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Book SynopsisWritten by two leading researchers from the world-renowned Japan Atomic Energy Agency, the Nuclear Hydrogen Production Handbook is an unrivalled overview of current and future prospects for the effective production of hydrogen via nuclear energy. Combining information from scholarly analyses, industrial data, references, and other resources, this handbook illustrates hydrogen's versatility and potential both as a sustainable energy carrier (e.g., fuel for vehicles and power generators) and as a feedstock material for industry (agriculture, oil, chemical, and steel, etc.). Packed with details about the science, engineering, and production involved in nuclear hydrogen generation, this handbook presents case studies that delve into: Research results of hydrogen development programs sponsored by Japan, Argentina, China, Korea, the US and the EU, among others Operational developments at major nuclear reactorsTrade ReviewNuclear hydrogen will be significant for a low carbon society. This book is excellent for the first step.—Dr. Yoshimi Okada, Chiyoda Corporation, JapanHydrogen economy as an alternative energy source to reduce CO2 emission has been discussed for decades. The fact that nuclear hydrogen production is now almost reality is not widely known. This handbook gives us the most thorough review of the state of art of nuclear hydrogen, which could be used not only for scientific and technological communities, but also for the potential users to assess its reality.—Dr. Toru Ogawa, Japan Atomic Energy Agency, Japan Table of ContentsSection I: Hydrogen and Its Production from Nuclear EnergyThe Role of Hydrogen in the World Economy. Nuclear Hydrogen Production: An Overview. Section II: Hydrogen Production MethodsWater Electrolysis. Steam Electrolysis. Thermochemical Decomposition of Water. Conversion of Hydrocarbons. Biomass Method. Radiolysis of Water. Section III: Nuclear Hydrogen Production SystemsWater Reactor. High-Temperature Gas Reactor. Sodium Fast Reactor. Gas Fast Reactor. Fluoride Salt Advanced High-Temperature Reactor. STAR-H2: A Pb-Cooled, Long Refueling Interval Reactor. Fusion Reactor Hydrogen Production. Section IV: Applied Science and TechnologyHigh-Temperature Electrolysis of Steam. Thermochemical Iodine–Sulfur Process. The Hybrid Sulfur Cycle. Nuclear Coal Gasification. Nuclear Steam Reforming of Methane. Hydrogen Plant Construction and Process Materials. Nuclear Hydrogen Production Process Reactors. Nuclear Hydrogen Production Plant Safety. Nuclear Hydrogen Plant Operations and Products. Licensing Framework for Nuclear Hydrogen Production Plant. Section V: Worldwide Research and DevelopmentHydrogen Production and Applications Program in Argentina. Nuclear Hydrogen Production Development in China. European Union Activities on Using Nuclear Power for Hydrogen Production. HTTR-IS Nuclear Hydrogen Demonstration Program in Japan. Nuclear Hydrogen Project in Korea. NGNP and NHI Programs of the U.S. Department of Energy. International Development of Fusion Energy. Section VI: AppendicesChemical, Thermodynamic, and Transport Properties of Pure Compounds and Solutions. Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Coolants for Nuclear Reactors Considered for Hydrogen Production.

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Book SynopsisThis second volume of the Charged Particle Traps deals with the rapidly expanding body of research exploiting the electromagnetic con?nement of ions, whose principles and techniques were the subject of volume I. These applications include revolutionary advances in diverse ?elds, ranging from such practical ?elds as mass spectrometry, to the establishment of an ult- stable standard of frequency and the emergent ?eld of quantum computing made possible by the observation of the quantum behavior of laser-cooled con?nedions. Bothexperimentalandtheoreticalactivity intheseapplications has proliferated widely, and the number of diverse articles in the literature on its many facets has reached the point where it is useful to distill and organize the published work in a uni?ed volume that de?nes the current status of the ?eld. As explained in volume I, the technique of con?ning charged particles in suitable electromagnetic ?elds was initially conceived by W. Paul as a thr- dimensional version of his rf quadrupole mass ?lter. Its ?rst application to rf spectroscopy on atomic ions was completed in H. G. Dehmelt’s laboratory where notable work was later done on the free electron using the Penning trap. The further exploitation of these devices has followed more or less - dependently along the two initial broad areas: mass spectrometry and high resolution spectroscopy. In volume I a detailed account is given of the theory of operation and experimental techniques of the various forms of Paul and Penning ion traps.Table of ContentsElectromagnetic Trap Properties.- Summary of Trap Properties.- Mass Spectrometry.- Mass Spectrometry Using Paul Traps.- Mass Spectroscopy in Penning Trap.- Spectroscopy with Trapped Charged Particles.- Microwave Spectroscopy.- Optical Spectroscopy.- Lifetime Studies in Traps.- Quantum Topics.- Quantum Effects in Charged Particle Traps.- Quantum Computing with Trapped Charged Particles.

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Book SynopsisRadioactive particles have been released to the environment from a number of sources, including nuclear weapon tests, nuclear accidents and discharges from nuclear installations. Particle characteristics influence the mobility, biological uptake and effects of radionuclides, hence information on these characteristics is essential for assessing environmental impact and risks. This publication presents a series of papers covering sources and source term characterisation, methodologies for characterizing particles, and the impact of particles on the behaviour of radioactive particles in the environment. Sources covered include the Chernobyl accident, nuclear weapons accidents at Thule and Palomares accident, the discharges from Dounreay and Krashnoyarsk, and depleted uranium in Kosovo and Kuwait. The overall aim is that an increased understanding of particle characteristics and behavior will help to reduce some of the uncertainties in environmental impact and risk assessment for particle contaminated areas.Table of Contents1: Sources and Characterisation.Radioactive Particles Released From Different Nuclear Sources; B.Salbu. Single Particles Handling and Analyses; U.Admon. Characterisation of DU Particles from Kosovo and Kuwait; O.Chr.Lind et al. Formation Of The Radioactive Aerosol Particles During Wildland Fires In Chernobyl Zone And Their Radioecological Impact; V.Yoschenko et al. 2: Ecosystem Transfer.Thule Expedition 2003 Studies on Radioactive Contamination and Particles; S.P.Nielsen et al. Hot Particles in the Floodplain of the Yenisei River; A.Bolsunovsky. Migration of Fuel Particles of Chnpp Fallout and Leached Radionuclides in Soils and Soil-to- Plant System; Y.Ivanov. Dissolution Of Particles Of Irradiated Nuclear Fuel In The Temporary Storages Of Radioactive Waste In Chemobyl Zone: Sources For Radionuclide Migration; V.Kashparov et al. Phenomenon of a Fast Migration of Plutonium Radioisotops in Ground Water: Colloids or Soluble Form? S.Levchuk et al. Restoration Of Radiation Events Of The Past By Antedated Lakes Bottom Sediment Layers; E.Kvasnikova, S.Gordeev. 241am And 137cs In Soils Of The Belarus Part Of The Chernobyl Zone; V.Zabrotsk et al. 3: Databases, Platforms and Measurement Techniques.Database 'Hot Particles'; M.Zhurba et al. The Experimental Platform In Chernobyl: An International Research Polygon In The Exclusion Zone For Soil And Groundwater Contamination; N.van Meir et al. Deconvolution Of Alpha Spectra From Hot Particles; R.Pöllänen et al. The Use of 236U as a Tracer of Irradiated Uranium; V.Mironov et al. 4: Biological Uptake and Risk Assessment.Health Effects Of Dounreay Hot Particles: A Benchmark For The Evaluation Of Doses And Risks; M.W.Charles. The Influence Of Hot Particle Contamination On Models For Radiation Exposures Via The Aquatic Pathway; J.T.Smith et al. Hot Particle Behavior in Cow’s at the Peroral Intake; V.Yoschenko et al. TheContribution Of Hot Particles To Uncertainties In Environmental Impact Assessment; D.Oughton, B.Salbu.

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Book SynopsisThe disposal of radioactive waste is a central issue in the future of nuclear power and poses considerable technical, political and social issues. This book addresses these topics in an integrated fashion using performance assessment of the disposal concept as a unifying theme. Subjects addressed include: regulatory criteria; waste types, sources and characteristics; man-made or engineered barriers; the selection and evaluation of geological disposal media; the use of underground research laboratories; the movement of radionuclides in the biosphere; repository performance assessment tools and approaches; addressing uncertainty and spatial variability; assessing information from natural systems; and looking at radioactive waste in relation to other wastes. The book provides an up-to-date picture of radioactive waste disposal issues and will be of interest to scientists, engineers and consultants working in the nuclear industry and the environmental field.Table of ContentsWaste Characteristics. Repository and Barrier Concepts. The Near-Field. The Far-Field. The Biosphere and Radiological Effects. Selection of Waste Disposal Sites. Site Characterisation and URLs. Performance Assessment. Uncertainty and Confidence Building. Where Next. Index.

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Book SynopsisSince the dawn of the Atomic Age, nuclear experts have labored to imagine the unimaginable and prevent it. They confronted a deceptively simple question: When is a reactor safe enough to adequately protect the public from catastrophe? Some experts sought a deceptively simple answer: an estimate that the odds of a major accident were, literally, a million to one. Far from simple, this search to quantify accident risk proved to be a tremendously complex and controversial endeavor, one that altered the very notion of safety in nuclear power and beyond. Safe Enough? is the first history to trace these contentious efforts, following the Atomic Energy Commission and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission as their experts experimented with tools to quantify accident risk for use in regulation and to persuade the public of nuclear power's safety. The intense conflict over the value of risk assessment offers a window on the history of the nuclear safety debate and the beliefs of its advocates andTrade Review"Wellock’s focus on regulatory principles and practices is key to understanding what nuclear regulation really means. . . . Whether [probabilistic risk assessment] is the best path to follow remains an open issue, as the search continues for an answer to the question that provides the title of this excellent history of technology regulation." * Technology and Culture *"A fascinating story, spanning more than seventy years, of attempts in the United States and abroad to assess and measure risk for a controversial energy source. . . . Wellock’s calm, balanced tone, extended historical sweep, and deep excavation of a variety of archival records make this book a must read for graduate students and scholars interested in risk analysis and the U.S. nuclear industry." * California History *"Safe Enough? is an important book that elucidates an essential historical narrative for nuclear historians while informing readers of its present-day relevance. . . . Safe Enough? should be assigned to graduate students studying how states, societies, and technology interlace to form public policy. Historians of technology will find this book immensely useful for examining human interactions with technology, particularly assessing nuclear reactors as political artifacts." * H-Net Reviews *"Clearly written and compelling." * American Historical Review *"[A]n excellent history." * Journal of American History *Table of ContentsList of Illustrations Acknowledgments Preface 1 When Is a Reactor Safe? The Design Basis Accident 2 The Design Basis in Crisis 3 Beyond the Design Basis: The Reactor Safety Study 4 Putting a Number on "Safe Enough" 5 Beyond Design: Toward Risk-Informed Regulation 6 Risk Assessment Beyond the NRC 7 Risk-Informed Regulation and the Fukushima Accident Abbreviations Notes Bibliography Index

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Book SynopsisWhy did nuclear energy policies in France, Sweden, and the United States, very similar at the time of the oil crisis of 1973 and 1974, diverge so greatly in the following years? In answering this question, James Jasper challenges one of the most popular trends in political analysis: explanations relying exclusively on political and economic structuTable of Contents*FrontMatter, pg. i*Contents, pg. vii*Figures and Tables, pg. ix*Preface, pg. xi*Abbreviations, pg. xvii*PART ONE: Explaining Nuclear Policies, pg. 1*PART TWO: Creating Nuclear Systems: The Triumph of Technological Enthusiasm, 1960-1973, pg. 39*PART THREE: To Build or Conserve: Dilemmas Arising from Public Opposition and the Oil Crisis, 1973-1976, pg. 105*PART FOUR: The Structures Tighten: Policy Divergence and the Loss of Flexibility, 1976-1989, pg. 185*PART FIVE: Conclusions, pg. 265*List of Informants, pg. 278*Bibliography, pg. 283*Index, pg. 311

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Book SynopsisCivil engineering has an important part to play at every stage of the nuclear fuel cycle. This book examines ways in which the industry has responded to this challenge with new methods of construction giving higher productivity and faster construction times.Table of ContentsInternational papers Site investigation Earthquake engineering Structural analysis Quality assurance Design In-service performance and deconnissioning Postal papers

