Nuclear issues Books

Book SynopsisThis textbook is the first comprehensive and systematic account of the science, technology and policy issues associated with nuclear energy and nuclear weapons. Throughout their account of the evolution of nuclear policy, from its origin to the early Trump presidency, the authors interweave clear technical expositions of the science and technology that underpin and constrain it. The book begins by tracing the early work in atomic physics, the discovery of fission, and the developments that led to the Manhattan Project and the delivery of atomic bombs against Japan that ended World War II. It follows the initial failed attempts at nuclear disarmament, the onset of the Cold War nuclear arms competition, and the development of light water reactors to harness nuclear energy for electric power generation. The authors thoroughly unpack the problem of nuclear proliferation, examining the strategy and incentives for states that have and have not pursued nuclear weapons, and providing an overview of the nuclear arsenals of the current nuclear weapon states. They trace the technical, political and strategic evolution of deterrence, arms control and disarmament policies from the first attempts for an Outer Space Treaty in 1957 through the new START treaty of 2009. At critical junctures in the narrative, the authors explain the relevant nuclear science and technology including nuclear fission and criticality; nuclear materials and enrichment; nuclear detonation and nuclear weapons effects; nuclear weapons stockpile constraints, stewardship and surveillance; nuclear fusion and thermonuclear weapons; technologies for monitoring, verification and proliferation; and nuclear forensics. They conclude with an assessment of contemporary issues ranging from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action reached to halt Iran’s nuclear weapons development program, to the threat of nuclear terrorism, the perceived nuclear weapons policies of Russia and China, and the US efforts to provide disincentives for its allies to acquire their own nuclear weapons by maintaining credible security guarantees.Table of Contents1. Early days1.1. Development of atomic physics1.2. Origins of nuclear fission – Great Britain and continental Europe1.3. Nuclear science I – fission and criticality1.3.1. Fission, criticality and the fission chain1.3.1.1. Decay and half-life1.3.2. Energy scale of nuclear reactions relative to chemical reactions1.3.3. Nuclear reactions and cross sections1.3.4. Neutrons basics1.3.4.1. Neutrons from fission (nu-bar)1.3.4.2. Neutron energy and moderation concepts1.3.5. Critical mass, chain reactions, energy and fission products1.3.6. Enrichment and production1.3.7. Worked example – Chicago Pile1.4. The Manhattan Project1.4.1. Organization1.4.2. Key personnel1.4.3. Technical obstacles1.4.4. The path to success1.5. Nuclear science II- materials and enrichment1.5.1. Uranium enrichment1.5.2. Reactor basics and plutonium production1.5.3. Overview of proliferation-resistant fuel cycles and reactors1.5.4. Worked example – centrifuge versus gaseous diffusion1.6. Truman’s decision to drop two atomic bombs1.6.1. Policy options, alternative targets1.6.2. Threat assessment1.6.3. Strategic and tactical considerations1.6.4. Key players and the decision1.6.5. Alternative explanations1.7. Effects of the detonations1.7.1. Blast 1.7.2. Radiation 1.7.3. Shock waves1.7.4. Electromagnetic pulse1.7.5. Estimates of prompt and delayed fatalities1.8. Nuclear science III – nuclear weapons and their effects1.8.1. Basic design concepts1.8.2. Weapon effects1.8.3. Blast and pressure1.8.4. Thermal Effects1.8.5.   Radiation effects1.8.6. Other (EMP, delayed fatalities, impact on climate change)1.8.7. Radiation effects on biological systems1.8.8. Weapons effects in military planning1.8.9. Comparison to conventional weapons and their uses1.8.10. Accuracy and effectiveness1.8.11. Hardening and survivability1.8.12. Worked example – Hiroshima blast and radiation effects 2. Postwar expansion (1946-1968)2.1. National security act, 19472.1.1. National security council2.1.2. US Air Force2.1.3. Central Intelligence Agency2.1.4. Other consequences2.2. Atomic Energy Commission2.2.1. Thermonuclear weapons debate2.2.2. Concern of Soviet weapons capability2.3. Nuclear science IV– fusion and thermonuclear weapons2.3.1. Basics of nuclear fusion2.3.2. Thermonuclear concepts2.3.3. Worked example – to be determined2.4. Failed arms control and onset of the Cold War2.4.1. Acheson-Lillienthal report2.4.2. Failure of the Baruch plan2.4.3. Soviet resistance2.4.4. Korean War (1950-53)2.4.4.1. Role of nuclear weapons2.4.4.2. Beginnings of extended deterrence2.5. Nuclear proliferation begins2.5.1. Mirror Imaging: USSR program, Kurchatov, espionage from Manhattan project2.5.2. USSR weapons test (1949)2.5.3. The UK program and test (1952)2.6. Nuclear arms competition between the US and the USSR2.6.1. The Hydrogen Bomb 2.6.1.1. Oppenheimer vs. Teller2.6.1.2. