Nanotechnology Books

Book SynopsisThe first comprehensive treatment of modern quantum measurement and measurement-based quantum control, this important book will interest graduate students and researchers in quantum information, quantum metrology, quantum control and related fields. It introduces key experiments and technologies through dozens of recent experiments, and contains nearly 300 exercises to build understanding.Trade Review"An outstanding introduction, at the advanced graduate level, to the mathematical description of quantum measurements, parameter estimation in quantum mechanics, and open quantum systems, with attention to how the theory applies in a variety of physical settings. Once assembled, these mathematical tools are used to formulate the theory of quantum feedback control. Highly recommended for the physicist who wants to understand the application of control theory to quantum systems and for the control theorist who is curious about how to use control theory in a quantum context." Carlton Caves, University of New Mexico"A comprehensive and elegant presentation at the interface of quantum optics and quantum measurement theory. Essential reading for students and practitioners, both, in the growing quantum technologies revolution." Howard Carmichael, The University of Auckland"Quantum Measurement and Control provides a comprehensive and pedagogical introduction to critical new engineering methodology for emerging applications in quantum and nano-scale technology. By presenting fundamental topics first in a classical setting and then with quantum generalizations, Wiseman and Milburn manage not only to provide a lucid guide to the contemporary toolbox of quantum measurement and control but also to clarify important underlying connections between quantum and classical probability theory. The level of presentation is suitable for a broad audience, including both physicists and engineers, and recommendations for further reading are provided in each chapter. It would make a fine textbook for graduate-level coursework.” Hideo Mabuchi, Stanford University"This book presents a unique summary of the theory of quantum measurements and control by pioneers in the field. The clarity of presentation and the varied selection of examples and exercises guide the reader through the exciting development from the earliest foundation of measurements in quantum mechanics to the most recent fundamental and practical developments within the theory of quantum measurements and control. The ideal blend of precise mathematical arguments and physical explanations and examples reflects the authors’ affection for the topic to which they have themselves made pioneering contributions." Klaus Mølmer, University of Aarhus"This book is a pioneering work in the modern, rapidly developing field of quantum measurement and measurement-based quantum control. It provides a comprehensive and pedagogical introduction to a critical new engineering methodology for emerging applications in quantum and nano-scale technology. The clarity of the presentation and the fine and careful selection of examples and exercises make this important book an excellent textbook for graduate-level course-work, but it can also serve as a reference on the recent results in the exciting field of quantum measurement and control theory." Katalin M. Hangos, Mathematical ReviewsTable of ContentsPreface; 1. Quantum measurement theory; 2. Quantum parameter estimation; 3. Open quantum systems; 4. Quantum trajectories; 5. Quantum feedback control; 6. State-based quantum feedback control; 7. Applications to quantum information processing; Appendixes; References; Index.

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a huge range and FREE tracked UK delivery on ALL orders.

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a huge range and FREE tracked UK delivery on ALL orders.

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a huge range and FREE tracked UK delivery on ALL orders.

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a huge range and FREE tracked UK delivery on ALL orders.

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a huge range and FREE tracked UK delivery on ALL orders.

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a huge range and FREE tracked UK delivery on ALL orders.

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Book SynopsisDiscover the fundamental principles of biomedical measurement design and performance evaluation with this hands-on guide. Whether you develop measurement instruments or use them in novel ways, this practical text will prepare you to be an effective generator and consumer of biomedical data. Designed for both classroom instruction and self-study, it explains how information is encoded into recorded data and can be extracted and displayed in an accessible manner. Describes and integrates experimental design, performance assessment, classification, and system modelling. Combines mathematical concepts with computational models, providing the tools needed to answer advanced biomedical questions. Includes MATLAB scripts throughout to help readers model all types of biomedical systems, and contains numerous homework problems, with a solutions manual available online. This is an essential text for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in bioengineering, electrical and computer engineeriTrade Review'a good introductory text on the technical aspects of analyzing measured data sets for graduate students or advanced undergraduates in a premedical or related curriculum … In an increasingly crowded publication space, this book offers something new and valuable, making implementation of data analysis approaches accessible for biomedical scientists and the engineers who work with them … Highly recommended.' M. R. King, Choice ConnectTable of Contents1. Introduction to measurement systems; 2. Probability; 3. Statistics of random processes; 4. Spatiotemporal models of the measurement process; 5. Basis decomposition I; 6. Basis decomposition II; 7. Projection radiography; 8. Statistical decision-making; 9. Statistical pattern recognition with flow cytometry examples; 10. ODE models I, biological systems; 11. ODE models II, sensors.

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Book SynopsisAn introduction to the ever-growing field of smart grid sensors, covering traditional and state-of-the-art smart grid sensor technologies, as well as data-driven and intelligent methods for innovative smart grid applications. Includes real-world examples, exercise questions, solutions, and sample data sets.Table of Contents1. Background; 2. Voltage and Current Measurements and Their Applications; 3. Phasor and Synchrophasor Measurements and Their Applications; 4. Waveform and Power Quality Measurements and Their Applications; 5. Power and Energy Measurements and Their Applications; 6. Probing and Its Applications; 7. Other Sensors and Off-Domain Measurements and Their Applications.

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Book SynopsisMicro and nano molding is a relatively new but fast-growing field that is impacting industries that use plastic parts in their products. Micro/Nano Molding introduces the fundamentals and processes for micro and nano molding for plastic components. This book also covers applications, details, and examples.Table of ContentsAuthor's preface7 1. Introduction 10 1.1 Introduction 10 1.2 Micro/nano replication 12 1.3 Application fields of micro/nano replicated parts 15 1.4 Required technologies for micro/nano replication 19 2. Patterning technology for micro/nano mold fabrication 27 2.1 Material removal 27 2.1.1 Mechanical machining 27 2.1.2 Laser ablation 28 2.1.3 Silicon etching process 29 2.1.4 Focused ion beam pattering 30 2.2 Lithography process 31 2.2.1 Electron beam lithography 31 2.2.2 Photo lithography 32 2.2.3 Reflow method 32 2.2.4 Laser interference lithography 38 2.3 Electroforming processes 42 2.3.1 Theory of electroforming process 43 2.3.2 Electroforming results 43 3. Modification of mold surface properties 51 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Study of thiol-based self-assembled monolayer 52 3.2.1 Thiol-based self assembled monolayer and deposition process 52 3.2.2 Experiment results and analysis 53 3.2.3 The changing properties of SAM at actual replication environment 54 3.2.4 Analysis of replicated polymeric patterns 56 3.3 Silane-based self-assembled monolayer (SAM) for nano master 57 3.3.1 Silane-based self-assembled monolayer 57 3.3.2 Deposition process of silane-based self assembled monolayer 58 3.3.3 Self-assembled monolayer on polymer mold 59 3.3.4 Analysis of replicated polymeric patterns 60 3.4 Dimethyldichlorosilane self-assembled monolayer for metal mold 60 4. Micro/nano injection molding with an intelligent mold system 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Effects of the mold surface temperature on micro/nano injection molding 64 4.3 Theoretical analysis of passive/active heating methods for controlling the mold surface temperature 65 4.3.1 Mathematical modeling and simulation 66 4.3.2 Passive heating 71 4.3.3 Active heating 73 4.4. Fabrication and control of an active heating system using a MEMS heater and an RTD Sensor 75 4.4.1 Construction of an intelligent mold system 75 4.4.2 Control system for the intelligent mold system 77 4.4.2.1 Kalman filter observer of the thermal plant 79 4.4.2.2 LQGI controller 81 4.4.2.3 Performance of the constructed control system 84 5 Hot embossing of microstructured surfaces and thermal nano imprinting 89 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Development of micro-compression molding process 90 5.3 Temperature dependence of anti-adhesion between a mold and the polymer in thermal imprintingprocesses 92 5.3.1 Defects in imprintedmicro optical elements 93 5.3.2 Analysis of polymer in process condition of thermal imprinting 93 5.3.3 Analysis of replication quality fabricated in different peak temperature 95 5.4 Fabrication of a micro optics using micro-compression molding with a silicon mold insert 96 5.4.1 Fabrication of microlens components using Si mold insert 96 5.4.2 Analysis of refractive micro lens 97 5.5 Fabrication of a microlens array using micro-compression molding with an electroforming mold insert 98 5.5.1 Fabrication of microlens components using Ni mold insert 98 5.5.2 Analysis of Replication quality 99 5.6 Application of micro compression molding process 100 5.6.1 Fabrication of a microlens array using micro-compression molding 100 5.6.2 Fabrication of metallic nano mold and replication of nano patterned substrate for patterned media 101 6 UV imprinting process and imprinted micro/nano structures 106 6.1 Introduction 106 6.2 Photopolymerization 106 6.3 Design and construction of UV-imprinting system 108 6.4 UV-transparent mold 108 6.5 Effects of processing conditions on replication qualities 110 6.6 Controlling of residual layer thickness using drop and pressing method 112 6.7 Elimination of micro air bubbles 113 6.8 Applications 114 6.8.1 Wafer scale UV-imprinting 114 6.8.2 Diffractive optical element 118 6.8.3 Roll to roll imprint lithography process 121 6.9 Conclusion 124 7 High temperature micro/nano replication process 128 7.1 Fabrication of metal conductive tracks using direct imprinting of metal nano powder 128 7.1.1 Introduction 128 7.1.2 Direct patterning method using imprinting and sintering 129 7.1.3 Mold and processing system 130 7.1.4 Defect analysis and process design 131 7.1.5 Analysis of imprinted conductive tracks 131 7.1.6 Conclusions 133 7-2 Glass molding of microlens array 134 7.2.1 Introduction 134 7.2.2 Fabrication of master patterns 135 7.2.3 Fabrication of tungsten carbide core for micro glass molding 136 7.2.4 Surface finishing and coating process of tungsten carbide core 138 7.2.5 Comparison of surface roughness before and after finishing process 139 7.2.6 Fabrication of glass microlens array by micro thermal forming process 140 7.2.7 Measurement and analysis of optical properties of formed glass microlens array 141 8. Micro/nano-optics for light emitting diodes 145 8.1 Designing an initial lens shape 146 8.1.1 LED illumination design 146 8.1.2 Source Modeling 147 8.1.3 Modeling a spherical refractive lens 147 8.1.4 Modeling a micro Fresnel lens 148 8.1.5 Verifying the micro Fresnel lens performance 149 8.2 Fabrication results and discussion 151 8.2.1 Fabrication of the micro Fresnel lens 151 8.2.2 Elimination of air bubbles 152 8.2.3 Optimization of the UV-imprinting process 152 8.2.4 Evaluation of the micro Fresnel lens for LED illumination 153 8.3 Conclusions 154 9. Micro/nano-optics for optical communications 158 9.1 Fiber Coupling Theory 159 9.2 Separated microlens array 161 9.2.1 Design 161 9.2.2 Fabrication 162 9.2.3 Measurement results 163 9.3 Integrated microlens array 166 9.3.1 Design 166 9.3.2 Fabrication 167 9.3.3 Measurement results 168 9.4 Conclusions 170 10. Hard Disk Drive (HDD) 173 10.1 Introduction 173 10.2 Fabrication of a metallic nano mold using a UV-imprinted polymeric master 175 10.3 Fabrication of patterned media using the nano replication process 181 10.4 Fabrication of patterned media using injection molding 184 10.5 Measurement and analysis of magnetic domains of patterned media by magnetic force microscopy 187 10.6 Conclusions 190 11. Optical Disk Drive(ODD) 194 11.1 Introduction 194 11.2 Improvements in the optical and geometrical properties of HD-DVD substrates 196 11.3 Effects of the insulation layer on the optical and geometrical properties of the DVD mold 199 11.4 Optimized design of the replication process for optical disk substrates 202 11.5 Conclusions 206 12. Biomedical applications 209 12.1 Introduction 209 12.2 GMR based protein sensors 210 12.2.1 Principle of GMR protein sensors 210 12.2.2 Principle of guided mode resonance effect 210 12.2.3 Nano replication process of a GMR protein chip for mass production 213 12.2.4 Feasibility test of GMR protein chip 217 12.3 Conclusions 218

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Book SynopsisThis book is a comprehensive review of the state of the art in bio-nanotechnology with an emphasis on the diverse applications in food and nutrition sciences, biomedicine, agriculture and other fields.Table of ContentsForeword xi Preface xii Contributors xv PART 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter 1 Biomedical Applications of Nanomaterials: An Overview 3 Sunil K. Singh, Paresh P. Kulkarni, Debabrata Dash Chapter 2 The Challenge of Nanotechnology-Derived Food: Addressing the Concerns of the Public 33 Tomiko Yamaguchi Chapter 3 Nanotechnology and Public Health: Contributions, Promises, and Premises 47 Masami Matsuda, Ayako Goto, Toshio Ogino, Yoshiaki Tanaka PART 2 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN NUTRITION AND MEDICINE 67 Chapter 4 Functional Nanomaterials for Biomedical Research: Focus on Bio-Functionalization, Biosynthesis, and Biomedical Applications 69 Murugan Veerapandian, Sathya Sadhasivam, Ramesh Subbiah, Kyusik Yun Chapter 5 An Overview of Nanoparticle-Assisted Polymerase Chain Reaction Technology 97 Cenchao Shen, Zhizhou Zhang Chapter 6 A Revolution in Nanomedicines 107 Iulian Bobe, Mitsunori Harada, Ichiro Nakatomi Chapter 7 Nanotechnology for Regenerative Medicine 124 Yoshikazu Kumashiro, Masayuki Yamato, Teruo Okano PART 3 NANOTECHNOLOGY, HUMAN HEALTH AND APPLICATIONS 141 Chapter 8 Novel Technologies for the Production of Functional Foods 143 Jack Appiah Ofori, Yun-Hwa Peggy Hsieh Chapter 9 Nanomedicine: The Revolution of the Big Future with Tiny Medicine 163 Danny D. Meetoo Chapter 10 Application of γ-Cyclodextrin in Nanomedicinal Foods and Cosmetics 179 Yukiko Uekaji, Ayako Jo, Akihito Urano, Keiji Terao Chapter 11 Polymer-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging Applications 212 Maurizio Avella, Roberto Avolio, Emilia Di Pace, Maria Emanuela Errico, Gennaro Gentile, Maria Grazia Volpe Chapter 12 Ultrasound-Mediated Delivery Systems: Using Nano/Microbubbles or Bubble Liposomes 227 Kazuo Maruyama, Ryo Suzuki, Yusuke Oda, Yoko Endo-Takahashi, Yoichi Negishi Chapter 13 Nanoprobes and Quantum Dots: Employing Nanotechnology to Watch Biology 246 Shampa Chatterjee Chapter 14 Enhanced Optical Biosensors Based on Nanoplasmonics 252 Kyujung Kim, Youngjin Oh, Donghyun Kim Chapter 15 Nano-Biosensors for Mimicking Gustatory and Olfactory Senses 270 Kiyoshi Toko, Takeshi Onodera, Yusuke Tahara Chapter 16 Nanoparticles Inducing Simultaneous Bioreaction in Living Organisms: Critical Sizes for Transition of Biointeractive Behavior 292 Fumio Watari Chapter 17 Analysis of Immunological Reactions to Nanoscale Foods: Possible Occurrence of Allergic Reaction to Nanoscale Food Particles 304 Eisuke F. Sato, Maki Hashimoto, Masayasu Inoue Chapter 18 An Overview of Green Nanotechnology 311 Kelvii Wei Guo Chapter 19 Characterization of Biopolymer and Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites with Antimicrobial Activity 355 Jong-Whan Rhim Chapter 20 Nanotechnology and its Use in Agriculture 383 Alejandro Pérez-de-Luque, M. Carmen Hermosín Chapter 21 Applications of Polymeric Nanoparticles with Steroids: A Review 399 Megumu Higaki Chapter 22 Nanocomposites for Food Packaging: An Overview 406 Tie Lan Chapter 23 Nanotechnology in Cosmetic Products 414 Howard A. Epstein, Alexander Kielbassa Chapter 24 Potential Medical Applications of Fullerenes: An Overview 424 Seema Thakral, Naveen Kumar Thakral PART 4 NANOTECHNOLOGY AND OTHER VERSATILE DIVERSE APPLICATIONS 443 Chapter 25 Biomedical Applications of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 445 Sunil K. Singh, Paresh P. Kulkarni, Debabrata Dash Chapter 26 Carbon Nanotubes and Their Application to Nanotechnology 464 Wojtek Tutak, Sara Reynaud, Rajen B. Patel Chapter 27 Characterization of Cyclodextrin Nanoparticles as Emulsifi ers 476 Hiroyoshi Moriyama, Yoshihiro Saito, Debasis Bagchi Chapter 28 Application of Poly(γ -Glutamic Acid)-Based Nanoparticles as Antigen Delivery Carriers in Cancer Immunotherapy 487 Kazuhiko Matsuo, Naoki Okada, Shinsaku Nakagawa Chapter 29 Basic Characterization of Nanobubbles and Their Potential Applications 506 Seiichi Oshita, Tsutomu Uchida PART 5 NANOMATERIAL MANUFACTURING 517 Chapter 30 Formulation and Characterization of Nanodispersions Composed of Dietary Materials for the Delivery of Bioactive Substances 519 Takashi Kuroiwa, Jun Watanabe, Sosaku Ichikawa Chapter 31 Production of Nanoscale Foods Using High-Pressure Emulsifi cation Technology 531 Kazuyuki Takagi Chapter 32 Production of Monodisperse Fine Dispersions by Microchannel/Nanochannel Emulsification 542 Isao Kobayashi, Marcos A. Neves, Sosaku Ichikawa, Takashi Kuroiwa PART 6 APPLICATIONS OF MICROSCOPY AND NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IN NANOTECHNOLOGY 557 Chapter 33 Applications of Atomic Force Microscopy in Food Nanotechnology 559 Hiroshi Muramatsu, Junichi Wakayama, Kazumi Tsukamoto, Shigeru Sugiyama Chapter 34 Applications of NMR to Biomolecular Systems of Interactions: An Overview 573 Shinya Hanashima, Yoshiki Yamaguchi PART 7 APPLICATIONS IN ENHANCING BIOAVAILABILITY AND CONTROLLING PATHOGENS 593 Chapter 35 Bioavailability and Delivery of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods Using Nanotechnology 595 Hailong Yu, Qingrong Huang Chapter 36 Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds in Micron/Submicron-Sized Dispersions Using Microchannel Emulsifi cation or High-Pressure Homogenization 605 Marcos A. Neves, Isao Kobayashi, Henelyta S. Ribeiro, Katerina B. Fujiu Chapter 37 Nanometric-Size Delivery Systems for Bioactive Compounds for the Nutraceutical and Food Industries 619 Francesco Donsì, Mariarenata Sessa, Giovanna Ferrari Chapter 38 Nanoemulsion Technology for Delivery of Nutraceuticals and Functional-Food Ingredients 667 Luz Sanguansri, Christine M. Oliver, Fernando Leal-Calderon Chapter 39 Nanotechnology and Nonpolar Active Compounds in Functional Foods: An Application Note 697 Philip J. Bromley PART 8 SAFETY, TOXICOLOGY AND REGULATORY ASPECTS 705 Chapter 40 How Standards Inform the Regulation of Bio-nanotechnology 707 Martha E. Marrapese Chapter 41 FDA and Nanotech: Baby Steps Lead to Regulatory Uncertainty 720 Raj Bawa Chapter 42 Toxicity and Environmental Risks of Nanomaterials: An Update 733 Paresh C. Ray, Anant Kumar Singh, Dulal Senapati, Zhen Fan, Hongtao Yu Chapter 43 Nanoparticle–Lung Interactions and Their Potential Consequences for Human Health 749 Craig A. Poland, Martin J. D. Clift PART 9 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN BIO-NANOTECHNOLOGY 777 Chapter 44 Bio-Nanotechnology: A Journey Back to the Future 779 Debasis Bagchi, Manashi Bagchi, Hiroyoshi Moriyama, Fereidoon Shahidi Index 783 Colour plate section 1 falls between pages 254 and 255 Colour plate section 2 falls between pages 574 and 575

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Book SynopsisThis essential primer is accessible for anyone requiring clear discussion of the cutting edge nanotechnologies used for the analysis of biological principles, and an understanding of the nanostructural basis of biology. This text provides an introduction and overview of this interdisciplinary field, merging the physical and biological sciences.Trade Review“…a stimulating volume…borrow it from your library…” (Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Vol. 80 (8), August 2005) "…Goodsell's book is a good start." (Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, May 2005) "David S. Goodsell's new book is a useful introduction to bionanotechnology…" (NanoToday, May 2005) “This is a stimulating volume …borrow it from your library.” (Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 2005; Vol. 80, 964-965) “…concludes with chapters on applications, surveying some of the exciting bionanotechnology tools and techniques that are currently in development…” (CAB Abstracts, 2005) "…will quickly bring intelligent readers up to speed on the most important aspects...I enthusiastically recommend this timely and well-written book on this important, emerging field." (The Quarterly Review of Biology, December 2004) "…a wonderful introductory text for those who want to understand nanotechnology from a biological perspective…an outstanding work for the educated novice as well as for the seasoned nanotechnologist." (ASM News, October 2004) "…this book appears to be one of the only overview texts available.” (E-STREAMS, September 2004) "...best window into the nanoworld...highly readable...will not only educate students but also reach a wider audience..." (Chemistry World, August 2004) "Goodsell's fresh perspective on nanotechnology and persuasive arguments about the future of bionanotechnology have certainly made me into a believer--Bionanotechnology is going to be big!" (Biotechnology Focus, July 2004) "Bionanotechnology: Lessons from Nature is well written and informative. That alone would make it a good read for chemists. But there's a bonus: The book is full of Goodsell's unique illustrations of biomolecules and cells." (C&EN, June 14, 2004) "Written in the style of an excellent biochemistry textbook, Bionanotechnology points the reader to general principles of the biological nanoworld, and thus provides readers with guidance on the design of their own devices and systems…. I can highly recommend this book. I enjoyed reading every single page" (Nature, July 2004)Table of Contents1. The Quest for Nanotechnology. 2. Bionanomachines in Action. 3. Biomolecular Design and Biotechnology. 4. Structural Principles of Bionanotechnology. 5. Functional Principles of Bionanotechnology. 6. Bionanotechnology Today. 7. The Future of Bionanotechnology. Final Thoughts. Literature. Sources. Index.