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Book SynopsisNuclear Waste Management in Canada encourages critical thought and discussion about energy generation and waste management by exploring not only the technical but also the social and ethical aspects of the problem.Trade Review"This book is a solid contribution to the political science of public consultation; a strong message to the Canadian nuclear industry; and a sophisticated source of support for individuals and groups who wish to challenge basic assumptions we should never take for granted. - Peter Stoett, Department of Political Science, Concordia University"Table of ContentsAbbreviations 1 Critical Perspectives on the Nuclear Story / Darrin Durant andGenevieve Fuji Johnson 2 The Trouble with Nuclear / Darrin Durant 3 An Official Narrative: Telling the History of Canada’sNuclear Waste Management Policy Making / Darrin Durant andAnna Stanley 4 The Long Haul: Ethics in the Canadian Nuclear Waste Debate /Peter Timmerman 5 Public Consultation as Performative Contradiction: LimitingDiscussion in Canada’s Nuclear Waste Management Debate /Darrin Durant 6 The Darker Side of Deliberative Democracy: The Canadian NuclearWaste Management Organization’s National Consultation Process /Genevieve Fuji Johnson 7 Representing the Knowledges of Aboriginal Peoples – The"Management" of Diversity in Canada’s Nuclear FuelWaste / Anna Stanley 8 Canadian Communities and the Management of Nuclear Fuel Waste /Brenda L. Murphy 9 Situating Canada’s Approaches to Siting a Nuclear Fuel WasteManagement Facility / Brenda L. Murphy and Richard Kuhn References; Contributors; Index

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Book SynopsisExamines the rise of the anti-nuclear power movement in the former Soviet Union during the early perestroika period, its unexpected successes in the late 1980s, and its decline after 1991. This book argues that anti-nuclear activism was a surrogate for nationalism, and a means of demanding greater local self-determination under the Soviet system.Trade Review“Eco-nationalism is an outstanding work and long-awaited contribution to our understanding of the relationship between environmental activism and national awakening during the Gorbachev era. It is an absolute must for those who want to understand the source, causes, and dynamics of nationalism in late- and post-communist society.”—John Löwenhardt, Institute of East European Law and Russian Studies, Leiden University“This is a superb study that combines theoretical insight with extensive, on-site research in three republics of the former Soviet Union. Unique in its systematic comparisons of social movements in the three republics, and in its exploration of the interaction among issues of environmentalism, nationalism and political participation. A “must read” for students of communist and post-communist systems.”—George W. Breslauer, University of California, Berkeley

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Book SynopsisExamines the rise of the anti-nuclear power movement in the former Soviet Union during the early perestroika period, its unexpected successes in the late 1980s, and its substantial decline after 1991. This work argues that anti-nuclear activism was a means of demanding local self-determination under the Soviet system.Trade Review“Eco-nationalism is an outstanding work and long-awaited contribution to our understanding of the relationship between environmental activism and national awakening during the Gorbachev era. It is an absolute must for those who want to understand the source, causes, and dynamics of nationalism in late- and post-communist society.”—John Löwenhardt, Institute of East European Law and Russian Studies, Leiden University“This is a superb study that combines theoretical insight with extensive, on-site research in three republics of the former Soviet Union. Unique in its systematic comparisons of social movements in the three republics, and in its exploration of the interaction among issues of environmentalism, nationalism and political participation. A “must read” for students of communist and post-communist systems.”—George W. Breslauer, University of California, Berkeley

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Book SynopsisFundamental of Nuclear Engineering is derived from over 25 years of teaching undergraduate and graduate courses on nuclear engineering. The material has been extensively class tested and provides the most comprehensive textbook and reference on the fundamentals of nuclear engineering.Table of Contents1 Atomic and Nuclear Theory 9 1.1 Historical Review 9 1.2 Models of the Nucleus 10 2 Nuclear Reactor Design and Physics 53 2.1 Overall Concept and Description of Nuclear Reactors 53 2.2 Neutron Diffusion 71 2.3 Slowing Down of Neutrons 75 2.4 Criticality and the Steady State 86 2.5 Advanced Reactor Physics 96 3 Nuclear Reactor Dynamics and Control 120 3.1 Overview of Reactor Kinetics Behaviour 120 3.2 Point Reactor Model and the Inhour Equation 125 3.3 Reactor Control 138 3.4 Nuclear Fuel Management 146 4 Nuclear Reactor Materials and Fuel Engineering 174 4.1 Nuclear Reactor Materials 174 4.2 Fuel Production 202 4.3 Fuel Element Thermal Performance 218 4.4 Fuel Chemistry 240 4.5 Fuel Restructuring 248 4.6 Fission Product Behaviour 252 4.7 Fuel Performance 285 5 Thermal Hydraulics 314 5.1 Choice of Coolant 314 5.2 Definitions and Simple Two-Phase Flow Relationships 315 5.3 Two-Phase Flow 318 5.4 Pressure Drop 343 5.5 Heat Transfer 380 6 Nuclear Reactor Safety 573 6.1 Reactor Licensing and Regulation 573 6.2 General Principles of Reactor Safety 586 6.3 Engineered Safety Features 590 6.4 Reactor Safety Analysis 597 6.5 Reliability and Risk Assessment 619 6.6 Nuclear Reactor Accidents 624 6.7 Radiation Dose Calculations 640 6.8 Nuclear Emergency Response 659 6.9 Fission Product Release and Severe Core Damage Phenomena 669 7 Health Physics and Radiation Protection 711 7.1 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 711 7.2 Health Physics and Radiation Protection 730 7.3 Biological Effects of Radiation 763 7.4 Radiation Protection 779 7.5 Contamination Treatment 788 7.6 Space Radiation 788 Appendix 1 Physical Constants and Conversion Factors 811 Appendix 2 Table of Atomic Mass Excesses 813 Appendix 3 Some Values of Nuclear Spins and Parities 900 Appendix 4 Reactor Physics Parameters 903 Appendix 5 Physical and Biological Data for Radionuclides 905 Appendix 6 Cross-Sections of Some Radionuclides 907 Appendix 7 Properties of Elements and Some Molecules 909 Appendix 8 Isotopic Cross-Sections 913 Appendix 9 Direct and Cumulative Thermal Fission Product Yields for Various Fissile Isotopes 926 Index 943

