Electrochemistry and magnetochemistry Books

Book SynopsisEvery serious student of chemistry should try to develop a `feel'' for the way molecules behave - for the way they are put together and especially for the rules of engagement which operate when molecules meet and react. This primer describes how stereoelectronic effects control this behaviour. It is the only concise text on this topic at an undergraduate level. This is an important subject area and the comprehensive yet concise coverage in this book shows students how to build up a powerful but simple way of thinking about chemistry.Trade ReviewThe subject is presented authoritatively, systematically and concisely without resort to mathematical treatment. As this subject is often given little coverage in textbooks or organic chemistry this text is to be welcomed. * Aslib Book Guide, vol.61, no.11, November 1996 *This book is a useful introduction to stereo-electronic effects in organic chemistry. The style is engaging ... this book is an excellent supplementary text for undergraduates. Sponsorship for the series by Zeneca also ensures that it is extremely good value for money. * Chemistry in Britain, September 1997 *engaging critique of biography .... enjoyable and thought provoking * New Scientist *Table of ContentsIntroduction ; 1. The electronic basis of stereoelectronic effects ; 2. Effects on conformation ; 3. Effects on reactivity ; 4. Substitutions at saturated centres ; 5. Additions and eliminations ; 6. Rearrangements and fragmentations ; 7. Radical reactions

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Book SynopsisNanopackaging: Nanotechnologies and Electronics Packaging.- Modelling Technologies and Applications.- Application of Molecular Dynamics Simulation in Electronic Packaging.- Advances in Delamination Modeling.- Nanoparticle Properties.- Nanoparticle Fabrication.- Nanoparticle-Based High-k Dielectric Composites: Opportunities and Challenges.- Nanostructured Resistor Materials.- Nanogranular Magnetic Core Inductors: Design, Fabrication, and Packaging.- Nanoconductive Adhesives.- Nanoparticles in Microvias.- Materials and Technology for Conductive Microstructures.- A Study of Nanoparticles in SnAg-Based Lead-Free Solders.- Nano-Underfills for Fine-Pitch Electronics.- Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis and Characterization.- Characteristics of Carbon Nanotubes for Nanoelectronic Device Applications.- Carbon Nanotubes for Thermal Management of Microsystems.- Electromagnetic Shielding of Transceiver Packaging Using Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes.- Properties of 63Sn-37Pb and Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu Solders ReinfoTrade ReviewFrom the reviews: “This is an impressive work that provides a substantial and relatively in depth coverage of a wide range of electronics packaging and assembly related applications for nanotechnology. Each chapter concludes with a list of references that can be used by the reader to further investigate a particular subject and the book is well produced with good quality figures and illustrations. … I am pleased to be able to conclude this … Nanopackaging: Nanotechnologies and Electronics Packaging as ‘highly recommended’.” (Martin Goosey, Microelectronics International, Vol. 26 (3), 2009)Table of ContentsNanopackaging: Nanotechnologies and Electronics Packaging.- Modelling Technologies and Applications.- Application of Molecular Dynamics Simulation in Electronic Packaging.- Advances in Delamination Modeling.- Nanoparticle Properties.- Nanoparticle Fabrication.- Nanoparticle-Based High-k Dielectric Composites: Opportunities and Challenges.- Nanostructured Resistor Materials.- Nanogranular Magnetic Core Inductors: Design, Fabrication, and Packaging.- Nanoconductive Adhesives.- Nanoparticles in Microvias.- Materials and Technology for Conductive Microstructures.- A Study of Nanoparticles in SnAg-Based Lead-Free Solders.- Nano-Underfills for Fine-Pitch Electronics.- Carbon Nanotubes: Synthesis and Characterization.- Characteristics of Carbon Nanotubes for Nanoelectronic Device Applications.- Carbon Nanotubes for Thermal Management of Microsystems.- Electromagnetic Shielding of Transceiver Packaging Using Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes.- Properties of 63Sn-37Pb and Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu Solders Reinforced With Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes.- Nanowires in Electronics Packaging.- Design and Development of Stress-Engineered Compliant Interconnect for Microelectronic Packaging.- Flip Chip Packaging for Nanoscale Silicon Logic Devices: Challenges and Opportunities.- Nanoelectronics Landscape: Application, Technology, and Economy.- Errata.

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Book SynopsisPushing the frontiers of electrochemistry-a survey of new surface imaging techniques. This latest installment in the Frontiers of Electrochemistry series helps readers gain insight into one of the hottest areas of modern electrochemistry. Tracing recent advances in the imaging of electrified surfaces, this volume describes cutting-edge techniques that allow us to record real-time and real-space images with atomic resolution, observe structures of surfaces and interfaces directly on a display, study the distribution of atoms and molecules during a surface reaction, and much more. Leading international authorities discuss surface imaging techniques used in technologies involving electrocrystallization and electrodeposition of metals-employing numerous examples to demonstrate site specificity of electrode processes, and discussing applications to electronic materials such as the capacity to print nanopatterns at electrode surfaces. They cover techniques thatTrade Review"full of ultramicroscopical detail" (Ultramicroscopy, Vol. 87, 2001)Table of ContentsLow-Dimensional Metal Phases and Nanostructuring of Solid Surfaces (G. Staikov, et al.). Electron Diffraction and Electron Microscopy of Electrode Surfaces (G. Lehmpfuhl, et al.). Imaging Metal Electrocrystallization at High Resolution (R. Nichols). Imaging of Reaction Fronts at Surfaces and Interfaces (H. Rottermund, et al.). Potential Controlled Ordering in Organic Monolayers at Electrode-Electrolyte Interface (N. Tao). Scanning Probe Microscopy of Organic Thin Films at Electrode Surfaces (J.-B. Green, et al.). Theoretical Aspects of the Scanning Tunneling Microscope Operating in an Electrolyte Solution (W. Schmickler). Index.

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Book SynopsisThe definitive reference for thermal constants Thermal Constants of Substances is an authoritative reference for chemists and physicists in a wide range of disciplines. Provided as an eight-volume set, this reference provides critically selected and self-consistent thermal constants for all inorganic, simple organic, and metallo-organic substances studied over 25,000 in all. Over 51,500 references are included for further information, with some literature dating back to the 1800s. Organized alphabetically and cross-referenced for convenience, this reference has a permanent home on the bookshelves of labs around the world.Table of ContentsElements: O, H, D, T, F, Cl, Br, I(J), At, 3He, He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn. Elements: S, Se, Te, Po. Elements: N, P, As, Sb, Bi. Elements: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb. Elements: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl. Elements: Zn, Cd, Hg, Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt. Elements: Mn, Tc, Re, Cr, Mo, W, V, Nb, Ta, Ti, Zr, Hf. Elements: Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr. Elements: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra. Elements: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr.

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Book SynopsisThis comprehensive solutions manual accompanies the updated sixth edition of Chemical Dynamics, a high level undergraduate/graduate text of classical thermodynamics, which provides a thorough treatment of partial- and relative-partial thermodynamic properties.Trade Review"A solutions manual to accompany the textbook...intended for both instructors and students." (SciTech Book News, March 2001)Table of ContentsChapter 2 Mathematical Preparation for Thermodynamics. Chapter 3 The First Law of Thermodynamics. Chapter 4 Enthalpy, Enthalpy of Reaction, and Heat Capacity. Chapter 5 Application of the First Law to Gases. Chapter 6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Chapter 7 Equilibrium and Spontaneity for Systems at ConstantTemperature: The Gibbs, Helmholtz, Planck, and MassieuFunctions. Chapter 8 Application of the Gibbs Function and the Planck Functionto Some Phase Changes. Chapter 9 The Third Law of Thermodynamics. Chapter 10 Application of the Gibbs and the Planck Function toChemical Changes. Chapter 11 Thermodynamics of Systems of Variable Composition. Chapter 12 Mixtures of Gases. Chapter 13 The Phase Rule. Chapter 14 The Ideal Solution. Chapter 15 Dilute Solutions of Nonelectrolytes. Chapter 16 Activities, Excess Gibbs Functions, and Standard Statesfor Nonelectrolytes. Chapter 17 Determination of Nonelectrolyte Activities and ExcessGibbs Functions from Experimental Data. Chapter 18 Calculation of Partial Molar Quantities and Excess MolarQuantities from Experimental Data: Volume And Enthalpy. Chapter 19 Activity, Activity Coefficients, and OsmoticCoefficients of Strong Electrolytes. Chapter 20 Changes in Gibbs Function for Processes InvolvingSolutions. Chapter 21 Systems Subject to a Gravitational Field. Chapter 22 Estimation of Thermodynamic Quantities. Chapter 23 Practical Mathematical Techniques.

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Book SynopsisThough there has been a lot of scattered information on specific aspects of wafer bonding--a technique for welding semiconductor wafers together without using glue, this is one of the first practical works to bring together a broad range of information into a coherent overview of the field.Table of ContentsBasics of Interactions Between Flat Surfaces. Influence of Particles, Surface Steps, and Cavities. Surface Preparation and Room-Temperature Wafer Bonding. Thermal Treatment of Bonded Wafer Pairs. Thinning Procedures. Electrical Properties of Bonding Interfaces. Stresses in Bonded Wafers. Bonding of Dissimilar Materials. Bonding of Structured Wafers. Mainstream Applications. Emerging and Future Applications. Index.

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Book SynopsisElectroanalytical chemistry is the use of electrochemistry to make analytical measurements. Discussing the principles of electroanalytical chemistry, this text has clear summaries of each analytical technique and provides exercises.Trade Review"...this book is recommended for all those who wish to learn about the different electroanalytical methods..." (Angewandte Chemie International Edition, Vol. 40, NO. 23, December 3, 2001)Table of ContentsSeries Preface. Preface. Acronyms, Abbreviations and Symbols. About the Author. Explanatory Forword. Introductory Overview and Discussion of Experiemental Methodology. Equilibrium Measurements: "Frustrated" Equilibrium with No Net Electron Transfer. Potentiometry: True Equilibrium and Monitoring Systems with Electron Transfer. Coulometry. Analysis by Dynamic Measurement, A: Systems Under Diffusion Control. Analysis by Dynamic Measurement, B: Systems Under Convection Control. Additional Methods. Electrode Preparation. Data Processing. Appendix A: Named Electoanalysis Equations Used in the Text. Appendix B: Writing a Cell Schematic. Appendix C: The Electrode Potential Series (Against the SHE). Responses to Self-Assessment Questions. Bibliography. Glossary of Terms. SI Units and Physical Contents. Periodic Table. Index.

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Book SynopsisThis book provides the means of mastering the use of reactions in a range of solvents (aqueous, non-aqueous, molecular organic and inorganic, ionized molten salts). It indicates how to optimize these processes and continues by discussing the possibilities of large scale exploitation of these techniques (up to industrial processes), notably in the field of extractive metallurgy. In addition, detailed characteristics of electrochemical phenomena are presented.Table of ContentsCONTROLLED USE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN SOLUTION--SELECTIVE BY APPLICATION MEANS OF AUXILLIARY REACTIONS. Quantitative Expression of the Effects of Complexation. Solubilisation and Insolubilisation-- Separation by Selective Dissolution or Precipitation. Oxidations and Reductions. Phase Transfer Reactions and Separations by Selective Extraction. REACTION MEDIA OTHER THAN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS. Molecular Solvents--Effects of the Solvent on the Reactivity of Solutes. Reactions in Molten Salts. Appendices. Theoretical Problems. Index.

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Book SynopsisRecent advances in both experimental techniques and theoretical methodologies have meant that increasingly sophisticated studies concerning the formation, structures, energetics and reaction dynamics of state- or energy-selected molecular ions can now be performed. In order to better serve the ion chemistry and physics community, each volume of this series is dedicated to reviewing a specific topic, emphasizing new experimental and theoretical developments in the study of ions. The Wiley Series in Ion Chemistry and Physics will help stimulate new research directions and point to future opportunities in the field of ion chemistry and physics. This volume, the sixth in the series, concentrates on the area of large ions. The production, detection and analysis of large ions are areas which have taken on great importance in recent years, in particular in the biomedical and biochemical fields. The understanding of large ions presents unique and formidable challenges which are very different Table of ContentsInvestigation of Large Ions by Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry(F. Hadjarab & C. Wilkins). Steps Towards a More Refined Picture of the Matrix Function in UVMALDI (M. Karas, et al.). Models for Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption and Ionization: MALDI(R. Johnson). Laser Ejection of Oligonucleotides (R. Levis). Collisional Activation Studies of Large Molecules (E. Marzluff& J. Beauchamp). Surface-Induced Dissociation of Large Ions (V. Wysocki & A.Dongre). Indexes.

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Book SynopsisThis book has been written at a time when environmental issues and the move towards clean technology is driving synthetic chemists away from organic based solvent systems and towards water as the preferred medium of the future. The paints industry has already moved to aqueous based products. Metal aqua complexes are widely used in the areas of catalysis, dyes and pigments and in hydrometallurgy where a complete understanding of the metal ions in aqueous media is highly desirable.Table of ContentsPartial table of contents: Main Group Elements: 1,2,13,14,15,16,17 and 18. Group 4 Elements: Titanium, Zirconium and Hafnium. Group 6 Elements: Chromium, Molybdenum and Tungsten. Group 8 Elements: Iron, Ruthenium and Osmium. Group 10 Elements: Nickel, Palladium and Platinum. Group 11 Elements: Copper, Silver and Gold. Appendices.

