Mechanical engineering and materials Books

Book SynopsisAn authentic resource for thefundamentals, applied techniques, applicationsand recent advancements of all the main areas of technical textiles Created to be a comprehensive reference,High Performance Technical Textilesincludes the review of a wide range of technical textiles from household to space textiles. The contributorsnoted experts in the field from all the continentsoffer in-depth coverage on the fibre materials, manufacturing processes and techniques, applications, current developments, sustainability and future trends. The contributors include discussions on synthetic versus natural fibres, various textile manufacturing techniques, textile composites and finishing approaches that are involved in the manufacturing of textiles for a specific high performance application. Whilst the book provides the basic knowledge required for an understanding of technical textiles, it can serve as a springboard for inspiring new inventions in hi-tech fibres and textiles. This important bookTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi 1 High Performance Technical Textiles: An Overview 1 Roshan Paul 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Application Areas of Technical Textiles 1 1.3 Technical Textiles by Functional Finishing 2 1.4 High Performance Technical Textiles 3 1.5 Conclusion 9 2 Household and Packaging Textiles 11 Pelagia Glampedaki 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Textile Materials, Properties, and Manufacturing 11 2.3 High Performance Applications 20 2.4 Testing Methods and Quality Control 23 2.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 26 2.6 Conclusion 32 References 32 3 Sports Textiles and Comfort Aspects 37 Ali Harlin, Kirsi Jussila, and Elina Ilen 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Textile Fibres 37 3.3 Developments in Yarns 42 3.4 Developments in Fabric Structures 43 3.5 Special Finishes 45 3.6 High Performance Applications 46 3.7 Active Textiles 57 3.8 Smart Textiles and Garments 58 3.9 Testing Methods and Quality Control 61 3.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 62 3.11 Conclusion 62 References 62 4 Medical and Healthcare Textiles 69 Nuno Belino, Raul Fangueiro, Sohel Rana, Pelagia Glampedaki, and Georgios Priniotakis 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Textile Materials, Structures, and Processes 70 4.3 High Performance Applications of Medical Textiles 72 4.4 Nanotechnology in Medicine and Healthcare 76 4.5 Thermo‐Physiological Comfort of Medical Textiles 81 4.6 Biocompatibility – Bioresorbability – Biostability 83 4.7 Intelligent Medical and Healthcare Textiles 85 4.8 Antimicrobial Textiles 93 4.9 Testing Methods and Quality Control 95 4.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 98 4.11 Conclusion 100 References 100 5 Textile Materials for Protective Textiles 107 Ningtao Mao 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 Performance Requirements of Protective Textiles 109 5.3 High Performance Fibres 110 5.4 High Performance Textile Materials 115 5.5 Thermal Burden and Thermo‐Physiological Comfort 131 5.6 Testing Methods and Standards 138 5.7 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 148 5.8 Conclusion 148 References 149 6 Personal Protective Textiles and Clothing 159 Sumit Mandal, Simon Annaheim, Martin Camenzind, and René M. Rossi 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 General Aspects of Textile Based PPC 160 6.3 Fibres for PPC 162 6.4 Yarns for PPC 167 6.5 Fabrics for PPC 173 6.6 PPC Fabrication 183 6.7 Key Issues Related to PPC 187 6.8 Conclusion 189 References 189 7 Textiles for Military and Law Enforcement Personnel 197 Christopher Malbon and Debra Carr 7.1 Introduction 197 7.2 Ballistic and Sharp Weapon Protection 197 7.3 Protection from Heat and Flames 203 7.4 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) Protective Clothing 206 7.5 Functional Finishing 210 7.6 Conclusion 210 References 211 8 Industrial and Filtration Textiles 215 Tawfik A. Khattab and Hany Helmy 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Synthetic and Nanotechnical Fibres 216 8.3 Natural Fibres for Technical Applications 219 8.4 Manufacture of Technical Textiles 221 8.5 Functional Finishing 225 8.6 Textile Reinforced Composite Materials 227 8.7 High Performance Applications 228 8.8 Testing Methods and Quality Control 229 8.9 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 232 8.10 Conclusion 233 References 234 9 Geotextiles and Environmental Protection Textiles 239 Jiří Militký, Rajesh Mishra, and Mohanapriya Venkataraman 9.1 Introduction 239 9.2 Structure and Performance 240 9.3 Fibres for Geotextiles 243 9.4 Geotextiles and Soil 254 9.5 Manufacturing Techniques 260 9.6 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 272 9.7 Conclusion 274 References 275 10 Agrotextiles and Crop Protection Textiles 279 Adriana Restrepo‐Osorio, Catalina Alvarez‐López, Natalia Jaramillo‐Quiceno, and Patricia Fernandez‐Morales 10.1 Introduction 279 10.2 Fibres for Agrotextiles 280 10.3 Textile Structures for Agrotextiles 284 10.4 High Performance Applications 285 10.5 Testing Standards Applicable to Agrotextiles 295 10.6 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 311 10.7 Conclusion 312 References 313 11 Building and Construction Textiles 319 Jordan Tabor and Tushar Ghosh 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 Architectural Textiles 320 11.3 House Wraps 327 11.4 Insulation 334 11.5 Textile Reinforced Concrete 341 11.6 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 347 11.7 Conclusion 349 References 349 12 Automotive Textiles and Composites 353 Bijoy K. Behera 12.1 Introduction 353 12.2 Mobiltech 354 12.3 Application Areas of Automotive Textiles 355 12.4 Textile Composites for Automobiles 369 12.5 3D Fabrics for Automotive Applications 372 12.6 Comfort Properties of Automotive Interior 376 12.7 Conclusion 379 References 380 13 Marine Textiles and Composites 385 Chi‐wai Kan and Change Zhou 13.1 Introduction 385 13.2 Textiles for Marine Applications 385 13.3 Properties of Textiles for Marine Applications 394 13.4 Marine Textiles and Quality Standards 397 13.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 403 13.6 Conclusion 403 Acknowledgement 403 References 403 14 Aeronautical and Space Textiles 407 Sadaf A. Abbasi, Lijing Wang, Mazhar H. Peerzada, and Raj Ladani 14.1 Introduction 407 14.2 Synthetic and Nanotechnical Fibres 408 14.3 Natural and Bast Fibres for Technical Applications 413 14.4 Manufacture of Technical Textiles 415 14.5 Textile Reinforced Composite Materials 420 14.6 Textile Composite Material Finishing 425 14.7 High Performance Applications 426 14.8 Testing Methods and Quality Control 428 14.9 Self‐Healing of Composite Materials 431 14.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 432 14.11 Conclusion 432 References 433 15 Wearable and Smart Responsive Textiles 439 Lihua Lou, Weijie Yu, and Seshadri Ramkumar 15.1 Introduction 439 15.2 Characterization of Smart Textiles 440 15.3 Smart Textiles Grouped by Function 440 15.4 Application of Smart Textiles 453 15.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 462 15.6 Conclusion 464 Acknowledgements 464 References 464 Index 475

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive reference on biochemistry, bioimaging, bioanalysis, and therapeutic applications of carbon nanomaterials Carbon nanomaterials have been widely applied for biomedical applications in the past few decades, because of their unique physical properties, versatile functionalization chemistry, and biological compatibility. This book provides background knowledge at the entry level into the biomedical applications of carbon nanomaterials, focusing on three applications: bioimaging, bioanalysis, and therapy. Carbon Nanomaterials for Bioimaging, Bioanalysis and Therapy begins with a general introduction to carbon nanomaterials for biomedical applications, including a discussion about the pros and cons of various carbon nanomaterials for the respective therapeutic applications. It then goes on to cover fluorescence imaging; deep tissue imaging; photoacoustic imaging; pre-clinical/clinical bioimaging applications; carbon nanomaterial sensors for canceTable of ContentsList of Contributors xiii Series Preface xix Preface xxi Part I Basics of Carbon Nanomaterials 1 1 Introduction to Carbon Structures 3 Meng-Chih Su and Yuen Yung Hui 1.1 Carbon Age 3 1.2 Classification 4 1.3 Fullerene 4 1.4 Carbon Nanotubes 6 1.4.1 Structure 6 1.4.2 Electronics 8 1.5 Graphene 10 1.5.1 Structure 10 1.5.2 Electronics 11 1.6 Nanodiamonds and Carbon Dots 12 Acknowledgment 13 References 13 2 Using Polymers to Enhance the Carbon Nanomaterial Biointerface 15 Goutam Pramanik, Jitka Neburkova, Vaclav Vanek, Mona Jani, Marek Kindermann, and Petr Cigler 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Colloidal Stability of CNMs 16 2.3 Functionalization of CNMs with Polymers 18 2.3.1 Noncovalent Approaches 18 2.3.2 Covalent Approaches 18 2.4 Influence of Polymers on the Spectral Properties of CNMs 19 2.5 Functionalizing CNMs with Antifouling Polymers for Bioapplications 22 2.6 Functionalization of CNMs with Stimuli‐Responsive Polymers 26 2.6.1 Carbon Nanoparticles with Thermoresponsive Polymers 27 2.6.2 pH‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 27 2.6.3 Redox‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 28 2.6.4 Multi‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 28 2.7 Functionalization of CNMs with Polymers for Delivery of Nucleic Acids 29 2.8 Outlook 32 Acknowledgments 34 References 34 3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Optical Bioimaging and Phototherapy 43 Haifeng Dong and Yu Cao 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Surface Functionalization of Carbon Nanomaterials 43 3.3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Optical Imaging 45 3.3.1 Intrinsic Fluorescence of Carbon Nanomaterials 45 3.3.2 Imaging Utilizing Intrinsic Fluorescence Features of Carbon Nanomaterials 46 3.3.3 Imaging with Fluorescently Labeled Carbon Nanomaterials 51 3.4 Carbon Nanomaterials for Phototherapies of Cancer 51 3.4.1 Photothermal Therapy 52 3.4.2 Photodynamic Therapy 53 3.5 Conclusions and Outlook 56 References 56 Part II Bioimaging and Bioanalysis 63 4 High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Fluorescence Imaging with Carbon Nanomaterials for Preclinical and Clinical Applications 65 John Czerski and Susanta K. Sarkar 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Survey of Carbon Nanomaterials 66 4.2.1 Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 66 4.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 66 4.2.3 Graphene 69 4.2.4 Carbon Nanodots 69 4.3 Fluorescent Properties of FNDs and SWCNTs 69 4.3.1 FNDs 69 4.3.2 SWCNTs 71 4.4 Survey of High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Imaging 71 4.4.1 General Considerations for Eventual Human Use 71 4.4.2 General Considerations for Achieving High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Imaging 72 4.4.2.1 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI) 72 4.4.2.2 X‐ray Computed Tomographic (CT) Imaging 73 4.4.2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 73 4.4.2.4 Image Alignment and Drift Correction 74 4.4.3 Preclinical and Clinical Optical Imaging with CNMs 74 4.4.4 Optical Imaging in the Short‐Wavelength Window (~650–950 nm) 74 4.4.4.1 Optical Imaging beyond the Diffraction Limit 75 4.4.4.2 Selective Modulation of Emission 75 4.4.4.3 Time‐Gated Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging 77 4.4.5 Optical Imaging in the Long‐Wavelength Window (~950–1400 nm) 77 4.5 Conclusions 78 References 79 5 Carbon Nanomaterials for Deep‐Tissue Imaging in the NIR Spectral Window 87 Stefania Lettieri and Silvia Giordani 5.1 Introduction 87 5.1.1 Transparent Optical Windows in Biological Tissue 87 5.1.2 Near‐Infrared Imaging Materials 88 5.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for NIR Imaging 89 5.2.1 Biocompatibility of CNMs 90 5.2.2 Fluorescence of CNMs Probes 91 5.2.3 Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization 91 5.2.4 CNMs as Bioimaging Platforms 91 5.2.4.1 Fullerene 91 5.2.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes 93 5.2.4.3 Graphene Derivatives 99 5.2.4.4 Carbon Dots 100 5.2.4.5 Carbon Nano-onions 102 5.2.4.6 Nanodiamonds 104 5.3 Conclusions and Outlook 105 Acknowledgments 106 References 106 6 Tracking Photoluminescent Carbon Nanomaterials in Biological Systems 115 Simon Haziza, Laurent Cognet, and François Treussart Chapter Summary 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Tracking Cells in Organisms with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 116 6.3 Monitoring Inter and Intra Cellular Dynamics with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 120 6.4 Single‐Walled Carbon Nanotubes: A Near‐Infrared Optical Probe of the Nanoscale Extracellular Space in Live Brain Tissue 127 6.5 Conclusion 131 References 132 7 Photoacoustic Imaging with Carbon Nanomaterials 139 Seunghyun Lee, Donghyun Lee, and Chulhong Kim Chapter Summary 139 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Photoacoustic Imaging Systems 140 7.2.1 Photoacoustic Microscopy 141 7.2.2 Photoacoustic Computed Tomography 142 7.3 Photoacoustic Application of Carbon Nanomaterials 145 7.3.1 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photoacoustic Imaging Contrast Agents 146 7.3.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for Multimodal Photoacoustic Imaging 149 7.3.3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photoacoustic Image‐Guided Therapy 156 7.3.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 160 Acknowledgments 161 References 162 8 Carbon Nanomaterial Sensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 167 Tran T. Tung, Kumud M. Tripathi, TaeYoung Kim, Melinda Krebsz, Tibor Pasinszki, and Dusan Losic 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Detection of VOC by Using Gas/Vapor Sensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 169 8.2.1 Carbon Nanodots (CNDs) and Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) for VOC Sensors 171 8.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) for VOC Sensors 173 8.2.3 Graphene for VOC Sensors 176 8.3 Detection of Biomarkers Using Biosensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 179 8.3.1 Carbon Nanodot‐ and Graphene Quantum Dot‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarkers Detection 179 8.3.2 Carbon Nanotube‐Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Detection 182 8.3.3 Carbon Nanotube‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection 186 8.3.4 Graphene‐Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Detection 188 8.3.5 Graphene‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection 190 8.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 192 Acknowledgments 193 References 193 9 Recent Advances in Carbon Dots for Bioanalysis and the Future Perspectives 203 Jessica Fung Yee Fong, Yann Huey Ng, and Sing Muk Ng 9.1 Introduction 203 9.2 Fundamentals of CDs 205 9.2.1 Synthesis Approaches 205 9.2.2 Optical Properties 206 9.2.2.1 Absorbance and Photoluminescence (PL) 206 9.2.2.2 Quantum Yield (QY) 210 9.2.2.3 Photoluminescence Origins 210 9.2.2.4 Up‐Conversion Photoluminescence (UCPL) 211 9.2.2.5 Phosphorescence 212 9.2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 213 9.2.4 Biosafety Assessments 214 9.3 Bioengineering of CDs for Bioanalysis 216 9.3.1 Functionalization Mechanism and Strategies 216 9.3.1.1 Chemical Functionalization 216 9.3.1.2 Doping 217 9.3.1.3 Coupling with Gold Nanoparticles 217 9.3.1.4 Fabrication onto Solid Polymeric Matrices 218 9.3.2 Biomolecules Grafted on CDs as Sensing Receptors 218 9.3.2.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 218 9.3.2.2 Aptamers 219 9.3.2.3 Proteins/Peptides 219 9.3.2.4 Biopolymers 220 9.4 Bioanalysis Applications of CDs 221 9.4.1 Biosensing Mechanism/Transduction Schemes 221 9.4.1.1 Fluorescence 222 9.4.1.2 Chemiluminescence (CL) 223 9.4.1.3 Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) 224 9.4.1.4 Electrochemical 224 9.4.2 Uses of CDs in Bioanalysis 225 9.4.2.1 Heavy Metals/Elements 225 9.4.2.2 Reactive Oxygen/Nitrogen Species (ROS/RNS) 226 9.4.2.3 Oligonucleotides 227 9.4.2.4 Small Molecules/Pharmaceutical Drugs/Natural Compounds 228 9.4.2.5 Proteins 230 9.4.2.6 Enzyme Activities and Inhibitor Screening 231 9.4.2.7 pH 232 9.4.2.8 Temperature 234 9.4.3 Solid‐State Sensing for Point‐of‐Care Diagnostic Kits 234 9.4.4 Bioimaging/Real‐Time Monitoring 236 9.4.5 Theranostics 238 9.5 Future Perspectives 240 9.5.1 Better Understanding of PL Mechanisms 240 9.5.2 Establishment of Systematic Synthesis Protocol 241 9.5.3 QY Improvement and Spectral Expansion to Longer Wavelength 241 9.5.4 Sensitivity Improvement for Solid‐State Sensing 242 9.6 Conclusions 242 References 242 Part III Therapy 265 10 Functionalized Carbon Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery 267 Naoki Komatsu 267 10.1 Introduction 267 10.2 Direct Fabrication of Graphene‐Based Composite with Photosensitizer for Cancer Phototherapy 268 10.2.1 Fabrication of Graphene‐Based Composite with Chlorin e6 (G‐Ce6) 268 10.2.2 Characterization of G‐Ce6 268 10.2.3 In vitro Evaluation of G‐Ce6 for Cancer Phototherapy 272 10.3 Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug for Cancer Chemotherapy 274 10.3.1 Synthesis of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug and Targeting Peptide 274 10.3.2 Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond and the Derivatives 276 10.3.3 In vitro Evaluation of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug for Cancer Chemotherapy 279 10.4 Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Hybridized with DNA for Gene Therapy 280 10.4.1 Synthesis and Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Basic Polypeptides 280 10.4.2 Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Hybridized with Plasmid DNA 280 10.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 283 Acknowledgments 285 References 285 11 Multifunctional Graphene‐Based Nanocomposites for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 289 Ayuob Aghanejad, Parinaz Abdollahiyan, Jaleh Barar, and Yadollah Omidi 11.1 Introduction 289 11.2 Multifunctional Graphene‐Based Composites for the Diagnosis/Therapy of Cancer 291 11.2.1 Metal‐Graphene Nanocomposites 292 11.2.1.1 Gold‐Graphene Composites 292 11.2.1.2 Magnetic Graphene Nanocomposites 294 11.2.2 Polymeric Graphene Nanocomposites 295 11.2.3 Graphene Biomaterials for MR Imaging 299 11.3 Multimodal Graphene‐Based Composites for the Radiotherapy of Cancer 300 11.4 Graphene‐Based Nanobiomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis 302 11.5 Conclusion 302 Acknowledgment 303 References 303 12 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapies 309 Jiantao Yu, Lingyan Yang, Junyan Yan, Wen‐Cheng Wang, Yi‐Chun Chen, Hung‐Hsiang Chen, and Chia‐Hua Lin 12.1 Introduction 309 12.2 GO for PTT 311 12.2.1 PTT‐Related Physical and Chemical Properties of GO 311 12.2.2 GO for in vitro PTT 312 12.2.3 GO for in vivo PTT 314 12.3 CNTs and CNHs for PTT 314 12.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of CNTs and CNHs Related to PTT 315 12.3.2 CNTs and CNHs for in vitro PTT 316 12.3.3 CNTs and CNHs for in vivo PTT 316 12.4 CDs and GDs for PTT 318 12.4.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of CDs and GDs Related to PTT 318 12.4.2 CDs and GDs for in vitro PTT 319 12.4.3 CDs and GDs for in vivo PTT 319 12.5 Fullerenes for PTT 320 12.5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Fullerenes Related to PTT 320 12.5.2 Fullerenes for in vitro PTT 320 12.5.3 Fullerenes for in vivo PTT 321 12.6 Carbon Nanomaterial‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 321 12.6.1 GO‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 322 12.6.2 CNT‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 323 12.6.3 CD‐ and GD‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 323 12.7 Carbon Nanomaterial‐Based Combined Therapy with PTT 324 12.7.1 Chemotherapy 324 12.7.2 RT 324 12.7.3 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) 325 12.7.4 Gene Therapy 325 12.7.5 Immune Therapy 327 12.7.6 Theranostic Applications 328 12.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 329 References 330 Index 341

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Book SynopsisAn informative look at the theory, computer implementation, and application of the scaled boundary finite element method This reliable resource, complete with MATLAB, is an easy-to-understand introduction to the fundamental principles of the scaled boundary finite element method. It establishes the theory of the scaled boundary finite element method systematically as a general numerical procedure, providing the reader with a sound knowledge to expand the applications of this method to a broader scope. The book also presents the applications of the scaled boundary finite element to illustrate its salient features and potentials. The Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method: Introduction to Theory and Implementation covers the static and dynamic stress analysis of solids in two and three dimensions. The relevant concepts, theory and modelling issues of the scaled boundary finite element method are discussed and the unique features of the method are highlightedTable of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgements xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Numerical Modelling 1 1.2 Overview of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 6 1.3 Features and Example Applications of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 10 1.3.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics: Crack Terminating at Material Interface 11 1.3.2 Automatic Mesh Generation Based on Quadtree/Octree 13 1.3.3 Treatment of Non-matching Meshes 14 1.3.4 Crack Propagation 17 1.3.5 Adaptive Analysis 17 1.3.6 TransientWave Scattering in an Alluvial Basin 19 1.3.7 Automatic Image-based Analysis 19 1.3.7.1 Two-dimensional Elastoplastic Analysis of Cast Iron 20 1.3.7.2 Three-dimensional Concrete Specimen 22 1.3.8 Automatic Analysis of STL Models 24 1.4 Summary 26 Part I Basic Concepts and MATLAB Implementation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method in Two Dimensions 27 2 Basic Formulations of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 31 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Modelling of Geometry in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 31 2.2.1 S-domains: Scaling Requirement on Geometry, Scaling Centre and Scaling of Boundary 31 2.2.2 S-elements: Boundary Discretization of S-domains 37 2.2.3 Scaled Boundary Transformation 40 2.2.3.1 Scaled Boundary Coordinates 40 2.2.3.2 Coordinate Transformation of Partial Derivatives 42 2.2.3.3 Geometrical Properties in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 44 2.3 Governing Equations of Linear Elasticity in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 50 2.4 Semi-analytical Representation of Displacement and Strain Fields 51 2.5 Derivation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation by the Virtual Work Principle 53 2.5.1 Virtual Displacement and Strain Fields in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 54 2.5.2 Nodal Force Functions 54 2.5.3 The Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 55 2.6 Computer Program Platypus: Coefficient Matrices of an S-element 63 2.6.1 Element Coefficient Matrices of a 2-node Line Element 63 2.6.2 Assembly of Coefficient Matrices of an S-element 67 3 Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation by Eigenvalue Decomposition 73 3.1 Solution Procedure for the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equations in Displacement 73 3.2 Pre-conditioning of Eigenvalue Problems 77 3.3 Computer Program Platypus: Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation of a Bounded S-element by the Eigenvalue Method 78 3.4 Assembly of S-elements and Solution of Global System of Equations 84 3.4.1 Assembly of S-elements 84 3.4.2 Surface Tractions 85 3.4.3 Enforcing Displacement Boundary Conditions 87 3.5 Computer Program Platypus: Assembly and Solution 87 3.5.1 Assembly of Global Stiffness Matrix 87 3.5.2 Assembly of Load Vector 95 3.5.3 Solution of Global System of Equations 96 3.5.4 Utility Functions 97 3.6 Examples of Static Analysis Using Platypus 102 3.7 Evaluation of Internal Displacements and Stresses of an S-element 111 3.7.1 Integration Constants and Internal Displacements 111 3.7.2 Strain/Stress Modes and Strain/Stress Fields 112 3.7.3 Shape Functions of Polygon Elements Modelled as S-elements 114 3.8 Computer Program Platypus: Internal Displacements and Strains 114 3.9 Body Loads 132 3.10 Dynamics and Vibration Analysis 135 3.10.1 Mass Matrix and Equation of Motion 135 3.10.2 Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes 140 3.10.3 Response History Analysis Using the Newmark Method 143 4 Automatic Polygon Mesh Generation for Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 149 4.1 Introduction 149 4.2 Basics of Geometrical Representation by Signed Distance Functions 150 4.3 Computer Program Platypus: Generation of Polygon S-elementMesh 154 4.3.1 Mesh Data Structure 157 4.3.2 Centroid of a Polygon 165 4.3.3 Converting a TriangularMesh to an S-elementMesh 166 4.3.4 Use of Polygon Meshes Generated by PolyMesher in a Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 171 4.3.5 Dividing Edges of Polygons into Multiple Elements 172 4.4 Examples of Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis Using Platypus 175 4.4.1 A Deep Beam 178 4.4.1.1 Static Analysis 186 4.4.1.2 Modal Analysis 189 4.4.1.3 Response History Analysis 190 4.4.1.4 Pure Bending of a Beam: 2 Line Elements on an Edge of Polygons 190 4.4.2 A Circular Hole in an Infinite Plane Under Remote Uniaxial Tension 193 4.4.3 An L-shaped Panel 197 4.4.3.1 Static Analysis 203 4.4.3.2 Modal Analysis 204 4.4.3.3 Response History Analysis 207 5 Modelling Considerations in the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 209 5.1 Effect of Location of Scaling Centre on Accuracy 209 5.2 Mesh Transition 212 5.2.1 Local Mesh Refinement 212 5.2.2 Rapid Mesh Transition 214 5.2.3 Effect of Nonuniformity of Line Element Length on the Boundary of S-elements 216 5.3 Connecting Non-matching Meshes of Multiple Domains 218 5.3.1 Computer Program Platypus: Combining Two Non-matching Meshes 220 5.3.2 Computer Program Platypus: Modelling of a Problem by Multiple Domains with Non-matching Meshes 223 5.3.3 Examples 225 5.4 Modelling of Stress Singularities 234 Part II Theory and Applications of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 237 6 Derivation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation in Three Dimensions 239 6.1 Introduction 239 6.2 Scaling of Boundary 239 6.3 Boundary Discretization of an S-domain 242 6.3.1 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Elements 243 6.3.1.1 Four-node Quadrilateral Element 243 6.3.1.2 Quadrilateral Element of Variable Number of Nodes 245 6.3.2 Isoparametric Triangular Elements 246 6.3.2.1 Three-node Triangular Elements 247 6.3.2.2 Six-node Triangular Elements 248 6.4 Scaled Boundary Transformation of Geometry 249 6.5 Geometrical Properties in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 253 6.6 Governing Equations of Elastodynamics with Geometry in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 257 6.7 Derivation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation by the Galerkin’s Weighted Residual Technique 259 6.7.1 Displacement, Strain Fields and Nodal Force Functions in Scaled Boundary Coordinates 259 6.7.2 The Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 262 6.8 Unified Formulations in Two andThree Dimensions 267 6.9 Formulation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation as a System of First-order Differential Equations 268 6.10 Properties of Coefficient Matrices 269 6.10.1 Coefficient Matrices [E0] and [M0] 270 6.10.2 Coefficient Matrix [E2] 270 6.10.3 Matrix [Zp] 271 6.11 Linear Completeness of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Solution 272 6.11.1 Constant Displacement Field 272 6.11.2 Linear Displacement Field 273 6.12 Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation in Stiffness 278 7 Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation in Statics by Schur Decomposition 281 7.1 Introduction 281 7.2 Basics of Matrix Exponential Function 283 7.3 Schur Decomposition 287 7.3.1 Introduction 287 7.3.2 Treatment of the Diagonal Block of Eigenvalues of 0 288 7.4 Solution Procedure for a Bounded S-element by Schur Decomposition 291 7.4.1 Transformation of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 291 7.4.2 Enforcing the Boundary Condition at the Scaling Centre 292 7.4.3 Determining the Solution for Displacement and Nodal Force Functions 294 7.4.4 Determining the Static Stiffness Matrix 295 7.5 Solution of Displacement and Stress Fields of an S-element 295 7.5.1 Integration Constants 295 7.5.2 Stress Modes and Stresses on the Boundary 296 7.6 Block-diagonal Schur Decomposition 297 7.7 Solution Procedure by Block-diagonal Schur Decomposition 303 7.7.1 General Solution of the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Equation 303 7.7.1.1 [Zp] Having No Eigenvalues of Zero 304 7.7.1.2 [Zp] Having Eigenvalues of Zero 304 7.7.2 Solution for Bounded S-elements 305 7.7.3 Solution for Unbounded S-elements 307 7.7.3.1 [Zp] Having No Eigenvalues of Zero 307 7.7.3.2 [Zp] Having Eigenvalues of Zero 308 7.8 Displacements and Stresses of an S-element by Block-diagonal Schur Decomposition 310 7.8.1 Integration Constants and Displacement Fields 310 7.8.2 Stress Modes and Stress Fields 311 7.8.3 Shape Functions of Polytope Elements 312 7.9 Body Loads 313 7.10 Mass Matrix 315 7.11 Remarks 317 7.12 Examples 319 7.12.1 Circular Cavity in Full-plane 319 7.12.2 Bi-materialWedge 322 7.12.3 Interface Crack in Anisotropic Bi-material Full-plane 325 7.13 Summary 327 8 High-order Elements 329 8.1 Lagrange Interpolation 330 8.2 One-dimensional Spectral Elements 333 8.2.1 Shape Functions 334 8.2.2 Numerical Integration of Element Coefficient Matrices 337 8.2.2.1 Gauss-Legendre Quadrature 337 8.2.2.2 Gauss-Lobatto-Legendre Quadrature 338 8.3 Two-dimensional Quadrilateral Spectral Elements 341 8.3.1 Shape Functions 341 8.3.2 Integration of Element Coefficient Matrices by Gauss-Lobatto-Legendre Quadrature 342 8.4 Examples 344 8.4.1 A Cantilever Beam Subject to End Loading 345 8.4.2 A Circular Hole in an Infinite Plate 347 8.4.3 An L-shaped Panel 349 8.4.4 A 3D Cantilever Beam Subject to End-shear Loading 351 8.4.5 A Pressurized Hollow Sphere 352 9 Quadtree/Octree Algorithm of Mesh Generation for Scaled Boundary Finite Element Analysis 355 9.1 Introduction 355 9.1.1 Mesh Generation 355 9.1.2 The Quadtree/Octree Algorithm 357 9.2 Data Structure of S-element Meshes 360 9.3 Quadtree/Octree Mesh Generation of Digital Images 361 9.3.1 Illustration of Quadtree Decomposition of Two-dimensional Images by an Example 361 9.3.2 Octree Decomposition 366 9.4 Solutions of S-elements with the Same Pattern of Node Configuration 370 9.4.1 Two-dimensional S-elements 370 9.4.2 Three-dimensional S-elements 372 9.5 Examples of Image-based Analysis 374 9.5.1 A 2D Concrete Specimen 374 9.5.2 A 3D Concrete Specimen 376 9.6 Quadtree/Octree Mesh Generation for CAD Models 378 9.6.1 Quadtree/Octree Grid 380 9.6.2 Trimming of Boundary Cells 381 9.7 Examples Using Quadtree/Octree Meshes of CAD Models 383 9.7.1 Square Body with Multiple Holes 384 9.7.2 An Evolving Void in a Square Body 385 9.7.3 Adaptive Analysis of an L-shaped Panel 386 9.7.4 A Mechanical Part 387 9.7.5 STL Models 389 9.8 Remarks 394 10 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics 395 10.1 Introduction 395 10.2 Basics of Fracture Analysis: Asymptotic Solutions, Stress Intensity Factors, and the T-stress 397 10.2.1 Crack in Homogeneous Isotropic Material 397 10.2.2 Interfacial Cracks between Two Isotropic Materials 401 10.2.3 Interfacial Cracks between Two AnisotropicMaterials 402 10.2.4 Multi-materialWedges 405 10.3 Modelling of Singular Stress Fields by the Scaled Boundary Finite Element Method 406 10.4 Stress Intensity Factors and the T-stress of a Cracked Homogeneous Body 407 10.5 Definition and Evaluation of Generalized Stress Intensity Factors 416 10.6 Examples of Highly Accurate Stress Intensity Factors and T-stress 432 10.6.1 A Single Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under Tension 433 10.6.2 A Single Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under Bending 435 10.6.3 A Centre-cracked Rectangular Body Under Tension 437 10.6.4 A Double Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under Tension 438 10.6.5 A Single Edge-cracked Rectangular Body Under End Shearing 439 10.7 Modelling of Crack Propagation 440 10.7.1 Modelling of Crack Paths by Polygon Meshes 442 10.7.2 Modelling of Crack Paths by Quadtree Meshes 443 10.7.3 Examples of Crack PropagationModelling 444 10.7.3.1 Fatigue Crack Propagation Using Polygon Mesh 444 10.7.3.2 Crack Propagation in a Beam with Three Holes 447 Appendix A Governing Equations of Linear Elasticity 449 A.1 Three-dimensional Problems 449 A.1.1 Strain 449 A.1.2 Stress and Equilibrium Equation 450 A.1.3 Stress-strain Relationship and Material Elasticity Matrix 451 A.1.4 Boundary Conditions 453 A.2 Two-dimensional Problems 454 A.2.1 Elasticity Matrix in Plane Stress 455 A.2.2 Elasticity Matrix in Plane Strain 456 A.3 Unified Expressions of Governing Equations 457 Appendix B Matrix Power Function 459 B.1 Definition of Matrix Power Function 459 B.2 Application to Solution of System of Ordinary Differential Equations 460 B.3 Computation of Matrix Power Function by Eigenvalue Method 461 Bibliography 463 Index 475

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive source of generalized design data for most widely used fin surfaces in CHEs Compact Heat Exchanger Analysis, Design and Optimization: FEM and CFD Approach brings new concepts of design data generation numerically (which is more cost effective than generic design data) and can be used by design and practicing engineers more effectively. The numerical methods/techniques are introduced for estimation of performance deteriorations like flow non-uniformity, temperature non-uniformity, and longitudinal heat conduction effects using FEM in CHE unit level and Colburn j factors and Fanning friction f factors data generation method for various types of CHE fins using CFD. In addition, worked examples for single and two-phase flow CHEs are provided and the complete qualification tests are given for CHEs use in aerospace applications. Chapters cover: Basic Heat Transfer; Compact Heat Exchangers; Fundamentals of Finite Element and Finite Volume Methods; Finite Element Analysis ofTable of ContentsPreface xiii Series Preface xv 1 Basic Heat Transfer 1 1.1 Importance of Heat Transfer 1 1.2 Heat Transfer Modes 2 1.3 Laws of Heat Transfer 3 1.4 Steady-State Heat Conduction 4 1.4.1 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction 5 1.4.2 Three-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation 7 1.4.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions 10 1.5 Transient Heat Conduction Analysis 11 1.5.1 Lumped Heat Capacity System 11 1.6 Heat Convection 13 1.6.1 Flat Plate in Parallel Flow 14 1.6.1.1 Laminar Flow Over an Isothermal Plate 14 1.6.1.2 Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate 16 1.6.1.3 Boundary Layer Development Over Heated Plate 17 1.6.2 Internal Flow 18 1.6.2.1 Hydrodynamic Considerations 19 1.6.2.2 Flow Conditions 19 1.6.2.3 Mean Velocity 20 1.6.2.4 Velocity Profile in the Fully Developed Region 21 1.6.3 Forced Convection Relationships 23 1.7 Radiation 28 1.7.1 Radiation – Fundamental Concepts 30 1.8 Boiling Heat Transfer 35 1.8.1 Flow Boiling 36 1.9 Condensation 38 1.9.1 Film Condensation 39 1.9.2 Drop-wise Condensation 39 Nomenclature 40 Greek Symbols 42 Subscripts 42 References 43 2 Compact Heat Exchangers 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Motivation for Heat Transfer Enhancement 46 2.3 Comparison of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger 48 2.4 Classification of Heat Exchangers 49 2.5 Heat Transfer Surfaces 51 2.5.1 Rectangular Plain Fin 52 2.5.2 Louvred-Fin 52 2.5.3 Strip-Fin or Lance and Offset Fin 53 2.5.4 Wavy-Fin 53 2.5.5 Pin-Fin 53 2.5.6 Rectangular Perforated Fin 54 2.5.7 Triangular Plain Fin 54 2.5.8 Triangular Perforated Fin 54 2.5.9 Vortex Generator 55 2.6 Heat Exchanger Analysis 56 2.6.1 Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference 58 2.6.1.1 Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger 59 2.6.1.2 Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger 62 2.6.2 Effectiveness-NTU Method 65 2.6.3 Effectiveness-NTU Relations 69 2.6.4 Evaluation of Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Data 73 2.6.4.1 Flow Properties and Dimensionless Numbers 73 2.6.4.2 Data Curves for j andf 75 2.7 Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 77 2.7.1 Description 77 2.7.2 Geometric Characteristics 78 2.7.3 Correlations for Offset Strip Fin (OSF) Geometry 81 2.8 Finned-Tube Heat Exchanger 81 2.8.1 Geometrical Characteristics 82 2.8.2 Correlations for Circular-Finned-Tube Geometry 84 2.8.3 Pressure Drop 85 2.8.4 Correlations for Louvred Plate-Fin Flat-Tube Geometry 86 2.8.5 Louvre-Fin-Type Flat-Tube Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers 90 2.8.5.1 Geometric Characteristics 91 2.8.5.2 Correlations for Louvre Fin Geometry 93 2.9 Plate-Fin Exchangers Operating Limits 93 2.10 Plate-Fin Exchangers – Monitoring and Maintenance 94 2.10.1 Advantage 95 2.10.2 Disadvantages 95 Nomenclature 95 Greek Symbols 97 Subscripts 98 References 98 3 Fundamentals of Finite Element and Finite Volume Methods 101 3.1 Introduction 101 3.2 Finite Element Method 101 3.2.1 Finite Element Form of the Conduction Equation 103 3.2.2 Elements and Shape Functions 104 3.2.3 Two-Dimensional Linear Triangular Elements 109 3.2.3.1 Area Coordinates 112 3.2.4 Formulation for the Heat Conduction Equation 114 3.2.4.1 Variational Approach 115 3.2.4.2 Galerkin Method 118 3.2.5 Requirements for Interpolation Functions 119 3.2.6 Plane Wall with a Heat Source – Solution by Quadratic Element 128 3.2.7 Two-Dimensional Plane Problems 130 3.2.7.1 Triangular Elements 131 3.2.8 Finite Element Method-Transient Heat Conduction 141 3.2.8.1 Galerkin Method for Transient Heat Conduction 142 3.2.9 Time Discretization using the Finite Element Method 145 3.2.10 Finite Element Method for Heat Exchangers 146 3.2.10.1 Governing Equations 146 3.2.10.2 Finite Element Formulation 148 3.3 Finite Volume Method 164 3.3.1 Navier–Stokes Equations 165 3.3.1.1 Conservation of Momentum 168 3.3.1.2 Energy Equation 171 3.3.1.3 Non-Dimensional Form of the Governing Equations 173 3.3.1.4 Forced Convection 174 3.3.1.5 Natural Convection (Buoyancy-Driven Convection) 175 3.3.1.6 Mixed Convection 177 3.3.1.7 Transient Convection – Diffusion Problem 177 3.3.2 Boundary Conditions 178 Nomenclature 178 Greek Symbols 179 Subscripts 179 References 179 4 Finite Element Analysis of Compact Heat Exchangers 183 4.1 Introduction 183 4.2 Finite Element Discretization 184 4.3 Governing Equations 184 4.4 Finite Element Formulation 189 4.4.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 189 4.4.2 Counter Flow/Parallel Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers 193 4.4.3 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 194 4.5 Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction Effects 195 4.5.1 General 195 4.5.2 Validation 198 4.5.3 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 199 4.5.4 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 200 4.5.5 Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger 206 4.5.6 Counter Flow Heat Exchanger 206 4.5.7 Relative Comparison of Results 207 4.6 Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity Effects 207 4.6.1 General 207 4.6.2 Validation 214 4.6.3 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 215 4.6.4 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 221 4.6.5 Pressure Drop Variations – Flow Non-Uniformity 224 4.7 Inlet Temperature Non-Uniformity Effects 228 4.7.1 General 228 4.7.2 Validation 229 4.7.3 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 229 4.7.4 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 233 4.8 Combined Effects of Longitudinal Heat Conduction, Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity and Temperature Non-Uniformity 235 4.8.1 General 235 4.8.2 Validation 237 4.8.3 Combined Effects of Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction and Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity 238 4.8.3.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN) 238 4.8.3.2 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN) 243 4.8.4 Combined Effects of Longitudinal Wall Heat Conduction, Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity and Temperature Non-Uniformity 247 4.8.4.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN, TN) 251 4.8.4.2 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger – Combined Effects (LHC, FN, TN) 257 4.8.5 Combined Effects of Inlet Flow Non-Uniformity and Temperature Non-Uniformity 260 4.8.5.1 Cross Flow Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 263 4.8.5.2 Cross Flow Tube-Fin Heat Exchanger 267 4.9 FEM Analysis of Micro Compact Heat Exchangers 273 4.9.1 Governing Equations and Finite Element Formulation 277 4.10 Influence of Heat Conduction from Horizontal Tube in Pool Boiling 282 4.10.1 General 282 4.10.2 Governing Equations 284 4.10.3 Finite Element Analysis 285 4.10.3.1 One-Dimensional Case 286 4.10.3.2 Two-Dimensional Case (Axial and Radial) 286 4.10.3.3 Two-Dimensional Case (Azimuthal and Radial) 287 4.10.3.4 Three-Dimensional Case 287 4.10.4 Results 288 4.10.4.1 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Case 290 4.10.4.2 Two-Dimensional Heat Conduction Case 292 4.10.4.3 Three-Dimensional Heat Conduction Case 293 4.11 Closure 298 Nomenclature 299 Greek Symbols 301 Subscripts 302 References 303 5 Generation of Design Data – Finite Volume Analysis 307 5.1 Introduction 307 5.2 Plate Fin Heat Exchanger 307 5.3 Heat Transfer Surfaces 308 5.3.1 Lance and Offset Fins 308 5.3.2 Wavy Fins 308 5.3.3 Rectangular Plain Fins 309 5.3.4 Rectangular Perforated Fins 310 5.3.5 Triangular Plain Fins 311 5.3.6 Triangular Perforated Fins 311 5.4 Performance Characteristic Curves 311 5.4.1 Working Fluids 312 5.5 CFD Analysis 312 5.5.1 Pre-Processor 313 5.5.2 Main Solver 313 5.5.3 Post-Processor 313 5.5.4 Errors and Uncertainty in CFD Modelling 313 5.6 CFD Approach 314 5.6.1 Mathematical Model 315 5.6.2 Governing Equations 315 5.6.3 Assumptions 316 5.6.4 Boundary Conditions 316 5.6.4.1 Inlet Boundary Conditions 317 5.6.4.2 Outlet Boundary Conditions 317 5.6.4.3 Wall Boundary Conditions 318 5.6.4.4 Constant Pressure Boundary Condition 318 5.6.4.5 Symmetric Boundary Condition 318 5.6.4.6 Periodic Boundary Condition 318 5.6.5 Turbulence Models 318 5.7 Numerical Simulation 319 5.7.1 Transient Analysis 320 5.7.1.1 Data Reduction and Validation 321 5.7.2 Steady State Analysis 328 5.7.2.1 Wavy Fin 328 5.7.2.2 Offset Fins 334 5.7.2.3 Rectangular Plain Fin 337 5.7.2.4 Rectangular Perforated Fin 344 5.7.2.5 Triangular Plain Fin Surface 350 5.7.2.6 Triangular Perforated Fin Surface 356 5.7.3 Flow Non-Uniformity Analysis 362 5.7.4 Characterization of CHE Fins for Two-Phase Flow 366 5.7.4.1 Experimental Set-Up 367 5.7.4.2 Brazed Test Core 368 5.7.4.3 Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient 370 5.7.4.4 Two-Phase Condensation 374 5.7.5 Estimation of Endurance Life of Compact Heat Exchanger 377 5.7.5.1 Computational Analysis 378 5.7.5.2 CFD Analysis of CHE 378 5.7.5.3 Endurance Life Estimation 382 5.7.5.4 Fatigue Life Estimation 382 5.7.5.5 Effect of Creep 383 5.7.5.6 Results of Endurance Life 384 5.8 Closure 385 Nomenclature 388 Greek Symbols 391 Subscripts 391 References 392 6 Thermal and Mechanical Design of Compact Heat Exchanger 399 6.1 Introduction 399 6.2 Basic Concepts and Initial Size Assessment 400 6.2.1 Effectiveness Method 400 6.2.2 Inverse Relationships 403 6.2.3 LMTD Method 403 6.3 Overall Conductance 407 6.3.1 Fin Efficiency and Surface Effectiveness 409 6.4 Pressure Drop Analysis 410 6.4.1 Single Phase Pressure Drop 410 6.4.2 Two-Phase Pressure Loss 413 6.4.2.1 Two-Phase Frictional Losses 414 6.4.2.2 Two-Phase Momentum Losses – Change of Quality 416 6.4.2.3 Two-Phase Gravitational Losses – Upward Flow (Boiling) 416 6.4.2.4 Downward Flow (Condensation) 417 6.5 Two-Phase Heat Transfer 417 6.5.1 Condensation 418 6.5.1.1 All Liquid Heat Transfer Coefficient 418 6.5.1.2 Correction for the Vapour Volume 418 6.5.1.3 Correction for the Multicomponent Streams 419 6.5.2 Evaporation 419 6.5.2.1 Reynolds Number Calculation 420 6.5.2.2 Determine j and f Factors 420 6.5.2.3 Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculation for Quality between 0 and 0.95 420 6.5.2.4 Heat Transfer Coefficient for High and Low Values of Quality 421 6.6 Useful Relations for Surface and Core Geometry 421 6.7 Core Design (Mechanical Design) 424 6.7.1 Fins 424 6.7.2 Separating/Parting Sheets 424 6.7.3 Cap Sheets 424 6.7.4 Headers 424 6.7.5 Supports 425 6.7.6 Fin Minimum Thickness 425 6.7.7 Parting/Separating and Cap Sheets Minimum Thickness 426 6.7.8 Side-Bar Minimum Thickness 426 6.7.9 Headers Minimum Thickness 427 6.8 Procedure for Sizing a Heat Exchanger 427 6.9 Design Procedure of a Typical Compact Heat Exchanger 430 6.10 Worked Examples 434 6.10.1 Example 1: Direct Transfer Heat Exchanger 434 6.10.2 Example 2: Two-Pass Cross Flow Heat Exchanger 442 6.10.3 Example 3: Compact Evaporator Design 450 6.10.4 Example 4: Compact Condenser Design 451 Nomenclature 454 Greek Symbols 456 Subscripts 457 References 457 7 Manufacturing and Qualification Testing of Compact Heat Exchangers 461 7.1 Construction of Brazed Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 461 7.2 Construction of Diffusion-Bonded Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger 461 7.3 Brazing 464 7.3.1 Operations in Brazing 465 7.3.2 Brazing Filler Metals 469 7.3.3 Brazing Processes 469 7.3.4 Vacuum Brazing 470 7.3.4.1 Brazing of Aluminium and its Alloys 470 7.3.4.2 Brazing of Stainless Steels 474 7.3.4.3 Brazing of Super Alloys 475 7.3.5 Vacuum Furnace Brazing Cycles 476 7.3.5.1 Vacuum Level during Brazing 477 7.3.5.2 Cooling Gases 477 7.3.5.3 Post Brazing Inspection 478 7.4 Influence of Brazing on Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop 478 7.5 Testing and Qualification of Compact Heat Exchangers 479 7.5.1 Acceptance Tests 480 7.5.1.1 Thermal Performance and Pressure Drop Test 480 7.5.1.2 Pressure Drop Test 484 7.5.1.3 Leakage Test 484 7.5.1.4 Proof Pressure Test 484 7.5.2 Qualification Tests 485 7.5.2.1 Vibration Test 485 7.5.2.2 Combined Pressure, Temperature and Flow Cycling 487 7.5.2.3 Experimental Evaluation of Endurance Life of Compact Heat Exchanger 488 7.5.2.4 Pressure Cycling Test 490 7.5.2.5 Thermal Shock Test 491 7.5.2.6 Acceleration Test 491 7.5.2.7 Shock Test 491 7.5.2.8 Humidity Test 492 7.5.2.9 Fungus Test 493 7.5.2.10 Salt Fog Test 493 7.5.2.11 Freeze and Thaw 493 7.5.2.12 Rain Resistance 493 7.5.2.13 Sand and Dust 494 7.5.2.14 Shock Test (Arrestor Landing) 494 7.5.2.15 Gunfire Vibration Test 494 7.5.2.16 Burst Pressure Test 495 References 496 Appendices 497 A.1 Derivation of Fourier Series Mathematical Equation 497 A.2 Molar, Gas and Critical Properties 501 A.3 Thermo-Physical Properties of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure 502 A.4 Properties of Solid Materials 509 A.5 Thermo-Physical Properties of Saturated Fluids 515 A.6 Thermo-Physical Properties of Saturated Water 518 A.7 Solar Radiative Properties of Selected Materials 521 A.8 Thermo-Physical Properties of Fluids 522 References 524 Index 525

