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Hutson Street Press Reconnoissance Soil Survey Of The San Diego Region California
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Alkali Lands Irrigation And Drainage In Their Mutual Relations
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Alkali Lands Irrigation And Drainage In Their Mutual Relations
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Soil Survey Of Alleghany County North Carolina
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Soil Survey Of Alleghany County North Carolina
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Creative Media Partners, LLC An Introduction to the Deep Soil Mixing Methods as Used in Geotechnical Applications
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Creative Media Partners, LLC An Introduction to the Deep Soil Mixing Methods as Used in Geotechnical Applications
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Landslides Triggered by Hurricane Mitch in Guatemala Inventory and Discussion
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Landslides Triggered by Hurricane Mitch in Guatemala Inventory and Discussion
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Operation of a Radar Altimeter Over the Greenland Ice Sheet
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Analysis of Airborne Radar Altimetry Measurements of the Greenland Ice Sheet
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Creative Media Partners, LLC Analysis of Airborne Radar Altimetry Measurements of the Greenland Ice Sheet
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Creative Media Partners, LLC The Romance of the Red Star a Biography of the Earth
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Creative Media Partners, LLC The Romance of the Red Star a Biography of the Earth
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Creative Media Partners, LLC The Use of Soils East of the Great Plains Region
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Creative Media Partners, LLC The Use of Soils East of the Great Plains Region
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John Wiley & Sons Inc Handbook of Sea Level Research
Book SynopsisMeasuring sea-level change be that rise or fall is one of the most pressing scientific goals of our time and requires robust scientific approaches and techniques.Table of ContentsList of contributors vii Preface xi About the companion website xiii 1. Introduction 1Ian Shennan, Antony J. Long, and Benjamin P. Horton 2. Handbook of sea-level research: framing research questions 3Ian Shennan PART 1: Field techniques for sea-level reconstruction 3. Pre-fieldwork surveys 29Robert C. Witter 4. Coastal sediments 47Alan R. Nelson 5. Geomorphological indicators of past sea levels 66Harvey M. Kelsey 6. Coastal caves and sinkholes 83Peter J. van Hengstum, David A. Richards, Bogdan P. Onac, and Jeffrey A. Dorale 7. Coral reefs 104Yusuke Yokoyama and Tezer M. Esat 8. Coral microatolls 125Aron J. Meltzner and Colin D. Woodroffe 9. Archeological and biological relative sea-level indicators 146Christophe Morhange and Nick Marriner 10. GPS and surveying 157James Foster 11. Reference water level and tidal datum 171Sarah A. Woodroffe and Natasha L. M. Barlow PART 2: Laboratory techniques 12. Techniques and applications of plant macrofossil analysis in sea-level studies 183Martyn Waller 13. Foraminifera 191Robin Edwards and Alex Wright 14. Pollen and spores of terrestrial plants 218Christopher E. Bernhardt and Debra A. Willard 15. Diatoms 233Yongqiang Zong and Yuki Sawai 16. Ostracods and sea level 249Thomas M. Cronin 17. Mollusca 258Jessica E. Pilarczyk and Donald C. Barber 18. Fixed biological indicators 268Alessio Rovere, Fabrizio Antonioli, and Carlo Nike Bianchi 19. Testate amoebae 281Dan J. Charman 20. Stable carbon isotope and C/N geochemistry of coastal wetland sediments as a sea-level indicator 295Nicole S. Khan, Christopher H. Vane, and Benjamin P. Horton 21. Loss on ignition and organic content 312Andrew J. Plater, Jason R. Kirby, John F. Boyle, Timothy Shaw, and Hayley Mills 22. Grain size analysis 331Adam D. Switzer and Jeremy Pile PART 3: Dating methods 23. Radiocarbon dating and calibration 349Torbjörn E. Törnqvist, Brad E. Rosenheim, Ping Hu, and Alvaro B. Fernandez 24. 210Lead and 137Cesium: establishing a chronology for the last century 361D. Reide Corbett and J.P. Walsh 25. Chronohorizons: indirect and unique event dating methods for sea-level reconstructions 373Wil Marshall 26. Uranium-thorium dating 386Andrea Dutton 27. The application of luminescence dating in sea-level studies 404Mark D. Bateman PART 4: Modeling 28. Glacial isostatic adjustment 421Glenn A. Milne 29. Tidal modeling 438Stephen D. Griffiths and David F. Hill 30. Compaction 452Matthew J. Brain 31. Transfer functions 470Andrew C. Kemp and Richard J. Telford 32. Using chronological models in late Holocene sea-level reconstructions from saltmarsh sediments 500Andrew C. Parnell and W. Roland Gehrels 33. Paleogeography 514Geert-Jan Vis, Kim M. Cohen, Wim E. Westerhoff, Johan H. Ten Veen, Marc P. Hijma, Ad J.F. van der Spek, and Peter C. Vos 34. A protocol for a geological sea-level database 536Marc P. Hijma, Simon E. Engelhart, Torbjörn E. Törnqvist, Benjamin P. Horton, Ping Hu, and David F. Hill PART 5: Direct measurements 35. Sea-level measurements from tide gauges 557Philip L. Woodworth, David T. Pugh, and Andrew J. Plater Index 575