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Book SynopsisCapillary Electrophoresis in Chiral Analysis Bezhan Chankvetadze Tbilisi State University, Republic of Georgia The application of capillary electrophoresis (CE) to the field of chiral analysis has exploded recently. The advantages of capillary electrophoresis - extremely high peak efficiency, excellent compatibility with biological samples, short analysis time, simplicity, versatility and low cost - are perfect for the accurate measurement of optical purity, increasingly important in the regulation-ruled pharmaceutical industry. Although there have been a number of books on capillary electrophoresis and chiral analysis separately, as yet there has been no dedicated monograph on the application of capillary electrophoresis to chiral analysis. This book bridges the gap. Capillary Electrophoresis in Chiral Analysis charts the evolution of chiral capillary electrophoresis and describes new types of chiral selectors and mechanistic aspects of chiral recognition. While on the one hand, it isTable of ContentsPartial table of contents: Basics of Capillary Electrophoresis. Chiral Metal Complexes as Selectors in Capillary Electrophoresis. Enantioseparation Using Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography (MEKC). Crown Ethers as Chiral Selectors in Capillary Electrophoresis. Macrocyclic Antibiotics as Chiral Selectors in Capillary Electrophoresis. Enantioseparation in Capillary Electrochromatography (CEC). Enantiomer Migration Order in Chiral Capillary Electrophoresis. Appendix. Index.

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Book SynopsisThe Physical Principles of Magnetism... is such a classic -- a comprehensive introduction to all aspects of magnetism... The corrected reissue is a welcome addition to this much--needed archival series. Dr. Morrish presents an excellent introduction to the physics and mathematics of magnetism without oversimplification...Table of Contents1. The Magnetic Field. 1. Historical. 2. The Magnetic field Vector H. 3. The Magnetization Vector M. 4. Magnetic Induction, the Vector B. 5. The Demagnetization Factor D. 6. Energy of Interaction. 7. Magnetic Effects of Currents. The Magnetic Shell. Faraday's Law. 8. Maxwell's and Lorentz's Equations. 9. The Magnetic Circuit. 10. Dipole in a Uniform Field. 2. Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Susceptibilities. 1. Introduction. 2. Review of Quantum Mechanical and Other Results. Diamagnetism. 3. The Langevin Formula for Diamagnetic Susceptibility. 4. Susceptibility of Atoms and Ions. 5. Susceptibility of Molecules. Paramagnetism. 6. Curie's Law. 7. Theoretical Derivations of Curie's Law. 8. Quantum Mechanical Treatment. 9. Susceptibility of Quasi-free Ions: the Rare Earths. 10. The Effect of the Crystalline Field. 11. The Iron Group Salts. 12. Covalent Binding and the 3d, 4d, 5d, and 5f-6d Transition Groups. 13. Saturation in Paramagnetic Substances. 14. Paramagnetic Molecules. 15. Paramagnetic Susceptibility of the Nucleus. 3. Thermal, Relaxation, and Resonance Phenomena in Paramagnetic Materials. 1. Introduction. Thermal Phenomena. 2. Summary of Thermodynamic Relationships. 3. The Magnetocaloric Effect: The Production and Measurement of Low Temperatures. Paramagnetic Relaxation. 4. The Susceptibility in an Alternating Magnetic Field. 5. Spin-Lattice Relaxation. 6. Spin-spin Relaxation. Paramagnetic Resonance. 7. Conditions for Paramagnetic Resonance. 8. Line Widths: the Effect of Damping. 9. Fine and Hyperfine Structure: the Spin-Hamiltonian. 10. The Spectra of the Transition Group Ions. The 3d group ions. Covalent binding and the 3d, Ad, 5d, and 5f-6d groups. 4/rare earth ions in salts. Transition ions in various host lattices. 11. The Spectra of Paramagnetic Molecules and Other Systems. Paramagnetic gases. Free radicals. Donors and acceptors in semiconductors. Traps, F-centers, etc. Defects from radiation damage. 12. The Three-Level Maser and Laser. 4. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. 1. Introduction. 2. Line Shapes and Widths. 3. Resonance in Nonmetallic Solids. 4. The Influence of Nuclear Motion on Line Widths and Relaxations. 5. The Chemical Shift: Fine Structure. 6. Transient Effects: the Spin-Echo Method. 7. Negative Temperatures. 8. Quadrupole Effects and Resonance. 9. Nuclear Orientation. 10. Double Resonance. 11. Beam Methods. 5. The Magnetic Properties of an Electron Gas. 1. Statistical and Thermodynamic Functions for an Electron Gas. 2. The Spin Paramagnetism of the Electron Gas. 3. The Diamagnetism of the Electron Gas. 4. Comparison of Susceptibility Theory with Experiment. 5. The De Haas-Van Alphen Effect. 6. Galvanomagnetic, Thermomagnetic, and Magnetoacoustic Effects. 7. Electron Spin Resonance in Metals. 8. Cyclotron Resonance. 9. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Metals. 10. Some Magnetic Properties of Superconductors. 6. Ferromagnetism. 1. Introduction. 2. The Classical Molecular Field Theory and Comparison with Experiment. The spontaneous magnetization region. The paramagnetic region. Thermal effects. 3. The Exchange Interaction. 4. The Series Expansion Method. 5. The Bethe-Peierls-Weiss Method. 6. Spin Waves. 7. Band Model Theories of Ferromagnetism. 8. Ferromagnetic Metals and Alloys. 9. Crystalline Anisotropy. 10. Magnetoelastic Effects. 7. The Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials. 1. Introduction. 2. Single-Domain Particles. Critical size. Hysteresis loops. Incoherent rotations. Some experimental results. Other effects. 3. Superparamagnetic Particles. 4. Permanent Magnet Materials. 5. Domain Walls. 6. Domain Structure. 7. The Analysis of the Magnetization Curves of Bulk Material. Domain wall movements. Coercive force. Initial permeability. Picture frame specimens. The approach to saturation. Remanence. Nucleation of domains: whiskers. Barkhausen effect. Preisach-type models. External stresses. Minor hysteresis loops. 8. Thermal Effects Associated with the Hysteresis Loop. 9. Soft Magnetic Materials. 10. Time Effects. 11. Thin Films. 8. Antiferromagnetism. 1. Introduction. 2. Neutron Diffraction Studies. 3. Molecular Field Theory of Antiferromagnetism. Behavior above the Neel temperature. The Neel temperature. Susceptibility below the Neel temperature. Sublattice arrangements. The paramagnetic-antiferromagnetic transition in the presence of an applied magnetic field. Thermal effects. 4. Some Experimental Results for Antiferromagnetic Compounds. 5. The Indirect Exchange Interaction. 6. More Advanced Theories of Antiferromagnetism. The series expansion method. The Bethe-Peierls-Weiss method. Spin waves. 7. Crystalline Anisotropy: Spin Flopping. 8. Metals and Alloys. 9. Canted Spin Arrangements. 10. Domains in Antiferromagnetic Materials. 11. Interfacial Exchange Anisotropy. 9. Ferrimagnetism. 1. Introduction. 2. The Molecular Field Theory of Ferrimagnetism. Paramagnetic region. The ferrimagnetic Neel temperature. Spontaneous magnetization. Extension to include additional molecular fields. Triangular and other spin arrangements. Three sublattice systems. Ferromagnetic interaction between sublattices. 3. Spinels. 4. Garnets. 5. Other Ferrimagnetic Materials. 6. Some Quantum Mechanical Results. 7. Soft Ferrimagnetic Materials. 8. Some Topics in Geophysics. 10. Resonance in Strongly Coupled Dipole Systems. 1. Introduction. 2. Magnetomechanical Effects. 3. Ferromagnetic Resonance. 4. Energy Formulation of the Equations of Motion. 5. Resonance in Ferromagnetic Metals and Alloys. 6. Ferromagnetic Resonance of Poor Conductors. 7. Magnetostatic Modes. 8. Relaxation Processes. Relaxation via spin waves in insulators. Relaxation via spin waves in conductors. Fast relaxation via paramagnetic ions. Slow relaxation via electron redistribution. 9. Nonlinear Effects. 10. Spin-Wave Spectra of Thin Films. 11. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Gyromagnetic Media. 12. Resonance in Unsaturated Samples. 13. Ferrimagnetic Resonance. 14. Antiferromagnetic Resonance. 15. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Ordered Magnetic Materials. 16. The Mossbauer Effect. Appendix I. Systems of Units. Appendix II. Demagnetization Factors for Ellipsoids of Revolution. Appendix III. Periodic Table of the Elements. Appendix IV. Numerical Values for Some Important Physical Constants. Author Index. Subject Index.

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Book SynopsisCovers the most recent methods and materials for the construction, validation, analysis, and design of electrochemical sensors for bioanalytical, clinical, and pharmaceutical applications--emphasizing the latest classes of enantioselective electrochemical sensors as well as electrochemical sensors for in vivo and in vitro diagnosis, for DNA assay and HIV detection, and as detectors in flow systems. Contains current techniques for the assay or biochemical assay of biological fluids and pharmaceutical compounds.Trade Review". . .presents a timely overview. "---Journal of the American Chemical SocietyTable of ContentsElectrochemical sensors design; new theoretical concepts for ion-selective membrane electrodes; response characteristics of electrochemical sensors; analytical methods that use electrochemical sensors; applications of electrochemical sensors in the analysis of inorganic-type of substances; applications of electrochemical sensors in the analysis of organic-type of substances; the assay of DNA using electrochemical sensors; electrochemical sensors used in the diagnosis of HIV; enantioselective electrochemical sensors; microbial sensors; electrochemical sensor arrays; the utilization of microelectrodes for in vivo and in vitro analyses; flow systems with electrochemical sensors as detectors; validation criteria for developing electrochemical sensors for bioanalysis; estimation of uncertainties for electrochemical sensors applied in bioanalysis.

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Book SynopsisCapillary electrochromatography (CEC) is a new and exciting hybrid separation technique that seeks to exploit the combined advantages of both capillary electrophoresis (high efficiencies) and HPLC (mobile and stationary phase selectivity). It is a technique with tremendous potential, especially in the pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. This is the first book to be devoted to the topic and presents reviews by the world leaders in the field on the theory and development of the technique and current and potential future applications. Capillary Electrochromatography provides an excellent introduction to the field for graduates and professionals in industry and academia with an interest in separation science.Trade Review"... a compact and informative review of the principles and practice of this novel and exciting technique ... the book will be very useful to readers new to the field as it is both up-to-date and fully referenced ..." * Chemistry & Industry, Issue 1, 7 January 2002, p 19 *"... an excellent introduction to anyone about to enter the field ... useful and highly informative ..." * Angewandte Chemie, International Edition, Vol 41, No 3, 1 February 2002 *Table of ContentsAn Introduction to Capillary Electrochromatography; The Capillary Electrochromatograph; Supports and Stationary Phases for Capillary Electrochromatography; Electroosmosis in Complex Media: Bulk Transport in CEC; Capillary Electrochromatography with Open Tubular Columns (OTCEC); Capillary Electrochromatography/Mass Spectrometry; Pharmaceutical Applications of Capillary Electrochromatography; Capillary Electrochromatography in Natural Product Research; Subject Index.

