 205 Trachypetinae 205 Cyclostomes incertae sedis 209 Protorhyssalinae et al. 209 Apozyginae 210 The aphidioid clade or ‘Gondwanan’ complex 212 Aphidiinae 212 Maxfischeriinae 224 Mesostoinae (including Canberreriini and Hydrangeocolini) 225 The remaining cyclostomes 229 Doryctinae (including Ypsistocerini) 231 Pambolinae 236 Rhysipolinae 237 Rhyssalinae 238 Rogadinae s.l. Hormiinae Lysiterminae 243 Betylobraconinae 243 Hormiinae 243 Lysiterminae 245 Rogadinae sensu stricto 246 Alysioid subcomplex including Braconinae 250 Alysiinae and Opiinae 250 Alysiinae 251 General Alysiinae biology 251 Alysiini 253 Dacnusini 255 Opiinae 256 Braconinae 260 Exothecinae 269 Gnamptodontinae (= Gnaptodontinae) 270 Telengaiinae 271 The non-cyclostomes 271 Sigalphoid complex 271 Agathidinae 272 Sigalphinae 275 Helconoid complex 278 Helconinae 279 Helconoid group incertae sedis 281 Blacinae 282 Acampsohelconinae 283 Macrocentrine subcomplex 284 Macrocentrinae 284 Charmontiinae 287 Amicrocentrinae 287 Xiphozelinae 288 Homolobinae 290 Microtypinae 292 Orgilinae 292 Euphoroid complex 294 Euphorinae 294 Cenocoeliinae 310 The microgastroids 311 Cardiochilinae 312 Cheloninae (including Adeliini) 315 Dirrhopinae 319 Ichneutinae 320 Khoikhoiinae 322 Mendesellinae 322 Microgastrinae 322 Miracinae 335 Unplaced subfamilies 335 Masoninae 335 Meteorideinae 337 13 Phylogeny and Systematics of The Ichneumonidae 341 History of ichneumonid classification 342 Henry Townes (1913–90) and his idiosyncratic nomenclature 344 The extinct subfamilies 344 Tanychorinae† 344 Palaeoichneumoninae† 346 Labenopimplinae† 348 Pherombinae† 349 Townesitinae† 349 The xoridiformes 349 Xoridinae 349 The labeniformes 353 Labeninae 353 Groteini 355 Labenini 355 Poecilocryptini 356 The pimpliformes 356 Acaenitinae 356 Collyriinae 359 Cylloceriinae 360 Diacritinae 360 Diplazontinae 361 Orthocentrinae (= Helictinae) 366 Pimplinae 367 Delomeristini 369 Ephialtini (= Pimplini of Townes) 369 Polysphincta group 371 Pimplini 373 Poemeniinae (= Neoxoridinae) 378 Poemeniini 378 Pseudorhyssini 378 Rodrigamini 378 Rhyssinae 379 The ichneumoniformes 383 Adelognathinae 383 Agriotypinae 385 Alomyinae 387 Cryptinae 388 Aptesini 391 Cryptini 391 Phygadeuontini 393 Ichneumoninae 394 The brachycyrtiformes 398 Brachycyrtinae 398 Claseinae (Clasinae) 398 Pedunculinae 399 The orthopelmatiformes 400 Orthopelmatinae 400 The ophioniformes 400 Lower ophioniformes 402 Banchinae 402 Lycorininae 406 Sisyrostolinae 407 Stilbopinae 407 Tryphoninae 411 Middle ophioniformes 416 Ctenopelmatinae 416 Mesochorinae 421 Metopiinae 422 Oxytorinae 424 Tatogastrinae 425 Tersilochinae (including Neorhacodinae and Phrudinae s.s.) 426 Higher ophioniformes 430 Anomaloninae 430 Campopleginae 432 Cremastinae 438 Hybrizontinae 439 Nesomesochorinae 442 Ophioninae 442 Unplaced subfamilies 445 Eucerotinae 445 Microleptinae 447 Part 3 Ecology and Diversity 451 14 Ecology 453 Adult diet 454 Host-feeding 454 Water sugar and pollen feeding 457 Fecundity 460 Voltinism and seasonality 462 Daily activity patterns 462 Diapause 463 Cold hardiness hibernation and overwintering 465 Coloration and thermoregulation 467 Biological control 467 Effect on host food consumption 471 Artificial diets 474 Artificial hosts 475 Use of alternative hosts 475 Hyperparasitism and kleptoparasitism 476 Predation 477 Pathogens 477 Transmission of host pathogens 479 Dispersal 480 Coloration and mimetic rings 480 Palatability and odours 481 Competition 482 Apparent