Materials science Books

Book SynopsisThis new book helps the engineer understand the principles of metal forming and analyze forming problems - both the mechanics of forming processes and how the properties of metals affect the processes. Interesting end-of-chapter notes have been added throughout, as well as references. More than 200 end-of-chapter problems are also included.Trade Review"very good coverage of the principles of mechanical metallurgy...Recommended." - CHOICETable of Contents1. Stress and strain; 2. Plasticity; 3. Strain hardening; 4. Plastic instability; 5. Temperature and strain-rate dependence; 6. Work balance; 7. Slab analysis and friction; 8. Friction and lubrication; 9. Upper-bound analysis; 10. Slip-line field analysis; 11. Deformation zone geometry; 12. Formability; 13. Bending; 14. Plastic anisotropy; 15. Cupping, redrawing and ironing; 16. Forming limit diagrams; 17. Stamping; 18. Hydroforming; 19. Other sheet forming operations; 20. Formability tests; 21. Sheet metal properties.

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Book SynopsisThis book is ideal for teaching students in engineering or physics the skills necessary to analyze motions of complex mechanical systems such as spacecraft, robotic manipulators, and articulated scientific instruments. Kane's method, which emerged recently, reduces the labor needed to derive equations of motion and leads to equations that are simpler and more readily solved by computer, in comparison to earlier, classical approaches. Moreover, the method is highly systematic and thus easy to teach. This book is a revision of Dynamics: Theory and Applications (1985), by T. R. Kane and D. A. Levinson, and presents the method for forming equations of motion by constructing generalized active forces and generalized inertia forces. Important additional topics include approaches for dealing with finite rotation, an updated treatment of constraint forces and constraint torques, an extension of Kane's method to deal with a broader class of nonholonomic constraint equations, and other recent adTrade Review'Dynamics: Theory and Application of Kane's Method is a timely update of the now classical book by Kane and Levinson by two authors, collectively with many decades of experience stretching across academia and government laboratories. While providing coverage of a broader class of problems and of recent advances in the field, the rigor and clarity of the original text is retained. This new book will be welcomed by many working on dynamics and control of complex mechanical and aerospace multibody systems.' Olivier A. Bauchau, Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics Full review available at https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4034731Table of Contents1. Differentiation of vectors; 2. Kinematics; 3. Constraints; 4. Mass distribution; 5. Generalized forces; 6. Constraint forces, constraint torques; 7. Energy functions; 8. Formulation of equations of motion; 9. Extraction of information from equations of motion; 10. Kinematics of orientation; Problem sets; Appendix I. Direction cosines as functions of orientation angles; Appendix II. Kinematical differential equations in terms of orientation angles; Appendix III. Inertia properties of uniform bodies; Index.

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Book SynopsisFatigue Design of Marine Structures provides students and professionals with a theoretical and practical background for fatigue design of marine structures including sailing ships, offshore structures for oil and gas production, and other welded structures subject to dynamic loading such as wind turbine structures. Industry expert Inge Lotsberg brings more than forty years of experience in design and standards-setting to this comprehensive guide to the basics of fatigue design of welded structures. Topics covered include laboratory testing, S-N data, different materials, different environments, stress concentrations, residual stresses, acceptance criteria, non-destructive testing, improvement methods, probability of failure, bolted connections, grouted connections, and fracture mechanics. Featuring twenty chapters, three hundred diagrams, forty-seven example calculations, and resources for further study, Fatigue Design of Marine Structures is intended as the complete reference work forTrade Review'… contains very comprehensive information and a large number of interesting examples of fatigue assessments particularly of welded joints … It is written well and with great care and illustrated by numerous figures and diagrams. The reader finds the experience and personal views of the author throughout the book. … a very important and valuable contribution in the quite complex field of fatigue design which should be found in all bookshelfs or computers of structural engineers of marine structures.' Wolfgang Fricke, Marine StructuresTable of Contents1. Preface; 2. Introduction; 3. Fatigue degradation mechanism and failure modes; 4. Fatigue testing and assessment of test data; 5. Fatigue design approaches; 6. S-N curves; 7. Stresses in plated structures; 8. Stress concentration factors for tubular and shell structures subjected to axial loads; 9. Stresses at welds in pipelines, risers, and storage tanks; 10. Stress concentration factor for joints; 11. Finite element analysis; 12. Fatigue assessment based on stress range distributions; 13. Fabrication; 14. Probability of fatigue failure; 15. Design of bolted and threaded connections; 16. Fatigue analysis of jacket structures; 17. Fatigue analysis of floating platforms; 18. Fracture mechanics and unstable fracture; 19. Fatigue design of grouted connections; 20. Planning of in-service inspection for fatigue cracks; References; Appendix A: examples of fatigue analysis; Appendix B: stress intensity factors.

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Book SynopsisThis pedagogical and self-contained text describes the modern mean field theory of simple structural glasses. The book begins with a thorough explanation of infinite-dimensional models in statistical physics, before reviewing the key elements of the thermodynamic theory of liquids and the dynamical properties of liquids and glasses. The central feature of the mean field theory of disordered systems, the existence of a large multiplicity of metastable states, is then introduced. The replica method is then covered, before the final chapters describe important, advanced topics such as Gardner transitions, complexity, packing spheres in large dimensions, the jamming transition, and the rheology of glass. Presenting the theory in a clear and pedagogical style, this is an excellent resource for researchers and graduate students working in condensed matter physics and statistical mechanics.Trade Review'In this advanced textbook, the authors, all solid-state physicists, present a theory of simple glasses, defined as collections of interacting point particles. The approach, based on statistical mechanics and concepts of multiple-state metastability, is rigorous and educational. Derivations are careful and detailed … An especially useful and educational feature is that each chapter includes a résumé of main results and an annotated short bibliography geared to beginning students. An extensive, up-to-date bibliography at the end mainly draws from the Physical Review literature and related journals. Minimally indexed (no entries on shear stress or strain, viscosity, temperature, or spheres), the book is oriented toward advanced undergraduates or beginning graduate students (who will need preparation in statistical mechanics and liquid theory) and researchers in glasses, essentially addressing the solid-state physics and statistical mechanics communities.' J. Lambropoulos, ChoiceTable of ContentsPreface; 1. Infinite-dimensional models in statistical physics; 2. Atomic liquids in infinite dimensions: thermodynamics; 3. Atomic liquids in infinite dimensions: equilibrium dynamics; 4. Thermodynamics of glass states; 5. Replica symmetry breaking and hierarchical free energy landscapes; 6. The Gardner transition; 7. Counting glass states: the complexity; 8. Packing spheres in large dimensions; 9. The jamming transition; 10. Rheology of the glass; References; Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book helps the engineer understand the principles of metal forming and analyze forming problems - both the mechanics of forming processes and how the properties of metals interact with the processes. In this fourth edition, an entire chapter has been devoted to forming limit diagrams and various aspects of stamping and another on other sheet forming operations. Sheet testing is covered in a separate chapter. Coverage of sheet metal properties has been expanded. Interesting end-of-chapter notes have been added throughout, as well as references. More than 200 end-of-chapter problems are also included.Trade Review"very good coverage of the principles of mechanical metallurgy...Recommended." - CHOICETable of Contents1. Stress and strain; 2. Plasticity; 3. Strain hardening; 4. Plastic instability; 5. Temperature and strain-rate dependence; 6. Work balance; 7. Slab analysis and friction; 8. Friction and lubrication; 9. Upper-bound analysis; 10. Slip-line field analysis; 11. Deformation zone geometry; 12. Formability; 13. Bending; 14. Plastic anisotropy; 15. Cupping, redrawing and ironing; 16. Forming limit diagrams; 17. Stamping; 18. Hydroforming; 19. Other sheet forming operations; 20. Formability tests; 21. Sheet metal properties.

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Book SynopsisIn this primer to the many-body theory of condensed-matter systems, the authors introduce the subject to the non-specialist in a broad, concise, and up-to-date manner. This book is suitable non-specialist students and researchers in physics, materials science, chemistry, or applied mathematics who want to use the tools of many-body theory.Trade Review'This textbook for physics graduate courses introduces some of the mathematical methods used in applying the many-body theory of condensed matter. Researchers in other disciplines who desire to apply these methods in materials science, chemistry, or applied mathematics will appreciate …' F. Potter, ChoiceTable of ContentsPreface; Abbreviations; 1. Introduction to second quantization; 2. Time evolution and equations of motion; 3. Formal properties of Green's functions; 4. Exact methods for Green's function; 5. Green's functions using decoupling methods; 6. Linear response theory and Green's functions; 7. Green's functions for localized excitations; 8. Diagrammatic perturbation methods; 9. Applications of diagrammatic methods; References; Index.

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Book Synopsis For junior-level courses in System Dynamics, offered in Mechanical Engineering and Aerospace Engineering departments. This text presents students with the basic theory and practice of system dynamics. It introduces the modeling of dynamic systems and response analysis of these systems, with an introduction to the analysis and design of control systems.Table of Contents 1. Introduction to System Dynamics. 2. The Laplace Transform. 3. Mechanical Systems. 4. Transfer-Function Approach to Modeling Dynamic Systems. 5. State-Space Approach to Modeling Dynamic Systems. 6. Electrical Systems and Electromechanical Systems. 7. Fluid Systems and Thermal Systems. 8. Time-Domain Analyses of Dynamic Systems. 9. Frequency-Domain Analyses of Dynamic Systems. 10. Time-Domain Analyses of Control Systems. 11. Frequency-Domain Analyses and the Design of Control Systems. Appendix A. Systems of Units. Appendix B. Conversion Tables. Appendix C. Vector-Matrix Algebra. Appendix D. Introduction to MATLAB. References. Index.

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Book Synopsis* Comprehensive source for state-of-the-art information regarding techniques/methods approaches for processing and fabrication of advanced ceramics and ceramic composites. * Detailed description and applications of each method/approach/technique covered in a separate chapter.Table of ContentsPreface vii Contributors ix PART I DENSIFICATION 1 1 SINTERING: FUNDAMENTALS AND PRACTICE 3 Rajendra K. Bordia and Héctor Camacho-Montes 2 THE ROLE OF THE ELECTRIC CURRENT AND FIELD DURING PULSED ELECTRIC CURRENT SINTERING 43 K. Vanmeensel, A. Laptev, S. G. Huang, J. Vleugels, and O. Van der Biest 3 VISCOUS-PHASE SILICATE PROCESSING 75 Ralf Müller and Stefan Reinsch PART II CHEMICAL METHODS 145 4 COLLOIDAL METHODS 147 Rodrigo Moreno 5 PROCESSING AND APPLICATIONS OF SOL–GEL GLASS 183 Esther H. Lan and Bruce Dunn 6 GELCASTING OF CERAMIC BODIES 199 Katherine T. Faber and Noah O. Shanti 7 POLYMER PROCESSING OF CERAMICS 235 Emanuel Ionescu and Ralf Riedel 8 CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL CERAMICS AND COMPOSITES 271 Takashi Goto 9 CVI PROCESSING OF CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 313 Andrea Lazzeri 10 REACTIVE MELT-INFILTRATION PROCESSING OF FIBER-REINFORCED CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 351 Natalie Wali and J.-M. Yang 11 COMBUSTION SYNTHESIS: AN UPDATE 391 S. B. Bhaduri PART III PHYSICAL METHODS 415 12 DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION 417 Víctor M. Orera and José I. Peña 13 SOLID FREE-FORM FABRICATION OF 3-D CERAMIC STRUCTURES 459 James E. Smay and Jennifer A. Lewis 14 MICROWAVE PROCESSING OF CERAMIC AND CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES 485 Cristina Leonelli and Paolo Veronesi 15 ELECTROPHORETIC DEPOSITION 517 Maria Cannio, Saša Novak, Laxmidhar Besra, and Aldo R. Boccaccini 16 PROCESSING OF CERAMICS BY PLASMA SPRAYING 551 Robert Vaßen Index 567

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Book SynopsisIntended to serve as lecture material for courses involving preparative solid-state chemistry, Synthesis of Inorganic Materials offers clear and detailed descriptions on how to prepare materials and alloys that exhibit important optical, magnetic, and electrical properties on a laboratory scale.Table of ContentsInside Front Cover: Periodic Table of the Elements. Inside Back Cover: Divisions of Geological Time. Foreword (Derek J. Fray). Preface. Acknowledgements. 1 Introduction. 2 Practical Equipment. 2.1 Containers. 2.2 Milling. 2.3 Fabrication of Ceramic Monoliths. 2.4 Furnaces. 2.5 Powder X-ray Diffractometry. 3 Artificial Cuprorivaite CaCuSi4O10 (Egyptian Blue) by a Salt-Flux Method. 4 Artificial Covellite CuS by a Solid–Vapour Reaction. 5 Turbostratic Boron Nitride t-BN by a Solid–Gas Reaction Using Ammonia as the Nitriding Reagent. 6 Rubidium Copper Iodide Chloride Rb4Cu16I7Cl13 by a Solid-State Reaction. 7 Copper Titanium Zirconium Phosphate CuTiZr(PO4)3 by a Solid-State Reaction Using Ammonium Dihydrogenphosphate as the Phosphating Reagent. 8 Cobalt Ferrite CoFe2O4 by a Coprecipitation Method. 9 Lead Zirconate Titanate PbZr0.52Ti0.48O3 by a Coprecipitation Method Followed by Calcination. 10 Yttrium Barium Cuprate YBa2Cu3O7–δ (δ ~ 0) by a Solid-State Reaction Followed by Oxygen Intercalation. 11 Single Crystals of Ordered Zinc–Tin Phosphide ZnSnP2 by a Solution-Growth Technique Using Molten Tin as the Solvent. 12 Artificial Kieftite CoSb3 by an Antimony Self-Flux Method. 13 Artificial Violarite FeNi2S4 by a Hydrothermal Method Using DL-Penicillamine as the Sulfiding Reagent. 14 Artificial Willemite Zn1.96Mn0.04SiO4 by a Hybrid Coprecipitation and Sol-Gel Method. 15 Artificial Scheelite CaWO4 by a Microwave-Assisted Solid-State Metathetic Reaction. 16 Artificial Hackmanite Na8[Al6Si6O24]Cl1.8S0.1 by a Structure-Conversion Method with Annealing Under a Reducing Atmosphere. 17 Gold-Ruby Glass from a Potassium-Antimony-Borosilicate Melt with a Controlled Annealing. Index.

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Book SynopsisIntended to serve as lecture material for courses involving preparative solid-state chemistry, Synthesis of Inorganic Materials offers clear and detailed descriptions on how to prepare materials and alloys that exhibit important optical, magnetic, and electrical properties on a laboratory scale.Trade Review"The volume is designed as a textbook for a graduate or senior undergraduate laboratory course in chemistry, ceramics, materials science, and solid state physics." (Booknews, 1 June 2011) Table of ContentsInside Front Cover: Periodic Table of the Elements. Inside Back Cover: Divisions of Geological Time. Foreword (Derek J. Fray). Preface. Acknowledgements. 1 Introduction. 2 Practical Equipment. 2.1 Containers. 2.2 Milling. 2.3 Fabrication of Ceramic Monoliths. 2.4 Furnaces. 2.5 Powder X-ray Diffractometry. 3 Artificial Cuprorivaite CaCuSi4O10 (Egyptian Blue) by a Salt-Flux Method. 4 Artificial Covellite CuS by a Solid–Vapour Reaction. 5 Turbostratic Boron Nitride t-BN by a Solid–Gas Reaction Using Ammonia as the Nitriding Reagent. 6 Rubidium Copper Iodide Chloride Rb4Cu16I7Cl13 by a Solid-State Reaction. 7 Copper Titanium Zirconium Phosphate CuTiZr(PO4)3 by a Solid-State Reaction Using Ammonium Dihydrogenphosphate as the Phosphating Reagent. 8 Cobalt Ferrite CoFe2O4 by a Coprecipitation Method. 9 Lead Zirconate Titanate PbZr0.52Ti0.48O3 by a Coprecipitation Method Followed by Calcination. 10 Yttrium Barium Cuprate YBa2Cu3O7–δ (δ ~ 0) by a Solid-State Reaction Followed by Oxygen Intercalation. 11 Single Crystals of Ordered Zinc–Tin Phosphide ZnSnP2 by a Solution-Growth Technique Using Molten Tin as the Solvent. 12 Artificial Kieftite CoSb3 by an Antimony Self-Flux Method. 13 Artificial Violarite FeNi2S4 by a Hydrothermal Method Using DL-Penicillamine as the Sulfiding Reagent. 14 Artificial Willemite Zn1.96Mn0.04SiO4 by a Hybrid Coprecipitation and Sol-Gel Method. 15 Artificial Scheelite CaWO4 by a Microwave-Assisted Solid-State Metathetic Reaction. 16 Artificial Hackmanite Na8[Al6Si6O24]Cl1.8S0.1 by a Structure-Conversion Method with Annealing Under a Reducing Atmosphere. 17 Gold-Ruby Glass from a Potassium-Antimony-Borosilicate Melt with a Controlled Annealing. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe origins and significance of electron density in the chemical, biological, and materials sciences Electron density is one of the fundamental concepts underlying modern chemistry and one of the key determinants of molecular structure and stability. It is also the basic variable of density functional theory, which has made possible, in recent years, the application of the mathematical theory of quantum physics to chemical and biological systems. With an equal emphasis on computational and philosophical questions, A Matter of Density: Exploring the Electron Density Concept in the Chemical, Biological, and Materials Sciences addresses the foundations, analysis, and applications of this pivotal chemical concept. The first part of the book presents a coherent and logically connected treatment of the theoretical foundations of the electron density concept. Discussion includes the use of probabilities in statistical physics; the origins of quantum mechanics; tTrade Review“Summing Up: Highly recommended. Upper-division undergraduates through professionals.” (Choice, 1 September 2013)Table of ContentsPreface vii Contributors ix 1 Introduction of Probability Concepts in Physics—The Path to Statistical Mechanics 1 N. Sukumar 2 Does God Play Dice? 15 N. Sukumar 3 The Electron Density 41 N. Sukumar and Sunanda Sukumar 4 Atoms in Molecules 67 N. Sukumar 5 Density Functional Approach to the Electronic Structure of Matter 107 N. Sukumar 6 Density-Functional Approximations for Exchange and Correlation 125 Viktor N. Staroverov 7 An Understanding of the Origin of Chemical Reactivity from a Conceptual DFT Approach 157 Arindam Chakraborty, Soma Duley, Santanab Giri, and Pratim Kumar Chattaraj 8 Electron Density and Molecular Similarity 203 N. Sukumar 9 Electrostatic Potentials and Local Ionization Energies in Nanomaterial Applications 233 Peter Politzer, Felipe A. Bulat, James Burgess, Jeffrey W. Baldwin, and Jane S. Murray 10 Probing Electron Dynamics with the Laplacian of the Momentum Density 257 Preston J. MacDougall and M. Creon Levit 11 Applications of Modern Density Functional Theory to Surfaces and Interfaces 271 G. Pilania, H. Zhu, and R. Ramprasad Index 313

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Book SynopsisCorrosion Chemistry details the scientific background of the corrosion process and contemporary applications for dealing with corrosion for engineers and scientists, covering the most recent breakthroughs and trends.Table of ContentsList of tables ix Acknowledgements xi Preface xiii 1. Corrosion and Its Definition 01 2. The Corrosion Process and Affecting Factors 03 3. Corrosion Types Based on Mechanism 07 3.1 Uniform Corrosion 07 3.2 Pitting Corrosion 08 3.3 Crevice Corrosion 09 3.4 Galvanic Corrosion 10 3.5 Intergranular Corrosion 11 3.6 Selective Corrosion 12 3.7 Erosion or Abrasion Corrosion 12 3.8 Cavitation Corrosion 12 3.9 Fretting Corrosion 13 3.10 Stress Corrosion Cracking 13 3.11 Microbial Corrosion 13 4. Corrosion Types of Based on the Media 15 4.1 Atmospheric Corrosion 15 4.2 Corrosion in Water 18 4.3 Corrosion in Soil 20 5. Nature of Protective Metal Oxide Films 23 6. Effect of Aggressive Anions on Corrosion 27 7. Corrosion Prevention Methods 31 8. Commonly Used Alloys and their Properties 33 8.1 Aluminum 2024 Alloy 35 8.2 Aluminum 7075 Alloy 36 8.3 Aluminum 6061 Alloy 36 9. Cost of Corrosion and Use of Corrosion Inhibitors 39 10. Types of Corrosion Inhibitors 43 10.1 Anodic Inhibitors 44 10.2 Cathodic Inhibitors 44 11. Chromates: Best Corrosion Inhibitors to Date 47 11.1 Limitations on the Use of Chromates due to Toxicity 48 11.2 Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism of Chromates 53 12. Chromate Inhibitor Replacements: Current and Potential Applications 57 12.1 Nitrites 58 12.2 Trivalent Chromium Compounds 59 12.3 Oxyanions Analogous to Chromate 59 12.4 Synergistic Use of Oxyanions Analogues of Chromate 66 13. Sol-Gels (Ormosils) as Chromate Inhibitor Replacements: Properties and Uses 69 13.1 Types of Sol-Gel s 69 13.1 Types of Sol-Gels 70 13.2 Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism of Sol-Gel Coatings 72 13.3 Synthesis of Sol-Gels 75 13.4 Incorporation of Corrosion Inhibitive Pigments to Sol-Gel Coatings 77 14. Corrosion in Engineering Materials 81 14.1 Introduction 81 14.2 Steel Structures 82 14.3 Concrete Structures 85 14.4 Protection against Corrosion in Construction 95 14.5 Corrosion of Unbonded Prestressing Tendons 116 14.6 Cathodic Protection 120 14.7 Corrosion in Industry Projects 135 References 145 Index 173

