Description
Book SynopsisPatterning or lithography is at the core of modern science and technology and cuts across all disciplines. With the emergence of nanotechnology, conventional methods based on electron beam lithography and extreme ultraviolet photolithography have become prohibitively expensive.
Table of ContentsPREFACE xv
I NANOPATTERNING TECHNIQUES 1
1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 MATERIALS 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Mold Materials and Mold Preparation 8
2.2.1 Soft Molds 8
2.2.2 Hard Molds 19
2.2.3 Rigiflex Molds 19
2.3 Surface Treatment and Modification 21
References 23
3 PATTERNING BASED ON NATURAL FORCE 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Capillary Force 28
3.2.1 Open-Ended Capillary 29
3.2.2 Closed Permeable Capillary 31
3.2.3 Completely Closed Capillary 40
3.2.4 Fast Patterning 43
3.2.5 Capillary Kinetics 45
3.3 London Force and Liquid Filament Stability 48
3.3.1 Patterning by Selective Dewetting 49
3.3.2 Liquid Filament Stability: Filling and Patterning 51
3.4 Mechanical Stress: Patterning of A Metal Surface 56
References 63
4 PATTERNING BASED ON WORK OF ADHESION 67
4.1 Introduction 67
4.2 Work of Adhesion 68
4.3 Kinetic Effects 71
4.4 Transfer Patterning 74
4.5 Subtractive Transfer Patterning 79
4.6 Transfer Printing 82
References 91
5 PATTERNING BASED ON LIGHT: OPTICAL SOFT LITHOGRAPHY 95
5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 System Elements 96
5.2.1 Overview 96
5.2.2 Elastomeric Photomasks 96
5.2.3 Photosensitive Materials 99
5.3 Two-Dimensional Optical Soft Lithography (OSL) 100
5.3.1 Two-Dimensional OSL with Phase Masks 100
5.3.2 Two-Dimensional OSL with Embossed Masks 104
5.3.3 Two-Dimensional OSL with Amplitude Masks 105
5.3.4 Two-Dimensional OSL with AmplitudePhase Masks 109
5.4 Three-Dimensional Optical Soft Lithography 110
5.4.1 Optics 111
5.4.2 Patterning Results 112
5.5 Applications 117
5.5.1 Low-Voltage Organic Electronics 117
5.5.2 Filters and Mixers for Microfluidics 118
5.5.3 High Energy Fusion Targets and Media for Chemical Release 118
5.5.4 Photonic Bandgap Materials 120
References 122
6 PATTERNING BASED ON EXTERNAL FORCE: NANOIMPRINT LITHOGRAPHY 129
L. Jay Guo
6.1 Introduction 129
6.2 NIL MOLD 133
6.2.1 Mold Fabrication 133
6.2.2 Mold Surface Preparation 137
6.2.3 Flexible Fluoropolymer Mold 137
6.3 NIL Resist 138
6.3.1 Thermoplastic Resist 139
6.3.2 Copolymer Thermoplastic Resists 141
6.3.3 Thermal-Curable Resists 142
6.3.4 UV-Curable Resist 146
6.3.5 Other Imprintable Materials 148
6.4 The Nanoimprint Process 149
6.4.1 Cavity Fill Process 149
6.5 Variations of NIL Processes 152
6.5.1 Reverse Nanoimprint 152
6.5.2 Combined Nanoimprint and Photolithography 155
6.5.3 Roll-to-Roll Nanoimprint Lithography (R2RNIL) 156
6.6 Conclusion 159
References 160
7 PATTERNING BASED ON EDGE EFFECTS: EDGE LITHOGRAPHY 167
Matthias Geissler, Joseph M. McLellan, Eric P. Lee and Younan Xia
7.1 Introduction 167
7.2 Topography-Directed Pattern Transfer 169
7.2.1 Photolithography with Phase-Shifting Masks 170
7.2.2 Use of Edge-Defined Defects in SAMs 172
7.2.3 Controlled Undercutting 175
7.2.4 Edge-Spreading Lithography 176
7.2.5 Edge Transfer Lithography 178
7.2.6 Step-Edge Decoration 180
7.3 Exposure of Nanoscale Edges 181
7.3.1 Fracturing of Thin Films 182
7.3.2 Sectioning of Encapsulated Thin Films 182
7.3.3 Thin Metallic Films along Sidewalls of Patterned Stamps 184
7.3.4 Topographic Reorientation 186
7.4 Conclusion and Outlook 187
References 188
8 PATTERNING WITH ELECTROLYTE: SOLID-STATE SUPERIONIC STAMPING 195
Keng H. Hsu, Peter L. Schultz, Nicholas X. Fang, and Placid M. Ferreira
8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Solid-State Superionic Stamping 197
8.3 Process Technology 199
8.4 Process Capabilities 203
8.5 Examples of Electrochemically Imprinted Nanostructures Using the S4 Process 208
Acknowledgments 211