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Book SynopsisAcrucial overview of the cutting-edge in nanocarbon research and applications InSynthesis and Applications of Nanocarbons,the distinguished authors have set out to discussfundamental topics, synthetic approaches, materials challenges,and various applicationsof this rapidly developing technology.Nanocarbons haverecently emergedasa promising material for chemical, energy, environmental,and medical applicationsbecause oftheir unique chemical properties and their rich surface chemistries. This bookis the latestentry in the Wiley book seriesNanocarbon Chemistry and Interfacesand seeks to comprehensivelyaddress many of thenewly surfacingareas of controversy and development in the field. This book introduces foundational concepts in nanocarbon technology,hybrids, and applications, while also covering the most recent and cutting-edge developments in this area of study. Synthesis and Applications of Nanocarbonsaddresses new discoveries in the field, including: Nanodiamonds Onion-like carbons Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv 1 Properties of Carbon Bulk Materials: Graphite and Diamond 1Kamatchi Jothiramalingam Sankaran and Ken Haenen 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Graphite 2 1.2.1 History 2 1.2.2 sp2 Hybridization 3 1.2.3 Structure of Graphite 3 1.2.3.1 Hexagonal Graphite 3 1.2.3.2 Rhombohedral Graphite 3 1.2.3.3 Polycrystalline Graphite 4 1.2.3.4 Crystallite Imperfections 5 1.2.4 Natural and Synthetic Graphite 5 1.2.4.1 Natural Graphite 5 1.2.4.2 Synthetic Graphite 6 1.3 Diamond 7 1.3.1 History 7 1.3.2 sp3 Hybridization 8 1.3.3 Structure of Diamond 9 1.3.3.1 Crystal Forms of Diamond 9 1.3.4 Impurities in Diamond 10 1.3.4.1 Lattice Impurities 11 1.3.4.2 Inclusions 11 1.3.5 Natural and Synthetic Diamond 11 1.3.5.1 Natural Diamond 11 1.3.5.2 Synthetic Diamond 12 1.4 Characterization of Graphite and Diamond 14 1.4.1 Raman Spectroscopy 14 1.4.2 X-ray Diffraction 15 1.4.3 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy 15 1.4.4 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 17 1.4.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy 17 1.4.6 Transmission Electron Microscopy 17 1.5 Properties of Graphite and Diamond 18 1.6 Applications of Graphite and Diamond 20 1.6.1 Graphite 20 1.6.2 Diamond 20 References 21 2 Endohedral and Exohedral Single-Layered Fullerenes 25Diana M. Bobrowska and Marta E. Plonska-Brzezinska 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Structure and Physicochemical Properties of “Empty” Single-Layered Fullerenes 25 2.3 Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Endohedral Fullerenes 29 2.4 Functionalization and Application of Single-Layered Fullerenes 32 2.4.1 Functionalization and Application of Exohedral Fullerenes 32 2.4.2 Functionalization and Application of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 38 2.5 Summary 42 Acknowledgments 42 References 42 3 Spherical Onion-Like Carbons 63Diana M. Bobrowska and Marta E. Plonska-Brzezinska 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Structure of Onion-Like Carbons and Their Physicochemical Properties 63 3.3 Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization of OLCs 69 3.4 Doping of OLCs by Heteroatoms 82 3.5 Applications of OLCs 84 3.5.1 Bioimaging 84 3.5.2 (Bio)Sensors 85 3.5.3 Energy Storage Devices 86 3.5.4 Solar Cells 88 3.5.5 Electronic and Photonic Applications 88 3.5.6 Sorbents 89 3.5.7 Catalysis and Electrocatalysis 89 3.5.8 Tribology 90 3.6 Summary 90 Acknowledgments 91 References 91 4 Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis, Properties, and New Developments in Research 107Marianna V. Kharlamova and Dominik Eder 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes 108 4.3 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 109 4.3.1 Electronic Properties 109 4.3.2 Mechanical Properties 110 4.3.3 Thermal Properties 111 4.4 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 111 4.4.1 Arc-Discharge 111 4.4.2 Laser Ablation 112 4.4.3 Molten Salt Route/Electrolytic Process 113 4.4.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 113 4.5 Postsynthesis Treatments of Carbon Nanotubes 114 4.5.1 Purification 114 4.5.2 Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting SWCNTs 115 4.5.3 Functionalization 116 4.6 New Developments in Carbon Nanotube Research: Toward Controllable Properties of Nanotubes 117 4.6.1 Chirality Selective Synthesis of SWCNTs 117 4.6.2 Chirality Selective Separation of SWCNTs 120 4.6.3 Substitutional Doping of SWCNTs 122 4.6.4 Exohedral Modification of CNTs: Nanotube Hybrids 123 4.6.5 Filling of SWCNT Interior Channels 124 4.7 Conclusions and Outlook 125 Acknowledgments 128 References 129 5 CNT Fiber-Based Hybrids: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications in Energy Management 149Moumita Rana, Cleis Santos, Alfonso Monreal-Bernal and Juan J. Vilatela 5.1 Introduction: What are CNT Fibers andWhy Do they Form Interesting Hybrids and Composites? 149 5.1.1 CNT Fiber Structure and Properties 149 5.1.2 Design Principles in CNT Fiber Hybrids 152 5.2 Hybridization with Metal Oxides 153 5.2.1 Surface Chemistry and Functionalization 154 5.2.2 Examples of Common Architectures: Layered, Particulates, Conformal 156 5.2.2.1 Particulate Systems 156 5.2.2.2 Layered Systems 161 5.2.2.3 Conformal CNT Fiber Hybrids 162 5.2.3 Hybrid Structure and Interfacial Characterization 163 5.2.3.1 Determination of Mass Fraction 163 5.2.3.2 Wetting and Interaction with Solvents 166 5.2.3.3 Specific Surface Area and Pore Size 168 5.2.4 Solid-State Transport Characterization of Layered Hybrids 169 5.2.4.1 Junction Characterization in Layered Hybrids 171 5.2.5 Interfacial Studies by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy Methods 175 5.2.6 Advanced Interfacial Studies in ALD-Hybrid Test Systems 177 5.2.6.1 Residual Strain 177 5.2.6.2 Evidence of an Interfacial Ti—O—C Bond 179 5.2.6.3 Electronic Structure of the Ti—O—C Interface 180 5.3 EDLC Introducing Pseudocapacitive Reactions 182 5.4 Capacitive Deionization 185 5.5 Battery Electrodes 189 5.6 Conclusions and Perspective 193 References 194 6 Advanced Materials Designed with Nanodiamonds: Synthesis and Applications 201Jean-Charles Arnault 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Synthesis of Isolated Objects from ND 203 6.2.1 ND Grafted with Molecules 203 6.2.1.1 Electrostatic Grafting 203 6.2.1.2 Chemical Grafting 206 6.2.2 Nanodiamonds as Templates 209 6.2.2.1 Decoration by Atoms or Clusters 209 6.2.2.2 Core Shells with Diamond Core 212 6.3 Decoration of Particles by ND, Core Shells with Diamond Shell 215 6.3.1 Nanodiamonds to Decorate or to Graft to NP 215 6.3.1.1 Emulsion 215 6.3.1.2 Decoration of Nanoparticles with ND 216 6.3.1.3 Decoration of Carbon Nanostructures by ND 217 6.3.2 Silica/Diamond Core Shells 218 6.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 219 References 220 7 Chemical Functionalization of Nanodiamond for Nanobiomedicine 229Naoki Komatsu 7.1 Introduction 229 7.2 ND for Fluorescent Cell Labeling 229 7.2.1 Fluorophore-Immobilized ND 229 7.2.1.1 Synthesis 229 7.2.1.2 Cell Labeling 231 7.2.2 ND with Intrinsic Fluorescence 232 7.2.2.1 Synthesis 232 7.2.2.2 Cell Labeling 233 7.3 ND for MRI 235 7.3.1 Synthesis 235 7.3.2 MRI Relaxivity 238 7.4 ND for Gene Delivery 238 7.4.1 Synthesis 238 7.4.2 Gene Delivery 239 7.5 ND for Drug Delivery 241 7.5.1 Synthesis 241 7.5.2 Drug Delivery 243 7.6 Concluding Remarks 244 Acknowledgments 245 References 245 8 Nanocarbon Aerogels and Aerographite 247Hubert Beisch and Bodo Fiedler 8.1 Introduction 247 8.2 Fabrication 247 8.2.1 Non-template Based and Template Based Methods 248 8.2.1.1 Non-template Based Synthesis 248 8.2.1.2 Template Based Synthesis 249 8.2.2 Template Based Synthesis of Aerographite and Globugraphite 249 8.2.2.1 Fabrication of Porous Ceramic Templates 249 8.2.2.2 CVD Synthesis 250 8.3 Morphology 253 8.3.1 Tetrapodal Networks 253 8.3.2 Globular Foam Structures with Hierarchical Pore Morphology 254 8.3.3 ReticularMorphology 255 8.3.4 Carbon Hybrids 256 8.4 Properties 258 8.4.1 Density 258 8.4.2 Electrical and Electrochemical Properties 259 8.4.2.1 Electrical Conductivity 259 8.4.2.2 Electrochemical Performance 262 8.5 Modifications 267 8.5.1 Metal and Metal Oxide Hybrids 267 8.5.2 Thermal Treatment (Annealing) 267 8.6 Conclusion 270 8.6.1 Summary 270 8.6.2 Outlook 271 References 271 9 Optoelectronic Properties of Nanocarbons and Nanocarbon Films 275Cameron J. Shearer, LePing Yu and Joseph G. Shapter 9.1 Introduction 275 9.2 Nanocarbons 276 9.2.1 Graphene and Derivatives 276 9.2.1.1 Pristine Graphene via Micromechanical Exfoliation 276 9.2.1.2 Reduced Graphene/Graphite Oxide 278 9.2.1.3 Graphene from Chemical Vapor Deposition 278 9.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 279 9.2.2.1 SWCNT Chirality 280 9.3 Fundamentals of Optical and Electronic Properties of Nanocarbons 280 9.3.1 Electronic Properties 280 9.3.1.1 Graphene 280 9.3.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes 282 9.3.2 Optical Properties 284 9.3.2.1 Graphene 284 9.3.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 284 9.4 Optoelectronic Properties of Nanocarbon Films 287 9.4.1 The Figure of Merit (FOM) of Optoelectronic Devices 287 9.4.2 Techniques to Maximize FOM 287 9.5 Summary and Outlook 289 References 290 Index 295

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Book SynopsisExamines the concept of aging process facilities and infrastructure in high hazard industries and highlights options for dealing with the problem while addressing safety issues This book explores the many ways in which process facilities, equipment, and infrastructure might deteriorate upon continuous exposure to operating and climatic conditions. It covers the functional and physical failure modes for various categories of equipment and discusses the many warning signs of deterioration. Dealing with Aging Process Facilities and Infrastructure also explains how to deal with equipment that may not be safe to operate. The book describes a risk-based strategy in which plant leaders and supervisors can make more informed decisions on aging situations and then communicate them to upper management effectively. Additionally, it discusses the dismantling and safe removal of facilities that are approaching their intended lifecycle or have passed it altogether. Filled with numerous case studiTable of ContentsList of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Acknowledgments xv Preface 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Purpose 2 1.3 Aging: Concerns, Cause and Consequences 2 1.4 How Aging Occurs 6 1.4.1 Metallic Corrosion 7 1.4.2 Corrosion Under Deposits 8 1.4.3 Corrosion Under Insulation and Fireproofing 8 1.4.4 Manufacturing Defects 9 1.4.5 Excessive Wear and Tear 10 1.4.6 Fatigue 11 1.4.7 Non-Metallic Aging 12 1.4.8 Aging of Physical Structures 12 1.4.9 Process Chemicals Aging 13 1.4.10 Aging of Specialized Equipment 14 1.4.11 Obsolescence 14 1.4.12 Redundancy 15 1.4.13 Brownfield Construction 16 2. Aging Equipment Failures, Causes and Consequences 19 2.1 Aging Equipment Failure and Mechanisms 19 2.2 Consequences of Aging Equipment Incidents 20 2.3 Mechanical Failure of Metal 23 2.3.1 Deformation of Materials 23 2.3.2 Ductile vs. Brittle Fracture 24 2.3.3 Metal Fatigue 24 2.3.4 Corrosion/Erosion 25 2.3.5 Warning Signs 29 2.3.6 Aging Equipment Failure Case Studies 30 2.4 System Functional Aging 33 2.4.1 Aging Equipment Failure Mechanisms 34 2.5 Aging Structures 35 2.5.1 Warning Signs 36 2.5.2 Aging Structure Case Study 36 3. Plant Management Commitment and Responsibility 41 3.1 Promoting Site Safety Culture 41 3.2 Management Challenges 41 3.3 Monitoring Aging Process and Measuring Performance 42 3.4 Human Resources Requirements 44 3.5 Planning for Equipment Retirement and Replacement 45 3.6 Appreciating the Importance of Aging Infrastructure to the Business Enterprise 47 3.6.1 Structural Assets 47 3.6.2 Roads 47 3.6.3 Impoundments and Dikes 47 3.6.4 Fire Water, Cooling Water and Sewers 48 3.6.5 Electrical Distribution Systems 48 3.6.6 Marine Facilities 48 3.6.7 Other Process Facility Infrastructure 48 3.7 Addressing Aging Infrastructure in Decision Process 49 3.7.1 Questions Executives Need to Ask 49 3.7.2 Mergers and Acquisitions 50 4. Risk Based Decisions 51 4.1 Risk Management Basics 51 4.1.1 Risk Ranking 53 4.1.2 Risk Mitigation Controls 55 4.2 Risk Based Decisions 55 4.2.1 When to Apply Risk Based Decisions 57 4.3 How to Apply Risked Based Decisions 57 4.3.1 Determine Hazard Scenarios. 60 4.3.2 Assess Consequences 60 4.3.3 Assess Likelihood 61 4.3.4 Determine Risk 61 4.3.5 Develop Risk Mitigation Controls 62 4.3.6 Implement Risk Controls 63 4.3.7 Information Required for Risk Based Decisions 63 4.3.8 Documentation of Risk Based Decisions 64 4.4 Embracing Risk Based Management 65 4.4.1 Alignment of Management and Operations with Risk Based Decisions 65 4.4.2 Incorporate Corporate Responsibility and Economic Value 65 4.5 Dealing with Unexpected Events 66 4.6 Risk Based Decisions Success Metrics 67 5. Managing Process Equipment and Infrastructure Lifecycle 69 5.1 Lifecycle Stages 69 5.2 Asset Lifecycle Management 69 5.2.1 Management Strategy Development 70 5.2.2 Organizational Design 70 5.2.3 Long-Term Asset Planning 72 5.3 General Topics 72 5.3.1 Manage by Operational Integrity 72 5.3.2 Managing Change During Lifecycle 73 5.3.3 Orphaned Assets 76 5.3.4 Disrepair of Assets 76 5.3.5 Extending Lifecycle with Rebuilt Equipment 77 5.3.6 Managing Used or Refurbished Equipment 78 5.3.7 Mothballing and Re-commissioning of Aged Assets 79 5.3.8 Partial Upgrades to Older Facilities and Equipment 80 5.4 Predicting Asset Service Life 80 5.4.1 Mean Life and Age 80 5.4.2 Assessing End-of-Life Failure Probability 81 5.4.3 Aging Process and Maintenance 84 5.5 Infrastructure Specific Topics 85 6. Inspection and Maintenance Practices for Managing Life Cycle 87 6.1 Inspection and Maintenance Goals 88 6.1.1 Vision 88 6.1.2 Inspection and Maintenance Commitment for Expected Lifecycle of Equipment 88 6.1.3 Implementation of Formal Comprehensive Inspection, Testing and Preventive Maintenance Program 88 6.1.4 Need Justifiable Inspection and Maintenance Practices 89 6.1.5 Managing Aging Asset Strategies 89 6.2 Inspection and Maintenance Program Elements 91 6.2.1 Maintenance Program 94 6.2.2 Inspection Program 99 6.3 Inspection and Maintenance Program Resources 102 6.3.1 Human Resources 102 6.4 Addressing Infrastructure Deficiencies 104 6.4.1 Inspection Follow-up 105 7. Specific Aging Asset Integrity Management Practices 113 7.1 Structural Assets 113 7.1.1 Structure Foundations 113 7.1.2 Support Structures 116 7.1.3 Piping Systems, Pipe Racks and Overpass Information 119 7.1.4 Buildings 120 7.1.5 Inspection and Maintenance RAGAGEPs 123 7.2 Electrical Distribution and Controls 125 7.2.1 Electrical System 125 7.2.2 Control System 134 7.3 Earthworks: Roads, Impoundments, and Railways 137 7.3.1 Roads 137 7.3.2 Earthworks Infrastructure: Trenches, Dikes and Storage Ponds 139 7.3.3 Railways and Spurs 143 7.4 Marine Facilities: Terminals and Jetties 146 7.4.1 Marine Facilities Information 146 7.4.2 Marine Facility Inspection 148 7.4.3 Marine Facilities Aging Warning Signs 150 7.5 Underground Utility Systems 150 7.5.1 Electric Cables 151 7.5.2 Utility Underground Piping: Fuel Gas, Cooling Water, Fire Water, Drains and Sewers 153 8. Decommissioning, Dismantlement and Removal of Redundant Equipment 157 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Equipment Hazards 158 8.2.1 Unknown or Undocumented Condition 158 8.2.2 Dismantling Residual Chemical Hazards 158 8.2.3 Custody After Removal 160 8.3 Final Decommissioning Practices 160 8.3.1 Cleaning 160 8.3.2 Retaining Spare Equipment and Parts 161 8.3.3 Disposal of Chemicals 161 8.4 Dismantling and Disposal 162 8.4.1 Degassing 162 8.4.2 Inerting 162 8.4.3 Removal from Operating Facilities 163 8.4.4 Site Cleanup 163 8.4.5 Scrap Value 165 9. Onward and Beyond 167 Acronyms 169 References 173 Appendix A: Aging Asset Case Studies 177 Case Study 1: Gas Distribution Pipeline Explosion 177 Case Study 2: Mississippi Bridge Collapse 178 Case Study 3: Sinking Building Foundation 179 Case Study 4: Tailings Dam Failure 179 Case Study 5: Sinking of the Betelgeuse 180 Case Study 6: Alexander Kielland Drilling Rig Disaster 182 Case Study 7: Roof Collapse at Ore Processing Facility 182 Index 183

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Book SynopsisA unique text presenting practical information on the topic of nucleation and crystal growth processes from metastable solutions and melts Nucleation and Crystal Growth is a groundbreaking text thatoffers an overview and description of the processes and phenomena associated with metastability of solutions and melts. The authora noted expert in the fieldputs the emphasis on low-temperature solutions that are typically involved in crystallization in a wide range of industries. The text begins with a review of the basic knowledge of solutions and the fundamentals of crystallization processes. The author then explores topics related to the metastable state of solutions and melts from the standpoint of three-dimensional nucleation and crystal growth. Nucleation and Crystal Growth is the first text that contains a unified description and discussion of the many processes and phenomena occurring in the metastable zone of solutions and melts from the considTable of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xix List of Frequently Used Symbols xxi 1 Structure and Properties of Liquids 1 1.1 Different States of Matter 1 1.2 Models of Liquid Structure 6 1.3 Water and Other Common Solvents 12 1.4 Properties of Solutions 15 1.4.1 The Solvation Process 17 1.4.2 The Concentration of Solutions 19 1.4.3 Density and Thermal Expansivity of Solutions 21 1.4.4 Viscosity of Solutions 27 1.5 Saturated Solutions 35 1.6 High-Temperature Solvents and Solutions 43 References 46 2 Three-dimensional Nucleation of Crystals and Solute Solubility 49 2.1 Driving Force for Phase Transition 49 2.2 3D Nucleation of Crystals 54 2.2.1 Nucleation Barrier 55 2.2.2 Nucleation Rate 56 2.2.3 3D Heterogeneous Nucleation 60 2.3 Ideal and Real Solubility 63 2.3.1 Basic Concepts 63 2.3.2 Examples of Experimental Data 68 2.3.3 Mathematical Representation of Solute Solubility in Solvent Mixtures 76 2.4 Solute Solubility as a Function of Solvent–Mixture Composition 78 2.4.1 A Simple Practical Approach 78 2.4.2 Physical Interpretation of the δ Factor and Solvent Activity 87 2.4.3 Preferential Solvation of Solute by Solvents 89 2.5 Solid–Solvent Interfacial Energy 92 2.6 Solubility and Supersolubility 96 References 101 3 Kinetics and Mechanism of Crystallization 105 3.1 Crystal Growth as a Kinetic Process 106 3.2 Types of Crystal–Medium Interfaces 107 3.3 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Roughening of Surfaces 108 3.4 Growth Kinetics of Rough Faces 111 3.5 Growth Kinetics of Perfect Smooth Faces 112 3.6 Growth Kinetics of Imperfect Smooth Faces 116 3.6.1 Surface Diffusion and Direct Integration Models 117 3.6.2 Bulk Diffusion Models 119 3.6.3 Growth at Edge Dislocations 120 3.7 Simultaneous Bulk-Diffusion and Surface-Reaction Controlled Growth 121 3.8 Effect of Impurities on Growth Kinetics 123 3.9 Overall Crystallization 127 3.9.1 Basic Theoretical Equations 129 3.9.2 Polynuclear Crystallization 133 3.9.2.1 Instantaneous Nucleation Mode 134 3.9.2.2 Progressive Nucleation Mode 135 3.9.2.3 Trends of Overall Crystallization Curves 136 3.9.2.4 Some Comments on the KJMA Theory 138 3.9.3 Mononuclear Crystallization 139 3.9.4 Effect of Additives on Overall Crystallization 139 References 140 4 Phase Transformation and Isothermal Crystallization Kinetics 145 4.1 Nucleation and Transformation of Metastable Phases 146 4.1.1 Thermodynamics of Crystallization of Metastable Phases 147 4.1.2 Transformation Kinetics of Metastable Phases 151 4.1.3 Transformation of Metastable Phases According to KJMA Theory 158 4.1.4 Effect of Solvent on Transformation of Metastable Phases 160 4.2 Some Non-KJMAModels of Isothermal Crystallization Kinetics 170 4.2.1 Approach Involving Formation of an Amorphous Precursor 170 4.2.2 Model of Mazzanti, Marangoni, and Idziak 175 4.2.3 Gompertz’s Model 178 4.2.4 Model of Foubert, Dewettinck, Jansen, and Vanrolleghem 179 4.3 Comparison of Different Models of Isothermal Crystallization Kinetics 181 References 186 5 Nonisothermal Crystallization Kinetics and the Metastable Zone Width 189 5.1 Theoretical Interpretations of MSZW 191 5.1.1 Nývlt’s Approach 192 5.1.2 Kubota’s Approach 194 5.1.3 Self-Consistent Nývlt-Like Equation of MSZW 195 5.1.4 Approach Based on the Classical Theory of 3D Nucleation 197 5.1.5 Approach Based on Progressive 3D Nucleation 199 5.1.6 Approach Based on Instantaneous 3D Nucleation 202 5.2 Experimental Results on MSZW of Solute−Solvent Systems 202 5.2.1 Dependence of Dimensionless Supercooling on Cooling Rate 204 5.2.2 Effect of Detection Technique on MSZW 210 5.2.3 Relationships between β and Z and between Φ and F 212 5.2.4 Relationship between Dimensionless F1 and Crystallization Temperature 220 5.2.5 Dependence of Parameters Φ and F on Saturation Temperature T9 222 5.2.6 Physical Significance of Esat and Its Relationship with ΔHs 225 5.2.7 The Nucleation Order m 230 5.3 Isothermal Crystallization 232 5.4 Effect of Additives on MSZW of Solutions 232 5.4.1 Some General Features 233 5.4.2 Theoretical Considerations 236 5.4.2.1 Approach Based on Classical Nucleation Theory 236 5.4.2.2 Final Expressions for Analysis of Experimental Data 238 5.4.3 Some Examples of Effect of Impurities on MSZW 239 5.4.3.1 Boric Acid Aqueous Solutions 239 5.4.3.2 KDP Aqueous Solutions 244 5.4.3.3 POP-Acetone Solutions Containing PPP Additive 246 5.4.4 Dependence of Maximum Supersaturation Ratio on Impurity Concentration 250 5.4.5 Solute-Additive Binding Energies and MSZW of Systems 252 5.5 Effects of Some Other Factors on MSZW of Solutions 255 5.5.1 Effect of Stirring and Ultrasound on MSZW 255 5.5.2 Effect of Solution Volume on MSZW 255 5.6 Nonisothermal Crystallization Kinetics in Melts 259 References 260 6 Antisolvent Crystallization and the Metastable Zone Width 267 6.1 Observation Techniques for Antisolvent Crystallization 268 6.2 Light Intensity Measurements 270 6.2.1 Some Experimental Data 270 6.2.2 Processes Involved in Antisolvent Crystallization 274 6.3 Temperature Measurements 276 6.3.1 Some Experimental Data 276 6.3.2 Kinetics of Temperature Increase 279 6.3.3 Physical Interpretation of Temperature Changes of ADP Solutions with Antisolvent Feeding Time at Different Rates 286 6.3.4 Origin of Two Minima and Maximum in Temperature Change ΔT During Antisolvent Crystallization 287 6.3.5 Relationship Between Different Temperature Changes, Antisolvent Feeding Rate, and Antisolvent Content 288 6.3.6 Comparison of Light-intensity and Temperature Measurements 291 6.4 Effect of Antisolvent Composition on Nucleation Rate 296 6.5 Different Approaches of MSZW 298 6.5.1 Modified Nývlt-like Approach 298 6.5.2 Kubota’s Approach 299 6.5.3 Another Derivation of Nývlt-like Equation 300 6.5.4 Approach Based on Classical Theory of 3D Nucleation 302 6.6 Experimental Data of MSZW in Antisolvent Crystallization 303 6.6.1 Analysis of Experimental Δxmax(RA) Data 304 6.6.2 Effect of Detection Technique on MSZW 312 6.6.3 Effect of Stirring on MSZW 315 6.6.4 Threshold and Limiting Antisolvent Addition Rates 318 6.7 Combined Antisolvent/Cooling Crystallization 319 References 321 7 Induction Period for Crystallization 325 7.1 Theoretical Background 327 7.1.1 Theoretical Interpretation of Induction Period 328 7.1.2 Some Other Relations 331 7.1.3 Basic Equations 333 7.2 Induction Period for Isothermal Crystallization 333 7.2.1 Crystallization from Solutions 333 7.2.2 Crystallization from the Melt 338 7.3 Induction Period in Antisolvent Crystallization 343 7.4 Induction Period for Nonisothermal Crystallization 345 7.4.1 Crystallization from Solutions 345 7.4.2 Effect of Impurities on Crystallization from Solutions 349 7.4.3 Crystallization from the Melt 354 References 358 8 Ostwald Ripening, Crystal Size Distribution, and Polymorph Selection 361 8.1 Supersaturation Decay During Antisolvent Crystallization 362 8.1.1 General Trends 362 8.1.2 Kinetics of Supersaturation Decay 362 8.1.3 Relationship between ConstantK and Antisolvent Feeding Rate RA 367 8.2 Solvation and Desolvation Processes 372 8.2.1 Origin of Minima in ΔTsw(t) Plots 373 8.2.2 Kinetics of Evolution of Minima in ΔTsw(t) Plots 374 8.3 Evolution of Desupersaturation Curves 383 8.4 Crystal Morphology 388 8.5 Growth Rate Dispersion 396 8.6 Ostwald Ripening 398 8.7 Crystal Size Distribution 403 8.8 Control of Phase and Size of Crystallizing Particles 412 References 417 9 Glass Formation and Crystallization Processes 423 9.1 Glass Formation by Cooling of Melts 424 9.2 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity and the Glass Transition Temperature 426 9.3 Composition Dependence of Glass Transition Temperature 431 9.4 Relationship between Glass Transition Temperature and Metastable Zone Width of Solutions 435 9.5 Metastable Zone Width of Melts and Glass Formation 438 9.5.1 Derivation of Basic Equations 438 9.5.2 Effect of Melt Viscosity and Additives on Z and F Parameters 441 9.5.3 Calculations of RLlim, Z, F, and TN for Molten Elements and Electrolytes 444 9.5.4 Relationship between Tg and Tm for Various Substances 446 9.5.5 Comparison of Cooling Behavior of Melts and Electrolyte Solutions 449 References 451 Appendix A Volumetric Thermal Expansion Coefficient of Melts 453 References 455 Appendix B Relationship between αV and Other Physical Properties 457 B.1 Molten Elements 457 B.2 Molten Halite-Type Electrolytes 457 Reference 461 Appendix C Relationship between Densities dm of Molten Metals and Electrolytes and Atomic Mass M 463 Reference 464 Index 465

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Book SynopsisLearn the fundamentals of materials design with this all-inclusive approach to the basics in the field Study of materials science is an important aspect of curricula at universities worldwide. This text is designed to serve students at a fundamental level, positioning materials design as an essential aspect of the study of electronics, medicine, and energy storage. Now in its 3rd edition, Principles of Inorganic Materials Design is an introduction to relevant topics including inorganic materials structure/property relations and material behaviors. The new edition now includes chapters on computational materials science, intermetallic compounds, and covalent compounds. The text is meant to aid students in their studies by providing additional tools to study the key concepts and understand recent developments in materials research. In addition to the many topics covered, the textbook includes: Accessible learning tools to help students better understand keTable of ContentsForeword to Second Edition xiii Foreword to First Edition xv Preface to Third Edition xix Preface to Second Edition xx Preface to First Edition xxi Acronyms xxiii 1 Crystallographic Considerations 1 1.1 Degrees of Crystallinity 1 1.1.1 Monocrystalline Solids 2 1.1.2 Quasicrystalline Solids 3 1.1.3 Polycrystalline Solids 4 1.1.4 Semicrystalline Solids 5 1.1.5 Amorphous Solids 8 1.2 Basic Crystallography 8 1.2.1 Crystal Geometry 8 1.2.1.1 Types of Crystallographic Symmetry 12 1.2.1.2 Space Group Symmetry 17 1.2.1.3 Lattice Planes and Directions 27 1.3 Single-Crystal Morphology and Its Relationship to Lattice Symmetry 32 1.4 Twinned Crystals, Grain Boundaries, and Bicrystallography 37 1.4.1 Twinned Crystals and Twinning 37 1.4.2 Crystallographic Orientation Relationships in Bicrystals 39 1.4.2.1 The Coincidence Site Lattice 39 1.4.2.2 Equivalent Axis–Angle Pairs 44 1.5 Amorphous Solids and Glasses 46 1.5.1 Oxide Glasses 49 1.5.2 Metallic Glasses and Metal–Organic Framework Glasses 51 1.5.3 Aerogels 53 Practice Problems 53 References 55 2 Microstructural Considerations 57 2.1 Materials Length Scales 57 2.1.1 Experimental Resolution of Material Features 61 2.2 Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline Materials 63 2.2.1 Grain Boundary Orientations 63 2.2.2 Dislocation Model of Low Angle Grain Boundaries 65 2.2.3 Grain Boundary Energy 66 2.2.4 Special Types of “Low-Energy” Boundaries 68 2.2.5 Grain Boundary Dynamics 69 2.2.6 Representing Orientation Distributions in Polycrystalline Aggregates 70 2.3 Materials Processing and Microstructure 72 2.3.1 Conventional Solidification 72 2.3.1.1 Grain Homogeneity 74 2.3.1.2 Grain Morphology 76 2.3.1.3 Zone Melting Techniques 78 2.3.2 Deformation Processing 79 2.3.3 Consolidation Processing 79 2.3.4 Thin-Film Formation 80 2.3.4.1 Epitaxy 81 2.3.4.2 Polycrystalline PVD Thin Films 81 2.3.4.3 Polycrystalline CVD Thin Films 83 2.4 Microstructure and Materials Properties 83 2.4.1 Mechanical Properties 83 2.4.2 Transport Properties 86 2.4.3 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 90 2.4.4 Chemical Properties 92 2.5 Microstructure Control and Design 93 Practice Problems 96 References 96 3 Crystal Structures and Binding Forces 99 3.1 Structure Description Methods 99 3.1.1 Close Packing 99 3.1.2 Polyhedra 103 3.1.3 The (Primitive) Unit Cell 103 3.1.4 Space Groups and Wyckoff Positions 104 3.1.5 Strukturbericht Symbols 104 3.1.6 Pearson Symbols 105 3.2 Cohesive Forces in Solids 106 3.2.1 Ionic Bonding 106 3.2.2 Covalent Bonding 108 3.2.3 Dative Bonds 110 3.2.4 Metallic Bonding 111 3.2.5 Atoms and Bonds as Electron Charge Density 112 3.3 Chemical Potential Energy 113 3.3.1 Lattice Energy for Ionic Crystals 114 3.3.2 The Born–Haber Cycle 119 3.3.3 Goldschmidt’s Rules and Pauling’s Rules 120 3.3.4 Total Energy 122 3.3.5 Electronic Origin of Coordination Polyhedra in Covalent Crystals 124 3.4 Common Structure Types 127 3.4.1 Iono-covalent Solids 128 3.4.1.1 AX Compounds 128 3.4.1.2 AX2 Compounds 130 3.4.1.3 AX6 Compounds 132 3.4.1.4 ABX2 Compounds 132 3.4.1.5 AB2X4 Compounds (Spinel and Olivine Structures) 134 3.4.1.6 ABX3 Compounds (Perovskite and Related Phases) 135 3.4.1.7 A2B2O5(ABO2.5) Compounds (Oxygen-Deficient Perovskites) 137 3.4.1.8 AxByOz Compounds (Bronzes) 139 3.4.1.9 A2B2X7 Compounds (Pyrochlores) 139 3.4.1.10 Silicate Compounds 140 3.4.1.11 Porous Structures 141 3.4.2 Metal Carbides, Silicides, Borides, Hydrides, and Nitrides 144 3.4.3 Metallic Alloys and Intermetallic Compounds 144 3.4.3.1 Zintl Phases 147 3.4.3.2 Nonpolar Binary Intermetallic Phases 149 3.4.3.3 Ternary Intermetallic Phases 151 3.5 Structural Disturbances 153 3.5.1 Intrinsic Point Defects 154 3.5.2 Extrinsic Point Defects 155 3.5.3 Structural Distortions 156 3.5.4 Bond Valence Sum Calculations 158 3.6 Structure Control and Synthetic Strategies 162 Practice Problems 165 References 167 4 The Electronic Level I: An Overview of Band Theory 171 4.1 The Many-Body Schrödinger Equation and Hartree–Fock 171 4.2 Choice of Boundary Conditions: Born’s Conditions 177 4.3 Free-Electron Model for Metals: From Drude (Classical) to Sommerfeld (Fermi–Dirac) 179 4.4 Bloch’s Theorem, Bloch Waves, Energy Bands, and Fermi Energy 180 4.5 Reciprocal Space and Brillouin Zones 182 4.6 Choices of Basis Sets and Band Structure with Applicative Examples 188 4.6.1 From the Free-Electron Model to the Plane Wave Expansion 189 4.6.2 Fermi Surface, Brillouin Zone Boundaries, and Alkali Metals versus Copper 191 4.6.3 Understanding Metallic Phase Stability in Alloys 193 4.6.4 The Localized Orbital Basis Set Method 195 4.6.5 Understanding Band Structure Diagram with Rhenium Trioxide 196 4.6.6 Probing DOS Band Structure in Metallic Alloys 199 4.7 Breakdown of the Independent-Electron Approximation 200 4.8 Density Functional Theory: The Successor to the Hartree–Fock Approach in Materials Science 202 4.9 The Continuous Quest for Better DFT XC Functionals 205 4.10 Van der Waals Forces and DFT 208 Practice Problems 210 References 210 5 The Electronic Level II: The Tight-Binding Electronic Structure Approximation 213 5.1 The General LCAO Method 214 5.2 Extension of the LCAO Treatment to Crystalline Solids 219 5.3 Orbital Interactions in Monatomic Solids 221 5.3.1 σ-Bonding Interactions 221 5.3.2 π-Bonding Interactions 225 5.4 Tight-Binding Assumptions 229 5.5 Qualitative LCAO Band Structures 232 5.5.1 Illustration 1: Transition Metal Oxides with Vertex-Sharing Octahedra 236 5.5.2 Illustration 2: Reduced Dimensional Systems 238 5.5.3 Illustration 3: Transition Metal Monoxides with Edge-Sharing Octahedra 240 5.5.4 Corollary 243 5.6 Total Energy Tight-Binding Calculations 244 Practice Problems 246 References 246 6 Transport Properties 249 6.1 An Introduction to Tensors 249 6.2 Microscopic Theory of Electrical Transport in Ceramics: The Role of Point Defects 254 6.2.1 Oxygen-Deficient/Metal Excess and Metal-Deficient/Oxygen Excess Oxides 256 6.2.2 Substitutions by Aliovalent Cations with Valence Isoelectronicity 261 6.2.3 Substitutions by Isovalent Cations That are Not Valence Isoelectronic 263 6.2.4 Nitrogen Vacancies in Nitrides 266 6.3 Thermal Conductivity 268 6.3.1 The Free Electron Contribution 269 6.3.2 The Phonon Contribution 271 6.4 Electrical Conductivity 274 6.4.1 Band Structure Considerations 278 6.4.1.1 Conductors 278 6.4.1.2 Insulators 279 6.4.1.3 Semiconductors 281 6.4.1.4 Semimetals 290 6.4.2 Thermoelectric, Photovoltaic, and Magnetotransport Properties 292 6.4.2.1 Thermoelectrics 292 6.4.2.2 Photovoltaics 298 6.4.2.3 Galvanomagnetic Effects and Magnetotransport Properties 301 6.4.3 Superconductors 303 6.4.4 Improving Bulk Electrical Conduction in Polycrystalline, Multiphasic, and Composite Materials 307 6.5 Mass Transport 308 6.5.1 Atomic Diffusion 309 6.5.2 Ionic Conduction 316 Practice Problems 321 References 322 7 Hopping Conduction and Metal–Insulator Transitions 325 7.1 Correlated Systems 327 7.1.1 The Mott–Hubbard Insulating State 329 7.1.2 Charge-Transfer Insulators 334 7.1.3 Marginal Metals 334 7.2 Anderson Localization 336 7.3 Experimentally Distinguishing Disorder from Electron Correlation 340 7.4 Tuning the M–I Transition 343 7.5 Other Types of Electronic Transitions 345 Practice Problems 347 References 347 8 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 349 8.1 Phenomenological Description of Magnetic Behavior 351 8.1.1 Magnetization Curves 354 8.1.2 Susceptibility Curves 355 8.2 Atomic States and Term Symbols of Free Ions 359 8.3 Atomic Origin of Paramagnetism 365 8.3.1 Orbital Angular Momentum Contribution: The Free Ion Case 366 8.3.2 Spin Angular Momentum Contribution: The Free Ion Case 367 8.3.3 Total Magnetic Moment: The Free Ion Case 368 8.3.4 Spin–Orbit Coupling: The Free Ion Case 368 8.3.5 Single Ions in Crystals 371 8.3.5.1 Orbital Momentum Quenching 371 8.3.5.2 Spin Momentum Quenching 373 8.3.5.3 The Effect of JT Distortions 373 8.3.6 Solids 374 8.4 Diamagnetism 376 8.5 Spontaneous Magnetic Ordering 377 8.5.1 Exchange Interactions 379 8.5.1.1 Direct Exchange and Superexchange Interactions in Magnetic Insulators 382 8.5.1.2 Indirect Exchange Interactions 387 8.5.2 Itinerant Ferromagnetism 390 8.5.3 Noncollinear Spin Configurations and Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy 394 8.5.3.1 Geometric Frustration 394 8.5.3.2 Magnetic Anisotropy 397 8.5.3.3 Magnetic Domains 398 8.5.4 Ferromagnetic Properties of Amorphous Metals 401 8.6 Magnetotransport Properties 401 8.6.1 The Double Exchange Mechanism 402 8.6.2 The Half-Metallic Ferromagnet Model 403 8.7 Magnetostriction 404 8.8 Dielectric Properties 405 8.8.1 The Microscopic Equations 407 8.8.2 Piezoelectricity 408 8.8.3 Pyroelectricity 414 8.8.4 Ferroelectricity 416 Practice Problems 421 References 422 9 Optical Properties of Materials 425 9.1 Maxwell’s Equations 425 9.2 Refractive Index 428 9.3 Absorption 436 9.4 Nonlinear Effects 441 9.5 Summary 446 Practice Problems 446 References 447 10 Mechanical Properties 449 10.1 Stress and Strain 449 10.2 Elasticity 452 10.2.1 The Elasticity Tensors 455 10.2.2 Elastically Isotropic and Anisotropic Solids 459 10.2.3 The Relation Between Elasticity and the Cohesive Forces in a Solid 465 10.2.3.1 Bulk Modulus 466 10.2.3.2 Rigidity (Shear) Modulus 467 10.2.3.3 Young’s Modulus 470 10.2.4 Superelasticity, Pseudoelasticity, and the Shape Memory Effect 473 10.3 Plasticity 475 10.3.1 The Dislocation-Based Mechanism to Plastic Deformation 481 10.3.2 Polycrystalline Metals 487 10.3.3 Brittle and Semi-brittle Solids 489 10.3.4 The Correlation Between the Electronic Structure and the Plasticity of Materials 490 10.4 Fracture 491 Practice Problems 494 References 495 11 Phase Equilibria, Phase Diagrams, and Phase Modeling 499 11.1 Thermodynamic Systems and Equilibrium 500 11.1.1 Equilibrium Thermodynamics 504 11.2 Thermodynamic Potentials and the Laws 507 11.3 Understanding Phase Diagrams 510 11.3.1 Unary Systems 510 11.3.2 Binary Systems 511 11.3.3 Ternary Systems 518 11.3.4 Metastable Equilibria 522 11.4 Experimental Phase Diagram Determinations 522 11.5 Phase Diagram Modeling 523 11.5.1 Gibbs Energy Expressions for Mixtures and Solid Solutions 524 11.5.2 Gibbs Energy Expressions for Phases with Long-Range Order 527 11.5.3 Other Contributions to the Gibbs Energy 530 11.5.4 Phase Diagram Extrapolations: The CALPHAD Method 531 Practice Problems 534 References 535 12 Synthetic Strategies 537 12.1 Synthetic Strategies 538 12.1.1 Direct Combination 538 12.1.2 Low Temperature 540 12.1.2.1 Sol–Gel 540 12.1.2.2 Solvothermal 543 12.1.2.3 Intercalation 544 12.1.3 Defects 546 12.1.4 Combinatorial Synthesis 548 12.1.5 Spinodal Decomposition 548 12.1.6 Thin Films 550 12.1.7 Photonic Materials 552 12.1.8 Nanosynthesis 553 12.1.8.1 Liquid Phase Techniques 554 12.1.8.2 Vapor/Aerosol Methods 556 12.1.8.3 Combined Strategies 556 12.2 Summary 558 Practice Problems 559 References 559 13 An Introduction to Nanomaterials 563 13.1 History of Nanotechnology 564 13.2 Nanomaterials Properties 565 13.2.1 Electrical Properties 566 13.2.2 Magnetic Properties 567 13.2.3 Optical Properties 567 13.2.4 Thermal Properties 568 13.2.5 Mechanical Properties 569 13.2.6 Chemical Reactivity 570 13.3 More on Nanomaterials Preparative Techniques 572 13.3.1 Top-Down Methods for the Fabrication of Nanocrystalline Materials 572 13.3.1.1 Nanostructured Thin Films 572 13.3.1.2 Nanocrystalline Bulk Phases 573 13.3.2 Bottom-Up Methods for the Synthesis of Nanostructured Solids 574 13.3.2.1 Precipitation 575 13.3.2.2 Hydrothermal Techniques 576 13.3.2.3 Micelle-Assisted Routes 577 13.3.2.4 Thermolysis, Photolysis, and Sonolysis 580 13.3.2.5 Sol–Gel Methods 581 13.3.2.6 Polyol Method 582 13.3.2.7 High-Temperature Organic Polyol Reactions (IBM Nanoparticle Synthesis) 584 13.3.2.8 Additive Manufacturing (3D Printing) 584 References 586 14 Introduction to Computational Materials Science 589 14.1 A Short History of Computational Materials Science 590 14.1.1 1945–1965: The Dawn of Computational Materials Science 591 14.1.2 1965–2000: Steady Progress Through Continued Advances in Hardware and Software 595 14.1.3 2000–Present: High-Performance and Cloud Computing 598 14.2 Spatial and Temporal Scales, Computational Expense, and Reliability of Solid-State Calculations 600 14.3 Illustrative Examples 604 14.3.1 Exploration of the Local Atomic Structure in Multi-principal Element Alloys by Quantum Molecular Dynamics 604 14.3.2 Magnetic Properties of a Series of Double Perovskite Oxides A2BCO6 (A = Sr, Ca; B = Cr; C = Mo, Re, W) by Monte Carlo Simulations in the Framework of the Ising Model 606 14.3.3 Crystal Plasticity Finite Element Method (CPFEM) Analysis for Modeling Plasticity in Polycrystalline Alloys 613 References 617 15 Case Study I: TiO2 619 15.1 Crystallography 619 15.2 Microstructure 623 15.3 Bonding 626 15.4 Electronic Structure 627 15.5 Transport 628 15.6 Metal–Insulator Transitions 632 15.7 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 632 15.8 Optical Properties 634 15.9 Mechanical Properties 635 15.10 Phase Equilibria 636 15.11 Synthesis 638 15.12 Nanomaterial 639 Practice Questions 639 References 640 16 Case Study II: GaN 643 16.1 Crystallography 643 16.2 Microstructure 646 16.3 Bonding 647 16.4 Electronic Structure 647 16.5 Transport 648 16.6 Metal–Insulator Transitions 650 16.7 Magnetic and Dielectric Properties 652 16.8 Optical Properties 652 16.9 Mechanical Properties 653 16.10 Phase Equilibria 654 16.11 Synthesis 654 16.12 Nanomaterial 656 Practice Questions 657 References 658 Appendix A: List of the 230 Space Groups 659 Appendix B: The 32 Crystal Systems and the 47 Possible Forms 665 Appendix C: Principles of Tensors 667 Appendix D: Solutions to Practice Problems 679 Index 683

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive and versatile treatment of an important and complex topic in vehicle design Written by an expert in the field with over 30 years of NVH experience, Noise and Vibration Control of Automotive Body offers nine informative chapters on all of the core knowledge required for noise, vibration, and harshness engineers to do their job properly. It starts with an introduction to noise and vibration problems; transfer of structural-borne noise and airborne noise to interior body; key techniques for body noise and vibration control; and noise and vibration control during vehicle development. The book then goes on to cover all the noise and vibration issues relating to the automotive body, including: overall body structure; local body structure; sound package; excitations exerted on the body and transfer functions; wind noise; body sound quality; body squeak and rattle; and the vehicle development process for an automotive body. Vehicle noise and vibration is one of the most impoTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Automotive Body Structure and Noise and Vibration Problems 1 1.1.1 Automotive Body Structure 1 1.1.2 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Body Frame Structure 7 1.1.3 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Body Panel Structure 8 1.1.4 Interior Trimmed Structure and Sound Treatment 8 1.1.5 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Body Accessory Structures 9 1.2 Transfer of Structural‐Borne Noise and Airborne Noise to Interior 10 1.2.1 Description of Vehicle Noise and Vibration Sources 10 1.2.2 Structural‐Borne Noise and Airborne Noise 11 1.2.3 Transfer of Noise and Vibration Sources to Interior 13 1.3 Key Techniques for Body Noise and Vibration Control 14 1.3.1 Vibration and Control of Overall Body Structure 15 1.3.2 Vibration and Sound Radiation of Body Local Structures 17 1.3.3 Sound Package for Vehicle Body 24 1.3.4 Body Noise and Vibration Sensitivity 28 1.3.5 Wind Noise and Control 32 1.3.6 Door Closing Sound Quality and Control 35 1.3.7 Squeak and Rattle of Vehicle Body 38 1.4 Noise and Vibration Control During Vehicle Development 39 1.4.1 Modal Frequency Distribution for Vehicle Body 40 1.4.2 Body NVH Target System 41 1.4.3 Execution of Body NVH Targets 42 1.5 Structure of This Book 42 2 Vibration Control of Overall Body Structure 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.1.1 Overall Body Stiffness 45 2.1.2 Overall Body Modes 48 2.1.3 Scopes of Overall Body Vibration Research 50 2.2 Overall Body Stiffness 51 2.2.1 Body Bending Stiffness 52 2.2.2 Body Torsional Stiffness 57 2.3 Control of Overall Body Stiffness 61 2.3.1 Overall Layout of a Body Structure 62 2.3.2 Body Frame Cross‐Section and Stiffness Analysis 65 2.3.3 Joint Stiffness 67 2.3.4 Influence of Adhesive Bonding Stiffness on Overall Body Stiffness 71 2.3.5 Contribution Analysis of Beams and Joints on Overall Body Stiffness 72 2.4 Identification of Overall Body Modes 75 2.4.1 Foundation of Modal Analysis 75 2.4.2 Modal Shape and Frequency of Vehicle Body 78 2.4.3 Modal Testing for Vehicle Body 84 2.4.4 Calculation of Vehicle Body Mode 89 2.5 Control of Overall Body Modes 91 2.5.1 Separation and Decoupling of Body Modes 91 2.5.2 Planning Table/Chart of Body Modes 93 2.5.3 Control of Overall Body Modes 98 Bibliography 101 3 Noise and Vibration Control for Local Body Structures 103 3.1 Noise and Vibration Problems Caused by Vehicle Local Structures 103 3.1.1 Classification and Modes of Local Body Structures 103 3.1.2 Noise and Vibration Problems Generated by Local Modes 104 3.1.3 Control Strategy for Local Modes 111 3.2 Body Plate Vibration and Sound Radiation 112 3.2.1 Vibration of Plate Structure 113 3.2.2 Sound Radiation of Plate Structure 116 3.3 Body Acoustic Cavity Mode 120 3.3.1 Definition and Shapes of Acoustic Cavity Mode 120 3.3.2 Theoretical Analysis and Measurement of Acoustic Cavity Mode 122 3.3.3 Coupling of Acoustic Cavity Mode and Structural Mode 129 3.3.4 Control of Acoustic Cavity Mode 130 3.4 Panel Contribution Analysis 131 3.4.1 Concept of Panel Contribution 131 3.4.2 Contribution Analysis of Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 132 3.4.3 Testing Methods for Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 136 3.5 Damping Control for Structural Vibration and Sound Radiation 145 3.5.1 Damping Phenomenon and Description 145 3.5.2 Damping Models 146 3.5.3 Loss Factor 149 3.5.4 Characteristics of Viscoelastic Damping Materials 150 3.5.5 Classification of Body Damping Materials and Damping Structures 153 3.5.6 Measurement of Damping Loss Factor 157 3.5.7 Application of Damping Materials and Structures on Vehicle Body 159 3.6 Stiffness Control for Body Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 162 3.6.1 Mechanism of Stiffness Control 164 3.6.2 Tuning of Plate Stiffness 166 3.6.3 Influence of Plate Stiffness Tuning on Sound Radiation 170 3.6.4 Case Study of Body Stiffness Tuning 170 3.7 Mass Control for Body Panel Vibration and Sound Radiation 175 3.7.1 Mechanism of Mass Control 175 3.7.2 Application of Mass Control 175 3.8 Damper Control for Body Vibration and Sound Radiation 179 3.8.1 Mechanism of Dynamic Damper 179 3.8.2 Application of Dynamic Damper to Attenuate Interior Booming 181 3.9 Noise and Vibration for Body Accessory Components 182 3.9.1 Bracket Mode and Control 182 3.9.2 Control of Steering System Vibration 185 3.9.3 Control of Seat Vibration 190 Bibliography 195 4 Sound Package 201 4.1 Introduction 201 4.1.1 Transfer of Airborne‐Noise to Passenger Compartment 201 4.1.2 Scopes of Sound Package Research 202 4.2 Body Sealing 203 4.2.1 Importance of Sealing 203 4.2.2 Static Sealing and Dynamic Sealing 207 4.2.3 Measurement of Static Sealing 207 4.2.4 Control of Static Sealing 210 4.3 Sound Absorptive Materials 216 4.3.1 Sound Absorption Mechanism and Sound Absorption Coefficient 216 4.3.2 Porous Sound Absorptive Material 217 4.3.3 Resonant Sound Absorption Structure 222 4.3.4 Measurement of Sound Absorption Coefficient 224 4.4 Sound Insulation Materials and Structures 229 4.4.1 Mechanism of Sound Insulation and Sound Transmission Loss 229 4.4.2 Sound Insulation of Single Plate 230 4.4.3 Sound Insulation of Double Plate 233 4.4.4 Measurement of Sound Insulation Materials 236 4.5 Application of Sound Package 240 4.5.1 Application of Sound Absorptive Materials and Structures 241 4.5.2 Application of Combination of Sound Insulation Structures and Sound Absorptive Materials 247 4.5.3 Application of Sound Baffle Material 252 4.6 Statistical Energy Analysis and Its Application 254 4.6.1 Concepts of Statistical Energy Analysis 255 4.6.2 Theory of Statistical Energy Analysis 256 4.6.3 Assumptions and Applications of Statistical Energy Analysis 258 4.6.4 Loss Factor 260 4.6.5 Input Power 263 4.6.6 Application of Statistical Energy Analysis on Vehicle Body 264 Bibliography 267 5 Vehicle Body Sensitivity Analysis and Control 273 5.1 Introduction 273 5.1.1 System and Transfer Function 273 5.1.2 Vibration and Sound Excitation Points on Vehicle Body 275 5.1.3 Response Points 278 5.1.4 Body Sensitivity 278 5.2 Source– Transfer Path–Response Model for Vehicle Body 280 5.2.1 Source–Transfer Path–Response Model 280 5.2.2 Source–Transfer Function–Vibration Model for Vehicle Body 280 5.2.3 Source−Transfer Function−Noise Model for Vehicle Body 281 5.3 Characteristics and Analysis of Noise and Vibration Sources 284 5.3.1 Excitation Characteristics of Engine and Related Systems 284 5.3.2 Excitation Characteristics of Drivetrain System 286 5.3.3 Excitation Characteristics of Tires 291 5.3.4 Excitation Characteristics of Rotary Machines 293 5.3.5 Excitation Characteristics of Random or Impulse Inputs 294 5.4 Dynamic Stiffness and Input Point Inertance 295 5.4.1 Mechanical Impedance and Mobility 295 5.4.2 Driving Point Dynamic Stiffness 296 5.4.3 IPI and Driving Point Dynamic Stiffness 298 5.4.4 Control of Driving Point Dynamic Stiffness 301 5.5 Vibration− Vibration Sensitivity and Sound−Vibration Sensitivity 304 5.5.1 Transfer Processing of Vibration Sources to Interior Vibration and Vibration−Vibration Sensitivity 304 5.5.2 Transfer Processing of Vibration Sources to Interior Noise and Sound−Vibration Sensitivity 308 5.5.3 Sensitivity Control 311 5.5.4 Sensitivity Targets 315 5.6 Sound− Sound Sensitivity and Control 316 5.6.1 Sound Transmission from Outside Body to Interior 316 5.6.2 Expression of Sound−Sound Sensitivity 317 5.6.3 Targets and Control of Sound−Sound Sensitivity 322 Bibliography 323 6 Wind Noise 327 6.1 Introduction 327 6.1.1 Problems Induced by Wind Noise 327 6.1.2 Sound Sources and Classification of Wind Noise 328 6.2 Mechanism of Wind Noise 331 6.2.1 Pulsating Noise 331 6.2.2 Aspiration Noise 333 6.2.3 Buffeting Noise 336 6.2.4 Cavity Noise 338 6.3 Control Strategy for Wind Noise 339 6.3.1 Transfer Paths of Wind Noise 339 6.3.2 Control Strategy of Wind Noise 341 6.4 Body Overall Styling and Wind Noise Control 343 6.4.1 Ideal Body Overall Styling 343 6.4.2 Design of Transition Region between Front Grill and Engine Hook 345 6.4.3 Design in Area between Engine Hood and Front Windshield 346 6.4.4 Design of A‐Pillar Area 347 6.4.5 Design of Transition Area of Roof, Rear Windshield, and Trunk Lid 352 6.4.6 Underbody Design 353 6.4.7 Design in an Area of Wheelhouse and Body Side Panel 354 6.5 Body Local Design and Wind Noise Control 354 6.5.1 Principles for Body Local Structure Design 354 6.5.2 Design of Side Mirror and Its Connection with Body 355 6.5.3 Sunroof Design and Wind Noise Control 359 6.5.4 Antenna Design and Wind Noise Control 361 6.5.5 Design of Roof Luggage Rack 363 6.5.6 Control of Other Appendages and Outside Cavity 364 6.6 Dynamic Sealing and Control 365 6.6.1 Dynamic Sealing and Its Importance 365 6.6.2 Expression for Dynamic Sealing 366 6.6.3 Dynamic Sealing between Door and Body 368 6.6.4 Control of Dynamic Sealing 371 6.7 Measurement and Evaluation of Wind Noise 373 6.7.1 Wind Noise Testing in Wind Tunnel 373 6.7.2 Wind Noise Testing on Road 378 6.7.3 Evaluation of Wind Noise 379 6.8 Analysis of Wind Noise 380 6.8.1 Relationship Between Aerodynamic Acoustics and Classical Acoustics 380 6.8.2 Lighthill Acoustic Analogy Theory 381 6.8.3 Lighthill‐Curl Acoustic Analogy Theory 382 6.8.4 Solution of Aerodynamic Equations 383 6.8.5 Simulation of Wind Noise 383 Bibliography 384 7 Door Closing Sound Quality 389 7.1 Vehicle Sound Quality 389 7.1.1 Concept of Sound Quality 389 7.1.2 Automotive Sound Quality 390 7.1.3 Importance of Automotive Sound Quality 391 7.1.4 Scope of Sound Quality 392 7.2 Evaluation Indexes of Sound Quality 393 7.2.1 Description of Psychoacoustics 393 7.2.2 Evaluation Indexes of Psychoacoustics 395 7.2.3 Critical Band 397 7.2.4 Loudness 398 7.2.5 Sharpness 402 7.2.6 Modulation, Fluctuation, and Roughness 404 7.2.7 Tonality 409 7.2.8 Articulation Index 409 7.2.9 Sound Masking 411 7.3 Evaluation Indexes of Automotive Sound Quality 413 7.3.1 Classification of Automotive Sound Quality 413 7.3.2 Indexes Used to Describe Automotive Sound Quality 415 7.3.3 Indexes Used to Describe System Sound Quality 416 7.4 Evaluation of Door Closing Sound Quality 417 7.4.1 Importance of Door Closing Sound Quality 417 7.4.2 Subjective Evaluation of Door Closing Sound Quality 417 7.4.3 Objective Evaluation of Door Closing Sound Quality 419 7.4.4 Relation between Subjective Evaluation and Objective Evaluation 423 7.5 Structure and Noise Source of Door Closing System 424 7.5.1 Structure of Door Closing System 424 7.5.2 Noise Sources of Door Closing 426 7.6 Control of Door Closing Sound Quality 428 7.6.1 Control of Door Panel Structure 428 7.6.2 Control of Door Lock 430 7.6.3 Control of Sealing System 432 7.7 Design Procedure and Example Analysis for Door Closing Sound Quality 432 7.7.1 Design Procedure for Door Closing Sound Quality 432 7.7.2 Analysis of Factors Influencing on Loudness, Sharpness, and Ring‐Down 434 7.7.3 Example Analysis of Door Closing Sound Quality 435 7.8 Sound Quality for Other Body Components 437 Bibliography 438 8 Squeak and Rattle Control in Vehicle Body 441 8.1 Introduction 441 8.1.1 What Is Squeak and Rattle? 441 8.1.2 Components Generating Squeak and Rattle 442 8.1.3 Importance of Squeak and Rattle 442 8.1.4 Mechanism of Squeak and Rattle 442 8.1.5 Identification and Control of Squeak and Rattle 443 8.2 Mechanism and Influence Factors of Squeak 444 8.2.1 Mechanism of Squeak 444 8.2.2 Factors Influencing Squeak 447 8.3 Mechanism and Influence Factors of Rattle 449 8.3.1 Mechanism of Rattle 449 8.3.2 Factors Influencing Rattle 450 8.4 CAE Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 452 8.4.1 Analysis of Stiffness, Mode, and Deformation of Body and Door 453 8.4.2 Modal Analysis of Body Subsystems 455 8.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 458 8.4.4 Dynamic Response Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 460 8.5 Subjective Evaluation and Testing of Squeak and Rattle 461 8.5.1 Subjective Identification and Evaluation of Squeak and Rattle 462 8.5.2 Objective Testing and Analysis of Squeak and Rattle 467 8.6 Control of Body Squeak and Rattle 471 8.6.1 Control Strategy during Vehicle Development 471 8.6.2 Body Structure‐Integrated Design and S&R Control 472 8.6.3 DMU Checking for Body S&R Prevention 476 8.6.4 Matching of Material Friction Pairs 477 8.6.5 Control of Manufacture Processes 478 8.6.6 Squeak and Rattle Issues for High Mileage Vehicle 478 8.6.7 Squeak and Rattle at High Mileage 479 Bibliography 480 9 Targets for Body Noise and Vibration 483 9.1 Target System for Vehicle Noise and Vibration 483 9.1.1 Period for Vehicle Development and Targets 483 9.1.2 Factors Influencing on Target Setting 485 9.1.3 Principles of Target Setting and Cascading 486 9.1.4 Principles of Modal Separation 488 9.1.5 Target System of Body NVH 489 9.2 NVH Targets for Vehicle‐Level Body 490 9.2.1 Vehicle‐Level Body NVH Targets 490 9.2.2 Vibration Targets for Vehicle‐Level Body 490 9.2.3 Noise Targets for Vehicle‐Level Body 491 9.3 NVH Targets for Trimmed Body 492 9.3.1 NVH Characteristics of Trimmed Body 492 9.3.2 Vibration Targets of Trimmed Body 493 9.3.3 Noise Targets for Trimmed Body 493 9.4 NVH Targets for Body‐in‐White 494 9.4.1 NVH Characteristics of BIW 494 9.4.2 Vibration Targets of BIW 495 9.4.3 Noise Target of BIW 496 9.5 NVH Targets for Body Components 496 9.5.1 Component‐Level Vibration Targets 497 9.5.2 Component‐Level Noise Target 497 9.5.3 Noise and Vibration Targets of Door 497 9.6 Execution and Realization of Body Targets 498 9.6.1 Control at Phase of Target Setting and Cascading 498 9.6.2 Target Checking at Milestones 499 9.6.3 CAE Analysis and DMU Checking 500 9.6.4 NVH Control for BIW 501 9.6.5 NVH Control for Trimmed Body and Full Vehicle 501 Bibliography 501 Index 503