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Book SynopsisProviding a viable alternative to lead-based solders is a major research thrust for the electrical and electronics industries - whilst mechanically compliant lead-based solders have been widely used in the electronic interconnects, the risks to human health and to the environment are too great to allow continued widescale usage. Lead-free Solders: Materials Reliability for Electronics chronicles the search for reliable drop-in lead-free alternatives and covers: Phase diagrams and alloy development Effect of minor alloying additions Composite approaches including nanoscale reinforcements Mechanical issues affecting reliability Reliability under impact loading Thermomechanical fatigue Chemical issues affecting reliability Whisker growth Electromigration Thermomigration Presenting a comprehensive understanding of the current state of lead-free electronic interconnects Table of ContentsSeries Preface xv Preface xvii List of Contributors xix Thematic Area I: Introduction 1 1 Reliability of Lead-Free Electronic Solder Interconnects: Roles of Material and Service Parameters 3 K. N. Subramanian 1.1 Material Design for Reliable Lead-Free Electronic Solders Joints 3 1.2 Imposed Fields and the Solder Joint Responses that Affect Their Reliability 5 1.3 Mechanical Integrity 5 1.4 Thermomechanical Fatigue (TMF) 6 1.5 Whisker Growth 7 1.6 Electromigration (EM) 7 1.7 Thermomigration (TM) 8 1.8 Other Potential Issues 8 Thematic Area II: Phase Diagrams and Alloying Concepts 11 2 Phase Diagrams and Their Applications in Pb-Free Soldering 13 Sinn-wen Chen, Wojciech Gierlotka, Hsin-jay Wu, and Shih-kang Lin 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Phase Diagrams of Pb-Free Solder Systems 14 2.3 Example of Applications 23 2.4 Conclusions 39 3 Phase Diagrams and Alloy Development 45 Alan Dinsdale, Andy Watson, Ales Kroupa, Jan Vrestal, Adela Zemanova, and Pavel Broz 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Computational Thermodynamics as a Research Tool 48 3.3 Thermodynamic Databases – the Underlying Basis of the Modelling of Phase Diagrams and Thermodynamic Properties, Databases for Lead-Free Solders 51 3.4 Application of the SOLDERS Database to Alloy Development 57 3.5 Conclusions 68 4 Interaction of Sn-based Solders with Ni(P) Substrates: Phase Equilibria and Thermochemistry 71 Clemens Schmetterer, Rajesh Ganesan, and Herbert Ipser 4.1 Introduction 72 4.2 Binary Phase Equilibria 73 4.3 Ternary Phase Equilibria Ni-P-Sn 85 4.4 Thermochemical Data 94 4.5 Relevance of the Results and Conclusion 111 Thematic Area III: Microalloying to Improve Reliability 119 5 'Effects of Minor Alloying Additions on the Properties and Reliability of Pb-Free Solders and Joints' 121 Sung K. Kang 5.1 Introduction 122 5.2 Controlling Ag3Sn Plate Formation 125 5.3 Controlling the Undercooling of Sn Solidification 132 5.4 Controlling Interfacial Reactions 136 5.5 Modifying the Microstructure of SAC 145 5.6 Improving Mechanical Properties 149 5.7 Enhancing Electromigration Resistance 151 5.8 Summary 153 6 Development and Characterization of Nano-composite Solder 161 Johan Liu, Si Chen, and Lilei Ye 6.1 Introduction 162 6.2 Nano-composite Solder Fabrication Process 162 6.3 Microstructure 166 6.4 Physical Properties 167 6.5 Mechanical Properties 169 6.6 Challenges and Solutions 171 6.7 Summary 174 Thematic Area IV: Chemical Issues Affecting Reliability 179 7 Chemical Changes for Lead-Free Soldering and Their Effect on Reliability 181 Laura J. Turbini 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 Soldering Fluxes and Pastes 181 7.3 Cleaning 185 7.4 Laminates 185 7.5 Halogen-Free Laminates 186 7.6 Conductive Anodic Filament (CAF) Formation 189 7.7 Summary 193 Thematic Area V: Mechanical Issues Affecting Reliability 195 8 Influence of Microstructure on Creep and High Strain Rate Fracture of Sn-Ag-Based Solder Joints 197 P. Kumar, Z. Huang, I. Dutta, G. Subbarayan, and R. Mahajan 8.1 Introduction 198 8.2 Coarsening Kinetics: Quantitative Analysis of Microstructural Evolution 199 8.3 Creep Behavior of Sn-Ag-Based Solders and the Effect of Aging 206 8.4 Role of Microstructure on High Strain Rate Fracture 219 8.5 Summary and Conclusions 227 9 Microstructure and Thermomechanical Behavior Pb-Free Solders 233 D.R. Frear 9.1 Introduction 233 9.2 Sn-Pb Solder 234 9.3 Pb-Free Solders 237 9.4 Summary 248 10 Electromechanical Coupling in Sn-Rich Solder Interconnects 251 Q.S. Zhu, H.Y. Liu, L. Zhang, Q.L. Zeng, Z.G. Wang, and J.K. Shang 10.1 Introduction 252 10.2 Experimental 253 10.3 Results 255 10.4 Discussion 264 10.5 Conclusions 269 11 Effect of Temperature-Dependent Deformation Characteristics on Thermomechanical Fatigue Reliability of Eutectic Sn-Ag Solder Joints 273 Andre Lee, Deep Choudhuri, and K.N. Subramanian 11.1 Introduction 274 11.2 Experimental Details 275 11.3 Results and Discussion 276 11.4 Summary and Conclusions 294 Thematic Area VI: Whisker Growth Issues Affecting Reliability 297 12 Sn Whiskers: Causes, Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies 299 Nitin Jadhav and Eric Chason 12.1 Introduction 299 12.2 Features of Whisker Formation 303 12.3 Understanding the Relationship between IMC Growth, Stress and Whisker Formation 308 12.4 Summary Picture of Whisker Formation 314 12.5 Strategies to Mitigate Whisker Formation 316 12.6 Conclusion 318 13 Tin Whiskers 323 Katsuaki Suganuma 13.1 Low Melting Point Metals and Whisker Formation 323 13.2 Room-Temperature Tin Whiskers on Copper Substrate 325 13.3 Thermal-Cycling Whiskers on 42 Alloy/Ceramics 326 13.4 Oxidation/Corrosion Whiskers 329 13.5 Mechanical-Compression Whiskers in Connectors 330 13.6 Electromigration Whiskers 331 13.7 Whisker Mitigation 332 13.8 Future Work 334 Thematic Area VII: Electromigration Issues Affecting Reliability 337 14 Electromigration Reliability of Pb-Free Solder Joints 339 Seung-Hyun Chae, Yiwei Wang, and Paul S. Ho 14.1 Introduction 339 14.2 Failure Mechanisms of Solder Joints by Forced Atomic Migration 342 14.3 IMC Growth 351 14.4 Effect of Sn Grain Structure on EM Reliability 363 14.5 Summary 366 15 Electromigration in Pb-Free Solder Joints in Electronic Packaging 375 Chih Chen, Shih-Wei Liang, Yuan-Wei Chang, Hsiang-Yao Hsiao, Jung Kyu Han, and K.N. Tu 15.1 Introduction 376 15.2 Unique Features for EM in Flip-Chip Pb-Free Solder Joints 376 15.3 Changes of Physical Properties of Solder Bumps During EM 386 15.4 Challenges for Understanding EM in Pb-Free Solder Microbumps 393 15.5 Thermomigration of Cu and Ni in Pb-Free Solder Microbumps 394 15.6 Summary 394 16 Effects of Electromigration on Electronic Solder Joints 401 Sinn-wen Chen, Chih-ming Chen, Chao-hong Wang, and Chia-ming Hsu 16.1 Introduction 401 16.2 Effects of Electromigration on Solders 402 16.3 Effects of Electromigration on Interfacial Reactions 408 16.4 Modeling Description of Effects of Electromigration on IMC Growth 414 16.5 Conclusions 418 Thematic Area VIII: Thermomigration Issues Affecting Reliability 423 17 Thermomigration in SnPb and Pb-Free Flip-Chip Solder Joints 425 Tian Tian, K.N. Tu, Hsiao-Yun Chen, Hsiang-Yao Hsiao, and Chih Chen 17.1 Introduction 425 17.2 Thermomigration in SnPb Flip-Chip Solder Joints 427 17.3 Thermomigration in Pb-Free Flip-Chip Solder Joints 432 17.4 Driving Force of Thermomigration 435 17.5 Coupling between Thermomigration and Creep 439 17.6 Coupling between Thermomigration and Electromigration: Thermoelectric Effect on Electromigration 441 17.7 Summary 441 Thematic Area IX: Miniaturization Issues Affecting Reliability 443 18 Influence of Miniaturization on Mechanical Reliability of Lead-Free Solder Interconnects 445 Golta Khatibi, Herbert Ipser, Martin Lederer, and Brigitte Weiss 18.1 Introduction 445 18.2 Effect of Miniaturization on Static Properties of Solder Joints (Tensile and Shear) 448 18.3 Creep and Relaxation of Solder Joints 475 18.4 Summary and Conclusions 478 References 482 Index 487

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Book SynopsisAnalysis of Structures offers an original way of introducing engineering students to the subject of stress and deformation analysis of solid objects, and helps them become more familiar with how numerical methods such as the finite element method are used in industry. Eisley and Waas secure for the reader a thorough understanding of the basic numerical skills and insight into interpreting the results these methods can generate. Throughout the text, they include analytical development alongside the computational equivalent, providing the student with the understanding that is necessary to interpret and use the solutions that are obtained using software based on the finite element method. They then extend these methods to the analysis of solid and structural components that are used in modern aerospace, mechanical and civil engineering applications. Analysis of Structures is accompanied by a book companion website www.wTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xiii Preface xv 1 Forces and Moments 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Units 1 1.3 Forces in Mechanics of Materials 3 1.4 Concentrated Forces 4 1.5 Moment of a Concentrated Force 9 1.6 Distributed Forces—Force and Moment Resultants 19 1.7 Internal Forces and Stresses—Stress Resultants 27 1.8 Restraint Forces and Restraint Force Resultants 32 1.9 Summary and Conclusions 33 2 Static Equilibrium 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Free Body Diagrams 35 2.3 Equilibrium—Concentrated Forces 38 2.3.1 Two Force Members and Pin Jointed Trusses 38 2.3.2 Slender Rigid Bars 44 2.3.3 Pulleys and Cables 49 2.3.4 Springs 52 2.4 Equilibrium—Distributed Forces 55 2.5 Equilibrium in Three Dimensions 59 2.6 Equilibrium—Internal Forces and Stresses 62 2.6.1 Equilibrium of Internal Forces in Three Dimensions 65 2.6.2 Equilibrium in Two Dimensions—Plane Stress 69 2.6.3 Equilibrium in One Dimension—Uniaxial Stress 70 2.7 Summary and Conclusions 70 3 Displacement, Strain, and Material Properties 71 3.1 Introduction 71 3.2 Displacement and Strain 71 3.2.1 Displacement 72 3.2.2 Strain 72 3.3 Compatibility 76 3.4 Linear Material Properties 77 3.4.1 Hooke’s Law in One Dimension—Tension 77 3.4.2 Poisson’s Ratio 81 3.4.3 Hooke’s Law in One Dimension—Shear in Isotropic Materials 82 3.4.4 Hooke’s Law in Two Dimensions for Isotropic Materials 83 3.4.5 Generalized Hooke’s Law for Isotropic Materials 84 3.5 Some Simple Solutions for Stress, Strain, and Displacement 85 3.6 Thermal Strain 89 3.7 Engineering Materials 90 3.8 Fiber Reinforced Composite Laminates 90 3.8.1 Hooke’s Law in Two Dimensions for a FRP Lamina 91 3.8.2 Properties of Unidirectional Lamina 94 3.9 Plan for the Following Chapters 96 3.10 Summary and Conclusions 98 4 Classical Analysis of the Axially Loaded Slender Bar 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Solutions from the Theory of Elasticity 99 4.3 Derivation and Solution of the Governing Equations 109 4.4 The Statically Determinate Case 116 4.5 The Statically Indeterminate Case 129 4.6 Variable Cross Sections 136 4.7 Thermal Stress and Strain in an Axially Loaded Bar 142 4.8 Shearing Stress in an Axially Loaded Bar 143 4.9 Design of Axially Loaded Bars 145 4.10 Analysis and Design of Pin Jointed Trusses 149 4.11 Work and Energy—Castigliano’s Second Theorem 153 4.12 Summary and Conclusions 162 5 A General Method for the Axially Loaded Slender Bar 165 5.1 Introduction 165 5.2 Nodes, Elements, Shape Functions, and the Element Stiffness Matrix 165 5.3 The Assembled Global Equations and Their Solution 169 5.4 A General Method—Distributed Applied Loads 182 5.5 Variable Cross Sections 196 5.6 Analysis and Design of Pin-jointed Trusses 202 5.7 Summary and Conclusions 211 6 Torsion 213 6.1 Introduction 213 6.2 Torsional Displacement, Strain, and Stress 213 6.3 Derivation and Solution of the Governing Equations 216 6.4 Solutions from the Theory of Elasticity 225 6.5 Torsional Stress in Thin Walled Cross Sections 229 6.6 Work and Energy—Torsional Stiffness in a Thin Walled Tube 231 6.7 Torsional Stress and Stiffness in Multicell Sections 239 6.8 Torsional Stress and Displacement in Thin Walled Open Sections 242 6.9 A General (Finite Element) Method 245 6.10 Continuously Variable Cross Sections 254 6.11 Summary and Conclusions 255 7 Classical Analysis of the Bending of Beams 257 7.1 Introduction 257 7.2 Area Properties—Sign Conventions 257 7.2.1 Area Properties 257 7.2.2 Sign Conventions 259 7.3 Derivation and Solution of the Governing Equations 260 7.4 The Statically Determinate Case 271 7.5 Work and Energy—Castigliano’s Second Theorem 278 7.6 The Statically Indeterminate Case 281 7.7 Solutions from the Theory of Elasticity 290 7.8 Variable Cross Sections 300 7.9 Shear Stress in Non Rectangular Cross Sections—Thin Walled Cross Sections 302 7.10 Design of Beams 309 7.11 Large Displacements 313 7.12 Summary and Conclusions 314 8 A General Method (FEM) for the Bending of Beams 315 8.1 Introduction 315 8.2 Nodes, Elements, Shape Functions, and the Element Stiffness Matrix 315 8.3 The Global Equations and their Solution 320 8.4 Distributed Loads in FEM 327 8.5 Variable Cross Sections 341 8.6 Summary and Conclusions 345 9 More about Stress and Strain, and Material Properties 347 9.1 Introduction 347 9.2 Transformation of Stress in Two Dimensions 347 9.3 Principal Axes and Principal Stresses in Two Dimensions 350 9.4 Transformation of Strain in Two Dimensions 354 9.5 Strain Rosettes 356 9.6 Stress Transformation and Principal Stresses in Three Dimensions 358 9.7 Allowable and Ultimate Stress, and Factors of Safety 361 9.8 Fatigue 363 9.9 Creep 364 9.10 Orthotropic Materials—Composites 365 9.11 Summary and Conclusions 366 10 Combined Loadings on Slender Bars—ThinWalled Cross Sections 367 10.1 Introduction 367 10.2 Review and Summary of Slender Bar Equations 367 10.2.1 Axial Loading 367 10.2.2 Torsional Loading 369 10.2.3 Bending in One Plane 370 10.3 Axial and Torsional Loads 372 10.4 Axial and Bending Loads—2D Frames 375 10.5 Bending in Two Planes 384 10.5.1 When Iyz is Equal to Zero 384 10.5.2 When Iyz is Not Equal to Zero 386 10.6 Bending and Torsion in Thin Walled Open Sections—Shear Center 393 10.7 Bending and Torsion in Thin Walled Closed Sections—Shear Center 399 10.8 Stiffened Thin Walled Beams 405 10.9 Summary and Conclusions 416 11 Work and Energy Methods—Virtual Work 417 11.1 Introduction 417 11.2 Introduction to the Principle of Virtual Work 417 11.3 Static Analysis of Slender Bars by Virtual Work 421 11.3.1 Axially Loading 421 11.3.2 Torsional Loading 426 11.3.3 Beams in Bending 427 11.3.4 Combined Axial, Torsional, and Bending Behavior 430 11.4 Static Analysis of 3D and 2D Solids by Virtual Work 430 11.5 The Element Stiffness Matrix for Plane Stress 433 11.6 The Element Stiffness Matrix for 3D Solids 436 11.7 Summary and Conclusions 437 12 Structural Analysis in Two and Three Dimensions 439 12.1 Introduction 439 12.2 The Governing Equations in Two Dimensions—Plane Stress 440 12.3 Finite Elements and the Stiffness Matrix for Plane Stress 445 12.4 Thin Flat Plates—Classical Analysis 452 12.5 Thin Flat Plates—FEM Analysis 455 12.6 Shell Structures 459 12.7 Stiffened Shell Structures 466 12.8 Three Dimensional Structures—Classical and FEM Analysis 470 12.9 Summary and Conclusions 477 13 Analysis of Thin Laminated Composite Material Structures 479 13.1 Introduction to Classical Lamination Theory 479 13.2 Strain Displacement Equations for Laminates 480 13.3 Stress-Strain Relations for a Single Lamina 482 13.4 Stress Resultants for Laminates 486 13.5 CLT Constitutive Description 489 13.6 Determining Laminae Stress/Strains 492 13.7 Laminated Plates Subject to Transverse Loads 493 13.8 Summary and Conclusion 498 14 Buckling 499 14.1 Introduction 499 14.2 The Equations for a Beam with Combined Lateral and Axial Loading 499 14.3 Buckling of a Column 504 14.4 The Beam Column 512 14.5 The Finite Element Method for Bending and Buckling 515 14.6 Buckling of Frames 524 14.7 Buckling of Thin Plates and Other Structures 524 14.8 Summary and Conclusions 527 15 Structural Dynamics 529 15.1 Introduction 529 15.2 Dynamics of Mass/Spring Systems 529 15.2.1 Free Motion 529 15.2.2 Forced Motion—Resonance 540 15.2.3 Forced Motion—Response 547 15.3 Axial Vibration of a Slender Bar 548 15.3.1 Solutions Based on the Differential Equation 548 15.3.2 Solutions Based on FEM 560 15.4 Torsional Vibration 567 15.4.1 Torsional Mass/Spring Systems 567 15.4.2 Distributed Torsional Systems 568 15.5 Vibration of Beams in Bending 569 15.5.1 Solutions of the Differential Equation 569 15.5.2 Solutions Based on FEM 574 15.6 The Finite Element Method for all Elastic Structures 577 15.7 Addition of Damping 577 15.8 Summary and Conclusions 582 16 Evolution in the (Intelligent) Design and Analysis of Structural Members 583 16.1 Introduction 583 16.2 Evolution of a Truss Member 584 16.2.1 Step 1. Slender Bar Analysis 584 16.2.2 Step 2. Rectangular Bar—Plane Stress FEM 585 16.2.3 Step 3. Rectangular Bar with Pin Holes—Plane Stress Analysis 586 16.2.4 Step 4. Rectangular Bar with Pin Holes—Solid Body Analysis 587 16.2.5 Step 5. Add Material Around the Hole—Solid Element Analysis 588 16.2.6 Step 6. Bosses Added—Solid Element Analysis 590 16.2.7 Step 7. Reducing the Weight—Solid Element Analysis 591 16.2.8 Step 8. Buckling Analysis 592 16.3 Evolution of a Plate with a Hole—Plane Stress 592 16.4 Materials in Design 594 16.5 Summary and Conclusions 594 A Matrix Definitions and Operations 595 A.1 Introduction 595 A.2 Matrix Definitions 595 A.3 Matrix Algebra 597 A.4 Partitioned Matrices 598 A.5 Differentiating and Integrating a Matrix 598 A.6 Summary of Useful Matrix Relations 599 B Area Properties of Cross Sections 601 B.1 Introduction 601 B.2 Centroids of Cross Sections 601 B.3 Area Moments and Product of Inertia 603 B.4 Properties of Common Cross Sections 609 C Solving Sets of Linear Algebraic Equations with Mathematica 611 C.1 Introduction 611 C.2 Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations 611 C.3 Solving Numerical Equations in Mathematica 611 C.4 Solving Symbolic Equations in Mathematica 612 C.5 Matrix Multiplication 613 D Orthogonality of Normal Modes 615 D.1 Introduction 615 D.2 Proof of Orthogonality for Discrete Systems 615 D.3 Proof of Orthogonality for Continuous Systems 616 References 617 Index 619

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Book SynopsisTopics in Stereochemistry, Materials-Chirality provides comprehensive information on the stereochemistry of materials. Coverage includes the chirality of materials and the important role stereochemistry plays in the physical properties of polymers, liquid crystals, and other materials.Trade Review"…this volume represents a well-balanced assembly of research topics from which readers can gain valuable information…can be recommended to anyone wishing to explore an area of sterochemistry in any subject.” (Journal of Metals Online, September 1, 2004) "All chapters are very well written and review the corresponding sub-fields of chiral materials science. The book is highly recommended..." (Polymer News)Table of ContentsChirality of Catalysts for Stereospecific Polymerizations (Gaetano Guerra, et al.). Chain Conformation, Crystal Structures, and Structural Disorder in Stereoregular Polymers (Claudio De Rosa). Optically Active Polymers with Chiral Recognition Ability (Yoshio Okamoto, et al.). Chirality in the Polysilanes (Michiya Fujiki, et al.). Chiral Molecular Self-Assembly (Mark S. Spector, et al.). Chiral Discotic Molecules: Expression and Amplification of Chirality (L. Brunsveld, et al.). Some Correlations Between Molecular and Cholesteric Handedness (Giovanni Gottarelli and Gian Piero Spada). Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal Conglomerates (David M. Walba). Nonlinear Optics and Chirality (Thierry Verbiest and André Persoons). Subject Index. Cumulative Author Index, Volumes 1-24. Cumulative Title Index, Volumes 1-24.