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Book SynopsisExplains the mechanisms governing flow-induced vibrations and helps engineers prevent fatigueand fretting-weardamageatthe designstage Fatigue orfretting-wear damagein processand plantequipment caused by flow-induced vibrationcan lead tooperational disruptions, lost production, andexpensiverepairs.Mechanical engineers can helppreventor mitigatethese problemsduringthe designphase of high capital cost plants such as nuclear power stations and petroleum refineries by performing thorough flow-induced vibration analysis.Accordingly, it is critical for mechanical engineers to have a firmunderstanding of the dynamic parameters and the vibration excitation mechanisms that govern flow-induced vibration. Flow-Induced Vibration Handbook for Nuclear and Process Equipmentprovides the knowledge required to prevent failures due to flow-induced vibration at the design stage. The product of more than 40 years of research and development at the Canadian Nuclear LaboratoriesTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xvii Contributors xix 1 Introduction and Typical Vibration Problems 1 Michel J. Pettigrew 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Some Typical Component Failures 2 1.3 Dynamics of Process System Components 9 1.3.1 Multi-Span Heat Exchanger Tubes 9 1.3.2 Other Nuclear and Process Components 10 Notes 10 References 10 2 Flow-Induced Vibration of Nuclear and Process Equipment: An Overview 13 Michel J. Pettigrew and Colette E. Taylor 2.1 Introduction 13 2.1.1 Flow-Induced Vibration Overview 13 2.1.2 Scope of a Vibration Analysis 14 2.2 Flow Calculations 14 2.2.1 Flow Parameter Definition 14 2.2.2 Simple Flow Path Approach 15 2.2.3 Comprehensive 3-D Approach 16 2.2.4 Two-Phase Flow Regime 18 2.3 Dynamic Parameters 18 2.3.1 Hydrodynamic Mass 18 2.3.2 Damping 19 2.4 Vibration Excitation Mechanisms 25 2.4.1 Fluidelastic Instability 25 2.4.2 Random Turbulence Excitation 27 2.4.3 Periodic Wake Shedding 31 2.4.4 Acoustic Resonance 34 2.4.5 Susceptibility to Resonance 35 2.5 Vibration Response Prediction 36 2.5.1 Fluidelastic Instability 37 2.5.2 Random Turbulence Excitation 38 2.5.3 Periodic Wake Shedding 38 2.5.4 Acoustic Resonance 38 2.5.5 Example of Vibration Analysis 38 2.6 Fretting-Wear Damage Considerations 40 2.6.1 Fretting-Wear Assessment 40 2.6.2 Fretting-Wear Coefficients 41 2.6.3 Wear Depth Calculations 42 2.7 Acceptance Criteria 42 2.7.1 Fluidelastic Instability 42 2.7.2 Random Turbulence Excitation 43 2.7.3 Periodic Wake Shedding 43 2.7.4 Tube-to-Support Clearance 43 2.7.5 Acoustic Resonance 43 2.7.6 Two-Phase Flow Regimes 43 Note 43 References 44 3 Flow Considerations 47 John M. Pietralik, Liberat N. Carlucci, Colette E. Taylor, and Michel J. Pettigrew 3.1 Definition of the Problem 47 3.2 Nature of the Flow 48 3.2.1 Introduction 48 3.2.2 Flow Parameter Definitions 50 3.2.3 Vertical Bubbly Flow 54 3.2.4 Flow Around Bluff Bodies 55 3.2.5 Shell-Side Flow in Tube Bundles 56 3.2.6 Air-Water versus Steam-Water Flows 63 3.2.7 Effect of Nucleate Boiling Noise 63 3.2.8 Summary 67 3.3 Simplified Flow Calculation 67 3.4 Multi-Dimensional Thermalhydraulic Analysis 74 3.4.1 Steam Generator 74 3.4.2 Other Heat Exchangers 78 Acronyms 81 Nomenclature 81 Subscripts 82 Notes 83 References 83 4 Hydrodynamic Mass, Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 87 Daniel J. Gorman, Colette E. Taylor, and Michel J. Pettigrew 4.1 Introduction 87 4.2 Total Tube Mass 88 4.2.1 Single-Phase Flow 89 4.2.2 Two-Phase Flow 90 4.3 Free Vibration Analysis of Straight Tubes 93 4.3.1 Free Vibration Analysis of a Single-Span Tube 94 4.3.2 Free Vibration Analysis of a Two-Span Tube 97 4.3.3 Free Vibration Analysis of a Multi-Span Tube 99 4.4 Basic Theory for Curved Tubes 100 4.4.1 Theory of Curved Tube In-Plane Free Vibration 102 4.4.2 Theory of Curved Tube Out-of-Plane Free Vibration 104 4.5 Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes 105 4.5.1 Setting Boundary Conditions for the In-Plane Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes Possessing Geometric Symmetry 106 4.5.2 Development of the In-Plane Eigenvalue Matrix for a Symmetric U-Tube 109 4.5.3 Generation of Eigenvalue Matrices for Out-of-Plane Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes Possessing Geometric Symmetry 109 4.5.4 Free Vibration Analysis of U-Tubes Which Do Not Possess Geometric Similarity 112 4.6 Concluding Remarks 114 Nomenclature 115 References 116 5 Damping of Cylindrical Structures in Single-Phase Fluids 119 Michel J. Pettigrew 5.1 Introduction 119 5.2 Energy Dissipation Mechanisms 119 5.3 Approach 123 5.4 Damping in Gases 124 5.4.1 Effect of Number of Supports 127 5.4.2 Effect of Frequency 128 5.4.3 Vibration Amplitude 128 5.4.4 Effect of Diameter or Mass 128 5.4.5 Effect of Side Loads 128 5.4.6 Effect of Higher Modes 129 5.4.7 Effect of Support Thickness 129 5.4.8 Effect of Clearance 132 5.5 Design Recommendations for Damping in Gases 132 5.6 Damping in Liquids 133 5.6.1 Tube-to-Fluid Viscous Damping 133 5.6.2 Damping at the Supports 136 5.6.3 Squeeze-Film Damping 138 5.6.4 Damping due to Sliding 141 5.6.5 Semi-Empirical Formulation of Tube-Support Damping 143 5.7 Discussion 147 5.8 Design Recommendations for Damping in Liquids 148 5.8.1 Simple Criterion Based on Available Data 148 5.8.2 Criterion Based on the Formulation of Energy Dissipation Mechanisms 148 Nomenclature 149 Subscripts 150 References 151 6 Damping of Cylindrical Structures in Two-Phase Flow 155 Michel J. Pettigrew and Colette E. Taylor 6.1 Introduction 155 6.2 Sources of Information 155 6.3 Approach 157 6.4 Two-Phase Flow Conditions 158 6.4.1 Definition of Two-Phase Flow Parameters 158 6.4.2 Flow Regime 161 6.5 Parametric Dependence Study 162 6.5.1 Effect of Flow Velocity 163 6.5.2 Effect of Void Fraction 163 6.5.3 Effect of Confinement 168 6.5.4 Effect of Tube Mass 168 6.5.5 Effect of Tube Vibration Frequency 168 6.5.6 Effect of Tube Bundle Configuration 169 6.5.7 Effect of Motion of Surrounding Tubes 169 6.5.8 Effect of Flow Regime 170 6.5.9 Effect of Fluid Properties 171 6.6 Development of Design Guidelines 172 6.7 Discussion 177 6.7.1 Damping Formulation 177 6.7.2 Two-Phase Damping Mechanisms 177 6.8 Summary Remarks 178 Nomenclature 178 Subscripts 179 Note 179 References 180 7 Fluidelastic Instability of Tube Bundles in Single-Phase Flow 183 Michel J. Pettigrew and Colette E. Taylor 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 Nature of Fluidelastic Instability 183 7.3 Fluidelastic Instability: Analytical Modelling 185 7.4 Fluidelastic Instability: Semi-Empirical Models 186 7.5 Approach 191 7.6 Important Definitions 191 7.6.1 Tube Bundle Configurations 191 7.6.2 Flow Velocity Definition 191 7.6.3 Critical Velocity for Fluidelastic Instability 196 7.6.4 Damping 197 7.6.5 Tube Frequency 198 7.7 Parametric Dependence Study 198 7.7.1 Flexible versus Rigid Tube Bundles 198 7.7.2 Damping 201 7.7.3 Pitch-to-Diameter Ratio, P/D 201 7.7.4 Fluidelastic Instability Formulation 204 7.8 Development of Design Guidelines 206 7.9 In-Plane Fluidelastic Instability 209 7.10 Axial Flow Fluidelastic Instability 212 7.11 Concluding Remarks 213 Nomenclature 214 Subscript 214 References 215 8 Fluidelastic Instability of Tube Bundles in Two-Phase Flow 219 Michel J. Pettigrew and Colette E. Taylor 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Previous Research 219 8.2.1 Flow-Induced Vibration in Two-Phase Axial Flow 220 8.2.2 Flow-Induced Vibration in Two-Phase Cross Flow 221 8.2.3 Damping Studies 221 8.3 Fluidelastic Instability Mechanisms in Two-Phase Cross Flow 221 8.4 Fluidelastic Instability Experiments in Air-Water Cross Flow 224 8.4.1 Initial Experiments in Air-Water Cross Flow 224 8.4.2 Behavior in Intermittent Flow 227 8.4.3 Effect of Bundle Geometry 229 8.4.4 Flexible versus Rigid Tube Bundle Behavior 230 8.4.5 Hydrodynamic Coupling 232 8.5 Analysis of the Fluidelastic Instability Results 234 8.5.1 Defining Critical Mass Flux and Instability Constant 234 8.5.2 Comparison with Results of Other Researchers 235 8.5.3 Summary of Air-Water Tests 238 8.6 Tube Bundle Vibration in Two-Phase Freon Cross Flow 239 8.6.1 Introductory Remarks 239 8.6.2 Background Information 240 8.6.3 Experiments in Freon Cross Flow 240 8.7 Freon Test Results and Discussion 244 8.7.1 Results and Analysis 244 8.7.2 Proposed Explanations 247 8.7.3 Concluding Remarks 247 8.7.4 Summary Findings 249 8.8 Fluidelastic Instability of U-Tubes in Air-Water Cross Flow 250 8.8.1 Experimental Considerations 250 8.8.2 U-Tube Dynamics 251 8.8.3 Vibration Response 251 8.8.4 Out-of-Plane Vibration 251 8.8.5 In-Plane Vibration 254 8.9 In-Plane (In-Flow) Fluidelastic Instability 255 8.9.1 In-Flow Experiments in a Wind Tunnel 255 8.9.2 In-Flow Experiments in Two-Phase Cross Flow 255 8.9.3 Single-Tube Fluidelastic Instability Results 256 8.9.4 Single Flexible Column and Central Cluster Fluidelastic Instability Results 258 8.9.5 Two Partially Flexible Columns 258 8.9.6 In-Flow Fluidelastic Instability Results and Discussion 261 8.10 Design Recommendations 261 8.10.1 Design Guidelines 261 8.10.2 Fluidelastic Instability with Intermittent Flow 263 8.11 Fluidelastic Instability in Two-Phase Axial Flow 264 8.12 Concluding Remarks 265 Nomenclature 265 Subscripts 266 Note 266 References 266 9 Random Turbulence Excitation in Single-Phase Flow 271 Colette E. Taylor and Michel J. Pettigrew 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 Theoretical Background 271 9.2.1 Equation of Motion 272 9.2.2 Derivation of the Mean-Square Response 273 9.2.3 Simplification of Tube Vibration Response 274 9.2.4 Integration of the Transfer Function 275 9.2.5 Use of the Simplified Expression in Developing Design Guidelines 275 9.3 Literature Search 277 9.4 Approach Taken 277 9.5 Discussion of Parameters 279 9.5.1 Directional Dependence (Lift versus Drag) 279 9.5.2 Bundle Orientation 279 9.5.3 Pitch-to-Diameter Ratio (P/D) 279 9.5.4 Upstream Turbulence 280 9.5.5 Fluid Density (Gas versus Liquid) 283 9.5.6 Summary 283 9.6 Design Guidelines 284 9.7 Random Turbulence Excitation in Axial Flow 287 Nomenclature 287 References 288 10 Random Turbulence Excitation Forces Due to Two-Phase Flow 291 Colette E. Taylor and Michel J. Pettigrew 10.1 Introduction 291 10.2 Background 291 10.3 Approach Taken to Data Reduction 295 10.4 Scaling Factor for Frequency 296 10.4.1 Definition of a Velocity Scale 297 10.4.2 Definition of a Length Scale 298 10.4.3 Dimensionless Reduced Frequency 301 10.4.4 Effect of Frequency 301 10.5 Scaling Factor for Power Spectral Density 302 10.5.1 Effect of Flow Regime 302 10.5.2 Effect of Void Fraction 304 10.5.3 Effect of Mass Flux 306 10.5.4 Effect of Tube Diameter 306 10.5.5 Effect of Correlation Length 306 10.5.6 Effect of Bundle and Tube-Support Geometry 307 10.5.7 Effect of Two-Phase Mixture 308 10.5.8 Effect of Nucleate Boiling 310 10.6 Dimensionless Power Spectral Density 311 10.7 Upper Bounds for Two-Phase Cross Flow Dimensionless Spectra 314 10.7.1 Bubbly Flow 314 10.7.2 Churn Flow 315 10.7.3 Intermittent Flow 316 10.8 Axial Flow Random Turbulence Excitation 318 10.9 Conclusions 323 Nomenclature 324 References 325 11 Periodic Wake Shedding and Acoustic Resonance 329 David S. Weaver, Colette E. Taylor, and Michel J. Pettigrew 11.1 Introduction 329 11.2 Periodic Wake Shedding 332 11.2.1 Frequency: Strouhal Number 332 11.2.2 Calculating Tube Resonance Amplitudes 335 11.2.3 Fluctuating Force Coefficients in Single-Phase Flow 336 11.2.4 Fluctuating Force Coefficients in Two-Phase Flow 338 11.2.5 The Effect of Bundle Orientation and P/D on Fluctuating Force Coefficients 346 11.2.6 The Effect of Void Fraction and Flow Regime on Fluctuating Force Coefficients 347 11.3 Acoustic Resonance 354 11.3.1 Acoustic Natural Frequencies 354 11.3.2 Equivalent Speed of Sound 355 11.3.3 Acoustic Natural Frequencies (fa)n 356 11.3.4 Frequency Coincidence — Critical Velocities 356 11.3.5 Damping Criteria 358 11.3.6 Sound Pressure Level 361 11.3.7 Elimination of Acoustic Resonance 364 11.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 366 Nomenclature 367 References 369 12 Assessment of Fretting-Wear Damage in Nuclear and Process Equipment 373 Michel J. Pettigrew, Metin Yetisir, Nigel J. Fisher, Bruce A.W. Smith, and Victor P. Janzen 12.1 Introduction 373 12.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Nuclear Structures and Process Equipment 374 12.2.1 Heat Exchangers 374 12.2.2 Nuclear Structures 375 12.3 Fretting-Wear Damage Prediction 376 12.3.1 Time-Domain Approach 376 12.3.2 Energy Approach 380 12.4 Work-Rate Relationships 380 12.4.1 Shear Work Rate and Mechanical Power 380 12.4.2 Vibration Energy Relationship 381 12.4.3 Single Degree-of-Freedom System 381 12.4.4 Multi-Span Beams Under Harmonic Excitation 382 12.4.5 Response to Random Excitation 382 12.4.6 Work-Rate Estimate: Summary 384 12.5 Experimental Verification 384 12.6 Comparison to Time Domain Approach 385 12.7 Practical Applications: Examples 386 12.8 Concluding Remarks 392 Nomenclature 392 Note 393 References 394 13 Fretting-Wear Damage Coefficients 397 Nigel J. Fisher and Fabrice M. Guérout 13.1 Introduction 397 13.2 Fretting-Wear Damage Mechanisms 397 13.2.1 Impact Fretting Wear 397 13.2.2 Trends 398 13.2.3 Work-Rate Model 402 13.3 Experimental Considerations 404 13.3.1 Experimental Studies 404 13.3.2 Room-Temperature Test Data 404 13.3.3 High-Temperature Experimental Facility 407 13.3.4 Wear Volume Measurements 409 13.4 Fretting Wear of Zirconium Alloys 409 13.4.1 Introduction 409 13.4.2 Experimental Set-Up 410 13.4.3 Effect of Vibration Amplitude and Motion Type 412 13.4.4 Effect of Pressure-Tube Pre-Oxidation and Surface Preparation 412 13.4.5 Effect of Temperature 412 13.4.6 Effect of pH Control Additive and Dissolved Oxygen Content 413 13.4.7 Discussions 414 13.5 Fretting Wear of Heat Exchanger Materials 417 13.5.1 Work-Rate Model and Wear Coefficient 417 13.5.2 Effect of Test Duration 419 13.5.3 Effect of Temperature 422 13.5.4 Effect of Water Chemistry 424 13.5.5 Effect of Tube-Support Geometry and Tube Materials 426 13.5.6 Discussion 427 13.6 Summary and Recommendations 429 Nomenclature 429 Notes 429 References 430 Component Analysis 433 Introduction 433 Analysis of a Process Heat Exchanger 435 Analysis of a Nuclear Steam Generator U-Bend 445 Subject Index 463

