Testing of materials Books

Book Synopsis1. Introduction.- 1.1. Imaging Capabilities.- 1.2. Structure Analysis.- 1.3. Elemental Analysis.- 1.4. Summary and Outline of This Book.- Appendix A. Overview of Scanning Electron Microscopy.- Appendix B. Overview of Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis.- References.- 2. The SEM and Its Modes of Operation.- 2.1. How the SEM Works.- 2.1.1. Functions of the SEM Subsystems.- 2.1.1.1. Electron Gun and Lenses Produce a Small Electron Beam.- 2.1.1.2. Deflection System Controls Magnification.- 2.1.1.3. Electron Detector Collects the Signal.- 2.1.1.4. Camera or Computer Records the Image.- 2.1.1.5. Operator Controls.- 2.1.2. SEM Imaging Modes.- 2.1.2.1. Resolution Mode.- 2.1.2.2. High-Current Mode.- 2.1.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.- 2.1.2.4. Low-Voltage Mode.- 2.1.3. Why Learn about Electron Optics?.- 2.2. Electron Guns.- 2.2.1. Tungsten Hairpin Electron Guns.- 2.2.1.1. Filament.- 2.2.1.2. Grid Cap.- 2.2.1.3. Anode.- 2.2.1.4. Emission Current and Beam Current.- 2.2.1.5. Operator Control of the ElecTrade Review“There is no other single volume that covers as much theory and practice of SEM or X-ray microanalysis as Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis, 3rd Edition does. It is clearly written ... well organized. ... This is a reference text that no SEM or EPMA laboratory should be without.” (Thomas J. Wilson, Scanning, Vol. 27 (4), July/August, 2005) “As the authors pointed out, the number of equations in the book is kept to a minimum, and important conceptions are also explained in a qualitative manner. A lot of very distinct images and schematic drawings make for a very interesting book and help readers who study scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. The principal application and sample preparation given in this book are suitable for undergraduate students and technicians learning SEEM and EDS/WDS analyses. It is an excellent textbook for graduate students, and an outstanding reference for engineers, physical, and biological scientists.” (Microscopy and Microanalysis, Vol. 9 (5), October, 2003)Table of Contents1. Introduction.- 1.1. Imaging Capabilities.- 1.2. Structure Analysis.- 1.3. Elemental Analysis.- 1.4. Summary and Outline of This Book.- Appendix A. Overview of Scanning Electron Microscopy.- Appendix B. Overview of Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis.- References.- 2. The SEM and Its Modes of Operation.- 2.1. How the SEM Works.- 2.1.1. Functions of the SEM Subsystems.- 2.1.1.1. Electron Gun and Lenses Produce a Small Electron Beam.- 2.1.1.2. Deflection System Controls Magnification.- 2.1.1.3. Electron Detector Collects the Signal.- 2.1.1.4. Camera or Computer Records the Image.- 2.1.1.5. Operator Controls.- 2.1.2. SEM Imaging Modes.- 2.1.2.1. Resolution Mode.- 2.1.2.2. High-Current Mode.- 2.1.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.- 2.1.2.4. Low-Voltage Mode.- 2.1.3. Why Learn about Electron Optics?.- 2.2. Electron Guns.- 2.2.1. Tungsten Hairpin Electron Guns.- 2.2.1.1. Filament.- 2.2.1.2. Grid Cap.- 2.2.1.3. Anode.- 2.2.1.4. Emission Current and Beam Current.- 2.2.1.5. Operator Control of the Electron Gun.- 2.2.2. Electron Gun Characteristics.- 2.2.2.1. Electron Emission Current.- 2.2.2.2. Brightness.- 2.2.2.3. Lifetime.- 2.2.2.4. Source Size, Energy Spread, Beam Stability.- 2.2.2.5. Improved Electron Gun Characteristics.- 2.2.3. Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Electron Guns.- 2.2.3.1. Introduction.- 2.2.3.2. Operation of the LaB6 Source.- 2.2.4. Field Emission Electron Guns.- 2.3. Electron Lenses.- 2.3.1. Making the Beam Smaller.- 2.3.1.1. Electron Focusing.- 2.3.1.2. Demagnification of the Beam.- 2.3.2. Lenses in SEMs.- 2.3.2.1. Condenser Lenses.- 2.3.2.2. Objective Lenses.- 2.3.2.3. Real and Virtual Objective Apertures.- 2.3.3. Operator Control of SEM Lenses.- 2.3.3.1. Effect of Aperture Size.- 2.3.3.2. Effect of Working Distance.- 2.3.3.3. Effect of Condenser Lens Strength.- 2.3.4. Gaussian Probe Diameter.- 2.3.5. Lens Aberrations.- 2.3.5.1. Spherical Aberration.- 2.3.5.2. Aperture Diffraction.- 2.3.5.3. Chromatic Aberration.- 2.3.5.4. Astigmatism.- 2.3.5.5. Aberrations in the Objective Lens.- 2.4. Electron Probe Diameter versus Electron Probe Current.- 2.4.1. Calculation of dmin and imax.- 2.4.1.1. Minimum Probe Size.- 2.4.1.2. Minimum Probe Size at 10-30 kV.- 2.4.1.3. Maximum Probe Current at 10-30 kV.- 2.4.1.4. Low-Voltage Operation.- 2.4.1.5. Graphical Summary.- 2.4.2. Performance in the SEM Modes.- 2.4.2.1. Resolution Mode.- 2.4.2.2. High-Current Mode.- 2.4.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode.- 2.4.2.4. Low-Voltage SEM.- 2.4.2.5. Environmental Barriers to High-Resolution Imaging.- References.- 3. Electron Beam–Specimen Interactions.- 3.1. The Story So Far.- 3.2. The Beam Enters the Specimen.- 3.3. The Interaction Volume.- 3.3.1. Visualizing the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.2. Simulating the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3. Influence of Beam and Specimen Parameters on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3.1. Influence of Beam Energy on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3.2. Influence of Atomic Number on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.3.3. Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.4. Electron Range: A Simple Measure of the Interaction Volume.- 3.3.4.1. Introduction.- 3.3.4.2. The Electron Range at Low Beam Energy.- 3.4. Imaging Signals from the Interaction Volume.- 3.4.1. Backscattered Electrons.- 3.4.1.1. Atomic Number Dependence of BSE.- 3.4.1.2. Beam Energy Dependence of BSE.- 3.4.1.3. Tilt Dependence of BSE.- 3.4.1.4. Angular Distribution of BSE.- 3.4.1.5. Energy Distribution of BSE.- 3.4.1.6. Lateral Spatial Distribution of BSE.- 3.4.1.7. Sampling Depth of BSE.- 3.4.2. Secondary Electrons.- 3.4.2.1. Definition and Origin of SE.- 3.4.2.2. SE Yield with Primary Beam Energy.- 3.4.2.3. SE Energy Distribution.- 3.4.2.4. Range and Escape Depth of SE.- 3.4.2.5. Relative Contributions of SE1 and SE2.- 3.4.2.6. Specimen Composition Dependence of SE.- 3.4.2.7. Specimen Tilt Dependence of SE.- 3.4.2.8. Angular Distribution of SE.- References.- 4. Image Formation and Interpretation.- 4.1. The Story So Far.- 4.2. The Basic SEM Imaging Process.- 4.2.1. Scanning Action.- 4.2.2. Image Construction (Mapping).- 4.2.2.1. Line Scans.- 4.2.2.2. Image (Area) Scanning.- 4.2.2.3. Digital Imaging: Collection and Display.- 4.2.3. Magnification.- 4.2.4. Picture Element (Pixel) Size.- 4.2.5. Low-Magnification Operation.- 4.2.6. Depth of Field (Focus).- 4.2.7. Image Distortion.- 4.2.7.1. Projection Distortion: Gnomonic Projection.- 4.2.7.2. Projection Distortion: Image Foreshortening.- 4.2.7.3. Scan Distortion: Pathological Defects.- 4.2.7.4. Moiré Effects.- 4.3. Detectors.- 4.3.1. Introduction.- 4.3.2. Electron Detectors.- 4.3.2.1. Everhart–Thornley Detector.- 4.3.2.2. “Through-the-Lens” (TTL) Detector.- 4.3.2.3. Dedicated Backscattered Electron Detectors.- 4.4. The Roles of the Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation.- 4.4.1. Contrast.- 4.4.2. Compositional (Atomic Number) Contrast.- 4.4.2.1. Introduction.- 4.4.2.2. Compositional Contrast with Backscattered Electrons.- 4.4.3. Topographic Contrast.- 4.4.3.1. Origins of Topographic Contrast.- 4.4.3.2. Topographic Contrast with the Everhart–Thornley Detector.- 4.4.3.3. Light-Optical Analogy.- 4.4.3.4. Interpreting Topographic Contrast with Other Detectors.- 4.5. Image Quality.- 4.6. Image Processing for the Display of Contrast Information.- 4.6.1. The Signal Chain.- 4.6.2. The Visibility Problem.- 4.6.3. Analog and Digital Image Processing.- 4.6.4. Basic Digital Image Processing.- 4.6.4.1. Digital Image Enhancement.- 4.6.4.2. Digital Image Measurements.- References.- 5. Special Topics in Scanning Electron Microscopy.- 5.1. High-Resolution Imaging.- 5.1.1. The Resolution Problem.- 5.1.2. Achieving High Resolution at High Beam Energy.- 5.1.3. High-Resolution Imaging at Low Voltage.- 5.2. STEM-in-SEM: High Resolution for the Special Case of Thin Specimens.- 5.3. Surface Imaging at Low Voltage.- 5.4. Making Dimensional Measurements in the SEM.- 5.5. Recovering the Third Dimension: Stereomicroscopy.- 5.5.1. Qualitative Stereo Imaging and Presentation.- 5.5.2. Quantitative Stereo Microscopy.- 5.6. Variable-Pressure and Environmental SEM.- 5.6.1. Current Instruments.- 5.6.2. Gas in the Specimen Chamber.- 5.6.2.1. Units of Gas Pressure.- 5.6.2.2. The Vacuum System.- 5.6.3. Electron Interactions with Gases.- 5.6.4. The Effect of the Gas on Charging.- 5.6.5. Imaging in the ESEM and the VPSEM.- 5.6.6. X-Ray Microanalysis in the Presence of a Gas.- 5.7. Special Contrast Mechanisms.- 5.7.1. Electric Fields.- 5.7.2. Magnetic Fields.- 5.7.2.1. Type 1 Magnetic Contrast.- 5.7.2.2. Type 2 Magnetic Contrast.- 5.7.3. Crystallographic Contrast.- 5.8. Electron Backscatter Patterns.- 5.8.1. Origin of EBSD Patterns.- 5.8.2. Hardware for EBSD.- 5.8.3. Resolution of EBSD.- 5.8.3.1. Lateral Spatial Resolution.- 5.8.3.2. Depth Resolution.- 5.8.4. Applications.- 5.8.4.1. Orientation Mapping.- 5.8.4.2. Phase Identification.- References.- 6. Generation of X-Rays in the SEM Specimen.- 6.1. Continuum X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung).- 6.2. Characteristic X-Ray Production.- 6.2.1. Origin.- 6.2.2. Fluorescence Yield.- 6.2.3. Electron Shells.- 6.2.4. Energy-Level Diagram.- 6.2.5. Electron Transitions.- 6.2.6. Critical Ionization Energy.- 6.2.7. Moseley’s Law.- 6.2.8. Families of Characteristic Lines.- 6.2.9. Natural Width of Characteristic X-Ray Lines.- 6.2.10. Weights of Lines.- 6.2.11. Cross Section for Inner Shell Ionization.- 6.2.12. X-Ray Production in Thin Foils.- 6.2.13. X-Ray Production in Thick Targets.- 6.2.14. X-Ray Peak-to-Background Ratio.- 6.3. Depth of X-Ray Production (X-Ray Range).- 6.3.1. Anderson–Hasler X-Ray Range.- 6.3.2. X-Ray Spatial Resolution.- 6.3.3. Sampling Volume and Specimen Homogeneity.- 6.3.4.Depth Distribution of X-Ray Production, ?(?z).- 6.4. X-Ray Absorption.- 6.4.1. Mass Absorption Coefficient for an Element.- 6.4.2. Effect of Absorption Edge on Spectrum.- 6.4.3. Absorption Coefficient for Mixed-Element Absorbers.- 6.5. X-Ray Fluorescence.- 6.5.1. Characteristic Fluorescence.- 6.5.2. Continuum Fluorescence.- 6.5.3. Range of Fluorescence Radiation.- References.- 7. X-Ray Spectral Measurement: EDS and WDS.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer.- 7.2.1. Operating Principles.- 7.2.2. The Detection Process.- 7.2.3. Charge-to-Voltage Conversion.- 7.2.4. Pulse-Shaping Linear Amplifier and Pileup Rejection Circuitry.- 7.2.5. The Computer X-Ray Analyzer.- 7.2.6. Digital Pulse Processing.- 7.2.7. Spectral Modification Resulting from the Detection Process.- 7.2.7.1. Peak Broadening.- 7.2.7.2. Peak Distortion.- 7.2.7.3. Silicon X-Ray Escape Peaks.- 7.2.7.4. Absorption Edges.- 7.2.7.5. Silicon Internal Fluorescence Peak.- 7.2.8. Artifacts from the Detector Environment.- 7.2.9. Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts.- 7.3. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer.- 7.3.1. Introduction.- 7.3.2. Basic Description.- 7.3.3. Diffraction Conditions.- 7.3.4. Diffracting Crystals.- 7.3.5. The X-Ray Proportional Counter.- 7.3.6. Detector Electronics.- 7.4. Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Conventional Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers.- 7.4.1. Geometric Collection Efficiency.- 7.4.2. Quantum Efficiency.- 7.4.3. Resolution.- 7.4.4. Spectral Acceptance Range.- 7.4.5. Maximum Count Rate.- 7.4.6. Minimum Probe Size.- 7.4.7. Speed of Analysis.- 7.4.8. Spectral Artifacts.- 7.5. Emerging Detector Technologies.- 7.5.1. X-Ray Microcalorimetery.- 7.5.2. Silicon Drift Detectors.- 7.5.3. Parallel Optic Diffraction-Based Spectrometers.- References.- 8. Qualitative X-Ray Analysis.- 8.1. Introduction.- 8.2. EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.1. X-Ray Peaks.- 8.2.2. Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.2.1. General Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.2.2. Specific Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.3. Examples of Manual EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.4. Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.2.5. Advanced Qualitative Analysis: Peak Stripping.- 8.2.6. Automatic Qualitative EDS Analysis.- 8.3. WDS Qualitative Analysis.- 8.3.1. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometry of X-Ray Peaks.- 8.3.2. Guidelines for WDS Qualitative Analysis.- References.- 9. Quantitative X-Ray Analysis: The Basics.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Advantages of Conventional Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis in the SEM.- 9.3. Quantitative Analysis Procedures: Flat-Polished Samples.- 9.4. The Approach to X-Ray Quantitation: The Need for Matrix Corrections.- 9.5. The Physical Origin of Matrix Effects.- 9.6. ZAF Factors in Microanalysis.- 9.6.1. Atomic number effect, Z.- 9.6.1.1. Effect of Backscattering (R) and Energy Loss (S ).- 9.6.1.2. X-Ray Generation with Depth, ?(?z).- 9.6.2. X-Ray Absorption Effect, A.- 9.6.3. X-Ray Fluorescence, F.- 9.7. Calculation of ZAF Factors.- 9.7.1. Atomic Number Effect, Z.- 9.7.2. Absorption correction, A.- 9.7.3. Characteristic Fluorescence Correction, F.- 9.7.4. Calculation of ZAF.- 9.7.5. The Analytical Total.- 9.8. Practical Analysis.- 9.8.1. Examples of Quantitative Analysis.- 9.8.1.1. Al–Cu Alloys.- 9.8.1.2. Ni–10 wt% Fe Alloy.- 9.8.1.3. Ni–38.5 wt% Cr–3.0 wt% Al Alloy.- 9.8.1.4. Pyroxene: 53.5 wt% SiO2, 1.11 wt% Al2O3, 0.62 wt% Cr2O3, 9.5 wt% FeO, 14.1 wt% MgO, and 21.2 wt% CaO.- 9.8.2. Standardless Analysis.- 9.8.2.1. First-Principles Standardless Analysis.- 9.8.2.2. “Fitted-Standards” Standardless Analysis.- 9.8.3. Special Procedures for Geological Analysis.- 9.8.3.1. Introduction.- 9.8.3.2. Formulation of the Bence–Albee Procedure.- 9.8.3.3. Application of the Bence–Albee Procedure.- 9.8.3.4. Specimen Conductivity.- 9.8.4. Precision and Sensitivity in X-Ray Analysis.- 9.8.4.1. Statistical Basis for Calculating Precision and Sensitivity.- 9.8.4.2. Precision of Composition.- 9.8.4.3. Sample Homogeneity.- 9.8.4.4. Analytical Sensitivity.- 9.8.4.5. Trace Element Analysis.- 9.8.4.6. Trace Element Analysis Geochronologic Applications.- 9.8.4.7. Biological and Organic Specimens.- References.- 10. Special Topics in Electron Beam X-Ray Microanalysis.- 10.1. Introduction.- 10.2. Thin Film on a Substrate.- 10.3. Particle Analysis.- 10.3.1. Particle Mass Effect.- 10.3.2. Particle Absorption Effect.- 10.3.3. Particle Fluorescence Effect.- 10.3.4. Particle Geometric Effects.- 10.3.5. Corrections for Particle Geometric Effects.- 10.3.5.1. The Consequences of Ignoring Particle Effects.- 10.3.5.2. Normalization.- 10.3.5.3. Critical Measurement Issues for Particles.- 10.3.5.4. Advanced Quantitative Methods for Particles.- 10.4. Rough Surfaces.- 10.4.1. Introduction.- 10.4.2. Rough Specimen Analysis Strategy.- 10.4.2.1. Reorientation.- 10.4.2.2. Normalization.- 10.4.2.3. Peak-to-Background Method.- 10.5. Beam-Sensitive Specimens (Biological, Polymeric).- 10.5.1. Thin-Section Analysis.- 10.5.2. Bulk Biological and Organic Specimens.- 10.6. X-Ray Mapping.- 10.6.1. Relative Merits of WDS and EDS for Mapping.- 10.6.2. Digital Dot Mapping.- 10.6.3. Gray-Scale Mapping.- 10.6.3.1. The Need for Scaling in Gray-Scale Mapping.- 10.6.3.2. Artifacts in X-Ray Mapping.- 10.6.4. Compositional Mapping.- 10.6.4.1. Principles of Compositional Mapping.- 10.6.4.2. Advanced Spectrum Collection Strategies for Compositional Mapping.- 10.6.5. The Use of Color in Analyzing and Presenting X-Ray\ Maps.- 10.6.5.1. Primary Color Superposition.- 10.6.5.2. Pseudocolor Scales.- 10.7. Light Element Analysis.- 10.7.1. Optimization of Light Element X-Ray Generation.- 10.7.2. X-Ray Spectrometry of the Light Elements.- 10.7.2.1. Si EDS.- 10.7.2.2. WDS.- 10.7.3. Special Measurement Problems for the Light Elements.- 10.7.3.1. Contamination.- 10.7.3.2. Overvoltage Effects.- 10.7.3.3. Absorption Effects.- 10.7.4.Light Element Quantification.- 10.8. Low-Voltage Microanalysis.- 10.8.1. “Low-Voltage” versus “Conventional” Microanalysis.- 10.8.2. X-Ray Production Range.- 10.8.2.1. Contribution of the Beam Size to the X-Ray Analytical Resolution.- 10.8.2.2. A Consequence of the X-Ray Range under Low-Voltage Conditions.- 10.8.3. X-Ray Spectrometry in Low-Voltage Microanalysis.- 10.8.3.1. The Oxygen and Carbon Problem.- 10.8.3.2. Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis at Low Voltage.- 10.9. Report of Analysis.- References.- 11. Specimen Preparation of Hard Materials: Metals, Ceramics, Rocks, Minerals, Microelectronic and Packaged Devices, Particles, and Fibers.- 11.1. Metals.- 11.1.1. Specimen Preparation for Surface Topography.- 11.1.2. Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis.- 11.1.2.1. Initial Sample Selection and Specimen Preparation Steps.- 11.1.2.2. Final Polishing Steps.- 11.1.2.3. Preparation for Microanalysis.- 11.2. Ceramics and Geological Samples.- 11.2.1. Initial Specimen Preparation: Topography and Microstructure.- 11.2.2. Mounting and Polishing for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis.- 11.2.3. Final Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis.- 11.3. Microelectronics and Packages.- 11.3.1. Initial Specimen Preparation.- 11.3.2. Polishing.- 11.3.3. Final Preparation.- 11.4. Imaging of Semiconductors.- 11.4.1. Voltage Contrast.- 11.4.2. Charge Collection.- 11.5. Preparation for Electron Diffraction in the SEM.- 11.5.1. Channeling Patterns and Channeling Contrast.- 11.5.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction.- 11.6. Special Techniques.- 11.6.1. Plasma Cleaning.- 11.6.2. Focused-Ion-Beam Sample Preparation for SEM.- 11.6.2.1. Application of FIB for Semiconductors.- 11.6.2.2. Applications of FIB in Materials Science.- 11.7.Particles and Fibers.- 11.7.1. Particle Substrates and Supports.- 11.7.1.1. Bulk Particle Substrates.- 11.7.1.2. Thin Particle Supports.- 11.7.2. Particle Mounting Techniques.- 11.7.3. Particles Collected on Filters.- 11.7.4. Particles in a Solid Matrix.- 11.7.5. Transfer of Individual Particles.- References.- 12. Specimen Preparation of Polymer Materials.- 12.1. Introduction.- 12.2. Microscopy of Polymers.- 12.2.1. Radiation Effects.- 12.2.2. Imaging Compromises.- 12.2.3. Metal Coating Polymers for Imaging.- 12.2.4. X-Ray Microanalysis of Polymers.- 12.3. Specimen Preparation Methods for Polymers.- 12.3.1. Simple Preparation Methods.- 12.3.2. Polishing of Polymers.- 12.3.3. Microtomy of Polymers.- 12.3.4. Fracture of Polymer Materials.- 12.3.5. Staining of Polymers.- 12.3.5.1. Osmium Tetroxide and Ruthenium Tetroxide.- 12.3.5.2. Ebonite.- 12.3.5.3. Chlorosulfonic Acid and Phosphotungstic Acid.- 12.3.6. Etching of Polymers.- 12.3.7. Replication of Polymers.- 12.3.8. Rapid Cooling and Drying Methods for Polymers.- 12.3.8.1. Simple Cooling Methods.- 12.3.8.2. Freeze-Drying.- 12.3.8.3. Critical-Point Drying.- 12.4. Choosing Specimen Preparation Methods.- 12.4.1. Fibers.- 12.4.2. Films and Membranes.- 12.4.3. Engineering Resins and Plastics.- 12.4.4. Emulsions and Adhesives.- 12.5. Problem-Solving Protocol.- 12.6. Image Interpretation and Artifacts.- References.- 13. Ambient-Temperature Specimen Preparation of Biological Material.- 13.1. Introduction.- 13.2. Preparative Procedures for the Structural SEM of Single Cells, Biological Particles, and Fibers.- 13.2.1. Particulate, Cellular, and Fibrous Organic Material.- 13.2.2. Dry Organic Particles and Fibers.- 13.2.2.1. Organic Particles and Fibers on a Filter.- 13.2.2.2. Organic Particles and Fibers Entrained within a Filter.- 13.2.2.3. Organic Particulate Matter Suspended in a Liquid.- 13.2.2.4. Manipulating Individual Organic Particles.- 13.3. Preparative Procedures for the Structural Observation of Large Soft Biological Specimens.- 13.3.1. Introduction.- 13.3.2. Sample Handling before Fixation.- 13.3.3. Fixation.- 13.3.4. Microwave Fixation.- 13.3.5. Conductive Infiltration.- 13.3.6. Dehydration.- 13.3.7. Embedding.- 13.3.8. Exposing the Internal Contents of Bulk Specimens.- 13.3.8.1. Mechanical Dissection.- 13.3.8.2. High-Energy-Beam Surface Erosion.- 13.3.8.3. Chemical Dissection.- 13.3.8.4. Surface Replicas and Corrosion Casts.- 13.3.9. Specimen Supports and Methods of Sample Attachment.- 13.3.10. Artifacts.- 13.4. Preparative Procedures for the in Situ Chemical Analysis of Biological Specimens in the SEM.- 13.4.1. Introduction.- 13.4.2. Preparative Procedures for Elemental Analysis Using X-Ray Microanalysis.- 13.4.2.1. The Nature and Extent of the Problem.- 13.4.2.2. Types of Sample That May be Analyzed.- 13.4.2.3. The General Strategy for Sample Preparation.- 13.4.2.4. Criteria for Judging Satisfactory Sample Preparation.- 13.4.2.5. Fixation and Stabilization.- 13.4.2.6. Precipitation Techniques.- 13.4.2.7. Procedures for Sample Dehydration, Embedding, and Staining.- 13.4.2.8. Specimen Supports.- 13.4.3. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Molecules Using Histochemistry.- 13.4.3.1. Staining and Histochemical Methods.- 13.4.3.2. Atomic Number Contrast with Backscattered Electrons.- 13.4.4. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Macromolecues Using Immunocytochemistry.- 13.4.4.1. Introduction.- 13.4.4.2. The Antibody–Antigen Reaction.- 13.4.4.3. General Features of Specimen Preparation for Immunocytochemistry.- 13.4.4.4. Imaging Procedures in the SEM.- References.- 14. Low-Temperature Specimen Preparation.- 14.1. Introduction.- 14.2. The Properties of Liquid Water and Ice.- 14.3. Conversion of Liquid Water to Ice.- 14.4. Specimen Pretreatment before Rapid (Quench) Cooling.- 14.4.1. Minimizing Sample Size and Specimen Holders.- 14.4.2. Maximizing Undercooling.- 14.4.3. Altering the Nucleation Process.- 14.4.4. Artificially Depressing the Sample Freezing Point.- 14.4.5. Chemical Fixation.- 14.5. Quench Cooling.- 14.5.1. Liquid Cryogens.- 14.5.2. Solid Cryogens.- 14.5.3. Methods for Quench Cooling.- 14.5.4. Comparison of Quench Cooling Rates.- 14.6. Low-Temperature Storage and Sample Transfer.- 14.7. Manipulation of Frozen Specimens: Cryosectioning, Cryofracturing, and Cryoplaning.- 14.7.1. Cryosectioning.- 14.7.2. Cryofracturing.- 14.7.3. Cryopolishing or Cryoplaning.- 14.8. Ways to Handle Frozen Liquids within the Specimen.- 14.8.1. Frozen-Hydrated and Frozen Samples.- 14.8.2. Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.2.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.2.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.2.3. Artifacts Associated with Freeze-Drying.- 14.8.3. Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding.- 14.8.3.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding.- 14.8.3.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding.- 14.9. Procedures for Hydrated Organic Systems.- 14.10. Procedures for Hydrated Inorganic Systems.- 14.11. Procedures for Nonaqueous Liquids.- 14.12. Imaging and Analyzing Samples at Low Temperatures.- References.- 15. Procedures for Elimination of Charging in Nonconducting Specimens.- 15.1. Introduction.- 15.2. Recognizing Charging Phenomena.- 15.3. Procedures for Overcoming the Problems of Charging.- 15.4. Vacuum Evaporation Coating.- 15.4.1. High-Vacuum Evaporation Methods.- 15.4.2. Low-Vacuum Evaporation Methods.- 15.5. Sputter Coating.- 15.5.1. Plasma Magnetron Sputter Coating.- 15.5.2. Ion Beam and Penning Sputtering.- 15.6. High-Resolution Coating Methods.- 15.7. Coating for Analytical Studies.- 15.8. Coating Procedures for Samples Maintained at Low Temperatures.- 15.9. Coating Thickness.- 5.10. Damage and Artifacts on Coated Samples.- 15.11. Summary of Coating Guidelines.- References.- Enhancements CD.