£999.99
Wiley-Blackwell Dam Failure Mechanisms and Risk Assessment
Table of ContentsForeword by Kaare Høeg xiii Foreword by Jinsheng Jia xiv Preface xvi Acknowledgements xviii About the Authors xix PART I DAM AND DIKE FAILURE DATABASES 1 1 Dams and Their Components 3 1.1 Classification of Dams 3 1.2 Constructed Embankment Dams 4 1.3 Landslide Dams 7 1.4 Concrete Gravity Dams 7 1.5 Concrete Arch Dams 8 1.6 Dikes 10 2 Statistical Analysis of Failures of Constructed Embankment Dams 11 2.1 Database of Failures of Constructed Embankment Dams 11 2.2 Failure Modes and Processes 11 2.2.1 Overtopping 16 2.2.2 Internal Erosion 17 2.3 Common Causes of Embankment Dam Failures 19 2.4 Failure of Different Types of Embankment Dams 21 2.4.1 Analysis of Homogeneous and Composite Earthfill Dams 23 2.4.2 Analysis of Earthfill Dams with Corewalls 23 3 Statistical Analysis of Failures of Landslide Dams 25 3.1 Database of Failures of Landslide Dams 25 3.1.1 Locations of Landslide Dams 25 3.1.2 Formation Times of Landslide Dams 26 3.1.3 Triggers of Landslide Dams 26 3.1.4 Types of Landslide 26 3.1.5 Dam Heights and Lake Volumes 32 3.2 Stability, Longevity, and Failure Modes of Landslide Dams 33 3.2.1 Stability of Landslide Dams 33 3.2.2 Longevity of Landslide Dams 35 3.2.3 Failure Modes 36 3.3 Mitigation Measures for Landslide Dams 37 3.3.1 Stages of Landslide Dam Risk Mitigation 38 3.3.2 Engineering Mitigation Measures for Landslide Dams 39 3.3.3 Engineering Measures for the Landslide Dams Induced by the Wenchuan Earthquake 41 3.3.4 Mitigation Measures for the Tangjiashan Landslide Dam 51 4 Statistical Analysis of Failures of Concrete Dams 53 4.1 Database of Failures of Concrete Dams 53 4.2 Failure Modes and Processes 53 4.3 Common Causes of Concrete Dam Failures 55 5 Statistical Analysis of Failures of Dikes 57 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 Database of Dike Breaching Cases 57 5.3 Evaluation of Dike Failure Mechanisms 59 5.3.1 Most Relevant Failure Mechanisms 59 5.3.2 Statistics of Observed Failure Mechanisms 62 PART II DAM FAILURE MECHANISMS AND BREACHING PROCESS MODELING 67 6 Internal Erosion in Dams and Their Foundations 69 6.1 Concepts of Internal Erosion 69 6.2 Mechanisms of Initiation of Internal Erosion 72 6.2.1 Concentrated Leak Erosion 72 6.2.2 Backward Erosion 73 6.2.3 Contact Erosion 73 6.2.4 Suffusion 74 6.3 Initiation of Concentrated Leak Erosion Through Cracks 74 6.3.1 Causes of Concentrated Leak 75 6.3.2 Need for Studying Soil Erodibility for Concentrated Leak Erosion 80 6.3.3 Laboratory Tests on Concentrated Leak Erosion 81 6.3.4 Factors Affecting Concentrated Leak Erosion 83 6.3.5 Soil Dispersivity 84 6.4 Initiation of Backward Erosion 87 6.4.1 Susceptibility of a Dam or Dike to Backward Erosion 87 6.4.2 Methods for Assessing Backward Erosion 89 6.4.3 Formation of a Pipe due to Backward Erosion 92 6.5 Initiation of Contact Erosion 93 6.5.1 Fundamental Aspects of Contact Erosion Process 94 6.5.2 Laboratory Investigation on Contact Erosion 96 6.5.3 Threshold of Contact Erosion 100 6.6 Initiation of Suffusion 102 6.6.1 Control Parameters for Likelihood of Suffusion 102 6.6.2 Laboratory Testing of Suffusion 103 6.6.3 Geometrical Criteria for Internal Stability of Soils 108 6.6.4 Critical Hydraulic Gradients for Suffusion 115 6.7 Filter Criteria 120 6.7.1 Functions of Filter 120 6.7.2 Filter Criteria 121 6.8 Continuation of Internal Erosion 124 6.9 Progression of Internal Erosion 125 6.10 Suggested Topics for Further Research 126 7 Mechanics of Overtopping Erosion of Dams 127 7.1 Mechanics of Surface Erosion 127 7.1.1 Incipient Motion of Sediment 128 7.1.2 Sediment Transport 133 7.2 Determination of Erodibility of Soils 144 7.2.1 Critical Erosive Shear Stress 144 7.2.2 Coefficient of Erodibility 145 7.2.3 Laboratory Tests 147 7.2.4 Field Tests 151 7.2.5 Classification of Soil Erodibility 155 7.3 Characteristics of Overtopping Erosion Failure of Dams 157 7.3.1 Homogeneous Embankment Dams with Cohesionless Materials 157 7.3.2 Homogeneous Embankment Dams with Cohesive Materials 158 7.3.3 Composite Embankment Dams 159 7.4 Suggested Topics for Further Research 159 8 Dam Breach Modeling 161 8.1 Methods for Dam Breach Modeling 161 8.2 Dam Breaching Data 163 8.2.1 Embankment Dam Breaching Data 163 8.2.2 Landslide Dam Breaching Data 165 8.2.3 Dike Breaching Data 165 8.3 Empirical Analysis Methods 166 8.3.1 Multivariable Regression 166 8.3.2 Empirical Breaching Parameters for Constructed Embankment Dams 169 8.3.3 Empirical Breaching Parameters for Landslide Dams 179 8.3.4 Empirical Breaching Parameters for