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Preface xix Acknowledgments xxiii Glossary of Terms xxv 1 Introduction and Historical Perspective 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Discovery of X-Rays, Radiation, and Subatomic Particles 2 1.3 The Nuclear Age 8 1.4 The Space Age 9 1.5 Semiconductors – Revolution, Evolution, and Scaling 15 1.6 Beginning of Ionizing Radiation Effects in Semiconductors 20 1.7 Beginning of Single-Event Effects in Semiconductors 22 1.8 Summary and Closing Comments 26 References 27 2 Radiation Environments 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 X-Rays, Gamma Rays, and the Atom 31 2.2.1 X-Rays 31 2.2.2 X-Ray Absorption 34 2.2.3 Auger Electrons 36 2.2.4 Nuclear Structure and Binding Energy 36 2.2.4.1 Models of the Nucleus 38 2.2.5 Alpha and Beta Decay 50 2.2.5.1 Alpha Decay 51 2.2.5.2 Beta Decay 52 2.2.6 Gamma-Ray Emission or Gamma Decay 53 2.2.7 Other Types of Nuclear Radiation 54 2.3 Natural Radioactivity 55 2.3.1 Exponential Decay 55 2.3.2 Decay Series 56 2.4 The Space Environment 58 2.4.1 Solar Radiation 59 2.4.2 Trapped Radiation 62 2.4.3 Cosmic Rays 66 2.4.4 Atmospheric Neutrons 69 2.5 The Nuclear Reactor Environment 71 2.6 The Weapons Environment 75 2.7 The Environment in High-Energy Physics Facilities 78 2.8 Summary and Closing Comments 80 References 81 3 Radiation Effects in Semiconductor Materials 85 3.1 Introduction 85 3.2 Basic Effects 86 3.2.1 Heavy Charged Particles 86 3.2.1.1 Stopping Power 86 3.2.1.2 Electronic Stopping 87 3.2.1.3 Nuclear Stopping 92 3.2.2 Electrons 93 3.2.2.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 93 3.2.2.2 Stopping Power 96 3.2.3 Neutrons 101 3.2.3.1 Neutron Cross Section 102 3.2.3.2 Interactions with Matter 103 3.2.4 Photons (X-Rays, Gamma Rays) 106 3.2.4.1 Photoelectric Effect 107 3.2.4.2 Compton Scattering 108 3.2.4.3 Pair Production 109 3.2.4.4 Photonuclear Reactions 110 3.3 Charge Trapping in Silicon Dioxide 111 3.3.1 Charge Generation/Recombination 111 3.3.1.1 Geminate and Columnar Models 112 3.3.1.2 Geminate Recombination 113 3.3.1.3 Columnar Recombination 115 3.3.1.4 Numerical Methods 117 3.3.2 Hole Trapping and Transport 118 3.3.2.1 E′ Centers 120 3.3.2.2 Continuous-Time Random-Walk (CTRW) 122 3.3.3 The Silicon/Silicon Dioxide Interface 124 3.3.3.1 Interface Traps 125 3.3.3.2 Border Traps 127 3.3.3.3 Hydrogen 128 3.3.3.4 ELDRS 130 3.4 Bulk Damage 131 3.5 Summary and Closing Comments 133 References 135 4 Radiation-Induced Single Events 143 4.1 Introduction – Single-Events Effects (SEE) 143 4.1.1 Single-Event Upsets (SEU) 143 4.1.2 Multiple-Bit Upset (MBU) 143 4.1.3 Single-Event Transients (SET) 144 4.1.4 Single-Event Functional Interrupts (SEFIs) 144 4.1.5 Single-Event Disturb (SED) 145 4.1.6 Single-Event Snapback (SESB) 146 4.1.7 Single-Event Latchup (SEL) 146 4.1.8 Single-Event Burnout (SEB) 146 4.1.9 Single-Event Gate Rupture (SEGR) 147 4.1.10 Single-Event Hard Errors (SHE) 147 4.2 Single-Event Upset (SEU) 148 4.2.1 SEU – Memory 148 4.2.2 SEU in CMOS Memory 148 4.2.3 SEU in Bipolar Memory 148 4.2.4 SEU in CMOS SRAM 149 4.2.5 SEU in Future Technology – FINFETs 149 4.3 SEU – Particle Sources 149 4.3.1 SEU Source – Alpha Particles 150 4.3.2 SEU Source – Pions and Muons 152 4.3.3 SEU – Neutrons 153 4.3.4 SEU Source – Protons 153 4.3.5 SEU – Heavy Ions 154 4.4 Single-Event Gate Rupture (SEGR) 154 4.4.1 Definition SEGR 155 4.4.2 SEGR Source – Ion Track 155 4.4.3 SEGR Source – Failure Mechanism 156 4.4.4 SEGR – Modeling and Simulation 156 4.4.5 Power Transistors and SEGR 156 4.4.5.1 Lateral Power Transistors SEGR 156 4.4.5.2 Vertical MOS (VMOS) SEGR 157 4.4.5.3 Advanced Technologies – Planar MOSFET SEGR 157 4.5 Single-Event Transients (SETs) 158 4.5.1 SET Definition 158 4.5.2 SET Source 158 4.5.3 SET Source Failure Mechanisms 159 4.5.4 SET in Integrated Circuits 159 4.5.4.1 Digital Circuitry 159 4.5.4.2 Continuous Time Analog Circuitry 159 4.5.5 Prediction and Hardening 159 4.6 Single-Event Latchup (SEL) 159 4.6.1 SEL Definition 160 4.6.2 SEL Source 160 4.6.3 SEL Time Response 161 4.6.4 SEL Maximum Charge Collection Evaluation in a Parallelepiped Region 162 4.6.5 A SEL Design Practice 164 4.6.6 SEL Semiconductor Device Simulation 165 4.7 Summary and Closing Comments 165 References 166 5 Radiation Testing 173 5.1 Introduction 173 5.1.1 Radiation Units and Measurements 173 5.2 Radiation Testing and Sources 175 5.2.1 Total Ionizing Dose (TID) Testing 176 5.2.2 Total Ionizing Dose (TID) Sources 179 5.2.3 Single-Event Effects (SEE) Testing 182 5.2.4 Single-Event Effects (SEE) Sources and Facilities 187 5.2.5 Neutron Testing 192 5.2.6 Neutron Sources 193 5.2.7 Proton Testing 195 5.2.8 Proton Sources 196 5.2.9 Transient Gamma Testing 197 5.2.10 Transient Gamma Sources 198 5.3 Summary and Closing Comments 201 References 204 6 Device Modeling and Simulation Techniques 209 6.1 Introduction 209 6.2 Device Modeling 210 6.2.1 Circuit Simulators 211 6.2.2 Intrinsic Models 212 6.2.3 Composite Models and Inline Subcircuits 212 6.2.4 Analysis and Statistics Programs 214 6.3 Radiation Effects on Semiconductor Devices 215 6.3.1 MOS Capacitors and Transistors 215 6.3.1.1 MOS Capacitors 216 6.3.1.2 MOS Transistors 219 6.3.2 Diodes and Bipolar Transistors 224 6.3.2.1 Diodes 224 6.3.2.2 Bipolar Transistors 225 6.3.3 Power Devices 230 6.3.3.1 DMOS Composite Models 231 6.3.3.2 Operating Voltage 232 6.3.4 Other Devices 232 6.3.4.1 Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) 232 6.3.4.2 Resistors 234 6.3.4.3 Capacitors 235 6.3.5 Some Modeling Challenges 235 6.4 Circuit Simulation 236 6.4.1 Corner Simulation 236 6.4.2 SEE Simulation 239 6.5 Summary and Closing Comments 242 References 244 7 Radiation Semiconductor Process and Layout Solutions 249 7.1 Introduction 249 7.2 Substrate Hardened Technologies 249 7.2.1 Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) Technologies 250 7.2.1.1 Separation by Implanted Oxygen (SIMOX) 250 7.2.1.2 Silicon-Bonded (SIBOND) Technology 250 7.2.2 Silicon on Sapphire (SOS) 251 7.2.3 Silicon on Diamond (SOD) 252 7.2.4 Silicon on Nothing (SON) 252 7.3 Oxide Hardening Technologies 253 7.3.1 Oxide Growth and Fluorination of Oxide 253 7.3.2 MOSFET Gate Oxide Hardening 253 7.3.3 Recessed Oxide (ROX) Hardening 254 7.3.4 LOCOS Isolation Hardening 254 7.3.5 Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) Hardening 254 7.4 CMOS Latchup Process Solutions 255 7.5 CMOS Substrates – High-Resistance Substrates 255 7.5.1 50Ω-cm Substrate Resistance 259 7.6 Wells 260 7.6.1 Single Well – Diffused N-Well 261 7.6.2 Single Well – Retrograde N-Well 261 7.6.3 Dual-Well Technology 262 7.6.3.1 P-well and P++ Substrate 262 7.6.3.2 P-Well and P+ Connecting Implant 263 7.7 Triple-Well Technology 264 7.7.1 Triple Well – Full Separation of Wells 264 7.7.2 Triple Well – Merged Triple Well 265 7.7.3 Triple Well – Merged Triple Well with Blanket Implant 266 7.8 Sub-Collectors 266 7.8.1 Epitaxial Grown Sub-Collector 266 7.8.2 Implanted Sub-Collector 267 7.8.3 Sub-Collector – NPN and PNP Bipolar Current Gain 267 7.8.4 Sub-Collector – Beta Product 𝛽PNP𝛽NPN 267 7.9 Heavily Doped Buried Layers (HDBL) 268 7.9.1 Buried Implanted Layer for Lateral Isolation (BILLI) Process 268 7.9.2 Continuous HDBL Implant 268 7.9.3 Buried Guard Ring (BGR) 270 7.10 Isolation Concepts 270 7.10.1 LOCOS Isolation 270 7.10.2 Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) 270 7.10.3 Dual Depth Isolation 271 7.10.4 Trench Isolation (TI) 272 7.10.4.1 Trench Isolation (TI) and Sub-Collector 274 7.11 Deep Trench 277 7.11.1 Deep Trench (DT) within PNPN Structure 279 7.11.2 Deep Trench Structure and Sub-Collector 281 7.11.3 Deep Trench Structure and Merged Triple Well 283 7.12 Layout Solutions 284 7.12.1 Polysilicon Bound Structures 284 7.12.2 Parasitic Isolation Device (PID) 284 7.13 Summary and Closing Comments 286 References 287 8 Single-Event Upset Circuit Solutions 293 8.1 Introduction 293 8.2 CMOS DRAM SEU Circuit Solutions 293 8.2.1 CMOS DRAM Redundancy 294 8.2.2 CMOS DRAM with SRAM Error Correction 294 8.3 CMOS SRAM SEU Circuit Solution 296 8.3.1 CMOS SRAM Four-Device Cell 296 8.3.2 CMOS SRAM Six-Device Cell 297 8.3.3 CMOS SRAM 12-Device Cell 298 8.4 Bipolar SRAM 299 8.4.1 Bipolar SRAM Cell with Resistor Loads 300 8.4.2 Bipolar SRAM Cell with Resistor Loads and Schottky Clamps 300 8.4.3 Bipolar SRAM Cell with PNP Transistors 301 8.5 Bipolar SRAM Circuit Solutions 301 8.6 SEU in CMOS Logic Circuitry 302 8.7 Summary and Closing Comments 302 References 303 9 Latchup Circuit Solutions 305 9.1 Introduction 305 9.2 Power Supply Concepts 305 9.2.1 Power Supply Current Limit – Series Resistor 305 9.2.2 Power Supply Current Limit – Current Source 306 9.2.3 Power Supply Solutions – Voltage Regulator 307 9.2.4 Latchup Circuit Solutions – Power Supply Decoupling 308 9.3 Overshoot and Undershoot Clamp Networks 311 9.3.1 Passive Clamp Networks 312 9.3.2 Active Clamp Networks 313 9.3.3 Dynamic Threshold Triple Well Passive and Active Clamp Networks 316 9.4 Passive and Active Guard Rings 318 9.4.1 Passive Guard Ring Circuits and Structures 318 9.4.2 Active Guard Ring Circuits and Structures 319 9.5 Triple-Well Noise and Latchup Suppression Structures 326 9.6 System-Level Latchup Issues 326 9.7 Summary and Closing Comments 327 References 329 10 Emerging Effects and Future Technology 333 10.1 Introduction 333 10.2 Radiation Effects in Advanced Technologies 333 10.2.1 Moore’s Law, Scaling, and Radiation Effects 334 10.2.2 Technology Lifetime and Reliability 334 10.2.2.1 New Missions 335 10.2.2.2 Throwaway Mentality 335 10.2.2.3 New Space Entrants 335 10.2.3 Terrestrial Issues 335 10.2.4 Space Mission Issues 335 10.2.5 Server Farms 335 10.2.6 Automotive 336 10.2.7 Internet of Things (IoT) 336 10.2.8 More than Moore 336 10.3 Radiation Effects in Semiconductor Nanostructures 336 10.3.1 Planar MOSFETs in Sub-25 nm 337 10.3.2 Bulk FinFET 338 10.3.3 SOI FinFET 339 10.3.4 3-D Circuits 340 10.4 Radiation Effects and Advanced Packaging 340 10.4.1 Radiation Effects and 2.5-D Circuits and Technology 341 10.4.2 Radiation Effects and 3-D Circuits and Technology 341 10.4.3 More than Moore and 3-D Integration 342 10.5 Ruggedized Capability 342 10.5.1 Ruggedized Capability for Radiation 343 10.5.2 Ruggedized Capability for High Temperature 343 10.6 Radiation Models 343 10.7 A Nuclear World 344 10.8 Summary and Closing Comments 344 References 345 Index 347

