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Book SynopsisPart of the IFT (Institute of Food Technologists) series, this book discusses multiphysics modeling and its application in the development, optimization, and scale-up of emerging food processing technologies. The book covers recent research outcomes to demonstrate process efficiency and the impact on scalability, safety, and quality, and technologies including High Pressure Processing, High Pressure Thermal Sterilization, Radiofrequency, Ultrasound, Ultraviolet, and Pulsed Electric Fields Processing. Ideal for food and process engineers, food technologists, equipment designers, microbiologists, and research and development personnel, this book covers the importance and the methods for applying multiphysics modeling for the design, development, and application of these technologies.Table of ContentsPreface ix Contributors xiii 1. Introduction to Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Background, Advantages, Issues, and Need for Multiphysics Modeling 3Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, Abdul Ghani Albaali, Pablo Juliano, and Kai Knoerzer 2. The Need for Thermophysical Properties in Simulating Emerging Food Processing Technologies 23Pablo Juliano, Francisco Javier Trujillo, Gustavo V. Barbosa-Cánovas, and Kai Knoerzer 3. Neural Networks: Their Role in High-Pressure Processing 39José S. Torrecilla and Pedro D. Sanz 4. Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied in High-Pressure Processing Scale-Up 57Cornelia Rauh and Antonio Delgado 5. Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied in High-Pressure High-Temperature Processes: Spore Inactivation Distribution and Process Optimization 75Pablo Juliano, Kai Knoerzer, and Cornelis Versteeg 6. Computer Simulation for Microwave Heating 101Hao Chen and Juming Tang 7. Simulating and Measuring Transient Three-Dimensional Temperature Distributions in Microwave Processing 131Kai Knoerzer, Marc Regier, and Helmar Schubert 8. Multiphysics Modeling of Ohmic Heating 155Peter J. Fryer, Georgina Porras-Parral, and Serafim Bakalis 9. Basics for Modeling of Pulsed Electric Field Processing of Foods 171Nicolás Meneses, Henry Jaeger, and Dietrich Knorr 10. Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied in Pulsed Electric Field Preservation of Liquid Foods 193Nicolás Meneses, Henry Jaeger, and Dietrich Knorr 11. Novel, Multi-Objective Optimization of Pulsed Electric Field Processing for Liquid Food Treatment 209Jens Krauss, Özgür Ertunç, Cornelia Rauh, and Antonio Delgado 12. Modeling the Acoustic Field and Streaming Induced by an Ultrasonic Horn Reactor 233Francisco Javier Trujillo and Kai Knoerzer 13. Computational Study of Ultrasound-Assisted Drying of Food Materials 265Enrique Riera, José Vicente García-Pérez, Juan Andrés Cárcel, Victor M. Acosta, and Juan A. Gallego-Juárez 14. Characterization and Simulation of Ultraviolet Processing of Liquid Foods Using Computational Fluid Dynamics 303Larry Forney, Tatiana Koutchma, and Zhengcai Ye 15. Multiphysics Modeling of Ultraviolet Disinfection of Liquid Food—Performance Evaluation Using a Concept of Disinfection Efficiency 325Huachen Pan 16. Continuous Chromatographic Separation Technology—Modeling and Simulation 335Filip Janakievski 17. The Future of Multiphysics Modeling of Innovative Food Processing Technologies 353Peter J. Fryer, Kai Knoerzer, and Pablo Juliano Index 365

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Book SynopsisFeaturing authors from academia as well as industry, this book provides a broad view of carbohydrates influencing digestive health. Part 1 is a general overview of carbohydrates that function as prebiotics or fermentable carbohydrates. Part 2 is a more in depth examination of specific carbohydrates for digestive health and applications.Table of ContentsPreface ix Contributors xi Chapter 1 Introduction to Fiber and Nondigestible Carbohydrates: Definition, Health Aspects, and Perspectives 1Teri M. Paeschke and William R. Aimutis Chapter 2 The Gastrointestinal Tract and Its Microflora 15William R. Aimutis and Kayla Polzin Chapter 3 The Immunomodulatory Effects of Dietary Fiber and Prebiotics in the Gastrointestinal Tract 37Marie-Claire Arrieta, Jon Meddings, and Catherine J. Field Chapter 4 Lower Gut Hormones and Health Effects Associated with Consumption of Fermentable Fibers 79Michael J. Keenan, Jun Zhou, Reshani Senevirathene, Marlene Janes, and Roy J. Martin Chapter 5 Animal, In Vitro, and Cell Culture Models to Study the Role of Dietary Fibers in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Humans 97Trevor A. Faber and George C. Fahey, Jr. Chapter 6 Impact of Fiber on Gastrointestinal Microbiota 125Koen Venema Chapter 7 Fermentable Carbohydrates and Digestive Health 165Joanne Slavin Chapter 8 Overview of Dietary Fiber and its Influence on Gastrointestinal Health 185Devin J. Rose and Bruce R. Hamaker Chapter 9 Toward Second-Generation Carbohydrate Functional Food Ingredients 223Robert A. Rastall Chapter 10 Whole Grains and Digestive Health 245Isabel Bondia-Pons, Jenni Lappi, Emilia Selinheimo, Marjukka Kolehmainen, Hannu Mykkänen, and Kaisa Poutanen Chapter 11 Fermentability of Polydextrose, Resistant Maltodextrin, and Other Soluble Fibers: Prebiotic Potential 273Maria Stewart Chapter 12 Development and Evaluation Bimuno® a Novel Second-Generation PrebioticGalactooligosaccharide Mixture 295George Tzortzis Chapter 13 Concluding Remarks: Gastrointestinal Health and Nondigestible Carbohydrates 313William R. Aimutis and Teri M. Paeschke Appendix Nondigestible Carbohydrates: Structure and Sources 321 Index 331

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Book SynopsisFatty acids are important compounds in food analysis, since they are sample–specific. They can be used as markers or their profile can be used as a fingerprint ( e. g. , bacteria fatty acids) or to reveal fraud ( e. g. , seed oil added to olive oil).

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Book SynopsisA considerable amount of research has emerged in recent years on the science, technology and health effects of oats but, until now, no book has gathered this work together.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction: Oat Nutrition, Health, and the Potential Threat of a Declining Production on Consumption 3 Penny Kris-Etherton, Chor San Khoo, and YiFang Chu 1.1 A landmark health claim 3 1.2 The growing interest in oats and health 4 1.3 Declining production poses threats to the growth of oat intake 5 References 6 PART II: OAT BREEDING, PROCESSING, AND PRODUCT PRODUCTION 2 Breeding for Ideal Milling Oat: Challenges and Strategies 9 Weikai Yan, Judith Frégeau-Reid, and Jennifer Mitchell Fetch 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Breeding for single traits: Genotype-by-environment interactions 11 2.3 Breeding for multiple traits: Undesirable trait associations 19 2.4 Strategies of breeding for an ideal milling oat 25 2.5 Discussion 28 Acknowledgements 32 References 32 3 Food Oat Quality Throughout the Value Chain 33 Nancy Ames, Camille Rhymer, and Joanne Storsley 3.1 Introduction: Oat quality in the context of the value chain 33 3.2 Physical oat quality 36 3.3 Nutritional oat quality 41 3.4 Agronomic factors affecting physical and nutritional quality 46 3.5 Oat end-product quality 47 3.6 Mycotoxins 58 3.7 Summary 59 Acknowledgements 60 References 60 PART III: OAT NUTRITION AND CHEMISTRY 4 Nutritional Comparison of Oats and Other Commonly Consumed Whole Grains 73 Apeksha A. Gulvady, Robert C. Brown, and Jenna A. Bell 4.1 Introduction to oats as a cereal grain 73 4.2 Overview of the nutritional composition of oats 75 4.3 Conclusion 91 References 91 5 Oat Starch 95 Prabhakar Kasturi and Nicolas Bordenave 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Native oat starch organization: From the molecular to the granular level 96 5.3 Starch minor components, isolation, and extraction 104 5.4 Beyond native starch granule: Gelatinization, pasting, retrogradation, and interactions with other polysaccharides 107 5.5 Industrial uses 115 5.6 Conclusion and perspectives 116 References 116 6 Oat-Glucans: Physicochemistry and Nutritional Properties 123 Madhuvanti Kale, Bruce Hamaker, and Nicolas Bordenave 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 Molecular structures and characteristics 124 6.3 Extraction 131 6.4 Solution properties 135 6.5 Oat-glucan nutritional properties 144 6.6 Conclusion and perspectives 158 References 159 7 Health Benefits of Oat Phytochemicals 171 Shaowei Cui and Rui Hai Liu 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Oat phytochemicals 172 7.3 Health benefits of oat phytochemicals: Epidemiological evidence 185 7.4 Summary 189 References 189 8 Avenanthramides: Chemistry and Biosynthesis 195 Mitchell L. Wise 8.1 Introduction 195 8.2 Nomenclature 196 8.3 Synthesis 197 8.4 Chemical stability 197 8.5 Antioxidant properties 199 8.6 Solubility of avenanthramides 200 8.7 Analysis of avenanthramides 201 8.8 Biosynthesis of avenanthramides 201 8.9 Victorin sensitivity 206 8.10 Environment effects on avenanthramide production 207 8.11 Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA: Hydroxyanthranilate N-hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HHT) 209 8.12 Cloning HHT 211 8.13 Metabolic flux of avenanthramides 214 8.14 Localization of avenanthramide biosynthesis 216 8.15 Plant defense activators 218 8.16 False malting 219 8.17 Conclusion 221 References 222 PART IV: EMERGING NUTRITION AND HEALTH RESEARCH 9 The Effects of Oats and Oat-Glucan on Blood Lipoproteins and Risk for Cardiovascular Disease 229 Tia M. Rains and Kevin C. Maki 9.1 Introduction 229 9.2 Hypocholesterolemic effects of fiber 230 9.3 Hypocholesterolemic effects of oats and oat-glucan 231 9.4 Summary/Conclusions 233 References 233 10 The Effects of Oats and -Glucan on Blood Pressure and Hypertension 239 Tia M. Rains and Kevin C. Maki 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Dietary patterns and blood pressure 240 10.3 Oats and oat-glucan: Effect on blood pressure and hypertension 246 10.4 Conclusion 251 References 251 11 Avenanthramides, Unique Polyphenols of Oats with Potential Health Effects 255 Mohsen Meydani 11.1 Introduction 255 11.2 Avenanthramides, the bioactive phenolics in oats 256 11.3 Anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative activity of avenanthramides 258 11.4 Summary and conclusion 261 Acknowledgements 261 References 261 12 Effects of Oats on Obesity, Weight Management, and Satiety 265 