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Book SynopsisThe Science of Solar System IcesTable of ContentsForeword.- Preface.- Acknowledgements.- Part I - Optical Remote Sensing of Planetary Ices.- Chapter 1: Observed Ices in the Solar System.- Chapter 2: Photometric Properties of Solar System Ices.- Chapter 3: Ultraviolet Properties of Planetary Ices.- Chapter 4: The Ices on Transneptunain Objects and Centaurs.- Part II: Ice Physical Properties and Planetary Applications.- Chapter 5: First-Principles Calculations of Physical Properties of Planetary Ices.- Chapter 6: Frictional Sliding of Cold Ice: A Fundamental Process Underlying Tectonic Activity Within Icy Satellites.- Chapter 7: Planetary Ices Attenuation Properties.- Chapter 8: Deformation Behavior of Ice in Polar Ice Sheets.- Chapter 9: Cratering in Icy Bodies.- Chapter 10: Geology of Icy Bodies.- Part III - Volatiles in Ices.- Chapter 11: Amorphous and Crystalline H2O-Ice.- Chapter 12: Clathrate Hydrates: Implications for Exchange Processes in the Outer Solar System.- Chapter 13: Cometary Ices.- Chapter 14: Gas Trapping in Ice and Its Release Upon Warming.- Part IV: Surface Ice Chemistry.- Chapter 15: Chemistry in Ices - From Fundamentals to Planetary Applications.- Chapter 16: Radiation Effects in Water ice in the Outer Solar System.- Chapter 17: Sputtering of Ices.- Chapter 18: Photochemistry in Terrestrial Ices.- Index.

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Book SynopsisThe second edition of this popular textbook thoroughly covers the practical basics and applications of conducting polymers. It also addresses materials that have gained prominence since the first edition of this book was published, namely carbon nanotubes and graphene.The features of this new edition include: New and updated chapters on novel concepts in conducting polymers Details on interdisciplinary applications of conducting polymers An in depth description of classes of conducting polymers Trade Review“The second edition of this popular textbook provides a comprehensive overview on the practical basics and applications of conducting polymers. It fulfills its intension of assisting various researchers from diverse fields to become familiar with fundamentals and applications of conducting polymers.” (Ralph Bäßler, Materials and Corrosion, 2018)Table of ContentsPart I: Carbon Nanotubes (CNTS), Fundamentals.- Introducing Carbon Nanotubes (CNTS).- Conduction Models and Electronic Structure of CNTS.- Synthesis, Purification and Chemical Modification of CNTS.- Physical, Mechanical and Thermal Properties of CNTS.- Toxicology of CNTS.- Part II: Carbon Nanotubes (CNTS), Applications.- Brief, General Overview of Applications.- CNT Applications in Specialized Materials.- CNT Applications in Batteries and Energy Devices.- CNT Applications in Sensors and Actuators.- CNT Applications in Drug and Biomolecule Delivery.- CNT Applications in Microelectronics, “Nanoelectronics” and “Nano-bioelectronics”.- CNT Applications in Displays and Transparent, Conductive Films/Substrates.- CNT Applications in Electrical Conductors, “Quantum Nanowires”, Potential Superconductors.- CNT Applications in the Environment and in Materials Used in Separation Science.- Miscellaneous CNT Applications.- Part III: Graphene, Fundamentals.- Introducing Graphene.- Electronic Structure and Conduction Models of Graphene.- Synthesis and Chemical Modification of Graphene.- Part IV: Graphene, Applications.- Brief, General Overview of Applications.- Graphene Applications in Sensors.- Graphene Applications in Batteries and Energy Devices.- Graphene Applications in Electronics, Electrical Conductors, and Related Uses.- Graphene Applications in Displays and Transparent, Conductive Films/Substrates.- Medical and Pharmaceutical Applications of Graphene.- Graphene Applications in Specialized Materials.- Miscellaneous Applications of Graphene.- Part V: Conducting Polymers, Fundamentals.- Introducting Conducting Polymers (CPS).- Conduction Models and Electronic Structure of CPS.- Basic Electrochromics of CPS.- Basic Electrochemistry of CPS.- Syntheses and Processing of CPS.- Structural Aspects and Morphology of CPS.- Characterization Methods.- Classes of CPS: Part 1.- Classes of CPS: Part 2.- Part VI: Conducting Polymers, Applications.- Sensors.- Batteries and Energy Devices.- Electrochromics.- Displays, Including Light Emitting Diodes (LEDS) and Conductive Films.- Microwave- and Conductivity-based Technologies.- Electro-optic and Optical Devices.- Electrochemomechanical, Chemomechanical and Related Devices.- Miscellaneous Applications.

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Book SynopsisThis updated, second edition retains its classroom-tested treatment of physical chemistry of metallurgical topics, such as roasting of sulfide minerals, matte smelting, converting, structure, properties and theories of slag, reduction of oxides and reduction smelting, interfacial phenomena, steelmaking, secondary steelmaking, role of halides in extraction of metals, refining, hydrometallurgy and electrometallurgy, and adds new data in worked-out examples as well as up-to-date references to the literature. The book further explains the physical chemistry of various metallurgical topics, steps involved in extraction of metals, such as roasting, matte smelting/converting, reduction smelting, steelmaking reactions, deoxidation, stainless steelmaking, vacuum degassing, refining, leaching, chemical precipitation, ion exchange, solvent extraction, cementation, gaseous reduction and electrowinning. Each topic is illustrated with appropriate examples of applications of the technique in extraction of some common, reactive, rare, or refractory metal together with worked out problems explaining the principle of the operation. The problems require imagination and critical analyses and also encourage readers for creative application of thermodynamic data in metal extraction. Updates and condenses text throughout the book by sequential arrangement of paragraphs in different chapters; Maximizes readers’ understanding of the physicochemical principles involved in extraction/production of common and rare/reactive metals by pyro- as well as hydrometallurgical routes; Reinforces concepts presented with worked examples in each chapter explaining the process steps; Explains the physical chemistry of various metallurgical steps, such as roasting, matte smelting/converting, and reduction smelting, steelmaking, aqueous processing etc. in extraction of metals; Collects and uniformly presents scattered information on physicochemical principles of metal production from various books and journals. Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction.- Chapter 2. Roasting of Sulfide Minerals.- Chapter 3. Sulfide Smelting.- Chapter 4. Metallurgical Slag.- Chapter 5. Reduction of Oxides and Reduction Smelting.- Chapter 6. Interfacial Phenomena.- Chapter 7. Steelmaking.- Chapter 8.Secondary Steelmaking.- Chapter 9. Role of Halides in Extraction of Metals.- Chapter 10. Refining.- Chapter 11. Hydrometallurgy.- Chapter 12. Electrometallurgy.

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Book Synopsis1.Introduction to Ageing of Materials.- 2. Offshore Structures.- 3. Steel Material Types in Offshore Structures.- 4. Steel Joining Methods and Joints.- 5. Steel Materials After Fabrication.- 6. Steel Materials Degradation and Remediation.- 7. Cementitious Materials in Offshore Structures.- 8. Cementitious Materials Degradation, Detection.- 9. Other Metallic and Non-Metallic Materials.- 10. Assessment of Materials Integrity During Life Extension.- 11. Conclusions and Future Possibilities.- 12. Appendix - Case Studies.

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Book SynopsisThe electrophoresis techniques are used in medicine, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and biology to separate soluble and insoluble proteins, nucleic acids, chromosomes, viruses, as well as lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles, red cells, tissue cells, and parasites. This book provides a view over the old electrophoresis techniques, as well as the recent developments in electrophoresis. Electrophoresis Fundamentals is based on the recent book Electrophoresis: Theory and Practice published in 2020 by De Gruyter. The previous book combines theory and technical applications with troubleshooting and problem solving. While Electrophoresis is intended for specialists, Electrophoresis Fundamentals is a book for laboratory technicians, students, biochemists, general practitioners, and more.

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Book SynopsisThis book emphasises both experimental and theoretical aspects of surface, interface and thin-film physics. As in previous editions the preparation of surfaces and thin films, their atomic and morphological structure, their vibronic and electronic properties as well as fundamentals of adsorption are treated. Because of their importance in modern information technology and nanostructure research, particular emphasis is paid to electronic surface and interface states, semiconductor space charge layers and heterostructures. A special chapter of the book is devoted to collective phenomena at interfaces and in thin films such as superconductivity and magnetism. The latter topic includes the meanwhile important issues giant magnetoresistance and spin-transfer torque mechanism, both effects being of high interest in information technology. In this new edition, for the first time, the effect of spin-orbit coupling on surface states is treated. In this context the class of the recently detected topological insulators, materials of significant importance for spin electronics, are discussed. Particular emphasis, hereby, is laid on the new type of topologically protected surface states with well-defined spin orientation. Furthermore, some important well established experimental techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and reflection anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS), which were missing so far in earlier editions, were added in this new 6th edition of the book.Table of ContentsSurface and Interface Physics: Its Definition and Importance.- Preparation of Well-Defined Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.- Morphology and Structure of Surfaces, Interfaces and Thin Films.- Scattering from Surfaces and Thin Films.- Surface Phonons.- Electronic Surface States.- Space-Charge Layers at Semiconductor Inferfaces.- Metal–Semiconductor Junctions and Semiconductor Heterostructures.- Collective Phenomena at Interfaces:Superconductivity and Ferromagnetism.- Adsorption on Solid Surfaces.

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Book SynopsisThis advanced comprehensive textbook introduces the practical application of phase diagrams to the thermodynamics of materials consisting of several phases. It describes the fundamental physics and thermodynamics as well as experimental methods, treating all material classes: metals, glasses, ceramics, polymers, organic materials, aqueous solutions. With many application examples and realistic cases from chemistry and materials science, it is intended for students and researchers in chemistry, metallurgy, mineralogy, and materials science as well as in engineering and physics. The authors treat the nucleation of phase transitions, the production and stability of technologically important metastable phases, and metallic glasses. Also concisely presented are the thermodynamics and composition of polymer systems. This innovative text puts this powerful analytical approach into a readily understandable and practical context, perhaps for the first time.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews : "This graduate textbook introduces the practical application of phase diagrams for students and researchers in materials science, chemistry, and mineralogy, as well as engineering and physics. Heterogeneous equilibria are illustrated by practical examples in different application fields, while theory is kept to a minimum. An emphasis is placed on providing tools for predicting energetic, structural, and physical quantities." (Materials Today) "Predel and colleagues offer a good resource for students and professionals who wish to learn more about the practical aspects of phase equilibria … . Unlike most other books on the subject, this practical introduction provides detailed, yet remarkably clear, description of physical phenomena … . The descriptions are enhanced with more than 250 phase diagrams, micrographs, and other illustrations involving both real and idealized systems. … Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through professionals in materials-related fields." (D.D. Edwards, CHOICE, Vol. 42 (10), June, 2005) Table of Contents1 Fundamental Facts and Concepts.- 2 Phase Equilibria in One-Component Systems.- 3 Phase Equilibria in Two-Component Systems Under Exclusion of the Gas Phase.- 4 Phase Equilibria in Three-Component Systems and Four-Component Systems with Exclusion of the Gas Phase.- 5 Phase Equilibria Including a Vapor Phase.- 6 Thermodynamics.- 7 Nucleation During Phase Transitions.- 8 Metastable Phases.- 9 Effect of Diffusion on Phase Transformations.- 10 Organic and Polymeric Materials.

