Alternative and renewable energy sources Books

Book SynopsisNick Lambert is co-founder and director of NLA, a Blue Economy solutions company, which specializes in the Blue Economy and tech innovation in associated domains. He advises corporates on a wide range of marine and maritime issues, and regularly hosts and delivers keynote speeches at high-profile conferences.Andy Hamflett is co-founder and director of NLA and a journalist, researcher and innovation expert on new technologies. He leads innovative research projects that explore the emerging potential of Big Data for social impact. Jonathan Turner is co-founder and director of NLA and specializes in customer-focused organizational process design, lean methodology and performance measurement through analytical skills and practical use of data.Trade Review"Revealing and insightful, this book shares inspiring examples of innovations applied across a broad spectrum of Blue Economy sectors. These ideas are real and impactful and underline the importance of technology and creativity as an enabler for sustainable environments and economic growth." * David Loosley, Chief Executive, The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology *"A fascinating guide to how technology will shape the future of the Blue Economy, this book is essential reading for those looking to understand how the smart use of our oceans can support sustainable development." * Professor Dickon Howell, Director, Howell Marine Consulting, UK *"This book presents a compelling overview of the impressive range of technology innovation underpinning progress in sectors as diverse as sustainable fisheries, ocean tourism, smart port cities, shipping and seabed mapping. Start-ups and tech developers in all sectors could learn from the up-to-the-minute case studies presented in this thoroughly researched and well written book." * Tony Hughes, Dealmaker, Global Entrepreneur Programme – the UK’s Department for International Trade *"Here, at last, is a book that sets out the scale of challenges and opportunities that our oceans present, by three authors bringing enormous knowledge to the domain. The Blue Economy is so much more diverse than the traditional marine and maritime sectors, and this book is a must-read for anyone interested to understand where the Blue Economy is heading." * Dr. Jonathan Williams, CEO, Marine South East, UK *"The breadth of innovation across the blue economy is extraordinary. Andy, Nick and Jonathan have explored, sector by sector, to reveal insights and applications that are revolutionising industries and opening doors for new commercial opportunities in the seas and oceans." * Aidan Thorn, Maritime Innovation Expert *Table of Contents Chapter - 01: An introduction to the blue economy; Chapter - 02: Shipping; Chapter - 03: Ports and harbours; Chapter - 04: Offshore renewables; Chapter - 05: The cruise industry; Chapter - 06: Maritime surveillance; Chapter - 07: Aquaculture; Chapter - 08: Hydrography and bathymetry; Chapter - 09: Ocean observation; Chapter - 10: Sustainable fisheries; Chapter - 11: Subsea monitoring; Chapter - 12: Safety of life at sea; Chapter - 13: Conclusion

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Book SynopsisExplore the fascinating, evolving world of electric vehicles, from the first EVs in the Victorian era to their rapid expansion today—and beyond. In The Electric Vehicle Revolution, automotive journalist Kevin Wilson provides a thorough, engaging overview of where EV technology is today, how it got there, and where it’s going. Since the turn of the twenty-first century, EVs have gone from wonky who-cares vehicles like GM’s EV1 and early Teslas to every manufacturer's must-have future.Electric propulsion preceded fossil-fuel cars by decades and even vied for prominence in the early twentieth century auto industry against both steam power and internal combustion engines. From Electrobat (an early New York taxi fleet) through Columbia—which had built 1,000 electric cars before either Henry Ford or Ransom Olds had built a single gasoline car—viable business start-ups in the early auto age were as competitive and Trade Review“The book is a comprehensive survey of EVs…broadly illustrated with archival photos and period advertisements, and full of stories and evidence of obscure marques—from Detroit Electric and Baker to Tropicana and Enfield—whose bizarre histories will delight you.” * Car and Driver *Table of Contents1 First Sparks Electric propulsion vies with steam power and internal combustion for prominence in the early auto industry. 2 Gilded Age Status Automotive pioneers probe battery power, but electrics remain the province of wealthy, urban consumers—as Ford’s Model T begins to change the world. 3 Success into the Shadows Despite EV successes, the early auto industry evolves to favor gasoline cars and forges a partnership with the oil industry. 4 An Idea That Won’t Die As the internal combustion engine establishes dominance in the interwar years, a select few electric visionaries persist. 5 Fifty Years in the Shade Irrelevant in the marketplace, the idea of the electric car regularly resurfaces among hobbyists and those concerned about the oil industry’s viability. 6 Oil Shocks Space Age technological advances and the oil crises plant a seed that will take decades to germinate. 7 The Pivot Point How GM’s EV1 happened, why it faltered, and how it became the basis that culminated with the first Tesla Roadster. 8 Halfway There The proliferation of hybrids, especially the plug-ins, familiarizes the industry and public with electric propulsion. 9 Tesla Rising A clear-eyed view of Tesla Motors and the responses of the conventional auto industry, rival start-ups, and regulatory agencies. 10 The Dam Breaks The rush to electrify has nations and companies declaring the end of internal combustion, but this radical transition isn’t as easy as throwing a switch.

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Book SynopsisProvides the definitive history of alcohol fuel, describing in colourful detail the emergence of alcohol fuel in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and the political and economic forces behind its popularity, opposition, and eventual growth.Trade Review“Bernton and his coauthors have produced as much an intriguing history of alcohol fuel in America as they have a study of alcohol as an energy source in the contemporary world. . . . With its good bibliography, helpful glossary, and valuable appendixes on the economics and technology of alcohol power, the book is recommended to all institutions seeking to cover the wide area of energy options and energy politics.”—Choice"The Forbidden Fuel looks critically at the promise and prospects of gasohol. . . . A well-researched study."--Sarojini Balachandran, Library Journal"I believe that the industry needs to go back and read this book."—Joanna Schroeder, Domesticfuel.comTable of ContentsForeword by R. James WoolseyPreface by Boyd GriffinIntroduction by Hal BerntonList of IllustrationsAcknowledgments1. Power Alcohol Comes of Age2. The Pioneers of Gasohol3. The Return of the Farm Alcohol Movement4. Rebirth of the Power Alcohol Industry5. The Politics of Alcohol Fuel6. Agriculture: The Limits of the Land7. Brazil: A Quest for Self-Reliance8. Alcohol in Engines9. The Environment10. Alcohol FutureAppendix A: Chemistry and Production Processes of AlcoholAppendix B: Economics of Ethanol by Chris Hurt, Wally Tyner, and Otto DoeringAppendix C: An International Historical Survey of Alcohol Fuel Programs: 1910-1960Appendix D: Books on Making Alcohol FuelReference NotesGlossarySelected BibliographyIndex

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Book SynopsisChelsea Schelly uses ethnographic research, participant observation, and numerous in-depth interviews to examine four alternative U.S. communities where individuals use electricity, water, heat, waste, food, and transportation technologies that differ markedly from those used by the vast majority of modern American residential dwellers. Trade Review"Dwelling in Resistance accomplishes the difficult task of being extremely informative and intellectual while at the same time remaining down to earth, lively, and amusing. Schelly provides a welcome addition to the literature on social practices, technology studies, and community studies in this engaging work." -- Debbie Kasper * Associate Professor of Environmental Studies and Sociology, Hiram College *"This theoretically and empirically rich book illuminates technological systems that are often invisible, yet fundamentally shape everyday practices and ideas. In showing us how people live with alternative technologies, Schelly also generates deep insights into those who do not." -- John M. Meyer * author of Engaging the Everyday: Environmental Social Criticism and the Resonance Dilemma *New Books Network interview with Chelsea Schelly * New Books Network *Table of Contents1 What Does it Mean to Dwell in Resistance? 2 What “Normal” Dwelling Looks Like: The History of Home Technologies 3 Custodians of the Earth, Witnesses to Transition: The Story of the Farm 4 The Abundance of the Commons: Twin Oaks and the Plentitude Ethic 5 Individualism and Symbiosis: The Dance at Dancing Rabbit 6 Self-Sufficiency as Social Justice: The Case of Earthship Biotecture 7 Dwelling in Resistance Appendix: Reflections and Lessons on Method Acknowledgements References Index

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Book SynopsisA whole host of motivations are driving the development of the renewables industry- ranging from the desire to develop sustainable energy resources to the reduction of dangerous greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.Trade Review"Overall it gives very good insights on biomass feedstocks for all uses of biomass as well as fermentation technologies mainly for biofuels." (Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, 30 August 2011) Table of ContentsContributors xi Preface xiii 1 The Bioeconomy: A New Era of Products Derived from Renewable Plant-Based Feedstocks 3Peter Nelson, Elizabeth Hood, and Randall Powell 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Market Opportunity for Biofuels and Biobased Products 5 1.3 Feedstocks 6 1.3.1 Biobased Feedstock Availability and Issues 6 1.3.2 Characterization of Lignocellulosic Feedstocks 8 1.3.3 The Role of Agricultural Biotechnology 9 1.3.4 Biomass Agricultural Equipment Development 11 1.4 The Biochemical Technology Platform 11 1.5 Investment and Major Players 12 1.6 The Role of the Farmer 14 1.7 Opportunities for Rural Development 16 1.8 Environmental Benefits 17 1.9 Economic Comparison of the Biochemical and Thermochemical Technology Platforms 17 1.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 18 References 19 2 Agricultural Residues 21James Hettenhaus 2.1 Introduction 21 2.1.1 Key Issues 22 2.2 Feedstock Supply 23 2.2.1 Residue Markets 26 2.2.2 Harvest Window 27 2.2.3 Residue Removal 27 2.2.4 Residue Management 28 2.2.5 Ag Equipment Needs 29 2.2.6 Operating Costs 33 2.2.7 Residue Nutrient Value 33 2.2.8 Land for Energy Crops 33 2.2.9 Farmer Outlook 34 2.2.10 Crop Research and Development 34 2.3 Feedstock Logistics 34 2.3.1 Bulk Density 35 2.3.2 Storage 36 2.3.3 Regional Biomass Processing Centers 43 2.4 Conclusion 48 Endnotes 49 References 49 3 Growing Systems for Traditional and New Forest-Based Materials 51Randall Rousseau, Janet Hawkes, Shijie Liu, and Tom Amidon 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Natural Regeneration 54 3.3 Overall Growing Systems 54 3.3.1 The Beginnings of Biomass Plantation Production 55 3.3.2 Short Rotation Woody Crops 56 3.3.3 Other Types of Hardwood Plantations 59 3.3.4 Southern Pine 61 3.4 New Genetic Tools 62 3.5 Agroforestry 63 3.6 Products from Woody Biomass 67 3.6.1 Hemicellulosic Products 69 3.6.2 Biorefineries Using Woody Biomass 71 3.6.3 Hot-Water Extraction of Hemicellulose 73 3.6.4 Wood Extracts: Processing and Conversion 75 3.6.5 Residual Solid Wood Biomass: Processing and Conversion of the wood mass after extraction, an example 78 3.7 Summary 78 References 78 4 Dedicated Herbaceous Energy Crops 85Keat (Thomas) Teoh, Shivakumar Pattada Devaiah, Deborah Vicuna Requesens, and Elizabeth E. Hood 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 Miscanthus 85 4.2.1 Characteristics That Make Miscanthus a Potential Biomass Crop 87 4.2.2 Agronomy 87 4.3 Sweet Sorghum 90 4.3.1 Biology of Sweet Sorghum 92 4.3.2 Production 92 4.3.3 Potential Yields 94 4.3.4 Economic and Environmental Advantages of Sweet Sorghum 94 4.3.5 Production Challenges 96 4.4 Switchgrass 97 4.4.1 Physiology 97 4.4.2 Switchgrass Ecotypes 98 4.4.3 Advantages 98 4.4.4 Disadvantages 99 4.4.5 Yields 100 4.4.6 Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop 101 4.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 101 References 104 5 Municipal Solid Waste as a Biomass Feedstock 109David J. Webster 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Definitions 110 5.2.1 Second-Generation Conversion Technologies for Biofuels 110 5.3 Disposal Infrastructure and Transfer Stations 110 5.3.1 Collection Practices 112 5.3.2 Cost Parameters 112 5.4 Waste Generation 113 5.5 Waste Characterization 114 5.5.1 Composition of Generated MSW Prior to Disposal or Processing 114 5.5.2 Landfilled Waste Compared to Waste Generation 115 5.5.3 Water in MSW 116 5.5.4 Heavy Metals in MSW 117 5.6 Preparing MSW for Conversion Processing—Mixed Waste Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) 119 5.6.1 Presorting 121 5.6.2 Mechanical Sorting Operations 122 5.6.3 Manual Sorting Operations 123 5.6.4 Recovery Rates of the MRF System 123 5.7 Cellulosic Content of MSW 124 5.7.1 Glucose and Ethanol Yields from MSW 124 5.8 Framing the Potential 125 References 126 6 Water Sustainability in Biomass Cropping Systems 129Jennifer L. Bouldin and Rodney E. Wright 6.1 Introduction 129 6.2 Water Use in Bioenergy Production 130 6.3 Water Quality Issues in Bioenergy Crops 133 6.3.1 AGNPS Watershed Model 135 6.3.2 Water Quality and the Gulf Hypoxic Zone 138 6.4 Conclusions—Water Quantity and Quality 138 References 139 7 Soil Sustainability Issues in Energy Crop Production 143V. Steven Green 7.1 Soil Sustainability Concepts 143 7.2 Bioenergy Crops and Soil Sustainability 145 7.2.1 Crop Residues 145 7.2.2 Dedicated Energy Crops 146 7.3 Resource Use in Biomass Production 149 7.3.1 Water and Soil 149 7.3.2 Land Use 150 7.4 Soil Sustainability Solutions 150 7.5 Conclusion 154 References 154 8 Fermentation Organisms for 5- and 6-Carbon Sugars 157Nicholas Dufour, Jeffrey Swana, and Reeta P. Rao 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Fermentation 159 8.3 Metabolic Pathways 160 8.4 Fermenting Species 161 8.4.1 Brief Description of Major Species 175 8.5 Other Relevant Products 180 8.6 Summary 183 Endnotes 183 References 184 9 Pretreatment Options 199Bradley A. Saville 9.1 Overview of Pretreatment Technologies 199 9.1.1 History 199 9.1.2 Mechanistic Assessment of Pretreatment 200 9.1.3 Severity Factor Concept 203 9.2 Pretreatment Classification 205 9.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment Processes 206 9.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment Processes 206 9.2.3 Thermochemical Pretreatment Processes 209 9.2.4 Impact on Moisture Content and Hydraulic Load 210 9.3 Laboratory vs. Commercial Scale Pretreatment—What Do We Really Know? 211 9.3.1 Laboratory Studies 211 9.3.2 Pilot/Demonstration Scale Studies 211 9.3.3 Limitations of Laboratory-Scale Comparisons of Pretreatment Methods 214 9.4 Process Issues and Trade-Offs 215 9.4.1 Inhibitors 215 9.4.2 Hydrolysis Efficiency and Enzyme Loadings 218 9.4.3 Solvent/Catalyst Recovery 218 9.4.4 Viscosity Reduction and Hydraulic Load 218 9.5 Economics 220 9.6 Conclusions 224 References 224 10 Enzyme Production Systems for Biomass Conversion 227John A. Howard, Zivko Nikolov, and Elizabeth E. Hood 10.1 Introduction 227 10.2 The Challenge: Volume and Cost of Enzymes Required 227 10.3 Theoretical Ways to Address the Challenge of Quantity of Enzyme and Cost Requirements 228 10.3.1 Increase Susceptibility for Biomass Deconstruction 229 10.3.2 Decrease Exogenous Enzyme Load 231 10.3.3 Increase Accumulation of Enzymes in Production Host 236 10.4 Cost of Producing Exogenous Enzymes 240 10.4.1 Cost Analysis 242 10.5 Summary and Future Prospects 245 References 246 11 Fermentation-Based Biofuels 255Randy Kramer and Helene Belanger 11.1 Introduction 255 11.2 First-Generation Biofuels 256 11.2.1 Starch-Based Ethanol—United States 256 11.2.2 Sugar-Based Ethanol—Brazil 257 11.2.3 Biodiesel 258 11.3 Policy and Biofuel Implementation Status 260 11.3.1 North America 260 11.3.2 South America 262 11.3.3 Europe 262 11.3.4 Asia 263 11.4 Second-Generation Biofuels 265 11.4.1 Cellulosic Ethanol 265 11.4.2 Biobutanol 268 11.5 Issues for Biofuels Commercial Success 269 11.5.1 Transport by Pipeline 269 11.5.2 Decentralized Production and Local Distribution 270 11.5.3 Optimized Engine Performance 271 11.5.4 Value of Biorefinery Co-products 272 11.6 Summary 272 References 272 12 Biobased Chemicals and Polymers 275Randall W. Powell, Clare Elton, Ross Prestidge, and Helene Belanger 12.1 Introduction 275 12.2 Biobased Feedstock Components 276 12.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies 277 12.3.1 Technology Platforms Overview 277 12.3.2 Lignocellulose Fractionation Overview 279 12.4 Biobased Products 287 12.4.1 Oil-Based Products 287 12.4.2 Sugar/Starch-Based Products 289 12.4.3 Polymer Products 293 12.4.4 Lignin Products 299 12.5 Summary 303 References 304 13 Carbon Offset Potential of Biomass-Based Energy 311Gauri-Shankar Guha 13.1 Emerging Public Interest in Carbon 311 13.1.1 Overview 311 13.1.2 Initiatives to Address Anthropogenic Climate Change 311 13.1.3 GHG Mitigation and Carbon Sequestration Strategies 314 13.2 Theory of Carbon Markets 314 13.2.1 Tradable Permits and the Market for Emissions 314 13.2.2 Concept of Carbon Markets 315 13.2.3 Demand and Supply of Carbon Credits 316 13.3 Creation of Carbon Markets 317 13.3.1 Carbon Credits 317 13.3.2 Global Carbon Trade 318 13.3.3 Carbon Trading in the United States 318 13.3.4 The CCX Offset Program 318 13.4 Role of Biomass-Based Energy in Carbon Markets 319 13.4.1 Economic Significance of Bioenergy 319 13.4.2 Bioenergy Policies, Practices, and Trends 321 13.4.3 Carbon Offset Opportunities for Biofuels 323 13.5 Prognosis of Carbon Markets 324 References 325 14 Biofuel Economics 329Daniel Klein-Marcuschamer, Brad Holmes, Blake A. Simmons, and Harvey W. Blanch 14.1 Introduction 329 14.2 Production Processes 330 14.3 Biomass Transportation and Handling 331 14.4 Conversion of Biomass into Sugars 332 14.5 Conversion of Sugars into Biofuels 335 14.6 Separation and Purification 337 14.7 Co-product Handling 337 14.8 Major Cost Drivers 338 14.8.1 Biomass-Associated Costs 338 14.8.2 Capital Expenses 340 14.8.3 Operating Costs 342 14.9 Risks 343 14.10 Policy Support 345 14.11 Infrastructure and Vehicle Modifications 346 14.12 Conclusions 347 14.13 Acknowledgments 348 References 348 Index 355

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Book SynopsisScientists and engineers have made significant advances over the last two decades to achieve feasible, cost-efficient processes for the large-scale production of alternative, environmentally friendly sources of energy. Alcoholic Fuels describes the latest methods for producing fuels containing varying percentages of alcohol alongside the various applications they benefit, including combustion engines, fuel cells, and miniature power generators.Written by experts and innovators in the field,the chapters address the development and application of all alcoholic fuels, from production to end use. The first section of the book examines the production of methanol, ethanol, and butanol from several biomass sources, including corn, wood, and landfill waste. The second section explores blended fuels, such as E10, E85, and E-Diesel, and the third section focuses on applications of the different alcohol fuel types, including fuel cells, reformers, and generators. The book concludes with a discussion of the future production, use, and impact of alcohol-based fuels on society. Alcoholic Fuels provides a timely and practical source of information for chemists, engineers, and scientists working with alternative energy sources as well as managers, policymakers, and consumers considering the use and implementation of alcoholic fuels in automobiles and other energy conversion devices.Trade Review“This book is therefore timely in providing for the first time a comprehensive review of the production of alcohols, their use as fuels in internal combustion engines , and also of more advanced concepts such as fuel cells and fuel cell powered portable energy applications. This book will appeal to a wide range of readers.” --Gary Acres in Platinum Metal Reviews, 2007, Vol. 51 “This book is a very good readable reference book.” --V.V. Mahajani, in the Chemical Industry Digest, February 2007Table of ContentsProduction of Alcohol Fuels. Blended Fuels. Applications of Alcoholic Fuels.

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Book SynopsisRecent concerns about energy security in the US have drawn greater attention to agriculture's role as a producer and consumer of energy. Agriculturally-derived energy sources such as ethanol, biodiesel, biomass, and windpower presently supply between 0.3% and 0.5% of the energy consumed in the US. Organized into two parts, the first section of this book examines agriculture's role as a producer and consumer of energy, the integration of biomass energy into the US energy systems, a policy overview, and outlooks for energy production and consumption. The second section is a compendium of current research including the economic viability of ethanol and biodiesel; energy conservation and efficiency in agriculture; new methods and technologies; and environmental impacts and considerations.Table of ContentsPart I: Survey of Current Knowledge 1.1: Energy and Agriculture at the Crossroads of a New Future 1.2: Agriculture as a Producer of Energy 1.3: Energy Consumption in US Agriculture 1.4: Energy Systems Integration: Fitting Biomass Energy from Agriculture into US Energy Systems 1.5: US Oil and Gas Markets: A Scenario for Future Strong Inter-fuel Competition Part II: Current Research about Agriculture and Energy Section 1: The Economics of Ethanol and Biodiesel from Grain 2.1.1: Dry-Grind Ethanol Plant Economics and Sensitivity 2.1.2: An Econometric Analysis of the Impact of the Expansion in the US Production of Ethanol from Maize and Biodiesel from Soyabeans on Major Agricultural Variables, 2005-2015 2.1.3: Ethanol Policies, Programs and Production in Canada Section 2: The Economics of Ethanol from Lignocellulosic Sources 2.2.1: Economic Analysis of Alternative Lignocellulosic Sources for Ethanol Production 2.2.2: The Supply of Maize Stover in the Midwestern United States 2.2.3: Economic Modelling of a Lignocellulosic Biomass Biorefining Industry 2.2.4: Economic Impacts of Ethanol Production from Maize Stover in Selected Midwestern States Section 3: Energy Conservation and Efficiency in Agriculture 2.3.1: Livestock Watering with Renewable Energy Systems 2.3.2: Trends in US Poultry Housing for Energy Conservation Section 4: New Methods and Technologies 2.4.1: Experiences Co-firing Grasses in Existing Coal-fired Power Plants 2.4.2: Animal Waste as a Source of Renewable Energy 2.4.3: Development of Genetically Engineered Stress Tolerant Ethanologenic Yeasts using Integrated Functional Genomics for Effective Biomass Conversion to Ethanol 2.4.4: Case Studies of Rural Electric Cooperatives’ Experiences with Bioenergy Section 5: Environmental Impacts and Considerations 2.5.1: Potential for Biofuel-based Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Rationale and Potential 2.5.2: Life Cycle Assessment of Integrated Biorefinery-Cropping Systems: All Biomass is Local 3: Glossary

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Book SynopsisMajor contemporary issues and debates relating to the sustainable use of energy are addressed in this far-reaching Handbook. The contributing authors discuss the ongoing debates about sustainability and energy use, energy economics, renewable energy, efficiency and climate policy.Trade Review'...was impressed by the scope of the contributions and their clarity. All appear to have been written specifically for this ''Handbook'' and all are readily comprehensible without a large amount of assumed previous knowledge. . . a very useful source document and many of the chapters represent a good starting point for student research projects.' --Tony Owen, Economics of Energy and Environmental Policy'In today's modern world where energy resources are increasingly scarce, climate change is a hot-button issue, and population growth continues to push the need to promote sustainable living, Handbook of Sustainable Energy is highly recommended as an absolutely invaluable contribution to graduate school libraries and the pool of literature available to professionals in the field.' --The Midwest Book ReviewTable of ContentsContents: Introduction Ibon Galarraga and Mikel González-Eguino PART I: SUSTAINABLE USE OF ENERGY 1. The Sustainability of ‘Sustainable’ Energy Use: Historical Evidence on the Relationship between Economic Growth and Renewable Energy Roger Fouquet 2. Sustainability Criteria for Energy Resources and Technologies Geoffrey P. Hammond and Craig I. Jones 3. Economic Growth, Energy Consumption and Climate Policy M. Carmen Gallastegui, Alberto Ansuategi, Marta Escapa and Sabah Abdullah 4. The Linkages between Energy Efficiency and Security of Energy Supply in Europe Andrea Bigano, Ramon Arigoni Ortiz, Anil Markandya, Emanuela Menichetti and Roberta Pierfederici 5. Governing a Low Carbon Energy Transition: Lessons from UK and Dutch Approaches Timothy J. Foxon PART II: ENERGY AND ECONOMICS 6. How Energy Works: Gas and Electricity Markets in Europe Monica Bonacina, Anna Creti and Susanna Dorigoni 7. Transmission and Distribution Networks for a Sustainable Electricity Supply Ignacio Pérez-Arriaga, Tomás Gómez, Luis Olmos and Michel Rivier 8. Energy–Economic–Environmental Models: A Survey Renato Rodrigues, Antonio G. Gómez-Plana and Mikel González-Eguino 9. Energy Supply and the Sustainability of Endogenous Growth Karen Pittel and Dirk Rübbelke 10. Consumer Behavior and the Use of Sustainable Energy Reinhard Madlener and Marjolein J.W. Harmsen-van Hout PART III: RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY 11. Multicriteria Diversity Analysis: Theory, Method and an Illustrative Application Go Yoshizawa, Andy Stirling and Tatsujiro Suzuki 12. Review of the World and European Renewable Energy Resource Potentials Helena Cabal, Maryse Labriet and Yolanda Lechón 13. The Cost of Renewable Energy: Past and Future Kirsten Halsnæs and Kenneth Karlsson 14. Valuing Efficiency Gains in EU Coal-based Power Generation Luis María Abadie and José Manuel Chamorro 15. Energy Use in the Transport Sector: Ways to Improve Efficiency Kenneth Button PART IV: OTHER ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 16. Nuclear Power in the Twenty-first Century Geoffrey P. Hammond 17. Carbon Capture Technology: Status and Future Prospects Edward John Anthony and Paul S. Fennell 18. Environmental, Economic and Policy Aspects of Biofuels Peter B.R. Hazell and Martin Evans PART IV: ENERGY AND CLIMATE POLICY 19. The European Carbon Market (2005–07): Banking, Pricing and Risk-hedging Strategies Julien Chevallier 20. The Clean Development Mechanism: A Stepping Stone Towards World Carbon Markets? Julien Chevallier 21. Second-best Instruments for Energy and Climate Policy Xavier Labandeira and Pedro Linares 22. Addressing Fields of Rationality: A Policy for Reducing Household Energy Consumption? Hege Westskog, Tanja Winther and Einar Strumse 23. The Role of R&D+i in the Energy Sector Alessandro Lanza and Elena Verdolini PART VI: OTHER DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY 24. Energy and Poverty: The Perspective of Poor Countries Rob Bailis 25. The Role of Regions in the Energy Sector: Past and Future Thomas Reisz 26. California’s Energy-related Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction Policies David R. Heres and C.-Y. Cynthia Lin 27. Regional Experiences: The Past, Present and Future of the Energy Policy in the Basque Region Jose Ignacio Hormaeche, Ibon Galarraga and Jose Luis Sáenz de Ormijana Epilogue Anil Markandya Index

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Book SynopsisDescribes and explains Schauberger's insights in an accessible way, including his discoveries about sick water, ailing forests, climate change and renewable energy.Trade Review'The book seeks to explain its concepts in simple language, assisted throughout by clear and well-annotated illustrations. Thought-provoking.'-- Jeff Sanderson, Light, Summer 2004'Hidden Nature is a comprehensive breakdown of Viktor Schauberger's stunning ideas and observations. Alick Bartholomew strips away the complexity of Callum Coats' book Living Energies, in order better to understand Schauberger's main themes. It will certainly transform your views on water. The graphics are the clearest I've seen in any book on Schauberger. I highly recommend it if you want to learn about Schauberger's natural science.'-- Amazon UK review'Hidden Nature gives a context for Schauberger's thinking and brings it into the framework of later understandings, such as Gaia theory and Lawrence Edwards' work. As one reads this very accessible book, one is left with a growing sense that his system is so simple, so sensible and rooted in reality, that one wonders why on earth more people don't know about it.'-- Jane Cobbald, Star and Furrow, Winter 2003'Alick Bartholomew is in a very good position to have written this introductory overview of Schauberger's work for the general reader. With its readable text and informative illustrations, this is an essential primer.'-- David Lorimer, Scientific and Medical Network Review, Spring 2004'A spacious and well-presented book with plenty of diagrams. The concepts are explained well. Fascinating and thought-provoking.'-- Reforesting Scotland, Spring 2004'The book's scope is very broad and it is intended to be more accessible to the lay reader than the technical publications on Schauberger. [...] It has always puzzled me that Jack and Jill went *up* the hill for their water. The "anomaly point", central to Schauberger's understanding of how true springs form, might be a clue.... Schauberger's ideas, ideals even, resonate strongly with the modern debate about sustainability.'-- New View, December 2003'This is a timely book on a profound subject ... Hidden Nature reveals a timeless wisdom requiring urgent attention ... Water may seem to you so ordinary, but this book will totally transform your perception of it. After reading Hidden Nature you will know that it is the most precious substance on the Earth.'-- Satish Kumar, Editor, Resurgence magazine'Alick Bartholomew tells how in 1950 Richard St Barbe Baker arranged for Schauberger's son, a trained physicist, to talk to a group of atomic physicists at Birmingham University. A few weeks later, Baker asked the scientists if they had held a postmortem on Schauberger's presentation. "Yes indeed," they admitted; they had decided that it was "unchallengable". "Then what are you going to do about it?" asked Baker. "Nothing," was their retort. "Why not?" "Because it would mean rewriting all the textbooks in the world." That, in my view, is reason enough to read this book.'-- Jane Cobbald, Star and Furrow, Winter 2003'Alick Bartholomew provides a fitting first glimpse [of Schauberger's insights and inventions] with Hidden Nature. If you've had enough of the mechanistic, materialistic worldview and are looking for an alternative approach that's based on a real appreciation of Nature's workings, this is the book for you.'-- Ruth Parnell, Nexus Magazine, February 2004'Schauberger was an untutored genius well ahead of his time. His remarkable insights and investigations into water and living energies challenge established scientific dogmas then and now. Alick Bartholomew has done an admirable job of making Schauberger's work accessible and relevant to our age without compromising its artistic integrity. Read it for pure inspiration and for concrete ideas on disciplines as diverse as bioenergetics, consciousness, earth science, hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, and many others yet to be named.'-- Dr Mae-Wan Ho, biologist, author, and editor of Science in SocietyTable of ContentsForeword by David BellamyIntroduction: Levitation and resistanceless movement; The non-conformist; Alternative worldviewPart One: An Alternative World-View1. Schauberger’s Vision: Water wizard; Log flumes; Water, source of life; Subtle energies; Motion is crucial; Temperature controls; Water, source of life; Evolution; Balance; Implosion; The visionary2. Different Kinds of Energy: Subtle energies; Viktor’s worldview; Why the mystery? Degrees of energy; Vortex, key to creative evolution; Energies as creative process; Spiritual science; Different dimensions; Changing octaves3. Attraction & Repulsion of Opposites: Sun as fertilizing entity; Polarities; Opposites working towards balance; Gravity & levity4. Nature's Patterns & Shapes: Sound as Resonance; Resonance is about qualities; Plants have perception and memory; Cymatics; Patterns & shapes; Patterns in motion; Rhythms in solar system; Cosmic rhythms; The confrontation of two Geometric Systems; Sacred geometry; The Golden Mean; The magic of the egg form Part Two: How the World Works5. Energy Production: Inefficiency of modern technology; Entropy & ectropy; Scientific ’laws’; Energy pollution; The choice before us; Energy defines quality; The creative energy vortex6. Motion, Key to Balance: We use the wrong form of motion; The ‘original’ motion; Types of motion7. Atmosphere & Electricity: Earth’s atmosphere; Electricity; Terrestrial bio-condenser; Earth as accumulator of energy; Electrism and magnetism; Storms, water vapour and climatePart Three: Water – the Source of Life8. The Nature of Water: Memory of water; Creation of water; Anomaly point of water; Qualities of water; How the river protects itself; Temperature gradient. & nutrient supply9. The Hydrological Cycle: Full & half hydrological cycles; Temperature gradients & nutrient supply10. Formation of Springs: The veneration of springs; Seepage springs; True springs; How spring water rises; Energy from deep ocean11. How Rivers Flow: Stages of a river; Temperature & movement of water; Positive temperature gradients; Dams; Flow guides; Energy bodies; Formation of vortices; Vortices as the source of creative energy; Formation of bends; Conventional river engineering; Hydro-electric power12. Supplying Water: Dwindling water supplies; Water for profit; Modern water treatments – chlorine – fluoride; Transmuting water’s memory; Tubular water movement; Water main materials; The wooden water main; Stuttgart tests; Circulation of bloodPart Four: The Life of Trees13. The Role of the Forest: Evolution of the forest; Destruction of the forests; A moral tale; Tropical rainforests; Forestry; Monoculture; Biodiversity; Energy in the forest14. Trees: Trees in the biosphere; Form of a tree; Trees and humans; Trees and colour; Their physical nature; Tree classification; Trees’ response to light; Light & shade demanding trees; Light-induced growth; Man-made depredations; Importance of photosynthesis; Creation of water; Maturation of water15. Tree Metabolism: Sap movement; Temperature gradients; Trees as bio-condensers; Root systems. Soil and nutritionPart Five: Working with Nature16. Soil Fertility and Cultivation: Crisis in intensive farming; Ploughing methods; Two kinds of electromagnetism; Golden plough; Bio plough; Aligning furrows; Grazing & grass cutting; Artificial fertilizers17. Organic Cultivation: Biological agriculture; Soil mineralization; Organic farming, Biodynamic farming; Subtle energies in Nature; Cold Fire; Fertilizing agenciesPart Six: The Energy Revolution18. Harnessing Implosion Power: An American consortium; A new kind of aircraft? The beginnings of implosion research; Schauberger’s Free Energy Search; Flying saucers; Biological vacuum; The repulsator; The implosion motor; The repulsine & flying saucer19. Viktor Schauberger & Society: The human legacy; Implementing Schauberger’s researchAcknowledgments, Resources, Bibliography, Index