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Book SynopsisIn water research, nanotechnology is applied to develop more cost-effective and high-performance water treatment systems, as well as to provide instant and continuous ways to monitor water quality. This title presents an array of nanotechnology research in water applications including treatment, remediation, sensing, and pollution prevention.Table of ContentsPreface xix Part 1: General 1 1 Nanotechnology and Water: Ethical and Regulatory Considerations 3 Jillian Gardner and Ames Dhai 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Ethics and Nanotechnology 4 1.3 Legal and Regulatory Issues and Concerns Related to the Application of Nanotechnology in the Water Sector 14 1.4 Nanotechnology, Water and Human Health Research 17 1.5 Conclusion 18 References 19 2 Nanoparticles Released into Water Systems from Nanoproducts and Structural Nanocomposites Applications 21 James Njuguna, Laura Gendre and Sophia Sachse 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Case Study on Polyurethane/Organically-Modified Montmorillonite (PU/OMMT) Nanofoam Nanoparticles in Water Suspension 23 2.3 Methodology 25 2.4 Results and Discussion 27 2.5 Conclusion 32 Acknowledgement 33 References 33 Part 2: Remediation 37 3 Prospects for Immobilization of Microbial Sorbents on Carbon Nanotubes for Biosorption: Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Polluted Water 39 E. Fosso-Kankeu, A.F. Mulaba-Bafubiandi and A.K. Mishra 3.1 Dispersion of Metal Pollutants in Water Sources 40 3.2 Removal of Metal by Conventional Methods 41 3.3 Microbial Sorbents for Removal of Toxic Heavy Metals from Water 42 3.4 Immobilization of Microbial Sorbents on CNTs 50 3.5 Conclusion 54 References 54 4 Plasma Technology: A New Remediation for Water Purification with or without Nanoparticles 63 Pankaj Attri, Bharti Arora, Rohit Bhatia, P. Venkatesu and Eun Ha Choi 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Water Purification Using Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) 64 4.3 Nanoparticle Synthesis Using Plasma and Its Application towards Water Purification 65 4.4 Application of Plasma for Water Purification 67 4.5 Combined Action of Nanoparticles and Plasma for Water Purification 73 4.6 Conclusion 74 References 75 5 Polysaccharide-Based Nanosorbents in Water Remediation 79 R.B. Shrivastava, P. Singh, J. Bajpai and A.K. Bajpai 5.1 Introduction 80 5.2 Water Pollution 81 5.3 Hazardous Effects of Toxic Metal Ions 85 5.4 Technologies for Water Remediation 87 5.5 Shortcomings of the Technologies Used for Water Remediation 89 5.6 Nanotechnology 90 5.7 Polysaccharides 95 5.8 Advantages of Using Polysaccharides for Removal of Toxic Metal Ions 104 5.9 Brief Review of the Work Done 106 References 107 Part 3: Membranes & Carbon Nanotubes 115 6 The Use of Carbonaceous Nanomembrane Filter for Organic Waste Removal 117 Farheen Khan, Rizwan Wahab, Mohd. Rashid, Asif Khan, Asma Khatoon, Javed Musarrat and Abdulaziz A.Al-Khedhairy 6.1 Introduction 118 6.2 Organic Wastes and Organic Pollutant 120 6.3 Low-Cost Adsorbents 123 6.4 Heavy Metals 124 6.5 Composite Materials 127 6.6 Carbonaceous Materials 128 6.7 Experimental 132 6.8 Nanomaterials 136 6.9 Summary and Future Directions 139 References 139 7 Carbon Nanotubes in the Removal of Heavy Metal Ions from Aqueous Solution 153 M.A. Mamo and A.K. Mishra 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Synthesis of CNTs 155 7.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes 155 7.4 Adsorption of Heavy Metal Ions on Carbon Nanotubes 160 7.5 Competitive Adsorption 165 7.6 Summary and Conclusion 168 References 168 8 Application of Carbon Nanotube-Polymer Composites and Carbon Nanotube-Semiconductor Hybrids in Water Treatment 183 G. Mamba, X.Y. Mbianda and A.K. Mishra 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Classification of Dyes 184 8.3 Conventional Treatment Technologies for Textile Effluent 190 8.4 Conclusion 220 Acknowledgements 221 References 222 9 Advances in Nanotechnologies for Point-of-Use and Point-of-Entry Water Purification 229 Sabelo Dalton Mhlanga and Edward Ndumiso Nxumalo 9.1 Introduction 230 9.2 Nanotechnology-Enabled POU/POE Systems for Drinking Water Treatment 233 9.3 Absorptive Nanocomposites Polymers Based on Cyclodextrins 235 9.4 Nanotechnology-Based Membrane Filtration 244 9.5 Ceramic-Based Filters and Nanofibers 254 9.6 Challenges and Opportunities 259 References 262 Part 4: Nanomaterials 269 10 Mesoporous Materials as Potential Absorbents for Water Purification 271 Ephraim Vunain and Reinout Meijboom 10.1 Introduction 271 10.2 Generalized Synthesis of Mesoporous Materials 272 10.3 Common Method of Synthesizing Silicate Mesoporous Molecular Sieves 276 10.4 Adsorption of Heavy Metals 280 10.5 Conclusions 282 References 283 11 Removal of Fluoride from Potable Water Using Smart Nanomaterial as Adsorbent 285 Dinesh Kumar and Vaishali Tomar 11.1 Introduction 286 11.2 Technologies for Defluoridation 289 11.3 Conclusions 303 Acknowledgement 303 References 303 12 Chemical Nanosensors for Monitoring Environmental Pollution 309 Sadanand Pandey and Shivani B Mishra 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 Conclusion 325 12.3 Challenges and Future Prospect 326 Acknowledgements 327 References 327 13 Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol as a Model Reaction for Nanocatalysis 333 Jihyang Noh and Reinout Meijboom 13.1 Introduction 333 13.2 Kinetic Evaluation and Mechanism of 4-NP Reduction 337 13.3 Effect of Various Conditions 360 13.4 Synthetic Methods of Metal Nanocomposites and Their 4-NP Catalysis 364 13.5 Conclusion 395 References 395 Part 5: Water Treatment 407 14 Doped Diamond Electrodes for Water Treatment 409 Qingyi Shao, Guangwen Wang, Cairu Shao, Juan Zhang and Shejun Hu 14.1 Introduction 410 14.2 Calculation Method 414 14.3 Calculation Results and Discussions 416 14.4 Conclusions 428 References 430 15 Multifunctional Silver, Copper and Zero Valent Iron Metallic Nanoparticles for Wastewater Treatment 435 S.C.G. Kiruba Daniel, S. Malathi, S. Balasubramanian, M. Sivakumar and T. Anitha Sironmani 15.1 Introduction 436 15.2 Metal Nanoparticles and Microbial Inactivation 437 15.3 Metal Nanoparticles for Heavy Metal and Dye Removal 441 15.4 Multifunctional Hybrid Nanoparticles – Ag, Cu and ZVI 443 15.5 Mechanism of Action 445 15.6 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 448 Acknowledgement 448 References 448 16 Iron Oxide Materials for Photo-Fenton Conversion of Water Pollutants 459 S.A.C. Carabineiro, A.M.T. Silva, C.G. Silva, R.A. Segundo, P.B. Tavares, N. Bogdanchikova, J.L. Figueiredo and J.L. Faria 16.1 Introduction 460 16.2 Experimental 461 16.3 Results and Discussion 463 16.4 Conclusions 471 Acknowledgments 472 References 472 17 Nanomaterials with Uniform Composition in Wastewater Treatment and Their Applications 475 Farheen Khan and Rizwan Wahab 17.1 Introduction 476 17.2 Experimental 488 17.3 Effects of Pollutants on Health and the Environment 490 17.4 Summary and Future Directions 499 References 500 Index 513

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Book SynopsisOften described as a miracle material, graphene''s potential applications are extraordinary, ranging from nanoscale ''green'' technologies, to sensors and future conductive coatings. This book covers the topic of ''graphene'' the history, fundamental properties, methods of production and applications of this exciting new material. The style of the book is both scientific and technical it is accessible to an audience that has a general, undergraduate-level background in the sciences or engineering, and is aimed at industries considering graphene applications. As the graphene topic is a broad-reaching and rapidly moving field of research, the aim of this book is therefore to provide information about graphene and its current and future applications that are immediately implementable, relevant and concise. After reading this book, the reader will have sufficient knowledge and background to move forward independently into graphene R&D and to apply the knowledge therein. Table of ContentsForeword (Hisanori Shinohara) xv Preface xvii 1 The History of Graphene 1 2 Structure and Properties of Graphene 17 2.1 The Structure of Graphene 17 2.2 Disorder in Graphene Structure 25 2.3 Properties of Graphene 28 2.4 Summary 37 3 Nanographene and Carbon Quantum Dots (C-Dots) 39 3.1 Nanographene 40 3.2 Graphene Quantum Dots or Carbon Dots 46 3.3 Conclusions 71 4 Identification and Characterization of Graphene 73 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Microscopic Methods 76 4.3 Spectroscopic Methods 81 4.4 Optical Property Analysis 93 4.5 Measurement of Mechanical Properties 99 4.6 Thermal Properties and Thermal Effect Analysis 105 4.7 Characterization of Electrical Properties 108 4.8 Work Function 109 4.9 Anomolous Quantum Hall Effect 109 4.10 Spin Transport 110 4.11 Summary 111 5 Engineering Properties of Graphene 113 5.1 Introduction 113 5.2 Engineering Magnetic Properties 114 5.3 Engineering Graphene with Enhanced Mechanical Properties 115 5.4 Engineering the Field Emission (FE) Properties 119 5.5 Engineering Band Gap or Energy Gap of Graphene 120 5.6 Engineering the Electronic Properties of Graphene 122 5.7 Engineering Structural Properties of Graphene 132 5.8 Summary 142 6 Applications of Graphene 145 6.1 Application Possibilities 146 6.2 Summary 164 7 Towards Mass Production of Graphene: Lab to Industry (Scaling Up) 167 7.1 Exfoliation of Graphite: A Top-Down Approach 168 7.2 Length-Wise Unzipping of Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) 171 7.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Method 179 7.4 Epitaxial growth of Graphene on Silicon Carbide 181 7.5 Reduction of Graphene Oxide (GO) 184 7.6 Arc-Discharge Method 194 7.7 Solvothermal Method 194 7.8 Substrate-Free Gas Phase Synthesis Of Graphene 195 7.9 Other Growth Methods 196 7.10 Summary 196 8 Direct Transfer or Roll-To-Roll Transfer of Graphene Sheet onto Desired Substrate 197 8.1 Introduction 197 8.2 Direct Transfer of Graphene by Etching and Scooping Method 199 8.3 Direct Transfer of Graphene by Etching and Scooping Method Using a Graphene Protecting Media 200 8.4 Roll-to-Roll Synthesis and Transfer of Graphene 205 8.5 Apparatus Used for Roll-to-Roll Transfer of Graphene Sheet 208 8.6 Considerations for Minimizing Defects or Cracking During Transfer 212 8.7 Summary 214 9 Graphene in Industry, Commercialization Challenges and Economics 217 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Graphene Industries 219

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a highly practical treatment of Glancing Angle Deposition (GLAD), a thin film fabrication technology optimized to produce precise nanostructures from a wide range of materials.Table of ContentsSeries Preface xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction: Glancing Angle Deposition Technology 1 1.1 Nanoscale engineering and glancing angle deposition 1 1.2 GLAD-vantages 4 1.2.1 Nanoscale morphology control 4 1.2.2 Broad material compatibility 6 1.2.3 Novel thin-film material properties 10 1.2.4 Compatibility with standard microfabrication processes 10 1.2.5 Scalable fabrication method 11 1.3 The roots of glancing angle deposition: oblique deposition 12 1.4 The importance of experimental calibration 13 1.5 Computer simulations of glancing angle deposition growth 15 1.6 Major application areas in glancing angle deposition technology 17 1.6.1 Energy and catalysis 17 1.6.2 Sensing applications 19 1.6.3 Optics 20 1.7 Summary and outline of the book 21 2 Engineering Film Microstructure with Glancing Angle Deposition 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Basics of conventional film growth 32 2.2.1 Physical vapour deposition 32 2.2.2 Nucleation and coalescence 33 2.2.3 Column microstructure 35 2.3 Glancing angle deposition technology: microstructural control via substrate motion 37 2.4 Engineering film morphology with α 41 2.4.1 Controlling microstructure and porosity 41 2.4.2 Directional column growth: column tilt β 44 2.5 Engineering film morphology: column steering via φ rotation 47 2.5.1 Controlling column architecture with φ: helical columns 47 2.5.2 Controlling microstructure with rotation speed: vertical columns 48 2.5.3 Continuous versus discrete substrate rotation 49 2.6 Growth characteristics of glancing angle deposition technology films 53 2.6.1 Evolutionary column growth 53 2.6.2 Column broadening 56 2.6.3 Column bifurcation 57 2.6.4 Anisotropic shadowing and column fanning 59 2.7 Advanced column steering algorithms 60 2.7.1 β variations in zigzag microstructures 61 2.7.2 Spin–pause/two-phase substrate rotation: decoupling β and film density 63 2.7.3 Phisweep motion: competition-resilient structure growth 67 2.8 Additional control over film growth and structure 72 2.8.1 High-temperature glancing angle deposition growth 72 2.8.2 Multimaterial structures: co-deposition processes 75 3 Creating High-Uniformity Nanostructure Arrays 81 3.1 Introduction 81 3.2 Seed layer design 82 3.2.1 Seed spacing and seed height 84 3.2.2 Seed lattice geometry 86 3.2.3 Seed size 87 3.2.4 Planar fill fraction 89 3.2.5 Seed shape 90 3.2.6 Two-dimensional shadow coverage 91 3.2.7 Seed material 94 3.2.8 Design parameter summary 95 3.3 Seed fabrication 95 3.3.1 Conventional techniques 96 3.3.2 Unconventional techniques 97 3.4 Advanced control of local shadowing environment 99 3.4.1 Preventing bifurcation: slow-corner motion 99 3.4.2 Preventing broadening: phisweep and substrate swing 102 4 Properties and Characterization Methods 113 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 Structural analysis with electron microscopy 113 4.2.1 Practical aspects 114 4.2.2 Scanning electron microscope image analysis 117 4.2.3 Three-dimensional column imaging: tomographic sectioning 122 4.2.4 Characterizing internal column structure with transmission electron microscope imaging 124 4.3 Structural properties of glancing angle deposition films 126 4.3.1 Film surface roughness and evolution 126 4.3.2 Column broadening 128 4.3.3 Intercolumn spacing and column density 133 4.4 Film density 134 4.4.1 Controlling density with α: theoretical models 135 4.4.2 Experimental measurement and control of film density 136 4.5 Porosimetry and surface area determination 140 4.5.1 Surface area enhancement in glancing angle deposition films 141 4.5.2 The pore structure of glancing angle deposition films 144 4.6 Crystallographic texture and evolution 146 4.7 Electrical properties 148 4.7.1 Resistivity in microstructured glancing angle deposition films 148 4.7.2 Anisotropic resistivity 151 4.7.3 Modelling glancing angle deposition film resistivity 153 4.7.4 Individual nanocolumn properties 154 4.8 Mechanical properties 155 4.8.1 α effects on film stress 155 4.8.2 Hardness properties 158 4.8.3 Elastic behaviour of glancing angle deposition films 159 4.8.4 Additional mechanical properties 163 5 Glancing Angle Deposition Optical Films 173 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 The optics of structured glancing angle deposition films 173 5.2.1 Optical anisotropy in columnar glancing angle deposition films 173 5.2.2 Modelling glancing angle deposition films with effective medium theory 176 5.2.3 The column and void material refractive indices 179 5.2.4 Modelling form birefringence via the depolarization factor 180 5.2.5 Dealing with microstructural uncertainty: bounds on the effective dielectric function 182 5.3 Calibrating optical properties of glancing angle deposition films 182 5.3.1 Basic measurements: isotropic approximations 183 5.3.2 Calibrating anisotropy with polarization-sensitive measurements 185 5.3.3 In-depth characterization with generalized techniques 186 5.3.4 Additional factors 186 5.4 Controlling glancing angle deposition film optical properties 187 5.4.1 Basic refractive index engineering with α 187 5.4.2 Controlling planar birefringence with α 188 5.4.3 Optimizing birefringence with serial bideposition 189 5.4.4 Modulating birefringence with complex φ motions 192 5.4.5 Controlling n with advanced glancing angle deposition motions 195 5.5 Graded-index coatings: design and fabrication 195 5.5.1 General design method for glancing angle deposition graded-index coatings 196 5.5.2 Designing φ motions for high-accuracy graded-index coatings 197 5.5.3 Specific examples 199 5.5.4 Antireflection coatings 199 5.5.5 Rugate interference filters 201 5.5.6 Avoiding high- α growth instabilities in graded-index films 205 5.6 Designing helical structures for circular polarization optics 206 5.6.1 Optics of chiral glancing angle deposition media 206 5.6.2 Engineering basic helical structures 208 5.6.3 Polygonal helical structures 210 5.6.4 Optimization of circular bragg phenomena with serial bideposition 212 5.6.5 Microcavity design in helical structures 213 5.6.6 Fabricating graded-birefringence thin-film designs 214 5.7 Practical information and issues 216 5.7.1 Post-deposition tuning 216 5.7.2 Environmental sensitivity 217 5.7.3 Optical scattering 217 6 Post-Deposition Processing and Device Integration 227 6.1 Introduction 227 6.2 Post-deposition structural control 227 6.2.1 Annealing 227 6.2.2 Chemical composition control 231 6.2.3 Microstructural control via chemical etching 231 6.2.4 Ion-milling structural modification 233 6.2.5 Column surface modifications 235 6.3 Deposition onto nonplanar geometries 236 6.4 Photolithographic patterning of glancing angle deposition thin films 237 6.5 Encapsulation and replanarization of glancing angle deposition films 240 6.5.1 Encapsulation layer substrate motions 240 6.5.2 Film stress in encapsulation layers 242 6.6 Integrating electrical contacts with glancing angle deposition microstructures 244 6.6.1 Planar electrode configurations 244 6.6.2 Parallel-plate electrode configurations 245 6.7 Films in liquid environments 247 6.8 Using glancing angle deposition microstructures as replication templates 251 6.8.1 Single- and double-template fabrication processes 251 6.8.2 Nanotube fabrication via template fabrication 252 7 Glancing Angle Deposition Systems and Hardware 261 7.1 Introduction 261 7.2 Vacuum conditions 261 7.2.1 Vacuum requirements for glancing angle deposition systems 261 7.2.2 Physical vapour deposition process gases and higher pressure deposition 263 7.3 Thickness calibration and deposition rate monitoring 265 7.3.1 Source directionality and tooling factor 265 7.3.2 Thickness calibration at nonzero α: deposition ratios 267 7.3.3 Extended source: effect on collimation 269 7.4 Uniformity calculations for glancing angle deposition processes 270 7.4.1 Calculating geometry variation over a wafer 270 7.4.2 Mapping out thickness variation 272 7.4.3 Calculating parameter variations for moving substrates 274 7.4.4 Calculating thickness uniformity for moving substrates 276 7.4.5 Calculating column orientation uniformity 278 7.5 Substrate motion hardware 281 7.5.1 α motion accuracy and precision 281 7.5.2 φ motion requirements 283 7.5.3 Additional factors to consider 284 7.5.4 Substrate heating and cooling approaches 285 7.6 Scalability to manufacturing 286 References 286 A Selected Patents 289 Index 297