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Oberflächentechnologien — ein Überblick.- 1.1 Einleitung.- 1.2 Überblick über Beschichtungsmethoden und ihre Anwendungen.- 1.2.1 PVD-Prozesse.- 1.2.2 CVD-Prozesse.- 1.2.3 Plasmapolymerisation.- 1.2.4 Elektrochemische Abscheidung.- 1.2.5 Chemische Abscheidung.- 1.2.6 Thermische Spritzverfahren.- 1.2.7 Auftragschweißen.- 1.2.8 Plattier-Verfahren.- 1.2.9 Abscheidung aus der metallischen Schmelze.- 1.2.10 Abscheidung von Schichten aus organischen Polymeren.- 1.2.11 Schichtdickenbereiche und Aufwachsraten.- 1.3 Überblick über die Methoden zur Modifizierung der Randschicht.- 1.4 Zur Unterscheidung: dünne Schicht - dicke Schicht.- 1.5 Zum Aufbau des Buches.- 2 Haftfestigkeit und MikroStruktur der Schichten, Vorbehandlung der Substrate.- 2.1 Einleitung.- 2.2 Übergangs(Interface)-Zone zwischen Substrat und Schicht.- 2.2.1 Keimbildung und Schichtaufbau.- 2.2.2 Mechanischer Übergang.- 2.2.3 Monoschicht/Monoschicht-Übergang.- 2.2.4 Verbindungsübergang.- 2.2.5 Diffusionsübergang.- 2.2.6 Pseudodiffusionsübergang.- 2.3 MikroStruktur von PVD-Kondensaten.- 2.3.1 Strukturzonen-Modelle.- 2.3.2 Einfluß des Inertgasdruckes auf die Struktur.- 2.3.3 Einfluß des Ionenbombardements auf die Struktur.- 2.4 Inkorporation von Fremdatomen.- 2.5 Innere Spannungen in der Schicht.- 2.6 Haftfestigkeit der Schicht.- 2.7 Zeitliche Änderungen der Haftfestigkeit.- 2.8 Folgerungen in bezug auf die Vorbereitung der Substrate.- 2.8.1 Glas-und Oxidkeramik-Oberflächen als Substrate.- 2.8.1.1 Vorreinigung.- 2.8.1.2 Glimmentladungsreinigung.- 2.8.1.3 Sputterreinigung.- 2.8.1.4 Möglichkeiten zur Verbesserung der Haftfestigkeit.- 2.8.2 Metalloberflächen als Substrate.- 2.8.3 Organische Polymere als Substrate.- 3 Meß- und Prüftechnik von Oberflächen und dünnen Schichten.- 3.1. Messung der Schichtdicke und der Depositionsrate.- 3.1.1 Gravimetrische Methoden.- 3.1.1.1 Schwingquarz-Methode.- 3.1.1.2 Mikrowägung.- 3.1.1.3 Dosierte Massezufuhr.- 3.1.1.4 Quantitative Beschichtung.- 3.1.2 Optische Methoden.- 3.1.2.1 Photometer-Methode.- 3.1.2.2 Weitere optische Methoden.- 3.1.3 Direkte Meßmethoden.- 3.1.3.1 Stylus-Methode.- 3.1.3.2 Messung mit dem Licht-und dem Elektronenmikroskop.- 3.1.4 Auf der Messung elektrischer oder magnetischer Größen beruhende Methoden.- 3.1.4.1 Widerstandsmeßmethode.- 3.1.4.2 Kapazitätsmeßmethode.- 3.1.4.3 Wirbelstrommeßmethode.- 3.1.4.4 Coulometrische Meßmethode.- 3.1.4.5 Magnetische Meßmethode.- 3.1.4.6 Methode der Durchschlagspannung.- 3.1.4.7 Ultraschall-Impulsecho-Methode.- 3.1.5 Auf Teilchen-Wechselwirkungen beruhende Methoden.- 3.1.5.1 Verdampfungsrate-Monitor und optische Emissionsspektrometrie.- 3.1.5.2 Weitere auf Wechselwirkungen beruhende Methoden.- 3.2 Analyse der chemischen Zusammensetzung.- 3.2.1 Elektronenstrahl-Mikroanalyse (EPM).- 3.2.2 Auger-Elektronenspektroskopie (AES).- 3.2.3 Photoelektronenspektroskopie (ESCA).- 3.2.4 Sekundärionen-Massenspektrometrie (SIMS).- 3.2.5 Sekundär-Neutralteilchen-Massenspektrometrie (SNMS).- 3.2.6 Ionen-Streuspektroskopie (ISS).- 3.2.7 Rutherford-Rückstreuungsspektroskopie (RBS) und andere Hochenergiemethoden.- 3.2.8 Zur Anwendung der Oberflächenanalytik.- 3.3 Untersuchung der mikrogeometrischen und der kristallinen Struktur.- 3.4 Untersuchung physikalischer Eigenschaften der Schichten.- 3.5 Untersuchung mechanisch-technologischer Eigenschaften.- 3.5.1 Mikrohärte.- 3.5.2 Haftfestigkeit.- 3.5.3 Reibung und Verschleiß.- 3.5.4 Eigenspannungen.- 3.6 Funktionsorientierte Prüfverfahren.- 4 Plasmen in der Oberflächentechnologie.- 4.1 Einleitung.- 4.2 Erzeugung von Niederdruckplasmen.- 4.3 Plasmakenngrößen.- 4.3.1 Trägerdichte und Ionisierungsgrad.- 4.3.2 Elektronen-und Ionentemperatur.- 4.3.3 Mittlere freie Weglänge und Wirkungsquerschnitte.- 4.3.4 Stoßfrequenzen.- 4.3.5 Beweglichkeiten und Diffusionskoefílzienten.- 4.3.6 Elektrische Leitfähigkeit.- 4.3.7 Teilchenbewegung im Magnetfeld.- 4.4 Kollektive Phänomene.- 4.4.1 Kenngrößen.- 4.4.2 Raumladungsschichten und Ströme auf Elektroden im Plasma.- 4.4.3 Bestimmung der Plasmaparameter.- 4.5 Hochfrequenzentladungen und das Prinzip des HF-Sputterns.- 4.6 Reaktionen im Plasma.- 4.6.1 Volumenreaktionen.- 4.6.2 Oberflächenreaktionen.- 4.6.2.1 Reaktionen durch Ionenbombardement.- 4.6.2.2 Reaktionen durch Elektronenbombardement.- 5 Bedampfungstechniken.- 5.1 Einleitung.- 5.2 Grundlagen des Bedampfungsprozesses.- 5.2.1 Forderungen an den Restgasdruck.- 5.2.2 Zum Vakuumsystem.- 5.2.3 Verdampfungsrate und Dampfdruck.- 5.2.4 Räumliche Verteilung der Dampfstromdichte und Verteilung der Schichtdicke auf verschiedenen Substraten.- 5.2.5 Substratträger und Schichtdickengleichmäßigkeit.- 5.2.6 Aufdampfmaterialien.- 5.2.6.1 Chemische Elemente.- 5.2.6.2 Chemische Verbindungen.- 5.2.6.3 Legierungen, Mischungen.- 5.2.7 Spezielle Verfahren zur Erzielung von Schichten definierter Zusammensetzung.- 5.2.7.1 Mehrquellenverdampfung.- 5.2.7.2 Eintiegelverdampfung mit kontinuierlicher Materialnachlieferung.- 5.2.7.3 Flash-Verdampfung.- 5.2.7.4 Reaktive Bedampfung.- 5.2.7.5 Aktivierte reaktive Bedampfung.- 5.3 Verdampfungsquellen.- 5.3.1 Widerstandsheizung.- 5.3.1.1 Direkte Widerstandsheizung.- 5.3.1.2 Indirekte Widerstandsheizung.- 5.3.2 Induktive Heizung.- 5.3.3 Elektronenstrahlverdampfer.- 5.3.3.1 Verdampfer mit Transversal-Elektronenkanone.- 5.3.3.2 Verdampfer mit Axial-Elektronenkanone.- 5.3.4 Weitere Verdampfungsmethoden.- 5.3.5 Kontinuierliche Verdampfung.- 5.4 Automatische Pumpstand- und Verdampfungssteuerungen.- 5.5 Ausführungsformen von Beschickungsanlagen.- 5.6 Anwendungen.- 6 Sputtertechniken.- 6.1 Einleitung.- 6.2 Gesetzmäßigkeiten des Sputterprozesses.- 6.2.1 Sputtern von elementaren, polykristallinen Materialien.- 6.2.1.1 Sputterausbeute.- 6.2.1.2 Energie-und Winkelverteilung der abgestäubten Atome.- 6.2.1.3 Mechanismus des Sputterprozesses.- 6.2.2 Sputtern von Legierungen.- 6.2.3 Sputtern von Verbindungen.- 6.2.4 Reaktives Sputtern.- 6.3 Praktische Ausführung verschiedener Sputtertechniken.- 6.3.1 Planare Dioden mit Gleich-und HF-Spannung.- 6.3.2 Triodensystem mit fremderregtem Plasma.- 6.3.3 Magnetron-Sputtersysteme.- 6.3.3.1 Zylindrische Magnetrons mit elektrostatischem Plasmaeinschluß.- 6.3.3.2 Zylindrische Magnetrons mit magnetischem Plasmaeinschluß.- 6.3.3.3 Planare Magnetrons und Sputter-Gun-Magnetrons.- 6.3.3.4 Hochfrequenzbetriebene Magnetrons.- 6.3.4 Ionenstrahl-Sputtern.- 6.3.5 Sputtertargets.- 6.3.5.1 Herstellung der Targetmaterialien.- 6.3.5.2 Kühlung der Targets..- 6.3.5.3 Mit planaren Magnetrons erzielbare Depositionsraten.- 6.3.6 Sputteranlagen.- 6.3.7 Anwendungen der Sputtertechniken.- 6.3.7.1 Anwendungen in der Elektronikindustrie.- 6.3.7.2 Optische Anwendungen.- 6.3.7.3 Reibungsarme Schichten.- 6.3.7.4 Verschleißfeste harte Schichten.- 6.3.7.5 Dekorative Schichten.- 7 Ionenplattieren.- 7.1 Einleitung.- 7.2 Mechanismus des Ionenplattierens.- 7.2.1 Beispiel eines Ionenplattierprozesses.- 7.2.2 Wirkungen des Teilchenbombardements auf die Substratoberfläche.- 7.2.3 Bildung der Interfaceschicht unter dem Einfluß des Teilchenbombardements.- 7.2.4 Einflüsse des Teilchenbombardements auf die Struktur und andere Eigenschaften der Schichten.- 7.2.5 Reaktives Ionenplattieren (RIP).- 7.3 Ausfuhrungsformen von Ionenplattier-Anlagen.- 7.3.1 Ionenplattieren mit DC-Glimmentladung.- 7.3.2 Ionenplattieren im Hochvakuum mit separater Ionenquelle.- 7.3.3 Ionenplattieren mit HF-Entladung.- 7.3.4 Ionenplattieren mit Plasmastrom.- 7.3.5 Ionenplattieren mit Triodenanordnung.- 7.3.6 Ionenplattieren mit elektronenstrahl-induziertem Plasma.- 7.3.7 Ionenplattieren mit Magnetron-Sputtertarget.- 7.3.8 Ionenplattieren mit Hohlkathoden-Bogenentladung.- 7.3.9 Ionenplattieren mit Niedervolt-Bogenentladung.- 7.3.10 Ionenplattieren mit thermischem Bogen (Are-Verdampfung).- 7.3.11 Ionenplattieren mit Ionen-Cluster-Strahl.- 7.4 Anwendungen des Ionenplattierens.- 7.4.1 Verschleißschutzschichten auf Werkzeugen und Bauteilen.- 7.4.2 Minderung der Reibung von Metalloberflächen.- 7.4.3 Fügetechnik (Bonding).- 7.4.4 Korrosionsschutz.- 7.4.5 Anwendungen in der Elektronik.- 7.4.6 Optische Schichten.- 7.4.7 Dekorative, goldfarbene TiN-Schichten.- 8 Chemische Abscheidung aus der Gasphase: CVD-Verfahren.- 8.1 Das CVD-Verfahren.- 8.2 Theoretische Grundlagen.- 8.3 CVD-Reaktoren.- 8.4 Eigenschaften der CVD-Schichten.- 8.4.1 Interface-Zone und Struktur der Schichten.- 8.4.2 Duktilität, Sprödigkeit.- 8.4.3 Haftfestigkeit.- 8.4.4 Schichtdicke, Abscheidungsrate und Gleichmäßigkeit.- 8.4.5 Reibungs- und Verschleißverhalten.- 8.5 Anwendungen von CVD-Schichten.- 8.5.1 Verschleiß-Schutzschichten.- 8.5.1.1 Beschichtete Werkzeuge aus Hartmetall.- 8.5.1.2 Beschichtete Werkzeuge aus Stahl.- 8.5.1.3 Instrumentenlager und Wälzlager.- 8.5.1.4 Weitere Beispiele für Verschleißschutzschichten.- 8.5.2 Korrosions-Schutzschichten.- 8.5.3 Spezielle Werkstoffe und Bauelemente.- 8.5.3.1 Materialien für die Halbleitertechnologie.- 8.5.3.2 Pyrolithischer Graphit.- 8.5.3.3 Pyrolithischer Kohlenstoff.- 8.5.3.4 Kompositwerkstoffe.- 8.5.3.5 Mikrokugeln und durch CVD erzeugte Bauteile.- 8.5.3.6 Oberflächen mit dendritischer Struktur für die Energietechnik.- 8.5.4 Lichtwellenleiter.- 8.5.4.1 CVD-Abscheidung auf rotierendem Substratstab, OVPO-Prozeß.- 8.5.4.2 CVD-Abscheidung auf der Stirnfläche eines Quarzstabes, AD-Prozeß.- 8.5.4.3 CVD-Abscheidung auf der Innenfläche eines rotierenden Quarzrohres, MCVD-Prozeß.- 8.5.4.4 Varianten des MCVD-Prozesses.- 8.5.4.5 Faserziehtechnologie.- 8.5.4.6 Weitere Herstellungsverfahren von Lichtwellenleitern.- 9 Plasma-aktivierte chemische Dampfabscheidung (PACVD).- 9.1 Einleitung.- 9.2 Physikalische und chemische Grundlagen des PACVD-Prozesses.- 9.2.1 Das Plasma beim PACVD-Prozeß.- 9.2.2 Plasmachemische Reaktionen.- 9.2.3 Schichtwachstum.- 9.3 Praktische Ausführung von PACVD-Reaktoren.- 9.4 Ergebnisse und Anwendungen.- 9.4.1 Harter amorpher Kohlenstoff (a-C:H).- 9.4.2 Metall-Kohlenstoff-Schichten.- 9.4.3 Amorphes Silizium (a-Si).- 9.4.3.1 Passivierung der Strukturdefekte von a-Si.- 9.4.3.2 Präparation von a-Si:H.- 9.4.3.3 Dotierung von a-Si:H.- 9.4.3.4 Mikrokristallines Silizium µx-Si:H.- 9.4.3.5 Weitere Präpationsmethoden für Si-Schichten.- 9.4.3.6 Anwendungen der a-Si:H-Technologie.- 9.4.4 Siliziumnitrid.- 9.4.5 Siliziumoxid und Siliziumoxinitrid.- 9.4.6 Siliziumcarbid.- 9.4.7 Weitere durch PACVD darstellbare Materialien.- 9.4.8 Plasmadotieren.- 10 Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.1 Merkmale der Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.2 Reaktoren.- 10.3 Monomere ..- 10.4 Depositionsraten plasmapolymerisierter Schichten als Funktion der Prozeßparameter.- 10.5 Anlagen für die Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.6 Anwendungen der Plasmapolymerisation.- 10.6.1 Membrantechnik.- 10.6.1.1 Inverse Osmose.- 10.6.1.2 Gastrennung.- 10.6.1.3 Diffusionsbarrieren gegen Gasabgabe und Permeation.- 10.6.2 Optische Schichten.- 10.6.2.1 Schutzschichten auf Metallspiegeln für die Solartechnik.- 10.6.2.2 Antireflexschichten auf Plexiglas (PMMA).- 10.6.2.3 Antireflexschichten auf Fenstern von IR-Lasern.- 10.6.2.4 Lichtleiter für die integrierte Optik.- 10.6.3 Elektronik.- 10.6.3.1 Plasmapolymerisierte MMA-Filme für die Elektronenstrahllithographie.- 10.6.3.2 Schutzfilme für elektronische Bauelemente.- 10.6.3.3 Dünnschicht-Bauelemente.- 10.6.4 Kunststofftechnik.- 10.6.5 Biomedizinische Technik.- 10.6.6 Pharmazeutische Technik.- 11 Elektrochemische und chemische Verfahren zur Herstellung von Schichten.- 11.1 Überblick.- 11.2 Galvanische Abscheidung von Schichten.- 11.2.1 Abscheidung aus wässerigen Elektrolyten.- 11.2.1.1 Grundlagen.- 11.2.1.2 Die experimentellen Parameter.- 11.2.1.3 Struktur und Eigenschaften der Metallschichten.- 11.2.1.4 Zur Ausführung des galvanischen Prozesses.- 11.2.1.5 Anwendungen von galvanischen Metall- und Legierungsschichten.- 11.2.1.6 Diffusionsschichten.- 11.2.1.7 Galvanisch abgeschiedene Dispersionsschichten.- 11.2.1.8 Beschichtung durch eine Verdrängungsreaktion an der Kathode.- 11.2.2 Galvanische Abscheidung aus nichtwässerigen Elektrolyten.- 11.2.2.1 Galvanisches Aluminieren.- 11.2.2.2 Halbleitende Metallchalcogenide.- 11.2.3 Elektrolytische Abscheidung aus der Salzschmelze.- 11.2.3.1. Zur Ausführung des Prozesses.- 11.2.3.2 Eigenschaften der Schichten.- 11.2.3.3 Anwendungen der Abscheidung aus der Salzschmelze.- 11.2.4 Galvanoformung.- 11.3 Anodische Oxidation.- 11.3.1 Die auf Aluminium entstehende Sperrschicht.- 11.3.2 Die auf Aluminium entstehende Duplexschicht.- 11.3.3 Duplexschichten und ihre Eigenschaften.- 11.3.4 Aluminium-Hartoxid-Schichten.- 11.3.5 Anodische Oxidation weiterer Metalle.- 11.4 Elektrochemische Spezialverfahren.- 11.4.1 Elektrophorese.- 11.4.2 Elektrotauchlackierung.- 11.4.3 Elektropolieren.- 11.5 Chemische Herstellung von Schichten aus der Lösung.- 11.5.1 Chemisch-reduktive Abscheidung.- 11.5.1.1 Beschichten durch autokatalytische Reduktion (electroless plating).- 11.5.1.2 Anwendungen des außenstromlosen, autokatalytischen Beschichtens.- 11.5.1.3 Weitere chemisch-reduktive Beschichtungsverfahren.- 11.5.2 Beschichten durch Pyrolyse-Sprühverfahren.- 11.5.3 Chemische Umwandlung von Metalloberflächen durch Chromatieren und Phosphatieren.- 12 Thermische Spritzverfahren.- 12.1 Einleitung.- 12.2 Verfahren der thermischen Spritztechnik.- 12.2.1 Flammspritzverfahren.- 12.2.2 Detonationsspritzverfahren.- 12.2.3 Lichtbogenspritzverfahren.- 12.2.4 Plasmaspritzverfahren.- 12.2.5 Vakuum-Plasmaspritzverfahren (VPS).- 12.2.6 Weitere thermische Spritzverfahren.- 12.2.7 Substrate und ihre Vorbereitung.- 12.2.8 Werkstoffe für Spritzverfahren.- 12.3 Eigenschaften der thermisch gespritzten Schichten.- 12.3.1 Struktur der Schichten.- 12.3.2 Dichte und Porosität.- 12.3.3 Oberflächenbeschaffenheit.- 12.3.4 Haftfestigkeit und innere Spannungen.- 12.3.5 Härte und Duktilität.- 12.4 Anwendungen der thermischen Spritzverfahren.- 12.4.1 Schutzschichten gegen Verschleiß.- 12.4.2 Schutzschichten gegen Korrosion.- 12.4.3 Wärmebarrieren.- 12.4.4 Schutzschichten gegen Hochtemperaturkorrosion.- 12.4.5 Herstellung ganzer Bauteile durch Plasmaspritzen.- 12.4.6 Einlauf-und Anlaufschichten.- 12.4.7 Reparatur von Schichten und Bauteilen.- 12.4.8 Oberflächen mit besonderen Eigenschaften, hergestellt durch Plasma- und Vakuum-Plasmaspritzen.- 13 Auftragschweißen und Plattieren.- 13.1 Überblick.- 13.2 Verfahren des Auftragschweißens.- 13.2.1 Flammen-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2 Lichtbogen-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.1 Wolfram-Inertgas (WIG)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.2 Metall-Inertgas(MIG)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.3 Metall-Aktivgas (MAG)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.2.4 Unter-Pulver (UP)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.3 Elektro-Schlacke(ES)-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.4 Plasma-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.4.1 Plasma-Pulver- und Plasma-MIG-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.4.2 Plasma-Heißdraht-Auftragschweißen.- 13.2.5 Zur Auswahl des Schichtmaterials.- 13.2.6 Anwendungen des Auftragschweißens.- 13.2.6.1 Beschichten von Maschinenteilen.- 13.2.6.2 Schweißplattieren in der Halbzeugfertigung.- 13.3 Plattier-Verfahren.- 13.3.1 Gießplattieren.- 13.3.2 Walzplattieren.- 13.3.3 Sprengplattieren.- 13.3.4 Punktplattieren.- 13.3.5 Reibplattieren.- 13.3.6 Aluminothermisches Plattieren.- 14 Durch Schmelztauchen und Rascherstarrung erzeugte Metallschichten.- 14.1 Schmelztauchverfahren.- 14.1.1 Diskontinuierliches Schmelz tauchverfahren.- 14.1.2 Kontinuierliches Schmelztauchverfahren.- 14.1.3 Eigenschaften und Anwendungen von Schmelztauchüberzügen auf Stahlband und Feinblech.- 14.1.3.1 Zinküberzüge.- 14.1.3.2 Aluminiumüberzüge.- 14.1.3.3 Zinnüberzüge.- 14.1.3.4 Bleiüberzüge.- 14.1.3.5 Weitere Metallüberzüge.- 14.2 Rascherstarrung aus der Schmelze (liquid quenching).- 14.2.1 Herstellung metallischer Gläser.- 14.2.2 Eigenschaften und Anwendungen metallischer Gläser.- 14.2.3 Weitere Verfahren zur Erzeugung amorpher Metalle.- 15 Schichten aus organischen Polymeren und dispersen Systemen.- 15.1 Beschichtungsmaterialien.- 15.2 Mechanismen der Schichtbildung.- 15.3 Lösungsmittelarme Lacke.- 15.4 Anwendungen von Polymerschichten.- 15.4.1 Dekorative Schichten.- 15.4.2 Schutz vor Korrosion und Verwitterung.- 15.4.3 Reibungsarme Polymerschichten.- 15.4.4 Antistatische Polymerschichten.- 15.4.5 Elektrische Anwendungen.- 15.5 Vorbehandlung der Substrate.- 15.6 Beschichtungsverfahren.- 15.6.1 Mechanische Verfahren.- 15.6.1.1 Lackieren und Drucken.- 15.6.1.2 Siebdruck elektrischer Schaltungen.- 15.6.1.3 Tauch-, Spin- und Gießbeschichten.- 15.6.1.4 Laminieren von Polymerschichten.- 15.6.2 Thermische Verfahren.- 15.6.2.1 Extrusion aus der Schmelze.- 15.6.2.2 Fließbettbeschichten.- 15.6.3 Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.3.1 Mechanische Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.3.2 Elektrostatische Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.3.3 Thermische Spritzverfahren.- 15.6.4 Weitere Verfahren zur Herstellung polymerer Schichten.- 15.7 Anwendungen des Tauchverfahrens und des elektrostatischen Spritzens auch auf andere nichtmetallische Werkstoffe.- Tabellenanhang.- Physikalische Eigenschaften von Schichtmaterialien für verschiedene Beschichtungsprozesse und Hinweise auf Anwendungen.- A 1 Chemische Elemente als Schichtmaterialien für PVD- und CVD-Prozesse.- A 2 Anwendungen chemischer Elemente als Schichtmaterialien in der Elektronik, Optik und Oberflächenvergütung.- A 3 Fluoride als Schichtmaterialien für PVD-Prozesse und Anwendungen.- A 4 Oxide und Oxid-Verbindungen als Schichtmaterialien für PVD-, CVD-und Tauchprozesse und Anwendungen.- A 5 Nichtoxidische Chalcogenide und einige Halbleiter als Schichtmaterialien und deren technische Anwendungen.- A 6 Legierungen und Cermets als Schichtmaterialien für PVD-Prozesse.- A 7 Boride als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- A 8 Carbide als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- A 9 Nitride als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- A 10 Suicide als Schichtmaterialien und deren Anwendungen.- Literatur.