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory2.6.2. Early nuclear weapon strategy development2.6.2.1. Massive retaliation and its critics2.6.2.2. Deterrence and Secure 2nd Strike2.6.2.3. Strategic bombers, missiles, the Navy (SSBNS, SLBNS)2.6.2.4. Intercontinental delivery2.6.3. Soviet responses 2.7. Nuclear Science V– modern weapons and the stockpile2.7.1. Constraints and weapon size and mass 2.7.2. Constraints on weapon efficiency and yield2.7.3. Materials properties and equations of state2.7.4. Stockpile surveillance - assessing reliability2.7.5. Worked example – yield and efficiency3. The problem of nuclear proliferation3.1. The International Atomic Energy Agency3.1.1.   Application of nuclear energy for electric power generation3.1.2. Efforts to forestall proliferation3.1.2.1. Nuclear suppliers group3.1.2.2. Zangger committee3.2. Nuclear proliferation builds3.2.1. France – 19603.2.2. China – 19643.2.3. Israel – 19653.2.4. Sweden – ended in 19683.3. First arms control measures3.3.1. Distinction between disarmament and arms control3.3.2. Outer Space Treaty – 19573.3.3. Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis - 19623.3.4. Limited Test Ban Treaty - 1963 3.4. Nuclear science VI– stockpile safety and security3.4.1. Use control concepts3.4.2. Stockpile aging and reliability3.4.3. One-point safety3.4.4. Worked example - decay and aging of weapons material 4. Technical, political and strategic evolution of deterrence and arms control4.1. Declaratory policies4.2. Deterrence policy4.2.1. Red and blue4.2.2. “No First Use” versus “Use to De-escalate”4.3. Extended deterrence and US nuclear deployments4.4. Flexible response4.5. Soviet and US buildup4.6. The importance of missile defense4.7. Nuclear arms control and restraint4.7.1. Nuclear non-proliferation treaty – 19684.7.2. SALT I– 19724.7.2.1. Importance of MIRVS4.7.3. ABM treaty -19724.7.4. SALT II – 19794.7.5. Carter policy of deterring reprocessing of spent fuel - 19774.7.6. Additional proliferation activities4.7.6.1. Indian test – 19744.7.6.2. Pakistani commitment4.7.6.3. German-Brazilian deal4.7.6.4. Taiwan, South Korea initiatives4.7.7.   INF treaty – 19874.7.8. START – 19914.8. Nuclear science VII– monitoring, verification and proliferation4.8.1. Detonation monitoring and detection4.8.2. Safeguards technologies4.8.3. Other measurement concepts and activities4.8.4. Technologies for treaty verification and monitoring4.8.5. Proliferation resistant reactors and fuel cycle4.8.6. Worked example – signature detection 5. The second nuclear age (1992- present)5.1. End of the Cold War5.1.1. START II (1993)5.1.2. Nunn-Lugar and cooperative threat reduction5.2. Ukraine and Kazhakstan nuclear disarmament5.3. Regional proliferation5.3.1. Iraq5.3.2. North Korea5.3.3. Libya5.3.4. India versus Pakistan5.3.5. Iran5.4. Counter-proliferation 5.4.1. Proliferation security initiative5.4.2. Stuxnet5.5. Nuclear disarmament5.5.1. Disarmament and the legitimacy of the non-proliferation regime5.5.2. Historical examples of nuclear disarmament5.5.2.1. South Africa5.5.2.2. Brazil and Argentina5.5.2.3. Former Soviet Union5.6. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty5.6.1. Failed US. ratification5.6.2. Efforts at START III and completion of Strategic Offensive Arms Reduction Treaty (2002) 5.6.3. US withdrawal from the ABM treaty and its significance5.6.4. New START (2009)5.7. Nuclear science VIII– stockpile stewardship without nuclear testing5.7.1. Contrast with stockpile surveillance5.7.2. High energy density physics experiments5.7.3. Codes and supercomputers5.7.4. Worked example – stockpile surveillance5.7.5. Worked example – computational demands of physics codes 6. Contemporary issues6.1. The Obama nuclear initiatives and their legacy6.1.1. Failed attempts to develop new nuclear weapons (RNEP and RRW)6.1.2. Beyond life extension programs6.1.3. The nuclear security initiatives6.1.4. Strengthening the NPT6.2. Russian adoption of “escalate to deescalate” doctrine6.3. Nuclear weapons and China’s “anti-access/area denial” strategy6.4. Cyber threats to nuclear command and control systems6.5. Nuclear weapons and cross domain deterrence6.5.1. Issues of proportionality and escalation control6.6. Impact of economic sanctions as a counter-proliferation tool6.7. The Iran Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)6.7.1. Elements of the agreement6.7.2. Strengths and weaknesses6.7.3. Effects on others6.7.4. Consequences6.8. Threat of nuclear terrorism6.8.1. Loss of control of a nuclear weapon6.8.2. Loss of control of nuclear material6.8.3. Loss of control of radioactive material and risks of radioactive dispersal devices6.9. Challenges of attribution, prosecution and retaliation6.9.1. Pre- and post-detonation attribution and forensics6.9.2. Decision-making complexities of cross discipline assessments6.9.3. Policy alternatives in response to nuclear weapon use6.9.4. Accuracy and timeliness requirements6.10. Nuclear science IX – Illicit material detection and forensic attribution6.10.1. Radiation detection and analysis6.10.1.1. Passive detection and spectroscopy6.10.1.2. Activation6.10.1.3. Radiography6.10.2. Nuclear forensics and attribution6.10.2.1. Decay products and chronometry6.10.3. Worked example – standoff detection of special nuclear material 7. Conclusion – Will the “tradition of non-use” of nuclear weapons be sustained? If not, what are the potential consequences?