Dikes 187 8.3.5 Comparison of Breaching Parameters for Landslide Dams and Constructed Embankment Dams 189 8.4 Numerical Simulation of Overtopping Erosion 192 8.4.1 Simplified Physically Based Methods 197 8.4.2 Detailed Physically Based Methods 206 8.4.3 Case Studies 211 8.5 Numerical Simulation of Internal Erosion 215 8.5.1 Continuum Methods 215 8.5.2 Particle Level Analysis 218 8.5.3 Case Studies 218 9 Analysis of Dam Breaching Flood Routing 222 9.1 River Hydraulics 222 9.1.1 One-dimensional Models 223 9.1.2 Two-dimensional Models 223 9.2 Numerical Models for Flood Routing Analysis 224 9.2.1 One-dimensional Numerical Models 224 9.2.2 Two-dimensional Numerical Models 227 9.2.3 Coupling of 1D/2D Numerical Models 229 9.3 Example – Tangjiashan Landslide Dam Failure 229 9.3.1 Geometric Information 229 9.3.2 Dam Breaching Simulation 232 9.3.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions 232 9.3.4 Flood Routing Analysis and Results 232 PART III DAM FAILURE RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 241 10 Analysis of Probability of Failure of Dams 243 10.1 Introduction 243 10.2 Analysis Methods 243 10.2.1 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 243 10.2.2 Event Tree 244 10.2.3 Fault Tree 246 10.2.4 First-order Reliability Method/First-order Second-moment Method 247 10.2.5 Monte Carlo Simulation 250 10.2.6 Bayesian Networks 250 10.3 Examples of Probabilistic Analysis of Dam Failure 253 10.3.1 Probabilistic Analysis of Chinese Dam Distresses 253 10.3.2 Probabilistic Analysis of the Chenbihe Dam Distresses Using Bayesian Networks 264 11 Vulnerability to Dam Breaching Floods 273 11.1 Concepts of Vulnerability 273 11.2 Human Vulnerability to Dam Breaching Floods 273 11.2.1 Human Stability in Flood 274 11.2.2 Influence Factors 277 11.2.3 Methods for Evaluating Human Vulnerability Factor in a Flood 278 11.2.4 Database of Fatalities in Dam/Dike Breaching or Other Floods 283 11.3 Bayesian Network Analysis of Human Vulnerability to Floods 284 11.3.1 Bayesian Networks 284 11.3.2 Building the Bayesian Network for Human Vulnerability 285 11.3.3 Quantifying the Networks 291 11.3.4 Validation of the Model 297 11.4 Damage to Buildings and Infrastructures 300 11.4.1 Flood Action on Buildings 300 11.4.2 Models for Building Damage Evaluation 303 11.4.3 Relationship between Building Damage and Loss of Life 305 11.5 Suggested Topics for Further Research 306 12 Dam Failure Risk Assessment 307 12.1 Risk and Risk Assessment 307 12.1.1 Definition of Risk 307 12.1.2 Risk Management 308 12.2 Dam Failure Risk Analysis 311 12.2.1 Scope Definition 311 12.2.2 Hazards Identification 311 12.2.3 Identification of Failure Modes 312 12.2.4 Estimation of Failure Probability 312 12.2.5 Evaluation of Elements at Risk 313 12.2.6 Vulnerability Evaluation 314 12.2.7 Risk Estimation 314 12.3 Risk Assessment 315 12.3.1 Risk Tolerance Criteria 315 12.3.2 ALARP Considerations 319 12.4 Suggested Topics for Further Research 321 13 Dam Failure Contingency Risk Management 322 13.1 Process of Contingency Risk Management 322 13.1.1 Observation and Prediction 323 13.1.2 Decision-making 323 13.1.3 Warning 324 13.1.4 Response 325 13.1.5 Evacuation 326 13.2 Decision-making Under Uncertainty 328 13.2.1 Decision Tree 329 13.2.2 Multi-phase Decision 330 13.2.3 Influence Diagrams 333 13.3 Dynamic Decision-Making 334 13.3.1 Dam Failure Emergency Management 336 13.3.2 Dynamic Decision-making Framework 339 13.3.3 Time Series Models for Estimating Dam Failure Probability 342 13.3.4 Evaluation of the Consequences of Dam Failures 348 13.3.5 Features of DYDEM 350 13.4 Suggested Topics for Further Research 351 14 Case Study: Risk-based Decision-making for the Tangjiashan Landslide Dam Failure 353 14.1 Timeline for Decision-making for the Tangjiashan Landslide Dam Failure 353 14.2 Prediction of Dam Break Probability with Time Series Analysis 355 14.2.1 Forecasting Inflow Rates 355 14.2.2 Forecasting Lake Volume 358 14.2.3 Prediction of Dam Failure Probability 359 14.3 Simulation of Dam Breaching and Flood Routing 361 14.3.1 Simulation of Dam Breaching and Flood Routing in Stage 1 362 14.3.2 Simulation of Dam Breaching and Flood Routing in Stage 2 363 14.3.3 Simulation of Dam Breaching and Flood Routing in Stage 3 365 14.4 Evaluation of Flood Consequences 365 14.4.1 Methodology 366 14.4.2 Calculated Dam Break Flood Consequences 367 14.5 Dynamic Decision-making 370 14.5.1 Methodology 370 14.5.2 Dynamic Decision-making in Three Stages 371 14.6 Discussions 374 14.6.1 Influence of the Value of Human Life 374 14.6.2 Influence of Failure Mode 374 14.6.3 Sensitivity of the Minimum Expected Total Consequence 375 PART IV APPENDIXES: DAM FAILURE DATABASES 377 Appendix A: Database of 1443 Cases of Failures of Constructed Dams 379 Appendix B: Database of 1044 Cases of Failures of Landslide Dams 419 References 452 Index 474
£118.75
Wiley Origin of Carbonate Sedimentary Rocks