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Book SynopsisThe measurement and characterisation of surface topography is crucial to modern manufacturing industry. The control of areal surface structure allows a manufacturer to radically alter the functionality of a part. Examples include structuring to effect fluidics, optics, tribology, aerodynamics and biology. To control such manu­facturing methods requires measurement strategies. There is now a large range of new optical techniques on the market, or being developed in academia, that can measure areal surface topography. Each method has its strong points and limitations. The book starts with introductory chapters on optical instruments, their common language, generic features and limitations, and their calibration. Each type of modern optical instrument is described (in a common format) by an expert in the field. The book is intended for both industrial and academic scientists and engineers, and will be useful for undergraduate and postgraduate studies.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews:“This book shows how optical microscopy can be used in the characterization and metrology of various surfaces. … Several important methods are presented in a clear and simple way … . The case studies scattered throughout the text greatly improve the readability and contribute to the practical emphasis of this book. … the index is comprehensive. I recommend this book to anyone trying to find the most appropriate method for surface topography measurement, as well as researchers who are new to using microscopy for measurements.”­­­ (Dejan Pantelić, Optics & Photonics News, December, 2011)Table of ContentsIntroduction to surface texture measurement.- Some common terms and definitions.- Limitations of optical 3D sensors.- Calibration of optical surface topography measuring instruments.- Chromatic confocal microscopy.- Point autofocus instruments.- Focus variation instruments.- Phase shifting interferometry.- Coherence scanning interferometry.- Digital holographic microscopy.- Imaging confocal microscopy.- Light scattering methods

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Book SynopsisX-ray diffraction crystallography for powder samples is a well-established and widely used method. It is applied to materials characterization to reveal the atomic scale structure of various substances in a variety of states. The book deals with fundamental properties of X-rays, geometry analysis of crystals, X-ray scattering and diffraction in polycrystalline samples and its application to the determination of the crystal structure. The reciprocal lattice and integrated diffraction intensity from crystals and symmetry analysis of crystals are explained. To learn the method of X-ray diffraction crystallography well and to be able to cope with the given subject, a certain number of exercises is presented in the book to calculate specific values for typical examples. This is particularly important for beginners in X-ray diffraction crystallography. One aim of this book is to offer guidance to solving the problems of 90 typical substances. For further convenience, 100 supplementary exercises are also provided with solutions. Some essential points with basic equations are summarized in each chapter, together with some relevant physical constants and the atomic scattering factors of the elements.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews:“The authors have developed their course lecture notes into a useful book that is suitable for graduate students of materials science and engineering who use X-ray diffraction techniques. … This book is a very concise presentation of the theory of scattering and diffraction and the determination of crystal structures. … The biggest strength of this book are the solutions that illustrate the quantitative aspects of the subject. The illustrations complement the text and there are many tables of real diffraction data and calculations of structures.” (Barry R. Masters, Optics & Photonics News, April, 2012)Table of ContentsFundamental Properties of X-rays.- Geometry of Crystals.- Scattering and Diffraction by Atoms and Crystals.- Diffraction from a Polycrystalline Sample and its Application to Determination of Crystal Structures.- Reciprocal Lattice and Integrated Intensity from Crystals.- Symmetry Analysis for Crystals and the Use of International Tables.- Solved Problems.

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Book SynopsisThis book is a comprehensive source of the fundamentals, process parameters, instrumental components and applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). The effect of multiple pulses on material ablation, plasma dynamics and plasma emission is presented. A heuristic plasma modeling allows to simulate complex experimental plasma spectra. These methods and findings form the basis for a variety of applications to perform quantitative multi-element analysis with LIBS. These application potentials of LIBS have really boosted in the last years ranging from bulk analysis of metallic alloys and non-conducting materials, via spatially resolved analysis and depth profiling covering measuring objects in all physical states: gaseous, liquid and solid. Dedicated chapters present LIBS investigations for these tasks with special emphasis on the methodical and instrumental concepts as well as the optimization strategies for a quantitative analysis. Requirements, concepts, design and characteristic features of LIBS instruments are described covering laboratory systems, inspections systems for in-line process control, mobile systems and remote systems. State-of-the-art industrial applications of LIBS systems are presented demonstrating the benefits of inline process control for improved process guiding and quality assurance purposes.Table of ContentsIntroduction.- Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy.- Process parameters.- Instrumental components.- Evaporation and plasma generation.- Multiple-pulses for LIBS.- Material ablation.- Plasma dynamics and plasma parameters.- Plasma emission.- Modeling of plasma emission.- Quantitative analysis.- Combination of LIBS and LIF.- Bulk analysis of metallic alloys.- Bulk analysis of non-conducting materials.- Spatially resolved analysis.- Depth profiling.- LIBS instruments.- Industrial applications.

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Book SynopsisThis book presents the practical aspects of mass measurements. Concepts of gravitational, inertial and conventional mass and details of the variation of acceleration of gravity are described. The Metric Convention and International Prototype Kilogram and BIPM standards are described. The effect of change of gravity on the indication of electronic balances is derived with respect of latitude, altitude and earth topography. The classification of weights by OIML is discussed. Maximum permissible errors in different categories of weights prescribed by national and international organizations are presented. Starting with the necessity of redefining the unit kilogram in terms of physical constants, various methods of defining the kilogram in terms of physical constants are described. The kilogram can be defined by Avogadro’s constant, ion collection of some heavy elements, levitation, voltage and Watt Balance. The detection of very small mass of the order of zeptogram through Nanotechnolgy is also discussed. Latest recommendations of CIPM are given.Table of ContentsSome Important Definitions.- Introduction.- Other Probability Functions.- Evaluation of Measurement Data.- Propagation of Errors/Uncertainty.- Uncertainty and Calibration of Instruments.- Calculation of Uncertainty.- Uncertainty in Calibration of a Surface Plat.- Uncertainty in Calibration.- Uncertainty in Volumetric Measurement.- Uncertainty in Calibration of Electrical Instruments.

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Book SynopsisComputer Aided Engineering may be defined as an approach to solving tech­ nological problems in which most or all of the steps involved are automated through the use of computers, data bases and mathematical models. The success of this ap­ proach, considering hot forming, is tied very directly to an understanding of material behaviour when subjected to deformation at high temperatures. There is general agreement among engineers that not enough is known about that topic -and this gave the initial impetus for the project described in the present study. The authors secured a research grant from NATO (Special Research Grant #390/83) with a mandate to study the "State-of-the-Art of Controlled Rolling". What follows is the result of that study. There are five chapters in this Monograph. The first one, entitled "State-of-the­ Art of Controlled Rolling" discusses industrial and laboratory practices and research designed to aid in the development of microalloyed steels of superior quality. Follow­ ing this is the chapter "Methods of Determining Stress-Strain Curves at Elevated Temperatures". The central concern here is the material's resistance to deformation or in other words, its flow strength, the knowledge of which is absolutely essential for the efficient and economical utilization of the computers controlling the rolling process.Table of Contents1 State-of-the-Art of Controlled Rolling.- 2 Methods of Determining Stress-Strain Curves at Elevated Temperatures.- 3 Metallurgical Study of the Hot Upsetting of 1035 Steel.- 4 Computer-Aided Analysis and Modelling of Plastic Behaviour of Steels at Elevated Temperatures.- 5 Mapping Dynamic Material Behaviour.- Appendix Flow Curves of Microalloyed Steels.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Flow Curves of Steel #1.- 3. Flow Curves of Steel #2.- 4. References.- Author Index.

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Book SynopsisAt the official dinner of a· meeting in May 1939, I was seated next to Max Hansen. When I congratulated him on the well deserved success of his "Aufbau der Zweistoff-Legierungen", he smiled: "yes, it was a struggle with the hydra, and so it has taken me seven years", meaning that whenever he had thought to have finished the phase diagram of a particular system, new evidence would turn up like the new heads of the Greek monster. There is no need to point out the importance of assessed phase diagrams to metallurgists or even anyone concerned with the technology and applica­ tion of metals and alloys. The information contained therein is fundamental to considerations concerning the chemical, physical and mechanical properties of alloys. Hansen's German monograph was followed by a revised English edition in 1958 with K. Anderko and the supplements by R.P. Elliott (1965) and F.A. Shunk (1969). All those who have made use of these volumes will admit that much diligent labour has gone into this work, necessary to cope with the ever increasing number of publications and the consequent improvements.Table of ContentsFe-Ag Iron-Silver.- Fe-Li (Na, K) Iron-Alkaline Metals.- Fe-Al Iron-Aluminium (Figs. 1–3).- Fe-Am Iron-Americium.- Fe-As Iron-Arsenic (Fig. 4).- Fe-Au Iron-Gold (Fig. 5).- Fe-B Iron-Boron (Fig. 6).- Fe-Ba Iron-Barium.- Fe-Be Iron-Beryllium (Figs. 7, 8).- Fe-Bi Iron-Bismuth.- Fe-C Iron-Carbon (Figs. 9–12).- Fe-Ca Iron-Calcium.- Fe-Cd Iron-Cadmium.- Fe-Co Iron-Cobalt (Figs. 13, 14).- Fe-Cr Iron-Chromium (Figs. 15, 16).- Fe-Cu Iron-Copper (Figs. 17–20).- Fe-Eu Iron-Europium.- Fe-Ga Iron-Gallium (Figs. 21–24).- Fe-Ge Iron-Germanium (Fig. 25).- Fe-H Iron-Hydrogen (Figs. 26, 27).- Fe-D Iron-Deuterium (Fig. 28).- Fe-T Iron-Tritium (Fig.28).- Fe-Hf Iron-Hafnium (Fig. 29).- Fe-Hg Iron-Mercury (Fig. 30).- Fe-In Iron-Indium (Fig.31).- Fe-Ir Iron-Iridium (Fig. 32).- Fe-La Iron-Lanthanum (Fig. 33).- Fe-Mg Iron-Magnesium (Fig. 34).- Fe-Mn Iron-Manganese (Fig. 35).- Fe-Mo Iron-Molybdenum (Figs. 36–38).- Fe-N Iron-Nitrogen (Figs. 39, 40).- Fe-Nb Iron-Niobium (Fig. 41).- Fe-Ni Iron-Nickel (Figs. 42–44).- Fe-O Iron-Oxygen (Fig. 45).- Fe-Os Iron-Osmium (Figs. 46, 47).- Fe-P Iron-Phosphorus (Figs. 48, 49).- Fe-Pb Iron-Lead (Figs. 50, 51).- Fe-Pd Iron-Palladium (Fig. 52).- Fe-Pt Iron-Platinum (Fig. 53).- Fe-Pu Iron-Plutonium (Figs. 54, 55).- Fe-R Iron-Rare Earth Metals (Figs. 56–68).- Fe-Re Iron-Rhenium (Fig. 69).- Fe-Rh Iron-Rhodium (Fig. 70).- Fe-Ru Iron-Ruthenium (Fig. 71).- Fe-S Iron-Sulphur (Figs. 72, 73).- Fe-Sb Iron-Antimony (Figs. 74, 75).- Fe-Sc Iron-Scandium (Fig. 76).- Fe-Se Iron-Selenium (Fig. 77).- Fe-Si Iron-Silicon (Figs. 78, 79).- Fe-Sn Iron-Tin (Figs. 80, 81).- Fe-Sr Iron-Strontium.- Fe-Ta Iron-Tantalum (Figs. 82, 83).- Fe-Tc Iron-Technetium (Figs. 84, 85).- Fe-Te Iron-Tellurium (Fig. 86).- Fe-Th Iron-Thorium (Fig. 87).- Fe-Ti Iron-Titanium (Figs. 88–90).- Fe-Tl Iron-Thallium.- Fe-U Iron-Uranium (Figs.91, 92).- Fe-V Iron-Vanadium (Figs. 93–95).- Fe-W Iron-Tungsten (Figs. 96, 97).- Fe-Y Iron-Yttrium (Fig. 98).- Fe-Yb Iron-Ytterbium (Fig. 99).- Fe-Zn Iron-Zinc (Figs. 100, 101).- Fe-Zr Iron-Zirconium (Figs. 102, 103).- Appendix Table 1. Physico-chemical properties of the elements.- Table 2. Structural types of elements and compounds.- Table 3. Numerical differences between the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 and that of 1948.

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStereospecific polymerization of alpha-substituted acrylic acid esters polymerization.- Molecular sieves as polymerization catalysts.- Modified polyethylene terephthalate fibers.- A theoretical consideration of the kinetics and statistics of reactions of functional groups of macromolecules.