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsStatistical Methods for Reliability Data i Preface to the Second Edition iii Preface to First Edition viii Acknowledgments xii 1 Reliability Concepts and an Introduction to Reliability Data 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Examples of Reliability Data 3 1.3 General Models for Reliability Data 11 1.4 Models for Time to Event Versus Models for Recurrences in a Sequence of Events 13 1.5 Strategy for Data Collection, Modeling, and Analysis 15 2 Models, Censoring, and Likelihood for Failure-Time Data 19 2.1 Models for Continuous Failure-Time Processes 19 2.2 Models for Discrete Data from a Continuous Process 25 2.3 Censoring 27 2.4 Likelihood 28 3 Nonparametric Estimation for Failure-Time Data 37 3.1 Estimation from Complete Data 38 3.2 Estimation from Singly-Censored Interval Data 38 3.3 Basic Ideas of Statistical Inference 40 3.4 Confidence Intervals from Complete or Singly-Censored Data 41 3.5 Estimation from Multiply-Censored Data 43 3.6 Pointwise Confidence Intervals from Multiply-Censored Data 45 3.7 Estimation from Multiply-Censored Data with Exact Failures 47 3.8 Nonparametric Simultaneous Confidence Bands 49 3.9 Arbitrary Censoring 52 4 Some Parametric Distributions Used in Reliability Applications 60 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Quantities of Interest in Reliability Applications 61 4.3 Location-Scale and Log-Location-Scale Distributions 62 4.4 Exponential Distribution 63 4.5 Normal Distribution 64 4.6 Lognormal Distribution 65 4.7 Smallest Extreme Value Distribution 67 4.8 Weibull Distribution 68 4.9 Largest Extreme Value Distribution 70 4.10 Frechet Distribution 71 4.11 Logistic Distribution 73 4.12 Loglogistic Distribution 74 4.13 Generalized Gamma Distribution 75 4.14 Distributions with a Threshold Parameter 76 4.15 Other Methods of Deriving Failure-Time Distributions 78 4.16 Parameters and Parameterization 80 4.17 Generating Pseudorandom Observations from a Specified Distribution 80 5 System Reliability Concepts and Methods 87 5.1 Non-Repairable System Reliability Metrics 88 5.2 Series Systems 88 5.3 Parallel Systems 91 5.4 Series-Parallel Systems 93 5.5 Other System Structures 94 5.6 Multistate System Reliability Models 96 6 Probability Plotting 102 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 Linearizing Location-Scale-Based Distributions 103 6.3 Graphical Goodness of Fit 105 6.4 Probability Plotting Positions 106 6.5 Notes on the Application of Probability Plotting 111 7 Parametric Likelihood Fitting Concepts: Exponential Distribution 119 7.1 Introduction 120 7.2 Parametric Likelihood 122 7.3 Likelihood Confidence Intervals for θ 123 7.4 Wald (Normal-Approximation) Confidence Intervals for θ 125 7.5 Confidence Intervals for Functions of θ 126 7.6 Comparison of Confidence Interval Procedures 127 7.7 Likelihood for Exact Failure Times 128 7.8 Effect of Sample Size on Confidence Interval Width and the Likelihood Shape 130 7.9 Exponential Distribution Inferences with No Failures 131 8 Maximum Likelihood Estimation for Log-Location-Scale Distributions 138 8.1 Likelihood Definition 139 8.2 Likelihood Confidence Regions and Intervals 142 8.3 Wald Confidence Intervals 146 8.4 The ML Estimate May Not Go Through the Points 151 8.5 Estimation with a Given Shape Parameter 152 9 Parametric Bootstrap and Other Simulation-Based Confidence Interval Methods 164 9.1 Introduction 165 9.2 Methods for Generating Bootstrap Samples and Obtaining Bootstrap Estimates 165 9.3 Bootstrap Confidence Interval Methods 171 9.4 Bootstrap Confidence Intervals Based on Pivotal Quantities 176 9.5 Confidence Intervals Based on Generalized Pivotal Quantities 181 10 An Introduction to Bayesian Statistical Methods for Reliability 189 10.1 Bayesian Inference: Overview 190 10.2 Bayesian Inference: an Illustrative Example 194 10.3 More About Prior Information and Specification of a Prior Distribution 202 10.4 Implementing Bayesian Analyses Using MCMC Simulation 205 10.5 Using Prior Information to Estimate the Service-Life Distribution of a Rocket Motor 210 11 Special Parametric Models 219 11.1 Extending ML Methods 219 11.2 Fitting the Generalized Gamma Distribution 220 11.3 Fitting the Birnbaum–Saunders Distribution 223 11.4 The Limited Failure Population Model 225 11.5 Truncated Data and Truncated Distributions 227 11.6 Fitting Distributions that Have a Threshold Parameter 232 12 Comparing Failure-Time Distributions 243 12.1 Background and Motivation 243 12.2 Nonparametric Comparisons 244 12.3 Parametric Comparison of Two Groups by Fitting Separate Distributions 247 12.4 Parametric Comparison of Two Groups by Fitting Separate Distributions With Equal σ values 248 12.5 Parametric Comparison of More than Two Groups 250 13 Planning Life Tests for Estimation 261 13.1 Introduction 261 13.2 Simple Formulas to Determine the Needed Sample Size 263 13.3 Use of Simulation in Test Planning 267 13.4 Approximate Variance of ML Estimators and Computing Variance Factors 274 13.5 Variance Factors for (Log-)Location-Scale Distributions 275 13.6 Some Extensions 278 14 Planning Reliability Demonstration Tests 282 14.1 Introduction to Demonstration Testing 282 14.2 Finding the Required Sample Size n or Test-Length Factor k 284 14.3 Probability of Successful Demonstration 288 15 Prediction of Failure Times and the Number of Future Field Failures 293 15.1 Basic Concepts of Statistical Prediction 294 15.2 Probability Prediction Intervals (_ Known) 295 15.3 Statistical Prediction Intervals (_ Estimated) 296 15.4 Plug-In Prediction and Calibration 297 15.5 Computing and Using Predictive Distributions 301 15.6 Prediction of the Number of Future Failures from a Single Group of Units in the Field 304 15.7 Predicting the Number of Future Failures from Multiple Groups of Units in the Field with Staggered Entry into the Field 307 15.8 Bayesian Prediction Methods 311 15.9 Choosing a Distribution for Making Predictions 313 16 Analysis of Data with More than One Failure Mode 321 16.1 An Introduction to Multiple Failure Modes 321 16.2 Model for Multiple Failure Modes Data 323 16.3 Competing-Risk Estimation 324 16.4 The Effect of Eliminating a Failure Mode 328 16.5 Subdistribution Functions and Prediction for Individual Failure Modes 331 16.6 More About the Non-Identifiability of Dependence Among Failure Modes 332 17 Failure-Time Regression Analysis 340 17.1 Introduction 341 17.2 Simple Linear Regression Models 342 17.3 Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Regression Models 345 17.4 Regression Model with Quadratic μ and Nonconstant σ 347 17.5 Checking Model Assumptions 351 17.6 Empirical Regression Models and Sensitivity Analysis 354 17.7 Models with Two or More Explanatory Variables 359 18 Analysis of Accelerated Life Test Data 369 18.1 Introduction to Accelerated Life Tests 369 18.2 Overview of ALT Data Analysis Methods 371 18.3 Temperature-Accelerated Life Tests 372 18.4 Bayesian Analysis of a Temperature-Accelerated Life Test 380 18.5 Voltage-Accelerated Life Test 381 19 More Topics on Accelerated Life Testing 396 19.1 ALTs with Interval-Censored Data 396 19.2 ALTs with Two Accelerating Variables 401 19.3 Multifactor Experiments with a Single Accelerating Variable 405 19.4 Practical Suggestions for Drawing Conclusions from ALT Data 409 19.5 Pitfalls of Accelerated Life Testing 410 19.6 Other Kinds of Accelerated Tests 412 20 Degradation Modeling and Destructive Degradation Data Analysis 421 20.1 Degradation Reliability Data and Degradation Path Models: Introduction and Background422 20.2 Description and Mechanistic Motivation for Degradation Path Models 423 20.3 Models Relating Degradation and Failure 427 20.4 DDT Background, Motivating Examples, and Estimation 427 20.5 Failure-Time Distributions Induced from DDT Models and Failure-Time Inferences 431 20.6 ADDT Model Building 433 20.7 Fitting an Acceleration Model to ADDT Data 435 20.8 ADDT Failure-Time Inferences 437 20.9 ADDT Analysis Using an Informative Prior Distribution 438 20.10 An ADDT with an Asymptotic Model 439 21 Repeated-Measures Degradation Modeling and Analysis 448 21.1 RMDT Models and Data 448 21.2 RMDT Parameter Estimation 451 21.3 The Relationship Between Degradation and Failure-Time for RMDT Models 454 21.4 Estimation of a Failure-Time cdf from RMDT Data 457 21.5 Models for ARMDT Data 458 21.6 ARMDT Estimation 459 21.7 ARMDT with Multiple Accelerating Variables 462 22 Analysis of Repairable System and Other Recurrent Events Data 469 22.1 Introduction 469 22.2 Nonparametric Estimation of the MCF 471 22.3 Comparison of Two Samples of Recurrent Events Data 474 22.4 Recurrent Events Data with Multiple Event Types 475 23 Case Studies and Further Applications 481 23.1 Analysis of Hard Drive Field Data 481 23.2 Reliability in the Presence of Stress-Strength Interference 484 23.3 Predicting Field Failures with a Limited Failure Population 487 23.4 Analysis of Accelerated Life Test Data When There is a Batch Effect 494 Epilogue 499 A Notation and Acronyms 503 B Other Useful Distributions and Probability Distribution Computations 509 B.1 Important Characteristics of Distribution Functions 509 B.2 Distributions and R Computations 511 B.3 Continuous Distributions 511 B.4 Discrete Distributions 519 B.4.1 Binomial Distribution 519 C Some Results from Statistical Theory 522 C.1 The cdfs and pdfs of Functions of Random Variables 522 C.2 Statistical Error Propagation—The Delta Method 527 C.3 Likelihood and Fisher Information Matrices 528 C.4 Regularity Conditions 529 C.5 Convergence in Distribution 530 C.6 Convergence in Probability 531 C.7 Outline of General ML Theory 532 C.8 Inference with Zero or Few Failures 534 C.9 The Bonferroni Inequality 536 D Tables 538 References 549

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Book SynopsisComprehensive coverage on the growing science and technology of producing ethanol from the world's abundant cellulosic biomass The inevitable decline in petroleum reserves and its impact on gasoline prices, combined with climate change concerns, have contributed to current interest in renewable fuels.Table of ContentsPreface xvii Part 1 Introduction to Cellulosic Ethanol 1 1 Renewable Fuels 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Renewable Energy 6 1.3 Biofuels 7 1.4 Renewable Energy in the United States 14 1.5 Renewable Fuel Legislature in the United States 20 References 25 2 Bioethanol as a Transportation Fuel 29 2.1 Introduction — History of Bioethanol as a Transportation Fuel 29 2.2 Alcohol Fuels 31 2.3 Fuel Characteristics of Ethanol 31 2.4 Corn and Sugarcane Ethanol 34 2.5 Advantages of Cellulosic Ethanol 35 References 40 3 Feedstocks for Cellulosic Ethanol Production 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Cellulosic Ethanol Feedstock Types 46 3.3 Potential of Agricultural Wastes 46 3.4 Major Crop Residue Feedstock 50 3.5 Forestry Residue, Logging and Mill Residue 68 3.6 Grass Feedstocks 70 3.7 Purpose-Grown Trees as Feedstock 92 3.8 Municipal and Other Waste as Feedstock for Cellulosic Ethanol 101 References 108 Part 2 Aqueous Phase Biomass Hydrolysis Route 131 4 Challenges in Aqueous-Phase Biomass Hydrolysis Route: Recalcitrance 133 4.1 Introduction – Two Ways to Produce Cellulosic Ethanol 133 4.2 Challenges in Aqueous-Phase Biomass Hydrolysis 134 4.3 Structure of Plant Cells and Lignocellulosic Biomass 135 4.4 Major Components of Lignocellulosic Biomass 137 4.5 Cellulose Recalcitrance 140 References 143 5 Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass 147 5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 Different Categories of Pretreatment Methods 150 5.3 Physical Pretreatment 150 5.4 Physicochemical Pretreatment 153 5.5 Chemical Pretreatment 177 5.6 Biological Pretreatment 190 5.7 Conclusion 191 References 197 6 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose and Hemicellulose 219 6.1 Introduction 219 6.2 Enzymatic Actions on Lignocellulosic Biomass 220 6.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose 221 6.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Hemicellulose 233 6.5 Future Directions in Enzymatic Cellulose Hydrolysis Research 237 References 239 7 Acid Hydrolysis of Cellulose and Hemicellulose 247 7.1 Introduction 247 7.2 Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis 248 7.3 Dilute Acid Hydrolysis 252 7.4 Ionic Liquid-Based Direct Acid Hydrolysis 262 7.5 Solid Acid Hydrolysis 269 References 275 8 Fermentation I – Microorganisms 283 8.1 Introduction 283 8.2 Detoxification of Lignocellulosic Hydrolyzate 284 8.3 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF) 288 8.4 Microorganisms Used in the Fermentation 288 8.5 Fermentation Using Yeasts 289 8.6 Fermentation Using Bacteria 294 8.7 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) 300 8.8 Immobilization of Yeast 317 References 322 9 Fermentation II – Fermenter Configuration and Design 339 9.1 Introduction 339 9.2 Batch Fermentation 340 9.2.1 Examples of Batch Fermentation 340 9.3 Fed-Batch Fermentation 340 9.4 Continuous Fermentation 346 9.5 New Directions in Fermenter Configuration and Design 352 References 353 10 Separation and Uses of Lignin 357 10.1 Introduction 357 10.2 Structure of Lignin 359 10.3 Separation of Lignin in the Cellulosic Ethanol Process 360 10.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lignin 363 10.5 Applications of Lignin 365 10.5.1 Lignin-Based Phenol Formaldehyde Resins 365 References 373 Part 3 Biomass Gasification Route 381 11 Biomass Pyrolysis and Gasifier Designs 383 11.1 Introduction 383 11.2 Chemistry of the Conversion of Biomass to Syngas 384 11.3 Classifications of Biomass Gasifiers 387 11.4 Fixed-Bed Gasifier 388 11.5 Fluidized-Bed Gasifier 389 11.6 Bubbling Fluidized-Bed (BFB) Gasifier 390 11.7 Circulating Fluidized-Bed (CFB) Gasifier 392 11.8 Allothermal Dual Fluidized-Bed (DFB) Gasifier 392 11.9 Entrained-Flow Gasifier 395 11.10 Syngas Cleaning 396 11.11 Tar Control and Treatment Methods 403 References 403 12 Conversion of Syngas to Ethanol Using Microorganisms 407 12.1 Introduction 407 12.2 Metabolic Pathways 410 12.3 Microorganisms Used in Syngas Fermentation 414 12.4 Biochemical Reactions in Syngas Fermentation 414 12.5 The Effects of Operation Parameters on Ethanol Yield 416 12.6 Syngas Fermentation Reactors 424 12.7 Industrial-Scale Syngas Fermentation and Commercialization 426 References 427 13 Conversion of Syngas to Ethanol Using Chemical Catalysts 433 13.1 Introduction 433 13.2 Homogeneous Catalysts 434 13.3 Introduction to Heterogeneous Catalysts 437 13.4 Heterogeneous Catalyst Types 437 13.5 Rhodium-Based Catalysts 438 13.6 Copper-Based Modified Methanol Synthesis Catalysts 449 13.7 Modified Fischer-Tropsch-Type Catalysts 455 13.8 Molybdenum-Based Catalysts 456 13.9 Catalyst Selection 459 References 461 Part 4 Processing of Cellulosic Ethanol 467 14 Distillation of Ethanol 469 14.1 Introduction 469 14.2 Distillation of the Beer 470 14.3 How Distillation Works 470 14.4 Conventional Ethanol Distillation System 472 14.5 Steam Generation for Distillation Process 475 14.6 Studies on Development of Hybrid Systems for Ethanol Distillation 476 References 479 15 Dehydration to Fuel Grade Ethanol 481 15.1 Introduction 481 15.2 Dehydration Methods 482 15.3 Adsorption Method 482 15.4 Azeotropic Distillation Method 488 15.5 Extractive Distillation Methods 491 15.6 Membrane-Based Pervaporation Methods 494 15.7 Other Dehydration Methods 498 15.8 Comparisons of Common Dehydration Methods 498 References 500 Part 5 Fuel Ethanol Standards and Process Evaluation 507 16 Fuel Ethanol Standards, Testing and Blending 509 16.1 Introduction 509 16.2 Fuel Grade Ethanol Standards in the United States 510 16.3 Quality Assurance and Test Methods 514 16.4 European Fuel Ethanol Standards 517 16.5 Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for Denatured Fuel Ethanol 518 16.6 Gasoline Ethanol Blends 520 16.7 Engine Performance Using Gasoline Ethanol Blends 524 References 528 17 Techno-Economic Analysis and Future of Cellulosic Ethanol 531 17.1 Introduction 531 17.2 Techno-Economic Aspects of Biomass Hydrolysis Process 532 17.3 Techno-Economic Aspects of Biomass Gasification Process 533 17.4 Comparison of Biomass Hydrolysis and Gasification Processes 539 17.5 Some Cellulosic Plants around the World 540 17.6 Challenges in Cellulosic Ethanol 550 17.7 Future Prospects of Cellulosic Ethanol 553 References 554 Appendix 1 557 Index

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Book SynopsisFeaturing practical approaches to various reliability theory applications, this book the first of three in a series helps readers to understand and properly utilize statistical methods and optimal resource allocation to solve everyday engineering problems.Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acronyms and Notations xv 1 What Is Reliability? 1 1.1 Reliability as a Property of Technical Objects, 1 1.2 Other “Ilities”, 2 1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Analyzed Objects, 5 1.4 How Can Reliability Be Measured?, 5 1.5 Software Reliability, 7 1.5.1 Case Study: Avalanche of Software Failures, 8 2 Unrecoverable Objects 9 2.1 Unit, 9 2.1.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 9 2.1.2 Mean Time to Failure, 10 2.2 Series Systems, 11 2.2.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 11 2.2.2 Mean Time to Failure, 13 2.3 Parallel System, 14 2.3.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 14 2.3.2 Mean Time to Failure, 18 2.4 Structure of Type “k-out-of-n”, 20 2.5 Realistic Models of Loaded Redundancy, 22 2.5.1 Unreliable Switching Process, 23 2.5.2 Non-Instant Switching, 23 2.5.3 Unreliable Switch, 24 2.5.4 Switch Serving as Interface, 25 2.5.5 Incomplete Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 26 2.5.6 Periodical Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 28 2.6 Reducible Structures, 28 2.6.1 Parallel-Series and Series-Parallel Structures, 28 2.6.2 General Case of Reducible Structures, 29 2.7 Standby Redundancy, 30 2.7.1 Simple Redundant Group, 30 2.7.2 Standby Redundancy of Type “k-out-of-n”, 33 2.8 Realistic Models of Unloaded Redundancy, 34 2.8.1 Unreliable Switching Process, 34 2.8.2 Non-Instant Switching, 35 2.8.3 Unreliable Switch, 35 2.8.4 Switch Serving as Interface, 37 2.8.5 Incomplete Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 38 3 Recoverable Systems: Markov Models 40 3.1 Unit, 40 3.1.1 Markov Model, 41 3.2 Series System, 47 3.2.1 Turning Off System During Recovery, 47 3.2.2 System in Operating State During Recovery: Unrestricted Repair, 49 3.2.3 System in Operating State During Recovery: Restricted Repair, 51 3.3 Dubbed System, 53 3.3.1 General Description, 53 3.3.2 Nonstationary Availability Coefficient, 54 3.3.3 Stationary Availability Coefficient, 58 3.3.4 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 59 3.3.5 Stationary Coefficient of Interval Availability, 62 3.3.6 Mean Time to Failure, 63 3.3.7 Mean Time Between Failures, 63 3.3.8 Mean Recovery Time, 65 3.4 Parallel Systems, 65 3.5 Structures of Type “m-out-of-n”, 66 4 Recoverable Systems: Heuristic Models 72 4.1 Preliminary Notes, 72 4.2 Poisson Process, 75 4.3 Procedures over Poisson Processes, 78 4.3.1 Thinning Procedure, 78 4.3.2 Superposition Procedure, 80 4.4 Asymptotic Thinning Procedure over Stochastic Point Process, 80 4.5 Asymptotic Superposition of Stochastic Point Processes, 82 4.6 Intersection of Flows of Narrow Impulses, 84 4.7 Heuristic Method for Reliability Analysis of Series Recoverable Systems, 87 4.8 Heuristic Method for Reliability Analysis of Parallel Recoverable Systems, 87 4.8.1 Influence of Unreliable Switching Procedure, 88 4.8.2 Influence of Switch’s Unreliability, 89 4.8.3 Periodical Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 90 4.8.4 Partial Monitoring of the Operating Unit, 91 4.9 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 93 5 Time Redundancy 95 5.1 System with Possibility of Restarting Operation, 95 5.2 Systems with “Admissibly Short Failures”, 98 5.3 Systems with Time Accumulation, 99 5.4 Case Study: Gas Pipeline with an Underground Storage, 100 5.5 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 102 6 “Aging” Units and Systems of “Aging” Units 103 6.1 Chebyshev Bound, 103 6.2 “Aging” Unit, 104 6.3 Bounds for Probability of Failure-Free Operations, 105 6.4 Series System Consisting of “Aging” Units, 108 6.4.1 Preliminary Lemma, 108 6.5 Series System, 110 6.5.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 110 6.5.2 Mean Time to Failure of a Series System, 112 6.6 Parallel System, 114 6.6.1 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 114 6.6.2 Mean Time to Failure, 117 6.7 Bounds for the Coefficient of Operational Availability, 119 6.8 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 121 7 Two-Pole Networks 123 7.1 General Comments, 123 7.1.1 Method of Direct Enumeration, 125 7.2 Method of Boolean Function Decomposition, 127 7.3 Method of Paths and Cuts, 130 7.3.1 Esary–Proschan Bounds, 130 7.3.2 “Improvements” of Esary–Proschan Bounds, 133 7.3.3 Litvak–Ushakov Bounds, 135 7.3.4 Comparison of the Two Methods, 139 7.4 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 140 8 Performance Effectiveness 143 8.1 Effectiveness Concepts, 143 8.2 General Idea of Effectiveness Evaluation, 145 8.2.1 Conditional Case Study: Airport Traffic Control System, 147 8.3 Additive Type of System Units’ Outcomes, 150 8.4 Case Study: ICBM Control System, 151 8.5 Systems with Intersecting Zones of Action, 153 8.6 Practical Recommendation, 158 8.7 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 160 9 System Survivability 162 9.1 Illustrative Example, 166 9.2 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 167 10 Multistate Systems 169 10.1 Preliminary Notes, 169 10.2 Generating Function, 169 10.3 Universal Generating Function, 172 10.4 Multistate Series System, 174 10.4.1 Series Connection of Piping Runs, 174 10.4.2 Series Connection of Resistors, 177 10.4.3 Series Connections of Capacitors, 179 10.5 Multistate Parallel System, 181 10.5.1 Parallel Connection of Piping Runs, 181 10.5.2 Parallel Connection of Resistors, 182 10.5.3 Parallel Connections of Capacitors, 182 10.6 Reducible Systems, 183 10.7 Conclusion, 190 10.8 Brief Historical Overview and Related Sources, 190 Appendix A Main Distributions Related to Reliability Theory 195 A.1 Discrete Distributions, 195 A.1.1 Degenerate Distribution, 195 A.1.2 Bernoulli Distribution, 196 A.1.3 Binomial Distribution, 197 A.1.4 Poisson Distribution, 198 A.1.5 Geometric Distribution, 200 A.2 Continuous Distributions, 201 A.2.1 Intensity Function, 201 A.2.2 Continuous Uniform Distribution, 202 A.2.3 Exponential Distribution, 203 A.2.4 Erlang Distribution, 204 A.2.5 Hyperexponential Distribution, 205 A.2.6 Normal Distribution, 207 A.2.7Weibull–Gnedenko Distribution, 207 Appendix B Laplace Transformation 209 Appendix C Markov Processes 214 C.1 General Markov Process, 214 C.1.1 Nonstationary Availability Coefficient, 216 C.1.2 Probability of Failure-Free Operation, 218 C.1.3 Stationary Availability Coefficient, 220 C.1.4 Mean Time to Failure and Mean Time Between Failures, 221 C.1.5 Mean Recovery Time, 222 C.2 Birth–Death Process, 223 Appendix D General Bibliography 227 Index 231

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Book SynopsisSustainable Energy Conversion for Electricity and Coproducts Comprehensive and a fundamental approach to the study of sustainable fuel conversion for the generation of electricity and for coproducing synthetic fuels and chemicals Both electricity and chemicals are critical to maintain our modern way of life; however, environmental impacts have to be factored in to sustain this type of lifestyle. Sustainable Energy Conversion for Electricity and Coproducts provides a unified, comprehensive, and a fundamental approach to the study of sustainable fuel conversion in order to generate electricity and optionally coproduce synthetic fuels and chemicals. The book starts with an introduction to energy systems and describes the various forms of energy sources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, biomass, and other renewables and nuclear. Their distribution is discussed in order to emphasize the uneven availability and finiteness of some of these resources. Each topic in Table of ContentsPreface xi About the Book xiv About the Author xv 1 Introduction to Energy Systems 1 1.1 Energy Sources and Distribution of Resources 2 1.1.1 Fossil Fuels 2 1.1.2 Nuclear 16 1.1.3 Renewables 17 1.2 Energy and the Environment 21 1.2.1 Criteria and Other Air Pollutants 22 1.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions, Capture, and Storage 26 1.2.3 Water Usage 28 1.3 Holistic Approach 29 1.3.1 Supply Chain and Life Cycle Assessment 29 1.4 Conclusions 31 References 31 2 Thermodynamics 33 2.1 First Law 34 2.1.1 Application to a Combustor 36 2.1.2 Efficiency Based on First Law 45 2.2 Second Law 46 2.2.1 Quality Destruction and Entropy Generation 51 2.2.2 Second Law Analysis 53 2.2.3 First and Second Law Efficiencies 57 2.3 Combustion and Gibbs Free Energy Minimization 58 2.4 Nonideal Behavior 60 2.4.1 Gas Phase 60 2.4.2 Vapor–Liquid Phases 62 References 64 3 Fluid Flow Equipment 66 3.1 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 66 3.1.1 Flow Regimes 67 3.1.2 Extended Bernoulli Equation 68 3.2 Single-Phase Incompressible Flow 69 3.2.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes 69 3.2.2 Pressure Drop in Fittings 70 3.3 Single-Phase Compressible Flow 71 3.3.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 72 3.3.2 Choked Flow 72 3.4 Two-Phase Fluid Flow 72 3.4.1 Gas–Liquid Flow Regimes 73 3.4.2 Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings 74 3.4.3 Droplet Separation 74 3.5 Solid Fluid Systems 77 3.5.1 Flow Regimes 77 3.5.2 Pressure Drop 78 3.5.3 Pneumatic Conveying 80 3.6 Fluid Velocity in Pipes 80 3.7 Turbomachinery 81 3.7.1 Pumps 81 3.7.2 Compressors 90 3.7.3 Fans and Blowers 97 3.7.4 Expansion Turbines 98 References 99 4 Heat Transfer Equipment 101 4.1 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 101 4.1.1 Conduction 102 4.1.2 Convection 103 4.1.3 Radiation 112 4.2 Heat Exchange Equipment 117 4.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers 118 4.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers 124 4.2.3 Air-Cooled Exchangers 127 4.2.4 Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) 128 4.2.5 Boilers and Fired Heaters 129 References 130 5 Mass Transfer and Chemical Reaction Equipment 131 5.1 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 131 5.1.1 Molecular Diffusion 132 5.1.2 Convective Transport 133 5.1.3 Adsorption 134 5.2 Gas–Liquid Systems 135 5.2.1 Types of Mass Transfer Operations 135 5.2.2 Types of Columns 144 5.2.3 Column Sizing 146 5.2.4 Column Diameter and Pressure Drop 157 5.3 Fluid–Solid Systems 159 5.3.1 Adsorbers 159 5.3.2 Catalytic Reactors 162 References 167 6 Prime Movers 169 6.1 Gas Turbines 170 6.1.1 Principles of Operation 171 6.1.2 Combustor and Air Emissions 176 6.1.3 Start-Up and Load Control 177 6.1.4 Performance Characteristics 177 6.1.5 Fuel Types 179 6.1.6 Technology Developments 182 6.2 Steam Turbines 185 6.2.1 Principles of Operation 185 6.2.2 Load Control 186 6.2.3 Performance Characteristics 187 6.2.4 Technology Developments 189 6.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 190 6.3.1 Principles of Operation 190 6.3.2 Air Emissions 193 6.3.3 Start-up 193 6.3.4 Performance Characteristics 194 6.3.5 Fuel Types 194 6.4 Hydraulic Turbines 195 6.4.1 Process Industry Applications 195 6.4.2 Hydroelectric Power Plant Applications 196 References 196 7 Systems Analysis 198 7.1 Design Basis 198 7.1.1 Fuel or Feedstock Specifications 200 7.1.2 Mode of Heat Rejection 200 7.1.3 Ambient Conditions 200 7.1.4 Other Site-Specific Considerations 201 7.1.5 Environmental Emissions Criteria 202 7.1.6 Capacity Factor 203 7.1.7 Off-Design Requirements 204 7.2 System Configuration 205 7.3 Exergy and Pinch Analyses 207 7.3.1 Exergy Analysis 207 7.3.2 Pinch Analysis 208 7.4 Process Flow Diagrams 212 7.5 Dynamic Simulation and Process Control 215 7.5.1 Dynamic Simulation 215 7.5.2 Automatic Process Control 219 7.6 Cost Estimation and Economics 220 7.6.1 Total Plant Cost 220 7.6.2 Economic Analysis 225 7.7 Life Cycle Assessment 227 References 228 8 Rankine Cycle Systems 230 8.1 Basic Rankine Cycle 231 8.2 Addition of Superheating 233 8.3 Addition of Reheat 236 8.4 Addition of Economizer and Regenerative Feedwater Heating 238 8.5 Supercritical Rankine Cycle 241 8.6 The Steam Cycle 241 8.7 Coal-Fired Power Generation 244 8.7.1 Coal-Fired Boilers 244 8.7.2 Emissions and Control 245 8.7.3 Description of a Large Supercritical Steam Rankine Cycle 251 8.8 Plant-Derived Biomass-Fired Power Generation 255 8.8.1 Feedstock Characteristics 255 8.8.2 Biomass-Fired Boilers 256 8.8.3 Cofiring Biomass in Coal-Fired Boilers 256 8.8.4 Emissions 257 8.9 Municipal Solid Waste Fired Power Generation 258 8.9.1 MSW-Fired Boilers 258 8.9.2 Emissions Control 259 8.10 Low-Temperature Cycles 260 8.10.1 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) 260 References 262 9 Brayton–Rankine Combined Cycle Systems 264 9.1 Combined Cycle 264 9.1.1 Gas Turbine Cycles for Combined Cycles 265 9.1.2 Steam Cycles for Combined Cycles 266 9.2 Natural Gas-Fueled Plants 267 9.2.1 Description of a Large Combined Cycle 267 9.2.2 No X Control 272 9.2.3 CO and Volatile Organic Compounds Control 272 9.2.4 CO 2 Emissions Control 273 9.2.5 Characteristics of Combined Cycles 276 9.3 Coal and Biomass Fueled Plants 279 9.3.1 Gasification 280 9.3.2 Gasifier Feedstocks 282 9.3.3 Key Technologies in IGCC Systems 283 9.3.4 Description of an IGCC 287 9.3.5 Advantages of an IGCC 291 9.3.6 Economies of Scale and Biomass Gasification 291 9.4 Indirectly Fired Cycle 291 References 294 10 Coproduction and Cogeneration 296 10.1 Types of Coproducts and Synergy in Coproduction 297 10.2 Syngas Generation for Coproduction 298 10.2.1 Gasifiers 298 10.2.2 Reformers 299 10.2.3 Shift Reactors 300 10.3 Syngas Conversion to Some Key Coproducts 302 10.3.1 Methanol 302 10.3.2 Urea 305 10.3.3 Fischer–Tropsch Liquids 309 10.4 Hydrogen Coproduction from Coal and Biomass 315 10.4.1 Current Technology Plant 315 10.4.2 Advanced Technology Plant 318 10.5 Combined Heat and Power 322 10.5.1 LiBr Absorption Refrigeration 325 References 328 11 Advanced Systems 330 11.1 High Temperature Membrane Separators 330 11.1.1 Ceramic Membranes 331 11.1.2 Application of Membranes to Air Separation 333 11.1.3 Application of Membranes to H 2 Separation 334 11.2 Fuel Cells 334 11.2.1 Basic Electrochemistry and Transport Phenomena 337 11.2.2 Real Fuel Cell Behavior 339 11.2.3 Overall Cell Performance 342 11.2.4 A Fuel Cell Power Generation System 345 11.2.5 Major Fuel Cell Type Characteristics 347 11.2.6 Hybrid Cycles 351 11.2.7 A Coal-Fueled Hybrid System 354 11.3 Chemical Looping 354 11.4 Magnetohydrodynamics 356 References 357 12 Renewables and Nuclear 359 12.1 Wind 360 12.1.1 Wind Resources and Plant Siting 361 12.1.2 Key Equipment 363 12.1.3 Economics 364 12.1.4 Environmental Issues 365 12.2 Solar 365 12.2.1 Solar Resources and Plant Siting 366 12.2.2 Key Equipment 366 12.2.3 Economics 368 12.2.4 Environmental Issues 369 12.3 Geothermal 371 12.3.1 Geothermal Resources and Plant Siting 371 12.3.2 Key Equipment 372 12.3.3 Economics 376 12.3.4 Environmental Issues 377 12.4 Nuclear 378 12.4.1 Nuclear Fuel Resources and Plant Siting 379 12.4.2 Key Equipment 380 12.4.3 Economics 381 12.4.4 Environmental Issues 382 12.5 Electric Grid Stability and Dependence on Fossil Fuels 383 12.5.1 Super and Micro Grids 385 References 385 Appendix: Acronyms and Abbreviations, Symbols and Units 387 Index 396

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Book SynopsisBiorenewable Resources: Engineering New Products from Agriculture, 2nd Edition will provide comprehensive coverage of engineering systems that convert agricultural crops and residues into bioenergy and biobased products. This edition is thoroughly updated and revised to better serve the needs of the professional and research fields working with biorenewable resource development and production. Biorenewable resources is a rapidly growing field that forms at the interface between agricultural and plant sciences and process engineering. Biorenewable Resources will be an indispensable reference for anyone working in the production of biomass or biorenewable resources.Table of ContentsPREFACE vii ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS 11 3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 43 4 THE BIORENEWABLE RESOURCE BASE 75 5 PRODUCTION OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 103 6 PRODUCTS FROM BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 137 7 BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSING OF CARBOHYDRATE-RICH BIOMASS 171 8 THERMOCHEMICAL PROCESSING OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS 195 9 PROCESSING OF OLEAGINOUS BIOMASS 237 10 PROCESSING OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES INTO NATURAL FIBERS 251 11 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE BIOECONOMY 261 12 ECONOMICS OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 287 13 BIORENEWABLE POLICY 327 Appendix A DESCRIPTIONS OF BIORENEWABLE RESOURCES 341 Appendix B CONVERSION FACTORS 367 INDEX 369

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Book SynopsisRecent advances in science and technology have made modern computing and engineering systems more powerful and sophisticated than ever. The increasing complexity and scale imply that system reliability problems not only continue to be a challenge but also require more efficient models and solutions.Table of ContentsPreface xiiiNomenclature xix1 Introduction 11.1 Historical Developments 11.2 Reliability and Safety Applications 42 Basic Reliability Theory and Models 72.1 Probabiltiy Concepts 72.2 Reliability Measures 142.3 Fault Tree Analysis 173 Fundamentals of Binary Decision Diagrams 333.1 Preliminaries 343.2 Basic Concepts 343.3 BDD Construction 353.4 BDD Evaluation 423.5 BDD-Based Software Package 444 Application of BDD to Binary-State Systems 454.1 Network Reliability Analysis 454.2 Event Tree Analysis 474.3 Failure Frequency Analysis 504.4 Importance Measures and Analysis 544.5 Modularization Methods 604.6 Non-Coherent Systems 604.7 Disjoint Failures 654.8 Dependent Failures 685 Phased-Mission Systems 735.1 System Description 745.2 Rules of Phase Algebra 755.3 BDD-Based Method for PMS Analysis 765.4 Mission Performance Analysis 816 Multi-State Systems 856.1 Assumptions 866.2 An Illustrative Example 866.3 MSS Representation 876.4 Multi-State BDD (MBDD) 906.5 Logarithmically-Encoded BDD (LBDD) 946.6 Multi-State Multi-Valued Decision Diagrams (MMDD) 986.7 Performance Evaluation and Benchmarks 1026.8 Summary 1177 Fault Tolerant Systems and Coverage Models 1197.1 Basic Types 1207.2 Imperfect Coverage Model 1227.3 Applications to Binary-State Systems 1237.4 Applications to Multi-State Systems 1297.5 Applications to Phased-Mission Systems 1337.6 Summary 1398 Shared Decision Diagrams 1438.1 Multi-Rooted Decision Diagrams 1448.2 Multi-Terminal Decision Diagrams 1488.3 Performance Study on Multi-State Systems 1518.4 Application to Phased-Mission Systems 1638.5 Application to Multi-State k-out-of-n Systems 1688.6 Importance Measures 1768.7 Failure Frequency Based Measures 1808.8 Summary 183Conclusions 185References 187Index 205