Book SynopsisThis textbook provides an overview of the origin and preservation of carbonate sedimentary rocks. The focus is on limestones and dolostones and the sediments from which they are derived.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgements xv ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xvii PART I: CARBONATE SEDIMENTOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW 1 1 CARBONATE ROCKS AND PLATFORMS 5 What are carbonate sedimentary rocks? 6 Why should we care about studying these rocks? 6 What is the scientific approach? 6 The carbonate continuum 7 How do carbonate sediments form? 9 Where are carbonates produced and where do they accumulate? 10 Tectonic settings and the nature of carbonate platforms 11 How do we study carbonate sediments and rocks? 14 Further reading 14 2 CARBONATE CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY 15 Introduction 16 Chemistry 16 Carbonate precipitation and dissolution in the ocean 19 Further reading 21 3 THE CARBONATE FACTORY 22 Introduction 23 Sediment production 23 Component modification 28 Karst and carbonate spring precipitates 36 Further reading 37 4 MARINE CARBONATE FACTORIES AND ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS 38 Introduction 39 Environmental controls 39 Benthic marine factories 46 Pelagic marine factories 47 Limestone classification schemes 48 Further reading 50 5 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: MICROBES AND ALGAE 51 Introduction 52 Microbes and carbonates 52 Microbialites 52 Modern stromatolites 54 Calcimicrobes 60 Calcareous algae 60 Further reading 66 6 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: SINGLE CELLS AND SHELLS 67 Introduction 68 Single]cell microfossils 68 Macrofossils 71 Further reading 78 7 THE CARBONATE FACTORY: ECHINODERMS AND COLONIAL INVERTEBRATES 79 Introduction 80 Echinoderms 80 Sponges 82 Bryozoans 85 Corals 89 Further reading 93 Part II: CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS: AN OVERVIEW 95 8 LACUSTRINE CARBONATES 99 Introduction 100 Modern lakes: Zonation and classification 100 Controls on lake sedimentation 101 Lake sedimentation 103 Lacustrine microbialites 107 Classification of ancient lake deposits 108 Further reading 108 9 CARBONATE SPRINGS 110 Introduction 111 Spring systems 111 Classification of springs 112 Tufa, travertine, or sinter? 113 Biota of spring systems 114 Carbonate precipitation in spring systems 114 Spring architecture 115 Calcareous spring carbonate facies 117 Further reading 122 10 WARM]WATER NERITIC CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 123 Introduction 124 The carbonate factory 124 Depositional systems 125 Further reading 134 11 THE COOL]WATER NERITIC REALM 135 Introduction 136 The Carbonate Factory 136 Depositional settings 139 Warm]temperate carbonates 141 Cool]temperate carbonates 144 Cold]water, polar carbonate systems 144 The rock record 145 Further reading 148 12 MUDDY PERITIDAL CARBONATES 150 Introduction 151 Andros Island: The Bahamas 152 Shark Bay: Western Australia 155 The United Arab Emirates: Persian Gulf 156 Stratigraphy 158 The shallowing]upward peritidal cycle 158 How do numerous peritidal cycles form? 160 Temporal variations on the peritidal cycle theme 162 Further reading 163 13 NERITIC CARBONATE TIDAL SAND BODIES 165 Introduction 166 Tides and tidal currents 166 Tidal sand bodies 167 Bahamian platform ooid sand bodies 169 Types of Bahamian platform sand bodies 170 Some examples of Bahamian sand bodies 171 Inter]island tidal ooid sand bodies (tidal deltas) 173 Platform interior Bahamian ooid sand bodies 174 Carbonate ramp tidal ooid sand bodies 175 Carbonate sand bodies in straits and seaways 175 Carbonate sands in flooded incised valleys 176 Carbonate sands in hypersaline basins 177 The rock record of tidal ooid sands 177 Ancient sand body geometries 178 Further reading 178 14 MODERN REEFS 179 Introduction 180 The reef mosaic 180 The coral reef growth window 182 Shallow]water reefs 184 Deep]water reefs 189 Further reading 191 15 ANCIENT REEFS 192 Introduction 193 The ancient reef factory 193 Microbes, calcimicrobes, and calcareous algae 194 Internal cavities 195 Lithification 195 Boring and bioerosion 196 Reef stratigraphic nomenclature 196 The spectrum of ancient reefs 198 Reefs 198 Reef mounds 199 Reef geohistory 202 Reef rock classification 206 Further reading 211 16 CARBONATE SLOPES 212 Introduction 213 Depositional bathymetry 213 The deposits 213 Contourites 217 Slope types 219 Temporal and spatial variability 220 Further reading 222 17 DEEP]WATER PELAGIC CARBONATES 223 Introduction 224 Universal controls 224 Depositional controls 225 Universal attributes 226 Old pelagic sediments 226 Young pelagic sediments 228 The pelagic factory 228 Chalk 229 Associated sediments 233 Ocean anoxia 233 Further reading 233 18 PRECAMBRIAN CARBONATES 234 Introduction 235 Precambrian carbonate systems 235 The carbonate factory 235 Reefs 242 Further reading 246 19 CARBONATE SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY 247 Introduction 248 Carbonate sequence stratigraphy 249 Shallow]water reef sequence stratigraphy 250 