Limnology (inland waters) Books

Book SynopsisPart science, part environmental history, and part personal journey of the author, Michael K. Steinberg, and those he interviewed during his travels. The work takes a broad perspective that examines the status of brook trout in the eastern United States, employing a ‘landscape’ approach.Trade ReviewThis multifaceted book is part personal memoir, part recovery narrative, part road travelogue, part environmental and natural history, part love letter to moving waters, and part fly fishing adventure. An excellent book!" - Robert DeMott, author of Angling Days: A Fly Fisher's Journals

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Book SynopsisNematodes are the most numerous metazoans in aquatic sediments. The majority of conducted studies on these aquatic forms focus mainly on those in marine and estuarine habitats. Nematodes from inland water bodies have been relatively forgotten or ignored. Recognizing this serious drawback and its impact on research on nematodes, this book brings together the available information on freshwater nematodes. It addresses the taxonomy of this extremely diverse phylum and provides analysis of its ecology in freshwater habitats from nematologists from 12 countries worldwide. Descriptions of each taxon at genus-level and above are provided with an augmenting pictorial guide to the currently valid genera. Also, a complete, up-to-date and valid species-list is given for every genus with an emphasis on those reported from freshwater bodies.Table of ContentsPart 1: Ecology 1: Introduction: summary of present knowledge and research addressing the ecology and taxonomy of freshwater nematodes, P De Ley, University of California, USA, W Decraemer, Ghent University, Belgium, and Eyualem-Abebe 2: Techniques for processing freshwater nematodes, M Hodda, CSIRO Entomology, Canberra, Australia, and Eyualem-Abebe 3: Composition and distribution of free-living aquatic nematodes: global and local perspectives, W Traunspurger and I C Michiels, University of Bielefield, Germany, and Eyualem-Abebe 4: Dynamics of limno-nematodes: abundance, biomass and diversity, Eyualem-Abebe, W Traunspurger, and I C Michiels 5: Production of freshwater nematodes, M Bergtold, University of Bielefield, Germany, and W Traunspurger 6: Feeding ecology of free-living benthic nematodes, T Moens, Ghent University, Belgium, M Bergtold, and W Traunspurger 7: Patterns in the size structure of freshwater nematode communities: the cases of Lakes Königssee and Brunnsee, Germany, W Traunspurger and M Bergtold 8: Freshwater nematodes in environmental science, S Hoes, W Traunspurger, and A Zullini, Universita di Milano-Bicocca, Italy 9: Nematodes in lotic systems, M Hodda 10: Nematodes from extreme freshwater habitats, M Hodda, A Ocaña, University of Granada, Spain, and W Traunspurger 11: Computation and application of nematode community indices: general guidelines, D A Neher and B J Darby, University of Vermont, USA Part II: Taxonomy 12: Order Enoplida, N Smol and A Coomans, Ghent University, Belgium 13: Order Triplonchida, A Zullini 14: Dorylaimida I: Superfamilies Belondiroidea, Nygolaimoidea, and Tylencholaimoidea, R Peña-Santiago, Universidad de Jaen, Spain 15: Dorylaimida II: superfamily Dorylaimoidea, M T Vinciguerra, Universita di Catania, Italy 16: Order Mononchida, A Zullini and V Peneva, Central Laboratory of General Ecology, Bulgaria 17: Orders Chromadorida, Desmodorida and Desmoscolecida, W Decraemer and N Smol 18: Order Monhysterida, A Coomans and Eyualem-Abebe 19: Order Araeolaimida, A Muthumbi, University of Nairobi, Kenya and A Vanreusel, Ghent University, Belgium 20: Order Plectida, O Holovachov, Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine and P De Ley 21: Order Rhabditida: Suborder Tylenchina, W Bert and G Borgonie, Ghent University, Belgium 22: Order Rhabditida: Suborder Rhabditina, J Abolafia, Universidad de Jaen, Spain

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Book SynopsisThis book reviews the major achievements recently made in soil erosion and sediment redistribution research and management, and identifies future requirements. The book presents work from key players in river basin soil erosion and sediment redistribution from sources to sinks, field to riverbank, from academia to policy and industry. It examines the developments made in three themes - measurement, modelling and management - and covers a variety of scales (in both time and space) and geographical locations.Table of ContentsSECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1: Introduction to soil erosion and sediment redistribution in river catchments: measurement, modelling and management in the 21st century SECTION 2: MEASUREMENT 2: Tracing versus monitoring: new challenges and opportunities in erosion and sediment delivery research 3: A comparison of caesium-137 and erosion pin data 4: Assessing the contribution of different processes to soil degradation within an arable catchment of the Stavropol upland, southern European Russia 5: Hillslope soil erosion and bioturbation after the Christmas 2001 forest fires near Sydney 6: Tracing eroded soil in a burnt water supply catchment, Sydney, Australia: linking magnetic enhancement to soil water repellency 7: Land use, sediment delivery and yield in England and Wales 8: Seasonal trends of suspended sediment concentration in a Mediterranean Basin (Anoia River, NE Spain) 9: Suspended sediment transport during rainfall and snowmelt-rainfall floods in a small lowland catchment, central Poland, L Hejduk, A Hejduk and K Banasik, Warsaw Agricultural University, Poland 10: Sediment in the River Bush, Northern Ireland - transport, sources and management implications, D J Evans, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland, and C E Gibson, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Belfast, UK 11: The physical and biological influence of spawning fish on fine sediment transport and storage, E L Petticrew, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada 12: Lakes and reservoirs in the sediment delivery system - reconstructing sediment yields, I D L Foster, Coventry University, UK SECTION 3: MODELLING 13: Can erosion be predicted?, M A Nearing, USDA-ARS Southwest Watershed Research Center, USA 14: Erodibility assessment in dynamic event-based erosion models 15: Double-averaging methodology in stochastic modelling of soil erosion 16: Runoff and predicting erosion on hillslopes within catchments 17: The roles of natural and human disturbances in forest soil erosion 18: Runoff and erosion modelling by WEPP in an experimental Mediterranean watershed 19: Spatial modelling of ephemeral gully incision: a combined empirical and physical approach 20: Simulating fine sediment delivery in lowland catchments: model development and application of INCA-Sed SECTION 4: MANAGEMENT 21: Estimating sediment generation from hill slopes in England and Wales: development of a management planning tool, G A Wood, M McHugh, R P C Morgan, Cranfield University, UK and A Williamson, Environment Agency, Reading, UK 22: Management of sediment production and prevention in river catchments: a matter of scale? 23: Changes in the spatial distribution of erosion within a selectively logged rain-forest catchment in Borneo 1988-2003 24: Erosion and deposition rates on ""headlands"" in low-gradient sugarcane land in Australia 25: Land-use change, sediment fluxes and reef conservation in Belize, Central America 26: Understanding the distribution, structure and behaviour of urban sediments and associated metals towards improving water management strategies 27: Managing sediment in the landscape: current practices and future vision SECTION 5: SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 28: Soil erosion and sediment redistribution in river catchments: summary, outlook and future requirements

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Book SynopsisThis book is a collection of state-of-the-art reviews on the global problems of diffuse water pollution from agriculture, which affects the water quality of rivers, lakes, reservoirs and the oceans. It includes chapters on eutrophication, phosphorus, nitrogen, manure, heavy metals, carbon/persistent organic pollutants and soil/siltation problems. The book is broken down into three parts and reflects the opinions of the world's experts in these subjects.Table of ContentsPart I: Agriculture: Potential sources of water pollution 1.1: Introduction: Agriculture as a potential source of water pollution 1.2: Nitrogen 1.3: Phosphorus 1.4: Manures 1.5: Pesticides and persistent organic pollutants 1.6: Heavy metals 1.7: Human enteric pathogens 1.8: Sediment 1.9: Nutrient balances Part II: Hydrology: The carrier and transport of water pollution 2.1: Introduction: Modelling hydrological and nutrient transport processes 2.2: Hydrological source management of pollutants at the soil profile scale 2.3: Hydrological mobilization of pollutants at the slope/field scale 2.4: Modelling hydrological mobilization of nutrient pollutants at the catchment scale 2.5: Pollutant-sediment interactions: sorption, reactivity and transport of phosphorus 2.6: Quantifying sediment and nutrient pathways within danish agricultural catchments 2.7: Development of geographical information systems for assessing hydrological aspects of diffuse nutrient and sediment transfer from agriculture 2.8: Wetlands as regulators of pollutant transport Part III: Water Quality: Impacts and case studies from around the world 3.1: Introduction: Impacts of agriculture on water quality around the world 3.2: Solutions to nutrient management problems in the chesapeake bay watershed 3.3: Nutrient and pesticide transfer from agricultural soils to water in New Zealand 3.4: Land, water and people: complex interactions in the murrumbidgee river catchment 3.5: Managing the effects of agriculture on water quality in Northern Ireland 3.6: Conflicts and problems with water quality in the upper catchment of the Manyame River 3.7: Dryland salinisation: a challenge for land and water management in the Australian landscape 3.8: Quantifying nutrient limiting conditions in temperate river systems

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Book SynopsisThis book explains clearly how and where groundwater occurs, how it is used and how it is at risk.

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Book Synopsis“Rivers are the essence of Oregon,” writes award-winning author and photographer Tim Palmer. In over 140 brilliant photos and evocative, informative text, Rivers of Oregon captures the life, the beauty, and the magic of Oregon’s remarkable array of waterways.

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Book SynopsisThis photographic collection explores Lake Erie and its effects on the birds that make this region their home. It observes a year of weather changes and avian migrations - from the wintertime convergence of ducks and othe waterbirds to the raptors and shorebird migrations in the fall.

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Book SynopsisThis newly published book is an organized collection of papers dealing with changes in the quality of water as it moves through the world''s hydrologic cycle-from the sea, lakes, and rivers-to its hydrosphere and then back to earth as precipitation, where the water again percolates through the soil or falls on the ocean, rivers, or lakes. (Changes that occur are physical, chemical, and biological.) Though chapters discuss results of specific lab or field experiments which in themselves have value for the scientist, focus is on processes involved. Many general concepts of water quality are provided in this cohesively organized book.Table of Contents19 Chapters in 4 Main Sections. I: PRECIPITATION CHEMISTRY. II. CHEMISTRY OF GROUND WATER. III. CHEMISTRY OF SURFACE WATER-Major Solutes, Nutrients, and Organic Matter. IV. CHEMISTRY OF SURFACE WATER-Metals. 382 pp., 1987, ISBN 0-87371-081-9

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Book SynopsisAn accessible introduction to large rivers, including coverage of the geomorphology, hydrology, ecology, and environments of large river systems This indispensible book takes a structured and global approach to the subject of large rivers, covering geomorphology, hydrology, ecology, and anthropogenic environment. It offers a thorough foundation for readers who are new to the field and presents enlightening discussions about issues of management at the worldwide scale. The book also examines possible future adaptations that may come about due to climate change. The book has benefitted from contributions by Professor W.J. Junk on the ecology of floodplains and Professor Olav Slaymaker on the large arctic rivers. Introducing Large Rivers is presented in three parts. Part 1 provides an introduction to the world's large rivers and their basins. It covers source, transfer, and storage of their water and sediment; Pleistocene inheritance; the ecology of channels and floodplains; deltas; anTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Large Rivers 1 1.2 A Book on Large Rivers 3 References 6 2 Geological Framework of Large Rivers 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 The Geological Framework: Elevated Land and a Large Catchment 8 2.3 Smaller Tectonic Movements 9 2.4 The Subsurface Alluvial Fill of Large Rivers 10 2.5 Geological History of Large Rivers 12 2.6 Conclusion 14 Questions 14 References 14 3 Water and Sediment in Large Rivers 17 3.1 Introduction 17 3.2 Discharge of large Rivers 17 3.3 Global Pattern of Precipitation 18 3.4 Large River Discharge: Annual Pattern and Long-Term Variability 21 3.5 Sediment in Large Rivers 26 3.6 Conclusion 32 Questions 32 References 33 4 Morphology of Large Rivers 35 4.1 Introduction 35 4.2 Large Rivers from Source to Sink 35 4.3 The Amazon River 38 4.3.1 The Setting 39 4.3.2 Hydrology 39 4.3.3 Sediment Load 39 4.3.4 Morphology 42 4.4 The Ganga River 44 4.4.1 The Setting 44 4.4.2 Hydrology 46 4.4.3 Sediment Load 46 4.4.4 Morphology 47 4.5 Morphology of Large Rivers: Commonality and Variations 48 4.6 Conclusion 52 Questions 52 References 52 5 Large Rivers and their Floodplains: Structures, Functions, Evolutionary Traits and Management with Special Reference to the Brazilian Rivers 55Wolfgang J. Junk, Florian Wittmann, Jochen Schöngart, Maria Teresa F. Piedade and Catia Nunes da Cunha 5.1 Introduction 55 5.2 Origin and Age of Rivers and Floodplains 57 5.3 Scientific Concepts and their Implications for Rivers and Floodplains 59 5.4 Water Chemistry and Hydrology of Major Brazilian Rivers and their Floodplains 60 5.5 Ecological Characterisation of Floodplains and their Macrohabitats 62 5.6 Ecological Responses of Organisms to Flood-Pulsing Conditions 64 5.6.1 Trees 65 5.6.2 Herbaceous Plants 66 5.6.3 Invertebrates 66 5.6.4 Fish 67 5.6.5 Other Vertebrates 68 5.7 Biodiversity 68 5.7.1 Higher Vegetation 69 5.7.2 Animal Biodiversity 71 5.8 The Role of Rivers and their Floodplains for Speciation and Species Distribution of Trees 71 5.9 Biogeochemical Cycles in Floodplains 73 5.9.1 Biomass and Net Primary Production 73 5.9.1.1 Algae 73 5.9.1.2 Herbaceous Plants 74 5.9.1.3 Trees of the Flooded Forest 75 5.9.2 Decomposition 76 5.9.3 The Nitrogen Cycle 77 5.9.4 Nutrient Transfer Between the Terrestrial and Aquatic Phases 78 5.9.5 Food Webs 79 5.10 Management of Amazonian River Floodplains 80 5.10.1 Amazonian River Floodplains 80 5.10.2 Savanna Floodplains 82 5.11 Policies in Brazilian Wetlands 82 5.12 Discussion and Conclusion 84 Acknowledgements 89 References 89 6 Large River Deltas 103 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 Large River Deltas: The Distribution 104 6.3 Formation of Deltas 104 6.4 Delta Morphology and Sediment 110 6.5 The Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta: An Example of a Major Deltaic Accumulation 112 6.5.1 The Background 112 6.5.2 Morphology of the Delta 113 6.5.3 Late Glacial and Holocene Evolution of the Delta 114 6.6 Conclusion 115 Questions 115 References 116 7 Geological History of Large River Systems 119 7.1 The Age of Large Rivers 119 7.2 Rivers in the Quaternary 121 7.2.1 The Time Period 121 7.2.2 The Nature of Geomorphic Changes 123 7.2.3 The Pleistocene and Large Rivers 124 7.2.3.1 The Glacial Stage 124 7.2.3.2 The Transition 125 7.2.3.3 The Interglacial Stage 127 7.3 Changes During the Holocene 127 7.4 Evolution and Development of the Mississippi River 128 7.5 The Ganga-Brahmaputra System 133 7.6 Evolution of the Current Amazon 137 7.7 Evolutionary Adjustment of Large Rivers 141 Questions 142 References 142 8 Anthropogenic Alterations of Large Rivers and Drainage Basins 147 8.1 Introduction 147 8.2 Early History of Anthropogenic Alterations 148 8.3 The Mississippi River: Modifications before Big Dams 149 8.4 The Arrival of Large Dams 151 8.5 Evaluating the Impact of Anthropogenic Changes 156 8.5.1 Land Use and Land Cover Changes 157 8.5.2 Channel Impoundments 159 8.6 Effect of Impoundments on Alluvial Rivers 161 8.7 Effect of Impoundments on Rivers in Rock 163 8.8 Large-scale Transfer of River Water 166 8.9 Conclusion 167 Questions 168 References 169 9 Management of Large Rivers 173 9.1 Introduction 173 9.2 Biophysical Management 177 9.3 Social and Political Management 178 9.3.1 Values and Objectives in River Management 179 9.3.2 International Basin Arrangements 180 9.4 The Importance of the Channel, Floodplain, and Drainage Basin 180 9.5 Integrated Water Resources Management 182 9.6 Techniques for Managing Large River Basins 183 9.7 Administering the Nile 184 9.8 Conclusion 188 Questions 189 References 190 10 The Mekong: A Case Study on Morphology and Management 193 10.1 Introduction 193 10.2 Physical Characteristics of the Mekong Basin 194 10.2.1 Geology and Landforms 194 10.2.2 Hydrology 196 10.2.3 Land Use 197 10.3 The Mekong: Source to Sea 199 10.3.1 The Upper Mekong in China 199 10.3.2 The Lower Mekong South of China 199 10.4 Erosion, Sediment Storage and Sediment Transfer in the Mekong 202 10.5 Management of the Mekong and its Basin 204 10.5.1 Impoundments on the Mekong 204 10.5.2 Anthropogenic Modification of Erosion and Sedimentation on Slopes 206 10.5.3 Degradation of the Aquatic Life 207 10.6 Conclusion 208 Questions 208 References 209 11 Large Arctic Rivers 211Olav Slaymaker 11.1 Introduction 211 11.1.1 The Five Largest Arctic River Basins 213 11.1.2 Climate Change in the Five Large Arctic Basins 213 11.1.3 River Basin Zones 214 11.2 Physiography and Quaternary Legacy 216 11.2.1 Physiographic Regions 216 11.2.1.1 Active Mountain Belts and Major Mountain Belts with Accreted Terranes (Zone 1) 216 11.2.1.2 Interior Plains, Lowlands, and Plateaux (Zone 2) 217 11.2.1.3 Arctic Lowlands (Zone 3) 218 11.2.2 Ice Sheets and Their Influence on Drainage Rearrangement 218 11.2.3 Intense Mass Movement on Glacially Over-steepened Slopes 218 11.3 Hydroclimate and Biomes 220 11.3.1 Climate Regions 220 11.3.2 Biomes 220 11.3.3 Wetlands 224 11.4 Permafrost 224 11.4.1 Permafrost Distribution 224 11.4.2 Permafrost and Surficial Materials 226 11.4.3 Contemporary Warming 226 11.5 Anthropogenic Effects 228 11.5.1 Development and Population 228 11.5.2 Agriculture and Extractive Industry 228 11.5.3 Urbanisation: The Case of Siberia 228 11.6 Discharge of Large Arctic Rivers 229 11.6.1 Problems in Discharge Measurement 229 11.6.2 Water Fluxes 229 11.6.3 Water Budget 231 11.6.4 Nival River Regime 232 11.6.5 Lakes and Glaciers 234 11.6.6 River Ice: Freeze and Break Up 236 11.6.7 Scale Effects 237 11.6.8 Effects of River Regulation 238 11.6.9 Historical Changes 238 11.7 Sediment Fluxes 239 11.7.1 Complications in Determining Sediment Fluxes Both Within Arctic Basins and to the Arctic Ocean 239 11.7.2 Flux of Suspended Sediment and Dissolved Solids 240 11.7.3 Historical Changes in Water and Sediment Discharge in the Siberian Rivers 240 11.7.4 Suspended Sediment Sources and Sinks in the Mackenzie Basin 242 11.7.4.1 Sediment Yield in the Mackenzie Basin 242 11.7.4.2 West Bank Tributary Sources 243 11.7.4.3 Bed and Bank Sources 245 11.8 Nutrients and Contaminants 249 11.8.1 Supply of Nutrients 249 11.8.2 Transport of Contaminants 250 11.9 Mackenzie, Yukon and Lena Deltas 253 11.9.1 Mackenzie Delta 253 11.9.2 Lena Delta 253 11.9.3 Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta 256 11.10 Significance of Large Arctic Rivers 256 Acknowledgment 258 Questions 259 References 259 12 Climate Change and Large Rivers 265 12.1 Introduction 265 12.2 Global Warming: Basic Concept 266 12.3 A Summary of Future Changes in Climate 270 12.4 Impact of Climate Change on Large Rivers 271 12.5 Climate Change and a Typical Large River of the Future 273 12.6 Conclusion 277 Questions 277 References 278 Index 281

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsForeword ix 1 British Rivers: Status and Condition 1 2 River Types: A Brief Overview 9 3 River Types: Observations and Theory 19 4 “Reading” Rivers 123 5 Towards Sensitive and Appropriate Management 159 References 167 Place and River Index 187 Subject Index 189