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book Synopsis

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Book SynopsisIncludes a wonderful circular patio centered around a firepit, to a demonstration walkway that illustrates how to lay basketweave, running brick, and herringbone patterns, this book is the perfect resource for anyone who wants to undertake a great home improvement project. Learn how to lay the groundwork, study details for edging and popular paver designs, and finish up like a pro. A special chapter details the process of laying a permeable paving surface, an increasingly popular alternative in today's eco-conscious world. Clear photos detail every step in the process, and a gallery of more than 100 finished projects will inspire you to get to work. All you need is the muscle.

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Book SynopsisThis book acts as a self-contained resource for understanding the current technological advancement of biomaterials towards tissue engineering applications.Table of ContentsPreface xiii 1. Protocols for Biomaterial Scaffold Fabrication 1 Azadeh Seidi and Murugan Ramalingam 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Scaffolding Materials 4 1.3 Techniques for Biomaterial Scaffolds Fabrication 7 1.4 Summary 19 Acknowledgements 20 2. Ceramic Scaffolds, Current Issues and Future Trends 25 Seyed-Iman Roohani-Esfahani S. I. and Hala Zreiqat H. 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Essential Properties and Current Problems of Ceramic Scaffolds 27 2.3 Approaches to Overcome Ceramic Scaffolds Issues for the Next Generation of Scaffolds 30 2.4 Silk – a Bioactive Material 35 Acknowledgements 36 References 36 3. Preparation of Porous Scaffolds from Ice Particulate Templates for Tissue Engineering 47 Guoping Chen and Naoki Kawazoe 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 Preparation of Porous Scaffolds Using Ice Particulates as Porogens 48 3.3 Preparation of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds Using Embossed Ice Particulate Templates 51 3.4 Application of Funnel-like Porous Scaffolds in Three-dimensional Cell Culture 56 3.5 Application of Funnel-like Collagen Sponges in Cartilage Tissue Engineering 57 3.6 Summary 60 References 60 4. Fabrication of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 63 Naznin Sultana and Min Wang 4.1 Introduction 64 4.2 Materials for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 65 4.3 Fabrication Techniques for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 68 4.4 Fabrication of Pure Polymer Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 70 4.5 Fabrication of Polymer Blend Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 78 4.6 Fabrication of Nanocomposite Scaffolds via Emulsion Freezing/Freeze-drying and Characteristics of the Scaffolds 80 4.7 Surface Modification for PHBV-based Scaffolds 85 4.8 Concluding Remarks 87 Acknowledgments 87 References 88 5. Electrospun Nanofiber and Stem Cells in Tissue Engineering 91 Susan Liao, Seeram Ramakrishna and Murugan Ramalingam 5.1 Introduction 92 5.2 Biodegradable Materials for Tissue Engineering 93 5.3 Nanofibrous Scaffolds 97 5.4 Stem Cells: A Potential Tool for Tissue Engineering 109 5.5 Prospects 114 Acknowledgement 116 References 116 6. Materials at the Interface Tissue-implant 121 Antonio Peramo 6.1 Introduction 122 6.2 Description of the Tissue-device Interface 123 6.3 Expected Function of the Materials at the Interface and their Evaluation and Selection 125 6.4 Experimental Techniques for the Tissue-implant Interface 132 6.5 Conclusion 135 References 135 7. Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Tissue Regeneration 139 Kalpana S. Katti, Avinash A. Ambre, and Dinesh R. Katti 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) 144 7.3 Understanding the Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) 149 7.4 Mesenchymal Stem Cell (MSC) Culture 152 7.5 Characterization of MSCs 155 7.6 MSCs in Bone Remodeling, Fracture Repair and their Use in Bone Tissue Engineering Applications 158 7.7 Influence of External Stimuli on MSC Behavior 159 7.8 Perspectives on Future of hMSCs in Tissue Engineering 161 References 162 8. Endochondral Bone Tissue Engineering 167 Sanne K. Both, Fang Yang, and John A. Jansen 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells 171 8.3 Scaffolds 175 8.4 Summary 181 References 182 9. Principles, Applications, and Technology of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 185 Mona K. Marei, Mohamed A. Alkhodary, Rania M. Elbackly, Samer H. Zaky, Admed M. Eweida, Muhammad A. Gad, Maglaa Abdel-Wahed and Yasser M. Kahad 9.1 Introduction 186 9.2 Road Map for the Application of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine for Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 197 9.3 Stem Cell-based Craniofacial Bone Engineering 201 9.4 Biomaterial-based Therapy in Craniofacial Bone Engineering 208 9.5 Principles of Imaging in Craniofacial Bone Regeneration 214 9.6 Current Clinical Application and Future Direction in the Field of Craniofacial Bone Engineering 222 9.7 Future Prospects 227 9.8 Economics and Marketing 227 9.9 Conclusions 228 References 228 10. Functionally-Graded Biomimetic Vascular Grafts for Enhanced Tissue Regeneration and Bio-integration 237 Vinoy Thomas and Yogesh K. Vohra 10.1 Introduction 238 10.2 Approaches in Vascular Tissue Engineering 239 10.3 Nanostructured Scaffolds for Vascular Tissue Engineering 241 10.4 Functionally-Graded Tubular Scaffolds 249 10.5 Summary and Future Outlook 268 Acknowledgements 269 List of Abbreviations Used 270 References 271 11. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors in Tissue Engineering: Challenges and Prospects for Therapeutic Angiogenesis 277 Ekaterina S. Lifirsu, Murugan Ramalingam, and Ziyad S. Haidar 11.1 Introduction 278 11.2 VEGF and Angiogenesis 278 11.3 VEGF Family 279 11.4 VEGF Therapy 281 11.5 VEGF Delivery Systems 282 11.6 Soft versus hard Tissues 284 11.7 Concluding Remarks 289 References 292

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Book SynopsisThis book covers in-depth the various polymers that are used for sensors and actuators from the vantage point of organic chemistry. Since many chemists may not be familiar with the physics and operational specifics of sensors, the book has a general chapter dealing with the overall physics and basic principles of sensors.Trade Review“It is certainly a way to learn about the vast array of materials and sensing techniques possible today.” (IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, 1 March 2014) Table of ContentsPreface v 1. Sensor Types and Polymers 11.1 Sensor Types 21.2 Basic Polymer Types 19 2. Methods of Fabrication 412.1 Patterning Techniques 412.2 Coating Techniques 412 3 Electrospinning 462.4 Molecular Imprinted Polymers 482.5 Sensor Arrays 502.6 Ink J et Fabrication 57 3. Processing of Data 673.1 Evaluation of Multivariate Data 673.2 Response of a Sensor Array 683.3 Least Square Method 693.4 Linear Solvation Energy Relationships 703.5 Euclidean Fuzzy Similarity 713.6 Adaptive Resonance Theory 713.7 Modelling of Sensors 723.8 Bioinspired Models for Pattern Recognition 74 4. Humidity Sensors 774.1 Calibration 784.2 Capacitive Humidity Sensors 784.3 Resistance Type Humidity Sensors 814.4 Bragg Grating Sensor 874.5 Fiber Optic Sensor 924.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Based Sensors 924.7 Microwave Oven Humidity Sensors 96 5. Biosensors 1015.1 Waveguide Sensors 1025.2 Active Elements 1045.3 Special Examples 107 6. Mechanical Sensors 1296.1 Bending Sensors 1296.2 Cantilever Type Sensors 1306.3 Micromechanical Oscillators 1306.4 Microelectromechanical Capacitor Array 1326.5 Change in Thermodynamic Properties 1326.6 Dielectric Elastomer Sensors 1326.7 Polymers for Mechanical Sensors 1336.8 Cardiac Infarction Monitoring 135 7. Optical Sensors 1397.1 Conjugated Polymers 1397.2 Amplified Fluorescent Polymers 1457.3 Nanostructured Materials 1607.4 Micelle-Induced Fluorescent Sensors 1647.5 Fiber Sensors 1647.6 Waveguides 1677.7 Chiral Sensors 1687.8 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 1687.9 Glucose Sensors 1727.10 Hydrophilic Polymer Matrices 1807.11 Special Analytes 1817.12 pH Sensors 207 8. Surface Plasmon Resonance 2258.1 Application as Sensors 2258.2 Basic Principle 2268.3 Theory 2268.4 Waveguide Surface Plasmon Resonance 2298.5 Nanoparticles 2308.6 Surface Plasmon Resonance with Fibers 2348.7 Combinations with other Principles 2358.8 Examples for Use 235 9. Test Strips 2419.1 Cations 2419.2 Anions 2439.3 Organic Analytes 2469.4 Immunochromatographic Tests 2549.5 Bacteria 260 10. Electrochemical Sensors10.1 Basic Principles 26910.2 Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistors 27610.3 Chemical Resistors 27710.4 Temperature Sensors 28210.5 Smart Textiles 28510.6 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers 28710.7 Other Analytes 298 11. Piezoelectric Sensors 31711.1 Theoretical Aspects 31711.2 Automotive Applications 31811.3 Paint Sensors 31911.4 Molecular Imprinted Polymers 32011.5 Food Safety Applications 32211.6 Gases 32311.7 Tactile Sensors 325 12. Acoustic Wave Sensors 33112.1 Analytes 331 13. Electronic Nose 34313.1 Methods for Validation 34313.2 Medical Applications 34913.3 Fire Detectors 35513.4 Pipeline Inspection 35613.5 Sensing Arrays with Colloidal Particles 35713.6 Nanodisk Sensor Arrays 35813.7 Food Testing 36013.8 Soil Volatile Fingerprints 365 14. Switchable Polymers 36914.1 Shape-memory Polymers 37014.2 Chemical Switches 37114.3 pH Sensitive Switches 38414.4 Photo Responsive Switches 39014.5 Molecular Gates 39314.6 Thermofluorescence Memories 39614.7 Electric and Magnetic Switches 39814.8 Switchable Wettability 40014.9 Multiple Responsive Switches 40214.10 Environmental Uses 404 15. Actuators 41515.1 Mathematical Model 41715.2 Fields of Application and Special Designs 4195.3 Materials 42615.4 Carbon Based Conductive Materials 44715.5 Medical Applications 45215.6 Optical Applications 45415.7 Pumping Applications 456 16. Liquid Crystal Displays 46716.1 Basic Design 46716.2 Polymers 47116.3 Special Display Types 47716.4 Viewing Helps 479 References 483 Index 487 Acronyms 487 Chemicals 490 Analytes 501 General Index 504

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Book SynopsisBiorenewable polymers based nanomaterials are rapidly emerging as one of the most fascinating materials for multifunctional applications. Among biorenewable polymers, cellulose based nanomaterials are of great importance due to their inherent advantages such as environmental friendliness, biodegradability, biocompatibility, easy processing and cost effectiveness, to name a few. They may be produced from biological systems such as plants or be chemically synthesised from biological materials. This book summarizes the recent remarkable achievements witnessed in green technology of cellulose based nanomaterials in different ?elds ranging from biomedical to automotive. This book also discusses the extensive research developments for next generation nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites. The book contains seventeen chapters and each chapter addresses some specific issues related to nanocellulose and also demonstrates the real potentialities of these nanomaterials in differentTable of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1: Synthesis and Characterization of Nanocellulose based Polymer Nanocomposites 1 1 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites: An Introduction 3 Manju Kumari Thakur, Vijay Kumar Thakur and Raghavan Prasanth 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Nanocellulose: Source, Structure, Synthesis and Applications 5 1.3 Conclusions 12 References 13 2 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Nanocomposites: Roadmap for Innovative Materials 17 Ana R. P. Figueiredo, Carla Vilela, Carlos Pascoal Neto, Armando J. D. Silvestre and Carmen S. R. Freire 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Bacterial Cellulose Production, Properties and Applications 18 2.3 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 28 2.4 Bacterial Cellulose-Based Hybrid Nanocomposite Materials 41 2.5 Acknowledgements References 55 3 Polyurethanes Reinforced with Cellulose 65 María L. Auad, Mirna A. Mosiewicki and Norma E. Marcovich 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Conventional Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 67 3.3 Waterborne Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 76 3.4 Biobased Polyurethanes Reinforced with Nanocellulose Fibers 78 Conclusions and Final Remarks 84 References 85 4 Bacterial Cellulose and Its Use in Renewable Composites 89 Dianne R. Ruka, George P. Simon and Katherine M. Dean 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Cellulose Properties and Production 91 4.3 Tailor-Designing Bacterial Cellulose 105 4.4 Bacterial Cellulose Composites 114 4.5 Biodegradability 121 4.6 Conclusions 123 References 123 5 Nanocellulose-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites Fabricated by In-Situ Polymerization Technique 131 Dipa Ray and Sunanda Sain 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Cellulose as Filler in Polymer Matrix Composites 132 5.3 Cellulose Nanocomposites 138 5.4 In-Situ Polymerized Cellulose Nanocomposites 138 5.5 Novel Materials with Wide Application Potential 140 5.6 Effect of In-Situ Polymerization on Biodegradation Behavior of Cellulose Nanocomposites 154 5.7 Future of Cellulose Nanocomposites 157 References 159 6 Multifunctional Ternary Polymeric Nanocomposites Based on Cellulosic Nanore- inforcements 163 D. Puglia, E. Fortunati, C. Santulli and J. M. Kenny 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Cellulosic Reinforcements (CR) 166 6.3 Interaction of CNR with Different Nanoreinforcements 171 6.4 Ternary Polymeric Systems Based on CNR 179 6.5 Conclusions 190 Acknowledgments 191 References 191 7 Effect of Fiber Length on Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene Nanobiocomposites Reinforced with Kenaf Fiber and Nanoclay 199 Na Sim and Seong Ok Han 7.1 Introduction 199 7.2 Experimental 200 7.3 Results and Discussion 202 7.4 Conclusions 211 References 211 8 Cellulose-Based Liquid Crystalline Composite Systems 215 J. P. Borges, J. P. Canejo, S. N. Fernandes and M. H. Godinho 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Liquid Crystalline Phases of Cellulose and Its Derivatives 216 8.3 Conclusion 232 Acknowledgements 232 References 232 9 Recent Advances in Nanocomposites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Nanocellulose 237 J. I. Morán, L. N. Ludueña and V. A. Alvarez 9.1 Introduction 237 9.2 Cellulose Bionanocomposites Incorporation of Cellulose Nanofibers into Biodegradable Polymers: General Effect on the Properties 243 9.3 Future Perspectives and Concluding Remarks 249 References 250 Part 2: Processing and Applications Nanocellulose based Polymer Nanocomposites 255 10 Cellulose Nano/Microfibers-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Processing Aspects 257 K. Priya Dasan and A. Sonia 10.1 Introduction 257 10.2 The Role of Isolation Methods on Composite Properties 260 10.3 Pretreatment of Fibers and Its Role in Composite Performance 262 10.4 Different Processing Methodologies in Cellulose Nanocomposites and Their Effect on Final Properties 264 10.5 Conclusion 268 References 268 11 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposite: Isolation, Characterization and Applications 273 H. P. S. Abdul Khalil, Y. Davoudpour, N. A. Sri Aprilia, Asniza Mustapha, Md. Nazrul Islam and Rudi Dungani 11.1 Introduction 274 11.2 Cellulose and Nanocellulose 274 11.3 Isolation of Nanocellulose 276 11.4 Characterization of Nanocellulose 283 11.5 Drying of Nanocellulose 289 11.6 Modifications of Nanocellulose 290 11.7 Nanocellulose-Based Polymer Nanocomposites 295 11.8 Conclusion 302 Acknowledgement 303 References 303 12 Electrospinning of Cellulose: Process and Applications 311 Raghavan Prasanth, Shubha Nageswaran, Vijay Kumar Takur and Jou-Hyeon Ahn 12.1 Cellulosic Fibers 311 12.2 Crystalline Structure of Electrospun Cellulose 312 12.3 Applications of Cellulose 313 12.4 Electrospinning 313 12.5 Electrospinning of Cellulose 317 12.6 Solvents for Electrospinning of Cellulose 318 12.7 Cellulose Composite Fibers 333 12.8 Conclusions 336 Abbreviations 336 Symbols 336 References 337 13 Effect of Kenaf Cellulose Whiskers on Cellulose Acetate Butyrate Nanocomposites Properties 341 Lukmanul Hakim Zaini, M. T. Paridah, M. Jawaid, AlothmanY. Othman and A. H. Juliana 13.1 Introduction 341 13.2 Experimental 342 13.3 Characterization 344 13.4 Result and Discussion 345 13.5 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgements 353 References 353 14 Processes in Cellulose Derivative Structures 355 Mihaela Dorina Onofrei, Adina Maria Dobos and Silvia Ioan 14.1 Introduction 355 14.2 Liquid Crystalline Polymers 357 14.3 Liquid Crystal Dispersed in a Polymer Matrix 359 14.4 Techniques for Obtaining Liquid Crystals Dispersed into a Polymeric Matrix 360 14.5 Some Methods to Characterize the Liquid Crystal State 360 14.6 Liquid Crystal State of Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives in Solution 364 14.7 Cellulose Derivatives/Polymers Systems 373 Conclusions 383 References 384 15 Cellulose Nanocrystals: Nanostrength for Industrial and Biomedical Applications 393 Anuj Kumar, Samit Kumar, Yuvraj Singh Negi and Veena Choudhary 15.1 Introduction 393 15.2 Cellulose and Its Sources 394 15.3 Nanocellulose 396 15.4 Cellulose Nanocrystals 398 15.5 Aqueous Suspension and Drying of CNCs 408 15.6 Functionalization of CNCs 410 15.7 Processing of CNCs for Biocomposites 15.8 Applications of CNCs-Reinforced Biocomposites 416 15.9 Biomedical Applications 421 15.10 Conclusion 427 Acknowledgements 428 References 428 16 Medical Applications of Cellulose and Its Derivatives: Present and Future 437 Karthika Ammini Sindhu, Raghavan Prasanth and Vijay Kumar Thakur 16.1 Historical Overview 438 16.2 Use of Cellulose for Treatment of Renal Failure 439 16.3 Types of Membranes 444 16.4 Use of Cellulose for Wound Dressing 447 16.5 Cotton as Wound Dressing Material 448 16.6 Biosynthesis, Structure and Properties of MC 450 16.7 MC as a Wound Healing System 451 16.8 Microbial Cellulose/Ag Nanocomposite 456 16.9 Nanocomposites of Microbial Cellulose and Chitosan 458 16.10 Commercialization of Microbial Cellulose 461 16.11 Use of Cellulose as Implant Material 462 16.12 Dental Applications 470 Conclusions 471 Abbreviations 472 Symbols 472 References 473 17 Bacterial Cellulose and Its Multifunctional Composites: Synthesis and Properties 479 V. Thiruvengadam and Satish Vitta 17.1 Introduction 479 17.2 Magnetic Composites 485 17.3 Composites with Catalytic Activity 489 17.4 Electrically Conducting Composites 492 17.5 Composites as Fuel Cell Components, Electrodes and Membrane 496 17.6 Optically Transparent and Mechanically Flexible Composites 499 17.7 Summary and Outlook 502 References 502