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Book SynopsisA groundbreaking guide dedicated exclusively to the MCRT method in radiation heat transfer and applied optics The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Method in Radiation Heat Transfer and Applied Optics offers the most modern and up-to-date approach to radiation heat transfer modelling and performance evaluation of optical instruments. The Monte Carlo ray-trace (MCRT) method is based on the statistically predictable behavior of entities, called rays, which describe the paths followed by energy bundles as they are emitted, reflected, scattered, refracted, diffracted and ultimately absorbed. The author a noted expert on the subject covers a wide variety of topics including the mathematics and statistics of ray tracing, the physics of thermal radiation, basic principles of geometrical and physical optics, radiant heat exchange among surfaces and within participating media, and the statistical evaluation of uncertainty of results obtained using the method. The booTable of ContentsSeries Preface xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii About the Companion Website xix 1 Fundamentals of Ray Tracing 1 1.1 Rays and Ray Segments 1 1.2 The Enclosure 2 1.3 Mathematical Preliminaries 2 1.4 Ideal Models for Emission, Reflection, and Absorption of Rays 11 1.5 Scattering and Refraction 17 1.6 Meshing and Indexing 18 Problems 21 Reference 28 2 Fundamentals of Thermal Radiation 29 2.1 Thermal Radiation 29 2.2 Terminology 31 2.3 Intensity of Radiation (Radiance) 32 2.4 Directional Spectral Emissive Power 34 2.5 Hemispherical Spectral Emissive Power 34 2.6 Hemispherical Total Emissive Power 34 2.7 The Blackbody Radiation Distribution Function 35 2.8 Blackbody Properties 38 2.9 Emission and Absorption Mechanisms 40 2.10 Definition of Models for Emission, Absorption, and Reflection 42 2.11 Introduction to the Radiation Behavior of Surfaces 52 2.12 Radiation Behavior of Surfaces Composed of Electrical Non-Conductors (Dielectrics) 54 2.13 Radiation Behavior of Surfaces Composed of Electrical Conductors (Metals) 59 Problems 61 References 65 3 The Radiation Distribution Factor for Diffuse-Specular Gray Surfaces 67 3.1 The Monte Carlo Ray-Trace (MCRT) Method and the Radiation Distribution Factor 67 3.2 Properties of the Total Radiation Distribution Factor 68 3.3 Estimation of the Distribution Factor Matrix Using the MCRT Method 69 3.4 Binning of Rays on a Surface Element; Illustrative Example 83 3.5 Case Study: Thermal and Optical Analysis of a Radiometric Instrument 85 3.6 Use of Radiation Distribution Factors for the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 94 3.7 Use of Radiation Distribution Factors When Some Surface Net Heat Fluxes Are Specified 96 Problems 97 Reference 101 4 Extension of the MCRT Method to Non-Diffuse, Non-Gray Enclosures 103 4.1 Bidirectional Spectral Surfaces 103 4.2 Principles Underlying a Practical Bidirectional Reflection Model 106 4.3 First Example: A Highly Absorptive Surface Whose Reflectivity is Strongly Specular 109 4.4 Second Example: A Highly Reflective Surface Whose Reflectivity is Strongly Diffuse 119 4.5 The Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor 127 4.6 Use of the Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor for the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 133 4.7 Use of the Band-Averaged Spectral Radiation Distribution Factor for the Case of One or More Specified Surface Net Heat Fluxes 134 Problems 138 References 142 5 The MCRT Method for Participating Media 143 5.1 Radiation in a Participating Medium 143 5.2 Example: The Absorption Filter 146 5.3 Ray Tracing in a Participating Medium 154 5.4 Estimating the Radiation Distribution Factors in Participating Media 171 5.5 Using the Radiation Distribution Factors When All Temperatures are Specified 172 5.6 Using the Radiation Distribution Factors for a Mixture of Specified Temperatures and Specified Heat Transfer Rates 173 5.7 Simulating Infrared Images 175 Problems 178 References 179 6 Extension of the MCRT Method to Physical Optics 183 6.1 Some Ideas from Physical Optics 183 6.2 Geometrical Versus Physical Optics 185 6.3 Anatomy of a Ray Suitable for Physical Optics Applications 186 6.4 Modeling of Polarization Effects: A Case Study 187 6.5 Diffraction and Interference Effects: A Case Study 195 6.6 Monte Carlo Ray-Trace Diffraction Based on the Huygens–Fresnel Principle 198 Problems 209 References 210 7 Statistical Estimation of Uncertainty in the MCRT Method 213 7.1 Statement of the Problem 213 7.2 Statistical Inference 214 7.3 Hypothesis Testing for Population Means 218 7.4 Confidence Intervals for Population Proportions 220 7.5 Effects of Uncertainties in the Enclosure Geometry and Surface Models 224 7.6 Single-Sample versus Multiple-Sample Experiments 225 7.7 Evaluation of Aggravated Uncertainty 226 7.8 Uncertainty in Temperature and Heat Transfer Results 227 7.9 Application to the Case of Specified Surface Temperatures 229 7.10 Experimental Design of MCRT Algorithms 232 Problems 237 References 239 A Random Number Generators and Autoregression Analysis 241 A.1 Pseudo-Random Number Generators 242 A.2 Properties of a “Good” Pseudo-Random Number Generator 242 A.3 A “Minimal Standard” Pseudo-Random Number Generator 245 A.4 Autoregression Analysis 247 Problems 253 References 254 Index 255

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 1 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 4 1.2.1 Systems of Units 7 1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior 12 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 12 1.4.1 Density 12 1.4.2 Specific Weight 14 1.4.3 Specific Gravity 14 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 14 1.6 Viscosity 17 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 23 1.7.1 Bulk Modulus 23 1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases 24 1.7.3 Speed of Sound 25 1.8 Vapor Pressure 26 1.9 Surface Tension 27 1.10 A Brief Look Back in History 30 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 32 References 34 2 Fluid Statics 35 Learning Objectives 35 2.1 Pressure at a Point 35 2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field 36 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 38 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid 39 2.3.2 Compressible Fluid 42 2.4 Standard Atmosphere 43 2.5 Measurement of Pressure 45 2.6 Manometry 47 2.6.1 Piezometer Tube 47 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer 48 2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer 50 2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices 51 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 54 2.9 Pressure Prism 60 2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface 63 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 65 2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle 65 2.11.2 Stability 68 2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 70 2.12.1 Linear Motion 70 2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation 72 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 74 References 75 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 76 Learning Objectives 76 3.1 Newton’s Second Law 76 3.2 F = ma along a Streamline 79 3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline 83 3.4 Physical Interpretations and Alternate Forms of the Bernoulli Equation 85 3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 88 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 93 3.6.1 Free Jets 93 3.6.2 Confined Flows 96 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement 102 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line 106 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 109 3.8.1 Compressibility Effects 109 3.8.2 Unsteady Effects 110 3.8.3 Rotational Effects 111 3.8.4 Other Restrictions 112 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 113 References 114 4 Fluid Kinematics 115 Learning Objectives 115 4.1 The Velocity Field 115 4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions 118 4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 119 4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 120 4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines 120 4.2 The Acceleration Field 124 4.2.1 Acceleration and the Material Derivative 124 4.2.2 Unsteady Effects 127 4.2.3 Convective Effects 127 4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates 130 4.3 Control Volume and System Representations 132 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 134 4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem 136 4.4.2 Physical Interpretation 141 4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative 141 4.4.4 Steady Effects 142 4.4.5 Unsteady Effects 142 4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes 143 4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume 145 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 145 References 146 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis 147 Learning Objectives 147 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 148 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation 148 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume 150 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume 156 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 158 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 160 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation 160 5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation 161 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 174 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 176 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 182 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation 182 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation 185 5.3.3 The Mechanical Energy Equation and the Bernoulli Equation 189 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows 195 5.3.5 Comparison of Various Forms of the Energy Equation 197 5.3.6 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 199 5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics—Irreversible Flow 200 5.4.1 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy Equation 200 5.4.2 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 201 5.4.3 Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 202 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 203 References 204 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow 205 Learning Objectives 205 6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 206 6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited 206 6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation 207 6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation 208 6.2 Conservation of Mass 211 6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity Equation 211 6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 214 6.2.3 The Stream Function 214 6.3 The Linear Momentum Equation 217 6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element 218 6.3.2 Equations of Motion 220 6.4 Inviscid Flow 221 6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion 221 6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation 222 6.4.3 Irrotational Flow 223 6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow 225 6.4.5 The Velocity Potential 226 6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows 228 6.5.1 Uniform Flow 230 6.5.2 Source and Sink 230 6.5.3 Vortex 232 6.5.4 Doublet 235 6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows 237 6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body 237 6.6.2 Rankine Ovals 240 6.6.3 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder 242 6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis 248 6.8 Viscous Flow 248 6.8.1 Stress–Deformation Relationships 249 6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations 249 6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Laminar, Viscous, Incompressible Flows 251 6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates 251 6.9.2 Couette Flow 253 6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes 255 6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus 258 6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis 260 6.10.1 Numerical Methods 260 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 261 References 262 7 Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling 263 Learning Objectives 263 7.1 The Need for Dimensional Analysis 264 7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 266 7.3 Determination of Pi Terms 267 7.4 Some Additional Comments about Dimensional Analysis 273 7.4.1 Selection of Variables 273 7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions 274 7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms 276 7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection 276 7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 278 7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data 283 7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term 283 7.7.2 Problems with Two or More Pi Terms 284 7.8 Modeling and Similitude 286 7.8.1 Theory of Models 287 7.8.2 Model Scales 290 7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models 291 7.9 Some Typical Model Studies 293 7.9.1 Flow Through Closed Conduits 293 7.9.2 Flow Around Immersed Bodies 295 7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface 299 7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations 302 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 305 References 306 8 Viscous Flow in Pipes 307 Learning Objectives 307 8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 308 8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow 309 8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow 311 8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 312 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 313 8.2.1 From F = ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element 314 8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes Equations 318 8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis 319 8.2.4 Energy Considerations 320 8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 322 8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 322 8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress 324 8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile 329 8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling 332 8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence 333 8.4 Pipe Flow Losses via Dimensional Analysis 333 8.4.1 Major Losses 333 8.4.2 Minor Losses 339 8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits 348 8.5 Pipe Flow Examples 351 8.5.1 Single Pipes 351 8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems 360 8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement 364 8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters 364 8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters 369 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 370 References 372 9 Flow over Immersed Bodies 373 Learning Objectives 373 9.1 General External Flow Characteristics 374 9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts 375 9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 378 9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 382 9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate 382 9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution 385 9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate 389 9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 394 9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 396 9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient 399 9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient 404 9.3 Drag 405 9.3.1 Friction Drag 405 9.3.2 Pressure Drag 407 9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples 409 9.4 Lift 422 9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution 424 9.4.2 Circulation 429 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 434 References 435 10 Open-Channel Flow 437 Learning Objectives 437 10.1 General Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 437 10.2 Surface Waves 439 10.2.1 Wave Speed 439 10.2.2 Froude Number Effects 442 10.3 Energy Considerations 444 10.3.1 Energy Balance 444 10.3.2 Specific Energy 445 10.4 Uniform Flow 448 10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations 448 10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations 449 10.4.3 Uniform Flow Examples 451 10.5 Gradually Varied Flow 457 10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow 458 10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump 460 10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs 464 10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs 467 10.6.4 Underflow (Sluice) Gates 470 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 471 References 472 11 Compressible Flow 473 Learning Objectives 473 11.1 Ideal Gas Thermodynamics 474 11.2 Stagnation Properties 479 11.3 Mach Number and Speed of Sound 480 11.4 Compressible Flow Regimes 485 11.5 Shock Waves 489 11.5.1 Normal Shock 489 11.6 Isentropic Flow 495 11.6.1 Steady Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 495 11.6.2 Incompressible Flow and the Bernoulli Equation 498 11.6.3 The Critical State 500 11.7 One-Dimensional Flow in a Variable Area Duct 500 11.7.1 General Considerations 501 11.7.2 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas with Area Change 504 11.7.3 Operation of a Converging Nozzle 510 11.7.4 Operation of a Converging–Diverging Nozzle 512 11.8 Constant-Area Duct Flow with Friction 516 11.8.1 Preliminary Consideration: Comparison with Incompressible Duct Flow 516 11.8.2 The Fanno Line 517 11.8.3 Adiabatic Frictional Flow (Fanno Flow) of an Ideal Gas 520 11.9 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Heating or Cooling 528 11.9.1 The Rayleigh Line 528 11.9.2 Frictionless Flow of an Ideal Gas with Heating or Cooling (Rayleigh Flow) 531 11.9.3 Rayleigh Lines, Fanno Lines, and Normal Shocks 534 11.10 Analogy Between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows 535 11.11 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow 536 11.12 Effects of Compressibility in External Flow 538 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 541 References 544 12 Turbomachines 545 Learning Objectives 545 12.1 Introduction 546 12.2 Basic Energy Considerations 547 12.3 Angular Momentum Considerations 551 12.4 The Centrifugal Pump 553 12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations 554 12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 558 12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 560 12.4.4 System Characteristics, Pump-System Matching, and Pump Selection 562 12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws 566 12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws 568 12.5.2 Specific Speed 569 12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed 570 12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps 571 12.7 Fans 573 12.8 Turbines 574 12.8.1 Impulse Turbines 575 12.8.2 Reaction Turbines 582 12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 585 12.9.1 Compressors 585 12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines 589 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 591 References 593 Appendix A Computational Fluid Dynamics 594 Appendix B Physical Properties of Fluids 613 Appendix C Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 618 Appendix D Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 620 Appendix E Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors 628 Questions and Problems SP-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisA GUIDE TO THE FUNDAMENTAL THEORY AND PRACTICE OF OPTICAL COMMUNICATION Fiber Optic and Atmospheric Optical Communication offers a much needed guide to characterizing and overcoming the drawbacks associated with optical communication links that suffer from various types of fading when optical signals with information traverse these wireless (atmospheric) or wired (fiber optic) channels. The authorsnoted experts on the topicpresent material that aids in predicting the capacity, data rate, spectral efficiency, and bit-error-rate associated with a channel that experiences fading. They review modulation techniques and methods of coding and decoding that are useful when implementing communications systems. The book also discusses how to model the channels, including treating distortion due to the various fading phenomena. Light waves and their similarity to radio waves are explored, and the way light propagates through the atmosphere, through materials, and through the boundary between two materials is explained. This important book: Characterizes principal optical sources and detectors, including descriptions of their advantages and disadvantages, to show how to design systems from start to finishProvides a new method of predicting and dealing with the dispersive properties of fiber optic cables and other optical guiding structures in order to increase data stream capacityHighlights effects of material and multimode (multi-ray) dispersion during propagation of optical signals with data through fiber optic channelsPresents modulation techniques and methods of coding and decoding that are useful when implementing communications systems Written for professionals dealing with optical and electro-optical communications, Fiber Optic and Atmospheric Optical Communication explores the theory and practice of optical communication both when the optical signal is propagating through the atmosphere and when it is propagating through an optical fiber.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xv Abbreviations xvii Nomenclature xix Part I Optical Communication Link Fundamentals 1 1 Basic Elements of Optical Communication 3 1.1 Spectrum of Optical Waves 3 1.2 Optical Communication in Historical Perspective 4 1.3 Optical Communication Link Presentation 5 References 8 2 Optical Wave Propagation 11 2.1 Similarity of Optical and Radio Waves 11 2.2 Electromagnetic Aspects of Optical Wave Propagation 13 2.3 Propagation of Optical Waves in Free Space 16 2.4 Propagation of Optical Waves Through the Boundary of Two Media 16 2.4.1 Boundary Conditions 16 2.4.2 Main Formulations of Reflection and Refraction Coefficients 17 2.5 Total Intrinsic Reflection in Optics 20 2.6 Propagation of Optical Waves in Material Media 23 2.6.1 Imperfect Dielectric Medium 25 2.6.2 Good Conductor Medium 25 Problems 25 References 28 Part II Fundamentals of Optical Communication 29 3 Types of Signals in Optical Communication Channels 31 3.1 Types of Optical Signals 31 3.1.1 Narrowband Optical Signals 31 3.1.2 Wideband Optical Signals 34 3.2 Mathematical Description of Narrowband Signals 35 3.3 Mathematical Description of Wideband Signals 39 References 41 4 An Introduction to the Principles of Coding and Decoding of Discrete Signals 43 4.1 Basic Concepts of Coding and Decoding 43 4.1.1 General Communication Scheme 43 4.1.2 The Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC) 45 4.1.3 Channel Model with AWGN 46 4.2 Basic Aspects of Coding and Decoding 47 4.2.1 Criteria of Coding 47 4.2.2 Code Parameters for Error Correction 50 4.2.3 Linear Codes 51 4.2.4 Estimation of Error Probability of Decoding 54 4.3 Codes with Algebraic Decoding 56 4.3.1 Cyclic Codes 56 4.3.2 BCH Codes 57 4.3.3 Reed–Solomon Codes 59 4.4 Decoding of Cyclic Codes 60 References 63 5 Coding in Optical Communication Channels 67 5.1 Peculiarities of Cyclic Codes in Communication Systems 67 5.2 Codes with Low Density of Parity Checks 68 5.2.1 Basic Definitions 68 5.2.2 Decoding of LDPC Codes 72 5.2.3 Construction of Irregular LDPC Codes 73 5.2.4 Construction of Regular LDPC Codes 74 5.3 Methods of Combining Codes 76 5.4 Coding in Optical Channels 79 References 83 6 Fading in Optical Communication Channels 87 6.1 Parameters of Fading in Optical Communication Channel 87 6.1.1 Time Dispersion Parameters 88 6.1.2 Coherence Bandwidth 89 6.1.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time 89 6.2 Types of Small-Scale Fading 91 6.3 Mathematical Description of Fast Fading 93 6.3.1 Rayleigh PDF and CDF 94 6.3.2 Ricean PDF and CDF 96 6.3.2.1 Gamma-Gamma Distribution 99 6.4 Mathematical Description of Large-Scale Fading 100 6.4.1 Gaussian PDF and CDF 101 References 102 7 Modulation of Signals in Optical Communication Links 103 7.1 Analog Modulation 104 7.1.1 Analog Amplitude Modulation 104 7.1.2 Analog Angle Modulation – Frequency and Phase 106 7.1.2.1 Phase Modulation 107 7.1.3 Spectra and Bandwidth of FM or PM Signals 107 7.1.4 Relations Between SNR and Bandwidth in AM and FM Signals 108 7.2 Digital Signal Modulation 109 7.2.1 Main Characteristics of Digital Modulation 110 7.2.1.1 Power Efficiency and Bandwidth Efficiency 110 7.2.1.2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals 111 7.2.2 Linear Digital Modulation 112 7.2.2.1 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Modulation 112 7.2.2.2 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Modulation 113 7.2.2.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) Modulation 114 7.2.3 Nonlinear Digital Modulation 114 7.2.3.1 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Modulation 114 Problems 115 References 115 8 Optical Sources and Detectors 117 8.1 Emission and Absorption of Optical Waves 117 8.2 Operational Characteristics of Laser 119 8.3 Light-Emitting Sources and Detectors 122 8.3.1 Light-Emitting p–n Type Diode 122 8.3.2 Laser p–n Type Diode 124 8.3.3 Photodiode 125 8.3.4 PiN and p–n Photodiodes – Principle of Operation 126 8.4 Operational Characteristics of Light Diodes 129 References 130 Part III Wired Optical Communication Links 133 9 Light Waves in Fiber Optic Guiding Structures 135 9.1 Propagation of Light in Fiber Optic Structures 135 9.1.1 Types of Optical Fibers 135 9.1.2 Propagation of Optical Wave Inside the Fiber Optic Structure 137 References 139 10 Dispersion Properties of Fiber Optic Structures 141 10.1 Characteristic Parameters of Fiber Optic Structures 141 10.2 Dispersion of Optical Signal in Fiber Optic Structures 142 10.2.1 Material Dispersion 142 10.2.2 Modal Dispersion 143 Problems 145 References 146 Part IV Wireless Optical Channels 147 11 Atmospheric Communication Channels 149 11.1 Basic Characteristics of Atmospheric Channel 149 11.2 Effects of Aerosols on Atmospheric Communication Links 150 11.2.1 Aerosol Dimensions 150 11.2.2 Aerosol Altitudes Localization 151 11.2.3 Aerosol Concentration 152 11.2.4 Aerosol Size Distribution and Spectral Extinction 152 11.3 Effects of Hydrometeors 154 11.3.1 Effects of Fog 154 11.3.2 Effects of Rain 155 11.3.3 Effects of Clouds 157 11.3.3.1 Snow 158 11.4 Effects of Turbulent Gaseous Structures on Optical Waves Propagation 158 11.4.1 Turbulence Phenomenon 158 11.4.2 Scintillation Phenomenon of Optical Wave Passing the Turbulent Atmosphere 161 11.4.3 Scintillation Index 162 11.4.4 Signal Intensity Scintillations in the Turbulent Atmosphere 162 11.4.5 Effects of Atmosphere Turbulences on Signal Fading 165 11.5 Optical Waves Propagation Caused by Atmospheric Scattering 166 References 168 Part V Data Stream Parameters in Atmospheric and Fiber Optic Communication Links with Fading 173 12 Transmission of Information Data in Optical Channels: Atmospheric and Fiber Optics 175 12.1 Characteristics of Information Signal Data in Optical Communication Links 176 12.2 Bit Error Rate in Optical Communication Channel 181 12.3 Relations Between Signal Data Parameters and Fading Parameters in Atmospheric Links 183 12.4 Effects of Fading in Fiber Optic Communication Link 188 References 191 Index 195

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 1 1.1 What Is Mechanics of Materials?, 1 1.2 The Fundamental Equations of Deformable-Body Mechanics, 5 1.3 Problem-Solving Procedures, 7 1.4 Review of Static Equilibrium; Equilibrium of Deformable Bodies, 9 Chapter 1 Review, 19 2 Stress and Strain; Introduction to Design 20 2.1 Introduction, 20 2.2 Normal Stress, 21 2.3 Extensional Strain; Thermal Strain, 29 2.4 Stress-Strain Diagrams; Mechanical Properties of Materials, 35 2.5 Elasticity and Plasticity; Temperature Effects, 43 2.6 Linear Elasticity; Hooke’s Law and Poisson’s Ratio, 46 2.7 Shear Stress and Shear Strain; Shear Modulus, 49 2.8 Introduction to Design—Axial Loads and Direct Shear, 55 2.9 Stresses on an Inclined Plane in an Axially Loaded Member, 62 2.10 Saint-Venant’s Principle, 64 2.11 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress; the Relationship Between E and G, 66 2.12 General Definitions of Stress and Strain, 69 *2.13 Cartesian Components of Stress; Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Materials, 79 *2.14 Mechanical Properties of Composite Materials, 84 Chapter 2 Review, 86 3 Axial Deformation 91 3.1 Introduction, 91 3.2 Basic Theory of Axial Deformation, 91 3.3 Examples of Nonuniform Axial Deformation, 99 3.4 Statically Determinate Structures, 109 3.5 Statically Indeterminate Structures, 116 3.6 Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation, 125 3.7 Geometric “Misfits”, 136 3.8 Displacement-Method Solution of Axial-Deformation Problems, 141 *3.9 Force-Method Solution of Axial-Deformation Problems, 153 *3.10 Introduction to the Analysis of Planar Trusses, 162 *3.11 Inelastic Axial Deformation, 170 Chapter 3 Review, 183 4 Torsion 186 4.1 Introduction, 186 4.2 Torsional Deformation of Circular Bars, 187 4.3 Torsion of Linearly Elastic Circular Bars, 190 4.4 Stress Distribution in Circular Torsion Bars; Torsion Testing, 198 4.5 Statically Determinate Assemblages of Uniform Torsion Members, 202 4.6 Statically Indeterminate Assemblages of Uniform Torsion Members, 207 *4.7 Displacement-Method Solution of Torsion Problems, 215 4.8 Power-Transmission Shafts, 221 *4.9 Thin-Wall Torsion Members, 224 *4.10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic Bars, 229 *4.11 Inelastic Torsion of Circular Rods, 233 Chapter 4 Review, 239 5 Equilibrium of Beams 241 5.1 Introduction, 241 5.2 Equilibrium of Beams Using Finite Free-Body Diagrams, 246 5.3 Equilibrium Relationships Among Loads, Shear Force, and Bending Moment, 250 5.4 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams: Equilibrium Method, 253 5.5 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams: Graphical Method, 258 *5.6 Discontinuity Functions to Represent Loads, Shear, and Moment, 265 Chapter 5 Review, 272 6 Stresses in Beams 275 6.1 Introduction, 275 6.2 Strain-Displacement Analysis, 278 6.3 Flexural Stress in Linearly Elastic Beams, 284 6.4 Design of Beams for Strength, 293 6.5 Flexural Stress in Nonhomogeneous Beams, 299 *6.6 Unsymmetric Bending, 306 *6.7 Inelastic Bending of Beams, 316 6.8 Shear Stress and Shear Flow in Beams, 326 6.9 Limitations on the Shear-Stress Formula, 332 6.10 Shear Stress in Thin-Wall Beams, 335 6.11 Shear in Built-up Beams, 345 *6.12 Shear Center, 349 Chapter 6 Review, 356 7 Deflection of Beams 359 7.1 Introduction, 359 7.2 Differential Equations of the Deflection Curve, 360 7.3 Slope and Deflection by Integration—Statically Determinate Beams, 366 7.4 Slope and Deflection by Integration—Statically Indeterminate Beams, 379 *7.5 Use of Discontinuity Functions to Determine Beam Deflections, 384 7.6 Slope and Deflection of Beams: Superposition Method, 391 *7.7 Slope and Deflection of Beams: Displacement Method, 409 Chapter 7 Review, 416 8 Transformation of Stress And Strain; Mohr’s Circle 418 8.1 Introduction, 418 8.2 Plane Stress, 419 8.3 Stress Transformation for Plane Stress, 421 8.4 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress, 428 8.5 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress, 434 8.6 Triaxial Stress; Absolute Maximum Shear Stress, 441 8.7 Plane Strain, 448 8.8 Transformation of Strains in a Plane, 449 8.9 Mohr’s Circle for Strain, 453 8.10 Measurement of Strain; Strain Rosettes, 459 *8.11 Analysis of Three-Dimensional Strain, 464 Chapter 8 Review, 466 9 Pressure Vessels; Stresses Due to Combined Loading 469 9.1 Introduction, 469 9.2 Thin-Wall Pressure Vessels, 470 9.3 Stress Distribution in Beams, 476 9.4 Stresses Due to Combined Loads, 481 Chapter 9 Review, 490 10 Buckling Of Columns 492 10.1 Introduction, 492 10.2 The Ideal Pin-Ended Column; Euler Buckling Load, 495 10.3 The Effect of End Conditions on Column Buckling, 501 *10.4 Eccentric Loading; the Secant Formula, 508 *10.5 Imperfections in Columns, 514 *10.6 Inelastic Buckling of Ideal Columns, 515 10.7 Design of Centrally Loaded Columns, 519 Chapter 10 Review, 526 11 Energy Methods 528 11.1 Introduction, 528 11.2 Work and Strain Energy, 529 11.3 Elastic Strain Energy for Various Types of Loading, 536 11.4 Work-Energy Principle for Calculating Deflections, 542 11.5 Castigliano’s Second Theorem; the Unit-Load Method, 547 *11.6 Virtual Work, 558 *11.7 Strain-Energy Methods, 562 *11.8 Complementary-Energy Methods, 567 *11.9 Dynamic Loading; Impact, 577 Chapter 11 Review, 582 12 Special Topics Related to Design 584 12.1 Introduction, 584 12.2 Stress Concentrations, 584 *12.3 Failure Theories, 591 *12.4 Fatigue and Fracture, 599 Chapter 12 Review, 604 PROBLEMS P-1 A Numerical Accuracy; Approximations A-1 A.1 Numerical Accuracy; Significant Digits, A-1 A.2 Approximations, A-2 B Systems of Units A-3 B.1 Introduction, A-3 B.2 SI Units, A-3 B.3 U.S. Customary Units; Conversion of Units, A-5 B.4 Useful Physical Properties, A-6 C Geometric Properties of Plane Areas A-7 C.1 First Moments of Area; Centroid, A-7 C.2 Moments of Inertia of an Area, A-10 C.3 Product of Inertia of an Area, A-14 C.4 Area Moments of Inertia about Inclined Axes; Principal Moments of Inertia, A-16 C.5 Geometric Properties of Plane Areas, A-22 D Section Properties of Selected Structural Shapes A-24 E Deflections and Slopes of Beams; Fixed-End Actions A-35 F Mechanical Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-40 Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems Ans-1 References R-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisThis book gives a comprehensive explanation of what governs the breakage of extruded materials, and what techniques are used to measure it. The breakage during impact aka collision is explained using basic laws of nature allowing readers to determine the handling severity of catalyst manufacturing equipment and the severity of entire plants. This information can then be used to improve on the architecture of existing plants and how to design grass-roots plants. The book begins with a summary of particle forming techniques in the particle technology industry. It covers extrusion technology in more detail since extrusion is one of the workhorses for particle manufacture. A section is also dedicated on how to describe transport and chemical reaction in such particulates for of course their final use. It presents the fundamentals of the study of breakage by relating basic laws in different fields (mechanics and physics) and this leads to two novel dimensionless groups that govern breakaTable of ContentsAbout the Author ix Acknowledgments xi Foreword xiii 1 Catalyst Preparation Techniques and Equipment 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Forming of Catalysts 4 1.3 Impregnation and Drying 12 1.4 Rotary Calcination 13 1.5 From the Laboratory to a Commercial Plant 29 Nomenclature 29 References 30 2 Extrusion Technology 35 2.1 Background 35 2.2 Rheology 36 2.3 Extrusion 47 Nomenclature 57 References 59 3 The Aspect Ratio of an Extruded Catalyst: An In-depth Study 61 3.1 General 61 3.2 Introduction to Catalyst Strength and Catalyst Breakage 63 3.3 Mechanical Strength of Catalysts 67 3.4 Experimental Measurement of Mechanical Strength 76 3.5 Breakage by Collision 88 3.6 Breakage by Stress in a Fixed Bed 129 3.7 Breakage in Contiguous Equipment 145 3.8 Statistical Methods Applied to Manufacturing Materials 158 Nomenclature 159 Greek Symbols 161 Subscripts 162 References 162 4 Steady-state Diffusion and First-order Reaction in Catalyst Networks 165 4.1 Introduction 165 4.2 Classic Continuum Approach 169 4.3 The Network Approach 171 Nomenclature 270 Greek Symbols 270 References 271 Appendix 4.1 Diffusion in a simple network 272 Appendix 4.2 Property of the semi-inverse 272 Appendix 4.3 Diffusion and reaction in a simple network 273 Appendix 4.4 Matrix properties for diffusion and reaction in a simple network 274 Appendix 4.5 Perturbation in a simple network 274 Appendix 4.6 A random variable 275 Appendix 4.7 Diffusion along a string of nodes 275 Appendix 4.8 Diffusion in a rectangular strip with an equal number of nodes 276 Appendix 4.9 Diffusion in a rectangular strip with an unequal number of nodes 277 Appendix 4.10 Diffusion and first-order reaction in a very deep network of 500 layers deep and five nodes per layer 279 Appendix 4.11 Diffusion and first-order reaction 280 Index 281

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Book SynopsisFabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels A comprehensive guide to processes and topics in pressure vessel fabrication Fabrication of Metallic Pressure Vessels delivers comprehensive coverage of the various processes used in the fabrication of process equipment. The authors, both accomplished engineers, offer readers a broad understanding of the steps and processes required to fabricate pressure vessels, including cutting, forming, welding, machining, and testing, as well as suggestions on controlling costs. Each chapter provides a complete description of a specific fabrication process and details its characteristics and requirements. Alongside the accessible and practical text, you'll find equations, charts, copious illustrations, and other study aids designed to assist the reader in the real-world implementation of the concepts discussed within the book. You'll find numerous appendices that include weld symbols, volume and area equations, pipe and tube dimensions, weld deposition rateTable of ContentsPreface xvii Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Fabrication Sequence 1 1.3 Cost Considerations 5 1.3.1 Types of costs 5 1.3.2 Design choices 6 1.3.3 Shipping 11 1.3.4 General approach to cost control 12 1.4 Fabrication of Nonnuclear Versus Nuclear Pressure Vessels 12 1.5 Units and Abbreviations 13 1.6 Summary 14 2 Materials of Construction 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Ferrous Alloys 16 2.2.1 Carbon steels (Mild steels) 16 2.2.2 Low alloy steels (Cr–Mo steels) 18 2.2.3 High alloy steels (stainless steels) 19 2.2.4 Cost of ferrous alloys 20 2.3 Nonferrous Alloys 20 2.3.1 Aluminum alloys 20 2.3.2 Copper alloys 22 2.3.3 Nickel alloys 30 2.3.4 Titanium alloys 30 2.3.5 Zirconium alloys 30 2.3.6 Tantalum alloys 32 2.3.7 Price of nonferrous alloys 33 2.4 Density of Some Ferrous and Nonferrous Alloys 34 2.5 Nonmetallic Vessels 35 2.6 Forms and Documentation 35 2.7 Miscellaneous Materials 38 2.7.1 Cast iron 38 2.7.2 Gaskets 38 References 43 3 Layout 44 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Applications 44 3.3 Tools and Their Use 45 3.4 Layout Basics 45 3.4.1 Projection 46 3.4.2 Triangulation 46 3.5 Material Thickness and Bending Allowance 49 3.6 Angles and Channels 50 3.7 Marking Conventions 52 3.8 Future of Plate Layout 54 Reference 54 4 Material Forming 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.1.1 Bending versus three-dimensional forming 55 4.1.2 Other issues 55 4.1.3 Plastic Theory 56 4.1.4 Forming limits 62 4.1.5 Grain direction 64 4.1.6 Cold versus hot forming 64 4.1.7 Spring back 64 4.2 Brake Forming (Angles, Bump-Forming) 65 4.2.1 Types of dies 67 4.2.2 Brake work forming limits 68 4.2.3 Crimping 68 4.2.4 Bending of pipes and tubes 69 4.2.5 Brake forming loads 70 4.3 Roll Forming (Shells, Reinforcing Pads, Pipe/Tube) 70 4.3.1 Pyramid rolls 70 4.3.2 Pinch rolls 71 4.3.3 Two-roll systems 71 4.3.4 Rolling radius variability compensation 72 4.3.5 Heads and caps 72 4.3.6 Hot forming 74 4.4 Tolerances 74 4.4.1 Brake forming tolerances 75 4.4.2 Roll forming tolerances 76 4.4.3 Press forming tolerances 76 4.4.4 Flanging tolerances 76 Reference 76 5 Fabrication 77 5.1 Introduction 77 5.2 Layout 77 5.3 Weld Preparation 78 5.3.1 Hand and automatic grinders 78 5.3.2 Nibblers 78 5.3.3 Flame cutting 79 5.3.4 Boring mills 79 5.3.5 Lathes 80 5.3.6 Routers 80 5.3.7 Other cutter arrangements 82 5.4 Forming 82 5.5 Vessel Fit Up and Assembly 83 5.5.1 The fitter 84 5.5.2 Fit up tools 84 5.5.3 Persuasion and other fit up techniques 84 5.5.4 Fixturing 85 5.5.5 Welding fit up 86 5.5.6 Weld shrinkage 88 5.5.7 Order of assembly 89 5.6 Welding 90 5.6.1 Welding position 90 5.6.2 Welding residual stresses 90 5.6.3 Welding positioners, turning rolls, column and boom weld manipulators 91 5.7 Correction of Distortion 94 5.8 Heat Treatment 94 5.8.1 Welding preheat 95 5.8.2 Interpass temperature 95 5.8.3 Post weld heat treatment 96 5.9 Post-fabrication Machining 96 5.10 Field Fabrication – Special Issues 96 5.10.1 Exposure to the elements 97 5.10.2 Staging area 97 5.10.3 Tool and equipment availability 98 5.10.4 Staffing 98 5.10.5 Material handling 98 5.10.6 Energy sources 99 5.10.7 PWHT 99 5.10.8 Layout 100 5.10.9 Fit up 100 5.10.10 Welding 100 5.11 Machining 101 5.12 Cold Springing 101 6 Cutting and Machining 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Common Cutting Operations for Pressure Vessels 102 6.3 Cutting Processes 103 6.3.1 Plate cutting 103 6.3.2 Pipe, bar, and structural shape cutting 108 6.4 Common Machining Functions and Processes 110 6.5 Common Machining Functions for Pressure Vessels 111 6.5.1 Weld preparation 111 6.5.2 Machining of flanges 111 6.5.3 Tubesheets 112 6.5.4 Heat exchanger channels 113 6.5.5 Heat exchanger baffles 113 6.6 Setup Issues 114 6.7 Material Removal Rates 116 6.7.1 Feed 116 6.7.2 Speed 116 6.7.3 Depth of cut 116 6.8 Milling 117 6.9 Turning and Boring 119 6.10 Machining Centers 120 6.11 Drilling 120 6.12 Tapping 121 6.13 Water Jet Cutting 122 6.14 Laser Machining 123 6.15 Reaming 123 6.16 Electrical Discharge Machining, Plunge and Wire 123 6.17 Electrochemical Machining 124 6.18 Electron Beam Machining 124 6.19 Photochemical Machining 124 6.20 Ultrasonic Machining 125 6.21 Planing and Shaping 125 6.22 Broaching 125 6.23 3D Printing 125 6.24 Summary 126 Reference 126 7 Welding 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Weld Details and Symbols 127 7.2.1 Single fillet welds 128 7.2.2 Double fillet welds 128 7.2.3 Intermittent fillet welds 128 7.2.4 Single-bevel butt welds 129 7.2.5 Double-bevel butt welds 129 7.2.6 J-groove or double J-groove welds 129 7.2.7 Backing strips 131 7.2.8 Consumables 131 7.2.9 Tube-to-tubesheet welds 131 7.2.10 Weld symbols 131 7.3 Weld Processes 132 7.3.1 Diffusion welding (DFW) 135 7.3.2 Electron beam welding (EBW) 135 7.3.3 Electrogas welding (EGW) 136 7.3.4 Electroslag welding (ESW) 136 7.3.5 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) 137 7.3.6 Flash welding 137 7.3.7 Friction stir welding (FSW) 137 7.3.8 Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) 138 7.3.9 Gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW) 138 7.3.10 Laser beam welding (LBW) 139 7.3.11 Orbital welding 140 7.3.12 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) 140 7.3.13 Plasma-arc welding (PAW) 141 7.3.14 Resistance spot welding (RSW) 141 7.3.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW) 142 7.3.16 Submerged-arc welding (SAW) 142 7.3.17 Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) 142 7.3.18 Stud welding 143 7.4 Weld Preheat and Interpass Temperature 143 7.5 Post Weld Heat Treating 143 7.6 Welding Procedures 143 7.7 Control of Residual Stress and Distortion 144 7.8 Material Handling to Facilitate Welding 145 7.9 Weld Repair 145 7.10 Brazing 145 7.10.1 Applications 145 7.10.2 Filler metal 145 7.10.3 Heating 145 7.10.4 Flux 145 7.10.5 Brazing procedures 146 Reference 146 8 Welding Procedures and Post Weld Heat Treatment 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Welding Procedures 147 8.3 Weld Preparation Special Requirements 153 8.4 Weld Joint Design and Process to Reduce Stress and Distortion 156 8.4.1 Reduced heat input 156 8.4.2 Lower temperature differential 156 8.4.3 Choice of weld process 156 8.4.4 Weld configuration and sequencing 157 8.5 Weld Preheat and Interpass Temperature 157 8.6 Welder Versus Welding Operator 158 8.6.1 Welders 158 8.6.2 Welding operators 158 8.6.3 Differences in qualifications 159 8.7 Weld Repair 159 8.7.1 Slag inclusion during welding 159 8.7.2 Surface indications after cooling of welds 159 8.7.3 Delayed hydrogen cracking after welding 159 8.7.4 Cracks occurring subsequent to PWHT 160 8.8 Post Weld Heat Treating 160 8.8.1 PWHT of carbon steels 160 8.8.2 PWHT of low alloy steels 161 8.8.3 Some general PWHT requirements for carbon steels and low alloy steels 161 8.8.4 PWHT of stainless steel 162 8.8.5 PWHT of nonferrous alloys 162 8.9 Cladding, Overlay, and Loose Liners 162 8.9.1 Cladding 162 8.9.2 Weld overlay 163 8.9.3 Loose liners 164 8.10 Brazing 164 8.10.1 Applications 165 8.10.2 Filler metal 165 8.10.3 Heating 165 8.10.4 Flux 166 8.10.5 Brazing procedures 166 Reference 166 9 Fabrication of Pressure Equipment Having Unique Characteristics 167 9.1 Introduction 167 9.2 Heat Exchangers 167 9.2.1 U-tube heat exchangers 169 9.2.2 Fixed heat exchangers 170 9.2.3 Floating head heat exchangers 170 9.2.4 Attachment of tubes-to-tubesheets and tubes-to-headers 170 9.2.5 Expansion joints 176 9.2.6 Assembly of heat exchangers 178 9.3 Dimpled Jackets 180 9.4 Layered Vessels 181 9.4.1 Introduction 181 9.4.2 Fabrication of layered shells 181 9.5 Rectangular Vessels 187 9.6 Vessels with Refractory and Insulation 188 9.7 Vessel Supports 190 9.8 Summary 191 References 192 10 Surface Finishes 193 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Types of Surface Finishes 193 10.2.1 Surface characteristics, unfinished 194 10.2.2 Passivation 195 10.2.3 Applied coatings 196 Reference 199 11 Handling and Transportation 200 11.1 Introduction 200 11.2 Handling of Vessels and Vessel Components Within the Fabrication Plant 200 11.3 Transportation of Standard Loads 202 11.4 Transportation of Heavy Vessels 204 11.4.1 Handling heavy vessels using specialty cranes 204 11.4.2 Shipping by truck 204 11.4.3 Shipping by rail 208 11.4.4 Shipping by barge or ship 212 11.4.5 Shipping by air 215 11.5 Summary 216 12 ASME Code Compliance and Quality Control System 217 12.1 Need for ASME Code Compliance 217 12.2 What the ASME Code Provides 217 12.3 Fabrication in Accordance with the ASME Code 217 12.4 ASME Code Stamped Vessels 218 12.4.1 Design calculations 218 12.4.2 Fabrication drawings 218 12.4.3 Material mill test reports 218 12.4.4 WPS for the vessel welds 219 12.4.5 Records of nondestructive (NDE) examination 219 12.4.6 Record of PWHT 219 12.4.7 Record of hydrotesting 220 12.4.8 Manufacturer’s Data Report, U-1 Form 220 12.4.9 Manufacturer’s Partial Data Report, U-2 form 222 12.4.10 Name plate 222 12.5 Authorized Inspector and Authorized Inspection Agency 224 12.6 Quality Control System for Fabrication 224 12.6.1 Organizational chart 225 12.6.2 Authority and responsibility 225 12.6.3 Quality control system 225 12.6.4 Design and drawing control 225 12.6.5 Material control 225 12.6.6 Production control 225 12.6.7 Inspection 225 12.6.8 Hydrostatic and pneumatic testing 225 12.6.9 Code stamping 226 12.6.10 Discrepancies and nonconformances 226 12.6.11 Welding 226 12.6.12 Nondestructive examination 226 12.6.13 Heat treatment control 226 12.6.14 Calibration of measuring and test equipment 226 12.6.15 Records retention 226 12.6.16 Handling, storage, and shipping 226 12.7 Additional Stamps Required for Pressure Vessels 226 12.7.1 National Board stamping, NB 227 12.7.2 Jurisdictional stamping 227 12.7.3 User stamping 227 12.7.4 Canadian Registration Numbers 227 12.8 Non-Code Jurisdictions 227 12.9 Temporary Shop Locations 228 Reference 229 13 Repair of Existing Equipment 230 13.1 Introduction 230 13.2 National Board Inspection Code, NBIC, NB-23 231 13.2.1 Repairs 231 13.2.2 Alterations 232 13.2.3 Reratings 232 13.2.4 Post weld heat treating of repaired components 232 13.2.5 Hydrostatic or pneumatic testing of repaired vessels 234 13.3 ASME Post Construction Code, PCC-2 236 13.3.1 External weld buildup to repair internal thinning 236 13.3.2 Full encirclement steel reinforcing sleeves for pipes in corroded areas 237 13.3.3 Welded hot taps 238 13.4 API Pressure Vessel Inspection Code, API-510 241 13.5 API 579/ASME FFS-1 Fitness-For-Service Code 242 13.6 Miscellaneous Repairs 242 13.6.1 Removal of seized nuts 243 13.6.2 Structural supports and foundation 243 References 244 Appendix A Units and Conversion Factors 245 Appendix B Welding Symbols 247 Appendix C Weld Process Characteristics 251 Appendix D Weld Deposition 254 Appendix E Shape Properties 257 Appendix F Pipe and Tube Dimensions and Weights 263 Appendix G Bending and Expanding of Pipes and Tubes 278 Appendix H Dimensions of Some Commonly Used Bolts and Their Required Minimum Spacing 286 Appendix I Shackles 288 Appendix J Shears, Moments, and Deflections of Beams 295 Appendix K Commonly Used Terminology 299 Index 304