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Book SynopsisA practical, step-by-step guide to designing world-class, high availability systems using both classical and DFSS reliability techniques Whether designing telecom, aerospace, automotive, medical, financial, or public safety systems, every engineer aims for the utmost reliability and availability in the systems he, or she, designs. But between the dream of world-class performance and reality falls the shadow of complexities that can bedevil even the most rigorous design process. While there are an array of robust predictive engineering tools, there has been no single-source guide to understanding and using them . . . until now. Offering a case-based approach to designing, predicting, and deploying world-class high-availability systems from the ground up, this book brings together the best classical and DFSS reliability techniques. Although it focuses on technical aspects, this guide considers the business and market constraints that require that systems be designTable of ContentsPreface xiii List of Abbreviations xvii 1. Introduction 1 2. Initial Considerations for Reliability Design 3 2.1 The Challenge 3 2.2 Initial Data Collection 3 2.3 Where Do We Get MTBF Information? 5 2.4 MTTR and Identifying Failures 6 2.5 Summary 7 3. A Game of Dice: An Introduction to Probability 8 3.1 Introduction 8 3.2 A Game of Dice 10 3.3 Mutually Exclusive and Independent Events 10 3.4 Dice Paradox Problem and Conditional Probability 15 3.5 Flip a Coin 21 3.6 Dice Paradox Revisited 23 3.7 Probabilities for Multiple Dice Throws 24 3.8 Conditional Probability Revisited 27 3.9 Summary 29 4. Discrete Random Variables 30 4.1 Introduction 30 4.2 Random Variables 31 4.3 Discrete Probability Distributions 33 4.4 Bernoulli Distribution 34 4.5 Geometric Distribution 35 4.6 Binomial Coeffi cients 38 4.7 Binomial Distribution 40 4.8 Poisson Distribution 43 4.9 Negative Binomial Random Variable 48 4.10 Summary 50 5. Continuous Random Variables 51 5.1 Introduction 51 5.2 Uniform Random Variables 52 5.3 Exponential Random Variables 53 5.4 Weibull Random Variables 54 5.5 Gamma Random Variables 55 5.6 Chi-Square Random Variables 59 5.7 Normal Random Variables 59 5.8 Relationship between Random Variables 60 5.9 Summary 61 6. Random Processes 62 6.1 Introduction 62 6.2 Markov Process 63 6.3 Poisson Process 63 6.4 Deriving the Poisson Distribution 64 6.5 Poisson Interarrival Times 69 6.6 Summary 71 7. Modeling and Reliability Basics 72 7.1 Introduction 72 7.2 Modeling 75 7.3 Failure Probability and Failure Density 77 7.4 Unreliability, F(t) 78 7.5 Reliability, R(t) 79 7.6 MTTF 79 7.7 MTBF 79 7.8 Repairable System 80 7.9 Nonrepairable System 80 7.10 MTTR 80 7.11 Failure Rate 81 7.12 Maintainability 81 7.13 Operability 81 7.14 Availability 82 7.15 Unavailability 84 7.16 Five 9s Availability 85 7.17 Downtime 85 7.18 Constant Failure Rate Model 85 7.19 Conditional Failure Rate 88 7.20 Bayes’s Theorem 94 7.21 Reliability Block Diagrams 98 7.22 Summary 107 8. Discrete-Time Markov Analysis 110 8.1 Introduction 110 8.2 Markov Process Defined 112 8.3 Dynamic Modeling 116 8.4 Discrete Time Markov Chains 116 8.5 Absorbing Markov Chains 123 8.6 Nonrepairable Reliability Models 129 8.7 Summary 140 9. Continuous-Time Markov Systems 141 9.1 Introduction 141 9.2 Continuous-Time Markov Processes 141 9.3 Two-State Derivation 143 9.4 Steps to Create a Markov Reliability Model 147 9.5 Asymptotic Behavior (Steady-State Behavior) 148 9.6 Limitations of Markov Modeling 154 9.7 Markov Reward Models 154 9.8 Summary 155 10. Markov Analysis: Nonrepairable Systems 156 10.1 Introduction 156 10.2 One Component, No Repair 156 10.3 Nonrepairable Systems: Parallel System with No Repair 165 10.4 Series System with No Repair: Two Identical Components 172 10.5 Parallel System with Partial Repair: Identical Components 176 10.6 Parallel System with No Repair: Nonidentical Components 183 10.7 Summary 192 11. Markov Analysis: Repairable Systems 193 11.1 Repairable Systems 193 11.2 One Component with Repair 194 11.3 Parallel System with Repair: Identical Component Failure and Repair Rates 204 11.4 Parallel System with Repair: Different Failure and Repair Rates 217 11.5 Summary 239 12. Analyzing Confidence Levels 240 12.1 Introduction 240 12.2 pdf of a Squared Normal Random Variable 240 12.3 pdf of the Sum of Two Random Variables 243 12.4 pdf of the Sum of Two Gamma Random Variables 245 12.5 pdf of the Sum of n Gamma Random Variables 246 12.6 Goodness-of-Fit Test Using Chi-Square 249 12.7 Confidence Levels 257 12.8 Summary 264 13. Estimating Reliability Parameters 266 13.1 Introduction 266 13.2 Bayes’ Estimation 268 13.3 Example of Estimating Hardware MTBF 273 13.4 Estimating Software MTBF 273 13.5 Revising Initial MTBF Estimates and Tradeoffs 274 13.6 Summary 277 14. Six Sigma Tools for Predictive Engineering 278 14.1 Introduction 278 14.2 Gathering Voice of Customer (VOC) 279 14.3 Processing Voice of Customer 281 14.4 Kano Analysis 282 14.5 Analysis of Technical Risks 284 14.6 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) or House of Quality 284 14.7 Program Level Transparency of Critical Parameters 287 14.8 Mapping DFSS Techniques to Critical Parameters 287 14.9 Critical Parameter Management (CPM) 287 14.10 First Principles Modeling 289 14.11 Design of Experiments (DOE) 289 14.12 Design Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (DFMEA) 289 14.13 Fault Tree Analysis 290 14.14 Pugh Matrix 290 14.15 Monte Carlo Simulation 291 14.16 Commercial DFSS Tools 291 14.17 Mathematical Prediction of System Capability instead of “Gut Feel” 293 14.18 Visualizing System Behavior Early in the Life Cycle 297 14.19 Critical Parameter Scorecard 297 14.20 Applying DFSS in Third-Party Intensive Programs 298 14.21 Summary 300 15. Design Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 302 15.1 Introduction 302 15.2 What Is Design Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (DFMEA)? 302 15.3 Definitions 303 15.4 Business Case for DFMEA 303 15.5 Why Conduct DFMEA? 305 15.6 When to Perform DFMEA 305 15.7 Applicability of DFMEA 306 15.8 DFMEA Template 306 15.9 DFMEA Life Cycle 312 15.10 The DFMEA Team 324 15.11 DFMEA Advantages and Disadvantages 327 15.12 Limitations of DFMEA 328 15.13 DFMEAs, FTAs, and Reliability Analysis 328 15.14 Summary 330 16. Fault Tree Analysis 331 16.1 What Is Fault Tree Analysis? 331 16.2 Events 332 16.3 Logic Gates 333 16.4 Creating a Fault Tree 335 16.5 Fault Tree Limitations 339 16.6 Summary 339 17. Monte Carlo Simulation Models 340 17.1 Introduction 340 17.2 System Behavior over Mission Time 344 17.3 Reliability Parameter Analysis 344 17.4 A Worked Example 348 17.5 Component and System Failure Times Using Monte Carlo Simulations 359 17.6 Limitations of Using Nontime-Based Monte Carlo Simulations 361 17.7 Summary 365 18. Updating Reliability Estimates: Case Study 367 18.1 Introduction 367 18.2 Overview of the Base Station Controller—Data Only (BSC-DO) System 367 18.3 Downtime Calculation 368 18.4 Calculating Availability from Field Data Only 371 18.5 Assumptions Behind Using the Chi-Square Methodology 372 18.6 Fault Tree Updates from Field Data 372 18.7 Summary 376 19. Fault Management Architectures 377 19.1 Introduction 377 19.2 Faults, Errors, and Failures 378 19.3 Fault Management Design 381 19.4 Repair versus Recovery 382 19.5 Design Considerations for Reliability Modeling 383 19.6 Architecture Techniques to Improve Availability 383 19.7 Redundancy Schemes 384 19.8 Summary 395 20 Application of DFMEA to Real-Life Example 397 20.1 Introduction 397 20.2 Cage Failover Architecture Description 397 20.3 Cage Failover DFMEA Example 399 20.4 DFMEA Scorecard 401 20.5 Lessons Learned 402 20.6 Summary 403 21. Application of FTA to Real-Life Example 404 21.1 Introduction 404 21.2 Calculating Availability Using Fault Tree Analysis 404 21.3 Building the Basic Events 405 21.4 Building the Fault Tree 406 21.5 Steps for Creating and Estimating the Availability Using FTA 408 21.6 Summary 416 22. Complex High Availability System Analysis 420 22.1 Introduction 420 22.2 Markov Analysis of the Hardware Components 420 22.3 Building a Fault Tree from the Hardware Markov Model 427 22.4 Markov Analysis of the Software Components 427 22.5 Markov Analysis of the Combined Hardware and Software Components 433 22.6 Techniques for Simplifying Markov Analysis 437 22.7 Summary 446 References 447 Index 450

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Book SynopsisAssesses the engineering of renewable sources for commercial power generation and discusses the safety, operation, and control aspects of nuclear electric power From an expert who advised the European Commission and UK government in the aftermath of Three Mile Island and Chernobyl comes a book that contains experienced engineering assessments of the options for replacing the existing, aged, fossil-fired power stations with renewable, gas-fired, or nuclear plants. From geothermal, solar, and wind to tidal and hydro generation, Nuclear Electric Power: Safety, Operation, and Control Aspects assesses the engineering of renewable sources for commercial power generation and discusses the important aspects of the design, operation, and safety of nuclear stations. Nuclear Electric Power offers: Novel, practical engineering assessments for geothermal, hydro, solar, tidal, and wind generation in terms of the available data on cost, safetyTable of ContentsPreface ix Glossary xiii Principal Nomenclature xv 1. Energy Sources, Grid Compatibility, Economics, and the Environment 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Geothermal Energy 3 1.3 Hydroelectricity 5 1.4 Solar Energy 7 1.5 Tidal Energy 8 1.6 Wind Energy 13 1.7 Fossil-Fired Power Generation 17 1.8 Nuclear Generation and Reactor Choice 20 1.9 A Prologue 30 2. Adequacy of Linear Models and Nuclear Reactor Dynamics 34 2.1 Linear Models, Stability, and Nyquist Theorems 34 2.2 Mathematical Descriptions of a Neutron Population 44 2.3 A Point Model of Reactor Kinetics 45 2.4 Temperature and Other Operational Feedback Effects 49 2.5 Reactor Control, its Stable Period and Re-equilibrium 51 3. Some Power Station and Grid Control Problems 56 3.1 Steam Drum Water-Level Control 56 3.2 Flow Stability in Parallel Boiling Channels 59 3.3 Grid Power Systems and Frequency Control 63 3.4 Grid Disconnection for a Nuclear Station with Functioning “Scram” 71 4. Some Aspects of Nuclear Accidents and Their Mitigation 79 4.1 Reactor Accident Classification by Probabilities 79 4.2 Hazards from an Atmospheric Release of Fission Products 82 4.3 Mathematical Risk, Event Trees, and Human Attitudes 84 4.4 The Farmer-Beattie Siting Criterion 87 4.5 Examples of Potential Severe Accidents in Fast Reactors and PWRs with their Consequences 93 5. Molten Fuel Coolant Interactions: Analyses and Experiments 101 5.1 A History and a Mixing Analysis 101 5.2 Coarse Mixtures and Contact Modes in Severe Nuclear Accidents 105 5.3 Some Physics of a Vapor Film and its Interface 110 5.4 Heat Transfer from Contiguous Melt 115 5.5 Mass Transfer at a Liquid–Vapor Interface and the Condensation Coefficient 121 5.6 Kinetics, Heat Diffusion, a Triggering Simulation, and Reactor Safety 124 5.7 Melt Fragmentation, Heat Transfer, Debris Sizes, and MFCI Yield 131 5.8 Features of the Bubex Code and an MFTF Simulation 140 6. Primary Containment Integrity and Impact Studies 148 6.1 Primary Containment Integrity 148 6.2 The Pi-Theorem, Scale Models, and Replicas 155 6.3 Experimental Impact Facilities 160 6.4 Computational Techniques and an Aircraft Impact 165 7. Natural Circulation, Passive Safety Systems, and Debris-Bed Cooling 173 7.1 Natural Convection in Nuclear Plants 173 7.2 Passive Safety Systems for Water Reactors 179 7.3 Core Debris-Bed Cooling in Water Reactors 181 7.4 An Epilogue 186 References 192 Index 207

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Book SynopsisThe overall efficiency, effectiveness, and practicality of potential future energy sources and systems are directly related to many materials-related factors. This volume features 30 papers presented during the 2012 Materials Challenges in Alternative and Renewable Energy Conference. They cover the latest developments involving materials for alternative and renewable energy sources and systems, including batteries and energy storage, hydrogen, solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and nuclear, as well as materials availability, the energy grid, and nanocomposites.Table of ContentsPreface ix Acknowledgements xi Nuclear State of Nuclear Energy in the World 3Thomas L. Sanders Batteries and Energy Storage Correlation Between Microstructure and Oxygen Removal in Solid-Oxide-Fuel-Cell Model Electrodes Pt(O2)/YSZ and Od(O2)/YSZ 15G. Beck Electrical and Morphological Characterization of Monocultures and Co-Cultures of Shewandella Putrefaciens and Shewanella Oneidensis in a Microbial Fuel Cell 25K.E. Larson and M.C. Shaw Biomass Refractory Ceramic Lining Selection ad Troubleshooting in Thermal Biomass Operations 39Dana G. Goski, Timothy M. Green, and Dominic J. Loiacona Comparison of Two Stage Mesophilic and Thermophilic Anaerobic Digestion of OFMSW 47Gayathri Ram Mohan, Patrick Dube, Alex MacFarlane, and Pratap Pullammanappalli Biogasification of Marine Algae Nannochloropsis Oculata 59Samriddhi Buxy, Robert Diltz, Pratap Pullammanappalli A Preliminary Study of an Innovative Biomass Waste Aerobic Degradation System for Hot Water Heating 69Haorong Li, Daihong Yu, and Yanshun Yu Multi-Energy Optimization Process: Biodiesel Production through Ultrasound and MicrowavesS. Getty, M. Kropf, and B. Tittmann Effects of Fuel Grade Ethanol on Pump Station and Terminal Facilities 89Greg Quickel, John Beavers, Feng Gui, and Narasi Sridhar Distributed Hydrogen Generation and Storage from Biomass 105Peter J. Schubert, Joseph Paganessi, Alan D. Wilks, and Maureen Murray Electric Grid Gallium Nitride for Grid Applications 117Mike Soboroff Geothermal High-Temperature Circuit Boards for Use in Geothermal Well Monitoring Applications 125Jennifer K. Walsh, Matthew W. Hooker, Kaushik Mallick, and Mark J. Lizotte Self-Degradable Cementitious Sealing Materials in Enhanced Geothermal System 137Toshifumi Sugama, Tatiana Pyatina, and Thomas Butcher Hydrogen Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Complex Borohydride and Amide Hydrogen Storage Materials 157Andrew Goudy, Adeola Ibikunle, Saidi Sabitu, and Tolulope Durojaiye Microstructure and Corrosion Behavior of the Cu-Pd-M Ternary Alloys for Hydrogen Separation Membranes 169O.N. Dogan, M.C. Gao, and R. Hu Metal-Hydrogen Systems: What changes When Systems go to the Nan-Scale? 181A. Pundt Materials Availability for Alternative Energy Preparation of Organic-Modified Ceria Nanocrystals with Hydrothermal Treatment 195Katsutoshi Kobayashi, Masaaki Haneda, and Masakuni Ozawa Integration of MgO Carbonation Process to Capture CO2 from a Coal-Fired Power Plant 205Sushant Kumar Investigation on Ammonium Phosphate Mixed SIO2/Polymer Hybrid Composite Membranes 215Uma Thanganathan Nanocomposites and Nanomaterials Nano-Heterogeneous Structuring Effects on Thermal Power Factor and Thermal Conductivity 225Gustavo Fernandes, Do-Joong Lee, Jin Ho Kim, Seungwoo Jung, Gi-Yong Jung, Fazal Wahab, Youngok Park, Ki-Bum Kim, and Jimmy Xu Development of Thermoelectric Devices for Structural Composites 235Oonnittan Jacob Panachaveettil, Xinghua Si, Zabra Zamanipour, Ranji Vaidyanathan, and Daryoosh Vashaee Effect of Sn Concentration on Physical Properties of ZnO Thin Films Grown by Spray Pyrolysis on SnO2:F/Glass 245Mejda Ajili, Michel Castagne, and Najoua Kamoun Turki Effect of Heat Treatment on the Physical Properties of In2S3 Prepared by Chemical Bath Deposition 255Mouna Kilani, Cathy Gguasch, Michel Castagne, and Najoua Kamoun-Turki Effect of Indium Concentration on the Physical Properties of In2O3 Nanomaterials Grown by Spray Pyrolysis 261Nasreddine Beji. Mejda Ajil, Zeineb Sboui, and Najoua Kamoun-Turki One-Pot Synthesis of Functionalized Few-Walled Carbon Nanotube/MnO2 Composite for High Performance Electrochemical Supercapacitors 271Yingwen Cheng, Hongbo Zhang, Songtao Lu, Shutong Zhan, Chekrapani Varanasi, and Jei Liu Solar The Use of Inexpensive, All-Natural Organic Materials in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells 285J. Whitehead, J. Tannaci and M.C. Shaw Deep Level Defects in N+-CdS/P-CdTe Solar Cells 297P. Kharangarth, Z. Cheng, G. Liu, G.E. Georgiou, and K.K. Chin 297 Growth Dynamics in Thin Films of Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide Sputtered from a Quaternary Target 303J.A. Frantz, R.Y. Bekele, J.D. Myers, V.Q. Nguyen, A Bruce, S.V. Frolov, M. Cyrus, and J.S. Sanghera Wind Novel Flexible Membrane for Structural Health Monitoring of Wind Turbine Blades-Feasibility Study 315S. Laflamme, H. Seleem, B. Vasan, R. Geiger, S. Chaudhary, M. Kollosche, K. Rajan, and G. Kofod Robotic and Multiaxial Testing for the Determination of the Constitutive Characterization of Composites 325John Michopoulos, Athanasios Iliopoulos, and John Harmanson Authort Index 339

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Book SynopsisRecycling carbon-dioxide at the source would not only go a long way towards minimizing the emissions, but would also motivate industry leaders to take the positive approach for CO2 reuse.Table of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgments xvii Contributors xix 1. Perspectives and State of the Art in Producing Solar Fuels and Chemicals from CO2 1Gabriele Centi and Siglinda Perathoner 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Solar Fuels and Chemicals From CO2 8 1.3 Toward Artificial Leaves 16 1.4 Conclusions 19 Acknowledgments 20 References 20 2. Transformation of Carbon Dioxide to Useable Products Through Free Radical-Induced Reactions 25G. R. Dey 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Chemical Reduction of CO2 29 2.3 Conclusions 46 Acknowledgments 46 References 46 3. Synthesis of Useful Compounds from CO2 51Boxun Hu and Steven L. Suib 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Photochemical Reduction 53 3.3 Electrochemical Reduction 55 3.4 Electrocatalytic Reduction 57 3.5 CO2 Hydrogenation 71 3.6 CO2 Reforming 84 3.7 Prospects in CO2 Reduction 86 Acknowledgments 86 References 86 4. Hydrogenation of Carbon Dioxide to Liquid Fuels 99Muthu Kumaran Gnanamani, Gary Jacobs, Venkat Ramana Rao Pendyala, Wenping Ma, and Burtron H. Davis 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Methanation of Carbon Dioxide 100 4.3 Methanol and Higher Alcohol Synthesis by CO2 Hydrogenation 102 4.4 Hydrocarbons Through Modified Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis 105 4.5 Conclusions 114 References 115 5. Direct Synthesis of Organic Carbonates from CO2 and Alcohols Using Heterogeneous Oxide Catalysts 119Yoshinao Nakagawa, Masayoshi Honda, and Keiichi Tomishige 5.1 Introduction 120 5.2 Ceria-Based Catalysts 122 5.3 Zirconia-Based Catalysts 137 5.4 Other Metal Oxide Catalysts 145 5.5 Conclusions and Outlook 145 References 146 6. High-Solar-Efficiency Utilization of CO2: the STEP (Solar Thermal Electrochemical Production) of Energetic Molecules 149Stuart Licht 6.1 Introduction 149 6.2 Solar Thermal Electrochemical Production of Energetic Molecules: an Overview 151 6.3 Demonstrated STEP Processes 165 6.4 STEP Constraints 180 6.5 Conclusions 186 Acknowledgments 186 References 186 7. Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 in Methanol Medium 191M. Murugananthan, S. Kaneco, H. Katsumata, T. Suzuki and M. Kumaravel 7.1 Introduction 191 7.2 Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 in Methanol Medium 193 7.3 Mechanisms of CO2 Reduction in Nonaqueous Protic (CH3OH) Medium 210 7.4 Conclusions 211 References 213 8. Synthetic Fuel Production from the Catalytic Thermochemical Conversion of Carbon Dioxide 215Navadol Laosiripojana, Kajornsak Faungnawakij, and Suttichai Assabumrungrat 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 General Aspects of CO2 Reforming 218 8.3 Catalyst Selection for CO2 Reforming Reaction 221 8.4 Reactor Technology for Dry Reforming 228 8.5 Conversion of Synthesis Gas to Synthetic Fuels 230 8.6 Conclusions 239 Acknowledgments 240 References 240 9. Fuel Production from Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 with Water Using TiO2-Based Nanocomposites 245Ying Li 9.1 Introduction 245 9.2 CO2 Photoreduction: Principles and Challenges 246 9.3 TiO2-Based Photocatalysts for CO2 Photoreduction: Material Innovations 247 9.4 Photocatalysis Experiments 254 9.5 CO2 Photoreduction Activity 255 9.6 Reaction Mechanism and Factors Influencing Catalytic Activity 259 9.7 Conclusions and Future Research Recommendations 265References 265 10. Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 to Hydrocarbons Using Carbon-Based AgBr Nanocomposites Under Visible Light 269Mudar Abou Asi, Chun He, Qiong Zhang, Zuocheng Xu, Jingling Yang, Linfei Zhu, Yanling Huang, Ya Xiong, and Dong Shu 10.1 Introduction 269 10.2 Mechanism of Photocatalytic Reduction for CO2 270 10.3 Carbon Dioxide Reduction 271 10.4 AgBr Nanocomposites 274 10.5 Conclusions 283 Acknowledgments 283 References 284 11. Use of Carbon Dioxide in Enhanced Oil Recovery and Carbon Capture and Sequestration 287Suguru Uemura, Shohji Tsushima, and Shuichiro Hirai 11.1 Introduction 287 11.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery 288 11.3 Carbon Capture and Sequestration 294 11.4 Future Tasks 298 11.5 Summary 298 References 298 Index 301

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Book SynopsisAs naturally occurring and abundant sources of non-fossil carbon, lignin and lignans offer exciting possibilities as a source of commercially valuable products, moving away from petrochemical-based feedstocks in favour of renewable raw materials. Lignin can be used directly in fields such as agriculture, livestock, soil rehabilitation, bioremediation and the polymer industry, or it can be chemically modified for the fabrication of specialty and high-value chemicals such as resins, adhesives, fuels and greases. Lignin and Lignans as Renewable Raw Materials presents a multidisciplinary overview of the state-of-the-art and future prospects of lignin and lignans. The book discusses the origin, structure, function and applications of both types of compounds, describing the main resources and values of these products as carbon raw materials. Topics covered include: Structure and physicochemical propertiesLignin detection methodsBiosynthesis of ligninTable of ContentsSeries PrefacePreface xiiiAcronyms xviiList of Symbols xxiPart One Introduction 11 Background and overview 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Lignin: economical aspects and sustainability 41.3 Structure of the book 5References 8Part Two What is lignin? 92 Structure and physicochemical properties 112.1 Introduction 112.2 Monolignols, the basis of a complex architecture 122.3 Chemical classification of lignins 152.4 Lignin linkages 192.5 Structural models of native lignin 222.6 Lignin-carbohydrate complex 372.7 Physical and chemical properties of lignins 44References 483 Detection and determination 533.1 Introduction 533.2 The detection of lignin (colour-forming reactions) 533.3 Determination of lignin 593.4 Direct methods for the determination of lignin 613.5 Indirect methods for the determination of lignin 653.6 Comparison of the different determination methods 72References 754 Biosynthesis of lignin 814.1 Introduction 814.2 The biological function of lignins 824.3 The shikimic acid pathway 824.4 The phenylpropanoid pathway 854.5 The biosynthesis of lignin precursors (the monolignol specific pathway) 864.6 The dehydrogenation of the precursors 924.7 Peroxidases and laccases 924.8 The radical polymerisation 954.9 The lignin-cabohydrate connectivity 1094.10 Location of lignins (cell walls lignification) 1114.11 Lignins from hybrids 1124.12 Differences between Angiosperm and Gymnosperm lignins 115References 119Part Three Sources and Characterization of Lignin 1275 Isolation of lignins 1295.1 Introduction 1295.2 Methods for lignin isolation from wood and grass for laboratory purposes 1305.3 Commercial lignins 143References 1546 Functional and spectroscopic characterization of lignins 1616.1 Introduction 1616.2 Elemental analysis and empirical formula 1616.3 Determination of molecular weight 1636.4 Functional group analyses 1676.5 Frequencies of functional groups and linkage types in lignins 1766.6 Characterization by spectroscopic methods 1826.7 Raman spectroscopy 186References 1957 Chemical characterization and modification of lignins 2077.1 Introduction 2077.2 Characterization by chemical degradation methods 2077.3 Other chemical transformations of lignins 2387.4 Other chemical modifications of lignins 2477.5 Thermolysis (pyrolysis) 2497.6 Biochemical transformations of lignins 250References 252Part Four Lignins Applications 2678 Applications of modified and unmodified lignins 2698.1 Introduction 2698.2 Lignin as fuel 2728.3 Lignin as a binder 2738.4 Lignin as chelant agent 2758.5 Lignin in biosciences and medicine 2768.6 Lignin in agriculture 2788.7 Polymers with unmodified lignin 2798.8 Other applications of unmodified lignins 2888.9 New polymeric materials derived from modified lignins and related biomass derivatives 2948.10 Polymers derived from chemicals obtainable from lignin decomposition 3048.11 Other applications of modified lignins 305References 3089 High-value chemical products 3139.1 Introduction 3139.2 Gasification: syngas from lignin 3159.3 Thermolysis of lignin 3169.4 Hydrodeoxygenation (hydrogenolysis) 3179.5 Hydrothermal hydrolysis 3199.6 Chemical depolymerisation 3219.7 Oxidative transformation of lignin 3249.8 High-value chemicals from lignin 328References 335Part Five Lignans 33910 Structure and chemical properties of lignans 34110.1 Introduction 34110.2 Structure and classification of lignans 34110.3 Nomenclature of lignans 34610.4 Lignan occurrence in plants 34910.5 Methods of isolation of lignans from plants 35410.6 Structure determination of lignans 35610.7 The chemical synthesis of lignans 357References 38711 Biological properties of lignans 40111.1 Introduction 40111.2 Biosynthesis of lignans 40211.3 Metabolism of lignans 41311.4 Plant physiology and plant defence 41811.5 Podophyllotoxin 42211.6 Biological activity of different lignan structures 435References 466Part Six Outcome and Challenges 49112 Summary, conclusions, and perspectives on lignin chemistry 49312.1 Sources of lignin 49312.2 On the structure of lignin 49412.3 Biosynthesis and biological function 49512.4 Applications of lignin 49512.5 Lignans 49712.6 Perspectives 498References 499General index 500Author index 501

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Book SynopsisA concise and accessible introduction to the topical issue of biomass utilization. Presents an overview of the use of biorenewable resources in the 21st century for the manufacture of chemical products, materials and energy.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xi Series Preface xiii Preface xv 1 The Biorefinery Concept: An Integrated Approach 1James Clark and Fabien Deswarte 1.1 Sustainability for the Twenty-First Century 1 1.2 Renewable Resources: Nature and Availability 2 1.3 The Challenge of Waste 4 1.3.1 Waste Policy and Waste Valorisation 6 1.3.2 The Food Supply Chain Waste Opportunity 7 1.3.3 Case Study: Citrus Waste 8 1.4 Green Chemistry 9 1.5 The Biorefinery Concept 11 1.5.1 Definition 11 1.5.2 Different Types of Biorefinery 12 1.5.3 Challenges and Opportunities 20 1.5.4 Biorefinery Size 24 1.6 Conclusions 24 1.7 Acknowledgement 25 References 25 2 Biomass as a Feedstock 31Thomas M. Attard, Andrew J. Hunt, Avtar S. Matharu, Joseph A. Houghton and Igor Polikarpov 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass 32 2.3 Food Supply Chain Waste 40 2.4 Mango Waste: A Case Study 44 2.5 Concluding Remarks 46 References 47 3 Pretreatment and Thermochemical and Biological Processing of Biomass 53Wan Chi Lam, Tsz Him Kwan, Vitaliy L. Budarin, Egid B. Mubofu, Jiajun Fan and Carol Sze Ki Lin 3.1 Introduction 53 3.2 Biomass Pretreatments 54 3.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment of Biomass 54 3.2.2 Physical Pretreatment of Biomass 57 3.2.3 Chemical Pretreatment of Biomass 60 3.2.4 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Biomass Treatment 63 3.2.5 Biological Pretreatment 65 3.2.6 Summary 66 3.3 Thermochemical Processing of Biomass 66 3.3.1 Direct Liquefaction 66 3.3.2 Direct Combustion 70 3.3.3 Gasification 72 3.3.4 Pyrolysis 73 3.3.5 Torrefaction 74 3.4 Biological Processing 78 3.4.1 Fermentation 78 3.4.2 Anaerobic Digestion 79 3.5 Summary 83 References 83 4 Platform Molecules 89Thomas J. Farmer and Mark Mascal 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Fossil-Derived Base Chemicals 91 4.3 Definition of a Platform Molecule 93 4.4 Where Platform Molecules Come From 96 4.4.1 Saccharides 97 4.4.2 Lignin 103 4.4.3 Protein 105 4.4.4 Extracts 109 4.5 Process Technologies: Biomass to Platform Molecules 114 4.6 Bio-Derived v. Fossil-Derived: Changing Downstream Chemistry 117 4.7 List of Platform Molecules 119 4.8 Example Platform Molecules 130 4.8.1 Synthesis Gas Platform: Thermal Treatment 130 4.8.2 5-(Chloromethyl)furfural: Chemical-Catalytic Treatment 133 4.8.3 n-Butanol (Biobutanol): Biological Treatment 135 4.8.4 Triglyceride Platform: Extraction 137 4.9 Conclusion 142 References 143 5 Monomers and Resulting Polymers from Biomass 157James A. Bergman and Michael R. Kessler 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2 Polymers from Vegetable Oils 159 5.2.1 Isolation of Vegetable Oil 163 5.2.2 Thermosets of Vegetable Oils and Comonomers 163 5.2.3 Epoxidized and Acrylated Epoxidized Vegetable Oil 164 5.2.4 Polyurethanes from Vegetable Oil 165 5.2.5 Polyesters 167 5.2.6 Polyamides 168 5.2.7 Vegetable Oil Conclusion 168 5.3 Furan Chemistry 169 5.3.1 Production of Furfural and HMF 169 5.3.2 Second-Generation Derivatives 171 5.3.3 Addition Polymerizations 171 5.3.4 Furfuryl Alcohol 172 5.3.5 Polyesters 172 5.3.6 Polyamides 173 5.3.7 Other Polymers 175 5.3.8 Furan Conclusion 176 5.4 Terpenes 176 5.4.1 Production of Turpentine 177 5.4.2 Cationic Polymerization of Pinenes 178 5.4.3 Copolymerization of Pinenes 178 5.4.4 Polymerization of Non-Pinene Terpenes 179 5.4.5 Terpenoids 180 5.4.6 Terpene Conclusion 181 5.5 Rosin 181 5.5.1 Production and Chemistry of Rosin 181 5.5.2 Epoxy Resins from Rosin 183 5.5.3 Polyesters and Polyurethanes from Rosin 184 5.5.4 Thermoplastic Polymers from Rosin: Controlled Radical Techniques 184 5.5.5 Rosin Conclusion 185 5.6 The Potential of Tannins 186 5.6.1 Recent Work with Tannin Polycondensation 187 5.6.2 Tannins Conclusion 189 5.7 Alpha-Hydroxy Acids 189 5.7.1 Production of PLA 190 5.7.2 Properties of PLA 192 5.7.3 Applications of PLA 193 5.8 Conclusion 193 References 193 6 Bio-based Materials 205Antoine Rouilly and Carlos Vaca-Garcia 6.1 Introduction 205 6.2 Wood and Natural Fibres 206 6.2.1 Molecular Constitution 206 6.2.2 Hierarchical Structure of Wood and Timber 208 6.2.3 Plant Fibres 214 6.3 Isolated and Modified Biopolymers as Biomaterials 219 6.3.1 Cellulose 220 6.3.2 Cellulose Derivatives 224 6.3.3 Starch 228 6.3.4 Starch Derivatives 230 6.3.5 Chitin and Chitosan 230 6.3.6 Proteins 231 6.4 Agromaterials, Blends and Composites 236 6.4.1 Agromaterials 236 6.4.2 Blends of Synthetic Polymers and Starch 239 6.4.3 Composites with Natural Fibres 240 6.4.4 Wood-Based Boards 243 6.4.5 Materials for Construction 244 6.5 Conclusion 245 References 245 7 Biomass-Based Energy Production 249Mehrdad Arshadi and Anita Sellstedt 7.1 Introduction 249 7.2 Physical Upgrading Processes 250 7.2.1 Refinement of Biomass into Solid Fuels 250 7.2.2 Wood Powder 250 7.2.3 Briquette Production 251 7.2.4 Pellet Production 252 7.2.5 Storage of Solid Biomass 255 7.2.6 Torrefaction Technology 256 7.3 Microbiological Processes 257 7.3.1 Organisms and Processes 257 7.3.2 Hydrogen Production 257 7.3.3 Classification of Hydrogen-Forming Processes 258 7.3.4 Butanol Production Using Bacteria as Biocatalysts 259 7.3.5 Microbiological Ethanol Production 260 7.3.6 Production of Biodiesel from Plants and Algae 262 7.3.7 Biogas Production 263 7.4 Thermochemical Processes 265 7.4.1 Thermal Processing Equipment 266 7.4.2 Gasification 269 7.4.3 Pyrolysis 271 7.4.4 Liquefaction 272 7.4.5 Combustion 273 7.5 Chemical Processes 274 7.5.1 Dimethyl Ether (DME) 274 7.5.2 Biodiesel 274 7.6 Primary Alcohols 276 7.6.1 Methanol 276 7.6.2 Ethanol 277 7.6.3 Butanol 280 7.7 Conclusions 280 References 281 8 Policies and Strategies for Delivering a Sustainable Bioeconomy: A European Perspective 285David Turley 8.1 Introduction 285 8.2 Drivers for Change 287 8.3 The Starting Point: Strategies for Change 288 8.4 Direct Measures 289 8.4.1 Integrated Development 290 8.4.2 Policy Mechanisms 291 8.4.3 Preferential Purchasing Policies 293 8.5 Supporting Measures 294 8.5.1 Supply-Side Drivers 294 8.5.2 Demand-Side Drivers 297 8.6 Bioeconomy Definitions 298 8.6.1 Biobased Content 298 8.6.2 Biodegradability 301 8.6.3 Composting Standards 302 8.6.4 Material Recycling 303 8.7 Life-Cycle Analysis 303 8.8 Ecolabels 304 8.9 Concluding Remarks 307 References 308 Index 311