Chad M. Cook, Tia M. Rains, and Kevin C. Maki 12.1 Introduction 265 12.2 Effects of oats and oat-glucan on body weight 266 12.3 Effects of oats on appetite 271 12.4 Possible mechanisms of action 274 12.5 Summary 276 References 276 13 Effects of Oats on Carbohydrate Metabolism 281 Susan M. Tosh 13.1 Introduction 281 13.2 Epidemiology 281 13.3 Mechanisms of postprandial blood glucose reduction 282 13.4 Clinical studies using whole oat products 284 13.5 Clinical studies using oat bran products 286 13.6 Clinical studies using oat-derived-glucan preparations 289 13.7 Dose response 289 13.8 Longer-term glucose control 291 13.9 Summary 292 References 293 14 Effects of Oats and -Glucan on Gut Health 299 Renee Korczak and Joanne Slavin 14.1 Oats and -glucan 299 14.2 Digestive health 299 14.3 Short chain fatty acids and fiber fermentability 301 14.4 Large bowel effects of whole grains 302 14.5 Fermentation of individual dietary fibers 303 14.6 Prebiotics 303 14.7 Other mechanisms underlying the effect of oats on gut function 306 14.8 Conclusion 306 References 307 15 Oats and Skin Health 311 Joy Makdisi, Allison Kutner, and Adam Friedman 15.1 History of colloidal oatmeal use 311 15.2 Oat structure and composition 312 15.3 Clinical properties 313 15.4 Clinical applications of oats 318 15.5 Side effects of oats 323 15.6 Conclusions 326 References 326 PART V: PUBLIC HEALTH POLICIES AND CONSUMER RESPONSE 16 Health Claims for Oat Products: A Global Perspective 335 Joanne Storsley, Stephanie Jew, and Nancy Ames 16.1 Introduction 335 16.2 Definition of health claims 336 16.3 Substantiation of health claims 338 16.4 Health claims and dietary recommendations for oat products 339 16.5 Benefits of health claims 346 16.6 Nutritional information and health claims: How can health claims ensure clarity versus confusion? 348 16.7 Considerations in conducting research for health claim substantiation 349 References 351 17 Oh, What Those Oats Can Do: Quaker Oats, the US Food and Drug Administration, and the Market Value of Scientific Evidence 1984–2010 357 Robert Fitzsimmons 17.1 Introduction 357 17.2 Wild oats: The oat bran craze 1988–1990 363 17.3 Brantastic voyage: Oats through dietetic history 364 17.4 Gruel intentions: The NLEA and Quaker's health claim 1990–1997 382 17.5 Cash crop: Leveraging scientific evidence 1997–2010 395 17.6 Conclusions 413 References 420 PART VI: FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS 18 Overview: Current and Future Perspectives on Oats and Health 429 Penny Kris-Etherton 18.1 Chapter summaries 429 18.2 Relevance to the nutrition and dietetic communities and the medical profession 433 18.3 Future needs and recommendations 434 References 436 Index 439

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Book SynopsisHandbook of Drying for Dairy Products is a complete guide to the field s principles and applications, with an emphasis on best practices for the creation and preservation of dairy-based food ingredients.Table of ContentsContributors xiii About the editor xv Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction to Drying 1 C. Anandharamakrishnan 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Fundamental principles of drying: the concept of simultaneous heat and mass transfer 2 1.2.1 Heat transfer during the drying process 2 1.2.1.1 Conduction drying 3 1.2.1.2 Convection drying 4 1.2.1.3 Radiation and dielectric drying 5 1.2.2 Mass transfer during the drying process 6 1.2.2.1 Diffusion mechanism 7 1.2.2.2 Capillary mechanism 8 1.3 The drying curve 9 1.4 Stages of drying 9 1.4.1 Constant rate period 10 1.4.2 Falling rate period 11 1.5 Techniques for the drying of dairy products 12 1.6 Conclusion 13 References 13 2 Dried Dairy Products and their Trends in the Global Market 15 Aadinath, T. Ghosh, P.H. Amaladhas and C. Anandharamakrishnan 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Milk powders and dried milk products 16 2.2.1 Primary dairy powders 16 2.2.2 Secondary dairy powders 16 2.3 World market dynamics 18 2.3.1 Production 18 2.3.1.1 Oceania 18 2.3.1.2 India 20 2.3.1.3 European Union 20 2.3.1.4 Argentina 20 2.3.2 Consumption 20 2.3.2.1 Algeria 20 2.3.2.2 Indonesia 21 2.3.2.3 China 21 2.3.2.4 Mexico 21 References 21 3 Techniques for the Preconcentration of Milk 23 I. Roy, A. Bhushani and C. Anandharamakrishnan 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Need for preconcentration 23 3.2.1 Skim milk 24 3.2.2 Whey powders and infant formula 24 3.3 Concentration methods 25 3.4 Thermal methods 25 3.4.1 Evaporation 25 3.4.1.1 Single-effect recirculation evaporator 25 3.4.1.2 Multiple-effect evaporator 26 3.4.1.3 Falling-film evaporator 27 3.4.1.4 Plate evaporator 28 3.4.1.5 Horizontal tube evaporator 30 3.4.1.6 Mechanical film evaporator 30 3.4.1.7 Low-temperature evaporator 30 3.5 Non-thermal methods 30 3.5.1 Freeze concentration 30 3.5.2 Membrane separation techniques 32 3.5.2.1 Microfiltration 34 3.5.2.2 Ultrafiltration 35 3.5.2.3 Reverse osmosis 37 3.6 Conclusion 37 References 37 4 Drum Drying 43 P. Karthik, N. Chhanwal and C. Anandharamakrishnan 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Drum-drying process 44 4.2.1 Effect of operating parameters on product quality and the capacity of the drum dryer 45 4.3 Types of drum dryers 46 4.3.1 Single-drum dryers 46 4.3.2 Double-drum dryers 47 4.3.3 Twin-drum dryers 47 4.3.4 Vacuum-drum dryers 48 4.3.5 Enclosed-drum dryers 49 4.4 Classification of the feeding method 49 4.4.1 Single- and multiple-roll feed 49 4.4.2 Nip feed 49 4.4.3 Dip feed 49 4.4.4 Spray feed 49 4.4.5 Splash feed 50 4.5 Operating parameters 51 4.5.1 Important operational conditions in the drum drying of milk 52 4.6 Advantages and disadvantages of drum/roller drying 54 4.7 Conclusion 54 References 55 5 SprayDrying 57 S. Padma Ishwarya and C. Anandharamakrishnan 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 Spray drying: principle of operation 57 5.2.1 Atomization 59 5.2.1.1 Rotary atomizers 60 5.2.1.2 Pressure nozzle atomizers 62 5.2.1.3 Twin-fluid atomizers 62 5.2.1.4 Monodisperse droplet generators 63 5.2.2 Droplet–drying air interaction and moisture evaporation 65 5.2.3 Particle separation 72 5.3 Characteristics of spray-dried dairy powders 74 5.3.1 Rehydration 74 5.3.2 Particle size and shape parameters 75 5.4 Handling spray-drying processing problems 77 5.4.1 Stickiness 77 5.4.2 Thermal denaturation of proteins 79 5.5 Applications of spray drying for the production of dried milk and milk products 79 5.6 Conclusion 84 References 88 6 Freeze Drying 95 A. Bhushani and C. Anandharamakrishnan 6.1 Introduction 95 6.2 Steps in freeze drying 95 6.2.1 Freezing 96 6.2.2 Primary or sublimation drying 99 6.2.3 Secondary or desorption drying 100 6.3 Merits of freeze drying over other drying techniques 100 6.4 Heat and mass transfer in freeze drying 101 6.5 Freeze-drying equipment 103 6.6 Properties influencing the freeze drying of dairy products 106 6.6.1 Milk 106 6.6.2 Lactose 109 6.7 Preservation of kefir culture by freeze drying 111 6.8 Microencapsulation of probiotics by freeze drying 112 6.8.1 Probiotics 112 6.8.2 Need for microencapsulation 113 6.8.3 Cell viability issues associated with freeze drying 113 6.8.4 Characteristics of microencapsulated probiotic cells 114 6.9 Conclusion 115 References 117 7 Spray Freeze Drying 123 S. Padma Ishwarya, C. Anandharamakrishnan and A.G.F. Stapley 7.1 Introduction 123 7.2 SFD process 124 7.2.1 Atomization 125 7.2.2 Freezing 126 7.2.2.1 Spray freezing into vapour 127 7.2.2.2 Spray freezing into vapour over liquid 127 7.2.2.3 Spray freezing into liquid 129 7.2.3 Freeze drying 130 7.2.3.1 Vacuum freeze drying 130 7.2.3.2 Atmospheric SFD and atmospheric spray fluidized-bed freeze drying 131 7.2.3.3 Sub-atmospheric pressure SFD 132 7.3 Applications of SFD in dried dairy products 132 7.3.1 SFD of whole milk and skim milk 133 7.3.2 SFD of whey protein 135 7.3.3 SFD for microencapsulation of probiotics 140 7.4 Advantages and limitations of SFD 144 7.5 Conclusion 144 References 144 8 Optimization of Dairy Product Drying Processes 149 S. Parthasarathi and C. Anandharamakrishnan 8.1 Introduction 149 8.2 Experimental design tools for process optimization 149 8.2.1 Response surface methodology 149 8.2.1.1 Advantages of RSM 151 8.2.1.2 Limitations of RSM 151 8.2.2 Artificial neural networks 151 8.2.2.1 Feed-forward neural network 152 8.2.2.2 Learning process of an ANN 153 8.2.2.3 Optimization of process parameters 154 8.2.3 Finite element and finite volume methods 154 8.2.3.1 Finite element method 155 8.2.3.2 Finite volume method 155 8.3 Drying process variables and their influence on process and product quality 156 8.3.1 Drum drying 157 8.3.1.1 Heat and mass transfer 157 8.3.2 Spray drying 158 8.3.2.1 Exergy efficiency 160 8.3.2.2 Atomization 160 8.3.3 Freeze drying 161 8.3.3.1 Temperature measurement 162 8.3.3.2 Computational modelling 164 8.3.4 Spray freeze drying 169 8.4 Conclusion 170 References 171 9 Computational Fluid Dynamics Modelling of the Dairy Drying Processes 179 J. Gimbun,W.P. Law and C. Anandharamakrishnan 9.1 Introduction 179 9.2 Spray drying 179 9.2.1 Spray-drying process 179 9.2.2 Flow field simulation 180 9.2.2.1 Steady or unsteady approach 181 9.2.2.2 Turbulence modelling 182 9.2.3 Discrete phase modelling 183 9.2.4 Wall deposition and the particle build-up model 186 9.2.5 Particle interaction 186 9.2.6 Validation and issues of CFD simulation 189 9.3 Freeze drying 189 9.3.1 Modelling of freeze drying 190 9.3.1.1 Mass and heat-transfer modelling 190 9.3.1.2 Primary drying modelling 191 9.3.1.3 Secondary drying modelling 192 9.4 Spray freeze drying 193 9.5 Conclusions and future scope 196 References 196 10 Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Dried Dairy Products 203 P.H. Amaladhas and F. Magdaline Eljeeva Emerald 10.1 Introduction 203 10.2 Milk Powder Manufacture 203 10.2.1 Roller drying 205 10.2.2 Spray drying 206 10.2.3 Freeze drying 208 10.2.4 Spray freeze drying 208 10.3 Properties of dairy powders as influenced by drying method 208 10.4 Physical properties 209 10.4.1 Morphology, particle size, shape and distribution 209 10.4.2 Density 210 10.4.3 Reconstitution properties 213 10.4.4 Agglomeration and instantization 216 10.4.5 Flowability and stickiness 216 10.4.6 Heat and coffee stability 217 10.5 Chemical and sensory properties 218 10.5.1 Protein quality 218 10.5.2 Non-enzymatic browning 219 10.5.3 Oxidation and chemical quality 219 10.5.4 Sensory quality 220 10.6 Properties of special powders 220 10.6.1 Whey powders 220 10.6.2 Whey protein