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Book SynopsisDownwind is an unflinching tale of the atomic West that reveals the intentional disregard for the inhabitants and the environment in nuclear testing by the federal government and in uranium extraction by mining corporations during and after the Cold War. Sarah Alisabeth Fox interviews residents of the Great Basin region affected by environmental contamination from the uranium industry and nuclear testing fallout. Those residents tell tales of communities ravaged by cancer epidemics, farmers and ranchers economically ruined by massive crop and animal deaths, and Native miners working in dangerous conditions without proper safety equipment so that the government could surreptitiously study the effects of radiation on humans. In chilling detail, Downwind brings to light the stories and concerns of these groups whose voices have been silenced and marginalized for decades in the name of patriotism and national security. With the renewed boom in mining in the American West, Fox's lookTrade Review"Combining the intricacies of the official record with the complicated narratives of the individuals she interviewed, Fox provides texture and insight into becoming and being downwind within the framework of both nuclear testing and uranium mining."—Leisl Carr Childers, Environmental History"Downwind advances our understanding of how communities interpret risk and medical information from federal officials and how they make sense of their predicament through stories."—Thomas Wellock, Journal of American History"Fox's account provides a welcome addition to the literature on the nuclear West made richer with new voices of those who lived and labored on the front lines of the Cold War."—Andrew Kirk, Western Historical Quarterly"Downwind offers a provocative and engaging new history of the suffering sustained by southwestern communities in the aftermath of nuclear testing and radioactive fallout."—Michael Wise, Southwestern Historical Quarterly"Compelling, well written, and meticulously researched."—David Mills, Montana, The Magazine of Western History“In addition to illuminating the past, this book also sheds light on the present, challenging us to wonder what ‘official fictions’ are being constructed today.”—Samantha Updegrave, High Country News "Downwind manages the triple feat of being at once a rigorous piece of scholarship, a moving account of a dark and ongoing period in human history and an exquisitely accomplished first book."—Frank Kaminski, Resilience"Readers will find Downwind an engaging, balanced, and profoundly human narrative of the consequences of a global, complex conflict."—Lucie Genay, Pacific Historical Revew“Comprehensive and incisive, Downwind also adds heart and soul to an epic story of resilience in the aftermath of reckless arrogance. Sarah Fox gives the history of the nuclear age back to the people who had it written in their bones. The testimony she captured is both shocking and inspiring.”—Chip Ward, author of Canaries on the Rim: Living Downwind in the West “In this incredibly important book, Sarah Alisabeth Fox effectively shows how the stories of regular people are to be trusted more than the words of the government and the experts when the latter are lying in a misguided attempt to protect national security.”—Doug Brugge, professor of public health and community medicine at Tufts University School of MedicineTable of ContentsList of IllustrationsAcknowledgments1. Living under the Cloud 2. Unearthing Yellow Monsters 3. Home on the Range 4. Locally Grown 5. Writing Down Names 6. Critical Mass Conclusion NotesBibliography Index

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisDetailing the estimation and perception of nuclear risk, this book follows military and civilian nuclear accidents, plus the systems put in place by national and international authorities for recording and analyzing feedback. Prevention and anticipation being the best defenses against a nuclear accident, the authorities have also categorized the different types of accidents, and are doing research to better understand and control them. In light of this, this book shows how the authorities take practical measures to protect neighboring populations and limit radioactive contamination of the environment. France�s experience in this arena is well-documented and a chapter of this book is devoted to the fight against terrorist attacks in the nuclear field. Nuclear Accidents is based on scientifically-recognized publications, as well as on reports from the various countries concerned, and the national and international organizations competent in this field (IAEA, WHO, UNSCEAR, IRSN, etc.).Table of ContentsAcknowledgments xi Preface xiii Chapter 1. Assessment and Perception of Nuclear Risk 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Danger, exposure, radiotoxicity and risk 4 1.2.1. Identification of radionuclide hazards 5 1.2.2. Contamination of the environment, including the anthroposphere, by radionuclides 7 1.2.3. Exposure to radiation 11 1.2.4. Collective doses 17 1.3. From dose to adverse effect in non-human organisms (flora and fauna) 17 1.3.1. The harmful effects of ionizing radiation 18 1.3.2. The dose–response relationship 20 1.3.3. Recommended threshold values 22 1.4. From dose to adverse effect in humans 24 1.4.1. Deterministic and stochastic effects 24 1.4.2. Dose–response relationships for average doses: epidemiological studies 25 1.4.3. Responses to low doses 26 1.5. Radiation protection and recommendations for human irradiation 32 1.6. Risk perception 35 1.6.1. Probability of a future nuclear accident 36 1.6.2. Countries using or renouncing the use of nuclear energy 37 1.6.3. Opinion polls on nuclear power 38 1.6.4. Estimated risk and perceived risk 41 1.7. Conclusion 42 Chapter 2. Lessons from the Past in the Field of Nuclear Accidents 45 2.1. Early signals and late lessons 45 2.2. Structures for disseminating information on radioactive risk 45 2.2.1. Situation from 1945 to 1990 46 2.2.2. Situation from the Chernobyl accident to the present day 47 2.2.3. The example of France 48 2.2.4. Future change? 50 2.3. Feedback (REX) 51 2.3.1. Introduction: what is REX? 51 2.3.2. The overall REX process 52 2.3.3. Causes of REX failure 54 2.4. Lessons from the past 55 2.4.1. Lessons learned from military nuclear activities and accidents 55 2.4.2. Lessons from industrial accidents 57 2.4.3. Medical accidents 72 2.5. Crisis exercises 77 2.5.1. Transnational exercises 77 2.5.2. National exercises 78 2.6. Incident and accident reporting 80 2.6.1. A common severity scale 80 2.6.2. Management of declarations 81 2.6.3. Reporting systems 81 2.6.4. Websites 82 2.7. Conclusion 83 Chapter 3. Research for the Future 85 3.1. Introduction: safety and the main types of accidents 85 3.1.1. Safety history 85 3.1.2. The main safety objectives 86 3.1.3. Defense in depth 87 3.1.4. New research in the field of nuclear safety 88 3.1.5. The aging of nuclear installations 90 3.2. International actions 92 3.2.1. Improving the organization of security at the level of each state 92 3.2.2. The IAEA 94 3.2.3. The NEA 95 3.2.4. The ICRP 98 3.2.5. UNSCEAR 99 3.2.6. The ICRU 100 3.2.7. The IRSN at international level 100 3.3. European actions 101 3.3.1. Euratom 101 3.3.2. Complementary safety assessments (ECS) process 102 3.4. French actions 103 3.5. Advances in nuclear safety 106 3.5.1. Better knowledge of nuclear fuel 107 3.5.2. Better preventing the risk of steam and hydrogen explosions 110 3.5.3. Controlling radionuclide releases 111 3.5.4. Consequences of a fire 112 3.5.5. Knowing more about corium 113 3.5.6. Controlling a water injection into a molten core 115 3.5.7. Mastering electrical distribution systems 115 3.5.8. Improving modeling 116 3.6. Advances in radioecology 118 3.6.1. Determination of the source term 118 3.6.2. Modeling of radionuclide dispersion in the terrestrial environment 119 3.6.3. Modeling of radionuclide dispersion in aquatic environments 120 3.6.4. Modeling of trophic transfer of radionuclides in organisms 121 3.7. Advances in radiation protection 121 3.7.1. Improving the radiological protection system 122 3.7.2. Improving the management of a nuclear accident 125 3.8. Safety research in other types of nuclear installations 128 3.8.1. Cooling pools 128 3.8.2. Spent fuel reprocessing plants 129 3.8.3. Sodium-cooled fast neutron reactors 129 3.8.4. ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) fusion facility 129 3.8.5. Better understanding of criticality 130 3.9. Advances in the humanities and social sciences 130 3.10. Conclusion 131 Chapter 4. Management of the Emergency Phase of a Nuclear Accident 133 4.1. Introduction 133 4.2. The first actions of the threat and rejection periods 134 4.2.1. Radioactive releases in the event of an accident from a nuclear reactor 135 4.2.2. Radioactivity measurements during a nuclear accident 136 4.3. Population management in the emergency phase 138 4.3.1. Containment or sheltering of the population 140 4.3.2. Mass evacuation or evacuation of part of the population 141 4.3.3. Distribution of stable iodine tablets 152 4.4. Food supply management 156 4.4.1. Recommended values 156 4.4.2. Regulatory values 158 4.5. Intervention levels for the protection of populations 160 4.5.1. International recommendations 160 4.5.2. The texts of the various states 163 4.6. The organization of crisis management in France 164 4.6.1. Documentation of the ORSEC plan 165 4.6.2. The subdivisions of the ORSEC plan 167 4.6.3. French actors in nuclear crisis management 167 4.6.4. The internal emergency plan 168 4.6.5. The plan particulier d’intervention (PPI, special intervention plans) 170 4.6.6. Other complementary plans of the PPI 180 4.7. Exiting the emergency phase 182 4.8. Conclusion 183 Chapter 5. Management of the Post-accident Phase 185 5.1. Introduction 185 5.2. The actions to be taken 186 5.2.1. Priority actions to be undertaken 187 5.2.2. Actions during the transitional period 188 5.2.3. Long-term actions 189 5.2.4. Radioactivity measurements following a nuclear accident 190 5.3. Environmental management 191 5.3.1. Management of aquatic environments 191 5.3.2. Management of terrestrial environments 193 5.4. Managing the anthroposphere 195 5.4.1. Decontamination of living areas 196 5.4.2. Nuclear waste management 196 5.4.3. Agricultural management 197 5.4.4. Managing the economy 202 5.4.5. Food supply management 203 5.5. Management of exposed populations 204 5.5.1. Limiting people’s exposure to radiation 204 5.5.2. Radiological monitoring of exposed populations 206 5.5.3. Radiological and health monitoring of nuclear workers 208 5.5.4. Health monitoring of exposed populations 208 5.5.5. The return of evacuated populations 209 5.5.6. The experience of local populations in contaminated environments 211 5.5.7. Human dignity 211 5.6. The organization of post-accident management 212 5.6.1. International and European recommendations 212 5.6.2. French doctrine 215 5.7. Conclusion 221 Chapter 6. Terrorist Attacks and Nuclear Security 223 6.1. Introduction 223 6.2. Malicious acts 224 6.2.1. Attempts at radiation aggression 225 6.2.2. The assassination of Alexander Litvinenko 225 6.2.3. Arafat’s death 226 6.2.4. Overflights and intrusions into nuclear facilities 228 6.3. Possible terrorist attacks 228 6.3.1. The use of a nuclear weapon 229 6.3.2. The use of a “dirty” bomb 229 6.3.3. Attack on a nuclear installation or transport 231 6.3.4. The release of radioactive material 231 6.3.5. Cyber-attacks 232 6.4. The consequences of a terrorist act in the nuclear field 233 6.4.1. The health consequences 234 6.4.2. The psychological consequences 236 6.4.3. Countermeasures in the event of terrorist attacks 237 6.5. Organizational preparation for a terrorist threat 240 6.6. Prevention of terrorist risk in the nuclear field 242 6.6.1. Nuclear non-proliferation 242 6.6.2. Trafficking in military weapons and radionuclides 245 6.6.3. The actions to be taken 247 6.6.4. The limitation of nuclear materials 248 6.7. Conclusion 249 Chapter 7. General Conclusions 253 7.1. The probability of military and civil accidents 253 7.1.1. Nuclear risks and probabilities 253 7.1.2. The causes of accidents 254 7.2. The environmental consequences of accidents 255 7.3. The health consequences of accidents 256 7.4. The economic consequences of accidents 260 7.5. Prevention of nuclear accidents 262 7.6. Management of the emergency and post-accident phases 264 7.7. Perception of nuclear risk 264 7.8. Public information 265 References 269 Acronyms and Abbreviations 339 Index 355