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Book SynopsisPraise for the Third Edition: This new third edition has been substantially rewritten and updated with new topics and material, new examples and exercises, and to more fully illustrate modern applications of RSM. - Zentralblatt Math Featuring a substantial revision, the Fourth Edition of Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments presents updated coverage on the underlying theory and applications of response surface methodology (RSM). Providing the assumptions and conditions necessary to successfully apply RSM in modern applications, the new edition covers classical and modern response surface designs in order to present a clear connection between the designs and analyses in RSM. With multiple revised sections with new topics and expanded coverage, Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments, Fourth EditionTable of ContentsPreface xiii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Response Surface Methodology, 1 1.1.1 Approximating Response Functions, 2 1.1.2 The Sequential Nature of RSM, 7 1.1.3 Objectives and Typical Applications of RSM, 9 1.1.4 RSM and the Philosophy of Quality Improvement, 11 1.2 Product Design and Formulation (Mixture Problems), 11 1.3 Robust Design and Process Robustness Studies, 12 1.4 Useful References on RSM, 12 2 Building Empirical Models 13 2.1 Linear Regression Models, 13 2.2 Estimation of the Parameters in Linear Regression Models, 14 2.3 Properties of the Least Squares Estimators and Estimation of 𝜎2, 22 2.4 Hypothesis Testing in Multiple Regression, 24 2.4.1 Test for Significance of Regression, 24 2.4.2 Tests on Individual Regression Coefficients and Groups of Coefficients, 27 2.5 Confidence Intervals in Multiple Regression, 31 2.5.1 Confidence Intervals on the Individual Regression Coefficients β, 32 2.5.2 A Joint Confidence Region on the Regression Coefficients β, 32 2.5.3 Confidence Interval on the Mean Response, 33 2.6 Prediction of New Response Observations, 35 2.7 Model Adequacy Checking, 36 2.7.1 Residual Analysis, 36 2.7.2 Scaling Residuals, 38 2.7.3 Influence Diagnostics, 42 2.7.4 Testing for Lack of Fit, 43 2.8 Fitting a Second-Order Model, 47 2.9 Qualitative Regressor Variables, 55 2.10 Transformation of the Response Variable, 61 Exercises, 66 3 Two-Level Factorial Designs 81 3.1 Introduction, 81 3.2 The 22 Design, 82 3.3 The 23 Design, 94 3.4 The General 2k Design, 103 3.5 A Single Replicate of the 2k Design, 108 3.6 2k Designs are Optimal Designs, 125 3.7 The Addition of Center Points to the 2k Design, 130 3.8 Blocking in the 2k Factorial Design, 135 3.8.1 Blocking in the Replicated Design, 135 3.8.2 Confounding in the 2k Design, 137 3.9 Split-Plot Designs, 141 Exercises, 146 4 Two-Level Fractional Factorial Designs 161 4.1 Introduction, 161 4.2 The One-Half Fraction of the 2k Design, 162 4.3 The One-Quarter Fraction of the 2k Design, 174 4.4 The General 2k−p Fractional Factorial Design, 184 4.5 Resolution III Designs, 188 4.6 Resolution IV and V Designs, 197 4.7 Alias Structures in Fractional Factorial and Other Designs, 198 4.8 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs, 200 4.8.1 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs for 6, 7, and 8 Factors in 16 Runs, 203 4.8.2 Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs for 9 Through 14 Factors in 16 Runs, 209 4.8.3 Analysis of Nonregular Fractional Factorial Designs, 213 4.9 Fractional Factorial Split-Plot Designs, 216 4.10 Summary, 219 Exercises, 220 5 Process Improvement with Steepest Ascent 233 5.1 Determining the Path of Steepest Ascent, 234 5.1.1 Development of the Procedure, 234 5.1.2 Practical Application of the Method of Steepest Ascent, 237 5.2 Consideration of Interaction and Curvature, 241 5.2.1 What About a Second Phase?, 244 5.2.2 What Happens Following Steepest Ascent?, 244 5.3 Effect of Scale (Choosing Range of Factors), 245 5.4 Confidence Region for Direction of Steepest Ascent, 247 5.5 Steepest Ascent Subject to a Linear Constraint, 250 5.6 Steepest Ascent in a Split-Plot Experiment, 254 Exercises, 262 6 The Analysis of Second-Order Response Surfaces 273 6.1 Second-Order Response Surface, 273 6.2 Second-Order Approximating Function, 274 6.2.1 The Nature of the Second-Order Function and Second-Order Surface, 274 6.2.2 Illustration of Second-Order Response Surfaces, 276 6.3 A Formal Analytical Approach to the Second-Order Model, 277 6.3.1 Location of the Stationary Point, 278 6.3.2 Nature of the Stationary Point (Canonical Analysis), 278 6.3.3 Ridge Systems, 282 6.3.4 Role of Contour Plots, 286 6.4 Ridge Analysis of the Response Surface, 289 6.4.1 Benefits of Ridge Analysis, 290 6.4.2 Mathematical Development of Ridge Analysis, 291 6.5 Sampling Properties of Response Surface Results, 296 6.5.1 Standard Error of Predicted Response, 296 6.5.2 Confidence Region on the Location of the Stationary Point, 299 6.5.3 Use and Computation of the Confidence Region on the Location of the Stationary Point, 300 6.5.4 Confidence Intervals on Eigenvalues in Canonical Analysis, 304 6.6 Further Comments Concerning Response Surface Analysis, 307 Exercises, 307 7 Multiple Response Optimization 325 7.1 Balancing Multiple Objectives, 325 7.2 Strategies for Multiple Response Optimization, 338 7.2.1 Overlaying Contour Plots, 339 7.2.2 Constrained Optimization, 340 7.2.3 Desirability Functions, 341 7.2.4 Pareto Front Optimization, 343 7.2.5 Other Options for Optimization, 349 7.3 A Sequential Process for Optimization—DMRCS, 350 7.4 Incorporating Uncertainty of Response Predictions into Optimization, 352 Exercises, 357 8 Design of Experiments for Fitting Response Surfaces—I 369 8.1 Desirable Properties of Response Surface Designs, 369 8.2 Operability Region, Region of Interest, and Metrics for Desirable Properties, 371 8.2.1 Metrics for Desirable Properties, 372 8.2.2 Model Inadequacy and Model Bias, 373 8.3 Design of Experiments for First-Order Models and First-Order Models with Interactions, 375 8.3.1 The First-Order Orthogonal Design, 376 8.3.2 Orthogonal Designs for Models Containing Interaction, 378 8.3.3 Other First-Order Orthogonal Designs—The Simplex Design, 381 8.3.4 Definitive Screening Designs, 385 8.3.5 Another Variance Property—Prediction Variance, 389 8.4 Designs for Fitting Second-Order Models, 393 8.4.1 The Class of Central Composite Designs, 393 8.4.2 Design Moments and Property of Rotatability, 399 8.4.3 Rotatability and the CCD, 403 8.4.4 More on Prediction Variance—Scaled, Unscaled, and Estimated, 406 8.4.5 The Face-Centered Cube in Cuboidal Regions, 408 8.4.6 Choosing between Spherical and Cuboidal Regions, 411 8.4.7 The Box–Behnken Design, 413 8.4.8 Definitive Screening Designs for Fitting Second-Order Models, 417 8.4.9 Orthogonal Blocking in Second-Order Designs, 422 Exercises, 434 9 Experimental Designs for Fitting Response Surfaces—II 451 9.1 Designs that Require a Relatively Small Run Size, 452 9.1.1 The Hoke Designs, 452 9.1.2 Koshal Design, 454 9.1.3 Hybrid Designs, 455 9.1.4 The Small Composite Design, 458 9.1.5 Some Saturated or Near-Saturated Cuboidal Designs, 462 9.1.6 Equiradial Designs, 463 9.2 General Criteria for Constructing, Evaluating, and Comparing Designed Experiments, 465 9.2.1 Practical Design Optimality, 467 9.2.2 Use of Design Efficiencies for Comparison of Standard Second-Order Designs, 474 9.2.3 Graphical Procedure for Evaluating the Prediction Capability of an RSM Design, 477 9.3 Computer-Generated Designs in RSM, 488 9.3.1 Important Relationship Between Prediction Variance and Design Augmentation for D-Optimality, 491 9.3.2 Algorithms for Computer-Generated Designs, 494 9.3.3 Comparison of D-, G-, and I-Optimal Designs, 497 9.3.4 Illustrations Involving Computer-Generated Design, 499 9.3.5 Computer-Generated Designs Involving Qualitative Variables, 508 9.4 Multiple Objective Computer-Generated Designs for RSM, 517 9.4.1 Pareto Front Optimization for Selecting a Design, 518 9.4.2 Pareto Aggregating Point Exchange Algorithm, 519 9.4.3 Using DMRCS for Design Optimization, 520 9.5 Some Final Comments Concerning Design Optimality and Computer-Generated Design, 525 Exercises, 527 10 Advanced Topics in Response Surface Methodology 543 10.1 Effects of Model Bias on the Fitted Model and Design, 543 10.2 A Design Criterion Involving Bias and Variance, 547 10.2.1 The Case of a First-Order Fitted Model and Cuboidal Region, 550 10.2.2 Minimum Bias Designs for a Spherical Region of Interest, 556 10.2.3 Simultaneous Consideration of Bias and Variance, 558 10.2.4 How Important Is Bias?, 558 10.3 Errors in Control of Design Levels, 560 10.4 Experiments with Computer Models, 563 10.4.1 Design for Computer Experiments, 567 10.4.2 Analysis for Computer Experiments, 570 10.4.3 Combining Information from Physical and Computer Experiments, 574 10.5 Minimum Bias Estimation of Response Surface Models, 575 10.6 Neural Networks, 579 10.7 Split-Plot Designs for Second-Order Models, 581 10.8 RSM for Non-Normal Responses—Generalized Linear Models, 591 10.8.1 Model Framework: The Link Function, 592 10.8.2 The Canonical Link Function, 593 10.8.3 Estimation of Model Coefficients, 593 10.8.4 Properties of Model Coefficients, 595 10.8.5 Model Deviance, 595 10.8.6 Overdispersion, 597 10.8.7 Examples, 598 10.8.8 Diagnostic Plots and Other Aspects of the GLM, 605 Exercises, 609 11 Robust Parameter Design and Process Robustness Studies 619 11.1 Introduction, 619 11.2 What is Parameter Design?, 619 11.2.1 Examples of Noise Variables, 620 11.2.2 An Example of Robust Product Design, 621 11.3 The Taguchi Approach, 622 11.3.1 Crossed Array Designs and Signal-to-Noise Ratios, 622 11.3.2 Analysis Methods, 625 11.3.3 Further Comments, 630 11.4 The Response Surface Approach, 631 11.4.1 The Role of the Control × Noise Interaction, 631 11.4.2 A Model Containing Both Control and Noise Variables, 635 11.4.3 Generalization of Mean and Variance Modeling, 638 11.4.4 Analysis Procedures Associated with the Two Response Surfaces, 642 11.4.5 Estimation of the Process Variance, 651 11.4.6 Direct Variance Modeling, 655 11.4.7 Use of Generalized Linear Models, 657 11.5 Experimental Designs For RPD and Process Robustness Studies, 661 11.5.1 Combined Array Designs, 661 11.5.2 Second-Order Designs, 663 11.5.3 Other Aspects of Design, 665 11.6 Dispersion Effects in Highly Fractionated Designs, 672 11.6.1 The Use of Residuals, 673 11.6.2 Further Diagnostic Information from Residuals, 674 11.6.3 Further Comments Concerning Variance Modeling, 680 Exercises, 684 12 Experiments with Mixtures 693 12.1 Introduction, 693 12.2 Simplex Designs and Canonical Mixture Polynomials, 696 12.2.1 Simplex Lattice Designs, 696 12.2.2 The Simplex-Centroid Design and Its Associated Polynomial, 704 12.2.3 Augmentation of Simplex Designs with Axial Runs, 707 12.3 Response Trace Plots, 716 12.4 Reparameterizing Canonical Mixture Models to Contain A Constant Term (𝛽0), 716 Exercises, 720 13 Other Mixture Design and Analysis Techniques 731 13.1 Constraints on the Component Proportions, 731 13.1.1 Lower-Bound Constraints on the Component Proportions, 732 13.1.2 Upper-Bound Constraints on the Component Proportions, 743 13.1.3 Active Upper- and Lower-Bound Constraints, 747 13.1.4 Multicomponent Constraints, 758 13.2 Mixture Experiments Using Ratios of Components, 759 13.3 Process Variables in Mixture Experiments, 763 13.3.1 Mixture-Process Model and Design Basics, 763 13.3.2 Split-Plot Designs for Mixture-Process Experiments, 767 13.3.3 Robust Parameter Designs for Mixture-Process Experiments, 778 13.4 Screening Mixture Components, 783 Exercises, 785 Appendix 1 Moment Matrix of a Rotatable Design 797 Appendix 2 Rotatability of a Second-Order Equiradial Design 803 References 807 Index 821

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Book SynopsisMaintaining a stable level of power quality in the distribution network is a growing challenge due to increased use of power electronics converters in domestic, commercial and industrial sectors. Power quality deterioration is manifested in increased losses; poor utilization of distribution systems; mal-operation of sensitive equipment and disturbances to nearby consumers, protective devices, and communication systems. However, as the energy-saving benefits will result in increased AC power processed through power electronics converters, there is a compelling need for improved understanding of mitigation techniques for power quality problems. This timely book comprehensively identifies, classifies, analyses and quantifies all associated power quality problems, including the direct integration of renewable energy sources in the distribution system, and systematically delivers mitigation techniques to overcome these problems. Key features: Emphasis on in-depth leTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Companion Website xiv 1 Power Quality: An Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 State of the Art on Power Quality 2 1.3 Classification of Power Quality Problems 3 1.4 Causes of Power Quality Problems 4 1.5 Effects of Power Quality Problems on Users 4 1.6 Classification of Mitigation Techniques for Power Quality Problems 6 1.7 Literature and Resource Material on Power Quality 6 1.8 Summary 7 1.9 Review Questions 8 References 8 2 Power Quality Standards and Monitoring 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 State of the Art on Power Quality Standards and Monitoring 11 2.3 Power Quality Terminologies 12 2.4 Power Quality Definitions 15 2.5 Power Quality Standards 16 2.6 Power Quality Monitoring 18 2.7 Numerical Examples 20 2.8 Summary 39 2.9 Review Questions 39 2.10 Numerical Problems 40 2.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 43 References 46 3 Passive Shunt and Series Compensation 48 3.1 Introduction 48 3.2 State of the Art on Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 48 3.3 Classification of Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 49 3.4 Principle of Operation of Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 51 3.5 Analysis and Design of Passive Shunt Compensators 51 3.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Passive Shunt and Series Compensators 62 3.7 Numerical Examples 63 3.8 Summary 85 3.9 Review Questions 85 3.10 Numerical Problems 87 3.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 89 References 93 4 Active Shunt Compensation 96 4.1 Introduction 96 4.2 State of the Art on DSTATCOMs 96 4.3 Classification of DSTATCOMs 97 4.4 Principle of Operation and Control of DSTATCOMs 108 4.5 Analysis and Design of DSTATCOMs 133 4.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of DSTATCOMs 136 4.7 Numerical Examples 141 4.8 Summary 158 4.9 Review Questions 158 4.10 Numerical Problems 159 4.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 162 References 167 5 Active Series Compensation 170 5.1 Introduction 170 5.2 State of the Art on Active Series Compensators 171 5.3 Classification of Active Series Compensators 171 5.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Active Series Compensators 178 5.5 Analysis and Design of Active Series Compensators 183 5.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Active Series Compensators 185 5.7 Numerical Examples 190 5.8 Summary 216 5.9 Review Questions 217 5.10 Numerical Problems 218 5.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 220 References 226 6 Unified Power Quality Compensators 229 6.1 Introduction 229 6.2 State of the Art on Unified Power Quality Compensators 230 6.3 Classification of Unified Power Quality Compensators 231 6.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Unified Power Quality Compensators 237 6.5 Analysis and Design of Unified Power Quality Compensators 246 6.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of UPQCs 249 6.7 Numerical Examples 252 6.8 Summary 292 6.9 Review Questions 292 6.10 Numerical Problems 293 6.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 297 References 303 7 Loads That Cause Power Quality Problems 306 7.1 Introduction 306 7.2 State of the Art on Nonlinear Loads 307 7.3 Classification of Nonlinear Loads 308 7.4 Power Quality Problems Caused by Nonlinear Loads 313 7.5 Analysis of Nonlinear Loads 314 7.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Nonlinear Loads 314 7.7 Numerical Examples 314 7.8 Summary 327 7.9 Review Questions 328 7.10 Numerical Problems 329 7.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 330 References 334 8 Passive Power Filters 337 8.1 Introduction 337 8.2 State of the Art on Passive Power Filters 338 8.3 Classification of Passive Filters 338 8.4 Principle of Operation of Passive Power Filters 344 8.5 Analysis and Design of Passive Power Filters 349 8.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Passive Power Filters 350 8.7 Limitations of Passive Filters 353 8.8 Parallel Resonance of Passive Filters with the Supply System and Its Mitigation 355 8.9 Numerical Examples 360 8.10 Summary 387 8.11 Review Questions 387 8.12 Numerical Problems 388 8.13 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 391 References 395 9 Shunt Active Power Filters 397 9.1 Introduction 397 9.2 State of the Art on Shunt Active Power Filters 398 9.3 Classification of Shunt Active Power Filters 398 9.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Shunt Active Power Filters 405 9.5 Analysis and Design of Shunt Active Power Filters 413 9.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Shunt Active Power Filters 417 9.7 Numerical Examples 421 9.8 Summary 438 9.9 Review Questions 438 9.10 Numerical Problems 439 9.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 442 References 447 10 Series Active Power Filters 452 10.1 Introduction 452 10.2 State of the Art on Series Active Power Filters 453 10.3 Classification of Series Active Power Filters 453 10.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Series Active Power Filters 456 10.5 Analysis and Design of Series Active Power Filters 462 10.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Series Active Power Filters 465 10.7 Numerical Examples 467 10.8 Summary 492 10.9 Review Questions 492 10.10 Numerical Problems 493 10.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 496 References 501 11 Hybrid Power Filters 504 11.1 Introduction 504 11.2 State of the Art on Hybrid Power Filters 505 11.3 Classification of Hybrid Power Filters 506 11.4 Principle of Operation and Control of Hybrid Power Filters 519 11.5 Analysis and Design of Hybrid Power Filters 527 11.6 Modeling, Simulation, and Performance of Hybrid Power Filters 528 11.7 Numerical Examples 534 11.8 Summary 559 11.9 Review Questions 559 11.10 Numerical Problems 561 11.11 Computer Simulation-Based Problems 563 References 569 Index 579

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Book SynopsisA unique approach to the study of geothermal energy systems This book takes a unique, holistic approach to the interdisciplinary study of geothermal energy systems, combining low, medium, and high temperature applications into a logical order. The emphasis is on the concept that all geothermal projects contain common elements of a thermal energy reservoir that must be properly designed and managed. The book is organized into four sections that examine geothermal systems: energy utilization from resource and site characterization; energy harnessing; energy conversion (heat pumps, direct uses, and heat engines); and energy distribution and uses. Examples are provided to highlight fundamental concepts, in addition to more complex system design and simulation. Key features: Companion website containing software tools for application of fundamental principles and solutions to real-world problems. Balance of theory, fundamental prinTable of ContentsSeries Preface xiv Preface xv About the Companion Website xviii 1 Geothermal Energy Project Considerations 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Renewable/Clean Energy System Analysis 1 1.3 Elements of Renewable/Clean Energy Systems 4 1.4 Geothermal Energy Utilization and Resource Temperature 5 1.5 Geothermal Energy Project History and Development 5 1.6 Chapter Summary 18 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 19 Part I Geothermal Energy – Utilization and Resource Characterization 21 2 Geothermal Process Loads 23 2.1 Overview 23 2.2 Weather Data 24 2.3 Space Heating and Cooling Loads 26 2.4 Hot Water Process Loads 38 2.5 Swimming Pool and Small Pond Heating Loads 40 2.6 Snow-Melting Loads 46 2.7 Chapter Summary 53 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 54 3 Characterizing the Resource 553.1 Overview 55 3.2 Origin and Structure of the Earth 56 3.3 Geology and Drilling Basics for Energy Engineers 59 3.4 Earth Temperature Regime and Global Heat Flows: Why is the Center of the Earth Hot? 62 3.5 Shallow Earth Temperatures 64 3.6 The Geothermal Reservoir Concept 66 3.7 Geothermal Site Suitability Analysis 68 3.8 Chapter Summary 79 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 80 Part II Harnessing the Resource 81 4 Groundwater Heat Exchange Systems 83 4.1 Overview 83 4.2 Why Groundwater? 84 4.3 Theoretical Considerations 85 4.4 Practical Considerations 108 4.5 Groundwater Heat Pump Systems 123 4.6 Chapter Summary 134 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 135 5 Borehole Heat Exchangers 138 5.1 Overview of Borehole Heat Exchangers (BHEs) 138 5.2 What is a Borehole Heat Exchanger? 139 5.3 Brief Historical Overview of BHEs 140 5.4 Installation of BHEs 141 5.5 Thermal and Mathematical Considerations for BHEs 142 5.6 Thermal Response Testing 169 5.7 Pressure Considerations for Deep Vertical Boreholes 175 5.8 Special Cases 176 5.9 Chapter Summary 178 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 179 6 Multi-Borehole Heat Exchanger Arrays 181 6.1 Overview 181 6.2 Vertical GHX Design Length Equation and Design Parameters 184 6.3 Vertical GHX Simulation 198 6.4 Hybrid Geothermal Heat Pump Systems 199 6.5 Modeling Vertical GHXs with Software Tools 200 6.6 Chapter Summary 216 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 217 7 Horizontal Ground Heat Exchangers 219 7.1 Overview 219 7.2 Horizontal GHX Design Length Equation and Design Parameters 221 7.3 Modeling Horizontal GHXs with Software Tools 232 7.4 Simulation of Horizontal GHXs 237 7.5 Earth Tubes 2387.6 Chapter Summary 244 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 244 8 Surface Water Heat Exchange Systems 246 8.1 Overview 246 8.2 Thermal Processes in Surface Water Bodies 247 8.3 Open-Loop Systems 250 8.4 Closed-Loop Systems 251 8.5 Chapter Summary 266 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 266 9 Opportunistic Heat Sources and Sinks 267 9.1 Overview 267 9.2 Use of Existing Water Wells 267 9.3 Heat Exchange With Building Foundations 268 9.4 Utilization of Infrastructure from Other Energy Sectors 268 9.5 Cascaded Loads and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 271 9.6 Integrated Loads and Load Sharing with Heat Pumps 273 9.7 Chapter Summary 278 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 279 10 Piping and Pumping Systems 280 10.1 Overview 280 10.2 The Fluid Mechanics of Internal Flows 281 10.3 Pipe System Design 286 10.4 Configuring a Closed-Loop Ground Heat Exchanger 289 10.5 Circulating Pumps 298 10.6 Chapter Summary 305 Exercise Problems 305 Part III Geothermal Energy Conversion 307 11 Heat Pumps and Heat Engines: A Thermodynamic Overview 309 11.1 Overview 309 11.2 Fundamental Theory of Operation of Heat Pumps and Heat Engines 309 11.3 The Carnot Cycle 311 11.4 Real-World Considerations: Entropy and Exergy 312 11.5 Practical Heat Engine and Heat Pump Cycles 317 11.6 The Working Fluids: Refrigerants 320 11.7 Chapter Summary 322 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 323 12 Mechanical Vapor Compression Heat Pumps 324 12.1 Overview 324 12.2 The Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle 325 12.3 The Non-Ideal Vapor Compression Cycle 328 12.4 General Source-Sink Configurations 342 12.5 Mechanics of Operation 347 12.6 Transcritical Cycles 366 12.7 Vapor Compression Heat Pump Performance Standards and Manufacturer’s Catalog Data 370 12.8 Chapter Summary 373 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 374 13 Thermally Driven Heat Pumps 376 13.1 Overview 376 13.2 Cycle Basics 377 13.3 Absorption Cycles 378 13.4 Adsorption Cycles 396 13.5 Thermally Driven Heat Pump Performance Standards and Manufacturer’s Catalog Data 397 13.6 Chapter Summary 397 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 398 14 Organic Rankine Cycle (Binary) Geothermal Power Plants 399 14.1 Overview 399 14.2 The Ideal Rankine Cycle 400 14.3 The Non-Ideal Rankine Cycle 402 14.4 Organic Rankine Cycle Performance Modeling 410 14.5 Chapter Summary 416 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 416 Part IV Energy Distribution 419 15 Inside the Building 421 15.1 Overview 421 15.2 Heat Pump Piping Configurations 421 15.3 Hydronic Heating and Cooling Systems 425 15.4 Forced-Air Heating and Cooling Systems 425 15.5 Ventilation Air and Heat Pumps 426 15.6 Chapter Summary 431 Discussion Questions and Exercise Problems 431 16 Energy Economics and Environmental Impact 433 16.1 Overview 433 16.2 Simple Payback Period and Rate of Return 434 16.3 Time Value of Money 435 16.4 Cost Considerations for Geothermal Energy Systems 437 16.5 Uncertainty in Economic Analyses 439 16.6 Environmental Impact 441 16.7 Chapter Summary 444 Appendix A: Software Used in this Book 445 A.1 The GHX Tool Box 445 A.2 Engineering Equation Solver (EES) 445 A.3 Installing and Using the Excel Solver for Optimization Problems 446 What is the Excel Solver? 446 Installing the Excel Solver 446 Using the Excel Solver 446 Appendix B: Hydraulic and Thermal Property Data 448 Appendix C: Solar Utilizability Method 450 Nomenclature 454 References 459 Index 464

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Book SynopsisPraised for its visual appeal, conversational style and clear explanation of complex ideas with minimal mathematics, Electricity from Sunlight has been thoroughly revised and updated to reflect advances in the global PV market, economics and installed capacity. Key features of the 2nd edition include: A timely update of the advances of photovoltaics (PV), with major new material on grid-connected systems. More in-depth treatment of PV scientific principles, solar cells, modules, and systems. Up-to-date coverage of the PV market including conversion efficiencies and the expansion of grid-friendly power plants. End-of-chapter problems with solutions manual available to instructors via companion website. Additional end-of-chapter questions and answers to support students through guided self-study. New chapters on manufacturing processes and on materials and other resources availability. New large-scale PV section covering the growthTable of ContentsAbout the Authors xi Foreword xiii Preface to the First Edition xv Preface to the Second Edition xvii Acknowledgment to the First Edition xix Acknowledgment to the Second Edition xxiii About the Companion Website xxv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Energy and Sustainable Development 1 1.2 The Sun, Earth, and Renewable Energy 2 1.3 The Solar Resource 6 1.4 The Magic of Photovoltaics 11 1.5 A Piece of History 13 1.6 Coming Up to Date 17 Appendix 1.A Energy Units and Conversions 22 CO2 Emissions per Fuel Type 22 CO2 Emissions in Transportation 23 Self]Assessment Questions 23 Problems 24 Answers to Questions 25 References 25 2 Solar Cells 27 2.1 Setting the Scene 27 2.2 Crystalline Silicon 30 2.2.1 The Ideal Crystal 30 2.2.2 The p–n Junction 32 2.2.3 Monocrystalline Silicon 35 2.2.3.1 Photons in Action 35 2.2.3.2 Generating Power 37 2.2.3.3 Sunlight, Silicon, and Quantum Mechanics 41 2.2.3.4 Refining the Design 45 2.2.4 Multicrystalline Silicon 51 2.3 Second]Generation Photovoltaics 52 2.3.1 Amorphous and Thin]Film Silicon 53 2.3.2 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS) 57 2.3.3 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 60 2.4 Cell Efficiency and Module Cost 61 2.5 Third]Generation Solar Cells 64 2.5.1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Multi]Junctions 65 2.5.2 Dye]Sensitized Cells 67 2.5.3 Organic Solar Cells 69 2.5.4 Perovskites 72 Self]Assessment Questions 73 Problems 75 Answers to Questions 76 References 77 3 PV Modules and Arrays 79 3.1 Introduction 79 3.2 Electrical Performance 82 3.2.1 Connecting Cells and Modules 82 3.2.2 Module Parameters 85 3.3 Capturing Sunlight 88 3.3.1 Aligning the Array 92 3.3.2 Sunshine and Shadow 98 3.4 One]Axis Tracking 101 3.5 Concentration and Two]Axis Tracking 102 Appendix 3.A 107 3.A.1 Converting Global Horizontal Irradiation Data to Tilted and Sun]Tracking Surfaces 107 3.A.1.1 Solar Data Collection 108 3.A.1.2 Calculation of Extraterrestrial Radiation 108 3.A.1.3 Determining the Diffuse and the Direct Components of the Global Horizontal Irradiation 110 3.A.1.4 Using a Model to Calculate the Energy Incident on the Inclined Surface per Time Increment 111 3.A.1.5 Comparisons of Different Configurations 114 Self]Assessment Questions 114 Problems 115 Answers to Questions 119 References 120 4 Grid]Connected PV Systems 121 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 From DC to AC 122 4.3 Completing the System 128 4.4 Building]Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) 130 4.4.1 Engineering and Architecture 130 4.4.2 PV Outside, PV Inside 132 4.5 The Growth of Global PV Markets 140 4.6 Current Status of the PV Industry 144 4.7 Large PV Power Plants 145 4.7.1 Commercial and Industrial Installations 147 4.7.2 Utility]Scale PV 147 4.8 PV Grid Connection and Integration 155 4.8.1 The Electricity Grid 155 4.8.2 Grid]Friendly PV Power Plants 157 4.9 Electricity Markets and Types of Power Generators 160 4.10 The Variability Challenge and Solutions 164 4.10.1 Long]Distance Transmission Lines 167 4.10.2 Grid Flexibility 168 4.11 Energy Storage 170 4.11.1 Power]Quality Storage Technologies 171 4.11.1.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 171 4.11.1.2 Electric Double]Layer Capacitors 172 4.11.1.3 Flywheels 173 4.11.2 Bridging Power 173 4.11.2.1 Lead]Acid Batteries 173 4.11.2.2 Lithium]Ion Batteries 175 4.11.2.3 Flow Batteries 176 4.11.3. Energy Management Storage Technologies 178 4.11.3.1 Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 178 4.11.3.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage 179 Self]Assessment Questions 182 Problems 183 Answers to Questions 184 References 185 5 Stand]Alone PV Systems 187 5.1 Remote and Independent 187 5.2 System Components 189 5.2.1 Batteries 189 5.2.2 Charge Controllers 193 5.2.3 Inverters 198 5.3 Hybrid Systems 202 5.4 System Sizing 204 5.4.1 Assessing the Problem 204 5.4.2 PV Arrays and Battery Banks 207 5.5 Applications 211 5.5.1 PV in Space 212 5.5.2 Island Electricity 215 5.5.3 PV Water Pumping 219 5.5.4 Solar]Enabled Water Desalination 223 5.5.5 Solar]Powered Boats 225 5.5.6 Far and Wide 230 Self]Assessment Questions 233 Problems 234 Answers to Questions 235 References 235 6 Photovoltaic Manufacturing 237 6.1 Production of Crystalline Si Solar Cells 237 6.1.1 Production of Metallurgical Silicon 237 6.1.2 Production of Polysilicon (Silicon Purification) 238 6.1.3 Production of Crystalline Silicon 243 6.1.3.1 Single]Crystal Silicon 244 6.1.3.2 Multicrystalline Silicon 245 6.1.4 Ingot Wafering 246 6.1.5 Doping/Forming the p–n Junction 248 6.1.6 Cleaning Etch 249 6.1.7 Surface Texturing to Reduce Reflection 249 6.1.8 Antireflection Coatings and Fire]Through Contacts 249 6.1.9 Edge Isolation 249 6.1.10 Rear Contact 249 6.1.11 Encapsulation 249 6.2 Opportunities and Challenges in Si PV Manufacturing 250 6.3 Thin]Film PV Manufacturing 253 6.3.1 CIGS Thin]Film Manufacturing 254 6.3.1.1 Co]evaporation 257 6.3.1.2 Metal Selenization/Sulfurization 257 6.3.1.3 Non]Vacuum Particle or Solution Processing 258 6.3.2 CdTe PV Manufacturing 258 Self]Assessment Questions 261 Problems 262 Answers to Questions 263 References 263 7 PV Growth and Sustainability 265 7.1 Affordability 266 7.1.1 Costs and Markets 266 7.1.2 Financial Incentives 272 7.1.2.1 Capital Grants 272 7.1.2.2 Special Tariffs 274 7.1.2.3 Financing Options 275 7.1.2.4 Renewable Portfolio Standards 276 7.1.2.5 Carbon Fees/Programs 276 7.1.3 Rural Electrification 279 7.1.4 External Costs and Benefits 283 7.1.5 Policy Recommendations for Further Growing Solar Energy 284 7.1.5.1 R&D Funding 284 7.1.5.2 Solar Financing Flexibility 284 7.2 Resource Availability 285 7.2.1 Raw Materials 285 7.2.2 Land Use 290 7.2.3 Water Use 293 7.3 Life]Cycle Environmental Impacts 295 7.3.1 Life]Cycle Analysis 295 7.3.2 Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) in PV Manufacturing 306 7.3.3 Recycling Programs 311 7.4 The Growth of PV is Sustainable and Greatly Needed 315 Self]Assessment Questions 316 Problems 316 Answers to Questions 317 References 318 Index 321

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Book SynopsisTable of Contents1 Production of Bioenergy in the Framework of Circular Economy: A Sustainable Circular System in Ecuador 1Vega-Quezada Cristhian, Blanco María and Romero Hugo 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Energy and Bioenergy 2 1.1.2 Ecuadorian Case 4 1.2 A Sustainable Circular System in Ecuador 5 1.2.1 Biogas 5 1.2.1.1 CO2 Emissions 8 1.2.1.2 Potential Electricity Power 12 1.2.2 Biodiesel 14 1.2.2.1 Biodiesel in Ecuador 15 1.2.3 Microalgae Biodiesel 16 1.2.3.1 Biomass Production 18 1.2.3.2 Lipid Extraction 18 1.3 Microalgae versus Palm Oil in Ecuador 19 1.3.1 Palm Oil 20 1.3.2 Microalgae Oil 21 1.3.2.1 Microalgae in Open Ponds 23 1.3.2.2 Microalgae in Laminar Photobioreactor 24 1.4 Discussion 27 1.5 Conclusion 29 Acknowledgements 29 References 30 2 The Impact of Biomass Feedstock Composition and Pre-treatments on Tar Formation during Biomass Gasification 33John Corton, Paula Blanco-Sanchez P., Zakir Khan, Jon Paul McCalmont, Xi Yu, George Fletcher, Steve Croxton, James Sharp, Manosh C. Paul, Ian A. Watson I. and Iain S. Donnison 2.1 Introduction 34 2.2 Tar Composition 35 2.3 Tar Formation Cell Wall Polymers and Ash Composition 37 2.3.1 The Impact of Plant Type and Blending Upon Tar Production 38 2.3.2 Blending 39 2.3.3 Ash Composition 40 2.4 Thermochemical Pre-treatments for Gasification 41 2.4.1 Torrefaction 41 2.4.2 Slow Pyrolysis 42 2.4.3 Intermediate Pyrolysis 43 2.4.4 Fast Pyrolysis 43 2.5 Processing Options that Exploit Conversion Route Integration 45 2.6 Conclusion 48 Acknowledgements 50 References 50 3 Key Pretreatment Technologies for An Efficient Bioethanol Production from Lignocellulosics 55Archana Mishra and Sanjoy Ghosh 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Pretreatment Methods for Lignocellulosic Biomass 58 3.2.1 Parameters for Effective Pretreatment of Lignocellulosics 59 3.2.2 Important Pretreatment Methods 61 3.2.2.1 Physical or Mechanical Methods 61 3.2.2.2 Physico-chemical Methods 62 3.2.2.3 Chemical Methods 67 3.2.2.4 Biological Methods 74 3.3 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 75 References 78 4 Present Status on Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioethanol Production 85Arindam Kuila, Vinay Sharma, Vijay Kumar Garlapati, Anshu Singh, Lakshmishri Roy and Rintu Banerjee 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 Hydrolysis/Saccharification 87 4.2.1 Cellulase 87 4.2.2 Screening of Cellulase-producing Microorganisms 88 4.2.3 Cellulase Production 90 4.2.4 Factors Affecting the Cellulase Mediated Hydrolysis 90 4.3 Future prospects of enzymatic hydrolysis 93 References 93 5 Biological Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomaterials 97Sandeep Kaur Saggi, Geetika Gupta and Pinaki Dey 5.1 Introduction 97 5.1.1 Different Source for Bioethanol Production 99 5.1.2 Lignocellulosic Materials 100 5.1.3 Cellulose 101 5.1.4 Hemicellulose 102 5.1.5 Xylan 103 5.1.6 Lignin 104 5.1.7 Lignin Carbohydrate Interactions 106 5.2 Pretreatment 106 5.2.1 Pretreatment 106 5.3 Microbial Pretreatment Process 107 5.3.1 Fungi 107 5.3.2 Bacteria 112 5.4 Conclusion 113 References 113 6 Anaerobic Digestion and the Use of Pre-treatments on Lignocellulosic Feedstocks to Improve Biogas Production and Process Economics 121Laura Williams, Joe Gallagher, David Bryant and Sreenivas Rao Ravella 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Feedstocks Available for AD 124 6.2.1 Lignocellulosic Feedstock Analysis and Substrate Suitability 124 6.2.2 Substrate Parameters and Co-digestion 129 6.3 Feedstock Pre-treatment to Improve AD 130 6.3.1 Available Pre-treatment Processes 131 6.3.2 Pre-treatment Effects on Substrate 133 6.3.3 Effects of Pre-treatment on Methane Yields 134 6.4 Pre-treatment and Optimizing AD 136 6.4.1 Advances in Pre-treatment Methods and AD Conditions 136 6.4.2 Value-added Products and AD 138 6.5 Conclusion 140 Acknowledgments 141 References 141 7 Algae: The Future of Bioenergy 149Nivas Manohar Desai 7.1 Introduction 149 7.2 Technological Innovations for Algae Cultivation, Harvesting and Drying 151 7.2.1 Cultivation Practices 152 7.2.1.1 Open Cultivation Systems 152 7.2.1.2 Closed Cultivation Systems (Photobioreactors) 153 7.2.1.3 Algal Turf Scrubber (ATS) 154 7.2.1.4 Sea-based Cultivation Systems 157 7.2.2 Harvesting of Biomass 158 7.2.2.1 Settling Ponds 159 7.2.2.2 Filtration 159 7.2.2.3 Centrifugation 159 7.2.2.4 Flotation 160 7.2.2.5 Flocculation 160 7.2.2.6 Electrolytic Coagulation 161 7.2.3 Energy Efficiencies of Harvesting Processes 161 7.2.4 Algal Drying 162 7.3 Algae-based Bioenergy Products 162 7.3.1 Biofuel and Biodiesel 163 7.3.2 Biogas (Biomethane Production) 164 7.3.3 Bioethanol 165 7.3.4 Biohydrogen 167 7.3.4.1 Direct Biophotolysis 167 7.3.4.2 Indirect Biophotolysis 168 7.3.4.3 Photo Fermentation 168 7.4 Concluding Remarks 168 Acknowledgement 169 References 169 Index 173