concentrates 221 10.6.3 Cheese powder 221 10.6.4 Yoghurt powder 222 10.6.5 Infant milk powders 222 10.6.6 Dairy whiteners 223 10.7 Conclusion 223 References 223 11 Packaging of Dried Dairy Products 229 R. Gopirajah and C. Anandharamakrishnan 11.1 Introduction 229 11.2 Dairy packaging trends 230 11.3 Forms of packaging materials 231 11.3.1 Metal cans 232 11.3.2 Glass bottles 232 11.3.3 Stretch-wrap packaging 232 11.3.4 Flexible pouches 232 11.3.5 Bag-in-box packages 233 11.3.6 Cups 233 11.3.7 Paper-board containers 233 11.4 Packaging of dried milk products 234 11.4.1 Packaging of whole milk powder 235 11.4.2 Packaging of non-fat dried milk powder 236 11.5 Developments in packaging techniques 237 11.5.1 Intelligent packaging 237 11.5.2 Active packaging 238 11.5.2.1 Migration mechanism in active packaging 239 11.5.2.2 The use of scavengers (absorbers) to prevent lipid oxidation 239 11.5.3 Nanotechnology in dairy packaging 240 11.5.3.1 Bionanocomposites and their applications 241 11.5.3.2 Modelling the barrier properties of polymer-clay nanocomposites 242 11.6 Conclusion 244 References 244 12 Recent Advances in the Drying of Dairy Products 249 M.W.Woo 12.1 Introduction 249 12.2 Typical layout of a dairy spray-drying process 250 12.2.1 Multistage drying process 250 12.2.2 Some unique process layouts 251 12.3 Advances in operating spray dryers 252 12.3.1 Controlling the drying process 252 12.3.1.1 Single droplet to dryer-wide prediction 252 12.3.2 Controlling powder stickiness and deposition 259 12.4 Advances in operating fluidized-bed dryers 261 12.4.1 Controlling crystallization 261 12.4.2 Controlling agglomeration 262 12.5 Conclusion 263 References 263 13 Industrial Scale Drying of Dairy Products 269 D. Anand Paul 13.1 Introduction 269 13.2 Process flow in a dairy drying plant 270 13.3 Lexicon of industrial-scale drying 272 13.4 Industrial spray drying of dairy products 273 13.4.1 Automation of industrial-scale spray dryers 273 13.4.2 Efficiency of spray-dryer operation 274 13.4.3 Bottlenecks in industrial spray-drying 276 13.4.4 Hygiene in spray-dryer operation 277 13.4.5 Safety aspects of spray drying 278 13.5 Industrial drum drying of dairy products 279 13.5.1 Critical control points in industrial drum drying 280 13.5.2 Energy efficiency of drum drying 282 13.5.3 Safe operation of drum dryers 283 13.6 Conclusion 283 References 283 14 Challenges Involved in the Drying of Dairy Powders 287 U. Kiran Kolli 14.1 Introduction 287 14.2 Challenges in the drying of dairy powders 288 14.2.1 Fouling 288 14.2.1.1 Mechanisms 288 14.2.1.2 Factors affecting fouling 289 14.2.2 Stickiness 291 14.2.3 Fires and explosions 292 14.2.4 Powder loss 293 14.2.5 Transport of powder 293 14.2.6 Storage of dairy powders 294 14.2.7 Plant economics 294 14.2.8 Development of speciality dairy powders 294 14.3 Use of modelling as a tool to solve some challenges 295 14.4 Conclusion 296 References 296 Index 301

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Book SynopsisProbiotic Dairy Products, 2nd Edition The updated guide to the most current research and developments in probiotic dairy products The thoroughly revised and updated second edition ofProbiotic Dairy Productsreviews the recent advancements in the dairy industry and includes the latest scientific developments in regard to the ''functional'' aspects of dairy and fermented milk products and their ingredients. Since the publication of the first edition of this text, there have been incredible advances in the knowledge and understanding of the human microbiota, mainly due to the development and use of new molecular analysis techniques. This new edition includes information on the newest developments in the field. It offers information on the new omic' technologies that have been used to detect and analyse all the genes, proteins and metabolites of individuals' gut microbiota. The text also includes a description of the history of probiotics and explores tTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface to the Technical Series, Second Edition xv Preface to the Technical Series, First Edition xvii Preface to the Second Edition xix Preface to the First Edition xxi 1 Microbiota of the Human Gut 1H.B. Ghoddusi and L.V. Thomas 1.1 Background 1 1.2 The human GI tract and its microbiota 2 1.3 Functions of the GI microbiota 5 1.4 Influences on the GI tract and its microbiota 7 1.5 Conclusions 9 References 10 2 Probiotics: The First 10 000 Years 17R. Levin 2.1 In the beginning 17 2.2 The intervention of science 19 2.3 A remarkable sequence of important discoveries 20 2.4 Could disinfection be the solution? 21 2.5 On the cusp of a major breakthrough 22 2.6 The urge for progress switches to the USA (1914–1931) 25 2.7 Meanwhile, in Europe 28 2.8 The ultimate breakthrough comes from Japan? 29 2.9 Conclusions 32 Acknowledgements 33 References 33 3 Genomic Characterisation of Starter Cultures and Probiotic Bacteria 37G.E. Felis, S. Torriani, A.B. Florez and B. Mayo 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Genome sequencing and comparative genomics: insights into evolution and adaptation to dairy environments 40 3.2.1 Phylum Firmicutes 41 3.2.2 Phylum Actinobacteria 45 3.2.3 Other micro]organisms 46 3.3 Application of genome analysis to LAB and bifidobacteria 47 3.3.1 In silico safety assessment of LAB bifidobacteria 47 3.3.2 Unravelling LAB and bifidobacteria properties 51 3.4 Concluding remarks 56 References 57 4 Production and Maintaining Viability of Probiotic Micro]organisms in Dairy Products 67A.Y. Tamime, M. Saarela, M. Wszolek, H. Ghoddousi, D.M. Linares and N.P. Shah 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Probiotic micro]organisms 68 4.2.1 General characteristics 68 4.2.2 Examples of commercial starter culture blends 69 4.3 Economic value 72 4.4 Unfermented probiotic milk 72 4.5 Probiotic fermented milks and beverages 75 4.5.1 Lactic acid fermentations 76 4.5.2 Yeast–lactic acid fermentations 90 4.5.3 Mould–lactic acid fermentations 93 4.5.4 Quality appraisal of probiotic fermented milks 93 4.6 Probiotic cheeses 95 4.6.1 Methods of introduction of probiotics in cheese 95 4.6.2 Probiotic strain selection for cheesemaking 96 4.6.3 Very hard and hard cheese varieties 99 4.6.4 Semi]hard varieties 102 4.6.5 Brined cheeses 103 4.6.6 Soft cheeses 105 4.6.7 Pasta Filata cheeses 108 4.6.8 Miscellaneous cheeses 108 4.7 Probiotic ice cream, frozen desserts and frozen yoghurt 111 4.7.1 Background 111 4.7.2 Ice-cream 111 4.8 Dried probiotic dairy products 112 4.8.1 Introduction 112 4.8.2 Infant formula 113 4.8.3 Dairy]based dried products 114 4.9 Miscellaneous probiotic dairy products 115 4.9.1 Fat]based products 115 4.9.2 Long shelf]life fermented milk drinks or beverages 115 4.9.3 Milk] and water]based cereal puddings 116 4.9.4 Mousses, desserts and spreads 116 4.10 Viability of probiotic micro]organisms 117 4.10.1 Composition of the fermentation medium 118 4.10.2 Viability as affected by oxygen 119 4.11 Approaches to improve the viability of the probiotic micro]organisms in the product 120 4.11.1 Selection of bacterial strain(s) 120 4.11.2 Type of packaging container 120 4.11.3 Rate of inoculation 121 4.11.4 Two]stage fermentation 121 4.11.5 Microencapsulation technique 122 4.11.6 Supplementation of the milk with nutrients 122 4.11.7 The use of oxygen scavengers 124 4.11.8 The addition of cysteine 124 4.12 Future developments and overall conclusions 125 Acknowledgement 126 References 126 5 Current Legislation of Probiotic Products 165M. Hickey 5.1 Introduction and background 165 5.2 The situation in Japan 168 5.2.1 Subsystems of FOSHU 170 5.2.2 Essential elements for obtaining FOSHU approval 172 5.2.3 Features of the new category of foods with function claims 175 5.2.4 Unique features of the Japanese FOSHU system 176 5.3 The legislative situation in the European Union 176 5.3.1 Relevant EU food safety legislation 176 5.3.2 Novel food regulation in the European Union 177 5.3.3 Genetically modified organisms 178 5.3.4 EU food]labelling provisions 178 5.3.5 EU nutrition and health claims 178 5.3.6 Types of health claims 179 5.4 The USA’s legislative situation on probiotics and related health claims 183 5.4.1 Claims and labelling in the USA 184 5.4.2 The role of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and legal challenges 187 5.5 The Canadian legislative situation regarding health claims and functional foods 189 5.5.1 Background 189 5.5.2 Health claims on foods in Canada 189 5.5.3 Probiotic claims 190 5.6 Health foods and functional foods in China 191 5.6.1 Introduction 191 5.6.2 Chinese legislative structures 192 5.6.3 The healthy (functional) foods sector in China and its regulation 192 5.6.4 Types of health claims in China and their approval 194 5.6.5 China’s probiotic market size and potential 194 5.7 Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) 196 5.7.1 Background 196 5.7.2 Acceptance of Codex standards and their role in the World Trade Organisation (WTO) 197 5.7.3 Codex and food]labelling claims 198 5.7.4 Codex standard for fermented milks 200 5.8 Some conclusions and possible future legislative prospects for probiotics 201 Acknowledgements 202 References 202 6 Enumeration and Identification of Mixed Probiotic and Lactic Acid Bacteria Starter Cultures 207A.