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Book SynopsisThis book stems from a course on Micromechanics that I started about fifteen years ago at Northwestern University. At that time, micromechanics was a rather unfamiliar subject. Although I repeated the course every year, I was never convinced that my notes have quite developed into a final manuscript because new topics emerged constantly requiring revisions, and additions. I finally came to realize that if this is continued, then I will never complete the book to my total satisfaction. Meanwhile, T. Mori and I had coauthored a book in Japanese, entitled Micromechanics, published by Baifu-kan, Tokyo, in 1975. It received an extremely favorable response from students and re­ searchers in Japan. This encouraged me to go ahead and publish my course notes in their latest version, as this book, which contains further development of the subject and is more comprehensive than the one published in Japanese. Micromechanics encompasses mechanics related to microstructures of materials. The method employed is a continuum theory of elasticity yet its applications cover a broad area relating to the mechanical behavior of materi­ als: plasticity, fracture and fatigue, constitutive equations, composite materi­ als, polycrystals, etc. These subjects are treated in this book by means of a powerful and unified method which is called the 'eigenstrain method. ' In particular, problems relating to inclusions and dislocations are most effectively analyzed by this method, and therefore, special emphasis is placed on these topics.Trade Review`Professor Mura's book may be heartily recommended to those interested in either applying or learning to apply the methods of continuum mechanics to treat defects in the solid state. This monograph could serve as the perfect text for a second-level graduate course with the same title as that of the book.' Journal of Applied Mechanics Table of Contents1. General theory of eigenstrains.- 1. Definition of eigenstrains.- 2. Fundamental equations of elasticity.- Hooke’s law.- Equilibrium conditions.- Compatibility conditions.- 3. General expressions of elastic fields for given eigenstrain distributions.- Periodic solutions.- Method of Fourier series and Fourier integrals.- Method of Green’s functions.- Isotropic materials.- Cubic crystals.- Hexagonal crystals (transversely isotropic).- 4. Exercises of general formulae.- A straight screw dislocation.- A straight edge dislocation.- Periodic distribution of cuboidal precipitates.- 5. Static Green’s functions.- Isotropic materials.- Anisotropic materials.- Transversely isotropic materials.- Kröner’s formula.- Derivatives of Green’s functions.- Two-dimensional Green’s function.- 6. Inclusions and inhomogeneities.- Inclusions.- Inhomogeneities.- Effect of isotropic elastic moduli on stress.- 7. Dislocations.- Volterra and Mura formulas.- The Indenbom and Orlov formula.- Disclinations.- 8. Dynamic solutions.- Uniformly moving edge dislocation.- Uniformly moving screw dislocation.- 9. Dynamic Green’s functions.- Isotropic materials.- Steady State.- 10. Incompatibility.- Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor.- 2. Isotropic inclusions.- 11. Eshelby’s solution.- Interior points.- Sphere.- Elliptic cylinder.- Penny-shape.- Flat ellipsoid.- Oblate spheroid.- Prolate spheroid.- Exterior points.- Thermal expansion with central symmetry.- 12. Ellipsoidal inclusions with polynomial eigenstrains.- The I-integrals.- Sphere.- Elliptic cylinder.- Oblate spheroid.- Prolate spheroid.- Elliptical plate.- The Ferrers and Dyson formula.- 13. Energies of inclusions.- Elastic strain energy.- Interaction energy.- Strain energy due to a spherical inclusion.- Elliptic cylinder.- Penny-shaped flat ellipsoid.- Spheroid.- 14. Cuboidal inclusions.- 15. Inclusions in a half space.- Green’s functions.- Ellipsoidal inclusion with a uniform dilatational eigenstrain.- Cuboidal inclusion with uniform eigenstrains.- Periodic distribution of eigenstrains.- Joined half-spaces.- 3. Anisotropic inclusions.- 16. Elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion.- 17. Formulae for interior points.- Uniform eigenstrains.- Spheroid.- Cylinder (elliptic inclusion).- Flat ellipsoid.- Eigenstrains with polynomial variation.- Eigenstrains with a periodic form.- 18. Formulae for exterior points.- Examples.- 19. Ellipsoidal inclusions with polynomial eigenstrains in anisotropic media.- Special cases.- 20. Harmonic eigenstrains.- 21. Periodic distribution of spherical inclusions.- 4. Ellipsoidal inhomogeneities.- 22. Equivalent inclusion method.- Isotropic materials.- Sphere.- Penny shape.- Rod.- Anisotropic inhomogeneities in isotropic matrices.- Stress field for exterior points.- 23. Numerical calculations.- Two ellipsoidal inhomogeneities.- 24. Impotent eigenstrains.- 25. Energies of inhomogeneities.- Elastic strain energy.- Interaction energy.- Colunneti’s theorem.- Uniform plastic deformation in a matrix.- Energy balance.- 26. Precipitates and martensites.- Isotropic precipitates.- Anistropic precipitates.- Incoherent precipitates.- Martensitic transformation.- Stress orienting precipitation.- 5. Cracks.- 27. Critical stresses of crakes in isotropic media.- Penny-shaped cracks.- Slit-like cracks.- Flat ellipsoidal cracks.- Crack opening displacement.- 28. Critical stresses of cracks in anisotropic media.- Uniform applied stress.- Non-uniform applied stress.- II integrals for a penny-shaped crack.- II integrals for cubic crystals.- II integrals for transversely isotropic materials.- 29. Stress intensity factor for a flat ellipsoidal crack.- Uniform applied stresses.- Non-uniform applied stresses.- 30. Stress intensity factor for a slit-like crack.- Uniform applied stresses.- Non-uniform applied stresses.- Isotropic materials.- 31. Stress concentration factors.- Simple tension.- Pure shear.- 32. Dugdale-Barenblatt cracks.- BCS model.- Penny shaped crack.- 33. Stress intensity factor for an arbitrarily shaped plane crack.- Numerical examples.- 34. Crack growth.- Energy release rate.- The J-integral.- Fatigue.- Dynamic crack growth.- 6. Dislocations.- 35. Displacement fields.- Parallel dislocations.- A straight dislocation.- 36. Stress fields.- Dislocation segments.- Willis’ formula.- The Asaro et al. formula.- Dislocation loops.- 37. Dislocation density tensor.- Surface dislocation density.- Impotent distribution of dislocations.- 38. Dislocation flux tensor.- Line integral expression of displacement and plastic distortion fields.- The elastic field of moving dislocationswave equations of tensor potentials.- Wave equations of tensor potentials.- 39. Energies and forces.- Dynamic consideration.- 40. Plasticity.- Mathematical theory of plasticity.- Dislocation theory.- Plane strain problems.- Beams and cylinders.- 41. Dislocation model for fatigue crack initiation.- 7. Material properties and related topics.- 42. Macroscopic average.- Average of internal stresses.- Macroscopic strains.- Tanaka-Mori’s theorem.- Image stress.- Random distribution of inclusions-Mori and Tanaka’s theory.- 43. Work-hardening of dispersion hardened alloys.- Work-hardening in simple shear.- Dislocations around an inclusion.- Uniformity of plastic deformation.- 44. Diffusional relaxation of internal and external stresses.- Relaxation of the internal stress in a plastically deformed dispersion strenthened alloy.- Diffusional relaxation process, climb rate of an Orowan loop.- Recovery creep of a dispersion strengthened alloy.- Interfacial diffusional relaxation.- 45. Average elastic moduli of composite materials.- The Voigt approximation.- The Reuss approximation.- Hill’s theory.- Eshelby’s method.- Self-consistent method.- Upper and lower bounds.- Other related works.- 46. Plastic behavior of polycrystalline metals and composites.- Taylor’s analysis.- Self-consistent method.- Embedded weakened zone.- 47. Viscoelasticity of composite materials.- Homogeneous inclusions.- Inhomogeneous inclusions.- Waves in an infinite medium.- 48. Elastic wave scattering.- Dynamic equivalent inclusion method.- Green’s formula.- 49. Interaction between dislocations and inclusions.- Inclusions and dislocations.- Cracks in two-phase materials.- 50. Eigenstrains in lattice theory.- A uniformly moving screw dislocation.- 51. Sliding inclusions.- Shearing Eigenstrains.- Spheroidol inhomogeneous inclusions.- 52. Recent developments.- Inclusions, precipitates, and composites.- Half-spaces.- Non-elastic matrices.- Cracks and inclusions.- Sliding and debonding inclusions.- Dynamic cases.- Miscellaneous.- Appendix 1.- Einstein summation convention.- Kronecker delta.- Permutation tensor.- Appendix 2.- The elastic moduli for isotropic materials.- Appendix 3.- Fourier series and integrals.- Dirac’s delta function and Heaviside’s step function.- Laplace transform.- Appendix 4.- Dislocations pile-up.- References.- Author index.

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Book SynopsisThe molecular mechanisms underlying the fact that a crystal can take a variety of external forms is something we have come to understand only in the last few decades. This is due to recent developments in theoretical and experimental investigations of crystal growth mechanisms. Morphology of Crystals is divided into three separately available volumes. Part A contains chapters on roughening transition; equilibrium form; step pattern theory; modern PBC; and surface microtopography. This part provides essentially theoretical treatments of the problem, particularly the solid-liquid interface. Part B contains chapters on ultra-fine particles; minerals; transition from polyhedral to dendrite; theory of dendrite; and snow crystals. All chapters are written by world leaders in their respective areas, and some can be seen as representing the essence of a life's work. This is the first English-language work which covers all aspects of the morphology of crystals - a topic which has attracted top scientific minds for centuries. As such, it is indispensable for anyone seeking an answer to a question relating to this fascinating problem: mineralogists, petrologists, crystallographers, materials scientists, workers in solid-state physics and chemistry, etc. In Parts A: Fundamentals and B: Fine Particles, Minerals and Snow equilibrium and kinetic properties of crystals are generally approached from an `atomistic' point of view. In contrast, Part C: The Geometry of Crystal Growth follows the alternative and complementary `geometrical' description, where bulk phases are considered as continuous media and their interfaces as mathematical surfaces with orientation-dependent properties. Equations of motion for a crystal surface are expressed in terms of vector and tensor operators working on surface free energy and growth rate, both expressed as functions of surface orientation and driving force, or `affinity' for growth. This approach emphasizes the interrelation between equilibrium and kinetic behavior. Part 1 establishes the theoretical framework. Part 2 gives a construction toolbox for explicit (analytic) functions. An extra chapter is devoted to experimental techniques for measuring such functions: a new approach to sphere growth experiments. The emphasis throughout is on principles and new concepts. Audience: Advanced readers familiar with traditional aspects of crystal growth theory. Can be used as the basis for an advanced course, provided supplementation is provided in the areas of atomistic models of the advancing surface, diffusion fields, etc.Table of Contents-- Part C: 1. The continuum approach to crystal interfaces: basics. I: Theoretical framework. 2. Operators for orientation-dependent parameters. 3. Mechanics and thermodynamics of interfaces. 4. Equilibrium structures of junctions, edges and vertices. 5. Growth: kinematic wave theory revisited. 6. Kinetic behaviour of junctions, edges and vertices. 7. Structural phase transitions of a crystal surface as a branch of soliton physics. 8. Miscellaneous topics. II: Growth rate functions. 9. Analytic representations of R(n,A) functions. 10. Nonlinear networks and the `assembled function' notation. 11. Physical aspects of assembling operations. 12. The systematic construction of R(n,A) functions by a sequence of assembling steps. 13. Notes on sphere-growth experiments. 14. Summary: Conclusions and outstanding questions. References. List of symbols, abbreviations and notations.

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Book SynopsisThe molecular mechanisms underlying the fact that a crystal can take a variety of external forms is something we have come to understand only in the last few decades. This is due to recent developments in theoretical and experimental investigations of crystal growth mechanisms. Morphology of Crystals is divided into three separately available volumes. Part A contains chapters on roughening transition; equilibrium form; step pattern theory; modern PBC; and surface microtopography. This part provides essentially theoretical treatments of the problem, particularly the solid-liquid interface. Part B contains chapters on ultra-fine particles; minerals; transition from polyhedral to dendrite; theory of dendrite; and snow crystals. All chapters are written by world leaders in their respective areas, and some can be seen as representing the essence of a life's work. This is the first English-language work which covers all aspects of the morphology of crystals - a topic which has attracted top scientific minds for centuries. As such, it is indispensable for anyone seeking an answer to a question relating to this fascinating problem: mineralogists, petrologists, crystallographers, materials scientists, workers in solid-state physics and chemistry, etc. In Parts A: Fundamentals and B: Fine Particles, Minerals and Snow equilibrium and kinetic properties of crystals are generally approached from an `atomistic' point of view. In contrast, Part C: The Geometry of Crystal Growth follows the alternative and complementary `geometrical' description, where bulk phases are considered as continuous media and their interfaces as mathematical surfaces with orientation-dependent properties. Equations of motion for a crystal surface are expressed in terms of vector and tensor operators working on surface free energy and growth rate, both expressed as functions of surface orientation and driving force, or `affinity' for growth. This approach emphasizes the interrelation between equilibrium and kinetic behavior. Part 1 establishes the theoretical framework. Part 2 gives a construction toolbox for explicit (analytic) functions. An extra chapter is devoted to experimental techniques for measuring such functions: a new approach to sphere growth experiments. The emphasis throughout is on principles and new concepts. Audience: Advanced readers familiar with traditional aspects of crystal growth theory. Can be used as the basis for an advanced course, provided supplementation is provided in the areas of atomistic models of the advancing surface, diffusion fields, etc.Table of Contents-- Part C: 1. The continuum approach to crystal interfaces: basics. I: Theoretical framework. 2. Operators for orientation-dependent parameters. 3. Mechanics and thermodynamics of interfaces. 4. Equilibrium structures of junctions, edges and vertices. 5. Growth: kinematic wave theory revisited. 6. Kinetic behaviour of junctions, edges and vertices. 7. Structural phase transitions of a crystal surface as a branch of soliton physics. 8. Miscellaneous topics. II: Growth rate functions. 9. Analytic representations of R(n,A) functions. 10. Nonlinear networks and the `assembled function' notation. 11. Physical aspects of assembling operations. 12. The systematic construction of R(n,A) functions by a sequence of assembling steps. 13. Notes on sphere-growth experiments. 14. Summary: Conclusions and outstanding questions. References. List of symbols, abbreviations and notations.

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Book SynopsisThis book describes behavior of crystalline solids primarily via methods of modern continuum mechanics. Emphasis is given to geometrically nonlinear descriptions, i.e., finite deformations.Primary topics include anisotropic crystal elasticity, plasticity, and methods for representing effects of defects in the solid on the material's mechanical response. Defects include crystal dislocations, point defects, twins, voids or pores, and micro-cracks. Thermoelastic, dielectric, and piezoelectric behaviors are addressed. Traditional and higher-order gradient theories of mechanical behavior of crystalline solids are discussed. Differential-geometric representations of kinematics of finite deformations and lattice defect distributions are presented. Multi-scale modeling concepts are described in the context of elastic and plastic material behavior. Representative substances towards which modeling techniques may be applied are single- and poly- crystalline metals and alloys, ceramics, and minerals.This book is intended for use by scientists and engineers involved in advanced constitutive modeling of nonlinear mechanical behavior of solid crystalline materials. Knowledge of fundamentals of continuum mechanics and tensor calculus is a prerequisite for accessing much of the text. This book could be used as supplemental material for graduate courses on continuum mechanics, elasticity, plasticity, micromechanics, or dislocation mechanics, for students in various disciplines of engineering, materials science, applied mathematics, and condensed matter physics.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews:“The book is a mathematical introduction to the thermodynamics of nonlinear mechanics of crystals and generally to continuum mechanics. … The book ends with references which are very large … . The book seems to be a very good work on the subject, and can be recommended to all those interested in the mechanics of crystals.” (N. D. Cristescu, Zentralblatt MATH, Vol. 1209, 2011)Table of ContentsIntroduction.- Mathematical foundations.- Kinematics of Crystalline Solids.- Thermomechanics of Crystalline Solids.- Thermoelasticity.- Elastoplasticity.- Residual Deformation from Lattice Defects.- Mechanical Twinning in Crystal Plasticity.- Generalized Inelasticity.- Dielectrics and piezoelectricity.- Chrystal Symmetries and Elastic Constants.- Lattice Statics and Dynamics.- Discrete Defects in Linear Elasticity.- SI Units and Fundamental Constants.- Kinematic Derivations.- References.- Index.

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Book SynopsisGrain boundaries are a main feature of crystalline materials. They play a key role in determining the properties of materials, especially when grain size decreases and even more so with the current improvements of processing tools and methods that allow us to control various elements in a polycrystal. This book presents the theoretical basis of the study of grain boundaries and aims to open up new lines of research in this area. The treatment is light on mathematical approaches while emphasizing practical examples; the issues they raise are discussed with reference to theories. The general approach of the book has two main goals: to lead the reader from the concept of ‘ideal’ to ‘real’ grain boundaries; to depart from established knowledge and address the opportunities emerging through "grain boundary engineering", the control of morphological and crystallographic features that affect material properties. The book is divided in three parts: I ‘From interganular order to disorder’ deals with the concept of the perfect grain boundary, at equilibrium, and questions the maintenance of its crystalline state. II ‘From the ideal to the real grain boundary’ deals with the concept of the faulted grain boundary. It attempts to reveal the influence of the grain boundary structure on its defects, their formation and their accommodation. III ‘From free to constrained grain boundaries’ is devoted to grain boundary ensembles starting from the triple junction (the elemental configuration) to real grain boundary networks in polycrystalsThis part covers a new and topical development in the field. It presents for the first time an avenue for researchers working on macroscopic aspects, to approach the scale of description of grain boundaries.Audience: graduate students, researchers and engineers in Materials Science and all those scientists pursuing grain boundary engineering in order to improve materials performance.Table of ContentsFrom the Contents: Part 1: From intergranular order to disorder.- Introduction: brief history of the intergranular order concept.- Geometrical order.- Mechanical stress order.- Atomic order.- Order or disorder at high temperature.- Grain boundary order and energy.- Grain boundary order or disorder: what conclusion?.- Part 2: From the ideal grain boundary to the real grain boundary.- Defects in the grain boundary structure.- Intergranular segregation.- Precipitation at grain boundaries.- Interactions between dislocations and grain boundaries.- Relaxation of the intergranular stresses.- Part 3: From the free grain boundary to the constrained grain boundary.- The triple junction.- Grain boundary network - grain boundary texture.

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Book SynopsisMicro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) is already about a billion dollars a year industry and is growing rapidly. So far major emphasis has been placed on the fabrication processes for various devices. There are serious issues related to tribology, mechanics, surfacechemistry and materials science in the operationand manufacturingof many MEMS devices and these issues are preventing an even faster commercialization. Very little is understood about tribology and mechanical properties on micro- to nanoscales of the materials used in the construction of MEMS devices. The MEMS community needs to be exposed to the state-of-the-artoftribology and vice versa. Fundamental understanding of friction/stiction, wear and the role of surface contamination and environmental debris in micro devices is required. There are significantadhesion, friction and wear issues in manufacturing and actual use, facing the MEMS industry. Very little is understood about the tribology of bulk silicon and polysilicon films used in the construction ofthese microdevices. These issues are based on surface phenomenaand cannotbe scaled down linearly and these become increasingly important with the small size of the devices. Continuum theory breaks down in the analyses, e. g. in fluid flow of micro-scale devices. Mechanical properties ofpolysilicon and other films are not well characterized. Roughness optimization can help in tribological improvements. Monolayers of lubricants and other materials need to be developed for ultra-low friction and near zero wear. Hard coatings and ion implantation techniques hold promise.Table of ContentsPreface. 1. MEMS Fabrication Techniques. 2. MEMS Applications and Tribology Issues. 3. State-of-the-Art of Tribology: Macroscale Processes. 4. State-of-the-Art of Tribology: Micro- to Nanoscale Processes. 5. Tribology of MEMS Components and Materials. 6. Mechanical Property Measurements. 7. Modification and Characterization of Surfaces. 8. Breakout Sessions Report. 9. Panel Discussion Report. List of Participants. Subject Index. Editor's Vita.