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Book SynopsisAs pressures on Australia''s inland waters intensify from population growth, expanding resource development and climate change, there is an urgent need to manage and protect these special areas. Understanding their ecology underpins their wise management and conservation. Australian Freshwater Ecology vividly describes the physical, chemical and biological features of wetlands, lakes, streams, rivers and groundwaters in Australia. It presents the principles of aquatic ecology linked to practical management and conservation, and explains the causes, mechanisms, effects and management of serious environmental problems such as altered water regimes, eutrophication, salinization, acidification and sedimentation of inland waters. Key features: contributions from a diverse, highly qualified team of aquatic ecologists whose expertise spans the ecology and management of standing and running waters in Australia sections covering groundwaters, biodivTrade Review“This excellent volume is certain to inspire a new generation of freshwater ecologists, in Australia and beyond, to go out and learn more about these incredibly diverse and vulnerable environments.” (Freshwater Biology, 2 June 2015) Table of ContentsAbout this book, xi About the companion website, xii PART I: PROCESSES IN AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS, 1 1 Australian waters: diverse, variable and valuable, 3 1.1 The challenge for aquatic ecologists, 3 1.2 Defi ning some common terms, 6 1.3 Australian inland waters: their diversity and distribution, 6 1.4 The water regime: ‘where, when and to what extent water is present’, 7 1.4.1 Water budgets, scale issues and human influences on water regimes, 7 1.4.2 Components of the water regime, 8 1.4.3 Water regime variability, 9 1.5 Linkages in aquatic ecosystems: from molecular bonds to global exchanges, 11 1.5.1 Wonderful water and its molecular linkages, 11 1.5.2 Linkages at the catchment scale, 12 1.5.3 Linkages at the global scale: the hydrological cycle, 13 1.5.4 Continental linkages and surface waters in Australia, 15 1.5.5 Continental linkages and groundwaters in Australia, 19 1.6 The structure of this book, 20 2 Physical processes in standing waters, 21 2.1 Depth and physical processes, 21 2.2 Let there be light ..., 21 2.2.1 Light reaching the water surface, 21 2.2.2 Light below the water surface, 22 2.2.3 Seeing through water: Secchi discs and quantum sensors, 24 2.3 The euphotic zone, 24 2.4 Light and life, 25 2.5 Temperature and stratification, 25 2.5.1 Causes of stratifi cation, 26 2.6 Using circulation patterns to classify standing waters, 27 2.7 Ecological implications of the different types of stratifi cation and mixing, 29 2.8 Deep versus shallow standing waters: depth matters, 31 2.8.1 How deep standing waters form, 32 2.8.2 How shallow standing waters form, 32 2.9 Synthesis, 35 3 Chemical processes in standing waters, 37 3.1 ‘There’s a certain chemistry ...’, 37 3.2 Dissolved gases, 37 3.2.1 Oxygen, 38 3.2.2 Carbon dioxide, 41 3.2.3 Hydrogen, 42 3.2.4 Methane, 43 3.3 Sources of ions, 45 3.4 Ionic composition of Australian standing waters, 45 3.5 Conductivity, salinity and total dissolved solids, 45 3.6 Ionic composition and trophic state, 47 3.6.1 Some common anions, 47 3.6.2 Some common cations, 48 3.7 Redox reactions and redox potential, 50 3.8 Redox reactions and some common metals, 51 3.9 Nutrients, nutrient limitation and ecological stoichiometry, 52 3.9.1 Phosphorus, 53 3.9.2 Nitrogen, 55 3.9.3 Carbon, 58 3.10 Water regime, drying and water chemistry, 60 3.10.1 What happens to water chemistry during a wetting-drying cycle?, 60 3.11 Synthesis, 62 4 Biological processes in standing waters, 63 4.1 Biological players on a physical and chemical stage, 63 4.2 Major ecological zones and habitats, 64 4.3 Blurred boundaries and mobile assemblages, 66 4.4 Trophic groups and sources of energy, 66 4.5 Producers, 69 4.5.1 An ecological classification of producers, 72 4.5.2 Microscopic aquatic plants, 72 4.5.3 Macroscopic aquatic plants, 74 4.5.4 Plants living in water: benefits and constraints, 76 4.5.5 Alternative states: changes in plant dominance in shallow waterbodies, 77 4.6 Consumers, 80 4.6.1 Decomposers: the importance of microbes and fungi, 80 4.6.2 Invertebrate detritivores, 81 4.6.3 Invertebrate herbivores, 82 4.6.4 Invertebrate carnivores, 83 4.6.5 Vertebrate herbivores, 84 4.6.6 Vertebrate carnivores, 85 4.6.7 Predation and trophic cascades, 86 4.6.8 Trophic cascades and biomanipulation, 87 4.6.9 How vertebrates use waterbodies: linkages and subsidies, 87 4.7 Biological processes in temporary standing waters, 90 4.8 Biological processes in saline standing waters, 94 4.9 Synthesis, 95 5 Physical processes in running waters, 97 5.1 Flow and the diversity of running waters, 97 5.2 Scale, ecological hierarchies and networks, 97 5.3 A hierarchical classification of physical features, 99 5.3.1 Physical features and channel flows, 101 5.4 Hydrology and stream flow, 103 5.4.1 Measuring discharge, 103 5.4.2 Measuring current velocity, 104 5.5 Hydrographs, catchment characteristics and groundwater interactions, 106 5.6 Flow variability and its implications, 108 5.7 The physical process of transport, 110 5.7.1 The sources of sediment, 111 5.7.2 Sediment particle size and distribution, 112 5.7.3 Current velocity, erosion and transport, 113 5.7.4 Sediment dynamics and channel form, 114 5.7.5 Floodplain sedimentation and billabong formation, 115 5.8 River profi les and longitudinal changes in physical features, 118 5.9 Synthesis, 119 6 Chemical processes in running waters, 120 6.1 The complex web of factors, 120 6.2 Dissolved gases, 120 6.3 Ionic composition of Australian rivers, 123 6.4 Sources of ions, 124 6.5 Nutrients and nutrient spiralling, 126 6.5.1 Transport and retention of nutrients, 128 6.6 Carbon and organic matter, 129 6.6.1 Dissolved organic matter in rivers, 130 6.6.2 Solute processes: dissolved substances in running waters, 132 6.7 Longitudinal changes in chemical features, 133 6.8 Synthesis, 135 7 Biological processes in running waters, 136 7.1 Factors affecting biological processes at various scales, 136 7.2 Zones and habitats: parallels and contrasts with standing waters, 136 7.3 Living with flow, 138 7.4 Sources of energy in running waters, 142 7.4.1 Producers, 142 7.4.2 The distribution of different life-forms of producers, 143 7.4.3 Open-water producers in large rivers, 146 7.4.4 Classifying consumers in running waters, 146 7.4.5 Invertebrate herbivores, 147 7.4.6 Invertebrate carnivores, 149 7.4.7 Vertebrate herbivores, 150 7.4.8 Vertebrate carnivores, 151 7.4.9 Decomposers, 154 7.4.10 Functional feeding groups, 157 7.5 The fate of a dead eucalypt leaf that falls into a stream ..., 158 7.6 Conceptual models of running-water ecosystems, 160 7.7 The role of disturbance, 163 7.7.1 Post-disturbance recolonization processes, 164 7.7.2 Recolonization, dispersal and biogeography in Australian running waters, 168 7.7.3 Setting the biogeographic scene: ancient rocks, variable climates, 170 7.7.4 Some biogeographic patterns in Australian inland waters, 170 7.8 Synthesis, 173 8 Groundwater processes and management, 174 8.1 Out of sight, out of mind?, 174 8.2 An integrated definition of groundwaters, 174 8.3 Physical processes in groundwaters, 176 8.3.1 Groundwater discharge, permeability, porosity and Darcy’s Law, 178 8.3.2 Physical processes between groundwaters and surface waters, 180 8.3.3 Groundwater temperature, 183 8.4 Chemical processes in groundwaters, 184 8.4.1 Principal chemical processes in groundwater, 184 8.4.2 Chemical processes along gradients of dissolved oxygen, 186 8.5 Biological processes in groundwaters, 187 8.5.1 Groundwater microbiology, 188 8.5.2 Buried treasures in Australia: groundwater invertebrates and fishes, 190 8.5.3 Biodiversity and ecology of Australian groundwater fauna, 191 8.5.4 Physical, chemical and biological drivers of groundwater ecological processes, 193 8.5.5 Groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs), 195 8.6 Management issues in Australian groundwaters, 197 8.7 Ecosystem services and conservation of Australian groundwaters, 201 8.8 Synthesis, 202 PART II: MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS, 205 9 Management issues: water regime, 207 9.1 ‘When the well is dry ...’, 207 9.2 Changes to water regimes by humans in Australia: a brief history, 207 9.2.1 Changing water regime, changing processes, 210 9.3 Diverse impoundments with diverse effects, 211 9.3.1 Impoundments as ecological barriers, 214 9.3.2 Impoundments and estuaries, 215 9.4 Ecological effects of water extraction, 216 9.4.1 Ecological effects of drainage and irrigation, 218 9.4.2 Ecological effects of inter-basin transfers, 219 9.4.3 Ecological effects of urbanization, 220 9.5 Water regimes and environmental watering, 221 9.5.1 Environmental watering: ecological objectives and outcomes, 223 9.5.2 Environmental watering: risks and tactics, 225 9.6 ‘Breaking down the barriers’: fishways and dam removal, 226 9.7 Synthesis, 227 10 Management issues: physical features, 229 10.1 Changing physical features, changing processes, 229 10.2 Human activities and the physical environment, 230 10.2.1 Human changes to catchments, 230 10.2.2 Human changes to basins and channels, 232 10.3 Sedimentation: a physical process with negative fallout, 235 10.3.1 Human activities and sedimentation, 236 10.3.2 Ecological effects of sedimentation, 238 10.3.3 Management of sedimentation, 239 10.4 Physical processes and land-water interfaces, 241 10.4.1 Ecological roles of fringing and riparian zones, 241 10.4.2 Threats to land-water interfaces, 243 10.4.3 Management of land-water interfaces, 245 10.5 Recovering natural physical complexity, 248 10.6 Synthesis, 249 11 Management issues: water quality, 250 11.1 What is water quality?, 250 11.2 Managing water quality, 250 11.3 Eutrophication, 253 11.3.1 Natural and anthropogenic eutrophication, 253 11.3.2 Drivers, stressors and processes of eutrophication, 253 11.3.3 Ecological impacts and effects on ecosystem services, 256 11.3.4 Management of eutrophication, 258 11.4 Salinization, 259 11.4.1 Natural and anthropogenic salinization, 259 11.4.2 Drivers, stressors and processes of salinization, 259 11.4.3 Ecological impacts and effects on ecosystem services, 261 11.4.4 Management of salinization, 262 11.5 Acidifi cation, 264 11.5.1 Natural and anthropogenic acidifi cation, 264 11.5.2 Drivers, stressors and processes of acidification, 264 11.5.3 Ecological impacts and effects on ecosystem services, 267 11.5.4 Management of acidification, 268 11.6 Pollution, 269 11.6.1 Drivers, stressors and processes of pollution, 269 11.6.2 Ecological impacts and effects on ecosystem services, 271 11.6.3 Management of pollution, 273 11.7 Water quality guidelines, 274 11.8 Monitoring and assessing water quality, 275 11.8.1 Condition monitoring, 275 11.8.2 Detecting environmental impacts, 277 11.9 Multiple stressors and models of ecosystem change, 277 11.10 Synthesis, 279 12 Management issues: biodiversity conservation and climate change, 281 12.1 What is biodiversity and why does it need conservation?, 281 12.1.1 Setting priorities in biodiversity conservation, 281 12.2 Aquatic landscapes: networks and mosaics of habitats, 283 12.3 Protected areas for conserving freshwater communities, 284 12.4 Having good connections: dispersal and connectivity in conservation, 286 12.5 Protecting refuges to conserve aquatic communities, 287 12.6 Conserving aquatic species and populations, 288 12.6.1 The special challenge of conserving species with complex life histories, 288 12.6.2 The spatial extent of populations and metapopulations, 289 12.6.3 What are ‘Evolutionarily Significant Units’?, 289 12.6.4 Hidden biodiversity: cryptic species, 290 12.6.5 Endemic species and relictual faunas, 290 12.7 Threatened communities and species, 291 12.8 In the wrong place: ‘exotic aquatics’ and invasive species, 293 12.8.1 Invasive predators and competitors, 294 12.8.2 Domestic and hybridizing invasive aquatic species, 294 12.8.3 Invasive ‘ecosystem engineers’, 297 12.8.4 Potential effects of climate change on aquatic invasive species, 298 12.9 Climate change and Australian aquatic ecosystems, 299 12.9.1 Effects of increased water temperature, 300 12.9.2 Effects of changes to the hydrological cycle and water regimes, 300 12.9.3 Effects of sea-level rise, 301 12.9.4 Effects of changes to atmospheric conditions, 302 12.9.5 Effects of reduced snow cover and alpine warming, 302 12.9.6 How do these climatic changes affect freshwater species and ecosystems?, 302 12.9.7 Planned adaptation to climate change in aquatic ecosystems, 305 12.10 Synthesis, 307 13 Integrating ecology and management: a synthesis, 308 13.1 The ‘big picture’: integrating ecology and management, 308 13.2 The ‘bigger picture’: integrating social, economic and political goals, 309 13.3 Strategic adaptive management in aquatic ecology, 311 13.4 Resolving conflicts in freshwater management: a role for aquatic ecologists?, 313 13.5 Future challenges and opportunities: where to from here?, 315 13.6 Synthesis, 319 References, 321 Index, 347

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Book SynopsisThis book presents a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art research on water treatment methods for the removal of cyanobacteria, taste and odour compounds, and cyanotoxins. The topics covered include practically all technologies that are currently used or are in a state of research and development e.g.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix 1 Introduction to Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins 1Armah A. de la Cruz, Neill Chernoff, James L. Sinclair, Donna Hill, Deacqunita L. Diggs, and Arthur T. Lynch 1.1 An Overview of Cyanobacteria 1 1.1.1 Evolution and Worldwide Occurrence 2 1.1.2 Physical Characteristics 3 1.1.3 Metabolites of Cyanobacteria 6 1.2 General Environmental Impact: Ecological and Human Health Effects 6 1.2.1 Climate Change and Water Demand 7 1.2.2 Risk to Humans from Cyanobacterial Toxins 8 1.3 Health Effects of Cyanotoxins 8 1.3.1 Sources and Routes of Exposure in Humans and Animals 8 1.3.2 Hepatotoxins: Microcystins, Nodularins 9 1.3.3 Cytotoxin: Cylindrospermopsins 10 1.3.4 Neurotoxins: Anatoxin-a, Anatoxin-a(s), Homoanatoxin-a, Saxitoxins 10 1.3.5 Irritant and Dermal Toxins: Lipopolysaccharides, Lyngbyatoxins, Aplysiatoxins 11 1.3.6 Gill-Bearing Vertebrate Toxins: Euglenophycin, Prymnesins 12 1.3.7 Mixtures, Bioaccumulation, and Unknown Toxins 13 1.4 Current Guidelines for Cyanotoxins 14 1.4.1 WHO Microcystin-LR Provisional Drinking Water Guideline Value 14 1.4.2 National Cyanotoxin Drinking Water Regulations or Guideline Values 15 1.4.3 National Regulation of Unspecified Harmful Substances 17 1.4.4 Non-national Cyanotoxin Drinking Water Guideline Values 17 1.4.5 United States Cyanotoxin Drinking Water Guideline Values 17 1.5 Taste and Odor Compounds Related to Cyanobacteria 18 1.6 Management Strategies of Cyanobacteria, Cyanotoxins, and Related Compounds in Water Treatments 19 References 21 2 Cyanobacteria, Cyanotoxins, and Human Health 37Geoffrey A. Codd, Emanuela Testai, Enzo Funari, and Zorica Svirčev 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Exposure Routes, Exposure Media, and Human Health 39 2.2.1 Drinking Water 40 2.2.2 Diet 40 2.2.3 Bathing and Recreational Waters 42 2.2.4 Aerosols 42 2.2.5 Terrestrial Cyanobacteria 42 2.2.6 Human Gut Colonization Hypothesis 43 2.3 Cyanobacterial Cells and Cyanotoxins as Human Health Hazards and Risks 43 2.3.1 Hepatotoxins 44 2.3.2 Cytotoxins 46 2.3.3 Neurotoxins 47 2.3.4 LPS Endotoxins 48 2.3.5 Reference Values for Cyanotoxins and WHO Guidelines 49 2.3.6 Further Sources of Risk to Human Health 50 2.3.7 Data Gaps and Research Needs 51 2.4 Reported Investigations of Roles of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins in Human Health Incidents 52 2.4.1 Raw (Untreated) Water 52 2.4.2 Treated Water 54 2.4.3 Aerosols and Dust 56 2.4.4 Food and Dietary Supplements 56 2.5 Recognition and Reporting of Role(s) of Cyanobacteria/Cyanotoxins in Health Incidents 57 2.6 Role of Human Health Incidents in Contributing to Cyanobacterial and Cyanotoxin Risk Management Policies 58 2.7 Importance of Contingency Plans and Outreach Activities 58 References 59 3 Removal of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins by Conventional Physical-chemical Treatment 69Margarida Ribau Teixeira, Maria João Rosa, Sabrina Sorlini, Michela Biasibetti, Christophoros Christophoridis, and Christine Edwards 3.1 Introduction 69 3.2 Chemical Treatment 71 3.2.1 Copper-based Algicides 71 3.2.2 Other Metal-based Algicides 72 3.2.3 Photosensitizers 72 3.2.4 Herbicides 74 3.2.5 Algicides Derived from Natural Compounds 75 3.3 Coagulation and Flocculation 75 3.4 Dissolved Air Flotation 76 3.5 Rapid Sand/Gravity Filtration 80 3.6 Slow Sand Filtration 81 3.7 Bank Filtration 83 3.8 Activated Carbon Adsorption 85 3.8.1 General 85 3.8.2 GAC/BAC Filtration 85 3.8.3 PAC Adsorption 86 3.8.4 Case Study 87 3.9 Conclusions 88 References 89 4 Removal of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins by Membrane Processes 99Mike B. Dixon, Lionel Ho, and Maria G. Antoniou 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 100 4.3 Nanofiltration 101 4.4 Nanofiltration for the Combined Removal of Various Cyanobacterial Metabolites 102 4.4.1 Membrane Fouling 103 4.4.2 Removal of MIB and GSM 105 4.4.3 Cylindrospermopsin Removal 106 4.4.4 Microcystin Removal 107 4.5 Reverse Osmosis 108 4.6 Integrated Studies: Ultrafiltration Combined with PAC and Coagulants 108 4.6.1 Ultrafiltration – Integrated Membrane System Test 108 4.6.2 Effect of Cyanobacterial Species and Coagulant Type on Membrane Flux 109 4.6.3 Removal of Cyanobacterial Cells and Metabolites with Membranes and Coagulants 109 4.6.4 Summary of Results 112 Acknowledgement 114 References 114 5 Biological Treatment for the Destruction of Cyanotoxins 117Dariusz Dziga, Sonja Nybom, Ilona Gagala, and Marcin Wasylewski 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Overview of Microbial Degradation 118 5.2.1 Microorganisms Capable of MC-degradation 118 5.2.2 Microbial Degradation of Other Cyanotoxins 122 5.2.3 Degradation Efficiency and Factors Affecting Degradation 123 5.3 The Mechanisms of Biodegradation 124 5.3.1 Biochemistry of Degradation 124 5.3.2 Enzymes Involved in Biodegradation 125 5.3.3 Alternative Mechanisms of Biodegradation 126 5.3.4 Methodology of Analysis of Degradation Pathways 128 5.4 Biological Methods of Cyanotoxin Elimination 129 5.4.1 Most Common Proposals of Microbial Removal of Cyanotoxins 129 5.4.2 Microbial Strains 132 5.4.3 The Efficiency of Described Methods and Future Challenges 132 5.5 Guide to Evaluating Biodegradation 133 5.5.1 Environmental Samples 137 5.5.2 Bacterial Strains 138 5.5.3 Indication of Biodegradation Activity 139 5.5.4 Enzymatic and Genetic Aspects of Biodegradation 140 5.6 Microbial Water Treatment – Application and Case Studies 142 5.6.1 Real-life Application of MC-degrading Bacteria 142 5.6.2 Potential of Existing Water Treatment Infrastructure for MC-removal 144 5.7 Conclusions 145 Acknowledgements 145 References 146 6 Conventional Disinfection and/or Oxidation Processes for the Destruction of Cyanotoxins/Cyanobacteria 155Sylvain Merel, Shuwen Yan, and Weihua Song 6.1 Reaction of Chlorine and its Derivatives with Cyanotoxins 155 6.1.1 Microcystins and Nodularins 156 6.1.2 Cylindrospermopsin 159 6.1.3 Anatoxin-a 160 6.1.4 Saxitoxins 160 6.1.5 Other Cyanotoxins 161 6.1.6 Summary 162 6.2 Reaction of Ozone with Cyanotoxins 162 6.2.1 Microcystins 162 6.2.2 Nodularins 163 6.2.3 Cylindrospermopsin 163 6.2.4 Anatoxin-a 165 6.2.5 Saxitoxins 165 6.2.6 Summary 165 6.3 Reaction of Permanganate (KMnO4) with Cyanotoxins 166 6.3.1 Microcystins 166 6.3.2 Cylindrospermopsin 167 6.3.3 Anatoxin-a 167 6.3.4 Saxitoxins 167 6.3.5 Summary 167 References 167 7 Advanced Oxidation Processes 173Geshan Zhang, Xuexiang He, Xiaodi Duan, Ying Huang, Changseok Han, Mallikarjuna N. Nadagouda, Kevin O’Shea, Duk Kyung Kim, Virender K. Sharma, Natalie Johnson, Bangxing Ren, Vasileia Vogiazi, Theodora Fotiou, Christophoros Christophoridis, Anastasia E. Hiskia, and Dionysios D. Dionysiou 7.1 Introduction 173 7.2 UV 174 7.3 UV/H2O2 175 7.4 O3/H2O2 176 7.5 UV/O3 177 7.6 Catalytic Ozonation 178 7.7 Fenton/Photo-Fenton Reagent 179 7.8 TiO2-Based Photocatalysis/Visible Light Sensitized TiO2 180 7.9 Radiolysis 182 7.10 Ultrasonic Degradation 184 7.11 Ferrate 186 7.12 Other Iron-based Processes 187 7.13 Sulfaten Radical-based AOPs 189 7.14 Polyoxometalate Photocatalysis 191 7.14.1 Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Pollutants with POMs: Mechanistic Aspects 192 7.14.2 Photocatalytic Degradation of Cyanobacterial Metabolites with POM 193 7.14.3 Photocatalytic Degradation of CYN with POM 194 7.15 Conclusion 195 Acknowledgments 195 References 196 8 Removal and/or Destruction of Cyanobacterial Taste and Odour Compounds by Conventional and Advanced Oxidation Processes 207Carlos J. Pestana, Linda A. Lawton, and Triantafyllos Kaloudis 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Conventional Water Treatment 210 8.2.1 Pretreatment and Preventative Measures 211 8.2.2 Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation 213 8.2.3 Filtration 213 8.2.4 Disinfection 215 8.2.5 Distribution System 215 8.2.6 Summary – Key Points 216 8.3 Advanced Treatment Methods 218 8.3.1 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) 218 8.3.2 Air Stripping 220 8.3.3 Membrane Filtration 222 8.3.4 Variations of Conventional Treatment Techniques 223 8.3.5 Summary – Key Points 223 8.3.6 Key Findings 224 8.4 Side Note: T&O Compound Concentrations and Customer Perception 224 References 224 9 Transformation Products (TPs) of Cyanobacterial Metabolites During Treatment 231Theodora Fotiou, Theodoros M. Triantis, Anastasia E. Hiskia, Dariusz Dziga, Sylvain Merel, Christine Edwards, and Maria G. Antoniou 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 TPs Formed in the Natural Environment 233 9.2.1 Photolysis 233 9.2.2 Effect of pH and Temperature 234 9.3 Transformation Products of Microcystins and Nodularins with Advanced Oxidation Processes/ Technologies and Conventional Chemical Oxidation 236 9.3.1 Titanium Dioxide-based Photocatalysts 236 9.3.2 Other Photocatalysts (BiOBr and Bi2WO6) 264 9.3.3 Ultrasonic Degradation (Sonolysis) 268 9.3.4 Ozone 277 9.3.5 Chlorination 278 9.3.6 Sulfate Radical-based AOTs (SR-AOTs) 278 9.4 Transformation Products of Microcystins and Nodularins with Biological Treatment 279 9.5 Transformation Products of Cylindrospermopsin 287 9.6 Transformation Products of Odor Compounds 292 9.7 Conclusions 298 Acknowledgements 298 References 298 10 Integrated Drinking Water Processes: Case Studies 307Tomasz Jurczak, Andrzej Jodlowski, Sabrina Sorlini, Michela Biasibetti, and Francesca Gialdini 10.1 Introduction 307 10.2 Pilot Plant Studies for Optimization of Water Treatment Processes in Microcystins Removal 308 10.3 Removal of Cyanobacterial Cells and Microcystin-LR with a Microfiltration Pilot Plant (Lake Garda, Italy) 312 10.4 Removal of Cyanobacterial Cells and Cyanotoxins in a Conventional Full-scale DWTP (Lake Vico, Italy) 314 10.5 Efficiency of Water Treatment Processes in Elimination of Microcystins – Polish Examples 317 10.6 Conclusions 324 References 324 Index 327