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Book SynopsisText in German. After the Chernobyl disaster, more than a million children and young people were sent on trips with thousands of accompanying persons in order to recover from radiation exposure, but increasingly also from everyday life in the (post) Soviet collapsed society. A dense transnational network of NGOs and private individuals formed around these "Chernobyl children". It took on more and more tasks that the state could no longer perform. The worldwide commitment that began with the opening of the Soviet Union contributed to making the nuclear accident, which in large parts of the world was initially considered to be "typically Soviet", as a transnational catastrophe, making the reality of the catastrophe visible and perceptible in everyday life hundreds of thousands of people in Europe and North America. Arndt shows how the "Chernobyl Children" became both witnesses and representatives of a declining political system and the dissolution of the bipolar world order.

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Book SynopsisA practical guide to the basic physics that radiation protection professionals need A much-needed working resource for health physicists and other radiation protection professionals, this volume presents clear, thorough, up-to-date explanations of the basic physics necessary to address real-world problems in radiation protection. Designed for readers with limited as well as basic science backgrounds, Physics for Radiation Protection emphasizes applied concepts and carefully illustrates all topics through examples as well as practice problems. Physics for Radiation Protection draws substantially on current resource data available for health physics use, providing decay schemes and emission energies for approximately 100 of the most common radionuclides encountered by practitioners. Excerpts of the Chart of the Nuclides, activation cross sections, fission yields, fission-product chains, photon attenuation coefficients, and nuclear masses are also provided. Coverage includes: The atom as an energy system An overview of the major discoveries in radiation physics Extensive discussion of radioactivity, including sources and materials Nuclear interactions and processes of radiation dose Calculational methods for radiation exposure, dose, and shielding Nuclear fission and production of activation and fission products Specialty topics ranging from nuclear criticality and applied statistics to X rays Extensive and current resource data cross-referenced to standard compendiums Extensive appendices and more than 400 figures This complete discussion of the basic concepts allows readers to advance their professional skills.Trade Review“The book is intended as a comprehensive treatise about all the physics aspects upon which radiation protection is based.” (Health Physics, 1 March 2014) “A highly practical resource for health physicists and other professionals in radiation protection.” (ETDE Energy Database, 1 October 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xvii 1 Structure of Atoms 1 1.1 Atom Constituents 2 1.2 Structure, Identity, and Stability of Atoms 5 1.3 Chart of the Nuclides 6 1.4 Nuclear Models 8 Problems – Chapter 1 9 2 Atoms and Energy 11 2.1 Atom Measures 12 2.2 Energy Concepts for Atoms 14 2.2.1 Mass-energy 15 2.2.2 Binding Energy of Nuclei 16 2.3 Summary 18 Other Suggested Sources 18 Problems – Chapter 2 19 3 Radioactive Transformation 21 3.1 Processes of Radioactive Transformation 21 3.1.1 Transformation of Neutron-rich Radioactive Nuclei 23 3.1.2 Double Beta (ββ) Transformation 27 3.1.3 Transformation of Proton-rich Nuclei 27 3.1.4 Positron Emission 29 3.1.5 Average Energy of Negatron and Positron Emitters 32 3.1.6 Electron Capture (EC) 33 3.1.7 Radioactive Transformation of Heavy Nuclei by Alpha Particle Emission 35 3.1.8 Theory of Alpha Particle Transformation 38 3.1.9 Transuranic (TRU) Radionuclides 40 3.1.10 Gamma Emission 41 3.1.11 Internal Transition (Metastable or Isomeric States) 42 3.1.12 Internal Conversion 43 3.1.13 Multiple Modes of Radioactive Transformation 49 3.1.14 Transformation by Delayed Neutron Emission 51 3.1.15 Transformation by Spontaneous Fission 51 3.1.16 Proton Emission 53 3.2 Decay Schemes 54 3.3 Rate of Radioactive Transformation 57 3.3.1 Activity 58 3.3.2 Units of Radioactive Transformation 58 3.3.3 Mathematics of Radioactive Transformation 60 3.3.4 Half-Life 62 3.3.5 Mean Life 63 3.3.6 Effective Half-life 64 3.4 Radioactivity Calculations 65 3.4.1 Half-life Determination 68 3.5 Activity–mass Relationships 70 3.5.1 Specific Activity 70 3.6 Radioactive Series Transformation 73 3.6.1 Series Decay Calculations 73 3.6.2 Recursive Kinetics: the Bateman Equations 76 3.7 Radioactive Equilibrium 77 3.7.1 Secular Equilibrium 78 3.7.2 Transient Equilibrium 80 3.7.3 Radionuclide Generators 81 3.8 Total Number of Transformations (Uses of t and λEff) 84 3.9 Discovery of the Neutrino 86 Acknowledgments 87 Other Suggested Sources 87 Problems – Chapter 3 88 4 Interactions 91 4.1 Production of X-rays 91 4.2 Characteristic X-rays 93 4.2.1 X-rays and Atomic Structure 95 4.2.2 Auger Electrons 96 4.3 Nuclear Interactions 98 4.3.1 Cross-Section 100 4.3.2 Q-values for Nuclear Reactions 102 4.4 Alpha Particle Interactions 104 4.4.1 Alpha–Neutron Reactions 105 4.5 Transmutation by Protons and Deuterons 106 4.5.1 Proton–Alpha Particle (p,α) Reactions 108 4.5.2 Proton–Neutron (p,n) Reactions 109 4.5.3 Proton–Gamma (p,γ) Reactions 110 4.5.4 Proton–Deuteron Reactions 110 4.5.5 Deuteron–Alpha (d,α) Reactions 111 4.5.6 Deuteron–Proton (d,p) and Deuteron–Neutron (d,n) Reactions 111 4.6 Neutron Interactions 114 4.6.1 Radiative Capture (n,γ) Reactions 114 4.6.2 Charged Particle Emission (CPE) 115 4.6.3 Neutron–Proton (n,p) Reactions 116 4.6.4 Neutron–Neutron (n,2n) Reactions 116 4.7 Activation Product Calculations 117 4.7.1 Neutron Activation Product Calculations 119 4.7.2 Charged Particles Calculations 124 4.8 Medical Isotope Reactions 126 4.9 Transuranium Elements 128 4.10 Photon Interactions 130 4.10.1 Activation by Photons 130 4.11 Fission and Fusion Reactions 133 4.11.1 Fission 133 4.11.2 Fusion 134 4.12 Summary 138 Other Suggested Sources 139 Problems – Chapter 4 139 5 Nuclear Fission and its Products 143 5.1 Fission Energy 145 5.2 Physics of Sustained Nuclear Fission 147 5.3 Neutron Economy and Reactivity 152 5.4 Nuclear Power Reactors 154 5.4.1 Reactor Design: Basic Systems 155 5.5 Light Water Reactors (LWRs) 157 5.5.