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Book SynopsisStudy of Structural and Luminescent Phase State of Hydroxyapatite Doped Nanocomposites of Dysprosium ions for the Targeted Breast Carcinoma Cells.- Investigation of Phosphate Glass Incorporated with Ho3+ Ions for Visible-Green Lasers.- Synchrotron Radiation X-ray Excited Optical Luminescence Probing of Green Emission from Gd2O2S:Tb/PVP Scintillator.- Influence of optimized concentration of Dy3+ ions on optical and luminescence properties of P2O5 + TeO2 + SrCO3 + MgF2 glasses for solid-state visible laser and w-LED applications.- Photo and Thermoluminescence of Samarium doped ZnO nano particles.- Biodegradable fruit and vegetable-based films: preparation and characterization.- Galactomannan-Quercetin blends for electronic applications.- Dielectrical Characterization of Galactomannan-Cellulose Films.

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Book SynopsisChapter 1. Extraction of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous metals.- 2. Failure analysis of materials.- Chapter  3. Characterization of materials.- 4. Composite materials.-  Chapter 5. Materials design and processing for advanced technology.- Chapter 6. Surface Engineering, coatings and thin films.- Chapter 7. Modelling and Simulation in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering.- Chapter 8. Corrosion and atmospheric degradation of materials. Chapter 9. Texture of materials.

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Book SynopsisChemical Vapor Deposition Polymerization - The Growth and Properties of Parylene Thin Films is intended to be valuable to both users and researchers of parylene thin films.Table of Contents1. Introduction.- 2. Deposition Equipment.- 3. Step-by-Step Guide to Depositing Parylene.- 4. Parylene-N Precursor Chemistry.- 5. Deposition Kinetics for Polymerization via the Gorham Route.- 6. Film Properties.- 7. Other CVD Polymers.- References.

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Book SynopsisSince the very first workshop, held at the prestigious Instituto de Fisica Teorica in Sao Paulo, and organized by the same organizer of the 1989 workshop, Professor Valdir Casaca Aguilera-Navarro, the meeting has taken place annually six times in Latin America, four in Europe and three in the United States.Table of ContentsQuantum and Classical Fluids.- Thomas-Fermi Equation of State — The Hot Curve.- New Mechanism of Transport Phenomena in Spin-Polarized Quantum Systems.- Correlated Wave Functions Theory of the Spectral Function.- Momentum Distributions in 3He-4He Mixtures.- Finite Temperature Properties for the Electron Gas with Localization up to 3 Dimensions.- Generalized Momentum Distributions of Quantum Fluids.- Ground State Energy and Landau Parameters of Spin-Polarized Deuterium Using Green’s Function Methods.- Quantum Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Electron Bubbles in a Dense Helium Gas.- Quantum Liquid Films: A Generic Many-Body Problem.- Structure and Dynamics of Supercooled Fluids.- Correlated RPA Calculations for Model Nuclear Matter.- Theory of the Critical Point of He4.- Correlations and Momentum Distribution in the Ground State of Liquid 3He.- Optimized 4He Wave Functions Using Monte Carlo Integration.- The Normal Phase of a Correlated Bose Fluid.- A New Approach to Excited States in 4He: Rotons and Vortices.- Superconductivity.- Vibrational Density-of-States, Isotope Effect, and Superconductivity in Ba1-xKxBiO3 Cubic Oxides.- Variational Monte-Carlo Study of Superconductivity and Magnetism in the Two-Dimensional Hubbard Model.- Finite-Temperature Many-Body Perturbation Theory for Superconducting Fermion Systems.- Abnormal Occupation, Tighter-Bound Cooper Pairs and High Tc Superconductivity.- On the Role of Electron-Medium Coupling in High Temperature Superconductors.- Correlated Spin-Density-Wave Theory.- Composites, Magnetism, Semiconductors and Plasmas.- Effective Dielectric Response of Composites: A New Diagramatic Approach.- The Trajectories of Magnetic Field Lines in Tokamaks with Helical Windings.- Spin-Splitted Phase Transition in the Quantized Hall Effect in Narrow-Gap Hg(1-x) CdxTe Inversion Layers.- High Magnetic Susceptibility Liquid Metals.- Atoms, Molecules and Nuclei.- Translationally-Invariant Coupled Cluster Theory Applied to the 4He Nucleus.- Electron Correlations in Atoms.- The Foundation of the Nuclear Shell Model.- Developments in Multireference Coupled-Cluster Applications to Molecular Systems.- Formal Methods.- On the Bargmann Space Approach to the Extended Coupled Cluster Method for Simple Anharmonic Systems.- Quantum Many-Body Systems: Orthogonal Coordinates.- Dissipative Evolutions in Quantum Mechanics.- Extended Coupled Cluster Techniques for Excited States: Applications to Quasispin Models.- Temporal Evolution of Fluctuations.- Squeezed States Representation: An ?-Expansion of Statistical Mechanics.- Maximum Entropy Principle and Quantum Mechanics.- Baym-Kadanoff Theory Made Even Planar.- Contributors and Participants.

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Book Synopsis1. Chemical and Physical advancement in the development of new materials and methods for the conservation/restoration of CH.- 2. Future trends in conservation and restoration technology: biotechnology, nanotechnology, tailored materials, physical technologies.- 3. Ice-dry sandblasting method (CO2).- 4. Stone physical and petrochemical characterization.- 5. Methods and instruments for the conservation diagnosis and treatments.

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Book SynopsisKnown and developed over the past twenty five years, lasers have been experimented in a variety of processes with an uneven success. Apart from fundamental physics experiments in which the various aspects of coherence are systematically exploited, applications in the field of Materials Science have been scattered recently over so many situations that it is apparently difficult today to conceive a comprehensive interpretation of all physical processes encountered. In some domains of research like photochemistry, development has been fast and rather self-supporting. In others, like solid-state processing, progress has been either very specific or deviated towards marginal applications, or else emerged as a joint-venture between physicists and chemists. This yielded a number of professional meetings, where day-to-day research activities are presented. In 1982, the Cargese ASI on "Cohesive properties of semiconductors under laser irradiation" was one of such meetings at which a prospective of the field was discussed at length in ebullient round-table sessions. Quoted from the proceedings, "the Institute helped to discern clearly the limits of existing theoretical approaches and the directions along which work is urgently needed within the next few years". Four years have passed and the field has literally explo­ ded. It must be mentioned that some of the most striking developments over the past two years were accurately predicted at the Institute in Cargese.Table of ContentsElectronic Structure at Semiconductor Surfaces and Interfaces.- Molecule-Surface Interaction: Vibrational Excitations.- Melting and Surfaces.- Short-Pulse Surface Interactions.- Nonequilibrium Phase Transitions.- Dislocation Microstructures in Nonequilibrium Materials.- Transport Properties of Laser-Generated Non-Equilibrium Plasmas in Semiconductors.- Nonequilibrium Phases and Phase Transitions in the Surface Melt Morphology of Laser Irradiated Silicon.- Adsorption, Desorption, and Surface Reactions.- Theory of Spectroscopy and Dynamics in Laser-Irradiated Adspecies-Surface Systems.- Monte-Carlo Simulations of Surface Reactions.- Mechanisms of Laser-Induced Desorption from Insulators and Compound Semiconductors.- Gas-Surface Interactions Stimulated by Laser Radiation: Bases and Applications.- Photochemistry of Transition Metal Complexes.- Kinetics of Laser-Induced Pyrolytic Chemical Processes and the Problem of Temperature Measurements.- Diffusion in Liquids.- The Solid-Solid Interface Under Laser-Irradiation.- Photochemistry with Particulate Semiconductors and Electrodes.- Laser Enhanced Electroplating.- UV Laser Ablation of Polymers.- Thermochemical Laser Lithography on the Basis of Local Oxidation of Thin Metal Films.- Laser Induced Metal Oxidation.- Optically Enhanced Oxidation.- U.V. Light Induced Oxidation of GaAs.- Participants.

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Book SynopsisThis book offers concise information on the properties of polymeric materials, particularly those most relevant to physical chemistry and chemical physics. Extensive updates and revisions to each chapter include eleven new chapters on novel polymeric structures, reinforcing phases in polymers, and experiments on single polymer chains.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews of the second edition: "This edition of Physical Properties of Polymers Handbook is a mammoth undertaking with 63 chapters divided into nine parts and 100 distinguished contributors with affiliations in industry, academia, and governmental agencies. The objectives of the book are very ambitious. … The compilations of physical properties are very readable and, depending on one’s interests, range from the mundane and practical to the esoteric. … All in all, this is a very useful compendium and should have a place on every polymer scientist’s bookshelf." (George Christopher Martin, Journal of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 130 (3), 2008) "This handbook covers an enormous range of properties of polymeric materials, particularly those relevant to the areas of physical chemistry and chemical physics. … It is a reference work for researchers or advanced students studying polymeric materials. … The main goal of the book is to discuss and describe important results and modern developments. … If the reader … wishes to work in polymer applications or related areas, this is a good book to have available." (Christian Brosseau, Optics and Photonics News, February, 2008)Table of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition. -Preface to the First Edition. -STRUCTURE. -Chain Structures. -Names, Acronyms, Classes, and Structures of Some Important Polymers. -THEORY. -The Rotational Isomeric State Model. -Computational Parameters. -Theoretical Models and Simulations of Polymer Chains. -Scaling, Exponents, and Fractal Dimensions. -THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES. -Densities, Coefficients of Thermal Expansion, and Compressibilities of Amorphous Polymers. -Thermodynamic Properties of Proteins. -Heat Capacities of Polymers. -Thermal Conductivity. -Thermodynamic Quantities Governing Melting. -The Glass Temperature. -Sub-Tg Transitions. -Polymer-Solvent Interaction Parameter c. -Theta Temperatures. -Solubility Parameters. -Mark-Houwink-Staudinger-Sakurada Constants. -Polymers and Supercritical Fluids. -Thermodynamics of Polymer Blends. -SPECTROSCOPY. -NMR Spectroscopy of Polymers. -Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy to Study the Molecular Dynamics of Polymers Having Different Molecular Architectures. -Group Frequency Assignments for Major Infrared Bands Observed in Common Synthetic Polymers. -Small Angle Neutron and X-Ray Scattering. -MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. -Mechanical Properties. -Chain Dimensions and Entanglement Spacings. -Temperature Dependences of the Viscoelastic Response of Polymer Systems. -Adhesives. -Some Mechanical Properties of Typical Polymer-Based Composites. -Polymer Networks and Gels. -Force Spectroscopy of Polymers: Beyond Single Chain Mechanics. -REINFORCING PHASES. -Carbon Black. -Properties of Polymers Reinforced with Silica. -Physical Properties of Polymer/Clay Nanocomposites. -Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS). -Carbon Nanotube Polymer Composites: Recent Developments in Mechanical Properties. -Reinforcement Theories. -CRYSTALLINITY AND MORPHOLOGY. -Densities of Amorphous and Crystalline Polymers. -Unit Cell Information on Some Important Polymers. -Crystallization Kinetics of Polymers. -Block Copolymer Melts. -Polymer Liquid Crystals and Their Blends. -The Emergence of a New Macromolecular Architecture: 'The Dendritic State'. –Polyrotaxanes. -Foldamers: Nanoscale Shape Control at the Interface Between Small Molecules and High Polymers. -Recent Advances in Supramolecular Polymers. -ELECTRO-OPTICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES. -Conducting Polymers: Electrical Conductivity. -Conjugated Polymer Electroluminescence. -Magnetic, Piezoelectric, Pyroelectric, and Ferroelectric Properties of Synthetic and Biological Polymers. -Nonlinear Optical Properties of Polymers. -Refractive Index, Stress-Optical Coefficient, and Optical Configuration Parameter of Polymers. -RESPONSES TO RADIATION, HEAT, AND CHEMICAL AGENTS. -Ultraviolet Radiation and Polymers. -The Effects of Electron Beam and g-Irradiation on Polymeric Materials. –Flammability. -Thermal-Oxidative Stability and Degradation of Polymers. -Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers for Medical Applications. -Biodegradability of Polymers. -Properties of Photoresist Polymers. -Pyrolyzability of Preceramic Polymers. -OTHER PROPERTIES. -Surface and Interfacial Properties. -Acoustic Properties. -Permeability of Polymers to Gases and Vapors. –MISCELLANEOUS. –Definitions. -Units and Conversion Factors. -Subject Index

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Book SynopsisThe new edition also includes an extensive collection of questions for the student, providing approximately 800 self-assessment questions and over 400 questions suitable for homework assignment.Trade ReviewFrom the reviews of the second edition:“This book is intended to be used as a textbook for material science students studying the theory, operation, and application of the TEM. It is truly a book so thoughtfully written that … it will provide a solid foundation for those studying material science. It is richly illustrated with full-color figures and illustrations throughout the text. … There are an abundant number of references at the end of each chapter for further study … . This is an outstanding book … .” (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Vol. 26 (4), July/August, 2010)“D.B. Williams and C.B. Carter have now prepared a new edition, splendidly produced by Springer with colour throughout. … This textbook is magnificent, written in a very readable style, immensely knowledgeable, drawing attention to difficulties and occasionally to unsolved problems. Any microscopist who has mastered … the book relevant to his projects will be well armed for battle. … Buy this book!” (P. W. Hawkes, Ultramicroscopy, Vol. 110, 2010)Table of ContentsBasics.- The Transmission Electron Microscope.- Scattering and Diffraction.- Elastic Scattering.- Inelastic Scattering and Beam Damage.- Electron Sources.- Lenses, Apertures, and Resolution.- How to ‘See’ Electrons.- Pumps and Holders.- The Instrument.- Specimen Preparation.- Diffraction.- Diffraction in TEM.- Thinking in Reciprocal Space.- Diffracted Beams.- Bloch Waves.- Dispersion Surfaces.- Diffraction from Crystals.- Diffraction from Small Volumes.- Obtaining and Indexing Parallel-Beam Diffraction Patterns.- Kikuchi Diffraction.- Obtaining CBED Patterns.- Using Convergent-Beam Techniques.- Imaging.- Amplitude Contrast.- Phase-Contrast Images.- Thickness and Bending Effects.- Planar Defects.- Imaging Strain Fields.- Weak-Beam Dark-Field Microscopy.- High-Resolution TEM.- Other Imaging Techniques.- Image Simulation.- Processing and Quantifying Images.- Spectrometry.- X-ray Spectrometry.- X-ray Spectra and Images.- Qualitative X-ray Analysis and Imaging.- Quantitative X-ray Analysis.- Spatial Resolution and Minimum Detection.- Electron Energy-Loss Spectrometers and Filters.- Low-Loss and No-Loss Spectra and Images.- High Energy-Loss Spectra and Images.- Fine Structure and Finer Details.

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Book SynopsisThis handbook stresses the enduring theoretical principles of the design of measurement systems. The material is organized to correspond to the sequence in which a management system is first conceived, then designed, built, installed, and maintained.Table of ContentsPartial table of contents: Theory and Philosophy of Measurement (L. Finklestein). Standardization of Measurement Fundamentals and Practices (P. H.Sydenham). Signals and Systems in the Time and Frequency Domain (E. G.Woschni). Discrete Signals and Frequency Spectra (M. J. Miller). Measurement Errors, Probability and Information Theory (D.Hofmann). Signal-to-noise Ratio Improvement (D. M. Munroe). Transmission of Data (R. W. Grimes).

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Book SynopsisThis handbook stresses the enduring theoretical principles of the design of measurement systems. The material is organized to correspond to the sequence in which a management system is first conceived, then designed, built, installed, and maintained.Table of ContentsPartial table of contents: Static and Steady-State Considerations (P. Sydenham). Fundamentals of Transducers: Description by Mathematical Models (L.Finkelstein & R. Watts). Measurement of Electrical Signals and Quantities (L.Schnell). Electrical and Electronic Regime of Measuring Instruments (P.Sydenham). Transducer Practice: Displacement (P. Sydenham). Transducer Practice: Thermal (P. Sydenham). Design and Manufacture of Measurement Systems (F. Peuscher). Management of Existing Measurement Systems (J. Hobson). Sources of Information on Measurement (P. Sydenham). References. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe book includes fundamental concepts of theory, instrumentation, and experimental practice as well as practical applications. An important chapter setting the book apart from other publications describes the properties of materials and presents case studies from industry.Trade Review"A textbook to be used in a curriculum of advanced material engineering, with enough practical aspects covered to support associated laboratory sessions as well." (SciTech Book News, Vol. 25, No. 3, September 2001)Table of ContentsPreface. Getting Started with Thermography for Nondestructive Testing. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS. Introduction to Thermal Emission. Introduction to Heat Transfer. Infrared Sensors and Optic Fundamentals. Images. Automated Image Analysis. Materials. Experimental Concepts. ACTIVE THERMOGRAPHY. Active Thermography. Quantitative Data Analysis in Active Thermography. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE THERMOGRAPHY: CASE STUDIES. Applications. References and Bibliography. Appendix A: Computer Model. Appendix B: Smoothing Routing. Appendix C: Parabola Computations. Appendix D: Higher-Order Gradient Computations Based on the Roberts Gradient. Appendix E: Properties of Metals and Nonmetals. Appendix F: Matlab M-Scripts Available. Index.

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Book SynopsisWritten both for the novice and for the experienced scientist, this miniature encyclopedia concisely describes over one hundred materials methodologies, including evaluation, chemical analysis, and physical testing techniques. Each technique is presented in terms of its use, sample requirements, and the engineering principles behind its methodology. Real life industrial and academic applications are also described to give the reader an understanding of the significance and utilization of technique. There is also a discussion of the limitations of each technique.Table of ContentsFrom the Contents: Introduction/ Molecular Spectroscopy/ Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy/ Mass Spectrometry/ Separation Techniques/ Elemental and Chemical Analysis/ X-Ray Analysis/ Microscopy/ Image Analysis/ Surface Analysis/ Thermal Analysis/ Rheology and Molecular Weight of Polymers/ Physical Properties of Particles and Polymers/ Physical Testing/ Scientific Computation.

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Book SynopsisThis handbook provides ready access to all of the major concepts, techniques, problems, and solutions in the emerging field of pseudorandom pattern testing. Until now, the literature in this area has been widely scattered, and published work, written by professionals in several disciplines, has treated notation and mathematics in ways that vary from source to source. This book opens with a clear description of the shortcomings of conventional testing as applied to complex digital circuits, revewing by comparison the principles of design for testability of more advanced digital technology. Offers in-depth discussions of test sequence generation and response data compression, including pseudorandom sequence generators; the mathematics of shift-register sequences and their potential for built-in testing. Also details random and memory testing and the problems of assessing the efficiency of such tests, and the limitations and practical concerns of built-in testing.Table of ContentsDigital Testing and the Need for Testable Design. Principles of Testable Design. Pseudorandom Sequence Generators. Test Response Compression Techniques. Shift-Register Polynomial Division. Special-Purpose Shift-Register Circuits. Random Pattern Built-In Test. Built-In Test Structures. Limitations and Other Concerns of Random Pattern Testing. Test System Requirements for Built-In Test. Appendix. References. Index.

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Book SynopsisOffers practical coverage of vibration stresses and stress-induced displacements, isolation of sensitive components, and evaluation of elastic instability, fatigue and fracture as potential failure modes that arise in mechanical designs and aerospace. The approach taken is particularly useful in the early design stage--the physical problem is defined via known paramaters and a methodology is given for determining the unknown quantities and relating them to specified limiting values and failure modes to obtain an acceptable design. Many of the calculations can be performed on a PC or programmable calculator.Table of ContentsMechanical Loads and Failure Modes. Natural Frequency of Simple Components. Natural Frequency of Simple Structures. Random Vibration. Shock. Isolation. Fatigue. Fracture. Elastic Instability. Structural Analysis of Mounted Housings. Venting. Thermal Analysis. References. Appendices. Index.