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Book SynopsisA comprehensive introduction to coastal storms and their associated impacts Coastal Storms offers students and professionals in the field a comprehensive overview and groundbreaking text that is specifically devoted to the analysis of coastal storms. Based on the most recent knowledge and contributions from leading researchers, the text examines coastal storms' processes and characteristics, the main hazards (such as overwash, inundation and flooding, erosion, structures overtopping), and how to monitor and model storms. The authors include information on the most advanced innovations in forecasting, prediction, and early warning, which serves as a foundation for accurate risk evaluation and developing adequate coastal indicators and management options. In addition, structural overtopping and damage are explained, taking into account the involved hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes. The monitoring methods of coastal storms are analyzed based on recenTable of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Foreword xv Introduction xvii Acknowledgments xix 1 Coastal Storm Definition 1Mitchell Harley 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 The challenge of defining coastal storms 4 1.1.2 A general coastal storm definition 7 1.1.3 Approaches to assessing coastal storminess 8 1.2 Synoptic systems and coastal storms 9 1.2.1 Tropical cyclones 9 1.2.2 Extra-tropical cyclones 10 1.2.3 Storm surge 11 1.3 Statistical approaches to identifying coastal storms 12 1.3.1 Coastal storm events from wave time-series 12 1.3.2 Coastal storm events from water-level time-series 15 1.3.3 Indicators of coastal storm severity 16 1.4 Conclusion 18 References 19 2 Hydrodynamics Under Storm Conditions 23Xavier Bertin, Maitane Olabarrieta and Robert McCall 2.1 General introduction 23 2.2 Storm surges 23 2.2.1 Introduction 23 2.2.2 Governing equations 24 2.3 Hydrodynamics of the surf zone during storms 31 2.3.1 Introduction 31 2.3.2 Longshore currents 31 2.3.3 Bed return flows 32 2.3.4 Infragravity waves 33 2.3.5 Swash zone dynamics 35 2.4 Conclusions and future challenges 38 Acknowledgements 38 References 39 3 Sediment Transport Under Storm Conditions on Sandy Beaches 45Troels Aagaard and Aart Kroon 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Morphological consequences of coastal storms 46 3.3 Sediment transport processes during storms 48 3.4 Observations of sediment transport on the upper shoreface during storm events 53 3.5 Observations of sediment transport on the lower shoreface during storm events 58 3.6 Conclusions 60 Acknowledgements 60 References 60 4 Examples of Storm Impacts on Barrier Islands 65Nathaniel Plant, Kara Doran and Hilary Stockdon 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Barrier island response to storms 66 4.3 Quantifying the changes due to specific storms 70 4.4 Resilience 75 4.5 Summary 76 Acknowledgements 77 References 77 5 Storm Impacts on the Morphology and Sedimentology of Open-coast Tidal Flats 81Ping Wang and Jun Cheng 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Sedimentologic characteristics 83 5.3 Erosion-deposition processes and morphodynamics of open-coast tidal flat 88 5.4 Conclusions 96 References 96 6 Storm Impacts on Cliffed Coastlines 99Sue Brooks and Tom Spencer 6.1 Introduction 99 6.2 Methodologies and their application 104 6.3 Storminess and the cliff record 106 6.4 Case study: Soft rock cliff geology and responses to storms 110 6.5 Modelling shoreline retreat for cliffed coasts and the incorporation of storminess 115 6.6 Future storm impacts on clifflines under accelerated sea-level rise and changing storminess 117 6.7 Conclusions 119 Acknowledgements 119 References 119 7 Storms in Coral Reefs 127Ana Vila-Concejo and Paul Kench 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Geomorphic units of reefs 129 7.2.1 Reefs as ecomorphodynamic structures 130 7.2.2 Unique interactions of storm waves with coral reefs 132 7.3 Storms on the forereef: Role of spurs and grooves 134 7.3.1 Destructive effects of storms in the forereef and spur and groove 135 7.3.2 Constructive effects of storms in the forereef 136 7.4 Storms on the reef flats: Development of rubble flats and rubble spits 136 7.4.1 Waves on the reef flats 136 7.4.2 Destructive effects of storms on reef flats 136 7.4.3 Constructive effects of storms on reef flats 137 7.5 Storms on the backreef: Sand aprons, reef islands and beaches 139 7.5.1 Sand aprons 139 7.5.2 Reef islands 139 7.6 Conclusion 145 Acknowledgements 145 References 145 8 Storm Clustering and Beach Response 151Nadia Senechal, Bruno Castelle and Karin R. Bryan 8.1 Introduction 151 8.2 Storm clustering: Genesis and definitions 153 8.2.1 Genesis 153 8.2.2 Definitions 154 8.3 Approaches used to assess storm clustering impact on coasts 156 8.3.1 Data collection 156 8.3.2 Numerical models 157 8.4 Beach response to storm cluster 159 8.4.1 Bar dynamics under storm clustering 159 8.4.2 Morphological feedback 160 8.4.3 The dynamic equilibrium concept 162 8.4.4 Water level 164 8.4.5 Recovery periods 165 8.5 Conclusions 167 References 167 9 Overwash Processes: Lessons from Fieldwork and Laboratory Experiments 175Ana Matias and Gerhard Masselink 9.1 Introduction 175 9.1.1 Overwash definition 175 9.1.2 Occurrence of overwash 177 9.1.3 Relevance of overwash 180 9.2 Methods to study overwash processes 180 9.2.1 Fieldwork measurements 180 9.2.2 Laboratory experiments 181 9.3 Hydrodynamic processes during overwash 183 9.3.1 Oceanographic conditions 183 9.3.2 Hydraulics of overwash flows 183 9.4 Morpho-sedimentary dynamics by overwash processes 185 9.4.1 Morphological changes induced by overwash 185 9.4.2 Morphodynamic processes during overwash 187 9.5 Conclusion 189 Acknowledgements 190 References 190 10 Modeling the Morphological Impacts of Coastal Storms 195Ap van Dongeren, Dano Roelvink, Robert McCall, Kees Nederhoff and Arnold van Rooijen 10.1 Introduction 195 10.1.1 Empirical models 196 10.1.2 Process-based models 197 10.1.3 Process-model applications 201 10.1.4 Operational models 209 10.2 Outlook 209 Acknowledgements 210 References 210 11 Preparing for the Impact of Coastal Storms: A Coastal Manager-oriented Approach 217José Jiménez, Clara Armaroli and Eva Bosom 11.1 Introduction 217 11.2 Coastal vulnerability assessment framework 219 11.2.1 General framework 219 11.2.2 How to characterize storm-induced hazards 219 11.2.3 How to measure the vulnerability 221 11.2.4 How to select the probability to be analyzed 222 11.2.5 The Catalonia coastal vulnerability assessment framework 223 11.3 Coastal early warning systems 227 11.3.1 Generalities 227 11.3.2 Coastal EWSs 228 11.3.3 The Emilia-Romagna coastal early warning system 228 11.4 Conclusion 234 Acknowledgements 235 References 235 12 Assessing Storm Erosion Hazards 241Roshanka Ranasinghe and David Callaghan 12.1 Introduction 241 12.2 The diagnostic conundrum 242 12.3 Quantifying storm erosion volumes for coastal management/planning 243 12.3.1 Coastal profile model application with Extrapolated Wave Exceedance Characteristics (EWEC) 243 12.3.2 Coastal profile model application with the Synthetic Design Storm (SDS) approach 245 12.3.3 The Joint Probability Method (JPM) approach 246 12.3.4 Corbella and Stretch (CS) approach 248 12.4 Application of storm erosion volume estimates in coastal management/planning 250 12.5 Conclusions and recommendations 251 Acknowledgments 254 References 254 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 257 Index 259

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Book SynopsisIn the 21st Century, the world will see an unprecedented migration of people moving from rural to urban areas. With global demand for water projected to outstrip supply in the coming decades, cities will likely face water insecurity as a result of climate change and the various impacts of urbanisation. Traditionally, urban water managers have relied on large-scale, supply-side infrastructural projects to meet increased demands for water; however, these projects are environmentally, economically and politically costly. Urban Water Security argues that cities need to transition from supply-side to demand-side management to achieve urban water security. This book provides readers with a series of in-depth case studies of leading developed cities, of differing climates, incomes and lifestyles from around the world, that have used demand management tools to modify the attitudes and behaviour of water users in an attempt to achieve urban water security. Urban Water Security will be of parTable of ContentsSeries Editor Foreword – Challenges in Water Management xvii Acknowledgements xix Introduction 1 1 Water 101 5 Introduction 5 1.1 What is water? 5 1.2 Hydrological cycle 6 1.3 Natural variations to water quantity 11 1.4 Natural variations to water quality 14 1.5 Impacts of urbanisation on water resources 17 1.6 Water and wastewater treatment processes 20 Notes 22 2 What is urban water security? 25 Introduction 25 2.1 Non]climatic challenges to achieving urban water security 26 2.2 Climatic challenges to achieving urban water security 30 2.3 Reducing non]climatic and climatic risks to urban water security 32 Notes 34 3 Managing water sustainably to achieve urban water security 37 Introduction 37 3.1 What is sustainability? 37 3.2 What does sustainability mean in urban water management? 42 3.3 Sustainable water resources management frameworks 45 3.4 Framework for managing urban water sustainably: Integrated urban water management 49 3.5 Other frameworks for managing urban water sustainably 52 Notes 53 4 Demand management to achieve urban water security 60 Introduction 60 4.1 Purpose of demand management 60 4.2 Regulatory and technological demand management instruments 62 4.3 Communication and information demand management instruments 75 4.4. Portfolio of demand management tools 78 Notes 79 5 Transitions 86 Introduction 86 5.1 What is a transition? 86 5.2 Operationalisation of transitions 91 5.3 Diffusion mechanisms 93 5.4 Transition management 95 Notes 97 6 Transitions towards managing natural resources and water 105 Introduction 105 6.1 Transitions in natural resource management 106 6.2 What is a transition in urban water management? 109 6.3 Operationalising transitions in third]order scarcity 112 6.4 Barriers to transitions towards urban water security 115 Notes 121 7 Amsterdam transitioning towards urban water security 136 Introduction 136 7.1 Brief company background 136 7.2 Water supply and water consumption 137 7.3 Strategic vision: Amsterdam’s Definitely Sustainable 2011–2014 138 7.4 Drivers of water security 138 7.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 141 7.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 144 7.7 Case study SWOT analysis 146 7.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 149 Notes 150 8 Berlin transitioning towards urban water security 151 Introduction 151 8.1 Brief company background 151 8.2 Water supply and water consumption 152 8.3 Strategic vision: Using water wisely 153 8.4 Drivers of water security 153 8.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 155 8.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 159 8.7 Case study SWOT analysis 160 8.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 163 Notes 164 9 Copenhagen transitioning towards urban water security 165 Introduction 165 9.1 Brief company background 165 9.2 Water supply and water consumption 166 9.3 Strategic vision: Water supply plan (2012–2016) 166 9.4 Drivers of water security 167 9.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 169 9.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 174 9.7 Case study SWOT analysis 175 9.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 178 Notes 179 10 Denver transitioning towards urban water security 180 Introduction 180 10.1 Brief company background 180 10.2 Water supply and water consumption 181 10.3 Strategic vision: Denver Water’s 22 percent water target 183 10.4 Drivers of water security 183 10.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 185 10.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 191 10.7 Case study SWOT analysis 194 10.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 196 Notes 198 11 Hamburg transitioning towards urban water security 199 Introduction 199 11.1 Brief company background 199 11.2 Water supply and water consumption 200 11.3 Strategic vision: The HAMBURG WATER Cycle 200 11.4 Drivers of water security 200 11.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 202 11.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 206 11.7 Case study SWOT analysis 207 11.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 210 Note 210 12 London transitioning towards urban water security 211 Introduction 211 12.1 Brief company background 211 12.2 Water supply and water consumption 212 12.3 Strategic vision: Reducing consumption 212 12.4 Drivers of water security 212 12.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 213 12.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 216 12.7 Case study SWOT analysis 220 12.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 224 Notes 224 13 Singapore transitioning towards urban water security 225 Introduction 225 13.1 Brief company background 225 13.2 Water supply and water consumption 226 13.3 Strategic vision: Balancing supply with rising demand 227 13.4 Drivers of water security 227 13.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 229 13.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 235 13.7 Case study SWOT analysis 237 13.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 241 Notes 241 14 Toronto transitioning towards urban water security 242 Introduction 242 14.1 Brief company background 242 14.2 Water supply and water consumption 243 14.3 Strategic vision: Toronto’s Water Efficiency Plan 244 14.4 Drivers of water security 244 14.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 245 14.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 250 14.7 Case study SWOT analysis 252 14.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 256 Notes 256 15 Vancouver transitioning towards urban water security 257 Introduction 257 15.1 Brief company background 257 15.2 Water supply and water consumption 258 15.3 Strategic vision: Clean water and lower consumption 259 15.4 Drivers of water security 260 15.5 Regulatory and technological demand management tools to achieve urban water security 261 15.6 Communication and information demand management tools to achieve urban water security 266 15.7 Case study SWOT analysis 267 15.8 Transitioning towards urban water security summary 271 Notes 271 16 Sharing the journey: Best practices and lessons learnt 272 Introduction 272 16.1 Best practices 272 16.2 Lessons learnt 276 16.3 Moving forwards 280 Conclusions 284 Index 292

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Book SynopsisPermeability is the primary control on fluid flow in the Earth s crust and is key to a surprisingly wide range of geological processes, because it controls the advection of heat and solutes and the generation of anomalous pore pressures.Trade Review"123 authors contributed to the papers in this book. A glance at their affiliations shows excellent representation of scientists mostly from North America, Europe, and Japan (with one or two authors each from Australia, New Zealand, India, and China). The book editors, Tom Gleeson, University ofVictoria, Canada, and Steve Ingebritsen, USGS, are among the top thought leaders in the study and understanding of crustal permeability"......"This book represents an excellent resource and reference for any professional earth scientist concerned with earth systems and processes influenced by the flow of fluids." The Leading Edge, April 2017Table of ContentsList of contributors, xi About the companion websites, xvii 1 Introduction, 1Tom Gleeson and Steven Ingebritsen 2 DigitalCrust –a 4D data system of material properties for transforming research on crustal fluid flow, 6Ying Fan, Stephen Richard, R. Sky Bristol, Shanan E. Peters, Steven E. Ingebritsen, Nils Moosdorf, Aaron Packman, Tom Gleeson, I. Zaslavsky, S. Peckham, Lawrence Murdoch, Michael Fienen, Michael Cardiff, David Tarboton, Norman Jones, Richard Hooper, Jennifer Arrigo, D. Gochis, J. Olson and David Wolock Part I: The physics of permeability, 13 3 The physics of permeability, 15Tom Gleeson and Steven E. Ingebritsen 4 A pore-scale investigation of the dynamic response of saturated porous media to transient stresses, 16Christian Huber and Yanqing Su 5 Flow of concentrated suspensions through fractures: small variations in solid concentration cause significant in-plane velocity variations, 27Ricardo Medina, Jean E. Elkhoury, Joseph P. Morris, Romain Prioul, Jean Desroches and Russell L. Detwiler 6 Normal stress-induced permeability hysteresis of a fracture in a granite cylinder, 39A. P. S. Selvadurai 7 Linking microearthquakes to fracture permeability evolution, 49Takuya Ishibashi, Noriaki Watanabe, Hiroshi Asanuma and Noriyoshi Tsuchiya 8 Fractured rock stress–permeability relationships from in situ data and effects of temperature and chemical–mechanical couplings, 65Jonny Rutqvist Part II: Static permeability, 83 9 Static permeability, 85Tom Gleeson and Steven E. Ingebritsen Part II(A): Sediments and sedimentary rocks 10 How well can we predict permeability in sedimentary basins? Deriving and evaluating porosity–permeability equations for noncemented sand and clay mixtures, 89Elco Luijendijk and Tom Gleeson 11 Evolution of sediment permeability during burial and subduction, 104Hugh Daigle and Elizabeth J. Screaton Part II(B): Igneous and metamorphic rocks 12 Is the permeability of crystalline rock in the shallow crust related to depth, lithology, or tectonic setting?, 125Mark Ranjram, Tom Gleeson and Elco Luijendijk 13 Understanding heat and groundwater flow through continental flood basalt provinces: Insights gained from alternative models of permeability/depth relationships for the Columbia Plateau, United States, 137Erick R. Burns, Colin F. Williams, Steven E. Ingebritsen, Clifford I. Voss, Frank A. Spane and Jacob DeAngelo 14 Deep fluid circulation within crystalline basement rocks and the role of hydrologic windows in the formation of the Truth or Consequences, New Mexico low-temperature geothermal system, 155Jeffrey Pepin, Mark Person, Fred Phillips, Shari Kelley, Stacy Timmons, Lara Owens, James Witcher and Carl W. Gable 15 Hydraulic conductivity of fractured upper crust: insights from hydraulic tests in boreholes and fluid– rock interaction in crystalline basement rocks, 174Ingrid Stober and Kurt Bucher Part III: Dynamic permeability, 189 16 Dynamic permeability, 191Tom Gleeson and Steven E. Ingebritsen Part III(A): Oceanic crust 17 Rapid generation of reaction permeability in the roots of black smoker systems, Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus, 195Johnson R. Cann, Andrew M. Mccaig and Bruce W. D. Yardley Part III(B): Fault zones 18 The permeability of active subduction plate boundary faults, 209Demian M. Saffer 19 Changes in hot spring temperature and hydrogeology of the Alpine Fault hanging wall, New Zealand, induced by distal South Island earthquakes, 228Simon C. Cox, Catriona D. Menzies, Rupert Sutherland, Paul H. Denys, Calum Chamberlain and Damon A. H. Teagle 20 Transient permeability in fault stepovers and rapid rates of orogenic gold deposit formation, 249Steven Micklethwaite, Arianne Ford, Walter Witt and Heather A. Sheldon 21 Evidence for long-timescale (>103 years) changes in hydrothermal activity induced by seismic events, 260Trevor Howald, Mark Person, Andrew Campbell, Virgil Lueth, Albert Hofstra, Donald Sweetkind, Carl W. Gable, Amlan Banerjee, Elco Luijendijk, Laura Crossey, Karl Karlstrom, Shari Kelley and Fred M. Phillips Part III(C): Crustal-scale behavior 22 The permeability of crustal rocks through the metamorphic cycle: an overview, 277Bruce Yardley 23 An analytical solution for solitary porosity waves: dynamic permeability and fluidization of nonlinear viscous and viscoplastic rock, 285James A. D. Connolly and Y. Y. Podladchikov 24 Hypocenter migration and crustal seismic velocity distribution observed for the inland earthquake swarms induced by the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake in NE Japan: implications for crustal fluid distribution and crustal permeability, 307T. Okada, T. Matsuzawa, N. Umino, K. Yoshida, A. Hasegawa, H. Takahashi, T. Yamada, M. Kosuga, Tetsuya Takeda, A. Kato, T. Igarashi, K. Obara, S. Sakai, A. Saiga, T. Iidaka, T. Iwasaki, N. Hirata, N. Tsumura, Y. Yamanaka, T. Terakawa, H. Nakamichi, T. Okuda, S. Horikawa, H. Katao, T. Miura, A. Kubo, T. Matsushima, K. Goto and H. Miyamachi 25 Continental-scale water-level response to a large earthquake, 324Zheming Shi, Guang-Cai Wang, Michael Manga and Chi-Yuen Wang Part III(D): Effects of fluid injection at the scale of a reservoir or ore-deposit 26 Development of connected permeability in massive crystalline rocks through hydraulic fracture propagation and shearing accompanying fluid injection, 337Giona Preisig, Erik Eberhardt, Valentin Gischig, Vincent Roche, Mirko van der Baan, Benoit Valley, Peter K. Kaiser, Damien Duff and Robert Lowther 27 Modeling enhanced geothermal systems and the essential nature of large-scale changes in permeability at the onset of slip, 353Stephen A. Miller 28 Dynamics of permeability evolution in stimulated geothermal reservoirs, 363Joshua Taron, Steve E. Ingebritsen, Stephen Hickman and Colin F. Williams 29 The dynamic interplay between saline fluid flow and rock permeability in magmatic–hydrothermal systems, 373Philipp Weis Part IV: Conclusion, 393 30 Toward systematic characterization, 395Tom Gleeson and Steven E. Ingebritsen References, 398 Index, 447

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Book SynopsisThis all-new revised edition of a modern classic is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the green process of desalination in industrial and municipal applications, covering all of the processes and equipment necessary to design, operate, and troubleshoot desalination systems. This is becoming increasingly more important for not only our world''s industries, but our world''s populations, as pure water becomes more and more scarce. Blue is the new green. This is an all-new revised edition of a modern classic on one of the most important subjects in engineering: Water. Featuring a total revision of the initial volume, this is the most comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of the process of desalination in industrial and municipal applications, a technology that is becoming increasingly more important as more and more companies choose to go green. This book covers all of the processes and equipment necessary to design, operate, and troubleshoot desalination s