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Book SynopsisComprehensive reference covering the design of foundations for offshore wind turbines As the demand for green energy increases the offshore wind power industry is expanding at a rapid pace around the world. Design of Foundations for Offshore Wind Turbines is a comprehensive reference which covers the design of foundations for offshore wind turbines, and includes examples and case studies. It provides an overview of a wind farm and a wind turbine structure, and examines the different types of loads on the offshore wind turbine structure. Foundation design considerations and the necessary calculations are also covered. The geotechnical site investigation and soil behavior/soil structure interaction are discussed, and the final chapter takes a case study of a wind turbine and demonstrates how to carry out step by step calculations. Key features: New, important subject to the industry. Includes calculations and case studies. Accompanied by a website hosting software and data fileTable of ContentsPreface xi About the Companion Website xv 1 Overview of a Wind Farm and Wind Turbine Structure 1 1.1 Harvesting Wind Energy 1 1.2 Current Scenario 2 1.2.1 Case Study: Fukushima Nuclear Plant and Near-Shore Wind Farms during the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake 5 1.2.2 Why Did the Wind Farms Survive? 6 1.3 Components of Wind Turbine Installation 8 1.3.1 Betz Law: A Note on Cp 11 1.4 Control Actions of Wind Turbine and Other Details 11 1.4.1 Power Curves for a Turbine 14 1.4.2 What Are the Requirements of a Foundation Engineer from the Turbine Specification? 15 1.4.3 Classification of Turbines 15 1.5 Foundation Types 16 1.5.1 Gravity-Based Foundation System 18 1.5.1.1 Suction Caissons or Suction Buckets 19 1.5.1.2 Case Study: Use of Bucket Foundation in the Qidong Sea (Jiangsu Province, China) 22 1.5.1.3 Dogger Bank Met Mast Supported on Suction Caisson 22 1.5.2 Pile Foundations 22 1.5.3 Seabed Frame or Jacket Supported on Pile or Caissons 23 1.5.4 Floating Turbine System 25 1.6 Foundations in the Future 27 1.6.1 Scaled Model Tests 33 1.6.2 Case Study of a Model Tests for Initial TRL Level (3–4) 34 1.7 On the Choice of Foundations for a Site 35 1.8 General Arrangement of a Wind Farm 36 1.8.1 Site Layout, Spacing of Turbines, and Geology of the Site 37 1.8.2 Economy of Scales for Foundation 40 1.9 General Consideration for Site Selection 42 1.10 Development of Wind Farms and the Input Required for Designing Foundations 44 1.11 Rochdale Envelope Approach to Foundation Design (United Kingdom Approach) 46 1.12 Offshore Oil and Gas Fixed Platform and Offshore Wind Turbine Structure 48 1.13 Chapter Summary and Learning Points 50 2 Loads on the Foundations 51 2.1 Dynamic Sensitivity of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures 51 2.2 Target Natural Frequency of a Wind Turbine Structure 53 2.3 Construction of Wind Spectrum 58 2.3.1 Kaimal Spectrum 60 2.4 Construction of Wave Spectrum 61 2.4.1 Method to Estimate Fetch 63 2.4.2 Sea Characteristics for Walney Site 63 2.4.3 Walney 1Wind Farm Example 63 2.5 Load Transfer from Superstructure to the Foundation 64 2.6 Estimation of Loads on a Monopile-Supported Wind Turbine Structure 66 2.6.1 Load Cases for Foundation Design 67 2.6.2 Wind Load 70 2.6.2.1 Comparisons with Measured Data 72 2.6.2.2 Spectral Density of Mudline Bending Moment 76 2.6.3 Wave Load 76 2.6.4 1P Loading 79 2.6.5 Blade Passage Loads (2P/3P) 80 2.6.6 Vertical (Deadweight) Load 81 2.7 Order of Magnitude Calculations of Loads 81 2.7.1 Application of Estimations of 1P Loading 82 2.7.2 Calculation for 3P Loading 82 2.7.3 Typical Moment on a Monopile Foundation for Different-Rated Power Turbines 84 2.8 Target Natural Frequency for Heavier and Higher-Rated Turbines 85 2.9 Current Loads 86 2.10 Other Loads 87 2.11 Earthquake Loads 87 2.11.1 Seismic Hazard Analysis (SHA) 90 2.11.2 Criteria for Selection of Earthquake Records 91 2.11.2.1 Method 1: Direct Use of Strong Motion Record 91 2.11.2.2 Method 2: Scaling of Strong Motion Record to Expected Peak Bedrock Acceleration 91 2.11.2.3 Method 3: Intelligent Scaling or Code Specified Spectrum Compatible Motion 91 2.11.3 Site Response Analysis (SRA) 93 2.11.4 Liquefaction 94 2.11.5 Analysis of the Foundation 95 2.12 Chapter Summary and Learning Points 101 3 Considerations for Foundation Design and the Necessary Calculations 103 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Modes of Vibrations of Wind Turbine Structures 104 3.2.1 Sway-Bending Modes of Vibration 105 3.2.1.1 Example Numerical Application of Modes of Vibration of Jacket Systems 106 3.2.1.2 Estimation of Natural Frequency of Monopile-Supported Strctures 106 3.2.2 Rocking Modes of Vibration 109 3.2.3 Comparison of Modes of Vibration of Monopile/Mono-Caisson and Multiple Modes of Vibration 115 3.2.4 Why Rocking Must Be Avoided 116 3.3 Effect of Resonance: A Study of an Equivalent Problem 117 3.3.1 Observed Resonance in German North Sea Wind Turbines 119 3.3.2 Damping of Structural Vibrations of Offshore Wind Turbines 119 3.4 Allowable Rotation and Deflection of a Wind Turbine Structure 120 3.4.1 Current Limits on the Rotation at Mudline Level 120 3.5 Internationals Standards and Codes of Practices 122 3.6 Definition of Limit States 124 3.6.1 Ultimate Limit State (ULS) 124 3.6.2 Serviceability Limit State (SLS) 125 3.6.3 Fatigue Limit State (FLS) 126 3.6.4 Accidental Limit States (ALS) 126 3.7 Other Design Considerations Affecting the Limit States 126 3.7.1 Scour 127 3.7.2 Corrosion 129 3.7.3 Marine Growth 129 3.8 Grouted Connection Considerations for Monopile Type Foundations 129 3.9 Design Consideration for Jacket-Supported Foundations 130 3.10 Design Considerations for Floating Turbines 131 3.11 Seismic Design 132 3.12 Installation, Decommission, and Robustness 132 3.12.1 Installation of Foundations 132 3.12.1.1 Pile Drivability Analysis 133 3.12.1.2 Predicting the Increase in Soil Resistance at the Time of Driving (SRD) Due to Delays (Contingency Planning) 134 3.12.1.3 Buckling Considerations in Pile Design 134 3.12.2 Installation of Suction Caissons 138 3.12.2.1 First Stage 138 3.12.2.2 Second Stage 138 3.12.3 Assembly of Blades 138 3.12.4 Decommissioning 139 3.13 Chapter Summary and Learning Points 141 3.13.1 Monopiles 142 3.13.2 Jacket on Flexible Piles 146 3.13.3 Jackets on Suction Caissons 146 4 Geotechnical Site Investigation and Soil Behaviour under Cyclic Loading 147 4.1 Introduction 147 4.2 Hazards that Needs Identification Through Site Investigation 148 4.2.1 Integrated Ground Models 148 4.2.2 Site Information Necessary for Foundation Design 149 4.2.3 Definition of Optimised Site Characterisation 151 4.3 Examples of Offshore Ground Profiles 151 4.3.1 Offshore Ground Profile from North Sea 151 4.3.2 Ground Profiles from Chinese Development 152 4.4 Overview of Ground Investigation 157 4.4.1 Geological Study 157 4.4.2 Geophysical Survey 157 4.4.3 Geotechnical Survey 158 4.5 Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 160 4.6 Minimum Site Investigation for Foundation Design 164 4.7 Laboratory Testing 164 4.7.1 Standard/Routine Laboratory Testing 165 4.7.2 Advanced Soil Testing for Offshore Wind Turbine Applications 165 4.7.2.1 Cyclic Triaxial Test 166 4.7.2.2 Cyclic Simple Shear Apparatus 170 4.7.2.3 Resonant Column Tests 172 4.7.2.4 Test on Intermediate Soils 174 4.8 Behaviour of Soils under Cyclic Loads and Advanced Soil Testing 174 4.8.1 Classification of Soil Dynamics Problems 175 4.8.2 Important Characteristics of Soil Behaviour 177 4.9 Typical Soil Properties for Preliminary Design 179 4.9.1 Stiffness of Soil from Laboratory Tests 179 4.9.2 Practical Guidance for Cyclic Design for Clayey Soil 181 4.9.3 Application to Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations 183 4.10 Case Study: Extreme Wind and Wave Loading Condition in Chinese Waters 184 4.10.1 Typhoon-Related Damage in the Zhejiang Province 186 4.10.2 Wave Conditions 187 5 Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI) 191 5.1 Soil–Structure Interaction (SSI) for Offshore Wind Turbines 192 5.1.1 Discussion on Wind–Wave Misalignment and the Importance of Load Directionality 193 5.2 Field Observations of SSI and Lessons from Small-Scale Laboratory Tests 195 5.2.1 Change in Natural Frequency of the Whole System 195 5.2.2 Modes of Vibration with Two Closely Spaced Natural Frequencies 195 5.2.3 Variation of Natural Frequency with Wind Speed 196 5.2.4 Observed Resonance 197 5.3 Ultimate Limit State (ULS) Calculation Methods 197 5.3.1 ULS Calculations for Shallow Foundations for Fixed Structures 197 5.3.1.1 Converting (V, M, H) Loading into (V, H) Loading Through Effective Area Approach 200 5.3.1.2 Yield Surface Approach for Bearing Capacity 200 5.3.1.3 Hyper Plasticity Models 201 5.3.2 ULS Calculations for Suction Caisson Foundation 201 5.3.2.1 Vertical Capacity of Suction Caisson Foundations 202 5.3.2.2 Tensile Capacity of Suction Caissons 203 5.3.2.3 Horizontal Capacity of Suction Caissons 203 5.3.2.4 Moment Capacity of Suction Caissons 204 5.3.2.5 Centre of Rotation 206 5.3.2.6 Caisson Wall Thickness 207 5.3.3 ULS Calculations for Pile Design 207 5.3.3.1 Axial Pile Capacity (Geotechnical) 208 5.3.3.2 Axial Capacity of the Pile (Structural) 211 5.3.3.3 Structural Sections of the Pile 212 5.3.3.4 Lateral Pile Capacity 214 5.4 Methods of Analysis for SLS, Natural Frequency Estimate, and FLS 216 5.4.1 Simplified Method of Analysis 216 5.4.2 Methodology for Fatigue Life Estimation 223 5.4.3 Closed-Form Solution for Obtaining Foundation Stiffness of Monopiles and Caissons 223 5.4.3.1 Closed-Form Solution for Piles (Rigid Piles or Monopiles) 224 5.4.3.2 Closed-Form Solutions for Suction Caissons 227 5.4.3.3 Vertical Stiffness of Foundations (Kv) 228 5.4.4 Standard Method of Analysis (Beam on Nonlinear Winkler Foundation) or p-y Method 228 5.4.4.1 Advantage of p-y Method, and Why This Method Works 230 5.4.4.2 API Recommended p-y Curves for Standard Soils 231 5.4.4.3 p-y Curves for Sand Based on API 232 5.4.4.4 p-y Curves for Clay 232 5.4.4.5 Cyclic p-y Curves for Soft Clay 235 5.4.4.6 Modified Matlock Method 236 5.4.4.7 ASIDE: Note on the API Cyclic p-y Curves 237 5.4.4.8 Why API p-y Curves Are Not Strictly Applicable 237 5.4.4.9 References for p-y Curves for Different Types of Soils 238 5.4.4.10 What Are the Requirements of p-y Curves for Offshore Wind Turbines? 238 5.4.4.11 Scaling Methods for Construction of p-y Curves 238 5.4.4.12 p-y Curves for Partially Liquefied Soils 240 5.4.4.13 p-y Curves for Liquefied Soils Based on the Scaling Method 241 5.4.5 Advanced Methods of Analysis 241 5.4.5.1 Obtaining KL, KR, and KLR from Finite Element Results 243 5.5 Long-Term Performance Prediction for Monopile Foundations 245 5.5.1 Estimation of Soil Strain around the Foundation 247 5.5.2 Numerical Example of Strains in the Soil around the Pile 15 Wind Turbines 249 5.6 Estimating the Number of Cycles of Loading over the Lifetime 253 5.6.1 Calculation of the Number of Wave Cycles 256 5.6.1.1 Sub-step 1. Obtain 50-Year Significant Wave Height 256 5.6.1.2 Sub-step 2. Calculate the Corresponding Range of Wave Periods 257 5.6.1.3 Sub-step 3. Calculate the Number of Waves in a Three-Hour Period 257 5.6.1.4 Sub-step 4. Calculate the Ratio of the Maximum Wave Height to the Significant Wave Height 257 5.6.1.5 Sub-step 5. Calculate the Range of Wave Periods Corresponding to the Maximum Wave Height 257 5.7 Methodologies for Long-Term Rotation Estimation 258 5.7.1 Simple Power Law Expression Proposed by Little and Briaud (1988) 259 5.7.2 Degradation Calculation Method Proposed by Long and Vanneste (1994) 260 5.7.3 Logarithmic Method Proposed by Lin and Liao (1999) 260 5.7.4 Stiffness Degradation Method Proposed by Achmus et al. (2009) 261 5.7.5 Accumulated Rotation Method Proposed by Leblanc et al. (2010) 261 5.7.6 Load Case Scenarios Conducted by Cuéllar (2011) 262 5.8 Theory for Estimating Natural Frequency of the Whole System 262 5.8.1 Model of the Rotor-Nacelle Assembly 263 5.8.2 Modelling the Tower 263 5.8.3 Euler-Bernoulli Beam – Equation of Motion and Boundary Conditions 264 5.8.4 Timoshenko Beam Formulation 264 5.8.5 Natural Frequency versus Foundation Stiffness Curves 266 5.8.6 Understanding Micromechanics of SSI 268 6 Simplified Hand Calculations 273 6.1 Flow Chart of a Typical Design Process 273 6.2 Target Frequency Estimation 274 6.3 Stiffness of a Monopile and Its Application 276 6.3.1 Comparison with SAP 2000 Analysis 287 6.4 Stiffness of a Mono-Suction Caisson 287 6.5 Mudline Moment Spectra for Monopile Supported Wind Turbine 291 6.6 Example for Monopile Design 299 Appendix A Natural Frequency of a Cantilever Beam with Variable Cross Section 333 Appendix B Euler-Bernoulli Beam Equation 337 Appendix C Tower Idealisation 341 Appendix D Guidance on Estimating the Vertical Stiffness of Foundations 345 Appendix E Lateral Stiffness KL of Piles 347 Appendix F Lateral Stiffness KL of Suction Caissons 349 Bibliography 351 Index 369

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Book SynopsisPresents an overview on the different aspects of the energy value chain and discusses the issues that future energy is facing This book covers energy and the energy policy choices which face society. The book presents easy-to-grasp information and analysis, and includes statistical data for energy production, consumption and simple formulas. Among the aspects considered are: science, technology, economics and the impact on health and the environment. In this new edition two new chapters have been added: The first new chapter deals with unconventional fossil fuels, a resource which has become very important from the economical point of view, especially in the United States. The second new chapter presents the applications of nanotechnology in the energy domain. Provides a global vision of available and potential energy sources Discusses advantages and drawbacks to help prepare current and future generations to use energy differently IncludTable of ContentsPreface to the Second Edition xiii Preface to the First Edition xv 1. We Need Energy 1 1.1. Generalities 1 1.1.1. Primary and Secondary Energy 1 1.1.2. Energy Units 3 1.1.3. Power 5 1.1.4. Energy and First Law of Thermodynamics 5 1.1.5. Entropy and Second Law of Thermodynamics 6 1.1.6. Exergy 7 1.1.7. Going Back to the Past 7 1.1.8. Humans and Energy 8 1.2. Always More! 9 1.2.1. Why do we Need More Energy? 10 1.2.2. Energy Sources we Use 13 1.2.3. Security of Supply 18 1.2.4. Environmental Concerns 24 2. Oil and Natural Gas 26 2.1. Genesis of Oil and Natural Gas 27 2.2. Recovering Oil and Gas 30 2.3. Peak Oil 32 2.4. Reserves 34 2.4.1. Crude Oil Reserves 35 2.4.2. Natural Gas Reserves 36 2.5. Properties of Hydrocarbons 38 2.6. Oil Fields 40 2.7. Prices 41 2.8. Consumption 44 2.9. Electricity Generation 46 2.10. Impact on Environment 49 2.11. Conclusion 52 3. Unconventional Oil and Gas Resources 53 3.1. Hydrocarbon Formation 53 3.2. Offshore Hydrocarbons 55 3.3. Unconventional Hydrocarbons 58 3.4. Unconventional Oils 59 3.4.1. Unconventional Oils Contained in Reservoirs 59 3.4.2. Unconventional Oils Contained in Source Rock 60 3.5. Unconventional Gases 61 3.5.1. Unconventional Gases Contained in Reservoirs 61 3.5.2. Unconventional Gases Contained in Source Rocks 62 3.6. Methane Hydrates 69 3.7. Conclusion 70 4. Coal: Fossil Fuel of the Future 71 4.1. Genesis of Coal 72 4.2. Rank of Coals 73 4.3. Classification of Coals 73 4.4. Peat 76 4.5. Use of Coal 78 4.6. Coal Reserves 78 4.7. Production and Consumption 82 4.8. Electricity Production 86 4.9. Coal Combustion for Power Generation 87 4.9.1. Advanced Pulverized Coal Combustion 88 4.9.2. Fluidized‐Bed Combustion at Atmospheric Pressure 88 4.9.3. Pressurized Fluidized‐Bed Combustion 88 4.10. Combined Heat and Power Generation 88 4.11. Integrated Gasification Combined–Cycle Power Plants 89 4.12. Coal‐to‐Liquid Technologies 90 4.13. Direct Coal Liquefaction 90 4.14. Indirect Coal Liquefaction 91 4.15. Direct or Indirect CTL Technology? 92 4.16. Carbon Capture and Sequestration 93 4.16.1. Capture 93 4.16.2. Transport 97 4.16.3. Sequestration 97 4.16.4. Cost 100 4.17. Coal Pit Accidents 100 4.18. Environmental Impacts 101 4.19. Conclusion 102 5. Fossil Fuels and Greenhouse Effect 103 5.1. Greenhouse Effect 104 5.2. Greenhouse Gases 107 5.3. Weather and Climate 111 5.4. Natural Change of Climate 112 5.5. Anthropogenic Emissions 112 5.6. Water and Aerosols 115 5.7. Global Warming Potentials 116 5.8. Increase of Average Temperature 117 5.9. Model Predictions 118 5.10. Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions 119 5.11. Consequences 126 5.12. Other Impacts on Ocean 126 5.13. Factor 4 128 5.14. Kyoto Protocol 129 5.15. Conclusion 131 6. Energy from Water 133 6.1. Hydropower 133 6.1.1. Hydropower: Important Source of Electricity 134 6.1.2. Dams and Diversions 137 6.1.3. Head and Flow 139 6.1.4. Turbines 140 6.1.5. Small‐Scale Hydropower 142 6.1.6. Environmental Concerns 144 6.1.7. Costs 144 6.2. Energy from the Ocean 145 6.2.1. Offshore Wind Energy 147 6.2.2. Wave Energy 147 6.2.3. Tidal Energy 151 6.2.4. Marine Current Energy 153 6.2.5. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 154 6.2.6. Osmotic Energy 155 7. Biomass 157 7.1. Producing Biomass 159 7.2. An Old Energy Resource 161 7.3. Electricity Production 162 7.4. Technologies 164 7.4.1. Direct Combustion Technologies 164 7.4.2. Cofiring Technologies 165 7.4.3. Biomass Gasification 165 7.4.4. Anaerobic Digestion 166 7.4.5. Pyrolysis 166 7.5. Heat Production 167 7.6. Biomass for Cooking 168 7.7. Environmental Impact 169 7.8. Market Share 170 7.9. Biofuels 172 7.9.1. First‐Generation Biofuels 174 7.9.2. Second‐Generation Biofuels 181 7.9.3. Third‐Generation Biofuels 182 7.10. From Well to Wheels 182 7.11. Conclusion 183 8. Solar Energy 184 8.1. Solar Energy: A Huge Potential 185 8.2. Thermal Solar Energy 186 8.2.1. Producing Hot Water for Domestic Purposes 186 8.2.2. Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation Using Solar Energy 189 8.2.3. The Solar Cooker 190 8.3. Concentrated Solar Power Plants 191 8.3.1. Parabolic Troughs 191 8.3.2. Power Towers 193 8.3.3. Parabolic Dish Collectors 194 8.4. Solar Chimneys or Towers 194 8.5. Photovoltaic Systems 196 8.5.1. Market Dominated by Silicon 197 8.5.2. Other Photovoltaic Technologies 198 8.5.3. Applications 199 8.6. Electricity Storage 204 8.7. Economy and Environment 205 8.8. Conclusion 205 9. Geothermal Energy 207 9.1. Available in Many Places 210 9.2. Different Uses 212 9.3. Technologies 212 9.4. Geothermal Energy in the World 216 9.5. Conclusion 219 10. Wind Energy 220 10.1. Already A Long History 220 10.2. From Theory to Practice 222 10.3. Development of Wind Power 224 10.4. Offshore Wind Turbines 232 10.5. Conclusion 233 11. Nuclear Energy 234 11.1. Basics of Nuclear Energy 234 11.1.1. Atoms and Nuclei 235 11.1.2. Radioactivity 236 11.1.3. Energy and Mass 238 11.1.4. Fission 240 11.1.5. Fissile and Fertile 241 11.1.6. Chain Reaction 242 11.1.7. Critical Mass 244 11.1.8. Nuclear Reactors 245 11.1.9. Natural Nuclear Reactors: Oklo 246 11.1.10. Conclusion 247 11.2. Uses of Nuclear Energy 247 11.2.1. Different Technologies 248 11.2.2. Selection Process 251 11.2.3. Why Nuclear Energy? 253 11.2.4. Uranium Resources 254 11.2.5. Fuel Cycles 257 11.2.6. Safety 260 11.2.7. Nuclear Waste 263 11.2.8. Conclusion 265 11.3. Thermonuclear Fusion 266 11.3.1. Nuclei: Concentrated Sources of Energy 266 11.3.2. The Sun 267 11.3.3. Fusion of Light Nuclei 268 11.3.4. Difficulties 268 11.3.5. A Bit of History 269 11.3.6. Thermonuclear Fusion in Tokamaks 269 11.3.7. ITER: New Step Toward Mastering Fusion 270 11.3.8. About Fuel Reserves 271 11.3.9. Longer Term Possibilities 271 11.3.10. Safety and Waste Issues 272 11.3.11. Conclusion 272 Appendix 273 12. Electricity: Smart Use of Energy 274 12.1. Rapid Development 275 12.2. Energy Sources for Electricity Production 279 12.3. No Unique Solution 281 12.4. From Mechanical Energy to Consumer 286 12.5. Impact on Environment 288 12.6. Cost 289 12.7. Conclusion 290 13. Weak Point of Energy Supply Chain 292 13.1. Electricity Storage 294 13.1.1. Characteristics of Electricity Storage 296 13.1.2. Large‐Quantity Storage Technologies 297 13.1.3. Electrochemical Batteries 303 13.1.4. Supercapacitors 315 13.1.5. Flywheels 317 13.2. Thermal Energy Storage 318 13.2.1. Basic Heat Storage 320 13.2.2. Sensible Heat Storage 320 13.2.3. Phase Change Materials 320 13.2.4. Thermochemical and Thermophysical Energy Storage 322 13.2.5. Applications of Thermal Energy Storage 323 13.2.6. Underground Energy Storage 324 13.2.7. Conclusion 326 14. Transportation 327 14.1. Short History of Transportation 327 14.2. Energy and Transportation 329 14.3. Road Transportation 331 14.4. Ship Transportation 336 14.5. Air Transport 337 14.6. Car Dynamics 339 14.7. Fuels for Road Transportation 340 14.8. Co2 Emissions 343 14.9. Hybrid Vehicles 354 14.10. Electric Vehicles 356 14.11. Conclusion 358 15. Housing 359 15.1. Importance of Housing 359 15.2. Toward More Efficient Housing 363 15.3. Different Regions, Different Solutions 367 15.4. Bioclimatic Architecture 369 15.5. Insulation 370 15.6. Glazing 374 15.7. Lighting 376 15.8. Ventilation 379 15.9. Water 380 15.10. Energy Use in a Household 382 15.11. Heat Pumps 384 15.12. Impact on Environment 387 15.13. Conclusion 390 16. Smart Energy Consumption 391 16.1. Housing 392 16.2. Improving the Way we Consume Energy 393 16.3. Cogeneration 394 16.4. Standby Consumption 396 16.5. Lighting 401 16.6. Transportation 402 16.6.1. Technology 404 16.6.2. Individuals 405 16.7. Conclusion 407 17. Hydrogen 409 17.1. From Production To Distribution 409 17.1.1. Properties 409 17.1.2. Production 411 17.1.3. Storage 420 17.1.4. Hydrogen Transport and Distribution 425 17.1.5. Conclusion 428 17.2. Hydrogen: Energetic Applications 428 17.2.1. Fundamentals of Fuel Cells 428 17.2.2. Different Types of Fuel Cells 431 17.2.3. Transportation 439 17.2.4. Direct Use of Hydrogen 446 17.2.5. Direct Combined Heat and Power 447 17.2.6. Hydrogen and Portable Devices 448 17.2.7. Hydrogen Safety 449 17.2.8. Conclusion 450 18. Nanotechnology and Energy 452 18.1. What is New at the Nanoscale? 452 18.1.1. Surface Effects Prevail 453 18.1.2. Quantum Effects 453 18.2. Nanotechnology and Energy Production 456 18.2.1. Fossil Fuels 457 18.2.2. Syngas 458 18.3. New Energy Technologies 459 18.3.1. Solar Energy 460 18.3.2. Wind Energy 462 18.3.3. Hydrogen 462 18.3.4. Fuel Cells 462 18.3.5. Batteries 463 18.3.6. Thermoelectricity 464 18.3.7. Electrical Distribution 464 18.4. Nanotechnology and Housing 464 18.4.1. Construction Engineering 464 18.4.2. Insulation 465 18.4.3. Lighting 466 18.4.4. Heating, Ventilating, and Air‐Conditioning 468 18.4.5. Surface Materials 468 18.5. Nanotechnology and Transportation 468 18.5.1. Bodywork 469 18.5.2. Interior of the Car 470 18.5.3. Tires 470 18.5.4. Powertrain 471 18.5.5. Electronics 471 18.5.6. Outlook in the Automotive Sector 471 18.6. Conclusion 472 19. Conclusion 474 Exercises 480 Solutions 490 Bibliography 500 Index 505

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Book SynopsisThis book provides a starting point for software professionals to apply artificial neural networks for software reliability prediction without having analyst capability and expertise in various ANN architectures and their optimization. Artificial neural network (ANN) has proven to be a universal approximator for any non-linear continuous function with arbitrary accuracy. This book presents how to apply ANN to measure various software reliability indicators: number of failures in a given time, time between successive failures, fault-prone modules and development efforts. The application of machine learning algorithm i.e. artificial neural networks application in software reliability prediction during testing phase as well as early phases of software development process are presented. Applications of artificial neural network for the above purposes are discussed with experimental results in this book so that practitioners can easily use ANN models for predicting software reliability iTable of ContentsPreface xi Acknowledgement xv Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of Software Reliability Prediction and Its Limitation 6 1.2 Overview of the Book 8 1.2.1 Predicting Cumulative Number of Software Failures in a Given Time 9 1.2.2 Predicting Time Between Successive Software Failures 11 1.2.3 Predicting Software Fault-Prone Modules 13 1.2.4 Predicting Software Development Efforts 15 1.3 Organization of the Book 17 2 Software Reliability Modelling 19 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Software Reliability Models 20 2.2.1 Classification of Existing Models 21 2.2.2 Software Reliability Growth Models 25 2.2.3 Early Software Reliability Prediction Models 27 2.2.4 Architecture based Software Reliability Prediction Models 29 2.2.5 Bayesian Models 31 2.3 Techniques used for Software Reliability Modelling 31 2.3.1 Statistical Modelling Techniques 31 2.3.2 Regression Analysis 35 2.3.3 Fuzzy Logic 37 2.3.3.1 Fuzzy Logic Model for Early Fault Prediction 38 2.3.3.2 Prediction and Ranking of Fault-prone Software Modules using Fuzzy Logic 39 2.3.4 Support Vector Machine 40 2.3.4.1 SVM for Cumulative Number of Failures Prediction 41 2.3.5 Genetic Programming 45 2.3.6 Particle Swarm Optimization 49 2.3.7 Time Series Approach 50 2.3.8 Naive Bayes 51 2.3.9 Artificial Neural Network 52 2.4 Importance of Artificial Neural Network in Software Reliability Modelling 54 2.4.1 Cumulative Number of Software Failures Prediction 55 2.4.2 Time Between Successive Software Failures Prediction 58 2.4.3 Software Fault-Prone Module Prediction 60 2.4.4 Software Development Efforts Prediction 64 2.5 Observations 67 2.6 Objectives of the Book 70 3 Prediction of Cumulative Number of Software Failures 73 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 ANN Model 76 3.2.1 Artificial Neural Network Model with Exponential Encoding 77 3.2.2 Artificial Neural Network Model with Logarithmic Encoding 77 3.2.3 System Architecture 78 3.2.4 Performance Measures 80 3.3 Experiments 81 3.3.1 Effect of Different Encoding Parameter 82 3.3.2 Effect of Different Encoding Function 83 3.3.3 Effect of Number of Hidden Neurons 86 3.4 ANN-PSO Model 88 3.4.1 ANN Architecture 89 3.4.2 Weight and Bias Estimation Through PSO 91 3.5 Experimental Results 93 3.6 Performance Comparison 94 4 Prediction of Time Between Successive Software Failures 103 4.1 Time Series Approach in ANN 105 4.2 ANN Model 106 4.3 ANN- PSO Model 113 4.4 Results and Discussion 116 4.4.1 Results of ANN Model 116 4.4.2 Results of ANN-PSO Model 121 4.4.3 Comparison 125 5 Identification of Software Fault-Prone Modules 131 5.1 Research Background 133 5.1.1 Software Quality Metrics Affecting Fault-Proneness 134 5.1.2 Dimension Reduction Techniques 135 5.2 ANN Model 137 5.2.1 SA-ANN Approach 139 5.2.1.1 Logarithmic Scaling Function 139 5.2.1.2 Sensitivity Analysis on Trained ANN 140 5.2.2 PCA-ANN Approach 142 5.3 ANN-PSO Model 145 5.4 Discussion of Results 148 5.4.1 Results of ANN Model 149 5.4.1.1 SA-ANN Approach Results 149 5.4.1.2 PCA-ANN Approach Results 152 5.4.1.3 Comparison Results of ANN Model 155 5.4.2 Results of ANN-PSO Model 162 5.4.2.1 Reduced Data Set 162 5.4.2.2 Comparison Results of ANN-PSO Model 163 6 Prediction of Software Development Efforts 175 6.1 Need for Development Efforts Prediction 178 6.2 Efforts Multipliers Affecting Development Efforts 178 6.3 Artificial Neural Network Application for Development Efforts Prediction 179 6.3.1 Additional Input Scaling Layer ANN Architecture 181 6.3.2 ANN-PSO Model 183 6.3.3 ANN-PSO-PCA Model 186 6.3.4 ANN-PSO-PCA-GA Model 188 6.3.4.1 Chromosome Design and Fitness Function 189 6.3.4.2 System Architecture of ANN-PSOPCA-GA Model 190 6.4 Performance Analysis on Data Sets 192 6.4.1 COCOMO Data Set 194 6.4.2 NASA Data Set 202 6.4.3 Desharnais Data Set 206 6.4.4 Albrecht Data Set 209 7 Recent Trends in Software Reliability 215 References 219 Appendix Failure Count Data Set 231 Appendix Time Between Failure Data Set 235 Appendix CM1 Data Set 241 Appendix COCOMO 63 Data Set 283 Index 289

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Book SynopsisENABLES READERS TO UNDERSTAND THE METHODS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN TO SUCCESSFULLY CONDUCT LIFE TESTING TO IMPROVE PRODUCT RELIABILITY This book illustrates how experimental design and life testing can be used to understand product reliability in order to enable reliability improvements. The book is divided into four sections. The first section focuses on statistical distributions and methods for modeling reliability data. The second section provides an overview of design of experiments including response surface methodology and optimal designs. The third section describes regression models for reliability analysis focused on lifetime data. This section provides the methods for how data collected in a designed experiment can be properly analyzed. The final section of the book pulls together all of the prior sections with customized experiments that are uniquely suited for reliability testing. Throughout the text, there is a focus on reliability applications and methods. It addresses bothTable of ContentsPreface xiii About the Companion Website xv Part I Reliability 1 1 Reliability Concepts 3 1.1 Definitions of Reliability 3 1.2 Concepts for Lifetimes 4 1.3 Censoring 10 Problems 14 2 Lifetime Distributions 17 2.1 The Exponential Distribution 17 2.2 The Weibull Distribution 22 2.3 The Gamma Distribution 25 2.4 The Lognormal Distribution 28 2.5 Log Location and Scale Distributions 30 2.5.1 The Smallest Extreme Value Distribution 31 2.5.2 The Logistic and Log-Logistic Distributions 33 Problems 35 3 Inference for Parameters of Life Distributions 39 3.1 Nonparametric Estimation of the Survival Function 39 3.1.1 Confidence Bounds for the Survival Function 42 3.1.2 Estimating the Hazard Function 44 3.2 Maximum Likelihood Estimation 46 3.2.1 Censoring Contributions to Likelihoods 46 3.3 Inference for the Exponential Distribution 50 3.3.1 Type II Censoring 50 3.3.2 Type I Censoring 54 3.3.3 Arbitrary Censoring 55 3.3.4 Large Sample Approximations 56 3.4 Inference for the Weibull 58 3.5 The SEV Distribution 59 3.6 Inference for Other Models 60 3.6.1 Inference for the GAM(θ, α) Distribution 61 3.6.2 Inference for the Log Normal Distribution 61 3.6.3 Inference for the GGAM(θ, κ, α) Distribution 62 3.7 Bayesian Inference 67 3.a Kaplan–Meier Estimate of the Survival Function 80 3.a.1 The Metropolis–Hastings Algorithm 82 Problems 83 Part II Design of Experiments 89 4 Fundamentals of Experimental Design 91 4.1 Introduction to Experimental Design 91 4.2 A Brief History of Experimental Design 93 4.3 Guidelines for Designing Experiments 95 4.4 Introduction to Factorial Experiments 101 4.4.1 An Example 103 4.4.2 The Analysis of Variance for a Two-Factor Factorial 105 4.5 The 2k Factorial Design 114 4.5.1 The 22 Factorial Design 115 4.5.2 The 23 Factorial Design 119 4.5.3 A Singe Replicate of the 2k Design 124 4.5.4 2k Designs are Optimal Designs 129 4.5.5 Adding Center Runs to a 2k Design 133 4.6 Fractional Factorial Designs 135 4.6.1 A General Method for Finding the Alias Relationships in Fractional Factorial Designs 142 4.6.2 De-aliasing Effects 145 Problems 147 5 Further Principles of Experimental Design 157 5.1 Introduction 157 5.2 Response Surface Methods and Designs 157 5.3 Optimization Techniques in Response Surface Methodology 160 5.4 Designs for Fitting Response Surfaces 165 5.4.1 Classical Response Surface Designs 165 5.4.2 Definitive Screening Designs 171 5.4.3 Optimal Designs in RSM 175 Problems 176 Part III Regression Models for Reliability Studies 185 6 Parametric Regression Models 187 6.1 Introduction to Failure-Time Regression 187 6.2 Regression Models with Transformations 188 6.2.1 Estimation and Confidence Intervals for Transformed Data 189 6.3 Generalized Linear Models 198 6.4 Incorporating Censoring in Regression Models 205 6.4.1 Parameter Estimation for Location Scale and Log-Location Scale Models 205 6.4.2 Maximum Likelihood Method for Log-Location Scale Distributions 206 6.4.3 Inference for Location Scale and Log-Location Scale Models 207 6.4.4 Location Scale and Log-Location Scale Regression Models 208 6.5 Weibull Regression 208 6.6 Nonconstant Shape Parameter 228 6.7 Exponential Regression 233 6.8 The Scale-Accelerated Failure-Time Model 234 6.9 Checking Model Assumptions 236 6.9.1 Residual Analysis 237 6.9.2 Distribution Selection 243 Problems 245 7 Semi-parametric Regression Models 249 7.1 The Proportional Hazards Model 249 7.2 The Cox Proportional Hazards Model 251 7.3 Inference for the Cox Proportional Hazards Model 255 7.4 Checking Assumptions for the Cox PH Model 264 Problems 265 Part IV Experimental Design for Reliability Studies 269 8 Design of Single-Testing-Condition Reliability Experiments 271 8.1 Life Testing 272 8.1.1 Life Test Planning with Exponential Distribution 273 8.1.1.1 Type II Censoring 273 8.1.1.2 Type I Censoring 274 8.1.1.3 Large Sample Approximation 275 8.1.1.4 Planning Tests to Demonstrate a Lifetime Percentile 276 8.1.1.5 Zero Failures 279 8.1.2 Life Test Planning for Other Lifetime Distributions 281 8.1.3 Operating Characteristic Curves 282 8.2 Accelerated Life Testing 286 8.2.1 Acceleration Factor 287 8.2.2 Physical Acceleration Models 288 8.2.2.1 Arrhenius Model 288 8.2.2.2 Eyring Model 289 8.2.2.3 Peck Model 290 8.2.2.4 Inverse Power Model 290 8.2.2.5 Coffin–Manson Model 290 8.2.3 Relationship Between Physical Acceleration Models and Statistical Models 291 8.2.4 Planning Single-Stress-Level ALTs 292 Problems 294 9 Design of Multi-Factor and Multi-Level Reliability Experiments 297 9.1 Implications of Design for Reliability 298 9.2 Statistical Acceleration Models 299 9.2.1 Lifetime Regression Model 299 9.2.2 Proportional Hazards Model 303 9.2.3 Generalized Linear Model 306 9.2.4 Converting PH Model with Right Censoring to GLM 309 9.3 Planning ALTs with Multiple Stress Factors at Multiple Stress Levels 311 9.3.1 Optimal Test Plans 313 9.3.2 Locality of Optimal ALT Plans 318 9.3.3 Comparing Optimal ALT Plans 319 9.4 Bayesian Design for GLM 322 9.5 Reliability Experiments with Design and Manufacturing Process Variables 326 Problems 336 A The Survival Package in R 339 B Design of Experiments using JMP 351 C The Expected Fisher Information Matrix 357 C.1 Lognormal Distribution 359 C.2 Weibull Distribution 359 C.3 Lognormal Distribution 361 C.4 Weibull Distribution 362 D Data Sets 363 E Distributions Used in Life Testing 375 Bibliography 381 Index 387