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Book SynopsisSince the 1970s, the field of industrial reliability has evolved significantly, in part due to the design and early operation of the first generation nuclear power plants. Indeed, the needs of this sector have led to the development of specific and innovative reliability methods, which have since been taken up and adapted by other industrial sectors, leading to the development of the management of uncertainties and Health and Usage Monitoring Systems. In this industry, reliability assessment approaches have matured. There are now methods, data and tools available that can be used with confidence for many industrial applications. The purpose of this book is to present and illustrate them with real study cases.The book addresses the evolution of reliability methods, experience feedback and expertise (as data is essential for estimating reliability), the reliability of socio-technical systems and probabilistic safety assessments, the structural reliability and probabilistic models in mechanics, the reliability of equipment and the impact of maintenance on their behavior, human and organizational factors and the impact of big data on reliability. Finally, some R&D perspectives that can be developed in the future are presented. Written by several engineers, statisticians and human and organizational factors specialists in the nuclear sector, this book is intended for all those who are faced with a reliability assessment of their installations or equipment: decision-makers, engineers, designers, operation or maintenance engineers, project managers, human and organizational factors specialists, experts and regulatory authority inspectors, teachers, researchers and doctoral students.Table of ContentsForeword by Philippe Le Poac xi Foreword by Antoine Grall xvii Preface xxi André Lannoy Acknowledgments xxiii André Lannoy Author Biographies xxv Chapter 1 Aims and Introduction 1 André Lannoy 1.1 The aims of this work 1 1.2 Reliability, an application of probability theory 2 1.2.1 What is reliability? 2 1.2.2 The early days of reliability 3 1.2.3 The birth of modern reliability 5 1.2.4 The development of modern reliability 1948–1960 5 1.2.5 The advent of reliability specialists 1960–1974 6 1.2.6 The “safety culture decade” 1975–1990 7 1.2.7 Maximizing efficiency, performances and profits 1990–2007 8 1.2.8 The return to safety, risk aversion 2007–2020 9 1.3 Generating nuclear power 10 1.4 Presentation of the book’s content 15 1.5 References 17 Chapter 2 Input Data: Operation Feedback and Expertise 21 André Lannoy and Emmanuel Remy 2.1 The purposes of operation feedback 21 2.2 What is operation feedback? 23 2.3 The operation feedback approach 25 2.4 “Event” operation feedback 28 2.5 “Equipment” operation feedback 29 2.5.1 The maintenance model: an approach according to function 29 2.5.2 Failure analysis 31 2.5.3 Failure criteria 33 2.5.4 Data quality 33 2.6 Reliability analysis 35 2.6.1 The components studied 35 2.6.2 Data characteristics 36 2.6.3 Principles of simple reliability data estimation for PSAs 38 2.7 Conclusion 39 2.8 References 41 Chapter 3 The Principles of Calculating Reliability in Level 1 PSAs 43 Marc Bouissou 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 The basis of all calculations: an exponential approximation 45 3.2.1 The principle of exponential approximations 45 3.2.2 NRI exponential approximation 46 3.3 The models used 48 3.3.1 Event trees 48 3.3.2 Fault trees 51 3.4 Quantification of PSAs 54 3.4.1 Calculating the probability of UCs that are conditional on an initiator 55 3.4.2 Calculating importance factors 57 3.4.3 The uncertainty calculation 59 3.5 The question of the level of detail 60 3.6 Practical problems: model size, high probabilities 62 3.6.1 Model size and combinatorial explosion 63 3.6.2 Fire, flood and earthquake PSAs: the problem of high probabilities 64 3.7 “Cousin” models of PSA models 65 3.7.1 Event sequence diagrams 65 3.7.2 Bow tie diagram 66 3.7.3 Boolean logic-driven Markov processes 66 3.8 How can we improve the precision of classic PSAs? 70 3.8.1 Principles of the I&AB method 70 3.8.2 What gains does I&AB allow? 71 3.8.3 Numerical application of I&AB 72 3.9 A line of research: “dynamic PSAs” 75 3.10 Software for carrying out PSAs 76 3.11 References 78 Chapter 4 Structural Reliability: General Presentation, Applications for Nuclear Power Plants 83 Emmanuel Ardillon 4.1 General presentation of SRA 83 4.1.1 Why SRA? 83 4.1.2 What does SRA consist of? 86 4.1.3 Old foundations but a recent history 87 4.1.4 SRA: from the R-S elementary case (resistance-stress method) to the general case 88 4.1.5 A brief overview of calculation methods 90 4.1.6 OpenTURNS: the processing tool for uncertainty quantifications co-developed and used at EDF 95 4.2 Structural reliability in the nuclear power generation industry 97 4.2.1 Optimizing the maintenance policy for steam generators 98 4.2.2 Risk of fast fracture of PWR reactor pressure vessels 98 4.3 The pressurizer, an example of an exploratory exercise in the application of probabilistic approaches 100 4.4 Probabilistic optimization of the maintenance of nuclear power plant steel components 102 4.4.1 Introduction 102 4.4.2 Specifying the problem (stage A) 103 4.4.3 Uncertainty quantification (stage B) 105 4.4.4 Uncertainty propagation: calculating the overall risk of thinning points (stage C) 106 4.4.5 Using probabilistic results: determining points to repair 107 4.4.6 Conclusion and perspectives on this application 108 4.5 Structural reliability for hydroelectricity – the reliability of penstocks: evaluation of calculation values for mechanical strength diagnostics 110 4.6 Conclusion 112 4.7 References 113 Chapter 5 Probabilistic and Statistical Modeling for the Reliability of Industrial Equipment 117 Emmanuel Remy 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Some general preliminary remarks 118 5.3 Nonparametric approaches 124 5.4 Parametric models 126 5.4.1 Introduction 126 5.4.2 Some models adapted to non-repairable components 127 5.4.3 Taking account of influencing factors 132 5.4.4 Imperfect maintenance models for repairable equipment 135 5.4.5 Stochastic degradation models 140 5.5 Frequentist inference 147 5.6 Bayesian statistics 153 5.7 Model validation and selection 157 5.8 Case study for illustration 160 5.9 Openings and prospects for R&D 163 5.10 Software tools 164 5.11 References 164 Chapter 6 The Human and Organizational Dimensions of Reliability and Nuclear Safety 171 Nicolas Dechy, Yves Dien And Jean-François Vautier 6.1 Introduction and historical context in the nuclear field 171 6.2 Definition of the human and organizational dimensions of dependability and nuclear safety 173 6.3 Theories on accidents and reliability 175 6.4 Human and social sciences methods for collecting and analyzing data 181 6.5 Making human activities reliable 183 6.5.1 “Human error”: man is a fallible reliability agent 183 6.5.2 Training 185 6.5.3 Applying the procedure or demonstrating skills? 187 6.5.4 Analyzing real activity and work situations 188 6.5.5 Man–machine interfaces: the case of control rooms 189 6.5.6 Consideration of HOFs during design and modifications 190 6.5.7 Operation actions and their feasibility 191 6.5.8 Quantitative approach to human reliability 192 6.5.9 HF in maintenance interventions 193 6.6 Making the organization of work and risk management reliable 194 6.6.1 Quality approach and safety management systems 195 6.6.2 Safety culture 196 6.6.3 Forward planning of skills and workforce – human resources management 197 6.6.4 Managing safety on a daily basis and decision-making 198 6.6.5 Risk analysis, anticipation 199 6.6.6 Adaptation, resilience, emergency and crisis 201 6.6.7 Event analysis and the operating experience feedback process 202 6.6.8 Conducting organizational change 203 6.6.9 Organizing maintenance and subcontractors’ work 204 6.7 Cross-cutting aspects 206 6.7.1 The challenges of integration, organization and time 206 6.7.2 The contribution of the systemic approach 207 6.7.3 Reflexivity and critical approach 209 6.7.4 HOF specialists and HOF relays: the contribution of HOF networks 209 6.8 Conclusion and perspectives 210 6.9 References 211 Chapter 7 From Too Little to Too Much: The Impact of Big Data 225 André Lannoy and Emmanuel Remy 7.1 Introduction 225 7.2 Toward a better understanding? 227 7.2.1 New ways of collecting operation feedback 227 7.2.2 The importance of pre-processing and validation 229 7.2.3 A more accurate vision of the usage profile 230 7.2.4 Toward big data methods 231 7.2.5 Reliability approaches 232 7.2.6 A posteriori processing or visualization 236 7.3 Diagnostics and prognostics 236 7.3.1 Diagnostics 236 7.3.2 The prognostics 238 7.3.3 Classical reliability models for prognostics 239 7.4 Trust 240 7.5 Conclusion and perspectives 241 7.6 References 242 Chapter 8 Conclusions and Prospects 245 André Lannoy 8.1 Nuclear power plants and the progress of reliability 246 8.2 Challenges linked to reliability? 248 8.3 Prospects for future 249 8.3.1 Operational feedback data and data quality 249 8.3.2 On system reliability 250 8.3.3 On the reliability of structures 251 8.3.4 On data from big data and the reliability of equipment 252 8.3.5 On the reliability of organizations and activities 253 8.4 References 255 List of Authors 257 Index 259