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Book SynopsisSUSTAINABLE WATER TREATMENT: ADVANCES AND INTERVENTIONS This outstanding new volume is a compendium of reference material which will cover most of the relevant and state-of-art approaches in the field of water treatment, focusing on technological advances for water treatment in four categories: advanced oxidation technologies, nanoparticles for water treatment, membrane separations, and other emerging technologies or processes. Apart from this perspective, fundamental discussions on a wide variety of pollutants have also been included, such as acidic wastewater treatment, metallurgical wastewater, textile wastewater as well as groundwater. The editors have not only covered a wide range of water treatment techniques, but also focus on their applications, offering a holistic perspective on water treatment in general. Covering all of the latest advances, innovations, and developments in practical applications for sustainable water treatment, this volume representsTable of ContentsIntroduction xix Section I: Advanced Oxidation Processes 1 1 Advanced Oxidation Processes: Fundamental, Technologies, Applications and Recent Advances 3Akshat Khandelwal and Saroj Sundar Baral 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Background and Global Trend of Advanced Oxidation Process 5 1.3 Advanced Oxidation Systems 8 1.3.1 Ozone-Based AOP 9 1.3.2 UV/H2O2 10 1.3.3 Radiation 10 1.3.4 Fenton Reaction 12 1.3.5 Photocatalytic 13 1.3.6 Electrochemical Oxidation 14 1.4 Comparison and Challenges of AOP Technologies 15 1.5 Conclusion and Perspective 19 References 20 2 A Historical Approach for Integration of Cavitation Technology with Conventional Wastewater Treatment Processes 27Bhaskar Bethi, G. B. Radhika, Shirish H. Sonawane, Shrikant Barkade and Ravindra Gaikwad 2.1 Introduction to Cavitation for Wastewater Treatment 28 2.1.1 Mechanistic Aspects of Ultrasound Cavitation 28 2.1.2 Mechanistic Aspects of Hydrodynamic Cavitation 29 2.2 Importance of Integrating Water Treatment Technology in Present Scenario 30 2.3 Integration Ultrasound Cavitation (UC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 31 2.3.1 Sonosorption (UC+ Adsorption) 32 2.3.2 Son-Chemical Oxidation (UC + Chemical Oxidation) 38 2.3.3 UC+Filtration 39 2.4 Integration of Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 40 2.4.1 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Adsorption 40 2.4.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Biological Oxidation 42 2.4.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Chemical Treatment 43 2.5 Scale-Up Issues with Ultrasound Cavitation Process 50 2.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives: Hydrodynamic Cavitation as a Future Technology 50 Acknowledgements 51 References 51 3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation: Route to Greener Technology for Wastewater Treatment 57Anupam Mukherjee, Ravi Teja, Aditi Mullick, Subhankar Roy, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy 3.1 Introduction 58 3.2 Cavitation: General Perspective 72 3.2.1 Phase Transition 72 3.2.2 Types of Cavitation 73 3.2.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 74 3.2.4 Bubble Dynamics Model 80 3.2.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset Equation 80 3.2.4.2 Bubble Contents 80 3.2.4.3 Nonequilibrium Effects 84 3.2.5 Physio-Chemical Effects 84 3.2.5.1 Thermodynamic Effects 85 3.2.5.2 Mechanical Effects 86 3.2.5.3 Chemical Effects 87 3.2.5.4 Biological Effects 88 3.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors 88 3.3.1 Liquid Whistle Reactors 89 3.3.2 High-Speed Homogenizers 89 3.3.3 Micro-Fluidizers 90 3.3.4 High-Pressure Homogenizers 90 3.3.5 Orifice Plates Setup 91 3.3.5.1 Effect of the Ratio of Total Perimeter to Total Flow Area 92 3.3.5.2 Effect of Flow Area to the Cross-Sectional Area of the Pipe 92 3.3.6 Venture Device Setup 92 3.3.6.1 Effect of Divergence Angle 93 3.3.6.2 Effect of the Ratio of Throat Diameter/Height to Length 94 3.3.7 Vortex-Based HC Reactor 94 3.4 Effect of Operating Parameters of HC 94 3.4.1 Effect of Inlet Pressure 94 3.4.2 Effect of Temperature 95 3.4.3 Effect of Initial Concentration of Pollutant 96 3.4.4 Effect of Treatment Time 96 3.4.5 Effect of pH 97 3.5 Toxicity Assessment 97 3.6 Techno-Economic Feasibility 100 3.7 Applications 101 3.8 Conclusions and Thoughts About the Future 102 3.9 Acknowledgement 103 3.10 Disclosure 103 Nomenclature 103 References 105 4 Recent Trends in Ozonation Technology: Theory and Application 117Anupam Mukherjee, Dror Avisar and Anirban Roy 4.1 Introduction 118 4.2 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 119 4.3 Mass Transfer of Ozone in Water 125 4.3.1 Solubility of Ozone in Water 126 4.3.1.1 Model for Determining the True Solubility Concentration 126 4.3.2 Mass Transfer Model of Ozone in Water 128 4.3.3 Henry and Volumetric Mass Transfer Coefficient Determination 133 4.3.3.1 Microscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 134 4.3.3.2 Macroscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 134 4.3.3.3 Ozone Balance at Constant Ozone Concentrations 136 4.3.4 Single Bubble Model of Mass Transfer 137 4.3.5 Decomposition of Ozone in Water 144 4.3.6 Ozone Contactors and Energy Requirement 146 4.4 Factors Affecting Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Bubble Column Reactor 147 4.4.1 Fluid Dynamics and Regime Analysis 148 4.4.2 Gas Holdup 149 4.4.3 Bubble Characteristics 149 4.4.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient 150 4.5 Application 150 4.6 Conclusion and Thoughts About the Future 158 Acknowledgement 158 Nomenclature 158 References 161 Section II: Nanoparticle-Based Treatment 171 5 Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials for Water Treatment: Application in Fixed Bed Column Filter 173Chhaya, Dibyanshu, Sneha Singh and Trishikhi Raychoudhury 5.1 Introduction 174 5.2 Target Contaminants: Performance of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials 178 5.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants 178 5.2.1.1 Heavy Metals 178 5.2.1.2 Nonmetallic Contaminant 195 5.2.2 Organic Contaminant 197 5.2.2.1 Organic Dyes 197 5.2.2.2 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 202 5.2.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) 203 5.2.2.4 Miscellaneous Aromatic Pollutant 221 5.2.3 Emerging Contaminants 222 5.2.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 222 5.2.3.2 Miscellaneous Compounds 225 5.3 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter for Water Treatment 226 5.3.1 Fate and Transport Process of Contaminants in the Fixed Bed Column Filter 226 5.3.2 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter 228 References 231 6 Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment: Potential and Barriers in Industrialization 245Snehasis Bhakta 6.1 Introduction 245 6.2 Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 248 6.2.1 Nanotechnological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 249 6.2.1.1 Nanofiltration 249 6.2.1.2 Adsorption 249 6.2.1.3 Photocatalysis 249 6.2.1.4 Disinfection 250 6.2.2 Different Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment 250 6.2.2.1 Zerovalent Metal Nanoparticles 250 6.2.2.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 251 6.2.2.3 Other Nanoparticles 252 6.3 Smart Nanomaterials: Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 253 6.3.1 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 253 6.3.2 Application of MIP-Based Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 254 6.3.2.1 Recognition of Pollutants 254 6.3.2.2 Removal of Pollutants 255 6.3.2.3 Catalytic Degradation of Organic Molecules 256 6.3.3 Barriers in Industrialization 257 6.4 Cheap Alternative Nanomaterials 257 6.4.1 Nanoclay for Wastewater Treatment 258 6.4.1.1 Water Filtration by Nanoclays 258 6.4.1.2 Water Treatment by Hybrid Gel 258 6.4.1.3 Nanosponges 259 6.4.2 Nanocellulose for Wastewater Treatment 259 6.4.2.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metals by Nanocellulose 260 6.4.2.2 Adsorption of Dyes by Nanocellulose 260 6.4.2.3 Barriers in Industrialization 260 6.5 Toxicity Associated with Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment 261 6.6 Barriers in Industrialization 262 6.7 Future Aspect and Conclusions 263 References 264 Section III: Membrane-Based Treatment 271 7 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology for Wastewater Treatment 273Nilesh Vijay Rane, Alka Kumari, Chandrakant Holkar, Dipak V. Pinjari and Aniruddha B. Pandit 7.1 Introduction 274 7.2 Microbial Fuel Cell 276 7.2.1 Working Principle 276 7.2.2 Role of MFC Components 279 7.2.3 Performance Indicator of MFC 280 7.2.4 Design Parameters 282 7.2.5 Types of Microbial Fuel Cell 283 7.3 Recent Development in MFC Component 286 7.3.1 Recent Development in Cathode Used in MFC 286 7.3.2 Recent Development in Anode Used in MFC 291 7.3.3 Recent Developments in Membranes Used in MFC 295 7.4 MFC for Wastewater Treatment 298 7.4.1 Advantages of MFC Over Conventional Treatment 299 7.4.2 Challenges in the Wastewater Treatment Using MFC 300 7.5 Different Ways for Increasing the Throughput of MFC 301 7.5.1 Big Reactor Size 301 7.5.2 Stacking 302 7.5.3 Cathode 303 7.5.4 Anode 303 7.5.5 Separating Material 304 7.5.6 Harnessing Output Energy 304 7.5.7 Increasing Long-Term Stability 305 7.5.8 Coupling of MFC with Other Techniques 305 7.6 Different Case Studies Indicating Commercial Use of MFC 306 7.7 Other Applications of MFC 310 7.8 Conclusions and Recommendations (Future Work) 311 References 313 8 Ceramic Membranes in Water Treatment: Potential and Challenges for Technology Development 325Debarati Mukherjee and Sourja Ghosh 8.1 Introduction 326 8.1.1 Background and Current State-of-the-Art 326 8.1.2 Ceramic Membranes: An Approach to Trade-Off the Bridge Between Theoretical Research and Industrial Applications 327 8.1.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 329 8.1.4 Domestic Wastewater Treatment 341 8.2 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater and Drinking Water 348 8.2.1 Arsenic Contaminated Water 348 8.2.2 Treatment of Fluoride Contaminated Water 350 8.2.3 Treatment of Nitrate Contaminated Water 351 8.2.4 Treatment of Water Spiked with Emerging Contaminants 352 8.2.5 Treatment of Water Contaminated with Pathogens 354 8.3 Classification of Filtration Based on Configuration 357 8.3.1 Direct Membrane Filtration 357 8.3.2 Hybrid Approaches 360 8.4 Pilot-Scale Studies 368 8.5 Challenges of Ceramic Membranes 369 8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope of Ceramic Membranes 370 References 371 9 Membrane Distillation for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 383Sarita Kalla, Rakesh Baghel, Sushant Upadhyaya and Kailash Singh 9.1 Introduction 383 9.2 Membrane Distillation and Its Configurations 384 9.3 Sources of Acidic Effluent 385 9.4 Applications of MD for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 387 9.5 Hybrid MD Process 388 9.6 Implications 395 References 395 10 Demonstration of Long-Term Assessment on Performance of VMD for Textile Wastewater Treatment 401Rakesh Baghel, Sarita Kalla, Sushant Upadhyaya and S. P. Chaurasia 10.1 Introduction 401 10.2 Transport Mechanism 403 10.3 Impact of Process Variables on Permeate Flux 405 10.4 Long-Term Performance Analysis of VMD 408 10.5 Scale Formation in Long-Term Assessment 411 Conclusion 412 Nomenclature 412 Greek Symbols 413 References 413 Section IV: Emerging Technologies & Processes 415 11 Application of Zero Valent Iron to Removal Chromium and Other Heavy Metals in Metallurgical Wastewater 417Khac-Uan Do, Thi-Lien Le and Thuy-Lan Nguyen 11.1 Introduction 418 11.1.1 Wastewater Sources from Metallurgical Factories 418 11.1.2 Characteristics of Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 419 11.1.3 Conventional Technologies for Treating Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 420 11.1.4 Zero Valent Iron for Removing Heavy Metals 422 11.1.5 Objectives of the Study 422 11.2 Materials and Methods 423 11.2.1 Metallurgical Wastewater 423 11.2.2 Preparation of Zero Valent Iron 424 11.2.3 Batch Experiments 424 11.2.4 Analysis Methods 425 11.3 Results and Discussion 428 11.3.1 Effects of pH on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 428 11.3.2 Effects of Feo on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 430 11.3.3 Effects of Contact Time on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 431 11.3.4 Effects of pH on Heavy Metals Removal 432 11.3.5 Effects of PAC on Heavy Metals Removal 433 11.3.6 Effects of PAM on Heavy Metals Removal 434 11.4 Conclusion 435 Acknowledgements 436 References 436 12 Removal of Arsenic and Fluoride from Water Using Novel Technologies 441Ishita Sarkar, Sankha Chakrabortty, Jayato Nayak and Parimal Pal 12.1 Background Study of Arsenic 442 12.1.1 Source and Existence of Arsenic 442 12.1.2 Effects of Arsenic 443 12.1.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Arsenic in Drinking Water 444 12.2 Background Study of Fluoride 445 12.2.1 Source and Existence of Fluoride 445 12.2.2 Effects of Fluoride 445 12.2.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Fluoride in Drinking Water 446 12.3 Technologies Used for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 447 12.3.1 Oxidation Method 447 12.3.2 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 450 12.3.3 Ion-Exchange Method 450 12.3.4 Adsorption Method 451 12.4 Technologies for Fluoride Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 456 12.4.1 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 456 12.4.2 Nalgonda Technique 456 12.4.3 Adsorption Method 458 12.4.4 Ion-Exchange Method 458 12.5 Membrane Technology Used for Arsenic and Fluoride Mitigations 460 12.5.1 Introduction of Membrane Technology 460 12.5.2 Arsenic Removal by Membrane Filtration 462 12.5.2.1 Arsenic Removal by Microfiltration System 462 12.5.2.2 Arsenic Removal by Ultrafiltration System 464 12.5.2.3 Arsenic Removal by Nanofiltration System 466 12.5.2.4 Arsenic Removal by Other Membrane-Based Process 472 12.5.3 Fluoride Removal by Different Membrane Filtration System 475 References 480 13 A Zero Liquid Discharge Strategy with MSF Coupled with Crystallizer 487Jasneet Kaur Pala, Siddhartha Moulik, Asim K. Ghosh, Reddi Kamesh and Anirban Roy 13.1 Introduction 488 13.2 Minimum Energy Required for Desalination Process 490 13.2.1 Minimum Work Requirement 492 13.2.2 Recovery Ratio 494 13.3 Methodology and Simulation 494 13.3.1 MSF Process Description 494 13.3.2 Crystallizer Process Description 495 13.3.3 Modeling and Simulation 496 13.3.4 Input Parameters 501 13.4 Results and Discussion 504 13.4.1 Comparison of Energy Demand Between Simulated Model and Theoretical Model 504 13.4.2 Impact of Temperature and Flowrate on Thermal Energy 507 13.4.3 Impact on Thermal Energy During MLD and ZLD 507 13.4.4 Crystallization of Salts 511 13.5 Conclusion 511 13.6 Acknowledgment 512 References 512 14 A Critical Review on Prospects and Challenges in “Conceptualization to Technology Transfer” for Nutrient Recovery from Municipal Wastewater 517Shubham Lanjewar, Birupakshya Mishra, Anupam Mukherjee, Aditi Mullick, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy 14.1 Introduction 518 14.2 Chemical Processes for Resources Recovery 520 14.2.1 Chemical Precipitation 521 14.2.1.1 Magnesium and Calcium – Phosphorous Precipitation 521 14.2.1.2 Aluminum – Phosphorous Precipitation 522 14.2.1.3 Ferric – Phosphorous Precipitation 523 14.2.2 Adsorption and Ion-Exchange 524 14.3 Biological Processes for Resources Recovery 528 14.3.1 Anammox Process for Nutrients Recovery 529 14.3.2 Algal Methods for Sewage Treatment and Nutrient Recovery 530 14.3.2.1 Nutrients Recovery from Micro-Algae Growth 530 14.3.2.2 Nutrients Recovery from Wetland Plants Growth 533 14.4 Membrane-Based Hybrid Technologies for Nutrients, Energy, and Water Recovery 534 14.4.1 Membrane Based Nutrients Recovery 534 14.4.2 Bio Electrochemical Systems (BES) for Resources Recovery 537 14.4.3 Nutrients Recovery via Osmotic Membrane Bioreactor 544 14.4.4 Economics and Feasibility of Processes 545 14.5 Conclusion 551 Acknowledgements 551 Disclosure 551 References 551 15 Sustainable Desalination: Future Scope in Indian Subcontinent 567Rudra Rath, Asim K. Ghosh and Anirban Roy 15.1 Introduction 567 15.2 Water Supply and Demand in India 568 15.3 Current Status of Desalination in India 571 15.4 Commercially Available Technologies 572 15.4.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 572 15.4.2 Electrodialysis (ED) 573 15.4.3 Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI) 574 15.4.4 Thermal Desalination 574 15.5 Possible Technological Intervention 576 15.5.1 Solar Desalination 576 15.5.1.1 Solar Stills 577 15.5.1.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Powered Desalination in India 579 15.5.2 Wave Power Desalination 580 15.5.3 Geothermal Desalination 580 15.5.4 Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) 580 15.5.5 Membrane Distillation (MD) 581 15.5.6 Forward Osmosis (FO) 582 15.6 Challenges and Implementation Strategies for Sustainable Use of Desalination Technologies 583 References 584 16 Desalination: Thermodynamic Modeling and Energetics 591Shubham Lanjewar, Ridhish Kumar, Kunal Roy, Rudra Rath, Anupam Mukherjee and Anirban Roy 16.1 Introduction 592 16.2 Thermodynamics Modeling of Desalination 593 16.2.1 Electrolyte Solutions 594 16.2.2 Generalized Minimum Work of Separation 596 16.2.2.1 Mass Basis 597 16.2.2.2 Mole Basis 598 16.3 Modeling of Major Thermal Desalination Techniques 599 16.3.1 A General Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) Process Configuration for Desalination 601 16.3.1.1 Steady State Process Model of a MED System 601 16.3.1.2 Performance Parameters Analysis 606 16.3.2 A General Process Configuration of Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Desalination 607 16.3.2.1 Steady State Process Model of an MSF System 608 16.3.3 A General Process Configuration of Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) Desalination 612 16.3.3.1 Steady State Process Model of an MVC System 613 16.4 Advantage of RO Above Other Mentioned Technologies 615 16.4.1 Advantages of RO Process 616 16.4.2 Energy Requirement in Desalination by an Evaporation Technique 617 16.4.3 Energy Requirements for Desalination by Reversible RO Process 617 16.4.4 Energy Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 619 16.4.5 Economic Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 620 16.5 Exergy Analysis of Reverse Osmosis 623 16.5.1 General Exergy Analysis in Desalination and Its Necessity 625 16.5.1.1 Exergy Efficiency and Its Improvement Potential Analysis 628 16.5.2 A Case Study on Reverse Osmosis Based Desalination Unit Reporting Exergy Performance 630 16.6 Conclusion 631 Nomenclature 632 References 636 Index 643

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsAcknowledgements xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Connectivity and Inequality 3 1.2 Six Degrees of Connection 8 1.3 Rivers as Integrators 11 1.4 Organization of this Volume 13 1.5 Understanding Rivers 15 1.5.1 The Colorado Front Range 15 1.6 Only Connect 26 2 Creating Channels and Channel Networks 27 2.1 Generating Water, Solutes, and Sediment 27 2.1.1 Generating Water 27 2.1.2 Generating Sediment and Solutes 28 2.2 Getting Water, Solutes, and Sediment Downslope to Channels 30 2.2.1 Downslope Pathways of Water 30 2.2.2 Downslope Movement of Sediment 39 2.2.3 Processes and Patterns of Water Chemistry Entering Channels 42 2.2.4 Influence of the Riparian Zone on Fluxes into Channels 43 2.3 Human Influences on Fluxes from Uplands to Channels 46 2.3.1 Climate Change 46 2.3.2 Altered Land Cover 48 2.3.2.1 Deforestation 48 2.3.2.2 Afforestation 49 2.3.2.3 Grazing 50 2.3.2.4 Crop Growth 50 2.3.2.5 Urbanization 50 2.3.2.6 Upland Mining 51 2.3.2.7 Land Drainage 52 2.3.2.8 Commercial Recreational Property Development 52 2.4 Channel Initiation 53 2.5 Extension and Development of the Drainage Network 57 2.5.1 Morphometric Indices and Scaling Laws 58 2.5.2 Optimality 61 2.6 Spatial Differentiation within Drainage Basins 62 2.7 Summary 64 Part I Channel Processes I 67 3 Water Dynamics 69 3.1 Hydraulics 69 3.1.1 Flow Classification 70 3.1.2 Energy, Flow State, and Hydraulic Jumps 74 3.1.3 Uniform Flow Equations and Flow Resistance 76 3.1.4 Velocity and Turbulence 86 3.1.5 Measures of Energy Exerted Against the Channel Boundaries 93 3.1.6 Numerical Models of Hydraulics 94 3.2 Hydrology 95 3.2.1 Measuring Discharge 95 3.2.2 Indirectly Estimating Discharge 96 3.2.3 Modeling Discharge 103 3.2.4 Flood Frequency Analysis 105 3.2.5 Hydrographs and Flow Regime 106 3.2.6 Other Parameters Used to Characterize Discharge 110 3.2.7 Hyporheic Exchange and Hydrology 110 3.2.8 River Hydrology in Cold Regions 114 3.2.9 Human Influences on Hydrology 115 3.2.9.1 Flow Regulation 115 3.2.9.2 River Corridor Engineering 122 3.2.10 The Natural Flow Regime 123 3.3 Summary 124 Part II Channel Processes II 125 4 Fluvial Sediment Dynamics 127 4.1 The Channel Bed and Initiation of Motion 128 4.1.1 Bed Sediment Characterization 128 4.1.2 Entrainment of Noncohesive Sediment 129 4.1.2.1 Forces Acting on a Grain 131 4.1.2.2 Grain Properties 133 4.1.2.3 Turbulence 134 4.1.2.4 Biotic Processes 134 4.1.3 Erosion of Cohesive Beds 135 4.1.3.1 Erosion of Bedrock 135 4.1.3.2 Erosion of Cohesive Sediment 139 4.2 Sediment Transport 139 4.2.1 Dissolved Load 139 4.2.1.1 Nitrogen 141 4.2.1.2 Carbon 141 4.2.1.3 Trace Metals 143 4.2.1.4 Other Environments 144 4.2.2 Suspended Load 144 4.2.3 Bed Load 151 4.2.3.1 Bed Load in Channels with Coarse-Grained Substrate: Coarse Surface Layer 152 4.2.3.2 Bed Load in Channels with Coarse-Grained Substrate: Characteristics of Grain Movements 154 4.2.3.3 Bed Load in Channels with Coarse-Grained Substrate: Controls on Bed-Load Dynamics 156 4.2.3.4 Estimating Bed-Load Flux 158 4.2.3.5 Field Measurements of Bed Load 161 4.3 Bedforms 163 4.3.1 Readily Mobile Bedforms 163 4.3.2 Infrequently Mobile Bedforms 167 4.3.2.1 Particle Clusters 167 4.3.2.2 Transverse Ribs 167 4.3.2.3 Steep Alluvial Channel Bedforms 168 4.3.2.4 Step–Pool Channels 169 4.3.2.5 Pool–Riffle Channels 171 4.3.2.6 Bars 175 4.3.3 Bedforms in Cohesive Sediments 175 4.4 In-Channel Depositional Processes 176 4.5 Downstream Trends in Grain Size 178 4.6 Bank Stability and Erosion 179 4.7 Sediment Budgets 184 4.8 Human Influences on Sediment Dynamics 189 4.9 The Natural Sediment Regime 193 4.10 Summary 194 Part III Channel Processes III 197 5 Large Wood Dynamics 199 5.1 The Continuum of Vegetation in River Corridors 199 5.2 Recruitment of Wood to River Corridors 201 5.3 Wood Entrainment and Transport 203 5.4 Wood Deposition 207 5.5 Wood Storage 208 5.6 Wood Interactions with Water and Sediment 212 5.7 Human Influences on Wood Dynamics 215 5.8 The Natural Wood Regime 216 5.9 Summary 218 6 Channel Forms 219 6.1 Cross-Sectional Geometry 220 6.1.1 Bankfull, Dominant, and Effective Discharge 220 6.1.2 Width-to-Depth Ratio 222 6.1.3 Hydraulic Geometry 223 6.1.3.1 At-A-Station Hydraulic Geometry 223 6.1.3.2 Downstream Hydraulic Geometry 225 6.1.4 Lane’s Balance 226 6.1.5 Complex Response 228 6.1.6 Channel Evolution Models 228 6.2 Channel Planform 231 6.2.1 Straight Channels 232 6.2.2 Meandering Channels 233 6.2.3 Wandering Channels 238 6.2.4 Braided Channels 239 6.2.5 Anabranching Channels 244 6.2.6 Compound Channels 246 6.2.7 Karst Channels 246 6.2.8 Continuum Concept 246 6.2.9 River Metamorphosis 247 6.3 Confluences 250 6.4 Bedrock Channels 254 6.5 River Gradient 255 6.5.1 Longitudinal Profile 257 6.5.2 Stream Gradient Index 261 6.5.3 Knickpoints 262 6.6 Adjustment of Channel Form 265 6.6.1 Extremal Hypotheses of Channel Adjustment 266 6.6.2 Nonlinear Behavior and Alternative States 267 6.6.3 Geomorphic Effects of Floods 268 6.7 Human Influences on Channel Form 270 6.8 Summary 276 7 Extra-Channel Environments 277 7.1 Floodplains 277 7.1.1 Floodplain Functions 278 7.1.2 Floodplain Hydrology 281 7.1.3 Depositional Processes and Floodplain Stratigraphy 281 7.1.4 Erosional Processes and Floodplain Turnover Times 287 7.1.5 Downstream Trends in Floodplain Form and Process 289 7.1.6 Classification of Floodplains 290 7.1.7 Human Influences on Floodplains 290 7.2 Terraces 291 7.2.1 Terrace Classifications 292 7.2.2 Mechanisms of Terrace Formation and Preservation 295 7.2.3 Terraces as Paleoprofiles and Paleoenvironmental Indicators 297 7.3 Alluvial Fans 300 7.3.1 Erosional and Depositional Processes 302 7.3.2 Fan Geometry and Stratigraphy 303 7.3.3 Mapping, Studying, and Living on Fans 305 7.4 Deltas 306 7.4.1 Processes of Erosion and Deposition 308 7.4.2 Delta Morphology and Stratigraphy 309 7.4.3 Paleoenvironmental Records 312 7.4.4 Deltas in the Anthropocene 313 7.5 Estuaries 314 7.6 Summary 316 8 Rivers in the Landscape 319 8.1 Rivers and Topography 319 8.1.1 Tectonics, Topography, and Large Rivers 321 8.1.2 Indicators of Relations Between Rivers and Landscape Evolution 323 8.1.3 Tectonic Influences on River Geometry 323 8.1.4 Effects of River Incision on Tectonics 324 8.1.5 Bedrock-Channel Incision and Landscape Evolution 325 8.2 Climatic Signatures 328 8.2.1 High Latitudes 328 8.2.2 Low Latitudes 331 8.2.3 Warm Drylands 333 8.3 Spatial Differentiation Along a River 336 8.4 Connectivity 338 8.5 River Management in an Environmental Context 342 8.5.1 Reference Conditions 342 8.5.2 Restoration 344 8.5.3 Instream, Channel Maintenance, and Environmental Flows 350 8.5.4 River Health 353 8.6 Rivers with a History 355 8.7 The Greater Context 357 References 361 Index 491