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Book SynopsisENCYCLOPEDIA OF RENEWABLE ENERGY Written by a highly respected engineer and prolific author in the energy sector, this is the single most comprehensive, thorough, and up-to-date reference work on renewable energy. The world's energy industry is and has always been volatile, sometimes controversial, with wild swings upward and downward. This has, historically, been mostly because most of our energy has come from fossil fuels, which is a finite source of energy. Every so often, a technology comes along, like hydrofracturing, that is a game-changer. But is it, really? Aren't we just delaying the inevitable with these temporary price fixes The only REAL game-changer is renewable energy. For decades, renewable energy sources have been sought, developed, and studied. Sometimes wind is at the forefront, sometimes solar, and, for the last decade or so, there has been a surge in interest for biofeedstocks and biofuels. There are also the old standbys of nuclear and geothermal energy, which hTable of ContentsIntroduction xxxvii A 1 B 99 C 227 D 329 E 365 F 423 G 481 H 585 I 651 J 681 K 683 L 689 M 741 N 781 O 807 P 835 Q 921 R 923 S 969 T 1057 U 1095 V 1105 W 1111 X 1199 Y 1203 Z 1207 Conversion Factors 1211 Further Reading 1213 About the Author 1215

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Book SynopsisTable of ContentsIntroduction 1 About This Book 1 Conventions Used in This Book 2 What You’re Not to Read 3 Foolish Assumptions 3 How This Book Is Organized 3 Part 1: Here Comes the Sun: Shedding Some Light on PV Systems 4 Part 2: Digging into Complete System Details 4 Part 3: Sizing a PV System 4 Part 4: Installing a PV System 4 Part 5: The Part of Tens 5 Icons Used in This Book 5 Where to Go from Here 5 Part 1: Here Comes the Sun: Shedding Some Light on PV Systems 7 Chapter 1: The Photovoltaic Revolution 9 Peeking into the Past, Present, and Future of PV Installations 9 Acquainting yourself with typical PV applications 10 Checking out PV pros and cons 10 Looking into the future of PV 11 Introducing PV Components and Systems 11 Knowing Your Electricity A-B-Cs 12 Solar Resource 101 13 Surveying a PV System Site 13 Delving into PV System Details 14 PV modules 14 Batteries 14 Charge controllers 15 Inverters 15 Wiring and safety devices 15 Sizing a PV System 16 Grid-direct systems 16 Battery-based systems 16 Conductors and safety devices 17 Bringing a PV System to Life 17 Permitting 17 Staying safe 17 Putting together the mechanical parts 18 Adding the electrical parts 18 Commissioning, inspecting, and maintaining a system 19 Introducing the Sections of Code You Need to Know 20 Chapter 2: Checking Out Common Components and Systems 21 Introducing the Components That Make Up PV Systems 21 PV modules and racking 22 Battery bank 23 Charge controller 24 Inverter 24 Loads 25 Load centers 26 Disconnects and overcurrent protection 27 Utility interconnection 27 Differentiating between PV System Types 29 Grid-direct systems 29 Battery-based systems 31 Figuring Out the Right System Type for Any Situation 34 The customer is connected to the grid 34 The customer isn’t connected to the grid 35 Chapter 3: Powering through Electricity Basics 37 Going with the Flow: Current 38 Understanding amps 38 Distinguishing between direct current and alternating current 39 Measuring current with a meter 40 May the (Electromotive) Force Be with You: Voltage 43 Grasping the concept of voltage 43 Getting a grip on nominal voltage and operating voltage 43 Measuring voltage 44 Making a Stop: Resistance 46 Introducing ohms 47 Measuring resistance 47 Connecting Current, Voltage, and Resistance with Ohm’s Law 49 Pondering Power and Energy 50 Recognizing the differences between power and energy 50 Relating power to current, voltage, and resistance with the power equation 51 Calculating energy in terms of watt-hours 53 Introducing amp-hours, a companion to watt-hours 53 Wrapping Together Current, Voltage, Resistance, Power, and Energy 54 Another Electricity Concept: Circuit Configurations 55 Series 56 Parallel 57 Series-parallel 58 Chapter 4: Warming Up to the Solar Resource 59 High (Or Low) Energy: Solar Radiation 60 Distinguishing between direct radiation and diffuse radiation 60 Determining the intensity of solar radiation: Irradiance 61 Calculating solar radiation energy: Irradiation 65 Just for a day: Peak sun hours 66 Examining the Effects of the Sun’s Path on the Earth 69 Getting a grip on seasonal effects 70 Understanding the sun’s relationship to your location: Altitude and azimuth 72 Ticking off solar time 74 Interpreting sun charts 74 Opening up to the solar window 76 Positioning PV Modules to Make the Most of the Solar Resource 77 Introducing tilt angle 77 Orienting your array to the azimuth 79 Chapter 5: Properly Selecting a Site for a PV System 81 Setting the Stage for a Site Survey 82 Putting aside enough time 82 Creating a standard site-survey form 83 Toting a site-survey bag 83 Picture This: Documenting Your Entire Site Survey with Digital Photos 84 Collecting Basic Information during a Site Survey 86 General site information 86 Structural and mechanical information 87 Electrical information 89 Measuring Information in Degrees 90 Understanding magnetic declination 91 Calculating the array’s tilt angle and azimuth 93 Exploring Shading-Analysis Tools 95 Interpreting the Data and Bringing It All Together 97 Analyzing reports from your shading-analysis tool 98 Considering the total solar resource factor 98 Using other collected information to plan out the design and installation 100 Part 2: Digging Into Complete System Details 103 Chapter 6: PV Modules: From Sand to Electricity 105 Creating Solar Electricity: It All Starts with a Cell 106 Getting a grip on cell construction and manufacturing 106 Connecting cell construction to the photovoltaic effect 108 Reviewing Common Types of PV Modules 108 Checking out crystalline modules 109 Looking at thin film modules 111 Pointing Out Electrical Specifications on PV Modules 113 Current specifications 114 Voltage specifications 115 Maximum power point 116 Voltage temperature coefficient 117 Power tolerance 118 Series fuse rating 118 Surveying Test Conditions for PV Modules 118 Standard test conditions 119 Environmental effects on standard test conditions 120 Relating Current and Voltage in IV Curves 122 An IV curve with varying temperature 123 An IV curve with varying irradiance 124 Chapter 7: The Basics of Batteries 127 The Fundamentals of Battery Anatomy and Operation 128 Constructing a battery, from cell to bank 128 Discovering how batteries charge and discharge 130 Comparing Different Types of Batteries 133 Lead-acid batteries 133 Lead-calcium batteries 136 Nickel-cadmium batteries 136 Comprehending Battery Capacity 137 Considering the C rate for capacity 137 Recognizing factors that affect capacity 138 Specifying Batteries 141 Specifying the type of battery to use 141 Specifying the battery bank size 142 Chapter 8: Keeping Current and Voltage in Check: Charge Controllers 147 The Essentials of Charge Controllers 148 Seeing how a charge controller works in stages 148 Surveying special effects provided by some charge controllers 151 Maximum Power Point Tracking Technology 153 How MPPT works 153 The pros and cons of MPPT controllers 154 Pulse-Width Modulation Technology 155 How PWM works 155 The pros and cons of PWM controllers 156 Specifying a Charge Controller 156 Chapter 9: Inverters: AC (From) DC 157 Getting the Goods on Grid-Direct Inverters 158 Basic operation 158 Standard features 159 Power output sizes 162 The importance of transformers 162 Investigating Battery-Based Inverters 164 Utility-interactive inverter operation 165 Stand-alone inverter operation 166 Standard features for all battery-based inverters 167 Sizes of battery-based inverters 168 Low-frequency transformer technology 168 Specifying Any Inverter 168 Grid-direct 169 Battery-based 170 Chapter 10: Staying Secure: Wiring and Safety Components 173 Defining the Circuits in a PV System 174 Checking Out Types of Conductors 175 USE-2 176 PV wire 176 Building wiring 177 Battery wiring 178 Ground wiring 178 Considering Kinds of Conduit 179 Metallic conduit 179 Nonmetallic conduit 180 Delving into Disconnects 181 Perusing Overcurrent Protection Devices 182 Circuit breakers 183 Fuses 183 Focusing on Ground Fault Protection 184 Looking at the Basics of Labels 185 Part 3: Sizing a PV System 187 Chapter 11: Sizing a Grid-Direct System 189 First Things First: Evaluating the Budget and the Available Array Area 190 Estimating the Site’s Annual Energy Production 191 Sizing the Array to Meet Your Client’s Energy Consumption 193 Determining annual energy consumption 193 Looking at contract options with the utility 194 Using consumption and contract options to select an array’s needed power value 195 Getting Ready to Match an Inverter to an Array 196 Matching Power Values for an Array and an Inverter 197 Coming Up with the Right Voltage Values for Your Array and Inverter 199 Establishing the inverter’s AC voltage 200 Defining the inverter’s DC voltage window 200 Calculating the modules’ maximum DC voltage contribution 201 Figuring out the modules’ minimum DC voltage contribution 208 Bringing It All Together: Combining Your Power and Voltage Information 213 One Last Check: The Inverter’s Maximum Current Input 214 Chapter 12: Sizing a Battery-Based System 215 Get Loaded: Looking at Loads in a Battery-Based System 216 Evaluating the loads that the battery bank must serve 216 Calculating the energy required during an outage for utility-interactive systems 219 Determining the average daily energy consumption for stand-alone systems 219 Sizing the Battery Bank 222 Inverter efficiency 222 The days of autonomy 223 The temperature used for battery operation 223 The depth of discharge 224 Nominal voltages 225 Figuring out the battery capacity you need 226 Strung along: Wiring the battery bank 227 Sizing the PV Array 229 Sizing the array in a utility-interactive system 229 Sizing the array in a stand-alone system 230 Sizing the Charge Controller 232 Voltage specifications 233 Power or amperage specifications 234 A check before you move on: Comparing the array size to the battery capacity 236 Sizing the Inverter 236 Viewing voltage output 237 Calculating the power draw 237 Staying in charge 238 Looking at surge ratings 238 Evaluating inverter and array power output 239 Incorporating a Generator 239 Generator features 240 Generator sizing 241 Chapter 13: Sizing Conductors, Conduit, and Safety Components 243 Conductor Sizing 101 244 Defining the PV circuits’ maximum and continuous current 245 Calculating non-PV circuits’ maximum current 246 Considering conditions of use with some handy tables 247 Putting together the details to determine conductor sizing 250 Accounting for voltage drop after you size your conductors 253 Sizing Conduit 257 Sizing Overcurrent Protection Devices and Disconnects 258 Beginning with a few basics 258 Placing protection on PV circuits 259 Protecting inverter circuits 260 Part 4: Installing a PV System 261 Chapter 14: The Permitting Process 263 Obtaining Permits before You Install a PV System 263 In the beginning: Having the right licenses and certifications 264 Home grown: Permitting for residential systems 265 Big business: Permitting for commercial systems 269 Not Just Pretty Pictures: Creating Drawing Sets 272 Calling out components clearly 273 Depicting equipment locations 273 Showing conductor-sizing calculations 273 Jotting down job notes 274 Chapter 15: Staying Safe Anytime You Work on a PV System 275 Getting a Grip on General Construction Site Safety 276 Identifying job-site obstacles and putting on protective gear right away 276 Safely working alone and with others 277 Taking in tips for tool safety 278 Limiting your exposure to the elements 278 Stowing a first-aid kit on the job site 279 Looking at Ladder Safety 279 Selecting your stash of ladders 279 Properly setting up any ladder 281 Raising the Issue of Rooftop Safety 282 Restraining yourself with fall protection 283 Storing your tools 283 Maintaining safe walkways 285 Examining Electrical Safety 285 Staying aware of general shock hazards 285 Working with circuits 286 Charging Ahead with Battery Safety 290 Chapter 16: Assembling the Mechanical Parts 293 Surveying PV Array Mounting Methods 294 Roof mounting 295 Ground mounting 300 Top-of-pole mounting 302 Building-integrated mounting 303 Considering Loading When You Mount an Array on a Roof 305 Following building codes 305 Accounting for additional dead load 305 Looking at live loads 307 Properly Attaching an Array to a Roof 309 Making attachments with lag screws 309 Sealing roof penetrations with flashing 310 Supporting Ground and Top-of-Pole Mounting 313 Chapter 17: Integrating the Electrical Elements 315 Location Is Everything: Knowing Where to Place Electrical Equipment 316 Manufacturers’ requirements for equipment locations 316 Locations for disconnecting means 317 Combiner boxes and junction boxes and wiring, oh my! 318 Working on Wiring 319 Seeing red (and green and white): Color-coding 319 Managing wires on PV modules 321 Protecting wires with conduit 322 Bonding Yourself to Grounding 323 Equipment grounding 323 System grounding 326 Connecting to the Utility 329 Determining the utility’s requirements 329 Making a load side or line side connection 331 Chapter 18: Commissioning, Inspecting, and Maintaining a PV System 335 Making a List and Checking It Twice: Preparing for Commissioning 336 Mechanical elements? Check! 336 Electrical elements? Check! 337 Start ’Er Up: The Commissioning Process 341 Putting safety first 342 Gathering the gear you need 342 Commissioning different types of systems 343 Verifying that the system is working 347 Arming Yourself for Inspection Issues 349 Not having “a neat and workmanlike manner” 350 Forgetting about aesthetics 350 Failing to manage conductors on the array 350 Neglecting to label the system 351 Surveying System Maintenance 353 Mechanical maintenance 354 Electrical maintenance 354 Maintenance on a higher level: Taking care of battery banks 355 Part 5: The Part of Tens 359 Chapter 19: Ten Ways to Avoid Common Code Mistakes 361 Providing Proper Working Clearance 362 Supplying the Right Structural Support 362 Keeping Water out of Buildings with Flashing 363 Ensuring All Conductors Have the Necessary Ratings 363 Managing the Conductors on Modules 364 Selecting the Correct Conduit 364 Locating the Disconnects 365 Grounding the Equipment 365 Grounding the System 366 Labeling the System Properly 366 Chapter 20: Ten Ways to Maximize Energy Production for Your Clients 367 Select the Right Site 367 Orient the Array Correctly 368 Configure the Array Properly 368 Work within the Limits of the Utility Voltage 369 Choose the Correct Inverter 369 Size Conductors Appropriately 370 Keep the Components Cool 370 Advise Clients to Monitor Their System 371 Clean the Array Periodically 371 Inspect the Array Annually 372 Index 373

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Book SynopsisGAS INSULATED SUBSTATIONS An essential reference guide to gas-insulated substations The second edition of Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) is an all-inclusive reference guide to gas insulated substations (GIS) and its advanced technologies. Updated to the latest technical developments and applications, the guide covers basic physics of gas insulated systems, SF6 insulating gas and its alternatives, safety aspects and factors to choose GIS. GIS technology, its modular structure, control and monitoring systems, testing, installation rules and guidelines for operation, specification, and maintenance. Detailed information on various types for GIS, with 14 reference project explanations and three extensive case studies give information for the best solutions of practical applications. Special solutions using mobile substations concepts, mixed technology switchgear (MTS) with air and gas insulated technology, underground substations, and the use of special GIS substation buildings e.g., shoppTable of ContentsEditor Biography xxvii Contributors xxix Foreword of Editor xxxi Foreword PES Substations Committee xxxiii Foreword GE Grid Solutions xxxv Foreword Hitachi Energy xxxvii Foreword Siemens Energy xxxix Acknowledgements xli 1 Introduction 1Authors: Hermann Koch, John BrunkeReviewers: Phil Bolin, Devki Sharma, Jim Massura, George Becker, Scott Scharf, and Michael Novev 1.1 General 1 1.2 Definitions 7 1.3 Standards and References 11 1.4 Ratings 16 2 Basic Information 21Authors: 1st edition Hermann Koch, John H. Brunke, and John Boggess, 2nd edition Dave Giegel, Hermann Koch, George Becker, Peter Grossmann, and Pathik PatelReviewers: 1st edition Phil Bolin, Hermann Koch, Devki Sharma, Markus Etter, Scott Scharf, George Becker, Noboru Fujimoto, Ed Crocket, Shawn Lav, Jim Massura, Tony Lim, Ricardo Arredondo, Chuck Hand, and Dave Giegel 2nd edition Arnaud Ficheux, George Becker, Pathik Patel, John Brunke, Michael Novev, Scott Scharf, and Nick Matone 2.1 History 21 2.2 Physics of Gas-Insulated Switchgear 36 2.3 Reliability and Availability 41 2.4 Design 51 2.5 Safety 53 2.6 Grounding and Bonding 61 2.7 Factors for Choosing Gas-Insulated Substations 66 2.8 Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) 70 2.9 Alternative Gasses to SF6 105 2.10 When to Use Gas-Insulated Substations 120 2.11 Comparison High Voltage and Medium Voltage AIS, MTS and GIS 125 3 Technology 153Authors: 1st edition: Hermann Koch, George Becker, Xi Zhu, Devki Sharma, Arnaud Ficheux, and Dave Lin; 2nd edition: Dave Solhtalab, George Becker, Xi Zhu, and Vipul BhagatReviewers: 1st edition: Phil Bolin, Hermann Koch, Devki Sharma, Markus Etter, Scott Scharf, Patrick Fitzgerald, George Becker, Toni Lin, Chuck Hand, Xi Zhu, Noboru Fujimoto, Dave Giegel, Eduard Crockett, Pravakar Samanta, John Brunke, 2nd edition: Scott Scharf, Michael Novev, and Nick Matone 3.1 General 153 3.2 Modular Components, Design, and Development Process 156 3.3 Manufacturing 169 3.4 Specification Development 179 3.5 Instrument Transformers 205 3.6 Interfaces 207 3.7 Gas-Insulated Surge Arresters 220 3.8 Gas-Insulated Bus 222 3.9 Guidelines for GIS 236 4 Control and Monitoring 243Authors: 1st edition Hermann Koch, Noboru Fujimoto, and Pravakar SamantaReviewers: 1st edition Noboru Fujimoto, Hermann Koch, Pravakar Samanta, Devki Sharma, Xi Zhu, John Brunke, Arnaud Ficheux, and Michael Novev, 2nd edition Michael Novev, and Arnaud Ficheux 4.1 General 243 4.2 GIS Monitoring 243 4.3 Local Control Cabinet 251 4.4 Digital Communication 257 5 Testing 271Authors: 1st edition Peter Grossmann, Charles L Hand, 2nd edition Dave Giegel, Coboyo Bodjona,Reviewers: 1st edition Phil Bolin, Xi Zhu, Noboru Fujimoto, Dave Solhtalab, Jim Massura, Eduard Crockett, Hermann Koch, and 2nd edition Hermann Koch 5.1 General 271 5.2 Type Tests 271 5.3 Routine Tests 276 5.4 Onsite Field Testing 279 5.5 Guidelines for Onsite Tests 282 5.6 Best Practice for On-Site Field Testing 283 6 Installation 293Authors: 1st edition Hermann Koch, Richard Jones, James MassuraReviewers: Phil Bolin, John Brunke, Michael Novev, Pravakar Samanta, Devki Sharma, 2nd edition John Brunke, Michael Novev, and Pravakar Samanta 6.1 General 293 6.2 Installation 293 6.3 Energization: Connecting to the Power Grid 323 7 Operation and Maintenance 325Authors: 1st edition Hermann Koch, Charles L Hand, Arnaud Ficheux, Richard Jones, Ravi Dhara, 2nd edition Richard Jones,Reviewers: 1st edition Phil Bolin, Noboru Fujimoto, Dave Solhtalab, Richard Jones, Devki Sharma, George Becker, Dick Jones, Hermann Koch, 2nd edition Ryan Stone, Patrick Fitzgerald, Gerd Ottehenning, Coboyo Bodyona and Hermann Koch 7.1 General 325 7.2 Operation of a Gas-Insulated Substation 326 7.3 Maintenance 344 7.4 SF6 Gas Leakage Repair 345 7.5 Repair 348 7.6 Extensions 349 7.8 Overloading and Thermal Limits 356 7.9 Maintenance and Operations Pointers 361 7.10 Lessons Learned 366 8 Applications 371Authors: 1st edition Hermann Koch, William Labos, Peter Grossmann, Arun Arora, and Dave Solhtalab, 2nd edition Hermann Koch, and Dave MitchellReviewer: 1st edition Phil Bolin, Hermann Koch, Devki Sharma, Ewald Warzecha, George Becker, John Brunke, Peter Grossmann, Arnaud Ficheux, Pravakar Samanta, Scott Scharf, Ravi Dhara, and Chuck Hands, 2nd edition Denis Steyn, Petr Rudenko, Stefan Schedl, Scott Scharf, Mark Kuschel, and Bala Kotharu 8.1 General 371 8.2 Typical GIS Layouts 371 8.3 Reference Projects 374 8.4 GIS Case Studies 418 8.5 Mobile Substations 453 8.6 Mixed Technology Switchgear (MTS) 464 8.7 Future Developments 468 8.8 Underground Substations 477 8.9 Special Substation Buildings 502 9 Advanced Technologies 525Authors: 1st edition Hermann Koch, Venkatesh Minisandram, Arnaud Ficheux, George Becker, Noboru Fujimoto, and Jorge Márquez-Sánchez 2nd Edition Hermann Koch, Maria Kosse, George Becker, George Becker, Mark Kuschel, Aron Heck, Dirk Helbig, Uwe RiechertReviewers: 1st Edition George Becker, Devki Sharma, Noboru Fujimoto, Venkatesh Minisandram, Phil Bolin, Pravakar Samanta, Hermann Koch, Linda Zhao, Xi Zhu, John Brunke, Dick Jones, Linda Zhao, David Lin, Devki Sharma, and Patrick Fitzgerald, 2nd Edition Michael Novev, Pablo Gonzales Toza, George Becker, Hermann Koch, Dick Jones, Bala Kotharu, Johne Brunke, James Massura, Dirk Helbig, Mark Kuschel, Arnaud Ficheux, Robert Lüscher, and Aron Heck 9.1 General 525 9.2 Environment 526 9.3 Life Cycle Cost Analysis 537 9.4 Insulation Coordination Study 545 9.5 Very Fast Transients 548 9.6 Project Scope Development 559 9.7 Risk-Based Asset Management of Gas-Insulated Substations and Equipment 563 9.8 Health and Safety Impact 572 9.9 Electromagnetic Field 573 9.10 SF6 Decomposition Byproducts 574 9.11 Condition Assessment 577 9.12 Gas-Insulated Substations for Enhanced Resiliency 618 9.13 Vacuum High Voltage Switching 635 9.14 Low Power Instrument Transformer 654 9.15 Digital Twin of GIS and GIL 664 9.16 Offshore GIS 689 9.17 HVDC GIS 726 9.18 Digital Substation 748 10 Conclusion 765Author: Hermann KochReviewer: Dave Solhtalab Index 767

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Book SynopsisIntroduction to Reliability Engineering A complete revision of the classic text on reliability engineering, written by an expanded author team with increased industry perspective Introduction to Reliability Engineering provides a thorough and well-balanced overview of the fundamental aspects of reliability engineering and describes the role of probability and statistical analysis in predicting and evaluating reliability in a range of engineering applications. Covering both foundational theory and real-world practice, this classic textbook helps students of any engineering discipline understand key probability concepts, random variables and their use in reliability, Weibull analysis, system safety analysis, reliability and environmental stress testing, redundancy, failure interactions, and more. Extensively revised to meet the needs of today's students, the Third Edition fully reflects current industrial practices and provides a wealth of new examples and Table of Contents1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Reliability Defined 1.2 Performance, Cost and Reliability 1.3 Quality, Reliability and Safety Linkage 1.4 Quality, Reliability and Safety Engineering Tasks 1.5 Preview 2 PROBABILITY AND DISCRETE DISTRIBUTIONS 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Probability Concepts Sample Space Outcome Event Probability Axioms More than two events Combinations and Permutations 2.3 Discrete Random Variables Properties of Discrete Variables The Binomial Distribution The Poisson Distribution Confidence Intervals Motivation for Confidence Intervals Introduction to Confidence Intervals Binomial Confidence Intervals Cumulative sums of the Poisson Distribution (Thorndike Chart) 3 Exponential Distribution and Reliability Basics 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Reliability Characterization Basic definitions The Bathtub curve 3.3 Constant Failure Rate model The Exponential Distribution Demand failures Time determinations 3.4 Time Dependent Failure rates 3.5 Component Failures and Failure Modes Failure mode rates Component counts 3.6 Replacements 3.7 Redundancy Active and Standby Redundancy Active Parallel Standby Parallel Constant Failure Rate Models 3.8 Redundancy limitations Common-mode failures Load sharing Switching & Standby failures Cool, Warm and Hot Standby 3.9 Multiply Redundant Systems 1/N Active Redundancy 1/N Standby Redundancy m/N Active Redundancy 3.10 Redundancy Allocation High and Low level redundancy Fail-safe and Fail-to-Danger Voting Systems 3.11 Redundancy in Complex Configurations Serial-Parallel configurations Linked configurations 4 Continuous Distributions- Part 1 Normal & Related Distributions 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Properties of Continuous Random variables Probability Distribution Functions Characteristics of a Probability Distribution Sample Statistics Transformation of Variables 4.3 Empirical Cumulative Distribution Function 4.4 Uniform Distribution 4.5 Normal and Related Distributions The Normal Distribution Central Limit Theorem The Central Limit Theorem in Practice The Log Normal Distribution Log Normal Distribution from a Physics of Failure Perspective 4.6 Confidence Intervals Point & Interval Estimates Estimate of the Mean Normal & Lognormal parameters 5 Continuous Distributions- Part 2 Weibull & Extreme Value Distributions 5.1 Introduction The “weakest link” theory from a Physics of Failure point of view Uses of Weibull and Extreme Value Distributions Other Considerations Age parameters and sample sizes Engineering Changes, Maintenance Plan Evaluation and Risk Prediction Weibulls with cusps or curves System Weibulls No failure Weibulls Small sample Weibulls 5.2 Statistics of the Weibull Distribution Weibull “Mathematics” The Weibull Probability Plot Probability Plotting Points—Median Ranks How to do a “Weibull Analysis” Weibull plots and their estimates of b, h The 3-Parameter Weibull didn’t work, what are my choices? The data has a “dogleg” bend or cusp when plotted on Weibull paper. Steep Weibull slopes (β’s) may hide problems. Low Time Failures and close Serial numbers---Batch problems Maximum Likelihood Estimates of β and η Weibayes Analysis Weibayes background Weibull Analysis with failure times only and unknown times on remaining population Shifting Weibull Procedure Confidence bounds and the Weibull Distribution Arbitrary Censored Data The Weibull Distribution in a System of Independent failure modes 5.3 Extreme Value Distributions Smallest & Largest Extreme Value distributions Extreme Value and Weibull Distribution Point Estimates & Confidence Intervals 5.4 Introduction to Risk analysis Risk Analysis “Mathematics” Supplement 1- Weibull derived from weakest link theory Supplement 2: Comparing two distributions using Supersmith™ 6 RELIABILITY TESTING 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Attribute Testing (Binomial Testing) The Classical Success Run Zero Failure Attribute Tests Non-ZERO Failure Attribute Tests 6.3 Constant Failure Rate Estimates Censoring on the Right MTTF Estimates Confidence Intervals 6.4 Weibull Substantiation and Reliability Testing Zero-Failure Test Plans for Substantiation Testing Weibull Zero-Failure test Plans for Reliability Testing Designing the Test Plan Total Test Time Why not Simply Test to Failure? 6.5 How to Reduce Test Time Run (simultaneously) more test samples than you intend to fail Sudden Death Testing Sequential Testing 6.6 Normal & Lognormal Reliability Testing 6.7 Accelerated Life Testing Compressed Time Testing Advanced Stress Testing-Linear & Acceleration Models Linear Model Stress testing Advanced Stress Testing – Acceleration Models The Arrhenius Model The Inverse Power Law Model Other Acceleration Models 6.8 Reliability Enhancement Procedures Reliability Growth Modeling & Testing Calculation of Reliability Growth parameters Goodness of Fit tests for Reliability Growth Models Environmental Stress Screening What “Screens” are used for ESS? Thermal cycling Random Vibration Other Screens Highly Accelerated Life Tests Highly Accelerated Stress Screening Supplement 1 Substantiation Testing: Characteristic Life multipliers for Zero failure Test at 80%, 90%, 95%, 99% Confidence Supplement 2 Substantiation Testing Tables for Zero failure Test at 80%, 90%, 95%, 99% Confidence Supplement 3 CRITICAL VALUES FOR CRAMER-VON MISES GOODNESS-OF-FIT TEST Supplement 4 Other Reliability Growth Models Supplement 5 Chi-Square Table 7 Failure Modes & Effects Analysis (FMEA) – Design & Process 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Functional FMEA 7.3 Design FMEA Design FMEA Procedure 7.4 Process FMEA(PFMEA) 7.5 FMEA Summary FMEA Outputs FMEA Pitfalls that can be prevented Supplement 1 Shortcut tables for stalled FMEA Teams Supplement 2 Future changes in FMEA Approaches Supplement 3 DFMEA and PFMEA Forms 8 LOADS, CAPACITY, AND RELIABILITY 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Reliability with a Single Loading Load Application Definitions 8.3 Reliability and Safety Factors Normal Distributions Lognormal Distributions Combined Distributions 8.4 Repetitive Loading Loading Variability Variable Capacity 8.5 The Bathtub Curve—Reconsidered Single Failure Modes Combined Failure Modes Supplement 1: The Dirac Delta Distribution 9 MAINTAINED SYSTEMS 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Preventive Maintenance Idealized Maintenance Imperfect Maintenance Redundant Components 9.3 Corrective Maintenance Availability Maintainability 9.4 Repair: Revealed Failures Constant Repair Rates Constant Repair Times 9.5 Testing and Repair: Unrevealed Failures Idealized Periodic Tests Real Periodic Tests 9.6 System Availability Revealed Failures Unrevealed Failures 10 FAILURE INTERACTIONS 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Markov Analysis Two Independent Components Load-Sharing Systems 10.3 Reliability with Standby Systems Idealized System Failures in the Standby State Switching Failures Primary System Repair 10.4 Multicomponent Systems Multicomponent Markov Formulations Combinations of Subsystems 10.5 Availability Standby Redundancy Shared Repair Crews Markov Availability-Advantages & Disadvantages 11 SYSTEM SAFETY ANALYSIS 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Product and Equipment Hazards 11.3 Human Error Routine Operations Emergency Operations 11.4 Methods of Analysis Failure Modes Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA) Event Trees 11.5 Fault Trees Fault-Tree Construction Nomenclature Fault Classification Fault Tree Examples Direct Evaluation of Fault Trees Qualitative Evaluation Quantitative Evaluation Fault-Tree Evaluation by Cut Sets Qualitative Analysis Quantitative Analysis 11.6 Reliability/Safety Risk Analysis APPENDICES A USEFUL MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS B BINOMIAL CONFIDENCE CHARTS C STANDARD NORMAL CDF D NONPARAMETRIC METHODS AND PROBABILITY PLOTTING D1 Introduction D2 Nonparametric Methods for Probability Plotting D3 Parametric Methods D4 Goodness-of-Fit Supplement 1 Further Details of Weibull Probability plotting Supplement 2 Median Rank adjustment for SUSPENDED TEST ITEMS Supplement 3 Generating a Probability Plot in MINITAB ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES INDEX

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Book SynopsisQUALITY PLANNING AND ASSURANCE Discover the most crucial aspects of quality systems planning critical to manufacturing and service success In Quality Planning and Assurance: Principles, Approaches, and Methods for Product and Service Development, accomplished engineer Dr. Herman Tang delivers an incisive presentation of the principles of quality systems planning. The book begins with an introduction to the meaning of the word quality before moving on to review the principles of quality strategy and policy management. The author then offers a detailed discussion of customer needs and the corresponding quality planning tasks in design phases, as well as a treatment of the design processes necessary to ensure product or service quality. Readers will enjoy explorations of advanced topics related to proactive approaches to quality management, like failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA). They???ll discover discussions of issues like supplier quality manTable of ContentsForewords xi Preface xv Acknowledgments xix About the Author xxi 1 Introduction to Quality Planning 1 1.1 Quality Definitions 1 1.1.1 Meaning of Quality 1 1.1.2 End-customer Centricity 3 1.1.3 Dimensions of Product and Service Quality 6 1.1.4 Discussion of Service Quality 10 1.2 Quality System 13 1.2.1 Quality Management System 13 1.2.2 Discussion of QMS 17 1.2.3 Quality Target Setting 19 1.2.4 Cost of Quality 22 1.3 Quality Planning 25 1.3.1 Planning Process Overview 25 1.3.2 Considerations in Quality Planning 29 1.3.3 Quality-planning Guideline (APQP) 31 1.3.4 Service Quality Planning 35 Summary 36 Exercises 37 References 38 2 Strategy Development for Quality 43 2.1 Strategic Management 43 2.1.1 Overview of Strategic Management 43 2.1.2 Hoshin Planning Management 48 2.1.3 Implementation Considerations 52 2.2 Risk Management and Analysis 56 2.2.1 Risk Management Overview 56 2.2.2 Risks and Treatments 59 2.2.3 Risk Evaluation 61 2.2.4 Event Tree, Fault Tree, and Bowtie Analysis 64 2.3 Pull and Push Strategies 68 2.3.1 Pull or Push 68 2.3.2 Innovation-push 70 2.3.3 Challenges to Pull and Push 72 Summary 73 Exercises 74 References 76 3 Customer-centric Planning 81 3.1 Goal: Design for Customer 81 3.1.1 Customer-driven Development 81 3.1.2 Product/Process Characteristics 85 3.2 Quality Category to Customer 89 3.2.1 Must-be Quality and Attractive Quality 89 3.2.2 Kano Model 92 3.3 Quality Function Deployment 95 3.3.1 Principle of QFD 95 3.3.2 QFD Applications 98 3.3.3 More Discussion of QFD 100 3.4 Affective Engineering 103 3.4.1 Introduction to Affective Engineering 103 3.4.2 Discussion of AE 106 3.4.3 Applications of AE 108 Summary 110 Exercises 111 References 112 4 Quality Assurance by Design 119 4.1 Design Review Process 119 4.1.1 Introduction to Design Review 119 4.1.2 Design Review Based on Failure Mode 122 4.1.3 Design Review Applications 124 4.2 Design Verification and Validation 125 4.2.1 Prototype Processes 125 4.2.2 Processes of Verification and Validation 128 4.2.3 Discussion of Verification and Validation 131 4.3 Concurrent Engineering 133 4.3.1 Principle of Concurrent Engineering 133 4.3.2 Considerations to CE 136 4.4 Variation Considerations 139 4.4.1 Recognition of Variation 139 4.4.2 Target Setting with Variation 141 4.4.3 Propagation of Variation 143 4.4.4 Quality and Variation 146 Summary 149 Exercises 150 References 151 5 Proactive Approaches: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis and Control Plan 157 5.1 Understanding Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 157 5.1.1 Principle of Failure Modes and Effects Analysis 157 5.1.2 FMEA Development 162 5.1.3 Parameters in FMEA 164 5.2 Pre- and Post-work of FMEA 168 5.2.1 Pre-FMEA Analysis 168 5.2.2 FMEA Follow-up 172 5.3 Implementation of FMEA 176 5.3.1 Considerations in FMEA 176 5.3.2 Applications of FMEA 179 5.4 Control Plan 183 5.4.1 Basics of Control Plan 183 5.4.2 Considerations in Control Plan 186 5.4.3 Applications of Control Plan 188 Summary 190 Exercises 191 References 193 6 Supplier Quality Management and Production Part Approval Process 197 6.1 Introduction to Supplier Quality 197 6.1.1 Supplier Quality Overview 197 6.1.2 Supplier Selection and Evaluation 200 6.2 PPAP Standardized Guideline 205 6.2.1 Concept of PPAP 205 6.2.2 PPAP Elements 208 6.2.3 PPAP Packages 211 6.3 PPAP Elements in a Package 213 6.3.1 Essential Element (Level 1) 213 6.3.2 Level 2 Elements 215 6.3.3 Level 3 Elements 217 6.3.4 Unique Requirements (Levels 4 and 5) 219 6.4 Supplier Quality Assurance 220 6.4.1 PPAP Preparation and Approval 220 6.4.2 Customer and Supplier Teamwork 222 6.4.3 Supplier Quality to Service 227 Summary 229 Exercises 230 References 232 7 Special Analyses and Processes 235 7.1 Measurement System Analysis 235 7.1.1 Measurement System 235 7.1.2 Analysis in MSA 239 7.2 Process Capability Study 244 7.2.1 Principle of Process Capability 244 7.2.2 Process Capability Assessment 247 7.2.3 Production Tryout 249 7.3 Change Management in Development 253 7.3.1 Process of Change Management 253 7.3.2 Considerations in Change Management 256 7.3.3 Advancement of Change Management 259 7.4 Quality System Auditing 260 7.4.1 Roles and Processes of Quality Auditing 260 7.4.2 Types of Quality Audit and Preparation 263 7.4.3 Considerations in Quality Auditing 264 Summary 267 Exercises 269 References 270 8 Quality Management Tools 275 8.1 Problem-solving Process 275 8.1.1 Plan–Do–Check–Act Approach 275 8.1.2 8D Approach 281 8.1.3 Approaches and Tools 286 8.2 Seven Basic Tools 290 8.2.1 Cause-and-effect Diagram 290 8.2.2 Check Sheet 291 8.2.3 Histogram 292 8.2.4 Pareto Chart 294 8.2.5 Scatter Diagram 295 8.2.6 Control Charts 296 8.2.7 Stratification Analysis 298 8.3 Seven Additional Tools 299 8.3.1 Affinity Diagram 299 8.3.2 Relation Diagram 300 8.3.3 Tree Diagram 304 8.3.4 Matrix Chart (Diagram) 305 8.3.5 Network Diagram 306 8.3.6 Prioritization Matrix 308 8.3.7 Process Decision Program Chart 309 Summary 310 Exercises 311 References 313 Acronyms and Glossary 317 Epilogue 321 Index 323