competition 482 Host ranges of parasitoids 483 Parasitoid guilds and food webs 484 Evolution of host ranges and speciation 486 15 Local and Global Patterns In Diversity 489 Field research in the tropics and anomalous diversity 490 Estimation of global ichneumonoid species richness 492 Distribution related to climate and latitude 496 The nasty host hypothesis 497 Biogeography 503 Islands and their parasitoid faunas 505 Species accumulation curves 506 Altitudinal gradients 507 Estimating local species diversity 508 Ichneumonoidea as biodiversity indicators 510 Conservation 510 Effect of habitat degradation on ichneumonoid composition 511 Significance of cryptic species 511 16 Collecting and Rearing Ichneumonoidea 513 Field collecting adults 516 Pan traps 518 Sweep netting 519 Light trapping 521 Canopy fogging 521 Malaise traps 521 Rearings from wild-collected hosts 523 Rearing leaf rollers and tiers 524 Substrate rearings 524 Culturing 524 Mating in captivity 525 Mass rearing 525 Mounting specimens for taxonomic study 526 Preparing specimens from alcohol storage 526 Direct pinning 527 Side gluing 527 Card rectangles and card points 527 Secondary staging 528 Labelling 528 Preserving specimens for DNA analysis 528 Packaging and posting specimens to other workers 530 17 Epilogue 533 Phylogenetic questions 534 Host and parasitism questions 534 Physiological questions 535 Ecological questions 536 Glossary 539 References 547 Author index 633 General index 653 Host index 659 Ichneumonoid genus tribe and subfamily index 665 Ichneumonoidea species index 677 Color Plate Sections Are Inserted Between Pages Noted Below First 13-page colour plate section (between pages 112 and 113) Second 13-page colour plate section (between pages 224 and 225) Third 13-page colour plate section (between pages 336 and 337) Fourth 13-page colour plate section (between pages 448 and 449)

Read more less

Book SynopsisInvertebrates perform such vital roles in global ecosystems and so strongly influence human wellbeing that biologist E.O. Wilson was prompted to describe them as little things that run the world.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Preface xvii 1 Introduction to Global Climate Change and Terrestrial Invertebrates 1 Scott N. Johnson and T. Hefin Jones 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Predictions for Climate and Atmospheric Change 2 1.3 General Mechanisms for Climate Change Impacts on Invertebrates 2 1.3.1 Direct Impacts on Physiology, Performance and Behaviour 3 1.3.2 Indirect Impacts on Habitats, Resources and Interacting Organisms 3 1.4 Themes of the Book 4 1.4.1 Methods for Studying Invertebrates and Global Climate Change 4 1.4.2 Friends and Foes: Ecosystem Service Providers and Vectors of Disease 4 1.4.3 Multi-Trophic Interactions and Invertebrate Communities 5 1.4.4 Evolution, Intervention and Emerging Perspectives 6 Acknowledgements 7 References 7 Part I Methods for Studying Invertebrates and Climate Change 9 2 Using Historical Data for Studying Range Changes 11 Georgina Palmer and Jane K. Hill Summary 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Review of Historical Data Sets on Species’ Distributions 13 2.3 Methods for Using Historical Data to Estimate Species’ Range Changes 15 2.3.1 Measuring Changes in Distribution Size 16 2.3.2 Measuring Change in the Location of Species Ranges 16 2.3.3 An Invertebrate Example: Quantifying Range Shift by the Comma Butterfly Polygonia c-album in Britain 17 