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Book SynopsisNanomagnetic and spintronic computing devices are strong contenders for future replacements of CMOS. This is an important and rapidly evolving area with the semiconductor industry investing significantly in the study of nanomagnetic phenomena and in developing strategies to pinpoint and regulate nanomagnetic reliably with a high degree of energy efficiency. This timely book explores the recent and on-going research into nanomagnetic-based technology. Key features: Detailed background material and comprehensive descriptions of the current state-of-the-art research on each topic. Focuses on direct applications to devices that have potential to replace CMOS devices for computing applications such as memory, logic and higher order information processing. Discusses spin-based devices where the spin degree of freedom of charge carriers are exploited for device operation and ultimately information processing. Describes magnet switching methodoTable of ContentsAbout the Editors and Acknowledgments xi List of Contributors xiii Foreword xvii Preface xix 1 Introduction to Spintronic and Nanomagnetic Computing Devices 1Jayasimha Atulasimha and Supriyo Bandyopadhyay 1.1 Spintronic Devices 1 1.2 Nanomagnetic Devices 3 1.2.1 Use of Spin Torque to Switch Nanomagnets 6 1.2.2 Other Methodologies for Switching Nanomagnets 6 1.3 Thinking beyond Traditional Boolean Logic 7 References 7 2 Potential Applications of all Electric Spin Valves Made of Asymmetrically Biased Quantum Point Contacts 9Nikhil Bhandari, Maitreya Dutta, James Charles, Junjun Wan, Marc Cahay, and S.T Herbert 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Quantum Point Contacts 11 2.3 Spin Orbit Coupling 14 2.3.1 Rashba SOC (RSOC) 15 2.3.2 Dresselhaus SOC (DSOC) 15 2.3.3 Lateral Spin-Orbit Coupling (LSOC) 16 2.4 Importance of Spin Relaxation in 1D Channels 18 2.5 Observation of a 0.5 Conductance Plateau in Asymmetrically Biased QPCs in the Presence of LSOC 20 2.5.1 Early Experimental Results Using InAs QPCs 20 2.5.2 NEGF Conductance Calculations 20 2.5.3 Spin Texture Associated with Conductance Anomalies in QPCs 23 2.5.4 Prospect for Generation of Spin Polarized Current at Higher Temperature 25 2.5.5 Observation of Other Anomalous Conductance Plateaus in an Asymmetrically Biased InAs/In0.52 Al0.48 as QPCs 26 2.6 Intrinsic Bistability near Conductance Anomalies 27 2.6.1 Experimental Results 28 2.6.2 NEGF Simulations 30 2.7 QPC Structures with Four In-plane SGs: Toward an All Electrical Spin Valve 43 2.7.1 Preliminary Results on Four-gate QPCs 43 2.7.2 Experiments 46 2.7.3 Onset of Hysteresis and Negative Resistance Region 50 2.8 Future Work 56 2.9 Summary 58 Acknowledgments 60 References 60 3 Spin-Transistor Technology for Spintronics/CMOS Hybrid Logic Circuits and Systems 65Satoshi Sugahara, Yusuke Shuto, and Shuu’ichirou Yamamoto 3.1 Spin-Transistor and Pseudo-Spin-Transistor 65 3.1.1 Spin – MOSFET 66 3.1.2 Pseudo-Spin-MOSFET 69 3.2 Energy-Efficient Logic Applications of Spin-Transistors 72 3.2.1 Power Gating with Nonvolatile Retention 73 3.2.2 Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits 75 3.2.3 Break-even Time 76 3.3 Nonvolatile SRAM Technology 78 3.3.1 Static Noise Margin of Nonvolatile SRAM 79 3.3.2 Energy Performance of NV-SRAM 81 3.4 Application of Nonvolatile Bistable Circuits for Memory Systems 86 References 88 4 Spin Transfer Torque: A Multiscale Picture 91Yunkun Xie, Ivan Rungger, Kamaram Munira, Maria Stamenova, Stefano Sanvito, and Avik W. Ghosh 4.1 Introduction 91 4.1.1 Background 91 4.1.2 STT Modeling: An Integrated Approach 93 4.2 The Physics of Spin Transfer Torque 94 4.2.1 Free-Electron Model for Magnetic Tunnel Junction 96 4.3 First Principles Evaluation of TMR and STT 102 4.3.1 The TMR Effect in the MgO Barrier 104 4.3.2 Currents and Torques in NEGF 114 4.3.3 First Principles Results on Spin Transfer Torque 116 4.4 Magnetization Dynamics 119 4.4.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation 119 4.4.2 Spin Torque Switching in Presence of Thermal Fluctuations 121 4.4.3 Including Thermal Fluctuations: Stochastic LLG vs Fokker Planck 122 4.5 Summary: Multiscaling from Atomic Structure to Error Rate 125 Acknowledgments 129 References 129 5 Magnetic Tunnel Junction Based Integrated Logics and Computational Circuits 133Jian-Ping Wang, Mahdi Jamali, Angeline Klemm Smith, and Zhengyang Zhao 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 GMR Based Field Programmable Devices 134 5.3 MTJ Based Field Programmable Devices 136 5.3.1 MTJ Structure and TMR Ratio 136 5.3.2 MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 137 5.3.3 Utilization of STT in MTJ Based Magneto-Logic 144 5.4 Information Transformation between Gates 145 5.4.1 Direct Communication Using Charge Current 146 5.4.2 Magnetic Domain Walls for Information Transferring 148 5.5 MTJ Based Logic-in-Memory Devices 148 5.6 Magnetic Quantum Cellular Automata 149 5.6.1 Introduction and Background 149 5.6.2 Experimental Demonstrations 150 5.7 All-Spin Based Magnetic Logic 155 5.7.1 Nonlocal Lateral Spin Valve Background 155 5.7.2 Critical Parameters for Operation 155 5.7.3 Selected Review of Experimental Demonstrations 156 5.7.4 Applications to All-Spin Logic Devices 158 5.8 Summary 161 Acknowledgment 161 References 162 6 Magnetization Switching and Domain Wall Motion Due to Spin Orbit Torque 165Debanjan Bhowmik, OukJae Lee, Long You, and Sayeef Salahuddin 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2 Theory 166 6.2.1 Rashba Effect 168 6.2.2 Spin Hall Effect 169 6.3 Magnetic Switching Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 171 6.4 Domain Wall Motion Driven by Spin Orbit Torque 176 6.5 Applications of Spin Orbit Torque 184 6.6 Conclusion 186 References 186 7 Magnonic Logic Devices 189Alexander Khitun and Alexander Kozhanov 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Magnonic Logic Devices 197 7.3 Spin Wave-Based Logic Gates and Architectures 206 7.4 Discussion and Summary 212 References 216 8 Strain Mediated Magnetoelectric Memory 221N. Tiercelin, Y. Dusch, S. Giordano, A. Klimov, V. Preobrazhensky, and P. Pernod 8.1 Introduction 221 8.2 Concept of Unequivocal Strain- or Stress-Switched Nanomagnetic Memory 223 8.2.1 Magnetic Configuration and Equilibrium Positions 223 8.2.2 Quasi-Static Stress-Mediated Switching 225 8.3 LLG Simulations – Macrospin Model 226 8.3.1 Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert Equation and Effective Magnetic Field 226 8.3.2 Memory Parameters 227 8.3.3 Results of the Macrospin Model 228 8.4 LLG Simulations – Eshelby Approach 231 8.4.1 Geometry of the Memory Element 232 8.4.2 Coupling with the External Magnetic Field 233 8.4.3 Coupling with the External Electric Field and Elastic Stress 234 8.4.4 Static Behavior of the System 234 8.4.5 Dynamic Behavior of the System 235 8.5 Stochastic Error Analysis 238 8.5.1 Statistical Mechanics of Magnetization in a Single-Domain Particle 238 8.5.2 Switching Process within the Magnetoelectric Memory 243 8.6 Preliminary Experimental Results 248 8.6.1 Piezoelectric Actuator with in-Plane Polarization 248 8.6.2 Ferroelectric Relaxors with out-of-Plane Polarization 249 8.6.3 Magnetoelastic Switching in a Magneto-Resistive Structure 250 8.7 Conclusions 250 Acknowledgments 252 References 253 9 Hybrid Spintronics-Strainronics 259Ayan K. Biswas, Noel D’Souza, Supriyo Bandyopadhyay, and Jayasimha Atulasimha 9.1 Introduction 259 9.1.1 Nanomagnetic Memory and Logic Devices: The Problem of Energy Dissipation in the Clocking Circuit 260 9.1.2 Switching Nanomagnets with Strain Could Drastically Reduce Energy Dissipation: Hybrid Spintronics-Straintronics Overview 261 9.1.3 Landau Lifshitz Gilbert (LLG) Equation 263 9.2 Nanomagnetic Memory Switched with Strain 265 9.2.1 Complete Magnetization Reversal (180◦ Switching): Complex out-of-Plane Dynamics 265 9.2.2 Switching the Magnetization between Two Mutually Perpendicular Stable Orientations and Extension to Stable Orientations with Angular Separation >90◦ 268 9.2.3 Complete 180◦ Switching with Stress Alone 269 9.2.4 Mixed Mode Switching of Magnetization by 180◦: Acoustically Assisted Spin Transfer Torque (STT) Switching for Nonvolatile Memory 273 9.3 Straintronic Clocking of Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.1 Two-State Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic 276 9.3.2 Four-state Multiferroic Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 279 9.3.3 Switching Error in Dipole Coupled Nanomagnetic Logic (NML) 283 9.3.4 Straintronic Nanomagnetic Logic Devices (NML) 284 9.4 Summary and Conclusions 286 References 286 10 Unconventional Nanocomputing with Physical Wave Interference Functions 291Santosh Khasanvis, Mostafizur Rahman, Prasad Shabadi, and Csaba Andras Moritz 10.1 Overview 291 10.2 Spin Waves Physical Layer for WIF Implementation 293 10.2.1 Physical Fabric Components 295 10.3 Elementary WIF Operators for Logic 298 10.4 Binary WIF Logic Design 303 10.4.1 Binary WIF Full Adder 303 10.4.2 Parallel Counters 306 10.4.3 Benchmarking Binary WIF Circuits vs. CMOS 309 10.4.4 WIF Topology Exploration 310 10.5 Multivalued WIF Logic Design 311 10.5.1 Multivalued Operators and Implementation Using WIF 312 10.5.2 Multivalued Arithmetic Circuit Example: Quaternary Full Adder 316 10.5.3 Benchmarking of WIF Multivalued Circuits vs. Conventional CMOS 318 10.5.4 Input/Output Logic for Data Conversion between Binary and Radix-r Domains 319 10.6 Microprocessors with WIF: Opportunities and Challenges 320 10.7 Summary and Future Work 326 References 326 Index 329 A color plate section falls between pages 44 and 45

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Book SynopsisBiorenewable polymers based nanomaterials are rapidly emerging as one of the most fascinating materials for multifunctional applications. Among biorenewable polymers, cellulose based nanomaterials are of great importance due to their inherent advantages such as environmental friendliness, biodegradability, biocompatibility, easy processing and cost effectiveness, to name a few. They may be produced from biological systems such as plants or be chemically synthesised from biological materials. This book summarizes the recent remarkable achievements witnessed in green technology of cellulose based nanomaterials in different ?elds ranging from biomedical to automotive. This book also discusses the extensive research developments for next generation nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites. The book contains seventeen chapters and each chapter addresses some specific issues related to nanocellulose and also demonstrates the real potentialities of these nanomaterials in differentTable of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1: Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocellulose based Polymer Nanocomposites 1 1 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Introduction 3 Manju Kumari Thakur, Vijay Kumar Thakur and Raghavan Prasanth 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Nanocellulose: Source, Structure, Synthesis and Applications 5 1.3 Conclusions 12 References 13 2 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Nanocomposites: Roadmap for Innovative Materials 17 Ana R. P. Figueiredo, Carla Vilela, Carlos Pascoal Neto, Armando J. D. Silvestre and Carmen S. R. Freire 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Bacterial Cellulose Production, Properties and Applications 18 2.3 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 28 2.4 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Hybrid Nanocomposite Materials 41 2.5 Acknowledgements References 55 3 Polyurethanes Reinforced with Cellulose 65 María L. Auad, Mirna A. Mosiewicki and Norma E. Marcovich 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Conventional Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 67 3.3 Waterborne Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 76 3.4 Biobased Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 78 Conclusions and Final Remarks 84 References 85 4 Bacterial Cellulose and Its Use in Renewable Composites 89 Dianne R. Ruka, George P. Simon and Katherine M. Dean 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Cellulose Properties and Production 91 4.3 Tailor-Designing Bacterial Cellulose 105 4.4 Bacterial Cellulose Composites 114 4.5 Biodegradability 121 4.6 Conclusions 123 References 123 5 Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites Fabricated by In-Situ Polymerization Technique 131 Dipa Ray and Sunanda Sain 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Cellulose as Filler in Polymer Matrix Composites 132 5.3 Cellulose Nanocomposites 138 5.4 In-Situ Polymerized Cellulose Nanocomposites 138 5.5 Novel Materials with Wide Application Potential 140 5.6 Effect of In-Situ Polymerization on Biodegradation Behavior of Cellulose Nanocomposites 154 5.7 Future of Cellulose Nanocomposites 157 References 159 6 Multifunctional Ternary Polymeric Nanocomposites Based on Cellulosic Nanore- inforcements 163 D. Puglia, E. Fortunati, C. Santulli and J. M. Kenny 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Cellulosic Reinforcements (CR) 166 6.3 Interaction of CNR with Different Nanoreinforcements 171 6.4 Ternary Polymeric Systems Based on CNR 179 6.5 Conclusions 190 Acknowledgments 191 References 191 7 Effect of Fiber Length on Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene Nanobiocomposites Reinforced with Kenaf Fiber and Nanoclay 199 Na Sim and Seong Ok Han 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Experimental 200 7.3 Results and Discussion 202 7.4 Conclusions 211 References 211 8 Cellulose-Based Liquid Crystalline Composite Systems 215 J. P. Borges, J. P. Canejo, S. N. Fernandes and M. H. Godinho 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Liquid Crystalline Phases of Cellulose and Its Derivatives 216 8.3 Conclusion 232 Acknowledgements 232 References 232 9 Recent Advances in Nanocomposites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Nanocellulose 237 J. I. Morán, L. N. Ludueña and V. A. Alvarez 9.1 Introduction 237 9.2 Cellulose Bionanocomposites Incorporation of Cellulose Nanofibers into Biodegradable Polymers: General Effect on the Properties 243 9.3 Future Perspectives and Concluding Remarks 249 References 250 Part 2: Processing and Applications Nanocellulose based Polymer Nanocomposites 255 10 Cellulose Nano/Microfibers-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Processing Aspects 257 K. Priya Dasan and A. Sonia 10.1 Introduction 257 10.2 The Role of Isolation Methods on Composite Properties 260 10.3 Pretreatment of Fibers and Its Role in Composite Performance 262 10.4 Different Processing Methodologies in Cellulose Nanocomposites and Their Effect on Final Properties 264 10.5 Conclusion 268 References 268 11 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposite: Isolation, Characterization and Applications 273 H. P. S. Abdul Khalil, Y. Davoudpour, N. A. Sri Aprilia, Asniza Mustapha, Md. Nazrul Islam and Rudi Dungani 11.1 Introduction 274 11.2 Cellulose and Nanocellulose 274 11.3 Isolation of Nanocellulose 276 11.4 Characterization of Nanocellulose 283 11.5 Drying of Nanocellulose 289 11.6 Modifications of Nanocellulose 290 11.7 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 295 11.8 Conclusion 302 Acknowledgement 303 References 303 12 Electrospinning of Cellulose: Process and Applications 311 Raghavan Prasanth, Shubha Nageswaran, Vijay Kumar Takur and Jou-Hyeon Ahn 12.1 Cellulosic Fibers 311 12.2 Crystalline Structure of Electrospun Cellulose 312 12.3 Applications of Cellulose 313 12.4 Electrospinning 313 12.5 Electrospinning of Cellulose 317 12.6 Solvents for Electrospinning of Cellulose 318 12.7 Cellulose Composite Fibers 333 12.8 Conclusions 336 Abbreviations 336 Symbols 336 References 337 13 Effect of Kenaf Cellulose Whiskers on Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Nanocomposites Properties 341 Lukmanul Hakim Zaini, M. T. Paridah, M. Jawaid, AlothmanY. Othman and A. H. Juliana 13.1 Introduction 341 13.2 Experimental 342 13.3 Characterization 344 13.4 Result and Discussion 345 13.5 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgements 353 References 353 14 Processes in Cellulose Derivative Structures 355 Mihaela Dorina Onofrei, Adina Maria Dobos and Silvia Ioan 14.1 Introduction 355 14.2 Liquid Crystalline Polymers 357 14.3 Liquid Crystal Dispersed in a Polymer Matrix 359 14.4 Techniques for Obtaining Liquid Crystals Dispersed into a Polymeric Matrix 360 14.5 Some Methods to Characterize the Liquid Crystal State 360 14.6 Liquid Crystal State of Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives in Solution 364 14.7 Cellulose Derivatives/Polymers Systems 373 Conclusions 383 References 384 15 Cellulose Nanocrystals: Nanostrength for Industrial and Biomedical Applications 393 Anuj Kumar, Samit Kumar, Yuvraj Singh Negi and Veena Choudhary 15.1 Introduction 393 15.2 Cellulose and Its Sources 394 15.3 Nanocellulose 396 15.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals 398 15.5 Aqueous Suspension and Drying of CNCs 408 15.6 Functionalization of CNCs 410 15.7 Processing of CNCs for Biocomposites 15.8 Applications of CNCs-Reinforced Biocomposites 416 15.9 Biomedical Applications 421 15.10 Conclusion 427 Acknowledgements 428 References 428 16 Medical Applications of Cellulose and Its Derivatives: Present and Future 437 Karthika Ammini Sindhu, Raghavan Prasanth and Vijay Kumar Thakur 16.1 Historical Overview 438 16.2 Use of Cellulose for Treatment of Renal Failure 439 16.3 Types of Membranes 444 16.4 Use of Cellulose for Wound Dressing 447 16.5 Cotton as Wound Dressing Material 448 16.6 Biosynthesis, Structure and Properties of MC 450 16.7 MC as a Wound Healing System 451 16.8 Microbial Cellulose/Ag Nanocomposite 456 16.9 Nanocomposites of Microbial Cellulose and Chitosan 458 16.10 Commercialization of Microbial Cellulose 461 16.11 Use of Cellulose as Implant Material 462 16.12 Dental Applications 470 Conclusions 471 Abbreviations 472 Symbols 472 References 473 17 Bacterial Cellulose and Its Multifunctional Composites: Synthesis and Properties 479 V. Thiruvengadam and Satish Vitta 17.1 Introduction 479 17.2 Magnetic Composites 485 17.3 Composites with Catalytic Activity 489 17.4 Electrically Conducting Composites 492 17.5 Composites as Fuel Cell Components, Electrodes and Membrane 496 17.6 Optically Transparent and Mechanically Flexible Composites 499 17.7 Summary and Outlook 502 References 502

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Book SynopsisGraphene Materials: Fundamentals and Emerging Applications brings together innovative methodologies with research and development strategies to provide a detailed state-of-the-art overview of the processing, properties, and technology developments of graphene materials and their wide-ranging applications. The applications areas covered are biosensing, energy storage, environmental monitoring, and health. The book discusses the various methods that have been developed for the preparation and functionalization of single-layered graphene nanosheets. These form the essential building blocks for the bottom-up architecture of various graphene materials because they possess unique physico-chemical properties such as large surface areas, good conductivity and mechanical strength, high thermal stability and desirable flexibility. The electronic behavior in graphene, such as dirac fermions obtained due to the interaction with the ions of the lattice, has led to the discovery of Table of ContentsPreface xv Foreword by Rosita Yakimova xix Part 1: Fundamentals of Graphene and Graphene-Based Nanocomposites 1 1 Graphene and Related Two-Dimensional Materials 3Manas Mandal, Anirban Maitra, Tanya Das and Chapal Kumar Das 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Preparation of Graphene Oxide by Modified Hummer’s Method 6 1.3 Dispersion of Graphene Oxide in Organic Solvents 6 1.4 Paper-like Graphene Oxide 7 1.5 Thin Films of Graphene Oxide and Graphene 7 1.6 Nanocomposites of Graphene Oxide 8 1.7 Graphene-Based Materials 9 1.8 Graphene-like 2D Materials 10 1.8.1 Tungsten Sulfide 10 1.8.2 Molybdenum Sulfide 14 1.8.3 Tin Sulfide 15 1.8.4 Tin Selenide 17 1.8.5 Manganese Dioxide 17 1.8.6 Nickel Oxide 18 1.8.7 Boron Nitride 19 1.9 Conclusion 20 References 20 2 Surface Functionalization of Graphene 25Mojtaba Bagherzadeh and Anahita Farahbakhsh 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Noncovalent Functionalization of Graphene 27 2.3 Covalent Functionalization of Graphene 34 2.3.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction 34 2.3.2 Electrophilic Substitution Reaction 41 2.3.3 Condensation Reaction 42 2.3.4 Addition Reaction 50 2.4 Graphene–Nanoparticles 51 2.4.1 Metals NPs: Au, Pd, Pt, Ag 54 2.4.2 Metal oxide NPs: ZnO, SnO2, TiO2, SiO2,RuO2, Mn3O4, Co3O4, and Fe3O4 54 2.4.3 Semiconducting NPs: CdSe, CdS, ZnS, CdTe and Graphene QD 56 2.5 Conclusion 58 References 58 3 Architecture and Applications of Functional Th ree-dimensional Graphene Networks 67Ramendra Sundar Dey and Qijin Chi 3.1 Introduction 68 3.1.1 Synthesis of 3D Porous Graphene-Based Materials 69 3.1.2 Overview of 3DG Structures 73 3.2 Applications 77 3.2.1 Supercapacitor 77 3.2.2 Fuel Cells 91 3.2.3 Sensors 92 3.2.4 Other Applications 93 3.3 Summary, Conclusion, Outlook 93 Abbreviations 94 References 94 4 Covalent Graphene-Polymer Nanocomposites 101Horacio J. Salavagione 4.1 Introduction 101 4.2 Properties of Graphene for Polymer Reinforcement 102 4.3 Graphene and Graphene-like Materials 103 4.4 Methods of Production 104 4.5 Chemistry of Graphene 108 4.6 Conventional Graphene Based Polymer Nanocomposites 109 4.7 Covalent Graphene-polymer Nanocomposites 112 4.8 Grafting-From Approaches 114 4.8.1 Living Radical Polymerizations 115 4.8.2 Other Approaches 123 4.9 Grafting-to Approaches 126 4.9.1 Graphene Oxide-based Chemistry 127 4.9.2 Crosslinking Reactions 130 4.9.3 Click Chemistry 131 4.9.4 Other Grafting-to Approaches 137 4.10 Conclusions 140 References 141 Part 2: Emerging Applications of Graphene in Energy, Health, Environment and Sensors 151 5 Magnesium Matrix Composites Reinforced with Graphene Nanoplatelets 153Muhammad Rashad, Fusheng Pan and Muhammad Asif 5.1 Introduction 154 5.1.1 Magnesium 154 5.1.2 Metal Matrix Composites 154 5.1.3 Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) 155 5.2 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets on Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium 156 5.2.1 Introduction 156 5.2.2 Synthesis 157 5.2.3 Microstructural Characterization 157 5.2.4 Crystallographic Texture Measurements 158 5.2.5 Mechanical Characterization 160 5.2.6 Conclusions 163 5.3 Synergetic Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) and Multi-walled Carbon Nanotube (MW-CNTs) on Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium 164 5.3.1 Introduction 164 5.3.2 Synthesis 165 5.3.3 Microstructure Characterization 166 5.3.4 Mechanical Characterization 169 5.3.5 Conclusions 174 5.4 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) Addition on Strength and Ductility of Magnesium-Titanium Alloys 175 5.4.1 Introduction 175 5.4.2 Synthesis 176 5.4.3 Microstructure Characterization 176 5.4.4 Mechanical Characterization 178 5.4.5 Conclusions 179 5.5 Effect of Graphene Nanoplatelets on Tensile Properties of Mg–1%Al–1%Sn Alloy 180 5.5.1 Introduction 180 5.5.2 Synthesis 180 5.5.3 Microstructure Characterization 180 5.5.4 Mechanical Characterization 181 5.5.5 Conclusions 184 Acknowledgments 184 References 185 6 Graphene and Its Derivatives for Energy Storage 191Malgorzata Aleksandrzak and Ewa Mijowska 6.1 Introduction 191 6.2 Graphene in Lithium Batteries 192 6.2.1 Lithium Ion Batteries 193 6.2.2 Lithium-Oxygen Batteries 201 6.2.3 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 206 6.3 Graphene in Supercapacitors 212 6.4 Summary 218 References 218 7 Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite: An Ideal Electroactive Material for High Performance Supercapacitors 225Alagiri Mani, Khosro Zangene Kamali, Alagarsamy Pandikumar, Lim Yee Seng, Lim Hong Ngee and Huang Nay Ming 7.1 Introduction 226 7.2 Renewable Energy Sources 226 7.3 Importance of Energy Storage 227 7.4 Supercapacitors 228 7.5 Principle and Operation of Supercapacitiors 228 7.6 Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 230 7.7 Graphene-based Supercapacitors and Th eir Limitations 231 7.8 Graphene-Polymer-Composite-based Supercapacitors 232 7.9 Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite-based Supercapacitiors 233 7.10 Fabrication of Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite for Supercapacitiors 233 7.11 Performance of Graphene-Polypyrrole Nanocomposite-based Supercapacitors 239 7.12 Summary and Outlooks 240 References 243 8 Hydrophobic ZnO Anchored Graphene Nanocomposite Based Bulk Hetro-junction Solar Cells to Improve Short Circuit Current Density 245Rajni Sharma, Firoz Alam, A.K. Sharma, V. Dutta and S.K. Dhawan 8.1 Introduction 246 8.2 Economic Expectations of OPV 248 8.3 Device Architecture 253 8.3.1 Bulk-heterojunction Structure 252 8.4 Operational Principles 253 8.4.1 Series and Shunt Resistance 255 8.4.2 Standard Test Conditions 256 8.5 Experimental procedure for synthesis of hydrophobic nanomaterials 258 8.5.1 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 258 8.5.2 ZnO Nanoparticle Decorated Graphene (Z@G) Nanocomposite 259 8.6 Characterization of Synthesized ZnO Nanoparticles and ZnO Decorated Graphene (Z@G) Nanocomposite 259 8.6.1 Structural Analysis 259 8.6.2 Morphological Analysis 260 8.6.3 Optical Analysis 262 8.6.4 FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy 263 8.6.5 Raman Spectroscopy 265 8.6.6 Hydrophobicity Measurement 266 8.7 Hybrid Solar Cell Fabrication and Characterization 267 8.7.1 Device Fabrication 267 8.7.2 J-V (Current density-Voltage) Characteristics 267 8.8. Conclusion 272 Acknowledgement 273 References 273 9 Three-dimensional Graphene Bimetallic Nanocatalysts Foam for Energy Storage and Biosensing 277Chih-Chien Kung, Liming Dai, Xiong Yu and Chung-Chiun Liu 9.1 Background and Introduction 278 9.1.1 Biosensors 278 9.1.2 Fuel Cells 280 9.1.3 Bimetallic Nanocatalysts 282 9.1.4 Carbon Supported Materials 282 9.1.5 Rotating Disk Electrode 284 9.1.6 Cyclic Voltammetry and Chronoamperometric Techniques 286 9.1.7 Methods of Estimating Limit of Detection (LOD) 288 9.1.8 CO Stripping for the Estimation of the Catalyst Surface Area 288 9.1.9 Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) Measurement 288 9.1.10 Motivations of the Study 289 9.2 Preparation and Characterization of Three Dimensional Graphene Foam Supported Platinum-Ruthenium Bimetallic Nanocatalysts for Hydrogen Peroxide Based Electrochemical Biosensors 290 9.2.1 Introduction 290 9.2.2 Experimental 291 9.2.3 Results and Discussion 294 9.2.4 Conclusion for H2O2 Detection in Biosensing 307 9.3 Three dimensional graphene Foam Supported Platinum–Ruthenium Bimetallic Nanocatalysts for Direct Methanol and Direct Ethanol Fuel Cell Applications 307 9.3.1 Introduction 308 9.3.2 Experimental 309 9.3.3 Results and Discussion 311 9.3.4 Conclusion for Methanol and Ethanol Oxidation Reactions in Energy Storage 319 9.4 Conclusions 319 Acknowledgments 320 References 320 10 Electrochemical Sensing and Biosensing Platforms Using Graphene and Graphene-based Nanocomposites 325Sandeep Kumar Vashist and John H.T. Luong 10.1 Introduction 326 10.2 Fabrication of Graphene and Its Derivatives 328 10.2.1 Exfoliation 328 10.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 330 10.2.3 Miscellaneous Techniques 331 10.3 Properties of Graphene and Its Derivatives 332 10.4 Electrochemistry of Graphene 333 10.5 Graphene and Graphene-Based Nanocomposites as Electrode Materials 335 10.6 Electrochemical Sensing/Biosensing 336 10.6.1 Glucose 336 10.6.2 DNA/Proteins/Cells 341 10.6.3 Other Small Electroactive Analytes 344 10.7 Challenges and Future Trends 347 References 351 11 Applications of Graphene Electrodes in Health and Environmental Monitoring 361Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli, Susana Campuzano, José M. Pingarrón and Dimitrios P. Nikolelis 11.1 Biosensors Based on Nanostructured Materials 362 11.2 Graphene Nanomaterials Used in Electrochemical (bio) Sensors Fabrication 363 11.3 Miniaturized Graphene Nanostructured Biosensors for Health Monitoring 365 11.3.1 Graphene in Bio-field-eff ect Transistors 365 11.3.2 Graphene Impedimetric Biosensors 367 11.3.3 Graphene in Electrochemical Biosensors 368 11.4 Miniaturized Graphene Nanostructured Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring 377 11.4.1 Detection of Toxic Gases in Air 377 11.4.2 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 379 11.4.3 Detection of Organic Pollutants 381 11.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 384 Acknowledgements 386 References 386 Index 393