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Book SynopsisWATER, CLIMATE CHANGE, AND SUSTAINABILITY An in-depth review of sustainable concepts in water resources management under climate changeClimate change continues to intensify existing pressures in water resources management, such as rapid population growth, land use changes, pollution, damming of rivers, and many others. Securing a reliable water supplycritical for achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)requires understanding of the relation between finite water resources, climate variability/change, and various elements of sustainability. Water, Climate Change, and Sustainability is a timely and in-depth examination of the concept of sustainability as it relates to water resources management in the context of climate changerisks. Featuring contributions by global authors, this edited volume is organized into three sections: Sustainability Concepts; Sustainability Approaches, Tools, and Techniques; and Sustainability in Practice. Detailed chapters describe the linkage between waTable of ContentsContributors vii Preface ix Section I: Sustainability Concepts 1. Localizing and Mainstreaming Global Initiatives on Water, Climate Change and Sustainable Development 3Vishnu Prasad Pandey, Binaya Raj Shivakoti, Sangam Shrestha, and David Wiberg 2. A River Basin Approach for the Coordinated Implementation of Water Related Targets in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 21Binaya Raj Shivakoti 3. Water‐Energy Nexus in Bio‐Based Systems 33Seyed Hashem Mousavi-Avval, Asmita Khanal, Juliana Vasco-Correa, Luis Huezo, and Ajay Shah 4. Safe‐Sanitation Adaptive‐Integrated Management Systems (SAIMS): A Conceptual Process Tool for Incorporating Resilience 47Peter Emmanuel Cookey and Mayowa Abiodun Peter-Cookey Section II: Sustainability Approaches, Tools, and Techniques 5. Approaches and Tools to Assess Water‐Climate‐Sustainability Nexus: A Systematic Review 73lusola O. Ololade, Enoch Bessah, and Marinda Avenant 6. Rejuvenation of Springs in the Himalayan Region 97Himanshu Kulkarni, Jayesh Desai, and Mohammad Imran Siddique 7. Enhancing Water Productivity Through On‐Farm Water Management 109Mohammad Faiz Alam, Vidya Mandave, Alok Sikka, and Navneet Sharma 8. Climate Actions and Challenges for Sustainable Ecosystem Services: Approaches and Application in California Case Studies 125Qinqin Liu 9. Monitoring and Accountability Frameworks for SDG 6: The Role of Civil Society Organisations 141Catarina Fonseca and Laura van de Lande 10. Research to Policy and Practice: Challenges and Opportunities 151Ashim Das Gupta Section III: Sustainability in Practice 11. Resilient Water Infrastructure for Poverty Reduction: Cases from Asia and Middle East 171Victor R. Shinde and Lovlesh Sharma 12. High Efficiency Irrigation Technology As a Single Solution for Multi‑Challenge: A Case of Pakistan 185Hafiz Qaisar Yasin, Malik Muhammad Akram, and Muhammad Naveed Tahir 13. Irrigation Scheduling and Management for Improved Water Productivity 197Birendra KC, Henry Wai Chau, Magdy Mohssen, Keith Cameron, Ian McIndoe, Helen Rutter, Channa Rajanayaka, Patricia Anthony, Bart Schultz, and Krishna Prasad 14. Urban Water Security for Sustainable Cities in the Context of Climate Change 213Soni M. Pradhanang and Khurshid Jahan 15. Approach Towards Building Climate‐Resilient Irrigation Systems for Food Security in Nepal 225Ram Chandra Khanal and Prachanda Pradhan 16. A Stakeholder‐Centric Tool for Implementing Water Management Strategies and Enhancing Water Cooperation (SDG 6.5) in the Lower Mekong Region 239Manish Shrestha, Karthikeyan Matheswaran, Orn-Uma Polapanich, Thanapon Piman, and Chayanis Krittasudthacheewa Index 257

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Book SynopsisHYDROGEOLOGY Hydrogeology: Principles and Practice provides a comprehensive introduction to the study of hydrogeology to enable the reader to appreciate the significance of groundwater in meeting current and future environmental and sustainable water resource challenges. This new edition has been thoroughly updated to reflect advances in the field since 2014 and includes over 350 new references. The book presents a systematic approach to understanding groundwater starting with new insights into the distribution of groundwater in the Earth's upper continental crust and the role of groundwater as an agent of global material and elemental fluxes. Following chapters explain the fundamental physical and chemical principles of hydrogeology, and later chapters feature groundwater field investigation techniques in the context of catchment processes, as well as chapters on groundwater quality and contaminant hydrogeology, including a section on emerging contamination from miTable of ContentsList of colour plates xi List of boxes xiv Preface to the third edition xvi Preface to the second edition xvi Preface to the first edition xvii Acknowledgements xviii Symbols and abbreviations xix About the companion website xxiii 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Scope of this book 1.2 What is hydrogeology? 1.3 Early examples of groundwater exploitation 1.4 History of hydrogeology 1.5 The water cycle 1.5.1 Groundwater occurrence in the upper continental crust 1.5.2 Groundwater-related tipping points 1.5.3 Groundwater discharge to the oceans 1.5.4 Global groundwater material and elemental fluxes 1.5.5 Human influence on the water cycle 1.6 Global groundwater resources 1.6.1 Global groundwater abstraction 1.6.2 Global groundwater depletion and sea level rise 1.7 Groundwater resources in developed countries 1.7.1 Groundwater abstraction in the United Kingdom 1.7.1.1 Management and protection of groundwater resources in the United Kingdom 1.7.2 Groundwater abstraction in Europe 1.7.2.1 European Union Water Framework Directive 1.7.3 Groundwater abstraction in North America 1.7.3.1 Management and protection of groundwater resources in the United States 1.7.4 Groundwater abstraction in China 1.8 Groundwater resources in developing countries Further reading References 2. Physical hydrogeology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Porosity 2.3 Hydraulic conductivity 2.4 Isotropy and homogeneity 2.5 Aquifers, aquitards and aquicludes 2.6 Darcy’s Law 2.6.1 Hydraulic properties of fractured rocks 2.6.2 Karst aquifer properties 2.6.3 Sinkholes and land subsidence 2.7 Groundwater potential and hydraulic head 2.8 Interpretation of hydraulic head and groundwater conditions 2.8.1 Groundwater flow direction 2.8.2 Water table and potentiometric surface maps 2.8.3 Types of groundwater conditions 2.9 Transmissivity and storativity of confined aquifers 2.9.1 Release of water from confined aquifers 2.10 Transmissivity and specific yield of unconfined aquifers 2.11 Equations of groundwater flow 2.11.1 Steady-state saturated flow 2.11.2 Transient saturated flow 2.11.3 Transient unsaturated flow 2.12 Analytical solution of one-dimensional groundwater flow problems 2.13 Groundwater flow patterns 2.14 Classification of springs and intermittent streams 2.15 Transboundary aquifer systems 2.16 Submarine groundwater discharge 2.17 Groundwater resources of the world 2.18 Hydrogeological environments of the United Kingdom 2.18.1 Sedimentary rocks 2.18.2 Metamorphic rocks 2.18.3 Igneous rocks Further reading References 3. Groundwater and geological processes 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Geological processes driving fluid flow 3.3 Topography-driven flow in the context of geological processes 3.4 Compaction-driven fluid flow 3.5 Variable-density driven fluid flow 3.5.1 Salinity gradients leading to variable-density flow 3.5.2 Hydrothermal systems driven by variable-density flow 3.6 Regional groundwater flow systems driven predominantly by variable-density flow 3.6.1 Fluctuating sea-level and its impact on the distribution of groundwater salinity in coastal areas 3.6.2 Brines in continental aquifers 3.7 Regional groundwater flow systems driven predominantly by shifting topography and stress changes 3.7.1 Mountain building and erosion 3.7.2 Impact of glaciations on regional hydrogeology 3.8 Coupling and relative importance of processes driving fluid flow Further reading References 4. Chemical hydrogeology 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Properties of water 4.3 Chemical composition of groundwater 4.4 Sequence of hydrochemical evolution of groundwater 4.5 Groundwater sampling and graphical presentation of hydrochemical data 4.6 Concept of chemical equilibrium 4.6.1 Kinetic approach to chemical equilibrium 4.6.2 Energetic approach to chemical equilibrium 4.7 Carbonate chemistry of groundwater 4.8 Adsorption and ion exchange 4.9 Redox chemistry, 172 4.10 Groundwater in crystalline rocks 4.11 Geochemical modelling Further reading References 5. Environmental isotope hydrogeology 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Stable isotope chemistry and nomenclature 5.3 Stable isotopes of water 5.4 Stable isotopes of nitrogen and sulfur 5.4.1 Nitrogen stable isotopes 5.4.2 Sulphur stable isotopes 5.5 Age dating of groundwater 5.5.1 Law of radioactive decay 5.5.2 14C dating 5.5.3 36Cl dating 5.5.4 Tritium dating 5.5.5 3H/3He dating 5.6 Noble gases Further reading References 6. Groundwater and catchment processes 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Water balance equation 6.3 Precipitation and evapotranspiration 6.3.1 Precipitation measurement 6.3.2 Evapotranspiration measurement and estimation 6.4 Soil water and infiltration 6.4.1 Soil moisture content and soil water potential 6.4.2 Calculation of drainage and evaporation losses 6.4.3 Infiltration theory and measurement 6.5 Recharge estimation 6.5.1 Borehole hydrograph method 6.5.2 Soil moisture budget method 6.5.3 Chloride budget method 6.5.4 Temperature profile methods 6.6 Stream gauging techniques 6.6.1 Velocity area methods 6.6.1.1 Surface floats 6.6.1.2 Current metering 6.6.1.3 Acoustic Doppler current profiler 6.6.2 Dilution gauging 6.6.3 Ultrasonic, electromagnetic and integrating float methods 6.6.4 Slope-area method 6.6.5 Weirs and flumes 6.7 Hydrograph analysis 6.7.1 Quickflow and baseflow separation 6.7.2 Unit hydrograph theory 6.8 Surface water – groundwater interaction 6.8.1 Temperature-based methods of detection 6.8.2 Simulating river flow depletion 6.8.2.1 Analytical solutions 6.8.2.2 Catchment resource modelling 6.8.2.3 Global-scale surface water-groundwater modelling Further reading References 7. Groundwater investigation techniques 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Measurement and interpretation of groundwater level data 7.2.1 Water level measurement 7.2.2 Well and borehole design and construction methods 7.2.3 Borehole hydrographs and barometric efficiency 7.2.3.1 Groundwater level fluctuations in the Bengal Basin Aquifer 7.2.4 Construction of groundwater level contour maps 7.3 Field estimation of aquifer properties 7.3.1 Piezometer tests 7.3.2 Pumping tests 7.3.2.1 Thiem equilibrium method 7.3.2.2 Theis non-equilibrium method 7.3.2.3 Cooper–Jacob straight-line method 7.3.2.4 Recovery test method 7.3.2.5 Principle of superposition of drawdown 7.3.2.6 Leaky, unconfined and bounded aquifer systems 7.3.3 Tracer tests 7.3.4 Downhole geophysical techniques 7.3.4.1 Examples of downhole geophysical logging 7.3.5 Surface geophysical techniques 7.3.5.1 Seismic refraction survey method 7.3.5.2 Electrical resistivity survey method 7.3.5.3 Electromagnetic survey method 7.3.5.4 Gravity survey method 7.3.5.5 Examples of surface geophysical surveying 7.4 Remote sensing methods 7.5 Groundwater modelling Further reading References 8. Groundwater quality and contaminant hydrogeology 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Water quality standards 8.2.1 Water hardness 8.2.2 Irrigation water quality 8.3 Transport of contaminants in groundwater 8.3.1 Transport of non-reactive dissolved contaminants 8.3.1.1 One-dimensional solute transport equation 8.3.2 Transport of reactive dissolved contaminants 8.3.3 Transport of non-aqueous phase liquids 8.3.3.1 Hydrophobic sorption of non-polar organic compounds 8.3.4 Effects of density and heterogeneity 8.4 Sources of groundwater contamination 8.4.1 Urban and industrial contaminants 8.4.2 Municipal landfill wastes 8.4.3 Faecal, domestic and cemetery wastes 8.4.4 Microplastic contamination 8.4.5 Agricultural contaminants 8.4.6 Saline water intrusion in coastal aquifers 8.4.7 Saline water intrusion on small oceanic islands Further reading References 9. Groundwater pollution remediation and protection 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Groundwater pollution remediation techniques 9.2.1 Pump-and-treat 9.2.2 Permeable reactive barriers 9.2.3 Monitored natural attenuation 9.3 Groundwater pollution protection strategies in developed countries 9.3.1 Groundwater vulnerability mapping and aquifer resource protection 9.3.2 Source protection zones 9.3.3 Risk assessment methods 9.3.4 Groundwater vulnerability assessment and mapping for the protection of carbonate (karstic) aquifers 9.3.5 Spatial planning and groundwater protection 9.4 Groundwater protection strategies in developing countries Further reading References 10. Groundwater resources, governance and management 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Groundwater resources schemes 10.2.1 Large-scale groundwater development schemes 10.2.2 Regional-scale groundwater development schemes 10.2.3 Managed aquifer recharge 10.2.3.1 Artificial storage and recovery schemes 10.2.3.2 Riverbank filtration schemes 10.2.4 Horizontal well schemes 10.3 Wetland hydrogeology 10.3.1 Impacts of groundwater exploitation on wetlands 10.3.2 Hydrogeology of dune slacks 10.4 Climate change and groundwater resources 10.4.1 Groundwater response time to climate change 10.4.2 Groundwater pumping and greenhouse gas emissions 10.4.3 Impact of climate change on cold-region hydrogeology 10.4.4 Adaptation to climate change 10.5 Groundwater and energy resources 10.5.1 Geothermal energy 10.5.2 Groundwater source heat pumps 10.5.3 Groundwater and shale gas exploration 10.6 Future challenges for groundwater governance and management Further reading References Appendices 1. Conversion factors 2. Properties of water in the range 0–100°C 3. The geological timescale 4. Symbols, atomic numbers and atomic weights 5. Composition of seawater and rainwater References 6. Values of W(u) for various values of u 7. Values of q/Q and v/Qt corresponding to selected values of t/F for use in computing the rate and volume of stream depletion by wells and boreholes 8. Complementary error function 9. Drinking water quality standards and Lists I and II Substances 10. Review questions and exercises References Index

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Book SynopsisNew scientific discoveries in the Congo Basin as a result of international collaborations The Congo is the world''s second largest river basin and home to 120 million people. Understanding the cycling of water, sediments, and nutrients is important as the region faces climatic and anthropogenic change. Congo Basin Hydrology, Climate, and Biogeochemistry: A Foundation for the Future explores variations in and influences on rainfall, hydrology and hydraulics, and sediment and carbon dynamics. It features contributions from experts in the region and their international collaborators. Volume highlights include: New in-situ and remotely sensed measurements and model results Use of historic data to assess precipitation and hydrologic changes Exploration of water exchange between wetlands and rivers Biogeochemical processes in the Congo''s forests and wetlands A scientific foundation for hydrologic resourceTable of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xvii 1 Congo Basin Research: Building a Foundation for the Future 1Raphael M. Tshimanga, Guy D. Moukandi N’kaya, Alain Laraque, Sharon E. Nicholson, Jean-Marie Kileshye Onema, Raymond Lumbuenamo, and Douglas Alsdorf Part I Influences on Rainfall 2 Central African Climate: Advances and Gaps 15Wilfried Pokam Mba, Derbetini Appolinaire Vondou, and Pierre Honore Kamsu-Tamo 3 The Rainfall and Convective Regime over Equatorial Africa, with Emphasis on the Congo Basin 25Sharon E. Nicholson 4 Influence of “Slab-Ocean” Parameterization in a Regional Climate Model (RegCM4) over Central Africa 49François Xavier Mengouna, Derbetini Appolinaire Vondou, Armand Joel Komkoua Mbienda, Thierry C. Fotso-Nguemo, Denis Sonkoué, Zéphirin Yepdo-Djomou, and Pascal M. Igri 5 Understanding the Influence of Climate Variability on Surface Water Hydrology in the Congo Basin 63Christopher E. Ndehedehe, Vagner G. Ferreira, Augusto Getirana, and Nathan O. Agutu 6 Hydroclimatic Dynamics of Upstream Ubangi River at Mobaye, Central African Republic: Comparative Study of the Role of Savannah and Equatorial Forest 83Cyriaque-Rufin Nguimalet, Didier Orange, Jean-Pascal Waterendji, and Athanase Yambele 7 Evaluation of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) 3B42 and 3B43 Products Relative to Synoptic Weather Station Observations over Cameroon 97Pascal M. Igri, Roméo Stève Tanessong, Derbetini Appolinaire Vondou, Wilfried Pokam Mba, Taguemfo Kammalac Jores, Samuel Kaïssassou, Guy Merlin Guenang, Armand Joel Komkoua Mbienda, and Zéphirin Yepdo-Djomou Part II Variations in Rainfall and Runoff 8 A New Look at Hydrology in the Congo Basin, Based on the Study of Multi-Decadal Time Series 123Guy D. Moukandi N’kaya, Alain Laraque, Jean-Emmanuel Paturel, Georges Gulemvuga Guzanga, Gil Mahé, and Raphael M. Tshimanga 9 Historical Changes in Rainfall Patterns over the Congo Basin and Impacts on Runoff (1903–2010) 145Christopher E. Ndehedehe and Nathan O. Agutu 10 Water Budgets and Droughts under Current and Future Conditions in the Congo River Basin 165Venkataramana Sridhar, Hyunwoo Kang, Syed A. Ali, Gode B. Bola, Raphael M. Tshimanga, and Venkataraman Lakshmi 11 Spatiotemporal Variability of Droughts in the Congo River Basin: The Role of Atmospheric Moisture Transport 187Rogert Sorí, Milica Stojanovic, Raquel Nieto, Margarida L. R. Liberato, and Luis Gimeno Part III Hydrology and Hydraulics 12 Two Decades of Hydrologic Modeling and Predictions in the Congo River Basin: Progress and Prospect for Future Investigations 207Raphael M. Tshimanga 13 Sources and Sinks of Water of the Cuvette Centrale Wetlands Using Multiple Remote Sensing Measurements and a Hydrologic Model 237Ting Yuan, Hyongki Lee, R. Edward Beighley, Hahn Chul Jung, and Raphael M. Tshimanga 14 Investigating the Role of the Cuvette Centrale in the Hydrology of the Congo River Basin 247Pankyes Datok, Clément Fabre, Sabine Sauvage, Guy D. Moukandi N’kaya, Adrien Paris, Vanessa Dos Santos, Alain Laraque, and José-Miguel Sánchez-Pérez 15 Estimation of Bathymetry for Modeling Multi-thread Channel Hydraulics: Application to the Congo River Middle Reach 275Andrew B. Carr, Mark A. Trigg, Raphael M. Tshimanga, Mark W. Smith, Duncan J. Borman, and Paul D. Bates 16 Reviewing Applications of Remote Sensing Techniques to Hydrologic Research in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a Special Focus on the Congo Basin 295Guy J.-P. Schumann, Delwyn K. Moller, Louise Croneborg-Jones, and Konstantinos M. Andreadis 17 Spatial Hydrology and Applications in the Congo River Basin 323Christophe Brachet, Alice Andral, Georges Gulemvuga Guzanga, Blaise-Leandre Tondo, Pierre-Olivier Malaterre, and Sebastien Legrand 18 Monitoring Hydrological Variables from Remote Sensing and Modeling in the Congo River Basin 339Adrien Paris, Stéphane Calmant, Marielle Gosset, Ayan S. Fleischmann, Taina Sampaio Xavier Conchy, Pierre-André Garambois, Jean-Pierre Bricquet, Fabrice Papa, Raphael M. Tshimanga, Georges Gulemvuga Guzanga, Vinícius Alencar Siqueira, Blaise-Leandre Tondo, Rodrigo Paiva, Joecila Santos da Silva, and Alain Laraque 19 Long-Term Hydrological Variations of the Ogooué River Basin 367Sakaros Bogning, Fréderic Frappart, Gil Mahé, Fernando Niño, Adrien Paris, Joëlle Sihon, Franck Ghomsi, Fabien Blarel, Jean-Pierre Bricquet, Raphaël Onguene, Jacques Etame, Frédérique Seyler, Marie-Claire Paiz, and Jean-Jacques Braun Part IV Sediments and Carbon 20 Fluvial Carbon Dynamics across the Land to Ocean Continuum of Great Tropical Rivers: the Amazon and Congo 393Jeffrey E. Richey, Robert G. M. Spencer, Travis W. Drake, and Nicholas D. Ward 21 Measuring Geomorphological Change on the Congo River Using Century-Old Navigation Charts 413Mark A. Trigg, Andrew B. Carr, Mark W. Smith, and Raphael M. Tshimanga 22 Site Selection, Design, and Implementation of a Sediment Sampling Program on the Kasai River, a Major Tributary of the Congo River 427Catherine A. Mushi, Preksedis M. Ndomba, Raphael M. Tshimanga, Mark A. Trigg, Jeffrey Neal, Gode B. Bola, Pierre Mulamba Kabuya, Andrew B. Carr, Jules T. Beya, Paul D. Bates, and Felix Mtalo 23 New Measurements of Water Dynamics and Sediment Transport along the Middle Reach of the Congo River and the Kasai Tributary 447Raphael M. Tshimanga, Mark A. Trigg, Jeffrey Neal, Preksedis M. Ndomba, Denis A. Hughes, Andrew B. Carr, Pierre Mulamba Kabuya, Gode B. Bola, Catherine A. Mushi, Jules T. Beya, Felly K. Ngandu, Gabriel M. Mokango, Felix Mtalo, and Paul D. Bates Part V Water Resources 24 Towards a Framework of Catchment Classification for Hydrologic Predictions and Water Resources Management in the Ungauged Basin of the Congo River: An a priori Approach 471Raphael M. Tshimanga, Gode B. Bola, Pierre Mulamba Kabuya, Landry Nkaba, Jeffrey Neal, Laurence Hawker, Mark A. Trigg, Paul D. Bates, Denis A. Hughes, Alain Laraque, Ross Woods, and Thorsten Wagener 25 The Environmental Issues of the Ubangui Water Transfer Project to Lake Chad 449Chanel Nzango, Pascal Bartout, Laurent Touchart, and Cyriaque-Rufin Nguimalet 26 Variability Of Lake Chad: What Hydraulic Management Will Preserve Natural Resources? 513Hadiza Kiari Fougou and Jacques Lemoalle 27 Multi-Return Periods, Flood Hazards, and Risk Assessment in the Congo River Basin 519Gode B. Bola, Raphael M. Tshimanga, Jeffrey Neal, Laurence Hawker, Mark A. Trigg, Lukanda Mwamba, and Paul D. Bates 28 Putting River Users at the Heart of Hydraulics and Morphology Research in the Congo Basin 541Mark A. Trigg, Raphael M. Tshimanga, Preksedis M. Ndomba, Felix Mtalo, Denis A. Hughes, Catherine A. Mushi, Gode B. Bola, Pierre Mulamba Kabuya, Andrew B. Carr, Mark Bernhofen, Jeffrey Neal, Jules T. Beya, Felly K. Ngandu, and Paul D. Bates Index 555

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Book SynopsisREGIONAL WATER SECURITY Regional Water Security provides new research on policy innovations that promote the application of demand management and green infrastructure (GI) in managing water resources across regions sustainably. In particular, with regional water security around the world at risk from climatic and non-climatic challenges impacting water quantity and water quality, this book, in addition to providing examples of demand management and GI being implemented in various locations globally, contains in-depth case studies that illustrate how regions, of differing climates, lifestyles, and income levels, have implemented policy innovations that promote the application of demand management and GI to achieve regional water security for humans while protecting and restoring the natural environment. Regional Water Security will be of interest to regional water resource managers, town and regional planners, resource conservation managers, policymakers, international companies, and Table of ContentsAcknowledgments vii 1 Introduction 1 2 Water Security 6 Part I Demand Management 21 3 Water Allocation 23 4 Water Augmentation 39 5 Water Efficiency 56 6 Water Reuse and Water Recycling 73 Part II Green Infrastructure 89 7 Green Buildings and Green Streets 91 8 Green Parks and Urban Forests 110 9 Water Bodies 128 10 Agriculture and Forestry 144 Part III Case Studies, Best Practices, and Conclusions 161 11 Case Studies of Regions Implementing Demand Management and Green Infrastructure to Achieve Regional Water Security 163 12 Best Practices 183 13 Conclusions 198 Index 207