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) 157 5.5.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) 159 5.5.3 Inherent Safety Features of LWRs 161 5.5.4 Decay Heat in Power Reactors 163 5.5.5 Uranium Enrichment 164 5.6 Heavy Water Reactors (HWRs) 165 5.6.1 HWR Safety Systems 168 5.7 Breeder Reactors 169 5.7.1 Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) 171 5.8 Gas-cooled Reactors 174 5.8.1 High-temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR) 175 5.9 Reactor Radioactivity 176 5.9.1 Fuel Cladding 177 5.9.2 Radioactive Products of Fission 178 5.9.3 Production of Individual Fission Products 182 5.9.4 Fission Products in Spent Fuel 184 5.9.5 Fission Product Poisons 185 5.10 Radioactivity in Reactors 188 5.10.1 Activation Products in Nuclear Reactors 188 5.10.2 Tritium Production in Reactors 191 5.10.3 Low-level Radioactive Waste 192 5.11 Summary 193 Acknowledgments 194 Other Suggested Sources 195 Problems – Chapter 5 195 6 Naturally Occurring Radiation and Radioactivity 197 6.1 Discovery and Interpretation 197 6.2 Background Radiation 199 6.3 Cosmic Radiation 200 6.4 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 203 6.5 Naturally Radioacitve Series 207 6.5.1 Neptunium Series Radionuclides 214 6.6 Singly Occurring Primordial Radionuclides 214 6.7 Radioactive Ores and Byproducts 216 6.7.1 Resource Recovery 218 6.7.2 Uranium Ores 218 6.7.3 Water Treatment Sludge 219 6.7.4 Phosphate Industry Wastes 219 6.7.5 Elemental Phosphorus 220 6.7.6 Manhattan Project Wastes 221 6.7.7 Thorium Ores 223 6.8 Radioactivity Dating 224 6.8.1 Carbon Dating 224 6.8.2 Dating by Primordial Radionuclides 225 6.8.3 Potassium–Argon Dating 226 6.8.4 Ionium (230Th) Method 227 6.8.5 Lead-210 Dating 227 6.9 Radon and its Progeny 228 6.9.1 Radon Subseries 229 6.9.2 Working Level for Radon Progeny 232 6.9.3 Measurement of Radon 236 6.10 Summary 240 Acknowledgements 241 Other Suggested Sources 241 Problems – Chapter 6 242 7 Interactions of Radiation with Matter 245 7.1 Radiation Dose and Units 245 7.1.1 Radiation Absorbed Dose 246 7.1.2 Radiation Dose Equivalent 246 7.1.3 Radiation Exposure 247 7.2 Radiation Dose Calculations 249 7.2.1 Inverse Square Law 249 7.3 Interaction Processes 250 7.4 Interactions of Alpha Particles and Heavy Nuclei 252 7.4.1 Recoil Nuclei and Fission Fragments 254 7.4.2 Range of Alpha Particles 254 7.5 Beta Particle Interactions and Dose 257 7.5.1 Energy Loss by Ionization 258 7.5.2 Energy Losses by Bremsstrahlung 258 7.5.3 Cerenkov Radiation 259 7.5.4 Attenuation of Beta Particles 261 7.5.5 Range Versus Energy of Beta Particles 262 7.5.6 Radiation Dose from Beta Particles 264 7.5.7 Beta Dose from Contaminated Surfaces 267 7.5.8 Beta Contamination on Skin or Clothing 268 7.5.9 Beta Dose from Hot Particles 269 7.6 Photon Interactions 270 7.6.1 Photoelectric Interactions 271 7.6.2 Compton Interactions 272 7.6.3 Pair Production 274 7.6.4 Photodisintegration 276 7.7 Photon Attenuation and Absorption 277 7.7.1 Attenuation (μ) and Energy Absorption (μEn) Coefficients 280 7.7.2 Effect of E and Z on Photon Attenuation/Absorption 284 7.7.3 Absorption Edges 286 Checkpoints 288 7.8 Energy Transfer and Absorption by Photons 288 7.8.1 Electronic Equilibrium 293 7.8.2 Bragg–Gray Theory 295 7.9 Exposure/Dose Calculations 296 7.9.1 Point Sources 297 7.9.2 Gamma Ray Constant, Γ 298 7.9.3 Exposure and Absorbed Dose 300 7.9.4 Exposure, Kerma, and Absorbed Dose 301 7.10 Summary 303 Acknowledgments 303 Other Suggested Sources 304 Problems – Chapter 7 304 8 Radiation Shielding 307 8.1 Shielding of Alpha-Emitting Sources 307 8.2 Shielding of Beta-Emitting Sources 308 8.2.1 Attenuation of Beta Particles 308 8.2.2 Bremsstrahlung Effects for Beta Shielding 311 8.3 Shielding of Photon Sources 314 8.3.1 Shielding of Good Geometry Photon Sources 315 8.3.2 Half-Value and Tenth-Value Layers 322 8.3.3 Shielding of Poor Geometry Photon Sources 324 8.3.4 Use of Buildup Factors 330 8.3.5 Effect of Buildup on Shield Thickness 331 8.3.6 Mathematical Formulations of the Buildup Factor 333 8.4 Gamma Flux for Distributed Sources 338 8.4.1 Line Sources 339 8.4.2 Ring Sources 341 8.4.3 Disc and Planar Sources 342 8.4.4 Shield Designs for Area Sources 343 8.4.5 Gamma Exposure from Thick Slabs 350 8.4.6 Volume Sources 355 8.4.7 Buildup Factors for Layered Absorbers 356 8.5 Shielding of Protons and Light Ions 357 8.6 Summary 360 Acknowledgments 360 Other Suggested Sources 361 Problems – Chapter 8 361 9 Internal Radiation Dose 365 9.1 Absorbed Dose in Tissue 365 9.2 Accumulated Dose 366 9.2.1 Internal Dose: Medical Uses 369 Checkpoints 369 9.3 Factors In The Internal Dose Equation 370 9.3.1 The Dose Reciprocity Theorem 377 9.3.2 Deposition and Clearance Data 378 9.3.3 Multicompartment Retention 378 9.4 Radiation Dose from Radionuclide Intakes 383 9.4.1 Risk-Based Radiation Standards 384 9.4.2 Committed Effective Dose Equivalent (CEDE) 385 9.4.3 Biokinetic Models: Risk-Based Internal Dosimetry 386 9.4.4 Radiation Doses Due to Inhaled Radionuclides 388 9.4.5 Radiation Doses Due to Ingested Radionuclides 398 9.5 Operational Determinations of Internal Dose 405 9.5.1 Submersion Dose 406 Checkpoints 406 9.6 Tritium: a Special Case 408 9.6.1 Bioassay of Tritium: a Special Case 410 9.7 Summary 411 Other Suggested