References 211
9 PATTERNING WITH GELS: LATTICE-GAS MODELS 215
Paul J. Wesson and Bartosz A. Grzybowski
9.1 Introduction 215
9.2 The RDF Method 218
9.3 Microlenses: Fabrication 218
9.4 Microlenses: Modeling Aspects 220
9.4.1 Modeling Using PDEs 220
9.4.2 Modeling Using Lattice-Gas Method 221
9.5 RDF at the Nanoscale 222
9.5.1 Nanoscopic Features from Counter-Propagating RD Fronts 222
9.5.2 Failure of Continuum Description 225
9.5.3 Lattice-Gas Models at the Nanoscale 227
9.6 Summary and Outlook 229
References 230
10 PATTERNING WITH BLOCK COPOLYMERS 233
Jia-Yu Wang, Wei Chen, and Thomas P. Russell
10.1 Introduction 233
10.2 Orientation 235
10.2.1 Self-Assembling 235
10.2.2 Self-Directing 247
10.3 Long-Range 254
10.3.1 Solvent Annealing 254
10.3.2 Graphoepitaxy 256
10.3.3 Sequential, Orthogonal Fields 260
10.4 Nanoporous BCP Films 262
10.4.1 Ozonolysis 264
10.4.2 Thermal Degradation 264
10.4.3 UV Degradation 267
10.4.4 Selective Extraction 271
10.4.5 “Soft” Chemical Etch 272
10.4.6 Cleavable Junction 272
10.4.7 Solvent-Induced Film Reconstruction 274
References 276
11 PERSPECTIVE ON APPLICATIONS 291
II APPLICATIONS 293
12 SOFT LITHOGRAPHY FOR MICROFLUIDIC MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS (MEMS)
AND OPTICAL DEVICES 295
Svetlana M. Mitrovski, Shraddha Avasthy, Evan M. Erickson, Matthew E. Stewart, John A. Rogers, and Ralph G. Nuzzo
12.1 Introduction 295
12.2 Microfluidic Devices for Concentration Gradients 297
12.3 Electrochemistry and Microfluidics 300
12.4 PDMS and Electrochemistry 302
12.5 Optics and Microfluidics 306
12.6 Unconventional Soft Lithographic Fabrication of Optical Sensors 314
Acknowledgments 317
References 318
13 UNCONVENTIONAL PATTERNING METHODS FOR BIONEMS 325
Pilnam Kim, Yanan Du, Ali Khademhosseini, Robert Langer, and Kahp Y. Suh
13.1 Introduction 325
13.2 Fabrication of Nanofluidic System for Biological Applications 326
13.2.1 Unconventional Methods for Fabrication of Nanochannel 326
13.2.2 Application of Nanofluidic System 332
13.3 Fabrication of Biomolecular Nanoarrays for Biological Applications 338
13.3.1 DNA Nanoarray 338
13.3.2 Protein Arrays 340
13.3.3 Lipid Array 345
13.4 Fabrication of Nanoscale Topographies for Tissue Engineering Applications 347
13.4.1 Nanotopography-Induced Changes in Cell Adhesion 347
13.4.2 Nanotopography-Induced Changes in Cell Morphology 348
References 349
14 MICRO TOTAL ANALYSIS SYSTEM 359
Yuki Tanaka and Takehiko Kitamori
14.1 Introduction 359
14.1.1 Historical Backgrounds 359
14.2 Fundamentals on Microchip Chemistry 361
14.2.1 Characteristics of Liquid Microspace 361
14.2.2 Liquid Handling 362
14.2.3 Concepts of Micro Unit Operation and Continuous-Flow Chemical Processing 362
14.3 Key Technologies 365
14.3.1 Fabrication of Microchips 365
14.3.2 Patterning for Fluid Control 366
14.3.3 Detection 366
14.4 Applications 368
14.4.1 Synthesis 368
14.4.2 Cell Adhesion Control 369
14.4.3 Liquid Handling: Valve Using Wettability 370
References 372
15 COMBINATIONS OF TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP NANOFABRICATION TECHNIQUES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO CREATE FUNCTIONAL DEVICES 379
Pascale Maury, David N. Reinhoudt, and Jurriaan Huskens
15.1 Introduction 379
15.2 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Techniques 380
15.2.1 Top-Down Techniques 380
15.2.2 Bottom-Up Techniques 383
15.2.3 Mixed Techniques 384
15.3 Combining Top-Down and Bottom-Up Techniques for High Resolution Patterning 385
15.3.1 Top-Down Nanofabrication and Polymerization 386
15.3.2 Top-Down Nanofabrication and Micelles 387
15.3.3 Top-Down Nanofabrication and Block Copolymer Assembly 387
15.3.4 Top-Down Nanofabrication and NP Assembly 389
15.3.5 Top-Down Nanofabrication and Layer-by-Layer Assembly 392
15.4 Applicaion of Combined Top-Down and Bottom-Up Nanofabrication for Creating Functional Devices 397