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Book SynopsisAdvanced Engineering Economics, Second Edition, provides an integrated framework for understanding and applying project evaluation and selection concepts that are critical to making informed individual, corporate, and public investment decisions. Grounded in the foundational principles of economic analysis, this well-regarded reference describes a comprehensive range of central topics, from basic concepts such as accounting income and cash flow, to more advanced techniques including deterministic capital budgeting, risk simulation, and decision tree analysis. Fully updated throughout, the second edition retains the structure of its previous iteration, covering basic economic concepts and techniques, deterministic and stochastic analysis, and special topics in engineering economics analysis. New and expanded chapters examine the use of transform techniques in cash flow modeling, procedures for replacement analysis, the evaluation of public investments, corporate taxation, utility theory, and more. Now available as interactive eBook, this classic volume is essential reading for both students and practitioners in fields including engineering, business and economics, operations research, and systems analysis.Table of ContentsAbout the Authors vii Preface ix Part 1 Basic Concepts and Tools in Economic Analysis 1 Accounting Income and Cash Flow 3 1.1 What Is Investment? 3 1.2 The Corporate Investment Framework 4 1.2.1 The Objective of the Firm 4 1.2.2 The Functions of the Firm 4 1.2.3 The Analysis Framework 6 1.2.4 Accounting Information 6 1.3 The Balance Sheet 7 1.3.1 Reporting Format 7 1.3.2 Cash versus Other Assets 10 1.3.3 Liabilities versus Stockholders’ Equity 10 1.3.4 Inventory Valuation 11 1.3.5 Depreciation 12 1.3.6 Working Capital 12 1.4 The Income Statement 13 1.4.1 Methods of Reporting Income 13 1.4.2 Reporting Format 13 1.4.3 Measurement of Revenue 15 1.4.4 Measurement of Expenses 16 1.4.5 Retained Earnings, Cash Dividends, and Earnings per Share 16 1.4.6 Return on Common Equity (ROE) 17 1.5 The Funds Flow Statement 18 1.5.1 The Cash Flow Cycle 19 1.5.2 Basic Relationship 20 1.5.3 Funds Statement on a Cash Basis 21 1.5.4 Funds Statement as Working Capital 23 1.6 Net Income Versus Cash Flows 24 1.6.1 Deferred Income Taxes 24 1.6.2 Computing Deferred Income Taxes 24 1.6.3 Estimating Cash Flows from Income Statement 26 1.6.4 Use of Cash Flows in Evaluating Investments 26 1.7 Investment Project and Its Cash Flows 27 1.7.1 The Project Cash Flow Statement 28 1.7.2 Cash Flows over the Project Life 29 Summary 31 Problems 32 2 Interest Rates and Valuing Cash Flows 36 2.1 Cash Flow Diagram 36 2.2 Time Preference and Interest 36 2.2.1 Time Preference 37 2.2.2 Types of Interest 37 2.2.3 Nominal and Effective Interest Rates 39 2.3 Discrete Compounding 42 2.3.1 Comparable Payment and Compounding Periods 42 2.3.2 Noncomparable Payment and Compounding Periods 53 2.4 Continuous Compounding 55 2.4.1 Discrete Payments 56 2.4.2 Continuous Cash Flows 58 2.5 Equivalence of Cash Flows 60 2.5.1 Concepts of Equivalence 61 2.5.2 Equivalence Calculations with Several Interest Factors 62 2.6 Effect of Inflation on Cash Flow Equivalence 65 2.6.1 Measure of Inflation 65 2.6.2 Explicit and Implicit Treatments of Inflation in Discounting 66 2.6.3 Case Study—Home Ownership Analysis during Inflation 71 Summary 74 Problems 75 3 Advanced Cash Flow Modeling Techniques 80 3.1 Z-Transforms and Discrete Cash Flows 80 3.1.1 The Z-Transform and Present Value 80 3.1.2 Properties of the Z-Transform 82 3.2 Development of Discrete Present Value Models 87 3.2.1 Extensive Present Value Models 87 3.2.2 Simplified Present Value Model 90 3.2.3 Applications of Z-Transforms 90 3.3 Laplace Transforms and Continuous Cash Flows 96 3.3.1 Laplace Transform and Present Value 96 3.3.2 Properties of Laplace Transforms 97 3.4 Development of Continuous Present Value Models 102 3.4.1 Extensive Present Value Models 102 3.4.2 Present Values of Impulse Cash Flows 105 3.4.3 Extension to Future and Annual Equivalent Models 106 3.5 Application of the Laplace Transform 107 Summary 109 Problems 110 4 Developing Project Cash Flows 113 4.1 Corporate Tax Rates 113 4.1.1 Tax Structure for Corporations 113 4.1.2 Depreciation and Its Relation to Income Taxes 113 4.1.3 Use of Effective and Marginal Income Tax Rates in Project Evaluations 115 4.2 Depreciation Methods 116 4.2.1 Depreciation Regulations and Notation 116 4.2.2 Book Depreciation Methods 117 4.2.3 Tax Depreciation Method 121 4.2.4 Multiple-Asset Depreciation 126 4.3 Capital Gains and Adjustments to Income Taxes 126 4.4 After-Tax Cash Flow Analysis 128 4.4.1 Income Statement Approach 128 4.4.2 Generalized Cash Flows 129 4.4.3 Effects of Depreciation Methods 131 4.4.4 Effects of Financing Costs 134 4.4.5 Effects of Inflation 137 4.4.6 Cash Flow Analysis for Tax-Exempt Corporations 139 Summary 140 Problems 140 5 Selecting a Discount Rate for Project Evaluation 144 5.1 Investment and Borrowing Opportunities 144 5.1.1 Future Investment Opportunities 144 5.1.2 Financing Sources 146 5.1.3 Capital Rationing 147 5.2 Costs of Capital from Individual Sources 147 5.2.1 Debt Capital 147 5.2.2 Equity Capital 154 5.3 Use of a Weighted-Average Cost of Capital 157 5.3.1 Net Equity Flows 158 5.3.2 After-Tax Composite Flows 160 5.4 Specifying the Weighted-Average Cost of Capital 161 5.4.1 Basic Valuation Forms 161 5.4.2 Valuation with Debt and Taxes 163 5.4.3 The Firm’s Capitalization Rate 163 5.4.4 Obtaining a Cutoff Rate 166 5.4.5 Other Issues 167 5.4.6 Effect of Inflation 168 Summary 168 Problems 169 Part 2 Deterministic Analysis 6 Measures of Investment Worth—Single Project 175 6.1 Initial Assumptions 175 6.2 The Net Present Value Criterion 176 6.2.1 Mathematical Definition 176 6.2.2 Economic Interpretation Through Project Balance 180 6.3 Internal Rate-of-Return Criterion 182 6.3.1 Computational Methods 182 6.3.2 Classification of Investment Projects 185 6.3.3 IRR and Pure Investments 188 6.3.4 IRR and Mixed Investments 190 6.3.5 Modified Internal Rate of Return 194 6.4 Benefit–Cost Ratios 197 6.4.1 Benefit–Cost Ratios Defined 198 6.4.2 Equivalence of B/C Ratios and PV 199 6.5 Payback Period 200 6.5.1 Payback Period Defined 200 6.5.2 Popularity of the Payback Period 201 6.6 Time-Dependent Measure of Investment Worth 202 6.6.1 Areas of Negative and Positive Balances 202 6.6.2 Investment Flexibility 203 Summary 205 Problems 207 7 Decision Rules for Selecting among Multiple Alternatives 213 7.1 Formulating Mutually Exclusive Alternatives 213 7.2 Project Ranking Based on Total Investment Approach 216 7.2.1 Total Investment Approach 216 7.2.2 Consistency Within Groups 217 7.2.3 Modification of Criteria to Include Unspent Budget Amounts 219 7.3 Incremental Analysis 220 7.3.1 Irrelevance of Ordering for PV, FV, AE, and PBN 220 7.3.2 Agreement on Increments Between PV and Other Relative Measures 221 7.3.3 Alternative Derivations 221 7.3.4 Decision Rules for IRR 222 7.3.5 A Comprehensive Example for Incremental Analysis 224 7.4 Reinvestment Issues 228 7.4.1 Net Present Value 228 7.4.2 Internal Rate of Return 230 7.4.3 Benefit–Cost Ratio 231 7.5 Comparison of Projects with Unequal Lives 232 7.5.1 Common Service Period Approach 232 7.5.2 Estimating Salvage Value of Longer-Lived Projects 235 7.5.3 Reinvestment Issues When Revenues Are Known 239 7.5.4 Summary Treatment of Unequal Lives 239 7.6 Decisions on the Timing of Investments 239 Summary 240 Problems 242 8 Deterministic Capital Budgeting Models 247 8.1 The Use of Linear Programming Models 247 8.1.1 Description of a Basic Capital Budgeting Problem 248 8.1.2 Criterion Function to Be Optimized 248 8.1.3 Multiple Budget Periods 249 8.1.4 Project Limits and Interdependencies 249 8.1.5 LP Formulation of Lorie–Savage Problem 250 8.1.6 Duality Analysis 250 8.2 Pure Capital Rationing Models 253 8.2.1 Criticisms of the PV Model 254 8.2.2 Consistent Discount Factors 255 8.3 Net Present Value Maximization with Lending and Borrowing 258 8.3.1 Inclusion of Lending Opportunities 258 8.3.2 Inclusion of Borrowing Opportunities 259 8.4 Weingartner’s Horizon Model 259 8.4.1 Equal Lending and Borrowing Rates 259 8.4.2 Lending Rates Less than Borrowing Rates 265 8.4.3 Inclusion of Borrowing Limits Supply Schedule of Funds 267 8.4.4 Dual Analysis with Project Interdependencies 271 8.5 Bernhard’s General Model 272 8.5.1 Model Formulation 272 8.5.2 Major Results 273 8.6 Discrete Capital Budgeting 276 8.6.1 Number of Fractional Projects in LP Solution 276 8.6.2 Branch-and-Bound Solution Procedure 277 8.6.3 Duality Analysis for Integer Solutions 279 8.7 Capital Budgeting with Multiple Objectives 281 8.7.1 Goal Programming 281 8.7.2 Interactive Multiple-Criteria Optimization 283 Summary 284 Problems 285 Part 3 Stochastic Analysis 9 Utility Theory 295 9.1 The Concept of Risk 295 9.1.1 Role of Utility Theory 297 9.1.2 Alternative Approaches to Decision Making 298 9.2 Preference and Ordering Rules 298 9.2.1 Bernoulli Hypothesis 298 9.3 Properties of Utility Functions 301 9.3.1 Risk Attitudes 301 9.3.2 Relationship between Certainty Equivalent and Risk Premium 304 9.3.3 Types of Utility Functions 304 9.4 Empirical Determination of Utility Functions 307 9.4.1 General Procedure 307 9.4.2 Sample Results 309 9.5 Mean–Variance Analysis 310 9.5.1 Indifference Curves 310 9.5.2 Coefficient of Risk Aversion 312 9.5.3 Justification of the Mean and Variance Criterion 312 9.5.4 Justification of Certainty Equivalent Method 314 Summary 317 Problems 318 10 Probabilistic Cash Flow Analysis—Single Project 322 10.1 Measures of Project Risk 322 10.1.1 Downside Risk 322 10.1.2 How Businesspeople Perceive Risk in Project Evaluation 323 10.2 Estimating Values in Probabilistic Terms 324 10.2.1 Statistical Moments of a Single Random Variable 325 10.2.2 Statistical Moments of Linear Combinations of Random Variables 328 10.2.3 Products of Random Variables 332 10.2.4 Quotients of Random Variables 334 10.2.5 Powers of Independent Random Variables 335 10.2.6 General Approximation Formulas 338 10.3 Statistical Moments of Discounted Cash Flows 339 10.3.1 Expected Net Present Value 339 10.3.2 Variance of Net Present Value 340 10.3.3 Mixed Net Cash Flows 343 10.3.4 Net Cash Flows Consisting of Several Components 344 10.3.5 Cash Flows with Uncertain Timing: Continuous Case 345 10.3.6 Cash Flows with Uncertain Timing: Discrete Case 352 10.4 Probability Distributions of Net Present Value 355 10.4.1 Discrete Cash Flows Described by a Probability Tree 355 10.4.2 Use of the First Two Statistical Moments 357 10.4.3 Use of the First Four Statistical Moments 358 10.5 Estimating Risky Cash Flows 359 10.5.1 Beta-Function Estimators for Single Cash Flows 359 10.5.2 Hiller’s Method for Correlated Cash Flows 365 10.6 Measure of Operational Risk 367 10.6.1 Value at Risk—Downside Risk Measurements 367 10.6.2 How to Calculate the Value at Risk? 367 10.6.3 Conditional Value at Risk (CVaR) 371 Summary 373 Problems 375 11 Comparing Risky Projects and Portfolio Optimization Theory 386 11.1 Comparative Measures of Investment Worth 386 11.1.1 Mean–Variance, E–V 386 11.1.2 Mean–Semivariance, E–Sh 388 11.1.3 Safety First 391 11.2 Stochastic Dominance 392 11.2.1 First-Degree Stochastic Dominance 392 11.2.2 Second-Degree Stochastic Dominance 395 11.2.3 Third-Degree Stochastic Dominance 399 11.2.4 Relationship Between Dominance and Mean–Variance Criterion 402 11.3 Portfolio Theory 403 11.3.1 Efficiency Frontier 404 11.3.2 Diversification of Risk 406 11.3.3 Full Covariance Model 407 11.3.4 Index Model 408 11.3.5 Capital Market Theory 409 11.4 Discrete Capital-Rationing Models Under Risk 412 11.4.1 Hillier’s Method for Correlated Projects 413 11.4.2 Stochastic Programming 414 11.5 Multiperiod Index Model for Project Portfolio 415 11.5.1 Model Structure and Assumptions 415 11.5.2 Procedure 417 11.6 Uncertainty Resolution 419 Summary 421 Problems 423 12 Risk Simulation 430 12.1 An Overview of the Logic of Simulation 430 12.1.1 Monte Carlo Sampling 431 12.1.2 Using the Simulation Output 431 12.2 Selecting Input Probability Distributions 432 12.2.1 Selecting a Distribution Based on Observed Data 432 12.2.2 Selecting a Distribution in the Absence of Data 439 12.3 Sampling Procedures for Independent Random Variables 441 12.3.1 Inverse Transformation Techniques 441 12.3.2 Other Frequently Used Random Deviates 444 12.4 Sampling Procedures for Dependent Random Variables 446 12.4.1 Assessment of Conditional Probabilities 446 12.4.2 Sampling a Pair of Dependent Random Samples 447 12.4.3 Sampling Based on Regression Equation 450 12.4.4 Conditional Sampling in the Absence of Data 455 12.4.5 Normal Transformation Method 457 12.5 Output Data Analysis 460 12.5.1 Replication and Precision of Results 460 12.5.2 Comparison of Two Projects 462 12.6 A Simple Risk Simulation Example 465 12.6.1 Decision Problem 465 12.6.2 Replication Results 468 Summary 469 Problems 470 13 Decision Analysis and Value of Information 474 13.1 Sequential Decision Process 474 13.1.1 Structuring the Decision Tree 474 13.1.2 Expected Value as a Decision Criterion 478 13.2 Obtaining Additional Information 478 13.2.1 The Value of Perfect Information 479 13.2.2 Determining Revised Probabilities 481 13.2.3 Expected Monetary Value after Receiving Sample Information 486 13.2.4 Value of the Market Survey 486 13.3 Decision Tree and Risk 487 13.3.1 Sensitivity Analysis 487 13.3.2 Decision Based on Certainty Equivalents 488 13.4 Investment Decisions with Replication Opportunities 490 13.4.1 The Opportunity to Replicate 490 13.4.2 Experiment Leading to Perfect Information 490 13.4.3 A Case Example—Flexible Cellular Manufacturing Operation 491 13.4.4 Sampling Leading to Imperfect Information 494 13.5 Bayesian Inference and Value of Sampling 495 13.5.1 Bayesian Inference 495 13.5.2 Bayesian Update with a Discrete Prior Distribution 497 13.5.3 Bayesian Update with a Continuous Prior Probability Distribution 500 13.6 Conjugate Prior Distributions 503 13.6.1 Types of Sampling 503 13.6.2 Conjugate Distribution for Bernoulli Process 505 13.6.3 Conjugate Distribution for Poisson Process 507 13.6.4 Conjugate Distribution for Normal Process 509 13.6.5 Lognormal Process 512 13.7 Terminal Analysis: Opportunity Loss and Value of Perfect Information 513 13.7.1 Opportunity Loss Function 513 13.7.2 The Expected Value of Sample Information 515 13.7.3 Optimal Sample Size 517 Summary 518 Problems 519 14 Basic Options Theory 527 14.1 Financial Options Concepts 527 14.1.1 Call Options 528 14.1.2 Put Options 529 14.2 Stochastic Process of Asset Dynamics 530 14.2.1 Underlying Asset Price Movement—Geometric Brownian Motion 531 14.2.2 Simulated Stock Prices Based on Brownian Motion 534 14.2.3 Discrete-Time Price Movement 535 14.2.4 How to Determine the Binomial Parameters 537 14.3 Upper and Lower Bounds for Option Prices 539 14.3.1 Upper and Lower Bounds 539 14.3.2 Put–Call Parity 540 14.4 Binomial Option Pricing Model 541 14.4.1 Option Pricing for a Single-Period Model 541 14.4.2 Risk-Neutral Probabilities 543 14.4.3 Properties of Option Attributes 544 14.4.4 Effects of Dividends 545 14.5 Option Pricing for the Multi-Period Binomial Model 546 14.6 Pricing an American Option 548 14.6.1 Early Exercise for an American Call Option 550 14.7 Black–Scholes Model 550 14.7.1 Call and Put Options Formulas 551 14.7.2 Components of the Black–Scholes Model 552 14.7.3 Formal Derivation of the Black–Scholes Formula 553 14.7.4 Relationship Between the Binomial Lattice Model and the Black–Scholes Model 555 14.8 Dividends and Black–Sholes Model 556 14.8.1 Known Dividend Yield 556 14.8.2 Known Dollar Dividend 556 14.9 Pricing Exotic Options 557 14.9.1 Exchange Options—Margrabe Model 557 14.9.2 The Geske Model—Compound Option 558 14.10 Estimating Volatility for Traded Financial Assets 560 Summary 563 Problems 564 15 Real Options Analysis 567 15.1 A New Way of Thinking of Investment Strategy under Uncertainty 567 15.1.1 Identify the Level of Uncertainty 567 15.1.2 Analytic Tools and Strategies to Resolve Uncertainty 568 15.2 What Is the Investment Flexibility? 572 15.3 Real Options Valuation with Financial Option Framework 575 15.3.1 Basic Modeling Concept 575 15.3.2 SNPV Calculation with Black–Scholes Formula 576 15.4 Real Call Options Models 577 15.4.1 Option to Wait—Delay Options 577 15.4.2 Option to Expand—Growth Options 579 15.4.3 Research and Development 580 15.4.4 Scale-Up Options by Binomial Lattice 582 15.4.5 Exchange Option—Delay Options with Stochastic Investment Cost 584 15.5 Real Put Options Models 586 15.5.1 Option to Abandon 586 15.5.2 Option to Switch 589 15.5.3 Option to Scale Down 590 15.6 Option to Choose 591 15.7 Compound Real Options 594 15.7.1 Geske Model 594 15.7.2 Compound Options with Changing Volatility 598 15.7.3 A Four-Phased Compound Option with Varying Volatility—A Case Example 599 15.8 Estimating the Implied Project Volatility 605 15.9 An Alternative Real Options Valuation Based on the Loss Function Approach 606 15.9.1 The Concept of Opportunity Loss Function 607 15.9.2 Valuing Real Call Option with the Standardized Loss Function Approach 607 15.9.3 Valuing Real Put Option with the Standardized Loss Function Approach 612 15.9.4 Determining the Correct Amount of Premium to Pay for Real Options 614 Summary 618 Problems 619 15A Bayesian Real Options Analysis 625 15A.1 Real Options Premium and Value of Information 625 15A.1.1 Real Options Valuation Based on Linear Payoff Analysis 625 15A.1.2 Expected Value of Perfect Information and Its Relation to Option Premium 626 15A.2 Option Valuation with Opportunity to Replicate 628 15A.2.1 Option Value with Imperfect Information 629 15A.2.2 Revised Option Values 631 15A.3 Bayesian Compound Option—Delay Real Options with Learning 632 15A.3.1 A Conceptual Modeling Framework 632 15A.3.2 Effects of Learning 634 15A.3.3 Decision to Invest in Phase 1 with Upstream Learning 634 15A.3.4 Development of a Learning Real Options Framework 635 15A.3.5 Incorporating Bayesian Learning 636 15A.3.6 Posterior Properties 638 15A.4 A Case Study—Learning Options in Aerospace Industry 638 15A.4.1 Background 638 15A.4.2 Applying the Decision Model 639 15A.4.3 Option Value Based on Posterior Information 640 15A.4.4 Economic Interpretation 641 Summary 642 Part 4 Special Topics in Engineering Economic Analysis 16 Evaluation of Public Investments 647 16.1 The Nature of Public Activities 647 16.2 The Procedure of Benefit–Cost Analysis 648 16.2.1 Valuation of Benefits and Costs 649 16.2.2 Decision Criteria 651 16.3 The Benefit–Cost Concept Applied to a Mass Transit System 654 16.3.1 The Problem Statement 655 16.3.2 Users’ Benefits and Disbenefits 656 16.3.3 Sponsor’s Costs 662 16.3.4 Benefit–Cost Ratio for Project 665 16.4 Cost–Benefit/Cost-Effectiveness Analyses 666 16.4.1 Cost–Benefit Analysis 666 16.4.2 Cost-Effectiveness Analysis 667 16.5 Risk and Uncertainty in Benefit–Cost Analysis 667 16.5.1 Exact Distribution of Benefit–Cost Ratio 668 16.5.2 Exact Distribution of Incremental Benefit–Cost Ratio 669 16.5.3 Computer Simulation Approach 673 Summary 676 Problems 677 17 Economic Analysis in Public Utilities 681 17.1 Utility Firms and Fair Returns 681 17.2 Capital Costs for Public Utilities 682 17.2.1 Debt and Equity Financing for Public Utilities 682 17.2.2 Weighted After-Tax Cost of Capital 682 17.2.3 Capital Recovery Cost Based on Book Depreciation Schedule 683 17.3 The Revenue Requirement Method 685 17.3.1 Assumptions of the Revenue Requirement Method 685 17.3.2 Determination of Annual Revenue Requirements 686 17.3.3 Effect of Inflation in Revenue Requirements 689 17.4 Equivalence of the Present Value and Revenue Requirement Methods 692 17.4.1 The A/T Equity Cash Flows and Revenue Requirement Series 692 17.4.2 Important Results Regarding the Equivalence of the PV and RR Methods 694 17.5 Flow-Through and Normalization Accounting 696 17.5.1 Flow-Through Method 696 17.5.2 Normalizing Method 698 Summary 704 Problems 704 18 Procedures for Replacement Analysis 708 18.1 Quantifying Obsolescence and Deterioration 708 18.2 Forecasting Future Data 713 18.3 Basic Concepts in Replacement Analysis 715 18.3.1 Sunk Costs 715 18.3.2 Outsider Point of View 716 18.4 Economic Life of an Asset 721 18.5 Infinite Planning Period Methods 724 18.5.1 No Technology or Cost Changes, AE Method 724 18.5.2 Geometric Changes in Purchase Costs and O&M Costs, PV Method 727 18.6 Finite Planning Period Methods 730 18.6.1 Sensitivity Analysis of PV with Respect to Inflation 730 18.6.2 Dynamic Programming Method 732 18.7 Building a Data Base 738 18.8 Recent Advances in Fleet Replacement Studies 740 Summary 741 Problems 742 Appendix A Discrete Interest Compounding Tables A-1 Appendix B Statistical Tables A-29 Table B.1 Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution A-29 Table B.2 Percentage Points of the χ2 Distribution A-30 Table B.3 Standard Normal Distribution Loss Function A-31 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisOCCUPATIONAL ERGONOMICS Develop a healthier connection between worker and work with this practical introduction The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that 34% of all workdays lost each year are the result of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs). These disorders result from a mismatch between a worker, their working conditions, and the task they perform. Improperly designed tasks or equipment, insufficient downtime between shifts or tasks, or even simple sitting position can all produce WMSDs. The key insights into preventing these disorders are produced by ergonomics, the scientific study of human bodies as they relate to objects, systems, and environments, especially work environments. Occupational Ergonomics: A Practical Approach aims to supply an ergonomic toolkit for creating healthier relationships between workers' bodies and their work. Beginning with a set of foundational ergonomic principles, it then details multiple assessment techniques in ways easTable of ContentsPreface ix About the Companion Website x 1 Book Organization 1 2 The Basics of Ergonomics 5 3 Anthropometry 19 4 Office Ergonomics 101 5 Exercise Physiology 125 6 Elements of Ergonomics Programs 153 7 Biomechanics 185 8 Psychophysics 201 9 Hand Tools 227 10 Vibration 251 11 Industrial Workstation Design 275 12 Manual Materials Handling 297 13 Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders 307 14 How to Conduct an Ergonomic Assessment and Ergonomic Assessment Tools 345 15 Ergonomics in the Healthcare Industry 381 16 Case Studies 429 17 Return on Investment 461 18 Ergonomic Climate 493 Appendix A Guides 501 Appendix B Tools 513 Glossary 541 Index 545

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStudent solution available in interactive e-text Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics 2 Note to Students 2 Scope of Fluid Mechanics 3 Definition of a Fluid 3 1.2 Basic Equations 4 1.3 Methods of Analysis 5 System and Control Volume 6 Differential versus Integral Approach 7 Methods of Description 7 1.4 Dimensions and Units 9 Systems of Dimensions 9 Systems of Units 10 Preferred Systems of Units 11 Dimensional Consistency and “Engineering” Equations 11 1.5 Analysis of Experimental Error 13 1.6 Summary 14 References 14 Chapter 2 Fundamental Concepts 15 2.1 Fluid as a Continuum 16 2.2 Velocity Field 17 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 18 Timelines, Pathlines, Streaklines, and Streamlines 19 2.3 Stress Field 23 2.4 Viscosity 25 Newtonian Fluid 26 Non-Newtonian Fluids 28 2.5 Surface Tension 29 2.6 Description and Classification of Fluid Motions 30 Viscous and Inviscid Flows 32 Laminar and Turbulent Flows 34 Compressible and Incompressible Flows 34 Internal and External Flows 35 2.7 Summary and Useful Equations 36 References 37 Chapter 3 Fluid Statics 38 3.1 The Basic Equation of Fluid Statics 39 3.2 The Standard Atmosphere 42 3.3 Pressure Variation in a Static Fluid 43 Incompressible Liquids: Manometers 43 Gases 48 3.4 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Surfaces 50 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Submerged Surface 50 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Submerged Surface 57 3.5 Buoyancy and Stability 60 3.6 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion 63 3.7 Summary and Useful Equations 68 References 69 Chapter 4 Basic Equations In Integral Form For a Control Volume 70 4.1 Basic Laws for a System 71 Conservation of Mass 71 Newton’s Second Law 72 The Angular-Momentum Principle 72 The First Law of Thermodynamics 72 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 73 4.2 Relation of System Derivatives to the Control Volume Formulation 73 Derivation 74 Physical Interpretation 76 4.3 Conservation of Mass 77 Special Cases 78 4.4 Momentum Equation for Inertial Control Volume 82 Differential Control Volume Analysis 93 Control Volume Moving with Constant Velocity 97 4.5 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Rectilinear Acceleration 99 4.6 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Arbitrary Acceleration 105 4.7 The Angular-Momentum Principle 110 Equation for Fixed Control Volume 110 Equation for Rotating Control Volume 114 4.8 The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 118 Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume 119 Control Volume Equation 121 4.9 Summary and Useful Equations 125 Chapter 5 Introduction to Differential Analysis of Fluid Motion 128 5.1 Conservation of Mass 129 Rectangular Coordinate System 129 Cylindrical Coordinate System 133 5.2 Stream Function for Two-Dimensional Incompressible Flow 135 5.3 Motion of a Fluid Particle (Kinematics) 137 Fluid Translation: Acceleration of a Fluid Particle in a Velocity Field 138 Fluid Rotation 144 Fluid Deformation 147 5.4 Momentum Equation 151 Forces Acting on a Fluid Particle 151 Differential Momentum Equation 152 Newtonian Fluid: Navier–Stokes Equations 152 5.5 Summary and Useful Equations 160 References 161 Chapter 6 Incompressible Inviscid Flow 162 6.1 Momentum Equation for Frictionless Flow: Euler’s Equation 163 6.2 Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline for Steady Flow 167 Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates 167 Derivation Using Rectangular Coordinates 168 Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures 169 Applications 171 Cautions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 176 6.3 The Bernoulli Equation Interpreted as an Energy Equation 177 6.4 Energy Grade Line and Hydraulic Grade Line 181 6.5 Unsteady Bernoulli Equation: Integration of Euler’s Equation Along a Streamline 183 6.6 Irrotational Flow 185 Bernoulli Equation Applied to Irrotational Flow 185 Velocity Potential 186 Stream Function and Velocity Potential for Two-Dimensional, Irrotational, Incompressible Flow: Laplace’s Equation 187 Elementary Plane Flows 189 Superposition of Elementary Plane Flows 191 6.7 Summary and Useful Equations 200 References 201 Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 202 7.1 Nondimensionalizing the Basic Differential Equations 204 7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 206 7.3 Significant Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 212 7.4 Flow Similarity and Model Studies 214 Incomplete Similarity 216 Scaling with Multiple Dependent Parameters 221 Comments on Model Testing 224 7.5 Summary and Useful Equations 225 References 226 Chapter 8 Internal Incompressible Viscous Flow 227 8.1 Internal Flow Characteristics 228 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow 228 The Entrance Region 229 Part A. Fully Developed Laminar Flow 230 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow Between Infinite Parallel Plates 230 Both Plates Stationary 230 Upper Plate Moving with Constant Speed, U 236 8.3 Fully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe 241 Part B. Flow In Pipes and Ducts 245 8.4 Shear Stress Distribution in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 246 8.5 Turbulent Velocity Profiles in Fully Developed Pipe Flow 247 8.6 Energy Considerations in Pipe Flow 251 Kinetic Energy Coefficient 252 Head Loss 252 8.7 Calculation of Head Loss 253 Major Losses: Friction Factor 253 Minor Losses 258 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers in Fluid Systems 262 Noncircular Ducts 262 8.8 Solution of Pipe Flow Problems 263 Single-Path Systems 264 Multiple-Path Systems 276 Part C. Flow Measurement 279 8.9 Restriction Flow Meters for Internal Flows 279 The Orifice Plate 282 The Flow Nozzle 286 The Venturi 286 The Laminar Flow Element 287 Linear Flow Meters 288 Traversing Methods 289 8.10 Summary and Useful Equations 290 References 292 Chapter 9 External Incompressible Viscous Flow 293 Part A. Boundary Layers 295 9.1 The Boundary Layer Concept 295 9.2 Laminar Flat Plate Boundary Layer: Exact Solution 299 9.3 Momentum Integral Equation 302 9.4 Use of the Momentum Integral Equation for Flow with Zero Pressure Gradient 306 Laminar Flow 307 Turbulent Flow 311 9.5 Pressure Gradients in Boundary Layer Flow 314 Part B. Fluid Flow About Immersed Bodies 316 9.6 Drag 316 Pure Friction Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Parallel to the Flow 317 Pure Pressure Drag: Flow over a Flat Plate Normal to the Flow 320 Friction and Pressure Drag: Flow over a Sphere and Cylinder 320 Streamlining 326 9.7 Lift 328 9.8 Summary and Useful Equations 340 References 342 Chapter 10 Fluid Machinery 343 10.1 Introduction and Classification of Fluid Machines 344 Machines for Doing Work on a Fluid 344 Machines for Extracting Work (Power) from a Fluid 346 Scope of Coverage 348 10.2 Turbomachinery Analysis 348 The Angular Momentum Principle: The Euler Turbomachine Equation 348 Velocity Diagrams 350 Performance—Hydraulic Power 352 Dimensional Analysis and Specific Speed 353 10.3 Pumps, Fans, and Blowers 358 Application of Euler Turbomachine Equation to Centrifugal Pumps 358 Application of the Euler Equation to Axial Flow Pumps and Fans 359 Performance Characteristics 362 Similarity Rules 367 Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head 371 Pump Selection: Applications to Fluid Systems 374 Blowers and Fans 380 10.4 Positive Displacement Pumps 384 10.5 Hydraulic Turbines 387 Hydraulic Turbine Theory 387 Performance Characteristics for Hydraulic Turbines 389 10.6 Propellers and Wind Turbines 395 Propellers 395 Wind Turbines 400 10.7 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 406 Application of the Energy Equation to a Compressible Flow Machine 406 Compressors 407 Compressible-Flow Turbines 410 10.8 Summary and Useful Equations 410 References 412 Chapter 11 Flow In Open Channels 414 11.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions 416 Simplifying Assumptions 416 Channel Geometry 418 Speed of Surface Waves and the Froude Number 419 11.2 Energy Equation for Open-Channel Flows 423 Specific Energy 425 Critical Depth: Minimum Specific Energy 426 11.3 Localized Effect of Area Change (Frictionless Flow) 431 Flow over a Bump 431 11.4 The Hydraulic Jump 435 Depth Increase Across a Hydraulic Jump 438 Head Loss Across a Hydraulic Jump 439 11.5 Steady Uniform Flow 441 The Manning Equation for Uniform Flow 443 Energy Equation for Uniform Flow 448 Optimum Channel Cross Section 450 11.6 Flow with Gradually Varying Depth 451 Calculation of Surface Profiles 452 11.7 Discharge Measurement Using Weirs 455 Suppressed Rectangular Weir 455 Contracted Rectangular Weirs 456 Triangular Weir 456 Broad-Crested Weir 457 11.8 Summary and Useful Equations 458 References 459 Chapter 12 Introduction to Compressible Flow 460 12.1 Review of Thermodynamics 461 12.2 Propagation of Sound Waves 467 Speed of Sound 467 Types of Flow—The Mach Cone 471 12.3 Reference State: Local Isentropic Stagnation Properties 473 Local Isentropic Stagnation Properties for the Flow of an Ideal Gas 474 12.4 Critical Conditions 480 12.5 Basic Equations for One-Dimensional Compressible Flow 480 Continuity Equation 481 Momentum Equation 481 First Law of Thermodynamics 481 Second Law of Thermodynamics 482 Equation of State 483 12.6 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas: Area Variation 483 Subsonic Flow, M <1 485 Supersonic Flow, M >1 486 Sonic Flow, M =1 486 Reference Stagnation and Critical Conditions for Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 487 Isentropic Flow in a Converging Nozzle 492 Isentropic Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle 496 12.7 Normal Shocks 501 Basic Equations for a Normal Shock 501 Normal-Shock Flow Functions for One-Dimensional Flow of an Ideal Gas 503 12.8 Supersonic Channel Flow with Shocks 507 12.9 Summary and Useful Equations 509 References 511 Problems P-1 Appendix A Fluid Property Data A-1 Appendix B Videos For Fluid Mechanics A-13 Appendix C Selected Performance Curves For Pumps and Fans A-15 Appendix D Flow Functions For Computation of Compressible Flow A-26 Appendix E Analysis of Experimental Uncertainty A-29 Appendix F Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics A-35 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Getting Started 1 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 2 1.2 Defining Systems 2 1.2.1 Closed Systems 4 1.2.2 Control Volumes 4 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 5 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 6 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics 6 1.3.2 Property, State, and Process 7 1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 7 1.3.4 Equilibrium 8 1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 8 1.4.1 SI Units 9 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 10 1.5 Specific Volume 11 1.6 Pressure 12 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 12 1.6.2 Buoyancy 14 1.6.3 Pressure Units 14 1.7 Temperature 15 1.7.1 Thermometers 16 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 17 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 17 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 19 1.8.1 Design 19 1.8.2 Analysis 19 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 20 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 22 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 23 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 24 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 24 2.1.2 Potential Energy 25 2.1.3 Units for Energy 26 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 27 2.1.5 Closing Comment 27 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 27 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 28 2.2.2 Power 29 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 30 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual Processes 31 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 31 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 34 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 35 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 36 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 36 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 37 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate 38 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 39 2.4.3 Closing Comments 40 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems 41 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 43 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed Systems 44 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State Operation 47 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 49 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 50 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 51 2.6.2 Power Cycles 52 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 52 2.7 Energy Storage 53 2.7.1 Overview 54 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 54 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 55 3 Evaluating Properties 57 3.1 Getting Started 58 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 58 3.1.2 Fixing the State 58 3.2 p–υ–T Relation 59 3.2.1 p–υ–T Surface 60 3.2.2 Projections of the p–υ–T Surface 61 3.3 Studying Phase Change 63 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 65 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume, and Temperature 66 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 66 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 68 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy 72 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 72 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 72 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 74 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Software 74 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Software 76 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 77 3.8.2 Using Software 79 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cυ and cp 80 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 82 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 82 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 83 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 85 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R– 85 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 85 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 86 3.11.4 Equations of State 89 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 90 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 90 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 90 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 92 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 92 3.13.1 Δu, Δh, cυ , and cp Relations 92 3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 93 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specific Heats, and Software 95 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 95 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 97 3.14.3 Using Computer Software 98 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 100 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 102 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 105 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 106 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 106 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 107 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 107 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 108 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 109 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 109 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 109 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 109 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 110 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 112 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 112 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 113 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 114 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 114 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 115 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 115 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 116 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 117 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations 118 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 118 4.7 Turbines 119 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 120 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 121 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 122 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 122 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 122 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 125 4.9 Heat Exchangers 126 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 127 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 128 4.10 Throttling Devices 130 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 130 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 131 4.11 System Integration 132 4.12 Transient Analysis 135 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 135 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 135 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 136 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 142 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 145 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 146 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 146 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 147 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 148 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 149 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 149 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 149 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 151 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 151 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 151 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 152 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 153 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 155 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 156 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 157 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 158 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 159 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 159 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 160 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 161 5.7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 161 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 162 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 163 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 163 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 164 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 165 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 166 5.9.1 Power Cycles 167 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 168 5.10 Carnot Cycle 171 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 171 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 172 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 173 5.11 Clausius Inequality 173 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 175 6 Using Entropy 177 6.1 Entropy–A System Property 178 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 178 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 179 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 179 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 179 6.2.1 Vapor Data 180 6.2.2 Saturation Data 180 6.2.3 Liquid Data 180 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 181 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 181 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 182 6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 184 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 184 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 185 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 186 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 187 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 187 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 188 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 188 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water 189 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 190 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 191 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 192 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance 192 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 195 6.8 Directionality of Processes 196 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 196 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 198 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 200 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 201 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 202 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State 202 6.11 Isentropic Processes 207 6.11.1 General Considerations 207 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 208 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 210 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 212 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 212 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 215 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Efficiencies 216 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 218 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 218 6.13.2 Work 219 6.13.3 Work in Polytropic Processes 220 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 222 7 Exergy Analysis 225 7.1 Introducing Exergy 226 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 227 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 227 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 228 7.3 Exergy of a System 228 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 230 7.3.2 Specific Exergy 230 7.3.3 Exergy Change 232 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 233 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance 233 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance 236 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 237 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 239 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State 240 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 242 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at Steady State 243 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 246 7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Efficiency 249 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 249 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Components 251 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Efficiencies 253 7.7 Thermoeconomics 253 7.7.1 Costing 254 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design 254 7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System 256 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 260 8 Vapor Power Systems 261 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 266 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 268 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 269 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 271 8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the Rankine Cycle 274 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 276 8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical 279 8.4 Improving Performance—Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 284 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 284 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 287 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 289 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 292 8.5.1 Working Fluids 292 8.5.2 Cogeneration 293 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 295 8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 296 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 301 9 Gas Power Systems 303 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 304 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 306 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 311 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 314 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 317 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 318 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 318 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 319 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses 324 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 326 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 329 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 329 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 331 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 335 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 337 9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 339 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle 339 9.9.2 Cogeneration 344 9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants 344 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 346 9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 350 9.12.1 Momentum Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Flow 350 9.12.2 Velocity of Sound and Mach Number 351 9.12.3 Determining Stagnation State Properties 353 9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers 353 9.13.1 Exploring the Effects of Area Change in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows 353 9.13.2 Effects of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 356 9.13.3 Flow Across a Normal Shock 358 9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of Ideal Gases with Constant Specific Heats 359 9.14.1 Isentropic Flow Functions 359 9.14.2 Normal Shock Functions 362 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 366 10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems 369 10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 370 10.1.1 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 370 10.1.2 Departures from the Carnot Cycle 371 10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 372 10.2.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 372 10.2.2 Performance of Ideal Vapor-Compression Systems 373 10.2.3 Performance of Actual Vapor-Compression Systems 375 10.2.4 The p–h Diagram 378 10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 379 10.4 Other Vapor-Compression Applications 382 10.4.1 Cold Storage 382 10.4.2 Cascade Cycles 383 10.4.3 Multistage Compression with Intercooling 384 10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 385 10.6 Heat Pump Systems 386 10.6.1 Carnot Heat Pump Cycle 387 10.6.2 Vapor-Compression Heat Pumps 387 10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 390 10.7.1 Brayton Refrigeration Cycle 390 10.7.2 Additional Gas Refrigeration Applications 394 10.7.3 Automotive Air Conditioning Using Carbon Dioxide 395 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 396 11 Thermodynamic Relations 399 11.1 Using Equations of State 400 11.1.1 Getting Started 400 11.1.2 Two-Constant Equations of State 401 11.1.3 Multiconstant Equations of State 404 11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 405 11.3 Developing Property Relations 408 11.3.1 Principal Exact Differentials 408 11.3.2 Property Relations from Exact Differentials 409 11.3.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions 413 11.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy 414 11.4.1 Considering Phase Change 414 11.4.2 Considering Single-Phase Regions 417 11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 422 11.5.1 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility 422 11.5.2 Relations Involving Specific Heats 423 11.5.3 Joule–Thomson Coefficient 426 11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 428 11.6.1 Developing Tables by Integration Using p–υ –T and Specific Heat Data 428 11.6.2 Developing Tables by Differentiating a Fundamental Thermodynamic Function 430 11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy 432 11.8 p–υ–T Relations for Gas Mixtures 438 11.9 Analyzing Multicomponent Systems 442 11.9.1 Partial Molal Properties 443 11.9.2 Chemical Potential 445 11.9.3 Fundamental Thermodynamic Functions for Multicomponent Systems 446 11.9.4 Fugacity 448 11.9.5 Ideal Solution 451 11.9.6 Chemical Potential for Ideal Solutions 452 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 453 12 Ideal Gas Mixture and Psychrometric Applications 457 12.1 Describing Mixture Composition 458 12.2 Relating p, V, and T for Ideal Gas Mixtures 461 12.3 Evaluating U, H, S, and Specific Heats 463 12.3.1 Evaluating U and H 463 12.3.2 Evaluating cυ and cp 463 12.3.3 Evaluating S 464 12.3.4 Working on a Mass Basis 464 12.4 Analyzing Systems Involving Mixtures 465 12.4.1 Mixture Processes at Constant Composition 465 12.4.2 Mixing of Ideal Gases 470 12.5 Introducing Psychrometric Principles 474 12.5.1 Moist Air 474 12.5.2 Humidity Ratio, Relative Humidity, Mixture Enthalpy, and Mixture Entropy 475 12.5.3 Modeling Moist Air in Equilibrium with Liquid Water 477 12.5.4 Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature 478 12.5.5 Evaluating Humidity Ratio Using the Adiabatic-Saturation Temperature 482 12.6 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures 483 12.7 Psychrometric Charts 484 12.8 Analyzing Air-Conditioning Processes 486 12.8.1 Applying Mass and Energy Balances to Air-Conditioning Systems 486 12.8.2 Conditioning Moist Air at Constant Composition 488 12.8.3 Dehumidification 490 12.8.4 Humidification 493 12.8.5 Evaporative Cooling 494 12.8.6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Air Streams 496 12.9 Cooling Towers 499 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 501 13 Reacting Mixtures and Combustion 503 13.1 Introducing Combustion 504 13.1.1 Fuels 505 13.1.2 Modeling Combustion Air 505 13.1.3 Determining Products of Combustion 508 13.1.4 Energy and Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 511 13.2 Conservation of Energy—Reacting Systems 511 13.2.1 Evaluating Enthalpy for Reacting Systems 511 13.2.2 Energy Balances for Reacting Systems 514 13.2.3 Enthalpy of Combustion and Heating Values 520 13.3 Determining the Adiabatic Flame Temperature 523 13.3.1 Using Table Data 523 13.3.2 Using Computer Software 523 13.3.3 Closing Comments 525 13.4 Fuel Cells 526 13.4.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 527 13.4.2 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 529 13.5 Absolute Entropy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 530 13.5.1 Evaluating Entropy for Reacting Systems 530 13.5.2 Entropy Balances for Reacting Systems 531 13.5.3 Evaluating Gibbs Function for Reacting Systems 534 13.6 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy 536 13.6.1 Working Equations for Chemical Exergy 538 13.6.2 Evaluating Chemical Exergy for Several Cases 538 13.6.3 Closing Comments 540 13.7 Standard Chemical Exergy 540 13.7.1 Standard Chemical Exergy of a Hydrocarbon: CaHb 541 13.7.2 Standard Chemical Exergy of Other Substances 544 13.8 Applying Total Exergy 545 13.8.1 Calculating Total Exergy 545 13.8.2 Calculating Exergetic Efficiencies of Reacting Systems 549 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 552 14 Chemical and Phase Equilibrium 555 14.1 Introducing Equilibrium Criteria 556 14.1.1 Chemical Potential and Equilibrium 557 14.1.2 Evaluating Chemical Potentials 559 14.2 Equation of Reaction Equilibrium 560 14.2.1 Introductory Case 560 14.2.2 General Case 561 14.3 Calculating Equilibrium Compositions 562 14.3.1 Equilibrium Constant for Ideal Gas Mixtures 562 14.3.2 Illustrations of the Calculation of Equilibrium Compositions for Reacting Ideal Gas Mixtures 565 14.3.3 Equilibrium Constant for Mixtures and Solutions 569 14.4 Further Examples of the Use of the Equilibrium Constant 570 14.4.1 Determining Equilibrium Flame Temperature 570 14.4.2 Van’t Hoff Equation 573 14.4.3 Ionization 574 14.4.4 Simultaneous Reactions 575 14.5 Equilibrium between Two Phases of a Pure Substance 578 14.6 Equilibrium of Multicomponent, Multiphase Systems 579 14.6.1 Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium 580 14.6.2 Gibbs Phase Rule 582 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 583 Appendix Tables, Figures, and Charts A-1 Index to Tables in SI Units A-1 Index to Tables in English Units A-49 Index to Figures and Charts A-97 Exercises and Problems P-1 Chapter 1 P-1 Chapter 2 P-8 Chapter 3 P-17 Chapter 4 P-28 Chapter 5 P-42 Chapter 6 P-52 Chapter 7 P-67 Chapter 8 P-82 Chapter 9 P-97 Chapter 10 P-112 Chapter 11 P-122 Chapter 12 P-129 Chapter 13 P-141 Chapter 14 P-150 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Symbols xix 1. Introduction 1 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19 Atomic Structure 20 Atomic Bonding in Solids 30 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 48 Crystal Structures 49 Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 61 Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 79 4. Imperfections in Solids 92 Point Defects 93 Miscellaneous Imperfections 102 Microscopic Examination 110 5. Diffusion 121 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 142 Elastic Deformation 148 Plastic Deformation 154 Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 171 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 180 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation 181 Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 193 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 199 8. Failure 209 Fatigue 229 Creep 240 9. Phase Diagrams 251 Definitions and Basic Concepts 252 Binary Phase Diagrams 256 The Iron–Carbon System 287 10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 303 Phase Transformations 304 Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron–Carbon Alloys 317 11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys 347 Types of Metal Alloys 349 Fabrication of Metals 373 Thermal Processing of Metals 382 12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics 405 Ceramic Structures 406 Mechanical Properties 428 13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 442 Types and Applications of Ceramics 444 Fabrication and Processing of Ceramics 461 14. Polymer Structures 479 15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers 511 Mechanical Behavior of Polymers 512 Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 522 Crystallization, Melting, and Glass-Transition Phenomena in Polymers 530 Polymer Types 536 Polymer Synthesis and Processing 549 16. Composites 564 Particle-Reinforced Composites 567 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 572 Structural Composites 595 17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 607 Corrosion of Metals 609 Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 639 Degradation of Polymers 639 18. Electrical Properties 648 Electrical Conduction 649 Semiconductivity 659 Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 679 Dielectric Behavior 681 Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 689 19. Thermal Properties 698 20. Magnetic Properties 714 21. Optical Properties 746 Basic Concepts 747 Optical Properties of Metals 751 Optical Properties of Nonmetals 752 Applications of Optical Phenomena 761 22. Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 775 Questions and Problems P-1 Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) A-1 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-3 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials A-32 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers A-37 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials A-41 Appendix F Characteristics of Selected Elements A-43 Appendix G Values of Selected Physical Constants, Unit Abbreviations, SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes A-44 Appendix H Unit Conversion Factors, Periodic Table of the Elements A-45 Glossary G-1 Answers to Selected Problems PA-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsContent available in eBook Student solution available in interactive e-text 1 Introduction and Overview of Manufacturing 1 1.1 What Is Manufacturing? 2 1.2 Materials in Manufacturing 8 1.3 Manufacturing Processes 10 1.4 Production Systems 17 1.5 Manufacturing Economics 20 Part I Material Properties and Product Attributes 27 2 The Nature of Materials 27 2.1 Atomic Structure and the Elements 27 2.2 Bonding between Atoms and Molecules 30 2.3 Crystalline Structures 32 2.4 Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures 37 2.5 Engineering Materials 38 3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 40 3.1 Stress–Strain Relationships 40 3.2 Hardness 53 3.3 Effect of Temperature on Properties 57 3.4 Fluid Properties 59 3.5 Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers 61 4 Physical Properties of Materials 64 4.1 Volumetric and Melting Properties 64 4.2 Thermal Properties 67 4.3 Mass Diffusion 69 4.4 Electrical Properties 71 4.5 Electrochemical Processes 73 5 Dimensions, Surfaces, and Their Measurement 75 5.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes 75 5.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages 76 5.3 Surfaces 84 5.4 Measurement of Surfaces 88 5.5 Effect of Manufacturing Processes 90 Part II Engineering Materials 93 6 Metals 93 6.1 Alloys and Phase Diagrams 94 6.2 Ferrous Metals 98 6.3 Nonferrous Metals 114 6.4 Superalloys 124 7 Ceramics 126 7.1 Structure and Properties of Ceramics 127 7.2 Traditional Ceramics 129 7.3 New Ceramics 131 7.4 Glass 134 7.5 Some Important Elements Related to Ceramics 138 8 Polymers 142 8.1 Fundamentals of Polymer Science and Technology 144 8.2 Thermoplastic Polymers 153 8.3 Thermosetting Polymers 157 8.4 Elastomers 160 8.5 Polymer Recycling and Biodegradability 166 9 Composite Materials 169 9.1 Technology and Classification of Composite Materials 170 9.2 Metal Matrix Composites 177 9.3 Ceramic Matrix Composites 179 9.4 Polymer Matrix Composites 180 Part III Solidification Processes 184 10 Fundamentals of Metal Casting 184 10.1 Overview of Casting Technology 186 10.2 Heating and Pouring 188 10.3 Solidification and Cooling 192 11 Metal Casting Processes 200 11.1 Sand Casting 200 11.2 Other Expendable-Mold Casting Processes 204 11.3 Permanent-Mold Casting Processes 209 11.4 Foundry Practice 218 11.5 Casting Quality 222 11.6 Castability and Casting Economics 224 11.7 Product Design Considerations 229 12 Glassworking 232 12.1 Raw Materials Preparation and Melting 232 12.2 Shaping Processes in Glassworking 233 12.3 Heat Treatment and Finishing 239 12.4 Product Design Considerations 240 13 Shaping Processes For Plastics 242 13.1 Properties of Polymer Melts 243 13.2 Extrusion 245 13.3 Production of Sheet and Film 257 13.4 Fiber and Filament Production (Spinning) 260 13.5 Coating Processes 261 13.6 Injection Molding 262 13.7 Compression and Transfer Molding 275 13.8 Blow Molding and Rotational Molding 277 13.9 Thermoforming 282 13.10 Casting 286 13.11 Polymer Foam Processing and Forming 287 13.12 Product Design Considerations 288 14 Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites and Rubber 291 14.1 Overview of PMC Processing 291 14.2 Open-Mold Processes 295 14.3 Closed-Mold Processes 299 14.4 Other PMC Shaping Processes 301 14.5 Rubber Processing and Shaping 305 14.6 Manufacture of Tires and Other Rubber Products 310 Part IV Particulate Processing of Metals and Ceramics 315 15 Powder Metallurgy 315 15.1 Characterization of Engineering Powders 317 15.2 Production of Metallic Powders 321 15.3 Conventional Pressing and Sintering 323 15.4 Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques 329 15.5 Powder Metallurgy Materials and Economics 331 15.6 Product Design Considerations in Powder Metallurgy 334 16 Processing of Ceramics and Cermets 338 16.1 Processing of Traditional Ceramics 338 16.2 Processing of New Ceramics 345 16.3 Processing of Cermets 348 16.4 Product Design Considerations 350 Part V Metal Forming and Sheet Metalworking 352 17 Fundamentals of Metal Forming 352 17.1 Overview of Metal Forming 352 17.2 Material Behavior in Metal Forming 355 17.3 Temperature in Metal Forming 356 17.4 Strain Rate Sensitivity 358 17.5 Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming 360 18 Bulk Deformation Processes In Metal Working 362 18.1 Rolling 362 18.2 Forging 372 18.3 Extrusion 387 18.4 Wire and Bar Drawing 397 19 Sheet Metalworking 405 19.1 Cutting Operations 406 19.2 Bending Operations 412 19.3 Drawing 416 19.4 Equipment and Economics for Sheet-Metal Pressworking 423 19.5 Other Sheet-Metal-Forming Operations 432 19.6 Sheet-Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses 435 19.7 Bending of Tube Stock 440 Part VI Material Removal Processes 443 20 Theory of Metal Machining 443 20.1 Overview of Machining Technology 445 20.2 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining 448 20.3 Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation 452 20.4 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining 458 20.5 Cutting Temperature 460 21 Machining Operations and Machine Tools 463 21.1 Machining and Part Geometry 463 21.2 Turning and Related Operations 466 21.3 Drilling and Related Operations 475 21.4 Milling 479 21.5 Machining Centers and Turning Centers 487 21.6 Other Machining Operations 489 21.7 Machining Operations for Special Geometries 494 21.8 High-Speed Machining 500 22 Cutting-Tool Technology 503 22.1 Tool Life 503 22.2 Tool Materials 509 22.3 Tool Geometry 517 22.4 Cutting Fluids 526 23 Economic and Product Design Considerations In Machining 530 23.1 Machinability 530 23.2 Tolerances and Surface Finish 531 23.3 Machining Economics 536 23.4 Product Design Considerations in Machining 543 24 Grinding and Other Abrasive Processes 546 24.1 Grinding 547 24.2 Related Abrasive Processes 562 25 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes 567 25.1 Mechanical Energy Processes 568 25.2 Electrochemical Machining Processes 571 25.3 Thermal Energy Processes 575 25.4 Chemical Machining 584 25.5 Application Considerations 589 Part VII Property Enhancing and Surface Processing Operations 592 26 Heat Treatment of Metals 592 26.1 Annealing 592 26.2 Martensite Formation in Steel 593 26.3 Precipitation Hardening 597 26.4 Surface Hardening 598 26.5 Heat Treatment Methods and Facilities 599 27 Surface Processing Operations 602 27.1 Industrial Cleaning Processes 602 27.2 Diffusion and Ion Implantation 606 27.3 Plating and Related Processes 607 27.4 Conversion Coating 611 27.5 Vapor Deposition Processes 612 27.6 Organic Coatings 618 27.7 Porcelain Enameling and Other Ceramic Coatings 620 27.8 Thermal and Mechanical Coating Processes 621 Part VIII Joining and Assembly Processes 623 28 Fundamentals of Welding 623 28.1 Overview of Welding Technology 624 28.2 The Weld Joint 627 28.3 Physics of Welding 629 28.4 Features of a Fusion-Welded Joint 633 29 Welding Processes 635 29.1 Arc Welding 635 29.2 Resistance Welding 644 29.3 Oxyfuel Gas Welding 651 29.4 Other Fusion-Welding Processes 655 29.5 Solid-State Welding 657 29.6 Weld Quality 663 29.7 Weldability and Welding Economics 667 29.8 Design Considerations in Welding 670 30 Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive Bonding 672 30.1 Brazing 672 30.2 Soldering 677 30.3 Adhesive Bonding 681 31 Mechanical Assembly 687 31.1 Threaded Fasteners 687 31.2 Rivets and Eyelets 694 31.3 Assembly Methods Based on Interference Fits 695 31.4 Other Mechanical Fastening Methods 698 31.5 Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners 699 31.6 Design for Assembly 700 Part IX Special Processing and Assembly Technologies (Available in e-text for students) W-1 32 Additive Manufacturing W-1 (Available in e-text for students) 33 Processing of Integrated Circuits W-21 (Available in e-text for students) 34 Electronics Assembly and Packaging W-50 (Available in e-text for students) 35 Microfabrication Technologies W-71 (Available in e-text for students) 36 Nanofabrication Technologies W-83 (Available in e-text for students) Part X Manufacturing Systems (Available in e-text for students) W-97 37 Automation Technologies For Manufacturing Systems W-97 (Available in e-text for students) 38 Integrated Manufacturing Systems W-122 (Available in e-text for students) Part XI Manufacturing Support Systems W-144 39 Process Planning and Production Control W-144 (Available in e-text for students) 40 Quality Control and Inspection W-170 (Available in e-text for students) Review Questions and Problems P-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsSymbols xix Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What and How? 2 1.2 Physical Origins and Rate Equations 3 1.2.1 Conduction 3 1.2.2 Convection 6 1.2.3 Radiation 8 1.2.4 The Thermal Resistance Concept 12 1.3 Relationship to Thermodynamics 12 1.3.1 Relationship to the First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation of Energy) 13 1.3.2 Relationship to the Second Law of Thermodynamics and the Efficiency of Heat Engines 28 1.4 Units and Dimensions 33 1.5 Analysis of Heat Transfer Problems: Methodology 35 1.6 Relevance of Heat Transfer 38 1.7 Summary 42 References 45 Chapter 2 Introduction to Conduction 47 2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation 48 2.2 The Thermal Properties of Matter 50 2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity 51 2.2.2 Other Relevant Properties 58 2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation 62 2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions 70 2.5 Summary 74 References 75 Chapter 3 One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 77 3.1 The Plane Wall 78 3.1.1 Temperature Distribution 78 3.1.2 Thermal Resistance 80 3.1.3 The Composite Wall 81 3.1.4 Contact Resistance 83 3.1.5 Porous Media 85 3.2 An Alternative Conduction Analysis 99 3.3 Radial Systems 103 3.3.1 The Cylinder 103 3.3.2 The Sphere 108 3.4 Summary of One-Dimensional Conduction Results 109 3.5 Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation 109 3.5.1 The Plane Wall 110 3.5.2 Radial Systems 116 3.5.3 Tabulated Solutions 117 3.5.4 Application of Resistance Concepts 117 3.6 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces 121 3.6.1 A General Conduction Analysis 123 3.6.2 Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area 125 3.6.3 Fin Performance Parameters 131 3.6.4 Fins of Nonuniform Cross-Sectional Area 134 3.6.5 Overall Surface Efficiency 137 3.7 Other Applications of One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 141 3.7.1 The Bioheat Equation 141 3.7.2 Thermoelectric Power Generation 145 3.7.3 Nanoscale Conduction 153 3.8 Summary 157 References 159 Chapter 4 Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction 161 4.1 General Considerations and Solution Techniques 162 4.2 The Method of Separation of Variables 163 4.3 The Conduction Shape Factor and the Dimensionless Conduction Heat Rate 167 4.4 Finite-Difference Equations 173 4.4.1 The Nodal Network 173 4.4.2 Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation: No Generation and Constant Properties 174 4.4.3 Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation: The Energy Balance Method 175 4.5 Solving the Finite-Difference Equations 182 4.5.1 Formulation as a Matrix Equation 182 4.5.2 Verifying the Accuracy of the Solution 183 4.6 Summary 188 References 189 Chapter 5 Transient Conduction 191 5.1 The Lumped Capacitance Method 192 5.2 Validity of the Lumped Capacitance Method 195 5.3 General Lumped Capacitance Analysis 199 5.3.1 Radiation Only 200 5.3.2 Negligible Radiation 200 5.3.3 Convection Only with Variable Convection Coefficient 201 5.3.4 Additional Considerations 201 5.4 Spatial Effects 210 5.5 The Plane Wall with Convection 211 5.5.1 Exact Solution 212 5.5.2 Approximate Solution 212 5.5.3 Total Energy Transfer: Approximate Solution 214 5.5.4 Additional Considerations 214 5.6 Radial Systems with Convection 215 5.6.1 Exact Solutions 215 5.6.2 Approximate Solutions 216 5.6.3 Total Energy Transfer: Approximate Solutions 216 5.6.4 Additional Considerations 217 5.7 The Semi-Infinite Solid 222 5.8 Objects with Constant Surface Temperatures or Surface Heat Fluxes 229 5.8.1 Constant Temperature Boundary Conditions 229 5.8.2 Constant Heat Flux Boundary Conditions 231 5.8.3 Approximate Solutions 232 5.9 Periodic Heating 239 5.10 Finite-Difference Methods 242 5.10.1 Discretization of the Heat Equation: The Explicit Method 242 5.10.2 Discretization of the Heat Equation: The Implicit Method 249 5.11 Summary 256 References 257 Chapter 6 Introduction to Convection 259 6.1 The Convection Boundary Layers 260 6.1.1 The Velocity Boundary Layer 260 6.1.2 The Thermal Boundary Layer 261 6.1.3 The Concentration Boundary Layer 263 6.1.4 Significance of the Boundary Layers 264 6.2 Local and Average Convection Coefficients 264 6.2.1 Heat Transfer 264 6.2.2 Mass Transfer 265 6.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 271 6.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Velocity Boundary Layers 271 6.3.2 Laminar and Turbulent Thermal and Species Concentration Boundary Layers 273 6.4 The Boundary Layer Equations 276 6.4.1 Boundary Layer Equations for Laminar Flow 277 6.4.2 Compressible Flow 280 6.5 Boundary Layer Similarity: The Normalized Boundary Layer Equations 280 6.5.1 Boundary Layer Similarity Parameters 281 6.5.2 Dependent Dimensionless Parameters 281 6.6 Physical Interpretation of the Dimensionless Parameters 290 6.7 Boundary Layer Analogies 292 6.7.1 The Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy 293 6.7.2 Evaporative Cooling 296 6.7.3 The Reynolds Analogy 299 6.8 Summary 300 References 301 Chapter 7 External Flow 303 7.1 The Empirical Method 305 7.2 The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow 306 7.2.1 Laminar Flow over an Isothermal Plate: A Similarity Solution 307 7.2.2 Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate 313 7.2.3 Mixed Boundary Layer Conditions 314 7.2.4 Unheated Starting Length 315 7.2.5 Flat Plates with Constant Heat Flux Conditions 316 7.2.6 Limitations on Use of Convection Coefficients 317 7.3 Methodology for a Convection Calculation 317 7.4 The Cylinder in Cross Flow 325 7.4.1 Flow Considerations 325 7.4.2 Convection Heat and Mass Transfer 327 7.5 The Sphere 335 7.6 Flow Across Banks of Tubes 338 7.7 Impinging Jets 347 7.7.1 Hydrodynamic and Geometric Considerations 347 7.7.2 Convection Heat and Mass Transfer 348 7.8 Packed Beds 352 7.9 Summary 353 References 356 Chapter 8 Internal Flow 357 8.1 Hydrodynamic Considerations 358 8.1.1 Flow Conditions 358 8.1.2 The Mean Velocity 359 8.1.3 Velocity Profile in the Fully Developed Region 360 8.1.4 Pressure Gradient and Friction Factor in Fully Developed Flow 362 8.2 Thermal Considerations 363 8.2.1 The Mean Temperature 364 8.2.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling 365 8.2.3 Fully Developed Conditions 365 8.3 The Energy Balance 369 8.3.1 General Considerations 369 8.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux 370 8.3.3 Constant Surface Temperature 373 8.4 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes: Thermal Analysis and Convection Correlations 377 8.4.1 The Fully Developed Region 377 8.4.2 The Entry Region 382 8.4.3 Temperature-Dependent Properties 384 8.5 Convection Correlations: Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes 384 8.6 Convection Correlations: Noncircular Tubes and the Concentric Tube Annulus 392 8.7 Heat Transfer Enhancement 395 8.8 Forced Convection in Small Channels 398 8.8.1 Microscale Convection in Gases (0.1 μm ≤ Dh ≤ 100 μm) 398 8.8.2 Microscale Convection in Liquids 399 8.8.3 Nanoscale Convection (Dh ≤ 100 nm) 400 8.9 Convection Mass Transfer 403 8.10 Summary 405 References 408 Chapter 9 Free Convection 409 9.1 Physical Considerations 410 9.2 The Governing Equations for Laminar Boundary Layers 412 9.3 Similarity Considerations 414 9.4 Laminar Free Convection on a Vertical Surface 415 9.5 The Effects of Turbulence 418 9.6 Empirical Correlations: External Free Convection Flows 420 9.6.1 The Vertical Plate 421 9.6.2 Inclined and Horizontal Plates 424 9.6.3 The Long Horizontal Cylinder 429 9.6.4 Spheres 433 9.7 Free Convection Within Parallel Plate Channels 434 9.7.1 Vertical Channels 435 9.7.2 Inclined Channels 437 9.8 Empirical Correlations: Enclosures 437 9.8.1 Rectangular Cavities 437 9.8.2 Concentric Cylinders 440 9.8.3 Concentric Spheres 441 9.9 Combined Free and Forced Convection 443 9.10 Convection Mass Transfer 444 9.11 Summary 445 References 446 Chapter 10 Boiling and Condensation 449 10.1 Dimensionless Parameters in Boiling and Condensation 450 10.2 Boiling Modes 451 10.3 Pool Boiling 452 10.3.1 The Boiling Curve 452 10.3.2 Modes of Pool Boiling 453 10.4 Pool Boiling Correlations 456 10.4.1 Nucleate Pool Boiling 456 10.4.2 Critical Heat Flux for Nucleate Pool Boiling 458 10.4.3 Minimum Heat Flux 459 10.4.4 Film Pool Boiling 459 10.4.5 Parametric Effects on Pool Boiling 460 10.5 Forced Convection Boiling 465 10.5.1 External Forced Convection Boiling 466 10.5.2 Two-Phase Flow 466 10.5.3 Two-Phase Flow in Microchannels 469 10.6 Condensation: Physical Mechanisms 469 10.7 Laminar Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate 471 10.8 Turbulent Film Condensation 475 10.9 Film Condensation on Radial Systems 480 10.10 Condensation in Horizontal Tubes 485 10.11 Dropwise Condensation 486 10.12 Summary 487 References 487 Chapter 11 Heat Exchangers 491 11.1 Heat Exchanger Types 492 11.2 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 494 11.3 Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference 497 11.3.1 The Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger 498 11.3.2 The Counterflow Heat Exchanger 500 11.3.3 Special Operating Conditions 501 11.4 Heat Exchanger Analysis: The Effectiveness–NTU Method 508 11.4.1 Definitions 508 11.4.2 Effectiveness–NTU Relations 509 11.5 Heat Exchanger Design and Performance Calculations 516 11.6 Additional Considerations 525 11.7 Summary 533 References 534 Chapter 12 Radiation: Processes and Properties 535 12.1 Fundamental Concepts 536 12.2 Radiation Heat Fluxes 539 12.3 Radiation Intensity 541 12.3.1 Mathematical Definitions 541 12.3.2 Radiation Intensity and Its Relation to Emission 542 12.3.3 Relation to Irradiation 547 12.3.4 Relation to Radiosity for an Opaque Surface 549 12.3.5 Relation to the Net Radiative Flux for an Opaque Surface 550 12.4 Blackbody Radiation 550 12.4.1 The Planck Distribution 551 12.4.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 552 12.4.3 The Stefan–Boltzmann Law 552 12.4.4 Band Emission 553 12.5 Emission from Real Surfaces 560 12.6 Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission by Real Surfaces 569 12.6.1 Absorptivity 570 12.6.2 Reflectivity 571 12.6.3 Transmissivity 573 12.6.4 Special Considerations 573 12.7 Kirchhoff’s Law 578 12.8 The Gray Surface 580 12.9 Environmental Radiation 586 12.9.1 Solar Radiation 587 12.9.2 The Atmospheric Radiation Balance 589 12.9.3 Terrestrial Solar Irradiation 591 12.10 Summary 594 References 598 Chapter 13 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces 599 13.1 The View Factor 600 13.1.1 The View Factor Integral 600 13.1.2 View Factor Relations 601 13.2 Blackbody Radiation Exchange 610 13.3 Radiation Exchange Between Opaque, Diffuse, Gray Surfaces in an Enclosure 614 13.3.1 Net Radiation Exchange at a Surface 615 13.3.2 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces 616 13.3.3 The Two-Surface Enclosure 622 13.3.4 Two-Surface Enclosures in Series and Radiation Shields 624 13.3.5 The Reradiating Surface 626 13.4 Multimode Heat Transfer 631 13.5 Implications of the Simplifying Assumptions 634 13.6 Radiation Exchange with Participating Media 634 13.6.1 Volumetric Absorption 634 13.6.2 Gaseous Emission and Absorption 635 13.7 Summary 639 References 640 Chapter 14 Diffusion Mass Transfer 641 14.1 Physical Origins and Rate Equations 642 14.1.1 Physical Origins 642 14.1.2 Mixture Composition 643 14.1.3 Fick’s Law of Diffusion 644 14.1.4 Mass Diffusivity 645 14.2 Mass Transfer in Nonstationary Media 647 14.2.1 Absolute and Diffusive Species Fluxes 647 14.2.2 Evaporation in a Column 650 14.3 The Stationary Medium Approximation 655 14.4 Conservation of Species for a Stationary Medium 655 14.4.1 Conservation of Species for a Control Volume 656 14.4.2 The Mass Diffusion Equation 656 14.4.3 Stationary Media with Specified Surface Concentrations 658 14.5 Boundary Conditions and Discontinuous Concentrations at Interfaces 662 14.5.1 Evaporation and Sublimation 663 14.5.2 Solubility of Gases in Liquids and Solids 663 14.5.3 Catalytic Surface Reactions 668 14.6 Mass Diffusion with Homogeneous Chemical Reactions 670 14.7 Transient Diffusion 673 14.8 Summary 679 References 680 Appendix A Thermophysical Properties of Matter 681 Appendix B Mathematical Relations and Functions 713 Appendix C Thermal Conditions Associated with Uniform Energy Generation in One-Dimensional, Steady-State Systems 719 APPENDIX D The Gauss–Seidel Method 725 APPENDIX E The Convection Transfer Equations 727 E.1 Conservation of Mass 728 E.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 728 E.3 Conservation of Energy 729 E.4 Conservation of Species 730 APPENDIX F Boundary Layer Equations for Turbulent Flow 731 APPENDIX G An Integral Laminar Boundary Layer Solution for Parallel Flow over a Flat Plate 735 Conversion Factors 739 Physical Constants 740 Index 741 Problems P-1 Chapter 1 Problems P-1 Chapter 2 Problems P-13 Chapter 3 Problems P-24 Chapter 4 Problems P-49 Chapter 5 Problems P-63 Chapter 6 Problems P-85 Chapter 7 Problems P-95 Chapter 8 Problems P-115 Chapter 9 Problems P-133 Chapter 10 Problems P-149 Chapter 11 Problems P-157 Chapter 12 Problems P-168 Chapter 13 Problems P-189 Chapter 14 Problems P-210