Photozoan rimmed platforms 252 Evaporites and siliciclastics 255 Heterozoan unrimmed carbonate platforms 255 Ramps 257 Higher]order cycles (parasequences) 258 Depositional cycles 259 Further reading 259 20 THE TIME MACHINE 261 Introduction 262 Carbonates and plate tectonics 262 Paleoclimate and paleoceanography 265 Carbonates and the evolving biosphere 268 Ocean acidification 271 Further reading 271 Part III: CARBONATE DIAGENESIS: AN OVERVIEW 273 21 THE PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENTS OF DIAGENESIS 277 Introduction to the processes 278 Carbonate dissolution 278 Carbonate precipitation 278 The environments 281 Synsedimentary marine diagenetic environment 282 Meteoric diagenetic environment 282 Burial diagenetic environment 284 Dolomite and dolostone 285 Further reading 285 22 ANALYTICAL METHODS 286 Introduction 287 Petrography 288 X]ray diffraction analysis 291 Scanning electron microscopy 292 Electron microprobe analysis 294 Chemical analyses 294 Further reading 296 23 THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE DIAGENESIS 297 Introduction 298 Trace elements and element ratios 298 Stable isotopes 301 Oxygen isotopes 301 Carbon isotopes 303 Stable isotope values for modern biogenic carbonates 304 Carbonate stable isotope values through geologic time 305 Strontium isotopes 307 Further reading 309 24 LIMESTONE: THE SYNSEDIMENTARY MARINE DIAGENETIC ENVIRONMENT 311 Introduction 312 The setting 312 Dissolution 312 Precipitation 313 Alteration 315 Synsedimentary limestone 316 Spatial distribution of early lithification 319 Strandline diagenesis 320 The rock record 322 Isotopic composition of ancient marine cements 324 Further reading 325 25 METEORIC DIAGENESIS OF YOUNG LIMESTONES 326 Introduction 327 Processes 327 Cements and cementation 330 Diagenesis of calcite sediments 333 Importance of grain size 333 Diagenesis in different meteoric settings 335 Importance of climate 335 How long does it take? 335 The ultimate product 336 Geochemistry 337 Further reading 339 26 KARST AND WATER]CONTROLLED DIAGENESIS 341 Introduction 342 Surficial processes and products 342 Surface karst facies 342 Calcrete facies 346 Subsurface karst facies 348 Surface and subsurface carbonate geochemistry 355 Further reading 356 27 BURIAL DIAGENESIS OF LIMESTONE 357 Introduction 358 The setting 358 Controlling factors 358 Processes and products 359 Burial cementation 362 Burial diagenetic models 365 Paragenesis via cement stratigraphy 368 Further reading 369 28 DOLOMITE AND DOLOMITIZATION 370 Introduction 371 Scientific approach 371 Dolomite: the mineral 371 Dolostone: the rock 373 The limestone to dolostone transition 376 Early diagenetic alteration of dolomite 376 Dolomite geochemistry 380 Further reading 382 29 DOLOMITIZATION PROCESSES AND SYNSEDIMENTARY DOLOMITE 383 Introduction 384 What limits dolomite formation? 384 How to form extensive dolomite 385 The different types of dolomite and dolostone 386 Synsedimentary (authigenic) dolomite 386 Further reading 390 30 SUBSURFACE DOLOMITIZATION AND DOLOSTONE PARAGENESIS 392 Introduction 393 Shallow]burial early]diagenetic dolomites 393 Deep]burial late]diagenetic dolomites 396 Synthesis 399 Dolomite paragenesis 399 Further reading 402 31 DIAGENESIS AND GEOHISTORY 403 Introduction 404 Eogenetic diagenesis 404 Approach 406 Lowstand systems tract 406 Transgressive systems tract 408 Highstand systems tract 410 Post]eogenetic diagenesis 411 Further reading 413 32 CARBONATE POROSITY 414 Introduction 415 Porosity 415 Porosity measurement 415 Permeability 416 Types of porosity 416 Porosity classification 421 Porosity evolution through time 422 Porosity and dolomitization 423 The evolution of porosity 423 Integration 425 Further reading 426 GLOSSARY 427 INDEX 434
£111.10
John Wiley and Sons Ltd Extreme Weather
Book SynopsisThis book is about weather extremes in the United Kingdom. It presents fascinating and detailed insights into tornadoes (supercell and non-supercell tornadoes, historical and contemporary case studies, frequency and spatial distributions, and unique data on extreme events); thunderstorms (epic event analysis and observing); hailstorms (intensity, distributions and frequency of high magnitude events); lightning (lightning as a hazard, impacts and injuries); ball lightning (definitions, impacts and case studies); flooding (historical and contemporary analysis, extreme rainfall and flash flooding); snowfalls (heavy snowfall days and events). It also looks at researching weather extremes, provides guidance on performing post-storm site investigations and details what is involved in severe weather forecasting. It is written by members, directors and past and present Heads of the research group the Tornado and Storm Research OrgaTable of ContentsNotes on Contributors xi Foreword xiii Preface xv About the Companion Website xvii 1 Researching Extreme Weather in the United Kingdom and Ireland: The History of the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation, 1974–2014 1 G. Terence