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Book SynopsisThe development of solid state devices began a little more than a century ago, with the discovery of the electrical conductivity of ionic solids. Today, solid state technologies form the background of the society in which we live.Table of ContentsPreface ix 1. Thermodynamics of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Semiconductor Systems 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Basic Principles 2 1.3 Phases and Their Properties 7 1.3.1 Structural Order of a Phase 7 1.4 Equations of State of Thermodynamic Systems 11 1.4.1 Thermodynamic Transformations and Functions of State 11 1.4.2 Work Associated with a Transformation, Entropy and Free Energy 12 1.4.3 Chemical Potentials 14 1.4.4 Free Energy and Entropy of Spontaneous Processes 15 1.4.5 Effect of Pressure on Phase Transformations, Polymorphs/Polytypes Formation and Their Thermodynamic Stability 16 1.4.6 Electrochemical Equilibria and Electrochemical Potentials of Charged Species 21 1.5 Equilibrium Conditions of Multicomponent Systems Which Do Not React Chemically 23 1.6 Thermodynamic Modelling of Binary Phase Diagrams 28 1.6.1 Introductory Remarks 28 1.6.2 Thermodynamic Modelling of Complete and Incomplete Miscibility 29 1.6.3 Thermodynamic Modelling of Intermediate Compound Formation 40 1.6.4 Retrograde Solubility, Retrograde Melting and Spinodal Decomposition 40 1.7 Solution Thermodynamics and Structural and Physical Properties of Selected Semiconductor Systems 43 1.7.1 Introductory Remarks 43 1.7.2 Au-Ag and Au-Cu Alloys 45 1.7.3 Silicon and Germanium 49 1.7.4 Silicon-Germanium Alloys 53 1.7.5 Silicon- and Germanium-Binary Alloys with Group III and Group IV Elements 55 1.7.6 Silicon-Tin and Germanium-Tin Alloys 61 1.7.7 Carbon and Its Polymorphs 62 1.7.8 Silicon Carbide 67 1.7.9 Selenium-Tellurium Alloys 69 1.7.10 Binary and Pseudo-binary Selenides and Tellurides 71 1.7.11 Arsenides, Phosphides and Nitrides 81 1.8 Size-Dependent Properties, Quantum Size Effects and Thermodynamics of Nanomaterials 93 Appendix 98 Use of Electrochemical Measurements for the Determination of the Thermodynamic Functions of Semiconductors 98 References 103 2. Point Defects in Semiconductors 117 2.1 Introduction 117 2.2 Point Defects in Ionic Solids: Modelling the Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Solids by Point Defects-Mediated Charge Transfer 119 2.3 Point Defects and Impurities in Elemental Semiconductors 127 2.3.1 Introduction 127 2.3.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials in Semiconductors with the Diamond Structure: an Attempt at a Critical Discussion of Their Thermodynamic and Transport Properties 129 2.3.3 Effect of Defect–Defect Interactions on Diffusivity: Trap-and-Pairing Limited Diffusion Processes 145 2.3.4 Light Impurities in Group IV Semiconductors: Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Their Reactivity 153 2.4 Defects and Non-Stoichiometry in Compound Semiconductors 167 2.4.1 Structural and Thermodynamic Properties 167 2.4.2 Defect Identification in Compound Semiconductors 171 2.4.3 Non-Stoichiometry in Compound Semiconductors 171 References 181 3. Extended Defects in Semiconductors and Their Interactions with Point Defects and Impurities 195 3.1 Introduction 195 3.2 Dislocations in Semiconductors with the Diamond Structure 196 3.2.1 Geometrical Properties 196 3.2.2 Energy of Regular Straight Dislocations 201 3.2.3 Dislocation Motion 203 3.2.4 Dislocation Reconstruction 205 3.2.5 Electronic Structure of Dislocations in Si and Ge, Theoretical Studies and Experimental Evidences 208 3.3 Dislocations in Compound Semiconductors 215 3.3.1 Electronic Structure of Dislocations in Compound Semiconductors 216 3.4 Interaction of Defects and Impurities with Extended Defects 219 3.4.1 Introduction 219 3.4.2 Thermodynamics of Defect Interactions with Extended Defects 220 3.4.3 Thermodynamics of Interaction of Neutral Defects and Impurities with EDs 221 3.4.4 Kinetics of Interaction of Point Defects, Impurities and Extended Defects: General Concepts 228 3.4.5 Kinetics of Interaction Reactions: Reaction Limited Processes 230 3.4.6 Kinetics of Interaction Reactions: Diffusion-Limited Reactions 230 3.5 Interaction of Atomic Defects with Extended Defects: Theoretical and Experimental Evidence 232 3.5.1 Interaction of Point Defects with Extended Defects 232 3.5.2 Hydrogen-Dislocation Interaction in Silicon 233 3.5.3 Interaction of Oxygen with Dislocations 235 3.6 Segregation of Impurities at Surfaces and Interfaces 236 3.6.1 Introduction 236 3.6.2 Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline Semiconductors 236 3.6.3 Structure of Grain Boundaries and Their Physical Properties 239 3.6.4 Segregation of Impurities at Grain Boundaries and Their Influence on Physical Properties 241 3.7 3D Defects: Precipitates, Bubbles and Voids 243 3.7.1 Thermodynamic and Structural Considerations 243 3.7.2 Oxygen and Carbon Segregation in Silicon 246 3.7.3 Silicides Precipitation 249 3.7.4 Bubbles and Voids 249 References 251 4. Growth of Semiconductor Materials 265 4.1 Introduction 265 4.2 Growth of Bulk Solids by Liquid Crystallization 266 4.2.1 Growth of Single Crystal and Multicrystalline Ingots by Liquid Phase Crystallization 268 4.2.2 Growth of Single Crystals or Multicrystalline Materials by Liquid Crystallization Processes: Impact of Environmental Interactions on the Chemical Quality 274 4.2.3 Growth of Bulk Solids by Liquid Crystallization Processes: Solubility of Impurities in Semiconductors and Their Segregation 287 4.2.4 Growth of Bulk Solids by Liquid Crystallization Processes: Pick-Up of Impurities 290 4.2.5 Constitutional Supercooling 295 4.2.6 Growth Dependence of the Impurity Pick-Up and Concentration Profiling 298 4.2.7 Purification of Silicon by Smelting with Al 299 4.3 Growth of Ge-Si Alloys, SiC, GaN, GaAs, InP and CdZnTe from the Liquid Phase 300 4.3.1 Growth of Si-Ge Alloys 301 4.3.2 Growth of SiC from the Liquid Phase 303 4.3.3 Growth of GaN from the Liquid Phase 304 4.3.4 Growth of GaAs, InP, ZnSe and CdZnTe 309 4.4 Single Crystal Growth from the Vapour Phase 318 4.4.1 Generalities 318 4.4.2 Growth of Silicon, ZnSe and Silicon Carbide from the Vapour Phase 319 4.4.3 Epitaxial Growth of Single Crystalline Layers of Elemental and Compound Semiconductors 323 4.5 Growth of Poly/Micro/Nano-Crystalline Thin Film Materials 332 4.5.1 Introduction 332 4.5.2 Growth of Nanocrystalline/Microcrystalline Silicon 334 4.5.3 Growth of Silicon Nanowires 337 4.5.4 Growth of Films of CdTe and of Copper Indium (Gallium) Selenide (CIGS) 342 References 345 5. Physical Chemistry of Semiconductor Materials Processing 363 5.1 Introduction 363 5.2 Thermal Annealing Processes 364 5.2.1 Thermal Decomposition of Non-stoichiometric Amorphous Phases for Nanofabrication Processes 367 5.2.2 Other Problems of a Thermodynamic or Kinetic Nature 369 5.3 Hydrogen Passivation Processes 372 5.4 Gettering and Defect Engineering 376 5.4.1 Introduction 376 5.4.2 Thermodynamics of Gettering 377 5.4.3 Physics and Chemistry of Internal Gettering 378 5.4.4 Physics and Chemistry of External Gettering 382 5.5 Wafer Bonding 390 References 391 Index 399

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Book SynopsisThis textbook is an accessible overview of the broad field of organic electrochemistry, covering the fundamentals and applications of contemporary organic electrochemistry. The book begins with an introduction to the fundamental aspects of electrode electron transfer and methods for the electrochemical measurement of organic molecules. It then goes on to discuss organic electrosynthesis of molecules and macromolecules, including detailed experimental information for the electrochemical synthesis of organic compounds and conducting polymers. Later chapters highlight new methodology for organic electrochemical synthesis, for example electrolysis in ionic liquids, the application to organic electronic devices such as solar cells and LEDs, and examples of commercialized organic electrode processes. Appendices present useful supplementary information including experimental examples of organic electrosynthesis, and tables of physical data (redox potentials of various organic solvents and organic compounds and physical properties of various organic solvents).Table of ContentsAbout the Authors vii Preface ix Introduction xiToshio Fuchigami 1 Fundamental Principles of Organic Electrochemistry: Fundamental Aspects of Electrochemistry Dealing with Organic Molecules 1Mahito Atobe 2 Method for Study of Organic Electrochemistry: Electrochemical Measurements of Organic Molecules 11Mahito Atobe 3 Methods for Organic Electrosynthesis 33Toshio Fuchigami 4 Organic Electrode Reactions 45Toshio Fuchigami 5 Organic Electrosynthesis 83Toshio Fuchigami and Shinsuke Inagi 6 New Methodology of Organic Electrochemical Synthesis 129Toshio Fuchigami, Mahito Atobe and Shinsuke Inagi 7 Related Fields of Organic Electrochemistry 187Shinsuke Inagi and Toshio Fuchigami 8 Examples of Commercialized Organic Electrode Processes 199Toshio Fuchigami Appendix A: Examples of Organic Electrosynthesis 209 Appendix B: Tables of Physical Data 217 Index 223