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Stress 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Normal Stress Under Axial Loading 2 1.3 Direct Shear Stress 8 1.4 Bearing Stress 13 1.5 Stresses on Inclined Sections 17 1.6 Equality of Shear Stresses on Perpendicular Planes 20 2 Strain 25 2.1 Displacement, Deformation, and the Concept of Strain 25 2.2 Normal Strain 27 2.3 Shear Strain 32 2.4 Thermal Strain 35 3 Mechanical Properties of Materials 37 3.1 The Tension Test 37 3.2 The Stress–Strain Diagram 40 3.3 Hooke’s Law 48 3.4 Poisson’s Ratio 49 4 Design Concepts 55 4.1 Introduction 55 4.2 Types of Loads 56 4.3 Safety 58 4.4 Allowable Stress Design 58 4.5 Load and Resistance Factor Design 65 5 Axial Deformation 71 5.1 Introduction 71 5.2 Saint-Venant’s Principle 72 5.3 Deformations in Axially Loaded Bars 74 5.4 Deformations in a System of Axially Loaded Bars 81 5.5 Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Members 88 5.6 Thermal Effects on Axial Deformation 101 5.7 Stress Concentrations 110 6 Torsion 115 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Torsional Shear Strain 117 6.3 Torsional Shear Stress 118 6.4 Stresses on Oblique Planes 120 6.5 Torsional Deformations 122 6.6 Torsion Sign Conventions 124 6.7 Gears in Torsion Assemblies 133 6.8 Power Transmission 138 6.9 Statically Indeterminate Torsion Members 142 6.10 Stress Concentrations in Circular Shafts Under Torsional Loadings 155 6.11 Torsion of Noncircular Sections 158 6.12 Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes: Shear Flow 161 7 Equilibrium of Beams 165 7.1 Introduction 165 7.2 Shear and Moment in Beams 167 7.3 Graphical Method for Constructing Shear and Moment Diagrams 176 7.4 Discontinuity Functions to Represent Load, Shear, and Moment 194 8 Bending 205 8.1 Introduction 205 8.2 Flexural Strains 207 8.3 Normal Stresses in Beams 208 8.4 Analysis of Bending Stresses in Beams 220 8.5 Introductory Beam Design for Strength 230 8.6 Flexural Stresses in Beams of Two Materials 234 8.7 Bending Due to an Eccentric Axial Load 244 8.8 Unsymmetric Bending 251 8.9 Stress Concentrations Under Flexural Loadings 259 8.10 Bending of Curved Bars 263 9 Shear Stress in Beams 271 9.1 Introduction 271 9.2 Resultant Forces Produced by Bending Stresses 272 9.3 The Shear Stress Formula 277 9.4 The First Moment of Area, Q 282 9.5 Shear Stresses in Beams of Rectangular Cross Section 284 9.6 Shear Stresses in Beams of Circular Cross Section 288 9.7 Shear Stresses in Webs of Flanged Beams 289 9.8 Shear Flow in Built-Up Members 294 9.9 Shear Stress and Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members 302 9.10 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open Sections 319 10 Beam Deflections 331 10.1 Introduction 331 10.2 Moment–Curvature Relationship 332 10.3 The Differential Equation of the Elastic Curve 332 10.4 Determining Deflections by Integration of a Moment Equation 336 10.5 Determining Deflections by Integration of Shear-Force or Load Equations 348 10.6 Determining Deflections by Using Discontinuity Functions 350 10.7 Determining Deflections by the Method of Superposition 357 11 Statically Indeterminate Beams 377 11.1 Introduction 377 11.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate Beams 378 11.3 The Integration Method 379 11.4 Use of Discontinuity Functions for Statically Indeterminate Beams 384 11.5 The Superposition Method 390 12 Stress Transformations 405 12.1 Introduction 405 12.2 Stress at a General Point in an Arbitrarily Loaded Body 406 12.3 Equilibrium of the Stress Element 408 12.4 Plane Stress 410 12.5 Generating the Stress Element 410 12.6 Equilibrium Method for Plane Stress Transformations 413 12.7 General Equations of Plane Stress Transformation 415 12.8 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress 422 12.9 Presentation of Stress Transformation Results 429 12.10 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 435 12.11 General State of Stress at a Point 452 13 Strain Transformations 459 13.1 Introduction 459 13.2 Plane Strain 460 13.3 Transformation Equations for Plane Strain 461 13.4 Principal Strains and Maximum Shearing Strain 466 13.5 Presentation of Strain Transformation Results 468 13.6 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain 470 13.7 Strain Measurement and Strain Rosettes 473 13.8 Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Materials 478 13.9 Generalized Hooke’s Law for Orthotropic Materials 494 14 Pressure Vessels 499 14.1 Introduction 499 14.2 Thin-Walled Spherical Pressure Vessels 500 14.3 Thin-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 502 14.4 Strains in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 505 14.5 Stresses in Thick-Walled Cylinders 509 14.6 Deformations in Thick-Walled Cylinders 517 14.7 Interference Fits 520 15 Combined Loads 527 15.1 Introduction 527 15.2 Combined Axial and Torsional Loads 528 15.3 Principal Stresses in a Flexural Member 530 15.4 General Combined Loadings 540 15.5 Theories of Failure 557 16 Columns 567 16.1 Introduction 567 16.2 Buckling of Pin-Ended Columns 570 16.3 The Effect of End Conditions on Column Buckling 578 16.4 The Secant Formula 587 16.5 Empirical Column Formulas—Centric Loading 592 16.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns 600 17 Energy Methods 607 17.1 Introduction 607 17.2 Work and Strain Energy 608 17.3 Elastic Strain Energy for Axial Deformation 613 17.4 Elastic Strain Energy for Torsional Deformation 614 17.5 Elastic Strain Energy for Flexural Deformation 616 17.6 Impact Loading 620 17.7 Work–Energy Method for Single Loads 633 17.8 Method of Virtual Work 636 17.9 Deflections of Trusses by the Virtual-Work Method 641 17.10 Deflections of Beams by the Virtual-Work Method 649 17.11 Castigliano’s Second Theorem 658 17.12 Calculating Deflections of Trusses by Castigliano’s Theorem 660 17.13 Calculating Deflections of Beams by Castigliano’s Theorem 665 Appendix A Geometric Properties Of An Area 671 A.1 Centroid of an Area 671 A.2 Moment of Inertia for an Area 675 A.3 Product of Inertia for an Area 680 A.4 Principal Moments of Inertia 682 A.5 Mohr’s Circle for Principal Moments of Inertia 686 Appendix B Geometric Properties Of Structural Steel Shapes 691 Appendix C Table Of Beam Slopes And Deflections 703 Appendix D Average Properties Of Selected Materials 707 Appendix E Fundamental Mechanics Of Materials Equations 711 Problems P-1 Chapter 1 Problems P-1 Chapter 2 Problems P-7 Chapter 3 Problems P-11 Chapter 4 Problems P-14 Chapter 5 Problems P-18 Chapter 6 Problems P-29 Chapter 7 Problems P-39 Chapter 8 Problems P-46 Chapter 9 Problems P-63 Chapter 10 Problems P-76 Chapter 11 Problems P-87 Chapter 12 Problems P-95 Chapter 13 Problems P-108 Chapter 14 Problems P-115 Chapter 15 Problems P-119 Chapter 16 Problems P-129 Chapter 17 Problems P-138 Answers to Odd Numbered Problems A-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface iii Acronyms xiii 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing 1 1.1 Materials, Manufacturing, and the Standard of Living 1 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 2 2 Properties of Materials 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Static Properties 24 2.3 Dynamic Properties 34 2.4 Temperature Effects (Both High and Low) 39 2.5 Machinability, Formability, and Weldability 42 2.6 Fracture Toughness and the Fracture Mechanics Approach 42 2.7 Physical Properties 43 2.8 Testing Standards and Testing Concerns 43 3 Nature of Materials 45 3.1 Structure—Property—Processing—Performance Relationships 45 3.2 The Structure of Atoms 45 3.3 Atomic Bonding 46 3.4 Secondary Bonds 47 3.5 Atom Arrangements in Materials 48 3.6 Crystal Structures 48 3.7 Development of a Grain Structure 49 3.8 Elastic Deformation 50 3.9 Plastic Deformation 50 3.10 Dislocation Theory of Slippage 52 3.11 Strain Hardening or Work Hardening 53 3.12 Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline Material 53 3.13 Grain Shape and Anisotropic Properties 54 3.14 Fracture 54 3.15 Cold Working, Recrystallization, and Hot Working 54 3.16 Grain Growth 55 3.17 Alloys and Alloy Types 55 3.18 Atomic Structure and Electrical Properties 56 4 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams and the Iron–Carbon System 57 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Phases 57 4.3 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams 57 4.4 Iron–Carbon Equilibrium Diagram 63 4.5 Steels and the Simplified Iron–Carbon Diagram 64 4.6 Cast Irons 65 5 Heat Treatment 67 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 Processing Heat Treatments 67 5.3 Heat Treatments Used to Increase Strength 69 5.4 Strengthening Heat Treatments for Nonferrous Metals 70 5.5 Strengthening Heat Treatments for Steel 72 5.6 Surface Hardening of Steel 83 5.7 Furnaces 84 5.8 Heat Treatment and Energy 86 6 Ferrous Metals and Alloys 87 6.1 Introduction to History-Dependent Materials 87 6.2 Ferrous Metals 87 6.3 Iron 88 6.4 Steel 88 6.5 Stainless Steels 98 6.6 Tool Steels 100 6.7 Cast Irons 102 6.8 Cast Steels 105 6.9 The Role of Processing on Cast Properties 105 7 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys 106 7.1 Introduction 106 7.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 106 7.3 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys 111 7.4 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys 115 7.5 Zinc and Zinc Alloys 118 7.6 Titanium and Titanium Alloys 119 7.7 Nickel-Based Alloys 120 7.8 Superalloys, Refractory Metals, and Other Materials Designed for High-Temperature Service 120 7.9 Lead and Tin and Their Alloys 123 7.10 Some Lesser-Known Metals and Alloys 123 7.11 Metallic Glasses 123 7.12 Graphite 123 7.13 Materials for Specific Applications 124 7.14 High Entropy Alloys 124 8 Nonmetallic Materials: Plastics, Elastomers, Ceramics, and Composites 125 8.1 Introduction 125 8.2 Plastics 125 8.3 Elastomers 135 8.4 Ceramics 137 8.5 Composite Materials 145 9 Material Selection 153 9.1 Introduction 153 9.2 Material Selection and Manufacturing Processes 155 9.3 The Design Process 155 9.4 Approaches to Material Selection 156 9.5 Additional Factors to Consider 158 9.6 Consideration of the Manufacturing Process 159 9.7 Ultimate Objective 159 9.8 Materials Substitution 161 9.9 Effect of Product Liability on Materials Selection 161 9.10 Aids to Material Selection 162 10 Measurement and Inspection 163 10.1 Introduction 163 10.2 Standards of Measurement 163 10.3 Allowance and Tolerance 166 10.4 Inspection Methods for Measurement 171 10.5 Measuring Instruments 172 10.6 Vision Systems 180 10.7 Coordinate Measuring Machines 180 10.8 Angle-Measuring Instruments 181 10.9 Gages for Attributes Measuring 182 11 Nondestructive Examination (NDE) / Nondestructive Testing (NDT) 186 11.1 Destructive vs. Nondestructive Testing 186 11.2 Visual Inspection 187 11.3 Liquid Penetrant Inspection 188 11.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection 189 11.5 Ultrasonic Inspection 190 11.6 Radiography 191 11.7 Eddy-Current Testing 192 11.8 Acoustic Emission Monitoring 194 11.9 Other Methods of Nondestructive Testing and Inspection 195 11.10 Dormant vs. Critical Flaws 196 11.11 Current and Future Trends 196 12 Process Capability and Quality Control 197 12.1 Introduction 197 12.2 Determining Process Capability 198 12.3 Introduction to Statistical Quality Control 204 12.4 Sampling Errors 207 12.5 Gage Capability 208 12.6 Just in Time/Total Quality Control 209 12.7 Six Sigma 217 12.8 Summary 220 13 Fundamentals of Casting 221 13.1 Introduction to Materials Processing 221 13.2 Introduction to Casting 222 13.3 Casting Terminology 223 13.4 The Solidification Process 223 13.5 Patterns 231 13.6 Design Considerations in Castings 232 13.7 The Casting Industry 234 14 Expendable-Mold Casting Processes 236 14.1 Introduction 236 14.2 Sand Casting 236 14.3 Cores and Core Making 249 14.4 Other Expendable-Mold Processes with Multiple- Use Patterns 252 14.5 Expendable-Mold Processes Using Single-Use Patterns 253 14.6 Shakeout, Cleaning, and Finishing 259 14.7 Summary 259 15 Multiple-Use-Mold Casting Processes 260 15.1 Introduction 260 15.2 Permanent-Mold Casting 260 15.3 Die Casting 263 15.4 Squeeze Casting and Semisolid Casting 266 15.5 Centrifugal Casting 267 15.6 Continuous Casting 269 15.7 Melting 269 15.8 Pouring Practice 271 15.9 Cleaning, Finishing, Heat Treating, and Inspection 272 15.10 Automation in Foundry Operations 273 15.11 Process Selection 273 16 Powder Metallurgy (Particulate Processing) 275 16.1 Introduction 275 16.2 The Basic Process 275 16.3 Powder Manufacture 276 16.4 Powder Testing and Evaluation 277 16.5 Powder Mixing and Blending 277 16.6 Compacting 278 16.7 Sintering 281 16.8 Advances in Sintering (Shorter Time, Higher Density, Stronger Products) 282 16.9 Hot-Isostatic Pressing 282 16.10 Other Techniques to Produce High-Density P/M Products 283 16.11 Metal Injection Molding (MIM) 284 16.12 Secondary Operations 285 16.13 Properties of P/M Products 287 16.14 Design of Powder Metallurgy Parts 288 16.15 Powder Metallurgy Products 289 16.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy 290 16.17 Process Summary 291 17 Fundamentals of Metal Forming 292 17.1 Introduction 292 17.2 Forming Processes: Independent Variables 292 17.3 Dependent Variables 293 17.4 Independent–Dependent Relationships 294 17.5 Process Modeling 295 17.6 General Parameters 295 17.7 Friction, Lubrication, and Wear under Metalworking Conditions 296 17.8 Temperature Concerns 297 17.9 Formability 303 18 Bulk-Forming Processes 304 18.1 Introduction 304 18.2 Classification of Deformation Processes 304 18.3 Bulk Deformation Processes 304 18.4 Rolling 305 18.5 Forging 309 18.6 Extrusion 318 18.7 Wire, Rod, and Tube Drawing 322 18.8 Cold Forming, Cold Forging, and Impact Extrusion 324 18.9 Piercing 327 18.10 Other Squeezing Processes 328 18.11 Surface Improvement by Deformation Processing 330 19 Sheet-Forming Processes 331 19.1 Introduction 331 19.2 Shearing Operations 331 19.3 Bending 337 19.4 Drawing and Stretching Processes 343 19.5 Alternative Methods of Producing Sheet-Type Products 353 19.6 Seamed Pipe Manufacture 354 19.7 Presses 354 20 Fabrication of Plastics, Ceramics, and Composites 359 20.1 Introduction 359 20.2 Fabrication of Plastics 359 20.3 Processing of Rubber and Elastomers 369 20.4 Processing of Ceramics 369 20.5 Fabrication of Composite Materials 372 21 Fundamentals of Machining/ Orthogonal Machining 381 21.1 Introduction 381 21.2 Fundamentals 381 21.3 Forces and Power in Machining 386 21.4 Orthogonal Machining (Two Forces) 390 21.5 Chip Thickness Ratio, rc 394 21.6 Mechanics of Machining (Statics) 395 21.7 Shear Strain, γ, and Shear Front Angle, ϕ 397 21.8 Mechanics of Machining (Dynamics) (Section courtsey of Dr. Elliot Stern) 399 22 Cutting Tool Materials 405 22.1 Cutting Tool Materials 408 22.2 Tool Geometry 417 22.3 Tool-Coating Processes 419 22.4 Tool Failure and Tool Life 420 22.5 Taylor Tool Life 421 22.6 Cutting Fluids 425 22.7 Economics of Machining 426 23 Turning and Boring Processes 428 23.1 Introduction 428 23.2 Fundamentals of Turning, Boring, and Facing Turning 430 23.3 Lathe Design and Terminology 434 23.4 Cutting Tools for Lathes 438 23.5 Workholding in Lathes 442 24 Milling 447 24.1 Introduction 447 24.2 Fundamentals of Milling Processes 447 24.3 Milling Tools and Cutters 453 24.4 Machines for Milling 457 25 Drilling and Related Hole-Making Processes 462 25.1 Introduction 462 25.2 Fundamentals of the Drilling Process 463 25.3 Types of Drills 464 25.4 Tool Holders for Drills 472 25.5 Workholding for Drilling 474 25.6 Machine Tools for Drilling 475 25.7 Cutting Fluids for Drilling 478 25.8 Counterboring, Countersinking, and Spot Facing 479 25.9 Reaming 480 26 CNC Processes and Adaptive Control: A(4) and A(5) Levels of Automation 482 26.1 Introduction 482 26.2 Basic Principles of Numerical Control 482 26.3 CNC Part Programming 488 26.4 Interpolation and Adaptive Control 494 26.5 Machining Center Features and Trends 497 26.6 Summary 501 27 Sawing, Broaching, Shaping, and Filing Machining Processes 502 27.1 Introduction 502 27.2 Introduction to Sawing 502 27.3 Introduction to Broaching 510 27.4 Fundamentals of Broaching 512 27.5 Broaching Machines 516 27.6 Introduction to Shaping and Planing 516 27.7 Introduction to Filing 520 28 Abrasive Machining Processes 523 28.1 Introduction 523 28.2 Abrasives 524 28.3 Grinding Wheel Structure and Grade 528 28.4 Grinding Wheel Identification 531 28.5 Grinding Machines 534 28.6 Honing 540 28.7 Superfinishing 542 28.8 Free Abrasives 543 28.9 Design Considerations in Grinding 547 29 Nano and Micro-Manufacturing Processes 548 29.1 Introduction 548 29.2 Lithography 551 29.3 Micromachining Processes 554 29.4 Deposition Processes 556 29.5 How ICs Are Made 562 29.6 Nano- and Micro-Scale Metrology 568 30 Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes 570 30.1 Introduction 570 30.2 Chemical Machining Processes 572 30.3 Electrochemical Machining Processes 576 30.4 Electrical Discharge Machining 581 31 Thread and Gear Manufacturing 589 31.1 Introduction 589 31.2 Thread Making 592 31.3 Internal Thread Cutting–Tapping 595 31.4 Thread Milling 597 31.5 Thread Grinding 599 31.6 Thread Rolling 599 31.7 Gear Theory and Terminology 601 31.8 Gear Types 603 31.9 Gear Manufacturing 604 31.10 Machining of Gears 605 31.12 Gear Finishing 610 31.13 Gear Inspection 611 32 Surface Integrity and Finishing Processes 613 32.1 Introduction 613 32.2 Surface Integrity 613 32.3 Abrasive Cleaning and Finishing 620 32.4 Chemical Cleaning 624 32.5 Coatings 626 32.6 Vaporized Metal Coatings 633 32.7 Clad Materials 633 32.8 Textured Surfaces 633 32.9 Coil-Coated Sheets 633 32.10 Edge Finishing and Burr Removal 634 33 Additive Processes—Including 3-D Printing 637 33.1 Introduction 637 33.2 Layerwise Manufacturing 638 33.3 Liquid-Based Processes 641 33.4 Powder-Based Processes 643 33.5 Deposition-Based Processes 647 33.6 Uses and Applications 649 33.7 Pros, Cons, and Current and Future Trends 652 33.8 Economic Considerations 655 34 Manufacturing Automation and Industrial Robots 656 34.1 Introduction 656 34.2 The A(4) Level of Automation 660 34.3 A(5) Level of Automation Requires Evaluation 666 34.4 Industrial Robotics 669 34.5 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) 675 34.6 Computer-Aided Design 677 34.7 Computer-Aided Manufacturing 678 34.8 Summary 679 35 Fundamentals of Joining 680 35.1 Introduction to Consolidation Processes 680 35.2 Classification of Welding and Thermal Cutting Processes 681 35.3 Some Common Concerns 681 35.4 Types of Fusion Welds and Types of Joints 681 35.5 Design Considerations 682 35.6 Heat Effects 684 35.7 Weldability or Joinability 688 35.8 Summary 689 36 Gas Flame and Arc Processes 690 36.1 Oxyfuel-Gas Welding 690 36.2 Oxygen Torch Cutting 693 36.3 Flame Straightening 694 36.4 Arc Welding 695 36.5 Consumable-Electrode Arc Welding 696 36.6 Nonconsumable Electrode Arc Welding 702 36.7 Other Processes Involving Arcs 706 36.8 Arc Cutting 707 36.9 Metallurgical and Heat Effects in Thermal Cutting 709 36.10 Welding Equipment 710 36.11 Thermal Deburring 711 37 Resistance and Solid-State Welding Processes 712 37.1 Introduction 712 37.2 Theory of Resistance Welding 712 37.3 Resistance Welding Processes 714 37.4 Advantages and Limitations of Resistance Welding 717 37.5 Solid-State Welding Processes 718 38 Other Welding Processes, Brazing, and Soldering 726 38.1 Introduction 726 38.2 Other Welding and Cutting Processes 726 38.3 Surface Modification by Welding-Related Processes 732 38.4 Brazing 735 38.5 Soldering 742 39 Adhesive Bonding, Mechanical Fastening, and Joining of Nonmetals 746 39.1 Adhesive Bonding 746 39.2 Mechanical Fastening 752 39.3 Joining of Plastics 755 39.4 Joining of Ceramics and Glass 758 39.5 Joining of Composites 758 40 JIG and Fixture Design W 1 41 The Enterprise (Production System) W 20 42 Lean Engineering W 35 43 Mixed-Model Final Assembly W 65 Index I- 1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface v 1 Basic Concepts of measurement methods 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 General Measurement System 2 Sensor and Transducer 2 Signal-Conditioning Stage 3 Output Stage 4 General Template for a Measurement System 4 1.3 Experimental Test Plan 5 Variables 6 Noise and Interference 8 Randomization 9 Replication and Repetition 13 Concomitant Methods 14 1.4 Calibration 14 Static Calibration 14 Dynamic Calibration 14 Static Sensitivity 15 Range and Span 15 Resolution 16 Accuracy and Error 16 Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty 16 Sequential Test 19 Hysteresis 19 Random Test 19 Linearity Error 19 Sensitivity and Zero Errors 21 Instrument Repeatability 21 Reproducibility 21 Instrument Precision 21 Overall Instrument Error and Instrument Uncertainty 22 Verification and Validation 22 1.5 Standards 22 Primary Unit Standards 22 Base Dimensions and Their Units 23 Derived Units 25 Hierarchy of Standards 28 Test Standards and Codes 29 1.6 Presenting Data 30 Rectangular Coordinate Format 30 Semilog Coordinate Format 30 Full-Log Coordinate Format 30 Significant Digits 30 Summary 33 Nomenclature 34 References 34 2 Static and Dynamic Characteristics Of Signals 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Input/Output Signal Concepts 35 Generalized Behavior 36 Classification of Waveforms 36 Signal Waveforms 38 2.3 Signal Analysis 39 Signal Root-Mean-Square Value 40 Discrete Time or Digital Signals 40 Direct Current Offset 41 2.4 Signal Amplitude and Frequency 42 Periodic Signals 43 Frequency Analysis 45 Fourier Series and Coefficients 48 Fourier Coefficients 48 Special Case: Functions with T = 2π 49 Even and Odd Functions 49 2.5 Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum 55 Discrete Fourier Transform 56 Analysis of Signals in Frequency Space 60 Summary 62 References 63 Suggested Reading 63 Nomenclature 63 3 Measurement System Behavior 64 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 General Model for a Measurement System 64 Dynamic Measurements 65 Measurement System Model 66 3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model 68 Zero-Order Systems 68 First-Order Systems 69 Second-Order Systems 79 3.4 Transfer Functions 88 3.5 Phase Linearity 90 3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs 91 3.7 Coupled Systems 93 3.8 Summary 95 References 95 Nomenclature 96 Subscripts 96 4 Probability and Statistics 97 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory 98 Probability Density Functions 98 4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population 103 4.4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets 107 Standard Deviation of the Means 110 Repeated Tests and Pooled Data 113 4.5 Hypothesis Testing 114 4.6 Chi-Squared Distribution 117 Precision Interval in a Sample Variance 118 Goodness-of-Fit Test 119 4.7 Regression Analysis 121 Least-Squares Regression Analysis 121 Linear Polynomials 124 4.8 Data Outlier Detection 126 4.9 Number of Measurements Required 127 4.10 Monte Carlo Simulations 129 Summary 131 References 132 Nomenclature 132 5 Uncertainty Analysis 133 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Measurement Errors 134 5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis 136 Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method 137 Design-Stage Uncertainty 137 5.4 Identifying Error Sources 140 Calibration Errors 141 Data-Acquisition Errors 141 Data-Reduction Errors 142 5.5 Systematic and Random Errors and Standard Uncertainties 142 Systematic Error 142 Random Error 143 Other Ways Used to Classify Error and Uncertainty 144 5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Multi-Variable Error Propagation 144 Propagation of Error 145 Approximating a Sensitivity Index 146 Sequential Perturbation 149 Monte Carlo Method 151 5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis 151 Zero-Order Uncertainty 152 Higher-Order Uncertainty 152 Nth-Order Uncertainty 152 5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis 157 Propagation of Elemental Errors 157 Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result 163 5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors 168 5.10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval 170 Summary 172 References 172 Nomenclature 172 6 Analog Electrical Devices and measurements 174 6.1 Introduction 174 6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements 174 Direct Current 174 Alternating Current 178 6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements 179 Analog Voltage Meters 179 Oscilloscope 179 Potentiometer 181 6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements 182 Ohmmeter Circuits 182 Bridge Circuits 182 Null Method 184 Deflection Method 185 6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching 188 Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit 189 Interstage Loading Errors 190 6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers 193 6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits 196 Analog Voltage Comparator 196 Sample-and-Hold Circuit 197 Charge Amplifier 197 4–20 mA Current Loop 199 Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits 199 6.8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters 201 Butterworth Filter Design 202 Improved Butterworth Filter Designs 203 Bessel Filter Design 208 Active Filters 209 6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires 211 Ground and Ground Loops 211 Shields 212 Connecting Wires 213 Summary 213 References 214 Nomenclature 214 7 Sampling, Digital Devices, and Data Acquisition 215 7.1 Introduction 215 7.2 Sampling Concepts 216 Sample Rate 216 Alias Frequencies 218 Amplitude Ambiguity 221 Leakage 221 Waveform Fidelity 223 7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words 223 7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals 226 7.5 Voltage Measurements 227 Digital-to-Analog Converter 227 Analog-to-Digital Converter 228 Successive Approximation Converters 232 7.6 Data Acquisition Systems 237 7.7 Data Acquisition System Components 238 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplification 238 Components for Acquiring Data 241 7.8 Analog Input–Output Communication 242 Data Acquisition Modules 242 7.9 Digital Input–Output Communication 246 Data Transmission 247 Universal Serial Bus 248 Bluetooth Communications 248 Other Serial Communications: RS-232C 249 Parallel Communications 249 7.10 Digital Image Acquisition and Processing 252 Image Acquisition 252 Image Processing 253 Summary 256 References 256 Nomenclature 256 8 Temperature measurements 258 8.1 Introduction 258 Historical Background 258 8.2 Temperature Standards and Definition 259 Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation 259 Temperature Scales and Standards 260 8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion 261 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers 262 Bimetallic Thermometers 262 8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry 263 Resistance Temperature Detectors 264 Thermistors 271 8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement 276 Seebeck Effect 276 Peltier Effect 277 Thomson Effect 277 Fundamental Thermocouple Laws 278 Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples 279 Thermocouple Standards 280 Thermocouple Voltage Measurement 287 Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits 289 Applications for Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement: Heat Flux 291 Data Acquisition Considerations 294 8.6 Radiative Temperature Measurements 297 Radiation Fundamentals 297 Radiation Detectors 299 Radiometer 299 Pyrometry 300 Optical Fiber Thermometers 301 Narrow-Band Infrared Temperature Measurement 302 Fundamental Principles 302 Two-Color Thermometry 303 Full-Field IR Imaging 303 8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement 304 Insertion Errors 305 Conduction Errors 306 Radiation Errors 308 Radiation Shielding 310 Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement 311 Summary 313 References 313 Suggested Reading 313 Nomenclature 314 9 Pressure and Velocity measurements 315 9.1 Introduction 315 9.2 Pressure Concepts 315 9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments 318 McLeod Gauge 318 Barometer 319 Manometer 320 Deadweight Testers 324 9.4 Pressure Transducers 325 Bourdon Tube 326 Bellows and Capsule Elements 326 Diaphragms 327 Piezoelectric Crystal Elements 330 9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration 331 Static Calibration 331 Dynamic Calibration 331 9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids 333 Total Pressure Measurement 334 Static Pressure Measurement 335 9.7 Modeling Pressure–Fluid Systems 336 9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects 337 Liquids 338 Gases 339 Heavily Damped Systems 340 9.9 Acoustical Measurements 341 Signal Weighting 341 Microphones 342 9.10 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems 345 Pitot–Static Pressure Probe 346 Thermal Anemometry 348 Doppler Anemometry 350 Particle Image Velocimetry 352 Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods 353 Summary 354 References 354 Nomenclature 355 10 Flow measurements 357 10.1 Introduction 357 10.2 Historical Background 357 10.3 Flow Rate Concepts 358 10.4 Volume Flow Rate through Velocity Determination 359 10.5 Pressure Differential Meters 361 Obstruction Meters 361 Orifice Meter 364 Venturi Meter 366 Flow Nozzles 368 Sonic Nozzles 373 Obstruction Meter Selection 374 Laminar Flow Elements 376 10.6 Insertion Volume Flow Meters 377 Electromagnetic Flow Meters 377 Vortex Shedding Meters 379 Rotameters 381 Turbine Meters 382 Transit Time and Doppler (Ultrasonic) Flow Meters 383 Positive Displacement Meters 384 10.7 Mass Flow Meters 386 Thermal Flow Meter 386 Coriolis Flow Meter 387 10.8 Flow Meter Calibration and Standards 391 10.9 Estimating Standard Flow Rate 392 Summary 393 References 393 Nomenclature 393 11 Strain measurement 395 11.1 Introduction 395 11.2 Stress and Strain 395 Lateral Strains 397 11.3 Resistance Strain Gauges 398 Metallic Gauges 398 Strain Gauge Construction and Bonding 400 Semiconductor Strain Gauges 403 11.4 Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits 404 11.5 Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement 407 The Multiple Gauge Bridge 407 Bridge Constant 408 11.6 Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation 409 Temperature Compensation 410 Bridge Static Sensitivity 412 Practical Considerations 413 Analysis of Strain Gauge Data 413 Signal Conditioning 416 11.7 Optical Strain Measuring Techniques 418 Basic Characteristics of Light 418 Photoelastic Measurement 419 Moiré Methods 421 Fiber Bragg Strain Measurement 422 Summary 424 References 424 Nomenclature 424 12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls 426 12.1 Introduction 426 12.2 Sensors 426 Displacement Sensors 426 Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration 430 Velocity Measurements 437 Angular Velocity Measurements 441 Force Measurement 444 Torque Measurements 447 Mechanical Power Measurements 448 12.3 Actuators 450 Linear Actuators 450 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuators 452 Rotary Actuators 455 Flow-Control Valves 455 12.4 Controls 457 Dynamic Response 460 Laplace Transforms 460 Block Diagrams 463 Model for Oven Control 464 Proportional–Integral (PI) Control 468 Proportional–Integral–Derivative Control of a Second-Order System 469 Summary 474 References 474 Nomenclature 474 Chapter Homework Problems P-1 A Property Data and Conversion Factors A-1 B Laplace Transform Basics A-8 B.1 Final Value Theorem A-9 B.2 Laplace Transform Pairs A-9 Reference A-9 Glossary G-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStudent solution available in interactive e-text Preface viii 1 Introduction to Dynamic Systems and Control 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Classification of Dynamic Systems 2 1.3 Modeling Dynamic Systems 3 1.4 Objectives and Textbook Outline 4 References 5 2 Modeling Mechanical Systems 6 2.1 Introduction 6 2.2 Mechanical Element Laws 6 2.3 Translational Mechanical Systems 11 2.4 Rotational Mechanical Systems 21 Summary 26 References 27 3 Modeling Electrical and Electromechanical Systems 28 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Electrical Element Laws 28 3.3 Electrical Systems 31 3.4 Operational-Amplifier Circuits 38 3.5 Electromechanical Systems 41 Summary 51 References 52 4 Modeling Fluid and Thermal Systems 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Hydraulic Systems 53 4.3 Pneumatic Systems 65 4.4 Thermal Systems 70 Summary 75 References 75 5 Standard Models for Dynamic Systems 76 5.1 Introduction 76 5.2 State-Variable Equations 76 5.3 State-Space Representation 79 5.4 Linearization 88 5.5 Input–Output Equations 93 5.6 Transfer Functions 95 5.7 Block Diagrams 98 5.8 Standard Input Functions 102 Summary 104 Reference 104 6 Numerical Simulation of Dynamic Systems 105 6.1 Introduction 105 6.2 System Response Using MATLAB Commands 105 6.3 Building Simulations Using Simulink 111 6.4 Simulating Linear Systems Using Simulink 113 6.5 Simulating Nonlinear Systems 117 6.6 Building Integrated Systems 124 Summary 129 References 129 7 Analytical Solution of Linear Dynamic Systems 131 7.1 Introduction 131 7.2 Analytical Solutions to Linear Differential Equations 131 7.3 First-Order System Response 138 7.4 Second-Order System Response 145 7.5 Higher-Order Systems 161 7.6 State-Space Representation and Eigenvalues 162 7.7 Approximate Models 165 Summary 167 Reference 168 8 System Analysis Using Laplace Transforms 169 8.1 Introduction 169 8.2 Laplace Transformation 169 8.3 Inverse Laplace Transformation 176 8.4 Analysis of Dynamic Systems Using Laplace Transforms 180 Summary 191 References 191 9 Frequency-Response Analysis 192 9.1 Introduction 192 9.2 Frequency Response 192 9.3 Bode Diagrams 203 9.4 Vibrations 218 Summary 223 References 224 10 Introduction to Control Systems 225 10.1 Introduction 225 10.2 Feedback Control Systems 225 10.3 Feedback Controllers 231 10.4 Steady-State Accuracy 245 10.5 Closed-Loop Stability 250 10.6 Root-Locus Method 252 10.7 Stability Margins 271 10.8 Implementing Control Systems 278 Summary 281 References 282 11 Case Studies in Dynamic Systems and Control 283 11.1 Introduction 283 11.2 Vibration Isolation System for a Commercial Vehicle 283 11.3 Solenoid Actuator–Valve System 294 11.4 Pneumatic Air-Brake System 301 11.5 Hydraulic Servomechanism Control 311 11.6 Feedback Control of a Magnetic Levitation System 326 Summary 335 References 336 Problems P-1 Appendix A Units A-1 Appendix B MATLAB Primer for Analyzing Dynamic Systems A-2 B.1 Introduction A-2 B.2 Basic MATLAB Computations A-2 B.3 Plotting with MATLAB A-5 B.4 Constructing Basic M-files A-6 B.5 Commands for Linear System Analysis A-7 B.6 Commands for Laplace Transform Analysis A-8 B.7 Commands for Control System Analysis A-9 Appendix C Simulink Primer A-11 C.1 Introduction A-11 C.2 Building Simulink Models of Linear Systems A-11 C.3 Building Simulink Models of Nonlinear Systems A-19 C.4 Summary of Useful Simulink Blocks A-22 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction to Statics 1 1/1 Mechanics 1 1/2 Basic Concepts 2 1/3 Scalars and Vectors 2 1/4 Newton’s Laws 5 1/5 Units 6 1/6 Law of Gravitation 9 1/7 Accuracy, Limits, and Approximations 10 1/8 Problem Solving in Statics 11 1/9 Chapter Review 14 2 Force Systems 17 2/1 Introduction 17 2/2 Force 17 Section A Two-Dimensional Force Systems 20 2/3 Rectangular Components 20 2/4 Moment 26 2/5 Couple 31 2/6 Resultants 34 Section B Three-Dimensional Force Systems 37 2/7 Rectangular Components 37 2/8 Moment and Couple 41 2/9 Resultants 48 2/10 Chapter Review 54 3 Equilibrium 55 3/1 Introduction 55 Section A Equilibrium in Two Dimensions 56 3/2 System Isolation and the Free-Body Diagram 56 3/3 Equilibrium Conditions 66 Section B Equilibrium in Three Dimensions 74 3/4 Equilibrium Conditions 74 3/5 Chapter Review 82 4 Structures 83 4/1 Introduction 83 4/2 Plane Trusses 84 4/3 Method of Joints 86 4/4 Method of Sections 92 4/5 Space Trusses 96 4/6 Frames and Machines 99 4/7 Chapter Review 105 5 Distributed Forces 106 5/1 Introduction 106 Section A Centers of Mass and Centroids 108 5/2 Center of Mass 108 5/3 Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes 110 5/4 Composite Bodies and Figures; Approximations 118 5/5 Theorems of Pappus 122 Section B Special Topics 125 5/6 Beams—External Effects 125 5/7 Beams—Internal Effects 128 5/8 Flexible Cables 135 5/9 Fluid Statics 143 5/10 Chapter Review 153 6 Friction 154 6/1 Introduction 154 Section A Frictional Phenomena 155 6/2 Types of Friction 155 6/3 Dry Friction 155 Section B Applications of Friction in Machines 164 6/4 Wedges 164 6/5 Screws 165 6/6 Journal Bearings 169 6/7 Thrust Bearings; Disk Friction 169 6/8 Flexible Belts 172 6/9 Rolling Resistance 173 6/10 Chapter Review 176 7 Virtual Work 177 7/1 Introduction 177 7/2 Work 177 7/3 Equilibrium 180 7/4 Potential Energy and Stability 188 7/5 Chapter Review 197 Appendix A Area Moments of Inertia 198 A/1 Introduction 198 A/2 Definitions 199 A/3 Composite Areas 206 A/4 Products of Inertia and Rotation of Axes 209 Appendix B Mass Moments of Inertia 214 Appendix C Selected Topics of Mathematics 215 C/1 Introduction 215 C/2 Plane Geometry 215 C/3 Solid Geometry 216 C/4 Algebra 216 C/5 Analytic Geometry 217 C/6 Trigonometry 217 C/7 Vector Operations 218 C/8 Series 221 C/9 Derivatives 221 C/10 Integrals 222 C/11 Newton’s Method for Solving Intractable Equations 225 C/12 Selected Techniques for Numerical Integration 227 Appendix D Useful Tables 230 Table D/1 Physical Properties 230 Table D/2 Solar System Constants 231 Table D/3 Properties of Plane Figures 232 Table D/4 Properties of Homogeneous Solids 234 Table D/5 Conversion Factors; SI Units 238 Problems P-1 Chapter 1 P-1 Chapter 2 P-2 Chapter 3 P-39 Chapter 4 P-64 Chapter 5 P-92 Chapter 6 P-131 Chapter 7 P-158 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsChapter 1 Principles and Tools For Static Analysis 1 1.1 How Does Engineering Analysis Fit Into Engineering Practice? 2 1.2 Physics Principles: Newton’s Laws Reviewed 4 1.3 Properties and Units in Engineering Analysis 5 Exercises 1.3 8 1.4 Coordinate Systems and Vectors 9 Exercises 1.4 12 1.5 Drawing 12 Exercises 1.5 15 1.6 Problem Solving 16 Exercises 1.6 20 1.7 A Map of This Text 21 1.8 Just the Facts 23 Chapter 2 Forces 25 2.1 What are Forces? An Overview 26 2.2 Gravitational Forces 27 Example 2.2.1 Gravity, Weight, and Mass 30 Example 2.2.2 Is Assuming Gravity is a Constant Reasonable? 32 Example 2.2.3 Gravitational Force from Two Planets 33 Exercises 2.2 34 2.3 Contact Forces 34 Example 2.3.1 Identifying Types of Forces 38 Exercises 2.3 39 2.4 Identifying Forces for Analysis 40 Example 2.4.1 Defining a System for Analysis 43 Exercises 2.4 45 2.5 Representing Force Vectors 46 Example 2.5.1 Rectangular Components of a Nonplanar Force Given its Line of Action 51 Example 2.5.2 Representing Nonplanar Forces with Rectangular Coordinates 52 Example 2.5.3 Representing a Planar Force in Skewed Coordinate System 54 Example 2.5.4 Representing Direction of a Planar Force 59 Example 2.5.5 Scalar Components of a Planar Force 60 Example 2.5.6 Representing a Planar Force with Spherical Coordinates 63 Example 2.5.7 Representing Nonplanar Forces with Spherical Angles 64 Exercises 2.5 66 2.6 Resultant Force—Vector Addition 76 Example 2.6.1 Component Addition: Planar 79 Example 2.6.2 Component Addition: Nonplanar 80 Example 2.6.3 Graphical Addition Using Force Triangle 83 Example 2.6.4 Graphical Addition Using Parallelogram Law 85 Example 2.6.5 Resultant of Two Forces Using a Trigonometric Approach 87 Example 2.6.6 Analyzing a System: Trigonometric Addition 89 Example 2.6.7 Analyzing a System: Trigonometric Approach 90 Exercises 2.6 92 2.7 Angle Between Two Forces—the Dot Product 99 Example 2.7.1 Projection of a Vector in Two Dimensions 102 Example 2.7.2 Projection of a Vector in Three Dimensions 103 Example 2.7.3 Angle Between Two Vectors 104 Exercises 2.7 105 2.8 Just the Facts 108 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 112 Chapter 3 Moments 117 3.1 What are Moments? 118 Example 3.1.1 Specifying the Position Vector - Planar 125 Example 3.1.2 Specifying the Position Vector - Nonplanar 126 Example 3.1.3 The Magnitude of a Moment - Planar 127 Example 3.1.4 The Magnitude of a Moment - Nonplanar 128 Example 3.1.5 Moment Center on the Line of Action of Force 130 Exercises 3.1 131 3.2 Mathematical Representation of a Moment 135 Example 3.2.1 Calculating the Moment About the z Axis with a Vector-Based Approach 140 Example 3.2.2 Calculating the Moment About the z Axis with the Component of the Force Perpendicular to the Position Vector 141 Example 3.2.3 Calculating the Moment - Nonplanar 142 Example 3.2.4 Calculating the Magnitude and Direction of a Moment - Nonplanar 144 Example 3.2.5 Finding the Force to Create a Moment - Nonplanar 145 Exercises 3.2 146 3.3 Finding Moment Components in a Particular Direction 155 Example 3.3.1 Finding the Moment About the z Axis 157 Example 3.3.2 Finding the Moment in a Particular Direction 158 Exercises 3.3 159 3.4 When are Two Forces Equal to a Moment? (When They are a Couple) 162 Example 3.4.1 A Couple in the xy Plane 164 Example 3.4.2 Working with Couples 165 Exercises 3.4 167 3.5 Equivalent Loads 171 Example 3.5.1 Equivalent Moment and Equivalent Force - Planar 173 Example 3.5.2 Equivalent Moment and Equivalent Force - Nonplanar 175 Example 3.5.3 Equivalent Load for an Applied Couple 177 Exercises 3.5 178 3.6 Just the Facts 184 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 188 Chapter 4 Modeling Systems with Free-Body Diagrams 195 4.1 Types of External Loads Acting on Systems 196 Exercises 4.1 198 4.2 Planar System Supports 200 Example 4.2.1 Free-Body Diagram of a Planar System 206 Example 4.2.2 Free-Body Diagram of a Planar System with Moment 207 Example 4.2.3 Using Questions to Determine Loads at Supports 208 Exercises 4.2 210 4.3 Nonplanar System Supports 213 Example 4.3.1 Exploring Single and Double Bearings and Hinges 219 Exercises 4.3 221 4.4 Modeling Systems as Planar or Nonplanar 223 Example 4.4.1 Identifying Planar and Nonplanar Systems 225 Example 4.4.2 Identifying Planar and Nonplanar Systems with a Plane of Symmetry 226 Exercises 4.4 227 4.5 A Step-By-Step Approach to Free-Body Diagrams 230 Example 4.5.1 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of an Airplane Wing 232 Example 4.5.2 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of a Ladder 234 Example 4.5.3 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of a Nonplanar System 234 Example 4.5.4 Creating a Free-Body Diagram of a Leaning Person 235 Exercises 4.5 236 4.6 Just the Facts 243 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 244 Chapter 5 Mechanical Equilibrium 249 5.1 Conditions of Mechanical Equilibrium 250 Exercises 5.1 251 5.2 The Equilibrium Equations 252 Example 5.2.1 Using a Free-Body Diagram to Write Equilibrium Equations 254 Exercises 5.2 256 5.3 Applying the Planar Equilibrium Equations 257 Example 5.3.1 Applying the Analysis Procedure to a Planar Equilibrium Problem 260 Example 5.3.2 Analysis of a Simple Structure 262 Example 5.3.3 Analysis of a Planar Truss 263 Exercises 5.3 264 5.4 Equilibrium Applied to Four Special Cases 273 Example 5.4.1 Analyzing a Planar Truss Connection as a Particle 274 Exercises 5.4.1 276 Example 5.4.2 Two-Force Member Analysis 279 Exercises 5.4.2 281 Example 5.4.3 Climbing Cam Analysis 283 Example 5.4.4 Three-Force Member Analysis 285 Exercises 5.4.3 287 Example 5.4.5 Ideal Pulley Analysis 289 Exercises 5.4.4 291 5.5 Applying the Nonplanar Equilibrium Equations 293 Example 5.5.1 Analysis of a Nonplanar System with Simple Loading 295 Example 5.5.2 Analysis of a Nonplanar System with Complex Loading 298 Example 5.5.3 High-Wire Circus Act 300 Example 5.5.4 Analysis of a Nonplanar System with Unknowns Other than Loads 302 Exercises 5.5 304 5.6 Zooming in on Subsystems 312 Example 5.6.1 Analysis of a Toggle Clamp 313 Example 5.6.2 Analysis of a Pulley System 316 Exercises 5.6 318 5.7 Determinate, Indeterminate, and Underconstrained Systems 324 Example 5.7.1 Identify Status of a Structure 326 Exercises 5.7 327 5.8 Just the Facts 330 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 333 Chapter 6 Distributed Force 339 6.1 Center of Mass, Center of Gravity, and the Centroid 340 Example 6.1.1 Centroid of a Volume 347 Example 6.1.2 Center of Mass with Variable Density 348 Example 6.1.3 Locating the Centroid of a Composite Volume 349 Example 6.1.4 Finding the Centroid of An Area 351 Example 6.1.5 Center of Mass of a Composite Assembly 353 Example 6.1.6 Centroid of a Built-Up Section 355 Exercises 6.1 356 6.2 Distributed Force Acting on a Boundary 366 Example 6.2.1 Using Integration to Find Total Force 373 Example 6.2.2 Inclined Beam with Nonuniform Distribution 375 Example 6.2.3 Beam Subjected to Polynomial Load Distribution 377 Example 6.2.4 Using Properties of Standard Shapes to Find Total Force 379 Example 6.2.5 Centroid of Distribution Composed of Standard Line Loads 381 Example 6.2.6 Calculating Center of Pressure of a Pressure Distribution 382 Example 6.2.7 Pressure on a Rectangular Water Gate 383 Exercises 6.2 385 6.3 Hydrostatic Pressure 392 Example 6.3.1 Proof of Nondirectionality of Fluid Pressure 395 Example 6.3.2 Proof that Hydrostatic Pressure Increases Linearly with Depth 396 Example 6.3.3 Hydrostatic Pressure on Vertical Reservoir Gate 397 Example 6.3.4 Hydrostatic Pressure on Sloped Gate 398 Example 6.3.5 Pressure Distribution Over a Curved Surface 400 Example 6.3.6 Center of Buoyancy and Stability 402 Exercises 6.3 403 6.4 Area Moment of Inertia 409 Example 6.4.1 Moment of Inertia Using Integration 413 Example 6.4.2 Moment of Inertia Using Parallel Axis Theorem 414 Example 6.4.3 Moment of Inertia of a Composite Area 415 Exercises 6.4 416 6.5 Just the Facts 419 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 425 Chapter 7 Dry Friction and Rolling Resistance 431 7.1 Coulomb Friction Model 432 Example 7.1.1 Dry Friction - Sliding or Tipping 435 Exercises 7.1 436 7.2 Friction in Static Analysis: Wedges, Belts, and Journal Bearings 439 Example 7.2.1 Analysis of a Pulley System with Bearing Friction 444 Exercises 7.2 446 7.3 Rolling Resistance 452 Example 7.3.1 Rolling Resistance 453 Exercises 7.3 454 7.4 Just the Facts 456 Chapter 8 Member Loads In Trusses 459 8.1 Defining a Truss 460 8.2 Truss Analysis by Method of Joints 463 Example 8.2.1 Truss Analysis Using Method of Joints 466 Exercises 8.2 468 8.3 Truss Analysis by Method of Sections 473 Example 8.3.1 Method of Sections and Wise Selection of Moment Center Location 475 Example 8.3.2 Method of Sections and Where to Cut 476 Example 8.3.3 Combining Method of Joints and Method of Sections 478 Exercises 8.3 480 8.4 Identifying Zero-Force Members 484 Example 8.4.1 Identifying Zero-Force Members 486 Exercises 8.4 488 8.5 Determinate, Indeterminate, and Unstable Trusses 490 Example 8.5.1 Checking the Status of Planar Trusses 492 Example 8.5.2 Checking the Status of Space Trusses 493 Exercises 8.5 495 8.6 Just the Facts 496 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 498 Chapter 9 Member Loads In Frames And Machines 503 9.1 Defining and Analyzing Frames 504 Example 9.1.1 Identify Systems as Trusses or Frames 505 Example 9.1.2 Planar Frame Analysis 507 Example 9.1.3 Finding Loads at Frame Supports 509 Example 9.1.4 Analysis of Frame with Friction 511 Example 9.1.5 Nonplanar Frame Analysis 512 Exercises 9.1 514 9.2 Defining and Analyzing Machines 526 Example 9.2.1 Analysis of a Bicycle Brake 527 Example 9.2.2 Analysis of a Toggle Clamp 529 Example 9.2.3 Analysis of a Frictionless Gear Train 531 Example 9.2.4 Analysis of a Gear Train with Friction 533 Exercises 9.2 535 9.3 Determinacy and Stability in Frames 543 Example 9.3.1 Determining Status of a Frame 546 Exercises 9.3 547 9.4 Just the Facts 549 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 551 Chapter 10 Internal Loads In Beams 557 10.1 Defining Beams and Recognizing Beam Configurations 558 Example 10.1.1 Beam Identification 561 Example 10.1.2 Determine Loads Acting on a Beam 562 Exercises 10.1 564 10.2 Beam Internal Loads 566 Example 10.2.1 Internal Loads in a Planar Simply Supported Beam 569 Example 10.2.2 Internal Loads in a Planar Cantilever Beam 571 Example 10.2.3 Internal Loads in a Nonplanar Beam 572 Exercises 10.2 574 10.3 Axial Force, Shear Force, and Bending Moment Diagrams 578 Example 10.3.1 Shear, Moment, and Axial Force Diagram for a Simply Supported Beam 581 Example 10.3.2 A Simple Beam with an Applied Moment 583 Example 10.3.3 Beam with Distributed Load 584 Example 10.3.4 Simply Supported Beam with an Overhang 586 Exercises 10.3 588 10.4 Bending Moment Related to Shear Force and Normal Stress 594 Example 10.4.1 Using the Relationships Between ω, V, and M 596 Example 10.4.2 Calculating Beam Normal Stress 598 Exercises 10.4 599 10.5 Just the Facts 602 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 604 Chapter 11 Internal Loads in Cables 611 11.1 Cables with Point Loads 612 Example 11.1.1 Flexible Cable with Concentrated Loads 613 Exercises 11.1 615 11.2 Cables with Distributed Loads 616 Example 11.2.1 Catenary Curve with Supports at Same Height 621 Example 11.2.2 Catenary with Supports at Different Elevations 622 Example 11.2.3 Uniformly Loaded Cable with Supports at Same Height 624 Example 11.2.4 Uniformly Loaded Cable with Supports at Unequal Heights 625 Example 11.2.5 Catenary Versus Parabolic 627 Exercises 11.2 628 11.3 Just the Facts 632 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 637 Appendix A Selected Topics In Mathematics 641 Appendix B Physical Quantities 645 Appendix C Properties of Areas and Volumes 649 Appendix D Case Study: The Bicycle 655 Appendix E Case Study: The Golden Gate Bridge 671 Index 687