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Book SynopsisMechanics of Microsystems Alberto Corigliano, Raffaele Ardito, Claudia Comi, Attilio Frangi, Aldo Ghisi and Stefano Mariani, Politecnico di Milano, Italy A mechanical approach to microsystems, covering fundamental concepts including MEMS design, modelling and reliability Mechanics of Microsystems takes a mechanical approach to microsystems and covers fundamental concepts including MEMS design, modelling and reliability. The book examines the mechanical behaviour of microsystems from a design for reliability' point of view and includes examples of applications in industry. Mechanics of Microsystems is divided into two main parts. The first part recalls basic knowledge related to the microsystems behaviour and offers an overview on microsystems and fundamental design and modelling tools from a mechanical point of view, together with many practical examples of real microsystems. The second part covers the mechanical characterization of materials at the micro-scale and considers the mTable of ContentsSeries Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii Notation xix About the Companion Website xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Microsystems 1 1.2 Microsystems Fabrication 3 1.3 Mechanics in Microsystems 5 1.4 Book Contents 6 References 7 Part I Fundamentals 9 2 Fundamentals of Mechanics and Coupled Problems 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Kinematics and Dynamics of Material Points and Rigid Bodies 12 2.2.1 Basic Notions of Kinematics and Motion Composition 12 2.2.2 Basic Notions of Dynamics and Relative Dynamics 15 2.2.3 One-Degree-of-Freedom Oscillator 17 2.2.4 Rigid-Body Kinematics and Dynamics 22 2.3 Solid Mechanics 25 2.3.1 Linear Elastic Problem for Deformable Solids 26 2.3.2 Linear Elastic Problem for Beams 35 2.4 Fluid Mechanics 43 2.4.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 43 2.4.2 Fluid–Structure Interaction 48 2.5 Electrostatics and Electromechanics 49 2.5.1 Basic Notions of Electrostatics 49 2.5.2 Simple Electromechanical Problem 54 2.5.3 General Electromechanical Coupled Problem 58 2.6 Piezoelectric Materials in Microsystems 60 2.6.1 Piezoelectric Materials 60 2.6.2 PiezoelectricModelling 62 2.7 Heat Conduction and Thermomechanics 64 2.7.1 Heat Problem 64 2.7.2 Thermomechanical Coupled Problem 67 References 70 3 Modelling of Linear and NonlinearMechanical Response 73 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Fundamental Principles 74 3.2.1 Principle of Virtual Power 74 3.2.2 Total Potential Energy Principle 74 3.2.3 Hamilton’s Principle 75 3.2.4 Specialization of the Principle of Virtual Powers to Beams 76 3.3 Approximation Techniques andWeighted Residuals Approach 76 3.4 Exact and Approximate Solutions for Dynamic Problems 79 3.4.1 Free Flexural Linear Vibrations of a Single-span Beam 79 3.4.2 Nonlinear Vibration of an Axially Loaded Beam 80 3.5 Example of Application: Bistable Elements 84 References 90 Part II Devices 91 4 Accelerometers 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Capacitive Accelerometers 94 4.2.1 In-Plane Sensing 94 4.2.2 Out-of-Plane Sensing 96 4.3 Resonant Accelerometers 98 4.3.1 Resonating Proof Mass 98 4.3.2 Resonating Elements Coupled to the Proof Mass 99 4.4 Examples 101 4.4.1 Three-Axis Capacitive Accelerometer 101 4.4.2 Out-of-Plane Resonant Accelerometer 104 4.4.3 In-Plane Resonant Accelerometer 105 4.5 Design Problems and Reliability Issues 107 References 107 5 Coriolis-Based Gyroscopes 109 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 BasicWorking Principle 109 5.2.1 Sensitivity of Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscopes 112 5.3 Lumped-Mass Gyroscopes 113 5.3.1 Symmetric and Decoupled Gyroscope 113 5.3.2 Tuning-Fork Gyroscope 114 5.3.3 Three-Axis Gyroscope 115 5.3.4 Gyroscopes with Resonant Sensing 115 5.4 Disc and Ring Gyroscopes 118 5.5 Design Problems and Reliability Issues 118 References 119 6 Resonators 121 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Electrostatically Actuated Resonators 123 6.3 Piezoelectric Resonators 125 6.4 Nonlinearity Issues 126 References 128 7 Micromirrors and Parametric Resonance 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Electrostatic Resonant Micromirror 132 7.2.1 Numerical Simulations with a Continuation Approach 136 7.2.2 Experimental Set-Up 140 References 145 8 Vibrating Lorentz Force Magnetometers 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Vibrating Lorentz Force Magnetometers 148 8.2.1 Classical Devices 148 8.2.2 Improved Design 151 8.2.3 Further Improvements 155 8.3 Topology or Geometry Optimization 156 References 159 9 Mechanical Energy Harvesters 161 9.1 Introduction 161 9.2 Inertial Energy Harvesters 162 9.2.1 Classification of Resonant Energy Harvesters 162 9.2.2 Mechanical Model of a Simple Piezoelectric Harvester 165 9.3 Frequency Upconversion and Bistability 174 9.4 Fluid–Structure Interaction Energy Harvesters 176 9.4.1 Synopsis of Aeroelastic Phenomena 177 9.4.2 Energy Harvesting through Vortex-Induced Vibration 179 9.4.3 Energy Harvesting through Flutter Instability 180 References 181 10 Micropumps 185 10.1 Introduction 185 10.2 Modelling Issues for Diaphragm Micropumps 186 10.3 Modelling of Electrostatic Actuator 188 10.3.1 Simplified Electromechanical Model 188 10.3.2 Reliability Issues 192 10.4 MultiphysicsModel of an Electrostatic Micropump 196 10.5 Piezoelectric Micropumps 198 10.5.1 Modelling of the Actuator 198 10.5.2 Complete Multiphysics Model 201 References 202 Part III Reliability and Dissipative Phenomena 205 11 Mechanical Characterization at theMicroscale 207 11.1 Introduction 207 11.2 Mechanical Characterization of Polysilicon as a Structural Material for Microsystems 209 11.2.1 Polysilicon as a Structural Material for Microsystems 209 11.2.2 TestingMethodologies 210 11.2.3 Quasi-Static Testing 211 11.2.4 High-Frequency Testing 214 11.3 Weibull Approach 215 11.4 On-Chip TestingMethodology for Experimental Determination of Elastic Stiffness and Nominal Strength 219 11.4.1 On-Chip Bending Test through a Comb-Finger Rotational Electrostatic Actuator 220 11.4.2 On-Chip Bending Test through a Parallel-Plate Electrostatic Actuator 225 11.4.3 On-Chip Tensile Test through an Electrothermomechanical Actuator 229 11.4.4 On-Chip Test forThick Polysilicon Films 233 References 240 12 Fracture and Fatigue in Microsystems 245 12.1 Introduction 245 12.2 Fracture Mechanics: An Overview 245 12.3 MEMS Failure Modes due to Cracking 249 12.3.1 Cracking and Delamination at Package Level 249 12.3.2 Cracking at Silicon Film Level 250 12.4 Fatigue in Microsystems 256 12.4.1 An Introduction to Fatigue in Mechanics 256 12.4.2 Polysilicon Fatigue 259 12.4.3 Fatigue in Metals at the Microscale 261 12.4.4 Fatigue Testing at the Microscale 263 References 266 13 Accidental Drop Impact 271 13.1 Introduction 271 13.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Response to Drops 272 13.3 Estimation of the Acceleration Peak Induced by an Accidental Drop 276 13.4 A Multiscale Approach to Drop Impact Events 277 13.4.1 Macroscale Level 277 13.4.2 Mesoscale Level 279 13.4.3 Microscale Level 279 13.5 Results: Drop-Induced Failure of Inertial MEMS 280 References 287 14 Fabrication-Induced Residual Stresses and Relevant Failures 291 14.1 Main Sources of Residual Stresses in Microsystems 291 14.2 The Stoney Formula and its Modifications 292 14.3 ExperimentalMethods for the Evaluation of Residual Stresses 299 14.4 Delamination, Buckling and Cracks inThin Films due to Residual Stresses 304 References 310 15 Damping in Microsystems 313 15.1 Introduction 313 15.2 Gas Damping in the Continuum Regime with Slip Boundary Conditions 314 15.2.1 Experimental Validation at Ambient Pressure 317 15.2.2 Effects of DecreasingWorking Pressure 318 15.3 Gas Damping in the Rarefied Regime 320 15.3.1 Evaluation of Damping at Low Pressure using KineticModels 321 15.3.2 Linearization of the BGK Model 323 15.3.3 Numerical Implementation 324 15.3.4 Application to MEMS 325 15.4 Gas Damping in the Free-Molecule Regime 328 15.4.1 Boundary Integral Equation Approach 328 15.4.2 Experimental Validations 330 15.5 Solid Damping: Thermoelasticity 335 15.6 Solid Damping: Anchor Losses 338 15.6.1 Analytical Estimation of Dissipation 339 15.6.2 Numerical Estimation of Anchor Losses 342 15.7 Solid Damping: Additional unknown Sources – Surface Losses 346 15.7.1 Solid Damping: Deviations from Thermoelasticity 346 15.7.2 Solid Damping: Losses in Piezoresonators 346 References 348 16 Surface Interactions 351 16.1 Introduction 351 16.2 Spontaneous Adhesion or Stiction 352 16.3 Adhesion Sources 353 16.3.1 Capillary Attraction 353 16.3.2 Van derWaals Interactions 356 16.3.3 Casimir Forces 358 16.3.4 Hydrogen Bonds 359 16.3.5 Electrostatic Forces 360 16.4 Experimental Characterization 361 16.4.1 Experiments by Mastrangelo and Hsu 361 16.4.2 Experiments by the Sandia Group 362 16.4.3 Experiments by the Virginia Group 365 16.4.4 Peel Experiments 367 16.4.5 Pull-in Experiments 368 16.4.6 Tests for Sidewall Adhesion 372 16.5 Modelling and Simulation 374 16.5.1 Lennard-Jones Potential 374 16.5.2 Tribological Models: Hertz, JKR, DMT 375 16.5.3 Computation of Adhesion Energy 377 16.6 Recent Advances 380 16.6.1 Finite Element Analysis of Adhesion between Rough Surfaces 380 16.6.2 Accelerated Numerical Techniques 383 References 387 Index 393

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Book SynopsisThe continued advancement of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) complexity, performance, commercial exploitation and market size requires an ever-expanding graduate population with state-of-the-art expertise. Understanding MEMS: Principles and Applications provides a comprehensive introduction to this complex and multidisciplinary technology that is accessible to senior undergraduate and graduate students from a range of engineering and physical sciences backgrounds. Fully self-contained, this textbook is designed to help students grasp the key principles and operation of MEMS devices and to inspire advanced study or a career in this field. Moreover, with the increasing application areas, product categories and functionality of MEMS, industry professionals will also benefit from this consolidated overview, source of relevant equations and extensive solutions to problems. Key features: Details the fundamentals of MEMS, enablTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Scaling of Forces 1 1.1 Scaling of Forces Model 1 1.2 Weight 2 1.2.1 Example: MEMS Accelerometer 2 1.3 Elastic Force 3 1.3.1 Example: AFM Cantilever 4 1.4 Electrostatic Force 4 1.4.1 Example: MEMS RF Switch 6 1.5 Capillary Force 6 1.5.1 Example: Wet Etching Force 8 1.6 Piezoelectric Force 8 1.6.1 Example: Force in Film Embossing 9 1.7 Magnetic Force 10 1.7.1 Example: Compass Magnetometer 10 1.8 Dielectrophoretic Force 11 1.8.1 Example: Nanoparticle in a Spherical Symmetry Electric Field 12 1.9 Summary 13 Problems 13 2 Elasticity 15 2.1 Stress 15 2.2 Strain 18 2.3 Stress–strain Relationship 20 2.3.1 Example: Plane Stress 21 2.4 Strain–stress Relationship in Anisotropic Materials 22 2.5 Miller Indices 23 2.5.1 Example: Miller Indices of Typical Planes 24 2.6 Angles of Crystallographic Planes 25 2.6.1 Example 25 2.7 Compliance and Stiffness Matrices for Single-Crystal Silicon 26 2.7.1 Example: Young’s Modulus and Poisson Ratio for (100) Silicon 27 2.8 Orthogonal Transformation 29 2.9 Transformation of the Stress State 31 2.9.1 Example: Rotation of the Stress State 31 2.9.2 Example: Matrix Notation for the Rotation of the Stress State 32 2.10 Orthogonal Transformation of the Stiffness Matrix 32 2.10.1 Example: C11 Coefficient in Rotated Axes 33 2.10.2 Example: Young’s Modulus and Poisson Ratio in the (111) Direction 34 2.11 Elastic Properties of Selected MEMS Materials 36 Problems 36 3 Bending of Microstructures 37 3.1 Static Equilibrium 37 3.2 Free Body Diagram 38 3.3 Neutral Plane and Curvature 39 3.4 Pure Bending 40 3.4.1 Example: Neutral Plane for a Rectangular Cross-section 41 3.4.2 Example: Cantilever with Point Force at the Tip 42 3.5 Moment of Inertia and Bending Moment 43 3.5.1 Example: Moment of Inertia of a Rectangular Cross-section 43 3.6 Beam Equation 44 3.7 End-loaded Cantilever 45 3.8 Equivalent Stiffness 47 3.9 Beam Equation for Point Load and Distributed Load 48 3.10 Castigliano’s Second Theorem 48 3.10.1 Strain Energy in an Elastic Body Subject to Pure Bending 50 3.11 Flexures 51 3.11.1 Fixed–fixed Flexure 51 3.11.2 Example: Comparison of Stiffness Constants 53 3.11.3 Example: Folded Flexure 53 3.12 Rectangular Membrane 54 3.13 Simplified Model for a Rectangular Membrane Under Pressure 55 3.13.1 Example: Thin Membrane Subject to Pressure 57 3.14 Edge-clamped Circular Membrane 58 Problems 60 4 Piezoresistance and Piezoelectricity 65 4.1 Electrical Resistance 65 4.1.1 Example: Resistance Value 66 4.2 One-dimensional Piezoresistance Model 67 4.2.1 Example: Gauge Factors 68 4.3 Piezoresistance in Anisotropic Materials 69 4.4 Orthogonal Transformation of Ohm’s Law 70 4.5 Piezoresistance Coefficients Transformation 71 4.5.1 Example: Calculation of Rotated Piezoresistive Components 𝜋′ 11, 𝜋′ 12 and 𝜋′ 16 for unit axes X′ [110], Y′ [ ̄110] and Z′ [001] 72 4.5.2 Analytical Expressions for Some Rotated Piezoresistive Components 74 4.6 Two-dimensional Piezoresistors 74 4.6.1 Example: Accelerometer with Cantilever and Piezoresistive Sensing 76 4.7 Pressure Sensing with Rectangular Membranes 79 4.7.1 Example: Single-resistor Pressure Sensor 82 4.7.2 Example: Pressure Sensors Comparison 85 4.8 Piezoelectricity 86 4.8.1 Relevant Data for Some Piezoelectric Materials 88 4.8.2 Example: Piezoelectric Generator 89 Problems 91 5 Electrostatic Driving and Sensing 93 5.1 Energy and Co-energy 93 5.2 Voltage Drive 97 5.3 Pull-in Voltage 97 5.3.1 Example: Forces in a Parallel-plate Actuator 99 5.4 Electrostatic Pressure 101 5.5 Contact Resistance in Parallel-plate Switches 101 5.6 Hold-down Voltage 101 5.6.1 Example: Calculation of Hold-down Voltage 102 5.7 Dynamic Response of Pull-in-based Actuators 102 5.7.1 Example: Switching Transient 103 5.8 Charge Drive 105 5.9 Extending the Stable Range 105 5.10 Lateral Electrostatic Force 106 5.11 Comb Actuators 106 5.12 Capacitive Accelerometer 108 5.13 Differential Capacitive Sensing 108 5.14 Torsional Actuator 110 Problems 111 6 Resonators 115 6.1 Free Vibration: Lumped-element Model 115 6.2 Damped Vibration 116 6.3 Forced Vibration 117 6.3.1 Example: Vibration Amplitude as a Function of the Damping Factor 120 6.4 Small Signal Equivalent Circuit of Resonators 121 6.4.1 Example: Series and Parallel Resonances 125 6.4.2 Example: Spring Softening 125 6.5 Rayleigh–Ritz Method 126 6.5.1 Example: Vibration of a Cantilever 128 6.5.2 Example: Gravimetric Chemical Sensor 129 6.6 Resonant Gyroscope 130 6.7 Tuning Fork Gyroscope 133 6.7.1 Example: Calculation of Sensitivity in a Tuning Fork Gyroscope 134 Problems 135 7 Microfluidics and Electrokinetics 137 7.1 Viscous Flow 137 7.2 Flow in a Cylindrical Pipe 140 7.2.1 Example: Pressure Gradient Required to Sustain a Flow 141 7.3 Electrical Double Layer 142 7.3.1 Example: Debye Length and Surface Charge 144 7.4 Electro-osmotic Flow 144 7.5 Electrowetting 146 7.5.1 Example: Droplet Change by Electrowetting 148 7.5.2 Example: Full Substrate Contacts 149 7.6 Electrowetting Dynamics 151 7.6.1 Example: Contact-angle Dynamics 153 7.7 Dielectrophoresis 153 7.7.1 Electric Potential Created by a Constant Electric Field 154 7.7.2 Potential Created by an Electrical Dipole 155 7.7.3 Superposition 156 Problems 157 8 Thermal Devices 159 8.1 Steady-state Heat Equation 159 8.2 Thermal Resistance 161 8.2.1 Example: Temperature Profile in a Heated Wire 162 8.2.2 Example: Resistor Suspended in a Bridge 165 8.3 Platinum Resistors 166 8.4 Flow Measurement Based on Thermal Sensors 166 8.4.1 Example: Micromachined Flow Sensor 169 8.5 Dynamic Thermal Equivalent Circuit 171 8.6 Thermally Actuated Bimorph 172 8.6.1 Example: Bimorph Actuator 174 8.7 Thermocouples and Thermopiles 175 8.7.1 Example: IR Detector 175 Problems 176 9 Fabrication 181 9.1 Introduction 181 9.2 Photolithography 182 9.3 Patterning 183 9.4 Lift-off 184 9.5 Bulk Micromachining 184 9.5.1 Example: Angle of Walls in Silicon (100) Etching 185 9.6 Silicon Etch Stop When Using Alkaline Solutions 186 9.6.1 Example: Boron drive-in at 1050◦C 186 9.7 Surface Micromachining 186 9.7.1 Example: Cantilever Fabrication by Surface Micromachining 187 9.8 Dry Etching 188 9.9 CMOS-compatible MEMS Processing 188 9.9.1 Example: Bimorph Actuator Compatible with CMOS Process 189 9.10 Wafer Bonding 190 9.11 PolyMUMPs Foundry Process 190 9.11.1 Example: PolyMUMPs Cantilever for a Fabry–Perot Pressure Sensor 191 Problems 192 APPENDICES 195 A Chapter 1 Solutions 197 B Chapter 2 Solutions 207 C Chapter 3 Solutions 221 D Chapter 4 Solutions 239 E Chapter 5 Solutions 249 F Chapter 6 Solutions 267 G Chapter 7 Solutions 277 H Chapter 8 Solutions 285 I Chapter 9 Solutions 299 References 307 Index 311