2.4 Challenges and Biases in Historical Data 19 2.4.1 Taxonomic Bias 19 2.4.2 Spatial and Temporal Biases 20 2.4.3 Accounting for Temporal and Spatial Biases 21 2.5 New Ways of Analysing Data and Future Perspectives 23 Acknowledgements 24 References 24 3 Experimental Approaches for Assessing Invertebrate Responses to Global Change Factors 30 Richard L. Lindroth and Kenneth F. Raffa Summary 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Experimental Scale: Reductionist, Holistic and Integrated Approaches 32 3.3 Experimental Design: Statistical Concerns 33 3.4 Experimental Endpoints: Match Metrics to Systems 35 3.5 Experimental Systems: Manipulations From Bottle to Field 36 3.5.1 Indoor Closed Systems 36 3.5.2 Outdoor Closed Systems 38 3.5.3 Outdoor Open Systems 39 3.6 Team Science: the Human Dimension 40 3.6.1 Personnel 41 3.6.2 Guiding Principles 41 3.6.3 Operation and Communication 41 3.7 Conclusions 41 Acknowledgements 42 References 42 4 Transplant Experiments – a Powerful Method to Study Climate Change Impacts 46 Sabine S. Nooten and Nigel R. Andrew Summary 46 4.1 Global Climate Change 46 4.2 Climate Change Impacts on Species 47 4.3 Climate Change Impacts on Communities 48 4.4 Common Approaches to Study Climate Change Impacts 48 4.5 Transplant Experiments – a Powerful Tool to Study Climate Change 49 4.5.1 Can Species Adapt to a Warmer Climate? 50 4.5.2 The Potential of Range Shifts 50 4.5.3 Changes in the Timing of Events 51 4.5.4 Shifts in Species Interactions 52 4.5.5 Disentangling Genotypic and Phenotypic Responses 54 4.5.6 Shifts in Communities 54 4.6 Transplant Experiment Trends Using Network Analysis 57 4.7 What’s Missing in Our Current Approaches? Next Steps for Implementing Transplant Experiments 60 Acknowledgements 62 References 62 Part II Friends and Foes: Ecosystem Service Providers and Vectors of Disease 69 5 Insect Pollinators and Climate Change 71 Jessica R. K. Forrest Summary 71 5.1 Introduction 71 5.2 The Pattern: Pollinator Populations and Climate Change 72 5.2.1 Phenology 72 5.2.2 Range Shifts 75 5.2.3 Declining Populations 75 5.3 The Process: Direct Effects of Climate Change 76 5.3.1 Warmer Growing-Season Temperatures 76 5.3.2 Warmer Winters and Reductions in Snowpack 79 5.4 The Process: Indirect Effects of Climate Change 81 5.4.1 Interactions with Food Plants 81 5.4.2 Interactions with Natural Enemies 82 5.5 Synthesis, and the View Ahead 83 Acknowledgements 84 References 84 6 Climate Change Effects on Biological Control in Grasslands 92 Philippa J. Gerard and Alison J. Popay Summary 92 6.1 Introduction 92 6.2 Changes in Plant Biodiversity 94 6.3 Multitrophic Interactions and Food Webs 94 6.3.1 Warming and Predator Behaviour 97 6.3.2 Herbage Productivity and Quality 98 6.3.3 Plant Defence Compounds 98 6.3.4 Fungal Endophytes 100 6.3.5 Changes in Plant Phenology 101 6.4 Greater Exposure to Extreme Events 102 6.4.1 Changes in Precipitation 102 6.4.2 Drought Effects 103 6.5 Range Changes 103 6.6 Greater Exposure to Pest Outbreaks 104 6.7 Non-Target Impacts 104 6.8 Conclusion 105 Acknowledgements 105 References 105 7 Climate Change and Arthropod Ectoparasites and Vectors of Veterinary Importance 111 Hannah Rose Vineer, Lauren Ellse and Richard Wall Summary 111 7.1 Introduction 111 7.2 Parasite–Host Interactions 113 7.3 Evidence of the Impacts of Climate on Ectoparasites and Vectors 114 7.4 Impact of Human Behaviour and Husbandry on Ectoparasitism 116 7.5 Farmer Intervention as a Density-Dependent