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Book SynopsisRENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES With the goal of accelerating the growth of green energy utilization for the sustainability of life on earth, this volume, written and edited by a global team of experts, goes into the practical applications that can be utilized across multiple disciplines and industries, for both the engineer and the student. Green energy resources are gaining more attention in academia and industry as one of the preferred choices for sustainable energy conversion. Due to the energy demand, environmental impacts, economic needs, and social issues, green energy resources are being researched, developed, and funded more than ever before. Researchers are facing numerous challenges, but there are new opportunities waiting for green energy resource utilization within the context of environmental and economic sustainability. Efficient energy conversion from solar, wind, biomass, fuel cells, and others are paramount to this overall mission and the success of Table of ContentsPreface 1. Comparison of Drag Models for Hydrodynamic Flow Behavior Analysis of Bubbling Fluidized BedSourav Ganguli, Prabhansu and Malay Kr. Karmakar 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Mathematical Model 1.3 Results and Discussion 1.4 Conclusion 18 References 2. Pathways of Renewable Energy Sources in Rajasthan for Sustainable GrowthHemani Paliwal, Vikramaditya Dave and Sujeet Kumar 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Renewable Energy in India 2.3 Renewable Energy in Rajasthan 2.4 Government Initiatives 2.5 Major Achievements 2.6 Environment Effects 2.7 Conclusion 3. Distributed Generation Policy in India: Challenges and OpportunitiesJ. N. Roy, Uday Shankar and Ajaykumar Chaurasiya 3.1 Background 3.2 Electricity Access in India 3.3 DG System Position in Existing Legal and Policy Framework of India 3.4 Analysis and Challenges in the DG System 3.5 Conclusion 4. Sustainable Development of Nanomaterials for Energy and Environmental Protection ApplicationsMohamed Jaffer Sadiq Mohamed 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Photocatalysis 4.3 Electrocatalysis 4.4 Supercapacitors 4.5 Conclusions 5. Semiconductor Quantum Dot Solar Cells: Construction, Working Principle, and Current DevelopmentHirendra Das and Pranayee Datta 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Solar Cell Operation (Photovoltaic Effect) 5.3 Quantum Dot Based Solar Cells 5.4 Materials for QDSSCs 5.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects 6. Review on Productivity Enhancement of Passive Solar StillsSubbarama Kousik Suraparaju and Sendhil Kumar Natarajan 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Need for Desalination in India & Other Parts of World 6.3 Significance of Solar Energy -- Indian Scenario 6.4 Desalination Process Powered by Solar Energy 6.5 Solar Still 6.6 Methods to Augment the Potable Water Yield in Passive Solar Still 6.7 Factors Affecting the Rate of Productivity 6.8 Corollary on Productivity Enhancement Methods 6.9 Conclusions and Future Recommendations 7. Subsynchronous Resonance Issues in Integrating Large Windfarms to GridR. Mahalakshmi and K.C. Sindhu Thampatty 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Literature Survey 7.3 DFIG Based Grid Integrated WECs 7.4 Modeling of System Components 7.5 Analysis of Subsynchronous Resonance 7.6 Hardware Implementation 7.7 Conclusion 8. Emerging Trends for Biomass and Waste to Energy ConversionMusademba Downmore, Chihobo Chido H. and Garahwa Zvikomborero 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Hydrothermal Processing 8.3 Opportunities and Challenges in Hydrothermal Processing (HTP) 8.4 Bio-Methanation Process 8.5 Integrating AD-HTP 8.6 Waste to Energy Conversion 8.7 Impacts of COVID-19 on Biomass and Waste to Energy Conversion 8.8 Conclusion 9. Renewable Energy Policies and Standards for Energy Storage and Electric Vehicles in IndiaPrateek Srivastava, Shashank Vyas and Nilesh B. Hadiya 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Structure of the Indian Power System 9.3 Status of RE in India 9.4 Legal Aspects of Electricity and Consumer Rights in India 9.5 Policies, Programs, and Standards Related to Energy Storage and EVs 9.6 Electricity Market-Related Developments for Accommodating More RE 9.7 Conclusion 10. Durable Catalyst Support for PEFC ApplicationP. Dhanasekaran, S. Vinod Selvaganesh and Santoshkumar D. Bhat 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Classification of Fuel Cells and Operating Principle 10.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) 10.4 Fuel Cell Performance and Stability 10.5 Effect of TiO2 Based Catalysts/Supports for H2-PEFC and DMFC 10.6 Variable Phase of TiO2 Supported Pt Towards Fuel Cell Application 10.7 Influence of Doping in TiO2 Towards ORR 10.8 Influence of Morphology Towards Oxygen Reduction Reaction 10.9 Effect of Titania-Carbon Composite Supported Pt Electrocatalyst for PEFC 10.10 PEFC Stack Operation and Durability Studies with Alternate Catalyst Support 10.11 Summary and Way Forward 11. Unitized Regenerative Fuel Cells: Future of Renewable Energy ResearchDevi Renuka K., Santoshkumar D. Bhat and Sreekuttan M. Unni 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Principle of URFC 11.3 Classification of URFCs 11.4 Case Studies on URFCs 11.5 Conclusion 12. Energy Storage for Distributed Energy ResourcesUdaya Bhasker Manthati, Srinivas Punna and Arunkumar C. R. 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Types of Energy Storage Systems 12.3 Power Electronic Interface 12.4 Control of Different HESS Configurations 12.5 Battery Modeling Techniques 12.6 Applications 12.7 Challenges and Future of ESSs 12.8 Conclusions 13. Comprehensive Analysis on DC-Microgrid Application for Remote ElectrificationYugal Kishor, C.H. Kamesh Rao and R.N. Patel 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Background of DC-muG 13.3 DC-μG Architectures 13.4 DC-μG Voltage Polarity 13.5 Single Bus DC-μG 13.6 Radial Architecture of DC-μG 13.7 Ladder Type DC-μG 13.8 Topological Overview of DC-DC Converters 13.9 DC-μG Control Schemes 13.10 Key Challenges and Direction of Future Research 13.11 Conclusions 14. Thermo-Hydraulic Performance of Solar Air HeaterTabish Alam and Karmveer 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Solar Air Heater (SAH) 14.3 Performance Evaluation of a SAH 14.4 Collector Performance Testing and Prediction 14.5 Performance Enhancement Methods of Solar Air Collector 14.6 Thermo-Hydraulic Performance 14.7 Prediction of Net Effective Efficiency of Conical Protrusion Ribs on Absorber of SAH: A Case Study 14.8 Conclusions 15. Artificial Intelligent Approaches for Load Frequency Control in Isolated Microgrid with Renewable Energy SourcesS. Anbarasi, K. Punitha, S. Krishnaveni and R. Aruna 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Microgrid Integrated with Renewable Energy Resources 15.3 Control Strategy for LFC in Micro Grid 15.4 Simulation Results and Discussions: Case Study 15.5 Summary and Future Scope 16. Analysis of Brushless Doubly Fed Induction MachineResmi R. 16.1 Introduction 16.2 A Study on BDFIM 16.3 FEM Analysis of BDFIM Performance 16.4 Fabrication of BDFIM 16.5 Testing of Prototype BDFIM as Motor 16.6 Testing of BDFIM as a Generator 16.7 Conclusion 17. SMC Augmented Droop Control Scheme for Improved Small Signal Stability of Inverter Dominated MicrogridBinu Krishnan U. and Mija S. J. 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Small Signal Model of Droop Controlled MG System 17.3 Droop Controller with SMC 17.4 Conclusion 18. Energy Scenarios Due to Southern Pine Beetle Outbreak in HondurasJuan F. Reyez-Meza, Juan G. Elvir-Hernandez, Wilfredo C. Flores, Harold R. Chamorro, Jacobo Aguillon-Garcia, Vijay K. Sood, Kyri Baker, Ameena Al-Sumaiti, Francisco Gonzalez-Longatt and Wilmar Martinez 18.1 Introduction 18.2 SPB (Southern Pine Beetle) 18.3 Implementation of Methodology 18.4 Scenario Taking Into Consideration the Energy Demand Conclusions References Appendix Index

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Book SynopsisPower System Relaying An updated edition of the gold standard in power system relaying texts In the newly revised fifth edition of Power System Relaying, a distinguished team of engineers delivers a thorough update to an essential text used by countless univer??sities and industry courses around the world. The book explores the fundamentals of relaying and power system phenomena, including stability, protection, and reliability. The latest edition provides readers with substantial updates to transformer protection, rotating machinery protection, nonpilot distance protection of transmission and distribution lines, power system phenomena, and bus, reactor, and capacitor protection. It also includes an expanded introduction to the elements of protection systems. Problems and solutions round out the new material and offer an indispensable self-contained study environment. Readers will also find: A thorough introduction to protective relaying, including discussions of effective grounding and power system bus configurations In-depth explorations of relay operating principles and current and voltage transformersFulsome discussions of nonpilot overcurrent and distance protection of transmission and distribution lines, as well as pilot protection of transmission lines Comprehensive treatments of rotating machinery protection and bus, reactor, and capacitor protection Perfect for undergraduate and graduate students studying power system engineering, Power System Relaying is an ideal resource for practicing engineers involved with power systems and academic researchers studying power system protection.Table of ContentsFront matter Preface to the Fifth Edition Preface to the First Edition 1 Introduction to Protective Relaying 2 Relay Operating Principles 3 Current and Voltage Transformers 4 Nonpilot Overcurrent Protection of Transmission and Distribution Lines 5 Nonpilot Distance Protection of Transmission Lines 6 Pilot Protection of Transmission Lines 7 Rotating Machinery Protection 8 Transformer Protection 9 Bus, Reactor, and Capacitor Protection 10 Power System Phenomena and Relaying Considerations 11 Relaying for System Performance 12 Switching Schemes and Procedures 13 Monitoring the Performance of Power Systems 14 Improved Protection with Wide Area Measurements (WAMS) 15 Protection Considerations for Renewable Resources 16 Solutions Appendix A: IEEE Device Numbers and Functions Appendix B: Symmetrical Components Appendix C: Power Equipment Parameters Appendix D: Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay Characteristics Index

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Book SynopsisReliability Analysis Using MINITAB and Python Complete overview of the theory and fundamentals of Reliability Analysis applied with Minitab and Python tools Reliability Analysis Using Minitab and Python expertly applies Minitab and Python programs to the field of reliability engineering, presenting basic concepts and explaining step-by-step how to implement statistical distributions and reliability analysis methods using the two programming languages. The textbook enables readers to effectively use software to efficiently process massive amounts of data while also reducing human error. Examples and case studies as well as exercises and questions are included throughout to enable a smooth learning experience. Excel files containing the sample data and Minitab and Python example files are also provided. Students who have basic knowledge of probability and statistics will find this textbook highly approachable. Nonetheless, it also covers material on basic statistics at the beginning, soTable of ContentsAbout the Author ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xiii About the Companion Website xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Reliability Concepts 1 1.1.1 Reliability in Our Lives 1 1.1.2 History of Reliability 2 1.1.3 Definition of Reliability 2 1.1.4 Quality and Reliability 3 1.1.5 The Importance of Reliability 4 1.2 Failure Concepts 5 1.2.1 Definition of Failure 5 1.2.2 Causes of Failure 5 1.2.3 Types of Failure Time 7 1.2.4 The Reliability Bathtub Curve 12 1.3 Summary 16 2 Basic Concepts of Probability 19 2.1 Probability 19 2.1.1 The Importance of Probability in Reliability 20 2.2 Joint Probability with Independence 20 2.3 Union Probability 21 2.4 Conditional Probability 22 2.5 Joint Probability with Dependence 22 2.6 Mutually Exclusive Events 23 2.7 Complement Rule 24 2.8 Total Probability 24 2.9 Bayes’ Rule 25 2.10 Summary 26 3 Lifetime Distributions 29 3.1 Probability Distributions 29 3.1.1 Random Variables 29 3.2 Discrete Probability Distribution 30 3.3 Continuous Probability Distribution 32 3.3.1 Reliability Concepts 33 3.3.2 Failure Rate 35 3.4 Exponential Distribution 37 3.4.1 Exponential Lack of Memory Property 40 3.4.2 Excel Practice 41 3.4.3 Minitab Practice 41 3.4.4 Python Practice 43 3.5 Weibull Distribution 46 3.5.1 Excel Practice 52 3.5.2 Minitab Practice 52 3.5.3 Python Practice 53 3.6 Normal Distribution 54 3.6.1 Excel Practice 60 3.6.2 Minitab Practice 60 3.6.3 Python Practice 62 3.7 Lognormal Distribution 63 3.7.1 Excel Practice 66 3.7.2 Minitab Practice 66 3.7.3 Python Practice 68 3.8 Summary 70 4 Reliability Data Plotting 77 4.1 Straight Line Properties 77 4.2 Least Squares Fit 79 4.2.1 Excel Practice 81 4.2.2 Minitab Practice 82 4.2.3 Python Practice 82 4.3 Linear Rectification 84 4.4 Exponential Distribution Plotting 84 4.4.1 Excel Practice 92 4.4.2 Minitab Practice 92 4.4.3 Python Practice 94 4.5 Weibull Distribution Plotting 96 4.5.1 Minitab Practice 99 4.5.2 Python Practice 100 4.6 Normal Distribution Plotting 103 4.6.1 Minitab Practice 105 4.6.2 Python Practice 105 4.7 Lognormal Distribution Plotting 106 4.7.1 Minitab Practice 108 4.7.2 Python Practice 110 4.8 Summary 111 5 Accelerated Life Testing 115 5.1 Accelerated Testing Theory 115 5.2 Exponential Distribution Acceleration 117 5.3 Weibull Distribution Acceleration 118 5.3.1 Minitab Practice 119 5.3.2 Python Practice 120 5.4 Arrhenius Model 123 5.4.1 Minitab Practice 125 5.4.2 Python Practice 127 5.5 Summary 129 6 System Failure Modeling 131 6.1 Reliability Block Diagram 131 6.2 Series System Model 132 6.3 Parallel System Model 135 6.4 Combined Serial–Parallel System Model 138 6.5 k-out-of-n System Model 140 6.6 Minimal Paths and Minimal Cuts 142 6.7 Summary 148 7 Repairable Systems 151 7.1 Corrective Maintenance 151 7.2 Preventive Maintenance 152 7.3 Mean Time between Failures 152 7.4 Mean Time to Repair 153 7.5 Availability 153 7.5.1 Inherent Availability 153 7.5.2 Achieved Availability 154 7.5.3 Operational Availability 155 7.5.4 System Availability 156 7.6 Maintainability 156 7.7 Preventive Maintenance Scheduling 157 7.7.1 Python Practice 160 7.8 Summary 161 8 Case Studies 165 8.1 Parametric Reliability Analysis 165 8.1.1 Description of Case Study 166 8.1.2 Minitab Practice 166 8.1.3 Python Practice 177 8.2 Nonparametric Reliability Analysis 184 8.2.1 Description of Case Study 184 8.2.2 Minitab Practice 185 8.2.3 Python Practice 189 8.3 Driverless Car Failure Data Analysis 190 8.3.1 Description of Case Study 190 8.3.2 Minitab Practice 193 8.3.3 Python Practice 199 8.4 Warranty Analysis 202 8.4.1 Description of Case Study 202 8.4.2 Minitab Practice 204 8.5 Stress–Strength Interference Analysis 210 8.5.1 Description of Case Study 210 8.5.2 Minitab Practice 211 8.5.3 Python Practice 213 8.6 Summary 214 Index 219

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Book SynopsisThis comprehensive book presents a detailed account of research and recent developments in the field of green energetic materials, including pyrotechnics, explosives and propellants.Table of ContentsList of Contributors ix Preface xi 1 Introduction to Green Energetic Materials 1 Tore Brinck 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Green Chemistry and Energetic Materials 2 1.3 Green Propellants in Civil Space Travel 5 1.3.1 Green Oxidizers to Replace Ammonium Perchlorate 6 1.3.2 Green Liquid Propellants to Replace Hydrazine 8 1.3.3 Electric Propulsion 10 1.4 Conclusions 10 References 11 2 Theoretical Design of Green Energetic Materials: Predicting Stability, Detection, and Synthesis and Performance 15 Tore Brinck and Martin Rahm 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Computational Methods 17 2.3 Green Propellant Components 20 2.3.1 Trinitramide 20 2.3.2 Energetic Anions Rich in Oxygen and Nitrogen 24 2.3.3 The Pentazolate Anion and its Oxy-Derivatives 27 2.3.4 Tetrahedral N4 33 2.4 Conclusions 38 References 39 3 Some Perspectives on Sensitivity to Initiation of Detonation 45 Peter Politzer and Jane S. Murray 3.1 Energetic Materials and Green Chemistry 45 3.2 Sensitivity: Some Background 46 3.3 Sensitivity Relationships 47 3.4 Sensitivity: Some Relevant Factors 48 3.4.1 Amino Substituents 48 3.4.2 Layered (Graphite-Like) Crystal Lattice 49 3.4.3 Free Space in the Crystal Lattice 50 3.4.4 Weak Trigger Bonds 50 3.4.5 Molecular Electrostatic Potentials 51 3.5 Summary 56 Acknowledgments 56 References 57 4 Advances Toward the Development of “Green” Pyrotechnics 63 Jesse J. Sabatini 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 The Foundation of “Green” Pyrotechnics 65 4.3 Development of Perchlorate-Free Pyrotechnics 67 4.3.1 Perchlorate-Free Illuminating Pyrotechnics 67 4.3.2 Perchlorate-Free Simulators 72 4.4 Removal of Heavy Metals from Pyrotechnic Formulations 75 4.4.1 Barium-Free Green-Light Emitting Illuminants 76 4.4.2 Barium-Free Incendiary Compositions 78 4.4.3 Lead-Free Pyrotechnic Compositions 80 4.4.4 Chromium-Free Pyrotechnic Compositions 82 4.5 Removal of Chlorinated Organic Compounds from Pyrotechnic Formulations 83 4.5.1 Chlorine-Free Illuminating Compositions 83 4.6 Environmentally Friendly Smoke Compositions 84 4.6.1 Environmentally Friendly Colored Smoke Compositions 84 4.6.2 Environmentally Friendly White Smoke Compositions 88 4.7 Conclusions 93 Acknowledgments 94 Abbreviations 95 References 97 5 Green Primary Explosives 103 Karl D. Oyler 5.1 Introduction 103 5.1.1 What is a Primary Explosive? 104 5.1.2 The Case for Green Primary Explosives 107 5.1.3 Legacy Primary Explosives 108 5.2 Green Primary Explosive Candidates 110 5.2.1 Inorganic Compounds 111 5.2.2 Organic-Based Compounds 116 5.3 Conclusions 125 Acknowledgments 126 References 126 6 Energetic Tetrazole N-oxides 133 Thomas M. Klap€otke and J€org Stierstorfer 6.1 Introduction 133 6.2 Rationale for the Investigation of Tetrazole N-oxides 133 6.3 Synthetic Strategies for the Formation of Tetrazole N-oxides 136 6.3.1 HOF CH3CN 136 6.3.2 Oxone1 137 6.3.3 CF3COOH/H2O2 138 6.3.4 Cyclization of Azido-Oximes 139 6.4 Recent Examples of Energetic Tetrazole N-oxides 139 6.4.1 Tetrazole N-oxides 140 6.4.2 Bis(tetrazole-N-oxides) 150 6.4.3 5,50-Azoxytetrazolates 164 6.4.4 Bis(tetrazole)dihydrotetrazine and bis(tetrazole)tetrazine N-oxides 170 6.5 Conclusion 173 Acknowledgments 174 References 174 7 Green Propellants Based on Dinitramide Salts: Mastering Stability and Chemical Compatibility Issues 179 Martin Rahm and Tore Brinck 7.1 The Promises and Problems of Dinitramide Salts 179 7.2 Understanding Dinitramide Decomposition 181 7.2.1 The Dinitramide Anion 182 7.2.2 Dinitraminic Acid 184 7.2.3 Dinitramide Salts 185 7.3 Vibrational Sum-Frequency Spectroscopy of ADN and KDN 189 7.4 Anomalous Solid-State Decomposition 192 7.5 Dinitramide Chemistry 194 7.5.1 Compatibility and Reactivity of ADN 194 7.5.2 Dinitramides in Synthesis 196 7.6 Dinitramide Stabilization 198 7.7 Conclusions 200 References 201 8 Binder Materials for Green Propellants 205 Carina Elds€ater and Eva Malmstr€om 8.1 Binder Properties 209 8.2 Inert Polymers for Binders 210 8.2.1 Polybutadiene 210 8.2.2 Polyethers 212 8.2.3 Polyesters and Polycarbonates 213 8.3 Energetic Polymers 215 8.3.1 Nitrocellulose 215 8.3.2 Poly(glycidyl azide) 216 8.3.3 Poly(3-nitratomethyl-3-methyloxetane) 220 8.3.4 Poly(glycidyl nitrate) 221 8.3.5 Poly[3,3-bis(azidomethyl)oxetane] 222 8.4 Energetic Plasticisers 223 8.5 Outlook for Design of New Green Binder Systems 223 8.5.1 Architecture of the Binder Polymer 224 8.5.2 Chemical Composition and Crosslinking Chemistries 225 References 226 9 The Development of Environmentally Sustainable Manufacturing Technologies for Energetic Materials 235 David E. Chavez 9.1 Introduction 235 9.2 Explosives 236 9.2.1 Sustainable Manufacturing of Explosives 236 9.2.2 Environmentally Friendly Materials for Initiation 240 9.2.3 Synthesis of Explosive Precursors 244 9.3 Pyrotechnics 246 9.3.1 Commercial Pyrotechnics Manufacturing 246 9.3.2 Military Pyrotechnics 248 9.4 Propellants 249 9.4.1 The “Green Missile” Program 249 9.4.2 Other Rocket Propellant Efforts 250 9.4.3 Gun Propellants 251 9.5 Formulation 253 9.6 Conclusions 254 Acknowledgments 254 Abbreviations and Acronyms 255 References 256 10 Electrochemical Methods for Synthesis of Energetic Materials and Remediation of Waste Water 259 Lynne Wallace 10.1 Introduction 259 10.2 Practical Aspects 260 10.3 Electrosynthesis 262 10.3.1 Electrosynthesis of EM and EM Precursors 262 10.3.2 Electrosynthesis of Useful Reagents 265 10.4 Electrochemical Remediation 266 10.4.1 Direct Electrolysis 267 10.4.2 Indirect Electrolytic Methods 269 10.4.3 Electrokinetic Remediation of Soils 272 10.4.4 Electrodialysis 273 10.5 Current Developments and Future Directions 273 References 275 Index 281

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Book SynopsisAs the range of feedstocks, process technologies and products expand, biorefineries will become increasingly complex manufacturing systems. Biorefineries and Chemical Processes: Design, Integration and Sustainability Analysis presents process modelling and integration, and whole system life cycle analysis tools for the synthesis, design, operation and sustainable development of biorefinery and chemical processes. Topics covered include: Introduction: An introduction to the concept and development of biorefineries. Tools: Included here are the methods for detailed economic and environmental impact analyses; combined economic value and environmental impact analysis; life cycle assessment (LCA); multi-criteria analysis; heat integration and utility system design; mathematical programming based optimization and genetic algorithms. Process synthesis and design: Focuses on modern unit operations and innovative process flowsheets. DisTrade Review“In conclusion, this book introduces the reader to the rapidly-developing industry of biorefineries, with a multi-disciplinary approach. It is a good resource for undergraduate and post-graduate students who want to learn about biorefineries; it can also be valuable for researchers who are looking to practically apply these analytical tools in their work.” (Green Process Synth, 4 February 2015)Table of ContentsPreface xiii Acknowledgments xvii About the Authors xxi CompanionWebsite xxiii Nomenclature xxv I INTRODUCTION 1 1 Introduction 3 1.1 Fundamentals of the Biorefinery Concept 3 1.1.1 Biorefinery Principles 3 1.1.2 Biorefinery Types and Development 4 1.2 Biorefinery Features and Nomenclature 5 1.3 Biorefinery Feedstock: Biomass 7 1.3.1 Chemical Nature of Biorefinery Feedstocks 8 1.3.2 Feedstock Characterization 10 1.4 Processes and Platforms 12 1.5 Biorefinery Products 15 1.6 Optimization of Preprocessing and Fractionation for Bio Based Manufacturing 18 1.6.1 Background of Lignin 26 1.7 Electrochemistry Application in Biorefineries 31 1.8 Introduction to Energy and Water Systems 34 1.9 Evaluating Biorefinery Performances 36 1.9.1 Performance Indicators 36 1.9.2 Life Cycle Analysis 38 1.10 Chapters 38 1.11 Summary 38 References 39 II TOOLS 43 2 Economic Analysis 45 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 General Economic Concepts and Terminology 46 2.2.1 Capital Cost and Battery Limits 46 2.2.2 Cost Index 46 2.2.3 Economies of Scale 47 2.2.4 Operating Cost 48 2.2.5 Cash Flows 49 2.2.6 Time Value of Money 49 2.2.7 Discounted Cash Flow Analysis and Net Present Value 50 2.2.8 Profitability Analysis 52 2.2.9 Learning Effect 53 2.3 Methodology 54 2.3.1 Capital Cost Estimation 54 2.3.2 Profitability Analysis 55 2.4 Cost Estimation and Correlation 55 2.4.1 Capital Cost 55 2.4.2 Operating Cost 58 2.5 Summary 59 2.6 Exercises 60 References 61 3 Heat Integration and Utility System Design 63 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Process Integration 64 3.3 Analysis of Heat Exchanger Network Using Pinch Technology 65 3.3.1 Data Extraction 66 3.3.2 Construction of Temperature–Enthalpy Profiles 69 3.3.3 Application of the Graphical Approach for Energy Recovery 76 3.4 Utility System 83 3.4.1 Components in Utility System 83 3.5 Conceptual Design of Heat Recovery System for Cogeneration 88 3.5.1 Conventional Approach 88 3.5.2 Heuristic Based Approach 88 3.6 Summary 91 References 91 4 Life Cycle Assessment 93 4.1 Life Cycle Thinking 93 4.2 Policy Context 96 4.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 96 4.4 LCA: Goal and Scope Definition 100 4.5 LCA: Inventory Analysis 104 4.6 LCA: Impact Assessment 111 4.6.1 Global Warming Potential 114 4.6.2 Land Use 115 4.6.3 Resource Use 119 4.6.4 Ozone Layer Depletion 121 4.6.5 Acidification Potential 123 4.6.6 Photochemical Oxidant Creation Potential 126 4.6.7 Aquatic Ecotoxicity 127 4.6.8 Eutrophication Potential 127 4.6.9 Biodiversity 128 4.7 LCA: Interpretation 128 4.7.1 Stand-Alone LCA 128 4.7.2 Accounting LCA 129 4.7.3 Change Oriented LCA 129 4.7.4 Allocation Method 129 4.8 LCIA Methods 130 4.9 Future R&D Needs 145 References 145 5 Data Uncertainty and Multicriteria Analyses 147 5.1 Data Uncertainty Analysis 147 5.1.1 Dominance Analysis 148 5.1.2 Contribution Analysis 149 5.1.3 Scenario Analysis 151 5.1.4 Sensitivity Analysis 153 5.1.5 Monte Carlo Simulation 154 5.2 Multicriteria Analysis 159 5.2.1 Economic Value and Environmental Impact Analysis of Biorefinery Systems 160 5.2.2 Socioeconomic Analysis 163 5.3 Summary 165 References 165 6 Value Analysis 167 6.1 Value on Processing (VOP) and Cost of Production (COP) of Process Network Streams 168 6.2 Value Analysis Heuristics 172 6.2.1 Discounted Cash Flow Analysis 173 6.3 Stream Economic Profile 175 6.4 Concept of Boundary and Evaluation of Economic Margin of a Process Network 175 6.5 Stream Profitability Analysis 176 6.5.1 Value Analysis to Determine Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Streams to be Profitable or Nonprofitable 181 6.6 Summary 187 References 187 7 Combined Economic Value and Environmental Impact (EVEI) Analysis 189 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Equivalency Between Economic and Environmental Impact Concepts 190 7.3 Evaluation of Streams 196 7.4 Environmental Impact Profile 200 7.5 Product Economic Value and Environmental Impact (EVEI) Profile 201 7.6 Summary 204 References 205 8 Optimization 207 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Linear Optimization 208 8.2.1 Step 1: Rewriting in Standard LP Format 210 8.2.2 Step 2: Initializing the Simplex Method 211 8.2.3 Step 3: Obtaining an Initial Basic Solution 212 8.2.4 Step 4: Determining Simplex Directions 212 8.2.5 Step 5: Determining the Maximum Step Size by the Minimum Ratio Rule 213 8.2.6 Step 6: Updating the Basic Variables 214 8.3 Nonlinear Optimization 218 8.3.1 Gradient Based Methods 219 8.3.2 Generalized Reduced Gradient (GRG) Algorithm 226 8.4 Mixed Integer Linear or Nonlinear Optimization 239 8.4.1 Branch and Bound Method 240 8.5 Stochastic Method 243 8.5.1 Genetic Algorithm (GA) 244 8.5.2 Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA) Optimization 246 8.5.3 GA in MATLAB 248 8.6 Summary 248 References 248 III PROCESS SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 251 9 Generic Reactors: Thermochemical Processing of Biomass 253 9.1 Introduction 253 9.2 General Features of Thermochemical Conversion Processes 254 9.3 Combustion 257 9.4 Gasification 258 9.4.1 The Process 258 9.4.2 Types of Gasifier 260 9.4.3 Design Considerations 260 9.5 Pyrolysis 262 9.5.1 What is Bio-Oil? 262 9.5.2 How Is Bio-Oil Obtained from Biomass? 264 9.5.3 How Fast Pyrolysis Works 265 9.6 Summary 270 Exercises 270 References 270 10 Reaction Thermodynamics 271 10.1 Introduction 271 10.2 Fundamentals of Design Calculation 272 10.2.1 Heat of Combustion 272 10.2.2 Higher and Lower Heating Values 276 10.2.3 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 278 10.2.4 Theoretical Air-to-Fuel Ratio 279 10.2.5 Cold Gas Efficiency 280 10.2.6 Hot Gas Efficiency 281 10.2.7 Equivalence Ratio 281 10.2.8 Carbon Conversion 282 10.2.9 Heat of Reaction 282 10.3 Process Design: Synthesis and Modeling 282 10.3.1 Combustion Model 282 10.3.2 Gasification Model 283 10.3.3 Pyrolysis Model 289 10.4 Summary 291 Exercises 291 References 292 11 Reaction and Separation Process Synthesis: Chemical Production from Biomass 295 11.1 Chemicals from Biomass: An Overview 296 11.2 Bioreactor and Kinetics 297 11.2.1 An Example of Lactic Acid Production 299 11.2.2 An Example of Succinic Acid Production 304 11.2.3 Heat Transfer Strategies for Reactors 308 11.2.4 An Example of Ethylene Production 309 11.2.5 An Example of Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis 311 11.3 Controlled Acid Hydrolysis Reactions 318 11.4 Advanced Separation and Reactive Separation 327 11.4.1 Membrane Based Separations 327 11.4.2 Membrane Filtration 330 11.4.3 Electrodialysis 333 11.4.4 Ion Exchange 334 11.4.5 Integrated Processes 338 11.4.6 Reactive Extraction 341 11.4.7 Reactive Distillation 352 11.4.8 Crystallization 354 11.4.9 Precipitation 360 11.5 Guidelines for Integrated Biorefinery Design 360 11.5.1 An Example of Levulinic Acid Production: The Biofine Process 365 11.6 Summary 368 References 370 12 Polymer Processes 373 12.1 Polymer Concepts 374 12.1.1 Polymer Classification 375 12.1.2 Polymer Properties 376 12.1.3 From Petrochemical Based Polymers to Biopolymers 379 12.2 Modified Natural Biopolymers 385 12.2.1 Starch Polymers 385 12.2.2 Cellulose Polymers 389 12.2.3 Natural Fiber and Lignin Composites 389 12.3 Modeling of Polymerization Reaction Kinetics 391 12.3.1 Chain-Growth or Addition Polymerization 392 12.3.2 Step-Growth Polymerization 396 12.3.3 Copolymerization 398 12.4 Reactor Design for Biomass Based Monomers and Biopolymers 400 12.4.1 Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) Design for Reaction in Gaseous Phase 400 12.4.2 Bioreactor Design for Biopolymer Production – An Example of Polyhydroxyalkanoates 402 12.4.3 Catalytic Reactor Design 403 12.4.4 Energy Transfer Models of Reactors 412 12.5 Synthesis of Unit Operations Combining Reaction and Separation Functionalities 416 12.5.1 Reactive Distillation Column 416 12.5.2 An Example of a Novel Reactor Arrangement 418 12.6 Integrated Biopolymer Production in Biorefineries 421 12.6.1 Polyesters 421 12.6.2 Polyurethanes 422 12.6.3 Polyamides 422 12.6.4 Polycarbonates 424 12.7 Summary 424 References 424 13 Separation Processes: Carbon Capture 425 13.1 Absorption 426 13.2 Absorption Process Flowsheet Synthesis 429 13.3 The RectisolTM Technology 431 13.3.1 Design and Operating Regions of RectisolTM Process 433 13.3.2 Energy Consumption of a RectisolTM Process 435 13.4 The SelexolTM Technology 446 13.4.1 SelexolTM Process Parametric Analysis 448 13.5 Adsorption Process 457 13.5.1 Kinetic Modeling of SMR Reactions 458 13.5.2 Adsorption Modeling of Carbon Dioxide 460 13.5.3 Sorption Enhanced Reaction (SER) Process Dynamic Modeling Framework 460 13.6 Chemical Looping Combustion 463 13.7 Low Temperature Separation 471 13.8 Summary 472 References 473 IV BIOREFINERY SYSTEMS 475 14 Bio-Oil Refining I: Fischer–Tropsch Liquid and Methanol Synthesis 477 14.1 Introduction 477 14.2 Bio-Oil Upgrading 478 14.2.1 Physical Upgrading 478 14.2.2 Chemical Upgrading 478 14.2.3 Biological Upgrading 480 14.3 Distributed and Centralized Bio-Oil Processing Concept 481 14.3.1 The Concept 481 14.3.2 The Economics of Local Distribution of Bio-Oil 482 14.3.3 The Economics of Importing Bio-Oil from Other Countries 483 14.4 Integrated Thermochemical Processing of Bio-Oil into Fuels 483 14.4.1 Synthetic Fuel Production 484 14.4.2 Methanol Production 485 14.5 Modeling, Integration and Analysis of Thermochemical Processes of Bio-Oil 486 14.5.1 Flowsheet Synthesis and Modeling 486 14.5.2 Sensitivity Analysis 488 14.6 Summary 494 References 494 15 Bio-Oil Refining II: Novel Membrane Reactors 497 15.1 Bio-Oil Co-Processing in Crude Oil Refinery 497 15.2 Mixed Ionic Electronic Conducting (MIEC) Membrane for Hydrogen Production and Bio-Oil Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking 499 15.3 Bio-Oil Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking Reaction Mechanisms and a MIEC Membrane Reactor Based Bio-Oil Upgrader Process Flowsheet 502 15.4 A Coursework Problem 510 15.5 Summary 513 References 514 16 Fuel Cells and Other Renewables 515 16.1 Biomass Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell (BGFC) System Modeling for Design, Integration and Analysis 517 16.2 Simulation of Integrated BGFC Flowsheets 520 16.3 Heat Integration of BGFC Flowsheets 528 16.4 Analysis of Processing Chains in BGFC Flowsheets 529 16.5 SOFC Gibbs Free Energy Minimization Modeling 532 16.6 Design of SOFC Based Micro-CHP Systems 536 16.7 Fuel Cell and SOFC Design Parameterization Suitable for Spreadsheet Implementation 537 16.7.1 Mass Balance 539 16.7.2 Electrochemical Descriptions 540 16.7.3 An air Blower Power Consumption 542 16.7.4 Combustor Modeling 543 16.7.5 Energy Balance 543 16.8 Summary 546 References 546 17 Algae Biorefineries 547 17.1 Algae Cultivation 548 17.1.1 Open Pond Cultivation 548 17.1.2 Photobioreactors (PBRs) 556 17.2 Algae Harvesting and Oil Extraction 562 17.2.1 Harvesting 562 17.2.2 Extraction 570 17.3 Algae Biodiesel Production 570 17.3.1 Biodiesel Process 570 17.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts for Transesterification 572 17.4 Algae Biorefinery Integration 572 17.5 Life Cycle Assessment of Algae Biorefineries 575 17.6 Summary 579 References 579 18 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Reaction Kinetics and Diffusion Modeling: Example of Biodiesel 581 18.1 Intrinsic Kinetic Modeling 582 18.1.1 Elementary Reaction Mechanism and Intrinsic Kinetic Modeling of the Biodiesel Production System 582 18.1.2 Solution Strategy for the Rate Equations Resulting from the Elementary Reaction Mechanism 590 18.1.3 Correlation between Concentration and Activity of Species Using the UNIQUAC Contribution Method 591 18.1.4 An Example of EXCEL Spreadsheet Based UNIQUAC Calculation for a Biodiesel Production System is Shown in Detail for Implementation in Online Resource Material, Chapter 18 – Additional Exercises and Examples 592 18.1.5 Intrinsic Kinetic Modeling Framework 592 18.2 Diffusion Modeling 595 18.3 Multi-scale Mass Transfer Modeling 598 18.3.1 Dimensionless Physical Parameter Groups 606 18.4 Summary 612 References 612 V ONLINE RESOURCES Web Chapter 1: Waste and Emission Minimization Web Chapter 2: Energy Storage and Control Systems Web Chapter 3: Water Reuse, Footprint and Optimization Analysis Case Study 1: Biomass CHP Plant Design Problem – LCA and Cost Analysis Case Study 2: Comparison between Epoxy Resin Productions from Algal or Soya Oil – An LCA Based Problem Solving Approach Case Study 3: Waste Water Sludge Based CHP and Agricultural Application System – An LCA Based Problem Solving Approach Case Study 4: LCA Approach for Solar Organic Photovoltaic Cells Manufacturing Index 613