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Book SynopsisThe contamination of environment and water resources by Selenium (Se) and its oxyanions from various sources are emerging contaminants of significant health and environmental concern. The primary sources include agricultural drainage water, mine drainage, residues from fossil fuels, thermoelectric power plants, oil refineries, and metal ores. Various methods and technologies have been developed which focus on the treatment of selenium-containing waters and wastewater. High concentrations of selenium in water cause various adverse impact to human health, such as carcinogenic, genotoxic, and cytotoxic effects. But in the lower concentrations, it is a useful constituent of the biological system. The range between toxicity and deficiency of selenium is minimal (40 to 400gper day), due to its dual nature. Selenium Contamination in Watercontains the latest status and information on selenium's origin, itschemistryand its toxicity to humans.The book representsa comprehensive and advancedrefereTable of ContentsChapter 1 Mapping of Selenium toxicity and technological advances for its removal: A Scentiometric approach Chapter 2 Selenium Distribution and Chemistry in Water and Soil Chapter 3 Occurrence and Sources of Selenium Contamination in Soil and Water and Its Impacts on Environment Chapter 4 Selenium Toxicity in Domestic Animals: Sources, Toxicopathology and Control Measure Chapter 5 Positive and negative impacts of selenium on human health and phytotoxicity Chapter 6 Various analytical techniques for Se determination in different matrix Chapter 7 Voltammetric Sensors and Materials for Selenium detection in Water Chapter 8 Optical Sensors and Materials for Selenium Determination in Water Chapter 9 Biosensors for the detection of selenium in environment Chapter 10 Physical and Chemical Methods for Selenium Removal Chapter 11 Chemical method for removal and treatment Chapter 12 Biological treatment advancements for the remediation of selenium from wastewater Chapter 13 Nanomaterials for the Remediation of Selenium in water Chapter 14 Harnessing Biogeochemical Principals for Remediation of Selenium Contaminated Soils Chapter 15 Membrane separation technologies for selenium Chapter 16 Intensifying approaches for removal of selenium Chapter 17 Emerging threat of selenium pollution: a spatial analysis of its sources and vulnerable areas in India

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Book SynopsisThis book contains both practical and theoretical aspects of groundwater resourcesrelating to geochemistry.Focusing onrecent researchingroundwater resources, this bookhelps readersto understand thehydrogeochemistryof groundwater resources.Dealing primarilywith the sources of ions in groundwater, the book describes geogenic and anthropogenic input of ionsintowater.Different organic, inorganic and emerging contamination and salinity problemsare described, along withpollution-related issuesaffectinggroundwater. New trends in groundwater contamination remediation measuresareincluded, which will be particularly useful toresearchers working in the field of water conservation.The book also contains diverse groundwater modellingexamples, enablingabetter understanding of water-related issues and their management. Groundwater Geochemistry: Pollution and Remediationoffers the reader: An understandingofthe quantitative and qualitative challenges of groundwater resourcTable of ContentsPreface About the Editors List of Contributors 1. Geogenic contaminants in groundwater Jyoti Kushawaha School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi jyoti.vaishnavi@gmail.com 2.Fluoride Contamination in Groundwater, Impacts and their Potential Remediation Techniques R. N. Jadeja Department of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, India-390002 rjadeja-chem@msubaroda.ac.in 3. Salinity problem in groundwater and management strategies in arid and semi-arid regions BalajiEtikala Department of Geology, Sri Venkateswara University, Chandragiri Road, Tirupati-517502, Andhra Pradesh, India balajiyvu@gmail.com 4. Heavy metal contamination in groundwater sources Pinki Rani Agrawal Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-NPL campus, New Delhi, India pinkigarg66@gmail.com 5. Source, assessment and remediation of trace metals in groundwater Anita Punia Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India-781039 6. Nitrate pollution in groundwater and their possible remediation through adsorption Arun Lal Srivastav Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, India arunitbhu2009@gmail.com 7. Organic micropollutants in Groundwater: A rising concern for India drinking water supplies Manvendra Patel School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi manvendra.edu11@gmail.com 8. Organic contaminants in groundwater and remediation measures. Gurudatta Institute of Environmental Sciences and Sustainable Development Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi India gurudatta.singh2@bhu.ac.in 9. Organic Pollutants in Groundwater Resources and remediation measures Majid Peyravi Department of Chemical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Shariati Ave.,Babol, Iran, Post Code:47148-71167 majidpeyravi@gmail.com 10. Impact of Urbanisation on Groundwater resources Pooja D Central Scientific Instruments Organisation, Sector 30-C, Chandigarh-160030, India poojaiitr@csio.res.in 11. Impact on groundwater quality resources due to Industrial effluent Zeenat Arif Department of Chemical engineering and Technology Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi, India 12. Effects of Acid Mine Drainage on hydro-chemical properties of groundwater and possible remediation Sushil Kumar Shukla Department of Transport Science and Technology, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India shuklask2000@gmail.com 13. Impact of E-waste pollutants on the underground water Deen Dayal Giri Department of Botany, Maharaj Singh College Saharanpur, 24700 ddgiri1@gmail.com 14. Zero Valent Iron (ZVI) for Groundwater Remediation Naresh K Sethy Department of chemical engineering & technology, IIT (BHU) Varanasi, 221005, India nareshsethy2009@gmail.com 15. Various Purification Techniques of Groundwater Dan Bahadur Pal Department of Chemical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi-835215, Jharkhand, India danbahadur.chem@gmail.com 16. Various remediation techniques for groundwater pollution Ankita Ojha Department of Chemistry, IIT BHU, Varanasi-221005 ankitaojha1208@gmail.com 17. Various remediation measures for groundwater contamination Baljinder Singh Department of Biotechnology , Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India gilljwms2@gmail.com 18. Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System in groundwater resource conservation Chandrashekhar Azad Vishwakarma TERI School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi ajadshekhar@gmail.com 19. Recent Trends in Groundwater Conservation and Management Amit Kumar Tiwari Department of Chemical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra Ranchi-835215, Jharkhand, India. amit_tiwari20@yahoo.com 20. Groundwater Vulnerability Assessment using Random Forest Approach in a Water Stress Paddy Cultivated Region of West Bengal, India Subodh Chandra Pal Department of Geography, The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India

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Book SynopsisWater is one of the most precious and basic needs of life for all living beings, and a precious national asset. Without it, the existence of life cannot be imagined. Availability of pure water is decreasing day by day, and water scarcity has become a major problem that is faced by our society for the past few years. Hence, it is essential to find and disseminate the key solutions for water quality and scarcity issues. The inaccessibility and poor water quality continue to pose a major threat to human health worldwide. Around billions of people lacking to access drinkable water. The water contains the pathogenic impurities; which are responsible for water-borne diseases. The concept of water quality mainly depends on the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological measurement standards to evaluate the water quality and determine the concentration of all components, then compare the results of this concentration with the purpose for which this water is used. Therefore, awareness Table of ContentsPreface xix 1 Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques for the Analysis of Phthalic Acid Esters in Water Samples 1Miguel Ángel González-Curbelo, Javier González-Sálamo, Diana A. Varela-Martínez and Javier Hernández-Borges 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Solid-Phase Microextraction 6 1.3 Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction 25 1.4 Solid-Phase Extraction 26 1.5 Others Minor Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques 48 1.6 Conclusions 52 Acknowledgements 53 References 53 2 Occurrence, Human Health Risks, and Removal of Pharmaceuticals in Aqueous Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives 63Willis Gwenzi, Artwell Kanda, Concilia Danha, Norah Muisa-Zikali and Nhamo Chaukura 2.1 Introduction 64 2.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Pharmaceutics in Aquatic Systems 65 2.2.1 Nature and Sources 65 2.2.2 Dissemination and Occurrence in Aquatic Systems 67 2.2.3 Behaviour in Aquatic Systems 71 2.3 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation 73 2.3.1 Human Exposure Pathways 73 2.3.2 Potential Human Health Risks 74 2.3.3 Human Health Risks: A Developing World Perspective 81 2.3.4 Removal of Pharmaceuticals 82 2.3.4.1 Conventional Removal Methods 83 2.3.4.2 Advanced Removal Methods 85 2.3.4.3 Hybrid Removal Processes 88 2.4 Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions 88 2.4.1 Increasing Africa’s Research Footprint 88 2.4.2 Hotspot Sources and Reservoirs 89 2.4.3 Behavior and Fate in Aquatic Systems 89 2.4.4 Ecotoxicology of Pharmaceuticals and Metabolites 89 2.4.5 Human Exposure Pathways 89 2.4.6 Human Toxicology and Epidemiology 90 2.4.7 Removal Capacity of Low-Cost Water Treatment Processes 90 2.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Outlook 90 Author Contributions 91 References 91 3 Oil-Water Separations 103Pallavi Jain, Sapna Raghav and Dinesh Kumar 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Sources and Composition 106 3.3 Common Oil-Water Separation Techniques 106 3.4 Oil-Water Separation Technologies 107 3.4.1 Advancement in the Technology of Membrane 111 3.4.1.1 Polymer-Based Membranes 111 3.4.1.2 Ceramic-Based Membranes 111 3.5 Separation of Oil/Water Utilizing Meshes 113 3.5.1 Mechanism Involved 113 3.5.2 Meshes Functionalization 114 3.5.2.1 Inorganic Materials 115 3.5.2.2 Organic Materials 115 3.6 Separation of Oil-Water Mixture Using Bioinspired Surfaces 116 3.6.1 Nature’s Lesson 116 3.6.2 Superhydrophilic/Phobic and Superoleophilic/Phobic Porous Surfaces 117 3.7 Conclusion 118 Acknowledgment 118 References 119 4 Microplastics Pollution 125Agnieszka Dąbrowska 4.1 Introduction and General Considerations 125 4.2 Key Scientific Issues Concerning Water and Microplastics Pollution 126 4.3 Marine Microplastics: From the Anthropogenic Litter to the Plastisphere 131 4.4 Social and Human Perspectives: From Sustainable Development to Civil Science 133 4.5 Conclusions and Future Projections 134 References 134 5 Chloramines Formation, Toxicity, and Monitoring Methods in Aqueous Environments 139Rania El-Shaheny and Mahmoud El-Maghrabey 5.1 Introduction 140 5.2 Inorganic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 140 5.3 Analytical Methods for Inorganic Chloramines 143 5.3.1 Colorimetric and Batch Methods 144 5.3.2 Chromatographic Methods 148 5.3.3 Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry 150 5.4 Organic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 151 5.5 Analytical Methods for Organic Chloramines 154 5.6 Conclusions 156 References 156 6 Clay-Based Adsorbents for the Analysis of Dye Pollutants 163Mohammad Shahadat, Momina, Yasmin, Sunil Kumar, Suzylawati Ismail, S. Wazed Ali and Shaikh Ziauddin Ahammad 6.1 Introduction 164 6.1.1 Biological Method 165 6.1.2 Physical Method 165 6.1.3 Why Only Clays? 165 6.1.4 Clay-Based Adsorbents 166 6.1.4.1 Kaolinite 166 6.1.4.2 Rectorite 168 6.1.4.3 Halloysite 169 6.1.4.4 Montmorillonite 170 6.1.4.5 Sepiolite 170 6.1.4.6 Laponite 171 6.1.4.7 Bentonite 171 6.1.4.8 Zeolites 172 6.2 Membrane Filtration 180 6.3 Chemical Treatment 181 6.3.1 Fenton and Photo-Fenton Process 182 6.3.2 Mechanism Using Acid and Base Catalyst 182 6.4 Photo-Catalytic Oxidation 186 6.5 Conclusions 188 Acknowledgments 188 References 188 7 Biochar-Supported Materials for Wastewater Treatment 199Hanane Chakhtouna, Mohamed El Mehdi Mekhzoum, Nadia Zari, Hanane Benzeid, Abou el kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid 7.1 Introduction 200 7.2 Generalities of Biochar: Structure, Production, and Properties 201 7.2.1 Biochar Structure 201 7.2.2 Biochar Production 203 7.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 204 7.2.2.2 Gasification 204 7.2.2.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization 205 7.2.3 Biochar Properties 205 7.2.3.1 Porosity 205 7.2.3.2 Surface Area 207 7.2.3.3 Surface Functional Groups 207 7.2.3.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 210 7.2.3.5 Aromaticity 210 7.3 Biochar-Supported Materials 212 7.3.1 Magnetic Biochar Composites 212 7.3.2 Nano-Metal Oxide/Hydroxide-Biochar Composites 214 7.3.3 Functional Nanoparticles-Coated Biochar Composites 216 7.4 Conclusion 220 References 222 8 Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 227Aline Meireles dos Santos, Alberto Meireles dos Santos, Patricia Arrojo da Silva, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes 8.1 Introduction 227 8.2 Swine Wastewater Characteristics 228 8.3 Microorganisms of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 231 8.4 Classification of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 235 8.5 Biological Processes For Swine Wastewater Treatment 236 8.5.1 Suspended Growth Processes 237 8.5.1.1 Activated Sludge Process 237 8.5.1.2 Sequential Batch Reactor 237 8.5.1.3 Sequencing Batch Membrane Bioreactor 238 8.5.1.4 Anaerobic Contact Process 238 8.5.1.5 Anaerobic Digestion 238 8.5.2 Attached Growth Processes 239 8.5.2.1 Rotating Biological Contactor 239 8.5.2.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket 240 8.5.2.3 Anaerobic Filter 240 8.5.2.4 Hybrid Anaerobic Reactor 241 8.6 Challenges and Future Prospects in Swine Wastewater Treatment 241 References 242 9 Determination of Heavy Metal Ions From Water 255Ritu Payal and Tapasya Tomer 9.1 Introduction 255 9.2 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 256 9.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 257 9.2.2 Nanomaterials 257 9.2.3 High-Resolution Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy with Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 258 9.2.4 Biosensors 259 9.2.4.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensors 260 9.2.4.2 Electrochemical Sensors 261 9.2.4.3 Polymer-Based Biosensors 261 9.2.4.4 Bacterial-Based Sensors 262 9.2.4.5 Protein-Based Sensors 262 9.2.5 Attenuated Total Reflectance 262 9.2.6 High-Resolution Differential Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor 262 9.2.7 Hydrogels 263 9.2.8 Chelating Agents 264 9.2.9 Ionic Liquids 265 9.2.10 Polymers 266 9.2.10.1 Dendrimers 266 9.2.11 Macrocylic Compounds 266 9.2.12 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry 267 9.3 Conclusions 267 References 268 10 The Production and Role of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Medical Applications 273N. Jafta, S. Magagula, K. Lebelo, D. Nkokha and M.J. Mochane 10.1 Introduction 273 10.2 Functional Water 275 10.3 Reduced Water 275 10.4 Production of Hydrogen-Rich Water 277 10.5 Mechanism Hydrogen Molecules During Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging 279 10.6 Hydrogen-Rich Water Effects on the Human Body 280 10.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 280 10.6.2 Anti-Radiation Effects 281 10.6.3 Wound Healing Effects 282 10.6.4 Anti-Diabetic Effects 284 10.6.5 Anti-Neurodegenerative Effects 285 10.6.6 Anti-Cancer Effects 285 10.6.7 Anti-Arteriosclerosis Effects 285 10.7 Other Effects of Hydrogenated Water 285 10.7.1 Effect of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Hemodialysis 285 10.7.2 Effect on Anti-Cancer Drug Side Effects 286 10.8 Applications of Hydrogen-Rich Water 286 10.8.1 In Health Care 286 10.8.2 In Sports Science 288 10.8.3 In Therapeutic Applications and Delayed Progression of Diseases 289 10.9 Safety of Using Hydrogen-Rich Water 290 10.10 Concluding Remarks 291 References 292 11 Hydrosulphide Treatment 299Marzie Fatehi and Ali Mohebbi 11.1 Introduction 300 11.1.1 Agriculture 302 11.1.2 Medical 307 11.1.3 Industrial 315 11.2 Conclusions 325 References 326 12 Radionuclides: Availability, Effect, and Removal Techniques 331Tejaswini Sahoo, Rashmirekha Tripathy, Jagannath Panda, Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu 12.1 Introduction 332 12.1.1 Available Radionuclides in the Environment 333 12.1.1.1 Uranium 333 12.1.1.2 Thorium (Z = 90) 334 12.1.1.3 Radium (Z = 88) 335 12.1.1.4 Radon (Z = 86) 336 12.1.1.5 Polonium and Lead 336 12.1.2 Presence of Radionuclide in Drinking Water 337 12.1.2.1 Health Impacts of Radionuclides 338 12.1.2.2 Health Issues Caused Due to Uranium 338 12.1.2.3 Health Issues Caused Due to Radium 339 12.1.2.4 Health Issues Caused Due to Radon 339 12.1.2.5 Health Issues Caused Due to Lead and Polonium 339 12.2 Existing Techniques and Materials Involved in Removal of Radionuclide 340 12.2.1 Ion Exchange 340 12.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 340 12.2.3 Aeration 341 12.2.4 Granulated Activated Carbon 341 12.2.5 Filtration 342 12.2.6 Lime Softening, Coagulation, and Co-Precipitation 342 12.2.7 Flocculation 343 12.2.8 Nanofilteration 343 12.2.9 Greensand Filteration 344 12.2.10 Nanomaterials 344 12.2.10.1 Radionuclides Sequestration by MOFs 344 12.2.10.2 Radionuclides Removal by COFs 345 12.2.10.3 Elimination of Radionuclides by GOs 346 12.2.10.4 Radionuclide Sequestration by CNTs 346 12.2.11 Ionic Liquids 347 12.3 Summary of Various Nanomaterial and Efficiency of Water Treating Technology 348 12.4 Management of Radioactive Waste 348 12.5 Conclusion 350 References 350 13 Applications of Membrane Contactors for Water Treatment 361Ashish Kapoor, Elangovan Poonguzhali, Nanditha Dayanandan and Sivaraman Prabhakar 13.1 Introduction 362 13.2 Characteristics of Membrane Contactors 362 13.3 Membrane Module Configurations 365 13.4 Mathematical Aspects of Membrane Contactors 366 13.5 Advantages and Limitations of Membrane Contactors 367 13.5.1 Advantages 367 13.5.1.1 High Interfacial Contact 368 13.5.1.2 Absence of Flooding and Loading 368 13.5.1.3 Minimization of Back Mixing and Emulsification 368 13.5.1.4 Freedom for Solvent Selection 368 13.5.1.5 Reduction in Solvent Inventory 368 13.5.1.6 Modularity 369 13.5.2 Limitations 369 13.6 Membrane Contactors as Alternatives to Conventional Unit Operations 370 13.6.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 370 13.6.2 Membrane Distillation 370 13.6.3 Osmotic Distillation 372 13.6.4 Membrane Crystallization 372 13.6.5 Membrane Emulsification 372 13.6.6 Supported Liquid Membranes 373 13.6.7 Membrane Bioreactors 373 13.7 Applications 374 13.7.1 Wastewater Treatment 374 13.7.2 Metal Recovery From Aqueous Streams 375 13.7.3 Desalination 375 13.7.4 Concentration of Products in Food and Biotechnological Industries 375 13.7.5 Gaseous Stream Treatment 376 13.7.6 Energy Sector 376 13.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 377 References 378 14 Removal of Sulfates From Wastewater 383Ankita Dhillon, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar 14.1 Introduction 383 14.2 Effect of Sulfate Contamination on Human Health 384 14.3 Groundwater Distribution of Sulfate 384 14.4 Traditional Methods for Sulfate Removal 385 14.4.1 Treatment With Lime 385 14.4.2 Treatment With Limestone 386 14.4.3 Wetlands 387 14.5 Modern Day’s Technique for Sulfate Removal 387 14.5.1 Nanofiltration 387 14.5.2 Electrocoagulation 388 14.5.3 Precipitation Methods 389 14.5.4 Adsorption 391 14.5.5 Ion Exchange 392 14.5.6 Biological Treatment 393 14.5.7 Removal of Sulfate by Crystallization 394 14.6 Conclusions and Future Perspective 394 Acknowledgment 395 References 395 15 Risk Assessment on Human Health With Effect of Heavy Metals 401Athar Hussain, Manjeeta Priyadarshi, Fazil Qureshi and Salman Ahmed 15.1 Introduction 402 15.2 Toxic Effects Heavy Metals on Human Health 403 15.3 Biomarkers and Bio-Indicators for Evaluation of Heavy Metal Contamination 406 15.3.1 Hazard Quotient 407 15.3.2 Transfer Factor 407 15.3.3 Daily Intake of Metal 408 15.3.4 The Bioaccumulation Factor 409 15.3.5 Translocation Factor 410 15.3.6 Enrichment Factor 410 15.3.7 Metal Pollution Index 412 15.3.8 Health Risk Index 412 15.3.9 Pollution Load Index 412 15.3.10 Index of Geo-Accumulation 413 15.3.11 Potential Risk Index 413 15.3.12 Exposure Assessment 414 15.3.13 Carcinogenic Risk 415 References 417 16 Water Quality Monitoring and Management: Importance, Applications, and Analysis 421Abhinav Srivastava and V.P. Sharma 16.1 Qualitative Analysis: An Introduction to Basic Concept 422 16.2 Significant Applications of Qualitative Analysis 422 16.2.1 Water Quality 424 16.2.2 Water Quality Index 426 16.3 Qualitative Analysis of Water 427 16.3.1 Sampling Procedure 428 16.3.2 Sample Transportation and Preservation 429 16.3.3 Some Important Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water Quality 431 16.4 Existing Water Quality Standards 434 16.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 435 16.6 Conclusions 437 References 437 17 Water Quality Standards 441Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan 17.1 Introduction 442 17.2 Chemical Standards for Water Quality 443 17.2.1 Physical Standards 443 17.2.2 Chemical Standards for Salt Water Quality 445 17.2.3 Biological Standards 446 17.2.4 Radiation Standards 447 17.2.5 Wastewater and Water Quality 447 17.3 Inorganic Substances and Their Effect on Palatability and Household Uses 451 17.3.1 Aluminum 451 17.3.2 Calcium 451 17.3.3 Magnesium 452 17.3.4 Chlorides 452 17.4 The Philosophy of Setting Standards for Drinking Water (Proportions and Concentrations of Water Components) 457 17.5 Detection of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 458 17.6 The Future Development of Water Analysis 459 17.7 Conclusion 460 References 460 18 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Water 469Amita Chaudhary, Ankur Dwivedi and Ashok N Bhaskarwar 18.1 Introduction 469 18.2 Sources of Water 470 18.3 Water Quality 472 18.3.1 Physical Parameters 472 18.3.2 Chemical Parameters 472 18.3.3 Biological Parameters 474 18.3.4 Water Quality Index 474 18.4 Factors Affecting the Quality of Surface Water 476 18.5 Quantitative Analysis of the Organic Content of the Wastewater 477 18.5.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 477 18.5.1.1 DO Profile Curve in BOD Test 478 18.5.1.2 Significance of BOD Test 479 18.5.1.3 Nitrification in BOD Test 480 18.5.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 480 18.5.3 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 482 18.6 Treatment of Wastewater 483 18.6.1 Primary Treatment Method 484 18.6.1.1 Pre-Aeration 484 18.6.1.2 Flocculation 484 18.6.2 Secondary Treatment 485 18.6.2.1 Aerobic Biological Process 485 18.6.2.2 Anaerobic Biological Treatment 485 18.6.2.3 Activated Sludge Process 487 18.6.3 Tertiary Treatment 488 18.6.3.1 Nutrients Removal 488 18.6.3.2 Phosphorus Removal 490 18.6.3.3 Ion-Exchange Process 490 18.6.3.4 Membrane Process 491 18.6.3.5 Disinfection 491 18.6.3.6 Coagulation 491 18.7 Instrumental Analysis of Wastewater Parameters 492 18.7.1 Hardness 492 18.7.2 Alkalinity 492 18.7.3 pH 493 18.7.4 Turbidity 493 18.7.5 Total Dissolved Solids 494 18.7.6 Total Organic Carbon 494 18.7.7 Color 495 18.7.8 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 495 18.7.9 Inductive Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectroscopy 496 18.7.10 Gas Chromatography With Mass Spectroscopy 497 18.8 Methods for Qualitative Determination of Water 497 18.8.1 Weight Loss Method 497 18.8.2 Karl Fischer Method 498 18.8.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Method 499 18.8.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Method 499 18.9 Conclusion 500 References 500 19 Nanofluids for Water Treatment 503Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Wilson Nwankwo, Olusola Olaleye, Olanrewaju Akinseye, Temitope Popoola and Mohd Imran Ahamed 19.1 Introduction 504 19.2 Types of Nanofluids Used in the Treatment of Water 505 19.2.1 Zero-Valent Metal Nanoparticles 505 19.2.1.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 505 19.2.1.2 Iron Nanoparticles 506 19.2.1.3 Zinc Nanoparticles 507 19.2.2 Metal Oxides Nanoparticles 507 19.2.2.1 Tin Dioxide (TiO2) Nanoparticles 507 19.2.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) 508 19.2.2.3 Iron Oxides Nanoparticles 508 19.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 509 19.2.4 Nanocomposite Membranes 509 19.2.5 Modes of Action of These Nanofluids 509 19.2.5.1 Carbon-Based Nano-Adsorbents (CNTs) for Organic Expulsion 509 19.2.5.2 Heavy Metal Removal 510 19.2.5.3 Metal-Based Nano-Adsorbents 510 19.2.5.4 Polymeric Nano-Adsorbents 511 19.2.5.5 Nanofiber Membranes 511 19.2.5.6 Some Applications of Nanofluids in the Treatment of Water 512 19.2.5.7 Informatics and AI Nanofluid-Enhanced Water Treatment 513 19.3 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 516 References 516 Index 525