Process 118 7.6 Predicting Future Impacts of Climate Change on Ectoparasites and Vectors 118 Acknowledgements 123 References 123 8 Climate Change and the Biology of Insect Vectors of Human Pathogens 126 Luis Fernando Chaves Summary 126 8.1 Introduction 126 8.2 Interaction with Pathogens 129 8.3 Physiology, Development and Phenology 131 8.4 Population Dynamics, Life History and Interactions with Other Vector Species 132 8.5 Case Study of Forecasts for Vector Distribution Under Climate Change: The Altitudinal Range of Aedes albopictus and Aedes japonicus in Nagasaki, Japan 134 8.6 Vector Ecology and Evolution in Changing Environments 138 Acknowledgements 139 References 140 9 Climate and Atmospheric Change Impacts on Aphids as Vectors of Plant Diseases 148 James M.W. Ryalls and Richard Harrington Summary 148 9.1 The Disease Pyramid 148 9.1.1 Aphids 149 9.1.2 Host-Plants 152 9.1.3 Viruses 154 9.2 Interactions with the Pyramid 155 9.2.1 Aphid–Host-Plant Interactions 155 9.2.2 Host-Plant–Virus Interactions 158 9.2.3 Virus–Aphid Interactions 160 9.2.4 Aphid–Host-Plant–Virus Interactions 162 9.3 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 162 Acknowledgements 163 References 164 Part III Multi-Trophic Interactions and Invertebrate Communities 177 10 Global Change, Herbivores and Their Natural Enemies 179 William T. Hentley and Ruth N. Wade Summary 179 10.1 Introduction 180 10.2 Global Climate Change and Insect Herbivores 181 10.3 Global Climate Change and Natural Enemies of Insect Herbivores 185 10.3.1 Elevated Atmospheric CO2 185 10.3.1.1 Prey Location 185 10.3.1.2 Prey Quality 186 10.3.2 Temperature Change 186 10.3.3 Reduction in Mean Precipitation 188 10.3.4 Extreme Events 190 10.3.5 Ozone and UV-B 190 10.4 Multiple Abiotic Factors 191 10.5 Conclusions 192 Acknowledgements 193 References 193 11 Climate Change in the Underworld: Impacts for Soil-Dwelling Invertebrates 201 Ivan Hiltpold, Scott N. Johnson, Renée-Claire Le Bayon and Uffe N. Nielsen Summary 201 11.1 Introduction 201 11.1.1 Soil Community Responses to Climate Change 202 11.1.2 Scope of the Chapter 202 11.2 Effect of Climate Change on Nematodes: Omnipresent Soil Invertebrates 203 11.2.1 Nematode Responses to eCO2 203 11.2.2 Nematode Responses to Warming 205 11.2.3 Nematode Responses to Altered Precipitation Regimes 206 11.2.4 Ecosystem Level Effects of Nematode Responses to Climate Change 207 11.3 Effect of Climate Change on Insect Root Herbivores, the Grazers of the Dark 207 11.3.1 Insect Root Herbivore Responses to eCO2 208 11.3.2 Insect Root Herbivore Responses to Warming 210 11.3.3 Insect Root Herbivore Responses to Altered Precipitation 210 11.3.4 Soil-Dwelling Insects as Modifiers of Climate Change Effects 211 11.4 Effect of Climate Change on Earthworms: the Crawling Engineers of Soil 212 11.4.1 Earthworm Responses to eCO2 212 11.4.2 Earthworm Responses to Warming and Altered Precipitation 214 11.4.3 Climate Change Modification of Earthworm–Plant–Microbe Interactions 214 11.4.4 Influence of Climate Change on Earthworms in Belowground Food Webs 215 11.4.5 Influence of Climate Change on Earthworm Colonization of New Habitats 215 11.