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Book SynopsisFailure Mechanisms in Semiconductor Devices Second Edition E. Ajith Amerasekera Texas Instruments Inc., Dallas, USA Farid N. Najm University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA Since the successful first edition of Failure Mechanisms in Semiconductor Devices, semiconductor technology has become increasingly important. The high complexity of today''s integrated circuits has engendered a demand for greater component reliability. Reflecting the need for guaranteed performance in consumer applications, this thoroughly updated edition includes more detailed material on reliability modelling and prediction. The book analyses the main failure mechanisms in terms of cause, effects and prevention and explains the mathematics behind reliability analysis. The authors detail methodologies for the identification of failures and describe the approaches for building reliability into semiconductor devices. Their thorough yet accessible text covers the physics of failure mechanisms from the semiconducTable of ContentsReliability Mathematics. Principal Failure Mechanisms. Failure Mechanisms in Technologies and Circuits. Reliability Testing. Reliability Prediction. Screening. Failure Analysis. Quality Assurance. Appendix. Indexes.

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Book SynopsisA practical guide to effectively analyzing t thin shell mechanical structures by discretizing methods. The relativity and implementation of these methods are important to solve engineering problems in the areas of dams, turbine blades, shell junctions, buckling loads and shape optimization.Table of ContentsConcepts of Elastic Stability. Postbuckling Behavior of Structures. Elements of a Simple Buckling Test--A Column Under Axial Compression. Modelling--Theory and Practice. Columns, Beams and Frameworks. Arches and Rings. Plate Buckling. References. Indexes.

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Book SynopsisContains 16 papers addressing a variety of issues in the testing and modeling of pavement materials and structures. This title discusses such topics as: asphalt materials; hot mix asphalt; asphalt pavements; and, concrete pavements. It also includes research papers with the findings from four National Science Foundation research projects.

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Book SynopsisProblems and defects of all kinds arise in the development and use of mechanical devises, electrical equipment, hydraulic systems, transportation mechanisms and the like. However, an extremely wide range of nondestructive testing (NDT) methods are available to help you examine these different problems and various defects in an assortment of materials under varying circumstances. It is imperative that you select the best method to solve a particular problem. And that requires a sufficient understanding of the basic processes involved to realize the advantages of each NDT method available. Practical hints and pertinent comments for the resolution of day to day problems, this book will give you sufficient basic theory to comprehend the principles of each method so that the most appropriate method can be selected and used to its fullest advantage. Typical illustrative calculations and a comprehensive bibliography are provided. This book will be particularly useful to advanced technicians

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Book SynopsisCovers the complete spectrum of technology dealing with heat-resistant materials, including high-temperature characteristics, effects of processing and microstructure on high-temperature properties, materials selection guidelines for industrial applications, and life-assessment methods. Also included is information on comparative properties.

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Book SynopsisThis detailed collection explores recent advances in molecular imaging techniques involving bioluminescence, currently employed in biolaboratories around the world.Table of ContentsPart I: Establishment of Luciferins and Luciferases 1. Gene Cloning and Functional Analysis of the Luciferase from Luminous Syllids of the Genus Odontosyllis Rie Yasuno, Yasuo Mitani, and Yoshihiro Ohmiya 2. Synthetic Coelenterazine Derivatives and Their Application for Bioluminescence Imaging Tianyu Jiang and Minyong Li 3. Visible Light Bioluminescence Imaging Platform for Animal Cell Imaging Nobuo Kitada, Shojiro Maki, and Sung-Bae Kim 4. Biosynthesis-Inspired Deracemizative Production of D-Luciferin In Vitro by Combining Luciferase and Thioesterase Kazuki Niwa and Dai-ichiro Kato 5. Production of Metridia Luciferase in Native Form by Oxidative Refolding from E. coli Inclusion Bodies Svetlana V. Markova, Marina D. Larionova, and Eugene S. Vysotski 6. Production of Copepod Luciferases via Baculovirus Expression System Marina D. Larionova, Svetlana V. Markova, and Eugene S. Vysotski 7. Molecular Tension Probe for In Vitro Bioassays Sung-Bae Kim, Rika Fujii, Simon Miller, and Mikio Tanabe Part II: Basic In Vitro Applications 8. Optimized Loop-Mediated Amplification (LAMP) Allows Single Copy Detection Using Bioluminescent Assay in Real Time (BART) Patrick Hardinge 9. A Simple and Rapid Bioluminescence-Based Functional Assay of Organic Anion Transporter 1 as a d-Luciferin Transporter Katsuhisa Inoue, Koki Sugiyama, and Takahito Furuya 10. A Simple Bioluminescent Assay for the Screening of Cytotoxic Molecules against the Intracellular Form of Leishmania infantum Diego Benítez, Andrea Medeiros, Cristina Quiroga, and Marcelo A. Comini 11. A Simple, Robust, and Affordable Bioluminescent Assay for Drug Screening against Infective African Trypanosomes Estefania Dibello, Marcelo A. Comini, and Diego Benítez 12. Imaging of Autonomous Bioluminescence Emission from Single Mammalian Cells Carola Gregor 13. Rapid Single-Cell Detection of Beer-contaminating Lactic Acid Bacteria Using Bioluminescence/Rapid Microbe Detection Toshihiro Takahashi and Yasukazu Nakakita 14. Bioluminescence of Aliivibrio fischeri in Artificial Seawater and Its Application in Fungicide Sensing Hitomi Kuwahara and Hiroshi Morita 15. A Bioluminescence Reporter Assay for Retinoic Acid Control of Translation of the GluR1 Subunit of the AMPA Glutamate Receptor Thabat Khatib, Berndt Müller, and Peter McCaffery 16. Design of an Intron-Retained Bioluminescence Reporter and Its Application in Imaging of Pre-mRNA Splicing in Living Subjects Fu Wang, Si Chen, Haifeng Zheng, and Bin Guo 17. Generation of Bi-Reporter Expressing Tri-Segmented Arenavirus Chengjin Ye and Luis Martinez-Sobrido 18. Bioluminescent and Fluorescent Reporter-Expressing Recombinant SARS-CoV-2 Desarey Morales Vasquez, Kevin Chiem, Chengjin Ye, and Luis Martinez-Sobrido 19. Generation, Characterization, and Applications of Influenza A Reporter Viruses Kevin Chiem, Aitor Nogales, and Luis Martinez-Sobrido Part III: Basic In Vivo Applications 20. Optimized Aequorin Reconstitution Protocol to Visualize Calcium Ion Transients in the Heart of Transgenic Zebrafish Embryos In Vivo Manuel Vicente, Jussep Salgado-Almario, Antonio Martínez-Sielva, Juan Llopis, and Beatriz Domingo 21. Quantification and Imaging of Exosomes via Luciferase-Fused Exosome Marker Proteins: ExoLuc System Tomoya Hikita and Chitose Oneyama 22. Bioluminescent Tracking of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells In Vitro and In Vivo Toshinobu Nishimura, Kouta Niizuma, and Hiromitsu Nakauchi 23. Noninvasive In Vivo Tracking of Mammalian Cells Stably Expressing Firefly Luciferase Yang Bi, Nannan Zhang, and Yun He 24. Bioluminescence Imaging for Evaluation of Antitumor Effect In Vitro and In Vivo in Mice Xenografted Tumor Models Kazuhide Sato 25. Detection of Spontaneous Bone Metastases of Solid Human Tumor Xenografts in Mice Vera Labitzky, Ursula Valentiner, and Tobias Lange 26. In Vivo Imaging Analysis of an Inner Ear Drug Delivery in Mice: Comparison of Inner Ear Drug Concentrations Over Time Sho Kanzaki, Shinsuke Shibata, Masaya Nakamura, Masahiro Ozaki, and Hideyuki Okano 27. Protocols for the Evaluation of a Lymphatic Drug Delivery System Combined with Bioluminescence to Treat Metastatic Lymph Nodes Ariunbuyan Sukhbaatar and Tetsuya Kodama 28. In Vivo Bioluminescent Imaging of Rabies Virus Infection and Evaluation of Antiviral Drug Kentaro Yamada and Akira Nishizono 29. Imaging Infection by Vector-Borne Protozoan Parasites Using Whole-Mouse Bioluminescence Mónica Sá, David Mendes Costa, and Joana Tavares 30. Longitudinal Tracing of Lyssavirus Infection in Mice via In Vivo Bioluminescence Imaging Kate E. Mastraccio, Celeste Huaman, Eric D. Laing, Christopher C. Broder, and Brian C. Schaefer Part IV: Multiplex Imaging Platforms 31. Dual-Luciferase-Based Fast and Sensitive Detection of Malaria Hypnozoites for the Discovery of Anti-Relapse Compounds Annemarie M. Voorberg-van der Wel, Anne-Marie Zeeman, Ivonne G. Nieuwenhuis, Nicole M. van der Werff, and Clemens H. M. Kocken 32. Synthetic Assembly DNA Cloning of Multiplex Hextuple Luciferase Reporter Plasmids Alejandro Sarrion-Perdigones, Yezabel Gonzalez, and Koen J.T. Venken 33. Multiplex Hextuple Luciferase Assaying Alejandro Sarrion-Perdigones, Yezabel Gonzalez, Lyra Chang, Tatiana Gallego-Flores, Damian W. Young, and Koen J.T. Venken 34. Molecular Imaging of Tumor Progression and Angiogenesis by Dual Bioluminescence Yue Liu, Ziyu Huang, and Zongjin Li

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Book SynopsisModelling and Estimation of Damage in Structures is a comprehensiveguide to solving the type of modelling and estimation problems associated with the physics of structural damage.Table of ContentsPreface xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Users' Guide 1 1.2 Modeling and Estimation Overview 2 1.3 Motivation 4 1.4 Structural Health Monitoring 7 1.4.1 Data-Driven Approaches 10 1.4.2 Physics-Based Approach 14 1.5 Organization and Scope 17 2 Probability 21 2.1 Probability Basics 23 2.2 Probability Distributions 25 2.3 Multivariate Distributions, Conditional Probability, and Independence 28 2.4 Functions of Random Variables 32 2.5 Expectations and Moments 39 2.6 Moment-Generating Functions and Cumulants 43 3 Random Processes 51 3.1 Properties of a Random Process 54 3.2 Stationarity 57 3.3 Spectral Analysis 61 3.3.1 Spectral Representation of Deterministic Signals 62 3.3.2 Spectral Representation of Stochastic Signals 65 3.3.3 Power Spectral Density 67 3.3.4 Relationship to Correlation Functions 71 3.3.5 Higher Order Spectra 74 3.4 Markov Models 81 3.5 Information Theoretics 82 3.5.1 Mutual Information 85 3.5.2 Transfer Entropy 87 3.6 Random Process Models for Structural Response Data 91 4 Modeling in Structural Dynamics 95 4.1 Why Build Mathematical Models? 96 4.2 Good Versus Bad Models – An Example 97 4.3 Elements of Modeling 99 4.3.1 Newton's Laws 101 4.3.2 Background to Variational Methods 101 4.3.3 Variational Mechanics 103 4.3.4 Lagrange's Equations 105 4.3.5 Hamilton's Principle 108 4.4 Common Challenges 114 4.4.1 Impact Problems 114 4.4.2 Stress Singularities and Cracking 117 4.5 Solution Techniques 119 4.5.1 Analytical Techniques I – Ordinary Differential Equations 119 4.5.2 Analytical Techniques II – Partial Differential Equations 128 4.5.3 Local Discretizations 131 4.5.4 Global Discretizations 132 4.6 Volterra Series for Nonlinear Systems 133 5 Physics-Based Model Examples 143 5.1 Imperfection Modeling in Plates 143 5.1.1 Cracks as Imperfections 143 5.1.2 Boundary Imperfections: In-Plane Slippage 145 5.2 Delamination in a Composite Beam 151 5.3 Bolted Joint Degradation: Quasi-static Approach 160 5.3.1 The Model 161 5.3.2 Experimental System and Procedure 164 5.3.3 Results and Discussion 166 5.4 Bolted Joint Degradation: Dynamic Approach 172 5.5 Corrosion Damage 178 5.6 Beam on a Tensionless Foundation 182 5.6.1 Equilibrium Equations and Their Solutions 184 5.6.2 Boundary Conditions 185 5.6.3 Results 187 5.7 Cracked, Axially Moving Wires 189 5.7.1 Some Useful Concepts from Fracture Mechanics 191 5.7.2 The Effect of a Crack on the Local Stiffness 193 5.7.3 Limitations 194 5.7.4 Equations of Motion 196 5.7.5 Natural Frequencies and Stability 198 5.7.6 Results 198 6 Estimating Statistical Properties of Structural Response Data 203 6.1 Estimator Bias and Variance 206 6.2 Method of Maximum Likelihood 209 6.3 Ergodicity 213 6.4 Power Spectral Density and Correlation Functions for LTI Systems 218 6.4.1 Estimation of Power Spectral Density 218 6.4.2 Estimation of Correlation Functions 234 6.5 Estimating Higher Order Spectra 240 6.5.1 Coherence Functions 246 6.5.2 Bispectral Density Estimation 248 6.5.3 Analytical Bicoherence for Non-Gaussian Signals 257 6.5.4 Trispectral Density Function 264 6.6 Estimation of Information Theoretics 275 6.7 Generating Random Processes 284 6.7.1 Review of Basic Concepts 285 6.7.2 Data with a Known Covariance and Gaussian Marginal PDF 287 6.7.3 Data with a Known Covariance and Arbitrary Marginal PDF 290 6.7.4 Examples 295 6.8 Stationarity Testing 302 6.8.1 Reverse Arrangement Test 304 6.8.2 Evolutionary Spectral Testing 306 6.9 Hypothesis Testing and Intervals of Confidence 312 6.9.1 Detection Strategies 313 6.9.2 Detector Performance 319 6.9.3 Intervals of Confidence 327 7 Parameter Estimation for Structural Systems 333 7.1 Method of Maximum Likelihood 336 7.1.1 Linear Least Squares 338 7.1.2 Finite Element Model Updating 341 7.1.3 Modified Differential Evolution for Obtaining MLEs 344 7.1.4 Structural Damage MLE Example 347 7.1.5 Estimating Time of Flight for Ultrasonic Applications 352 7.2 Bayesian Estimation 363 7.2.1 Conjugacy 365 7.2.2 Using Conjugacy to Assess Algorithm Performance 366 7.2.3 Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) Methods 374 7.2.4 Gibbs Sampling 379 7.2.5 Conditional Conjugacy: Sampling the Noise Variance 380 7.2.6 Beam Example Revisited 383 7.2.7 Population-Based MCMC 386 7.3 Multimodel Inference 392 7.3.1 Model Comparison via AIC 392 7.3.2 Reversible Jump MCMC 397 8 Detecting Damage-Induced Nonlinearity 403 8.1 Capturing Nonlinearity 407 8.1.1 Higher Order Cumulants 408 8.1.2 Higher Order Spectral Coefficients 410 8.1.3 Nonlinear Prediction Error 412 8.1.4 Information Theoretics 414 8.2 Bolted Joint Revisited 415 8.2.1 Composite Joint Experiment 415 8.2.2 Kurtosis Results 417 8.2.3 Spectral Results 419 8.3 Bispectral Detection: The Single Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF), Gaussian Case 421 8.3.1 Bispectral Detection Statistic 422 8.3.2 Test Statistic Distribution 423 8.3.3 Detector Performance 425 8.4 Bispectral Detection: the General Multi-Degree-of-Freedom (MDOF) Case 429 8.4.1 Bicoherence Detection Statistic Distribution 433 8.4.2 Which Bicoherence to Compute? 434 8.4.3 Optimal Input Probability Distribution for Detection 436 8.5 Application of the HOS to Delamination Detection 438 8.6 Method of Surrogate Data 444 8.6.1 Fourier Transform-Based Surrogates 446 8.6.2 AAFT Surrogates 448 8.6.3 IAFFT Surrogates 449 8.6.4 DFT Surrogates 450 8.7 Numerical Surrogate Examples 451 8.7.1 Detection of Bilinear Stiffness 451 8.7.2 Detecting Cubic Stiffness 456 8.7.3 Surrogate Invariance to Ambient Variation 461 8.8 Surrogate Experiments 464 8.8.1 Detection of Rotor – Stator Rub 465 8.8.2 Bolted Joint Degradation with Ocean Wave Excitation 467 8.9 Surrogates for Nonstationary Data 475 8.10 Chapter Summary 476 9 Damage Identification 481 9.1 Modeling and Identification of Imperfections in Shell Structures 481 9.1.1 Modeling of Submerged Shell Structures 482 9.1.2 Non-Contact Results Using Maximum Likelihood 487 9.1.3 Bayesian Identification of Dents 492 9.2 Modeling and Identification of Delamination 501 9.3 Modeling and Identification of Cracked Structures 508 9.3.1 Cracked Plate Model 508 9.3.2 Crack Parameter Identification 510 9.3.3 Optimization of Sensor Placement 523 9.4 Modeling and Identification of Corrosion 527 9.4.1 Experimental Setup 530 9.4.2 Results and Discussion 532 9.5 Chapter Summary 538 10 Decision Making in Condition-Based Maintenance 543 10.1 Structured Decision Making 544 10.2 Example: Ship in Transit 545 10.2.1 Loading Data 547 10.2.2 Ship "Stringer" Model 552 10.2.3 Cumulative Fatigue Model 559 10.3 Optimal Transit 562 10.3.1 Problem Statement 562 10.3.2 Solutions via Dynamic Programming 563 10.3.3 Transit Examples 565 10.4 Summary 568 Appendix A Useful Constants and Probability Distributions 571 Appendix B Contour Integration of Spectral Density Functions 575 Appendix C Derivation of Terms for the Trispectrum of an MDOF Nonlinear Structure 581 C.1 Simplification of CVIII pijk (τ1, τ2, τ3) 582 C.2 Submanifold Terms in the Trispectrum 583 C.3 Complete Trispectrum Expression 585 Index 587