Č. Majhenic,̌ P.M. Lorbeg and P. Treven 6.1 Introduction 207 6.2 Classification 207 6.3 Phenotypic methods 208 6.3.1 Differential plating 208 6.3.2 Carbohydrate fermentation]based methods 211 6.3.3 Spectroscopic methods 213 6.3.4 Fluorescence dyes]based methods 216 6.4 Genetic methods 219 6.4.1 Polymerase chain reaction-based methods 219 6.4.2 DNA banding pattern]based methods 224 6.4.3 DNA sequencing]based methods 230 6.4.4 Probe hybridisation methods 235 6.5 Conclusions 237 References 238 7 Prebiotic Ingredients in Probiotic Dairy Products 253X. Wang and R.A. Rastall 7.1 Introduction 253 7.2 Criteria for an ingredient to be classified as a prebiotic 254 7.3 Health benefits of prebiotics and their mechanisms of action 254 7.3.1 Short]chain fatty acids and human metabolism 255 7.3.2 Mineral absorption 256 7.3.3 Energy intake and appetite regulation 256 7.3.4 Lipid metabolism 258 7.3.5 Immune function modulation of prebiotics 258 7.3.6 Colorectal cancer risk and prebiotics 259 7.3.7 Gut permeability 260 7.3.8 Colon motility and faecal bulking with application to constipation 261 7.4 Inulin]type fructans as prebiotics 261 7.4.1 Determination of inulin]type fructans 262 7.4.2 Production of inulin]type fructans 264 7.4.3 Physical and chemical characteristics of inulin]type fructans and application in the food industry 264 7.4.4 Prebiotic effects of inulin]type fructans 265 7.4.5 Health benefits of inulin]type fructans 265 7.5 Galactooligosaccharides as prebiotics 267 7.5.1 Production and determination of galactooligosaccharides 269 7.5.2 Application of galactooligosaccharides in the food industry 269 7.5.3 The prebiotic effect of galactooligosaccharides 269 7.5.4 Infant nutrition and galactooligosaccharides 271 7.5.5 Health benefit of galactooligosaccharides 272 7.6 Resistant starch and other glucose]based non]digestible carbohydrates 276 7.7 Xylooligosaccharides 279 7.8 Other potential prebiotics candidates and summary 279 References 279 8 An Overview of Probiotic Research: Human and Mechanistic Studies 293G. Zoumpopoulou, E. Tsakalidou and L.V. Thomas 8.1 Mechanisms underlying probiotic effects 293 8.1.1 Probiotic effects on the gut microbiota and its metabolites 294 8.1.2 Probiotic immune modulation 295 8.1.3 Probiotic effects on gut barrier function 296 8.1.4 Probiotics and the gut–brain axis 296 8.1.5 Probiotic mechanisms in the urogenital tract 297 8.1.6 Survival of the gut microbiota through the gut 297 8.2 Probiotic human studies: gastrointestinal conditions 297 8.2.1 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) 297 8.2.2 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) 302 8.2.3 Constipation 303 8.2.4 Diarrhoeal diseases 304 8.2.5 Paediatric conditions 306 8.3 Probiotic research: human studies investigating extra]intestinal conditions 308 8.3.1 Common infectious diseases 309 8.3.2 Allergic diseases 310 8.3.3 Urogenital conditions 313 8.3.4 Obesity]related disease 314 8.3.5 Liver disease 317 8.3.6 Cancer 318 8.3.7 Immune disorders: HIV 319 8.3.8 Trials investigating aspects of the gut–brain axis 320 8.4 Conclusions 321 References 321 9 Production of Vitamins, Exopolysaccharides and Bacteriocins by Probiotic Bacteria 359D.M. Linares, G. Fitzgerald, C. Hill, C. Stanton and P. Ross 9.1 Introduction 359 9.2 Vitamin production by probiotic bacteria 359 9.2.1 Background 359 9.2.2 Folate 360 9.2.3 Vitamin B12 362 9.2.4 Riboflavin and thiamine 363 9.2.5 Vitamin K 364 9.3 Exopolysaccharides (EPS) production by probiotic bacteria 364 9.3.1 Introduction 364 9.3.2 Classification of exopolysaccharides 365 9.3.3 Health benefits of exopolysaccharides 365 9.4 Production of bacteriocins by probiotic cultures 368 9.4.1 Background 368 9.4.2 Production of antimicrobials as a probiotic trait 369 9.4.3 Classification of bacteriocins 369 9.4.4 Antimicrobial potential of Lactobacillus spp. 372 9.4.5 Antimicrobial potential of Bifidobacterium spp. 375 9.4.6 Other lactic acid bacteria species with antimicrobial potential 376 9.5 Overall conclusions 376 Acknowledgements 377 References 377 10 Future Development of Probiotic Dairy Products 389M. Saarela 10.1 Developments in the probiotic field in the European Union (EU) 389 10.2 The current probiotic market and its trends 391 10.3 Recent developments in the probiotic research 392 10.4 Future target areas for research and conclusion 393 References 393 Index 395

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive text that offers a review of the delivery of food active compounds through emulsion-based systems Emulsion-based Systems for Delivery of Food Active Compounds is a comprehensive recourse that reviews the principles of emulsion-based systems formation, examines their characterization and explores their effective application as carriers for delivery of food active ingredients. The text also includes information on emulsion-based systems in regards to digestibility and health and safety challenges for use in food systems. Each chapter reviews specific emulsion-based systems (Pickering, multiple, multilayered, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers and more) and explains their application for delivery of food active compounds used in food systems. In addition, the authors noted experts in the field review the biological fate, bioavailability and the health and safety challenges of using emulsion-based systems as carriers foTable of ContentsPreface vii About the Editors ix List of Contributors xiii 1 Conventional Emulsions 1Mehrdad Niakousari, Maral Seidi Damyeh, Hadi Hashemi Gahruie, Alaa El‐Din A. Bekhit, Ralf Greiner, and Shahin Roohinejad 2 Pickering Emulsions 29Anja Schroder, Meinou N. Corstens, Kacie K.H.Y. Ho, Karin Schroen, and Claire C. Berton‐Carabin 3 Multiple Emulsions 69Mohamed Koubaa, Shahin Roohinejad, Pankaj Sharma, Nooshin Nikmaram, Seyedeh Sara Hashemi, Alireza Abbaspourrad, and Ralf Greiner 4 Multilayered Emulsions 105Mohamed Koubaa, Nooshin Nikmaram, Shahin Roohinejad, Alireza Rafati, and Ralf Greiner 5 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles 121Jingyuan Wen, Shuo Chen, and Guanyu Chen 6 Nanostructured Lipid Carriers 139Jingyuan Wen, Guanyu Chen, and Shuo Chen 7 Filled Hydrogel Particles 161Jingyuan Wen, Murad Al Gailani, and Naibo Yin 8 Nanoemulsions 181Sung Je Lee, Quan Yuan, Anges Teo, Kelvin K.T. Goh, and Marie Wong 9 Microemulsions 231Shahin Roohinejad, Indrawati Oey, David W. Everett, and Ralf Greiner 10 Liposomes and Niosomes 263Jingyuan Wen, Murad Al Gailani, Naibo Yin, and Ali Rashidinejad Index 293

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Book SynopsisUnderstanding the impact of diet, exercise, genetics, and hormones on the risk and development of Alzheimer's and other neurogenerative diseases Diet is widely known to impact on neurological function. Nevertheless, academic texts discussing this relationship are relatively few in number. This book therefore fills an important gap in the current literature. Opening with an overview of neurodegenerative diseases, particularly Alzheimer's disease, the text then focuses on explaining the means by which glycemic control and lipid metabolism and associated nutritional and lifestyle variables may factor into such disorders' prevention and treatment. An international group of experts in the fields of food science and neurodegeneration have contributed chapters that examine Alzheimer's disease within a broad range of contexts. Offering dietary, genetic, and hormonal perspectives, the authors explore topics ranging from sugar consumption to digestive fermentation, andTable of ContentsList of Contributors xv 1 Current Understanding of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases, and the Potential Role of Diet and Lifestyle in Reducing the Risks of Alzheimer’s Disease and Cognitive Decline 1Charles S. Brennan, Margaret A. Brennan, W.M.A.D. Binosha Fernando and Ralph N. Martins References 7 2 Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases 9Stephanie J. Fuller, Hamid R. Sohrabi, Kathryn G. Goozee, Anoop Sankaranarayanan and Ralph N. Martins 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Alzheimer’s Disease 9 2.2.1 Pathology 9 2.2.2 Symptoms 10 2.2.3 Incidence 11 2.2.4 Onset and Risk Factors 12 2.2.5 Treatment 12 2.2.6 Potential for AD Prevention 13 2.3 Frontotemporal Lobe Dementia 13 2.3.1 Neuropathology and Causes 14 2.3.2 Treatment 15 2.3.3 Diagnosis and Clinical Overlap with Other Diseases 15 2.4 Vascular Dementia 16 2.4.1 Symptoms and Diagnosis 16 2.4.2 Causes and Risk Factors 16 2.4.3 Prevention and Treatment 17 2.4.4 Dementia with Lewy Bodies 18 2.4.5 Causes 18 2.4.6 Symptoms 18 2.4.7 Diagnosis of DLB 18 2.4.7.1 Clinical Approach to Dementias 19 2.5 Parkinson’s Disease 19 2.5.1 Onset 22 2.5.2 Causes and Risk Factors 22 2.5.3 Incidence 22 2.5.4 Pathology 22 2.5.5 Treatment 23 2.6 Huntington’s Disease 24 2.6.1 Genetics of the Disease 24 2.6.2 Incidence and Prevalence 25 2.6.3 Pathology 25 2.6.4 Treatment 26 2.7 Motor Neuron Diseases 27 2.7.1 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 27 2.7.2 Spinal Muscular Atrophy 27 2.7.3 Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia 27 2.7.4 Onset of MND and Differential Diagnosis 28 2.7.5 Incidence, Causes, and Risk Factors 28 2.7.6 Pathology 29 2.7.7 Treatment 30 2.8 Prion Diseases 30 2.8.1 Causes 31 2.8.2 Symptoms and Diagnosis 31 2.8.3 Treatment 32 2.8.4 Differential Diagnosis of the Various Types of Dementia 32 2.8.5 DLB Treatment 33 2.9 Summary 33 References 34 3 Current and Developing Methods for Diagnosing Alzheimer’s Disease 43Stephanie J. Fuller, Nicholas Carrigan, Hamid R. Sohrabi and Ralph N. Martins 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Classical Post-Mortem Diagnosis 43 3.2.1 Plaques 44 3.2.2 Neurofibrillary Tangles (NFT) 44 3.2.3 Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy (CAA) 44 3.2.4 Glial Responses 45 3.2.5 Brain Shrinkage 45 3.2.6 Loss of Synapses and Neurons 45 3.3 Clinical Diagnosis 45 3.3.1 Initial Assessment/Screening Tools 47 3.3.1.1 Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) 47 3.3.1.2 Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) 47 3.3.1.3 Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) 47 3.3.1.4 Clock Drawing 48 3.3.1.5 Seven-Minute Screen 48 3.3.1.6 Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale (ADAS-Cog) 48 3.3.1.7 Psychogeriatric Assessment Scales (PAS) 48 3.3.1.8 Dementia Rating Scale (DRS) 49 3.3.1.9 Mini-Cog 49 3.3.1.10 Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS) 49 3.3.1.11 The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD) Neuropsychological Battery (nb) and Other Tests 49 3.4 Brain Imaging in the Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias 51 3.4.1 Imaging Tests in AD Diagnosis: Established Tests 51 3.4.1.1 Computed Tomography (CT) 51 3.4.1.2 Electroencephalography (EEG) 51 3.4.1.