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Book SynopsisDesign of Reinforced Concrete, 10th Edition by Jack McCormac and Russell Brown, introduces the fundamentals of reinforced concrete design in a clear and comprehensive manner and grounded in the basic principles of mechanics of solids.Table of ContentsPreface xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 1 1.2 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete as a Structural Material 1 1.3 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete as a Structural Material 2 1.4 Historical Background 3 1.5 Comparison of Reinforced Concrete and Structural Steel for Buildings and Bridges 5 1.6 Compatibility of Concrete and Steel 6 1.7 Design Codes 6 1.8 SI Units and Shaded Areas 7 1.9 Types of Portland Cement 7 1.10 Admixtures 9 1.11 Properties of Concrete 10 1.12 Aggregate 18 1.13 High–Strength Concretes 19 1.14 Fiber–Reinforced Concretes 20 1.15 Concrete Durability 21 1.16 Reinforcing Steel 22 1.17 Grades of Reinforcing Steel 24 1.18 SI Bar Sizes and Material Strengths 25 1.19 Corrosive Environments 26 1.20 Identifying Marks on Reinforcing Bars 26 1.21 Introduction to Loads 28 1.22 Dead Loads 28 1.23 Live Loads 29 1.24 Environmental Loads 30 1.25 Selection of Design Loads 32 1.26 Calculation Accuracy33 1.27 Impact of Computers on Reinforced Concrete Design 34 Problems 34 2 Flexural Analysis of Beams 35 2.1 Introduction 35 2.2 Cracking Moment 38 2.3 Elastic Stresses—Concrete Cracked 41 2.4 Ultimate or Nominal Flexural Moments 48 2.5 SI Example 51 2.6 Computer Examples 52 Problems 54 3 Strength Analysis of Beams According to ACI Code 65 3.1 Design Methods 65 3.2 Advantages of Strength Design 66 3.3 Structural Safety 66 3.4 Derivation of Beam Expressions 67 3.5 Strains in Flexural Members, 70 3.6 Balanced Sections, Tension–Controlled Sections, and Compression–Controlled or Brittle Sections 71 3.7 Strength Reduction or φ Factors 71 3.8 Minimum Percentage of Steel 74 3.9 Balanced Steel Percentage 75 3.10 Example Problems 76 3.11 Computer Examples 79 Problems 80 4 Design of Rectangular Beams and One–Way Slabs 82 4.1 Load Factors 82 4.2 Design of Rectangular Beams 85 4.3 Beam Design Examples 89 4.4 Miscellaneous Beam Considerations 95 4.5 Determining Steel Area When Beam Dimensions Are Predetermined 96 4.6 Bundled Bars 98 4.7 One–Way Slabs 99 4.8 Cantilever Beams and Continuous Beams 102 4.9 SI Example 103 4.10 Computer Example 105 Problems 106 5 Analysis and Design of T Beams and Doubly Reinforced Beams 112 5.1 T Beams 112 5.2 Analysis of T Beams 114 5.3 Another Method for Analyzing T Beams 118 5.4 Design of T Beams 120 5.5 Design of T Beams for Negative Moments 125 5.6 L–Shaped Beams 127 5.7 Compression Steel 127 5.8 Design of Doubly Reinforced Beams 132 5.9 SI Examples 136 5.10 Computer Examples, 138 Problems 143 6 Serviceability 154 6.1 Introduction 154 6.2 Importance of Deflections 154 6.3 Control of Deflections 155 6.4 Calculation of Deflections 157 6.5 Effective Moments of Inertia 158 6.6 Long–Term Deflections 160 6.7 Simple–Beam Deflections 162 6.8 Continuous–Beam Deflections 164 6.9 Types of Cracks 170 6.10 Control of Flexural Cracks 171 6.11 ACI Code Provisions Concerning Cracks 175 6.12 Miscellaneous Cracks 176 6.13 SI Example 176 6.14 Computer Example 177 Problems 179 7 Bond, Development Lengths, and Splices 184 7.1 Cutting Off or Bending Bars 184 7.2 Bond Stresses 187 7.3 Development Lengths for Tension Reinforcing 189 7.4 Development Lengths for Bundled Bars 197 7.5 Hooks 199 7.6 Development Lengths for Welded Wire Fabric in Tension 203 7.7 Development Lengths for Compression Bars 204 7.8 Critical Sections for Development Length 206 7.9 Effect of Combined Shear and Moment on Development Lengths 206 7.10 Effect of Shape of Moment Diagram on Development Lengths 207 7.11 Cutting Off or Bending Bars (Continued) 208 7.12 Bar Splices in Flexural Members 211 7.13 Tension Splices 213 7.14 Compression Splices 213 7.15 Headed and Mechanically Anchored Bars 214 7.16 SI Example 215 7.17 Computer Example 216 Problems 217 8 Shear and Diagonal Tension 223 8.1 Introduction 223 8.2 Shear Stresses in Concrete Beams 223 8.3 Lightweight Concrete 224 8.4 Shear Strength of Concrete 225 8.5 Shear Cracking of Reinforced Concrete Beams 226 8.6 Web Reinforcement 227 8.7 Behavior of Beams with Web Reinforcement 229 8.8 Design for Shear 231 8.9 ACI Code Requirements 232 8.10 Shear Design Example Problems 237 8.11 Economical Spacing of Stirrups 247 8.12 Shear Friction and Corbels 249 8.13 Shear Strength of Members Subjected to Axial Forces 251 8.14 Shear Design Provisions for Deep Beams 253 8.15 Introductory Comments on Torsion 254 8.16 SI Example 256 8.17 Computer Example 257 Problems 258 9 Introduction to Columns 263 9.1 General 263 9.2 Types of Columns 264 9.3 Axial Load Capacity of Columns 266 9.4 Failure of Tied and Spiral Columns 266 9.5 Code Requirements for Cast–in–Place Columns 269 9.6 Safety Provisions for Columns 271 9.7 Design Formulas 272 9.8 Comments on Economical Column Design 273 9.9 Design of Axially Loaded Columns 274 9.10 SI Example 277 9.11 Computer Example 278 Problems 279 10 Design of Short Columns Subject to Axial Load and Bending 281 10.1 Axial Load and Bending 281 10.2 The Plastic Centroid 282 10.3 Development of Interaction Diagrams 284 10.4 Use of Interaction Diagrams 290 10.5 Code Modifications of Column Interaction Diagrams 292 10.6 Design and Analysis of Eccentrically Loaded Columns Using Interaction Diagrams 294 10.7 Shear in Columns 301 10.8 Biaxial Bending 302 10.9 Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns 306 10.10 Continued Discussion of Capacity Reduction Factors, φ 309 10.11 Computer Example 311 Problems 312 11 Slender Columns 317 11.1 Introduction 317 11.2 Nonsway and Sway Frames 317 11.3 Slenderness Effects 318 11.4 Determining k Factors with Alignment Charts 321 11.5 Determining k Factors with Equations 322 11.6 First–Order Analyses Using Special Member Properties 323 11.7 Slender Columns in Nonsway and Sway Frames 324 11.8 ACI Code Treatments of Slenderness Effects 328 11.9 Magnification of Column Moments in Nonsway Frames 328 11.10 Magnification of Column Moments in Sway Frames 333 11.11 Analysis of Sway Frames 336 11.12 Computer Examples 342 Problems 344 12 Footings 347 12.1 Introduction 347 12.2 Types of Footings 347 12.3 Actual Soil Pressures 350 12.4 Allowable Soil Pressures 351 12.5 Design of Wall Footings 352 12.6 Design of Square Isolated Footings 357 12.7 Footings Supporting Round or Regular Polygon–Shaped Columns 364 12.8 Load Transfer from Columns to Footings 364 12.9 Rectangular Isolated Footings 369 12.10 Combined Footings 372 12.11 Footing Design for Equal Settlements 378 12.12 Footings Subjected to Axial Loads and Moments 380 12.13 Transfer of Horizontal Forces 382 12.14 Plain Concrete Footings 383 12.15 SI Example 386 12.16 Computer Examples 388 Problems 391 13 Retaining Walls 394 13.1 Introduction 394 13.2 Types of Retaining Walls 394 13.3 Drainage 397 13.4 Failures of Retaining Walls 398 13.5 Lateral Pressure on Retaining Walls 399 13.6 Footing Soil Pressures 404 13.7 Design of Semigravity Retaining Walls 405 13.8 Effect of Surcharge 408 13.9 Estimating the Sizes of Cantilever Retaining Walls 409 13.10 Design Procedure for Cantilever Retaining Walls 413 13.11 Cracks and Wall Joints 424 Problems 426 14 Continuous Reinforced Concrete Structures 431 14.1 Introduction 431 14.2 General Discussion of Analysis Methods 431 14.3 Qualitative Influence Lines 431 14.4 Limit Design 434 14.5 Limit Design under the ACI Code 442 14.6 Preliminary Design of Members 445 14.7 Approximate Analysis of Continuous Frames for Vertical Loads 445 14.8 Approximate Analysis of Continuous Frames for Lateral Loads 454 14.9 Computer Analysis of Building Frames 458 14.10 Lateral Bracing for Buildings 459 14.11 Development Length Requirements for Continuous Members 459 Problems 465 15 Torsion 470 15.1 Introduction 470 15.2 Torsional Reinforcing 471 15.3 Torsional Moments that Have to Be Considered in Design 474 15.4 Torsional Stresses 475 15.5 When Torsional Reinforcing Is Required by the ACI 476 15.6 Torsional Moment Strength 477 15.7 Design of Torsional Reinforcing 478 15.8 Additional ACI Requirements 479 15.9 Example Problems Using U.S. Customary Units 480 15.10 SI Equations and Example Problem 483 15.11 Computer Example 487 Problems 488 16 Two–Way Slabs, Direct Design Method 492 16.1 Introduction 492 16.2 Analysis of Two–Way Slabs 495 16.3 Design of Two–Way Slabs by the ACI Code 495 16.4 Column and Middle Strips 496 16.5 Shear Resistance of Slabs 497 16.6 Depth Limitations and Stiffness Requirements 500 16.7 Limitations of Direct Design Method 505 16.8 Distribution of Moments in Slabs 506 16.9 Design of an Interior Flat Plate 511 16.10 Placing of Live Loads 514 16.11 Analysis of Two–Way Slabs with Beams 517 16.12 Transfer of Moments and Shears between Slabs and Columns 522 16.13 Openings in Slab Systems 528 16.14 Computer Example 528 Problems 530 17 Two–Way Slabs, Equivalent Frame Method 532 17.1 Moment Distribution for Nonprismatic Members 532 17.2 Introduction to the Equivalent Frame Method 533 17.3 Properties of Slab Beams 535 17.4 Properties of Columns 538 17.5 Example Problem 540 17.6 Computer Analysis 544 17.7 Computer Example 545 Problems 546 18 Walls 547 18.1 Introduction 547 18.2 Non–Load–Bearing Walls 547 18.3 Load–Bearing Concrete Walls—Empirical Design Method 549 18.4 Load–Bearing Concrete Walls—Rational Design 552 18.5 Shear Walls 554 18.6 ACI Provisions for Shear Walls 558 18.7 Economy in Wall Construction 563 18.8 Computer Example 564 Problems 565 19 Prestressed Concrete 567 19.1 Introduction 567 19.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete 569 19.3 Pretensioning and Posttensioning 569 19.4 Materials Used for Prestressed Concrete 570 19.5 Stress Calculations 572 19.6 Shapes of Prestressed Sections 576 19.7 Prestress Losses 579 19.8 Ultimate Strength of Prestressed Sections 582 19.9 Deflections 586 19.10 Shear in Prestressed Sections 590 19.11 Design of Shear Reinforcement 591 19.12 Additional Topics 595 19.13 Computer Example 597 Problems 598 20 Reinforced Concrete Masonry 602 20.1 Introduction 602 20.2 Masonry Materials 602 20.3 Specified Compressive Strength of Masonry 606 20.4 Maximum Flexural Tensile Reinforcement 607 20.5 Walls with Out–of–Plane Loads—Non–Load–Bearing Walls 607 20.6 Masonry Lintels 611 20.7 Walls with Out–of–Plane Loads—Load–Bearing 616 20.8 Walls with In–Plane Loading—Shear Walls 623 20.9 Computer Example 628 Problems 630 A Tables and Graphs: U.S. Customary Units 631 B Tables in SI Units 669 C The Strut–and–Tie Method of Design 675 C.1 Introduction 675 C.2 Deep Beams 675 C.3 Shear Span and Behavior Regions 675 C.4 Truss Analogy 677 C.5 Definitions 678 C.6 ACI Code Requirements for Strut–and–Tie Design 678 C.7 Selecting a Truss Model 679 C.8 Angles of Struts in Truss Models 681 C.9 Design Procedure 682 D Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures 683 D.1 Introduction 683 D.2 Maximum Considered Earthquake 684 D.3 Soil Site Class 684 D.4 Risk and Importance Factors 686 D.5 Seismic Design Categories 687 D.6 Seismic Design Loads 687 D.7 Detailing Requirements for Different Classes of Reinforced Concrete Moment Frames 691 Problems 698 Glossary 699 Index 703

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Book SynopsisLEDs are in the midst of revolutionizing the lighting industry Up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of light-emitting materials and devices used in solid state lighting and displaysPresents the fundamental principles underlying luminescenceIncludes inorganic and organic materials and devicesLEDs offer high efficiency, long life and mercury free lighting solutionsTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii About the Editor xix 1. Principles of Solid State Luminescence 1Adrian Kitai 1.1 Introduction to Radiation from an Accelerating Charge 1 1.2 Radiation from an Oscillating Dipole 4 1.3 Quantum Description of an Electron during a Radiation Event 5 1.4 The Exciton 7 1.5 Two-Electron Atoms 10 1.6 Molecular Excitons 16 1.7 Band-to-Band Transitions 19 1.8 Photometric Units 23 1.9 The Light Emitting Diode 28 References 30 2. Quantum Dots for Displays and Solid State Lighting 31Jesse R. Manders, Debasis Bera, Lei Qian and Paul H. Holloway 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Nanostructured Materials 34 2.3 Quantum Dots 35 2.3.1 History of Quantum Dots 36 2.3.2 Structure and Properties Relationship 36 2.3.3 Quantum Confinement Effects on Band Gap 38 2.4 Relaxation Process of Excitons 41 2.4.1 Radiative Relaxation 42 2.4.2 Nonradiative Relaxation Process 45 2.5 Blinking Effect 46 2.6 Surface Passivation 47 2.6.1 Organically Capped QDs 47 2.6.2 Inorganically Passivated QDs 48 2.7 Synthesis Processes 49 2.7.1 Top-Down Synthesis 49 2.7.2 Bottom-Up Approach 50 2.8 Optical Properties and Applications 53 2.8.1 Displays 53 2.8.2 Solid State Lighting 73 2.8.3 Biological Applications 78 2.9 Perspective 81 Acknowledgments 82 References 82 3. Color Conversion Phosphors for Light Emitting Diodes 91Jack Silver, George R. Fern and Robert Withnall 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 Disadvantages of Using LEDs Without Color Conversion Phosphors 93 3.3 Phosphors for Converting the Color of Light Emitted by LEDs 95 3.3.1 General Considerations 95 3.3.2 Requirements of Color Conversion Phosphors 95 3.3.3 Commonly Used Activators in Color Conversion Phosphors 97 3.3.4 Strategies for Generating White Light from LEDs 97 3.3.5 Outstanding Problems with Color Conversion Phosphors for LEDs 98 3.4 Survey of the Synthesis and Properties of Some Currently Available Color Conversion Phosphors 99 3.4.1 Phosphor synthesis 99 3.4.2 Metal Oxide Based Phosphors 99 3.4.3 Metal Sulfide Based Phosphors 113 3.4.4 Metal Nitrides 117 3.4.5 Alkaline Earth Metal Oxo-Nitrides 120 3.4.6 Metal Fluoride Phosphors 121 3.5 Multi-Phosphor pcLEDs 122 3.6 Quantum Dots 123 3.7 Laser Diodes 124 3.8 Conclusions 125 Acknowledgments 125 References 126 4. Nitride and Oxynitride Phosphors for Light Emitting Diodes 135Le Wang and Rong-Jun Xie 4.1 Introduction 135 4.2 Synthesis of Nitride and Oxynitride Phosphors 138 4.2.1 Solid State Reaction Method 138 4.2.2 Gas Reduction and Nitridation 139 4.2.3 Carbothermal Reduction and Nitridation 140 4.2.4 Alloy Nitridation 140 4.2.5 Ammonothermal Synthesis 141 4.3 Photoluminescence Properties of Nitride and Oxynitride Phosphors 142 4.3.1 Luminescence Spectra of Typical Activators 142 4.4 Emerging Nitride Phosphors and Their Synthesis 165 4.4.1 Narrow-Band Red Nitride Phosphors 165 4.4.2 Narrow-Band Green Nitride Phosphors 167 4.5 Applications of Nitride Phosphors 169 4.5.1 General Lighting 169 4.5.2 LCD Backlight 172 References 173 5. Organic Light Emitting Device Materials for Displays 183Tyler Davidson-Hall, Yoshitaka Kajiyama and Hany Aziz 5.1 Introduction to OLEDs and Organic Electroluminscent Materials 184 5.2 OLED Light Emitting Materials 186 5.2.1 Neat Emitters 187 5.2.2 Guest Emitters 192 5.2.3 Aggregate-Induced Emission 201 5.3 OLED Displays 203 5.3.1 RGB Color Patterning Approaches 203 5.3.2 Display Addressing Approaches 204 5.3.3 FMM Technology 207 5.3.4 Alternative Fabrication Techniques 208 5.3.5 Outlook on OLED Display Commercialization 212 5.4 Quantum Dot Light Emitting Devices 213 5.4.1 QD Optimization by Core–Shell Morphology 214 5.4.2 Organic Charge Transport QD-LEDs 215 5.4.3 Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Charge Transport QD-LEDs 217 5.4.4 Energy Transfer Enhanced QD-LEDs 219 5.4.5 QD-LED Lifetime 220 References 220 6. White-Light Emitting Materials for Organic Light-Emitting Diode-Based Displays and Lighting 231Simone Lenk, Michael Thomschke and Sebastian Reineke 6.1 Introduction 231 6.2 White Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 233 6.3 Photometry and Radiometry 236 6.3.1 OLED Efficiencies 239 6.3.2 Color Stimulus Specification 239 6.3.3 Color Correlated Temperature 240 6.3.4 Color Rendering Index 241 6.3.5 White Light 241 6.4 Device Optics 242 6.4.1 Optical Properties of Thin Films 242 6.4.2 Optical Outcoupling 245 6.4.3 Top-Emitting OLEDs 247 6.4.4 Simulation Tools 248 6.5 Materials for Efficient White Electroluminescence 248 6.5.1 Spin Statistics for Electroluminescence 248 6.5.2 Fluorescence-Emitting Molecules 249 6.5.3 Advanced Concepts Comprising Fluorescent Emitters 251 6.5.4 Phosphorescence-Emitting Molecules 251 6.5.5 Single White-Light Emitting Phosphorescent Materials 256 6.5.6 Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence-Based Emitters 257 6.5.7 Phosphorescence Versus Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence 261 6.5.8 TADF Assisted Fluorescence (TAF) Emitters 263 6.6 Polymer Concepts 263 6.6.1 Various Concepts Involving Polymer Materials 265 6.6.2 Learning from High Performance Small Molecules for High Efficiency Polymers 267 6.7 Summary and Outlook 268 References 269 7. Light Emitting Diode Materials and Devices 273Michael R. Krames 7.1 Introduction 273 7.2 Light Emitting Diode Basics 273 7.2.1 Construction 273 7.2.2 Recombination Processes 275 7.2.3 Heterojunctions 277 7.2.4 Quantum Wells 278 7.2.5 Current Injection 278 7.2.6 Forward voltage 280 7.3 Material Systems 280 7.3.1 Ga(As,P) 280 7.3.2 Ga(As,P):N 281 7.3.3 (Al,Ga)As 282 7.3.4 (Al,Ga)InP 282 7.3.5 (Ga,In)N 283 7.3.6 White Light Generation 285 7.4 Packaging Technologies 288 7.4.1 Low Power 288 7.4.2 Mid Power 288 7.4.3 High Power 289 7.4.4 Chip-On-Board LEDs 290 7.4.5 Multi-Color LEDs 290 7.4.6 Electrostatic Discharge Protection 290 7.5 Performance 291 7.5.1 Light Extraction Efficiency 291 7.5.2 Monochromatic Performance 292 7.5.3 White-Emitting Performance 298 7.5.4 Temperature Effects 306 7.5.5 Reliability 306 References 307 8. Alternating Current Thin Film and Powder Electroluminescence 313Adrian Kitai 8.1 Introduction 313 8.2 Background of TFEL 314 8.2.1 Thick Film Dielectric EL Structure 315 8.2.2 Ceramic Sheet Dielectric EL 316 8.2.3 Sphere-Supported TFEL 316 8.3 Theory of Operation 317 8.4 Electroluminescent Phosphors 324 8.5 Thin Film Double-Insulating EL Devices 325 8.6 Current Status of TFEL 327 8.7 Background of AC Powder EL 328 8.8 Mechanism of Light Emission in AC Powder EL 329 8.9 Electroluminescence Characteristics of AC Powder EL Materials 333 8.10 Emission Spectra of AC Powder EL 334 8.11 Luminance Degradation 335 8.12 Moisture and Operating Environment 336 8.13 Current Status and Limitations of Powder EL 336 8.14 Research Directions in AC Powder EL and TFEL 336 References 337 Index 339