15.4.1 Photonic Crystal Devices 397
15.4.2 Protein Assays 400
References 406
16 ORGANIC ELECTRONIC DEVICES 419
16.1 Introduction 419
16.2 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes 420
16.3 Organic Thin Film Transistors 429
References 439
17 INORGANIC ELECTRONIC DEVICES 445
17.1 Introduction 445
17.2 Inorganic Semiconductor Materials for Flexible Electronics 446
17.2.1 “Bottom-Up” Approaches 447
17.2.2 “Top-Down” Approaches 449
17.3 Soft Lithography Techniques for Generating Inorganic Electronic Systems 452
17.3.1 Micromolding in Capillaries 453
17.3.2 Imprint Lithography 454
17.3.3 Dry Transfer Printing 454
17.4 Fabrication of Electronic Devices 459
17.4.1 Transistors on Rigid Substrates via MIMIC Processing 459
17.4.2 Flexible Inorganic Transistors 459
17.4.3 Flexible Integrated Circuits 463
17.4.4 Heterogeneous Electronics 466
17.4.5 Stretchable Electronics 469
References 475
18 MECHANICS OF STRETCHABLE SILICON FILMS ON ELASTOMERIC SUBSTRATES 483
Hanqing Jiang, Jizhou Song, Yonggang Huang, and John A. Rogers
18.1 Introduction 483
18.2 Buckling Analysis of Stiff Thin Ribbons on Compliant Substrates 484
18.3 Finite-Deformation Buckling Analysis of Stiff Thin Ribbons on Compliant Substrates 488
18.4 Edge Effects 495
18.5 Effect of Ribbon Width and Spacing 498
18.6 Buckling Analysis of Stiff Thin Membranes on Compliant Substrates 502
18.6.1 One-Dimensional Buckling Mode 504
18.6.2 Checkerboard Buckling Mode 506
18.6.3 Herrington Buckling Mode 506
18.7 Precisely Controlled Buckling of Stiff Thin Ribbons on Compliant Substrates 507
18.8 Concluding Remarks 512
Acknowledgments 512
References 512
19 MULTISCALE FABRICATION OF PLASMONIC STRUCTURES 515
Joel Henzie, Min H. Lee, and Teri W. Odom
19.1 Introduction 515
19.1.1 Brief Primer on Surface Plasmons 517
19.1.2 Conventional Methods to Plasmonic Structures 518
19.2 Soft Lithography and Metal Nanostructures 518
19.3 A Platform for Multiscale Patterning 520
19.3.1 Soft Interference Lithography: Patterns on a Nanoscale Pitch 520
19.3.2 Phase-Shifting Photolithography: Patterns on a Microscale Pitch 520
19.3.3 PEEL: Transferring Photoresist Patterns to Plasmonic Materials 521
19.4 Subwavelength Arrays of Nanoholes: Plasmonic Materials 522
19.4.1 Infinite Arrays of Nanoholes 523
19.4.2 Finite Arrays (Patches) of Nanoholes 525
19.5 Microscale Arrays of Nanoscale Holes 526
19.6 Plasmonic Particle Arrays 528
19.6.1 Metal and Dielectric Nanoparticles 528
19.6.2 Anisotropic Nanoparticles 531
19.6.3 Pyramidal Nanostructures 531
Acknowledgments 533
References 533
20 A RIGIFLEX MOLD AND ITS APPLICATIONS 539
Se-Jin Choi, Tae-Wan Kim, and Seung-Jun Baek
20.1 Introduction 539
20.2 Modulus-Tunable Rigiflex Mold 540
20.3 Applications of Rigiflex Mold 544
20.3.1 From Nanoimprint to Microcontact Printing 544
20.3.2 Rapid Flash Patterning for Residue-Free Patterning 547
20.3.3 Continuous Rigiflex Imprinting 549
20.3.4 Soft Molding Application 553
20.3.5 Capillary Force Lithography Applications 556
20.3.6 Transfer Fabrication Technique 558
References 561
21 NANOIMPRINT TECHNOLOGY FOR FUTURE LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY 565
Jong M. Kim, Hwan Y. Choi, Moon-G. Lee, Seungho Nam, Jin H. Kim, Seongmo Whang, Soo M. Lee, Byoung H. Cheong, Hyuk Kim, Ji M. Lee, and In T. Han
21.1 Introduction 565
21.2 Holographic LGP 569
21.2.1 Design and Properties of Holographic LGP 570
21.2.2 NI Technology for the Holographic LGP 572
21.3 Polarized LGP 573
21.3.1 Design and Properties of Polarized LGP 574
21.3.2 Fabrication of the Polarized LGP 575
21.3.3 Optical Performance of the Polarized LGP 576
21.4 Reflective Polarizer: Wire Grid Polarizer 579
21.4.1 Design and Properies of WGP 580
21.4.2 Fabrication and Applications 581
21.5 Transflective Display 585
21.5.1 Design and Optical Properties of Reflecting Pattern 587
21.5.2 Fabrication of the Reflecting Pattern 588
References 592
INDEX 595