Sources 412 Problems – Chapter 9 412 10 Environmental Dispersion 415 10.1 Atmospheric Dispersion 417 10.1.1 Atmospheric Stability Effects on Dispersion 420 10.1.2 Atmospheric Stability Classes 422 10.1.3 Calculational Procedure: Uniform Stability Conditions 424 10.1.4 Distance xmax of Maximum Concentration (Xmax) 426 10.1.5 Stack Effects 427 Checkpoints 429 10.2 Nonuniform turbulence: Fumigation, Building Effects 429 10.2.1 Fumigation 429 10.2.2 Dispersion for an Elevated Receptor 431 10.2.3 Building Wake Effects: Mechanical Turbulence 432 10.2.4 Concentrations of Effluents in Building Wakes 433 10.2.5 Ground-level Area Sources 435 10.2.6 Effect of Mechanical Turbulence on Far-field Diffusion 436 10.3 Puff Releases 438 10.4 Sector-Averaged X/Q Values 439 10.5 Deposition/Depletion: Guassian Plumes 443 10.5.1 Dry Deposition 443 10.5.2 Air Concentration Due to Resuspension 447 10.5.3 Wet Deposition 449 10.6 Summary 452 Other Suggested Sources 452 Problems – Chapter 10 453 11 Nuclear Criticality 455 11.1 Nuclear Reactors and Criticality 456 11.1.1 Three Mile Island Accident 456 11.1.2 Chernobyl Accident 458 11.1.3 NRX Reactor: Chalk River, Ontario, December 1952 461 11.1.4 SL-1 Accident 461 11.1.5 K-reactor, Savannah River Site, 1988 462 11.1.6 Fukushima-Daichi Plant—Japan, March 11, 2011 463 11.2 Nuclear Explosions 464 11.2.1 Fission Weapons 464 11.2.2 Fusion Weapons 465 11.2.3 Products of Nuclear Explosions 466 11.2.4 Fission Product Activity and Exposure 467 Checkpoints 469 11.3 Criticality Accidents 470 11.3.1 Y-12 Plant, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN: June 16, 1958 470 11.3.2 Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, NM: December 30, 1958 471 11.3.3 Idaho Chemical Processing Plant: October 16, 1959, January 25, 1961, and October 17, 1978 472 11.3.4 Hanford Recuplex Plant: April 7, 1962 473 11.3.5 Wood River Junction RI: July 24, 1964 473 11.3.6 UKAEA Windscale Works, UK: August 24, 1970 474 11.3.7 Bare and Reflected Metal Assemblies 474 11.4 Radiation Exposures in Criticality Events 475 11.5 Criticality Safety 476 11.5.1 Criticality Safety Parameters 478 11.6 Fission Product Release in Criticality Events 482 11.6.1 Fast Fission in Criticality Events 483 11.7 Summary 485 Acknowledgments 486 Other Suggested Sources 486 Problems – Chapter 11 486 12 Radiation Detection and Measurement 489 12.1 Gas-Filled Detectors 489 12.2 Crystalline Detectors/Spectrometers 493 12.3 Semiconducting Detectors 494 12.4 Gamma Spectroscopy 495 12.4.1 Gamma-Ray Spectra: hv ≤ 1.022 MeV 495 12.4.2 Gamma-Ray Spectra: hv ≥ 1.022 MeV 500 12.4.3 Escape Peaks and Sum Peaks 502 12.4.4 Gamma Spectroscopy of Positron Emitters 503 12.5 Portable Field Instruments 504 12.5.1 Geiger Counters 504 12.5.2 Ion Chambers 505 12.5.3 Microrem Meters 506 12.5.4 Alpha Radiation Monitoring 506 12.5.5 Beta Radiation Surveys 507 12.5.6 Removable Radioactive Surface Contamination 508 12.5.7 Instrument Calibration 509 12.6 Personnel Dosimeters 509 12.6.1 Film Badges 509 12.6.2 Thermoluminescence Dosimeters (TLDs) 510 12.6.3 Pocket Dosimeters 511 12.7 Laboratory Instruments 511 12.7.1 Liquid Scintillation Analysis 511 12.7.2 Proportional Counters 515 12.7.3 End-window GM Counters 517 12.7.4 Surface Barrier Detectors 518 12.7.5 Range Versus Energy of Beta Particles 519 Other Suggested Sources 520 Problems – Chapter 12 521 13 Statistics in Radiation Physics 523 13.1 Nature of Counting Distributions 523 13.1.1 Binomial Distribution 525 13.1.2 Poisson Distribution 525 13.1.3 Normal Distribution 527 13.1.4 Mean and Standard Deviation of a Set of Measurements 530 13.1.5 Uncertainty in the Activity of a Radioactive Source 531 13.1.6 Uncertainty in a Single Measurement 533 Checkpoints 533 13.2 Propagation of Error 534 13.2.1 Statistical Subtraction of a Background Count or Count Rate 535 13.2.2 Error Propagation of Several Uncertain Parameters 537 13.3 Comparison of Data Sets 538 13.3.1 Are Two Measurements Different? 538 13.4 Statistics for the Counting Laboratory 541 13.4.1 Uncertainty of a Radioactivity Measurement 541 13.4.2 Determining a Count Time 542 13.4.3 Efficient Distribution of Counting Time 544 13.4.4 Detection and Uncertainty for Gamma Spectroscopy 545 13.4.5 Testing the Distribution of a Series of Counts (the Chi-square Statistic) 547 13.4.6 Weighted Sample Mean 548 13.4.7 Rejection of Data 549 13.5 Levels of Detection 551 13.5.1 Critical Level 552 13.5.2 Detection Limit (Ld) or Lower Level of Detection (LLD) 554 13.6 Minimum Detectable Concentration or Contamination 558 13.6.1 Minimum Detectable Concentration (MDConc.) 558 13.6.2 Minimum Detectable Contamination (MDCont.) 560 13.6.3 Less-than Level (Lt) 561 13.6.4 Interpretations and Restrictions 561 13.7 Log Normal Data Distributions 562 13.7.1 Particle Size Analysis 565 Acknowledgment 569 Other Suggested Sources 569 Chapter 13 – Problems 569 14 Neutrons 571 14.1 Neutron Sources 571 14.2 Neutron Parameters 573 14.3 Neutron Interactions 575 14.3.1 Neutron Attenuation and Absorption 576 14.4 Neutron Dosimetry 578 14.4.1 Dosimetry for Fast Neutrons 581 14.4.2 Dose from Thermal Neutrons 583 14.4.3 Monte Carlo Calculations of Neutron Dose 585 14.4.4 Kerma for Neutrons 588 14.4.5 Dose Equivalent Versus Neutron Flux 588 14.4.6 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) 591 14.5 Neutron Shielding 591 14.5.1 Neutron Shielding Materials 591 14.5.2 Neutron Shielding Calculations 593 14.5.3 Neutron Removal Coefficients 594 14.5.4 Neutron Attenuation in Concrete 597 14.6 Neutron Detection 598 14.6.1 Measurement of Thermal Neutrons 599 14.6.2 Measurement of Intermediate and Fast Neutrons 600 14.6.3 Neutron Foils 602 14.6.4 Albedo Dosimeters 604 14.6.5 Flux Depression of Neutrons 604 14.7 Summary 605 Acknowledgment 605 Other Suggested Sources 605 Problems – Chapter 14 606 Answers to Selected Problems 607 Appendix A 613 Appendix B 615 Appendix C 625 Appendix D 629 Index 657