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Book SynopsisDetails the proper methods to assess, prevent, and reduce corrosion in the oil industry using today''s most advanced technologies This book discusses upstream operations, with an emphasis on production, and pipelines, which are closely tied to upstream operations. It also examines protective coatings, alloy selection, chemical treatments, and cathodic protectionthe main means of corrosion control. The strength and hardness levels of metals is also discussed, as this affects the resistance of metals to hydrogen embrittlement, a major concern for high-strength steels and some other alloys. It is intended for use by personnel with limited backgrounds in chemistry, metallurgy, and corrosion and will give them a general understanding of how and why corrosion occurs and the practical approaches to how the effects of corrosion can be mitigated. Metallurgy and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Production, Second Edition updates the original chapters while includinTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction to Oilfield Metallurgy and Corrosion Control 1 Costs, 1 Safety, 2 Environmental Damage, 2 Corrosion Control, 3 References, 3 2 Chemistry of Corrosion 5 Electrochemistry of Corrosion, 5 Electrochemical Reactions, 5 Electrolyte Conductivity, 6 Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis, 6 Electrode Potentials and Current, 6 Corrosion Rate Expressions, 10 pH, 10 Passivity, 11 Potential‐pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams, 11 Summary, 12 References, 12 3 Corrosive Environments 15 External Environments, 16 Atmospheric Corrosion, 17 Water as a Corrosive Environment, 18 Soils as Corrosive Environments, 20 Corrosion Under Insulation, 21 Internal Environments, 24 Crude Oil, 24 Natural Gas, 25 Oxygen, 26 Carbon Dioxide, 26 Hydrogen Sulfide, 29 Organic Acids, 32 Scale, 33 Microbially Influenced Corrosion (MIC), 36 Mercury, 41 Hydrates, 41 Fluid Flow Effects on Corrosion, 41 Summary, 41 References, 42 4 Materials 47 Metallurgy Fundamentals, 47 Crystal Structure, 47 Material Defects, Inclusions, and Precipitates, 48 Strengthening Methods, 50 Mechanical Properties, 51 Forming Methods, 60 Castings, 60 Wrought Metal Products, 60 Welding, 61 Clad Metals, 65 Additive Manufacturing, 65 Materials Specifications, 65 API – The American Petroleum Institute, 66 AISI – The American Iron and Steel Institute, 66 ASTM International (Formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials), 66 ASME – The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 67 SAE International (Formerly the Society of Automotive Engineers), 67 UNS – The Universal Numbering System, 67 NACE – The Corrosion Society (Formerly the National Association of Corrosion Engineers), 68 Other Organizations, 68 Use of Materials Specifications, 68 Carbon Steels, Cast Irons, and Low‐Alloy Steels, 69 Classifications of Carbon Steels, 71 Alloying Elements and Their Influence on Properties of Steel, 72 Strengthening Methods for Carbon Steels, 74 Quench and Tempered (Q&T) Steels, 75 Carbon Equivalents and Weldability, 76 Cleanliness of Steel, 76 Cast Irons, 76 Corrosion‐Resistant Alloys (CRAs), 77 Iron–Nickel Alloys, 77 Stainless Steels, 78 Nickel‐based Alloys, 83 Cobalt‐based Alloys, 84 Titanium Alloys, 84 Copper Alloys, 86 Aluminum Alloys, 89 Additional Considerations with CRAs, 91 Polymers, Elastomers, and Composites, 93 Materials Selection Guidelines, 97 References, 97 5 Forms of Corrosion 101 Introduction, 101 General Corrosion, 102 Galvanic Corrosion, 104 Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals, 104 Area Ratio, 105 Metallurgically Induced Galvanic Corrosion, 107 Environmentally Induced Galvanic Corrosion, 109 Polarity Reversal, 111 Conductivity of the Electrolyte, 111 Control of Galvanic Corrosion, 111 Pitting Corrosion, 112 Occluded Cell Corrosion, 113 Pitting Corrosion Geometry and Stress Concentration, 114 Pitting Initiation, 115 Pitting Resistance Equivalent Numbers (PRENs), 115 Pitting Statistics, 116 Prevention of Pitting Corrosion, 117 Crevice Corrosion, 117 Corrosion Under Pipe Supports (CUPS), 119 Pack Rust, 120 Crevice Corrosion Mechanisms, 121 Alloy Selection, 121 Filiform Corrosion, 122 Intergranular Corrosion, 123 Stainless Steels, 123 Corrosion Parallel to Forming Directions, 124 Aluminum, 124 Other Alloys, 125 Dealloying, 125 Mechanism, 125 Selective Phase Attack, 126 Susceptible Alloys, 126 Control, 126 Erosion Corrosion, 127 Mechanism, 127 Velocity Effects and ANSI/API RP14E, 128 Materials, 130 Cavitation, 130 Areas of Concern, 131 Erosion and Erosion‐corrosion Control, 133 Environmentally Assisted Cracking, 134 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC), 135 Hydrogen Embrittlement and H2S‐related Cracking, 139 Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME), 143 Corrosion Fatigue, 143 Other Forms of Corrosion Important to Oilfield Operations, 145 Oxygen Attack, 145 Sweet Corrosion, 145 Sour Corrosion, 145 Mesa Corrosion, 145 Top‐of‐Line (TOL) Corrosion, 145 Channeling Corrosion, 146 Grooving Corrosion: Selective Seam Corrosion, 148 Wireline Corrosion, 148 Additional Forms of Corrosion Found in Oil and Gas Operations, 148 Additional Comments, 152 References, 153 6 Corrosion Control 159 Protective Coatings, 159 Paint Components, 159 Coating Systems, 160 Corrosion Protection by Paint Films, 160 Desirable Properties of Protective Coating Systems, 161 Developments in Coatings Technology, 162 Surface Preparation, 162 Purposes of Various Coatings, 166 Generic Binder Classifications, 167 Coatings Suitable for Various Service Environments or Applications, 169 Coatings Inspection, 169 Areas of Concern and Inspection Concentration, 174 Linings, Wraps, Greases, and Waxes, 176 Coatings Failures, 180 Metallic Coatings, 189 Useful Publications, 192 Water Treatment and Corrosion Inhibition, 192 Oil Production Techniques, 193 Water Analysis, 193 Gas Stripping and Vacuum Deaeration, 194 Corrosion Inhibitors, 194 Cathodic Protection, 199 How Cathodic Protection Works, 201 Types of Cathodic Protection, 203 Cathodic Protection Criteria, 214 Inspection and Monitoring, 216 Cathodic Protection Design, 220 Additional Topics Related to Cathodic Protection, 224 Summary of Cathodic Protection, 227 Standards for Cathodic Protection, 227 References, 228 7 Inspection, Monitoring, and Testing 233 Inspection, 235 Visual Inspection (VT), 235 Penetrant Testing (PT), 236 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT), 237 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT), 237 Radiography (RT), 238 Eddy Current Inspection, 240 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) Inspection, 241 Positive Material Identification (PMI), 242 Thermography, 242 Additional Remarks About Inspection, 243 Monitoring, 244 Monitoring Probes, 244 Electrochemical Corrosion Rate Monitoring Techniques, 250 Hydrogen Probes, 253 Sand Monitoring, 254 Fluid Analysis, 255 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM), 257 Additional Comments on Monitoring, 258 Testing, 258 Hydrostatic Testing, 258 Laboratory and Field Trial Testing, 260 References, 262 8 Oilfield Equipment 265 Drilling and Exploration, 265 Drill Pipe, 265 Tool Joints, 268 Blowout Preventers (BOPs), 268 Wells and Wellhead Equipment, 269 History of Production, 270 Downhole Corrosive Environments, 271 Annular Spaces, 275 Types of Wells, 275 Tubing, Casing, and Capillary Tubing, 277 Corrosion Inhibitors for Tubing and Casing in Production Wells, 280 Internally Coated Tubing for Oilfield Wells, 283 Wireline, 285 Coiled Tubing, 285 Material and Corrosion Concerns with Artificial Lift Systems, 286 Facilities and Surface Equipment, 291 Piping, 291 Storage Tanks, 293 Heat Exchangers, 297 Other Equipment, 301 Bolting, Studs, and Fasteners, 301 Problems with Bolted Connections, 306 International Bolting Standards, 307 Flares, 312 Corrosion Under Insulation, 312 Pipelines and Flowlines, 319 Pipeline Problems and Failures, 319 Forms of Corrosion Important in Pipelines and Flowlines, 321 Repairs and Derating Due to Corrosion, 323 Casings for Road and Railway Crossings, 323 Pipeline and Flowline Materials, 324 Pipeline Hydrotesting, 326 Seawater Injection Pipelines/Flowlines, 327 External Corrosion of Pipelines, 327 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines, 330 Inspection, Condition Assessment, and Testing, 332 Offshore and Marine Applications, 336 Offshore Pipelines, 336 Offshore Structures, 337 References, 342 Index

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Book SynopsisAn authentic resource for thefundamentals, applied techniques, applicationsand recent advancements of all the main areas of technical textiles Created to be a comprehensive reference,High Performance Technical Textilesincludes the review of a wide range of technical textiles from household to space textiles. The contributorsnoted experts in the field from all the continentsoffer in-depth coverage on the fibre materials, manufacturing processes and techniques, applications, current developments, sustainability and future trends. The contributors include discussions on synthetic versus natural fibres, various textile manufacturing techniques, textile composites and finishing approaches that are involved in the manufacturing of textiles for a specific high performance application. Whilst the book provides the basic knowledge required for an understanding of technical textiles, it can serve as a springboard for inspiring new inventions in hi-tech fibres and textiles. This important bookTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi 1 High Performance Technical Textiles: An Overview 1 Roshan Paul 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Application Areas of Technical Textiles 1 1.3 Technical Textiles by Functional Finishing 2 1.4 High Performance Technical Textiles 3 1.5 Conclusion 9 2 Household and Packaging Textiles 11 Pelagia Glampedaki 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Textile Materials, Properties, and Manufacturing 11 2.3 High Performance Applications 20 2.4 Testing Methods and Quality Control 23 2.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 26 2.6 Conclusion 32 References 32 3 Sports Textiles and Comfort Aspects 37 Ali Harlin, Kirsi Jussila, and Elina Ilen 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Textile Fibres 37 3.3 Developments in Yarns 42 3.4 Developments in Fabric Structures 43 3.5 Special Finishes 45 3.6 High Performance Applications 46 3.7 Active Textiles 57 3.8 Smart Textiles and Garments 58 3.9 Testing Methods and Quality Control 61 3.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 62 3.11 Conclusion 62 References 62 4 Medical and Healthcare Textiles 69 Nuno Belino, Raul Fangueiro, Sohel Rana, Pelagia Glampedaki, and Georgios Priniotakis 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Textile Materials, Structures, and Processes 70 4.3 High Performance Applications of Medical Textiles 72 4.4 Nanotechnology in Medicine and Healthcare 76 4.5 Thermo‐Physiological Comfort of Medical Textiles 81 4.6 Biocompatibility – Bioresorbability – Biostability 83 4.7 Intelligent Medical and Healthcare Textiles 85 4.8 Antimicrobial Textiles 93 4.9 Testing Methods and Quality Control 95 4.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 98 4.11 Conclusion 100 References 100 5 Textile Materials for Protective Textiles 107 Ningtao Mao 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 Performance Requirements of Protective Textiles 109 5.3 High Performance Fibres 110 5.4 High Performance Textile Materials 115 5.5 Thermal Burden and Thermo‐Physiological Comfort 131 5.6 Testing Methods and Standards 138 5.7 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 148 5.8 Conclusion 148 References 149 6 Personal Protective Textiles and Clothing 159 Sumit Mandal, Simon Annaheim, Martin Camenzind, and René M. Rossi 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 General Aspects of Textile Based PPC 160 6.3 Fibres for PPC 162 6.4 Yarns for PPC 167 6.5 Fabrics for PPC 173 6.6 PPC Fabrication 183 6.7 Key Issues Related to PPC 187 6.8 Conclusion 189 References 189 7 Textiles for Military and Law Enforcement Personnel 197 Christopher Malbon and Debra Carr 7.1 Introduction 197 7.2 Ballistic and Sharp Weapon Protection 197 7.3 Protection from Heat and Flames 203 7.4 Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) Protective Clothing 206 7.5 Functional Finishing 210 7.6 Conclusion 210 References 211 8 Industrial and Filtration Textiles 215 Tawfik A. Khattab and Hany Helmy 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Synthetic and Nanotechnical Fibres 216 8.3 Natural Fibres for Technical Applications 219 8.4 Manufacture of Technical Textiles 221 8.5 Functional Finishing 225 8.6 Textile Reinforced Composite Materials 227 8.7 High Performance Applications 228 8.8 Testing Methods and Quality Control 229 8.9 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 232 8.10 Conclusion 233 References 234 9 Geotextiles and Environmental Protection Textiles 239 Jiří Militký, Rajesh Mishra, and Mohanapriya Venkataraman 9.1 Introduction 239 9.2 Structure and Performance 240 9.3 Fibres for Geotextiles 243 9.4 Geotextiles and Soil 254 9.5 Manufacturing Techniques 260 9.6 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 272 9.7 Conclusion 274 References 275 10 Agrotextiles and Crop Protection Textiles 279 Adriana Restrepo‐Osorio, Catalina Alvarez‐López, Natalia Jaramillo‐Quiceno, and Patricia Fernandez‐Morales 10.1 Introduction 279 10.2 Fibres for Agrotextiles 280 10.3 Textile Structures for Agrotextiles 284 10.4 High Performance Applications 285 10.5 Testing Standards Applicable to Agrotextiles 295 10.6 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 311 10.7 Conclusion 312 References 313 11 Building and Construction Textiles 319 Jordan Tabor and Tushar Ghosh 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 Architectural Textiles 320 11.3 House Wraps 327 11.4 Insulation 334 11.5 Textile Reinforced Concrete 341 11.6 Sustainability and Ecological Issues 347 11.7 Conclusion 349 References 349 12 Automotive Textiles and Composites 353 Bijoy K. Behera 12.1 Introduction 353 12.2 Mobiltech 354 12.3 Application Areas of Automotive Textiles 355 12.4 Textile Composites for Automobiles 369 12.5 3D Fabrics for Automotive Applications 372 12.6 Comfort Properties of Automotive Interior 376 12.7 Conclusion 379 References 380 13 Marine Textiles and Composites 385 Chi‐wai Kan and Change Zhou 13.1 Introduction 385 13.2 Textiles for Marine Applications 385 13.3 Properties of Textiles for Marine Applications 394 13.4 Marine Textiles and Quality Standards 397 13.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 403 13.6 Conclusion 403 Acknowledgement 403 References 403 14 Aeronautical and Space Textiles 407 Sadaf A. Abbasi, Lijing Wang, Mazhar H. Peerzada, and Raj Ladani 14.1 Introduction 407 14.2 Synthetic and Nanotechnical Fibres 408 14.3 Natural and Bast Fibres for Technical Applications 413 14.4 Manufacture of Technical Textiles 415 14.5 Textile Reinforced Composite Materials 420 14.6 Textile Composite Material Finishing 425 14.7 High Performance Applications 426 14.8 Testing Methods and Quality Control 428 14.9 Self‐Healing of Composite Materials 431 14.10 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 432 14.11 Conclusion 432 References 433 15 Wearable and Smart Responsive Textiles 439 Lihua Lou, Weijie Yu, and Seshadri Ramkumar 15.1 Introduction 439 15.2 Characterization of Smart Textiles 440 15.3 Smart Textiles Grouped by Function 440 15.4 Application of Smart Textiles 453 15.5 Sustainability and Ecological Aspects 462 15.6 Conclusion 464 Acknowledgements 464 References 464 Index 475

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Book SynopsisAnalysis of Engineering Structures and Material Behavior Professor Josip Brniae, D. Sc.Table of ContentsFrequently Used Symbols and the Meaning of Symbols xv Principal SI Units and the US Equivalents xxiii SI Prefixes, Basic Units, Physical Constants, the Greek Alphabet xxv Important Notice Before Reading the Book xxvii Preface xxix About the Author xxxi Acknowledgements xxxiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Task of Design and Manufacture 1 1.2 Factors that Influence the Design of Engineering Structures 1 1.3 The Importance of Optimization in the Process of Design and the Selection of Structural Materials 3 1.4 Commonly Observed Failure Modes in Engineering Practice 4 1.5 Structures and the Analysis of Structures 5 References 5 2 Stress 7 2.1 Definition of Average Stress and Stress at a Point 7 2.2 Stress Components and Equilibrium Equations 8 2.2.1 Stress Components 8 2.2.2 Equilibrium Equations 9 2.3 Stress Tensor 10 2.3.1 Mean and Deviatoric Stress Tensors 10 2.4 States of Stress 12 2.4.1 Uniaxial State of Stress 12 2.4.2 Two-dimensional State of Stress 14 2.4.3 Three-dimensional State of Stress 18 2.4.3.1 Stress on an Arbitrary Plane 20 2.4.3.2 Stress on an Octahedral Plane 21 2.4.3.3 Principal Stresses and Stress Invariants 22 2.5 Transformation of Stress Components 24 References 28 3 Strain 29 3.1 Definition of Strain 29 3.1.1 Some Properties of Materials Associated with Strain 30 3.1.1.1 Poisson’s Ratio 30 3.1.1.2 Volumetric Strain 30 3.1.1.3 Bulk Modulus 31 3.1.1.4 Modulus of Elasticity 32 3.1.1.5 Shear Modulus (Modulus of Rigidity) 32 3.2 Strain–Displacement Equations 33 3.3 Strain Tensors 35 3.3.1 Small Strain Tensor 35 3.3.2 Finite Strain Tensor 38 3.3.3 Mean and Deviatoric Strain Tensors 40 3.3.4 Principal Strains and Strain Invariants 41 3.3.4.1 Strain Tensor 41 3.3.4.2 Deviatoric Strain Tensor 42 3.4 Transformation of Strain Components 43 3.4.1 Mohr’s Circle 44 3.5 Strain Measurement 44 References 48 4 Mechanical Testing of Materials 51 4.1 Material Properties 51 4.2 Types of Material Testing 52 4.3 Test Methods Related to Mechanical Properties 52 4.4 Testing Machines and Specimens 52 4.4.1 Static Tensile Testing Machine and Specimens 52 4.4.2 Impact Testing Machine and Specimens 54 4.4.3 Hardness Testing Machine 54 4.4.4 Fatigue Testing Machines 56 4.5 Test Results 56 4.5.1 Static Tensile Test Results 56 4.5.1.1 Engineering Stress–Strain Diagram 56 4.5.1.2 Creep Diagram/Curve 62 4.5.1.3 Relaxation Diagram/Curve 62 4.5.2 Dynamic Test Results 63 4.5.2.1 Tensile, Flexural and Torsional Test Results 63 4.5.2.2 Toughness Test Results 64 4.5.2.3 Fracture Toughness Test Results 64 References 64 5 Material Behavior and Yield Criteria 67 5.1 Elastic and Inelastic Responses of a Solid 67 5.2 Yield Criteria 67 5.2.1 Ductile Materials 71 5.2.1.1 Maximum Shear Stress Criterion (Tresca Criterion) 71 5.2.1.2 Distortional Energy Density Criterion (von Mises Criterion) 74 5.2.2 Brittle Materials 76 5.2.2.1 Maximum Normal Stress Criterion 76 5.2.2.2 Maximum Normal Strain Criterion 76 References 78 6 Loads Imposed on Engineering Elements 79 6.1 Axial Loading 79 6.1.1 Normal Stress 81 6.1.2 The Principal Stress 82 6.2 Torsion 85 6.2.1 Elastic Torsion – Shear Stress and Strain Analysis 86 6.2.1.1 Prismatic Bars: Circular Cross-section 86 6.2.1.2 Prismatic Bars: Noncircular Cross-section 95 6.2.1.3 Thin-walled Structures 96 6.2.2 Warping (Distortion) of a Cross-section 101 6.2.3 Inelastic Torsion and Residual Stress 103 6.2.3.1 Residual Stress 105 6.3 Bending 109 6.3.1 Beam Supports, Types of Beams, Types of Loads 109 6.3.2 Internal Forces – Bending Moments (Mf), Shear Force (Q), Distributed Load (q) 111 6.3.3 Principal Moments of Inertia of an Area (I1, I2) and Extreme Values of Product of Inertia (Ixy) of an Area 112 6.3.3.1 Axes Parallel to the Centroidal Axes 114 6.3.3.2 Rotation of the Coordinate Axes at the Observed Point (Rotated Axes) 115 6.3.4 Symmetrical Bending 116 6.3.4.1 Pure Bending 116 6.3.4.2 Nonuniform Bending 122 6.3.5 Nonsymmetrical Bending 126 6.3.6 Loading of Thin-walled Engineering Elements; Shear Center 133 6.3.6.1 Shear Center 134 6.3.7 Beam Deflections 136 6.3.8 Bending of Curved Elements 140 6.4 Stability of Columns 149 6.4.1 Critical Buckling Force in the Elastic Range 150 6.4.1.1 Pin-ended Columns 150 6.4.1.2 Columns with Other End Conditions 153 6.4.2 Critical Buckling Stress in the Elastic Range 155 6.4.3 Buckling – Plastic Range 156 6.4.3.1 Local Buckling of the Column 157 6.5 Eccentric Axial Loads 159 6.5.1 Eccentric Axial Load Acting in a Plane of Symmetry 159 6.5.2 General Case of an Eccentric Axial Load 161 References 164 7 Relationships Between Stress and Strain 167 7.1 Fundamental Considerations 167 7.2 Anisotropic Materials 169 7.3 Isotropic Materials 171 7.3.1 Determination of Hooke’s Law – Method of Superposition 175 7.3.2 Engineering Constants of Elasticity 178 7.4 Orthotropic Materials 180 7.5 Linear Stress–Strain–Temperature Relations for Isotropic Materials 184 References 186 8 Rheological Models 189 8.1 Introduction 189 8.2 Time-independent Behavior Modeling 190 8.2.1 Elastic Deformation Modeling 190 8.2.1.1 Hooke’s Element (H Model) 190 8.2.2 Deformation Modeling after the Elastic Limit 192 8.2.2.1 Saint Venant Element (SV Model) 192 8.2.2.2 Saint Venant Element–Spring/(SV–Spring) 192 8.2.2.3 Saint Venant Element | Spring−Spring/(SV | Spring−Spring) 192 8.3 Time-dependent Behavior Modeling 194 8.3.1 Newton Element (N Model): Linear Viscous Dashpot Element 195 8.3.2 Maxwell Model (M = H−N) 195 8.3.2.1 Generalized Maxwell Model 197 8.3.3 Voigt-Kelvin Model (K = H | N) 198 8.3.3.1 Generalized Voigt–Kelvin Model 199 8.3.4 Standard Linear Solid Model (SLS) 200 8.3.5 Voigt–Kelvin−Hooke’s Model (K−H) 201 8.3.6 Burgers’ Model 202 8.4 Differential Form of Constitutive Equations 205 References 207 9 Creep in Metallic Materials 209 9.1 Introduction 209 9.2 Plastic Deformation – General 211 9.2.1 Slip 211 9.2.2 Cleavage 212 9.2.3 Twinning 213 9.2.4 Grain Boundary Sliding 213 9.2.5 Void Coalescence 214 9.3 The Creep Phenomenon and Its Geometrical Representation 214 9.3.1 Creep Deformation Maps and Fracture Mechanism Maps 216 9.3.1.1 Creep Deformation Mechanisms 216 9.3.1.2 Fracture Micromechanisms and Macromechanisms 220 9.3.1.3 Creep Fracture Mechanisms 221 9.3.2 Short-time Uniaxial Creep Tests, Creep Modeling and Microstructure Analysis 223 9.3.2.1 Short-time Uniaxial Creep Tests 223 9.3.2.2 Creep Modeling 225 9.3.2.3 Microstructure Analysis – Basic 227 9.3.3 Long-term Creep Behavior Prediction Based on the Short-time Creep Process 228 9.3.3.1 Extrapolation Methods 230 9.3.3.2 Time–Temperature Parameters 231 9.3.4 Multiaxial Creep 232 9.4 Relaxation Phenomenon and Modeling 234 References 236 10 Fracture Mechanics 239 10.1 Introduction 239 10.2 Fracture Classification 240 10.3 Fatigue Phenomenon 242 10.3.1 Known Starting Points 242 10.3.2 Stress versus Life Curves (σ–N/S–N), Endurance Limit 242 10.4 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) 248 10.4.1 Basic Consideration 248 10.4.2 Crack Opening Modes 251 10.4.2.1 Stress Intensity Factor (K/SIF) 252 10.4.2.2 Plastic Zone Size around the Crack Tip 260 10.4.2.3 Plastic Zone Shape around the Crack Tip 263 10.5 Elastic–Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) 266 10.5.1 The J Integral 267 10.6 Experimental Determination of Fracture Toughness 270 10.6.1 Test Specimens: Shapes, Dimensions, Orientations and Pre-cracking 271 10.6.1.1 Shapes and Dimensions of the Specimens 271 10.6.1.2 Orientation of a Specimen Made from Base Material 272 10.6.1.3 Fatigue Pre-cracking 274 10.6.2 Fracture Toughness, KIc and the K–R Curve 274 10.6.2.1 R-curve (K–R Curve) 274 10.6.2.2 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness (KIc) Testing 277 10.6.3 Fracture Toughness JIc and the J–R Curve 279 10.6.3.1 R-curve (J–R Curve) 279 10.6.3.2 Fracture Toughness ( JIc) Determination/Testing 280 10.7 Charpy Impact Energy Testing 284 10.8 Crack Propagation 288 10.8.1 Introduction 288 10.8.2 Fatigue Crack Growth 289 10.8.2.1 The Paris Equation 294 10.8.2.2 The Walker Equation 296 10.8.2.3 The Forman Equation 297 10.8.2.4 The Forman–Newman–de Koning Equation 297 10.8.3 Creep Crack Growth 297 10.8.4 Life Assessment of Engineering Components 298 10.8.4.1 Constant Amplitude Loading 298 10.8.4.2 Variable Amplitude Loading 298 10.8.5 Crack Closure 299 10.8.5.1 Elber Crack Closure Phenomenon 299 10.8.6 A Brief Review of Testing of Unnotched, Axially Loaded Specimens 301 References 309 11 The Finite Element Method and Applications 313 11.1 The Finite Element Method (FEM) in the Analysis of Engineering Problems 313 11.1.1 Applications of FEM 313 11.1.2 The Advantages of Using the FEM 314 11.1.3 A Brief Overview of the Historical Development of the FEM 314 11.2 Linear Analysis of Structural Behavior 315 11.2.1 Formulations of Equilibrium Equations 316 11.2.1.1 Variational Formulation of the Finite Element (Equilibrium) Equation 318 11.2.2 Structures 334 11.2.3 Finite Elements 334 11.2.4 Shape Functions – Cartesian and Natural (Dimensionless) Coordinate Systems 334 11.2.4.1 Cartesian Coordinate System 335 11.2.4.2 Natural (Dimensionless) Coordinate System 341 11.2.5 One-dimensional Finite Elements 347 11.2.5.1 Basic 1-D Finite Elements 347 11.2.5.2 Finite Elements of Higher Order 359 11.2.6 Two-dimensional Finite Elements 363 11.2.6.1 Basic 2-D Finite Elements 367 11.2.6.2 Finite Elements of Higher Order 376 11.2.6.3 Transformation Procedure for the Finite Element Equation 378 11.2.7 Three-dimensional Finite Elements 379 11.2.7.1 Basic 3-D Finite Elements 381 11.2.7.2 Finite Elements of Higher Order 388 11.2.8 Isoparametric Finite Elements 393 11.2.8.1 Introduction 393 11.2.8.2 Isoparametric Representation 395 11.2.9 Bending of Elastic Flat Plates 398 11.2.9.1 Deformation Theories for Elastic Plates 398 11.2.9.2 Finite Elements Based on Kirchhoff Plate Theory 407 11.2.10 Basics of Dynamic Behavior of Elastic Structures 410 11.2.10.1 Mass Matrix of the Finite Element 413 11.2.10.2 Free, Undamped Vibrations of Constructions – Eigenvalues 414 11.3 A Brief Introduction to Nonlinear Analysis of Structural Behavior 421 11.4 Metal-forming Processes – Brief Overview 422 11.4.1 Introduction 422 11.4.2 Classification, Variables and Characteristics of Metal-forming Processes 423 11.4.2.1 Comparison of Hot and Cold Working Processes in Terms of Working Temperature, Shaping Force and Achieved Material Properties 428 11.4.3 Basic Settings Related to the Theory of Metal-forming Processes 429 11.4.3.1 Strain-rate Tensor and Data Relating to Yield Criteria 430 11.4.3.2 Virtual Work-rate Principle 433 11.4.3.3 The Prandtl–Reuss Equations 433 11.4.3.4 The Governing Equations of Plastic Deformation 437 11.4.3.5 Shape Functions 437 11.4.3.6 Strain-rate Matrix 438 11.5 The Application of the Finite Element Method in Structural Analysis 438 11.5.1 One-dimensional Finite Elements: Finite Element Analysis of Truss Structure Deformation 439 11.5.2 Two-dimensional Finite Elements: J Integral Calculation 443 11.5.3 Special Two-dimensional Finite Elements in Shear Stress Analysis 447 11.5.3.1 Introduction 447 11.5.3.2 Application of General Quadrilateral Finite Elements 450 References 451 Index 453