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Book SynopsisAtomic-Scale Modelling of Electrochemical Systems A comprehensive overview of atomistic computational electrochemistry, discussing methods, implementation, and state-of-the-art applications in the field The first book to review state-of-the-art computational and theoretical methods for modelling, understanding, and predicting the properties of electrochemical interfaces. This book presents a detailed description of the current methods, their background, limitations, and use for addressing the electrochemical interface and reactions. It also highlights several applications in electrocatalysis and electrochemistry. Atomic-Scale Modelling of Electrochemical Systems discusses different ways of including the electrode potential in the computational setup and fixed potential calculations within the framework of grand canonical density functional theory. It examines classical and quantum mechanical models for the solid-liquid interface and formation of an electrochemicaTable of ContentsPart I 1 1 Introduction to Atomic Scale Electrochemistry 3Marko M. Melander, Tomi Laurila, and Kari Laasonen 1.1 Background 3 1.2 The thermodynamics of electrified interface 4 1.2.1 Electrode 6 1.2.2 Electrical double layer 7 1.2.3 Solvation sheets 8 1.2.4 Electrode potential 8 1.3 Chemical interactions between the electrode and redox species 12 1.4 Reaction kinetics at electrochemical interfaces 13 1.4.1 Outer and inner sphere reactions 13 1.4.2 Computational aspects 16 1.4.3 Challenges 17 1.5 Charge transport 18 1.6 Mass transport to the electrode 18 1.7 Summary 19 References 20 Part II 25 2 Retrospective and Prospective Views of Electrochemical Electron Transfer Processes: Theory and Computations 27Renat R. Nazmutdinov and Jens Ulstrup 2.1 Introduction – interfacial molecular electrochemistry in recent retrospective 27 2.1.1 An electrochemical renaissance 27 2.1.2 A bioelectrochemical renaissance 27 2.2 Analytical theory of molecular electrochemical ET processes 28 2.2.1 A Reference to molecular ET processes in homogeneous solution 28 2.2.2 Brief discussion of contemporary computational approaches 30 2.2.3 Molecular electrochemical ET processes and general chemical rate theory 31 2.2.4 Some electrochemical ET systems at metal electrodes 35 2.2.4.1 Some outer sphere electrochemical ET processes 35 2.2.4.2 Dissociative ET: the electrochemical peroxodisulfate reduction 38 2.2.5 d-band, cation, and spin catalysis 39 2.2.6 New solvent environments in simple electrochemical ET processes – ionic liquids 40 2.2.7 Proton transfer, proton conductivity, and proton coupled electron transfer (PCET) 40 2.2.7.1 Some further notes on the nature of PT/PCET processes 44 2.2.7.2 The electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction, and the Tafel plot on mercury 44 2.3 Ballistic and stochastic (Kramers-Zusman) chemical rate theory 45 2.4 Early and recent views on chemical and electrochemical long-range ET 50 2.5 Molecular-scale electrochemical science 53 2.5.1 Electrochemical in situ STM and AFM 53 2.5.2 Nanoscale mapping of novel electrochemical surfaces 54 2.5.2.1 Self-assembled molecular monolayers (SAMs) of functionalized thiol [192–194] 54 2.5.3 Electrochemical single-molecule ET and conductivity of complex molecules 56 2.5.4 Selected cases of in situ STM and STS of organic and inorganic redox molecules 58 2.5.4.1 The viologens 58 2.5.4.2 Transition metal complexes as single-molecule in operando STM targets 59 2.5.5 Other single-entity nanoscale electrochemistry 61 2.5.5.1 Electrochemistry in low-dimensional carbon confinement 61 2.5.5.2 Electrochemistry of nano- and molecular-scale metallic nanoparticles 62 2.5.6 Elements of nanoscale and single-molecule bioelectrochemistry 63 2.5.6.1 A single-molecule electrochemical metalloprotein target – P. aeruginosa azurin 63 2.5.6.2 Electrochemical SPMs of metalloenzymes, and some other “puzzles” 65 2.6 Computational approaches to electrochemical surfaces and processes revisited 67 2.6.1 Theoretical methodologies and microscopic structure of electrochemical interfaces 67 2.6.2 The electrochemical process revisited 68 2.7 Quantum and computational electrochemistry in retrospect and prospect 69 2.7.1 Prospective conceptual challenges in quantum and computational electrochemistry 70 2.7.2 Prospective interfacial electrochemical target phenomena 71 2.7.2.1 Some conceptual, theoretical, and experimental notions and challenges 71 2.7.2.2 Non-traditional electrode surfaces and single-entity structure and function 71 2.7.2.3 Semiconductor and semimetal electrodes 72 2.7.2.4 Metal deposition and dissolution processes 72 2.7.2.5 Chiral surfaces and ET processes of chiral molecules 72 2.7.2.6 ET reactions involving hot electrons (femto-electrochemistry) 73 2.8 A few concluding remarks 73 Acknowledgement 74 References 74 Part III 93 3 Continuum Embedding Models for Electrolyte Solutions in First-Principles Simulations of Electrochemistry 95Oliviero Andreussi, Francesco Nattino, and Nicolas Georg Hörmann 3.1 Introduction to continuum models for electrochemistry 95 3.2 Continuum models of liquid solutions 97 3.2.1 Continuum interfaces 98 3.2.2 Beyond local interfaces 103 3.2.3 Electrostatic interaction: polarizable dielectric embedding 105 3.2.4 Beyond electrostatic interactions 107 3.3 Continuum diffuse-layer models 109 3.3.1 Continuum models of electrolytes 109 3.3.2 Helmholtz double-layer model 110 3.3.3 Poisson–Boltzmann model 111 3.3.4 Size-modified Poisson–Boltzmann model 113 3.3.5 Stern layer and additional interactions 114 3.3.6 Performance of the diffuse-layer models 114 3.4 Grand canonical simulations of electrochemical systems 118 3.4.1 Thermodynamics of interfaces 119 3.4.2 Ab-initio based thermodynamics of electrochemical interfaces 121 3.4.3 Grand canonical simulations and the CHE approximation 123 3.5 Selected applications 126 Acknowledgments 129 References 129 4 Joint and grand-canonical density-functional theory 139Ravishankar Sundararaman and Tomás A. Arias 4.1 Introduction 139 4.2 JDFT variational theorem and framework 142 4.2.1 Variational principle and underlying theorem 142 4.2.2 Separation of effects and regrouping of terms 146 4.2.3 Practical functionals and universal form for coupling 147 4.3 Classical DFT with atomic-scale structure 148 4.3.1 Ideal gas functionals with molecular geometry 149 4.3.1.1 Effective ideal gas potentials 149 4.3.1.2 Integration over molecular orientations 150 4.3.1.3 Auxiliary fields 151 4.3.2 Minimal excess functionals for molecular fluids 152 4.4 Continuum solvation models from JDFT 157 4.4.1 JDFT linear response: nonlocal ‘SaLSA’ solvation 158 4.4.2 JDFT local limit: nonlinear continuum solvation 160 4.4.3 Hybrid semi-empirical approaches: ‘CANDLE’ solvation 163 4.5 Grand-canonical DFT 164 4.6 Conclusions 168 References 169 5 Ab initio modeling of electrochemical interfaces and determination of electrode potentials 173Jia-Bo Le, Xiao-Hui Yang, Yong-Bing Zhuang, Feng Wang, and Jun Cheng 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 Theoretical background of electrochemistry 175 5.2.1 Definition of electrode potential 175 5.2.2 Absolute potential energy of SHE 178 5.3 Short survey of computational methods for modeling electrochemical interfaces 179 5.4 Ab initio determination of electrode potentials of electrochemical interfaces 180 5.4.1 Work function based methods 180 5.4.1.1 Vacuum reference 180 5.4.1.2 Vacuum reference in two steps 181 5.4.2 Reference electrode based methods 183 5.4.2.1 Computational standard hydrogen electrode 183 5.4.2.2 Computational standard hydrogen electrode in two steps 185 5.4.2.3 Computational Ag/AgCl reference electrode 187 5.5 Computation of potentials of zero charge 187 5.6 Summary 190 Acknowledgement 191 References 191 6 Molecular Dynamics of the Electrochemical Interface and the Double Layer 201Axel Groß 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Continuum description of the electric double layer 202 6.3 Equilibrium coverage of metal electrodes 204 6.4 First-principles simulations of electrochemical interfaces and electric double layers 209 6.5 Electric double layers at battery electrodes 213 6.6 Conclusions 216 Acknowledgement 216 References 217 7 Atomic-Scale Modelling of Electrochemical Interfaces through Constant Fermi Level Molecular Dynamics 221Assil Bouzid and Alfredo Pasquarello 7.1 Introduction 221 7.2 Method 222 7.3 CFL-MD in aqueous solution: Determination of redox levels 223 7.4 CFL-MD at metal-water interface: The case of the Volmer reaction 228 7.5 Referencing the bias potential to the SHE 230 7.6 Macroscopic properties at the metal-water interface 232 7.7 Atomic-scale processes at the metal-water interface 236 7.8 Conclusion 238 Acknowledgements 238 References 239 Part IV 241 8 From electrons to electrode kinetics: A tutorial review 243Stephen Fletcher 8.1 Global electro-neutrality 243 8.2 The electrochemical reference state 243 8.3 The chemical potential 246 8.4 The electrostatic potential 246 8.5 The electrochemical potential 246 8.5.1 The molar electrochemical potential 248 8.5.2 The electrochemical potential of a single electron 248 8.5.3 The Nernst equation 248 8.5.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution function 250 8.5.5 The molar electrochemical potential of an electron 251 8.5.6 Parsing the electrochemical potential. (I) Metal in a vacuum 251 8.5.7 The Volta potential difference 252 8.5.8 Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy 253 8.5.9 The membrane potential 254 8.5.10 The electrochemical potential of a single proton 254 8.5.11 The proton motive force 255 8.5.12 The standard hydrogen half-cell 256 8.5.13 The hydrated electron 257 8.5.14 The hydrogen atom H* 258 8.5.15 Parsing the electrochemical potential. (II) The co-sphere 258 8.5.16 Electron transfer (general introduction) 259 8.5.17 Johnson–Nyquist noise 260 8.5.18 The Molar Gibbs reorganization energy 260 8.5.19 The reaction co-ordinate 261 8.5.20 The vertical energy gap 261 8.5.21 Permittivity of solutions 263 8.6 Electrolytes and non-electrolytes 263 8.6.1 Equivalent circuit of a non-electrolyte solution 265 8.6.2 Equivalent circuit of an electrolyte solution 265 8.6.3 Probability of an electron jump 266 8.6.4 The Klopman–Salem equation 267 8.6.5 Electrode kinetics 268 8.6.6 Homogeneous kinetics, first order 269 8.6.7 Homogeneous kinetics, second order 269 8.6.8 Homogeneous versus heterogeneous kinetics 270 8.6.9 Tunneling layer approximation 271 8.6.10 The back of the envelope 272 8.6.11 The total rate constant of an electron transfer process 273 8.7 Heterogeneous electron transfer 275 8.7.1 Tafel slopes for multi-step reactions 278 8.8 The future: supercatalysis by superexchange 280 References 282 9 Constant potential rate theory – general formulation and electrocatalysis 287Marko M. Melander 9.1 Kinetics at electrochemical interfaces 287 9.2 Rate theory in the grand canonical ensemble 288 9.3 Adiabatic reactions 289 9.3.1 Classical nuclei 289 9.3.2 Fixed potential empirical valence bond theory 290 9.3.3 Nuclear tunneling 291 9.4 Non-adiabatic reactions 292 9.4.1 Non-adiabatic reactions in electrochemistry 292 9.4.2 Rate of ET and CPET reactions 293 9.5 Computational aspects 295 9.6 Conclusions 296 References 297 Part V 301 10 Thermodynamically consistent free energy diagrams with the solvated jellium method 303Georg Kastlunger, Per Lindgren, and Andrew A. Peterson 10.1 Computational studies of electrochemical systems – Recent advances and modern challenges 303 10.2 Thermodynamic consistency with a decoupled computational electrode model 305 10.3 Solvated jellium method (SJM) 308 10.3.1 Introduction 308 10.3.2 Electrostatic potential profiles and charge localization 309 10.3.3 Workflow of potential equilibration 313 10.3.4 Shape of the jellium background charge 319 10.4 Example: Mechanistic studies of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) 319 10.4.1 Potential dependence of the elementary steps of HER 320 10.4.2 Charge transfer along reaction trajectories 323 10.4.3 Thermodynamically consistent free energy diagrams from first principles 323 References 326 11 Generation of Computational Data Sets for Machine Learning Applied to Battery Materials 329Arghya Bhowmik, Felix Tim Bölle, Ivano E. Castelli, Jin Hyun Chang, Juan Maria García Lastra, Nicolai Rask Mathiesen, Alexander Sougaard Tygesen, and Tejs Vegge 11.1 Introduction 329 11.2 Computational workflows for production of moderate-fidelity data sets 330 11.2.1 Ionic diffusion: NEB calculations 333 11.2.1.1 Symmetric NEB 333 11.2.1.2 Choice of functionals for NEB 335 11.2.2 Disordered materials: Cluster Expansion 337 11.3 High-Fidelity data sets: Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations 340 11.4 Machine Learning 343 Acknowledgements 346 References 346 Index 355

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Book Synopsis1. Introduction to graphene.- 2. Interpreting electrochemistry.- 3 The electrochemistry of graphene.- 4 Graphene applications.- 5. Graphene Additive Manufacturing.- Appendix.

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Book SynopsisThis edited volume discusses atomic layer deposition (ALD) for all modern semiconductor devices, moving from the basic chemistry of ALD and modeling of ALD processes to sections on ALD for memories, logic devices, and machines. The section on ALD for logic devices covers both front-end of the line processes and back-end of the line processes.Table of ContentsI.Introduction Chapter 1. Introduction; Cheol Seong Hwang and Cha Young Yoo (Seoul National University and Samsung) II.Fundamentals Chapter 2 . ALD Precursors and Reaction mechanism ; Roy Gordon (Harvard) Chapter 3 . ALD simulations; Simon Elliott (Tyndall) III.ALD for memory devices Chapter 4 . ALD for mass-production memories (DRAM and Flash); Cheol Seong Hwang, Seong Keun Kim, and Sang Woon Lee (SNU) III-2. ALD for emerging memories Chapter 5 . PcRAM; Mikko Ritala and Simone Raoux (Helsinki and T. J. Watson IBM) Chapter 6 .FeRAM; Susanne Hoffmann and Takayuki Watanabe (Juelich and Canon) IV.ALD for logic devices Chapter 7.Front end of the line process; Jeong Hwan Han, Moonju Cho, Annelies Delabie, Tae Joo Park, and Cheol Seong Hwang Chapter 8. Back end of the line; Hyung Joon Kim, Han-Bo-Ram Lee, and Soohyun Kim (Yonsei and Youngnam University) V.ALD machines Chapter 9. Equipment for Atomic Layer Deposition for Semiconductor Manufacturing; Schubert Chu

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical action of electricity and the production of electricity by chemical reactions. In a world short of energy sources yet long on energy use, electrochemistry is a critical component of the mix necessary to keep the world economies growing. Electrochemistry is involved with such important applications as batteries, fuel cells, corrosion studies, hydrogen energy conversion, bioelectricity. Research on electrolytes, cells, and electrodes is within the scope of this old but extremely dynamic field. This new book gathers leading research from throughout the world focussing on electrochemical studies of batteries.

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical action of electricity and the production of electricity by chemical reactions. In a world short of energy sources yet long on energy use, electrochemistry is a critical component of the mix necessary to keep the world economies growing. Electrochemistry is involved with such important applications as batteries, fuel cells, corrosion studies, hydrogen energy conversion, bioelectricity. Research on electrolytes, cells, and electrodes is within the scope of this old but extremely dynamic field. This book gathers new and important research from around the globe.

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical action of electricity and the production of electricity by chemical reactions. In a world short of energy sources yet long on energy use, electrochemistry is a critical component of the mix necessary to keep the world economies growing. Electrochemistry is involved with such important applications as batteries, fuel cells, corrosion studies, hydrogen energy conversion, bioelectricity. Research on electrolytes, cells, and electrodes is within the scope of this old but extremely dynamic field. This volume deals with prevention of metal corrosion.

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Book SynopsisSuperconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct electrical current with no resistance and extremely low losses. High temperature superconductors, such as La2-xSrxCuOx (Tc=40K) and YBa2Cu3O7-x (Tc=90K), were discovered in 1987 and have been actively studied since. In spite of an intense, world-wide, research effort during this time, a complete understanding of the copper oxide (cuprate) materials is still lacking. Many fundamental questions are unanswered, particularly the mechanism by which high-Tc superconductivity occurs. More broadly, the cuprates are in a class of solids with strong electron-electron interactions. An understanding of such "strongly correlated" solids is perhaps the major unsolved problem of condensed matter physics with over ten thousand researchers working on this topic. High-Tc superconductors also have significant potential for applications in technologies ranging from electric power generation and transmission to digital electronics. This ability to carry large amounts of current can be applied to electric power devices such as motors and generators, and to electricity transmission in power lines. For example, superconductors can carry as much as 100 times the amount of electricity of ordinary copper or aluminium wires of the same size. Many universities, research institutes and companies are working to develop high-Tc superconductivity applications and considerable progress has been made. This volume brings together new leading-edge research in the field.

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical action of electricity and the production of electricity by chemical reactions. In a world short of energy sources yet long on energy use, electrochemistry is a critical component of the mix necessary to keep the world economies growing. Electrochemistry is involved with such important applications as batteries, fuel cells, corrosion studies, hydrogen energy conversion, bioelectricity. Research on electrolytes, cells, and electrodes is within the scope of this old but extremely dynamic field.

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical action of electricity and the production of electricity by chemical reactions. In a world short of energy sources yet long on energy use, electrochemistry is a critical component of the mix necessary to keep the world economies growing. Electrochemistry is involved with such important applications as batteries, fuel cells, corrosion studies, hydrogen energy conversion, bioelectricity. Research on electrolytes, cells, and electrodes is within the scope of this old but extremely dynamic field.

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Book SynopsisA fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. It produces electricity from external supplies of fuel (on the anode side) and oxidant (on the cathode side). These react in the presence of an electrolyte. Generally, the reactants flow in and reaction products flow out while the electrolyte remains in the cell. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained. Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they consume reactants, which must be replenished, while batteries store electrical energy chemically in a closed system. Additionally, while the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is charged or discharged, a fuel cell''s electrodes are catalytic and relatively stable. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact, lightweight and has no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts, and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability. This equates to less than one minute of down time in a six year period. This book presents new leading-edge research in the field.

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry can be broadly defined as the study of charge-transfer phenomena. As such, the field of electrochemistry includes a wide range of different chemical and physical phenomena. These areas include (but are not limited to): battery chemistry, photosynthesis, ion-selective electrodes, coulometry, and many biochemical processes. Although wide ranging, electrochemistry has found many practical applications in analytical measurements. The field of electroanalytical chemistry is the field of electrochemistry that utilises the relationship between chemical phenomena which involve charge transfer (eg: redox reactions, ion separation, etc.) and the electrical properties that accompany these phenomena for some analytical determination. This book presents the latest research in this field.