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Book SynopsisThis textbook is the first comprehensive and systematic account of the science, technology and policy issues associated with nuclear energy and nuclear weapons. Throughout their account of the evolution of nuclear policy, from its origin to the early Trump presidency, the authors interweave clear technical expositions of the science and technology that underpin and constrain it. The book begins by tracing the early work in atomic physics, the discovery of fission, and the developments that led to the Manhattan Project and the delivery of atomic bombs against Japan that ended World War II. It follows the initial failed attempts at nuclear disarmament, the onset of the Cold War nuclear arms competition, and the development of light water reactors to harness nuclear energy for electric power generation. The authors thoroughly unpack the problem of nuclear proliferation, examining the strategy and incentives for states that have and have not pursued nuclear weapons, and providing an overview of the nuclear arsenals of the current nuclear weapon states. They trace the technical, political and strategic evolution of deterrence, arms control and disarmament policies from the first attempts for an Outer Space Treaty in 1957 through the new START treaty of 2009. At critical junctures in the narrative, the authors explain the relevant nuclear science and technology including nuclear fission and criticality; nuclear materials and enrichment; nuclear detonation and nuclear weapons effects; nuclear weapons stockpile constraints, stewardship and surveillance; nuclear fusion and thermonuclear weapons; technologies for monitoring, verification and proliferation; and nuclear forensics. They conclude with an assessment of contemporary issues ranging from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action reached to halt Iran’s nuclear weapons development program, to the threat of nuclear terrorism, the perceived nuclear weapons policies of Russia and China, and the US efforts to provide disincentives for its allies to acquire their own nuclear weapons by maintaining credible security guarantees.Table of Contents1. Early days1.1. Development of atomic physics1.2. Origins of nuclear fission – Great Britain and continental Europe1.3. Nuclear science I – fission and criticality1.3.1. Fission, criticality and the fission chain1.3.1.1. Decay and half-life1.3.2. Energy scale of nuclear reactions relative to chemical reactions1.3.3. Nuclear reactions and cross sections1.3.4. Neutrons basics1.3.4.1. Neutrons from fission (nu-bar)1.3.4.2. Neutron energy and moderation concepts1.3.5. Critical mass, chain reactions, energy and fission products1.3.6. Enrichment and production1.3.7. Worked example – Chicago Pile1.4. The Manhattan Project1.4.1. Organization1.4.2. Key personnel1.4.3. Technical obstacles1.4.4. The path to success1.5. Nuclear science II- materials and enrichment1.5.1. Uranium enrichment1.5.2. Reactor basics and plutonium production1.5.3. Overview of proliferation-resistant fuel cycles and reactors1.5.4. Worked example – centrifuge versus gaseous diffusion1.6. Truman’s decision to drop two atomic bombs1.6.1. Policy options, alternative targets1.6.2. Threat assessment1.6.3. Strategic and tactical considerations1.6.4. Key players and the decision1.6.5. Alternative explanations1.7. Effects of the detonations1.7.1. Blast 1.7.2. Radiation 1.7.3. Shock waves1.7.4. Electromagnetic pulse1.7.5. Estimates of prompt and delayed fatalities1.8. Nuclear science III – nuclear weapons and their effects1.8.1. Basic design concepts1.8.2. Weapon effects1.8.3. Blast and pressure1.8.4. Thermal Effects1.8.5.   Radiation effects1.8.6. Other (EMP, delayed fatalities, impact on climate change)1.8.7. Radiation effects on biological systems1.8.8. Weapons effects in military planning1.8.9. Comparison to conventional weapons and their uses1.8.10. Accuracy and effectiveness1.8.11. Hardening and survivability1.8.12. Worked example – Hiroshima blast and radiation effects 2. Postwar expansion (1946-1968)2.1. National security act, 19472.1.1. National security council2.1.2. US Air Force2.1.3. Central Intelligence Agency2.1.4. Other consequences2.2. Atomic Energy Commission2.2.1. Thermonuclear weapons debate2.2.2. Concern of Soviet weapons capability2.3. Nuclear science IV– fusion and thermonuclear weapons2.3.1. Basics of nuclear fusion2.3.2. Thermonuclear concepts2.3.3. Worked example – to be determined2.4. Failed arms control and onset of the Cold War2.4.1. Acheson-Lillienthal report2.4.2. Failure of the Baruch plan2.4.3. Soviet resistance2.4.4. Korean War (1950-53)2.4.4.1. Role of nuclear weapons2.4.4.2. Beginnings of extended deterrence2.5. Nuclear proliferation begins2.5.1. Mirror Imaging: USSR program, Kurchatov, espionage from Manhattan project2.5.2. USSR weapons test (1949)2.5.3. The UK program and test (1952)2.6. Nuclear arms competition between the US and the USSR2.6.1. The Hydrogen Bomb 2.6.1.1. Oppenheimer vs. Teller2.6.1.2. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory2.6.2. Early nuclear weapon strategy development2.6.2.1. Massive retaliation and its critics2.6.2.2. Deterrence and Secure 2nd Strike2.6.2.3. Strategic bombers, missiles, the Navy (SSBNS, SLBNS)2.6.2.4. Intercontinental delivery2.6.3. Soviet responses 2.7. Nuclear Science V– modern weapons and the stockpile2.7.1. Constraints and weapon size and mass 2.7.2. Constraints on weapon efficiency and yield2.7.3. Materials properties and equations of state2.7.4. Stockpile surveillance - assessing reliability2.7.5. Worked example – yield and efficiency3. The problem of nuclear proliferation3.1. The International Atomic Energy Agency3.1.1.   Application of nuclear energy for electric power generation3.1.2. Efforts to forestall proliferation3.1.2.1. Nuclear suppliers group3.1.2.2. Zangger committee3.2. Nuclear proliferation builds3.2.1. France – 19603.2.2. China – 19643.2.3. Israel – 19653.2.4. Sweden – ended in 19683.3. First arms control measures3.3.1. Distinction between disarmament and arms control3.3.2. Outer Space Treaty – 19573.3.3. Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis - 19623.3.4. Limited Test Ban Treaty - 1963 3.4. Nuclear science VI– stockpile safety and security3.4.1. Use control concepts3.4.2. Stockpile aging and reliability3.4.3. One-point safety3.4.4. Worked example - decay and aging of weapons material 4. Technical, political and strategic evolution of deterrence and arms control4.1. Declaratory policies4.2. Deterrence policy4.2.1. Red and blue4.2.2. “No First Use” versus “Use to De-escalate”4.3. Extended deterrence and US nuclear deployments4.4. Flexible response4.5. Soviet and US buildup4.6. The importance of missile defense4.7. Nuclear arms control and restraint4.7.1. Nuclear non-proliferation treaty – 19684.7.2. SALT I– 19724.7.2.1. Importance of MIRVS4.7.3. ABM treaty -19724.7.4. SALT II – 19794.7.5. Carter policy of deterring reprocessing of spent fuel - 19774.7.6. Additional proliferation activities4.7.6.1. Indian test – 19744.7.6.2. Pakistani commitment4.7.6.3. German-Brazilian deal4.7.6.4. Taiwan, South Korea initiatives4.7.7.   INF treaty – 19874.7.8. START – 19914.8. Nuclear science VII– monitoring, verification and proliferation4.8.1. Detonation monitoring and detection4.8.2. Safeguards technologies4.8.3. Other measurement concepts and activities4.8.4. Technologies for treaty verification and monitoring4.8.5. Proliferation resistant reactors and fuel cycle4.8.6. Worked example – signature detection 5. The second nuclear age (1992- present)5.1. End of the Cold War5.1.1. START II (1993)5.1.2. Nunn-Lugar and cooperative threat reduction5.2. Ukraine and Kazhakstan nuclear disarmament5.3. Regional proliferation5.3.1. Iraq5.3.2. North Korea5.3.3. Libya5.3.4. India versus Pakistan5.3.5. Iran5.4. Counter-proliferation 5.4.1. Proliferation security initiative5.4.2. Stuxnet5.5. Nuclear disarmament5.5.1. Disarmament and the legitimacy of the non-proliferation regime5.5.2. Historical examples of nuclear disarmament5.5.2.1. South Africa5.5.2.2. Brazil and Argentina5.5.2.3. Former Soviet Union5.6. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty5.6.1. Failed US. ratification5.6.2. Efforts at START III and completion of Strategic Offensive Arms Reduction Treaty (2002) 5.6.3. US withdrawal from the ABM treaty and its significance5.6.4. New START (2009)5.7. Nuclear science VIII– stockpile stewardship without nuclear testing5.7.1. Contrast with stockpile surveillance5.7.2. High energy density physics experiments5.7.3. Codes and supercomputers5.7.4. Worked example – stockpile surveillance5.7.5. Worked example – computational demands of physics codes 6. Contemporary issues6.1. The Obama nuclear initiatives and their legacy6.1.1. Failed attempts to develop new nuclear weapons (RNEP and RRW)6.1.2. Beyond life extension programs6.1.3. The nuclear security initiatives6.1.4. Strengthening the NPT6.2. Russian adoption of “escalate to deescalate” doctrine6.3. Nuclear weapons and China’s “anti-access/area denial” strategy6.4. Cyber threats to nuclear command and control systems6.5. Nuclear weapons and cross domain deterrence6.5.1. Issues of proportionality and escalation control6.6. Impact of economic sanctions as a counter-proliferation tool6.7. The Iran Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)6.7.1. Elements of the agreement6.7.2. Strengths and weaknesses6.7.3. Effects on others6.7.4. Consequences6.8. Threat of nuclear terrorism6.8.1. Loss of control of a nuclear weapon6.8.2. Loss of control of nuclear material6.8.3. Loss of control of radioactive material and risks of radioactive dispersal devices6.9. Challenges of attribution, prosecution and retaliation6.9.1. Pre- and post-detonation attribution and forensics6.9.2. Decision-making complexities of cross discipline assessments6.9.3. Policy alternatives in response to nuclear weapon use6.9.4. Accuracy and timeliness requirements6.10. Nuclear science IX – Illicit material detection and forensic attribution6.10.1. Radiation detection and analysis6.10.1.1. Passive detection and spectroscopy6.10.1.2. Activation6.10.1.3. Radiography6.10.2. Nuclear forensics and attribution6.10.2.1. Decay products and chronometry6.10.3. Worked example – standoff detection of special nuclear material 7. Conclusion – Will the “tradition of non-use” of nuclear weapons be sustained? If not, what are the potential consequences?

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Book SynopsisThis book offers a complete panorama of the pressurized water reactor industry, beginning from its origin in the USA and the realization of nuclear engines for naval propulsion, to its most recent developments in the field of civil energy production, particularly in France with the 56 reactors of the multinational electric utility company, Electricité de France (EDF). This comprehensive two-volume masterwork features detailed descriptions of all the crucial components driving a pressurized water nuclear reactor. Volume 1 deals with the main components, such as the main primary circuit, the reactor core, and the steam generators. Volume 2 covers the secondary circuit and the cold source, including components such as the turbine, condenser, alternator, transformers and power supply. Written by Serge Marguet, a leading specialist in reactor physics and author of several books on the subject, this book draws on his experience of more than 35 years in research and development at EDF, a global leader in civil nuclear energy. Featuring a richly illustrated, full-color iconography, as well as a detailed index and bibliography, The Technology of Pressurized Water Reactors is an indispensable work for seasoned nuclear energy professionals, as well as inquisitive newcomers to the field.Table of ContentsHistory of the pressurized water reactor type.- The nuclear island.- The primary circuit.- The vessel and its internals.- Reactor core and fuel.- The secondary circuit.- The main circuits.- The turbine-generator unit and electricity production.- Towards the pressurized water reactors of the 21st century.

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Book SynopsisThis complete introduction to plasma physics and controlled fusion by one of the pioneering scientists in this expanding field offers both a simple and intuitive discussion of the basic concepts of this subject and an insight into the challenging problems of current research. In a wholly lucid manner the work covers single-particle motions, fluid equations for plasmas, wave motions, diffusion and resistivity, Landau damping, plasma instabilities and nonlinear problems. For students, this outstanding text offers a painless introduction to this important field; for teachers, a large collection of problems; and for researchers, a concise review of the fundamentals as well as original treatments of a number of topics never before explained so clearly. This revised edition contains new material on kinetic effects, including Bernstein waves and the plasma dispersion function, and on nonlinear wave equations and solitons. For the third edition, updates was made throughout each existing chapter, and two new chapters were added; Ch 9 on “Special Plasmas” and Ch 10 on Plasma Applications (including Atmospheric Plasmas). Table of ContentsIntroduction.- Single-particle motions.- Plasmas as fluids.- Waves in plasmas.- Diffusion and resistivity.- Equilibrium and stability.- Kinetic theory .- Nonlinear effects.- Special plasmas.- Plasma applications.

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1. Einige Grundlagen zur Kernphysik.- 1.1 Zur Erinnerung einiges über die Sprachregelung.- 1.2 Die drei Säulen der Kernphysik.- 1.3 Werkzeuge der Kernphysik.- 1.3.1 Beschleuniger.- 1.3.2 Detektoren.- 1.4 Streuprobleme.- 1.5 Bemerkungen zur Statistik.- 1.6 Zum Problem der Kernkräfte.- Literatur.- 2. Kernzerfälle und Kernreaktionen.- 2.1 Kernzerfälle.- 2.1.1 ?-Zerfall.- 2.1.2 Kernspaltung.- 2.2 Kernreaktionen.- 3. Einführung in die Neutronenphysik.- 3.1 Theoretische Grundlagen.- 3.1.1 Entdeckung und Eigenschaften des Neutrons.- 3.1.2 Wechselwirkung von Neutronen mit Materie (Begriff des Wirkungsquerschnitts).- 3.1.3 Experimenteller Nachweis von Neutronen.- 3.1.4 Intensive Neutronenquellen.- 3.2 Anwendungen.- 3.2.1 Anwendung von langsamen Neutronen zur Strukturuntersuchung.- 3.2.2 Herstellung von Radioisotopen.- 3.2.3 Neutronenzyklus in Reaktoren.- 3.2.4 Kernwaffen.- 4. Kernreaktoren.- 4.1 Einleitung.- 4.1.1 Energie aus Kernspaltung.- 4.1.2 Rohstoffe für Kernspaltung.- 4.1.3 Brut- und Konverter-Reaktoren.- 4.1.4 Kernreaktoren.- 4.2 Reaktorphysik.- 4.2.1 Bindungsenergie und Kernmassen.- 4.2.2 Neutronenreaktionen und Wirkungsquerschnitte.- 4.2.3 Induzierte Kernspaltung.- 4.2.4 Neutronenreaktionen in verschiedenen Systemen.- 4.3 Reaktortechnik.- 4.3.1 Kraftwerksysteme.- 4.3.2 Kraftwerkstechnik.- 4.3.3 Reaktorsicherheit.- 5. Reaktorsicherheit.- 5.1 Funktion eines Kernkraftwerkes.- 5.2 Aufgabe der Reaktorsicherheit.- 5.3 Sicherheitskonzept.- 5.4 Betriebserfahrungen.- 6. Umweltprobleme.- 6.1 Einleitung.- 6.2 Bedeutung und Notwendigkeit des Einsatzes von Energie.- 6.2.1 Energiebedarf.- 6.2.2 Energieverbrauch und Bruttosozialprodukt.- 6.2.3 Der soziale Ertrag des Energieeinsatzes.- 6.2.4 Prognose des Wachstums.- 6.2.5 Grenzen des Energieverbrauchs.- 6.3 Schadstoffe.- 6.3.1 Industrielle Schadstoffproduktion.- 6.3.2 Schadstoffe aus Verbrennungsprozessen.- 6.3.3 Umweltschäden durch Schwefel- und Stickoxide.- 6.3.4 Das CO2-Klimaproblem.- 6.4 Belastung durch Umweltstrahlung.- 6.4.1 Strahlungsmeßgrößen.- 6.4.2 Mittlere Strahlenbelastung der Bevölkerung.- 6.4.3 Kurzzeitbestrahlung und hohe Dosen.- 6.4.4 Langzeitexposition und Strahlenschutzverordnung.- 6.5 Kernkraftwerke und Umwelt.- 6.5.1 Abwärme und Abluft.- 6.5.2 Abwasser.- 6.5.3 Abfallprodukte und Zwischenlagerung.- 6.5.4 Wiederaufarbeitung.- 6.5.5 Endlagerung.- 6.6 Vergleiche.- 6.6.1 Emissionswirkungen.- 6.6.2 Spätfolgen.- 6.6.3 Aktuelle Menschheitsrisiken.- 6.6.4 Nachwort.- 7. Kernfusion in magnetisch eingeschlossenen Plasmen.- 7.1 Auswahl der Fusionsreaktionen.- 7.2 Tokamaks-Stellaratoren-Siegelmaschinen.- 8. Nachweis von Kernstrahlung.- 8.1 Grundlagen.- 8.1.1 Einleitung.- 8.1.2 Die Aufgaben eines Teilchendetektors.- 8.1.3 Die Verarbeitung der Kernstrahlimpulse.- 8.1.4 Zählstatistik.- 8.2 Nachweis geladener Teilchen.- 8.2.1 Durchgang geladener Teilchen durch Materie.- 8.2.2 Gas-Ionisations-Kammern.- 8.2.3 Gas-Proportionalzähler.- 8.2.4 Geiger-Müller-Zählrohre.- 8.2.5 Halbleiterzähler.- 8.2.6 Szintillationszähler.- 8.2.7 ?erenkov-Zähler.- 8.2.8 Andere Nachweisverfahren.- 8.2.9 Teilchenidentifizierung mit Zählern.- 8.3 Nachweis ungeladener Teilchen.- 8.3.1 Grundlegende Bemerkungen.- 8.3.2 Nachweis von Neutronen.- 8.3.3 Nachweis von Gammastrahlung.- 8.3.4 Nachweis von Neutrinos.- 8.4 Ausblick.- 8.5 Weiterführende Literatur.- 9. Konzepte zur Energienutzung.- 9.1 Energievorräte und Energieverbrauch.- 9.2 „Verschwendung“ bei thermischen Kraftwerken.- 9.2.1 Bessere Nutzung durch Heizkraftwerke.- 9.2.2 Bessere Nutzung durch Vorschaltprozesse.- 9.3 „Verschwendung“ in Haushaltungen.- 9.4 „Verschwendung“ im Verkehr.- 9.5 „Neue“ Energiequellen.- 9.5.1 Sonnenenergie.- 9.5.2 Hochtemperaturreaktoren.- 9.5.3 Fusionsreaktor.- 9.5.4 Energieeinsparung in Haushalten und Industrie.- Sachwortverzeichnis.