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Book SynopsisENGINEERING PHYSICS OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE MATERIALS Discover a comprehensive exploration of high temperature materials written by leading materials scientists In Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials: Metals, Ice, Rocks, and Ceramics distinguished researchers and authors Nirmal K. Sinha and Shoma Sinha deliver a rigorous and wide-ranging discussion of the behavior of different materials at high temperatures. The book discusses a variety of physical phenomena, from plate tectonics and polar sea ice to ice-age and intraglacial depression and the postglacial rebound of Earth's crust, stress relaxation at high temperatures, and microstructure and crack-enhanced Elasto Delayed Elastic Viscous (EDEV) models. At a very high level, Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials (EPHTM) takes a multidisciplinary view of the behavior of materials at temperatures close to their melting point. The volume particularly focuses on a powerful model calleTable of ContentsAcknowledgments xiii Engineering Physics of High-Temperature Materials xv 1 Importance of a Unified Model of High-Temperature Material Behavior 1 1.1 The World’s Kitchens – The Innovation Centers for Materials Development 1 1.1.1 Defining High Temperature Based on Cracking Characteristics 4 1.2 Trinities of Earth’s Structure and Cryosphere 7 1.2.1 Trinity of Earth’s Structure 7 1.2.2 Trinity of Earth’s Cryospheric Regions 7 1.3 Earth’s Natural Materials (Rocks and Ice) 8 1.3.1 Ice: A High-Temperature Material 9 1.3.2 Ice: An Analog to Understand High-Temperature Properties of Solids 10 1.4 Rationalization of Temperature: Low and High 12 1.5 Deglaciation and Earth’s Response 12 1.6 High-Temperature Deformation: Time Dependency 13 1.6.1 Issues with Terminology: Elastic, Plastic, and Viscous Deformation 13 1.6.2 Elastic, Delayed Elastic, and Viscous Deformation 13 1.7 Strength of Materials 16 1.8 Paradigm Shifts 18 1.8.1 Paradigm Shift in Experimental Approach 18 1.8.2 Breaking Tradition for Creep Testing 19 1.8.3 Exemplification the Novel Approach 19 1.8.4 Romanticism for a Constant-Structure Creep Test 23 References 25 2 Nature of Crystalline Substances for Engineering Applications 29 2.1 Basic Materials Classification 30 2.2 Solid-state Materials 31 2.2.1 Structure of Crystalline Solids 31 2.2.2 Structure of Amorphous Solids 33 2.3 General Physical Principles 34 2.3.1 Solidification of Materials 34 2.3.2 Phase Diagrams 35 2.3.3 Crystal Imperfections 37 2.4 Glass and Glassy Phase 40 2.4.1 Glass Transition 40 2.4.2 Structure of Real Glass 41 2.4.3 Composition of Standard Glass 41 2.4.4 Thermal Tempering 42 2.4.5 Material Characteristics 43 2.5 Rocks: The Most Abundant Natural Polycrystalline Material 44 2.5.1 Sedimentary Rocks 44 2.5.2 Metamorphic Rocks 45 2.5.3 Igneous Rocks 45 2.6 Ice: The Second Most Abundant Natural Polycrystalline Material 45 2.7 Ceramics 47 2.8 Metals and Alloys 48 2.8.1 Iron-base Alloys 48 2.8.2 Nickel-base Alloys 50 2.8.3 Titanium-base Alloys 53 2.8.4 Mechanical Metallurgy 54 2.9 Classification of Solids Based on Mechanical Response at High Temperatures 55 References 56 3 Forensic Physical Materialogy 59 3.1 Introduction 59 3.1.1 Material Characterization 60 3.2 Polycrystalline Solids and Crystal Defects 61 3.2.1 Etch-Pitting Technique – A Powerful Tool 63 3.3 Structure and Texture of Natural Hexagonal Ice, Ih 67 3.4 Section Preparation for Microstructural Analysis 69 3.4.1 Thin Sectioning of Ice 69 3.4.2 Large 300mm Diameter Polariscope 69 3.4.3 Sectioning for Forensic Analysis of Compression Failure 70 3.5 Etching of Prepared Section Surfaces 71 3.5.1 Surface Etching 72 3.6 Sublimation Etch Pits in Ice, Ih 72 3.7 Etch-Pitting Technique for Dislocations 75 3.7.1 Simultaneous Etching and Replicating 76 3.7.2 Etching Processes and Their Applications 77 3.8 Chemical Etching and Replicating of Ice Surfaces 79 3.9 Displaying Dislocation Climb by Etching 81 3.10 Thermal Etching: An Unexploited Materialogy Tool 82 References 88 4 Test Techniques and Test Systems 91 4.1 On the Strength of Materials and Test Techniques 91 4.1.1 Issues with Stress–Strain (σ–ε) Diagrams at High Temperatures 93 4.1.2 Fundamentals of Displacement Rate, Strain Rate, and Stress Rate Tests 95 4.1.3 Time – An Important Parameter at High Temperatures 96 4.2 Static Modulus and Dynamic Elastic Modulus 97 4.3 Thermal Expansion Over a Wide Range of Temperature 97 4.4 Creep and Fracture Strength 98 4.5 Bending Tests 99 4.5.1 Three-Point Bending 99 4.5.2 Four-Point Bending 99 4.5.3 Cantilever Beam Bending 102 4.6 Compression Tests – Uniaxial, Biaxial, and Triaxial 103 4.6.1 Uniaxial Compression Tests 103 4.6.2 Biaxial or Confined Compression Tests 103 4.6.3 Triaxial or Multiaxial Compression and Tension Tests 103 4.7 Tensile and/or Compression Test System 104 4.7.1 Tests with Single Top-Lever Loading Frame 104 4.7.2 Universal Testing Machine and Systems: Introduction to SRRT Methodology 105 4.8 Stress Relaxation Tests (SRTs) 107 4.8.1 Necessity for Stress Relaxation Properties 108 4.8.2 Basic Principle of SRTs 109 4.9 Cyclic Fatigue 110 4.9.1 Low-Cycle Fatigue (LCF) and High-Cycle Fatigue (HCF Tests) 110 4.9.2 Uncharted Characteristics of Delayed Elasticity in Cyclic Loading 112 4.9.3 Cyclic Loading of Snow and Thermal Cycling on Asphalt Concrete 113 4.10 Acoustic Emission (AE) and/or Microseismic Activity (MA) 114 4.11 Tempering of Structural and Automotive Glasses 116 4.12 Specimen Size and Geometry: Depending on Material Grain Structure 119 4.13 In Situ Borehole Tests: Inspirations from Rock Mechanics 119 References 123 5 Creep Fundamentals 129 5.1 Overview 130 5.2 On Rheology and Rheological Terminology 132 5.3 Forms of Creep and Deformation Maps 132 5.3.1 Generalization for Polycrystalline Materials 132 5.3.2 Nabarro–Herring Creep 133 5.3.3 Coble Creep 133 5.3.4 Harper–Dorn Creep 133 5.3.5 Ashby–Verrall Creep 133 5.3.6 Deformation Mechanism Maps 134 5.4 Grain-Boundary Shearing or Sliding 134 5.5 Creep Curves – Classical Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Descriptions 135 5.5.1 Elasticity and Annealing of Glass 136 5.5.2 Phenomenological Rheology of Glass 137 5.5.3 Normalized Creep – Another Presentation of Rheology of Glass 140 5.6 Phenomenology of Primary Creep in Metals, Ceramics, and Rocks 144 5.7 Primary Creep in Ice: Launching SRRT Technique and EDEV Model 148 5.8 Grain-Boundary Shearing (gbs) and Grain-Size Dependent Delayed Elasticity 151 5.9 Generalization of EDEV Model: Introduction of Grain-Size Effect 153 5.10 Logarithmic Primary Creep: An Alternative Form of the EDEV Model 157 5.11 Shifting Paradigms: Emphasizing Primary Creep of Polycrystalline Materials 158 5.12 SRRT for Primary Creep and EDEV Model of a Titanium-Base Superalloy (Ti-6246) 158 5.13 SRRT for Primary Creep and EDEV Model for a Nickel-Base Superalloy (Waspaloy) 162 5.14 SRRT for Primary Creep of a Nickel-Rich Iron-Base Alloy (Discaloy) 169 5.15 SRRTs for Primary Creep and EDEV Model of a Nickel-Base Superalloy (IN-738LC) 170 5.16 EDEV-Based Strain-Rate Sensitivity of High-Temperature Yield Strength 175 5.16.1 Constant Strain-Rate Yield 176 5.16.2 Yield Strength of Ti-6246 at 873 K (0.45 Tm) 178 5.16.3 Yield Strength of Waspaloy at 1005 K (0.62 Tm) 178 5.17 Single-Crystal (SX) Superalloy Delayed Elasticity and γ/γ Interface Shearing 185 5.18 Creep, Steady-State Tertiary Stage, and Elasto–Viscous (EV) Model for Single Crystals 191 5.19 Creep Fracture and EV Model for CMSX-10 SXs 194 5.20 Fracture and Inhomogeneous Deformation 198 5.21 Dynamic Steady-State Tertiary Creep of Several Nickel-Base SXs 200 5.21.1 MAR-M-247 Single Crystal 200 5.21.2 CMSX-3 Single Crystal 201 5.21.3 CMSX-4 Single Crystal with Rhenium 202 5.21.4 CMSX-4 Single Crystal 202 5.21.5 TMS-75 Single Crystal 203 5.21.6 SRR99 Single Crystal 205 References 205 6 Phenomenological Creep Failure Models 215 6.1 Creep and Creep Failure 215 6.2 Steady-State Creep 216 6.3 Commonly Used Creep Experiments and Strength Tests 217 6.3.1 Constant Stress and Constant Deformation (CD) Rate Tests 217 6.3.2 A Short Glimpse of Creep Tests 220 6.3.3 Power Law for Creep 220 6.3.4 Larsen and Miller Concept 223 6.3.5 Monkman and Grant (M-G) Relationship 223 6.3.6 Rabotnov–Kachanov Concept for Creep Fracture 224 6.3.7 Breaking Tradition – θ-Projection Concept 224 6.4 Modeling Very Long-Term Creep Rupture from Short-Term Tests 225 6.4.1 Traditional Approaches for Power-Generation Operations 225 6.4.2 Captivating and Entrenched Focus on Minimum Creep Rate 226 6.5 High-Temperature Low-Cycle Fatigue (HT-LCF) and Dwell Fatigue 226 6.6 Crucial Tests on Rate Sensitivity of High-Temperature Strength 227 6.7 Rational Approach Inspired by the Principle of “Hindsight 20/20” 232 References 233 7 High-Temperature Grain-Boundary Embrittlement and Creep 237 7.1 Fracture and Material Failure 237 7.1.1 Griffith’s Model for Crack Propagation 239 7.1.2 Crack Nucleation Mechanisms at Low Homologous Temperatures 240 7.1.3 Acoustic Emissions and Cracks 241 7.1.4 A Novel Treatment of AE and Cracks in Ice Engineering 242 7.2 Grain Size Effects on Strength 245 7.2.1 Popular Low-Temperature Concept of Strength 245 7.2.2 Problems with Estimating Grain Size 245 7.2.3 Inapplicability of the Hall–Petch Relation at High Temperatures 246 7.3 Grain-Boundary Shearing (gbs) Induced Crack Initiation 246 7.3.1 Groundwork for a High-Temperature Crack-Initiation Hypothesis 248 7.3.2 Gold’s Classic Studies on Creep Cracking by Visual Observations 249 7.3.3 Forensic Microstructural Examinations of First Creep Cracks 251 7.3.4 First Grain-Facet-Sized Cracks and Critical Delayed Elastic Criterion 252 7.3.5 Critical Time and Stress for Onset of Creep Fracture 254 7.3.6 Critical Strain for First Cracks (or Fracture Failure) 255 7.3.7 Apparent Activation Energy for First Cracks and Fracture 257 7.3.8 Kinetics of Creep Cracking 258 References 260 8 Microstructure and Crack-Enhanced Elasto – Delayed-Elastic – Viscous Models 265 8.1 Physics-Based Holistic Model Approach 265 8.1.1 On Transient Creep and the Shape of Creep Curves 266 8.1.2 On “Limiting Transient Creep Strain” (εT) 267 8.1.3 On the Traditions of Creep Testing and Shifting Paradigms 268 8.2 Kinetics of Microcracking and Structural Damage 271 8.3 Microcrack-Enhanced EDEV Model 271 8.4 EDEV-Based Algorithm for Constant Strain Rate, Encompassing Cracking 273 8.4.1 EDEV-Based Stress–Strain Diagrams 275 8.5 Constant Stress, Crack-Enhanced Creep: EDEV Predictions 279 8.5.1 Apparent Brittle–Ductile Transition in Constant Stress Creep 281 8.5.2 Power-Law Breakdown for Minimum Creep Rate 283 8.5.3 Grain-Size Effects on Creep with Crack Formation 284 8.5.4 Creep Dilatation in Polycrystalline Columnar-Grained and Equiaxed Solids 287 8.5.5 Crack Damage at Minimum Creep Rate and Upper Yield 291 8.5.6 Strain-Rate Sensitivity of Initial Deformation, Dilatancy, and Residual Strength 293 8.6 Cyclic Fatigue 293 8.6.1 Low-Cycle Constant Strain Rate Loading 294 8.6.2 Low-Cycle, High-Strain Fatigue: Repeated Constant Load 295 8.7 Crack Healing or Closure of w-Type Voids Generating r-Type Cavities 295 References 298 9 Stress Relaxation at High Temperatures 303 9.1 The Role of Stress Relaxation Tests at High Temperatures 303 9.1.1 Traditional SRTs 304 9.1.2 Phenomenology of Stress Relaxation 306 9.1.3 Capabilities and Inadequacies of SRT for Creep Estimation 308 9.1.4 Rationalization of SRT Processes 309 9.1.5 SRT on Coarse-Grained Materials 310 9.1.6 New Approaches for Examining Applicability of SRT for Fine-Grained Materials 313 9.1.7 Grain-Size-Based Optimization of Initial Strain, ε0, for SRT 317 9.2 Constitutive Equations without Effect of Grain Size 318 9.2.1 Constitutive Equation for Uniaxial Creep at High Temperatures 318 9.2.2 SR Based on Constitutive Equation 321 9.2.3 Type-A Engineering Prediction for SRT 321 9.3 Temperature and Grain-Size Effects on SR 327 9.3.1 EDEV Constitutive Equation Incorporating Grain Size and Temperature 327 9.3.2 EDEV-Based SRT Algorithm for Grain-Size and Temperature Dependency 328 9.3.3 Lack of Grain-Size-Dependent Data on Primary Creep of Engineering Materials 328 9.4 Forecasting Grain-Size Effects on SR in Pure Ice Based on EDEV Equation 328 9.4.1 Basis of Calculation for Ice 329 9.4.2 Effect of Strain, ε0 (Constant Temperature and Grain Size) 329 9.4.3 Effect of Temperature (Constant Strain and Grain Size) 331 9.4.4 Effect of Grain Size (Constant Strain and Temperature) 331 9.4.5 Strain (ε0) Dependence of Strain Components (Constant Temperature and Grain Size) 332 9.4.6 Grain-Size Effect on Strain Components During SRT (Constant Strain and Temperature) 332 9.4.7 Comments on SRTs Related to Ice and Field Experience 332 9.5 High-Temperature Forming, Delayed Spring-Back, and Grain-Size Effects on SR in Metals 335 References 339 10 Ice Age and Intraglacial Depression and Postglacial Rebound of Earth’s Crust 343 10.1 Tectonic Plates, Lake Ice, and High-Temperature Materials: What Is the Connection? 343 10.2 On Glaciers and Oceanic Ice Cover: Past and Present 345 10.2.1 Rise of Canada – Postglacial Uplift 346 10.2.2 Postglacial Adjustments of North America’s Landscape 346 10.3 Dow’s Lake Studies 347 10.3.1 Dow’s Lake Ice Sheet: Crowd Load/Unload During Winter of 1985 347 10.3.2 Swimming Pool Loading Experiment on Dow’s Lake Ice in 1986 351 10.4 Elasto – Delayed-Elastic (EDE) Theory for Plates 356 References 362 11 Plate Tectonics and Polar Sea Ice 365 11.1 Retrospective Introduction 365 11.2 Earth and Plate Tectonics 368 11.2.1 On Sea Ice: Analog for Tectonic Plates 369 11.2.2 Trinity of Tectonic Plates 371 11.2.3 Trinity of Tectonic Plate Boundaries 371 11.3 Scale of Observations 372 11.3.1 Messengers of Earth Below and Sky Above 376 11.4 Vertical Temperature Profiles of Earth and Ice Sheet 378 11.5 Time–Temperature Shift Function 381 11.6 Nonlinear, Grain-Size-Dependent Delayed Elasticity (Anelasticity) of Mantle 382 11.7 Stress Field of Earth’s Crust 385 11.8 Koyna and Warna Dams in India and Reservoir-Triggered Seismicity (RTS) 386 11.9 Movement of Tectonic Plates, Indentation, and Fracture 391 11.10 Looking Forward 394 References 395 Index 401