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Book SynopsisThis book gathers the latest research from around the globe in the study in the dynamic field of electrochemistry and highlights such topics as: electrochemical applications of modified electrodes in wastewater treatment, corrosion and protection of magnesium and its alloys as a biomaterial, electrochemical hydrogen storage, analysis of electrochemical reactor performance and others.

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Book SynopsisElectrochemistry takes into account the fundamental concept of electrochemistry and the transport processes. It provides the reader with the insights of electrochemistry so as to better understand the field of bio-electrochemistry and equilibria in the transfer of charges. This book also discusses about equilibria in charge transfer, electrical double layer, heterogeneous electrochemical systems and bio-electrochemistry.

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Book SynopsisOver the last three years, there has been an increase in the range of ionic liquids utilised and significant advances in our understanding of the fundamental aspects of these materials. Therefore, the time is apt for Faraday Discussions to provide a foundation for future fundamental challenges and theories that need to be developed to move the subject area forward. This meeting follows on from Faraday Discussion 154 held in 2011 and discusses a range of topics, such as ionicity, structure, electrochemistry, phase behaviour, and introduce areas which were only emerging at that point, such as interactions with liquid and solid interfaces. Ionic liquids have been the focus of intense research over the last 20 years because of their remarkable potential for applications coupled to favourable environmental properties. Ionic liquids are also a medium whereby the nature of the complex interactions (Coulombic, van der Waals and hydrogen bonding) provides a liquid whose structure and properties can be tuned by the choice of the cation and anion wherein reactions are likely to be distinct in terms of activity and selectivity profiles compared with common molecular solvents.Table of ContentsStructure and Dynamics of Ionic Liquids; Phase Behaviour and Thermodynamics; Electrochemistry; Ionic Liquids at Interfaces.

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Book SynopsisThis book begins by introducing the basic concepts of impedance to non-specialist readers, who may have only an elementary knowledge of physics and mathematics. Mathematical concepts are explained clearly at appropriate points in a series of Theory Notes. Subsequent chapters cover RCL (resistor, capacitor, inductor) circuits before developing the key ideas behind the application of impedance spectroscopy to electrochemical systems. Circuit elements used to model electron transfer, double-layer charging and diffusion are described in detail, along with Kramers-Kronig testing of experimental data. The book explains how potentiostats and frequency-response analyzers work and evaluates a wealth of experimental data obtained either during the annual Bath impedance courses or in the laboratories of the author and his colleagues.Topics covered include not only conventional electrochemical systems, such as the rotating disc electrode and ultramicroelectrodes, but also unconventional solar cells and the application of frequency-resolved techniques in spectroelectrochemistry. Finally, the last two chapters introduce techniques based on modulation of light intensity rather than voltage or current. The book concludes with worked answers to the problems set out in earlier chapters.

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Book SynopsisElectrolytes are indispensable components in electrochemistry and the fast-growing electrochemical energy storage markets. Research in electrolytes has witnessed exponential growth in recent years, accompanied by their applications in the most popular electrochemical cell ever invented, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). In myriads of LIBs, electrolytes and their interphases determine how high the voltage of a battery is, how many times it can be charged/discharged, or how rapid the energy stored therein could be released. The conquest of further technical challenges around safety, life and cost-effectiveness of lithium-based or beyond-lithium batteries requires in-depth understanding of electrolytes and interphases. This will be the authoritative textbook for those entering the field. Chapters will establish the fundamental principles for the field, before moving onto important knowledge acquired in recent years. There will be special emphasis on linking these fundamentals to real-world problems encountered in devices, especially lithium-ion batteries. The book will be suitable for advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students in electrochemical energy storage, electrochemistry, materials science and engineering, as well as researchers new to the subject.Table of ContentsWhat is an Electrolyte?;Modern Electrolytes;In Bulk Electrolytes: Ionics;Quantification of Ion–Ion Interaction: Debye-Hückel Theory;Ion Transport in Electrolytes; When Electrolyte Meets Electrodes: Interface;Linking Ionics with Electrodics;When Electrode Operates Beyond Electrolyte Stability Limits: Interphase;Electrochemical Devices;Lithium-metal, Lithium-ion and Other Batteries;Phase Diagrams of Liquid Electrolytes;Ion Solvation;Static Stability of Electrolytes;Ion Transport;Interfaces;Interphases;New Concepts and Tools;Outlook

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Book SynopsisBorn in Penzance in 1778, Humphry Davy's scientific reputation grew with his pioneering discoveries of nitrous oxide (laughing gas), sodium, calcium and the invention of the miners' Davy lamp.

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Book SynopsisThe field of electrochemical measurement, with respect to thermodynamics, kinetics and analysis, is widely recognised but the subject can be unpredictable to the novice, even if they have a strong physical and chemical background, especially if they wish to pursue quantitative measurements. Accordingly, some significant experiments are, perhaps wisely, never attempted, while the literature is sadly replete with flawed attempts at rigorous voltammetry.This book presents problems and worked solutions for a wide range of theoretical and experimental subjects in the field of voltammetry. The reader is assumed to have knowledge up to a Master's level of physical chemistry, but no exposure to electrochemistry in general, or voltammetry in particular, is required. The problems included range in difficulty from senior undergraduate to research level, and develop important practical approaches in voltammetry.The problems presented in the earlier chapters focus on the fundamental theories of thermodynamics, electron transfer and diffusion. Voltammetric experiments and their analysis are then considered, including extensive problems on both macroelectrode and microelectrode voltammetry. Convection, hydrodynamic electrodes, homogeneous kinetics, adsorption and electroanalytical applications are discussed in the later chapters, as well as problems on two rapidly developing fields of voltammetry: weakly supported media and nanoscale electrodes.There is huge interest in the experimental procedure of voltammetry at present, and yet no dedicated question and answer book with exclusive voltammetric focus exists, in spite of the inherent challenges of the subject. This book aims to fill that niche.Table of ContentsProblems and Solutions on: Equilibrium Electrochemistry and the Nernst Equation; Electrode Kinetics; Diffusion; Cyclic Voltammetry at Macroelectrodes; Voltammetry at Microelectrodes; Voltammetry at Heterogeneous Surfaces; Cyclic Voltammetry: Coupled Homogeneous Kinetics and Adsorption; Hydrodynamic Electrodes; Voltammetry for Electroanalysis; Voltammetry in Weakly Supported Media: Migration and Other Effects; Voltammetry at the Nanoscale.

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Book SynopsisThis book reports on the development of nanostructured metal-oxide-based electrode materials for use in water purification. The removal of organic pollutants and heavy metals from wastewater is a growing environmental and societal priority. This book thus focuses primarily on new techniques to modify the nanostructural properties of various solvent-electrolyte combinations to address these issues. Water treatment is becoming more and more challenging due to the ever increasing complexity of the pollutants present, requiring alternative and complementary approaches toward the removal of toxic chemicals, heavy metals and micro-organisms, to name a few. This contributed volume cuts across the fields of electrochemistry, water science, materials science, and nanotechnology, while presenting up-to-date experimental results on the properties and synthesis of metal-oxide electrode materials, as well as their application to areas such as biosensing and photochemical removal of organic wastewater pollutants. Featuring an introductory chapter on electrochemical cells, this book is well positioned to acquaint interdisciplinary researchers to the field, while providing topical coverage of the latest techniques and methodology. It is ideal for students and research professionals in water science, materials science, and chemical and civil engineering.Table of ContentsThe dynamic degradation efficiency of major organic pollutants from wastewater.- Synthesis and fabrication of photoactive nanocomposite electrodes for the degradation of wastewater pollutants.- The essence of electrochemical measurements on corrosion characterization and electrochemistry application.- Electrochemical cells.- Properties and synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles in electrochemistry.- Metal oxide nanomaterials for biosensor application.- Metal oxide nanomaterials for electrochemical detection of heavy metals in water.- Application of metal oxides electrodes.- Application of modified metal oxide electrodes in photoelectrochemical removal of organic pollutants from wastewater.- Metal oxide nanocomposites for adsorption and photoelectrochemical degradation of pharmaceutical pollutants

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Book SynopsisThis book is a concise introductory guide to understanding the field of modern batteries, which is fast becoming an important area for applications in renewable energy storage, transportation, and consumer devices. By using simplified classroom-tested methods developed while teaching the subject to engineering students, the author explains in simple language an otherwise complex subject in terms that enable readers to gain a rapid understanding of battery basics and the fundamental scientific and engineering concepts and principles behind the technology. This powerful tutorial is a great resource for engineers from other disciplines, technicians, analysts, investors, and other busy professionals who need to quickly acquire a solid understanding of the fast emerging and disruptive battery landscape. Table of ContentsChapter 1. Introduction.- Chapter 2. Operational Factors of Battery Systems.- Chapter 3. Lead-Acid Batteries.- Chapter 4. Nickel-Cadmium Batteries.- Chapter 5. Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries.- Chapter 6. Lithium-Ion Batteries.

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Book SynopsisThis monograph presents the theoretical background of the industrial process for the production of Al-Si alloys in standard aluminum electrolyzers. It reviews the physical chemistry and electrochemistry of cryolite melts containing silica and focuses on analyzing the exchange reactions in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 melts. It presents the kinetics and mechanism of Si(IV) electroreduction in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 melts on Al cathodes while the current yields as well as industrial tests performed are discussed. The modern research trends in the field are also overviewed. Providing readers with information not easily obtained in any other single source, this book is of great interest to researchers, graduates, and professionals working in the fields of electrochemistry and technology of cryolite-based melts.Table of ContentsChapter 1: Exchange reactions in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 meltsChapter 2: Kinetics and mechanism of Si(IV) electroreduction in Na3AlF6–Al2O3–SiO2 melts on Al cathodeChapter 3: Current YieldChapter 4: Industrial TestsChapter 5: Modern Research Trends

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Book SynopsisAre electrochemical methods like asking the crystal ball? Once you read this book about electrochemistry on the micro- and nanoscale, you know it better.　This textbook presents the essentials of electrochemical theory, sheds light on the instrumentation, including details on the electronics, and in the second part, discusses a wide variety of classical and advanced methods. The third part of the book covers how to apply the techniques for selected aspects of material science, microfabrication, nanotechnology, MEMS, NEMS, and energy applications. With this book, you will be able to successfully apply the methods in the fields of sensors, neurotechnology, biomedical engineering, and electrochemical energy systems. Undergraduate or Master students can read the book linearly as a comprehensive textbook. For Ph.D. students, postdoctoral researchers as well as for researchers in industry, the book will help by its clear structure to get fast answers from a specific section. The detailed understanding of the methods helps the reader successfully apply electrochemistry, especially at the micro- and nanoscale. Selected aspects illustrate the application of electrochemical methods in the fields of sensors, neurotechnology, biomedical engineering, and electrochemical energy systems.

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Book SynopsisThis book provides an excellent introduction into polysaccharide-based supercapacitors. It includes fundamental knowledge on supercaps as well as an overview of currently available approaches reported in the literature. Written by an international team of leading academics, this brief is aimed at a variety of readers with an interest in polysaccharide science and its applications.Table of Contents1. Introduction What is a supercapacitor? How to build a supercapacitor Materials for supercapacitors Applications of supercapacitors 2. Polysaccharides in supercapacitors Native polysaccharides Pyrolyzed polysaccharides 3. Conclusion and Outlook

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Book SynopsisDie Praxis der Elektrochemie im Labor wird in diesem Buch umfassend dargestellt. Dabei werden wichtige Verbindungen zu anderen wissenschaftlichen Teilgebieten und zur technisch-alltäglichen Anwendung deutlich hervorgehoben. In enger Vernetzung mit dem "Leitfaden der Elektrochemie" zeigt das Buch die gesamte Breite der Elektrochemie in Laborversuchen auf. Einheitlich und übersichtlich aufgebaute Versuchsbeschreibungen enthalten alle für einen erfolgreichen Versuch notwendigen Angaben. Musterresultate und deren Auswertungen helfen beim Verständnis ebenso wie eine jeweils kurz gefasste theoretische Einführung.Trade Review"Gerade weil sich verstärkt auch Physikochemiker mit nicht elektrochemischem "background" elektrochemischen Fragestellungen widmen, kann das Buch wegen seiner vielen praktischen Hinweise eine sehr wichtige Aufgabe in der Lehre erfüllen." Physikalische Chemie, 04/2003Table of ContentsÜbersicht zur elektrochemischen Praxis - Elektrochemie ohne Stromfluss - Elektrochemie mit Stromfluss und Stoffumsatz - Elektrochemische Analytik - Untersuchungen mit nicht-klassischen Methoden - Elektrochemische Energieumwandlung und -speicherung - Technische Elektrochemie