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Book SynopsisPhysics of Fluid Flow and Transport in Unconventional Reservoir Rocks Understanding and predicting fluid flow in hydrocarbon shale and other non-conventional reservoir rocks Oil and natural gas reservoirs found in shale and other tight and ultra-tight porous rocks have become increasingly important sources of energy in both North America and East Asia. As a result, extensive research in recent decades has focused on the mechanisms of fluid transfer within these reservoirs, which have complex pore networks at multiple scales. Continued research into these important energy sources requires detailed knowledge of the emerging theoretical and computational developments in this field. Following a multidisciplinary approach that combines engineering, geosciences and rock physics, Physics of Fluid Flow and Transport in Unconventional Reservoir Rocks provides both academic and industrial readers with a thorough grounding in this cutting-edge area of rock geology, combining an explanation of theTable of ContentsList of Contributors xvii Preface xxi Introduction 1 1 Unconventional Reservoirs: Advances and Challenges 3 Behzad Ghanbarian, Feng Liang, and Hui-Hai Liu 1.1 Background 3 1.2 Advances 4 1.2.1 Wettability 4 1.2.2 Permeability 5 1.3 Challenges 7 1.3.1 Multiscale Systems 7 1.3.2 Hydrocarbon Production 9 1.3.3 Recovery Factor 9 1.3.4 Unproductive Wells 9 1.4 Concluding Remarks 11 References 11 Part I Pore-Scale Characterizations 15 2 Pore-Scale Simulations and Digital Rock Physics 17 Junjian Wang, Feifei Qin, Jianlin Zhao, Li Chen, Hari Viswanathan, and Qinjun Kang 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Physics of Pore-Scale Fluid Flow in Unconventional Rocks 18 2.2.1 Physics of Gas Flow 18 2.2.1.1 Gas Slippage and Knudsen Layer Effect 18 2.2.1.2 Gas Adsorption/Desorption and Surface Diffusion 20 2.2.2 Physics of Water Flow 22 2.2.3 Physics of Condensation 23 2.3 Theory of Pore-Scale Simulation Methods 23 2.3.1 The Isothermal Single-Phase Lattice Boltzmann Method 23 2.3.1.1 Bhatnagar–Gross–Krook (BGK) Collision Operator 24 2.3.1.2 The Multi-Relaxation Time (MRT)-LB Scheme 24 2.3.1.3 The Regularization Procedure 26 2.3.2 Multi-phase Lattice Boltzmann Simulation Method 27 2.3.2.1 Color-Gradient Model 27 2.3.2.2 Shan-Chen Model 28 2.3.3 Capture Fluid Slippage at the Solid Boundary 29 2.3.4 Capture the Knudsen Layer/Effective Viscosity 30 2.3.5 Capture the Adsorption/Desorption and Surface Diffusion Effects 30 2.3.5.1 Modeling of Adsorption in LBM 30 2.3.5.2 Modeling of Surface Diffusion Via LBM 31 2.4 Applications 32 2.4.1 Simulation of Gas Flow in Unconventional Reservoir Rocks 32 2.4.1.1 Gas Slippage 32 2.4.1.2 Gas Adsorption 33 2.4.1.3 Surface Diffusion of Adsorbed Gas 35 2.4.2 Simulation of Water Flow in Unconventional Reservoir Rocks 35 2.4.3 Simulation of Immiscible Two-Phase Flow 39 2.4.4 Simulation of Vapor Condensation 43 2.4.4.1 Model Validations 44 2.4.4.2 Vapor Condensation in Two Adjacent Nano-Pores 44 2.5 Conclusion 48 References 49 3 Digital Rock Modeling: A Review 53 Yuqi Wu and Pejman Tahmasebi 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Single-Scale Modeling of Digital Rocks 54 3.2.1 Experimental Techniques 54 3.2.1.1 Imaging Technique of Serial Sectioning 54 3.2.1.2 Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy 54 3.2.1.3 X-Ray Computed Tomography Scanning 55 3.2.2 Computational Methods 55 3.2.2.1 Simulated Annealing 56 3.2.2.2 Markov Chain Monte Carlo 56 3.2.2.3 Sequential Indicator Simulation 56 3.2.2.4 Multiple-Point Statistics 57 3.2.2.5 Machine Learning 58 3.2.2.6 Process-Based Modeling 58 3.3 Multiscale Modeling of Digital Rocks 59 3.3.1 Multiscale Imaging Techniques 60 3.3.2 Computational Methods 60 3.3.2.1 Image Superposition 60 3.3.2.2 Pore-Network Integration 61 3.3.2.3 Image Resolution Enhancement 63 3.3.2.4 Object-Based Reconstruction 63 3.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 65 Acknowledgments 66 References 66 4 Scale Dependence of Permeability and Formation Factor: A Simple Scaling Law 77 Behzad Ghanbarian and Misagh Esmaeilpour 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 Theory 78 4.2.1 Funnel Defect Approach 78 4.2.2 Application to Porous Media 79 4.3 Pore-network Simulations 80 4.4 Results and Discussion 81 4.5 Limitations 86 4.6 Conclusion 86 Acknowledgment 86 References 87 Part II Core-Scale Heterogeneity 89 5 Modeling Gas Permeability in Unconventional Reservoir Rocks 91 Behzad Ghanbarian, Feng Liang, and Hui-Hai Liu 5.1 Introduction 91 5.1.1 Theoretical Models 91 5.1.2 Pore-Network Models 92 5.1.3 Gas Transport Mechanisms 93 5.1.4 Objectives 93 5.2 Effective-Medium Theory 93 5.3 Single-Phase Gas Permeability 95 5.3.1 Gas Permeability in a Cylindrical Tube 95 5.3.2 Pore Pressure-Dependent Gas Permeability in Tight Rocks 96 5.3.3 Comparison with Experiments 96 5.3.4 Comparison with Pore-Network Simulations 98 5.3.5 Comparaison with Lattice-Boltzmann Simulations 99 5.4 Gas Relative Permeability 100 5.4.1 Hydraulic Flow in a Cylindrical Pore 100 5.4.2 Molecular Flow in a Cylindrical Pore 101 5.4.3 Total Gas Flow in a Cylindrical Pore 101 5.4.4 Gas Relative Permeability in Tight Rocks 101 5.4.5 Comparison with Experiments 102 5.4.6 Comparison with Pore-Network Simulations 107 5.5 Conclusions 108 Acknowledgment 109 References 109 6 NMR and Its Applications in Tight Unconventional Reservoir Rocks 113 Jin-Hong Chen, Mohammed Boudjatit, and Stacey M. Althaus 6.1 Introduction 113 6.2 Basic NMR Physics 113 6.2.1 Nuclear Spin 114 6.2.2 Nuclear Zeeman Splitting and NMR 114 6.2.3 Nuclear Magnetization 115 6.2.4 Bloch Equations and NMR Relaxation 116 6.2.5 Simple NMR Experiments: Free Induction Decay and CPMG Echoes 117 6.2.6 NMR Relaxation of a Pure Fluid in a Rock Pore 118 6.2.7 Measured NMR CPMG Echoes in a Formation Rock 119 6.2.8 Inversion 119 6.2.8.1 Regularized Linear Least Squares 120 6.2.8.2 Constrains of the Resulted NMR Spectrum in Inversion 120 6.2.9 Data from NMR Measurement 121 6.3 NMR Logging for Unconventional Source Rock Reservoirs 121 6.3.1 Brief Introduction of Unconventional Source Rocks 121 6.3.2 NMR Measurement of Source Rocks 122 6.3.2.1 NMR Log of a Source Rock Reservoir 122 6.3.3 Pore Size Distribution in a Shale Gas Reservoir 124 6.4 NMR Measurement of Long Whole Core 125 6.4.1 Issues of NMR Instrument for Long Sample 125 6.4.2 HSR-NMR of Long Core 126 6.4.3 Application Example 128 6.5 NMR Measurement on Drill Cuttings 130 6.5.1 Measurement Method 131 6.5.1.1 Preparation of Drill Cuttings 131 6.5.1.2 Measurements 131 6.5.2 Results 132 6.6 Conclusions 133 References 135 7 Tight Rock Permeability Measurement in Laboratory: Some Recent Progress 139 Hui-Hai Liu, Jilin Zhang, and Mohammed Boudjatit 7.1 Introduction 139 7.2 Commonly Used Laboratory Methods 140 7.2.1 Steady-State Flow Method 140 7.2.2 Pressure Pulse-Decay Method 141 7.2.3 Gas Research Institute Method 143 7.3 Simultaneous Measurement of Fracture and Matrix Permeabilities from Fractured Core Samples 144 7.3.1 Estimation of Fracture and Matrix Permeability from PPD Data for Two Flow Regimes 144 7.3.2 Mathematical Model 146 7.3.3 Method Validation and Discussion 148 7.4 Direct Measurement of Permeability-Pore Pressure Function 150 7.4.1 Knudsen Diffusion, Slippage Flow, and Effective Gas Permeability 150 7.4.2 Methodology for Directly Measuring Permeability-Pore Pressure Function 152 7.4.3 Experiments 155 7.5 Summary and Conclusions 159 References 159 8 Stress-Dependent Matrix Permeability in Unconventional Reservoir Rocks 163 Athma R. Bhandari, Peter B. Flemings, and Sebastian Ramiro-Ramirez 8.1 Introduction 163 8.2 Sample Descriptions 164 8.3 Permeability Test Program 165 8.4 Permeability Behavior with Confining Stress Cycling 166 8.5 Matrix Permeability Behavior 170 8.6 Concluding Remarks 172 Acknowledgments 174 References 174 9 Assessment of Shale Wettability from Spontaneous Imbibition Experiments 177 Zhiye Gao and Qinhong Hu 9.1 Introduction 177 9.2 Spontaneous Imbibition Theory 178 9.3 Samples and Analytical Methods 179 9.3.1 SI Experiments 179 9.3.2 Barnett Shale from United States 180 9.3.3 Silurian Longmaxi Formation and Triassic Yanchang Formation Shales from China 180 9.3.4 Jurassic Ziliujing Formation Shale from China 182 9.4 Results and Discussion 183 9.4.1 Complicated Wettability of Barnett Shale Inferred Qualitatively from SI Experiments 183 9.4.1.1 Wettability of Barnett Shale 184 9.4.1.2 Properties of Barnett Samples and Their Correlation to Wettability 186 9.4.1.3 Low Pore Connectivity to Water of Barnett Samples 187 9.4.2 More Oil-Wet Longmaxi Formation Shale and More Water-Wet Yanchang Formation Shale 188 9.4.2.1 TOC and Mineralogy 188 9.4.2.2 Pore Structure Difference Between Longmaxi and Yanchang Samples 188 9.4.2.3 Water and Oil Imbibition Experiments 191 9.4.2.4 Wettability of Longmaxi and Yanchang Shale Samples Deduced from SI Experiments 197 9.4.3 Complicated Wettability of Ziliujing Formation Shale 197 9.4.3.1 TOC and Mineralogy 197 9.4.3.2 Pore Structure 197 9.4.3.3 Water and Oil Imbibition Experiments 200 9.4.3.4 Wettability of Ziliujing Formation Shale Indicated from SI Experiments and its Correlation to Shale Pore Structure and Composition 201 9.4.4 Shale Wettability Evolution Model 201 9.5 Conclusions 204 Acknowledgments 204 References 204 10 Permeability Enhancement in Shale Induced by Desorption 209 Brandon Schwartz and Derek Elsworth 10.1 Introduction 209 10.1.1 Shale Mineralogical Characteristics 209 10.1.2 Flow Network 210 10.1.2.1 Bedding-Parallel Flow Network 211 10.1.2.2 Bedding-Perpendicular Flow Paths 212 10.2 Adsorption in Shales 214 10.2.1 Langmuir Theory 214 10.2.2 Competing Strains in Permeability Evolution 215 10.2.2.1 Poro-Sorptive Strain 215 10.2.2.2 Thermal-Sorptive Strain 218 10.3 Permeability Models for Sorptive Media 218 10.3.1 Strain Based Models 219 10.4 Competing Processes during Permeability Evolution 220 10.4.1 Resolving Competing Strains 220 10.4.2 Solving for Sorption-Induced Permeability Evolution 221 10.5 Desorption Processes Yielding Permeability Enhancement 223 10.5.1 Pressure Depletion 223 10.5.2 Lowering Partial Pressure 224 10.5.3 Sorptive Gas Injection 225 10.5.4 Desorption with Increased Temperature 225 10.6 Permeability Enhancement Due to Nitrogen Flooding 225 10.7 Discussion 226 10.8 Conclusion 228 References 229 11 Multiscale Experimental Study on Interactions Between Imbibed Stimulation Fluids and Tight Carbonate Source Rocks 235 Feng Liang, Hui-Hai Liu, and Jilin Zhang 11.1 Introduction 235 11.2 Fluid Uptake Pathways 236 11.2.1 Experimental Methods 236 11.2.1.1 Materials 236 11.2.1.2 Experimental Procedure 237 11.2.2 Results and Discussion 237 11.2.2.1 Surface Characterization 237 11.2.2.2 Spontaneous Imbibition Tests 239 11.3 Mechanical Property Change After Fluid Exposure 240 11.3.1 Experimental Methods 242 11.3.1.1 Materials 242 11.3.1.2 Experimental Procedure 242 11.3.2 Results and Discussion 243 11.3.2.1 UCS and Brazilian Test on Cylindrical Core Plugs 243 11.3.2.2 Microindentation Test 243 11.4 Morphology and Minerology Changes After Fluid Exposure 245 11.4.1 Experimental Methods 247 11.4.1.1 Materials 247 11.4.1.2 Experimental Procedure 248 11.4.2 Results and Discussion 248 11.4.2.1 SEM and EDS Mapping of Thin-Section Surface before Fluid Treatment 248 11.4.2.2 SEM and EDS Mapping of Thin-Section Surface after Fluid Treatment 251 11.4.2.3 Quantification of Dissolved Ions in the Treatment Fluids 256 11.5 Flow Property Change After Fluid Exposure 257 11.5.1 Experimental Methods 258 11.5.1.1 Materials 258 11.5.1.2 Experimental Procedure 258 11.5.2 Results and Discussion 258 11.5.2.1 Changes in Flow Characteristics 258 11.6 Conclusions 259 References 261 Part III Large-Scale Petrophysics 265 12 Effective Permeability in Fractured Reservoirs: Percolation-Based Effective-Medium Theory 267 Behzad Ghanbarian 12.1 Introduction 267 12.1.1 Percolation Theory 267 12.1.2 Effective-Medium Theory 268 12.2 Objectives 269 12.3 Percolation-Based Effective-Medium Theory 269 12.4 Comparison with Simulations 270 12.4.1 Chen et al. (2019) 270 12.4.1.1 Two-Dimensional Simulations 271 12.4.1.2 Three-Dimensional Simulations 273 12.4.2 New Three-Dimensional Simulations 274 12.5 Conclusion 275 Acknowledgment 277 References 277 13 Modeling of Fluid Flow in Complex Fracture Networks for Shale Reservoirs 281 Hongbing Xie, Xiaona Cui, Wei Yu, Chuxi Liu, Jijun Miao, and Kamy Sepehrnoori 13.1 Shale Reservoirs with Complex Fracture Networks 281 13.2 Complex Fracture Reservoir Simulation 281 13.3 Embedded Discrete Fracture Model 283 13.4 EDFM Verification 286 13.5 Well Performance Study – Base Case 290 13.6 Effect of Natural Fracture Connectivity on Well Performance 294 13.6.1 Effect of Natural Fracture Azimuth 294 13.6.2 Effect of Number of Natural Fractures 295 13.6.3 Effect of Natural Fracture Length 298 13.6.4 Effect of Number of Sets of Natural Fractures 301 13.6.5 Effect of Natural Fracture Dip Angle 305 13.7 Effect of Natural Fracture Conductivity on Well Performance 306 13.8 Conclusions 311 References 312 14 A Closed-Form Relationship for Production Rate in Stress-Sensitive Unconventional Reservoirs 315 Hui-Hai Liu, Huangye Chen, and Yanhui Han 14.1 Introduction 315 14.2 Production Rate as a Function of Time in the Linear Flow Regime Under the Constant Pressure Drawdown Condition 317 14.3 An Approximate Relationship Between Parameter A and Stress-Dependent Permeability 318 14.4 Evaluation of the Relationship Between Parameter A and Stress-Dependent Permeability 321 14.5 Equivalent State Approximation for the Variable Pressure Drawdown Conditions 327 14.6 Discussions 328 14.7 Concluding Remarks 329 Nomenclature 329 Subscript 330 Appendix 14.A Derivation of Eq. (14.22) with Integration by Parts 330 References 331 15 Sweet Spot Identification in Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 333 Rabah Mesdour, Mustafa Basri, Cenk Temizel, and Nayif Jama 15.1 Introduction 333 15.2 Reservoir Characterization 334 15.3 Sweet Spot Identification 334 15.3.1 The Method Based on Organic, Rock and Mechanical Qualities 335 15.3.2 Methods Based on Geological and Engineering Sweet Spots 337 15.3.3 Methods Based on Other Quality Indicators 340 15.3.4 Methods Based on Data Mining and Machine Learning 343 15.4 Discussion 345 15.5 Conclusion 346 References 347 Index 351

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Book SynopsisWASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES Globally, the practice of wastewater treatment before discharge is inconsistent. The United Nations World Water Development Report (2017) estimated that, globally, over 80% of all wastewater is discharged without treatment. The discharge of untreated or inadequately treated wastewater into the environment results in the pollution of surface water, soil and groundwater. According to the WHO, water-related diseases kill around 2.2 million people globally each year, mostly children in developing countries. We need to understand that wastewater is not merely a water management issue it affects the environment, all living beings, and can have direct impacts on economies. The establishment of UN Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), which aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, reflects the increased attention on water and wastewater treatment issues in the global political agenda. Water reuse is one of the most efficient, cost effective and eco-friendly ways to ensure water resilience. Embedding sustainability into wastewater treatment is the best opportunity for industries to drive smarter innovation and efficient wastewater treatment. The modern concept of industrial wastewater treatment is moving away from conventional design. Wastewater treatment technology is moving towards extreme modular design using smart and sustainable technology. This book is intended as a reference book for all wastewater treatment professionals and operational personnel. It may also be used as a textbook on graduate and postgraduate courses in the field of wastewater treatment and management. The book takes a holistic view of the practical problems faced by industry and provides multiple needs-based solutions to tackle wastewater treatment and management issues. It elaborates on selection of technology and their design criteria for different types of wastewater. This will enable engineering students and professionals to expand their horizons in the fields of wastewater treatment and management.Table of ContentsSeries Editor Foreword vii Preface and Acknowledgments ix List of Abbreviations xi 1 Global Perspective of Wastewater Treatment 1 1.1 Global Wastewater Treatment Scenario 1 1.2 The UN Sustainable Development Agenda for Wastewater 2 1.3 Global Market Size 4 1.4 Global Best Practices 4 1.5 Embedding Sustainability into Wastewater Treatment 7 1.6 Sustainable Sources for Industrial Water 11 1.7 Deep Sea Discharge as an Alternative to Minimize Human and Environmental Health Risks 13 1.8 Environmental Rule of Law 16 1.9 Trends in Wastewater Treatment Technology 17 2 Wastewater Characteristics 19 2.1 Wastewater Characteristics of Various Industries 19 2.2 Wastewater Characteristics and Measuring Methodology 38 3 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 67 3.1 Overview of Wastewater Treatment Technologies 67 3.2 Primary Treatment 68 3.3 Secondary Treatment 73 3.4 Tertiary Treatment 89 3.5 Sludge Dewatering 93 3.6 Zero Liquid Discharge 100 4 Design Considerations 103 4.1 Screening 104 4.2 Equalization Unit 105 4.3 Dissolved Air Flotation 106 4.4 Clariflocculator 108 4.5 Conventional Activated Sludge 110 4.6 Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor 120 4.7 Membrane Bioreactor 124 4.8 Chlorination Unit 130 4.9 Pressure Sand Filter 131 4.10 Activated Carbon Filter 133 4.11 Ultrafiltration 135 4.12 Reverse Osmosis 140 4.13 Evaporator with Crystallizer 146 4.14 Filter Press 149 4.15 Belt Press 152 4.16 Centrifuge 153 4.17 Gravity Thickener 155 5 Advance Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Technologies 158 5.1 Scaleban 159 5.2 Forward Osmosis 162 5.3 Activated Glass Media Filter 165 5.4 Vacuum Distillation 168 5.5 Volute 173 5.6 Solar Detoxification 174 5.7 Sustainable Wastewater Treatment 181 6 Zero Liquid Discharge 184 6.1 ZLD Technologies 185 6.2 ZLD Technologies: Techno-Economic Evaluation 192 6.3 Feasibility Study of ZLD 194 7 Wastewater Treatment Plant Operational Excellence and Troubleshooting 204 7.1 Wastewater Treatment Issues 204 7.2 Wastewater Stream Identification, Characterization, and Segregation 205 7.3 Operation and Troubleshooting for Preliminary Treatment System 205 7.4 Operation and Troubleshooting for Primary Treatment System 206 7.5 Operation and Troubleshooting for Secondary Biological Treatment System 206 7.6 Operation and Troubleshooting for Tertiary Treatment System 213 7.7 Wastewater Sampling 219 7.8 Operation Records and Daily Log Sheet 220 7.9 Microbiology Fundamentals 220 7.10 Biological Wastewater Treatment Factors 223 7.11 Lab Testing Activity and Support 224 7.12 Best Practices for Pipe Line Sizing 226 7.13 Best Practices for Instrument Operation 226 7.14 Wastewater Online Monitoring Process 227 7.15 Wastewater Characteristics Monitoring Parameters 228 7.16 Effluent Treatment Plant Operating Procedure 229 Glossary 231 Index 234