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), for the Assessment of Morphological Changes, and the Detection of Stroke 52 3.4.1.4 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 52 3.4.1.5 FDG-PET 52 3.4.2 Imaging Tests in AD Diagnosis: More Recently Developed Tests 52 3.4.2.1 MRI for Measuring Regional Blood Flow 53 3.4.2.2 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) Scan 54 3.4.2.3 PiB-PET 54 3.4.3 The Rapidly Evolving Diagnostic Criteria 55 3.4.4 CSF Biomarkers of AD 56 3.4.4.1 Aβ, Tau, and AβPP-Related Biomarkers 56 3.4.4.2 Other Potential CSF Protein Biomarkers 57 3.4.4.3 Potential Lipid Biomarkers in the CSF 58 3.4.5 Blood Biomarkers of AD 60 3.4.5.1 Aβ Peptides in Plasma 60 3.4.5.2 Other Potential Blood Biomarkers 62 3.4.5.3 Blood Proteins 62 3.4.6 Blood Lipids 64 3.4.7 Metabolites 65 3.4.8 Blood Platelets 66 3.4.9 Genetic Risk Factors 67 3.4.10 The Eye as a Window to the Brain 68 3.4.11 miRNA Tests 69 3.5 Conclusions 71 References 72 4 The Link Between Diabetes, Glucose Control, and Alzheimer’s Disease and Neurodegenerative Diseases 89Giuseppe Verdile, Paul E. Fraser and Ralph N.Martins 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 The Impact of Type 2 Diabetes on the Brain 90 4.3 Evidence from Cell Culture, Animal, and Clinical Studies 93 4.3.1 CNS Insulin Signalling and Disruptions in AD 93 4.3.2 The Accumulation of Aβ Is Associated with Impaired Insulin Signalling 94 4.3.3 Insulin Resistance Promotes the Accumulation of Aβ 95 4.3.4 Impairments in Insulin Signalling Can Induce Hyperphosphorylation of Tau 96 4.3.5 Type 2 Diabetes and Neuroinflammation 96 4.3.6 Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in T2D and AD 97 4.3.7 Targeting Type 2 Diabetes to Slow Down Progression/Prevent Neurodegeneration and Cognitive Decline 99 4.4 Conclusions 103 References 103 5 Diet and Nutrition, and their Influence on Alzheimer’s Disease and other Neurodegenerative Diseases 117Stephanie R. Rainey-Smith, Rhona Creegan, Stephanie J. Fuller, Michele L. Callisaya and Velandai Srikanth 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Dietary Patterns 118 5.3 Key Macronutrients 119 5.3.1 Dietary Fatty Acids 119 5.3.2 Cholesterol 120 5.3.3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 121 5.3.4 Dietary Carbohydrates 122 5.4 Key Micronutrients 124 5.4.1 Water Soluble Vitamins 125 5.4.1.1 B Vitamins 125 5.4.2 Fat Soluble Vitamins 128 5.4.2.1 Vitamin A (Retinol, Retinal, and Retinoic Acid) 128 5.4.2.2 Vitamin D 129 5.4.2.3 Vitamin E 130 5.4.3 Dietary Minerals 131 5.4.3.1 Selenium 131 5.4.3.2 Manganese 132 5.4.3.3 Zinc, Iron, Copper, and Calcium 132 5.5 Conclusion 134 References 135 6 Carbohydrate and Protein Metabolism: Influences on Cognition and Alzheimer’s Disease 149W.M.A.D. Binosha Fernando, Veer B. Gupta, Vijay Jayasena, Charles S. Brennan and Ralph N.Martins 6.1 Carbohydrates 149 6.1.1 Carbohydrate Digestion 149 6.1.2 Glucose Ingestion and Use 151 6.1.3 Glucose and Insulin, Insulin Resistance, and Type 2 Diabetes (Short Summary) 151 6.1.4 Relative Intake of Carbohydrate and Its Impacts on Neurodegenerative Disease Risk 152 6.1.5 Ketogenic Diets 154 6.1.6 Glucose and Its Effects on Cognition 154 6.1.7 Possible Mechanisms Related to Memory Enhancement with Glucose 157 6.1.7.1 Glucose and the Hippocampus 158 6.1.7.2 Glucose Availability in Brain Cells 158 6.1.7.3 Glucose and the Central Cholinergic System 159 6.1.7.4 ATP-Regulated Potassium (K-ATP) Channels and Brain Control of Glucose Homeostasis 159 6.1.7.5 Effects of High Fructose Diets 160 6.1.7.6 Sucrose 161 6.2 Proteins 161 6.2.1 Protein Metabolism in General 162 6.2.2 Links Between Specific Amino Acids and Brain Function 163 6.2.2.1 Tryptophan 163 6.2.2.2 Tyrosine 164 6.2.3 Clinical Studies of Protein Supplementation 165 6.2.4 Links Between Loss of Protein Function and Neurodegeneration 167 6.2.5 Clearance Mechanisms Associated with Proteinopathies Involved in Neurodegeneration 168 6.2.6 Role of Protein Crosslinking and Inflammation in Neurodegeneration and AD 170 6.3 Conclusion 171 References 171 7 Fat and Lipid Metabolism and the Involvement of Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer’s Disease 189Eugene Hone, Florence Lim and Ian J. Martins 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Alzheimer’s Disease 189 7.3 Cholesterol and Lipid Metabolism 190 7.3.1 Cholesterol Synthesis and Metabolism 190 7.3.2 Oxysterols 191 7.3.2.1 Oxysterols in AD 191 7.3.3 Pathways of Dietary (Exogenous) Lipid Homeostasis 192 7.3.4 Pathways of Endogenous Lipid Homeostasis 193 7.3.5 Peripheral Clearance of Lipoproteins and Reverse Cholesterol Transport 195 7.3.5.1 Lipoproteins in the CNS 197 7.4 Apolipoprotein E Alleles and Isoforms 197 7.4.1 ApoE in the Brain 198 7.4.2 Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer’s Disease 198 7.4.2.1 ApoE Binding to Aβ 199 7.4.2.2 ApoE in the Cellular Clearance of Aβ 200 7.4.2.3 ApoE and Antioxidant Properties 201 7.4.2.4 ApoE and Tissue Transglutaminase 201 7.4.2.5 Apolipoprotein J (Clusterin, CLU) 202 7.5 LRP-1 in the Brain and Its Role in Aβ Clearance 203 7.5.1 LDL, HDL, and AD 203 7.5.2 Statins, Cholesterol, and AD 204 7.6 The Role of Lipid Rafts in Neurodegenerative Diseases 205 7.7 Changes to Glycerophospholipids in Alzheimer’s Disease 206 7.7.1 Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids 207 7.7.1.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Modern Diets, and Health Implications 208 7.8 Sphingolipids 208 7.8.1 Ceramides 208 7.8.2 Sulfatides 209 7.8.3 Gangliosides 209 7.9 Conclusions 210 References 210 8 Inflammation in Alzheimer’s Disease, and Prevention with Antioxidants and Phenolic Compounds –What Are the Most Promising Candidates? 233Matthew J. Sharman, Giuseppe Verdile, Shanmugam Kirubakaran and Gerald Münch 8.1 Introduction 233 8.2 Inflammation and the Immune Response in AD 233 8.2.1 The Role of Microglia and Astrocytes in Chronic Inflammation in AD 233 8.3 Oxidative Stress 236 8.3.1 Advanced Glycation End Products 237 8.3.2 Involvement of the Complement System in AD 238 8.3.3 Involvement of Cytokines and Chemokines in Inflammation 239 8.3.4 Inflammation – Susceptibility to Aβ Deposition or Aggregation 240 8.3.5 Inflammation Can Influence AβPP Metabolism and Aβ Clearance Directly 241 8.4 Current Medications for AD 242 8.4.1 Current Medications – Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors and Memantine 242 8.5 Disease Modification and Treatment Approaches 243 8.5.1 Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAID) 243 8.6 Some Anti-inflammatory Foods, Supplements, and Newly Developed Drugs for the Treatment of AD 244 8.6.1 Cinnamon/Cinnamaldehyde 244 8.6.2 (−)Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) and Other Green Tea Polyphenols 245 8.6.3 Curcumin 247 8.6.4 Other Polyphenolic Antioxidants 248 8.6.5 Omega-3 (n-3) Essential Fatty Acids 249 8.6.6 Lipoic Acid 250 8.7 Conclusion 253 References 253 9 Cognitive Impairments in Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases 267Hamid R. Sohrabi and Michael Weinborn 9.1 Introduction 267 9.2 Dementia due to Alzheimer’s Disease 268 9.2.1 Subjective Cognitive Decline [4] and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) 268 9.2.2 Memory Impairments in AD 271 9.2.2.1 Episodic Memory 271 9.2.2.2 Semantic Memory 272 9.2.2.3 Prospective Memory (PM) 272 9.2.3 Attention and Executive Dysfunction in AD 273 9.2.4 Language 274 9.2.5 Visuospatial Abilities 276 9.2.6 Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease with Dementia 276 9.2.7 Vascular Dementia 277 9.2.8 Frontotemporal Dementia 279 9.3 Conclusions 281 References 282 10 Animal Models of Alzheimer’s Disease 291Prashant Bharadwaj 10.1 Introduction 291 10.2 Transgenic Mouse Models 292 10.3 Knock-in AD Mice Models 296 10.4 Non-Transgenic and Other Mammalian Animal Models 297 10.5 Drug Development and Translational Issues 298 10.6 Correlations Between Animal Models of AD and Human AD 300 10.7 Experimental Design and Reporting 301 10.8 The Future of Animal Models in AD 302 References 303 11 The Products of Fermentation and Their Effects on Metabolism, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases: Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFA) 311W.M.A.D Binosha Fernando, Charles S. Brennan and Ralph N.Martins 11.1 Introduction 311 11.2 Fermentable Substrates and Short-Chain Fatty Acids 312 11.2.1 Colonic Microflora and Fermentation 313 11.2.1.1 Probiotics and Prebiotics 313 11.2.2 Propionic Acid (PPA) 315 11.2.3 Acetic Acid 315 11.2.4 Butyric Acid 315 11.2.5 Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Free Fatty-Acid Receptor Signalling 316 11.2.6 Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Energy Intake 316 11.2.7 Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Energy Expenditure 319 11.2.8 Regulation of Fatty-Acid Metabolism by SCFA 320 11.2.9 Effect of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on Glucose Regulation 320 11.2.10 Regulation of Cholesterol Metabolism by Short-Chain Fatty Acids 321 11.2.11 Regulation of Inflammation by Short-Chain Fatty Acids 322 11.2.12 Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Neuroprotection 324 11.3 Conclusions 325 References 326 12 Hormonal Expression Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease and Neurodegenerative Diseases 335Giuseppe Verdile, Anna M. Barron and Ralph N. Martins 12.1 The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Gonadal (HPG) Axis 335 12.1.1 Dysregulation of the HPG Axis During Ageing 336 12.2 Roles for Sex Steroids and Gonadotropins in the Neurodegenerative Process in AD 339 12.2.1 Sex Steroids Modulate Aβ Accumulation 340 12.2.2 Sex Steroids and Oxidative Stress 342 12.2.3 Sex Steroids and Inflammation 344 12.2.4 Testosterone and Diabetes 346 12.2.5 A Role for Gonadotropins in AD Pathogenesis 347 12.3 Hormone-based Therapies 349 12.3.1 The Oestrogens 349 12.3.2 Testosterone Therapy 350 12.3.3 Selective Oestrogen or Androgen Receptor Modulators (SERM or SARM) 352 12.3.4 Gonadotropin-Lowering Agents 354 12.4 Conclusions 355 References 355 13 The Link Between Exercise and Mediation of Alzheimer’s Disease and Neurodegenerative Diseases 371Belinda Brown and Tejal M. Shah 13.1 Introduction 371 13.2 Physical Activity Promotes Health and Well-being 372 13.3 Neuroplasticity 372 13.4 The Link Between Physical Activity and Cognition Across the Human Lifespan 373 13.4.1 Childhood 373 13.4.2 Adulthood and Midlife 374 13.4.3 Older Adults 375 13.5 Physical Activity Reduces the Risk of Dementia and AD 376 13.6 Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Exercise and Brain Health 376 13.6.1 Evidence from Molecular and Cellular Research 377 13.6.2 Neurotrophins 378 13.6.3 Hormonal Pathways 379 13.6.4 Cardiovascular and Metabolic Mechanisms 380 13.6.5 Evidence from Neuroimaging Studies 380 13.7 The Effect of Genetics on the Relationship Between Exercise and Brain Health 381 13.8 Future Directions 382 References 382 Contents xiii 14 Current and Prospective Treatments for Alzheimer’s Disease (and Other Neurodegenerative Diseases) 391Steve Pedrini, Mike Morici and Ralph N. Martins 14.1 Introduction 391 14.2 Current and Potential Medical Treatments 391 14.2.1 Treatments That Influence Neurotransmission 391 14.2.1.1 Cholinergic System 391 14.2.1.2 Other Neurotransmitters 396 14.2.2 Cholesterol-Lowering Medications 399 14.2.3 Immunotherapy 400 14.2.3.1 Active Immunotherapy (Aβ) 401 14.2.3.2 Active Immunotherapy (tau) 402 14.2.3.3 Passive Immunotherapy (Aβ) 402 14.2.3.4 Passive Immunotherapy (tau) 404 14.2.4 Targeting the