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Book SynopsisDie vierte Auflage eines echten Klassikers: Elektrochemie von den physikalisch-chemischen Grundlagen bis zu technischen, besonders auch energietechnischen, Anwendungen. Die erfahrenen Lehrbuchautoren stellen die schwierige Materie anschaulich und einfach, aber dennoch exakt, dar. Zahlreiche informative Grafiken unterstützen dieses Ziel, Tabellen liefern das nötige Zahlenmaterial mit. Das Spektrum dieses Buches erstreckt sich über - physikalisch-chemische Grundlagen - moderne Untersuchungsmethoden der Elektrochemie wie Spektroelektrochemie und Massenspektrometrie - elektrochemische Analytik einschließlich Sensorik - elektrochemische Produktionsverfahren - Brennstoffzellen - Bioelektrochemische Methoden und Fragestellungen - Mikro- und Nanotechnologie Ein Muß für jeden Chemiestudenten im Hauptstudium sowie für Chemieingenieure, Materialwissenschaftler und Physiker mit Chemie als Nebenfach!Trade Review"Das Buch ist gut ausgestattet und preiswert. Man wünscht ihm eine weite Verbreitung, insbesondere in den Bibliotheken von Universitäten und Forschungsinstituten aber auch in privater Hand." Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie "Klarer, gut verständlicher Stil, didaktisch logischer Aufbau und zahlreiche Grafiken, Tabellen und Literaturzitate ermöglichen einen umfassenden Einstieg in diese spannende Materie." BioTec "Die nun gründlich überarbeitete vierte Auflage ihres Lehrbuches stellt einen ganz bemerkenswerten Fortschritt gegenüber der 1998 vorgelegten dritten Auflage dar. ...zumal im deutschsprachigen Bereich kein vergleichbar umfangreiches ... Lehrbuch existiert... Das Buch kann ... nur jedermann empfohlen werden, der um den sicher nicht unerheblichen Anschaffungspreis eine umfassende Darstellung der Elektrochemie in ihren wesentlichen Aspekten in deutscher Sprache für den täglichen Gebrauch wünscht." Mitteilungsblatt d. GDCh, FG Analytische Chemie "Das Werk ist inzwischen ein Klassiker. (...) Das Buch wendet sich an Studierende der Chemie, die etwas tiefer in die Geheimnisse der Elektrochemie ... eindringen wollen. Es steht aber auch für Chemiker, die auf anderen Gebieten arbeiten, Chemielehrern und allen, die solide aber dabei doch verständliche Aufklärung und Information suchen, als eine Art Nachschlagewerk zur Verfügung.Die grundlegenden Kapitel über Leitfähigkeit und Potentiale sind so gestaltet, dass der Leser einen leichten Zugang findet ... Ich kann jedem, der sich etwas tiefer gehend mit der Elektrochemie befassen möchte oder der im Bedarfsfall eine verlässliche Darstellung elektrochemischer Sachverhalte benötigt, dieses Buch wärmstens empfehlen." CHEMKON "Die schwierige Materie wird anschaulich und einfach, aber dennoch exakt dargestellt, unterstützt durch zahlreiche Grafiken und Tabellen." HTM - Zeitschrift für Werkstoffe, Wärmebehandlung, Fertigung "Ich kann jedem, der sich etwas tiefer gehend mit der Elektrochemie befassen möchte oder der im Bedarfsfall eine verlässliche Darstellung elektrochemischer Sachverhalte benötigt, dieses Buch wärmstens empfehlen." CHEMKON Der Klassiker unter den Lehrbüchern der Elektrochemie mit vielen weiterführenden Anwendungsbeispielen, gut verständlichen Abbildungen und einem breiten Spektrum an Grundlagen sowie weiterführenden und vertiefenden Aspekten. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Robert Meißner, TU Hamburg, Maschinenbau Table of ContentsGrundlagen, Definitionen und Begriffe Leitfähigkeit und Wechselwirkungen in ionischen Systemen Potentiale und Strukturen an Phasengrenzen Potentiale und Ströme Untersuchungsmethoden Reaktionsmechanismen Zur Elektrochemie von festen und schmelzflüssigen Ionenleitern Produktionsverfahren Galvanische Elemente Analytische Anwendungen Vermischtes

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Book SynopsisThis second, completely updated edition of a classic textbook provides a concise introduction to the fundamental principles of modern electrochemistry, with an emphasis on applications in energy technology. The renowned and experienced scientist authors present the material in a didactically skilful and lucid manner. They cover the physical-chemical fundamentals as well as such modern methods of investigation as spectroelectrochemistry and mass spectrometry, electrochemical analysis and production methods, as well as fuel cells and micro- and nanotechnology. The result is a must-have for advanced chemistry students as well as those studying chemical engineering, materials science and physics.Trade Review"The text is certainly comprehensive in its coverage, ranging from ionic mobilities and liquid junction potentials, through redox electrochemistry of proteins and surface spectroscopy of electrocatalytic reactions, to fuel cells, batteries and gas sensors." (Chromatographia, February 2010) "The renowned authorial team emphasize application in energy technology while covering the physicalchemical fundamentals, modern methods of investigation, electrochemical analysis and production methods, as well as fuel cells and micro-and nanotechnology." (Chimie Nouvelle, March 2010)"Both classical contents and modern developments of electrochemistry have been incorporated in this textbook to educate young modern electrochemists … .A very solid and useful textbook. I highly recommend it to students and researchers." (The Higher Education Academy Physical Sciences Centre, December 2008) "…an excellent introduction to the physical-chemical aspects of electrochemistry…and is strongly recommended." (CHOICE, December 2007)Table of ContentsFoundations, Definitions and Concepts Electrical Conductivity and Interionic Interactions Electrode Potentials and Double-Layer Structure at Phase Boundaries Electrical Potentials and Electrical Current Electrochemical Methods for the Study of the Electrode/Electrolyte Interface Reaction Mechanisms Industrial Electrochemical Processes Galvanic Cells Analytical Applications