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 216 Acknowledgements 217 References 218 12 Impacts of Atmospheric and Precipitation Change on Aboveground-Belowground Invertebrate Interactions 229 Scott N. Johnson, James M.W. Ryalls and Joanna T. Staley Summary 229 12.1 Introduction 229 12.1.1 Interactions Between Shoot and Root Herbivores 231 12.1.2 Interactions Between Herbivores and Non-Herbivorous Invertebrates 232 12.1.2.1 Detritivore–Shoot Herbivore Interactions 232 12.1.2.2 Root Herbivore–Pollinator Interactions 232 12.2 Atmospheric Change – Elevated Carbon Dioxide Concentrations 233 12.2.1 Impacts of e[CO2] on Interactions Mediated by Plant Trait Modification 233 12.2.2 Impacts of e[CO2] and Warming on Interactions Mediated by Plant Trait Modification 234 12.2.3 Impacts of Aboveground Herbivores on Belowground Invertebrates via Deposition Pathways 234 12.3 Altered Patterns of Precipitation 236 12.3.1 Precipitation Effects on the Outcome of Above–Belowground Interactions 236 12.3.1.1 Case Study – Impacts of Simulated Precipitation Changes on Aboveground–Belowground Interactions in the Brassicaceae 237 12.3.2 Aboveground–Belowground Interactions in Mixed Plant Communities Under Altered Precipitation Scenarios 239 12.3.3 Altered Precipitation Impacts on Decomposer–Herbivore Interactions 240 12.3.4 Impacts of Increased Unpredictability and Variability of Precipitation Events on the Frequency of Above–Belowground Interactions 240 12.4 Conclusions and Future Directions 242 12.4.1 Redressing the Belowground Knowledge Gap 243 12.4.2 Testing Multiple Environmental Factors 243 12.4.3 New Study Systems 244 12.4.4 Closing Remarks 245 Acknowledgements 245 References 245 13 Forest Invertebrate Communities and Atmospheric Change 252 Sarah L. Facey and Andrew N. Gherlenda Summary 252 13.1 Why Are Forest Invertebrate Communities Important? 253 13.2 Atmospheric Change and Invertebrates 253 13.3 Responses of Forest Invertebrates to Elevated Carbon Dioxide Concentrations 254 13.3.1 Herbivores 254 13.3.2 Natural Enemies 259 13.3.3 Community-Level Responses 259 13.4 Responses of Forest Invertebrates to Elevated Ozone Concentrations 263 13.4.1 Herbivores 263 13.4.2 Natural Enemies 264 13.4.3 Community-Level Studies 265 13.5 Interactions Between Carbon Dioxide and Ozone 265 13.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 267 Acknowledgements 268 References 268 14 Climate Change and Freshwater Invertebrates: Their Role in Reciprocal Freshwater–Terrestrial Resource Fluxes 274 Micael Jonsson and Cristina Canhoto Summary 274 14.1 Introduction 274 14.2 Climate-Change Effects on Riparian and Shoreline Vegetation 275 14.3 Climate-Change Effects on Runoff of Dissolved Organic Matter 277 14.4 Climate Change Effects on Basal Freshwater Resources Via Modified Terrestrial Inputs 278 14.5 Effects of Altered Terrestrial Resource Fluxes on Freshwater Invertebrates 279 14.6 Direct Effects of Warming on Freshwater Invertebrates 280 14.7 Impacts of Altered Freshwater Invertebrate Emergence on Terrestrial Ecosystems 282 14.8 Conclusions and Research Directions 284 14.8.1 Effects of Simultaneous Changes in Resource Quality and Temperature on Freshwater Invertebrate Secondary Production 284 14.8.2 Effects of Changed Resource Quality and Temperature on the Size Structure of Freshwater Invertebrate Communities 284 14.8.3 Effects of Changed Resource Quality on Elemental Composition (i.e., Stoichiometry, Autochthony versus Allochthony, and PUFA Content) of Freshwater Invertebrates 284 14.8.4 Effects of Changed Freshwater Invertebrate Community Composition and Secondary Production on Freshwater Insect Emergence 285 14.8.5 Effects of Changed Quality (i.e., Size Structure and Elemental Composition) of Emergent Freshwater Insects on Terrestrial Food Webs 285 14.8.6 Effects of