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Book SynopsisSignificant research has been done in polymeric nanocomposites and progress has been made in understanding nanofiller-polymer interface and interphase and their relation to nanocomposite properties. However, the information is scattered in many different publication media. This is the first book that consolidates the current knowledge on understanding, characterization and tailoring interfacial interactions between nanofillers and polymers by bringing together leading researchers and experts in this field to present their cutting edge research. Eleven chapters authored by senior subject specialists cover topics including: Thermodynamic mechanisms governing nanofiller dispersion, engineering of interphase with nanofillers Role of interphase in governing the mechanical, electrical, thermal and other functional properties of nanocomposites, characterization and modelling of the interphase Effects of crystallization on the interface, chemicalTable of ContentsPreface xiii Part 1 Nanocomposite Interfaces/Interphases 1 Polymer Nanocomposite Interfaces: The Hidden Lever for Optimizing Performance in Spherical Nanofilled Polymers 3 Ying Li, Yanhui Huang, Timothy Krentz, Bharath Natarajan, Tony Neely and Linda S. Schadler 1.1 Introduction 4 1.1.1 Dispersion Control 5 1.1.2 Interface Structure 6 1.1.3 Interface Properties 6 1.1.4 Measuring and Modeling the Interface 7 1.2 Dispersion Control through Interfacial Modification 8 1.2.1 Introduction 8 1.2.2 Short Ligands 8 1.2.3 Polymer Brush 11 1.2.3.1 Polymer Brush Synthesis Methods 12 1.2.3.2 Enthalpic and Entropic Contributions of Polymer Brushes to Dispersion Control 13 1.3 Interface Structure 16 1.3.1 Introduction 16 1.3.2 Effects of Particle Size 17 1.3.3 Effects of Crystallinity and Crosslinking 18 1.3.4 Effects of Polymer Brush Penetration 19 1.3.4.1 The Athermal Case 19 1.3.4.2 The Enthalpic Case 21 1.3.5 Characterizing the Interface Structure 22 1.4 Interface Properties and Characterization Techniques 24 1.4.1 Introduction 24 1.4.2 Molecular Mobility in Nanocomposite Interfaces 25 1.4.3 Thermomechanical Properties and Measurements 28 1.4.3.1 Direct Measurement 30 1.4.3.2 Indirect Methods 32 1.4.4 Dielectric Properties and Measurements 40 1.4.4.1 Effects of Nanofillers 42 1.4.4.2 Measurement Techniques 43 1.4.4.3 Indirect Measurement 44 1.4.4.4 Finite Element Modeling 50 1.4.5 Remarks on Characterization Methods 52 1.5 Summary 53 Acknowledgements 54 References 55 2 Interphase Engineering with Nanofillers in Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites 71 József Karger-Kocsis, Sándor Kéki, Haroon Mahmood and Alessandro Pegoretti 2.1 Introduction 72 2.2 Interphase Tailoring for Stress Transfer 74 2.2.1 Coating with Nanofillers 74 2.2.2 Creation of Hierarchical Fibers 80 2.2.2.1 Chemical Grafting of Nanofillers 80 2.2.2.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 81 2.2.2.3 Other “Grafting” Techniques 83 2.2.3 Effects of Matrix Modification with Nanofillers 85 2.3 Interphase Tailoring for Functionality 87 2.3.1 Sensing/Damage Detection 87 2.3.2 Self-Healing/Repair 89 2.3.3 Damping 91 2.4 Outlook and Future Trends 91 2.5 Summary 93 2.6 Acknowledgements 93 2.7 Nomenclature 94 References 94 3 Formation and Functionality of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 103 Peng-Cheng Ma, Bin Hao and Jang-Kyo Kim 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Formation of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 105 3.3 Functionality of Interphase in Polymer Nanocomposites 111 3.3.1 Load Transfer in Nanocomposites 111 3.3.2 Reduction in Growth Rate of Fatigue Cracks in Nanocomposites 116 3.3.3 Controlling the Fracture Behavior of Nanocomposites 119 3.3.4 Enhancing the Damping Properties of Nanocomposites 121 3.3.5 Channels for the Transport of Ions and Moisture in Nanocomposites 123 3.3.6 Phonon Scattering in Nanocomposites 125 3.3.7 Electron Transfer in Nanocomposites 128 3.4 Summary and Prospects 130 Acknowledgements 133 References 133 4 Impact of Crystallization on the Interface in Polymer Nanocomposites 139 Nandika D’Souza Siddhi Pendse, Laxmi Sahu, Ajit Ranade and Shailesh Vidhate 4.1 Introduction 140 4.2 Thermodynamics of Crystallization 142 4.3 Nylon Nanocomposites 144 4.4 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 145 4.5 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in Nylon 146 4.6 Permeability 149 4.7 PET Nanocomposites 151 4.8 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 151 4.9 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in PET 151 4.10 PEN Nanocomposites 156 4.11 Dispersion of MLS in Nanocomposites 156 4.12 Effect of MLS on Thermal Transitions in PEN 157 4.13 Permeability 162 4.14 The Role of the Interface in Permeability: PET versus PEN 162 4.15 Summary 167 References 168 5 Improved Nanofiller-Matrix Bonding and Distribution in GnP-reinforced Polymer Nanocomposites by Surface Plasma Treatments of GnP 171 Rafael J. Zaldivar and Hyun I. Kim 5.1 Introduction 172 5.2 Experimental 173 5.2.1 Composite Fabrication 173 5.2.2 Image Analysis 174 5.2.3 Raman Spectroscopy 174 5.2.4 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 174 5.2.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 175 5.2.6 Mechanical Testing 175 5.3 Results 175 5.4 Conclusions 187 Acknowledgement 187 References 187 6 Interfacial Effects in Polymer Nanocomposites Studied by Thermal and Dielectric Techniques 191 Panagiotis Klonos, Apostolos Kyritsis and Polycarpos Pissis 6.1 Introduction 192 6.2 Experimental Techniques 197 6.2.1 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 197 6.2.2 Dielectric Techniques 202 6.2.2.1 Broadband Dielectric Spectroscopy (BDS) 203 6.2.2.2 Thermally Stimulated Depolarization Current (TSDC) Techniques 207 6.3 Evaluation in Terms of Interfacial Characteristics 209 6.3.1 Analysis of DSC Measurements 209 6.3.2 Analysis of Dielectric Measurements 211 6.3.3 Thickness of the Interfacial Layer 213 6.4 Examples 214 6.4.1 DSC Measurements 214 6.4.2 Dielectric Measurements 221 6.5 Prospects 235 6.6 Summary 236 Acknowledgements 237 References 237 Part 2 Techniques to Characterize/Control Nanoadhesion 7 Investigation of Interfacial Interactions between Nanofillers and Polymer Matrices Using a Variety of Techniques 251 Luqi Liu 7.1 Introduction 251 7.2 Observation of Interfacial Layer in Nanostructured Carbon Materials-based Nanocomposites 253 7.2.1 Characterization of Interface Layer Around CNTs 253 7.2.2 Characterization of Interface Layer Around Graphene Sheets 255 7.3 Interfacial Properties between Nanofiller and Polymer Matrix 256 7.3.1 Theoretical Simulations of CNT and/or Graphene-based Nanocomposites 256 7.3.1.1 Theoretical Simulation of CNT-based Nanocomposites 256 7.3.1.2 Theoretical Simulation of Graphene-based Nanocomposites 258 7.3.2 Experimental Studies to Characterize Interfacial Behavior in CNT and/or Graphene-based Nanocomposite Systems 260 7.3.2.1 Indirect Measurement 261 7.3.2.2 Direct Measurement 261 7.4 Summary 270 Acknowledgements 271 References 271 8 Chemical and Physical Techniques for Surface Modification of Nanocellulose Reinforcements 279 Viktoriya Pakharenko, Muhammad Pervaiz, Hitesh Pande and Mohini Sain 8.1 Introduction 279 8.2 Chemical Surface Modification 281 8.2.1 Acetylation 281 8.2.2 Silylation 284 8.2.3 Bacterial Treatment 285 8.2.4 Grafting 287 8.2.5 Surfactant Adsorption 289 8.2.6 TEMPO-mediated Oxidation 290 8.2.7 Click chemistry 292 8.3 Physical Surface Modification 292 8.3.1 Plasma 292 8.3.2 Corona 297 8.3.3 Laser 299 8.3.4 Flame 299 8.4 Use of Ions 300 8.5 Summary 300 Acknowledgments 301 References 301 9 Nondestructive Sensing of Interface/Interphase Damage in Fiber/Matrix Nanocomposites 307 Zuo-Jia Wang, Dong-Jun Kwon, Jin-Yeong Choi, Pyeong-Su Shin, K. Lawrence DeVries and Joung-Man Park 9.1 Introduction 308 9.2 Experimental Specimens and Methods 311 9.2.1 Gradient Specimen Test 311 9.2.2 Dual Matrix Fragmentation Test 314 9.3 Damage Sensing Using Electrical Resistance Measurements 317 9.3.1 Electrical Resistance Measurement for Strain Sensing Application 317 9.3.2 Electrical Resistance Measurement for Interface/Interphase Evaluation 321 9.4 Summary 327 References 327 10 Development of Polymeric Biocomposites: Particulate Incorporation, Interphase Generation and Evaluation by Nanoindentation 333 Oisik Das and Debes Bhattacharyya 10.1 Introduction 334 10.2 The Definitions of Composite and its Constituents 337 10.2.1 Composite 337 10.2.2 Biocomposite 337 10.2.3 The Reinforcement 337 10.2.4 The Matrix 338 10.3 Physical and Chemical Structures of Bio–based Reinforcements 339 10.3.1 Plant/Vegetable-based Reinforcements/Fibres 339 10.3.1.1 Physical Structure 339 10.3.1.2 Chemical Structure 339 10.3.2 Animal-based Reinforcements/Fibres 342 10.3.2.1 Physical Structure 342 10.3.2.2 Chemical Structure 343 10.4 Particulate and Short Fibre Composites 344 10.4.1 Biochar as Potential New Bio-based Particulate Reinforcement 345 10.4.2 Properties of Particulate-based Composites: Governing Factors 351 10.4.2.1 Particulate Properties 351 10.4.2.2 Particulate Structure 355 10.5 Nanoindentation Technique to Determine Interphase and Composite Properties 358 10.5.1 The Technique and Theory of Nanoindentation 358 10.5.1.1 Different Types of Indenter Tips 360 10.5.1.2 Nanoindentation Theory 362 10.5.1.3 Nanoindentation Instrument 364 10.5.2 Nanoindentation on Polymeric Composites and their Interphase 364 10.5 Concluding Remarks 369 References 370 11 Perspectives on the Use of Molecular Dynamics Simulations to Characterize Filler-Matrix Adhesion and Nanocomposite Mechanical Properties 375 Sanket A. Deshmukh, Benjamin J. Hanson, Qian Jiang and Melissa A. Pasquinelli 11.1 Introduction 376 11.2 Overview of Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulations 377 11.3 Characterization of Interfacial Adhesion with MD Simulations 381 11.3.1 Quantifying Adhesion Strength 381 11.3.2 Effect of the Strength of Matrix-Filler Interactions 383 11.3.3 Effect of Filler Geometry 386 11.3.4 Effect of Ordering and Crosslinking within the Polymer Matrix 388 11.4 Characterization of Mechanical Properties with MD Simulations 391 11.4.1 Predicting Static Mechanical Properties 392 11.4.2 Predicting Dynamic Mechanical Properties 395 11.5 Prospects 399 11.6 Summary 400 Acknowledgements 400 References 400

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Book SynopsisThis unique multidisciplinary 8-volume set focuses on the emerging issues concerning synthesis, characterization, design, manufacturing and various other aspects of composite materials from renewable materials and provides a shared platform for both researcher and industry. The Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials comprises a set of 8 individual volumes that brings an interdisciplinary perspective to accomplish a more detailed understanding of the interplay between the synthesis, structure, characterization, processing, applications and performance of these advanced materials. The Handbook comprises 169 chapters from world renowned experts covering a multitude of natural polymers/ reinforcement/ fillers and biodegradable materials. Volume 8 is solely focused on the Nanocomposites: Advanced Applications. Some of the important topics include but not limited to: Virgin and recycled polymers applied to advanced nanocomposites; biodegrTable of ContentsPreface xxi 1 Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites 1Luis Claudio Mendes and Sibele Piedade Cestari 1.1 Introduction 1 References 12 2 Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments 15Geoffrey S. Simate 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.1 Introduction 17 2.2.2 Starch–Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.3 Cellulose–Carbon Nanotube Composites 18 2.2.4 Chitosan–Carbon Nanotubes Composites 20 2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments 23 2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 23 2.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants 26 2.4 Concluding Remarks 27 References 27 3 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals 35Iosody Silva-Castro, Pablo Martín-Ramos, Petruta Mihaela Matei, Marciabela Fernandes-Correa, Salvador Hernández-Navarro and Jesús Martín-Gil 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides 37 3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials 39 3.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials 39 3.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts 41 3.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species 42 3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 44 3.4.1 Biological Methods 44 3.4.2 Physical Methods 45 3.4.3 Chemical Methods 47 3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials 48 3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan 49 3.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications 50 3.6.2 Biomedical Applications 51 3.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings 51 3.6.2.2 Drug Delivery 51 3.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 51 3.6.3 Food-Related Applications 52 3.6.4 Environmental Applications 52 3.6.4.1 Metal Absorption 52 3.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment 52 3.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops 53 3.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation 53 3.7 Conclusions 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 4 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites 61Jinyou Lin, Xiaran Miao, Xiangzhi Zhang and Fenggang Bian 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 63 4.2.1 Experimental Section 63 4.2.2 Results and Discussion 64 4.2.3 Short Summary 71 4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 72 4.3.1 Experimental Section 73 4.3.2 Results and Discussion 74 4.3.3 Short Summary 86 4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers 86 4.4.1 Experiments Details 86 4.4.1 Results and Discussion 88 4.4.3 Summary 96 4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites 97 4.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite 97 4.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier 100 4.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film 101 4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 102 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 5 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications 109Ming-Guo Ma, Yan-Jun Liu and Yan-Yan Dong 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Nanocellulose 110 5.3 Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 120 5.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites 127 5.3.8 Mechanical Properties 127 5.3.9 Biodegradation Properties 128 5.3.10 Virus Removal 129 5.3.11 Porous Materials 129 5.4 Summary 130 Acknowledgments 131 References 131 6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications 135S.C. Agwuncha, E.R. Sadiku, I.D. Ibrahim, B.A. Aderibigbe, S.J. Owonubi O. Agboola, A. Babul Reddy, M. Bandla, K. Varaprasad, B.L. Bayode and S.S. Ray 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Preparations of PLA 137 6.3 Biocomposite 138 6.4 PLA Biocomposites 139 6.5 Nanocomposites 140 6.6 PLA Nanocomposites 140 6.7 Biomaterials 141 6.8 PLA Biomaterials 142 6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials 143 6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials 145 6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA 146 6.12 Medical Implants 146 6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 147 6.13.1 Fibers 147 6.13.2 Meshes 149 6.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices 150 6.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect 151 6.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect 151 6.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods 152 6.13.7 Plates 153 6.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings 154 6.14 PLA Packaging Applications 155 6.15 Conclusion 156 References 157 7 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene 171Mohd Amil Usmani, Imran Khan, Aamir H. Bhat and M.K. Mohamad Haafiz 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Threats to Water Treatment 173 7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment 173 7.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 175 7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration 176 7.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials 178 7.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials 179 7.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds 180 7.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification 181 7.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts 185 7.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis 186 7.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials 188 7.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination 191 7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 192 7.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes 192 7.4.2 Dendrimers 193 7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health 195 7.6 Conclusions 196 Acknowledgments 196 References 197 8 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation 207Paulraj Manidurai and Ramkumar Sekar 8.1 Introduction 207 8.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension 209 8.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity 209 8.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect 210 8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology 211 8.3 In Solar Cells 211 8.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 212 8.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode 213 8.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte 214 8.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells 215 8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst 216 8.5 Energy Storage 217 8.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 217 8.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage 217 8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator 218 8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production 220 8.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production 223 8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles 223 8.8.1 Antibacterial Activity 223 8.8.2 Antioxidant Activity 224 8.9 Conclusion 224 References 224 9 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications 229Ana M. Díez-Pascual 9.1 Introduction 229 9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications 231 9.2.1 Synthesis 231 9.2.2 Structure 232 9.2.3 Properties 233 9.2.4 Applications 234 9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications 235 9.3.1 Structure 235 9.3.2 Properties 235 9.3.3 Synthesis 236 9.3.4 Applications 237 9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing 239 9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites 239 9.5.1 Morphology 239 9.5.2 Crystalline Structure 241 9.5.3 FTIR Spectra 242 9.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior 243 9.5.5 Thermal Stability 244 9.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 245 9.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties 247 9.5.8 Barrier Properties 249 9.5.9 Migration Properties 250 9.5.10 Antibacterial Properties 251 9.6 Conclusions and Outlook 253 References 253 10 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources 259Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, J. Fowsiya, D. Devi Priya and G. Madhumitha 10.1 Introduction 259 10.1.1 Nanotechnology 259 10.1.2 Nanocomposites 260 10.2 Biopolymers 260 10.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers 261 10.2.2 Polylactide Polymers 261 10.3 PLA Production 262 10.3.1 PLA Properties 263 10.3.1.1 Rheological Properties 263 10.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties 263 10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites 264 10.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5 PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite 266 10.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites 268 10.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites 268 10.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites 270 10.6 Conclusion 271 References 271 11 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 275A. Babul Reddy, B. Manjula, T. Jayaramudu, S.J. Owonubi, E.R. Sadiku, O. Agboola, V. Sivanjineyulu and Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa 11.1 Introduction 276 11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites 278 11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite 283 11.4 Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 284 11.5 Preparation Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 286 11.6 Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites 290 11.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications 290 11.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications 291 11.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications 292 11.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications 292 11.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications 293 11.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems 294 11.7 Conclusions 295 Acknowledgment 296 References 296 12 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries 305Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli, Samira Bagheri and Negar Mansouri 12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries 305 12.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries 306 12.1.2 Nanotechnology 306 12.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries 307 12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries 307 12.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle 307 12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries 308 12.3.1 Nanosilica/Hybrid 308 12.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid 308 12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries 309 12.4.1 Nanocellulose 309 12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries 311 12.5.1 Nanokaolin 312 12.5.2 Nano ZnO/Hybrid 312 12.5.3 Nanocarbonate 313 12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries 313 12.6.1 Nanozeolite 313 12.6.2 Nano TiO2 313 12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries 314 12.7.1 Nanoclay 315 12.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate 315 12.7.3 Nano TiO2/Hybrid 315 12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries 315 12.8.1 Nano ZnO 315 12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries 316 12.9.1 Nanopolymer 316 12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives 317 12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective 317 Acknowledgments 318 Conflict of Interests 318 References 318 13 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid 327Mihai Cosmin Corobea, Zina Vuluga, Dorel Florea, Florin Miculescu and Stefan Ioan Voicu 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA 329 13.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA 332 13.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA 336 13.2.3 Applications 351 13.3 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgment 353 References 353 14 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery 361Alex López-Córdoba, Guillermo R. Castro and Silvia Goyanes 14.1 Introduction 361 14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources 362 14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning 364 14.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up 364 14.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes 365 14.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives 366 14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning 369 14.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials 370 14.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles 370 14.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends 373 14.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites 374 14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 375 14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 379 14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 382 Acknowledgments 382 References 382 15 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications 389Ibrahim M. El-Sherbiny and Isra H. Ali 15.1 Introduction 389 15.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin 390 15.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure 390 15.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials 390 15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties 391 15.2.1 Polysaccharides 391 15.2.1.1 Starch 391 15.2.1.2 Cellulose 393 15.2.1.3 Chitin 395 15.2.2 Alginate 397 15.2.2.1 Origin 397 15.2.3 Proteins 398 15.2.3.1 Albumin 398 15.2.3.2 Collagen 398 15.2.3.3 Gelatin 399 15.2.3.4 Silk Proteins 399 15.2.3.5 Keratin 400 15.2.4 Microbial Polyesters 400 15.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates 400 15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites 400 15.3.1 Direct Compounding 400 15.3.2 In Situ Synthesis 401 15.3.3 Other Techniques 402 15.3.3.1 Electrospinning 403 15.3.3.2 Self-Assembly 403 15.3.3.3 Phase Separation 403 15.3.3.4 Template Synthesis 403 15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 403 15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites 404 15.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation 404 15.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 406 15.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption 406 15.5.3 Pollutants Sensing 407 15.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry 407 15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 409 References 409 16 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments 423Andy H. Choi and Besim Ben-Nissan 16.1 Introduction 423 16.2 Hydroxyapatite 426 16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings 428 16.3.1 Collagen 428 16.3.2 Chitosan 429 16.3.3 Liposomes 430 16.3.4 Synthetic Polymers 430 16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 431 16.4.1 Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan Nanocomposites 433 16.4.2 Calcium Phosphate–Collagen Nanocomposites 434 16.4.3 Calcium Phosphate–Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites 436 16.4.4 Calcium Phosphate–Cellulose Nanocomposites 437 16.4.5 Calcium Phosphate–Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites 437 16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 438 16.6 Concluding Remarks 443 References 444 17 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 451Vinod Saharan, Ajay Pal, Ramesh Raliya and Pratim Biswas 17.1 Introduction 451 17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer 452 17.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation 453 17.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization 453 17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 454 17.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 455 17.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method 455 17.4 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites 456 17.4.1 Chitosan–Zn Nanocomposite 456 17.4.2 Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 456 17.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn–Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite 459 17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan 461 17.6 Conclusion 462 References 462 18 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water 465T.S. Anirudhan and J.R. Deepa 18.1 Introduction 465 18.2 Materials and Methods 468 18.2.1 Materials 468 18.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization 468 18.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent 468 18.2.4 Adsorption Experiments 469 18.2.5 Desorption Experiments 470 18.2.6 Grafting Density 470 18.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups 470 18.2.8 Point of Zero Charge 471 18.3 Results and Discussion 471 18.3.1 FTIR Analysis 471 18.3.2 XRD Analysis 473 18.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and –COOH Determination 474 18.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 475 18.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption 475 18.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics 477 18.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm 479 18.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics 480 18.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent 481 18.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water 482 18.4 Conclusions 483 Acknowledgments 483 References 483