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 1 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 4 1.2.1 Systems of Units 7 1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior 12 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 12 1.4.1 Density 12 1.4.2 Specific Weight 14 1.4.3 Specific Gravity 14 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 14 1.6 Viscosity 17 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 23 1.7.1 Bulk Modulus 23 1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases 24 1.7.3 Speed of Sound 25 1.8 Vapor Pressure 26 1.9 Surface Tension 27 1.10 A Brief Look Back in History 30 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 32 References 34 2 Fluid Statics 35 Learning Objectives 35 2.1 Pressure at a Point 35 2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field 36 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 38 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid 39 2.3.2 Compressible Fluid 42 2.4 Standard Atmosphere 43 2.5 Measurement of Pressure 45 2.6 Manometry 47 2.6.1 Piezometer Tube 47 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer 48 2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer 50 2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices 51 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 54 2.9 Pressure Prism 60 2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface 63 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 65 2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle 65 2.11.2 Stability 68 2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 70 2.12.1 Linear Motion 70 2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation 72 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 74 References 75 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 76 Learning Objectives 76 3.1 Newton’s Second Law 76 3.2 F = ma along a Streamline 79 3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline 83 3.4 Physical Interpretations and Alternate Forms of the Bernoulli Equation 85 3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 88 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 93 3.6.1 Free Jets 93 3.6.2 Confined Flows 96 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement 102 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line 106 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 109 3.8.1 Compressibility Effects 109 3.8.2 Unsteady Effects 110 3.8.3 Rotational Effects 111 3.8.4 Other Restrictions 112 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 113 References 114 4 Fluid Kinematics 115 Learning Objectives 115 4.1 The Velocity Field 115 4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions 118 4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows 119 4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 120 4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines 120 4.2 The Acceleration Field 124 4.2.1 Acceleration and the Material Derivative 124 4.2.2 Unsteady Effects 127 4.2.3 Convective Effects 127 4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates 130 4.3 Control Volume and System Representations 132 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 134 4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem 136 4.4.2 Physical Interpretation 141 4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative 141 4.4.4 Steady Effects 142 4.4.5 Unsteady Effects 142 4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes 143 4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume 145 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 145 References 146 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis 147 Learning Objectives 147 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 148 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation 148 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume 150 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume 156 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 158 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 160 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation 160 5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation 161 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 174 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 176 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 182 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation 182 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation 185 5.3.3 The Mechanical Energy Equation and the Bernoulli Equation 189 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows 195 5.3.5 Comparison of Various Forms of the Energy Equation 197 5.3.6 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 199 5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics—Irreversible Flow 200 5.4.1 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy Equation 200 5.4.2 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics 201 5.4.3 Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 202 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 203 References 204 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow 205 Learning Objectives 205 6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 206 6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited 206 6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation 207 6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation 208 6.2 Conservation of Mass 211 6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity Equation 211 6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 214 6.2.3 The Stream Function 214 6.3 The Linear Momentum Equation 217 6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element 218 6.3.2 Equations of Motion 220 6.4 Inviscid Flow 221 6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion 221 6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation 222 6.4.3 Irrotational Flow 223 6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow 225 6.4.5 The Velocity Potential 226 6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows 228 6.5.1 Uniform Flow 230 6.5.2 Source and Sink 230 6.5.3 Vortex 232 6.5.4 Doublet 235 6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows 237 6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body 237 6.6.2 Rankine Ovals 240 6.6.3 Flow Around a Circular Cylinder 242 6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis 248 6.8 Viscous Flow 248 6.8.1 Stress–Deformation Relationships 249 6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations 249 6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Laminar, Viscous, Incompressible Flows 251 6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates 251 6.9.2 Couette Flow 253 6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes 255 6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus 258 6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis 260 6.10.1 Numerical Methods 260 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 261 References 262 7 Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling 263 Learning Objectives 263 7.1 The Need for Dimensional Analysis 264 7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem 266 7.3 Determination of Pi Terms 267 7.4 Some Additional Comments about Dimensional Analysis 273 7.4.1 Selection of Variables 273 7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions 274 7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms 276 7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection 276 7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 278 7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data 283 7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term 283 7.7.2 Problems with Two or More Pi Terms 284 7.8 Modeling and Similitude 286 7.8.1 Theory of Models 287 7.8.2 Model Scales 290 7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models 291 7.9 Some Typical Model Studies 293 7.9.1 Flow Through Closed Conduits 293 7.9.2 Flow Around Immersed Bodies 295 7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface 299 7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations 302 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 305 References 306 8 Viscous Flow in Pipes 307 Learning Objectives 307 8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 308 8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow 309 8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow 311 8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 312 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 313 8.2.1 From F = ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element 314 8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes Equations 318 8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis 319 8.2.4 Energy Considerations 320 8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 322 8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 322 8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress 324 8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile 329 8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling 332 8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence 333 8.4 Pipe Flow Losses via Dimensional Analysis 333 8.4.1 Major Losses 333 8.4.2 Minor Losses 339 8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits 348 8.5 Pipe Flow Examples 351 8.5.1 Single Pipes 351 8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems 360 8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement 364 8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters 364 8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters 369 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 370 References 372 9 Flow over Immersed Bodies 373 Learning Objectives 373 9.1 General External Flow Characteristics 374 9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts 375 9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 378 9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 382 9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate 382 9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution 385 9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate 389 9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 394 9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 396 9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient 399 9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient 404 9.3 Drag 405 9.3.1 Friction Drag 405 9.3.2 Pressure Drag 407 9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples 409 9.4 Lift 422 9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution 424 9.4.2 Circulation 429 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 434 References 435 10 Open-Channel Flow 437 Learning Objectives 437 10.1 General Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 437 10.2 Surface Waves 439 10.2.1 Wave Speed 439 10.2.2 Froude Number Effects 442 10.3 Energy Considerations 444 10.3.1 Energy Balance 444 10.3.2 Specific Energy 445 10.4 Uniform Flow 448 10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations 448 10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations 449 10.4.3 Uniform Flow Examples 451 10.5 Gradually Varied Flow 457 10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow 458 10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump 460 10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs 464 10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs 467 10.6.4 Underflow (Sluice) Gates 470 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 471 References 472 11 Compressible Flow 473 Learning Objectives 473 11.1 Ideal Gas Thermodynamics 474 11.2 Stagnation Properties 479 11.3 Mach Number and Speed of Sound 480 11.4 Compressible Flow Regimes 485 11.5 Shock Waves 489 11.5.1 Normal Shock 489 11.6 Isentropic Flow 495 11.6.1 Steady Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 495 11.6.2 Incompressible Flow and the Bernoulli Equation 498 11.6.3 The Critical State 500 11.7 One-Dimensional Flow in a Variable Area Duct 500 11.7.1 General Considerations 501 11.7.2 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas with Area Change 504 11.7.3 Operation of a Converging Nozzle 510 11.7.4 Operation of a Converging–Diverging Nozzle 512 11.8 Constant-Area Duct Flow with Friction 516 11.8.1 Preliminary Consideration: Comparison with Incompressible Duct Flow 516 11.8.2 The Fanno Line 517 11.8.3 Adiabatic Frictional Flow (Fanno Flow) of an Ideal Gas 520 11.9 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Heating or Cooling 528 11.9.1 The Rayleigh Line 528 11.9.2 Frictionless Flow of an Ideal Gas with Heating or Cooling (Rayleigh Flow) 531 11.9.3 Rayleigh Lines, Fanno Lines, and Normal Shocks 534 11.10 Analogy Between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows 535 11.11 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow 536 11.12 Effects of Compressibility in External Flow 538 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 541 References 544 12 Turbomachines 545 Learning Objectives 545 12.1 Introduction 546 12.2 Basic Energy Considerations 547 12.3 Angular Momentum Considerations 551 12.4 The Centrifugal Pump 553 12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations 554 12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 558 12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 560 12.4.4 System Characteristics, Pump-System Matching, and Pump Selection 562 12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws 566 12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws 568 12.5.2 Specific Speed 569 12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed 570 12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps 571 12.7 Fans 573 12.8 Turbines 574 12.8.1 Impulse Turbines 575 12.8.2 Reaction Turbines 582 12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 585 12.9.1 Compressors 585 12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines 589 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 591 References 593 Appendix A Computational Fluid Dynamics 594 Appendix B Physical Properties of Fluids 613 Appendix C Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 618 Appendix D Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 620 Appendix E Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors 628 Questions and Problems SP-1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsList of Symbols xix 1. Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 Case Study 1.1—Cargo Ship Failures 6 1.4 Classification of Materials 7 Case Study 1.2—Carbonated Beverage Containers 12 1.5 Advanced Materials 14 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 17 Summary 18 References 18 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19 Learning Objectives 20 2.1 Introduction 20 Atomic Structure 20 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 20 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 22 2.4 The Periodic Table 28 Atomic Bonding in Solids 30 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 30 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 32 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 39 Materials of Importance 2.1—Water (Its Volume Expansion upon Freezing) 42 2.8 Mixed Bonding 43 2.9 Molecules 44 2.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations 44 Summary 45 Equation Summary 46 List of Symbols 46 Important Terms and Concepts 47 References 47 3. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 48 Learning Objectives 49 3.1 Introduction 49 Crystal Structures 49 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 49 3.3 Unit Cells 50 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 51 3.5 Density Computations—Metals 57 3.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 57 3.7 Density Computations—Ceramics 63 3.8 Silicate Ceramics 64 3.9 Carbon 68 3.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 69 3.11 Crystal Systems 69 Material of Importance 3.1—Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 71 Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 72 3.12 Point Coordinates 72 3.13 Crystallographic Directions 74 3.14 Crystallographic Planes 81 3.15 Linear and Planar Densities 87 3.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 88 Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 91 3.17 Single Crystals 91 3.18 Polycrystalline Materials 92 3.19 Anisotropy 92 3.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 94 3.21 Noncrystalline Solids 99 Summary 101 Equation Summary 103 List of Symbols 104 Important Terms and Concepts 105 References 105 4. Polymer Structures 106 Learning Objectives 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 107 4.3 Polymer Molecules 110 4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 110 4.5 Molecular Weight 114 4.6 Molecular Shape 117 4.7 Molecular Structure 119 4.8 Molecular Configurations 120 4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 123 4.10 Copolymers 124 4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 125 4.12 Polymer Crystals 129 Summary 131 Equation Summary 132 List of Symbols 133 Important Terms and Concepts 133 References 133 5. Imperfections in Solids 134 Learning Objectives 135 5.1 Introduction 135 Point Defects 136 5.2 Point Defects in Metals 136 5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 137 5.4 Impurities in Solids 140 5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 145 5.6 Specification of Composition 145 Miscellaneous Imperfections 149 5.7 Dislocations—Linear Defects 149 5.8 Interfacial Defects 152 Materials of Importance 5.1—Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 155 5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 156 5.10 Atomic Vibrations 156 Microscopic Examination 157 5.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 157 5.12 Microscopic Techniques 158 5.13 Grain-Size Determination 162 Summary 165 Equation Summary 167 List of Symbols 167 Important Terms and Concepts 168 References 168 6. Diffusion 169 Learning Objectives 170 6.1 Introduction 170 6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 171 6.3 Fick’s First Law 172 6.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion 174 6.5 Factors that Influence Diffusion 178 6.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 183 Materials of Importance 6.1—Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 186 6.7 Other Diffusion Paths 187 6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 187 Summary 190 Equation Summary 191 List of Symbols 192 Important Terms and Concepts 192 References 192 7. Mechanical Properties 193 Learning Objectives 194 7.1 Introduction 194 7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 195 Elastic Deformation 199 7.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 199 7.4 Anelasticity 202 7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 203 Mechanical Behavior—Metals 205 7.6 Tensile Properties 206 7.7 True Stress and Strain 213 7.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 216 7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations 216 Mechanical Behavior—Ceramics 217 7.10 Flexural Strength 217 7.11 Elastic Behavior 218 7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 218 Mechanical Behavior—Polymers 220 7.13 Stress–Strain Behavior 220 7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 222 7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 223 Hardness and Other Mechanical Property Considerations 227 7.16 Hardness 227 7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 232 7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 233 Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 234 7.19 Variability of Material Properties 234 7.20 Design/Safety Factors 236 Summary 240 Equation Summary 242 List of Symbols 243 Important Terms and Concepts 244 References 244 8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 246 Learning Objectives 247 8.1 Introduction 247 Deformation Mechanisms for Metals 247 8.2 Historical 248 8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 248 8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 250 8.5 Slip Systems 251 8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 253 8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 256 8.8 Deformation by Twinning 258 Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 259 8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 259 8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 261 8.11 Strain Hardening 262 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 265 8.12 Recovery 265 8.13 Recrystallization 266 8.14 Grain Growth 270 Deformation Mechanisms for Ceramic Materials 272 8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 272 8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 272 Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 273 8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 273 8.18 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 275 Materials of Importance 8.1—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 278 8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 279 Summary 281 Equation Summary 284 List of Symbols 284 Important Terms and Concepts 284 References 285 9. Failure 286 Learning Objectives 287 9.1 Introduction 287 Fracture 288 9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 288 9.3 Ductile Fracture 288 9.4 Brittle Fracture 290 9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 292 9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 301 9.7 Fracture of Polymers 305 9.8 Fracture Toughness Testing 307 Fatigue 311 9.9 Cyclic Stresses 312 9.10 The S–N Curve 313 9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 318 9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 319 9.13 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 321 9.14 Environmental Effects 323 Creep 324 9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 324 9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 325 9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 328 9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 329 9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 330 Summary 330 Equation Summary 333 List of Symbols 334 Important Terms and Concepts 335 References 335 10. Phase Diagrams 336 Learning Objectives 337 10.1 Introduction 337 Definitions and Basic Concepts 337 10.2 Solubility Limit 338 10.3 Phases 339 10.4 Microstructure 339 10.5 Phase Equilibria 339 10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 340 Binary Phase Diagrams 341 10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 342 10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 344 10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 348 10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 351 10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 351 10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 357 Materials of Importance 10.1—Lead-Free Solders 358 10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 364 10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 367 10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 368 10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 369 10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 372 10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 373 The Iron–Carbon System 375 10.19 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 375 10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 378 10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 385 Summary 386 Equation Summary 388 List of Symbols 389 Important Terms and Concepts 389 References 389 11. Phase Transformations 390 Learning Objectives 391 11.1 Introduction 391 Phase Transformations in Metals 391 11.2 Basic Concepts 392 11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 392 11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 403 Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron–Carbon Alloys 404 11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 404 11.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 415 11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 418 11.8 Tempered Martensite 422 11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 425 Materials of Importance 11.1—ShapeMemory Alloys 428 Precipitation Hardening 431 11.10 Heat Treatments 431 11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 433 11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 435 Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena in Polymers 436 11.13 Crystallization 436 11.14 Melting 437 11.15 The Glass Transition 437 11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 438 11.17 Factors that Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 438 Summary 441 Equation Summary 443 List of Symbols 444 Important Terms and Concepts 444 References 444 12. Electrical Properties 445 Learning Objectives 446 12.1 Introduction 446 Electrical Conduction 446 12.2 Ohm’s Law 446 12.3 Electrical Conductivity 447 12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 448 12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 448 12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 450 12.7 Electron Mobility 452 12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 453 12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 456 Semiconductivity 456 12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 456 12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 459 12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 462 12.13 Factors that Affect Carrier Mobility 463 12.14 The Hall Effect 467 12.15 Semiconductor Devices 469 Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 475 12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 476 12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 476 Dielectric Behavior 477 12.18 Capacitance 477 12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 479 12.20 Types of Polarization 482 12.21 Frequency Dependence of The Dielectric Constant 484 12.22 Dielectric Strength 485 12.23 Dielectric Materials 485 Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 485 12.24 Ferroelectricity 485 12.25 Piezoelectricity 486 Material of Importance 12.1—Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 487 Summary 487 Equation Summary 491 List of Symbols 491 Important Terms and Concepts 492 References 492 13. Types and Applications of Materials 493 Learning Objectives 494 13.1 Introduction 494 Types of Metal Alloys 494 13.2 Ferrous Alloys 494 13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 507 Materials of Importance 13.1—Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 517 Types of Ceramics 518 13.4 Glasses 519 13.5 Glass-Ceramics 519 13.6 Clay Products 521 13.7 Refractories 521 13.8 Abrasives 524 13.9 Cements 526 13.10 Ceramic Biomaterials 527 13.11 Carbons 528 13.12 Advanced Ceramics 531 Types of Polymers 536 13.13 Plastics 536 Materials of Importance 13.2—Phenolic Billiard Balls 539 13.14 Elastomers 539 13.15 Fibers 541 13.16 Miscellaneous Applications 542 13.17 Polymeric Biomaterials 543 13.18 Advanced Polymeric Materials 545 Summary 549 Important Terms and Concepts 552 References 552 14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 553 Learning Objectives 554 14.1 Introduction 554 Fabrication of Metals 554 14.2 Forming Operations 555 14.3 Casting 556 14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 558 14.5 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) 559 Thermal Processing of Metals 563 14.6 Annealing Processes 563 14.7 Heat Treatment of Steels 566 Fabrication of Ceramic Materials 577 14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 577 14.9 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 583 14.10 Powder Pressing 587 14.11 Tape Casting 589 14.12 3D Printing of Ceramic Materials 590 Synthesis and Fabrication of Polymers 591 14.13 Polymerization 591 14.14 Polymer Additives 594 14.15 Forming Techniques for Plastics 595 14.16 Fabrication of Elastomers 598 14.17 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 598 14.18 3D Printing of Polymers 599 Summary 602 Important Terms and Concepts 604 References 605 15. Composites 606 Learning Objectives 607 15.1 Introduction 607 Particle-Reinforced Composites 609 15.2 Large–Particle Composites 609 15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 613 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 613 15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 614 15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 615 15.6 The Fiber Phase 623 15.7 The Matrix Phase 625 15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 625 15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 631 15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 632 15.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 634 15.12 Hybrid Composites 634 15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 635 Structural Composites 637 15.14 Laminar Composites 637 15.15 Sandwich Panels 639 Case Study 15.1—Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 641 15.16 Nanocomposites 642 Summary 644 Equation Summary 647 List of Symbols 647 Important Terms and Concepts 648 References 648 16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 649 Learning Objectives 650 16.1 Introduction 650 Corrosion of Metals 651 16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 651 16.3 Corrosion Rates 657 16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 659 16.5 Passivity 665 16.6 Environmental Effects 666 16.7 Forms of Corrosion 667 16.8 Corrosion Environments 674 16.9 Corrosion Prevention 675 16.10 Oxidation 677 Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 681 Degradation of Polymers 681 16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 681 16.12 Bond Rupture 683 16.13 Weathering 685 Summary 685 Equation Summary 687 List of Symbols 688 Important Terms and Concepts 689 References 689 17. Thermal Properties 690 Learning Objectives 691 17.1 Introduction 691 17.2 Heat Capacity 691 17.3 Thermal Expansion 695 Materials of Importance 17.1—Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 697 17.4 Thermal Conductivity 698 17.5 Thermal Stresses 701 Summary 703 Equation Summary 704 List of Symbols 705 Important Terms and Concepts 705 References 705 18. Magnetic Properties 706 Learning Objectives 707 18.1 Introduction 707 18.2 Basic Concepts 707 18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 711 18.4 Ferromagnetism 713 18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 714 18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 718 18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 719 18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 722 18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 724 Materials of Importance 18.1—An Iron–Silicon Alloy that Is Used in Transformer Cores 724 18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 726 18.11 Magnetic Storage 729 18.12 Superconductivity 732 Summary 735 Equation Summary 737 List of Symbols 737 Important Terms and Concepts 738 References 738 19. Optical Properties 739 Learning Objectives 740 19.1 Introduction 740 Basic Concepts 740 19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 740 19.3 Light Interactions with Solids 742 19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 743 Optical Properties of Metals 744 Optical Properties of Nonmetals 745 19.5 Refraction 745 19.6 Reflection 747 19.7 Absorption 747 19.8 Transmission 751 19.9 Color 751 19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 753 Applications of Optical Phenomena 754 19.11 Luminescence 754 19.12 Photoconductivity 754 Materials of Importance 19.1—LightEmitting Diodes 755 19.13 Lasers 757 19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 761 Summary 763 Equation Summary 765 List of Symbols 766 Important Terms and Concepts 766 References 766 20. Environmental and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 767 Learning Objectives 768 20.1 Introduction 768 20.2 Environmental and Societal Considerations 768 20.3 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 771 Materials of Importance 20.1— Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 775 Summary 777 References 778 Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) A-1 A.1: The SI Base Units A-1 A.2: Some SI-Derived Units A-2 A.3: SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes A-2 A.4: Unit Abbreviations A-3 A.5: Unit Conversion Factors A-3 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-5 B.1: Density A-5 B.2: Modulus of Elasticity A-8 B.3: Poisson’s Ratio A-12 B.4: Strength and Ductility A-13 B.5: Plane Strain Fracture Toughness A-18 B.6: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion A-20 B.7: Thermal Conductivity A-23 B.8: Specific Heat A-26 B.9: Electrical Resistivity A-29 B.10: Metal Alloy Compositions A-32 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials A-34 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers A-39 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials A-43 Appendix F Characteristics of Selected Elements A-44 Appendix G Values of Selected Physical Constants A-45 Appendix H Periodic Table of the Elements A-45 Glossary G-1 Questions and Problems P-1 Answers to Selected Problems P-A1 Index I-1