Meaden 1.1 Introduction: The Early Years 1 1.2 International T‐Scale: Theoretical Basis 2 1.2.1 Hailstorm Research 3 1.2.2 Temperature Extremes for the British Isles 3 1.3 Tornado Research Organisation 4 1.4 The Inaugural Issue of The Journal of Meteorology 4 1.5 Storm‐Damage Site and Track Investigations 6 1.6 Birmingham Tornado of 28 July 2005 8 1.7 TORRO Conferences 8 1.8 The Future 11 Acknowledgements 13 Additional information 13 References 13 Part I Tornadoes 15 2 Historical tornadoes in the British Isles 17 Paul R. Brown and G. Terence Meaden 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Etymology of the Word Tornado 17 2.3 Terminology 18 2.4 Accuracy and Completeness of the Records 19 2.5 Analysis of Historical Tornadoes 20 2.6 Examples of Historical Tornado Reports 21 2.7 Concluding Remarks 30 References 30 3 Supercell and Non‐supercell Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland 31 Matt Clark and David Smart 3.1 Introduction 31 3.2 Basic Structure and Life Cycle of a Storm Cell 32 3.3 Storm Mode: An Overview of Single‐Cell, Multicell and Supercell Convection 32 3.4 Tornadoes in Supercell and Non‐supercell Storms 36 3.4.1 Synoptic Situations Associated with Tornadoes in the United Kingdom 40 3.5 Towards a Climatology of Tornadoes by Synoptic Type 43 3.6 Monthly and Annual Frequencies of Tornadoes by Synoptic Type 43 3.7 Spatial Distribution of Tornadoes by Synoptic Type 44 3.8 Morphology of Tornadic Storms 46 3.9 Association of Supercells with Giant Hail 47 3.10 Case Studies of Supercell and Non‐supercell Tornadoes 48 3.10.1 Case 1: The Cold Front of 29 November 2011 48 3.10.2 Case 2: The English Midlands Supercells of 28 June 2012 51 3.10.3 Case 3: The West Cornwall Supercell of 16 December 2012 52 3.11 Concluding Remarks 55 References 58 4 Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Frequency and Spatial Distribution 61 Peter Kirk, Tim Prosser, and David Smart 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 The TORRO Database 62 4.3 Tornado Frequency for the United Kingdom and Ireland: 1981–2010 63 4.3.1 Annual Number of Tornadoes and Tornado Days 63 4.3.2 Season and Month of Occurrence 64 4.3.3 Hour of Occurrence 65 4.3.4 Intensities 65 4.3.5 Track Lengths 65 4.3.6 Maximum Track Widths 65 4.3.7 Directions of Travel 66 4.4 Spatial Distribution of Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland 66 4.4.1 Simple Mapping of the Database 66 4.5 Issues with Mapping 66 4.6 Kernel Density Mapping of Tornado Distribution 70 4.7 The ‘London Metropolitan’ Anomaly 70 4.8 The Isle of Wight and South Coast Anomaly 72 4.9 Concluding Remarks 73 Acknowledgements 74 Additional Information 74 References 75 5 Tornado Extremes in the United Kingdom: The Earliest, Longest, Widest, Severest and Deadliest 77 Mike Rowe 5.1 Introduction 77 5.2 Earliest Tornado 77 5.3 Other Whirlwinds (First UK Record Only) 79 5.4 Longest Tornado Track 80 5.5 Widest Tornado Track 82 5.6 Severest Tornado 83 5.7 Largest Outbreaks 88 5.8 Highest Death Toll 89 5.9 Concluding Remarks 89 Acknowledgements 89 References 89 6 Site Investigations of Tornado Events 91 John Tyrrell 6.1 Introduction 91 6.2 Getting Started: How Site Investigations Come About 92 6.3 Site Investigation Methods 92 6.4 Site Investigation Outcomes: The Growing Understanding of UK Tornadoes 94 6.5 Site Investigation Experience 101 6.6 Concluding Remarks 102 Acknowledgements 103 References 103 Part II Thunderstorms and Lightning 105 7 Epic Thunderstorms in Britain and Ireland 107 Jonathan D.C. Webb 7.1 Introduction 107 7.2 Selected Epic Thunderstorm Events 109 7.2.1 2–3 August 1879 109 7.2.2 5–10 June 1910 110 7.2.3 7–10 July 1923 114 7.2.4 17–18 July 1926 114 7.2.5 28–29 August 1930 114 7.2.6 18–22 June 1936 116 7.2.7 The West Country Thunderstorm of 4 August 1938 119 7.2.8 5 September 1958 123 7.2.9 22–24 June 1960 125 7.2.10 8–9 August 1975 125 7.2.11 13–14 June 1977 126 7.2.12 25–26 July 1985 127 7.2.13 24 May 1989 128 7.2.14 8–9 August 1992 131 7.2.15 24 June 1994 132 7.3 Concluding Remarks 132 Acknowledgements 132 References 132 8 Thunderstorm Observing in the United Kingdom: A Personal Diary of Days with Thunder 1953–2013 135 Bob Prichard 8.1 Introduction 135 8.2 Early Observations 135 8.2.1 Thunderstorm Observing 136 8.3 Thunderstorms of the 1960s 137 8.3.1 The ‘Days with Thunder Heard’ Statistic 140 8.3.2 Back to the 1960s 140 8.4 Thunderstorms of the 1970s 141 8.5 Thunderstorms of the 1980s 143 8.6 The Forecasting of Thunderstorms 145 8.7 Back to the 1980s 146 8.8 Thunderstorms of the 1990s 147 8.9 The Most Recent Thunderstorms: 2000–2013 150 8.10 Concluding Remarks 154 References 154 9 Severe Hailstorms in the United Kingdom and Ireland: A Climatological Survey with Recent and Historical Case Studies 155 Jonathan D.C. Webb and Derek M. Elsom 9.1 Introduction 155 9.1.1 Establishment of a Tornado and Storm Research Organisation Research Database of Hail Events 155 9.2 Assessing the Intensity of Hail Falls 155 9.2.1 Hailstorm Intensity Scale 155 9.2.2 