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Book SynopsisThis comprehensive book presents the theoretical principles, current applications and latest research developments in the field of luminescent lanthanide complexes; a rapidly developing area of research which is attracting increasing interest amongst the scientific community.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xiii 1 Introduction to Lanthanide Ion Luminescence 1 Ana de Bettencourt-Dias 1.1 History of Lanthanide Ion Luminescence 1 1.2 Electronic Configuration of the +III Oxidation State 2 1.2.1 The 4f Orbitals 2 1.2.2 Energy Level Term Symbols 2 1.3 The Nature of the f-f Transitions 5 1.3.1 Hamiltonian in Central Field Approximation and Coulomb Interactions 5 1.3.2 Spin–Orbit Coupling 10 1.3.3 Crystal Field or Stark Effects 13 1.3.4 The Crystal Field Parameters Bkq and Symmetry 14 1.3.5 Energies of Crystal Field Split Terms 18 1.3.6 Zeeman Effect 19 1.3.7 Point Charge Electrostatic Model 21 1.3.8 Other Methods to Estimate Crystal Field Parameters 25 1.3.9 Allowed and Forbidden f-f Transitions 27 1.3.10 Induced Electric Dipole Transitions and Their Intensity – Judd–Ofelt Theory 34 1.3.11 Transition Probabilities and Branching Ratios 37 1.3.12 Hypersensitive Transitions 38 1.3.13 Emission Efficiency and Rate Constants 39 1.4 Sensitisation Mechanism 40 1.4.1 The Antenna Effect 40 1.4.2 Non-Radiative Quenching 44 2 Spectroscopic Techniques and Instrumentation 49 David E. Morris and Ana de Bettencourt-Dias 2.1 Introduction 49 2.2 Instrumentation in Luminescence Spectroscopy 52 2.2.1 Challenges in Design and Interpretation of Lanthanide Luminescence Experiments 52 2.2.2 Common Luminescence Experiments 57 2.2.3 Basic Design Elements and Configurations in Luminescence Spectrometers 61 2.2.4 Luminescence Spectrometer Components and Characteristics 63 2.2.5 Recent Advances in Luminescence Instrumentation 67 2.3 Measurement of Quantum Yields of Luminescence in the Solid State and in Solution 69 2.3.1 Measurement Against a Standard in Solution 70 2.3.2 Measurement Against a Standard in the Solid State 71 2.3.3 Absolute Measurement with an Integrating Sphere 72 2.4 Excited State Lifetimes 73 2.4.1 Number of Coordinated Solvent Molecules 73 3 Circularly Polarised Luminescence 77 Gilles Muller 3.1 Introduction 77 3.1.1 General Aspects: Molecular Chirality 77 3.1.2 Chiroptical Tools: from CD to CPL Spectroscopy 78 3.2 Theoretical Principles 79 3.2.1 General Theory 79 3.2.2 CPL Intensity Calculations, Selection Rules, Luminescence Selectivity, and Spectra–Structure Relationship 82 3.3 CPL Measurements 84 3.3.1 Instrumentation 84 3.3.2 Calibration and Standards 88 3.3.3 Artifacts in CPL Measurements 90 3.3.4 Proposed Instrumental Improvements to Record Eu(III)-Based CPL Signals 91 3.4 Survey of CPL Applications 93 3.4.1 Ln(III)-Containing Systems 93 3.4.2 Ln(III) Complexes with Achiral Ligands 94 3.4.3 Ln(III) Complexes with Chiral Ligands 99 3.5 Chiral Ln(III) Complexes to Probe Biologically Relevant Systems 109 3.5.1 Sensing through Coordination to the Metal Centre 109 3.5.2 Sensing through Coordination to the Antenna/Receptor Groups 112 3.6 Concluding Remarks 114 4 Luminescence Bioimaging with Lanthanide Complexes 125 Jean-Claude G. Bünzli 4.1 Introduction 125 4.2 Luminescence Microscopy 127 4.2.1 Classical Optical Microscopy: a Short Survey 127 4.2.2 Principle of Luminescence Microscopy 128 4.2.3 Principle of Time-resolved Luminescence Microscopy 131 4.2.4 Early Instrumental Developments for Time-resolved Microscopy with LLBs 134 4.2.5 Optimisation of Time-resolved Microscopy Instrumentation 140 4.2.6 Commercial Instruments 143 4.3 Bioimaging with Lanthanide Luminescent Probes and Bioprobes 144 4.3.1 b-Diketonate Probes 144 4.3.2 Aliphatic Polyaminocarboxylate and Carboxylate Probes 154 4.3.3 Macrocyclic Probes 163 4.3.4 Self-assembled Triple Helical Bioprobes 171 4.3.5 Other Bioprobes 177 4.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 180 5 Two-photon Absorption of Lanthanide Complexes: from Fundamental Aspects to Biphotonic Imaging Applications 197 Anthony D'Aleo, Chantal Andraud and Olivier Maury 5.1 Introduction 197 5.2 Two-photon Absorption, a Third Nonlinear Optical Phenomenon 198 5.2.1 Theoretical and Historical Background 198 5.2.2 Experimental Determination of the 2PA Efficiency of Molecules 199 5.2.3 Two-photon Fluorescence Microscopy for Biological Imaging 200 5.2.4 Molecular Engineering for Multiphonic Imaging 201 5.3 Spectroscopic Evidence for the Two-photon Sensitisation of Lanthanide Luminescence 205 5.3.1 1961: The Breakthrough Experiments 205 5.3.2 Two-photon Excitation of f-f Transitions 206 5.3.3 The Two-photon Antenna Effect 207 5.3.4 The Charge Transfer State Mediated Sensitisation Process 209 5.3.5 Optimising Molecular Two-photon Cross Section: the Brightness Trade-off 211 5.3.6 Two-photon Excited Luminescence in Solid Matrix 214 5.3.7 Two-photon Time-gated Spectroscopy 214 5.4 Towards Biphotonic Microscopy Imaging 215 5.4.1 Proof of Concept 215 5.4.2 Towards the Design of an Optimised Bio-probe 217 5.4.3 Design of Lanthanide containing Nano-probes, toward Single-object Imaging 222 5.4.4 Towards NIR-to-NIR Imaging 223 5.5 Conclusions 225 6 Lanthanide Ion Complexes as Chemosensors 231 Thorfinnur Gunnlaugsson and Simon J. A. Pope 6.1 Photophysical Properties of LnIII Based Sensors 231 6.1.1 Emission Based Sensors 231 6.1.2 Luminescence Lifetime 232 6.1.3 Spectral Form, Hypersensitivity and Ratiometric Peaks 233 6.2 Sensor Design Principles 233 6.2.1 The Design of Ln-receptor Sites and Antenna Components 234 6.2.2 Covalent versus Self-assembled Ln-receptor Design 235 6.2.3 Sensors for Cations 237 6.2.4 Sensors for Anions 249 6.3 Interactions with DNA and Biological Systems 260 7 Upconversion of Ln3+ -based Nanoparticles for Optical Bio-imaging 269 Frank C.J.M. van Veggel 7.1 Introduction 269 7.2 Physical Properties of Ln3+ Ions 272 7.3 Basic Principles of Upconversion 272 7.4 Synthesis of Core and Core–Shell Nanoparticles 277 7.4.1 Syntheses in Organic Solvent 277 7.4.2 Syntheses in Aqueous Media 277 7.4.3 Surface Modification 278 7.5 Characterisation 278 7.5.1 Basic Techniques 278 7.5.2 Advanced Techniques 279 7.6 Bio-imaging 283 7.6.1 Basics 283 7.6.2 Cell Studies 283 7.6.3 Animal Studies 287 7.6.4 Discussion 290 7.7 Upconversion and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 293 7.8 Conclusions and Outlook 295 8 Direct Excitation Ln(III) Luminescence Spectroscopy to Probe the Coordination Sphere of Ln(III) Catalysts, Optical Sensors and MRI Agents 303 Janet R. Morrow and Sarina J. Dorazio 8.1 Introduction 303 8.1.1 Luminescence Spectroscopy for Defining the Ln(III) Coordination Sphere 303 8.2 Direct Excitation Lanthanide Luminescence 304 8.2.1 Luminescence Properties of the Lanthanide Ions 304 8.2.2 Ln(III) Excitation Spectroscopy 306 8.2.3 Ln(III) Emission Spectroscopy 307 8.2.4 Time-Resolved Ln(III) Luminescence Spectroscopy 308 8.2.5 Luminescence Resonance Energy Transfer 310 8.3 Defining the Ln(III) Ion Coordination Sphere through Direct Eu(III) Excitation Luminescence Spectroscopy 311 8.3.1 Eu(III) Complex Speciation in Solution: Number of Excitation Peaks 311 8.3.2 Excitation Spectra of Geometric Isomers 311 8.3.3 Innersphere Coordination of Anions 312 8.3.4 Ligand Ionisation 314 8.4 Luminescence Studies of Anion Binding in Catalysis and Sensing 317 8.4.1 Phosphate Ester Binding and Cleavage 317 8.4.2 Sensing Biologically Relevant Anions 318 8.5 Luminescence Studies of Ln(III) MRI Contrast Agents 320 8.5.1 Types of Ln(III) MRI Contrast Agents 320 8.5.2 Luminescence Studies of Ln(III) ParaCEST Agents 322 8.6 Conclusions 326 9 Heterometallic Complexes Containing Lanthanides 331 Stephen Faulkner and Manuel Tropiano 9.1 Introduction 331 9.2 Properties of a Heteromultimetallic Complex 332 9.3 Lanthanide Assemblies in the Solid State 335 9.4 Lanthanide Assemblies in Solution 338 9.4.1 Lanthanide Helicates 338 9.4.2 Non-helicate Structures 341 9.5 Heterometallic Complexes Derived from Bridging and Multi-compartmental Ligands 342 9.6 Energy Transfer in Assembled Systems 347 9.7 Responsive Multimetallic Systems 351 9.8 Summary and Prospects 353 References 353 Index 359

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Book SynopsisWith increasing demand for hygienic, self-disinfecting and contamination free surfaces, interest in developing self-cleaning protective materials and surfaces has grown rapidly in recent times.Trade Review“The mathematical coverage of superhydrophobicity is well covered as is the recent progress in self-cleaning glass, roof surfaces and self-cleaning fibres and plastics.” (Chemistry & Industry, 1 May 2014)Table of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Preface xv PART I CONCEPTS OF SELF-CLEANING SURFACES 1 Superhydrophobicity and Self-Cleaning 3 Paul Roach and Neil Shirtcliffe 1.1 Superhydrophobicity 3 1.2 Self-Cleaning on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 12 1.3 Materials and Fabrication 25 1.4 Future Perspectives 27 References 28 PART II APPLICATIONS OF SELF-CLEANING SURFACES 2 Recent Development on Self-Cleaning Cementitious Coatings 35 Daniele Enea 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Atmospheric Pollution: Substances and Laws 36 2.3 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis 38 2.4 Self-Cleaning Surfaces 39 2.5 Main Applications 44 2.6 Test Methods 46 2.7 Future Developments 53 References 54 3 Recent Progress on Self-Cleaning Glasses and Integration with Other Functions 57 Baoshun Liu, Qingnan Zhao and Xiujian Zhao 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Theoretical Fundamentals for Self-Cleaning Glasses 58 3.3 Self-Cleaning Glasses Based on Photocatalysis and Photoinduced Hydrophilicity 62 3.4 Inorganic Hydrophobic Self-Cleaning Glasses 75 3.5 Self-Cleaning Glasses Modified by Organic Molecules 79 3.6 The Functionality of Self-Cleaning Glasses 80 References 84 4 Self-Cleaning Surface of Clay Roofing Tiles 89 Jonjaua Ranogajec and Miroslava Radeka 4.1 Clay Roofing Tiles and Their Deterioration Phenomena 89 4.2 Protective and Self-Cleaning Materials for Clay Roofing Tiles 105 References 123 5 Self-Cleaning Fibers and Fabrics 129 Wing Sze Tung and Walid A. Daoud 5.1 Introduction 129 5.2 Photocatalysis 130 5.3 Photocatalytic Self-Cleaning Surface Functionalization of Fibrous Materials 134 5.4 Application of Photocatalytic Self-Cleaning Fibers 142 5.5 Limitations 144 5.6 Future Prospects 146 5.7 Conclusions 147 References 147 6 Self-Cleaning Materials for Plastic and Plastic-Containing Substrates 153 Houman Yaghoubi 6.1 Introduction 153 6.2 TiO2 Thin Films on Polymers: Sol–Gel-Based Wet Coating Techniques 155 6.3 TiO2–Polymer Nanocomposites Review: Casting (Mixing) Techniques 181 6.4 TiO2 Sputter-Coated Films on Polymer Substrates 187 6.5 TiO2 Thin Films on PET and PMMA by Nanoparticle Deposition Systems (NPDS) 189 6.6 Photo-Responsive Discharging Effect of Static Electricity on TiO2-Coated Plastic Films 191 6.7 Recent Achievements 192 Acknowledgements 194 References 194 PART III ADVANCES IN SELF-CLEANING SURFACES 7 Self-Cleaning Textiles Modified by TiO2 and Bactericide Textiles Modified by Ag and Cu 205 John Kiwi and Cesar Pulgarin 7.1 Introduction 205 7.2 Self-Cleaning Textiles: RF-Plasma Pretreatment to Increase the Binding of TiO2 206 7.3 Self-Cleaning Mechanism for Colorless and Colored Stains on Textiles 208 7.4 Self-Cleaning Textiles: Vacuum-UVC Pretreatment to Increase the Binding of TiO2 209 7.5 XPS to Follow Stain Discoloration on Cotton Modified with TiO2 and Characterization of the TiO2 Coating 212 7.6 Bactericide /Ag/Textiles Prepared by Pretreatment with Vacuum-UVC 214 7.7 DC-Magnetron Sputtering of Textiles with Ag Inactivating Airborne Bacteria 217 7.8 Inactivation of E. coli by CuO in Suspension in the Dark and Under Visible Light 218 7.9 Inactivation of E. coli by Pretreated Cotton Textiles Modified with Cu/CuO at the Solid/Air Interface 220 7.10 Direct Current Magnetron Sputtering (DC and DCP) of Nanoparticulate Continuous Cu-Coatings on Cotton Textile Inducing Bacterial Inactivation in the Dark and Under Light Irradiation 220 7.11 Future Trends 223 References 224 8 Liquid Flame Spray as a Means to Achieve Nanoscale Coatings with Easy-to-Clean Properties 229 Mikko Aromaa, Joe A. Pimenoff and Jyrki M. Makela 8.1 Gas-Phase Synthesis of Nanoparticles 229 8.2 Aerosol Reactors 233 8.3 Liquid Flame Spray 237 8.4 Liquid Flame Spray in Synthesis of Easy-to-Clean Antimicrobial Coatings 243 8.5 Summary 249 References 249 9 Pulsed Laser Deposition of Surfaces with Tunable Wettability 253 Evie L. Papadopoulou 9.1 Introduction 253 9.2 Basic Theory of Wetting Properties of Surfaces 254 9.3 Roughening a Flat Surface 256 9.4 Switchable Wettability 263 9.5 Concluding Remarks 270 References 271 10 Fabrication of Antireflective Self-Cleaning Surfaces Using Layer-by-Layer Assembly Techniques 277 Yu-Min Yang 10.1 Introduction 277 10.2 Antireflective Coatings 278 10.3 Solution-Based Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Assembly Techniques 280 10.4 Mechanisms of Self-Cleaning 283 10.5 Fabrication of Antireflective Self-Cleaning Surfaces Using Electrostatic Layer-by-Layer (ELbL) Assembly of Nanoparticles 285 10.6 Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Self-Cleaning Surfaces Using LB Assembly of Micro-/Nanoparticles 297 10.7 Characterization of As-Fabricated Surfaces 300 10.8 Challenges and Future Development 306 10.9 Conclusion 307 References 307 PART IV POTENTIAL HAZARDS AND LIMITATIONS OF SELF-CLEANING SURFACES 11 The Environmental Impact of a Nanoparticle-Based Reduced Need of Cleaning Product and the Limitation Thereof 315 L. Reijnders 11.1 Introduction 315 11.2 Titania and Amorphous Silica Nanoparticles and Carbon Nanotubes Can Be Hazardous and May Pose a Risk 319 11.3 Environmental Impact of a Reduced Need of Cleaning Product 323 11.4 Limiting the Direct Environmental Impact of a Nanoparticle-Based Reduced Need of Cleaning Product, Including Limitation of Risks Following from Exposure to Nanoparticles 330 11.5 Conclusion 331 References 331 Index

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Book SynopsisWinner of an Outstanding Academic Title Award from CHOICE MagazineTransistors using one electron at a time. Seemingly transparent sunscreens made with titanium dioxide particles that block harmful UV rays. Nanometer-sized specks of gold that change color to red and melt at 750C instead of 1,064C. Nanotechnology finds the unique properties of things at the nanometer scale and then puts them to use!Although nanotechnology is a hot topic with a wide range of fascinating applications, the search for a true introductory popular resource usually comes up cold. Closer to a popular science book than a high-level treatise, Nanotechnology: The Whole Story works from the ground up to provide a detailed yet accessible introduction to one of the world's fastest growing fields. Dive headlong into nanotechnology! Tackling the eight main disciplinesnanomaterials, nanomechanics, nanoelectronics, nanoscale heat transfer, nanophotonics, nanosTrade Review"…an excellent resource for anyone interested in nanotechnology. …Summing Up: Highly recommended. Students of all levels, researchers/faculty, and professionals."—H Giesche, Alfred University, in CHOICETable of ContentsBig Picture of the Small World. Introduction to Miniaturization. Introduction to Nanoscale Physics. Nanomaterials. Nanomechanics. Nanophotonics. Nanoscale Fluid Mechanics. Nanobiotechnology. Nanomedicine.