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsChapter 1 Background and Roadmap 1 1.1 Newton’s Laws 2 1.2 How You’ll Be Approaching Dynamics 3 1.3 Units 5 1.4 Symbols, Notation, and Conventions 7 1.5 Gravitation 13 1.6 A Comprehensive Dynamics Application 14 Chapter 2 Motion of Translating Bodies 17 2.1 Straight-Line Motion 18 Example 2.1 Velocity Determination Via Integration 25 Example 2.2 Deceleration Limit Determination 26 Example 2.3 Constant Acceleration/Speed/Distance Relationship 27 Example 2.4 Position-Dependent Acceleration 28 Example 2.5 Velocity-Dependent Acceleration (A) 30 Example 2.6 Velocity-Dependent Acceleration (B) 31 Exercises 2.1 32 2.2 Cartesian Coordinates 36 Example 2.7 Coordinate Transformation (A) 42 Example 2.8 Coordinate Transformation (B) 43 Example 2.9 Rectilinear Trajectory Determination (A) 44 Example 2.10 Rectilinear Trajectory Determination (B) 46 Exercises 2.2 48 2.3 Polar and Cylindrical Coordinates 52 Example 2.11 Velocity—Polar Coordinates 58 Example 2.12 Acceleration—Polar Coordinates (A) 60 Example 2.13 Acceleration—Polar Coordinates (B) 61 Example 2.14 Velocity And Acceleration—Cylindrical Coordinates 62 Exercises 2.3 64 2.4 Path Coordinates 69 Example 2.15 Analytical Determination of Radius of Curvature 72 Example 2.16 Acceleration—Path Coordinates 74 Example 2.17 Speed Along A Curve 76 Exercises 2.4 78 2.5 Relative Motion and Constraints 82 Example 2.18 One Body Moving on Another 89 Example 2.19 Two Bodies Moving Independently (A) 90 Example 2.20 Two Bodies Moving Independently (B) 91 Example 2.21 Simple Pulley 92 Example 2.22 Double Pulley 93 Exercises 2.5 95 2.6 Just the Facts 101 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 104 Chapter 3 Inertial Response of Translating Bodies 107 3.1 Cartesian Coordinates 108 Example 3.1 Analysis of A Spaceship 110 Example 3.2 Forces Acting on An Airplane 111 Example 3.3 Sliding Ming Bowl 112 Example 3.4 Response of An Underwater Probe 114 Example 3.5 Particle in an Enclosure 116 Exercises 3.1 118 3.2 Polar Coordinates 128 Example 3.6 Ming Bowl on A Moving Slope 129 Example 3.7 Ming Bowl in Motion 130 Example 3.8 Ming Bowl on A Moving Slope With Friction 132 Example 3.9 No-Slip In A Rotating Arm 134 Example 3.10 Forces Acting on A Payload 136 Exercises 3.2 138 3.3 Path Coordinates 144 Example 3.11 Forces Acting on My Car 145 Example 3.12 Finding A Rocket’s Radius of Curvature 146 Example 3.13 Force and Acceleration for A Sliding Pebble 148 Example 3.14 Determining Slip Point in A Turn 150 Exercises 3.3 151 3.4 Linear Momentum and Linear Impulse 155 Example 3.15 Changing the Space Shuttle’s Orbit 156 Example 3.16 Block on A Sanding Belt 158 Example 3.17 Two-Car Collision 159 Exercises 3.4 160 3.5 Angular Momentum and Angular Impulse 166 Example 3.18 Change In Speed of A Model Plane 169 Example 3.19 Angular Momentum of A Bumper 170 Example 3.20 Angular Momentum of A Tetherball 172 Exercises 3.5 174 3.6 Orbital Mechanics 175 Example 3.21 Analysis of an Elliptical Orbit 188 Example 3.22 Determining Closest Approach Distance 189 Exercises 3.6 190 3.7 Impact 196 Example 3.23 Dynamics of Two Pool Balls 200 Example 3.24 More Pool Ball Dynamics 202 Exercises 3.7 202 3.8 Oblique Impact 205 Example 3.25 Oblique Billiard Ball Collision 207 Example 3.26 Another Oblique Collision 209 Exercises 3.8 212 3.9 Just The Facts 215 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 218 Chapter 4 Energetics of Translating Bodies 221 4.1 Kinetic Energy 222 Example 4.1 Speed of an Arrow 224 Example 4.2 Change in Speed Due to an Applied Force 225 Example 4.3 Change in Speed Due to Slipping 226 Exercises 4.1 228 4.2 Potential Energy 233 Example 4.4 Speed Due to A Drop 237 Example 4.5 Designing A Nutcracker 238 Example 4.6 Change in Speed Using Potential Energy 240 Example 4.7 Falling Enclosure 241 Example 4.8 Reexamination of an Orbital Problem 243 Exercises 4.2 244 4.3 Power 255 Example 4.9 Time Needed to Increase Speed 258 Example 4.10 0 to 60 Time at Constant Power 259 Example 4.11 Determining A Cyclist’s Energy Efficiency 260 Exercises 4.3 261 4.4 Just the Facts 265 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 268 Chapter 5 Multibody Systems 269 5.1 Force Balance and Linear Momentum 270 Example 5.1 Finding A Mass Center 274 Example 5.2 Finding A System’s Linear Momentum 275 Example 5.3 Motion of A Two-Particle System 276 Example 5.4 Finding Speed of A Bicyclist/Cart 277 Example 5.5 Momentum of A Three-Mass System 278 Exercises 5.1 279 5.2 Angular Momentum 285 Example 5.6 Angular Momentum of Three Particles 288 Example 5.7 Angular Momentum About A System’s Mass Center 289 Exercises 5.2 290 5.3 Work and Energy 293 Example 5.8 Kinetic Energy of A Modified Baton 295 Example 5.9 Kinetic Energy of A Translating Modified Baton 296 Example 5.10 Spring-Mass System 297 Exercises 5.3 299 5.4 Stationary Enclosures with Mass Inflow and Outflow 300 Example 5.11 Water Jet Impinging on Stationary Vane 303 Example 5.12 Force Due to A Stream of Mass Particles 304 Exercises 5.4 305 5.5 Nonconstant Mass Systems 311 Example 5.13 Motion of A Toy Rocket 315 Example 5.14 Helicopter Response to A Stream of Bullets 317 Exercises 5.5 318 5.6 Just the Facts 323 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 326 Chapter 6 Kinematics of Rigid Bodies Undergoing Planar Motion 327 6.1 Relative Velocities on A Rigid Body 328 Example 6.1 Velocity of A Pendulum 334 Example 6.2 Velocity of A Constrained Link 335 Example 6.3 Angular Speed of A Spinning Disk 336 Example 6.4 Velocity of Link-Constrained Body 337 Example 6.5 Relative Angular Velocity 338 Exercises 6.1 340 6.2 Instantaneous Center of Rotation (ICR) 347 Example 6.6 Angular Speed Determination Via ICR 348 Example 6.7 Velocity on A Constrained Body Via ICR 350 Example 6.8 Velocity of the Contact Point During Roll Without Slip 351 Example 6.9 Pedaling Cadence and Bicycle Speed 352 Example 6.10 Rotation Rate of An Unwinding Reel Via ICR 354 Exercises 6.2 355 6.3 Rotating Reference Frames and Rigid-Body Accelerations 360 Example 6.11 Acceleration of A Pedal Spindle 363 Example 6.12 Acceleration During Roll Without Slip 364 Example 6.13 Tip Acceleration of A Two-Link Manipulator 365 Example 6.14 Acceleration of A Point on A Cog of A Moving Bicycle 367 Example 6.15 Path of Point on Rolling Disk 369 Exercises 6.3 370 6.4 Relative Motion on A Rigid Body 375 Example 6.16 Absolute Velocity of A Specimen In A Centrifuge 379 Example 6.17 Velocity Constraints—Closing Scissors 380 Example 6.18 Velocity and Acceleration In A Tube 381 Example 6.19 Angular Acceleration of A Constrained Body 383 Example 6.20 Angular Acceleration 385 Exercises 6.4 386 6.5 Just the Facts 393 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 395 Chapter 7 Kinetics of Rigid Bodies Undergoing Two-Dimensional Motions 397 7.1 Curvilinear Translation 398 Example 7.1 Determining the Acceleration of A Translating Body 399 Example 7.2 Tension In Support Chains 400 Example 7.3 General Motion of A Swinging Sign 403 Example 7.4 Normal Forces on A Steep Hill 406 Exercises 7.1 408 7.2 Rotation About A Fixed Point 412 Example 7.5 Mass Moment of Inertia of A Rectangular Plate 417 Example 7.6 Mass Moment of Inertia of A Circular Sector 418 Example 7.7 Mass Moment of Inertia of A Complex Disk 421 Example 7.8 Analysis of A Rotating Body 422 Example 7.9 Forces Acting at Pivot of Fireworks Display 425 Example 7.10 Determining A Wheel’s Imbalance Eccentricity 428 Exercises 7.2 429 7.3 General Motion 439 Example 7.11 Acceleration Response of an Unrestrained Body 442 Example 7.12 Response of A Falling Rod 446 Example 7.13 More Response of A Falling Rod 448 Example 7.14 Acceleration Response of A Driven Wheel 450 Example 7.15 Acceleration Response of A Driven Wheel—Take Two 452 Example 7.16 Falling Spool 455 Example 7.17 Tipping of A Ming Vase 456 Example 7.18 Equations of Motion for A Simple Car Model 459 Example 7.19 Analysis of A Simple Transmission 461 Exercises 7.3 463 7.4 Linear/Angular Momentum of Two-Dimensional Rigid Bodies 476 Example 7.20 Angular Impulse Applied to Space Station 478 Example 7.21 Impact Between A Pivoted Rod and A Moving Particle 479 Exercises 7.4 481 7.5 Work/Energy of Two-Dimensional Rigid Bodies 487 Example 7.22 Angular Speed of A Hinged Two-Dimensional Body 488 Example 7.23 Response of A Falling Rod Via Energy 490 Example 7.24 Design of A Spring-Controlled Drawbridge 491 Exercises 7.5 493 7.6 Just The Facts 500 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 502 Chapter 8 Kinematics and Kinetics of Rigid Bodies In Threedimensional Motion 505 8.1 Spherical Coordinates 506 8.2 Angular Velocity of Rigid Bodies in Three-Dimensional Motion 508 Example 8.1 Angular Velocity of A Simplified Gyroscope 512 Example 8.2 Angular Velocity of A Hinged Plate 513 8.3 Angular Acceleration of Rigid Bodies in Three-Dimensional Motion 514 Example 8.3 Angular Acceleration of A Simple Gyroscope 515 8.4 General Motion of and on Three-Dimensional Bodies 516 Example 8.4 Motion of A Disk Attached to A Bent Shaft 517 Example 8.5 Velocity and Acceleration of A Robotic Manipulator 520 Exercises 8.4 522 8.5 Moments and Products of Inertia for A Three-Dimensional Body 527 8.6 Parallel Axis Expressions For Inertias 530 Example 8.6 Inertial Properties of A Flat Plate 532 Exercises 8.6 533 8.7 Angular Momentum 535 Example 8.7 Angular Momentum of A Flat Plate 540 Example 8.8 Angular Momentum of A Simple Structure 540 Exercises 8.7 542 8.8 Equations of Motion For A Three-Dimensional Body 544 Example 8.9 Reaction Forces of A Constrained, Rotating Body 546 Exercises 8.8 548 8.9 Energy of Three-Dimensional Bodies 553 Example 8.10 Kinetic Energy of A Rotating Disk 555 Exercises 8.9 557 8.10 Just The Facts 559 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 563 Chapter 9 Vibratory Motions 565 9.1 Undamped, Free Response for Single-Degreeof-Freedom Systems 566 Example 9.1 Natural Frequency of A Cantilevered Balcony 569 Example 9.2 Displacement Response of A Single-Story Building 572 Exercises 9.1 573 9.2 Undamped, Sinusoidally Forced Response for Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 580 Example 9.3 Forced Response of A Spring-Mass System 582 Example 9.4 Time Response of an Undamped System 583 Exercises 9.2 584 9.3 Damped, Free Response for Single-Degree-ofFreedom Systems 588 Example 9.5 Vibration Response of A Golf Club 591 Exercises 9.3 592 9.4 Damped, Sinusoidally Forced Response for Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 593 Example 9.6 Response of A Simple Car Model on A Wavy Road 596 Example 9.7 Response of A Sinusoidally Forced, Spring-Mass Damper 598 Exercises 9.4 599 9.5 Just The Facts 600 System Analysis (SA) Exercises 603 Appendix A Numerical Integration Light 605 Appendix B Properties of Plane and Solid Bodies 613 Appendix C Some Useful Mathematical Facts 617 Appendix D Material Densities 621 Biblography 623 Index 625

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 The Role of Statistics in Engineering 1 1.1 The Engineering Method and Statistical Thinking 2 1.1.1 Variability 3 1.1.2 Populations and Samples 5 1.2 Collecting Engineering Data 5 1.2.1 Basic Principles 5 1.2.2 Retrospective Study 5 1.2.3 Observational Study 6 1.2.4 Designed Experiments 6 1.2.5 Observing Processes Over Time 9 1.3 Mechanistic and Empirical Models 12 1.4 Probability and Probability Models 15 2 Probability 17 2.1 Sample Spaces and Events 18 2.1.1 Random Experiments 18 2.1.2 Sample Spaces 19 2.1.3 Events 21 2.2 Counting Techniques 23 2.3 Interpretations and Axioms of Probability 26 2.4 Unions of Events and Addition Rules 29 2.5 Conditional Probability 31 2.6 Intersections of Events and Multiplication and Total Probability Rules 34 2.7 Independence 36 2.8 Bayes’ Theorem 39 2.9 Random Variables 40 3 Discrete Random Variables and Probability Distributions 42 3.1 Probability Distributions and Probability Mass Functions 43 3.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions 45 3.3 Mean and Variance of a Discrete Random Variable 47 3.4 Discrete Uniform Distribution 49 3.5 Binomial Distribution 51 3.6 Geometric and Negative Binomial Distributions 55 3.7 Hypergeometric Distribution 59 3.8 Poisson Distribution 63 4 Continuous Random Variables and Probability Distributions 66 4.1 Probability Distributions and Probability Density Functions 67 4.2 Cumulative Distribution Functions 70 4.3 Mean and Variance of a Continuous Random Variable 71 4.4 Continuous Uniform Distribution 72 4.5 Normal Distribution 73 4.6 Normal Approximation to the Binomial and Poisson Distributions 79 4.7 Exponential Distribution 83 4.8 Erlang and Gamma Distributions 86 4.9 Weibull Distribution 89 4.10 Lognormal Distribution 90 4.11 Beta Distribution 92 5 Joint Probability Distributions 95 5.1 Joint Probability Distributions for Two Random Variables 96 5.2 Conditional Probability Distributions and Independence 102 5.3 Joint Probability Distributions for More Than Two Random Variables 107 5.4 Covariance and Correlation 110 5.5 Common Joint Distributions 113 5.5.1 Multinomial Probability Distribution 113 5.5.2 Bivariate Normal Distribution 115 5.6 Linear Functions of Random Variables 117 5.7 General Functions of Random Variables 120 5.8 Moment-Generating Functions 121 6 Descriptive Statistics 126 6.1 Numerical Summaries of Data 127 6.2 Stem-and-Leaf Diagrams 131 6.3 Frequency Distributions and Histograms 135 6.4 Box Plots 139 6.5 Time Sequence Plots 140 6.6 Scatter Diagrams 142 6.7 Probability Plots 144 7 Point Estimation of Parameters and Sampling Distributions 148 7.1 Point Estimation 149 7.2 Sampling Distributions and the Central Limit Theorem 150 7.3 General Concepts of Point Estimation 156 7.3.1 Unbiased Estimators 156 7.3.2 Variance of a Point Estimator 157 7.3.3 Standard Error: Reporting a Point Estimate 158 7.3.4 Bootstrap Standard Error 159 7.3.5 Mean Squared Error of an Estimator 160 7.4 Methods of Point Estimation 161 7.4.1 Method of Moments 162 7.4.2 Method of Maximum Likelihood 163 7.4.3 Bayesian Estimation of Parameters 167 8 Statistical Intervals for a Single Sample 170 8.1 Confidence Interval on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Known 172 8.1.1 Development of the Confidence Interval and Its Basic Properties 172 8.1.2 Choice of Sample Size 175 8.1.3 One-Sided Confidence Bounds 176 8.1.4 General Method to Derive a Confidence Interval 176 8.1.5 Large-Sample Confidence Interval for μ 177 8.2 Confidence Interval on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Unknown 179 8.2.1 t Distribution 180 8.2.2 t Confidence Interval on μ 181 8.3 Confidence Interval on the Variance and Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution 182 8.4 Large-Sample Confidence Interval for a Population Proportion 185 8.5 Guidelines for Constructing Confidence Intervals 188 8.6 Bootstrap Confidence Interval 189 8.7 Tolerance and Prediction Intervals 189 8.7.1 Prediction Interval for a Future Observation 189 8.7.2 Tolerance Interval for a Normal Distribution 191 9 Tests of Hypotheses for a Single Sample 193 9.1 Hypothesis Testing 194 9.1.1 Statistical Hypotheses 194 9.1.2 Tests of Statistical Hypotheses 196 9.1.3 One-Sided and Two-Sided Hypotheses 202 9.1.4 P-Values in Hypothesis Tests 203 9.1.5 Connection between Hypothesis Tests and Confidence Intervals 206 9.1.6 General Procedure for Hypothesis Tests 206 9.2 Tests on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Known 208 9.2.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Mean 208 9.2.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 211 9.2.3 Large-Sample Test 215 9.3 Tests on the Mean of a Normal Distribution, Variance Unknown 215 9.3.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Mean 215 9.3.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 220 9.4 Tests on the Variance and Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution 222 9.4.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Variance 222 9.4.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 224 9.5 Tests on a Population Proportion 225 9.5.1 Large-Sample Tests on a Proportion 225 9.5.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 227 9.6 Summary Table of Inference Procedures for a Single Sample 229 9.7 Testing for Goodness of Fit 229 9.8 Contingency Table Tests 232 9.9 Nonparametric Procedures 234 9.9.1 The Sign Test 235 9.9.2 The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test 239 9.9.3 Comparison to the t-Test 240 9.10 Equivalence Testing 240 9.11 Combining P-Values 242 10 Statistical Inference for Two Samples 244 10.1 Inference on the Difference in Means of Two Normal Distributions, Variances Known 245 10.1.1 Hypothesis Tests on the Difference in Means, Variances Known 247 10.1.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 249 10.1.3 Confidence Interval on the Difference in Means, Variances Known 251 10.2 Inference on the Difference in Means of Two Normal Distributions, Variances Unknown 253 10.2.1 Hypotheses Tests on the Difference in Means, Variances Unknown 253 10.2.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 259 10.2.3 Confidence Interval on the Difference in Means, Variances Unknown 260 10.3 A Nonparametric Test for the Difference in Two Means 261 10.3.1 Description of the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test 262 10.3.2 Large-Sample Approximation 263 10.3.3 Comparison to the t-Test 264 10.4 Paired t-Test 264 10.5 Inference on the Variances of Two Normal Distributions 268 10.5.1 F Distribution 268 10.5.2 Hypothesis Tests on the Equity of Two Variances 270 10.5.3 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 272 10.5.4 Confidence Interval on the Ratio of Two Variances 273 10.6 Inference on Two Population Proportions 273 10.6.1 Large-Sample Tests on the Difference in Population Proportions 274 10.6.2 Type II Error and Choice of Sample Size 276 10.6.3 Confidence Interval on the Difference in Population Proportions 277 10.7 Summary Table and Road Map for Inference Procedures for Two Samples 278 11 Simple Linear Regression and Correlation 280 11.1 Empirical Models 281 11.2 Simple Linear Regression 284 11.3 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators 288 11.4 Hypothesis Tests in Simple Linear Regression 288 11.4.1 Use of t-Tests 289 11.4.2 Analysis of Variance Approach to Test Significance of Regression 291 11.5 Confidence Intervals 292 11.5.1 Confidence Intervals on the Slope and Intercept 292 11.5.2 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response 293 11.6 Prediction of New Observations 295 11.7 Adequacy of the Regression Model 296 11.7.1 Residual Analysis 296 11.7.2 Coefficient of Determination (R2) 298 11.8 Correlation 299 11.9 Regression on Transformed Variables 303 11.10 Logistic Regression 305 12 Multiple Linear Regression 310 12.1 Multiple Linear Regression Model 311 12.1.1 Introduction 311 12.1.2 Least Squares Estimation of the Parameters 314 12.1.3 Matrix Approach to Multiple Linear Regression 316 12.1.4 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators 321 12.2 Hypothesis Tests in Multiple Linear Regression 322 12.2.1 Test for Significance of Regression 322 12.2.2 Tests on Individual Regression Coefficients and Subsets of Coefficients 325 12.3 Confidence Intervals in Multiple Linear Regression 329 12.3.1 Confidence Intervals on Individual Regression Coefficients 329 12.3.2 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response 330 12.4 Prediction of New Observations 331 12.5 Model Adequacy Checking 333 12.5.1 Residual Analysis 333 12.5.2 Influential Observations 335 12.6 Aspects of Multiple Regression Modeling 337 12.6.1 Polynomial Regression Models 337 12.6.2 Categorical Regressors and Indicator Variables 339 12.6.3 Selection of Variables and Model Building 341 12.6.4 Multicollinearity 349 13 Design and Analysis of Single-Factor Experiments: The Analysis of Variance 351 13.1 Designing Engineering Experiments 352 13.2 Completely Randomized Single-Factor Experiment 353 13.2.1 Example: Tensile Strength 353 13.2.2 Analysis of Variance 354 13.2.3 Multiple Comparisons Following the ANOVA 359 13.2.4 Residual Analysis and Model Checking 361 13.2.5 Determining Sample Size 363 13.3 The Random-Effects Model 365 13.3.1 Fixed Versus Random Factors 365 13.3.2 ANOVA and Variance Components 365 13.4 Randomized Complete Block Design 368 13.4.1 Design and Statistical Analysis 368 13.4.2 Multiple Comparisons 372 13.4.3 Residual Analysis and Model Checking 373 14 Design of Experiments with Several Factors 375 14.1 Introduction 376 14.2 Factorial Experiments 378 14.3 Two-Factor Factorial Experiments 382 14.3.1 Statistical Analysis 382 14.3.2 Model Adequacy Checking 386 14.3.3 One Observation per Cell 387 14.4 General Factorial Experiments 388 14.5 2k Factorial Designs 390 14.5.1 22 Design 390 14.5.2 2k Design for k ≥ 3 Factors 396 14.6 Single Replicate of the 2k Design 402 14.7 Addition of Center Points to a 2k Design 405 14.8 Blocking and Confounding in the 2k Design 408 14.9 One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design 413 14.10 Smaller Fractions: The 2k−p Fractional Factorial 418 14.11 Response Surface Methods and Designs 425 15 Statistical Quality Control 434 15.1 Quality Improvement and Statistics 435 15.1.1 Statistical Quality Control 436 15.1.2 Statistical Process Control 436 15.2 Introduction to Control Charts 436 15.2.1 Basic Principles 436 15.2.2 Design of a Control Chart 440 15.2.3 Rational Subgroups 441 15.2.4 Analysis of Patterns on Control Charts 442 15.3 X and R or S Control Charts 444 15.4 Control Charts for Individual Measurements 450 15.5 Process Capability 452 15.6 Attribute Control Charts 456 15.6.1 P Chart (Control Chart for Proportions) 456 15.6.2 U Chart (Control Chart for Defects per Unit) 458 15.7 Control Chart Performance 460 15.8 Time-Weighted Charts 462 15.8.1 Exponentially Weighted Moving-Average Control Chart 462 15.8.2 Cumulative Sum Control Chart 465 15.9 Other SPC Problem-Solving Tools 471 15.10 Decision Theory 473 15.10.1 Decision Models 473 15.10.2 Decision Criteria 474 15.11 Implementing SPC 476 Appendix A Statistical Tables and Charts A-3 Table I Summary of Common Probability Distributions A-4 Table II Cumulative Binomial Probabilities P(X ≤ x) A-5 Table III Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution A-8 Table IV Percentage Points χ2α,v of the Chi-Squared Distribution A-10 Table V Percentage Points tα,v of the t Distribution A-11 Table VI Percentage Points fα,v1,v2 of the F Distribution A-12 Chart VII Operating Characteristic Curves A-17 Table VIII Critical Values for the Sign Test A-26 Table IX Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test A-26 Table X Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test A-27 Table XI Factors for Constructing Variables Control Charts A-28 Table XII Factors for Tolerance Intervals A-29 Appendix B Bibliography A-31 Appendix C Summary of Confidence Intervals and Hypothesis Testing Equations for One and Two Sample Applications A-33 Glossary G-1 Exercises P-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Figures x List of Tables xvi Preface xvii Symbols and Abbreviations xix About the Companion Website xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Current State of Knowledge 1 1.2 Review of the Literature on Numerical Determination of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 6 1.3 Review of the Literature on Experimental Determination of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 7 1.4 Purpose and Scope of the Work 10 2 Practical Applications of Bearing Dynamic Coefficients 14 2.1 Single Degree of Freedom System Oscillations 16 2.1.1 Constant excitation Force 18 2.1.2 Excitation by Unbalance 20 2.1.3 Impact of Damping and Stiffness 24 2.2 Oscillation of Mass with Two Degrees of Freedom 26 2.3 Cross-Coupled Stiffness and Damping Coefficients 28 2.4 Summary 33 3 Characteristics of the Research Subject 34 3.1 Basic Technical Data of the Laboratory Test Rig 34 3.2 Analysis of Rotor Dynamics 36 3.3 Analysis of the Supporting Structure 42 3.4 Summary 44 4 Research Tools 46 4.1 Test Equipment 46 4.2 Test.Lab Software 49 4.3 Samcef Rotors Software 51 4.4 Matlab Software 51 4.5 MESWIR Series Software (KINWIR, LDW, NLDW) 52 4.6 Abaqus Software 53 5 Algorithms for the Experimental Determination of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 55 5.1 Development of the Calculation Algorithm 55 5.2 Verification of the Calculation Algorithm on the Basis of a Numerical Model 58 5.3 Results of Calculations of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 62 5.4 Summary 64 6 Inclusion of the Impact of an Unbalanced Rotor 65 6.1 Calculation Scheme 65 6.2 Definition of the Scope of Identification 67 6.3 Results of the Calculation of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings Including Rotor Unbalance 68 6.4 Summary 69 7 Sensitivity Analysis of the Experimental Method of Determining Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 70 7.1 Method of Carrying Out a Sensitivity Analysis 70 7.2 Description of the Reference Model 71 7.3 Influence of the Stiffness of the Rotor Material 71 7.4 Influence of Uneven Force Distribution on Two Bearings 72 7.5 Changing the Direction of the Excitation Force and its Effect on the Results Obtained 75 7.6 Eddy Current Sensor Displacement Impact Assessment 76 7.7 Calculation Results for an Asymmetrical Rotor 77 7.8 Summary 79 8 Experimental Studies 81 8.1 Software Used for Processing of Signals from Experimental Research 82 8.2 Software Used for Calculations of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 83 8.3 Preparation of Experimental Tests 85 8.4 Implementation of Experimental Research 87 8.5 Processing of the Signal Measured During Experimental Tests 91 8.6 Results of Calculations of Dynamic Coefficients of Hydrodynamic Bearings on the Basis of Experimental Research 93 8.7 Verification of Results Obtained 98 8.8 Summary 100 9 Numerical Calculations of Bearing Dynamic Coefficients 102 9.1 Method of Calculating Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings 102 9.2 Calculation of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings Using a Method with Linear Calculation Algorithm 107 9.3 Calculation of Dynamic Coefficients of Bearings Using a Method with Non-linear Calculation Algorithm 113 9.4 Verification of Results Obtained 119 9.5 Summary 123 10 Comparison of Bearing Dynamic Coefficients Calculated with Different Methods 125 11 Summary and Conclusions 129 Appendix A 134 Appendix B 145 Appendix C 152 Research Funding 155 References 156 Index 163