Aβ-Producing Pathway 405 14.2.4.1 α-Secretase 406 14.2.4.2 β-Secretase 406 14.2.4.3 γ-Secretase 407 14.2.5 Other Compounds Affecting Aβ 408 14.2.6 Other Compounds Affecting Tau 410 14.2.7 Inflammatory Targets 411 14.3 Conclusions 412 References 412 15 The Role of Genetics in Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease 443Tenielle Porter, Aleksandra K. Gozt, Francis L. Mastaglia and Simon M. Laws 15.1 Introduction 443 15.2 Genetics of Alzheimer’s Disease 444 15.3 Autosomal Dominant AD (ADAD) 445 15.3.1 Understanding the Importance of APP and the Presenilins in AD 445 15.4 Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) 447 15.5 Presenilin 1 (PSEN1) 447 15.6 Presenilin 2 (PSEN2) 448 15.7 Genetic Contributions to Sporadic Late-Onset AD (LOAD) 449 15.8 Cholesterol Metabolism 449 15.8.1 Apolipoprotein E (APOE) 449 15.8.2 Clusterin (CLU) 452 15.8.3 ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter A7 (ABCA7) 453 15.9 Immune Response 454 15.9.1 Complement Receptor 1 (CR1) 454 15.9.2 CD33(Myeloid Cell Surface Antigen CD33; Sialic Acid-Binding Immunoglobulin-Like Lectin 3) 455 15.9.3 Membrane Spanning 4 Domains, Subfamily A (MS4A) 456 15.9.4 Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 (TREM2) 456 15.9.5 Further Genetic Associations Implicating the Immune Response 457 15.10 Endocytosis 458 15.10.1 Bridging Integrator 1 (BIN1) 459 15.10.2 Phosphatidylinositol Binding Clathrin Assembly Lymphoid Myeloid Protein (PICALM) 460 15.10.3 CD2-Associated Protein (CD2AP) 461 15.10.4 Further Genetic Associations Implicating Endocytosis 462 15.10.5 Variants in APP and Genes for APP-Metabolising Proteins 463 15.10.6 Further Mechanisms Implicated Through Genetic Associations 464 15.11 Genetics of Parkinson’s Disease 465 15.12 Monogenic forms of PD 466 15.12.1 Autosomal Dominant Forms 466 15.12.1.1 PARK 1 (SNCA) 466 15.12.1.2 PARK 8 (LRRK2) 467 15.12.1.3 PARK 11 (GIGYF2) 468 15.12.1.4 PARK 17 (VPS35) 468 15.12.1.5 PARK 18 (EIF4G1) 468 15.12.2 Autosomal Recessive Forms 469 15.12.2.1 PARK 2 (PRKN) 469 15.12.2.2 PARK 6 (PINK 1) 469 15.12.2.3 PARK 7 (DJ-1) 470 15.12.2.4 PARK 9 (ATP13A2) 470 15.12.2.5 PARK 14 (PLA2G6) 470 15.12.2.6 PARK 15 (FBXO7) 471 15.12.3 Genetic Contributions to Late-Onset Sporadic PD (LOPD) 471 15.12.4 Common Variants in PD Genes 471 15.12.5 Glucocerebrosidase (GBA) 472 15.12.6 Immune-Inflammatory Genes 472 15.12.7 Mitochondrial DNA Variants 473 15.13 Conclusion 473 References 474 Final Thoughts Regarding Alzheimer’s Disease, Diet, and Health 499Charles S. Brennan, Margaret A. Brennan, W.M.A.D. Binosha Fernando, Stephanie J. Fuller and Ralph N.Martins List of Abbreviations 503 Index 511

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Book SynopsisPresents the many recent innovations and advancements in the field of biotechnological processes This book tackles the challenges and potential of biotechnological processes for the production of new industrial ingredients, bioactive compounds, biopolymers, energy sources, and compounds with commercial/industrial and economic interest by performing an interface between the developments achieved in the recent worldwide research and its many challenges to the upscale process until the adoption of commercial as well as industrial scale. Bioprocessing for Biomolecules Production examines the current status of the use and limitation of biotechnology in different industrial sectors, prospects for development combined with advances in technology and investment, and intellectual and technical production around worldwide research. It also covers new regulatory bodies, laws and regulations, and more. Chapters look at biological and biotechnological processes in the food, pharmaceutical, and bTable of ContentsContributors xvii Part I General Overview of Biotechnology for Industrial Segments: An Industrial Approach 1 1 An Overview of Biotechnological Processes in the Food Industry 3 Bianca M.P. Silveira, Mayara C.S. Barcelos, Kele A.C. Vespermann, Franciele M. Pelissari, and Gustavo Molina 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Biotechnological Process Applied to Food Products 4 1.2.1 Organic Acids 4 1.2.2 Flavors 5 1.2.3 Polysaccharides 6 1.2.4 Amino Acids 6 1.2.5 Enzymes 7 1.2.6 Surfactants 7 1.2.7 Pigments 8 1.3 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) 9 1.4 Future Perspectives of Biotechnological Processes in the Food Industry 10 1.5 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 11 References 12 2 Status of Biotechnological Processes in the Pharmaceutical Industry 21 Natalia Videira, Robson Tramontina, Victoria Ramos Sodré, and Fabiano Jares Contesini 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Main Biotechnological Products in the Pharmaceutical Industry 23 2.2.1 Antibiotics in the Pharmaceutical Industry 23 2.2.2 Enzymes in the Pharmaceutical Industry 24 2.2.3 Antibodies in the Pharmaceutical Industry 27 2.3 Prospects for Area Development 33 2.3.1 Patent Generation 33 2.3.2 Perspectives for Biotechnology in the Pharmaceutical Sector 35 2.4 Conclusion 38 References 39 3 Current Status of Biotechnological Processes in the Biofuel Industries 47 Gustavo Pagotto Borin, Rafael Ferraz Alves, and Antônio Djalma Nunes Ferraz Júnior 3.1 Introduction 47 3.2 Biofuels and an Overview of the Industrial Processes 49 3.2.1 Bioethanol 49 3.2.2 Biodiesel 53 3.2.3 Biobutanol 54 3.2.4 Biogas 56 3.2.5 Microalgal Biomass for Biofuels Production 61 3.3 Conclusion 62 References 62 Part II Biotechnological Research and Production of Food Ingredients 71 4 Research, Development, and Production of Microalgal and Microbial Biocolorants 73 Laurent Dufossé 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Carotenoids 74 4.2.1 Lutein and Zeaxanthin 74 4.2.2 Aryl Carotenoids (Orange Colors and Highly Active Antioxidants) are Specific to Some Microorganisms 77 4.2.3 C50 Carotenoids (Sarcinaxanthin, Decaprenoxanthin) 78 4.2.4 Techniques for the Production of Novel Carotenoids with Improved Color Strength/Stability/Antioxidant Properties 79 4.3 Azaphilones 80 4.3.1 Toward Mycotoxin-Free Monascus Red 80 4.3.2 Monascus-Like Pigments from Nontoxigenic Fungal Strains 83 4.4 Anthraquinones 84 4.4.1 Fungal Natural Red 84 4.4.2 Other Fungal Anthraquinones 85 4.5 Phycobiliproteins 85 4.6 Conclusion 87 References 89 5 Prospective Research and Current Technologies for Bioflavor Production 93 Marina Gabriel Pessôa, Bruno Nicolau Paulino, Gustavo Molina, and Glaucia Maria Pastore 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Microbial Production of Bioflavors 100 5.2.1 Biotransformation of Terpenes 100 5.2.2 De Novo Synthesis 104 5.3 Enzymatic Production of Bioflavors 108 5.4 Conclusion 112 References 112 6 Research and Production of Biosurfactants for the Food Industry 125 Eduardo J. Gudiña and Lígia R. Rodrigues 6.1 Introduction 125 6.2 Biosurfactants as Food Additives 126 6.3 Biosurfactants as Powerful Antimicrobial and Anti-Adhesive Weapons for the Food Industry 129 6.4 Potential Role of Biosurfactants in New Nano-Solutions for the Food Industry 134 6.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 135 Acknowledgments 136 References 136 7 Fermentative Production of Microbial Exopolysaccharides 145 Jochen Schmid and Volker Sieber 7.1 Introduction 145 7.2 Cultivation Media and Renewable Resources 147 7.3 Bioreactor Geometries and Design 148 7.4 Fermentation Strategies for Microbial Exopolysaccharide Production 152 7.5 Approaches to Reduce Fermentation Broth Viscosity 153 7.6 Polymer Byproducts and Purity 154 7.7 Downstream Processing of Microbial Exopolysaccharides 155 7.7.1 Removal of Cell Biomass 155 7.7.2 Precipitation of the Polysaccharides 156 7.7.3 Dewatering/Drying of the Polysaccharides 158 7.8 Conclusions 159 References 159 8 Research and Production of Microbial Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids 167 Gwendoline Christophe, Pierre Fontanille, and Christian Larroche 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Lipids Used for Food Supplement 168 8.2.1 PUFAs: Omega-3 and Omega-6 Families 168 8.2.2 Role of PUFAs in Health 169 8.3 Microbial Lipids 170 8.3.1 Biosynthesis in Oleaginous Microorganisms 170 8.3.2 Microorganisms Involved in PUFAs Production 175 8.4 Production Strategies 182 8.4.1 Culture Conditions 182 8.5 Process Strategies 185 8.5.1 Modes of Culture 185 8.5.2 Substrates 186 8.5.3 Metabolic Engineering 186 8.6 Conclusions 187 References 187 9 Research and Production of Organic Acids and Industrial Potential 195 Sandeep Kumar Panda, Lopamudra Sahu, Sunil Kumar Behera, and Ramesh Chandra Ray 9.1 Introduction: History and Current Trends 195 9.2 Current and Future Markets for Organic Acids 196 9.3 Types of Organic Acids 196 9.3.1 Citric Acid 197 9.3.2 Acetic Acid 198 9.3.3 Propionic Acid (PA) 198 9.3.4 Succinic Acid 199 9.3.5 Lactic Acid 200 9.3.6 Other Organic Acids 200 9.4 Metabolic/Genetic Engineering: Trends in Organic Acid Technology 201 9.5 Research Gaps and Techno-Economic Feasibility 202 9.6 Conclusion 204 References 204 10 Research and Production of Microbial Polymers for Food Industry 211 Sinem Selvin Selvi, Edina Eminagic, Muhammed Yusuf Kandur, Emrah Ozcan, Ceyda Kasavi, and Ebru Toksoy Oner 10.1 Introduction 211 10.1.1 Biosynthesis of Microbial Polymers 212 10.2 Levan 213 10.2.1 General Properties of Levan 213 10.2.2 Production Processes for Levan 213 10.2.3 Food Applications of Levan 216 10.3 Pullulan 216 10.3.1 General Properties of Pullulan 216 10.3.2 Production Processes of Pullulan 216 10.3.3 Food Applications of Pullulan 218 10.4 Alginate 218 10.4.1 General Properties of Alginate 218 10.4.2 Production Processes for Alginate 218 10.4.3 Food Applications of Alginate 219 10.5 Curdlan 219 10.5.1 General Properties of Curdlan 219 10.5.2 Production Processes for Curdlan 220 10.5.3 Food Applications of Curdlan 221 10.6 Gellan Gum 221 10.6.1 General Properties of Gellan Gum 221 10.6.2 Production Processes for Gellan Gum 221 10.6.3 Food Applications of Gellan Gum 222 10.7 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 223 10.7.1 General Properties of PHAs 223 10.7.2 Food Applications of PHAs 225 10.8 Scleroglucan 225 10.8.1 General Properties of Scleroglucan 225 10.8.2 Production Processes for Scleroglucan 226 10.8.3 Food Applications of Scleroglucans 226 10.9 Xanthan Gum 226 10.9.1 General Properties of Xanthan Gum 226 10.9.2 Production Processes of Xanthan Gum 227 10.9.3 Food Applications of Xanthan Gum 227 10.10 Dextran 228 10.10.1 General Properties of Dextran 228 10.10.2 Production Processes of Dextran 229 10.10.3 Food Applications of