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Book SynopsisWhat are the chemical aspects of graphene as a novel 2D material and how do they relate to the molecular structure? This book addresses these important questions from a theoretical and computational standpoint.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xv Preface xix Acknowledgements xxi 1 Introduction 1 De-en Jiang and Zhongfang Chen 2 Intrinsic Magnetism in Edge-Reconstructed Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons 9 Zexing Qu and Chungen Liu 2.1 Methodology 10 2.1.1 Effective Valence Bond Model 10 2.1.2 Density Matrix Renormalization Group Method 11 2.1.3 Density Functional Theory Calculations 12 2.2 Polyacene 12 2.3 Polyazulene 14 2.4 Edge-Reconstructed Graphene 17 2.4.1 Energy Gap 17 2.4.2 Frontier Molecular Orbitals 18 2.4.3 Projected Density of States 19 2.4.4 Spin Density in the Triplet State 20 2.5 Conclusion 22 Acknowledgments 23 References 23 3 Understanding Aromaticity of Graphene and Graphene Nanoribbons by the Clar Sextet Rule 29 Dihua Wu, Xingfa Gao, Zhen Zhou, and Zhongfang Chen 3.1 Introduction 29 3.1.1 Aromaticity and Clar Theory 30 3.1.2 Previous Studies of Carbon Nanotubes 33 3.2 Armchair Graphene Nanoribbons 34 3.2.1 The Clar Structure of Armchair Graphene Nanoribbons 34 3.2.2 Aromaticity of Armchair Graphene Nanoribbons and Band Gap Periodicity 37 3.3 Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons 40 3.3.1 Clar Formulas of Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons 40 3.3.2 Reactivity of Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons 40 3.4 Aromaticity of Graphene 42 3.5 Perspectives 44 Acknowledgements 45 References 45 4 Physical Properties of Graphene Nanoribbons: Insights from First-Principles Studies 51 Dana Krepel and Oded Hod 4.1 Introduction 51 4.2 Electronic Properties of Graphene Nanoribbons 53 4.2.1 Zigzag Graphene Nanoribbons 53 4.2.2 Armchair Graphene Nanoribbons 56 4.2.3 Graphene Nanoribbons with Finite Length 58 4.2.4 Surface Chemical Adsorption 60 4.3 Mechanical and Electromechanical Properties of GNRs 63 4.4 Summary 66 Acknowledgements 66 References 66 5 Cutting Graphitic Materials: A Promising Way to Prepare Graphene Nanoribbons 79 Wenhua Zhang and Zhenyu Li 5.1 Introduction 79 5.2 Oxidative Cutting of Graphene Sheets 80 5.2.1 Cutting Mechanisms 80 5.2.2 Controllable Cutting 83 5.3 Unzipping Carbon Nanotubes 85 5.3.1 Unzipping Mechanisms Based on Atomic Oxygen 86 5.3.2 Unzipping Mechanisms Based on Oxygen Pairs 88 5.4 Beyond Oxidative Cutting 91 5.4.1 Metal Nanoparticle Catalyzed Cutting 92 5.4.2 Cutting by Fluorination 95 5.5 Summary 96 References 96 6 Properties of Nanographenes 101 Michael R. Philpott 6.1 Introduction 101 6.2 Synthesis 103 6.3 Computation 103 6.4 Geometry of Zigzag-Edged Hexangulenes 104 6.5 Geometry of Armchair-Edged Hexangulenes 107 6.6 Geometry of Zigzag-Edged Triangulenes 110 6.7 Magnetism of Zigzag-Edged Hexangulenes 112 6.8 Magnetism of Zigzag-Edged Triangulenes 114 6.9 Chimeric Magnetism 115 6.10 Magnetism of Oligocenes, Bisanthene-Homologs, Squares and Rectangles 117 6.10.1 Oligocene Series: C4m+2H2m+4 (na=1; m=2, 3, 4 . . .) 117 6.10.2 Bisanthene Series: C8m+4H2m+8 (na 3; m=2, 3, 4 . . .) 119 6.10.3 Square and Rectangular Nano-Graphenes: C8m+4H2m+8 (m=2, 3, 4 . . .) 122 6.11 Concluding Remarks 122 Acknowledgment 123 References 124 7 Porous Graphene and Nanomeshes 129 Yan Jiao, Marlies Hankel, Aijun Du, and Sean C. Smith 7.1 Introduction 129 7.1.1 Graphene-Based Nanomeshes 130 7.1.2 Graphene-Like Polymers 130 7.1.3 Other Relevant Subjects 131 7.1.3.1 Isotope Separation 131 7.1.3.2 Van der Waals Correction for Density Functional Theory 132 7.1.3.3 Potential Energy Surfaces for Hindered Molecular Motions Within the Narrow Pores 133 7.2 Transition State Theory 134 7.2.1 A Brief Introduction of the Idea 134 7.2.2 Evaluating Partition Functions: The Well-Separated “Reactant” State 136 7.2.3 Evaluating Partition Functions: The Fully Coupled 4D TS Calculation 137 7.2.4 Evaluating Partition Functions: Harmonic Approximation for the TS Derived Directly from Density Functional Theory Calculations 138 7.3 Gas and Isotope Separation 139 7.3.1 Gas Separation and Storage by Porous Graphene 139 7.3.1.1 Porous Graphene for Hydrogen Purification and Storage 139 7.3.1.2 Porous Graphene for Isotope Separation 140 7.3.2 Nitrogen Functionalized Porous Graphene for Hydrogen Purification/Storage and Isotope Separation 140 7.3.2.1 Introduction 140 7.3.2.2 NPG and its Asymmetrically Doped Version for D2/H2 Separation – A Case Study 141 7.3.3 Graphdiyne for Hydrogen Purification 144 7.4 Conclusion and Perspectives 147 Acknowledgement 147 References 147 8 Graphene-Based Architecture and Assemblies 153 Hongyan Guo, Rui Liu, Xiao Cheng Zeng, and Xiaojun Wu 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Fullerene Polymers 154 8.3 Carbon Nanotube Superarchitecture 156 8.4 Graphene Superarchitectures 160 8.5 C60/Carbon Nanotube/Graphene Hybrid Superarchitectures 163 8.5.1 Nanopeapods 163 8.5.2 Carbon Nanobuds 165 8.5.3 Graphene Nanobuds 168 8.5.4 Nanosieves and Nanofunnels 169 8.6 Boron-Nitride Nanotubes and Monolayer Superarchitectures 171 8.7 Conclusion 173 Acknowledgments 173 References 174 9 Doped Graphene: Theory, Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 183 Florentino López-Urías, Ruitao Lv, Humberto Terrones, and Mauricio Terrones 9.1 Introduction 183 9.2 Substitutional Doping of Graphene Sheets 184 9.3 Substitutional Doping of Graphene Nanoribbons 194 9.4 Synthesis and Characterization Techniques of Doped Graphene 196 9.5 Applications of Doped Graphene Sheets and Nanoribbons 200 9.6 Future Work 201 Acknowledgments 202 References 202 10 Adsorption of Molecules on Graphene 209 O. Leenaerts, B. Partoens, and F. M. Peeters 10.1 Introduction 209 10.2 Physisorption versus Chemisorption 210 10.3 General Aspects of Adsorption of Molecules on Graphene 212 10.4 Various Ways of Doping Graphene with Molecules 215 10.4.1 Open-Shell Adsorbates 215 10.4.2 Inert Adsorbates 217 10.4.3 Electrochemical Surface Transfer Doping 220 10.5 Enhancing the Graphene-Molecule Interaction 221 10.5.1 Substitutional Doping 221 10.5.2 Adatoms and Adlayers 222 10.5.3 Edges and Defects 224 10.5.4 External Electric Fields 224 10.5.5 Surface Bending 225 10.6 Conclusion 226 References 226 11 Surface Functionalization of Graphene 233 Maria Peressi 11.1 Introduction 233 11.2 Functionalized Graphene: Properties and Challenges 236 11.3 Theoretical Approach 237 11.4 Interaction of Graphene with Specific Atoms and Functional Groups 238 11.4.1 Interaction with Hydrogen 238 11.4.2 Interaction with Oxygen 240 11.4.3 Interaction with Hydroxyl Groups 241 11.4.4 Interaction with Other Atoms, Molecules, and Functional Groups 245 11.5 Surface Functionalization of Graphene Nanoribbons 247 11.6 Conclusions 248 References 249 12 Mechanisms of Graphene Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Growth 255 Xiuyun Zhang, Qinghong Yuan, Haibo Shu, and Feng Ding 12.1 Background 255 12.1.1 Graphene and Defects in Graphene 255 12.1.2 Comparison of Methods of Graphene Synthesis 257 12.1.3 Graphene Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Growth 257 12.1.3.1 The Status of Graphene CVD Growth 257 12.1.3.2 Phenomenological Mechanism 260 12.1.3.3 Challenges in Graphene CVD Growth 260 12.2 The Initial Nucleation Stage of Graphene CVD Growth 261 12.2.1 C Precursors on Catalyst Surfaces 262 12.2.2 The sp C Chain on Catalyst Surfaces 262 12.2.3 The sp2 Graphene Islands 263 12.2.4 The Magic Sized sp2 Carbon Clusters 264 12.2.5 Nucleation of Graphene on Terrace versus Near Step 266 12.3 Continuous Growth of Graphene 271 12.3.1 The Upright Standing Graphene Formation on Catalyst Surfaces 271 12.3.2 Edge Reconstructions on Metal Surfaces 273 12.3.3 Growth Rate of Graphene and Shape Determination 275 12.3.4 Nonlinear Growth of Graphene on Ru and Ir Surfaces 276 12.4 Graphene Orientation Determination in CVD Growth 278 12.5 Summary and Perspectives 280 References 282 13 From Graphene to Graphene Oxide and Back 291 Xingfa Gao, Yuliang Zhao, and Zhongfang Chen 13.1 Introduction 291 13.2 From Graphene to Graphene Oxide 292 13.2.1 Modeling Using Cluster Models 292 13.2.1.1 Oxidative Etching of Armchair Edges 292 13.2.1.2 Oxidative Etching of Zigzag Edges 293 13.2.1.3 Linear Oxidative Unzipping 294 13.2.1.4 Spins upon Linear Oxidative Unzipping 296 13.3 Modeling Using PBC Models 297 13.3.1 Oxidative Creation of Vacancy Defects 297 13.3.2 Oxidative Etching of Vacancy Defects 298 13.3.3 Linear Oxidative Unzipping 299 13.3.4 Linear Oxidative Cutting 300 13.4 From Graphene Oxide back to Graphene 302 13.4.1 Modeling Using Cluster Models 302 13.4.1.1 Cluster Models for Graphene Oxide 302 13.4.1.2 Hydrazine De-Epoxidation 302 13.4.1.3 Thermal De-Hydroxylation 307 13.4.1.4 Thermal De-Carbonylation and De-Carboxylation 308 13.4.1.5 Temperature Effect on De-Epoxidation and De-Hydroxylation 309 13.4.1.6 Residual Groups of Graphene Oxide Reduced by Hydrazine and Heat 311 13.4.2 Modeling Using Periodic Boundary Conditions 312 13.4.2.1 Hydrazine De-Epoxidation 312 13.4.2.2 Thermal De-Epoxidation 313 13.5 Concluding Remarks 314 Acknowledgement 314 References 314 14 Electronic Transport in Graphitic Carbon Nanoribbons 319 Eduardo Costa Girão, Liangbo Liang, Jonathan Owens, Eduardo Cruz-Silva, Bobby G. Sumpter, and Vincent Meunier 14.1 Introduction 319 14.2 Theoretical Background 320 14.2.1 Electronic Structure 320 14.2.1.1 Density Functional Theory 320 14.2.1.2 Semi-Empirical Methods 320 14.2.2 Electronic Transport at the Nanoscale 322 14.3 From Graphene to Ribbons 324 14.3.1 Graphene 324 14.3.2 Graphene Nanoribbons 325 14.4 Graphene Nanoribbon Synthesis and Processing 329 14.5 Tailoring GNR’s Electronic Properties 330 14.5.1 Defect-Based Modifications of the Electronic Properties 331 14.5.1.1 Non-Hexagonal Rings 331 14.5.1.2 Edge and Bulk Disorder 332 14.5.2 Electronic Properties of Chemically Doped Graphene Nanoribbons 332 14.5.2.1 Substitutional Doping of Graphene Nanoribbons 332 14.5.2.2 Chemical Functionalization of Graphene Nanoribbons 333 14.5.3 GNR Assemblies 334 14.5.3.1 Nanowiggles 334 14.5.3.2 Antidots and Junctions 335 14.5.3.3 GNR Rings 335 14.5.3.4 GNR Stacking 336 14.6 Thermoelectric Properties of Graphene-Based Materials 336 14.6.1 Thermoelectricity 336 14.6.2 Thermoelectricity in Carbon 336 14.7 Conclusions 338 Acknowledgements 339 References 339 15 Graphene-Based Materials as Nanocatalysts 347 Fengyu Li and Zhongfang Chen 15.1 Introduction 347 15.2 Electrocatalysts 347 15.2.1 N-Graphene 348 15.2.2 N-Graphene-NP Nanocomposites 350 15.2.3 Non-Pt Metal on the Porphyrin-Like Subunits in Graphene 351 15.2.4 Graphyne 352 15.3 Photocatalysts 353 15.3.1 TiO2-Graphene Nanocomposite 353 15.3.2 Graphitic Carbon Nitrides (g-C3N4) 355 15.4 CO Oxidation 356 15.4.1 Metal-Embedded Graphene 357 15.4.2 Metal-Graphene Oxide 358 15.4.3 Metal-Graphene under Mechanical Strain 359 15.4.4 Metal-Embedded Graphene under an External Electric Field 360 15.4.5 Porphyrin-Like Fe/N/C Nanomaterials 361 15.4.6 Si-Embedded Graphene 361 15.4.7 Experimental Aspects 361 15.5 Others 362 15.5.1 Propene Epoxidation 362 15.5.2 Nitromethane Combustion 362 15.6 Conclusion 363 Acknowledgements 364 References 364 16 Hydrogen Storage in Graphene 371 Yafei Li and Zhongfang Chen 16.1 Introduction 371 16.2 Hydrogen Storage in Molecule Form 373 16.2.1 Hydrogen Storage in Graphene Sheets 373 16.2.2 Hydrogen Storage in Metal Decorated Graphene 374 16.2.2.1 Lithium Decorated Graphene 375 16.2.2.2 Calcium Decorated Graphene 376 16.2.2.3 Transition Metal Decorated Graphene 377 16.2.3 Hydrogen Storage in Graphene Networks 377 16.2.3.1 Covalently Bonded Graphene 378 16.2.4 Notes to Computational Methods 381 16.3 Hydrogen Storage in Atomic Form 382 16.3.1 Graphane 382 16.3.2 Chemical Storage of Hydrogen by Spillover 383 16.4 Conclusion 386 Acknowledgements 386 References 386 17 Linking Theory to Reactivity and Properties of Nanographenes 393 Qun Ye, Zhe Sun, Chunyan Chi, and Jishan Wu 17.1 Introduction 393 17.2 Nanographenes with Only Armchair Edges 394 17.3 Nanographenes with Both Armchair and Zigzag Edges 397 17.3.1 Structure of Rylenes 398 17.3.2 Chemistry at the Armchair Edges of Rylenes 398 17.3.3 Anthenes and Periacenes 402 17.4 Nanographene with Only Zigzag Edges 405 17.4.1 Phenalenyl-Based Open-Shell Systems 406 17.5 Quinoidal Nanographenes 411 17.5.1 Bis(Phenalenyls) 412 17.5.2 Zethrenes 414 17.5.3 Indenofluorenes 417 17.6 Conclusion 417 References 418 18 Graphene Moiré Supported Metal Clusters for Model Catalytic Studies 425 Bradley F. Habenicht, Ye Xu, and Li Liu 18.1 Introduction 425 18.2 Graphene Moiré on Ru(0001) 426 18.3 Metal Cluster Formation on g/Ru(0001) 430 18.4 Two-dimensional Au Islands on g/Ru(0001) and its Catalytic Activity 434 18.5 Summary 440 Acknowledgments 441 References 441 Index 447

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Book SynopsisEndohedral Metallofullerenes: Fullerenes with Metal Inside presents a comprehensive survey of the current state of knowledge on endohedral metallofullerenes, from preparation to functionalization, reactivity and applications. Following a brief historical overview, the book describes methods for synthesis, extraction, separation and purification, and provides an insight into the molecular and crystal structures. Subsequent chapters discuss various categories of endohedral metallofullerenes based on the encapsulated species, including carbides, nitrides, sulphides, oxides, non-metal and non-IPR endohedral metallofullerenes, followed by scanning tunneling microscopy studies and the examination of electronic, vibrational, magnetic and optical properties. The book concludes with chapters addressing the chemical functionalization of endohedral metallofullerenes, and applications ranging from solar cells to biomedicine.Table of ContentsForeword ix Preface xi Personal Reflection – Nori Shinohara xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The First Experimental Evidence of Metallofullerenes 1 1.2 Early Years of Metallofullerene Research 3 1.3 Conventional and IUPAC Nomenclature for Metallofullerenes 5 References 6 2 Synthesis, Extraction, and Purification 9 2.1 Synthesis of Endohedral Metallofullerenes 9 2.2 Solvent Extraction of Metallofullerenes from Primary Soot 14 2.3 Purification and Isolation by HPLC 15 2.4 Fast Separation and Purification with Lewis Acids 18 References 19 3 Molecular and Crystal Structures 23 3.1 Endohedral or Exohedral? A Big Controversy 23 3.2 Structural Analyses 25 References 37 4 Electronic States and Structures 43 4.1 Electron Transfer in Metallofullerenes 43 4.2 ESR Evidence on the Existence of Structural Isomers 45 4.3 Electrochemistry of Metallofullerenes 48 4.4 Similarity in the UV]Vis]NIR Absorption Spectra 51 4.5 Fermi Levels and the Electronic Structures 57 4.6 Metal–Cage Vibration within Metallofullerenes 59 References 63 5 Carbide and Nitride Metallofullerenes 69 5.1 Discovery of Carbide Metallofullerenes 69 5.2 Fullerene Quantum Gyroscope: An Ideal Molecular Rotor 75 5.3 Nitride Metallofullerenes 77 References 81 6 Non]Isolated Pentagon Rule Metallofullerenes 85 6.1 Isolated Pentagon Rule 85 6.2 Non]IPR Metallofullerenes 86 References 89 7 Oxide and Sulfide Metallofullerenes 91 7.1 O xide Metallofullerenes 91 7.2 Sulfide Metallofullerenes 95 References 100 8 Non]metal Endohedral Fullerenes 103 8.1 Nitrogen]Containing N@C60 103 8.2 Phosphorus]Containing P@C60 111 8.3 Inert Gas Endohedral Fullerenes He@C60, Ne@C60, Ar@C60, Kr@C60, and Xe@C60 112 8.4 Hydrogen]Containing H2@C60 120 8.5 Water]Containing H2O@C60 125 References 128 9 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Studies of Metallofullerenes 133 9.1 STM Studies of Metallofullerenes on Clean Surfaces 133 9.2 Metallofullerenes as Superatom 135 9.3 STM/STS Studies on Metallofullerene Layers 137 9.4 STM/STS Studies on a Single Metallofullerene Molecule 139 References 141 10 Magnetic Properties of Metallofullerenes 145 10.1 Magnetism of Mono]metallofullerenes 145 10.2 SXAS and SXMCD Studies of Metallofullerenes 149 References 154 11 Organic Chemistry of Metallofullerenes 157 11.1 Cycloaddition Reactions 157 11.2 Radical Addition Reactions 178 11.3 Miscellaneous Reactions 180 11.4 Donor–Acceptor Dyads 185 11.5 Bis]adduct Formation 194 11.6 Supramolecular Functionalization 195 11.7 Purification of Metallofullerenes by Chemical Methods 198 References 200 12 Applications with Metallofullerenes 209 12.1 Solar Cells 209 12.2 Biomedical Aspects of Water]Soluble Metallofullerenes 221 References 226 13 Growth Mechanism 229 13.1 Carbon Clusters: A Road to Fullerene Growth 229 13.2 Roles Played by Metal Atoms in the Fullerene Growth 233 13.3 Top]Down or Bottom]Up Growth? 237 References 251 14 M@C60: A Big Mystery and a Big Challenge 255 14.1 What Happens to M@C60? 255 14.2 A Big Challenge: Superconductive Metallofullerenes 259 14.3 Future Prospects 261 References 262 Index 265

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