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Book SynopsisStructural Reliability Analysis and Prediction, Third Edition is a textbook which addresses the important issue of predicting the safety of structures at the design stage and also the safety of existing, perhaps deteriorating structures. Attention is focused on the development and definition of limit states such as serviceability and ultimate strength, the definition of failure and the various models which might be used to describe strength and loading. This book emphasises concepts and applications, built up from basic principles and avoids undue mathematical rigour. It presents an accessible and unified account of the theory and techniques for the analysis of the reliability of engineering structures using probability theory. This new edition has been updated to cover new developments and applications and a new chapter is included which covers structural optimization in the context of reliability analysis. New examples and end of chapter problems are also now includeTable of ContentsPreface xv Preface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xviii Acknowledgements xx 1 Measures of Structural Reliability 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Deterministic Measures of Limit State Violation 2 1.2.1 Factor of Safety 2 1.2.2 Load Factor 3 1.2.3 Partial Factor (‘Limit State Design’) 4 1.2.4 A Deficiency in Some Safety Measures: Lack of Invariance 5 1.2.5 Invariant Safety Measures 8 1.3 A Partial Probabilistic Safety Measure of Limit State Violation—The Return Period 8 1.4 Probabilistic Measure of Limit State Violation 12 1.4.1 Introduction 12 1.4.2 The Basic Reliability Problem 14 1.4.3 Special Case: Normal Random Variables 17 1.4.4 Safety Factors and Characteristic Values 19 1.4.5 Numerical Integration of the Convolution Integral 23 1.5 Generalized Reliability Problem 24 1.5.1 Basic Variables 24 1.5.2 Generalized Limit State Equations 25 1.5.3 Generalized Reliability Problem Formulation 26 1.5.4 Conditional Reliability Problems∗ 27 1.6 Conclusion 29 2 Structural Reliability Assessment 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Uncertainties in Reliability Assessment 33 2.2.1 Identification of Uncertainties 33 2.2.2 Phenomenological Uncertainty 34 2.2.3 Decision Uncertainty 34 2.2.4 Modelling Uncertainty 34 2.2.5 Prediction Uncertainty 35 2.2.6 Physical Uncertainty 36 2.2.7 Statistical Uncertainty 36 2.2.8 Uncertainties Due to Human Factors 37 2.2.8.1 Human Error 37 2.2.8.2 Human Intervention 40 2.2.8.3 Modelling of Human Error and Intervention 43 2.2.8.4 Quality Assurance 44 2.2.8.5 Hazard Management 45 2.3 Integrated Risk Assessment 45 2.3.1 Calculation of the Probability of Failure 45 2.3.2 Analysis and Prediction 47 2.3.3 Comparison to Failure Data 48 2.3.4 Validation—a Philosophical Issue 50 2.3.5 The Tail Sensitivity ‘Problem’ 50 2.4 Criteria for Risk Acceptability 51 2.4.1 Acceptable Risk Criterion 51 2.4.1.1 Risks in Society 51 2.4.1.2 Acceptable or Tolerable Risk Levels 53 2.4.2 Socio-economic Criterion 54 2.5 Nominal Probability of Failure 56 2.5.1 General 56 2.5.2 Axiomatic Definition 56 2.5.3 Influence of Gross and Other Errors 57 2.5.4 Practical Implications 58 2.5.5 Target Values for Nominal Failure Probability 59 2.6 Hierarchy of Structural Reliability Measures 60 2.7 Conclusion 61 3 Integration and Simulation Methods 63 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Direct and Numerical Integration 63 3.3 Monte Carlo Simulation 65 3.3.1 Introduction 65 3.3.2 Generation of Uniformly Distributed Random Numbers 65 3.3.3 Generation of Random Variates 66 3.3.4 Direct Sampling (‘Crude’ Monte Carlo) 68 3.3.5 Number of Samples Required 69 3.3.6 Variance Reduction 72 3.3.7 Stratified and Latin Hypercube Sampling 73 3.4 Importance Sampling 73 3.4.1 Theory of Importance Sampling 73 3.4.2 Importance Sampling Functions 75 3.4.3 Observations About Importance Sampling Functions 76 3.4.4 Improved Sampling Functions 79 3.4.5 Search or Adaptive Techniques 80 3.4.6 Sensitivity 81 3.5 Directional Simulation∗ 82 3.5.1 Basic Notions 82 3.5.2 Directional Simulation with Importance Sampling 84 3.5.3 Generalized Directional Simulation 85 3.5.4 Directional Simulation in the Load Space 87 3.5.4.1 Basic Concept 87 3.5.4.2 Variation of Strength with Radial Direction 89 3.5.4.3 Line Sampling 90 3.6 Practical Aspects of Monte Carlo Simulation 90 3.6.1 Conditional Expectation 90 3.6.2 Generalized Limit State Function – Response Surfaces 91 3.6.3 Systematic Selection of Random Variables 92 3.6.4 Applications 92 3.7 Conclusion 93 4 Second-Moment and Transformation Methods 95 4.1 Introduction 95 4.2 Second-Moment Concepts 95 4.3 First-Order Second-Moment (FOSM) Theory 97 4.3.1 The Hasofer–Lind Transformation 97 4.3.2 Linear Limit State Function 98 4.3.3 Sensitivity Factors and Gradient Projection 101 4.3.4 Non-Linear Limit State Function—General Case 102 4.3.5 Non-Linear Limit State Function—Numerical Solution 106 4.3.6 Non-Linear Limit State Function—HLRF Algorithm 106 4.3.7 Geometric Interpretation of Iterative Solution Scheme 109 4.3.8 Interpretation of First-Order Second-Moment (FOSM) Theory 110 4.3.9 General Limit State Functions—Probability Bounds 112 4.4 The First-Order Reliability (FOR) Method 112 4.4.1 Simple Transformations 112 4.4.2 The Normal Tail Transformation 114 4.4.3 Transformations to Independent Normal Basic Variables 116 4.4.3.1 Rosenblatt Transformation 117 4.4.3.2 Nataf Transformation 118 4.4.4 Algorithm for First-Order Reliability (FOR) Method 121 4.4.5 Observations 124 4.4.6 Asymptotic Formulation 125 4.5 Second-Order Reliability (SOR) Methods 126 4.5.1 Basic Concept 126 4.5.2 Evaluation Through Sampling 126 4.5.3 Evaluation Through Asymptotic Approximation 127 4.6 Application of FOSM/FOR/SOR Methods 128 4.7 Mean Value Methods 129 4.8 Conclusion 130 5 Reliability of Structural Systems 131 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Systems Reliability Fundamentals 132 5.2.1 Structural System Modelling 132 5.2.1.1 Load Modelling 132 5.2.1.2 Material Modelling 133 5.2.1.3 System Modelling 135 5.2.2 Solution Approaches 136 5.2.2.1 Failure Mode Approach 136 5.2.2.2 Survival Mode Approach 137 5.2.2.3 Upper and Lower Bounds—Plastic Theory 138 5.2.3 Idealizations of Structural Systems 139 5.2.3.1 Series Systems 139 5.2.3.2 Parallel Systems—General 141 5.2.3.3 Parallel Systems—Ideal Plastic 143 5.2.3.4 Combined and Conditional Systems 146 5.3 Monte Carlo Techniques for Systems 147 5.3.1 General Remarks 147 5.3.2 Importance Sampling 147 5.3.2.1 Series Systems 147 5.3.2.2 Parallel Systems 149 5.3.2.3 Search-Type Approaches in Importance Sampling 150 5.3.2.4 Failure Modes Identification in Importance Sampling 151 5.3.3 Directional Simulation 151 5.3.4 Directional Simulation in the Load Space 151 5.4 System Reliability Bounds 153 5.4.1 First-Order Series Bounds 153 5.4.2 Second-Order Series Bounds 154 5.4.3 Second-Order Series Bounds by Loading Sequences 157 5.4.4 Series Bounds by Modes and Loading Sequences 158 5.4.5 Improved Series Bounds and Parallel System Bounds 158 5.4.6 First-Order Second-Moment Method in Systems Reliability 159 5.4.7 Correlation Effects 164 5.4.8 Bounds by Matrix Operations and Linear Programming* 164 5.5 Implicit Limit States 168 5.5.1 Introduction 168 5.5.2 Response Surfaces 169 5.5.2.1 Basics of Response Surfaces 169 5.5.2.2 Fitting the Response Surface 170 5.5.3 Applications of Response Surfaces 172 5.5.4 Other Techniques for Obtaining Surrogate Limit States 173 5.6 Functionally Dependent Limit States 173 5.6.1 Effect of Order of Loading 173 5.6.2 Failure Mode Enumeration and Reduction 174 5.6.3 Reduction of Number of Limit States—Truncation 175 5.6.4 Applications 176 5.7 Conclusion 177 6 Time-Dependent Reliability 179 6.1 Introduction 179 6.2 Time-Integrated Approach 182 6.2.1 Basic Notions 182 6.2.2 Conversion to a Time-Independent Format* 184 6.3 Discretized Approach 185 6.3.1 Known Number of Discrete Events 185 6.3.2 Random Number of Discrete Events 187 6.3.3 Return Period 188 6.3.4 Hazard Function 189 6.4 Stochastic Process Theory 191 6.4.1 Stochastic Process 191 6.4.2 Stationary Processes 192 6.4.3 Derivative Process 193 6.4.4 Ergodic Processes 194 6.4.5 First-Passage Probability 194 6.4.6 Distribution of Local Maxima 196 6.5 Stochastic Processes and Outcrossings 196 6.5.1 Discrete Processes 196 6.5.1.1 Borges Processes 196 6.5.1.2 Poisson Counting Process 197 6.5.1.3 Filtered Poisson process 198 6.5.1.4 Poisson Spike Process 199 6.5.1.5 Poisson Square Wave Process 200 6.5.1.6 Renewal Processes 201 6.5.2 Continuous Processes 202 6.5.3 Barrier (or Level) Upcrossing Rate 202 6.5.4 Outcrossing Rate 205 6.5.4.1 Generalization from Barrier Crossing Rate 205 6.5.4.2 Outcrossings for Discrete Processes 207 6.5.4.3 Outcrossings for Continuous Gaussian Processes 209 6.5.4.4 General Regions and Processes 213 6.5.5 Numerical Evaluation of Outcrossing Rates 214 6.6 Time-Dependent Reliability 215 6.6.1 Introduction 215 6.6.2 Sampling Methods for Unconditional Failure Probability 216 6.6.2.1 Importance and Conditional Sampling 216 6.6.2.2 Directional Simulation in the Load Process Space 217 6.6.3 FOSM/FOR Methods for Unconditional Failure Probability 218 6.6.4 Summary for Time-Dependent Reliability Estimation 225 6.7 Load Combinations 226 6.7.1 Introduction 226 6.7.2 General Formulation 226 6.7.3 Discrete Processes 228 6.7.4 Simplifications 230 6.7.4.1 Load Coincidence Method 230 6.7.4.2 Borges Processes 231 6.7.4.3 Deterministic Load Combination—Turkstra’s Rule 233 6.8 Ensemble Crossing Rate and Barrier Failure Dominance 234 6.8.1 Introduction 234 6.8.2 Ensemble Crossing Rate Approximation 234 6.8.3 Application to Turkstra’s Rule and the Point Crossing Formula 235 6.8.4 Barrier Failure Dominance 236 6.8.5 Validity 237 6.9 Dynamic Analysis of Structures 237 6.9.1 Introduction 237 6.9.2 Frequency Domain Analysis 238 6.9.3 Reliability Analysis 240 6.10 Fatigue Analysis 241 6.10.1 General Formulation 241 6.10.2 The S-N Model 242 6.10.3 Fracture Mechanics Models 243 6.11 Conclusion 244 7 Load and Load Effect Modelling 247 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Wind Loading 248 7.3 Wave Loading 252 7.4 Floor Loading 255 7.4.1 General 255 7.4.2 Sustained Load Representation 256 7.4.3 Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Load 260 7.4.4 Distribution of Equivalent Uniformly Distributed Load 263 7.4.5 Maximum (Lifetime) Sustained Load 265 7.4.6 Extraordinary Live Loads 267 7.4.7 Total Live Load 268 7.4.8 Permanent and Construction Loads 269 7.5 Conclusion 271 8 Resistance Modelling 273 8.1 Introduction 273 8.2 Basic Properties of Hot-Rolled Steel Members 273 8.2.1 Steel Material Properties 273 8.2.2 Yield Strength 274 8.2.3 Moduli of Elasticity 277 8.2.4 Strain-Hardening Properties 278 8.2.5 Size Variation 278 8.2.6 Properties for Reliability Assessment 279 8.3 Properties of Steel Reinforcing Bars 280 8.4 Concrete Statistical Properties 281 8.5 Statistical Properties of Structural Members 284 8.5.1 Introduction 284 8.5.2 Methods of Analysis 284 8.5.3 Second-moment Analysis 284 8.5.4 Simulation 287 8.6 Connections 290 8.7 Incorporation of Member Strength in Design 290 8.8 Conclusion 292 9 Codes and Structural Reliability 293 9.1 Introduction 293 9.2 Structural Design Codes 294 9.3 Safety-Checking Formats 296 9.3.1 Probability-Based Code Rules 296 9.3.2 Partial Factors Code Format 297 9.3.3 Simplified Partial Factors Code Format 299 9.3.4 Load and Resistance Factor Code Format 300 9.3.5 Some Observations 300 9.4 Relationship Between Level 1 and Level 2 Safety Measures 301 9.4.1 Derivation from FOSM / FOR Theory 302 9.4.2 Special Case: Linear Limit State Function 303 9.5 Selection of Code Safety Levels 304 9.6 Code Calibration Procedure 305 9.7 Example of Code Calibration 310 9.8 Observations 315 9.8.1 Applications 315 9.8.2 Some Theoretical Issues 316 9.9 Performance-Based Design 317 9.10 Conclusion 319 10 Probabilistic Evaluation of Existing Structures 321 10.1 Introduction 321 10.2 Assessment Procedures 323 10.2.1 Overall Procedure 323 10.2.2 Service-Proven Structures 325 10.2.3 Proof Loading 326 10.3 Updating Probabilistic Information 327 10.3.1 Bayes Theorem 327 10.3.2 Updating Failure Probabilities for Proof Loads 328 10.3.3 Updating Probability Density Functions 328 10.3.4 Pre-Posterior Analysis 332 10.4 Analytical Assessment 333 10.4.1 General 333 10.4.2 Models for Deterioration 334 10.5 Acceptance Criteria for Existing Structures 338 10.5.1 Nominal Probabilities 338 10.5.2 Semi-Probabilistic Safety Checking Formats 339 10.5.3 Probabilistic Criteria 340 10.5.4 Decision-Theory-Based Criteria 340 10.5.5 Life-Cycle Decision Approach 342 10.6 Conclusion 343 11 Structural Optimization and Reliability 345 11.1 Introduction 345 11.2 Types of Reliability-based Optimization Problems 346 11.2.1 Introduction 346 11.2.2 Deterministic Design Optimization (DDO) 347 11.2.2.1 Formulation 347 11.2.2.2 Example of DDO Using FOSM 348 11.2.3 Reliability-Based Design Optimization (RBDO) 349 11.2.3.1 Formulation 349 11.2.3.2 Example of RBDO using FOSM 350 11.2.4 Life-Cycle Cost and Risk Optimization (LCRO) 351 11.2.4.1 Formulation 351 11.2.4.2 Example of LCRO using FOSM 352 11.2.5 Comparison, Summary and Outlook 353 11.3 Reliability Based Design Optimization (RBDO) Using First Order Reliability (FOR) 354 11.3.1 Introduction 354 11.3.2 Alternative Robust Solutions Schemes 354 11.3.3 Comparison Between RIA and PMA Solution Schemes 357 11.3.4 Solution of Nested Optimization Problems 358 11.3.5 Example of RBDO Using RIA and PMA 358 11.3.6 Decoupling Techniques for Solving RBDO Problems 361 11.3.6.1 Decoupling: Serial Single Loop Methods 361 11.3.6.2 Decoupling: Uni-level Methods 361 11.3.6.3 Sequential Approximate Programming (SAP) 361 11.4 RBDO with System Reliability Constraints 362 11.4.1 Formulation of System RBDO 362 11.4.2 Structural Systems RBDO with Component Reliability Constraints 363 11.4.3 Structural System RBDO—solution Schemes 363 11.5 Simulation-based Design Optimization 363 11.5.1 Introduction 363 11.5.2 Problem Formulation 364 11.5.3 Remarks About Solutions 365 11.6 Life-cycle Cost and Risk Optimization 367 11.6.1 Introduction 367 11.6.2 Optimal Structural Design Under Stochastic Loads 367 11.6.3 Optimal Structural Design Considering Inspections and Maintenance 368 11.7 Discussion and Conclusion 368 A Summary of Probability Theory 371 A.1 Probability 371 A.2 Mathematics of Probability 371 A.2.1 Axioms 371 A.2.2 Derived Results 372 A.2.2.1 Multiplication Rule 372 A.2.2.2 Complementary Probability 372 A.2.2.3 Conditional Probability 372 A.2.2.4 Total Probability Theorem 372 A.2.2.5 Bayes’ Theoremx 372 A.3 Description of Random Variables 373 A.4 Moments of Random Variables 373 A.4.1 Mean or Expected Value (First Moment) 373 A.4.2 Variance and Standard Deviation (Second Moment) 374 A.4.3 Bounds on the Deviations from the Mean 374 A.4.4 Skewness 𝛾1 (Third Moment) 374 A.4.5 Coefficient 𝛾2 of Kurtosis (Fourth Moment) 375 A.4.6 Higher Moments 375 A.5 Common Univariate Probability Distributions 375 A.5.1 Binomial B(n, p) 375 A.5.2 Geometric G(p) 376 A.5.3 Negative Binomial NB(k, p) 376 A.5.4 Poisson PN(𝜈t) 377 A.5.5 Exponential EX(𝜈) 377 A.5.6 Gamma GM(k, 𝜈) [and Chi-squared 𝜒2(n)] 378 A.5.7 Normal (Gaussian) N(𝜇, 𝜎) 379 A.5.8 Central Limit Theorem 381 A.5.9 Lognormal LN(𝜆, 𝜀) 381 A.5.10 Beta BT(a, b, q, r) 383 A.5.11 Extreme Value Distribution Type I EV – I(𝜇, 𝛼) [Gumbel distribution] 385 A.5.12 Extreme Value Distribution Type II EV - II(u, k) [Frechet Distribution] 386 A.5.13 Extreme Value Distribution Type III EV - III(𝜀, u, k) [Weibull] 388 A.5.14 Generalized Extreme Value distribution GEV 390 A.6 Jointly Distributed Random Variables 390 A.6.1 Joint Probability Distribution 390 A.6.2 Conditional Probability Distributions 391 A.6.3 Marginal Probability Distributions 391 A.7 Moments of Jointly Distributed Random Variables 392 A.7.1 Mean 392 A.7.2 Variance 393 A.7.3 Covariance and Correlation 393 A.8 Bivariate Normal Distribution 393 A.9 Transformation of Random Variables 397 A.9.1 Transformation of a Single Random Variable 397 A.9.2 Transformation of Two or More Random Variables 397 A.9.3 Linear and Orthogonal Transformations 398 A.10 Functions of Random Variables 398 A.10.1 Function of a Single Random Variable 398 A.10.2 Function of Two or More Random Variables 398 A.10.3 Some Special Results 399 A.10.3.1 Y = X1 + X2 399 A.10.3.2 Y = X1X2 399 A.11 Moments of Functions of Random Variables 400 A.11.1 Linear Functions 400 A.11.2 Product of Variates 400 A.11.3 Division of Variates 401 A.11.4 Moments of a Square Root [Haugen, 1968] 401 A.11.5 Moments of a Quadratic Form [Haugen, 1968] 402 A.12 Approximate Moments for General Functions 402 B Rosenblatt and Other Transformations 403 B.1 Rosenblatt Transformation 403 B.2 Nataf Transformation 405 B.3 Orthogonal Transformation of Normal Random Variables 407 B.4 Generation of Dependent Random Vectors 410 C Bivariate and Multivariate Normal Integrals 415 C.1 Bivariate Normal Integral 415 C.1.1 Format 415 C.1.2 Reductions of Form 417 C.1.3 Bounds 417 C.2 Multivariate Normal Integral 419 C.2.1 Format 419 C.2.2 Numerical Integration of Multi-Normal Integrals 419 C.2.3 Reduction to a Single Integral 420 C.2.4 Bounds on the Multivariate Normal Integral 420 C.2.5 First-Order Multi-Normal (FOMN) Approach 421 C.2.5.1 Basic Method: B-FOMN 421 C.2.5.2 Improved Method: I-FOMN 424 C.2.5.3 Generalized Method: G-FOMN 425 C.2.6 Product of Conditional Marginals (PCM) Approach 426 D Complementary Standard Normal Table 429 D.1 Standard Normal Probability Density Function 𝜙(x) 432 E Random Numbers 433 F Selected Problems 435 References 457 Index497

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