Dextran 230 10.11 Conclusions 230 References 232 11 Research and Production of Microbial Functional Sugars and Their Potential for Industry 239 Helen Treichel, Simone Maria Golunski, Aline Frumi Camargo, Thamarys Scapini, Tatiani Andressa Modkovski, Bruno Venturin, Eduarda Roberta Bordin, Vanusa Rossetto, and Altemir José Mossi 11.1 Introduction 239 11.2 Bioactive Compounds 240 11.2.1 Probiotics 240 11.2.2 Prebiotics 241 11.3 Production Technology for Probiotic Strains 243 11.4 Stabilization Technology for Probiotic Strains 244 11.4.1 Microencapsulation 244 11.4.2 Spray Drying 246 11.4.3 Freeze Drying 246 11.4.4 Fluidized Bed and Vacuum Drying 247 11.4.5 Other Technologies 247 11.5 Study of Scale-Up Process: Advances, Difficulties, and Limitations Achieved 248 11.6 Potential Development of the Area and Future Prospects 248 11.7 Conclusion 249 References 250 12 Research and Production of Ingredients Using Unconventional Raw Materials as Alternative Substrates 255 Susana Rodríguez-Couto 12.1 Introduction 255 12.2 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) 256 12.3 Production of Food Ingredients from Unconventional Raw Materials by SSF 257 12.3.1 Organic Acids 257 12.3.2 Phenolic Compounds 264 12.3.3 Flavor and Aroma Compounds 265 12.3.4 Pigments 266 12.4 Outlook 267 References 267 Part III Biotechnological Research and Production of Biomolecules 273 13 Genetic Engineering as a Driver for Biotechnological Developments and Cloning Tools to Improve Industrial Microorganisms 275 Cíntia Lacerda Ramos, Leonardo de Figueiredo Vilela, and Rosane Freitas Schwan 13.1 Introduction 275 13.2 Microorganisms and Metabolites of Industrial Interest 275 13.2.1 Primary Metabolites 276 13.2.2 Secondary Metabolites 277 13.2.3 Microbial Enzymes 278 13.3 The Culture-Independent Method for Biotechnological Developments 279 13.4 Tools and Methodologies Applied to GMOs Generation 280 13.5 Conclusion 285 References 285 14 Advances in Biofuel Production by Strain Development in Yeast from Lignocellulosic Biomass 289 Aravind Madhavan, Raveendran Sindhu, K.B. Arun, Ashok Pandey, Parameswaran Binod, and Edgard Gnansounou 14.1 Introduction 289 14.2 Improvement of Ethanol Tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae 290 14.3 Engineering of Substrate Utilization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae 291 14.4 Engineering Tolerance Against Inhibitors, Temperature, and Solvents 293 14.5 Future Perspectives and Conclusions 295 Acknowledgments 296 References 297 15 Fermentative Production of Beta-Glucan: Properties and Potential Applications 303 Rafael Rodrigues Philippini, Sabrina Evelin Martiniano, Júlio César dos Santos, Silvio Silvério da Silva, and Anuj Kumar Chandel 15.1 Introduction 303 15.2 Beta-Glucan Structure and Properties 304 15.3 Microorganisms: Assets in Beta-Glucan Production 307 15.4 Strain Improvement Methods for Beta-Glucan Production 308 15.5 Fermentation: Methods and New Formulations 308 15.5.1 Carbon Sources 310 15.5.2 Nitrogen Sources 310 15.5.3 Micronutrients, Additives, and Vitamins 310 15.5.4 pH, Temperature, and Fermentation Time 311 15.5.5 Fermentation Methods 311 15.6 Beta-Glucan Recovery Methods 312 15.7 Potential Applications of Beta-Glucan 312 15.7.1 Food Applications 312 15.7.2 Chemical Applications 313 15.7.3 Pharmaceutical Applications 314 15.7.4 Utilization of Agroindustrial Byproducts as Carbon and Nitrogen Sources 314 15.7.5 Future Commercial Prospects 315 15.8 Conclusions 315 Acknowledgment 315 References 316 16 Extremophiles for Hydrolytic Enzymes Productions: Biodiversity and Potential Biotechnological Applications 321 Divjot Kour, Kusam Lata Rana, Tanvir Kaur, Bhanumati Singh, Vinay Singh Chauhan, Ashok Kumar, Ali A. Rastegari, Neelam Yadav, Ajar Nath Yadav, and Vijai Kumar Gupta 16.1 Introduction 321 16.2 Enumeration and Characterization of Extremophiles 322 16.3 Biodiversity and Abundance of Extremophiles 325 16.4 Diversity of Extremozymes and Their Biotechnological Applications 333 16.4.1 Amylase 333 16.4.2 Proteases 337 16.4.3 Pectinase 337 16.4.4 Cellulase 339 16.4.5 Xylanases 340 16.4.6 Lipases 348 16.4.7 L-Glutaminase 350 16.4.8 β-Galactosidase 351 16.4.9 Tannases 352 16.4.10 Aminopeptidases 352 16.4.11 Polysaccharide Lyases 353 16.4.12 Phytases 354 16.5 Conclusion and Future Scope 355 Acknowledgment 355 References 356 17 Recent Development in Ferulic Acid Esterase for Industrial Production 373 Surabhi Singh, Om Prakash Dwivedi, and Shashank Mishra 17.1 Introduction 373 17.2 Microbial Production of Ferulic Acid Esterase 374 17.3 Microbial Assay for FAE Production 374 17.4 Worldwide Demand and Production of FAE 375 17.5 Process Optimization for FAE Production 375 17.6 Recent Development and Genetic Engineering for the Enhancement of FAE Production 378 17.7 Conclusion 379 References 379 18 Research and Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 383 H.L. Raghavendra, Shashank Mishra, Shivaleela P. Upashe, and Juliana F. Floriano 18.1 Introduction 383 18.1.1 Second-Generation Biofuels 384 18.1.2 Feedstocks for Biofuels 384 18.1.2.5 Energy Crops 386 18.1.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel 386 18.1.4 Types of Second-Generation Biofuels 386 18.1.5 Research on Second-Generation Biofuels 389 18.1.6 Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 392 18.1.7 The Impact on the Environment During the Production of Second-Generation Biofuels 395 18.1.8 Conclusions 396 References 397 19 Research and Production of Third-Generation Biofuels 401 Saurabh Singh, Arthur P.A. Pereira, and Jay Prakash Verma 19.1 Introduction 401 19.2 Cultivation of Algal Cells 402 19.3 Strain Selection 404 19.4 Types of Micro-Algae Used to Produce Third-Generation Biofuels 405 19.5 Biomass Preparation for Third-Generation Biofuel 405 19.6 Photobioreactors 406 19.6.1 Open Ponds 406 19.6.2 Vertical Column Photobioreactors 407 19.6.3 Flat-Plate Photobioreactors 407 19.6.4 Tubular Photobioreactors 407 19.6.5 Internally Illuminated Photobioreactors 408 19.7 Production of Biofuels from Algal Cultures 408 19.7.1 Biochemical Conversion 408 19.7.2 Thermochemical Conversion 410 19.7.3 Chemical Conversion 410 19.8 Factors Governing the Production of Third-Generation Biofuels 411 19.9 Advantages of Third-Generation Biofuel Production 411 19.10 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 412 Acknowledgments 413 References 413 20 Bioethanol Production from Fruit and Vegetable Wastes 417 Meganathan Bhuvaneswari and Nallusamy Sivakumar 20.1 Introduction 417 20.2 Importance of Biofuels 418 20.3 Bioethanol as a Promising Biofuel 418 20.4 Bioethanol from Wastes 419 20.5 General Mechanism of Production of Bioethanol 420 20.6 Ethanol Production Using Fruit Wastes 420 20.6.1 Bioethanol from Banana Wastes 420 20.6.2 Bioethanol from Citrus Fruit Wastes 421 20.6.3 Bioethanol from Pineapple Wastes 422 20.6.4 Bioethanol from Pomegranate 422 20.6.5 Bioethanol from Mango Wastes 423 20.6.6 Bioethanol from Jackfruit Wastes 423 20.6.7 Bioethanol from Date Palm Fruit Wastes 423 20.6.8 Pistachio-Wastes as Potential Raw Material 423 20.6.9 Bioethanol from Other Fruit Wastes 424 20.7 Bioethanol from Vegetable Wastes 424 20.8 Conclusion 425 References 425 21 Bioprocessing of Cassava Stem to Bioethanol Using Soaking in Aqueous Ammonia Pretreatment 429 Ashokan Anushya, Moorthi Swathika, Selvaraju Sivamani, and Nallusamy Sivakumar 21.1 Introduction 429 21.2 Characterization of Cassava Stem 431 21.3 SAA Pretreatment of Cassava Stem 431 21.3.1 Effect of Temperature 432 21.3.2 Effect of Ammonia Concentration 434 21.3.3 Effect of SLR 434 21.4 Ethanol Fermentation 437 21.5 Conclusion 437 References 438 22 Bioprospecting of Microbes for Biohydrogen Production: Current Status and Future Challenges 443 Sunil Kumar, Sushma Sharma, Sapna Thakur, Tanuja Mishra, Puneet Negi, Shashank Mishra, Abd El-Latif Hesham, Ali A. Rastegari, Neelam Yadav, and Ajar Nath Yadav 22.1 Introduction 443 22.2 Biohydrogen Production Process 444 22.2.1 Photofermentation 444 22.2.2 Dark Fermentation 449 22.2.3 Biophotolysis 452 22.2.4 Microbial Electrolysis Cells 454 22.3 Molecular Aspects of Hydrogen Production 458 22.4 Biotechnological Tools Involved in the Process 459 22.5 Reactors for Biohydrogen Production 460 22.5.1 Tubular Reactor 460 22.5.2 Flat Panel Reactor 461 22.6 Scientific Advancements and Major Challenges in Biohydrogen Production Processes 461 22.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects 462 Acknowledgment 462 References 462 Index 473

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Book SynopsisDuring the last decade, image and signal compression for storage and transmission purpose has seen a great expansion. But what about medical data compression? Should a medical image or a physiological signal be processed and compressed like any other data? The progress made in imaging systems, storing systems and telemedicine makes compression in this field particularly interesting. However, this compression has to be adapted to the specificities of biomedical data which contain diagnosis information. As such, this book offers an overview of compression techniques applied to medical data, including: physiological signals, MRI, X-ray, ultrasound images, static and dynamic volumetric images. Researchers, clinicians, engineers and professionals in this area, along with postgraduate students in the signal and image processing field, will find this book to be of great interest.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Chapter 1. Relevance of Biomedical Data Compression 1 Jean-Yves TANGUY, Pierre JALLET, Christel LE BOZEC and Guy FRIJA 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. The management of digital data using PACS 2 1.2.1. Usefulness of PACS 2 1.2.2. The limitations of installing a PACS 3 1.3. The increasing quantities of digital data 4 1.3.1. An example from radiology 4 1.3.2. An example from anatomic pathology 6 1.3.3. An example from cardiology with ECG 7 1.3.4. Increases in the number of explorative examinations 8 1.4. Legal and practical matters 8 1.5. The role of data compression. 