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsPreface vii About the Author viii 1 Basics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Overview 2 1.3 Modern Era 3 1.3.1 Actual Flights 5 1.3.2 Compressibility Issues 5 1.3.3 Supersonic Speeds 7 1.3.4 Continuity Concept 9 1.4 Conservation Laws 9 1.4.1 Conservation of Mass 9 1.4.2 Conservation of Momentum 10 1.4.3 Conservation of Energy 11 1.5 Incompressible Aerodynamics 11 1.5.1 Subsonic flow 12 1.6 Compressible Aerodynamics 12 1.6.1 Transonic Flow 12 1.6.2 Supersonic Flow 13 1.6.3 Hypersonic Flow 13 1.7 Vocabulary 14 1.7.1 Boundary Layers 14 1.7.2 Turbulence 14 1.8 Aerodynamics in Other Fields 14 1.9 Summary 15 2 International Standard Atmosphere 21 2.1 Layers in the ISA 22 2.1.1 ICAO Standard Atmosphere 22 2.1.2 Temperature Modeling 23 2.2 Pressure Modelling 24 2.2.1 Pressure above the Tropopause 26 2.3 Density Modeling 26 2.3.1 Other standard atmospheres 33 2.4 Relative Density 33 2.5 Altimeter 34 2.6 Summary 34 3 Aircraft Configurations 37 3.1 Structure 38 3.2 Propulsion 38 3.3 Summary 40 4 Low-Speed Aerofoils 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 The Aerofoil 43 4.3 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on an Aerofoil 44 4.4 Force and Moment Coefficients 45 4.5 Pressure Distribution 46 4.6 Variation of Pressure Distribution with Incidence Angle 50 4.7 The Lift Curve Slope 51 4.8 Profile Drag 53 4.9 Pitching Moment 54 4.10 Movement of Center of Pressure 58 4.11 Finite or Three-Dimensional Wing 59 4.12 Geometrical Parameters of a Finite Wing 59 4.12.1 Leading-edge Radius and Chord Line 60 4.12.2 Mean Camber Line 60 4.12.3 Thickness Distribution 60 4.12.4 Trailing-Edge Angle 61 4.13 Wing Geometrical Parameters 61 4.14 Span wise Flow Variation 65 4.15 Lift and Downwash 67 4.16 The Lift Curve of a Finite Wing 69 4.17 Induced Drag 71 4.18 The Total Drag of a Wing 74 4.19 Aspect Ratio Effect on Aerodynamic Characteristics 76 4.20 Pitching Moment 78 4.21 The Complete Aircraft 78 4.22 Straight and Level Flight 78 4.23 Total Drag 81 4.24 Reynolds Number Effect 82 4.25 Variation of Drag in Straight and Level Flight 83 4.26 The Minimum Power Condition 91 4.27 Minimum Drag - Velocity Ratio 92 4.28 The Stall 94 4.28.1 The Effect of Wing Section 94 4.28.2 Wing Planform Effect 95 4.29 The Effect of Protuberances 96 4.30 Summary 97 5 High-Lift Devices 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 The Trailing Edge Flap 104 5.3 The Plain Flap 104 5.4 The Split Flap 106 5.5 The Slotted Flap 107 5.6 The Fowler Flap 108 5.7 Comparison of Different Types of Flaps 108 5.8 Flap Effect on Aerodynamic Center and Stability 110 5.9 The Leading Edge Slat 111 5.10 The Leading Edge Flap 112 5.11 Boundary Layer Control 114 5.11.1 Boundary Layer Blowing 114 5.12 Boundary Layer Suction 115 5.13 The Jet Flap 116 5.14 Summary 116 6 Thrust 119 6.1 Introduction 119 6.2 Thrust Generation 120 6.2.1 Types of Jet Engines 123 6.2.1.1 Turbojets 123 6.2.1.2 Turboprops 124 6.2.1.3 Turbofans 125 6.2.1.4 Turboshafts 126 6.2.1.5 Ramjets 126 6.3 Turbojet 126 6.4 Turboprop and Turboshaft Engines 127 6.5 Ramjet and Scramjet 128 6.6 The Ideal Ramjet 130 6.7 Rocket Propulsion 131 6.8 Propeller Engines 132 6.9 Thrust and Momentum 133 6.10 By-pass and Turbofan Engines 133 6.11 The Propeller 134 6.11.1 Working of a Propeller 135 6.11.2 Helix Angle and Blade Angle 136 6.11.3 Advance per Revolution 137 6.11.4 Pitch of a Propeller 138 6.11.5 Propeller Efficiency 139 6.11.6 Tip Speed 140 6.11.7 Variable Pitch 141 6.11.8 Number and Shape of Blades 142 6.12 The Slipstream 143 6.13 Gyroscopic Effect 144 6.14 Swing on Take-off 144 6.15 Thermodynamic Cycles of Jet Propulsion 144 6.15.1 Efficiency 145 6.15.2 Brayton Cycle 145 6.15.3 Ramjet Cycle 146 6.15.4 Turbojet cycle 147 6.15.5 Turbofan Cycle 148 6.16 Summary 148 7 Level Flight 151 7.1 Introduction 151 7.2 The Forces in Level Flight 151 7.3 Equilibrium Condition 152 7.4 Balancing the Forces 153 7.4.1 Control Surface 154 7.4.2 Tail-less and Tail-first Aircraft 155 7.4.3 Forces on Tail Plane 155 7.4.4 Effect of Downwash 157 7.4.5 Varying the Tail Plane Lift 157 7.4.6 Straight and Level Flight 158 7.4.7 Relation between Flight Speed and Angle of Attack 159 7.5 Range Maximum 160 7.5.1 Flying with Minimum Drag 161 7.6 Altitude Effect on Propeller Efficiency 161 7.7 Wind Effect on Range 162 7.8 Endurance of Flight 163 7.9 Range Maximum 163 7.10 Endurance of Jet Engine 164 7.11 Summary 165 8 Gliding 167 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Angle of Glide 168 8.3 Effect of weight on Gliding 169 8.4 Endurance of Glide 169 8.5 Gliding Angle 169 8.6 Landing 170 8.7 Stalling Speed 172 8.8 High Lift Aerofoils 173 8.9 Wing Loading 174 8.9.1 Calculation of Minimum Landing Speed 175 8.10 Landing Speed 177 8.11 Short and Vertical Take-off and Landing 178 8.11.1 Gyroplane 178 8.12 The Helicopter 179 8.13 Jet Lift 180 8.14 Hovercraft 180 8.15 Landing 180 8.16 Effect of Flaps on Trim 182 8.17 Summary 184 9 Performance 187 9.1 Introduction 187 9.2 Take-off 187 9.3 Climbing 188 9.4 Power Curves - Propeller Engine 189 9.5 Maximum and Minimum Speeds in Horizontal Flight 190 9.6 Effect of Engine Power Variation 191 9.7 Flight Altitude Effect on Engine Power 191 9.8 Ceiling 193 9.9 Effect of Weight on Performance 193 9.10 Jet Propulsion Effect on Performance 195 9.11 Summary 196 10 Stability and Control 199 10.1 Introduction 199 10.2 Longitudinal Stability 201 10.3 Longitudinal Dihedral 201 10.4 Lateral Stability 203 10.4.1 Dihedral Angle 203 10.4.2 High Wing and Low Center of Gravity 205 10.4.3 Lateral Stability of Aircraft with Sweepback 206 10.4.4 Fin Area and Lateral Stability 206 10.5 Directional Stability 207 10.6 Lateral and Directional Stability 209 10.7 Control of an Aircraft 210 10.8 Balanced Control 211 10.9 Mass Balance 214 10.10 Control at Low Speeds 215 10.11 Power Controls 219 10.12 Dynamic Stability 220 10.13 Summary 220 11 Manoeuvres 223 11.1 Introduction 223 11.2 Acceleration 224 11.3 Pulling out from a Dive 226 11.3.1 The Load Factor 227 11.3.2 Turning 228 11.3.3 Loads During a Turn 229 11.4 Correct Angles of Bank 229 11.5 Other Problems of Turning 230 11.6 Steep Bank 232 11.7 Aerobatics 233 11.8 Inverted Manoeuvres 238 11.9 Abnormal Weather 239 11.10 Manoeuvrability 239 11.11 Summary 240 12 Rockets 243 12.1 Introduction 243 12.2 Chemical Rocket 244 12.3 Engine design 246 12.4 Thrust Generation 248 12.5 Specific Impulse 249 12.6 Rocket Equation 250 12.7 Efficiency 252 12.8 Trajectories 253 12.8.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion 254 12.8.2 Newton’s Laws of Gravitation 254 12.8.3 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 254 12.8.4 Some Important Equations of Orbital Dynamics 255 12.8.5 Lagrange Points 255 12.8.6 Hohmann Minimum-Energy Trajectory 256 12.8.7 Gravity Assist 256 12.9 High-Exhaust-Velocity, Low-Thrust Trajectories 257 12.9.1 High-Exhaust-Velocity Rocket Equation 258 12.10 Plasma and Electric Propulsion 259 12.10.1 Types of Plasma Engines 260 12.11 Pulsed Plasma Thruster 261 12.11.1Operating Principle 261 12.12 Summary 265 12.13 Exercise Problems 267 References 268 Index 271

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Book SynopsisA compelling exploration of how social norms and commercial culture impact the safety of organizational operations In Impact of Societal Norms on Safety, Health, and the Environment: Case Studies in Society and Safety Culture, distinguished engineer Dr. Lee T. Ostrom delivers an authoritative treatment of the cultural, social, and human factors of safety cultures and issues in the workplace. The book offers readers compelling discussions of how those factors impact organizational operations and what contributes to making those impacts beneficial or detrimental. The author provides numerous real-world case studies from North America and Europe that are relevant to a global audience, highlighting the central message of the book: that an organization that views its safety culture as unimportant could be setting itself up for a significant workplace accident. Readers will also find: A thorough introduction to social norms that impact how commercial organiTable of ContentsPreface xvii Abbreviations xix 1 Safety Culture Concepts 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Culture 2 1.2 Safety and Health Pioneers 4 1.3 The Evolution of Accident Causation Models 5 1.4 Safety and Common Sense 13 1.5 Interviews with Safety Professionals 14 1.6 Chapter Summary 59 References 59 2 History of Safety Culture 61 2.1 Life Expectancy and Safety 61 2.2 Consumer Items and Toys 65 2.2.1 Vintage Toys and Other Items 66 2.3 Flawed Cars 69 2.4 Ford Pinto 69 2.5 Off-Highway-Vehicle-Related Fatalities Reported 70 2.6 Work Relationships 71 2.7 Food 75 2.7.1 Food Trends and Culture 78 2.7.1.1 The Tomato 78 2.7.1.2 Fad Diets 78 2.8 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) Foods 80 2.8.1 Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA) Vaccines 82 2.9 Traffic Safety 83 2.10 Public Acceptance of Seatbelts and Masks for Protection from Respiratory Disease 86 2.11 Radiation Hazards and Safety 90 2.11.1 Radiation 91 2.11.2 Measuring Radiation (CDC 2021) 93 2.11.3 Health Effects of Radiation (EPA 2021) 95 2.11.4 Uses of Radiation (NRC 2020) 97 2.11.5 Medical Uses 97 2.11.6 Academic and Scientific Applications 98 2.11.7 Industrial Uses 98 2.11.8 Nuclear Power Plants 100 2.11.9 Misuse of Radiation (EPA 2021) 101 2.11.10 Radium Dial Painters 101 2.11.11 Safety Culture Issues 103 2.12 The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 103 2.12.1 Who Does OSHA Cover 105 2.12.1.1 Private Sector Workers 105 2.12.1.2 State and Local Government Workers 105 2.12.1.3 Federal Government Workers 106 2.12.1.4 Not Covered Under the OSHA Act 106 2.12.2 Voluntary Protection Program 107 2.13 Human Performance Improvement (HPI) 111 2.14 Chapter Summary 112 References 112 3 Chemical Manufacturing 119 3.0 Introduction 119 3.1 Process Safety Management 119 3.1.1 Introduction 119 3.1.2 Process Safety Management 121 3.1.2.1 Process Safety Information 123 3.1.2.2 Process Hazards Analysis 126 3.1.2.3 Operating Procedures 129 3.1.2.4 Mechanical Integrity 131 3.1.2.5 Management of Change 136 3.2 DuPont La Porte, TX, Methyl Mercaptan Release – November 15, 2014 138 3.2.1 Accident Description and Analysis 139 3.2.2 DuPont’s Initiation of Process Safety Culture Assessments 160 3.2.3 Summary of Safety Culture Findings 162 3.3 BP Texas City Refinery Explosion – March 23, 2005 163 3.3.1 Introduction 163 3.3.2 Texas City 164 3.3.3 Description of the BP Refinery 165 3.3.4 The Accident 167 3.3.5 Trailer Siting Recommendations 173 3.3.6 Blowdown Drum and Stack Recommendations 174 3.3.7 Additional Recommendations from July 28, 2005, Incident 174 3.3.8 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 174 3.4 T2 Laboratories, Inc. Explosion – December 19, 2007 175 3.4.1 T2 Laboratories, Inc. 175 3.4.2 Event Description 176 3.4.3 Events Leading Up to the Explosion 176 3.4.4 Analysis of the Accident 180 3.4.5 Process Development 183 3.4.6 Manufacturing Process 184 3.4.7 Summary Safety Culture Issues 185 3.5 Final Thoughts for This Chapter 186 References 186 4 Chemical Storage Explosions 189 4.0 Introduction 189 4.1 Port of Lebanon – August 4, 2020 190 4.1.1 PEPCON Explosion – May 4, 1988 191 4.1.2 Lessons Learned 201 4.1.3 Safety Culture Issues 203 4.2 PCA DeRidder Paper Mill Gas System Explosion, DeRidder, Louisiana – February 8, 2017 203 4.2.1 PCA DeRidder Mill 205 4.2.2 The Explosion 205 4.2.3 Safety Culture Summary 210 4.3 West Fertilizer Explosion – April 17, 2013 211 4.3.1 The Fire and Explosion 212 4.3.2 Injuries and Fatalities 215 4.3.3 Safety Culture Summary 215 References 216 5 Dust Explosions and Entertainment Venue Case Studies 219 5.0 Introduction 219 5.1 Dust Explosion Information and Case Studies 221 5.2 AL Solutions December 9, 2010 225 5.2.1 Facility Description 225 5.2.2 Zirconium 228 5.2.3 Description of the Incident 228 5.2.4 The Origin of the Explosion 231 5.2.5 AL Solutions Dust Management Practices 234 5.2.6 Water Deluge System 235 5.2.7 Safety Audits 235 5.2.8 Hydrogen Explosion 237 5.2.9 Previous Fires And Explosions 237 5.2.10 Summary of Safety Culture Findings 239 5.3 Imperial Sugar Company, February 7, 2008 239 5.3.1 Sugar 239 5.3.2 Accident Description 240 5.3.3 Synopsis of Events 240 5.3.4 Detailed Accident Scenario 242 5.3.5 The Chemical Safety Board Investigation 243 5.3.6 South Packing Building 248 5.3.7 Sugar Spillage and Dust Control 249 5.3.8 Force of the Explosion 250 5.3.9 Pre-explosion Sugar Dust Incident History 251 5.3.10 Steel Belt Conveyor Modifications 251 5.3.11 Primary Event Location 252 5.3.12 Primary Event Combustible Dust Source 253 5.3.13 Secondary Dust Explosions 255 5.3.14 Ignition Sources 256 5.3.15 Open Flames and Hot Surfaces 256 5.3.16 Ignition Sources Inside the Steel Belt Enclosure 257 5.3.16.1 Hot Surface Ignition 257 5.3.16.2 Friction Sparks 258 5.3.16.3 Worker Training 258 5.3.17 Evacuation, Fire Alarms, and Fire Suppression 259 5.3.18 Electrical Systems Design 260 5.3.19 Sugar Dust Handling Equipment 261 5.3.20 Housekeeping and Dust Control 262 5.3.21 Imperial Sugar Management and Workers 263 5.3.22 Chemical Safety Board Key Findings 265 5.3.23 Summary of Safety Culture Findings 266 5.4 Entertainment Venue Case Studies 267 5.4.1 Introduction 267 5.4.2 Crowd Surge Events 267 5.4.3 Fires at Bars and Nightclubs 267 5.4.4 The New Taipei Water Park Fire – June 2015 268 5.5 Safety Culture Summary 270 References 270 6 University Laboratory Accident Case Studies 273 6.0 Introduction 273 6.1 My Experience at Aalto University 273 6.2 Texas Tech University October 2008 284 6.2.1 Specifically, the CSB Found 299 6.3 University of California Los Angeles – December 29, 2008 300 6.4 University of Utah – July 2017 302 6.4.1 Utah, Report to the Utah Legislature Number 2019-06 302 6.5 University of Hawaii – March 16, 2016 306 6.5.1 Grounding (OSHA 2021) 307 6.5.1.1 Summary of Grounding Requirements 308 6.5.1.2 Methods of Grounding Equipment 308 6.5.1.3 Event Description 309 6.5.1.4 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 311 References 312 7 Aviation Case Studies 315 7.0 Introduction 315 7.1 Helicopter Accident 337 7.1.1 Liberty Helicopter Crash March 11, 2018 338 7.1.1.1 Overview 338 7.1.1.2 Liberty Helicopter’s Safety Program 346 7.1.1.3 Safety Culture Summary 354 7.2 Commercial Aviation 355 7.2.1 Successful Landing of Crippled Commercial Airliners 355 7.2.2 Gimli Glider – Successful Landing of a Crippled Commercial Airliner 1 – July 23, 1983 356 7.2.2.1 Accident Information 356 7.2.2.2 Analysis of the Fuel Problem 362 7.3 Illegal Dispatch Contrary to the MEL: Taking Off With Blank Fuel Gauges 370 7.4 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 373 7.5 Miracle on the Hudson River – Successful Landing of a Crippled Commercial Airliner 2, January 15, 2009 374 7.5.1 Accident Information 374 7.5.2 Flight Crew and Cabin Crew 377 7.5.3 The Captain’s 72-Hour History 379 7.5.4 The First Officer 380 7.5.4.1 The First Officer’s 72-Hour History 380 7.5.4.2 The Flight Attendants 381 7.5.4.3 Airbus A320-214 381 7.5.4.4 Operational Factors 382 7.5.4.5 Flight Crew Training 384 7.5.4.6 Dual-Engine Failure Training 385 7.5.4.7 Ditching Training 386 7.5.4.8 CRM and TEM Training 387 7.5.4.9 FAA Oversight 388 7.5.4.10 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 389 7.6 737 MAX 389 7.6.1 Introduction 389 7.6.2 737 MAX Design and Manufacture 390 7.6.3 Accidents 391 7.6.4 Design Certification of the 737 MAX 8 and Safety Assessment of the MCAS 393 7.6.5 Assumptions about Pilot Recognition and Response in the Safety Assessment 395 7.7 De Haviland Comet 400 7.8 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 401 References 401 8 Nuclear Energy Case Studies 405 8.0 Introduction 405 8.1 Nuclear Power 405 8.1.1 Sodium Cooled Reactors 409 8.1.1.1 Santa Susana – 1959 410 8.1.1.2 Fission Gas Release 411 8.1.1.3 Fermi 1 – Near Detroit Michigan – 1966 413 8.1.1.4 Safety Culture Summary of Sodium Cooled Reactors 414 8.1.2 The Vladimir Lenin Nuclear Power Plant or Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (ChNPP) – April 26, 1986 415 8.1.2.1 Reactivity and Power Control 416 8.1.2.2 Chernobyl Accident 418 8.1.3 Three Mile Island Accident – March 28, 1979 (NRC 2022a) 421 8.1.3.1 Accident 421 8.1.3.2 Summary of Events 422 8.1.3.3 Health Effects 425 8.1.3.4 Impact of the Accident 425 8.1.3.5 Current Status 426 8.1.3.6 Human Factor Engineering Findings (Malone et al. 1980) 427 8.1.3.7 Human Engineering and Human Error 428 8.1.3.8 Procedures 428 8.2 Nuclear Criticality 430 8.2.1 Mayak Production Association, 10 December 1968 (LANL 2000) 430 8.2.1.1 Safety Culture Issues 435 8.2.2 National Reactor Testing Station – January 3, 1961 (LANL 2000) 436 8.2.2.1 Safety Culture Issues 437 8.2.3 JCO Fuel Fabrication Plant – September 30, 1999 (LANL 2000) 438 8.2.3.1 Safety Culture Issues 441 8.3 Medical Misadministration of Radioisotopes Events 442 8.3.1 Loss of Iridium-192 Source at the Indiana Regional Cancer Center (IRCC) – November 1992 444 8.3.1.1 Introduction 444 8.3.1.2 Event Description 444 8.3.1.3 Patient Treatment Plan 444 8.3.2 Greater Pittsburgh Cancer Center Incident 455 8.3.3 Omnitron High Dose Rate (HDR) Remote Afterloader System 456 8.3.3.1 Description of the Afterloader System 456 8.3.3.2 High Dose Rate Afterloader 456 8.3.3.3 Main Console 461 8.3.3.4 Door Status Panel 461 8.3.3.5 Afterloader System Safety Features 462 8.3.3.6 Patient Applicators and Treatment Tubes 462 8.3.3.7 Description of the Source Wire 462 8.3.3.8 Prototype Testing Performed on Nickel–Titanium Source Wire 464 8.3.3.9 Description of the Omnitron 2000 Afterloader System Software 464 8.3.3.10 Equipment Performance 468 8.3.3.11 Failure Analysis Pertaining to the Source Wire 468 8.3.3.12 Possible Failure Areas 468 8.3.3.13 Organization of Oncology Services Corporation 469 8.3.3.14 Management Oversight 469 8.3.3.15 Safety Culture 470 8.3.3.16 Emergency Operating Procedures 474 8.3.3.17 Training 474 8.3.3.18 Radiation Safety Training at the Indiana Regional Cancer Center 475 8.3.3.19 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 476 8.4 Goiania, Brazil Teletherapy Machine Incident (IAEA 1988) 476 8.4.1 Safety Culture Summary 481 References 481 9 Other Transportation Case Studies 485 9.1 Large Marine Vessel Accidents 485 9.1.1 LNG Carrier Collision with Barge 485 9.1.1.1 Accident Description 487 9.1.1.2 Work/Rest of Ships’ Crews 499 9.1.1.3 Drug and Alcohol Testing 501 9.1.1.4 Findings 502 9.2 Navy Vessel Collisions 503 9.2.1 USS FITZGERALD Collided with the Motor Vessel ACX Crystal 503 9.2.1.1 Summary of Findings 504 9.2.1.2 Background 505 9.2.1.3 Events Leading to the Collision 506 9.2.1.4 Collision 507 9.2.1.5 Impact to Berthing 2 514 9.2.1.6 Findings 519 9.2.1.7 Training 520 9.2.1.8 Seamanship and Navigation 520 9.2.1.9 Leadership and Culture 520 9.2.1.10 Fatigue 521 9.2.1.11 Timeline of Events 521 9.2.2 Collision of USS JOHN S MCCAIN with Motor Vessel ALNIC MC 524 9.2.2.1 Introduction 524 9.2.2.2 Summary of Findings 525 9.2.2.3 Background 525 9.2.2.4 Events Leading to the Collision 527 9.2.2.5 Results of Collision 530 9.2.2.6 Impact to Berthing 5 533 9.2.2.7 Impact on Berthing 3 536 9.2.2.8 Impact on Berthings 4, 6, and 7 539 9.2.2.9 Findings 542 9.2.2.10 Training 542 9.2.2.11 Seamanship and Navigation 543 9.2.2.12 Leadership and Culture 543 9.2.2.13 Timeline of Events 544 9.2.2.14 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 548 9.3 Stretch Duck 7 July 19, 2018 548 9.3.1 Introduction 548 9.3.2 Accident Description 549 9.3.3 1999 Sinking of Miss Majestic 552 9.3.4 Types of DUKW Amphibious Vessels 553 9.3.5 NTSB Identified Safety Issue No. 1: Providing Reserve Buoyancy 556 9.3.6 Safety Issue No. 2: Removing Canopies and Side Curtains 557 9.3.7 Findings and Conclusions 560 9.3.8 Safety Culture Summary Findings 560 9.3.9 Other Events 560 9.3.9.1 Minnow, Milwaukee Harbor, Lake Michigan, September 18, 2000 560 9.3.9.2 DUKW No. 1, Lake Union, Seattle,Washington, December 8, 2001 561 9.3.9.3 DUKW 34, Delaware River, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 7, 2010 561 9.3.9.4 DUCK 6, Seattle,Washington, September 24, 2015 561 9.4 Recent Railroad Accidents 561 9.4.1 AMTRAK Passenger Train – May 12, 2015 562 9.4.1.1 Accident Scenario 562 9.4.1.2 Amtrak 565 9.4.1.3 Analysis of the Engineer’s Actions 566 9.4.1.4 Loss of Situational Awareness 569 9.4.1.5 Two-Person Crews 572 9.4.1.6 Factors Not Contributing to This Accident 572 9.4.1.7 NTSB Probable Cause 574 9.4.1.8 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 574 9.4.2 Transportation Safety Board of Canada (2013a) 574 9.4.2.1 Personnel Information 578 9.4.2.2 Train Brakes 583 9.4.2.3 Locomotives 586 9.4.2.4 Rules and Instructions on Securing Equipment 587 9.4.2.5 Locomotive Event Recorder 590 9.4.2.6 Sense and Braking Unit 592 9.4.2.7 Mandatory Off-Duty Times for Operating Employees 592 9.4.2.8 Securement of Trains (MMA-002) at Nantes 592 9.4.2.9 Securement of Trains (MMA-001) at Vachon 593 9.4.2.10 Recent Runaway Train History at Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway and Previous TSB Investigations 593 9.4.2.11 Training and Requalification of Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway Crews in Farnham 594 9.4.2.12 Training and Requalification of the Locomotive Engineer 595 9.4.2.13 Operational Tests and Inspections at Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway 595 9.4.2.14 Implementation of Single-Person Train Operations 597 9.4.2.15 Canadian Railway Operating Rules (CROR) 599 9.4.2.16 Single-Person Train Operations at Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway 599 9.4.2.17 Review of the Montreal, Maine, and Atlantic Railway Submission and its Relation to the Requirements of Standard CSA Q850 601 9.4.2.18 Research into Single-Person Train Operations 602 9.4.2.19 Safety Culture 603 9.4.2.20 Summary of Safety Culture Issues 604 References 604 10 Assessing Safety Culture 607 10.0 Introduction 607 10.1 Survey Research Principles 608 10.1.1 Developing the Survey Instrument 609 10.1.1.1 Developing the Questions/Statements 609 10.1.1.2 Question/Statement Development 611 10.1.1.3 Sampling 612 10.1.1.4 Demographics 612 10.1.1.5 Survey Delivery 613 10.1.1.6 Analyzing the Results and Reports 613 10.1.1.7 Final Thoughts on Developing and Delivering Surveys 614 10.1.2 Safety Culture Assessment Methods 614 10.1.2.1 DuPont (DuPont) De Nemours Sustainable Solutions (DSS) 614 10.1.2.2 Department of Energy Assessment of Safety Culture Sustainment Processes 615 10.1.2.3 Institute for Nuclear Power Operations Safety Culture Assessment 617 10.1.2.4 Developing Team Findings 619 10.1.3 United States Air Force Assessment Tool 619 10.2 Assessing Health Care Safety Culture 620 10.3 Seven Steps to Assess Safety Culture 621 10.3.1 A Framework for Assessing Safety Culture 623 10.3.2 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality 623 10.3.3 Graduate Student Safety Culture Survey 623 10.3.4 Idaho National Engineering Laboratory Survey 626 10.4 Chapter Summary 634 References 634 Index 637

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Book SynopsisApproaches computational engineering sciences from the perspective of engineering applications Uniting theory with hands-on computer practice, this book gives readers a firm appreciation of the error mechanisms and control that underlie discrete approximation implementations in the engineering sciences. Key features: Illustrative examples include heat conduction, structural mechanics, mechanical vibrations, heat transfer with convection and radiation, fluid mechanics and heat and mass transport Takes a cross-discipline continuum mechanics viewpoint Includes Matlab toolbox and .m data files on a companion website, immediately enabling hands-on computing in all covered disciplines Website also features eight topical lectures from the author's own academic courses It provides a holistic view of the topic from covering the different engineering problems that can be solved using finite element to how each pTable of ContentsPreface viii Notation xi 1 COMPUTATIONAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE 1 1.1 Engineering simulation 1 1.2 A problem solving environment 2 1.3 Problem statements in engineering 4 1.4 Decisions on forming WSN 6 1.5 Discrete approximate WSh implementation 8 1.6 Chapter summary 9 1.7 Chapter references 10 2 PROBLEM STATEMENTS 11 2.1 Engineering simulation 11 2.2 Continuum mechanics viewpoint 12 2.3 Continuum conservation law forms 12 2.4 Constitutive closure for conservation law PDEs 14 2.5 Engineering science continuum mechanics 18 2.6 Chapter references 20 3 SOME INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL 21 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Multi-dimensional PDEs, separation of variables 22 3.3 Theoretical foundations, GWSh 27 3.4 A legacy FD construction 28 3.5 An FD approximate solution 30 3.6 Lagrange interpolation polynomials 31 3.7 Chapter summary 32 3.8 Exercises 34 3.9 Chapter references 34 4 HEAT CONDUCTION35 4.1 A steady heat conduction example 35 4.2 Weak form approximation, error minimization 37 4.3 GWSN discrete implementation, FE basis38 4.4 Finite element matrix statement 41 4.5 Assembly of {WS}e to form algebraic GWSh 43 4.6 Solution accuracy, error distribution 45 4.7 Convergence, boundary heat flux 47 4.8 Chapter summary 47 4.9 Exercises 48 4.10 Chapter reference 48 5 STEADY HEAT TRANSFER, n =149 5.1 Introduction 49 5.2 Steady heat transfer, n = 1 50 5.3 FE k = 1 trial space basis matrix library 52 5.4 Object-oriented GWSh programming 55 5.5 Higher completeness degree trial space bases58 5.6 Global theory, asymptotic error estimate 62 5.7 Non-smooth data, theory generalization 66 5.8 Temperature dependent conductivity, non-linearity 69 5.9 Static condensation, p-elements 72 5.10 Chapter summary 75 5.11 Exercises 76 5.12 Computer labs 77 5.13 Chapter references 78 6 ENGINEERING SCIENCES, n =1 79 6.1 Introduction 79 6.2 The Euler-Bernoulli beam equation 80 6.3 Euler-Bernoulli beam theory GWSh reformulation 85 6.4 The Timoshenko beam theory 92 6.5 Mechanical vibrations of a beam 99 6.6 Fluid mechanics, potential flow 106 6.7 Electromagnetic plane wave propagation110 6.8 Convective-radiative finned cylinder heat transfer 112 6.9 Chapter summary 120 6.10 Exercises122 6.10 Computer labs 123 6.11 Chapter references 124 7 STEADY HEAT TRANSFER, n > 1 125 7.1 Introduction 125 7.2 Multi-dimensional FE bases and DOF 126 7.3 Multi-dimensional FE operations 129 7.4 The NC k = 1,2 basis FE matrix library 132 7.5 NC basis {WS}e template, accuracy, convergence 136 7.6 The tensor product basis element family 139 7.7 Gauss numerical quadrature, k = 1 TP basis library 141 7.8 Convection-radiation BC GWSh implementation 146 7.9 Linear basis GWSh template unification 150 7.10 Accuracy, convergence revisited 152 7.11 Chapter summary 153 7.12 Exercises155 7.13 Computer labs 155 7.14 Chapter references 156 8 FINITE DIFFERENCES OF OPINION 159 8.1 The FD-FE correlation159 8.2 The FV-FE correlation162 8.3 Chapter summary 167 8.4 Exercises168 9 CONVECTION-DIFFUSION, n = 1 169 9.1 Introduction169 9.2 The Galerkin weak statement 170 9.3 GWSh completion for time dependence172 9.4 GWSh + qTS algorithm templates 173 9.5 GWSh + qTS algorithm asymptotic error estimates 175 9.6 Performance verification test cases 177 9.7 Dispersive error characterization 180 9.8 A modified Galerkin weak statement 184 9.9 Verification problem statements revisited 187 9.10 Unsteady heat conduction 190 9.11 Chapter summary 193 9.12 Exercises 193 9.13 Computer labs 194 9.14 Chapter references 195 10 CONVECTION-DIFFUSION, n > 1 197 10.1 The problem statement 197 10.2 GWSh + qTS formulation reprise 198 10.3 Matrix library additions, templates 200 10.4 mPDE Galerkin weak forms, theoretical analyses 202 10.5 Verification, benchmarking and validation 207 10.6 Mass transport, the rotating cone verification 208 10.7 The gaussian plume benchmark 211 10.8 The steady n-D Peclet problem verification 213 10.9 Mass transport, a validated n = 3 experiment 215 10.10 Numerical linear algebra, matrix iteration 222 10.11 Newton and AF TP jacobian templates 227 10.12 Chapter summary 229 10.13 Exercises231 10.14 Computer labs 231 10.15 Chapter references232 11 ENGINEERING SCIENCES, n > 1 235 11.1 Introduction 235 11.2 Structural mechanics236 11.3 Structural mechanics, virtual work FE form 240 11.4 Plane stress/strain, GWSh implementation 242 11.5 Elasticity computer lab 246 11.6 Fluid mechanics, incompressible-thermal flow 251 11.7 Vorticity-streamfunction GWSh + qTS algorithm 254 11.8 An isothermal INS validation experiment 258 11.9 Multi-mode convection heat transfer262 11.10 Mechanical vibrations, normal mode GWSh 267 11.11 Normal modes of a vibrating membrane270 11.12 Multi-physics solid-fluid mass transport 276 11.13 Chapter summary 280 11.14 Exercises 282 11.15 Computer labs283 11.14 Chapter references 284 12 CONCLUSION 287 Index 289

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Book SynopsisEndohedral Metallofullerenes: Fullerenes with Metal Inside presents a comprehensive survey of the current state of knowledge on endohedral metallofullerenes, from preparation to functionalization, reactivity and applications. Following a brief historical overview, the book describes methods for synthesis, extraction, separation and purification, and provides an insight into the molecular and crystal structures. Subsequent chapters discuss various categories of endohedral metallofullerenes based on the encapsulated species, including carbides, nitrides, sulphides, oxides, non-metal and non-IPR endohedral metallofullerenes, followed by scanning tunneling microscopy studies and the examination of electronic, vibrational, magnetic and optical properties. The book concludes with chapters addressing the chemical functionalization of endohedral metallofullerenes, and applications ranging from solar cells to biomedicine.Table of ContentsForeword ix Preface xi Personal Reflection – Nori Shinohara xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The First Experimental Evidence of Metallofullerenes 1 1.2 Early Years of Metallofullerene Research 3 1.3 Conventional and IUPAC Nomenclature for Metallofullerenes 5 References 6 2 Synthesis, Extraction, and Purification 9 2.1 Synthesis of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 9 2.2 Solvent Extraction of Metallofullerenes from Primary Soot 14 2.3 Purification and Isolation by HPLC 15 2.4 Fast Separation and Purification with Lewis Acids 18 References 19 3 Molecular and Crystal Structures 23 3.1 Endohedral or Exohedral? A Big Controversy 23 3.2 Structural Analyses 25 References 37 4 Electronic States and Structures 43 4.1 Electron Transfer in Metallofullerenes 43 4.2 ESR Evidence on the Existence of Structural Isomers 45 4.3 Electrochemistry of Metallofullerenes 48 4.4 Similarity in the UV]Vis]NIR Absorption Spectra 51 4.5 Fermi Levels and the Electronic Structures 57 4.6 Metal–Cage Vibration within Metallofullerenes 59 References 63 5 Carbide and Nitride Metallofullerenes 69 5.1 Discovery of Carbide Metallofullerenes 69 5.2 Fullerene Quantum Gyroscope: An Ideal Molecular Rotor 75 5.3 Nitride Metallofullerenes 77 References 81 6 Non]Isolated Pentagon Rule Metallofullerenes 85 6.1 Isolated Pentagon Rule 85 6.2 Non]IPR Metallofullerenes 86 References 89 7 Oxide and Sulfide Metallofullerenes 91 7.1 O xide Metallofullerenes 91 7.2 Sulfide Metallofullerenes 95 References 100 8 Non]metal Endohedral Fullerenes 103 8.1 Nitrogen]Containing N@C60 103 8.2 Phosphorus]Containing P@C60 111 8.3 Inert Gas Endohedral Fullerenes He@C60, Ne@C60, Ar@C60, Kr@C60, and Xe@C60 112 8.4 Hydrogen]Containing H2@C60 120 8.5 Water]Containing H2O@C60 125 References 128 9 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Studies of Metallofullerenes 133 9.1 STM Studies of Metallofullerenes on Clean Surfaces 133 9.2 Metallofullerenes as Superatom 135 9.3 STM/STS Studies on Metallofullerene Layers 137 9.4 STM/STS Studies on a Single Metallofullerene Molecule 139 References 141 10 Magnetic Properties of Metallofullerenes 145 10.1 Magnetism of Mono]metallofullerenes 145 10.2 SXAS and SXMCD Studies of Metallofullerenes 149 References 154 11 Organic Chemistry of Metallofullerenes 157 11.1 Cycloaddition Reactions 157 11.2 Radical Addition Reactions 178 11.3 Miscellaneous Reactions 180 11.4 Donor–Acceptor Dyads 185 11.5 Bis]adduct Formation 194 11.6 Supramolecular Functionalization 195 11.7 Purification of Metallofullerenes by Chemical Methods 198 References 200 12 Applications with Metallofullerenes 209 12.1 Solar Cells 209 12.2 Biomedical Aspects of Water]Soluble Metallofullerenes 221 References 226 13 Growth Mechanism 229 13.1 Carbon Clusters: A Road to Fullerene Growth 229 13.2 Roles Played by Metal Atoms in the Fullerene Growth 233 13.3 Top]Down or Bottom]Up Growth? 237 References 251 14 M@C60: A Big Mystery and a Big Challenge 255 14.1 What Happens to M@C60? 255 14.2 A Big Challenge: Superconductive Metallofullerenes 259 14.3 Future Prospects 261 References 262 Index 265

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Book SynopsisThis fully updated Second Edition provides the reader with the solid understanding of tribology which is essential to engineers involved in the design of, and ensuring the reliability of, machine parts and systems. It moves from basic theory to practice, examining tribology from the integrated viewpoint of mechanical engineering, mechanics, and materials science. It offers detailed coverage of the mechanisms of material wear, friction, and all of the major lubrication techniques - liquids, solids, and gases - and examines a wide range of both traditional and state-of-the-art applications. For this edition, the author has included updates on friction, wear and lubrication, as well as completely revised material including the latest breakthroughs in tribology at the nano- and micro- level and a revised introduction to nanotechnology. Also included is a new chapter on the emerging field of green tribology and biomimetics.Trade Review“Summing Up: Recommended. Upper-division undergraduates and graduate students in engineering, researchers/faculty, and professionals/practitioners.” (Choice, 1 October 2013)Table of ContentsAbout the Author xv Foreword xvii Series Preface xix Preface to Second Edition xxi Preface to First Edition xxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 1 1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 3 1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 4 1.4 Organization of the Book 6 References 7 2 Structure and Properties of Solids 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Atomic Structure, Bonding and Coordination 9 2.2.1 Individual Atoms and Ions 9 2.2.2 Molecules, Bonding and Atomic Coordination 13 2.3 Crystalline Structures 33 2.3.1 Planar Structures 33 2.3.2 Nonplanar Structures 39 2.4 Disorder in Solid Structures 41 2.4.1 Point Defects 41 2.4.2 Line Defects (Dislocations) 41 2.4.3 Surfaces/Internal Boundaries 44 2.4.4 Solid Solutions 45 2.5 Atomic Vibrations and Diffusions 45 2.6 Phase Diagrams 46 2.7 Microstructures 48 2.8 Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue 49 2.8.1 Elastic Deformation 51 2.8.2 Plastic Deformation 53 2.8.3 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 56 2.8.4 Fracture 62 2.8.5 Fatigue 68 2.9 Time-Dependent Viscoelastic/Viscoplastic Deformation 74 2.9.1 Description of Time-Dependent Deformation Experiments 77 Problems 80 References 81 Further Reading 82 3 Solid Surface Characterization 83 3.1 The Nature of Surfaces 83 3.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 84 3.2.1 Deformed Layer 84 3.2.2 Chemically Reacted Layer 85 3.2.3 Physisorbed Layer 86 3.2.4 Chemisorbed Layer 87 3.2.5 Surface Tension, Surface Energy, and Wetting 87 3.2.6 Methods of Characterization of Surface Layers 90 3.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 90 3.3.1 Average Roughness Parameters 92 3.3.2 Statistical Analyses 99 3.3.3 Fractal Characterization 125 3.3.4 Practical Considerations in the Measurement of Roughness Parameters 127 3.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 131 3.4.1 Mechanical Stylus Method 133 3.4.2 Optical Methods 137 3.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Methods 155 3.4.4 Fluid Methods 163 3.4.5 Electrical Method 166 3.4.6 Electron Microscopy Methods 166 3.4.7 Analysis of Measured Height Distribution 168 3.4.8 Comparison of Measurement Methods 168 3.5 Closure 174 Problems 175 References 176 Further Reading 179 4 Contact between Solid Surfaces 181 4.1 Introduction 181 4.2 Analysis of the Contacts 182 4.2.1 Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids 182 4.2.2 Single Asperity Contact of Layered Solids in Frictionless and Frictional Contacts 199 4.2.3 Multiple Asperity Dry Contacts 209 4.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 251 4.3.1 Review of Measurement Techniques 251 4.3.2 Comparison of Different Measurement Techniques 255 4.3.3 Typical Measurements 259 4.4 Closure 262 Problems 264 References 265 Further Reading 269 5 Adhesion 271 5.1 Introduction 271 5.2 Solid–Solid Contact 272 5.2.1 Covalent Bond 276 5.2.2 Ionic or Electrostatic Bond 276 5.2.3 Metallic Bond 277 5.2.4 Hydrogen Bond 278 5.2.5 Van der Waals Bond 278 5.2.6 Free Surface Energy Theory of Adhesion 279 5.2.7 Polymer Adhesion 287 5.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 288 5.3.1 Idealized Geometries 290 5.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contacts 305 5.4 Closure 316 Problems 317 References 317 Further Reading 320 6 Friction 321 6.1 Introduction 321 6.2 Solid–Solid Contact 323 6.2.1 Rules of Sliding Friction 323 6.2.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 328 6.2.3 Other Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 349 6.2.4 Friction Transitions During Sliding 354 6.2.5 Static Friction 356 6.2.6 Stick-Slip 358 6.2.7 Rolling Friction 362 6.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 366 6.4 Friction of Materials 369 6.4.1 Friction of Metals and Alloys 371 6.4.2 Friction of Ceramics 375 6.4.3 Friction of Polymers 380 6.4.4 Friction of Solid Lubricants 383 6.5 Closure 392 Problems 396 References 397 Further Reading 400 7 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 403 7.1 Introduction 403 7.2 Thermal Analysis 404 7.2.1 Fundamental Heat Conduction Solutions 405 7.2.2 High Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa ∼ 1) (Individual Contact) 406 7.2.3 Low Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa I 1) (Multiple-Asperity Contact) 415 7.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 431 7.3.1 Thermocouple and Thin-Film Temperature Sensors 431 7.3.2 Radiation Detection Techniques 434 7.3.3 Metallographic Techniques 440 7.3.4 Liquid Crystals 441 7.4 Closure 442 Problems 444 References 444 8 Wear 447 8.1 Introduction 447 8.2 Types of Wear Mechanisms 448 8.2.1 Adhesive Wear 448 8.2.2 Abrasive Wear (by Plastic Deformation and Fracture) 459 8.2.3 Fatigue Wear 475 8.2.4 Impact Wear 484 8.2.5 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear 493 8.2.6 Electrical Arc-Induced Wear 495 8.2.7 Fretting and Fretting Corrosion 497 8.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 499 8.3.1 Plate-Shaped Particles 499 8.3.2 Ribbon-Shaped Particles 499 8.3.3 Spherical Particles 500 8.3.4 Irregularly Shaped Particles 503 8.4 Wear of Materials 503 8.4.1 Wear of Metals and Alloys 505 8.4.2 Wear of Ceramics 510 8.4.3 Wear of Polymers 517 8.5 Closure 522 Appendix 8.A Indentation Cracking in Brittle Materials 525 8.A.1 Blunt Indenter 526 8.A.2 Sharp Indenter 526 Appendix 8.B Analysis of Failure Data Using the Weibull Distribution 532 8.B.1 General Expression of the Weibull Distribution 532 8.B.2 Graphical Representation of a Weibull Distribution 534 Problems 538 References 539 Further Reading 543 9 Fluid Film Lubrication 545 9.1 Introduction 545 9.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 546 9.2.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 546 9.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 546 9.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 548 9.2.4 Mixed Lubrication 549 9.2.5 Boundary Lubrication 549 9.3 Viscous Flow and the Reynolds Equation 550 9.3.1 Viscosity and Newtonian Fluids 550 9.3.2 Fluid Flow 555 9.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 569 9.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 579 9.5.1 Thrust Bearings 581 9.5.2 Journal Bearings 594 9.5.3 Squeeze Film Bearings 613 9.5.4 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 616 9.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 632 9.6.1 Forms of Contacts 633 9.6.2 Line Contact 634 9.6.3 Point Contact 644 9.6.4 Thermal Correction 645 9.6.5 Lubricant Rheology 646 9.7 Closure 647 Problems 649 References 650 Further Reading 652 10 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 655 10.1 Introduction 655 10.2 Boundary Lubrication 656 10.2.1 Effect of Adsorbed Gases 658 10.2.2 Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers 659 10.2.3 Effect of Chemical Films 662 10.2.4 Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight) 664 10.3 Liquid Lubricants 665 10.3.1 Principal Classes of Lubricants 665 10.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants 671 10.3.3 Additives 680 10.4 Ionic Liquids 681 10.4.1 Composition of Ionic Liquids 682 10.4.2 Properties of Ionic Liquids 684 10.4.3 Lubrication Mechanisms of ILs 685 10.4.4 Issues on the Applicability of Ionic Liquids as Lubricants 685 10.5 Greases 686 10.6 Closure 686 References 687 Further Reading 688 11 Nanotribology 689 11.1 Introduction 689 11.2 SFA Studies 691 11.2.1 Description of an SFA 692 11.2.2 Static (Equilibrium), Dynamic, and Shear Properties of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films 694 11.3 AFM/FFM Studies 703 11.3.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 704 11.3.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 712 11.3.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 741 11.3.4 Indentation 752 11.3.5 Boundary Lubrication 758 11.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 773 11.4.1 Interatomic Forces and Equations of Motion 773 11.4.2 Interfacial Solid Junctions 775 11.4.3 Interfacial Liquid Junctions and Confined Films 776 11.5 Closure 778 References 781 Further Reading 788 12 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 789 12.1 Introduction 789 12.2 Design Methodology 789 12.2.1 Simulation 790 12.2.2 Acceleration 790 12.2.3 Specimen Preparation 790 12.2.4 Friction and Wear Measurements 791 12.3 Typical Test Geometries 794 12.3.1 Sliding Friction and Wear Tests 794 12.3.2 Abrasion Tests 797 12.3.3 Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests 799 12.3.4 Solid-Particle Erosion Test 799 12.3.5 Corrosion Tests 800 12.4 Closure 802 References 802 Further Reading 803 13 Bulk Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments for Tribology 805 13.1 Introduction 805 13.2 Bulk Materials 806 13.2.1 Metals and Alloys 808 13.2.2 Ceramics and Cermets 826 13.2.3 Ceramic-Metal Composites 840 13.2.4 Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids 841 13.3 Coatings and Surface Treatments 861 13.3.1 Coating Deposition Techniques 864 13.3.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 885 13.3.3 Criteria for Selecting Coating Material/Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques 890 13.4 Closure 892 References 892 Further Reading 896 14 Tribological Components and Applications 899 14.1 Introduction 899 14.2 Common Tribological Components 899 14.2.1 Sliding-Contact Bearings 899 14.2.2 Rolling-Contact Bearings 901 14.2.3 Seals 903 14.2.4 Gears 905 14.2.5 Cams and Tappets 907 14.2.6 Piston Rings 908 14.2.7 Electrical Brushes 910 14.3 MEMS/NEMS 912 14.3.1 MEMS 914 14.3.2 NEMS 921 14.3.3 BioMEMS 921 14.3.4 Microfabrication Processes 922 14.4 Material Processing 923 14.4.1 Cutting Tools 923 14.4.2 Grinding and Lapping 927 14.4.3 Forming Processes 927 14.4.4 Cutting Fluids 928 14.5 Industrial Applications 930 14.5.1 Automotive Engines 930 14.5.2 Gas Turbine Engines 932 14.5.3 Railroads 934 14.5.4 Magnetic Storage Devices 935 14.6 Closure 942 References 943 Further Reading 947 15 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 949 15.1 Introduction 949 15.2 Green Tribology 949 15.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Tribology 950 15.2.2 Areas of Green Tribology 951 15.3 Biomimetics 954 15.3.1 Lessons from Nature 955 15.3.2 Industrial Significance 958 15.4 Closure 959 References 959 Further Reading 961 Appendix A Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 963 A.1 Fundamental Constants 963 A.2 Conversion of Units 963 A.3 Useful Relations 964 Index 965

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Book SynopsisCovering fractional order theory, simulation and experiments, this book explains how fractional order modelling and fractional order controller design compares favourably with traditional velocity and position control systems. The authors systematically compare the two approaches using applied fractional calculus.Table of ContentsAcronyms xix Foreword xxiii Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxix PART I FUNDAMENTALS OF FRACTIONAL CONTROLS 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Fractional Calculus 3 1.2 Fractional Order Controls 9 1.3 Fractional Order Motion Controls 20 1.4 Contributions 22 1.5 Organization 22 PART II FRACTIONAL ORDER VELOCITY SERVO 2 Fractional Order PI Controller Designs for Velocity Servo Systems 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 FOPTD Systems and Three Controllers Considered 27 2.3 Design Specifications 27 2.4 Fractional Order PI and [PI] Controller Designs 28 2.5 Simulation 38 2.6 Chapter Summary 39 3 Tuning Fractional Order PI Controllers for Fractional Order Velocity Systems with Experimental Validation 41 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Three Controllers to Be Designed and Tuning Specifications 42 3.3 Tuning Three Controllers for FOVS 42 3.4 Illustrative Examples and Design Procedure Summaries 43 3.5 Simulation Illustration 45 3.6 Experimental Validation 49 3.7 Chapter Summary 54 4 Relay Feedback Tuning of Robust PID Controllers 59 4.1 Introduction 59 4.2 Slope Adjustment of the Phase Bode Plot 62 4.3 The New PID Controller Design Formulae 65 4.4 Phase and Magnitude Measurement Via Relay Feedback Tests 66 4.5 Illustrative Examples 67 4.6 Chapter Summary 72 5 Auto-Tuning of Fractional Order Controllers with Iso-Damping 73 5.1 Introduction 73 5.2 FOPI and FO[PI] Controllers Design Formulae 75 5.3 Measurements for Auto-Tuning 80 5.4 Simulation Illustration 80 5.5 Chapter Summary 87 PART III FRACTIONAL ORDER POSITION SERVO 6 Fractional Order PD Controller Tuning for Position Systems 91 6.1 Introduction 91 6.2 Fractional Order PD Controller Design for Position Servos 92 6.3 Design Procedures 94 6.4 Simulation Example 95 6.5 Experiments 99 6.6 Chapter Summary 101 7 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Synthesis for Position Servo Systems 105 7.1 Introduction 105 7.2 Position Control Plants and Design Specifications 106 7.3 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Design 106 7.4 Parameter Design Examples and Bode Plot Validations 108 7.5 Implementation of Two Fractional Order Operators 110 7.6 Simulation 111 7.7 Experiment 120 7.8 Chapter Summary 122 8 Time-Constant Robust Analysis and Design of Fractional Order [PD] Controller 123 8.1 Introduction 123 8.2 Problem Statement 124 8.3 FO[PD] Tuning Specifications and Rules 125 8.4 The Solution Existence Range and An Online Computation Method 127 8.5 Experiment 135 8.6 Chapter Summary 136 9 Experimental Study of Fractional OrderPDController Synthesis for Fractional Order Position Servo Systems 139 9.1 Introduction 139 9.2 Fractional Order Systems and Fractional Order Controller Considered 140 9.3 FOPD Controller Design Procedure for the Fractional Order Position Servo Systems 141 9.4 Simulation Illustration 144 9.5 Experimental Study 148 9.6 Chapter Summary 153 10 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Design and Comparison for Fractional Order Position Servo Systems 155 10.1 Introduction 155 10.2 Fractional Order Position Servo Systems and Fractional Order Controllers 156 10.3 Fractional Order [PD] Controller Design 156 10.4 Integer Order PID Controller and Fractional Order PD Controller Designs 159 10.5 Simulation Comparisons 160 10.6 Chapter Summary 162 PART IV STABILITY AND FEASIBILITY FOR FOPID DESIGN 11 Stability and Design Feasibility of Robust PID Controllers for FOPTD Systems 165 11.1 Introduction 165 11.2 Stability Region and Flat Phase Tuning Rule for the Robust PID Controller Design 168 11.3 PID Controller Design with Pre-Specifications on Ám and !c 171 11.4 Simulation Illustration 180 11.5 Chapter Summary 185 12 Stability and Design Feasibility of Robust FOPI Controllers for FOPTD Systems 187 12.1 Introduction 187 12.2 Stabilizing and Robust FOPI Controller Design for FOPTD Systems 188 12.3 Design Procedures Summary with An Illustrative Example 194 12.4 Complete Information Collection for Achievable Region of wc and Φm 197 12.5 Simulation Illustration 201 12.6 Chapter Summary 207 PART V FRACTIONAL ORDER DISTURBANCE COMPENSATORS 13 Fractional Order Disturbance Observer 211 13.1 Introduction 211 13.2 Disturbance Observer (DOB) 212 13.3 Actual Design Parameters In DOB and Their Effects 213 13.4 Loss of The Phase Margin With DOB 215 13.5 Solution One: Rule-Based Switched Low Pass Filtering With Varying Relative Degree 216 13.6 The Proposed Solution: Guaranteed Phase Margin Method Using Fractional Order Low Pass Filtering 216 13.7 Implementation Issues: Stable Minimum-Phase Frequency Domain Fitting 218 13.8 Chapter Summary 222 14 Fractional Order Adaptive Feed-forward Cancellation 223 14.1 Introduction 223 14.2 Fractional Order Adaptive Feed-forward Cancellation 225 14.3 Equivalence Between Fractional Order Internal Model Principle and Fractional Order Adaptive Feed-Forward Cancellation 229 14.4 Frequency-domain analysis of the FOAFC performance for the periodic disturbance 231 14.5 Simulation Illustration 233 14.6 Experiment Validation 237 14.7 Chapter Summary 241 15 Fractional Order Robust Control for Cogging Effect 243 15.1 Introduction 243 15.2 Fractional Order Robust Control of Cogging Effect Compensation 244 15.3 Simulation Illustration 252 15.4 Experiments on A Lab Testbed - Dynamometer 258 15.5 Chapter Summary 264 16 Fractional Order Periodic Adaptive Learning Compensation 275 16.1 Introduction 275 16.2 Fractional Order Periodic Adaptive learning Compensation for the State-dependent Periodic Disturbance 276 16.3 Simulation Illustrations 282 16.4 Experimental Validation 284 16.5 Chapter Summary 288 PART VI EFFECTS OF FRACTIONAL ORDER CONTROLS ON NONLINEARITIES 17 Fractional Order PID Control of A DC-Motor with Elastic Shaft 293 17.1 Introduction 293 17.2 The Benchmark Position Servo System 294 17.3 A Modified Approximate Realization Method 295 17.4 Comparative Simulations 297 17.5 Chapter Summary 305 18 Fractional Order Ultra Low-Speed Position Servo 313 18.1 Introduction 313 18.2 Ultra Low-Speed Position Tracking using Designed FOPD and Optimized IOPI 314 18.3 Static and Dynamic Models of Friction and DescribingFunctions for Friction Models 316 18.4 Simulation Analysis with IOPI and FOPD Controllers Using Describing Function 321 18.5 Extended Experimental Demonstration 324 18.6 Chapter Summary 325 19 Optimized Fractional Order Conditional Integrator 329 19.1 Introduction 329 19.2 Clegg Conditional Integrator 330 19.3 Intelligent Conditional Integrator 331 19.4 The Optimized Fractional Order Conditional Integrator 332 19.5 Simulation Validation 340 19.6 Chapter Summary 342 PART VII FRACTIONAL ORDER CONTROL APPLICATIONS 20 Lateral Directional Fractional Order Control of A Small Fixed-Wing UAV 345 20.1 Introduction 345 20.2 Flight Control System of Small Fixed-Wing UAV 346 20.3 Integer/Fractional Order Controller Designs 351 20.4 Modified Ziegler-Nichols PI Controller Design 352 20.5 Fractional Order (PI)¸ Controller Design 353 20.6 Fractional Order PI Controller Design 355 20.7 Integer Order PID Controller Design 356 20.8 Simulation Illustration 357 20.9 Flight Experiments 363 20.10 Chapter Summary 367 21 Fractional Order PD Controller Synthesis and Implementation for HDD Servo System 369 21.1 Introduction 369 21.2 Fractional Order Controller Design with “Flat Phase” 370 21.3 Implementation of the Fractional Order Controller 372 21.4 Readjustment for the Designed FOPD Controller 377 21.5 Experiment 380 21.6 Chapter Summary 383 References 385 Index 403