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisThis book recalls the basics required for an understanding of the nanoworld (quantum physics, molecular biology, micro and nanoelectronics) and gives examples of applications in various fields: materials, energy, devices, data management and life sciences. It is clearly shown how the nanoworld is at the crossing point of knowledge and innovation. Written by an expert who spent a large part of his professional life in the field, the title also gives a general insight into the evolution of nanosciences and nanotechnologies. The reader is thus provided with an introduction to this complex area with different "tracks" for further personal comprehension and reflection. This guided and illustrated tour also reveals the importance of the nanoworld in everyday life.Table of ContentsForeword xiii Acknowledgements xv Preface xvii Chapter 1. What are Nanos? 1 1.1. What are we talking about? 3 1.2. References 7 1.2.1. Two basic facts 7 1.2.2. Two approaches 9 1.2.3. Two key points 11 1.3. Some bonus material for economists 13 Chapter 2. Some Science to Get You Started 15 2.1. Quantum physics 17 2.1.1. From the traditional world to the quantum world 17 2.1.2. Two fundamental concepts 19 2.1.2.1. Wave-corpuscle duality 19 2.1.2.2. Probability in the quantum world 21 2.2. The key players 22 2.2.1. The electron 22 2.2.1.1. The cornerstone of matter 22 2.2.1.2. Electronic states 23 2.2.1.3. The quantification of energy 24 2.2.1.4. Bonds 25 2.2.2. The photon 27 2.2.2.1. The wave 27 2.2.2.2. The energy grain 30 2.3. Molecules 34 2.3.1. From the smallest molecule to the largest and their spectacular properties 34 2.3.2. Functionality 35 2.4. Solid matter 36 2.4.1. Insulators or conductors. 36 2.4.2. Semi-conductors 37 2.4.2.1. Silicon crystal 37 2.4.2.2 Electrons and holes 40 2.4.2.3 Junctions 40 2.4.3. Nanomaterials 41 2.5. Quantum boxes: between the atom and the crystal 41 2.6. Some bonus material for physicists 42 2.6.1 Luminescence 42 2.6.2. The laser device 44 Chapter 3. The Revolution in Techniques Used in Observation and Imagery 51 3.1. Observing with photons 53 3.1.1. The optical microscope in visible light 53 3.1.2. X-ray machines 54 3.2. Observing with electrons 55 3.2.1. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) 55 3.2.2. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) 56 3.3. Touching the atoms 58 3.4. Observing how our brain functions 60 3.4.1. Nuclear magnetic resonance 60 3.4.2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging 61 3.5. Some bonus material for researchers 62 Chapter 4. The Marriage of Software and Hardware 69 4.1. Small is beautiful 71 4.2. Miniaturization 71 4.3. Integration 72 4.3.1. The silicon planet 72 4.3.2. An expanding universe 78 4.4. Programs 82 4.5. Some bonus material for mathematicians 83 Chapter 5. Mechanics of the Living World 89 5.1. Proteins – molecules with exceptional properties 93 5.1.1. The program of cellular production 94 5.1.2. Reading instructions and the production of proteins 95 5.1.3. How does it work? 99 5.1.4. Molecular disfunctioning 100 5.1.4.1. External causes 100 5.1.4.2. Internal causes 100 5.2. Intervention of human beings 101 5.2.1. Medication 102 5.2.2. The creation of those famous GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms) 102 5.2.3. Manipulation of embryos 103 5.3. Some bonus material for biologists 103 Chapter 6. The Uses of Nanotechnologies 107 6.1. New objects 109 6.1.1. Carbon in all its states 109 6.1.1.1. Nanodiamonds 110 6.1.1.2. Carbon nanotubes 110 6.1.2. A handful of gold atoms 116 6.2. Ground-breaking products 116 6.2.1. Surface treatment 117 6.2.2. Incorporation in a composite environment 119 6.3. From micro to nanosystems 120 6.3.1. Miniature components – MEMS 120 6.3.1.1. A print head for inkjet printers 120 6.3.1.2. Airbags 122 6.3.1.3. A microlens for miniaturized optics 123 6.3.1.4. Magnetic disk readheads: quantum nanostructures 124 6.3.2. Microsources of energy: key points for embedded systems 124 6.3.3. Micromotors 125 6.4. A global integration 132 6.5. Some bonus material for engineers 139 Chapter 7. Nanos are Changing the World 143 7.1. A simulation or a virtual world 145 7.2. Understanding nature 151 7.2.1. Understanding energy 151 7.2.2. Understanding materials 152 7.2.3. Understanding information 154 7.2.4. Understanding life 156 7.3. Watch out for nanomedicine 159 7.4. Nanosciences and our future 161 7.5. Essential ethics 165 7.6. Conclusion 169 Appendices 173 Appendix A. European Parliament Resolution on Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies 175 Appendix B. Eight Guidelines on Nanotechnologies Issued by the CNRS Ethics Committee 185 Abbreviations 191 Bibliography 195 Figures 197 Index 205

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Book SynopsisThe emergence of nanoelectronics has led us to renew the concepts of transport theory used in semiconductor device physics and the engineering community. It has become crucial to question the traditional semi-classical view of charge carrier transport and to adequately take into account the wave-like nature of electrons by considering not only their coherent evolution but also the out-of-equilibrium states and the scattering effects. This book gives an overview of the quantum transport approaches for nanodevices and focuses on the Wigner formalism. It details the implementation of a particle-based Monte Carlo solution of the Wigner transport equation and how the technique is applied to typical devices exhibiting quantum phenomena, such as the resonant tunnelling diode, the ultra-short silicon MOSFET and the carbon nanotube transistor. In the final part, decoherence theory is used to explain the emergence of the semi-classical transport in nanodevices.Table of ContentsSymbols ix Abbreviations xiii Introduction xv Acknowledgements xxi Chapter 1. Theoretical Framework of Quantum Transport in Semiconductors and Devices 1 1.1. The fundamentals: a brief introduction to phonons, quasi-electrons and envelope functions 2 1.2. The semi-classical approach of transport 11 1.3. The quantum treatment of envelope functions 16 1.4. The two main problems of quantum transport 29 Chapter 2. Particle-based Monte Carlo Approach to Wigner-Boltzmann Device Simulation 57 2.1. The particle Monte Carlo technique to solve the BTE 59 2.2. Extension of the particle Monte Carlo technique to the WBTE: principles 71 2.3. Simple validations via two typical cases 83 2.4. Conclusion 86 Chapter 3. Application of the Wigner Monte Carlo Method to RTD, MOSFET and CNTFET 89 3.1. The resonant tunneling diode (RTD) 90 3.2. The double-gate metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (DG-MOSFET) 99 3.3. The carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNTFET) 134 3.4. Conclusion 148 Chapter 4. Decoherence and Transition from Quantum to Semi-classical Transport 151 4.1. Simple illustration of the decoherence mechanism 152 4.2. Coherence and decoherence of Gaussian wave packets in GaAs 157 4.3. Coherence and decoherence in RTD: transition between semi-classical and quantum regions 171 4.4. Quantum coherence and decoherence in DG-MOSFET 175 4.5. Conclusion 180 Conclusion 183 Appendix A. Average Value of Operators in the Wigner Formalism 187 Appendix B. Boundaries of the Wigner Potential 189 Appendix C. Hartree Wave Function 191 Appendix D. Asymmetry Between Phonon Absorption and Emission Rates 193 Appendix E. Quantum Brownian Motion 195 Appendix F. Purity in the Wigner formalism 201 Appendix G. Propagation of a Free Wave Packet Subject to Quantum Brownian Motion 203 Appendix H. Coherence Length at Thermal Equilibrium 205 Bibliography 207 Index 241

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Book SynopsisThis book covers a wide range of topics that address the main areas of interest to scientists, engineers, and students concerned with the synthesis, characterization and applications of nanomaterials. Development techniques, properties, and examples of industrial applications are all widely represented as they apply to various nanostructured materials including nanocomposites and multilayered nanometric coatings. The book also illustrates a wide range of powerful methods of nanomaterial/nanostructure synthesis such as microwave-assisted methods, pulsed electrodeposition, ion beams, or glancing angle deposition. Techniques for the encapsulation and functionalization of nanoparticles, as well as the adhesion and mechanical characterization of nanostructured thin films, are also described and discussed. It is to be recommended to anyone working in the field of nanomaterials, especially in connection with the functionalization and engineering of surfaces.Trade Review"The book is interesting and useful for readers working in the nanosciences . . . however, overall the book can be easily understood by students, researchers and teachers in the area of optics." (Optics and Photonics News, 18 May 2011)Table of ContentsPreface xv Jamal TAKADOUM Chapter 1. Architecture of Thin Solid Films by the GLAD Technique 1 Nicolas MARTIN, Kevin ROBBIE and Luc CARPENTIER 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. The GLAD technique 2 1.3. Resulting properties 8 1.4. Conclusions and outlooks 23 1.5. Bibliography 24 Chapter 2. Transparent Polymer Nanocomposites: A New Class of Functional Materials 31 Anne CHRISTMANN, Claire LONGUET and José-Marie LOPEZ CUESTA 2.1. Introduction 31 2.2. Nanoparticle modifications 32 2.3. Nanoparticles and nanocomposites 39 2.4. Conclusion 45 2.5. Bibliography 47 Chapter 3. Nanostructures by Ion Irradiation 53 Jean-Claude PIVIN 3.1. Introduction 53 3.2. Physical bases 55 3.3. Nanostructures produced in ballistic regime 59 3.4. Nanostructures produced in electronic slowing down regime 68 3.5. Conclusions 76 3.6. Appendix: basic formula of ion stopping 77 3.7. Bibliography 82 Chapter 4. Microencapsulation 89 Claude ROQUES-CARMES and Christine MILLOT 4.1. Introduction 89 4.2. The processes of microencapsulation 91 4.3. Kinetics of release 100 4.4. Conclusion 105 4.5. Bibliography 107 Chapter 5. Decorative PVD Coatings 109 Raymond CONSTANTIN, Pierre-Albert STEINMANN and Christian MANASTERSKI 5.1. Introduction 109 5.2. Concept of color 110 5.3. Representation and measurement of color 112 5.4. Golden PVD coatings 113 5.5. Gray color PVD coatings 132 5.6. Black color PVD coatings 138 5.7. Blue color PVD coatings 145 5.8. PVD coatings with interferential color 145 5.9. Decorative PVD coatings and corrosion resistance 150 5.10. Bibliography 155 Chapter 6. Microwave Chemistry and Nanomaterials: From Laboratory to Pilot Plant 163 Didier STUERGA and Thierry CAILLOT 6.1. Introduction 163 6.2. General context 163 6.3. Microwave nanomaterials: from single oxides to metallic clusters 167 6.4. Microwave and inorganic condensation processes 182 6.5. The RAMO system and the MIT process 186 6.6. From laboratory to pilot 191 6.7. Bibliography 192 Chapter 7. Aluminum-Based Nanostructured Coatings Deposited by Magnetron Sputtering for Corrosion Protection of Steels 207 Frédéric SANCHETTE, Cédric DUCROS and Alain BILLARD 7.1. Introduction 207 7.2. Aluminum-based nanostructured coatings deposited by magnetron sputtering for corrosion protection of steels 208 7.3. Conclusion 224 7.4. Bibliography 224 Chapter 8. Nanolayered Hard Coatings for Mechanical Applications 227 Frédéric SANCHETTE, Cédric DUCROS and Guillaume RAVEL 8.1. Introduction 227 8.2. Towards an ultrahard coating – nanostructuring of transition-elements nitrides obtained by cathodic arc evaporation 230 8.3. Towards a low friction coefficient coating: nanostructuring of carbon- and silicon-based materials elaborated by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition 240 8.4. Conclusion 243 8.5. Bibliography 243 Chapter 9. Plating of Nanocomposite Coatings 247 Patrice BERÇOT and Jamal TAKADOUM 9.1. Introduction 247 9.2. Electrolytic co-deposition of metal/particles and modeling 248 9.3. Parameters of the electrolytic composite coatings 254 9.4. Characterization of the composite coatings 260 9.5. Domains of application of the composite coatings 263 9.6. Conclusion 263 9.7. Bibliography 264 Chapter 10. Nanostructured Coatings 271 Guy BARET and Pierre Paul JOBERT 10.1. Introduction 271 10.2. Nanomaterials 272 10.3. Applications 278 10.4. Nanopowders: instructions for use 288 10.5. Economical aspects 290 10.6. Conclusion 291 10.7. Bibliography 291 Chapter 11. Characterization of Coatings: Hardness, Adherence and Internal Stresses 293 Jamal TAKADOUM 11.1. Hardness 293 11.2. Coating adhesion 304 11.3. Residual stresses in coatings 315 11.4. Bibliography 323 Chapter 12. High Temperature Oxidation Resistance of Nanocomposite Coatings 329 David PILLOUD and Jean-François PIERSON 12.1. Introduction 329 12.2. Nanocomposite coating concept 330 12.3. Methods for nanocomposite coating elaboration 331 12.4. Structural characterization 333 12.5. High temperature oxidation behavior 336 12.6. Conclusion 343 12.7. Bibliography 344 List of Authors 349 Index 353

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Book SynopsisThis book details recent advances in all aspects related to scale transition in crystal plasticity and damage, with a particular focus on the challenges associated with the characterization and modeling of this class of complex interactions. The following topics are included: Innovative characterization techniques (multi-scale characterization, SEMTEM coupling, TEM-micro-diffraction coupling, in-situ mechanical tests, localization, image correlation, displacement field measurements, tomography, etc.). Computational crystal plasticity and damage (dislocation dynamics and ab initio calculations, microstructure evolution of polycrystals, comparison between FE, fast Fourier transform and self-consistent approaches, intragranular slip, heterogeneities, discrete approaches, etc.). The book gathers together selected papers from the invited lectures presented at the 3rd and 4th US-France Symposia organized by the editors under the auspices of the International Center for Applied Computational Mechanics (ICACM).

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Book SynopsisThis book presents reviews of various aspects of radiation/matter interactions, be these instrumental developments, the application of the study of the interaction of X-rays and materials to a particular scientific field, or specific methodological approaches. The overall aim of the book is to provide reference summaries for a range of specific subject areas within a pedagogical framework. Each chapter is written by an author who is well known within their field and who has delivered an invited lecture on their subject area as part of the “RX2009 – X-rays and Materials” colloquium that took place in December 2009 at Orsay in France. The book consists of five chapters on the subject of X-ray diffraction, scattering and absorption. Chapter 1 gives a detailed presentation of the capabilities and potential of beam lines dedicated to condensed matter studies at the SOLEIL synchrotron radiation source. Chapter 2 focuses on the study of nanoparticles using small-angle X-ray scattering. Chapter 3 discusses the quantitative studies of this scattering signal used to analyze these characteristics in detail. Chapter 4 discusses relaxor materials, which are ceramics with a particularly complex microstructure. Chapter 5 discusses an approach enabling the in situ analysis of these phase transitions and their associated microstructural changes.Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Synchrotron Radiation: Instrumentation in Condensed Matter 1 Jean-Paul ITIE, François BAUDELET, Valérie BRIOIS, Eric ELKAÏM, Amor NADJI and Dominique THIAUDIÈRE 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Light sources in the storage ring 2 1.3. Emittance and brilliance of a source 6 1.4. X-ray diffraction with synchrotron radiation 8 1.5. X-ray absorption spectroscopy usingsynchrotron radiation 13 1.6. SAMBA: the X-ray absorption spectroscopy beam line of SOLEIL for 4–40 keV 20 1.7. The DIFFABS beam line 27 1.8. CRISTAL beam line 34 1.9. The SOLEIL ODE line for dispersive EXAFS 38 1.10. Conclusion 43 1.11. Bibliography 44 Chapter 2. Nanoparticle Characterization using Central X-ray Diffraction 49 Olivier SPALLA 2.1. Introduction 49 2.2. Definition of scattered intensity 50 2.3. Invariance principle 52 2.4. Behavior for large q: the Porod regime 55 2.5. Particle-based systems 59 2.6. An absolute scale for measuring particle numbers 75 2.7. Conclusion 78 2.8. Bibliography 79 Chapter 3. X-ray Diffraction for Structural Studies of Carbon Nanotubes and their Insertion Compounds 81 Julien CAMBEDOUZOU and Pascale LAUNOIS 3.1. Introduction 81 3.2. Single-walled carbon nanotubes 85 3.3. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes 96 3.4. Hybrid nanotubes 102 3.5. Textured powder samples 110 3.6. Conclusion 121 3.7. Bibliography 122 Chapter 4. Dielectric Relaxation and Morphotropic Phases in Nanomaterials 129 Jean-Michel KIAT 4.1. Introduction 129 4.2. Dielectric relaxation and morphotropic region: definition and mechanism 130 4.3. Relaxation, morphotropic region and size reduction 163 4.4. Conclusion 174 4.5. Acknowledgements 175 4.6. Bibliography 175 Chapter 5. Evolution of Solid-state Microstructures in Polycrystalline Materials: Application of High-energy X-ray Diffraction to Kinetic and Phase Evolution Studies 181 Elisabeth AEBY-GAUTIER, Guillaume GEANDIER, Moukrane DEHMAS, Fabien BRUNESEAUX, Adeline BENETEAU, Patrick WEISBECKER, Benoît APPOLAIRE and Sabine DENIS 5.1. Introduction 181 5.2. Experimental methods 183 5.3. Results 195 5.4. Conclusion 213 5.5. Acknowledgements 214 5.6. Bibliography 214 List of Authors 221 Index 223

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Book SynopsisRecent advances into the wear of advanced materials In general, wear is currently defined as “the progressive loss of material from the operating surface of a body occurring as a result of relative motion at the surface”. It is related to surface interactions and more specifically to the form of contact due to relative motion. Wear is rarely catastrophic but does reduce the operating efficiency of machine components and structures. At this time of economic crisis, this is a very important field of study because of the huge impact the wear of materials has on the economy. The purpose of this book is to present a collection of examples illustrating the state of the art and research developments into the wear of advanced materials in several applications. It can be used as a research book for a final undergraduate engineering course (for example into materials, mechanics, etc.) or as the focus of the effect of wear on advanced materials at a postgraduate level. It can also serve as a useful reference for academics, biomaterials researchers, mechanical and materials engineers, and professionals in related spheres working with tribology and advanced materials.Table of ContentsPreface xi Chapter 1. Carbon Fabric-reinforced Polymer Composites and Parameters Controlling Tribological Performance 1 Jayashree BIJWE and Mohit SHARMA 1.1. Introduction to polymeric tribo-composites 3 1.2. Carbon fibers as reinforcement 6 1.3. Carbon fabric-reinforced composites 12 1.4. Tribo-performance of CFRCs: influential parameters 15 1.5. Concluding remarks 46 1.6. Bibliography 50 A1.1. Appendix I: Various techniques for developing CFRCs by compression molding 54 A2. Appendix II: Characterization methods for CFRCs 57 Chapter 2. Adhesive Wear Characteristics of Natural Fiber-reinforced Composites 61 Belal F. YOUSIF 2.1. Introduction 62 2.2. Preparation of polyester composites 67 2.3. Specifications of the fibers and composites 70 2.4. Tribo-experimental details 76 2.5. Summary 93 2.6. Bibliography 94 Chapter 3. Resistance to Cavitation Erosion: Material Selection 99 Jinjun LU, Zhen LI, Xue GONG, Jiesheng HAN and Junhu MENG 3.1. Cavitation erosion of materials – a brief review 99 3.2. Measuring the wear resistance of a material to cavitation erosionby using a vibratory cavitation erosion apparatus 101 3.3. Material selection 108 3.4. Conclusion 115 3.5. Acknowledgement 116 3.6. Bibliography 116 Chapter 4. Cavitation of Biofuel Applied in the Injection Nozzles of Diesel Engines 119 Hengzhou WO, Xianguo HU, Hu WANG and Yufu XU 4.1. Introduction 120 4.2. General understanding of cavitation erosion 122 4.3. Hydraulic characteristics of cavitation flow 131 4.4. Influence of fuel property on cavitation 139 4.5. Cavitation erosion of biofuel in the diesel injection nozzle 146 4.6. Conclusion 155 4.7. Acknowledgments 156 4.8. Bibliography 157 Chapter 5. Wear and Corrosion Damage of Medical-grade Metals and Alloys 163 Jae-Joong RYU and Pranav SHROTRIYA 5.1. Introduction 164 5.2. Clinical studies and mechanistic investigation into implant failure 173 5.3. Residual stress development by rough surface contact 184 5.4. Conclusion 192 5.5. Bibliography 193 List of Authors 197 Index 201

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Book SynopsisA promising long-term evolution of surgery relies on intracorporeal microrobotics. This book reviews the physical and methodological principles, and the scientific challenges to be tackled to design and control such robots. Three orders of magnitude will be considered, justified by the class of problems encountered and solutions implemented to manipulate objects and reach targets within the body: millimetric, sub-millimetric in the 10- 100 micrometer range, then in the 1-10 micrometer range. The most prominent devices and prototypes of the state of the art will be described to illustrate the benefit that can be expected for surgeons and patients. Future developments nanorobotics will also be discussed.Table of ContentsIntroduction ix Chapter 1. Intracorporeal Millirobotics 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Principles 2 1.2.1. Partially intracorporeal devices with active distal mobilities 2 1.2.2. Intracorporeal manipulators 5 1.2.3. Intracorporeal mobile devices 16 1.3. Scientific issues 20 1.3.1. Modeling 20 1.3.2. Design 24 1.3.3. Actuation and transmission 26 1.3.4. Sensing 30 1.3.5. Control 34 1.4. Examples of devices 37 1.4.1. The robotic platform of the Araknes project 39 1.4.2. A snake-like robot made of concentric super-elastic tubes 44 1.4.3. MICRON: a handheld robotized instrument for ophthalmic surgery 48 1.5. Conclusion 52 Chapter 2. Intracorporeal Microrobotics 55 2.1. Introduction 55 2.2. Novel paradigms for intracorporeal robotics 56 2.2.1. Classification of intracorporeal robots 56 2.2.2. Physical principles in use at microscale 57 2.3. Methods 66 2.3.1. Models 66 2.3.2. Design 71 2.3.3. Actuation 75 2.3.4. Sensing 80 2.3.5. Control 86 2.4. Devices 97 2.4.1. Magnetically guided catheters 97 2.4.2. Distal tip mobility for endoluminal microphonosurgery 98 2.4.3. Autonomous active capsules 102 2.4.4. Magnetically guided capsules 104 2.5. Conclusion 107 Chapter 3. In vitro Non-Contact Mesorobotics 109 3.1. Introduction 109 3.2. Principles 111 3.2.1. Introduction 111 3.2.2. Laser trapping 114 3.2.3. Electrostatic principles 118 3.3. Scientific challenges 122 3.3.1. Modeling 122 3.3.2. Design 129 3.3.3. Perception 131 3.3.4. Control 131 3.4. Experimental devices 132 3.4.1. Laser trapping 132 3.4.2. DEP systems 139 3.5. Conclusion 147 Chapter 4. Toward Biomedical Nanorobotics 149 4.1. Applicative challenges 149 4.1.1. In vitro applications 149 4.1.2. Nanoassembly for biomedical applications 150 4.1.3. In vivo applications 150 4.2. Scientific challenges 150 4.2.1. New paradigm removing frontiers between sciences 150 4.2.2. Energy sources 151 4.2.3. How far away is this future? 152 Bibliography 153 Index 183