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Book SynopsisSince 2011, the German government has been implementing a policy phasing out nuclear power. Over a period of seven years, Bernhard Ludewig photographed the country’s atomic landscape and history, keeping a visual record of the buildings and the work performed in them. The images, collected here, create a unique panorama of usually inaccessible spaces. On show are the plants’ operations – processes including the opening of the reactor and the loading of Castor containers for transport – and interiors, such as control rooms and cooling towers. The book follows the journey of uranium from enrichment through reprocessing to final storage, and shows research spanning from ­Otto Hahn’s discovery of fission to thorium and breeder reactor prototypes. In total 55 sites are represented, and im­ages of research reactors, training facilities, and ­Chernobyl’s sarcophagus provide a further look behind closed door. The Nuclear Dream offers an insight into a disappearing world whose rooms and technology ­often appear sacred. It is a fitting tribute to an era of boundless energy – one whose blue glow captured a generation and proclaimed the start of a new era.

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Book SynopsisText covers nuclear disarmament history, current scenarios, WMDs, cyber weapons, and recent developments. Includes key UN resolutions, treaties, and India's stance on NWFW.

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-4.4, which it supersedes. The revised version provides specific recommendations on developing, formulating and presenting the operational limits and conditions as well as the operating procedures for research reactors, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. The recommendations in this publication are intended for use by operating organizations of research reactors, regulatory bodies and other relevant organizations involved in a research reactor project.

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Book SynopsisThis publication outlines the concepts and models supporting the requirements for understanding organizational competence within the nuclear context. It aims to help in the development of organizational competencies in countries with an existing nuclear power capability and those wishing to embark on a nuclear power programme. The publication summarizes necessary processes for mapping organizational competencies, as well as tools and techniques used for assessing them. Specific information provided in this publication will help organizations to determine competence needs based on strategic/corporate objectives and business processes, and to identify their existing success factors.

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Book SynopsisIntegrated risk management (IRM) is particularly important during the preparation and construction phases of a nuclear power plant (NPP) and anticipates the risks that could arise during the operation and decommissioning phases. This publication is designed to enhance stakeholders' understanding of the fundamental processes, procedures, and methods for IRM. Practical guidelines are provided and best practices shared. The importance of having appropriate risk management policies, especially when considering the various contractual and organizational arrangements in different construction entities, operating organizations and Member States is emphasized. Tables are provided throughout the publication to indicate the causes of risks and their impacts on the applicable NPP or project. Economic evaluation techniques are also introduced. Member States contemplating expanding their existing nuclear power plant fleets can be expected to benefit from this publication, but it will likely be most valuable for Member States newly embarking upon a nuclear power programme.

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Book SynopsisPost-irradiation examination (PIE) is an indispensable step in the selection of new or improved research reactor fuel, and in the characterization and understanding of its in-core behaviour. This publication provides an introduction to PIE techniques. It describes a typical PIE process from intercycle inspections in the reactor pool or channel, to hot cell PIE, which is subdivided into non-destructive and destructive testing techniques with their typical output, advantages and drawbacks, and their applicability to understanding fuel irradiation behaviour. Much of the work presented in this publication originated from the research and development of new low enriched uranium research reactor fuels. Intended readers include research reactor operators, regulators and their technical support organizations, fuel developers and manufacturers, laboratory staff, and policy makers.

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Book SynopsisThis publication aims to outline credible technical options for managing separated plutonium. There is no attempt to rank or rate any of the options, instead the intent is to inform the reader of the technical merits of the various options and the state of their development. It is primarily focused on Member States that have adopted a closed fuel cycle policy but can also be of value to other Member States, specifically their decision makers and other stakeholders involved in potential future nuclear fuel cycles, by informing them on life cycle options and energy policy.

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Book SynopsisThis publication presents the latest update to the INPRO methodology for Nuclear Energy Systems sustainability assessment in the area of waste management and reflects detailed discussions held at an IAEA technical meeting. Waste generated by nuclear energy systems and considered in this publication includes all classes and categories of waste from nuclear power plants and nuclear fuel cycle facilities over the course of normal operations and anticipated operational occurrences. It is anticipated that the information presented in this and other INPRO publications, for example IAEA Nuclear Energy Series No. NG-T-3.12, will assist in the identification of areas for improvement in nuclear energy systems.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides recommendations on radiation protection and radioactive waste management in the design and operation of research reactors, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. It identifies important components that should be considered at the design stage with regard to facilitating radiation protection and radioactive waste management. It also recommends good practices in implementing operational radiation protection and radioactive waste management programmes, and in their optimization. This Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. NS-G-4.6, which it supersedes.

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Book SynopsisThis publication provides guidance for assessing the sustainability of a nuclear energy system (NES) in the area of nuclear fuel cycle facility (NFCF) safety. It deals with NFCFs that may be potentially involved in the NES such as, mining, milling, refining, conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication, spent fuel storage, and spent fuel reprocessing facilities. It augments the information presented in the earlier INPRO publications on the methodology for sustainability assessments. The publication is intended for use by organizations involved in the development and deployment of a NES, including planning, design, modification and technical support for NFCFs.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides practical guidance and recommendations on ageing management for research reactors, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. It is intended for use by operating organizations in establishing, implementing and improving ageing management programmes for research reactors, and by regulatory bodies in verifying that ageing of research reactors is being effectively managed. The Safety Guide focuses on managing the physical ageing of systems, structures and components important to safety, and also provides guidance on safety aspects of managing obsolescence. This Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSG-10, which it supersedes.

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Book SynopsisThis publication provides specific recommendations on research reactor instrumentation and control systems and software important to safety, including instrumentation and control system architecture and associated components, from sensors to actuators, operator interfaces and auxiliary equipment, to meet the relevant requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-3, Safety of Research Reactors. The recommendations and guidance apply to both the design and configuration management of instrumentation and control systems for new research reactors and the modernization of the instrumentation and control systems at existing research reactor facilities. In addition, this Safety Guide provides recommendations and guidance on human factors engineering and human-machine interfaces, and for computer based systems and software for use in instrumentation and control systems important to safety. This Safety Guide is a revision of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSG-37, which it supersedes.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides recommendations on meeting the requirements established in IAEA Safety Standards Series No. SSR-6 (Rev. 1), Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, 2018 Edition, for a radiation protection programme for the transport of radioactive material. The objectives of a radiation protection programme for the transport of radioactive material are to provide for adequate consideration of radiation protection measures in transport; to ensure that the system of radiological protection is adequately applied; to enhance a safety culture in the transport of radioactive material; and to provide practical measures to meet these objectives. The recommendations provided in this Safety Guide are applicable to the transport of radioactive material by all modes on land, water, or in the air, including transport that is incidental to the use of the radioactive material. The intended audience for this Safety Guide includes competent authorities, consignors, carriers, consignees, and operators of ports (e.g. harbours, seaports and airports). It will also be of interest to the employees of public authorities (customs authorities, harbour authorities, port authorities) concerning activities associated with the transport of radioactive material that involve radiation exposure.