Kinetic Energy 156 9.2.3 Hailstone Size and Damage 156 9.2.4 Other Factors Affecting Damage 156 9.3 Annual Frequency of Hail 157 9.3.1 All Significant, Damaging Hailstorms 157 9.3.2 Frequency of Extreme, Destructive Hailstorms 158 9.3.3 Comparisons with Continental Europe 159 9.4 Seasonal Occurrence of Hail 159 9.4.1 General Seasonal Incidence of Hail and Damaging Hailstorms 159 9.4.2 Storms of H5 Intensity or More 159 9.4.3 Comparison with the Incidence of Thunderstorms 159 9.5 Geographical Distribution 160 9.5.1 Storms of H2 Intensity or More 160 9.5.2 Geographical Distribution of Storms of H5 Intensity or More 161 9.5.3 Point Frequencies 161 9.5.4 European Comparisons 161 9.6 Hailstorm Characteristics 161 9.6.1 Hail Swathes 161 9.6.2 Radar and Hail Swathe Identification 163 9.6.3 Results of Hail Swathe Analyses 163 9.7 Synoptic Weather Types and Hailstorms 164 9.7.1 Specific Synoptic Background to Hailstorms 164 9.8 Hour‐of‐Day Distribution 167 9.9 Summary of TORRO’s Overall Findings 168 9.10 Twenty of the Most Severe Hailstorms 169 9.10.1 1687: The Alvanley Storm 169 9.10.2 1697: Remarkable Late Spring Storms 169 9.10.3 1763: The Great Kent Storm of 19 August 169 9.10.4 1808: The Great Somerset Hailstorm of 15 July 169 9.10.5 1818: Stronsay, Orkney, 24 July 170 9.10.6 1843: The Great Hailstorm of 9 August 170 9.10.7 1893: Northern England and Southern Scotland on 8 July 172 9.10.8 1897: The Diamond Jubilee Storm of 24 June 174 9.10.9 1915: 4 July 175 9.10.10 1935: 22 September (Sometimes Referred to as the ‘Great Northamptonshire Hailstorm’) 177 9.10.11 1958: The Horsham Hailstorm of 5 September 178 9.10.12 1959: 9–11 July (Including the ‘Wokingham Storm’) 179 9.10.13 1967: The Wiltshire Hailstorm of 13 July 181 9.10.14 1968: The ‘Dust Fall’ Storms of 1–2 July 181 9.10.15 1983: South Coast Hailstorms of 5 June 185 9.10.16 1983: Violent Hailstorms in North‐West England on 7 June 185 9.10.17 1985: The Essex ‘Dunmow’ Hailstorm of 26 May 186 9.10.18 1996: The Storms of 7 June 187 9.10.19 1997: The Severe Storms of FA Cup Final on Saturday, 17 May 189 9.10.20 2012: The Destructive English Midlands Hailstorm of 28 June 191 9.11 Concluding Remarks 191 Acknowledgements 193 References 193 10 Lightning Impacts in the United Kingdom and Ireland 195 Derek M. Elsom and Jonathan D.C. Webb 10.1 Lightning as a Weather Hazard 195 10.2 Historical Research into Lightning 196 10.3 Research into Lightning Impacts 197 10.4 Annual Number of Lightning Incidents Causing Injuries and Deaths 198 10.5 Lightning Injuries 198 10.6 Electrical Routes by Which Lightning Causes Injuries 199 10.7 Lightning Strikes to Groups of People 200 10.8 Locations to Avoid during Thunderstorms 201 10.9 Lightning Incidents Affecting People Indoors 201 10.10 The Frequency with which Lightning Strikes a Person 202 10.11 Fewer Deaths from Lightning Over Time 203 10.12 Lightning Strikes to Animals 204 10.13 Lightning Impacts on Aircraft and Motor Vehicles 205 10.14 Increasing Awareness of the Lightning Risk 206 Acknowledgements 206 References 206 11 Ball Lightning Research in the United Kingdom 209 Mark Stenhoff and Adrian James 11.1 Introduction 209 11.2 Definitions 209 11.2.1 Lightning 209 11.2.2 Ball Lightning 210 11.3 What Ball Lightning Is Not 210 11.4 Ambiguity: Ball Lightning, Fireballs, Meteors and Meteorites 211 11.5 Early Beliefs about Lightning and Ball Lightning 212 11.6 Early Reports of Ball Lightning 213 11.6.1 Ball Lightning over Land 213 11.6.2 Ball Lightning over Rivers and the Sea 214 11.6.3 Ball Lightning Associated with Churches 215 11.6.4 Ball Lightning within Houses 216 11.6.5 Ball Lightning as a Precursor to Cloud‐to‐Ground Lightning 217 11.7 Interpreting Early Reports 217 11.7.1 1833: Early British Opinion about the Nature of Ball Lightning by Luke Howard FRS (1772–1864) 217 11.7.2 1837–1859: Sur le Tonnerre and Other Works by François Arago (1786–1853) 217 11.7.3 1838: Comments on Ball Lightning by Michael Faraday Frs (1791–1867) 218 11.7.4 1842: ‘On the Nature of Thunderstorms’ by Sir William Snow Harris FRS (1791–1867) 218 11.7.5 1854–1868: English Translations of French Works 219 11.7.6 The Late 19th Century: Ball Lightning, Spiritualism and Parapsychology 219 11.7.7 1921: The Meteorological Office ‘Ball Lightning Enquiry’ 220 11.7.8 1923: Survey of Ball Lightning Reports 220 11.7.9 1870–1934: Speculations on the Nature of Ball Lightning 220 11.7.10 1936: Does Ball Lightning Exist? 220 11.7.11 1936–1937: The ‘Tub‐of‐Water’ Event and the Estimated Energy Content of Ball Lightning 220 11.7.12 1937–1957: Quantum‐Mechanical and Nuclear Hypotheses for Ball Lightning 221 11.7.13 1955–1972: Plasma Hypotheses for Ball Lightning 222 11.7.14 1964: The Flight of Thunderbolts by Sir Basil Schonland FRS 222 11.7.15 1969: Eminent UK Scientists Report Ball Lightning in Aircraft 222 11.7.16 1969: The Taming of the Thunderbolts by C. Maxwell Cade and Delphine Davis 223 11.7.17 1971: Ball Lightning: An Optical Illusion? 223 11.7.18 1971: Micrometeorites of Antimatter? 