Climate Change on Landscape-Scale Cycling of Matter Across the Freshwater–Terrestrial Interface 285 Acknowledgements 286 References 286 15 Climatic Impacts on Invertebrates as Food for Vertebrates 295 Robert J. Thomas, James O. Vafidis and Renata J. Medeiros Summary 295 15.1 Introduction 295 15.2 Changes in the Abundance of Vertebrates 296 15.2.1 Variation in Demography and Population Size 296 15.2.2 Local Extinctions 299 15.2.3 Global Extinctions 299 15.3 Changes in the Distribution of Vertebrates 300 15.3.1 Geographical Range Shifts 300 15.3.2 Altitudinal Range Shifts 301 15.3.3 Depth Range Shifts 302 15.3.4 Food-Mediated Mechanisms and Trophic Consequences of Range Shifts 302 15.4 Changes in Phenology of Vertebrates, and Their Invertebrate Prey 303 15.4.1 Consequences of Phenological Changes for Trophic Relationships 303 15.4.2 Phenological Mismatches in Marine Ecosystems 303 15.4.3 Phenological Mismatches in Terrestrial Ecosystems 304 15.4.3.1 Behaviour and Ecology of the Vertebrates 305 15.4.3.2 Habitat Differences in Prey Phenology 306 15.5 Conclusions 307 15.6 Postscript: Beyond the Year 2100 308 Acknowledgements 308 References 308 Part IV Evolution, Intervention and Emerging Perspectives 317 16 Evolutionary Responses of Invertebrates to Global Climate Change: the Role of Life-History Trade-Offs and Multidecadal Climate Shifts 319 Jofre Carnicer, Chris Wheat, Maria Vives, Andreu Ubach, Cristina Domingo, S̈oren Nylin, Constantí Stefanescu, Roger Vila, Christer Wiklund and Josep Peñuelas Summary 319 16.1 Introduction 319 16.2 Fundamental Trade-Offs Mediating Invertebrate Evolutionary Responses to Global Warming 327 16.2.1 Background 327 16.2.2 Mechanisms Underpinning Trade-Offs 328 16.2.2.1 Endocrine Hormone-Signalling Pathway – Antagonistic Pleiotropy Trade-Off Hypothesis 330 16.2.2.2 The Thermal Stability – Kinetic Efficiency Trade-Off Hypothesis 330 16.2.2.3 Resource-Allocation Trade-Off Hypothesis 331 16.2.2.4 Enzymatic-Multifunctionality (Moonlighting) Hypothesis 331 16.2.2.5 Respiratory Water Loss – Total Gas Exchange Hypothesis 332 16.2.2.6 Water-Loss Trade-Off Hypotheses 332 16.3 The Roles of Multi-Annual Extreme Droughts and Multidecadal Shifts in Drought Regimens in Driving Large-Scale Responses of Insect Populations 333 16.4 Conclusions and New Research Directions 337 Acknowledgements 339 References 339 17 Conservation of Insects in the Face of Global Climate Change 349 Paula Arribas, Pedro Abellán, Josefa Velasco, Andrés Millán and David Sánchez-Fernández Summary 349 17.1 Introduction 349 17.1.1 Insect Biodiversity 349 17.1.2 Insect Biodiversity and Climate Change: the Research Landscape 350 17.2 Vulnerability Drivers of Insect Species Under Climate Change 352 17.3 Assessment of Insect Species Vulnerability to Climate Change 353 17.4 Management Strategies for Insect Conservation Under Climate Change 355 17.5 Protected Areas and Climate Change 357 17.6 Perspectives on Insect Conservation Facing Climate Change 359 Acknowledgements 360 References 361 18 Emerging Issues and Future Perspectives for Global Climate Change and Invertebrates 368 Scott N. Johnson and T. Hefin Jones 18.1 Preamble 368 18.2 Multiple Organisms, Asynchrony and Adaptation in Climate Change Studies 368 18.3 Multiple Climatic Factors in Research 369 18.4 Research Into Extreme Climatic Events 371 18.5 Climate change and Invertebrate Biosecurity 372 18.6 Concluding Remarks 374 References 374 Species Index 379 Subject Index 385

Read more less