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Book SynopsisGiving readers the tools to understand and analyse common problems in structural engineering, foundation engineering and soil-structure interaction, this book is accompanied by Excel Spreadsheets and employs the Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) macro programming language to allow a practical understanding.Table of ContentsAbout the Author xxi Preface xxiii Acknowledgments xxv PART ONE COMPUTER SOFTWARE 1 1 Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet 3 1.1 History of Spreadsheet Development 3 1.2 Excel 2010 4 1.3 Transmitting Cell Values Not Formulas 5 1.4 Accuracy 5 1.5 Saving 6 1.6 Implementation of Excel Features 6 2 Microsoft VBA Programming Language 13 2.1 History of the BASIC Computer Language 13 2.2 Justification for Using Excel with VBA Macros 15 2.3 Difference between aWorkbook and a VBA Macro 16 2.4 VBA Macro Nomenclature 16 2.5 Generating a Procedure 17 2.6 Security Level Required to Open VBA Macros 19 2.7 VBA Code Statements that Differ from Previous BASIC Versions 19 2.8 Implementation of VBA Macro Programming 20 2.9 Inputting Data to a VBA Procedure 26 2.10 Output Data from a VBA Procedure 30 2.11 Running a Macro 32 2.12 Code Debugging 33 2.13 Charting in a Worksheet 34 2.14 Line Plots in a Worksheet 34 2.15 Macro Sub Program Showing Output toWorksheet 35 2.16 Computer Hardware/Software Requirements 36 PART TWO STRUCTURES 41 3 Finite Element Method – The Theory 43 3.1 Theory 43 3.2 Developing the Element Stiffness Matrix 44 3.3 Creating the Global Stiffness Matrix by Assembling Element Stiffnesses 47 3.4 Solving Simultaneous Equations for Displacements 47 3.5 Element Displacements and Forces 48 3.6 Flowchart of Steps 49 4 Finite Element Analysis VBA Program PFrame 51 4.1 Program PFrame – Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Beam–Bar Structural Systems 51 4.2 Creating an Input Data Worksheet 52 4.3 Input Data 52 4.4 Joint Numbering and Dimensions 56 4.5 Load Application 58 4.6 Imposed Joint Displacements 59 4.7 Unstable or Improperly Supported Configurations 60 4.8 Running Program PFrame 60 4.9 Output Data 62 4.10 Alternate Solution Approach to Macro Program PFrame 63 4.11 Significant Aspects of Excel Worksheet & VBA Macro Program Construction 63 5 Beams 65 5.1 Beam Member Types 65 5.2 Bar Members as Pinned-End Beams 65 5.3 Moment of Inertia Conversion for Different Member Axis Orientation 67 5.4 Load Application 69 6 Frames 71 6.1 Analysis of Frames 71 6.2 Rigid Joints 71 6.3 Joint Numbering 71 6.4 Pinned-End Beam 73 6.5 Supports 74 6.6 Varying EI of Members Comprising a Frame 75 6.7 Stability – The P–Delta Effect 76 6.8 Load Case Combinations of Load Groups 76 6.9 Interior Member Forces 77 6.10 Examples 77 7 Trusses 81 7.1 Theory for Bar Members 81 7.2 Analysis of Bar Assemblage 81 7.3 Load Application 82 7.4 Initial Member Length Changes 82 7.5 Support Displacements 82 8 Reinforced Concrete 83 8.1 Concrete and Reinforcing Steel Properties 83 8.2 Design Capacity and Reinforcing Requirements 84 8.3 Strength Properties for a Soil–Structure Interaction Analyses 89 8.4 Cracked-Section Concrete Properties 90 8.5 Excel Workbooks 91 8.6 Notation 92 PART THREE SOILS 95 9 Soil Classification 97 9.1 Field Geotechnical Processes 97 9.2 Soil Description 100 9.3 Field and Laboratory Tests for Soil Identification 103 9.4 Soil Classification Systems 106 9.5 Excel Workbooks and VBA Programs 108 9.6 Soil Mechanics Symbol Nomenclature 109 10 Soil Strength Properties 115 10.1 Discrete and Elastic Finite Element Models 115 10.2 General Elasticity Equations Relating Stress and Strain 115 10.3 Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio 118 10.4 Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction 135 10.5 Mathematical Descriptions of Curves Using Program Curve Fit 138 11 Stresses in an Elastic Half-Space 141 11.1 Closed-Form Elasticity Solutions 141 11.2 Lateral Stresses against a Wall Restrained from Movement due to Point, Line, and Strip Loading 141 11.3 Boussinesq Equation 141 11.4 Westergaard Equation 142 11.5 Mindlin Equation 142 11.6 Chart Solutions 142 11.7 Excel Workbook – Lat&VertStress 143 11.8 VBA Program HSpace 143 11.9 Significant Programming Aspects 144 11.10 VBA Program HSpace – Program Documentation 144 12 Lateral Soil Pressures and Retaining Walls 149 12.1 Lateral Earth Pressure – Sloped Backfill Acting on Inclined Retaining Wall 149 12.2 Slope Stability 150 12.3 Stability of a Vertical Cut 150 12.4 Retaining Wall Movements 151 12.5 Retaining Walls – Factor of Safety 151 13 Shallow and Deep Foundation Vertical Bearing Capacity 153 13.1 Shallow Foundations 153 13.2 Vertical Bearing Stress Capacity 153 13.3 Soil Pressure Distribution 154 13.4 Settlement-Based Bearing Capacity 155 13.5 Excel Workbooks 156 13.6 Deep Foundations 156 13.7 Capacities Based on Displacement Limits 157 13.8 Capacities Based on Stress Limits 158 13.9 Limitations on Capacities 160 13.10 Load Testing 161 13.11 Pier Settlement 161 13.12 Excel Workbook 161 13.13 Combined Foundations – Shallow and Deep 161 14 Slope Stability 165 14.1 Workbook Program Slope – Slope Stability by Bishop’s Modified Method of Slices 165 14.2 Workbook Program STABR – Slope Stability by Bishop’s Modified Method of Slices 166 14.3 Workbook Program Slope8R – Slope Stability by Spencer’s Procedure for Non-circular Slip Surfaces 167 15 Seepage Flow through Porous Media 169 15.1 Program Flownet for Analysis of Seepage Flow through Porous Media 169 15.2 Program Input – from Data file 170 15.3 Program Output – to Data File 171 15.4 Input Data Description 172 15.5 Output Data Description 172 15.6 Example 172 15.7 Significant Aspects of Excel Workbook and VBA Macro Program Construction 174 PART FOUR SOIL–STRUCTURE INTERACTION 177 16 Beam-on-Elastic Foundation 179 16.1 Theory–Classical Differential Equation Solution 179 16.2 Beam–Bar Finite Element Model 180 16.3 Soil Strength – Coefficient of Vertical Subgrade Reaction 182 16.4 Structural Stiffness 183 16.5 Soil–Structure Interaction 183 16.6 Unbalanced Fixed-End Moment from Triangular Load Distribution 184 16.7 Pressure Distribution 184 16.8 Solution Exclusively in Excel Worksheet without VBA 185 16.9 Examples 187 17 Footings andMat Foundations 191 17.1 Mat Foundations 191 17.2 Slab Section Stiffness and Moment Capacity 192 17.3 Soil–Structure Interaction 192 17.4 Practical Considerations Regarding Slab Reinforcement 193 17.5 Case Study – House Slab Foundations in Tucson, Arizona 197 17.6 Example 17.1 House Slab 197 18 Laterally Loaded Piles 201 18.1 Theory – Classical Differential Equation Solution 201 18.2 Conventional Analysis 202 18.3 Beam–Bar Finite Element Solution 202 18.4 Structural Stiffness 207 18.5 Soil Strength 209 18.6 Soil–Structure Interaction 213 18.7 Soil Pressures on Each Side of Pier 215 18.8 Limitations of a Beam–Bar Analysis 219 18.9 Design Procedure 219 18.10 Solution Exclusively in Excel Worksheet without VBA 221 18.11 Point of Fixity 222 18.12 Pile Groups 222 18.13 Conclusions 222 18.14 Significant Aspects of Excel Worksheet and VBA Macro 223 18.15 Examples 223 19 Cantilevered and Anchored Sheet Piles 229 19.1 Cantilevered Sheet Piles 229 19.2 Beam–Bar Finite Element Model for Cantilevered Piles 229 19.3 Anchored Sheet Piles 229 19.4 Beam–Bar Finite Element Model for Anchored Sheet Piles 230 19.5 Soil Strength Representation 230 19.6 Examples 231 20 Buried Arch Culverts (Tunnels) 233 20.1 Theory: Classical Elasticity Formulation – Burns and Richard Solution 233 20.2 Soil–Structure Interaction 234 20.3 Beam–Bar Finite Element Frame Model 235 20.4 Vertical Loads 237 20.5 Distributing and Attenuating Vertical Live Loads 238 20.6 Horizontal Ko Pressure Load 240 20.7 Load Application 240 20.8 General Elasticity FEA Programs 241 20.9 SSI 242 20.10 Cracked-Section Considerations 243 20.11 Examples 244 21 The Arch Form 247 21.1 History of Arches and Vaults 247 21.2 Arch-Shaped Configurations 247 21.3 Force Determination for Various Shaped Arches 249 21.4 Arch Engineering Considerations 250 21.5 Structural and Hydraulic Efficiency 252 21.6 Soil–Structure Interaction 253 21.7 Flexible versus Rigid Structures 254 21.8 Failure Patterns and Deflections 255 21.9 Load Tests 256 21.10 Design Comments 256 21.11 Buckling of Arches 260 21.12 Seismic Design Considerations 261 PART FIVE ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 263 22 Domes 265 22.1 Geometry 265 22.2 Membrane Stresses 265 22.3 Stress Computations Using Worksheet Dome 266 23 Critical Path Method 269 23.1 Project Scheduling 269 23.2 VBA Versions 270 24 Financial Analysis 271 24.1 Equations Governing Financial Operations 271 24.2 Excel Worksheets for Financial Calculator and Formulas 272 24.3 Significant Aspects of Excel Worksheet and Macro Functions 272 25 Conversion of Units of Measurement 275 25.1 Unit Systems 275 25.2 Defined Units 276 25.3 Labeling Conventions 276 25.4 Workbook UnitCnvrsn 277 25.5 Excel Conversions 278 25.6 Example 278 Related Workbook on DVD 278 Index 279

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Book SynopsisInorganic materials are at the heart of many contemporary real-world applications, in electronic devices, drug delivery, bio-inspired materials and energy storage and transport. In order to underpin novel synthesis strategies both to facilitate these applications and to encourage new ones, a thorough review of current and emerging techniques for materials characterisation is needed. Examining important techniques that allow investigation of the structures of inorganic materials on the local atomic scale, Local Structural Characterisation discusses: Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy X-Ray Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy Neutrons and Neutron Spectroscopy EPR Spectroscopy of Inorganic Materials Analysis of Functional Materials by X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy This addition to the Inorganic Materials Series provides a detailed and thorough review of these spectroscopic techniques and emphasises the interplayTable of ContentsInorganic Materials Series Preface xi Preface xiii List of Contributors xv 1 Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1 Sharon Ashbrook, Daniel Dawson and John Griffin 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Theoretical Background 3 1.2.1 Fundamentals of NMR 3 1.2.2 Acquisition of Basic NMR Spectra 4 1.2.3 Relaxation 7 1.2.4 Interactions in NMR Spectroscopy 7 1.3 Basic Experimental Methods 15 1.3.1 Spin I = 1/2 Nuclei 15 1.3.2 Spin I > 1/2 Nuclei 24 1.3.3 Wideline NMR Spectroscopy 30 1.4 Calculation of NMR Parameters 31 1.4.1 Introduction to Density Functional Theory 31 1.4.2 Basis Sets and Periodicity 32 1.4.3 Reducing the Computational Cost of Calculations 33 1.4.4 Application of First-principles Calculations 34 1.5 Applications of Solid-state NMR Spectroscopy 36 1.5.1 Local and Long-range Structure 36 1.5.2 Measuring Internuclear Interactions 43 1.5.3 Disordered Materials 46 1.5.4 Studying Dynamics 50 1.5.5 Challenging Nuclei and Systems 54 1.5.6 Paramagnetic Materials and Metals 56 1.6 Commonly Studied Nuclei 59 1.6.1 Hydrogen 59 1.6.2 Lithium 61 1.6.3 Boron 62 1.6.4 Carbon 62 1.6.5 Oxygen 62 1.6.6 Fluorine 63 1.6.7 Sodium 63 1.6.8 Aluminium 64 1.6.9 Silicon 64 1.6.10 Phosphorus 64 1.6.11 Xenon 65 1.7 NMR of Materials 65 1.7.1 Simple Ionic Compounds and Ceramics 65 1.7.2 Microporous Materials 67 1.7.3 Minerals and Clays 74 1.7.4 Energy Materials 76 1.7.5 Glasses 78 1.7.6 Polymers 81 1.8 Conclusion 83 References 84 2 X-ray Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy 89 Pieter Glatzel and Amelie Juhin 2.1 Introduction: What is Photon Spectroscopy? 89 2.2 Electronic Structure and Spectroscopy 93 2.2.1 Total Energy Diagram 93 2.2.2 Interaction of X-rays with Matter 96 2.3 Calculation of Inner-shell Spectra 106 2.3.1 The Single-particle Extended Picture of Electronic States 107 2.3.2 The Many-body Atomic Picture of Electronic States 109 2.3.3 Comparison of Theoretical Approaches 112 2.3.4 The Many-body Extended Picture of Electronic States 113 2.3.5 Single-particle Calculation of the Absorption Cross-section 114 2.3.6 Many-body Atomic Calculation of the Cross-section 118 2.3.7 Which Approach Works Best for Inner-shell Spectroscopy? 118 2.3.8 Beyond Standard DFT Methods 119 2.4 Experimental Techniques 120 2.4.1 X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy 121 2.4.2 X-ray Raman Spectroscopy 130 2.4.3 Nonresonant X-ray Emission (X-ray Fluorescence) 131 2.4.4 Resonant Inelastic X-ray Scattering 137 2.5 Experimental Considerations 155 2.5.1 Modern Sources of X-rays 155 2.5.2 Ultrafast X-ray Spectroscopy 157 2.5.3 Measuring XAS/XES 158 2.6 Conclusion 163 Acknowledgement 164 References 164 3 Neutrons and Neutron Spectroscopy 173 A. J. Ramirez-Cuesta and Philip C. H. Mitchell 3.1 The Neutron and How it is Scattered 174 3.1.1 The Scattering Law 175 3.2 Why Neurons? 179 3.2.1 The S(Q,w) Map 180 3.2.2 Modelling of INS Spectra 181 3.2.3 Example of the Effects of Sampling of the Brillouin Zone 183 3.2.4 INS Spectrometers 184 3.2.5 Measurement Temperature 189 3.2.6 Amount of Sample Required 189 3.3 Molecular Hydrogen (Dihydrogen) in Porous Materials 190 3.3.1 The Rotational Spectrum of Dihydrogen 190 3.3.2 The Polarising Power of Cations and H2 Binding 191 3.3.3 Hydrogen in Metal Organic Frameworks 195 3.3.4 Hydrogen Trapped in Clathrates 198 3.4 Ins and Catalysis 201 3.4.1 Hydroxyl Groups on Surfaces 206 3.5 CO2 and SO2 Capture 207 3.6 What Could be Next? 211 3.6.1 How Could we Improve INS? 211 3.6.2 A Hypothetical INS Instrument for Catalysis 216 3.7 Conclusion 219 References 220 4 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of Inorganic Materials 225 Piotr Pietrzyk, Tomasz Mazur and Zbigniew Sojka 4.1 Introduction 225 4.2 Electron Spin in a Magnetic Field 226 4.2.1 Electron Zeeman Effect and the Resonance Phenomenon 228 4.2.2 Spin Relaxation 230 4.2.3 Electron–Nucleus Hyperfine Interaction 233 4.2.4 EPR Spectrometers 238 4.2.5 Samples, Sample Holders and Registration of EPR Spectra 242 4.3 Spin Hamiltonian and Symmetry 244 4.3.1 The g Tensor 244 4.3.2 The Hyperfine A Tensor 250 4.3.3 The Fine Structure D Tensor 256 4.3.4 The Quadrupole Q Tensor 260 4.3.5 Electron–Electron Exchange Interactions J 261 4.3.6 The Spin Hamiltonian 264 4.4 Principal Types of EPR Spectrum and Their Characteristic Features 267 4.4.1 Single-crystal Spectra 267 4.4.2 Static and Dynamic Disorder 269 4.4.3 EPR Spectra of Powder and Nanopowder Materials 274 4.4.4 Unusual Spectral Features 278 4.4.5 Computer Simulation of Powder Spectra 280 4.5 Advanced EMR Techniques 282 4.5.1 High-field and Multifrequency EPR 282 4.5.2 Pulsed EPR Methods 285 References 296 5 Analysis of Functional Materials by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 301 Karen Wilson and Adam F. Lee 5.1 Introduction 301 5.1.1 The Basic Principles of XPS 302 5.1.2 Quantification of X-ray Photoelectron Spectra 305 5.1.3 The Origin of Surface Sensitivity 308 5.1.4 Angular Resolved XPS 309 5.1.5 Chemical Shift Information from XPS 311 5.2 Imaging XPS 315 5.3 Time-resolved High-resolution XPS 318 5.3.1 Selective Catalytic Alcohol Oxidation 319 5.3.2 Selective Oxidation of Allylic Alcohols 322 5.3.3 C–X Activation 324 5.4 High- or Ambient-pressure XPS 326 5.4.1 AP-XPS Studies of the Surface Chemistry of Oxidised Metal Surfaces 329 5.4.2 Selective Hydrogenation 333 5.4.3 HP-XPS Studies of Core–Shell Nanoparticulate Materials 335 5.5 Applications to Inorganic Materials 335 5.5.1 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 335 5.5.2 XPS Studies of Heteropolytungstate Clusters 338 5.5.3 XPS Studies of Acid–Base Sites in Oxide Catalysts 342 5.6 Conclusion 345 References 345 Index 351

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Book SynopsisRotating Thermal Flows in Natural and Industrial Processes provides the reader with a systematic description of the different types of thermal convection and flow instabilities in rotating systems, as present in materials, crystal growth, thermal engineering, meteorology, oceanography, geophysics and astrophysics.Trade Review“Given such a comprehensive review on this topic, this book can be highly recommended to crystal growth Researchers . . . It is also an ideal handbook for graduate students and researchers working in the field of fluid mechanics, geophysical and astrophysical fluid dynamics, thermal, mechanical and material science and engineering.” (Journal of Experimental and Industrial Crystallography, 1 May 2013) “It will be a useful resource for researchers in the appropriate fields of physics. An extensive, 36-page list of references supports the text. Summing Up: Recommended. Researchers and professionals.” (Choice, 1 June 2013) “As such, it should henceforth be considered as a reference work for any student, engineer and researcher in fluid mechanics, interested in either broadening their knowledge or in delving into one of the numerous subjects of interest developed here.” (The International Journal of Geophysical & Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics, 1 April 2013)Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xvii 1 Equations, General Concepts and Nondimensional Numbers 1 1.1 The Navier-Stokes and Energy Equations 1 1.1.1 The Continuity Equation 2 1.1.2 The Momentum Equation 2 1.1.3 The Total Energy Equation 2 1.1.4 The Budget of Internal Energy 3 1.1.5 Closure Models 3 1.2 Some Considerations about the Dynamics of Vorticity 5 1.2.1 Vorticity and Circulation 5 1.2.2 Vorticity in Two Dimensions 7 1.2.3 Vorticity Over a Spherical Surface 8 1.2.4 The Curl of the Momentum Equation 10 1.3 Incompressible Formulation 10 1.4 Buoyancy Convection 13 1.4.1 The Boussinesq Model 13 1.4.2 The Grashof and Rayleigh Numbers 14 1.5 Surface-Tension-Driven Flows 14 1.5.1 Stress Balance 15 1.5.2 The Reynolds and Marangoni Numbers 16 1.5.3 The Microgravity Environment 18 1.6 Rotating Systems: The Coriolis and Centrifugal Forces 19 1.6.1 Generalized Gravity 20 1.6.2 The Coriolis, Taylor and Rossby Numbers 21 1.6.3 The Geostrophic Flow Approximation 22 1.6.4 The Taylor–Proudman Theorem 23 1.6.5 Centrifugal and Stratification Effects: The Froude Number 23 1.6.6 The Rossby Deformation Radius 24 1.7 Some Elementary Effects due to Rotation 25 1.7.1 The Origin of Cyclonic and Anticyclonic flows 25 1.7.2 The Ekman Layer 26 1.7.3 Ekman Spiral 28 1.7.4 Ekman Pumping 28 1.7.5 The Stewartson Layer 30 2 Rayleigh-Benard Convection with Rotation 33 2.1 Rayleigh-Benard Convection with Rotation in Infinite Layers 34 2.1.1 Linear Stability Analysis 35 2.1.2 Asymptotic Analysis 36 2.2 The Kuppers-Lortz Instability and Domain Chaos 38 2.3 Patterns with Squares 41 2.4 Typical Phenomena for Pr= 2.4.1 Spiral Defect Chaos and Chiral Symmetry 42 2.4.2 The Interplay between the Busse Balloon and the KL Instability 45 2.5 The Low-Pr Hopf Bifurcation and Mixed States 48 2.5.1 Standing and Travelling Rolls 50 2.5.2 Patterns with the Symmetry of Square and Hexagonal Lattices 52 2.5.3 Other Asymptotic Analyses 55 2.5.4 Nature and Topology of the Bifurcation Lines in the Space of Parameters (Pr) 56 2.6 Laterally Confined Convection 58 2.6.1 The First Bifurcation and Wall Modes 60 2.6.2 The Second Bifurcation and Bulk Convection 63 2.6.3 Square Patterns Driven by Nonlinear Interactions between Bulk and Wall Modes 64 2.6.4 Square Patterns as a Nonlinear Combination of Bulk Fourier Eigenmodes 67 2.6.5 Higher-Order Bifurcations 69 2.7 Centrifugal Effects 71 2.7.1 Stably Thermally Stratified Systems 71 2.7.2 Interacting Thermogravitational and Centrifugally Driven Flows 74 2.7.3 The Effect of the Centrifugal Force on Domain Chaos 84 2.8 Turbulent Rotating RB Convection 86 2.8.1 The Origin of the Large-scale Circulation 87 2.8.2 Rotating Vortical Plumes 89 2.8.3 Classification of Flow Regimes 91 2.8.4 Suppression of Large-scale Flow and Heat Transfer Enhancement 98 2.8.5 Prandtl Number Effects 102 3 Spherical Shells, Rossby Waves and Centrifugally Driven Thermal Convection 107 3.1 The Coriolis Effect in Atmosphere Dynamics 107 3.1.1 The Origin of the Zonal Winds 107 3.1.2 The Rossby Waves 110 3.2 Self-Gravitating Rotating Spherical Shells 114 3.2.1 Columnar Convective Patterns 115 3.2.2 A Mechanism for Generating Differential Rotation 119 3.2.3 Higher-Order Modes of Convection 121 3.2.4 Equatorially Attached Modes of Convection 126 3.2.5 Polar Convection 127 3.3 Centrifugally Driven Thermal Convection 128 4 The Baroclinic Problem 135 4.1 Energetics of Convection and Heuristic Arguments 136 4.2 Linear Stability Analysis: The Classical Eady’s Model 139 4.3 Extensions of the Eady’s model 148 4.4 Fully Developed Nonlinear Waveforms 154 4.5 The Influence of the Prandtl Number 162 4.6 The Route to Chaos 166 4.7 Hybrid Baroclinic Flows 172 4.8 Elementary Application to Atmospheric Dynamics 175 4.8.1 Spiralling Eddy Structures 176 4.8.2 The Baroclinic Life-Cycle and the ‘Barotropization’ Mechanism 177 4.8.3 The Predictability of Weather and Climate Systems 179 5 The Quasi-Geostrophic Theory 183 5.1 The Potential Vorticity Perspective 183 5.1.1 The Rossby-Ertel’s Potential Vorticity 183 5.1.2 The Quasi-Geostrophic (QG) Pseudo-Potential Vorticity 184 5.2 The Perturbation Energy Equation 189 5.3 Derivation of Necessary Conditions for Instability 191 5.3.1 The Rayleigh’s Criterion 192 5.3.2 The Charney–Stern Theorem 193 5.4 A Generalization of the Potential Vorticity Concept 195 5.4.1 The Origin of the Sheets of Potential Vorticity 196 5.4.2 Gradients of Potential Vorticity in the Interior 199 5.5 The Concept of Interlevel Interaction 201 5.6 The Counter-Propagating Rossby-Wave Perspective on Baroclinic Instability 205 5.6.1 The Heuristic Interpretation 206 5.6.2 A Mathematical Framework for the ‘Action-at-a-Distance’ Dynamics 208 5.6.3 Extension and Rederivation of Earlier Results 211 5.7 Barotropic Instability 215 5.8 Extensions of the CRW Perspective 218 5.9 The Over-reflection Theory and Its Connections to Other Theoretical Models 222 5.10 Nonmodal Growth, Optimal Perturbations and Resonance 225 5.11 Limits of the CRW Theory 229 6 Planetary Patterns 231 6.1 Jet Sets 232 6.2 A Rigorous Categorization of Hypotheses and Models 236 6.3 The Weather-Layer Approach 237 6.4 The Physical Mechanism of Vortex Merging 238 6.4.1 The Critical Core Size 240 6.4.2 Metastability and the Axisymmetrization Principle 241 6.4.3 Topology of the Streamline Pattern and Its Evolution 242 6.5 Freely Decaying Turbulence 246 6.5.1 Two-dimensional Turbulence 246 6.5.2 Invariants, Inertial Range and Phenomenological Theory 247 6.5.3 The Vortex-Dominated Evolution Stage 250 6.6 Geostrophic Turbulence 254 6.6.1 Relationship with 2D Turbulence 254 6.6.2 Vortex Stretching and 3D Instabilities 256 6.7 The Reorientation of the Inverse Cascade into Zonal Modes 258 6.7.1 A Subdivision of the Spectrum: Rossby Waves and Turbulent Eddies 258 6.7.2 Anisotropic Dispersion and Weak Nonlinear Interaction 259 6.7.3 The Stability of Zonal Mean Flow 262 6.8 Baroclinic Effects, Stochasting Forcing and Barotropization 262 6.9 Hierarchy of Models and Scales 264 6.9.1 The Role of Friction 264 6.9.2 The One-Layer Perspective and the Barotropic Equation 265 6.9.3 Classification of Models 266 6.9.4 Characteristic Wavenumbers 267 6.10 One-Layer Model 268 6.10.1 Historical Background 268 6.10.2 The Wavenumber Sub-space 276 6.11 Barotropicity, Baroclinicity and Multilayer Models 278 6.11.1 Eddy Variability and Zonally Averaged Properties 279 6.11.2 Polygonal Wave Structures 283 6.12 The Ocean–Jupiter Connection 286 6.13 Wave–Mean-Flow Dynamics 287 6.13.1 The Barotropic Instability of Rossby Waves 288 6.13.2 The Transition from Inflectional to Triad Resonance Instability 291 6.13.3 Destabilization of Mixed Rossby–Gravity Waves 296 6.13.4 Relaxation of the Triad Resonance Condition 299 6.13.5 Interaction with Critical Lines 300 6.14 Solitary Vortex Dynamics 302 6.14.1 The Zoo of Vortex Instabilities on the f-Plane 302 6.14.2 Free Vortices on the β Plane 309 6.14.3 Gyres and Rossby-Wave-Induced Gradual Vortex Decay 311 6.14.4 The Influence of Zonal Flow on Vortex Stability 317 6.15 Penetrative Convection Model 323 6.15.1 Limits of the Shallow Layer Approach 323 6.15.2 Differential Rotation and Deep Geostrophic Convection 324 6.16 Extension and Unification of Existing Theories and Approaches 330 6.16.1 The Classical Bowl-Based Experiment 330 6.16.2 Models with B Sign Reversal 333 6.16.3 Models with Scaling Discontinuities 337 6.16.4 Open Points and Future Directions of Research 342 7 Surface-Tension-Driven Flows in Rotating Fluids 345 7.1 Marangoni–Benard Convection 346 7.1.1 Classical Patterns and Theories 346 7.1.2 Stationary and Oscillatory Flows with Rotation 347 7.2 The Return Flow 352 7.3 The Hydrothermal Instability 354 7.3.1 A LSA Including the Effect of Rotation 356 7.4 The Annular Pool 360 7.4.1 Liquid Metals and Semiconductor Melts 363 7.4.2 Travelling and Stationary Waves 365 7.4.3 Transparent Organic Liquids 366 7.4.4 Modification of the Fundamental Hydrothermal Mechanism 368 8 Crystal Growth from the Melt and Rotating Machinery 371 8.1 The Bridgman Method 372 8.2 The Floating Zone 382 8.2.1 The Liquid Bridge 383 8.2.2 Rotating Liquid Bridge with Infinite Axial Extent 385 8.2.3 Rotation, Standing Waves and Travelling Waves 386 8.2.4 Self-Induced Rotation and PAS 390 8.3 The Czochralski Method 394 8.3.1 Spoke and Wave Patterns 396 8.3.2 Mixed Baroclinic-Hydrothermal States 399 8.3.3 Other Effects, Cold Plumes and Oscillating Jets 406 8.3.4 Geostrophic Turbulence 411 8.4 Rotating Machinery 413 8.4.1 The Taylor–Couette Flow 413 8.4.2 Cylinders with Rotating Endwalls 422 9 Rotating Magnetic Fields 431 9.1 Physical Principles and Characteristic Numbers 432 9.1.1 The Hartmann, Reynolds and Magnetic Taylor Numbers 432 9.1.2 The Swirling Flow 434 9.2 Stabilization of Thermo-gravitational Flows 438 9.3 Stabilization of Surface-Tension-Driven Flows 442 9.4 Combining Rotation and RMF 446 10 Angular Vibrations and Rocking Motions 449 10.1 Equations and Relevant Parameters 450 10.1.1 Characteristic Numbers 453 10.1.2 The Mechanical Equilibrium 454 10.2 The Infinite Layer 454 10.2.1 The Stability of the Equilibrium State 455 10.2.2 Combined Translational-Rotational Vibrations 460 10.3 The Vertical Coaxial Gap 462 10.4 Application to Vertical Bridgman Crystal Growth 467 References 473 Index 509 509 509

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Book SynopsisComprehensively covers conventional and novel drying systems and applications, while keeping a focus on the fundamentals of drying phenomena. Presents detailed thermodynamic and heat/mass transfer analyses in a reader-friendly and easy-to-follow approach Includes case studies, illustrative examples and problems Presents experimental and computational approaches Includes comprehensive information identifying the roles of flow and heat transfer mechanisms on the drying phenomena Considers industrial applications, corresponding criterion, complications, prospects, etc. Discusses novel drying technologies, the corresponding research platforms and potential solutions Table of ContentsPreface xi Nomenclature xv 1 Fundamental Aspects 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Fundamental Properties and Quantities 2 1.3 Ideal Gas and Real Gas 13 1.4 The Laws of Thermodynamics 19 1.5 Thermodynamic Analysis Through Energy and Exergy 24 1.5.1 Exergy 24 1.5.2 Balance Equations 27 1.6 Psychometrics 36 1.7 Heat Transfer 45 1.7.1 General Aspects 45 1.7.2 Heat Transfer Modes 48 1.7.3 Transient Heat Transfer 54 1.8 Mass Transfer 58 1.9 Concluding Remarks 63 1.10 Study Problems 63 References 65 2 Basics of Drying 67 2.1 Introduction 67 2.2 Drying Phases 68 2.3 Basic Heat and Moisture Transfer Analysis 69 2.4 Moist Material 76 2.5 Types of Moisture Diffusion 81 2.6 Shrinkage 82 2.7 Modeling of Packed-Bed Drying 86 2.8 Diffusion in Porous Media with Low Moisture Content 88 2.9 Modeling of Heterogeneous Diffusion in Moist Solids 90 2.10 Conclusions 97 2.11 Study Problems 97 References 98 3 Drying Processes and Systems 99 3.1 Introduction 99 3.2 Drying Systems Classification 100 3.3 Main Types of Drying Devices and Systems 105 3.3.1 Batch Tray Dryers 105 3.3.2 Batch Through-Circulation Dryers 106 3.3.3 Continuous Tunnel Dryers 108 3.3.4 Rotary Dryers 110 3.3.5 Agitated Dryers 114 3.3.6 Direct-Heat Vibrating-Conveyor Dryers 116 3.3.7 Gravity Dryers 117 3.3.8 Dispersion Dryers 119 3.3.9 Fluidized Bed Dryers 128 3.3.10 Drum Dryers 130 3.3.11 Solar Drying Systems 132 3.4 Processes in Drying Systems 137 3.4.1 Natural Drying 137 3.4.2 Forced Drying 145 3.5 Conclusions 151 3.6 Study Problems 151 References 152 4 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Drying Processes and Systems 153 4.1 Introduction 153 4.2 Balance Equations for a Drying Process 154 4.3 Performance Assessment of Drying Systems 159 4.3.1 Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 159 4.3.2 Other Assessment Parameters 161 4.4 Case Study 1: Analysis of Continuous-Flow Direct Combustion Dryers 162 4.5 Analysis of Heat Pump Dryers 169 4.6 Analysis of Fluidized Bed Dryers 178 4.6.1 Hydrodynamics of Fluidized Beds 179 4.6.2 Balance Equations 181 4.6.3 Efficiency Formulations 183 4.7 Conclusions 187 4.8 Study Problems 187 References 188 5 Heat and Moisture Transfer 189 5.1 Introduction 189 5.2 Transient Moisture Transfer During Drying of Regularly Shaped Materials 190 5.2.1 Transient Diffusion in Infinite Slab 191 5.2.2 Drying Time of an Infinite Slab Material 200 5.2.3 Transient Diffusion in an Infinite Cylinder 202 5.2.4 Transient Diffusion in Spherical-Shape Material 205 5.2.5 Compact Analytical Solution or Time-Dependent Diffusion in Basic Shapes 208 5.3 Shape Factors for Drying Time 209 5.3.1 Infinite Rectangular Rod of Size 2L × 2β1L 210 5.3.2 Rectangular Rod of Size 2L × 2β1L×2β2L 210 5.3.3 Long Cylinder of Diameter 2L and Length 2β1L 212 5.3.4 Short Cylinder of Diameter 2β1L and Length 2L 213 5.3.5 Infinite Elliptical Cylinder of Minor Axis 2L and Major Axis 2β1L 213 5.3.6 Ellipsoid Having the Axes 2L, 2β1L, and 2β2L 213 5.4 Moisture Transfer Coefficient and Diffusivity Estimation from Drying Curve 216 5.5 Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transfer 219 5.6 Models for Heat and Moisture Transfer in Drying 225 5.6.1 Theoretical Models 226 5.6.2 Semitheoretical and Empirical Models for Drying 231 5.7 Conclusions 232 5.8 Study Problems 233 References 234 6 Numerical Heat and Moisture Transfer 237 6.1 Introduction 237 6.2 Numerical Methods for PDEs 239 6.2.1 The Finite Difference Method 240 6.2.2 Weighted Residuals Methods: Finite Element, Finite Volume, Boundary Element 246 6.3 One-Dimensional Problems 249 6.3.1 Decoupled Equations with Nonuniform Initial Conditions and Variable Boundary Conditions 249 6.3.2 Partially Coupled Equations 253 6.3.3 Fully Coupled Equations 256 6.4 Two-Dimensional Problems 261 6.4.1 Cartesian Coordinates 261 6.4.2 Cylindrical Coordinates with Axial Symmetry 271 6.4.3 Polar Coordinates 276 6.4.4 Spherical Coordinates 280 6.5 Three-Dimensional Problems 284 6.6 Influence of the External Flow Field on Heat and Moisture Transfer 288 6.7 Conclusions 291 6.8 Study Problems 291 References 292 7 Drying Parameters and Correlations 295 7.1 Introduction 295 7.2 Drying Parameters 296 7.2.1 Moisture Transfer Parameters 296 7.2.2 Drying Time Parameters 299 7.3 Drying Correlations 301 7.3.1 Moisture Diffusivity Correlation with Temperature and Moisture Content 301 7.3.2 Correlation for the Shrinkage Ratio 304 7.3.3 Biot Number–Reynolds Number Correlations 305 7.3.4 Sherwood Number–Reynolds Number Correlations 307 7.3.5 Biot Number–Dincer Number Correlation 310 7.3.6 Regression Correlations for μ1 Eigenvalues versus Lag Factor 312 7.3.7 Biot Number–Drying Coefficient Correlation 313 7.3.8 Moisture Diffusivity–Drying Coefficient Correlation 315 7.3.9 Biot Number–Lag Factor Correlation 316 7.3.10 Graphical Determination of Moisture Transfer Parameters in Drying 317 7.3.11 Moisture Transfer Coefficient 318 7.4 Conclusions 320 7.5 Study Problems 320 References 321 8 Exergoeconomic and Exergoenvironmental Analyses of Drying Processes and Systems 323 8.1 Introduction 323 8.2 The Economic Value of Exergy 326 8.3 EXCEM Method 329 8.4 SPECO Method 337 8.5 Exergoenvironmental Analysis 340 8.6 Conclusions 345 8.7 Study Problems 345 References 346 9 Optimization of Drying Processes and Systems 349 9.1 Introduction 349 9.2 Objective Functions for Drying Systems Optimization 351 9.2.1 Technical Objective Functions 351 9.2.2 Environmental Objective Functions 359 9.2.3 Economic Objective Functions 362 9.3 Single-Objective Optimization 363 9.3.1 Trade-off Problems in Drying Systems 363 9.3.2 Mathematical Formulation and Optimization Methods 366 9.3.3 Parametric Single-Objective Optimization 371 9.4 Multiobjective Optimization 375 9.5 Conclusions 379 9.6 Study Problems 379 References 380 10 Sustainability and Environmental Impact Assessment of Drying Systems 381 10.1 Introduction 381 10.2 Sustainability 383 10.2.1 Sustainability Assessment Indicators 383 10.2.2 Exergy-Based Sustainability Assessment 391 10.3 Environmental Impact 397 10.3.1 Reference Environment Models 399 10.3.2 Anthropogenic Impact on the Environment 401 10.3.3 Exergy Destruction and Environmental Impact of Drying Systems 411 10.4 Case Study: Exergo-Sustainability Assessment of a Heat Pump Dryer 419 10.4.1 Reference Dryer Description 419 10.4.2 Exergo-Sustainability Assessment for the Reference Drying System 421 10.4.3 Improved Dryer Description 425 10.4.4 Exergo-Sustainability Assessment for the Improved Drying System 428 10.4.5 Concluding Remarks 430 10.5 Conclusions 430 10.6 Study Problems 430 References 431 11 Novel Drying Systems and Applications 433 11.1 Introduction 433 11.2 Drying with Superheated Steam 436 11.3 Chemical Heat Pump Dryers 438 11.4 Advances on Spray Drying Systems 441 11.4.1 Spray Drying of CuCl2(aq) 441 11.4.2 Spray Drying of Nanoparticles 445 11.4.3 Microencapsulation through Spray Drying 446 11.5 Membrane Air Drying for Enhanced Evaporative Cooling 448 11.6 Ultrasound-Assisted Drying 449 11.7 Conclusions 451 11.8 Study Problems 451 References 452 Appendix A: Conversion Factors 455 Appendix B: Thermophysical Properties of Water 457 Appendix C: Thermophysical Properties of Some Foods and Solid Materials 461 Appendix D: Psychometric Properties of Humid Air 463 Index 469

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Book SynopsisAn appealing and engaging introduction to Continuum Mechanics in Biosciences This book presents the elements of Continuum Mechanics to people interested in applications to biological systems. It is divided into two parts, the first of which introduces the basic concepts within a strictly one-dimensional spatial context.Table of ContentsDedication ix Preface xi Part One A one-dimensional context 1 1 Material bodies and kinematics 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Continuous vs. discrete 6 1.3 Configurations and deformations 9 1.4 The deformation gradient 14 1.5 Change of reference configuration 15 1.6 Strain 16 1.7 Displacement 18 1.8 Motion 19 1.9 The Lagrangian and Eulerian representations of fields 22 1.10 The material derivative 24 1.11 The rate of deformation 26 1.12 The cross section 27 2 Balance laws 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.2 The generic Lagrangian balance equation 30 2.2.1 Extensive properties 30 2.2.2 The balance equation 31 2.3 The generic Eulerian balance equation 35 2.4 Case study: Blood flow as a traffic problem 37 2.5 Case study: Diffusion of a pollutant 39 2.5.1 Derivation of the diffusion equation 39 2.5.2 A discrete diffusion model 41 2.6 The thermo-mechanical balance laws 42 2.6.1 Conservation of mass 42 2.6.2 Balance of (linear) momentum 43 2.6.3 The concept of stress 44 2.7 Case study: Vibration of air in the ear canal 45 2.8 Kinetic energy 50 2.9 The thermodynamical balance laws 55 2.9.1 Introduction 55 2.9.2 Balance of energy 56 2.9.3 The entropy inequality 58 2.10 Summary of balance equations 59 2.11 Case study: Bioheat transfer and malignant hyperthermia 61 3 Constitutive equations 69 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 The principle of determinism 70 3.3 The principle of equipresence 72 3.4 The principle of material frame-indifference 72 3.5 The principle of dissipation 75 3.6 Case study: Memory aspects of striated muscle 79 3.7 Case study: The thermo(visco)elastic effect in skeletal muscle 85 3.8 The theory of materials with fading memory 90 3.8.1 Groundwork 90 3.8.2 Fading memory 93 3.8.3 Stress relaxation 95 3.8.4 Finite linear viscoelasticity 96 4 Mixture theory 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 The basic tenets of mixture theory 99 4.3 Mass balance 101 4.4 Balance of linear momentum 102 4.4.1 Constituent balances 102 4.4.2 Mixture balance 103 4.5 Case study: Confined compression of articular cartilage 106 4.5.1 Introduction 106 4.5.2 Empirical facts 107 4.5.3 Field equations 108 4.5.4 Nonlinear creep 112 4.5.5 Hysteresis 115 4.5.6 The linearized theory 115 4.6 Energy balance 121 4.6.1 Constituent balances 121 4.6.2 Mixture balance 123 4.7 The entropy inequality 124 4.8 Chemical aspects 125 4.8.1 Stoichiometry 125 4.8.2 Thermodynamics of homogeneous systems 129 4.8.3 Enthalpy and heats of reaction 131 4.8.4 The meaning of the Helmholtz free energy 134 4.8.5 Homogeneous mixtures 135 4.8.6 Equilibrium and stability 137 4.8.7 The Gibbs free energy as a Legendre transformation 138 4.9 Ideal mixtures 140 4.9.1 The ideal gas paradigm 140 4.9.2 Mixtures of ideal gases 141 4.9.3 Other ideal mixtures 145 4.10 Case study: Bone as a chemically reacting mixture 145 Part Two Toward three spatial dimensions 151 5 Geometry and kinematics 153 5.1 Introduction 153 5.2 Vectors and tensors 153 5.2.1 Why Linear Algebra? 153 5.2.2 Vector spaces 155 5.2.3 Linear independence and dimension 156 5.2.4 Linear operators, tensors, matrices 158 5.2.5 Inner-product spaces 161 5.2.6 The reciprocal basis 162 5.3 Geometry of classical space-time 164 5.3.1 A shortcut 164 5.3.2 R3 as a vector space 165 5.3.3 E3 as an affine space 166 5.3.4 Frames 166 5.3.5 Space-time and observers 169 5.3.6 Fields and the divergence theorem 170 5.4 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 176 5.4.1 General concepts 176 5.4.2 More on principal invariants 178 5.4.3 The symmetric case 180 5.4.4 Functions of symmetric matrices 182 5.5 Kinematics 183 5.5.1 Material bodies 183 5.5.2 Configurations, deformations, motions 183 5.5.3 The deformation gradient 185 5.5.4 Local configurations 187 5.5.5 A word on notation 187 5.5.6 Decomposition of the deformation gradient 188 5.5.7 Measures of strain 193 5.5.8 The displacement field and its gradient 194 5.5.9 The geometrically linearized theory 196 5.5.10 Volume and area 198 5.5.11 The material derivative 201 5.5.12 Change of reference configuration 203 5.5.13 The velocity gradient 204 6 Balance laws and constitutive equations 207 6.1 Preliminary notions 207 6.1.1 Extensive properties 207 6.1.2 Transport theorem 208 6.2 Balance equations 210 6.2.1 The general balance equation 210 6.2.2 The balance equations of Continuum Mechanics 214 6.3 Constitutive theory 223 6.3.1 Introduction and scope 223 6.3.2 The principle of material frame-indifference and its applications 224 6.3.3 The principle of thermodynamic consistency and its applications 228 6.4 Material symmetries 231 6.4.1 Symmetries and groups 231 6.4.2 The material symmetry group 232 6.5 Case study: The elasticity of soft tissue 236 6.5.1 Introduction 236 6.5.2 Elasticity and hyperelasticity 236 6.5.3 Incompressibility 238 6.5.4 Isotropy 241 6.5.5 Examples 242 6.6 Remarks on initial and boundary-value problems 248 7 Remodelling, aging, growth 255 7.1 Introduction 255 7.2 Discrete and semi-discrete models 262 7.2.1 Challenges 262 7.2.2 Cellular automata in tumour growth 264 7.2.3 A direct model of bone remodelling 266 7.3 The continuum approach 268 7.3.1 Introduction 268 7.3.2 The balance equations of volumetric growth and remodelling 269 7.4 Case study: tumour growth 273 7.5 Case study: Adaptive elasticity of bone 277 7.5.1 The isothermal quasi-static case 281 7.6 Anelasticity 282 7.6.1 Introduction 282 7.6.2 The notion of material isomorphism 283 7.6.3 Non-uniqueness of material isomorphisms 286 7.6.4 Uniformity and homogeneity 287 7.6.5 Anelastic response 289 7.6.6 Anelastic evolution 290 7.6.7 The Eshelby stress 296 7.7 Case study: Exercise and growth 301 7.7.1 Introduction 301 7.7.2 Checking the proposed evolution law 301 7.7.3 A numerical example 303 7.8 Case study: Bone remodelling and Wolff’s law 305 8 Principles of the Finite Element Method 309 8.1 Introductory remarks 309 8.2 Discretization procedures 310 8.2.1 Brief review of the method of finite differences 310 8.2.2 Non-traditional methods 313 8.3 The Calculus of Variations 313 8.3.1 Introduction 313 8.3.2 The simplest problem of the Calculus of Variations 315 8.3.3 The case of several unknown functions 321 8.3.4 Essential and natural boundary conditions 323 8.3.5 The case of higher derivatives 326 8.3.6 Variational problems with more than one independent variable 329 8.4 Rayleigh, Ritz, Galerkin 330 8.4.1 Introduction 330 8.4.2 The method of Rayleigh and Ritz 332 8.4.3 The methods of weighted residuals 334 8.4.4 Approximating differential equations by Galerkin’s method 336 8.5 The finite element idea 341 8.5.1 Introduction 341 8.5.2 A piecewise linear basis 343 8.5.3 Automating the procedure 348 8.6 The FEM in Solid Mechanics 353 8.6.1 The Principle of Virtual Work 353 8.6.2 The principle of stationary potential energy 358 8.7 Finite element implementation 359 8.7.1 General considerations 359 8.7.2 An ideal element 360 8.7.3 Meshing, insertion maps and the isoparametric idea 362 8.7.4 The contractibility condition and its consequences 363 8.7.5 The element IVW routine 366 8.7.6 The element EVW routine 368 8.7.7 Assembly and solution 369

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Book SynopsisFundamentals of Aerodynamics is meant to be read. The writing style is intentionally conversational in order to make the book easier to read. The book is designed to talk to the reader; in part to be a self-teaching instrument. Learning objectives have been added to each chapter to reflect what is believed to be the most important items to learn from that particular chapter. This edition emphasizes the rich theoretical and physical background of aerodynamics, and marbles in many historical notes to provide a background as to where the aerodynamic technology comes from. Also, new with this edition, are "Integrated Work Challenges" that pertain to the chapter as a whole, and give the reader the opportunity to integrate the material in that chapter, in order to solve a "bigger picture".McGraw-Hill's Connect, is also available as an optional, add on item. Connect is the only integrated learning system that empowers students by continuously adapting to deliver precisely what they Table of ContentsPart One - Fundamental Principles1) Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts2) Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental Principles and EquationsPart Two - Inviscid, Incompressible Flow3) Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flow4) Incompressible Flow over Airfoils5) Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings6) Three-Dimensional Incompressible FlowPart Three - Inviscid, Compressible Flow7) Compressible Flow: Some Preliminary Aspects8) Normal Shock Waves and Related Topics9) Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves10) Compressible Flow Through Nozzles, Diffusers, and Wind Tunnels11) Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils: Linear Theory12) Linearized Supersonic Flow13) Introduction to Numerical Techniques for Nonlinear Supersonic Flow14) Elements of Hypersonic FlowPart Four - Viscous Flow15) Introduction to the Fundamental Principles and Equations of Viscous Flow16) Some Special Cases; Couette and Poiseuille Flows17) Introduction to Boundary Layers18) Laminar Boundary Layers19) Turbulent Boundary Layers20) Navier-Stokes Solutions: Some ExamplesAppendix A - Isentropic FlowPropertiesAppendix B - Normal Shock PropertiesAppendix C - Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach AngleAppendix D - Standard Atmosphere, SI UnitsAppendix E - Standard Atmosphere, English Engineering Units

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Book SynopsisPublisher's Note: Products purchased from Third Party sellers are not guaranteed by the publisher for quality, authenticity, or access to any online entitlements included with the product.A single source of essential information for aerospace engineersThis fully revised resource presents theories and practices from more than 50 specialists in the many sub-disciplines of aeronautical and astronautical engineeringâall under one cover. The Standard Handbook for Aerospace Engineers, Second Edition, contains complete details on classic designs as well as the latest techniques, materials, and processes used in aviation, defense, and space systems. You will get insightful, practical coverage of the gamut of aerospace engineering technologies along with hundreds of informative diagrams, charts, and graphs.Standard Handbook for Aerospace Engineers, Second Edition covers:â

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