9 1.6. Diagnostic quality 10 1.6.1. Evaluation 10 1.6.2. Reticence 11 1.7. Conclusion 12 1.8. Bibliography 12 Chapter 2. State of the Art of Compression Methods 15 Atilla BASKURT 2.1. Introduction 15 2.2. Outline of a generic compression technique 16 2.2.1. Reducing redundancy 17 2.2.2. Quantizing the decorrelated information 18 2.2.3. Coding the quantized values 18 2.2.4. Compression ratio, quality evaluation 20 2.3. Compression of still images 21 2.3.1. JPEG standard 22 2.3.1.1. Why use DCT? 22 2.3.1.2. Quantization 24 2.3.1.3. Coding 24 2.3.1.4. Compression of still color images with JPEG 25 2.3.1.5. JPEG standard: conclusion 26 2.3.2. JPEG 2000 standard 27 2.3.2.1. Wavelet transform 27 2.3.2.2. Decomposition of images with the wavelet transform 27 2.3.2.3. Quantization and coding of subbands 29 2.3.2.4. Wavelet-based compression methods, serving as references 30 2.3.2.5. JPEG 2000 standard 31 2.4. The compression of image sequences 33 2.4.1. DCT-based video compression scheme 34 2.4.2. A history of and comparison between video standards 36 2.4.3. Recent developments in video compression 38 2.5. Compressing 1D signals 38 2.6. The compression of 3D objects 39 2.7. Conclusion and future developments 39 2.8. Bibliography 40 Chapter 3. Specificities of Physiological Signals and Medical Images 43 Christine CAVARO-MÉNARD, Amine NAÏT-ALI, Jean-Yves TANGUY, Elsa ANGELINI, Christel LE BOZEC and Jean-Jacques LE JEUNE 3.1. Introduction 43 3.2. Characteristics of physiological signals 44 3.2.1. Main physiological signals 44 3.2.1.1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) 44 3.2.1.2. Evoked potential (EP) 45 3.2.1.3. Electromyogram (EMG) 45 3.2.1.4. Electrocardiogram (ECG) 46 3.2.2. Physiological signal acquisition 46 3.2.3. Properties of physiological signals 46 3.2.3.1. Properties of EEG signals 46 3.2.3.2. Properties of ECG signals 48 3.3. Specificities of medical images 50 3.3.1. The different features of medical imaging formation processes 50 3.3.1.1. Radiology 51 3.3.1.2. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 54 3.3.1.3. Ultrasound 58 3.3.1.4. Nuclear medicine 62 3.3.1.5. Anatomopathological imaging 66 3.3.1.6. Conclusion 68 3.3.2. Properties of medical images 69 3.3.2.1. The size of images 70 3.3.2.2. Spatial and temporal resolution 71 3.3.2.3. Noise in medical images 72 3.4. Conclusion 73 3.5. Bibliography 74 Chapter 4. Standards in Medical Image Compression 77 Bernard GIBAUD and Joël CHABRIAIS 4.1. Introduction 77 4.2. Standards for communicating medical data 79 4.2.1. Who creates the standards, and how? 79 4.2.2. Standards in the healthcare sector 80 4.2.2.1. Technical committee 251 of CEN 80 4.2.2.2. Technical committee 215 of the ISO 80 4.2.2.3. DICOM Committee 80 4.2.2.4.Health Level Seven (HL7) 85 4.2.2.5. Synergy between the standards bodies 86 4.3. Existing standards for image compression 87 4.3.1. Image compression 87 4.3.2. Image compression in the DICOM standard 89 4.3.2.1. The coding of compressed images in DICOM 89 4.3.2.2. The types of compression available 92 4.3.2.3. Modes of access to compressed data 95 4.4. Conclusion 99 4.5. Bibliography 99 Chapter 5. Quality Assessment of Lossy Compressed Medical Images 101 Christine CAVARO-MÉNARD, Patrick LE CALLET, Dominique BARBA and Jean-Yves TANGUY 5.1. Introduction 101 5.2. Degradations generated by compression norms and their consequences in medical imaging 102 5.2.1. The block effect 102 5.2.2. Fading contrast in high spatial frequencies 103 5.3. Subjective quality assessment 105 5.3.1. Protocol evaluation 105 5.3.2. Analyzing the diagnosis reliability 106 5.3.2.1. ROC analysis 108 5.3.2.2. Analyses that are not based on the ROC method 111 5.3.3. Analyzing the quality of diagnostic criteria 111 5.3.4. Conclusion 114 5.4. Objective quality assessment 114 5.4.1. Simple signal-based metrics 115 5.4.2. Metrics based on texture analysis 115 5.4.3. Metrics based on a model version of the HVS 117 5.4.3.1. Luminance adaptation 117 5.4.3.2. Contrast sensivity 118 5.4.3.3. Spatio-frequency decomposition 118 5.4.3.4. Masking effect 119 5.4.3.5. Visual distortion measures 120 5.4.4. Analysis of the modification of quantitative clinical parameters 123 5.5. Conclusion 125 5.6. Bibliography 125 Chapter 6. Compression of Physiological Signals 129 Amine NAÏT-ALI 6.1. Introduction 129 6.2. Standards for coding physiological signals 130 6.2.1. CEN/ENV 1064 Norm 130 6.2.2. ASTM 1467 Norm 130 6.2.3. EDF norm 130 6.2.4. Other norms 131 6.3. EEG compression 131 6.3.1. Time-domain EEG compression 131 6.3.2. Frequency-domain EEG compression 132 6.3.3. Time-frequency EEG compression 132 6.3.4. Spatio-temporal compression of the EEG 132 6.3.5. Compression of the EEG by parameter extraction 132 6.4. ECG compression 133 6.4.1. State of the art 133 6.4.2. Evaluation of the performances of ECG compression methods 134 6.4.3. ECG pre-processing 135 6.4.4. ECG compression for real-time transmission 136 6.4.4.1. Time domain ECG compression 136 6.4.4.2. Compression of the ECG in the frequency domain 141 6.4.5. ECG compression for storage 144 6.4.5.1. Synchronization and polynomial modeling 145 6.4.5.2. Synchronization and interleaving 149 6.4.5.3. Compression of the ECG signal using the JPEG 2000 standard 150 6.5. Conclusion 150 6.6. Bibliography 151 Chapter 7. Compression of 2D Biomedical Images 155 Christine CAVARO-MÉNARD, Amine NAÏT-ALI, Olivier DEFORGES and Marie BABEL 7.1. Introduction 155 7.2. Reversible compression of medical images 156 7.2.1. Lossless compression by standard methods 156 7.2.2. Specific methods of lossless compression 157 7.2.3. Compression based on the region of interest 158 7.2.4. Conclusion 160 7.3. Lossy compression of medical images 160 7.3.1. Quantization of medical images 160 7.3.1.1. Principles of vector quantization 161 7.3.1.2. A few illustrations 161 7.3.1.3. Balanced tree-structured vector quantization 163 7.3.1.4. Pruned tree-structured vector quantization 163 7.3.1.5. Other vector quantization methods applied to medical images 163 7.3.2. DCT-based compression of medical images 164 7.3.3. JPEG 2000 lossy compression of medical images 167 7.3.3.1. Optimizing the JPEG 2000 parameters for the compression of medical images 167 7.3.4. Fractal compression 170 7.3.5. Some specific compression methods 171 7.3.5.1. Compression of mammography images 171 7.3.5.2. Compression of ultrasound images 172 7.4. Progressive compression of medical images 173 7.4.1. State-of-the-art progressive medical image compression techniques 173 7.4.2. LAR progressive compression of medical images 174 7.4.2.1. Characteristics of the LAR encoding method 174 7.4.2.2. Progressive LAR encoding 176 7.4.2.3. Hierarchical region encoding 178 7.5. Conclusion 181 7.6. Bibliography 182 Chapter 8. Compression of Dynamic and Volumetric Medical Sequences 187 Azza OULED ZAID, Christian OLIVIER and Amine NAÏT-ALI 8.1. Introduction 187 8.2. Reversible compression of (2D+t) and 3D medical data sets 190 8.3. Irreversible compression of (2D+t) medical sequences 192 8.3.1. Intra-frame lossy coding 192 8.3.2. Inter-frame lossy coding 194 8.3.2.1. Conventional video coding techniques 194 8.3.2.2. Modified video coders 195 8.3.2.3. 2D+t wavelet-based coding systems limits 195 8.4. Irreversible compression of volumetric medical data sets 196 8.4.1. Wavelet-based intra coding 196 8.4.2. Extension of 2D transform-based coders to 3D data 197 8.4.2.1. 3D DCT coding 197 8.4.2.2. 3D wavelet-based coding based on scalar or vector quantization 198 8.4.2.3. Embedded 3D wavelet-based coding 199 8.4.2.4. Object-based 3D embedded coding 204 8.4.2.5. Performance assessment of 3D embedded coders 205 8.5. Conclusion 207 8.6. Bibliography 208 Chapter 9. Compression of Static and Dynamic 3D Surface Meshes 211 Khaled MAMOU, Françoise PRÊTEUX, Rémy PROST and Sébastien VALETTE 9.1. Introduction 211 9.2. Definitions and properties of triangular meshes 213 9.3. Compression of static meshes 216 9.3.1. Single resolution mesh compression 217 9.3.1.1. Connectivity coding 217 9.3.1.2. Geometry coding 218 9.3.2. Multi-resolution compression 219 9.3.2.1. Mesh simplification methods 219 9.3.2.2. Spectral methods 219 9.3.2.3. Wavelet-based approaches 220 9.4. Compression of dynamic meshes 229 9.4.1. State of the art 230 9.4.1.1. Prediction-based techniques 230 9.4.1.2. Wavelet-based techniques 231 9.4.1.3. Clustering-based techniques 233 9.4.1.4. PCA-based techniques 234 9.4.1.5. Discussion 234 9.4.2. Application to dynamic 3D pulmonary data in computed tomography 236 9.4.2.1. Data 236 9.4.2.2. Proposed approach 237 9.4.2.3. Results 238 9.5. Conclusion 239 9.6. Appendices 240 9.6.1. Appendix A: mesh via the MC algorithm 240 9.7. Bibliography 241 Chapter 10. Hybrid Coding: Encryption-Watermarking-Compression for Medical Information Security 247 William PUECH and Gouenou COATRIEUX 10.1. Introduction 247 10.2. Protection of medical imagery and data 248 10.2.1. Legislation and patient rights 248 10.2.2. A wide range of protection measures 249 10.3. Basics of encryption algorithms 251 10.3.1. Encryption algorithm classification 251 10.3.2. The DES encryption algorithm 252 10.3.3. The AES encryption algorithm 253 10.3.4. Asymmetric block system: RSA 254 10.3.5. Algorithms for stream ciphering 255 10.4. Medical image encryption 257 10.4.1. Image block encryption 258 10.4.2. Coding images by asynchronous stream cipher 258 10.4.3. Applying encryption to medical images 259 10.4.4. Selective encryption of medical images 261 10.5. Medical image watermarking and encryption 265 10.5.1. Image watermarking and health uses 265 10.5.2. Watermarking techniques and medical imagery 266 10.5.2.1. Characteristics. 266 10.5.2.2. The methods 267 10.5.3. Confidentiality and integrity of medical images by data encryption and data hiding 269 10.6. Conclusion. 272 10.7. Bibliography 273 Chapter 11. Transmission of Compressed Medical Data on Fixed and Mobile Networks 277 Christian OLIVIER, Benoît PARREIN and Rodolphe VAUZELLE 11.1. Introduction 277 11.2. Brief overview of the existing applications 278 11.3. The fixed and mobile networks 279 11.3.1. The network principles 279 11.3.1.1. Presentation, definitions and characteristics 279 11.3.1.2. The different structures and protocols 281 11.3.1.3. Improving the Quality of Service 281 11.3.2. Wireless communication systems 282 11.3.2.1. Presentation of these systems 282 11.3.2.2. Wireless specificities 284 11.4. Transmission of medical images 287 11.4.1. Contexts 287 11.4.1.1. Transmission inside a hospital 287 11.4.1.2. Transmission outside hospital on fixed networks 287 11.4.1.3. Transmission outside hospital on mobile networks 288 11.4.2. Encountered problems 288 11.4.2.1. Inside fixed networks 288 11.4.2.2. Inside mobile networks 289 11.4.3. Presentation of some solutions and directions 293 11.4.3.1. Use of error correcting codes 294 11.4.3.2. Unequal protection using the Mojette transform 297 11.5. Conclusion 299 11.6. Bibliography 300 Conclusion 303 List of Authors 305 Index 309

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