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Book SynopsisDieses Buch zeigt am Beispiel des komplexen Themas Entsorgung radioaktiver Reststoffe die Herangehensweise für disziplinübergreifende Zusammenarbeit und die transdisziplinäre Verknüpfung von Wissenschaft und Öffentlichkeit. Es bietet Praxisbezogene Vorschläge aus einem Forschungsprojekt zur Problematik der wissenschaftlichen Vorbereitung der Endlagersuche sowie wissenschaftstheroetische Hintergründe zur inter- und transdisziplnären Zusammenarbeit. Das Buch richtet sich an Dozenten und Wissenschaftler sowie Entscheidungsträger in Verwaltung und Politik.Table of ContentsInterdisziplinarität – Transdisziplinarität.- Radioaktive Reststoffe.- Politikwissenschaften, Geologie, Geochemie, Rechtswissenschaft und Strahlenschutz.- Risiko, Risikobegriff, Risikoverständnis.- Das Konzept der Freiwilligkeit.- Interdisziplinäre Kooperation.- Organisation interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit.

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Book SynopsisDieses Buch gibt einen Überblick über den Umgang mit radioaktiven Reststoffen. Es zeigt auf, welche Quellen für radioaktive Abfälle es gibt, wie die Optionen Zwischenlagerung und Endlagerung gestalte sind, sowie, welche Problem sich aus dem Transport radioaktiver Stoffe ergeben. Schließlich beschreibt es noch die Möglichkeit der Transmutation - also die Elementumwandlung durch gezielte Kernreaktionen - und eine dazugehörige Anwendung.Table of ContentsEinleitung.- Radioaktivität.- Zerfallsgesetze.- Quellen radioaktiven Materials.- Aufbereitung.- Zwischenlagerung.- Endlagerung.- Transport.- Organisationen (international, Deutschland).- Transmutation.- Transmutation physikalische Grundlagen.- Transmutation existierende Verfahren.- Spaltprodukt-Transformator.

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Book SynopsisThis publication documents the results of an IAEA coordinated research project (CRP)on the application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes for nuclear power plant design. The main objective was to benchmark CFD codes, model options and methods against CFD experimental data under single phase flow conditions. This publication summarizes the current capabilities and applications of CFD codes, and their present qualification level, with respect to nuclear power plant design requirements. It is not intended to be comprehensive, focusing instead on international experience in the practical application of these tools in designing nuclear power plant components and systems. The guidance in this publication is based on inputs provided by international nuclear industry experts directly involved in nuclear power plant design issues, CFD applications, and in related experimentation and validation highlighted during the CRP.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-4.4, which it supersedes. The revised version provides specific recommendations on developing, formulating and presenting the operational limits and conditions as well as the operating procedures for research reactors, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. The recommendations in this publication are intended for use by operating organizations of research reactors, regulatory bodies and other relevant organizations involved in a research reactor project.

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Book SynopsisThe operational useful lifetime of semiconductor electronic devices working in harsh radiation environments is limited by the structural defects induced by the exposure to ionizing radiation. This has immediate consequences for their use in high radiation environments, for example in nuclear facilities, satellites, radiotherapy, medical diagnostics, security and other industries. This publication establishes a standardized procedure to quantify the radiation hardness of semiconductor diode materials in a way that is independent of the irradiation parameters and biasing conditions of the device. The established parameter reflects the additional free charge carrier trapping cross section induced by the damaging radiation, normalized to the predicted concentration of generated vacancies by the same radiation. The effectiveness of the approach is validated through different types of ion beam irradiations, characterizations and materials used. The work leads towards approaches to predict the radiation induced effects on device performance for more complex electronic structures.

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Book SynopsisOn request, the IAEA performs comprehensive audits of radiotherapy programmes to assess the whole process, including aspects such as organization, infrastructure and clinical and medical physics components. The objective of a comprehensive clinical audit is to review and evaluate the quality of all components of the practice of radiotherapy at the institution, including its professional competence, with a view to quality improvement. A multidisciplinary team, known as Quality Assurance Team in Radiation Oncology (QUATRO), comprising a radiation oncologist, a medical physicist and a radiation therapist, are required to carry out the audit. The present publication provides revisions of the QUATRO guidelines published in 2007, by incorporating new procedures relevant to newer technologies and modalities that have become routinely used in radiotherapy centres in the interim period.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides specific recommendations on protection against internal and external hazards in the operation of nuclear power plants. It provides new or updated recommendations derived from enhanced understanding of operational aspects of hazards and combinations of hazards. Operating experience gained from incidents and accidents in nuclear power plants around the world has demonstrated that fire can be an important risk contributor in many Member States. However, there are other internal and external hazards that have also to be considered in the design and operation of nuclear power plants. This Safety Guide supersedes and expands the scope of lAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS- G-2. 1, Fire Safety in the Operation of Nuclear Power Plants, to include recommendations on these other hazards.

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Book SynopsisA revision of IAEA Nuclear Security Series No. 2, Nuclear Forensics Support, which was published in 2006. Since then, there has been substantive expansion and confidence in the application of nuclear forensics globally to effectively counter the threat of nuclear and other radioactive materials out of regulatory control.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides recommendations on radiation protection and radioactive waste management in the design and operation of research reactors, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. It identifies important components that should be considered at the design stage with regard to facilitating radiation protection and radioactive waste management. It also recommends good practices in implementing operational radiation protection and radioactive waste management programmes, and in their optimization. This Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-4.6, which it supersedes.

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Book SynopsisThis publication is a revision and combination of two Safety Guides, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-1.1 and No. NS-G-1.3. The revision takes into account developments in instrumentation and control (I&C) systems since the publication of the earlier Safety Guides. The main changes relate to the continuing development of computer applications and the evolution of the methods necessary for their safe, secure and practical use. In addition, account is taken of developments in human factors engineering and the need for computer security. This Safety Guide also references and takes into account other IAEA safety standards and IAEA Nuclear Security Series publications that provide guidance relating to I&C design.

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Book SynopsisThis publication provides guidance for assessing the sustainability of a nuclear energy system (NES) in the area of nuclear fuel cycle facility (NFCF) safety. It deals with NFCFs that may be potentially involved in the NES such as, mining, milling, refining, conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication, spent fuel storage, and spent fuel reprocessing facilities. It augments the information presented in the earlier INPRO publications on the methodology for sustainability assessments. The publication is intended for use by organizations involved in the development and deployment of a NES, including planning, design, modification and technical support for NFCFs.

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Book SynopsisControl of nuclear material comprises the administrative and technical measures applied to ensure that nuclear material is not misused or removed from its assigned location without approval and/or without proper accounting. This publication, which builds upon the Implementing Guide IAEA Nuclear Security Series No.25-G , focuses on the control of nuclear material during storage, use and movement using a facility's nuclear material accounting and control (NMAC) system. It describes practical measures for controlling nuclear material for nuclear security purposes during all activities at a facility, including movements, and how to use a graded approach in applying such measures. The technical guidance provided is targeted at States and their competent authorities on how to use individual elements of the NMAC system, but will be also useful for persons responsible for designing, operating and assessing nuclear security systems, physical protection of nuclear facilities, nuclear security management, operators and managers of NMAC systems; as well as for those preparing associated regulations; and persons responsible for computer security at nuclear facilities.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides practical guidance and recommendations on ageing management for research reactors, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. It is intended for use by operating organizations in establishing, implementing and improving ageing management programmes for research reactors, and by regulatory bodies in verifying that ageing of research reactors is being effectively managed. The Safety Guide focuses on managing the physical ageing of systems, structures and components important to safety, and also provides guidance on safety aspects of managing obsolescence. This Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSG-10, which it supersedes.

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Book SynopsisThis publication provides specific recommendations on research reactor instrumentation and control systems and software important to safety, including instrumentation and control system architecture and associated components, from sensors to actuators, operator interfaces and auxiliary equipment, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. The recommendations and guidance apply to both the design and configuration management of instrumentation and control systems for new research reactors and the modernization of the instrumentation and control systems at existing research reactor facilities. In addition, this Safety Guide provides recommendations and guidance on human factors engineering and human-machine interfaces, and for computer based systems and software for use in instrumentation and control systems important to safety. This Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSG-37, which it supersedes.

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Book SynopsisDecommissioning is the last step in the lifetime management of an authorized facility and it must be considered during the design, construction, commissioning and operation of such facilities. This publication provides guidance on how to comply with requirements for the safe decommissioning of nuclear power plants, research reactors, and other nuclear fuel cycle facilities. It addresses all the aspects of decommissioning that are required to ensure safety including: roles and responsibilities, strategy and planning for decommissioning, conduct of decommissioning actions and completion of decommissioning. It is intended for use by those working in policy and strategy development, planning, implementation and regulatory control of decommissioning.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Requirements publication establishes requirements that support Principle 3 of the Fundamental Safety Principles in relation to establishing, sustaining and continuously improving leadership and management for safety and an integrated management system. It emphasizes that leadership for safety, management for safety, an effective management system and a systemic approach (i.e. an approach in which interactions between technical, human and organizational factors are duly considered) are all essential to the specification and application of adequate safety measures and to the fostering of a strong safety culture. Leadership and an effective management system will integrate safety, health, environmental, security, quality, human-and-organizational factors, societal and economic elements. The management system will ensure the fostering of a strong safety culture, regular assessment of performance and the application of lessons from experience. The publication is intended for use by regulatory bodies, operating organizations and other organizations concerned with facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks.

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