223 11.7.19 1972–1995: Crew’s Ionised Jet‐Stream Hypothesis for Ball Lightning (and Some UFOs) 224 11.7.20 1974: TORRO and the Journal of Meteorology 224 11.7.21 1976: A Close Encounter with a Fiery Ball Raises Questions of Ball Lightning Energy 224 11.7.22 Ball Lightning as Electromagnetic Radiation 224 11.7.23 Reviews of Ball Lightning 225 11.7.24 Ball Lightning Reported at Cambridge University 226 11.7.25 1985–1999: The TORRO Ball Lightning Division 226 11.7.26 1999: Ball lightning: An Unexplained Phenomenon in Atmospheric Physics by Mark Stenhoff 227 11.7.27 2002: Royal Society Theme Issue on Ball Lightning 227 11.7.28 2006: Publication of Ministry of Defence: Unidentified Aerial Phenomena in the UK Air Defence Region (2000) 227 11.7.29 2000–2014: TORRO Ball Lightning Division 228 11.8 A Selection of Ball Lightning Reports Recorded by TORRO 2000–2014 228 11.8.1 Ball Lightning inside Houses 228 11.8.2 Experienced Observer 229 11.8.3 Earthquake Ball Lightning? 229 11.8.4 A Recent Ball Lightning Event Reported to TORRO 229 11.9 2014: Ball Lightning in the UK Media 230 11.10 Concluding Remarks 230 Acknowledgments 230 References 230 Part III EXTREMES 235 12 Forecasting Severe Weather in the United Kingdom and Ireland 237 Paul Knightley 12.1 Introduction 237 12.2 Modern Forecasting 238 12.3 Severe Storm Forecasting in the United States 238 12.4 Severe Storm Forecasting Elsewhere 239 12.5 Forecasting Techniques 239 12.6 The Ingredients‐Based Approach 240 12.6.1 Moisture 240 12.6.2 Instability 240 12.6.3 Lift 240 12.6.4 Wind Shear 240 12.7 TORRO’s Forecasts 241 12.8 Forecasting Severe Weather: 28 June 2012 241 12.8.1 Background 241 12.9 Concluding Remarks 245 Acknowledgements 246 References 246 13 Extreme Flooding in the United Kingdom and Ireland: The Early Years, ad 1 to ad 1300 247 Robert K. Doe 13.1 Introduction 247 13.2 Sources of Evidence 247 13.3 The Early Years – 1st–10th Centuries 248 13.4 Extreme Flooding in the 11th Century 249 13.5 Extreme Flooding in the 12th Century 250 13.6 Extreme Flooding in the 13th Century 251 13.7 Concluding Remarks 259 Acknowledgements 259 References 259 14 Extreme Rainfall and Flash Floods in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Synoptic Patterns and Selected Case Studies 261 John Mason, Paul R. Brown, Jonathan D.C. Webb, and Robert K. Doe 14.1 Introduction 261 14.2 Severe Dynamic Rainfalls 261 14.3 Hybrid Rainfalls – Dynamic Precipitation with Embedded Convective Cells 264 14.4 Severe Convective Rainfalls 269 14.5 Gwynedd, North Wales, UK, 3 July 2001 270 14.6 Boscastle, Cornwall, UK, 16 August 2004 272 14.7 Holmfirth, Yorkshire, UK, 29 May 1944 274 14.8 Ottery St. Mary, Devon, UK, 30 October 2008 278 14.9 Concluding Remarks 280 Acknowledgements 281 References 281 15 Heavy Snowfalls Across Great Britain 283 Richard Wild 15.1 Introduction 283 15.2 Definitions 283 15.3 Synoptic Systems and Heavy Snowfalls 283 15.4 Snowfall Climatology of Great Britain 284 15.5 Sources of Data 284 15.6 Snow Depths and Days with Snowfall 284 15.7 Spatial Methodology for Heavy Snowfall Events 285 15.7.1 LWT Catalogue 285 15.8 Heavy Snowfall Events over Great Britain 285 15.9 Heavy Snowfalls 1861–1869 286 15.9.1 20 February 1865 286 15.10 Heavy Snowfalls 1870–1879 286 15.11 Heavy Snowfalls 1880–1889 286 15.11.1 18–19 January 1881 286 15.12 Heavy Snowfalls 1890–1899 287 15.12.1 9–13 March 1891 287 15.13 Heavy Snowfalls 1900–1909 287 15.14 Heavy Snowfalls 1910–1919 287 15.14.1 11–12 January 1913 287 15.15 Heavy Snowfalls 1920–1929 288 15.15.1 25 December 1923 288 15.15.2 15–16 February 1929 288 15.16 Heavy Snowfalls 1930–1939 288 15.17 Heavy Snowfalls 1940–1949 288 15.17.1 26–30 January 1940 288 15.17.2 18–20 February 1941 288 15.17.3 26–27 March 1941 289 15.18 Heavy Snowfalls 1950–1959 289 15.18.1 8 February 1955 289 15.19 Heavy Snowfalls 1960–1969 289 15.20 Heavy Snowfalls 1970–1979 289 15.21 Heavy Snowfalls 1980–1989 289 15.22 Heavy Snowfalls 1990–1999 289 15.23 Heavy Snowfall Frequencies in Great Britain 1861–1999 289 15.23.1 Numbers of Heavy Snowfall Days 290 15.23.2 Mean Length (In Days) of Heavy Snowfall Events 291 15.24 LWTs and Heavy Snowfalls 292 15.24.1 LWT Frequency by Decade 292 15.24.2 LWT Frequency by Month and Season 293 15.24.3 LWT Frequencies Before, During and After the Heavy Snowfall Day 293 15.25 Depressions and Heavy Snowfalls 293 15.25.1 Depression Trajectories Associated with Heavy Snowfall Events 293 15.25.2 Depression Traffic Associated with Heavy Snowfall Events 293 15.26 Fronts Associated with Heavy Snowfall Days (1937–1999) 296 15.26.1 Geographical Variations in Meteorological Fronts 296 15.26.2 Relationship Between Fronts and LWT 297 15.27 Concluding Remarks 297 Acknowledgements 298 References 298 Appendices Appendix A: Data (Web Material) Appendix B: Selected Pictures from Conferences and Meetings 301 Appendix C: Tornadoes in the United Kingdom and Ireland 1054–2013 319 Appendix D: Data (Web Material) Selected Name Index 321 Subject Index 323
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