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Book SynopsisThis bestselling textbook on physical electrochemistry caters to the needs of advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students of chemistry, materials engineering, mechanical engineering, and chemical engineering. It is unique in covering both the more fundamental, physical aspects as well as the application-oriented practical aspects in a balanced manner. In addition it serves as a self-study text for scientists in industry and research institutions working in related fields. The book can be divided into three parts: (i) the fundamentals of electrochemistry; (ii) the most important electrochemical measurement techniques; and (iii) applications of electrochemistry in materials science and engineering, nanoscience and nanotechnology, and industry. The second edition has been thoroughly revised, extended and updated to reflect the state-of-the-art in the field, for example, electrochemical printing, batteries, fuels cells, supercapacitors, and hydrogen storage.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Symbols and Abbreviations xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 General Considerations 1 1.1.1 The Transition from Electronic to Ionic Conduction 1 1.1.2 The Resistance of the Interface can be Infinite 2 1.1.3 Mass-Transport Limitation 2 1.1.4 The Capacitance at the Metal/Solution Interphase 4 1.2 Polarizable and Nonpolarizable Interfaces 4 1.2.1 Phenomenology 4 1.2.2 The Equivalent Circuit Representation 5 Further Reading 7 2 The Potentials of Phases 9 2.1 The Driving Force 9 2.1.1 Definition of the Electrochemical Potential 9 2.1.2 Separability of the Chemical and the Electrical Terms 10 2.2 Two Cases of Special Interest 11 2.2.1 Equilibrium of a Species Between two Phases in Contact 11 2.2.2 Two Identical Phases not at Equilibrium 12 2.3 The Meaning of the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) Scale 13 Further Reading 15 3 Fundamental Measurements in Electrochemistry 17 3.1 Measurement of Current and Potential 17 3.1.1 The Cell Voltage is the Sum of Several Potential Differences 17 3.1.2 Use of a Nonpolarizable Counter Electrode 17 3.1.3 The Three-Electrode Setup 18 3.1.4 Residual jRS Potential Drop in aThree-Electrode Cell 18 3.2 Cell Geometry and the Choice of the Reference Electrode 19 3.2.1 Types of Reference Electrodes 19 3.2.2 Use of an Auxiliary Reference Electrode for the Study of Fast Transients 20 3.2.3 Calculating the Uncompensated Solution Resistance for a few Simple Geometries 21 3.2.3.1 Planar Configuration 21 3.2.3.2 Cylindrical Configuration 21 3.2.3.3 Spherical Symmetry 22 3.2.4 Positioning the Reference Electrode 22 3.2.5 Edge Effects 24 Further Reading 26 4 Electrode Kinetics: Some Basic Concepts 27 4.1 Relating Electrode Kinetics to Chemical Kinetics 27 4.1.1 The Relation of Current Density to Reaction Rate 27 4.1.2 The Relation of Potential to Energy of Activation 28 4.1.3 Mass-Transport Limitation Versus Charge-Transfer Limitation 30 4.1.4 The Thickness of the Nernst Diffusion Layer 31 4.2 Methods of Measurement 33 4.2.1 Potential Control Versus Current Control 33 4.2.2 The Need to Measure Fast Transients 35 4.2.3 Polarography and the Dropping Mercury Electrode (DME) 37 4.3 Rotating Electrodes 40 4.3.1 The Rotating Disk Electrode (RDE) 40 4.3.2 The Rotating Cone Electrode (RConeE) 44 4.3.3 The Rotating Ring Disk Electrode (RRDE) 45 Further Reading 47 5 Single-Step Electrode Reactions 49 5.1 The Overpotential, 𝜂 49 5.1.1 Definition and Physical Meaning of Overpotential 49 5.1.2 Types of Overpotential 51 5.2 Fundamental Equations of Electrode Kinetics 52 5.2.1 The Empirical Tafel Equation 52 5.2.2 The Transition-State Theory 53 5.2.3 The Equation for a Single-Step Electrode Reaction 54 5.2.4 Limiting Cases of the General Equation 56 5.3 The Symmetry Factor, 𝛽, in Electrode Kinetics 59 5.3.1 The Definition of 𝛽 59 5.3.2 The Numerical Value of 𝛽 60 5.4 The Marcus Theory of Charge Transfer 61 5.4.1 Outer-Sphere Electron Transfer 61 5.4.2 The Born–Oppenheimer Approximation 62 5.4.3 The Calculated Energy of Activation 63 5.4.4 The Value of 𝛽 and its Potential Dependence 64 5.5 Inner-Sphere Charge Transfer 65 5.5.1 Metal Deposition 65 Further Reading 66 6 Multistep Electrode Reactions 67 6.1 Mechanistic Criteria 67 6.1.1 The Transfer Coefficient, 𝛼, and its Relation to the Symmetry Factor, 𝛽 67 6.1.2 Steady State and Quasi-Equilibrium 69 6.1.3 Calculation of the Tafel Slope 71 6.1.4 Reaction Orders in Electrode Kinetics 74 6.1.5 The Effect of pH on Reaction Rates 77 6.1.6 The Enthalpy of Activation 79 Further Reading 81 7 Specific Examples of Multistep Electrode Reactions 83 7.1 Experimental Considerations 83 7.1.1 Multiple Processes in Parallel 83 7.1.2 The Level of Impurity that can be Tolerated 84 7.2 The Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) 87 7.2.1 Hydrogen Evolution on Mercury 87 7.2.2 Hydrogen Evolution on Platinum 89 7.3 Possible Paths for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction 91 7.4 The Role and Stability of Adsorbed Intermediates 94 7.5 Adsorption Energy and Catalytic Activity 95 Further Reading 96 8 The Electrical Double Layer (EDL) 97 8.1 Models of Structure of the EDL 97 8.1.1 Phenomenology 97 8.1.2 The Parallel-Plate Model of Helmholtz 99 8.1.3 The Diffuse Double Layer Model of Gouy and Chapman 100 8.1.4 The Stern Model 103 8.1.5 The Role of the Solvent at the Interphase 105 Further Reading 107 9 Electrocapillary 109 9.1 Thermodynamics 109 9.1.1 Adsorption and Surface Excess 109 9.1.2 The Gibbs Adsorption Isotherm 111 9.1.3 The Electrocapillary Equation 112 9.2 Methods of Measurement and Some Results 114 9.2.1 The Electrocapillary Electrometer 114 9.2.2 Some Experimental Results 119 9.2.2.1 The Adsorption of Ions 119 9.2.2.2 Adsorption of NeutralMolecules 120 Further Reading 122 10 Intermediates in Electrode Reactions 123 10.1 Adsorption Isotherms for Intermediates Formed by Charge Transfer 123 10.1.1 General 123 10.1.2 The Langmuir Isotherm and its Limitations 123 10.1.3 Application of the Langmuir Isotherm for Charge-Transfer Processes 125 10.1.4 The Frumkin Adsorption Isotherms 126 10.2 The Adsorption Pseudocapacitance Cϕ 127 10.2.1 Formal Definition of Cϕ and its Physical Understanding 127 10.2.2 The Equivalent-Circuit Representation 129 10.2.3 Calculation of Cϕ as a function of 𝜃 and E 130 Further Reading 133 11 Underpotential Deposition and Single-Crystal Electrochemistry 135 11.1 Underpotential Deposition (UPD) 135 11.1.1 Definition and Phenomenology 135 11.1.2 UPD on Single Crystals 139 11.1.3 Underpotential Deposition of Atomic Oxygen and Hydrogen 141 Further Reading 142 12 Electrosorption 145 12.1 Phenomenology 145 12.1.1 What is Electrosorption? 145 12.1.2 Electrosorption of Neutral Organic Molecules 147 12.1.3 The Potential of Zero Charge, Epzc, and its Importance in Electrosorption 148 12.1.4 TheWork Function and the Potential of Zero Charge 151 12.2 Adsorption Isotherms for Neutral Species 152 12.2.1 General Comments 152 12.2.2 The Parallel-Plate Model of Frumkin et al. 153 12.2.3 The Water Replacement Model of Bockris et al. 155 Further Reading 157 13 Fast Transients, the Time-Dependent Diffusion Equation,and Microelectrodes 159 13.1 The Need for Fast Transients 159 13.1.1 General 159 13.1.2 Small-Amplitude Transients 161 13.1.3 The Sluggish Response of the Electrochemical Interphase 162 13.1.4 How can the Slow Response of the Interphase be Overcome? 162 13.1.4.1 Galvanostatic Transients 162 13.1.4.2 The Double-Pulse GalvanostaticMethod 163 13.1.4.3 The Coulostatic (Charge-Injection) Method 164 13.2 The Diffusion Equation 167 13.2.1 The Boundary Conditions of the Diffusion Equation 167 13.2.1.1 Potential Step, Reversible Case (Chrono-Amperometry) 168 13.2.1.2 Potential Step, High Overpotential Region (Chrono-Amperometry) 171 13.2.1.3 Current Step (Chronopotentiometry) 172 13.3 Microelectrodes 174 13.3.1 The Unique Features of Microelectrodes 174 13.3.2 Enhancement of Diffusion at a Microelectrode 175 13.3.3 Reduction of the Solution Resistance 176 13.3.4 The Choice between Single Microelectrodes and Large Ensembles 176 Further Reading 178 14 Linear Potential Sweep and Cyclic Voltammetry 181 14.1 Three Types of Linear Potential Sweep 181 14.1.1 Very Slow Sweeps 181 14.1.2 Studies of Oxidation or Reduction of Species in the Bulk of the Solution 182 14.1.3 Studies of Oxidation or Reduction of Species Adsorbed on the Surface 182 14.1.4 Double-Layer Charging Currents 183 14.1.5 The Form of the Current–Potential Relationship 185 14.2 Solution of the Diffusion Equations 186 14.2.1 The Reversible Region 186 14.2.2 The High-Overpotential Region 187 14.3 Uses and Limitations of the Linear Potential Sweep Method 188 14.4 Cyclic Voltammetry for Monolayer Adsorption 190 14.4.1 Reversible Region 190 14.4.2 The High-Overpotential Region 192 Further Reading 193 15 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 195 15.1 Introduction 195 15.2 Graphical Representations 200 15.3 The Effect of Diffusion Limitation –TheWarburg Impedance 203 15.4 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications of EIS 206 Further Reading 211 16 The Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) 213 16.1 Fundamental Properties of the EQCM 213 16.1.1 Introduction 213 16.1.2 The EQCM 214 16.1.3 The Effect of Viscosity 217 16.1.4 Immersion in a Liquid 218 16.1.5 Scales of Roughness 218 16.2 Impedance Analysis of the EQCM 219 16.2.1 The Extended Equation for the Frequency Shift 219 16.2.2 Other Factors Influencing the Frequency Shift 220 16.3 Uses of the EQCM as a Microsensor 220 16.3.1 Advantages and Limitations 220 16.3.2 Some Applications of the EQCM 222 Further Reading 225 17 Corrosion 227 17.1 The Definition of Corrosion 227 17.2 Corrosion Costs 230 17.3 Thermodynamics of Corrosion 232 17.3.1 Introduction and Important Terms 232 17.3.2 Electrode Potentials and the Standard Electromotive Force (EMF) Series 236 17.3.3 The Dependence of Free Energy on the Equilibrium Constant and Cell Potential 241 17.3.4 The Nernst Equation 241 17.3.5 The Potential–pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams 242 17.4 Kinetics of Corrosion 252 17.4.1 Introduction and Important Terms 252 17.4.2 Two Limiting Cases of the Butler–Volmer Equation: Tafel Extrapolation and Polarization Resistance 255 17.4.3 Corrosion Rate 257 17.4.4 The Mixed-Potential Theory and the Evans Diagrams 257 17.4.5 Passivation and its Breakdown 264 17.5 Corrosion Measurements 270 17.5.1 Non-Electrochemical Tests 270 17.5.2 Electrochemical Tests 272 17.5.2.1 Open-Circuit Potential (OCP) Measurements 272 17.5.2.2 Polarization Tests 273 17.5.2.3 Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) 277 17.5.2.4 Zero-Resistance Ammetry (ZRA) 277 17.5.2.5 Electrochemical Noise (EN) Measurements 278 17.5.2.6 Electrochemical Hydrogen Permeation Tests 279 17.5.3 Complementary Surface-Sensitive Analytical Characterization Techniques 284 17.6 Forms of Corrosion 286 17.6.1 Uniform (General) Corrosion 286 17.6.2 Localized Corrosion 289 17.6.2.1 Crevice Corrosion 289 17.6.2.2 Filiform Corrosion 291 17.6.2.3 Pitting Corrosion 291 17.6.3 Intergranular Corrosion 293 17.6.3.1 Sensitization 293 17.6.3.2 Exfoliation 294 17.6.4 Dealloying 295 17.6.5 Galvanic (Bimetallic) Corrosion 295 17.6.6 Environmentally Induced Cracking (EIC)/Environment-Assisted Cracking (EAC) 297 17.6.6.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) 297 17.6.6.2 Hydrogen-Induced Blistering 299 17.6.6.3 Hydrogen Attack 299 17.6.6.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 300 17.6.6.5 Corrosion Fatigue (CF) 303 17.6.7 Erosion Corrosion 304 17.6.8 Microbiological Corrosion (MIC) 305 17.7 Corrosion Protection 308 17.7.1 Cathodic Protection 308 17.7.1.1 Cathodic Protection with Sacrificial Anodes 308 17.7.1.2 Impressed-Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) 310 17.7.2 Anodic Protection 312 17.7.3 Corrosion Inhibitors 313 17.7.4 Coatings 315 17.7.5 Other Mitigation Practices 320 Further Reading 321 18 Electrochemical Deposition 323 18.1 Electroplating 323 18.1.1 Introduction 323 18.1.2 The Fundamental Equations of Electroplating 324 18.1.3 Practical Aspects of Metal Deposition 325 18.1.4 Hydrogen Evolution as a Side Reaction 326 18.1.5 Plating of Noble Metals 327 18.1.6 Current Distribution in Electroplating 328 18.1.6.1 Uniformity of Current Distribution 328 18.1.6.2 The Faradaic Resistance (RF) and the Solution Resistance (RS) 328 18.1.6.3 The DimensionlessWagner Number 329 18.1.6.4 Kinetically Limited Current Density 333 18.1.7 Throwing Power 334 18.1.7.1 Macro Throwing Power 334 18.1.7.2 Micro Throwing Power 334 18.1.8 The Use of Additives 336 18.1.9 The Microstructure of Electrodeposits and the Evolution of Intrinsic Stresses 339 18.1.10 Pulse Plating 341 18.1.11 Plating from Nonaqueous Solutions 343 18.1.11.1 Statement of the Problem 343 18.1.11.2 Methods of Plating Al 345 18.1.12 Electroplating of Alloys 346 18.1.12.1 General Observations 346 18.1.12.2 Some Specific Examples 349 18.1.13 The Mechanism of Charge Transfer in Metal Deposition 351 18.1.13.1 Metal Ions Crossing the Interphase Carry the Charge across it 351 18.2 Electroless Deposition of Metals 352 18.2.1 Some Fundamental Aspects of Electroless Plating of Metals and Alloys 352 18.2.2 The Activation Process 353 18.2.3 The Reducing Agent 353 18.2.4 The Complexing Agent 354 18.2.5 The Mechanism of Electroless Deposition 354 18.2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electroless Plating Compared to Electroplating 357 18.3 Electrophoretic Deposition (EPD) 358 Further Reading 361 19 Electrochemical Nanotechnology 363 19.1 Introduction 363 19.2 Nanoparticles and Catalysis 363 19.2.1 Surfaces and Interfaces 364 19.2.2 The Vapor Pressure of Small Droplets and the Melting Point of Solid NPs 365 19.2.3 TheThermodynamic Stability andThermal Mobility of NPs 368 19.2.4 Catalysts 368 19.2.5 The Effect of Particle Size on Catalytic Activity 369 19.2.6 Nanoparticles Compared to Microelectrodes 370 19.2.7 The Need for High Surface Area 371 19.3 Electrochemical Printing 372 19.3.1 Electrochemical Printing Processes 373 19.3.2 Nanoelectrochemistry Using Micro- and Nano-Electrodes/Pipettes 379 Further Reading 384 20 Energy Conversion and Storage 387 20.1 Introduction 387 20.2 Batteries 388 20.2.1 Classes of Batteries 388 20.2.2 TheTheoretical Limit of Energy per UnitWeight 390 20.2.3 How is the Quality of a Battery Defined? 391 20.2.4 Primary Batteries 392 20.2.4.1 Why DoWe Need Primary Batteries? 392 20.2.4.2 The Leclanché and the Alkaline Batteries 392 20.2.4.3 The Li–Thionyl Chloride Battery 393 20.2.4.4 The Lithium–Iodine Solid-State Battery 395 20.2.5 Secondary Batteries 396 20.2.5.1 Self-Discharge and Specific Energy 396 20.2.5.2 Battery Stacks Versus Single Cells 396 20.2.5.3 Some Common Types of Secondary Batteries 397 20.2.5.4 The Li-ion Battery 402 20.2.5.5 Metal–Air Batteries 408 20.2.6 Batteries-Driven Electric Vehicles 409 20.2.7 The Polarity of Batteries 410 20.3 Fuel Cells 412 20.3.1 The Specific Energy of Fuel Cells 412 20.3.2 The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) 412 20.3.3 The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) 415 20.3.4 The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) 418 20.3.5 The Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) 420 20.3.6 High-Temperature Fuel Cells 421 20.3.6.1 The Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) 421 20.3.6.2 The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) 422 20.3.7 Porous Gas Diffusion Electrodes 423 20.3.8 Fuel-Cell-Driven Vehicles 426 20.3.9 Criticism of the Fuel Cells Technology 427 20.4 Supercapacitors 428 20.4.1 Electrostatic Considerations 428 20.4.2 The Energy Stored in a Capacitor 429 20.4.3 The Essence of Supercapacitors 430 20.4.4 Advantages of Supercapacitors 432 20.4.5 Barriers for Supercapacitors 435 20.4.6 Applications of Supercapacitors 435 20.5 Hydrogen Storage 436 Further Reading 443 Index 445