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Book SynopsisDocuments the declining quality and quantity of springs around the world and efforts to preserve, protect, and restore them. Anthropogenic causes, including climate change, have been degrading springs around the world. Changes in spring water quality and flow impact human health, cultural values, ecology, and livelihoods. Threats to Springs in a Changing World: Science and Policies for Protection presents a range of international studies illustrating the causes of spring degradation and strategies being used to safeguard springs both now and for the future. Volume highlights include: Examples of threatened springs in diverse hydrogeologic settings Innovative methods and tools for understanding the hydrogeology of spring systems Current policy and governance approaches for alleviating damage to springs Different approaches to management of springs A call for practitioners, policy makers, scientiTable of ContentsList of Contributors vii Preface xi 1 Protecting Springs in a Changing World Through Sound Science and Policy 1Matthew J. Currell and Brian G. Katz Part I Threats to Springs and Their Values 2 Assessing Pollution and Depletion of Large Artesian Springs in Florida’s Rapidly Developing Water-Rich Landscape 9Robert L. Knight and Angeline Meeks 3 Regional Passive Saline Encroachment in Major Springs of the Floridan Aquifer System in Florida (1991–2020) 19Rick Copeland, Gary Maddox, and Andy Woeber 4 Karst Spring Processes and Storage Implications in High Elevation, Semiarid Southwestern United States 35Keegan M. Donovan, Abraham E. Springer, Benjamin W. Tobin, and Roderic A. Parnell 5 Nitrogen Contamination and Acidification of Groundwater Due to Excessive Fertilizer Use for Tea Plantations 51Hiroyuki Ii 6 Springs of the Southwestern Great Artesian Basin, Australia: Balancing Sustainable Use and Cultural and Environmental Values 69Gavin M. Mudd and Matthew J. Currell Part II Methods, Tools, and Techniques to Understand Spring Hydrogeology 7 Environmental Tracers to Study the Origin and Timescales of Spring Waters 87Axel Suckow and Christoph Gerber 8 Assessment of Water Quality and Quantity of Springs at a Pilot-Scale: Applications in Semiarid Mediterranean Areas in Lebanon 111Joanna Doummar, Marwan Fahs, Michel Aoun,Reda Elghawi, Jihad Othman, Mohamad Alali, and Assaad H. Kassem 9 Uncertainties in Understanding Groundwater Flow and Spring Functioning in Karst 131Francesco Fiorillo, Mauro Pagnozzi, Rosangela Addesso, Simona Cafaro, Ilenia M. D’Angeli, Libera Esposito, Guido Leone, Isabella S. Liso, and Mario Parise 10 The Great Subterranean Spring of Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, and the Potential Impact of Subsurface Urban Heat Islands 145Greg Brick Part III Policy and Governance Approaches for the Protection of Springs 11 Community-Based Water Resource Management: Pathway to Rural Water Security in Timor-Leste? 157Tanja Rosenqvist, George Goddard, Jack Nugent, Nick Brown, Eugenio Lemos, Elsa Ximenes, and Aleixo Santos 12 Setting Benthic Algal Abundance Targets to Protect Florida Spring Ecosystems 171Robert A. Mattson 13 Protecting Springs in the Southwest Great Artesian Basin, Australia 181Mark Keppel, Anne Jensen, Melissa Horgan, Aaron Smith, and Simone Stewart 14 Patterns in the Occurrence of Fecal Bacterial Indicators at Public Mineral Springs of Central Victoria, 1986–2013 199Andrew Shugg 15 Towards a Collective Effort to Preserve and Protect Springs 209Brian G. Katz and Matthew J. Currell Index 213

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Book SynopsisFundamentals of Groundwater A thoroughly updated classic on the fundamentals of groundwater The second edition of Fundamentals of Groundwater delivers an expert discussion of the fundamentals of groundwater in the hydrologic cycle and applications to contemporary problems in hydrogeology. The theme of the book is groundwater, broadly defined, and it covers the theory and practice of groundwaterfrom basic principles of physical and chemical hydrogeology to their application in traditional and emerging areas of practice. This new edition contains extensive revisions, including new discussions of human impacts on aquifers, and strategies and concepts for sustainable development of groundwater. It also covers the theory of groundwater flowincluding concepts of hydraulic head and the Darcy equationand ground water/surface water interactions, as well as geochemistry and contamination. Readers will also find A thorough introduction to the techniques ofTable of ContentsPreface xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Introduction to Groundwater 1 1.1 Why Study Groundwater? 1 1.2 Brief History of Groundwater 4 1.2.1 On Books 4 1.2.2 On the Early Evolution of Hydrogeological Knowledge 5 1.2.3 1960–2005 Computers and Contaminants 6 1.2.4 2005 and Onward: Research Diversified 8 References 9 2 Hydrologic Processes at the Earth’s Surface 12 2.1 Basin-Scale Hydrologic Cycle 12 2.2 Precipitation 15 2.2.1 Snowpack Distributions 20 2.3 Evaporation, Evapotranspiration, and Potential Evapotranspiration 20 2.4 Infiltration, Overland Flow, and Interflow 23 2.5 Simple Approaches to Runoff Estimation 25 2.6 Stream Flow and the Basin Hydrologic Cycle 30 2.6.1 Measuring Stream Discharge 30 2.6.2 Hydrograph Shape 32 2.6.3 Estimation of Baseflow 35 2.7 Flood Predictions 37 Exercises 38 References 40 3 Basic Principles of Groundwater Flow 42 3.1 Porosity of a Soil or Rock 42 3.2 Occurrence and Flow of Groundwater 45 3.3 Darcy’s Experimental Law 46 3.3.1 Darcy Column Experiments 47 3.3.2 Linear Groundwater Velocity or Pore Velocity 48 3.3.3 Hydraulic Head 49 3.3.4 Components of Hydraulic Head 50 3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity and Intrinsic Permeability 51 3.4.1 Intrinsic Permeability 52 3.4.2 Hydraulic Conductivity Estimated from Association with Rock Type 53 3.4.3 Empirical Approaches for Estimation 53 3.4.4 Laboratory Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity 55 3.5 Darcy’s Equation for Anisotropic Material 56 3.6 Hydraulic Conductivity in Heterogeneous Media 57 3.7 Investigating Groundwater Flow 61 3.7.1 Water Wells, Piezometers, and Water Table Observation Wells 61 3.7.2 Potentiometric Surface Maps 62 3.7.3 Water-Level Hydrograph 63 3.7.4 Hydrogeological Cross Sections 65 References 67 4 Aquifers 69 4.1 Aquifers and Confining Beds 69 4.2 Transmissive and Storage Properties of Aquifers 70 4.2.1 Transmissivity 70 4.2.2 Storativity (or Coefficient of Storage) and Specific Storage 72 4.2.3 Storage in Confined Aquifers 73 4.2.4 Storage in Unconfined Aquifers 74 4.2.5 Specific Yield and Specific Retention 74 4.3 Principal Types of Aquifers 75 4.4 Aquifers in Unconsolidated Sediments 75 4.4.1 Alluvial Fans and Basin Fill Aquifers 75 4.4.2 Fluvial Aquifers 79 4.5 Examples Alluvial Aquifer Systems 80 4.5.1 Central Valley Alluvial Aquifer System 80 4.5.2 High Plains Aquifer System 81 4.5.3 Indo-Gangetic Basin Alluvial Aquifer System 82 4.5.4 Mississippi River Valley Alluvial Aquifer 83 4.5.5 Aquifers Associated with Glacial Meltwater 85 4.6 Aquifers in Semiconsolidated Sediments 87 4.7 Sandstone Aquifers 88 4.7.1 Dakota Sandstone 88 4.8 Carbonate-Rock Aquifers 89 4.8.1 Enhancement of Permeability and Porosity by Dissolution 90 4.8.2 Karst Landscapes 91 4.8.3 Floridan Aquifer System 93 4.8.4 Edwards-Trinity Aquifer System 94 4.8.5 Basin and Range Carbonate Aquifer 96 4.9 Basaltic and Other Volcanic-Rock Aquifers 97 4.10 Hydraulic Properties of Granular and Crystalline Media 99 4.10.1 Pore Structure and Permeability Development 99 4.11 Hydraulic Properties of Fractured Media 100 4.11.1 Factors Controlling Fracture Development 101 References 102 5 Theory of Groundwater Flow 106 5.1 Differential Equations of Groundwater Flow in Saturated Zones 106 5.1.1 Useful Knowledge About Differential Equations 107 5.1.2 More About Dimensionality 109 5.1.3 Deriving Groundwater Flow Equations 109 5.2 Boundary Conditions 113 5.3 Initial Conditions for Groundwater Problems 114 5.4 Flow-net Analysis 115 5.4.1 Flow Nets in Isotropic and Homogeneous Media 115 5.4.2 Flow Nets in Heterogeneous Media 118 5.4.3 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Media 119 5.5 Mathematical Analysis of Some Simple Flow Problems 120 5.5.1 Groundwater Flow in a Confined Aquifer 120 5.5.2 Groundwater Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 121 5.5.3 Groundwater Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer with Recharge 123 References 125 6 Theory of Groundwater Flow in Unsaturated Zones and Fractured Media 126 6.1 Basic Concepts of Flow in Unsaturated Zones 126 6.1.1 Changes in Moisture Content During Infiltration 128 6.2 Characteristic Curves 128 6.2.1 Water Retention or θ(ψ) Curves 128 6.2.2 K(ψ) Curves 130 6.2.3 Moisture Capacity or C(ψ) Curves 132 6.3 Flow Equation in the Unsaturated Zone 133 6.4 Infiltration and Evapotranspiration 134 6.5 Examples of Unsaturated Flow 136 6.5.1 Infiltration and Drainage in a Large Caisson 136 6.5.2 Unsaturated Leakage from a Ditch 137 6.6 Groundwater Flow in Fractured Media 137 6.6.1 Cubic Law 137 6.6.2 Flow in a Set of Parallel Fractures 139 6.6.3 Equivalent-Continuum Approach 141 References 142 7 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Investigations 144 7.1 Key Drilling and Push Technologies 144 7.1.1 Auger Drilling 144 7.1.2 Mud/Air Rotary Drilling 145 7.1.3 Direct-Push Rigs 146 7.2 Piezometers and Water-Table Observation Wells 150 7.2.1 Basic Designs for Piezometers and Water-Table Observation Wells 150 7.3 Installing Piezometers and Water-Table Wells 152 7.3.1 Shallow Piezometer in Non-Caving Materials 152 7.3.2 Shallow Piezometer in Caving Materials 152 7.3.3 Deep Piezometers 153 7.4 Making Water-Level Measurements 154 7.5 Geophysics Applied to Site Investigations 155 7.5.1 Electric Resistivity Method 155 7.5.2 Capacitively Coupled Resistivity Profiling 158 7.5.3 Electromagnetic Methods 159 7.5.4 Large-Scale, Airborne Electromagnetic Surveys 160 7.5.5 Borehole Geophysical and Flow Meter Logging 162 7.5.6 Flowmeter Logging 164 7.6 Groundwater Investigations 166 7.6.1 Investigative Methods 167 References 168 8 Regional Groundwater Flow 170 8.1 Groundwater Basins 170 8.2 Mathematical Analysis of Regional Flow 171 8.2.1 Water-Table Controls on Regional Groundwater Flow 171 8.2.2 Effects of Basin Geology on Groundwater Flow 175 8.3 Recharge 179 8.3.1 Desert Environments 179 8.3.2 Semi-Arid Climate and Hummocky Terrain 180 8.3.3 Recharge in Structurally Controlled Settings 181 8.3.4 Distributed Recharge in Moist Climates 181 8.3.5 Approaches for Estimating Recharge 181 8.4 Discharge 183 8.4.1 Inflow to Wetlands, Lakes, and Rivers 183 8.4.2 Springs and Seeps 183 8.4.3 Evapotranspiration 185 8.5 Groundwater Surface-Water Interactions 186 8.6 Freshwater/Saltwater Interactions 189 8.6.1 Locating the Interface 190 8.6.2 Upconing of the Interface Caused by Pumping Wells 192 References 193 9 Response of Confined Aquifers to Pumping 195 9.1 Aquifers and Aquifer Tests 195 9.1.1 Units 196 9.2 Thiem’s Method for Steady-State Flow in a Confined Aquifer 197 9.2.1 Interpreting Aquifer Test Data 198 9.3 Theis Solution for Transient Flow in a Fully Penetrating, Confined Aquifer 199 9.4 Prediction of Drawdown and Pumping Rate Using the Theis Solution 201 9.5 Theis Type-Curve Method 201 9.6 Cooper–Jacob Straight-Line Method 204 9.7 Distance-Drawdown Method 206 9.8 Estimating T and S Using Recovery Data 208 References 214 10 Leaky Confined Aquifers and Partially-Penetrating Wells 216 10.1 Transient Solution for Flow Without Storage in the Confining Bed 216 10.1.1 Interpreting Aquifer-Test Data 218 10.2 Steady-State Solution 221 10.3 Transient Solutions for Flow with Storage in Confining Beds 223 10.4 Effects of Partially Penetrating Wells 229 References 235 11 Response of an Unconfined Aquifer to Pumping 236 11.1 Calculation of Drawdowns by Correcting Estimates for a Confined Aquifer 236 11.2 Determination of Hydraulic Parameters Using Distance/Drawdown Data 238 11.3 A General Solution for Drawdown 239 11.4 Type-Curve Method 241 11.5 Straight-Line Method 245 11.6 Aquifer Testing with a Partially-Penetrating Well 247 References 250 12 Slug, Step, and Intermittent Tests 251 12.1 Hvorslev Slug Test 251 12.2 Cooper–Bredehoeft–Papadopulos Test 255 12.3 Bower and Rice Slug Test 257 12.4 Step and Intermittent Drawdown Tests 259 12.4.1 Determination of Transmissivity and Storativity 260 12.4.2 Estimating Well Efficiency 263 References 268 13 Calculations and Interpretation of Hydraulic Head in Complex Settings 269 13.1 Multiple Wells and Superposition 269 13.2 Drawdown Superimposed on a Uniform Flow Field 271 13.3 Replacing a Geologic Boundary with an Image Well 272 13.3.1 Impermeable Boundary 272 13.3.2 Recharge Boundary 277 13.4 Multiple Boundaries 278 13.5 Calculation and Interpretation of Hydraulic Problems Using Computers 279 13.5.1 Numerical Models for Groundwater Simulations 279 13.5.2 Interpreting Aquifer Tests 281 References 282 14 Depletion of Groundwater Resources 283 14.1 Water-Level Declines from Overpumping 283 14.1.1 Challenges in the Investigation of Water-level Changes 285 14.2 Land Subsidence 285 14.2.1 Conceptual Model 286 14.2.2 Terzaghi Principle of Effective Stress 288 14.2.3 Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley of California 289 14.2.4 Challenges in the Investigation of Subsidence 293 14.3 Connected Groundwaters and Surface Waters 294 14.3.1 Declines in Streamflow 294 14.3.2 Induced Infiltration of Streamflow 295 14.3.3 Capture Zone for a Well 298 14.3.4 Pumping of the High Plains Aquifer System and Streamflow Reduction 298 14.3.5 Streamflow Declines in Beaver-North Canadian River Basin 300 14.3.6 Challenges in the Investigation of Streamflow Loss 301 14.4 Destruction of Riparian Zones 301 14.5 Seawater Intrusion 303 14.5.1 Salinas River Groundwater Basin 304 14.6 Introduction to Groundwater Modeling 306 14.6.1 Conceptual Model 306 14.6.2 Model Design 308 14.6.3 Model Calibration and Verification 308 14.6.4 Predictions in Modeling 309 14.7 Application of Groundwater Modeling 309 References 312 15 Groundwater Management 315 15.1 The Case for Groundwater Sustainability 315 15.2 Groundwater Sustainability Defined 317 15.2.1 Sustainability Initiatives 317 15.2.2 Sustainability Indicators for the Sierra Vista Subwatershed in Arizona 318 15.2.3 Socioeconomic Policies and Instruments 320 15.3 Overview of Approaches for Sustainable Management 321 15.3.1 Indicator Tracking 321 15.3.2 Water Balance Analyses 322 15.3.3 Model-Based Analyses of Sustainability 326 15.4 Strategies for Groundwater Sustainability 327 15.4.1 Increasing Inflows 327 15.4.1.1 Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) 327 15.4.1.2 Traditional MAR Approaches 329 15.4.1.3 “Sponge City” and Opportunities for Unmanaged Aquifer Recharge 330 15.4.2 Reducing Outflows 331 15.4.2.1 Replacing Groundwater with Surface Water 331 15.4.2.2 Reduction in Water Used for Irrigation 331 15.4.3 Scaling Issues with Sustainability 331 15.5 Global Warming Vulnerabilities 332 15.6 Chemical Impacts to Sustainability 334 15.6.1 Salinization 334 15.6.2 Geogenic and Aenthropogenic Contamination 335 15.6.3 Salinity and Contamination—Indo-Gangetic Basin (IGB) Alluvial Aquifer 336 15.6.4 Seawater Intrusion 339 References 342 16 Water Quality Assessment 345 16.1 Dissolved Constituents in Groundwater 346 16.1.1 Concentration Scales 346 16.2 Constituents of Interest in Groundwater 348 16.2.1 Gases and Particles 348 16.2.2 Routine Water Analyses 350 16.2.3 Contamination: Expanding the Scope of Chemical Characterization 351 16.2.3.1 Contaminated Sites 351 16.2.4 Comprehensive Surveys of Water Quality 352 16.3 Water Quality Standards 353 16.3.1 Health-Based Screening Levels—USGS 353 16.3.2 Secondary Standards for Drinking Water 354 16.3.3 Standards for Irrigation Water 355 16.4 Working with Chemical Data 356 16.4.1 Relative Concentration and Health-Based Screening 356 16.4.2 Scatter Diagrams and Contour Maps 358 16.4.3 Contour Maps 359 16.4.4 Piper Diagrams 360 16.5 Groundwater Sampling 362 16.5.1 Selecting Water Supply Wells for Sampling 362 16.6 Procedures for Water Sampling 363 16.6.1 Well Inspection and Measurements 363 16.6.2 Well Purging 363 16.6.3 Sample Collection, Filtration, and Preservation 364 References 364 17 Key Chemical Processes 366 17.1 Overview of Equilibrium and Kinetic Reactions 366 17.1.1 Law of Mass Action and Chemical Equilibrium 367 17.1.2 Complexities of Actual Groundwater 368 17.1.3 Deviations from Equilibrium 369 17.1.4 Kinetic Reactions 371 17.2 Acid–Base Reactions 372 17.3 Mineral Dissolution/Precipitation 374 17.3.1 Organic Compounds in Water 375 17.4 Surface Reactions 375 17.4.1 Sorption Isotherms 376 17.4.2 Sorption of Organic Compounds 377 17.4.3 Ion Exchange 379 17.4.4 Clay Minerals in Geologic Materials 380 17.4.5 Sorption to Oxide and Oxyhydroxide Surfaces 381 17.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 382 17.5.1 Kinetics and Dominant Couples 384 17.5.2 Biotransformation of Organic Compounds 385 17.5.3 pe-pH and E H -pH Diagrams 385 17.5.4 Quantifying Redox Conditions in Field Settings 386 17.5.5 Redox Zonation 388 17.6 Microorganisms in Groundwater 389 17.6.1 Quantifying Microbial Abundances 390 17.6.2 Microbial Ecology of the Subsurface 390 References 392 18 Isotopes and Applications 395 18.1 Stable and Radiogenic Isotopes 395 18.2 18 O and Deuterium in the Hydrologic Cycle 397 18.2.1 Behavior of D and 18 O in Rain 400 18.3 Variability in 18 O and Deuterium in Groundwater 401 18.3.1 Spatial and/or Temporal Variability of δ 18 O and δD Compositions in Aquifers 401 18.3.2 Connate Water in Units with Low Hydraulic Conductivity 402 18.4 Evaporation and the Meteoric Water Line 403 18.4.1 Other Deviations from GMWL 404 18.4.2 Illustrative Applications with Deuterium and Oxygen- 18 404 18.4.2.1 Role of Wetland in Streamflow 404 18.4.2.2 Integrated Study of Recharge Dynamics in a Desert Setting 405 18.5 Radiogenic Age Dating of Groundwater 406 18.5.1 Exploring Old and New Concepts of Age for Groundwater 408 18.5.2 Carbon- 14 409 18.5.3 Chlorine-36 and Helium-4: Very Old Groundwater 411 18.5.4 Tritium 412 18.5.5 Categorial Assessments Using Tritium Ages 414 18.6 Indirect Approaches to Age Dating 416 18.6.1 Isotopically Light Glacial Recharge 417 18.6.2 Chlorofluorocarbons and Sulfur Hexafluoride 417 References 420 19 Mass Transport: Principles and Examples 423 19.1 Subsurface Pathways 423 19.2 Advection 425 19.3 Dispersion 427 19.3.1 Tracer Tests 427 19.3.2 Dispersion at Small and Large Scales 429 19.4 Processes Creating Dispersion 429 19.5 Statistical Patterns of Mass Spreading 431 19.6 Measuring, Estimating, and Using Dispersivity Values 433 19.6.1 Sources with a Continuous Release 433 19.6.2 Available Dispersivity Values 434 19.7 Dispersion in Fractured Media 435 19.8 Chemical Processes and Their Impact on Water Chemistry 437 19.8.1 Gas Dissolution and Redistribution 437 19.8.2 Mineral Dissolution/Precipitation 438 19.8.3 Cation Exchange Reactions 439 19.8.4 Dissolution/Utilization of Organic Compounds 439 19.8.5 Redox Reactions 439 19.9 Examples of Reactions Affecting Water Chemistry 441 19.9.1 Chemical Evolution of Groundwater in Carbonate Terrains 441 19.9.2 Shallow Brines in Western Oklahoma 441 19.9.3 Chemistry of Groundwater in an Igneous Terrain 442 19.9.4 Evolution of Shallow Groundwater in an Arid Prairie Setting 443 19.10 A Case Study Highlighting Redox Processes 444 19.10.1 Iron and Manganese 444 19.10.2 Arsenic 445 19.10.3 Nitrate 446 19.10.4 Machine Learning for Mapping Redox Conditions 447 References 450 20 Introduction to Contaminant Hydrogeology 452 20.1 Point and Nonpoint Contamination Problems 452 20.2 Families of Contaminants 455 20.2.1 Minor/Trace Elements 455 20.2.2 Nutrients 455 20.2.3 Other Inorganic Species 456 20.2.4 Organic Contaminants 456 20.2.4.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 456 20.2.4.2 Halogenated Aliphatic Compounds 457 20.2.4.3 Halogenated Aromatic Compounds 457 20.2.4.4 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 458 20.2.4.5 Health Effects 458 20.2.5 Biological Contaminants 458 20.2.6 Radionuclides 458 20.3 Presence or Absence of Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) 459 20.4 Roles of Source Loading and Dispersion in Shaping Plumes 460 20.4.1 Source Loading 460 20.5 How Chemical Reactions Influence Plumes 461 20.5.1 Biodegradation of Organic Contaminants 462 20.5.2 Degradation of Common Contaminants 462 20.5.3 Reactions Influencing Plume Development 463 20.6 Nonaqueous Phase Liquids in the Subsurface 464 20.6.1 Features of NAPL Spreading 464 20.6.2 Occurrence of DNAPLs in the Saturated Zone 466 20.6.3 Secondary Contamination Due to NAPLs 466 20.7 Approaches for the Investigation of Contaminated Sites 466 20.7.1 Preliminary Studies 467 20.7.2 Reconnaissance Geophysics 467 20.7.3 Soil Gas Characterization 467 20.7.4 Distribution of Dissolved Contaminants 468 20.7.5 Plume Maps 470 20.7.6 Mapping the Distribution of NAPLs 471 20.8 Field Example of an LNAPL Problem 473 References 478 Index 481

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