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Book SynopsisNanotechnologies: Concepts, Processing and Applications describes and explains how nanotechnologies have entered our everyday lives through scientific and industrial applications with the emphasis placed on the new perspectives in various fields related to societal problems. This book details how successive discoveries of new nanocarbon structures along with progress in different microscopy techniques have caused nanomaterials to take on an increasingly important role in electronics, electrochemical energy storage – batteries and fuel cells – and the electrical conversion of solar energy. Views once seen as futuristic on nanomachines and nanorobotics, therapeutic hopes and medical advances – such as those resulting from the application of new in-situ drug-delivery nanotechniques – are all presented. The most innovative developments are analyzed in terms of applications and should enable the reader to form his or her own opinion about the reality of the progress that can be expected from nanotechnologies in the near future. The book offers background reading for teachers in colleges who wish to have an overview on this subject.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xv PART 1. CONCEPTS, DISCOVERIES AND THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT OF NANOTECHNOLOGIES1 Chapter 1. Nanotechnologies in Context: Social and Scientific Awareness of their Impact 3 1.1. Feynman, the visionary 3 1.2. Nanotechnologies and their definition 5 1.3. The consideration of nanotechnologies by scientific organizations 8 1.4. Bibliography 11 Chapter 2. The Rapid Expansion of Nanotechnology: New Ways of Observing the Infinitesimal and the Discovery of Carbonaceous Nanomaterials with Unusual Properties 13 2.1. Improving tools for observing the infinitesimal 15 2.1.1. Transmission electron microscopes 15 2.1.2. Scanning electron microscopes 18 2.1.3. Near-field microscopes 21 2.1.3.1. The tunnel-effect microscope (STM or scanning tunneling microscopy) 22 2.1.3.2. Atomic force microscopy 26 2.2. The discovery of new carbonaceous nanomaterials 28 2.2.1. Some basic concepts relative to the electronic structure of carbon and to the bonding rules between carbon atoms 29 2.2.1.1. The enigma of carbon atoms 29 2.2.1.2. Diamond or the perfect and unique tetrahedral chain of carbon atoms 31 2.2.1.3. Graphite or the intrusion of π electrons in the assembly of carbon atoms 32 2.2.2. The fullerenes or graphite sheets rolled into a ball 34 2.2.3. Carbon nanotubes: tubes of graphite sheets 36 2.2.4. Graphene or graphite “sheets”39 2.2.4.1. The identification of graphene 39 2.2.4.2. Some remarkable electrical properties 41 2.2.4.3. Remarkable progress: solid, flexible and easily manipulated graphene paper 43 2.2.5. Link between conjugated carbonaceous nanomaterials 45 2.3. Conclusions 46 2.4. Bibliography 46 Chapter 3. Nanomaterials in All Their Forms: New Properties Due to the Confinement of Matter 49 3.1. The different types of nano-objects: main methods of preparation 50 3.1.1. Colloidal solutions of gold NPs 50 3.1.2. Hybrid and magnetic NPs (ferromagnetic fluids) 52 3.1.3. Semiconducting NPs (quantum dots) 54 3.1.4. Phospholipid vesicles and encapsulation by liposomes 58 3.1.5. Nanowires 60 3.2. Organizing nanoparticles into arrays 63 3.2.1. Self-assembly 64 3.2.1.1. Molecular self-assembly and the formation of nanometric networks 65 3.2.1.2. Self-assembly of NPs on solid surfaces 70 3.2.2. Assembling by ultrathin alumina membranes 74 3.2.3. Assembling by colloidal lithography 75 3.3. Conclusions 78 3.4. Bibliography 78 Chapter 4. Some Amazing Properties of Nanomaterials and of Their Assembly into Networks 81 4.1. The first effect of the confinement of matter: unusual catalytic and physicochemical properties 81 4.2. The optoelectronic properties of NPs due to confinement 82 4.2.1. Some concepts of physics that can be applied to solid materials 83 4.2.2. The plasmon resonance effect and the optical properties of gold NPs 85 4.2.3. Surface enhanced Raman scattering 87 4.2.4. The photothermic effect or how to heat up gold NPs 89 4.2.5. The optoelectronic properties of Quantum Dots 89 4.3. The amazing properties of NP networks or nanostructured surfaces 91 4.3.1. Wettability of structured surfaces 91 4.3.2. Optical properties 94 4.3.2.1. Photonic crystals 97 4.3.2.2. Waveguides 98 4.3.2.3. Qdot LASER diodes 100 4.3.2.4. Antireflective surfaces 105 4.3.2.5. Plasmonic crystals and the SERS effect 106 4.3.3. Nanoelectronics applied to the detection of trace elements: nanowire transistors 109 4.3.3.1. The operating principle of the FET sensor 110 4.3.3.2. An example of how it could be applied: detecting explosives 110 4.3.3.3. Electronic noses 113 4.4. Conclusions and perspectives 113 4.5. Bibliography 114 PART 2. APPLICATIONS AND SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 117 Chapter 5. Nanoelectronics of the 21st Century 119 5.1. Some history 119 5.2. Molecular electronics 123 5.2.1. Single Electronics. Dream or reality? 124 5.2.1.1. Electron box and electron transfer by quantum tunneling 124 5.2.1.2. The single-electron transistor (SET) 127 5.2.2. The ultimate step: the molecule 130 5.2.2.1. Technical issues in the assembly of a metal/single molecule/metal junction 130 5.2.2.2. Molecular diodes made from self-assembled organic molecules 132 5.2.2.3. Electrical properties of self-assembled organic layers 133 5.2.2.4. The organic field-effect transistor 135 5.2.3. Conclusion 137 5.3. Spintronics 137 5.3.1. Electron spin and ferromagnetic materials 138 5.3.2. Magnetoresistance 139 5.3.3. Giant magnetoresistance 140 5.4. Conclusions 143 5.5. Bibliography 144 Chapter 6. Energy and Nanomaterials 147 6.1. Electrochemical storage of electricity 148 6.1.1. Electrical properties of an accumulator 150 6.1.2. Lithium batteries 151 6.1.2.1. The functional originality of a Li-ion electrochemical cell 154 6.1.2.2. Nanotechnology to the rescue: the grapheme solution? 156 6.1.3. Electrochemical capacitors and supercapacitors 157 6.1.3.1. Peculiarities of the electrochemical capacitor 158 6.1.3.2. The developments and the state of the art 161 6.1.4. Conclusions 164 6.2. The conversion of solar energy into electrical energy 165 6.2.1. The principle of the conversion 166 6.2.1.1. The photoelectric effect and its history 166 6.2.1.2. Photoionization of a semiconductor and collection of the charges at the electrodes 168 6.2.2. The inorganic route based on mineral semiconductors 170 6.2.3. The organic route 172 6.2.3.1. Organic photovoltaic cells 172 6.2.3.2. Grätzel dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) 176 6.3. Fuel cells 179 6.3.1. Functional principles of PEMFCs 181 6.3.2. Can the cost of dihydrogen fuel cells be reduced? 183 6.4. General conclusions 188 6.5. Bibliography 189 Chapter 7. Nanobiology and Nanomedicine 193 7.1. Introduction 193 7.2. Bionanoelectronics 194 7.2.1. The multiplexed detection of PSA using “transistorized” nanowires 195 7.2.1.1. Immunological assay of proteins by labeling 195 7.2.1.2. Use of nanowire networks 197 7.2.1.3. The simplified and ultrasensitive detection of PSA 197 7.2.1.4. Conclusions 201 7.2.2. Connecting the organic and the artificial 201 7.2.2.1. The construction of a nanosensor and its function 202 7.2.2.2. Proton exchanges and their inhibition by calcium ions 204 7.2.2.3. Conclusions 205 7.3. Nanomedicine 205 7.3.1. Biological barriers and the alteration of the cellular tissue surrounding a tumor 206 7.3.1.1. The extravasation of nanoparticles toward cancerous tissue 208 7.3.2. Nanoprobes for in vivo real-time imaging 210 7.3.2.1. Imagery resulting from plasmon resonance of gold NPs and from their interaction with enzymes characteristic of a pathological process 210 7.3.2.2. Luminescence imaging triggered by enzymes or reactive oxygen species characteristic of a pathology 213 7.3.2.3. Magnetic resonance imaging coupled with nanophototherapy 215 7.3.2.4. An innovative strategy for an improved penetration of the NPs in the cancerous cell tissue 218 7.3.3. Challenges of nanomedicine and some significant clinical results 221 7.3.3.1. The first commercial nanomedication 221 7.3.3.2. New paths in development 223 7.3.4. Problems related to the toxicity of nanomaterials 228 7.3.4.1. A few general considerations 228 7.3.4.2. The multiple causes of nanomaterial-induced toxicity 231 7.3.4.3. Recommendations for a better evaluation of NP toxicity 232 7.4. Conclusions and perspectives 234 7.5. Bibliography 235 Chapter 8. Nanorobotics and Nanomachines of the Future 239 8.1. Natural molecular machines 240 8.1.1. ATP-synthase 240 8.1.2. Myosin: a linear protein nanomotor 242 8.2. Artificial molecular machines 243 8.2.1. Artificial molecular machines in solution 244 8.2.1.1. Rotaxanes (translational molecular shuttles) 245 8.2.1.2. Catenanes 249 8.2.1.3. Promising applications for diagnosis and therapy 251 8.2.2. Nanomachines with mechanical properties 253 8.2.2.1. Rotors and gyroscopes 254 8.2.2.2. “Motorized” molecular vehicles 256 8.3. Conclusions 258 8.4. Bibliography 259 Conclusions and Outlook 263 Index of Names 267 Index 269

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Book SynopsisMost books dedicated to the issues of bio-sensing are organized by the well-known scheme of a biosensor. In this book, the authors have deliberately decided to break away from the conventional way of treating biosensing research by uniquely addressing biomolecule immobilization methods on a solid surface, fluidics issues and biosensing-related transduction techniques, rather than focusing simply on the biosensor. The aim is to provide a contemporary snapshot of the biosensing landscape without neglecting the seminal references or products where needed, following the downscaling (from the micro- to the nanoscale) of biosensors and their respective best known applications. To conclude, a brief overview of the most popularized nanodevices applied to biology is given, before comparing biosensor criteria in terms of targeted applications.Table of ContentsINTRODUCTION vii CHAPTER 1. TRANSDUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR MINIATURIZED BIOSENSORS 1 1.1. Definition of bioMEMS 1 1.2. Transduction techniques 2 1.2.1. Optical transduction 2 1.2.2. Electro (chemical) transduction 6 1.2.3. Mechanical transduction 10 1.3. MEMS transducers 17 1.4. One specific application of MEMS biosensors: detection of pathogen agents 20 1.5. Bibliography 25 CHAPTER 2. BIORECEPTORS AND GRAFTING METHODS 35 2.1. Types of bioreceptor 35 2.1.1. Catalytic receptors 36 2.1.2. Affinity receptors 37 2.1.3. Nucleic acid-based receptors 40 2.1.4. Molecularly imprinted polymers 41 2.2. Immobilization strategies 43 2.2.1. Adsorption and antifouling strategies 44 2.2.2. Entrapment methods 49 2.2.3. Covalent coupling 51 2.2.4. Other capture systems 54 2.2.5. Immobilization strategies: summary 56 2.3. Conclusion 57 2.4. Bibliography 57 CHAPTER 3. PATTERNING TECHNIQUES FOR THE BIOFUNCTIONALIZATION OF MEMS 65 3.1. What is surface patterning? 65 3.2. Direct biopatterning in liquid phase 66 3.2.1. Ink delivery by non-contact methods 67 3.2.2. Ink delivery by contact methods 71 3.3. Replication of patterns 80 3.3.1. Photolithography 81 3.3.2. Light-induced patterning strategies 81 3.3.3. Microcontact printing 82 3.3.4. In-flux functionalization 83 3.4. Conclusions 84 3.5. Bibliography 85 CHAPTER 4. FROM MEMS TO NEMS BIOSENSORS 93 4.1. Importance of downscaling 93 4.2. Challenges faced by NEMS for biosensing applications 95 4.2.1. Issues related to nanomechanical transducers 97 4.2.2. Issues related to the functionalization of NEMS 99 4.2.3. On the importance of packaging and sample preparation 103 4.3. Economic considerations 106 4.4. Bibliography 107 CHAPTER 5. COMPARING PERFORMANCES OF BIOSENSORS: IMPOSSIBLE MISSION? 113 5.1. Bibliography 117 INDEX 119

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Book SynopsisNanophotonicsis a comprehensive introduction to the emerging area concerned with controlling and shaping optical fields at a subwavelength scale. Photonic crystals and microcavities are extensively described, including non-linear optical effects. Local-probe techniques are presented and are used to characterize plasmonic devices. The emerging fields of semiconductor nanocrystals and nanobiophotonics are also presented.Table of ContentsPreface 13 Chapter 1. Photonic Crystals: From Microphotonics to Nanophotonics 17 Pierre VIKTOROVITCH 1.1. Introduction 17 1.2. Reminders and prerequisites 19 1.2.1. Maxwell equations 19 1.2.1.1. Optical modes 20 1.2.1.2. Dispersion characteristics 20 1.2.2. A simple case: three-dimensional and homogeneous free space 20 1.2.3. Structuration of free space and optical mode engineering 21 1.2.4. Examples of space structuration: objects with reduced dimensionality 22 1.2.4.1. Two 3D sub-spaces 22 1.2.4.2. Two-dimensional isotropic propagation: planar cavity 24 1.2.4.3. One-dimensional propagation: photonic wire 25 1.2.4.4. Case of index guiding (two- or one-dimensionality) 26 1.2.4.5. Zero-dimensionality: optical (micro)-cavity 26 1.2.5. Epilogue 27 1.3. 1D photonic crystals 28 1.3.1. Bloch modes 29 1.3.2. Dispersion characteristics of a 1D periodic medium 30 1.3.2.1. Genesis and description of dispersion characteristics 30 1.3.2.2. Density of modes along the dispersion characteristics 32 1.3.3. Dynamics of Bloch modes 33 1.3.3.1. Coupled mode theory 33 1.3.3.2. Lifetime of a Bloch mode 34 1.3.3.3. Merit factor of a Bloch mode 35 1.3.4. The distinctive features of photonic crystals 35 1.3.5. Localized defect in a photonic band gap or optical microcavity 36 1.3.5.1. Donor and acceptor levels 37 1.3.5.2. Properties of cavity modes in a 1DPC 38 1.3.5.3. Fabry-Perot type optical filter 39 1.3.6. 1D photonic crystal in a dielectric waveguide and waveguided Bloch modes 40 1.3.6.1. Various diffractive coupling processes between optical modes 40 1.3.6.2. Determination of the dispersion characteristics of waveguided Bloch modes 42 1.3.6.3. Lifetime and merit factor of waveguided Bloch modes: radiation optical losses 43 1.3.6.4. Localized defect or optical microcavity 44 1.3.7. Epilogue 46 1.4. 3D photonic crystals 46 1.4.1. From dream 46 1.4.2. … to reality 47 1.5. 2D photonic crystals: the basics 49 1.5.1. Conceptual tools: Bloch modes, direct and reciprocal lattices, dispersion curves and surfaces 50 1.5.1.1. Bloch modes 50 1.5.1.2. Direct and reciprocal lattices 51 1.5.1.3. Dispersion curves and surfaces 52 1.5.2. 2D photonic crystal in a planar dielectric waveguide 54 1.5.2.1. An example of the potential of 2DPC in terms of angular resolution: the super-prism effect 56 1.5.2.2. Strategies for vertical confinement in 2DPC waveguided configurations 57 1.6. 2D photonic crystals: basic building blocks for planar integrated photonics 59 1.6.1. Fabrication: a planar technological approach 59 1.6.1.1. 2DPC formed in an InP membrane suspended in air 59 1.6.1.2. 2DPC formed in an InP membrane bonded onto silica on silicon by molecular bonding 60 1.6.2. Localized defect in the PBG or microcavity 62 1.6.3. Waveguiding structures 64 1.6.3.1. Propagation losses in a straight waveguide 66 1.6.3.2. Bends 67 1.6.3.3. The future of PC-based waveguides lies principally in the guiding of light 69 1.6.4. Wavelength selective transfer between two waveguides 70 1.6.5. Micro-lazers 73 1.6.5.1. Threshold power 74 1.6.5.2. Example: the case of the surface emitting Bloch mode lazer 75 1.6.6. Epilogue 77 1.7. Towards 2.5-dimensional Microphotonics 77 1.7.1. Basic concepts 77 1.7.2. Applications 80 1.8. General conclusion 81 1.9. References 82 Chapter 2. Bidimensional Photonic Crystals for Photonic Integrated Circuits 85 Anne TALNEAU 2.1. Introduction 85 2.2. The three dimensions in space: planar waveguide perforated by a photonic crystal on InP substrate 86 2.2.1. Vertical confinement: a planar waveguide on substrate 86 2.2.2. In-plane confinement: intentional defects within the gap 87 2.2.2.1. Localized defects 88 2.2.2.2. Linear defects 88 2.2.3. Losses 89 2.3. Technology for drilling holes on InP-based materials 90 2.3.1. Mask generation 90 2.3.2. Dry-etching of InP-based semiconductor materials 91 2.4. Modal behavior and performance of structures 92 2.4.1. Passive structures 92 2.4.1.1. Straight guides, taper 93 2.4.1.2. Bend, combiner 96 2.4.1.3. Filters 100 2.4.2. Active structures: lazers 102 2.5. Conclusion 104 2.6. References 105 Chapter 3. Photonic Crystal Fibers 109 Dominique PAGNOUX 3.1. Introduction 109 3.2. Two guiding principles in microstructured fibers 112 3.3. Manufacture of microstructured fibers 116 3.4. Modeling TIR-MOFs 117 3.4.1. The “effective-V model” 117 3.4.2. Modal methods for calculating the fields 118 3.5. Main properties and applications of TIR-MOFs 120 3.5.1. Single mode propagation 120 3.5.2. Propagation loss 120 3.5.3. Chromatic dispersion 121 3.5.4. Birefringence 123 3.5.5. Non-conventional effective areas 124 3.6. Photonic bandgap fibers 125 3.6.1. Propagation in photonic bandgap fibers 125 3.6.2. Some applications of photonic crystal fibers 127 3.7. Conclusion 128 3.8. References 129 Chapter 4. Quantum Dots in Optical Microcavities 135 Jean-Michel GERARD 4.1. Introduction 135 4.2. Building blocks for solid-state CQED 137 4.2.1. Self-assembled QDs as “artificial atoms” 137 4.2.2. Solid-state optical microcavities 139 4.3. QDs in microcavities: some basic CQED experiments 142 4.3.1. Strong coupling regime 142 4.3.2. Weak coupling regime: enhancement/inhibition of the SE rate and “nearly” single mode SE 145 4.3.3. Applications of CQED effects to single photon sources and nanolazers 150 4.4. References 154 Chapter 5. Nonlinear Optics in Nano- and Microstructures 159 Yannick DUMEIGE and Fabrice RAINERI 5.1. Introduction 159 5.2. Introduction to nonlinear optics 160 5.2.1. Maxwell equations and nonlinear optics 160 5.2.2. Second order nonlinear processes 164 5.2.2.1. Three wave mixing 165 5.2.2.2. Second harmonic generation 166 5.2.2.3. Parametric amplification 169 5.2.2.4. How can phase matching be achieved? 170 5.2.2.5. Applications of second order nonlinearity 173 5.2.3. Third order processes 173 5.2.3.1. Four wave mixing 173 5.2.3.2. Optical Kerr effect 175 5.2.3.3. Nonlinear spectroscopy: Raman, Brillouin and Rayleigh scatterings 177 5.3. Nonlinear optics of nano- or microstructured media 177 5.3.1. Second order nonlinear optics in III–V semiconductors 178 5.3.1.1. Quasi-phase matching in III–V semiconductors 178 5.3.1.2. Quasi-phase matching in microcavity 179 5.3.1.3. Bidimensional quasi-phase matching 180 5.3.1.4. Form birefringence 180 5.3.1.5. Phase matching in one-dimensional photonic crystals 181 5.3.1.6. Phase matching in two-dimensional photonic crystal waveguide 183 5.3.2. Third order nonlinear effects 184 5.3.2.1. Continuum generation in microstructured optical fibers 184 5.3.2.2. Optical reconfiguration of two-dimensional photonic crystal slabs 184 5.3.2.3. Spatial solitons in microcavities 186 5.4. Conclusion 187 5.5. References 187 Chapter 6. Third Order Optical Nonlinearities in Photonic Crystals 191 Robert FREY, Philippe DELAYE and Gerald ROOSEN 6.1. Introduction 191 6.2. Third order nonlinear optic reminder 192 6.2.1. Third order optical nonlinearities 192 6.2.2. Some third order nonlinear optical processes 194 6.2.3. Influence of the local field 196 6.3. Local field in photonic crystals 198 6.4. Nonlinearities in photonic crystals 203 6.5. Conclusion 204 6.6. References 204 Chapter 7. Controling the Optical Near Field: Implications for Nanotechnology 207 Frederique DE FORNEL 7.1. Introduction 207 7.2. How is the near field defined? 208 7.2.1. Dipolar emission 208 7.2.2. Diffraction by a sub-wavelength aperture 212 7.2.3. Total internal reflection 213 7.3. Optical near field microscopies 217 7.3.1. Introduction 217 7.3.2. Fundamental principles 217 7.3.3. Realization of near field probes 219 7.3.4. Imaging methods in near field optical microscopes 220 7.3.5. Feedback 222 7.3.6. What is actually measured in near field? 223 7.3.7. PSTM configuration 223 7.3.8. Apertureless microscope 225 7.3.9. Effect of coherence on the structure of near field images 226 7.4. Characterization of integrated-optical components 227 7.4.1. Characterization of guided modes 227 7.4.2. Photonic crystal waveguides 229 7.4.3. Excitation of cavity modes 230 7.4.4. Localized generation of surface plasmons 232 7.5. Conclusion 235 7.6. References 236 Chapter 8. Sub-Wavelength Optics: Towards Plasmonics 239 Alain DEREUX 8.1. Technological context 239 8.2. Detecting optical fields at the sub-wavelength scale 240 8.2.1. Principle of sub-wavelength measurement 240 8.2.2. Scattering theory of electromagnetic waves 242 8.2.3. Electromagnetic LDOS 244 8.2.4. PSTM detection of the electric or magnetic components of optical waves 246 8.2.5. SNOM detection of the electromagnetic LDOS 247 8.3. Localized plasmons 249 8.3.1. Squeezing of the near-field by localized plasmons coupling 250 8.3.2. Controling the coupling of localized plasmons 251 8.4. Sub– optical devices 254 8.4.1. Coupling in 254 8.4.2. Sub– waveguides 254 8.4.3. Towards plasmonics: plasmons on metal stripes 255 8.4.4. Prototypes of submicron optical devices 256 8.5. References 263 Chapter 9. The Confined Universe of Electrons in Semiconductor Nanocrystals 265 Maria CHAMARRO 9.1. Introduction 265 9.2. Electronic structure 266 9.2.1. “Naif” model 266 9.2.1.1. Absorption and luminescence spectra 269 9.2.2. Fine electronic structure 271 9.2.2.1. Size-selective excitation 271 9.2.2.2. “Dark” electron-hole pair 274 9.3. Micro-luminescence 276 9.4. Auger effect 279 9.5. Applications in nanophotonics 281 9.5.1. Semiconductor nanocrystals: single photon sources 281 9.5.2. Semiconductor nanocrystals: new fluorescent labels for biology 283 9.5.3. Semiconductor nanocrystals: a new active material for tunable lazers 285 9.6. Conclusions 286 9.7. References 287 Chapter 10. Nano-Biophotonics 293 Herve RIGNEAULT and Pierre-Francois LENNE 10.1. Introduction 293 10.2. The cell: scale and constituents 295 10.3. Origin and optical contrast mechanisms 296 10.3.1. Classical contrast mechanisms: bright field, dark field, phase contrast and interferometric contrast 297 10.3.2. The fluorescence contrast mechanism 298 10.3.2.1. The lifetime contrast 300 10.3.2.2. Resolving power in fluorescence microscopy 301 10.3.3. Non-linear microscopy 303 10.3.3.1. Second harmonic generation (SHG) 304 10.3.3.2. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) 305 10.4. Reduction of the observation volume 307 10.4.1. Far field methods 308 10.4.1.1. 4Pi microscopy 308 10.4.1.2. Microscopy on a mirror 309 10.4.1.3. Stimulated emission depletion: STED 309 10.4.2. Near field methods 311 10.4.2.1. NSOM 312 10.4.2.2. TIRF 312 10.4.2.3. Nanoholes 313 10.5. Conclusion 314 10.6. References 314 List of Authors 319 Index 323

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