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Book SynopsisThe reactor core is the central part of a nuclear reactor where nuclear fission occurs. It consists of four basic systems and components: the fuel (including fuel rods and the fuel assembly structure), the coolant, the moderator and the control rods, as well as additional structures such as reactor pressure vessel internals, core support plates, and the lower and upper internal structure in light water reactors. This Safety Guide provides recommendations on meeting the safety requirements established in SSR-2/1 (Rev. 1) applied to the design of the reactor core for nuclear power plants. The publication addresses the safety aspects of the core design and includes neutronic, thermohydraulic, thermomechanical, and structural mechanical aspects. Other aspects considered are those relating to reactor core control, shutdown and monitoring, and core management.

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Book SynopsisDecommissioning is the last step in the lifetime management of an authorized facility and it must be considered during the design, construction, commissioning and operation of such facilities. This publication provides guidance on how to comply with requirements for the safe decommissioning of nuclear power plants, research reactors, and other nuclear fuel cycle facilities. It addresses all the aspects of decommissioning that are required to ensure safety including: roles and responsibilities, strategy and planning for decommissioning, conduct of decommissioning actions and completion of decommissioning. It is intended for use by those working in policy and strategy development, planning, implementation and regulatory control of decommissioning.

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Book SynopsisSites with radioactive contamination may require action to protect people and the environment and to enable transition to a different future use. To support environmental management of these sites, this publication presents a process to determine the "end state" of the site to be remediated or being remediated, and implications for the site future use and necessary controls. The approach is intended to assist those responsible for a site in making an informed and transparent decision on what is the mutually agreed end state. It provides a common basis for all stakeholders involved in the decision-making process, who are working on achieving consensus, so that the potential for misunderstanding is reduced.

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Book SynopsisThis publication presents the outcomes of a collaborative study to analyse the status of nuclear decommissioning activities around the world as of 2020. Future evolution of these activities was also considered. The information presented is based on responses to a questionnaire distributed to organizations with responsibility for planning, implementation and oversight of decommissioning programmes, with baseline information on the numbers and current operational status of nuclear facilities being extracted from the online nuclear facilities databases maintained by IAEA. Analysis of the collected data was undertaken at global and regional levels, rather than at the level of individual States or facility sites. The publication is intended primarily to be of use to individuals with policy responsibilities in the area of decommissioning and associated waste management activities, including government officials, regulators, facility manages and service providers.

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Book SynopsisMember States intending to introduce a nuclear power programme will need to pass through several phases during the implementation. Experience shows that careful planning of the objectives, roles, responsibilities, interfaces and tasks to be carried out in different phases of a nuclear project is important for success. This publication presents a harmonized approach that may be used to structure the owner/operator management system and establish and manage nuclear projects and their development activities irrespective of the adopted approach. It has been developed from shared management practices and consolidated experiences provided by nuclear project management specialists through a series of workshops and working groups organized by the IAEA. The resultant publication presents a useful framework for the management of nuclear projects from initiation to closeout and captures international best practices.

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Book SynopsisThis updated version of IAEA Nuclear Security Series No. 9, Security of Radioactive Material in Transport, is intended to facilitate the establishment of an internationally consistent approach to security of radioactive material in transport. It builds on the relevant recommendations of various existing IAEA Nuclear Security Series publications and is applicable to the security of packages containing radioactive material that could cause unacceptable radiological consequences if used in a malicious act during international and domestic transport. It is also relevant to the security of some nuclear materials of category III and below during transport, due to the radioactive nature of the material. Guidance on protection against unauthorized removal and sabotage is also covered.

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Book SynopsisThis publication describes the purpose and scope of the INPRO service Analysis Support for Enhanced Nuclear Energy Sustainability (ASENES) and its potential benefits to Member States. The publication highlights the links between this service and overall technical support to Member States for the planning and development of nuclear energy, and explains how it integrates with other IAEA services supporting knowledgeable decision making on nuclear power. An overview of analytical tools developed by INPRO for this purpose is also provided.

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Book SynopsisThis publication provides guidance to States on the development, implementation, maintenance and sustainment of a national framework for managing the response to nuclear security events. Such a framework involves a structure and a set of principles and agreements around which a State can frame its nuclear security response functions, addressing the interfaces which need to exist between responding agencies to ensure effective, coordinated response. By using this Implementing Guide, a State will ensure that it has considered all relevant key issues as it develops its national framework for responding to nuclear security events.

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Book SynopsisThis publication was produced as part of the Working Group 4 of the IAEA Modelling and Data for Radiological Impact Assessments (MODARIA) programme, which focused on the analysis of radioecological data in IAEA Technical Reports Series publications to identify key radionuclides and associated parameter values for human and wildlife exposure assessment. The intent is to reduce uncertainties and to develop new approaches to strengthen the evaluation of the radiological impact to the public, as well as to flora and fauna, arising from radionuclides in the environment. The publication comprises two main sections. The first one considers prioritization approaches to identify the radionuclides and pathways that potentially contribute most to internal and external exposure to organisms in wildlife groups for different sources and exposure situations. The focus of the second section is the improvement of transfer parameter values for animal product data, namely cow and goat milk. Milk was selected as it often has a high priority in radiological environmental impact assessment. Examples of approaches that can be used to identify potentially important data gaps, illustrated using case studies are also presented. This publication is intended to provide Member States with technical information and data that can be used by their national authorities to develop and improve their models and approaches for radiological environmental impact assessment for facilities and activities.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides recommendations on the establishment of an appropriate regulatory framework for the management of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) residues in an integrated manner and using a graded approach. It also elaborates on roles and responsibilities, options for management of NORM residues, long term safety of NORM residues, and exemption and clearance. The publication is targeted at regulatory bodies, operating organizations, technical support organizations and other parties who are interested and involved in management of NORM residues.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Report has been developed as part of the IAEA programme on occupational radiation protection to provide for the application of its safety standards in implementing a graded approach to the protection of workers against exposures associated with uranium mining and processing. The publication describes the methods of production associated with the uranium industry and provides practical information on the radiological risks to workers in the exploration, mining and processing of uranium. It is a compilation of detailed information on uranium mining and processing stages and techniques, general radiation protection considerations in the relevant industry, general methodology applicable for control, monitoring and dose assessment, exposure pathways, and radiation protection programs for the range of commonly used mining and processing techniques.