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Book SynopsisElectrocatalysis in Balancing the Natural Carbon Cycle Explore the potential of electrocatalysis to balance an off-kilter natural carbon cycle In Electrocatalysis in Balancing the Natural Carbon Cycle, accomplished researcher and author, Yaobing Wang, delivers a focused examination of why and how to solve the unbalance of the natural carbon cycle with electrocatalysis. The book introduces the natural carbon cycle and analyzes current bottlenecks being caused by human activities. It then examines fundamental topics, including CO2 reduction, water splitting, and small molecule (alcohols and acid) oxidation to prove the feasibility and advantages of using electrocatalysis to tune the unbalanced carbon cycle. You’ll realize modern aspects of electrocatalysis through the operando diagnostic and predictable mechanistic investigations. Further, you will be able to evaluate and manage the efficiency of the electrocatalytic reactions. The distinguished author presents a holistic view of solving an unbalanced natural carbon cycle with electrocatalysis. Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of: A thorough introduction to the natural carbon cycle and the anthropogenic carbon cycle, including inorganic carbon to organic carbon and vice versa An exploration of electrochemical catalysis processes, including water splitting and the electrochemistry CO2 reduction reaction (ECO2RR) A practical discussion of water and fuel basic redox parameters, including electrocatalytic materials and their performance evaluation in different electrocatalytic cells A perspective of the operando approaches and computational fundamentals and advances of different electrocatalytic redox reactions Perfect for electrochemists, catalytic chemists, environmental and physical chemists, and inorganic chemists, Electrocatalysis in Balancing the Natural Carbon Cycle will also earn a place in the libraries of solid state and theoretical chemists seeking a one-stop reference for all aspects of electrocatalysis in carbon cycle-related reactions.Table of ContentsPreface xv Acknowledgments xix Part I Introduction 1 1 Introduction 3 References 5 Part II Natural Carbon Cycle 7 2 Natural Carbon Cycle and Anthropogenic Carbon Cycle 9 2.1 Definition and General Process 9 2.2 From Inorganic Carbon to Organic Carbon 10 2.3 From Organic Carbon to Inorganic Carbon 11 2.4 Anthropogenic Carbon Cycle 11 2.4.1 Anthropogenic Carbon Emissions 12 2.4.2 Capture and Recycle of CO2 from the Atmosphere 13 2.4.3 Fixation and Conversion of CO2 14 2.4.3.1 Photochemical Reduction 14 2.4.3.2 Electrochemical Reduction 15 2.4.3.3 Chemical/Thermo Reforming 16 2.4.3.4 Physical Fixation 16 2.4.3.5 Anthropogenic Carbon Conversion and Emissions Via Electrochemistry 17 References 18 Part III Electrochemical Catalysis Process 21 3 Electrochemical Catalysis Processes 23 3.1 Water Splitting 23 3.1.1 Reaction Mechanism 23 3.1.1.1 Mechanism of OER 23 3.1.1.2 Mechanism of ORR 24 3.1.1.3 Mechanism of HER 26 3.1.2 General Parameters to Evaluate Water Splitting 27 3.1.2.1 Tafel Slope 27 3.1.2.2 TOF 27 3.1.2.3 Onset/Overpotential 28 3.1.2.4 Stability 28 3.1.2.5 Electrolyte 28 3.2 Electrochemistry CO2 Reduction Reaction (ECDRR) 29 3.2.1 Possible Reaction Pathways of ECDRR 29 3.2.1.1 Formation of HCOO− or HCOOH 29 3.2.1.2 Formation of CO 30 3.2.1.3 Formation of C1 Products 30 3.2.1.4 Formation of C2 Products 31 3.2.1.5 Formation of CH3COOH and CH3COO− 33 3.2.1.6 Formation of n-Propanol (C3 Product) 33 3.2.2 General Parameters to Evaluate ECDRR 34 3.2.2.1 Onset Potential 34 3.2.2.2 Faradaic Efficiency 34 3.2.2.3 Partial Current Density 34 3.2.2.4 Environmental Impact and Cost 35 3.2.2.5 Electrolytes 35 3.2.2.6 Electrochemical Cells 36 3.3 Small Organic Molecules Oxidation 36 3.3.1 The Mechanism of Electrochemistry HCOOH Oxidation 36 3.3.2 The Mechanism of Electro-oxidation of Alcohol 37 References 40 Part IV Water Splitting and Devices 43 4 Water Splitting Basic Parameter/Others 45 4.1 Composition and Exact Reactions in Different pH Solution 45 4.2 Evaluation of the Catalytic Activity 47 4.2.1 Overpotential 47 4.2.2 Tafel Slope 48 4.2.3 Stability 49 4.2.4 Faradaic Efficiency 49 4.2.5 Turnover Frequency 50 References 50 5 H2O Oxidation 53 5.1 Regular H2O Oxidation 53 5.1.1 Noble Metal Catalysts 53 5.1.2 Other Transition Metals 64 5.1.3 Other Catalysts 72 5.2 Photo-Assisted H2O Oxidation 76 5.2.1 Metal Compound-Based Catalysts 76 5.2.2 Metal–Metal Heterostructure Catalysts 80 5.2.3 Metal–Nonmetal Heterostructure Catalysts 86 References 88 6 H2O Reduction and Water Splitting Electrocatalytic Cell 91 6.1 Noble-Metal-Based HER Catalysts 91 6.2 Non-Noble Metal Catalysts 93 6.3 Water Splitting Electrocatalytic Cell 96 References 99 Part V H2 Oxidation/O2 Reduction and Device 101 7 Introduction 103 7.1 Electrocatalytic Reaction Parameters 104 7.1.1 Electrochemically Active Surface Area (ECSA) 104 7.1.1.1 Test Methods 104 7.1.2 Determination Based on the Surface Redox Reaction 104 7.1.3 Determination by Electric Double-Layer Capacitance Method 105 7.1.4 Kinetic and Exchange Current Density (jk and j0) 105 7.1.4.1 Definition 105 7.1.4.2 Calculation 106 7.1.5 Overpotential HUPD 106 7.1.6 Tafel Slope 108 7.1.7 Halfwave Potentials 108 References 108 8 Hydrogen Oxidation Reaction (HOR) 111 8.1 Mechanism for HOR 111 8.1.1 Hydrogen Bonding Energy (HBE) 111 8.1.2 Underpotential Deposition (UPD) of Hydrogen 112 8.2 Catalysts for HOR 112 8.2.1 Pt-based Materials 112 8.2.2 Pd-Based Materials 120 8.2.3 Ir-Based Materials 121 8.2.4 Rh-Based Materials 121 8.2.5 Ru-Based Materials 121 8.2.6 Non-noble Metal Materials 122 References 130 9 Oxygen Reduction Reaction (ORR) 133 9.1 Mechanism for ORR 133 9.1.1 Battery System and Damaged Electrodes 133 9.1.2 Intermediate Species 134 9.2 Catalysts in ORR 134 9.2.1 Noble Metal Materials 134 9.2.1.1 Platinum/Carbon Catalyst 138 9.2.1.2 Pd and Pt 145 9.2.2 Transition Metal Catalysts 145 9.2.3 Metal-Free Catalysts 149 9.3 Hydrogen Peroxide Synthesis 154 9.3.1 Catalysts Advances 154 9.3.1.1 Pure Metals 154 9.3.1.2 Metal Alloys 156 9.3.1.3 Carbon Materials 157 9.3.1.4 Electrodes and Reaction Cells 158 References 161 10 Fuel Cell and Metal-Air Battery 167 10.1 H2 Fuel Cell 167 10.2 Metal-Air Battery 170 10.2.1 Metal-Air Battery Structure 171 References 181 Part VI Small Organic Molecules Oxidation and Device 183 11 Introduction 185 11.1 Primary Measurement Methods and Parameters 186 11.1.1 Primary Measurement Methods 186 11.1.2 Primary Parameter 193 References 197 12 C1 Molecule Oxidation 199 12.1 Methane Oxidation 199 12.1.1 Reaction Mechanism 199 12.1.1.1 Solid–Liquid–Gas Reaction System 199 12.1.2 Acidic Media 199 12.1.3 Alkaline or Neutral Media 201 12.2 Methanol Oxidation 203 12.2.1 Reaction Thermodynamics and Mechanism 203 12.2.2 Catalyst Advances 204 12.2.2.1 Pd-Based Catalysts 204 12.2.2.2 Pt-Based Catalysts 208 12.2.2.3 Platinum-Based Nanowires 208 12.2.2.4 Platinum-Based Nanotubes 210 12.2.2.5 Platinum-Based Nanoflowers 212 12.2.2.6 Platinum-Based Nanorods 214 12.2.2.7 Platinum-Based Nanocubes 215 12.2.3 Pt–Ru System 217 12.2.4 Pt–Sn Catalysts 218 12.3 Formic Acid Oxidation 219 12.3.1 Reaction Mechanism 219 12.3.2 Catalyst Advances 220 12.3.2.1 Pd-Based Catalysts 220 12.3.2.2 Pt-Based Catalysts 223 References 226 13 C2+ Molecule Oxidation 235 13.1 Ethanol Oxidation 235 13.1.1 Reaction Mechanism 235 13.1.2 Catalyst Advances 235 13.1.2.1 Pd-Based Catalysts 235 13.1.2.2 Pt-Based Catalysts 239 13.1.2.3 Pt–Sn System 243 13.2 Glucose Oxidase 250 13.3 Ethylene Glycol Oxidation 251 13.4 Glycerol Oxidation 251 References 254 14 Fuel Cell Devices 257 14.1 Introduction 257 14.2 Types of Direct Liquid Fuel Cells 258 14.2.1 Acid and Alkaline Fuel Cells 258 14.2.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) 260 14.2.3 Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells (DEFCs) 261 14.2.4 Direct Ethylene Glycol Fuel Cells (DEGFCs) 261 14.2.5 Direct Glycerol Fuel Cells (DGFCs) 262 14.2.6 Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFCs) 262 14.2.7 Direct Dimethyl Ether Fuel Cells (DDEFCs) 263 14.2.8 Other DLFCs 263 14.2.9 Challenges of DLFCs 264 14.2.10 Fuel Conversion and Cathode Flooding 264 14.2.11 Chemical Safety and By-product Production 265 14.2.12 Unproven Long-term Durability 265 References 267 Part VII CO2 Reduction and Device 271 15 Introduction 273 15.1 Basic Parameters of the CO2 Reduction Reaction 276 15.1.1 The Fundamental Parameters to Evaluate the Catalytic Activity 276 15.1.1.1 Overpotential (𝜂) 276 15.1.1.2 Faradaic Efficiency (FE) 276 15.1.1.3 Current Density ( j) 277 15.1.1.4 Energy Efficiency (EE) 277 15.1.1.5 Tafel Slope 278 15.1.2 Factors Affecting ECDRR 278 15.1.2.1 Solvent/Electrolyte 278 15.1.2.2 pH 280 15.1.2.3 Cations and Anions 281 15.1.2.4 Concentration 282 15.1.2.5 Temperature and Pressure Effect 282 15.1.3 Electrode 283 15.1.3.1 Loading Method 283 15.1.3.2 Preparation 284 15.1.3.3 Experimental Process and Analysis Methods 284 References 285 16 Electrocatalysts-1 289 16.1 Heterogeneous Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Reaction 289 16.2 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Parameters of Heterogeneous CO2 Reduction in Liquid Phase 289 16.2.1 Bulk Metals 293 16.2.2 Nanoscale Metal and Oxidant Metal Catalysts 294 16.2.2.1 Gold (Au) 295 16.2.2.2 Silver (Ag) 296 16.2.2.3 Palladium (Pd) 297 16.2.2.4 Zinc (Zn) 298 16.2.2.5 Copper (Cu) 299 16.2.3 Bimetallic/Alloy 301 References 306 17 Electrocatalysts-2 309 17.1 Single-Atom Metal-Doped Carbon Catalysts (SACs) 309 17.1.1 Nickel (Ni)-SACs 309 17.1.2 Cobalt (Co)-SACs 311 17.1.3 Iron (Fe)-SACs 311 17.1.4 Zinc (Zn)-SACs 314 17.1.5 Copper (Cu)-SACs 314 17.1.6 Other 316 17.2 Metal Nanoparticles-Doped Carbon Catalysts 317 17.3 Porous Organic Material 320 17.3.1 Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 320 17.3.2 Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) 321 17.3.3 Metal-Free Catalyst 322 17.4 Metal-Free Carbon-Based Catalyst 322 17.4.1 Other Metal-Free Catalyst 324 17.5 Electrochemical CO Reduction Reaction 324 17.5.1 The Importance of CO Reduction Study 324 17.5.2 Advances in CO Reduction 326 References 327 18 Devices 331 18.1 H-Cell 331 18.2 Flow Cell 333 18.3 Requirements and Challenges for Next-Generation CO2 Reduction Cell 338 18.3.1 Wide Range of Electrocatalysts 338 18.3.2 Fundamental Factor Influencing the Catalytic Activity for ECDRR 339 18.3.3 Device Engineering 340 References 342 Part VIII Computations-Guided Electrocatalysis 345 19 Insights into the Catalytic Process 347 19.1 Electric Double Layer 347 19.2 Kinetics and Thermodynamics 349 19.3 Electrode Potential Effects 350 References 352 20 Computational Electrocatalysis 355 20.1 Computational Screening Toward Calculation Theories 356 20.2 Reactivity Descriptors 358 20.2.1 d-band Theory Motivates Electronic Descriptor 359 20.2.2 Coordination Numbers Motives Structure Descriptor 361 20.3 Scaling Relationships: Applications of Descriptors 361 20.4 The Activity Principles and the Volcano Curve 363 20.5 DFT Modeling 366 20.5.1 CHE Model 367 20.5.2 Solvation Models 368 20.5.3 Kinetic Modeling 371 References 374 21 Theory-Guided Rational Design 377 21.1 Descriptors-Guided Screening 377 21.2 Scaling Relationship-Guided Trends 380 21.2.1 Reactivity Trends of ECR 380 21.2.2 Reactivity Trends of O-included Reactions 382 21.2.3 Reactivity Trends of H-included Reactions 385 21.3 DOS-Guided Models and Active Sites 386 References 388 22 DFT Applications in Selected Electrocatalytic Systems 391 22.1 Unveiling the Electrocatalytic Mechanism 391 22.1.1 ECR Reaction 393 22.1.2 OER Reaction 394 22.1.3 ORR Reaction 396 22.1.4 HER Reaction 397 22.1.5 HOR Reaction 398 22.1.6 CO Oxidation Reaction 400 22.1.7 FAOR Reaction 402 22.1.8 MOR Reaction 402 22.1.9 EOR Reaction 404 22.2 Understanding the Electrocatalytic Environment 406 22.2.1 Solvation Effects 406 22.2.2 pH Effects 409 22.3 Analyzing the Electrochemical Kinetics 410 22.4 Perspectives, Challenges, and Future Direction of DFT Computation in Electrocatalysis 413 References 414 Part IX Potential of In Situ Characterizations for Electrocatalysis 421 References 422 23 In Situ Characterization Techniques 423 23.1 Optical Characterization Techniques 423 23.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 423 23.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy 424 23.1.3 UV–vis Spectroscopy 426 23.2 X-Ray Characterization Techniques 427 23.2.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 429 23.2.2 X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS) 429 23.2.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 431 23.3 Mass Spectrometric Characterization Techniques 431 23.4 Electron-Based Characterization Techniques 432 23.4.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 434 23.4.2 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) 434 References 436 24 In Situ Characterizations in Electrocatalytic Cycle 441 24.1 Investigating the Real Active Centers 441 24.1.1 Monitoring the Electronic Structure 442 24.1.2 Monitoring the Atomic Structure 444 24.1.3 Monitoring the Catalyst Phase Transformation 446 24.2 Investigating the Reaction Mechanism 449 24.2.1 Through Adsorption/Activation Understanding 450 24.2.2 Through Intermediates In Situ Probing 451 24.2.3 Through Catalytic Product In Situ Detections 454 24.3 Evaluating the Catalyst Stability/Decay 457 24.4 Revealing the Interfacial-Related Insights 460 24.5 Conclusion 462 References 462 Part X Electrochemical Catalytic Carbon Cycle 465 References 466 25 Electrochemical CO2 Reduction to Fuels 467 References 479 26 Electrochemical Fuel Oxidation 483 References 495 27 Evaluation and Management of ECC 499 27.1 Basic Performance Index 499 27.2 CO2 Capture and Fuel Transport 500 27.3 External Management 500 27.4 General Outlook 502 References 505 Index 507

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