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Book SynopsisâœToday, over two billion people in developing countries live without any electricity. They lead lives of misery, walking miles every day for water and firewood, just to survive. What if there was an existing, viable technology, that when developed to its highest potential could increase everyoneâs standard of living, cut fossil fuel demand and the resultant pollutionâ said Peter Meisen, President, Global Energy Network Institute in 1997. Even though energy is available, technology was not matured enough to tap this energy in the nineties. Now, with the advancement of drilling technology, extracting heat from hot rocks has become a reality. Very soon when CO2 replaces the circulation fluid to extract heat from granites then both fossil fuel based and renewable energy sources will coexists balancing the CO2 emissions and providing energy, food and water security to the rich and the poor countries. Red Sea rift represents the youngest spreading ridges in the world with a vast amount of heat energy stored on either side. The Red Sea is surrounded by countries with a weak economy. Developing a geothermal energy based economy in countries like Eritrea, Djibouti and Ethiopia will provide food and water security to these countries while for other countries, geothermal energy will help in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Although geothermal energy sources are available in all the countries since the opening of the Red Sea, millions of years ago, this was not brought to the light. Oil importing countries became highly dependent on the oil rich countries to sustain their economy and growth and thus remained poor. This book unfolds the huge energy source, hydrothermal and EGS, for the benefit of the poor countries to reduce poverty and lift the socio economic status of these countries. The book deals with i) future energy demand, ii) CO2 emissions associated with fossil fuel based power plants, iii) black carbon emissions associated biomass energy source and iv) strategies to reduce CO2 emissions by using geothermal energy as energy source mix in all the countriesâoil exporting and oil importing countriesâ around the Red Sea. The amount of energy available from hot granites in all the countries is well documented. EGS being the future energy source for mankind, this book will form the basis for future research by young scientists and academicians. Availability of fresh water is a matter of concern for all countries. The only way to satisfy the thirst of a growing population, to meet drinking water demand and food security, is to depend on seawater. A large volume of CO2 is being emitted from desalination plants supported by fossil fuel based energy sources. This book describes the advantages of using geothermal energy sources for the desalination process to meet the growing water and food demand of the countries around the Red Sea. Oil rich countries, using its geothermal resources, can now reduce food imports and become self sufficient in food production.This book gives hope for millions of children living in the underdeveloped countries around the Red Sea to satisfy their hunger and live a decent life with a continuous source of electricity, water and food available. This book ends with a note on the economic benefits of geothermal energy vs other renewables. With the signing of the GGA (Global Geothermal Alliance) by several countries during the December 2015 CoP 21 summit in Paris, policy makers and administrators will work together in implementing the necessary infrastructure and support to develop this clean energy source.Table of Contents1. Introduction 2. Electricity demand and energy sources 3. Carbon dioxides emission 4. Geothermal provinces 5. CO2 mitigation strategy 6. Exploration techniques 7. Power generation techniques 8. Direct application of geothermal resources 9. Enhanced Geothermal Systems

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Book SynopsisEfficient and rational use of energy is one of the main challenges at present to develop a sustainable society. Long-term economic growth is only possible with the application of technological improvements in the use of energy. This book is discussing geotechnical systems with large potential for enhancing energy efficiency. Modern manufacturing processes are complex and make ever increasing demands on the use of energy. This work involves multidisciplinary collaboration and research on aspects of energy use in geotechnical systems. The work provides many practical examples and illustrative material and it effectively connects theoretical and practical aspects of efficiency improvement of geotechnical systems. Benefiting from authors' extensive experience in industry and academia it brings together comprehensive technical information on reducing energy consumption. It provides valuable information covering operation of mine equipment and installations and features some topics never Table of ContentsTraction and energy characteristics of no-contact electric mining locomotives with AC current thyristor converters – G. Pivnyak, M. Rogoza, Yu. Papaika & A. Lysenko Universal model of the galvanic battery as a tool for calculations of electric vehicles – O. Beshta, A. Albu, A. Balakhontsev & V. Fedoreyko Binarization algorithm of rock photo images on inhomogeneous background - P. Pilov, M. Alekseyev & I. UdovikCompensation of the cogging torque by means of control system for transverse flux motor – E. Nolle, O. Beshta & M. Kuvaiev Control of tandem-type two-wheel vehicle at various notion modes along spatial curved lay of line – O. Beshta, V. Kravets, К. Bas, Т. Kravets & L. Tokar Independent power supply of menage objects based on biosolid oxide fuel systems – O. Beshta, V. Fedoreyko, A. Palchyk & N. Burega The use of asymmetric power supply during the procedure of equivalent circuit parameters identification of squirrel-cage induction motor – O. Beshta & A. Semin Underground metal pipeline which contains insulating elements and is under the influence of ac current – A. Aziukovskyi Energy indexes of modern skip lifting plants of coal mines – Yu. Razumniy & A. RukhlovInformational and methodological support for energy efficiency control – N. Dreshpak & S. Vypanasenko Implementation of the insulation resistance control method for high-voltage grids of coal mines – F. Sckrabets & A. Ostapchuk Comparative analysis of methods for estimating the hurst acoustic signal whenever feed rate control in jet mills provided – M. Alekseyev & L. Berdnik Automatic control of coal shearer providing effective use of installed power – V. Tkachev, N. Stadnik & A. BublikovSelf-regulation of loading efficiency of a screw of a cutter-loader with controlled cutting drive – V. Tkachov, А. Bublikov & L. Tokar

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Book SynopsisA New York Times Book Review Notable Book of the Year A Washington Post Best Book of the Year A Businessweek Best Business Book of the Year A Chicago Tribune Best Book of the Year In this brilliant, essential book, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Thomas L. Friedman speaks to America's urgent need for national renewal and explains how a green revolution can bring about both a sustainable environment and a sustainable America. Friedman explains how global warming, rapidly growing populations, and the expansion of the world's middle class through globalization have produced a dangerously unstable planet--one that is hot, flat, and crowded. In this Release 2.0 edition, he also shows how the very habits that led us to ravage the natural world led to the meltdown of the financial markets and the Great Recession. The challenge of a sustainable way of life presents the United States with an opportunity not onl

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Book SynopsisIn order to successfully compete as a sustainable energy source, the value of biomass must be maximized through the production of valuable co-products in the biorefinery.Table of ContentsSeries Preface xiii Preface xv List of Contributors xvii 1 An Overview of Biorefinery Technology 1 Mahmoud A. Sharara, Edgar C. Clausen and Danielle Julie Carrier 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Feedstock 2 1.3 Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass 4 1.4 Biochemical Conversion 10 1.5 Conclusion 15 2 Overview of the Chemistry of Primary and Secondary Plant Metabolites 19 Chantal Bergeron 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Primary Metabolites 20 2.3 Secondary Metabolites 23 2.4 Stability of Isolated Compounds 35 2.5 Conclusion 35 3 Separation and Purification of Phytochemicals as Co-Products in Biorefineries 37 Hua-Jiang Huang and Shri Ramaswamy 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Conventional Separation Approaches 39 3.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 45 3.4 Separation and Purification of Phytochemicals from Plant Extracts and Dilute Solution in Biorefineries 46 3.5 Summary 49 4 Phytochemicals from Corn: a Processing Perspective 55 Kent Rausch 4.1 Introduction: Corn Processes 55 4.2 Phytochemicals Found in Corn 63 4.3 Corn Processing Effects on Phytochemical Recovery 71 4.4 Conclusions 86 5 Co-Products from Cereal and Oilseed Biorefinery Systems 93 Nurhan Turgut Dunford 5.1 Introduction 93 5.2 Cereals 95 5.3 Oilseed Biorefineries 102 5.4 Conclusions 108 6 Bioactive Soy Co-Products 117 Arvind Kannan, Srinivas Rayaprolu and Navam Hettiarachchy 6.1 Introduction 117 6.2 Co-Products Obtained from Industrial Biorefineries 119 6.3 Technologies Used to Extract Co-Products 122 6.4 Bioactivities and Nutritional Value in Biorefinery Co-Products 123 6.5 Modern Technologies for Efficient Delivery – Nanoencapsulation 126 6.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 127 7 Production of Valuable Compounds by Supercritical Technology Using Residues from Sugarcane Processing 133 Juliana M. Prado and M. Angela A. Meireles 7.1 Introduction 133 7.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Filter Cake 135 7.3 Process Simulation for Estimating Manufacturing Cost of Extracts 138 7.4 Hydrolysis of Bagasse with Sub/Supercritical Fluids 143 7.5 Conclusions 148 8 Potential Value-Added Co-products from Citrus Fruit Processing 153 John A. Manthey 8.1 Introduction 153 8.2 Fruit Processing and Byproduct Streams 154 8.3 Polysaccharides as Value-Added Products 163 8.4 Phytonutrients as Value-Added Products 165 8.5 Fermentation and Production of Enhanced Byproducts 170 8.6 Conclusion 171 9 Recovery of Leaf Protein for Animal Feed and High-Value Uses 179 Bryan D. Bals, Bruce E. Dale and Venkatesh Balan 9.1 Introduction 179 9.2 Methods of Separating Protein 181 9.3 Protein Concentration 185 9.4 Uses for Leaf Protein 187 9.5 Integration with Biofuel Production 189 9.6 Conclusions 192 10 Phytochemicals from Algae 199 Liam Brennan, Anika Mostaert, Cormac Murphy and Philip Owende 10.1 Introduction 199 10.2 Commercial Applications of Algal Phytochemicals 203 10.3 Production Techniques for Algal Phytochemicals 213 10.4 Extraction Techniques for Algal Phytochemicals 220 10.5 Metabolic Engineering for Synthesis of Algae-Derived Compounds 224 10.6 Phytochemical Market Evolution 228 10.7 Conclusions 228 11 New Bioactive Natural Products from Canadian Boreal Forest 241 Francois Simard, Andre Pichette and Jean Legault 11.1 Introduction 241 11.2 Identification of New Bioactive Natural Products from Canadian Boreal Forest 243 11.3 Chemical Modification of Bioactive Natural Products from the Canadian Boreal Forest 250 11.4 Conclusion 253 12 Pressurized Fluid Extraction and Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Birch Bark 259 Michelle Co and Charlotta Turner 12.1 Introduction 259 12.2 Qualitative Analysis of Birch Bark 261 12.3 Quantitative Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Birch 267 12.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array, Electrochemical and Mass Spectrometric Detection of Antioxidants 270 12.5 Extraction of Bioactive Compounds 272 12.6 Discussion and Future Perspectives 278 13 Adding Value to the Integrated Forest Biorefinery with Co-Products from Hemicellulose-Rich Pre-Pulping Extract 287 Abigail S. Engelberth and G. Peter van Walsum 13.1 Introduction 287 13.2 Hemicellulose Recovery 289 13.3 Hemicellulose Conversion 295 13.4 Process Economics 305 13.5 Conclusion 306 14 Pyrolysis Bio-Oils from Temperate Forests: Fuels, Phytochemicals and Bioproducts 311 Mamdouh Abou-Zaid and Ian M. Scott 14.1 Introduction 311 14.2 Overview of Forest Feedstock 312 14.3 Pyrolysis Technology 317 14.4 Prospects for Fuel Production 317 14.5 Chemicals in the Bio-Oil 318 14.6 Valuable Chemical Recovery Process 320 14.7 Selected Phytochemicals from Pyrolysis Bio-Oils 321 14.8 Other Products 322 14.9 Future Prospects 323 15 Char from Sugarcane Bagasse 327 K. Thomas Klasson 15.1 Introduction 327 15.2 Sugarcane Bagasse Availability 330 15.3 Thermal Processing in an Inert Atmosphere (Pyrolysis) 331 15.4 Technology for Converting Char to Activated Char 332 15.5 Char and Activated-Char Characterization and Implications for Use 333 15.6 Uses of Bagasse Char and Activated Char 343 15.7 Conclusions 345 References 345 Index 351

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Book SynopsisSustainable Energy Transitions in Canada brings together experts from across the country to share their perspectives on how energy systems can respond to climate change, enhance social justice, respect local cultures and traditions – and still make financial sense.Table of ContentsPrefaceAcknowledgments Introduction: Climate Change, Decarbonization, and Energy Sustainability MARK S. WINFIELD, STEPHEN D. HILL, and JAMES R. GAEDE1 Accelerating Low-Carbon Energy Transitions JAMES MEADOWCROFT and DANIEL ROSENBLOOM 2 Modelling Energy Transitions: Exploring Pathways to Decarbonization through Energy Systems IntegrationMADELEINE McPHERSON3 The Role of Community Energy Planning in Energy Transition ManagementKIRBY CALVERT 4 Energy Justice and Poverty: A Case Study for OntarioTHERESA McCLENAGHAN, ZEE BHANJI, JACQUELINE WILSON, AND MARY TODOROW 5 Decolonizing Sustainable Energy Policy in CanadaHEATHER CASTLEDEN 6 Energy and Climate Policy IntersectionsDOUGLAS C. MACDONALD and MARK S. WINFIELD7 Sustainable Energy in Canadian Territorial Communities: An Opportunity for Transformative Change or Stalled on the Margins? ALEXANDRA MALLETT, JESSICA LEIS, ROSA BROWN, DAVID CODZI, and JIMMY ARQVIQ 8 Megaprojects and Community Power: Managing Tensions and Alignments in Atlantic Canada’s Energy TransitionBRENDAN HALEY, ANGELA CARTER, MICHELLE ADAMS, and NICHOLAS MERCER 9 The Quebec Energy System: How to Optimize Its Low-Carbon Advantage? PIERRE-OLIVIER PINEAU and JOHANNE WHITMORE 10 Ontario: Transitioning in Reverse?STEPHEN D. HILL, MARK S. WINFIELD, and JAMES R. GAEDE 11 Alberta’s Quiet but Resilient Electricity Transition BENJAMIN J. THIBAULT, TIM WEIS, and ANDREW LEACH 12 Subnational Climate Policy Leadership in British Columbia: Past, Present, and Potential Futures AARON PARDY, THOMAS BUDD, and MARK JACCARD 13 Decarbonizing Residential Heating: The Fossil Gas ChallengeRICHARD CARLSON 14 Transportation, Energy, and Climate ChangeCOLLEEN KAISER and MARK PURDON Conclusion: Pathways to Sustainable Energy Transitions MARK S. WINFIELD, STEPHEN D. HILL, and JAMES R. GAEDE Contributors Index

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Book SynopsisSolar Energy is an authoritative reference on the design of solar energy systems in building projects, with applications, operating principles, and simple tools for the construction, engineering, and design professional. The book simplifies the solar design and engineering process, providing sample documentation and special tools that provide all the information needed for the complete design of a solar energy system for buildings to enable mainstream MEP and design firms, and not just solar energy specialists, to meet the growing demand for solar energy systems in building projects.

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Book SynopsisThis complete resource on the theory and applications of reliability engineering, probabilistic models and risk analysis consolidates all the latest research, presenting the most up-to-date developments in this field.Table of ContentsRemembering Boris Gnedenko xvii List of Contributors xxv Preface xxix Acknowledgements xxxv Part I DEGRADATION ANALYSIS, MULTI-STATE AND CONTINUOUS-STATE SYSTEM RELIABILITY 1 Methods of Solutions of Inhomogeneous Continuous Time Markov Chains for Degradation Process Modeling 3 Yan-Fu Li, Enrico Zio and Yan-Hui Lin 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Formalism of ICTMC 4 1.3 Numerical Solution Techniques 5 1.4 Examples 10 1.5 Comparisons of the Methods and Guidelines of Utilization 13 1.6 Conclusion 15 References 15 2 Multistate Degradation and Condition Monitoring for Devices with Multiple Independent Failure Modes 17 Ramin Moghaddass and Ming J. Zuo 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Multistate Degradation and Multiple Independent Failure Modes 19 2.3 Parameter Estimation 23 2.4 Important Reliability Measures of a Condition-Monitored Device 25 2.5 Numerical Example 27 2.6 Conclusion 28 Acknowledgements 30 References 30 3 Time Series Regression with Exponential Errors for Accelerated Testing and Degradation Tracking 32 Nozer D. Singpurwalla 3.1 Introduction 32 3.2 Preliminaries: Statement of the Problem 33 3.3 Estimation and Prediction by Least Squares 34 3.4 Estimation and Prediction by MLE 35 3.5 The Bayesian Approach: The Predictive Distribution 37 Acknowledgements 42 References 42 4 Inverse Lz-Transform for a Discrete-State Continuous-Time Markov Process and Its Application to Multi-State System Reliability Analysis 43 Anatoly Lisnianski and Yi Ding 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Inverse Lz-Transform: Definitions and Computational Procedure 44 4.3 Application of Inverse Lz-Transform to MSS Reliability Analysis 50 4.4 Numerical Example 52 4.5 Conclusion 57 References 58 5 OntheLz-Transform Application for Availability Assessment of an Aging Multi-State Water Cooling System for Medical Equipment 59 Ilia Frenkel, Anatoly Lisnianski and Lev Khvatskin 5.1 Introduction 59 5.2 Brief Description of the Lz-Transform Method 61 5.3 Multi-state Model of the Water Cooling System for the MRI Equipment 62 5.4 Availability Calculation 75 5.5 Conclusion 76 Acknowledgments 76 References 77 6 Combined Clustering and Lz-Transform Technique to Reduce the Computational Complexity of a Multi-State System Reliability Evaluation 78 Yi Ding 6.1 Introduction 78 6.2 The Lz-Transform for Dynamic Reliability Evaluation for MSS 79 6.3 Clustering Composition Operator in the Lz-Transform 81 6.4 Computational Procedures 83 6.5 Numerical Example 83 6.6 Conclusion 85 References 85 7 Sliding Window Systems with Gaps 87 Gregory Levitin 7.1 Introduction 87 7.2 The Models 89 7.3 Reliability Evaluation Technique 91 7.4 Conclusion 96 References 96 8 Development of Reliability Measures Motivated by Fuzzy Sets for Systems with Multi- or Infinite-States 98 Zhaojun (Steven) Li and Kailash C. Kapur 8.1 Introduction 98 8.2 Models for Components and Systems Using Fuzzy Sets 100 8.3 Fuzzy Reliability for Systems with Continuous or Infinite States 103 8.4 Dynamic Fuzzy Reliability 104 8.5 System Fuzzy Reliability 110 8.6 Examples and Applications 111 8.7 Conclusion 117 References 118 9 Imperatives for Performability Design in the Twenty-First Century 119 Krishna B. Misra 9.1 Introduction 119 9.2 Strategies for Sustainable Development 120 9.3 Reappraisal of the Performance of Products and Systems 124 9.4 Dependability and Environmental Risk are Interdependent 126 9.5 Performability: An Appropriate Measure of Performance 126 9.6 Towards Dependable and Sustainable Designs 129 9.7 Conclusion 130 References 130 Part II NETWORKS AND LARGE-SCALE SYSTEMS 10 Network Reliability Calculations Based on Structural Invariants 135 Ilya B. Gertsbakh and Yoseph Shpungin 10.1 First Invariant: D-Spectrum, Signature 135 10.2 Second Invariant: Importance Spectrum. Birnbaum Importance Measure (BIM) 139 10.3 Example: Reliability of a Road Network 141 10.4 Third Invariant: Border States 142 10.5 Monte Carlo to Approximate the Invariants 144 10.6 Conclusion 146 References 146 11 Performance and Availability Evaluation of IMS-Based Core Networks 148 Kishor S. Trivedi, Fabio Postiglione and Xiaoyan Yin 11.1 Introduction 148 11.2 IMS-Based Core Network Description 149 11.3 Analytic Models for Independent Software Recovery 151 11.4 Analytic Models for Recovery with Dependencies 155 11.5 Redundancy Optimization 158 11.6 Numerical Results 159 11.7 Conclusion 165 References 165 12 Reliability and Probability of First Occurred Failure for Discrete-Time Semi-Markov Systems 167 Stylianos Georgiadis, Nikolaos Limnios and Irene Votsi 12.1 Introduction 167 12.2 Discrete-Time Semi-Markov Model 168 12.3 Reliability and Probability of First Occurred Failure 170 12.4 Nonparametric Estimation of Reliability Measures 172 12.5 Numerical Application 176 12.6 Conclusion 178 References 179 13 Single-Source Epidemic Process in a System of Two Interconnected Networks 180 Ilya B. Gertsbakh and Yoseph Shpungin 13.1 Introduction 180 13.2 Failure Process and the Distribution of the Number of Failed Nodes 181 13.3 Network Failure Probabilities 184 13.4 Example 185 13.5 Conclusion 187 13.A Appendix D: Spectrum (Signature) 188 References 189 Part III MAINTENANCE MODELS 14 Comparisons of Periodic and Random Replacement Policies 193 Xufeng Zhao and Toshio Nakagawa 14.1 Introduction 193 14.2 Four Policies 195 14.3 Comparisons of Optimal Policies 197 14.4 Numerical Examples 1 199 14.5 Comparisons of Policies with Different Replacement Costs 201 14.6 Numerical Examples 2 202 14.7 Conclusion 203 Acknowledgements 204 References 204 15 Random Evolution of Degradation and Occurrences of Words in Random Sequences of Letters 205 Emilio De Santis and Fabio Spizzichino 15.1 Introduction 205 15.2 Waiting Times to Words’ Occurrences 206 15.3 Some Reliability-Maintenance Models 209 15.4 Waiting Times to Occurrences of Words and Stochastic Comparisons for Degradation 213 15.5 Conclusions 216 Acknowledgements 217 References 217 16 Occupancy Times for Markov and Semi-Markov Models in Systems Reliability 218 Alan G. Hawkes, Lirong Cui and Shijia Du 16.1 Introduction 218 16.2 Markov Models for Systems Reliability 220 16.3 Semi-Markov Models 222 16.4 Time Interval Omission 225 16.5 Numerical Examples 226 16.6 Conclusion 229 Acknowledgements 229 References 229 17 A Practice of Imperfect Maintenance Model Selection for Diesel Engines 231 Yu Liu, Hong-Zhong Huang, Shun-Peng Zhu and Yan-Feng Li 17.1 Introduction 231 17.2 Review of Imperfect Maintenance Model Selection Method 233 17.3 Application to Preventive Maintenance Scheduling of Diesel Engines 236 17.4 Conclusion 244 Acknowledgment 245 References 245 18 Reliability of Warm Standby Systems with Imperfect Fault Coverage 246 Rui Peng, Ola Tannous, Liudong Xing and Min Xie 18.1 Introduction 246 18.2 Literature Review 247 18.3 The BDD-Based Approach 250 18.4 Conclusion 253 Acknowledgments 254 References 254 Part IV STATISTICAL INFERENCE IN RELIABILITY 19 On the Validity of the Weibull-Gnedenko Model 259 Vilijandas Bagdonavi¡cius, Mikhail Nikulin and Ruta Levuliene 19.1 Introduction 259 19.2 Integrated Likelihood Ratio Test 261 19.3 Tests based on the Difference of Non-Parametric and Parametric Estimators of the Cumulative Distribution Function 264 19.4 Tests based on Spacings 266 19.5 Chi-Squared Tests 267 19.6 Correlation Test 269 19.7 Power Comparison 269 19.8 Conclusion 272 References 272 20 Statistical Inference for Heavy-Tailed Distributions in Reliability Systems 273 Ilia Vonta and Alex Karagrigoriou 20.1 Introduction 273 20.2 Heavy-Tailed Distributions 274 20.3 Examples of Heavy-Tailed Distributions 277 20.4 Divergence Measures 280 20.5 Hypothesis Testing 284 20.6 Simulations 286 20.7 Conclusion 287 References 287 21 Robust Inference based on Divergences in Reliability Systems 290 Abhik Ghosh, Avijit Maji and Ayanendranath Basu 21.1 Introduction 290 21.2 The Power Divergence (PD) Family 291 21.3 Density Power Divergence (DPD) and Parametric Inference 296 21.4 A Generalized Form: The S-Divergence 301 21.5 Applications 304 21.6 Conclusion 306 References 306 22 COM-Poisson Cure Rate Models and Associated Likelihood-based Inference with Exponential and Weibull Lifetimes 308 N. Balakrishnan and Suvra Pal 22.1 Introduction 308 22.2 Role of Cure Rate Models in Reliability 310 22.3 The COM-Poisson Cure Rate Model 310 22.4 Data and the Likelihood 311 22.5 EM Algorithm 312 22.6 Standard Errors and Asymptotic Confidence Intervals 314 22.7 Exponential Lifetime Distribution 314 22.8 Weibull Lifetime Distribution 322 22.9 Analysis of Cutaneous Melanoma Data 334 22.10 Conclusion 337 22.A1 Appendix A1: E-Step and M-Step Formulas for Exponential Lifetimes 337 22.A2 Appendix A2: E-Step and M-Step Formulas for Weibull Lifetimes 341 22.B1 Appendix B1: Observed Information Matrix for Exponential Lifetimes 344 22.B2 Appendix B2: Observed Information Matrix for Weibull Lifetimes 346 References 347 23 Exponential Expansions for Perturbed Discrete Time Renewal Equations 349 Dmitrii Silvestrov and Mikael Petersson 23.1 Introduction 349 23.2 Asymptotic Results 350 23.3 Proofs 353 23.4 Discrete Time Regenerative Processes 358 23.5 Queuing and Risk Applications 359 References 361 24 On Generalized Extreme Shock Models under Renewal Shock Processes 363 Ji Hwan Cha and Maxim Finkelstein 24.1 Introduction 363 24.2 Generalized Extreme Shock Models 364 24.3 Specific Models 367 24.4 Conclusion 373 Acknowledgements 373 References 373 Part V SYSTEMABILITY, PHYSICS-OF-FAILURE AND RELIABILITY DEMONSTRATION 25 Systemability Theory and its Applications 377 Hoang Pham 25.1 Introduction 377 25.2 Systemability Measures 378 25.3 Systemability Analysis of k-out-of-n Systems 379 25.4 Systemability Function Approximation 380 25.5 Systemability with Loglog Distribution 383 25.6 Sensitivity Analysis 384 25.7 Applications: Red Light Camera Systems 385 25.8 Conclusion 387 References 387 26 Physics-of-Failure based Reliability Engineering 389 Pedro O. Quintero and Michael Pecht 26.1 Introduction 389 26.2 Physics-of-Failure-based Reliability Assessment 393 26.3 Uses of Physics-of-Failure 398 26.4 Conclusion 400 References 400 27 Accelerated Testing: Effect of Variance in Field Environmental Conditions on the Demonstrated Reliability 403 Andre Kleyner 27.1 Introduction 403 27.2 Accelerated Testing and Field Stress Variation 404 27.3 Case Study: Reliability Demonstration Using Temperature Cycling Test 405 27.4 Conclusion 408 References 408 Index 409

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Book SynopsisSolar PV is now the third most important renewable energy source, after hydro and wind power, in terms of global installed capacity.Table of ContentsList of Contributors xxvii Foreword xxxii Acknowledgments xxxiv About the Companion Website xxxv Part One INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOVOLTAICS 1 1.1 Introduction 3 Angèle Reinders, Wilfried van Sark, and Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 11 Constants 11 List of Acronyms 11 References 11 Part Two BASIC FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOVOLTAICS 13 2.1 Semiconductor Materials and their Properties 15 Angèle Reinders List of Symbols 19 List of Acronyms 19 References 20 2.2 Doping, Diffusion, and Defects in Solar Cells 21 Pierre J. Verlinden List of Symbols 31 List of Acronyms 31 References 31 2.3 Absorption and Generation 32 Seth Hubbard References 38 2.4 Recombination 39 Seth Hubbard References 46 2.5 Carrier Transport 47 Seth Hubbard References 53 2.6 PN Junctions and the Diode Equation 54 Seth Hubbard Acknowledgments 63 List of Symbols 63 List of Acronyms 65 References 66 Part Three CRYSTALLINE SILICON TECHNOLOGIES 67 3.1 Silicon Materials: Electrical and Optical Properties 69 Andreas Fell List of Symbols 77 List of Acronyms 77 References 78 3.2 Silicon Solar Cell Device Structures 80 Andrew Blakers and Ngwe Zin References 90 3.3 Interdigitated Back Contact Solar Cells 92 Pierre Verlinden 3.4 Heterojunction Silicon Solar Cells 104 Wilfried van Sark List of Symbols 110 List of Acronyms 111 References 112 3.5 Surface Passivation and Emitter Recombination Parameters 114 Bram Hoex List of Symbols 121 List of Acronyms 122 References 122 3.6 Passivated Contacts 125 Martin Hermle List of Symbols 133 List of Acronyms 133 References 134 3.7 Light Management in Silicon Solar Cells 136 Zachary Holman and Mathieu Boccard List of Symbols 147 List of Acronyms 148 References 149 3.8 Numerical Simulation of Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells 150 Pietro Altermatt References 158 3.9 Advanced Concepts 160 Martin Green List of Acronyms 166 References 166 Part Four CHALCOGENIDE THIN FILM SOLAR CELLS 167 4.1 Basics of Chalcogenide Thin Film Solar Cells 169 Susanne Siebentritt List of Symbols 176 List of Acronyms 176 References 176 4.2 Cu(In,Ga)Se2 and CdTe Absorber Materials and their Properties 179 Sylvain Marsillac List of Symbols 187 List of Acronyms 187 References 188 4.3 Contacts, Buffers, Substrates, and Interfaces 190 Negar Naghavi List of Acronyms 200 References 200 4.4 CIGS Module Design and Manufacturing 204 William Shafarman List of Acronyms 211 References 211 Part Five THIN FILM SILICON‐BASED PV TECHNOLOGIES 213 5.1 Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 215 Etienne Moulin, Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 223 References 224 5.2 Thin Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells on Glass 226 Onno Gabriel, Daniel Amkreutz, Jan Haschke, Bernd Rech, and Rutger Schlatmann Acknowledgments 235 List of Symbols and Acronyms 235 References 236 5.3 Light Management in Crystalline and Thin Film Silicon Solar Cells 238 Franz Haug List of Symbols 244 List of Acronyms 245 References 245 5.4 New Future Concepts 248 Jan‐Willem Schüttauf, Etienne Moulin, and Christophe Ballif List of Symbols 253 References 253 Part Six ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS 255 6.1 Solid‐State Organic Photovoltaics 257 Bernard Kippelen Acknowledgments 265 Acronyms 265 References 265 6.2 Hybrid and Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells 267 Woojun Yoon References 275 6.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 277 Samuel D. Stranks and Henry J. Snaith References 289 6.4 Organic PV Module Design and Manufacturing 292 Veronique S. Gevaerts List of Acronyms 301 References 302 Part Seven CHARACTERIZATION AND MEASUREMENTS METHODS 303 7.1 Methods and Instruments for the Characterization of Solar Cells 305 Halden Field List of Symbols 320 List of Acronyms 320 References 320 7.2 Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence Characterization in Silicon Photovoltaics 322 Thorsten Trupke Acknowledgments 334 List of Symbols 334 List of Acronyms 335 References 335 7.3 Measurement of Carrier Lifetime, Surface Recombination Velocity , and Emitter Recombination Parameters 339 Henner Kampwerth List of Symbols 347 List of Acronyms 348 References 348 7.4 In‐situ Measurements, Process Control, and Defect Monitoring 350 Angus Rockett List of Acronyms 360 References 360 7.5 PV Module Performance Testing and Standards 362 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Symbols 368 List of Acronyms 368 References 369 Part Eight III‐Vs AND PV CONCENTRATOR TECHNOLOGIES 371 8.1 III‐V Solar Cells – Materials, Multi‐Junction Cells – Cell Design and Performance 373 Frank Dimroth Acknowledgments 380 List of Acronyms 380 References 380 8.2 New and Future III‐V Cells and Concepts 383 Simon Fafard List of Acronyms and Symbols 393 References 393 8.3 High Concentration PV Systems 396 Karin Hinzer, Christopher E. Valdivia, and John P.D. Cook List of Acronyms 408 References 409 8.4 Operation of CPV Power Plants: Energy Prediction 411 Geoffrey S. Kinsey List of Acronyms 418 References 418 8.5 The Luminescent Solar Concentrator (LSC) 420 Michael Debije List of Symbols 428 List of Acronyms 428 References 429 Part Nine SPACE TECHNOLOGIES 431 9.1 Materials, Cell Structures, and Radiation Effects 433 Rob Walters List of Symbols and Units 442 References 442 9.2 Space PV Systems and Flight Demonstrations 444 Phillip Jenkins Acknowledgments 453 List of Acronyms 453 References 454 9.3 A Vision on Future Developments in Space Photovoltaics 455 David Wilt List of Symbols 461 List of Acronyms 461 References 462 Part Ten PV MODULES AND MANUFACTURING 463 10.1 Manufacturing of Various PV Technologies 465 Alison Lennon and Rhett Evans Acknowledgements 474 List of Abbreviations 474 References 474 10.2 Encapsulant Materials for PV Modules 478 Michael Kempe Acknowledgments 488 List of Symbols 488 List of Acronyms 488 References 489 10.3 Reliability and Durability of PV Modules 491 Sarah Kurtz Acknowledgments 500 References 501 10.4 Advanced Module Concepts 502 Pierre Verlinden List of Symbols 508 List of Acronyms 508 References 509 Part Eleven PV SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS 511 11.1 Grid-Connected PV Systems 513 Greg J. Ball Acknowledgments 527 List of Acronyms 528 References 529 11.2 Inverters, Power Optimizers, and Microinverters 530 Chris Deline List of Symbols 537 List of Acronyms 537 References 538 11.3 Stand-Alone and Hybrid PV Systems 539 Matthias Vetter and Georg Bopp References 552 11.4 PV System Monitoring and Characterization 553 Wilfried van Sark, Atse Louwen, Odysseas Tsafarakis, and Panos Moraitis Acknowledgments 561 List of Symbols 561 List of Acronyms 562 References 562 11.5 Energy Prediction and System Modeling 564 Joshua S. Stein List of Symbols and Acronyms 575 References 577 11.6 Building Integrated Photovoltaics 579 Michiel Ritzen, Zeger Vroon, and Chris Geurts List of Acronyms 588 References 588 11.7 Product Integrated Photovoltaics 590 Angèle Reinders and Georgia Apostolou List of Acronym 598 References 598 Part Twelve PV DEPLOYMENT IN DISTRIBUTION GRIDS 601 12.1 PV Systems in Smart Energy Homes: PowerMatching City 603 Albert van den Noort List of Acronyms 610 References 611 12.2 New Future Solutions: Best Practices from European PV Smart Grid Projects 612 Gianluca Fulli and Flavia Gangale List of Acronyms 619 References 619 Part Thirteen SUPPORTING METHODS AND TOOLS 621 13.1 The Economics of PV Systems 623 Matthew Campbell List of Acronyms 633 References 633 13.2 People’s Involvement in Residential PV and their Experiences 634 Barbara van Mierlo References 644 13.3 Life Cycle Assessment of Photovoltaics 646 Vasilis Fthenakis References 656 13.4 List of International Standards Related to PV 658 Pierre Verlinden and Wilfried van Sark Acknowledgements 671 References 671 Index 672

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