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Book SynopsisThis publication evaluates the different coolant options considered for nuclear applications with a fast neutron spectrum (i.e. fusion, fission and accelerators), compiles the latest information in the field and identifies research needs. In this study, systems cooled by light and heavy liquid metals, molten salts, as well as gas and water choices are analysed and discussed. This TECDOC documents the present state of knowledge in the area of fusion, fission and accelerator applications, and the major progress in methods and approaches made in the past years based on observations, experimental findings and operational experience. Moreover, it identifies knowledge gaps and addresses near term research and development efforts required to overcome them.

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Book SynopsisThere is renewed interest in Member States in the development and deployment of small modular reactors (SMRs). Specific technical characteristics of this reactor type introduce new deployment possibilities. This publication provides current information on considerations about environmental impact assessments (EIAs) related to SMRs. Under many regulatory regimes, the EIA report is a prerequisite for licensing and an important tool to confirm that the potential site is suitable for the future construction and operation of a reactor. Therefore, this publication which discusses approaches to address specific issues related to the EIA for SMRs will be of use to technology holders and licensing authorities.

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Book SynopsisReliable methods for estimating the cost of a radioactive waste disposal programme are crucial to ensure that the necessary funding for completing the disposal programme is available. Estimating the cost for disposal is however a challenging and complex task. Disposal programmes themselves are complex and long-term undertakings and conditions can be expected to change significantly over the time-span during which a disposal programme is developed and implemented. This publication provides Member States with guidance on how to develop cost estimates for a disposal programme and on how to establish funding mechanisms. It will help readers in becoming informed clients by familiarizing themselves with the approaches and complexities in cost estimates and funding mechanisms for disposal. The publication is applicable to all waste categories and both near surface and geological disposal. It contains relevant examples and case studies from national programmes. The cost figures are intended to give an indication of the possible cost of certain parts or aspects of the disposal programme rather than to compare different disposal programmes’ costs.

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Book SynopsisThis Safety Guide provides recommendations on the establishment of a framework for safety in accordance with the IAEA safety standards for States deciding on and preparing to embark on a nuclear power programme. In this regard, it proposes 197 safety related actions to be taken in the first three phases of the development of the nuclear power programme, to achieve the foundation for a high level of safety throughout the entire lifetime of the nuclear power plant (NPP). This includes safety in the construction, commissioning, and operation of the NPP and the associated management of radioactive waste and spent fuel, and safety in decommissioning. Thus, it contributes to the building of leadership and management for safety and of an effective safety culture and serves as guidance for self-assessment by all organizations involved in the development of a safety infrastructure.

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Book SynopsisThis publication provides readers in industry and academia with a comprehensive review of the development and understanding of zirconium within the context of it use in nuclear reactors. It presents input from leading experts in the relevant fields and encompasses the full spectrum of zirconium as a metal, its properties and use. It is unique in the breadth of its scope. The publication's coverage includes: alloy development in the nuclear industry and guidelines on commercial alloys and alloys under development; extraction and consolidation of zirconium, from ore to ingot to component; deformation and texture of various alloys with analysis of the effects of irradiation damage on physical and mechanical behaviour as well as deformation and creep during irradiation and damage due to oxidation and corrosion; and ductility and fractures of alloys.

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Book SynopsisThis new revision provides guidance to States and their competent authorities on how to establish or improve, implement, maintain and sustain the elements of the nuclear security regime related to radioactive material, associated facilities and activities, with particular emphasis on the development of regulatory requirements. The publication applies to the security of radioactive material in use or in storage as well as associated facilities and associated activities and assists Member States in their regimes against unauthorized removal of the radioactive material or sabotage performed with the intent to cause harmful radiological consequences.

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Book SynopsisRadionuclides of both natural and human made origin exist throughout the environment. These radionuclides can be transferred to plants and animals that are consumed by humans, thereby resulting in exposure to ionizing radiation and an internal radiation dose. This Safety Report provides information on the observed distributions of concentrations of natural radionuclides in various food products, on the use of 'total diet' and other studies to assess ingestion doses, and on radionuclide concentrations in natural mineral waters. Different dose assessment methodologies are presented and the advantages and disadvantages of each is discussed, along with approaches used for managing non-radioactive contaminants in food. This publication is jointly sponsored by the IAEA, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization. It is intended to support Member States in the assessment and management of radionuclides in food, and the alignment of national policies with Requirement 51 of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GSR.

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Book SynopsisProbabilistic methods are increasingly being used to complement deterministic methods in assessing the safety and ensuring the reliability of research reactors. Addressing features specific to research reactors, this publication suggests a practical approach for the development and implementation of a project using probabilistic methods in terms of objective, scope, data and modelling, as well as the application of results to enhance safety and reliability. This publication is intended to be used by operating organizations, regulatory bodies and technical support organizations when performing or reviewing research reactor assessments in which probabilistic methods are applied. It will ideally be read in conjunction with relevant IAEA Safety Standards Series publications and technical guidelines for safety analysis, operation and maintenance, and component reliability data for research reactors.

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Book SynopsisThe assessment approach described in this publication provides a comprehensive means to determine the status of the infrastructure conditions relevant to all issues detailed in IAEA Nuclear Energy Series No. NP-T-5.1, Specific Considerations and Milestones for a Research Reactor Project. This approach can be used by any interested Member State for self-assessment to identify weaknesses and to determine the additional work needed to develop its national nuclear infrastructure for research reactor programme to an appropriate level. Member States planning to embark on both a research reactor programme and a nuclear power programme, may refer to this publication to ensure that the approach and methodology for the implementation of both programmes is harmonized, efficient and effective.

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Book SynopsisThis publication presents the outcomes of an IAEA coordinated research project on assessing the national economic effects of nuclear programmes in participating Member States. It provides a short description of the extended input–output model for sustainable power generation (EMPOWER), developed by the IAEA, and presents concise summaries of its applications. It further includes the results produced by the contributing research teams and summarizes general insights drawn from the national studies. The publication illustrates the state of the art of assessing macroeconomic impacts of nuclear energy programmes. It is expected to support further applications of advanced models to improve the understanding of macroeconomic and sectoral impacts of building and operating nuclear power plants

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